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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Dimensions and planes of existence Toggle Dimensions and planes of existence subsection 1.1 Matter/Object — Physical sciences 1.2 Life/Organism — Biological sciences 1.3 Mind/Animal — (Basic) psychological sciences 1.4 Culture/Person — Human social sciences 1.1 Matter/Object — Physical sciences 1.2 Life/Organism — Biological sciences 1.3 Mind/Animal — (Basic) psychological sciences 1.4 Culture/Person — Human social sciences 2 Theoretical joint points Toggle Theoretical joint points subsection 2.1 Quantum gravity 2.2 The modern synthesis 2.3 Behavioral investment theory 2.4 Justification systems theory 2.1 Quantum gravity 2.2 The modern synthesis 2.3 Behavioral investment theory 2.4 Justification systems theory 3 The "problem of psychology" Toggle The "problem of psychology" subsection 3.1 Solution 3.1 Solution 4 Consciousness and human behavior 5 Toward the integration of human knowledge 6 See also 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 External links Tree of knowledge system العربية Español فارسی Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page . ( Learn how and when to remove these messages ) A major contributor to this article appears to have a close connection with its subject. It may require cleanup to comply with Wikipedia's content policies, particularly neutral point of view . Please discuss further on the talk page . See our advice if the article is about you and read our scam warning in case someone asks for money to edit this article. ( October 2020 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines . Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references . ( September 2022 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) A major contributor to this article appears to have a close connection with its subject. It may require cleanup to comply with Wikipedia's content policies, particularly neutral point of view . Please discuss further on the talk page . See our advice if the article is about you and read our scam warning in case someone asks for money to edit this article. ( October 2020 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines . Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references . ( September 2022 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) The tree of knowledge ( ToK ) system is a new [ when? ] map of Big History that traces cosmic evolution across four different planes of existence, identified as Matter, Life, Mind and Culture that are mapped respectively by the physical, biological, psychological and social domains of science. The Tree of Knowledge (ToK) System was developed by Gregg Henriques , who is a professor and core faculty member in the Combined-Integrated Doctoral Program in Clinical and School Psychology at James Madison University . [ 1 ] The ToK System is part of a larger Unified Theory of Knowledge that Henriques describes as a consilient scientific humanistic philosophy for the 21st Century. The official Unified Theory of Knowledge website describes the ToK System as: [ 2 ] [A] theory of scientific knowledge that defines the human knower in relation to the known. It achieves this novel accomplishment by solving the problem of psychology and giving rise to a truly consilient view of the scientific landscape. It accomplishes this via dividing the evolution of behavioral complexity into four different planes of existence...The ToK also characterizes modern empirical natural science as a kind of justification system that functions to map complexity and change. [A] theory of scientific knowledge that defines the human knower in relation to the known. It achieves this novel accomplishment by solving the problem of psychology and giving rise to a truly consilient view of the scientific landscape. It accomplishes this via dividing the evolution of behavioral complexity into four different planes of existence...The ToK also characterizes modern empirical natural science as a kind of justification system that functions to map complexity and change. The outline of the ToK System was first published in 2003 in Review of General Psychology . [ 3 ] Two special issues of the Journal of Clinical Psychology in December 2004 [ 4 ] and January 2005 [ 5 ] were devoted to the elaboration and evaluation of the model. In 2008, a special issue of Theory & Psychology [ 6 ] was devoted to the ToK System. In 2011, Henriques published A New Unified Theory of Psychology . That same year he also launched the blog Theory of Knowledge: A Unified Approach to Psychology and Philosophy on Psychology Today , which remains active. There is also a Theory Of Knowledge Society and discussion listserve that is devoted to discussing Henriques' work and other big picture viewpoints. In some ways, the ToK System reflects a fairly common hierarchy of nature and of the sciences that has been represented in one way or another since the time of Auguste Comte , who in the 19th century used a hierarchical conception of nature to argue for the existence of sociology. It also has clear parallels with Aristotle's conception of the scales of nature and the first four levels of the Great Chain of Being . Despite some overlap with a number of traditional schemes, the ToK System is properly thought of as a new theory of both ontic reality and our scientific knowledge of that reality. One of the most important and salient features of the Tree of Knowledge is how it represents reality as consisting of four different planes of existence. The theory is that, following Matter, Life, Mind and Culture each represent complex adaptive landscapes that are organized and mediated by novel emergent information processing and communication systems. Specifically, DNA/RNA store information that is processed by cells which then engage in intercellular communication to create the plane of existence called Life. Similarly, the brain and nervous system store and process information in animals which then engage in communication networks on the complex adaptive plane called Mind. Finally, linguistic storage and processing and communication between human beings generates the emergence of the Culture-Person plane of existence. The separable planes of existence or dimension of complexity argument is one of the most crucial aspects of the system. Many have argued nature is hierarchically leveled; for example, a list of such levels might be subatomic particles , atoms , molecules , cells , organ structures, multi-celled organisms, consciousness , and society is common. The ToK System embraces a view of nature as levels, but adds the notion that there are also separable dimensions of complexity . The difference becomes particularly clear in the extension of the ToK System into the Periodic Table of Behavior . The Periodic Table of Behavior (PTB) shows that natural science can be arranged in terms of the four fundamental dimensions (i.e., matter, life, mind, and culture) and three fundamental levels of analysis (i.e., part, whole, group). The PTB also demonstrates that behavior is a central concept in science. Epistemologically, natural scientists view the world via a third person behavioral lens. Ontologically, science is about mapping different kinds of behaviors that take place in nature at various levels and dimensions of analysis. The second central insight of the ToK System is that it shows how natural science is a particular kind of justification system that emerges out of Culture based on novel methods and specific epistemological commitments and assumptions (i.e., an exterior view point, quantification and experimentation). This epistemology and methodology functions to justify scientific ontology, which in turn maps the ontic reality. Specifically, the domains of the physical, biological, (basic) psychological and social sciences map the ontic dimensions of matter, life, mind and culture. The Periodic Table of Behavior further shows how science is a justification system that is arranged to map behavioral frequencies at different dimensions of complexity and levels of analysis. Dimensions and planes of existence This section relies largely or entirely on a single source . Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page . Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources at this section. ( April 2024 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) Matter/Object — Physical sciences The dimension of matter refers to the set of material objects and their behaviors through time. In accordance with modern cosmology , matter is theorized to have emerged from a pure energy singularity at the Big Bang . Space and time were also born at such a point. Nonliving material objects range in complexity from subatomic particles to large organic molecules. The physical sciences (i.e., physics , chemistry , geology, astronomy ) describe the behavior of material objects. [ 3 ] Life/Organism — Biological sciences The dimension of life refers to organisms and their behaviors through time. Living objects are considered a unique subset of material objects. Just as quantum particles form the fundamental units of material complexity, genes are the fundamental units of living information. Although many questions about the emergence of life remain unanswered, in accordance with modern biology, the ToK posits that natural selection operating on genetic combinations through time is the unified theory of biology and forms the foundational understanding for the emergence of organic complexity. [ 3 ] Mind/Animal — (Basic) psychological sciences Mind/cognition in the ToK system refers to the set of mental behaviors. Mental behaviors are behaviors of animals mediated by the nervous system that produce a functional effect on the animal-environment relationship. As such, Mind/cognition is essentially synonymous with what behavioral psychologists have meant when they use the term behavior. Thus, a fly avoiding a fly swatter, a rat pushing a bar or a human getting a drink of water are all mental behaviors. Mind is not synonymous with sentience or the capacity for mental experience, although such processes are presumed to emerge in the mental/cognitive dimension. Cognition , in the broad sense of the term is meaning bodily-neuro-social information processing, as in EEEE Cognition: Embodied, Embedded, Enactive, Extended. While cognitive science stands for naturalist study of mind, psychology is an approach grounded in the tradition of humanities, especially philosophy. Thus, by defining mind as mental behavior, Henriques argues that the ToK System provides a way to bridge the epistemological differences between cognitive and behavioral science . [ 3 ] Henriques argues that comparative psychology , ethology, and (animal) cognitive behavioral neuroscience should all be thought of as parts of the discipline that maps the animal-mental domain. Culture/Person — Human social sciences Culture in the ToK system refers to the set of sociolinguistic behaviors, which range from large scale nation states to individual human justifications for particular actions. Just as genetic information processing is associated with the Life dimension and neuronal information processing associated with the Mind dimension, symbolic information processing emerges with the Cultural dimension. [ 3 ] Henriques argues that human cognitive science, human psychology and the social sciences (i.e., anthropology, sociology, political science, and economics) work to map this domain. Theoretical joint points Quantum gravity Quantum gravity refers to the imagined merger between the twin pillars of physical science which are quantum mechanics , the study of the microscopic (e.g., electrons), and general relativity , the science of the macroscopic (e.g., galaxies ). Currently, these two great domains of science cannot be effectively interwoven into a single, physical Theory of Everything , yet progress is being made, most notably through string theory , loop quantum gravity , black hole thermodynamics and the study of the early universe. Some of the difficulties combining these two pillars of physical science are philosophical in nature and it is possible that the macro view of knowledge offered by the ToK may eventually aid in the construction of a coherent theory of quantum gravity. The reason the ToK might help is that it locates scientific knowledge in relationship to the physical universe. The modern synthesis The modern synthesis refers to the merger of genetics with natural selection which occurred in the 1930s and 1940s and offers a reasonably complete framework for understanding the emergence of biological complexity. Although there remain significant gaps in biological knowledge surrounding questions such as the origin of life and the emergence of sexual reproduction, the modern synthesis represents the most complete and well-substantiated joint point. Behavioral investment theory Behavioral investment theory (BIT) is a metatheoretical formulation for the mind, brain and animal behavioral sciences. Henriques proposes that it enables the merger of the selection science of behaviorism with the information science of cognitive neuroscience that has conceptual parallels with the modern synthesis. BIT posits that the nervous system evolved as an increasingly flexible computational control system that coordinates the behavioral expenditure of energy of the animal as a whole. Expenditure of behavioral energy is theorized to be computed on an investment value system built evolutionarily through natural selection operating on genetic combinations and ontogenetically through behavioral selection operating on neural combinations. As such, the current behavioral investments of the animal are conceptualized as the joint product of the two vectors of phylogeny and ontogeny . A unique element of BIT is that it finds a core of agreement and builds bridges between five brain-behavior paradigms: (1) cognitive science ; (2) behavioral science ; (3) evolutionary theory and genetics; (4) neuroscience; and (5) cybernetics / systems theory . David C. Geary noted the similarities between his "motive-to-control" hypothesis and Henriques' Behavioral Investment Theory, which were developed independently of each other. Furthermore, Geary suggested that his model "seem[ed] to fill in many of the proximate mechanisms and evolutionary pressures that define the life-mind joint point, and provided a framework for further development of the mind-culture joint point." [ 7 ] Justification systems theory The justification systems theory (JUST; formerly known as the justification hypothesis) posits that the evolution of language reached a tipping point with emergence of propositional claims. Specifically, propositional claims can be questioned, which generates the "question-answer" dynamic. This creates the problem of justification, which Henriques argues drives both the design of the human self-consciousness system as a mental organ of justification and gives rise to the evolution of the Culture-Person plane of existence. JUST is a novel proposal that allows for both the understanding of the evolution of culture and for identifying what makes humans distinct animals. A basic initial claim of JUST is that the process of justification is a crucial component of human mental behavior at both the individual and societal level. Unlike all other animals, humans everywhere ask for and give explanations for their actions. Arguments, debates, moral dictates, rationalizations, and excuses all involve the process of explaining why one's claims, thoughts or actions are warranted. In virtually every form of social exchange, from warfare to politics to family struggles to science, humans are constantly justifying their behavioral investments to themselves and others. JUST consists of three key postulates: The first is that the evolution of propositional language must have created the problem of justification, which involves three interlocking problems of deciphering what is (1) analytically true and what is (2) good for the group and (3) good for the individual. The second postulate is that the structure and functional design of human consciousness can be understood as a solution to the problem of justification. Specifically, the three domains of human consciousness that Henriques identifies in the Updated Tripartite Model of the (1) experiential; (2) private narrator; and (3) public narrator are directly consistent with adaptive pressures that arise from the logic of the problem of justification. This analysis deepens when one considers the dynamic relationships and filtering that takes place between these three domains. The third postulate is that culture can be understood as large scale justification systems that coordinate the behavior of human populations. Cultural systems are seen to evolve much in the same way as organisms do in biological evolution: there is a process of variation, selection and retention of belief systems. The "problem of psychology" The ToK System emerged as a consequence of Henriques wrestling with what he calls "the problem of psychology". Henriques argues that the most difficult problem in psychology as a discipline is that while there is incredible diversity offered by different approaches to psychology, and there is no consensus model of what psychology actually is. [ 8 ] [ 9 ] Specifically, Henriques argues that the field lacks a clear definition, an agreed upon subject matter, and a coherent conceptual framework . The problem has been long standing, identified as the "crisis" by Lev Vygotsky in the mid 1920s. Henriques further argues that the patent tendency of psychology has been toward theoretical and substantial fragmentation and increasing insularity among the "specialties." In other words, the discipline has fragmented into different schools of thought and methodology, with no overall framework to interpret and integrate the research of different areas. At its best, the different approaches are a strength of psychology; different approaches lead to novel ideas, and prevent psychologists from clinging to a paradigm that fails to explain a phenomenon. At its worst, adherents of one particular school cling to their beliefs concerning the relative importance of their research and disregard or are ignorant of different approaches. In most cases, individual psychologists have to determine for themselves which elements of which perspective to apply, and how to integrate them into their overall understanding. Henriques argues that the problem of psychology is a central feature of modern knowledge systems. In A New Unified Theory of Psychology , he described it as follows: The problem of psychology is the joint observation that the field cannot be coherently defined and yet it connects more deeply than any other discipline to the three great branches of learning. Taken together, these observations suggest that the problem of psychology is a profound problem in academia at large. This conclusion is bolstered by the fact that as psychology has lumbered along acquiring findings but not foundational clarity, the fragmentation of human knowledge has grown exponentially. All of this suggests that the question, "What is psychology?" is profoundly important, one of the central questions in all of philosophy. Asking the right questions is often the most important step in getting the right answer. My interest in psychotherapy integration ultimately led me to ask the question, "What is psychology?”. Although I had no idea at the time, it turns out that this is the right question. And, as startling as it sounds, because psychology connects to so many different domains, the correct answer to it opens up a whole new vision for integrating human knowledge. The problem of psychology is the joint observation that the field cannot be coherently defined and yet it connects more deeply than any other discipline to the three great branches of learning. Taken together, these observations suggest that the problem of psychology is a profound problem in academia at large. This conclusion is bolstered by the fact that as psychology has lumbered along acquiring findings but not foundational clarity, the fragmentation of human knowledge has grown exponentially. All of this suggests that the question, "What is psychology?" is profoundly important, one of the central questions in all of philosophy. Asking the right questions is often the most important step in getting the right answer. My interest in psychotherapy integration ultimately led me to ask the question, "What is psychology?”. Although I had no idea at the time, it turns out that this is the right question. And, as startling as it sounds, because psychology connects to so many different domains, the correct answer to it opens up a whole new vision for integrating human knowledge. The reason for psychology's fragmentation, according to the ToK System, is that there has been no meta-theoretical frame that allows scholars to agree on the basic questions that need to be addressed. As such, the different schools of thought in psychology are like the blind men who each grab a part of the elephant and proclaim they have discovered its true nature. With its novel depiction of evolving dimensions of complexity, the ToK allows scholars finally to see the elephant. In his 2003 Review of General Psychology paper, [ 8 ] Henriques used the ToK System with the attempt to clarify and align the views of B.F. Skinner and Sigmund Freud . These luminaries were chosen because when one considers their influence and historical opposition, it can readily be argued that they represent two schools of thought that are the most difficult to integrate. Henriques used the meta-perspective offered by the ToK to argue how one can retain the key insights from each school of thought, identify errors and points of confusion, and integrate the insights into a coherent whole. Cultural and personality psychologist, Michael Katzko, [ 10 ] however critiques Henriques' position on "the problem of psychology": There is a very good reason for skepticism regarding the repeated claims that the one unique problem of psychology, applicable across the entire discipline, has been identified and that the ToK System solves it. The reason is given by the detail with which alternatives have been worked out, be they historical studies of institutional development or critical commentaries on the rhetorical structure of psychology's literature. [ 11 ] There is a very good reason for skepticism regarding the repeated claims that the one unique problem of psychology, applicable across the entire discipline, has been identified and that the ToK System solves it. The reason is given by the detail with which alternatives have been worked out, be they historical studies of institutional development or critical commentaries on the rhetorical structure of psychology's literature. [ 11 ] Solution The problem of psychology, according to the ToK, is its conceptual incoherence, which Henriques identifies by the following: When the various conceptions of psychology (e.g., behavioral, humanistic, cognitive) are viewed through the lens of the ToK System, psychology spans two different dimensions of complexity: the mental and the cultural. In other words, the discipline has historically spanned two fundamentally separate problems: If, as previously thought, nature simply consisted of levels of complexity, psychology would not be crisply defined in relationship to biology or the social sciences. And, indeed, it is frequently suggested that psychology exists in an amorphous space between biology and the social sciences. However, with its dimension of complexity depiction, the ToK System suggests that psychology can be crisply defined as the science of mind, which is the third dimension of complexity. Furthermore, because human behavior exists in the fourth dimension, psychology must be divided into two broad scientific domains of Psychological formalism is defined as the science of mind and corresponds to the behavior of animal objects. Human psychology is considered to be a unique subset of psychological formalism that deals with human behavior at the level of the individual. Because human behavior is immersed in the larger socio-cultural context (level four in the ToK System), human psychology is considered a hybrid discipline that merges the pure science of psychology with the social sciences. It is important to point out that there are other disciplines the ToK System would classify as “hybrids.” Molecular genetics, for example, is a hybrid between chemistry and biology and neuroscience is a hybrid between biology and psychology. As with Henriques' proposed conception of human psychology, both of these disciplines adopt an object level perspective (molecular and cellular, respectively) on phenomena that simultaneously exist as part of meta-level system processes (life and mind, respectively). [ 9 ] Though David A. F. Haaga "congratulate[d] Dr. Henriques' ambitious, scholarly, provocative paper", and "found the Tree of Knowledge taxonomy, the theoretical joint points, the evolutionary history, and the levels of emergent properties highly illuminating", he asks the rhetorical questions, If it is so difficult to define terms such as 'psychology' with such precision, why bother? Why not just agree that we all have at least a rough idea of what psychology is, and take the rest of the afternoon off? After all, if theoretical or empirical work improves our understanding of some aspect of the world or our fellow people, or improves our ability to help people enhance their physical or emotional well being, what difference does it make whether this work is considered a part of psychology, of cognitive science, of behavioral neuroscience, of public health, or what have you? This raises the question of what definitions in general are good for. [ 12 ] If it is so difficult to define terms such as 'psychology' with such precision, why bother? Why not just agree that we all have at least a rough idea of what psychology is, and take the rest of the afternoon off? After all, if theoretical or empirical work improves our understanding of some aspect of the world or our fellow people, or improves our ability to help people enhance their physical or emotional well being, what difference does it make whether this work is considered a part of psychology, of cognitive science, of behavioral neuroscience, of public health, or what have you? This raises the question of what definitions in general are good for. [ 12 ] In a similar vein, Scott O. Lilienfeld, who described Henriques' effort as "thoughtful", contended that psychology is "an inherently fuzzy concept that resists precise definition" and that "attempts to define psychology [would be] likely to hamper rather than foster consilience across disciplines". Lilienfield went on further to suggest that the scientist-practitioner gap in psychology lies not in definitional issues, but in different "epistemic attitudes" between these two groups. He stated that scientists have an epistemic attitude of empiricism , (where questions regarding human nature are settled by scientific evidence), and that practitioners have an epistemic attitude of romanticism , (where questions of human nature are settled by intuition). Lilienfeld suggested that the solution to the scientist-practitioner gulf isn't definitional, but in "train[ing] future clinical scientists to appreciate the proper places of romanticism and empiricism within science". [ 13 ] Consciousness and human behavior A frequent question and point of confusion in the ToK System is the definition and meaning of consciousness . As mentioned above, mind is not synonymous with consciousness. And, to understand consciousness from a ToK vantage point, it is crucial to recognize that the term is often ambiguous in its meaning. Two primary meanings are sentience , which is the capacity for mental experience and self-awareness , which is the capacity to be aware of one's awareness. Sentience is conceptualized as a "level 3" phenomenon, possessed by many animals other than humans and is defined as a "perceived" electro-neuro-chemical representation of animal-environment relations. The ingredient of neurological behavior that allows for the emergence of mental experience is considered the "hard" problem of consciousness and the ToK System does not address this question explicitly. In contrast, through the Justification Hypothesis (see below), the ToK System involves a very direct analysis of the other issue of consciousness, that of self-awareness . Another frequent question that is raised is "Where does individual human behavior fall on the ToK?" To analyze human behavior from the context of the ToK, one uses the ToK like a prism to separate the dimensions of behavior into physiochemical, biogenetic, neuropsychological and sociolinguistic. Thus if we imagine a conversation between a husband and wife as follows: Wife: “You are late again.” Husband: “Please, not now. It was a stressful day, traffic was bad, and you know that if work needs to be done, I can’t just leave it.” Wife: “You are late again.” Husband: “Please, not now. It was a stressful day, traffic was bad, and you know that if work needs to be done, I can’t just leave it.” The words represent the sociolinguistic dimension and are understood as a function of justification. Justification systems are seen both at the level of individual, micro-social and societal (i.e., the context of justification in which men work and women stay at home). The actions of the husband and wife in terms of facial expression , body movement, etc. are seen as the mental dimension and are understood as a function of behavioral investment. The physiological make up of the organ systems and cells of each body is seen as the biogenetic dimension. Finally, the position, temperature, molecular make up is seen as the physiochemical dimension. Each of the more basic dimensions represent conditions of possibility that allow for the emergence of the higher dimension of process. Thus, insufficient oxygen disrupts organic processes which in turn renders neuropsychological and sociolinguistic processes impossible. Toward the integration of human knowledge As stated above, the ToK System proposes a new epistemology with the goal of moving academic knowledge toward what E.O. Wilson termed consilience . Consilience is the interlocking of fact and theory into a coherent, holistic view of knowledge. Henriques argues that the ToK affords new perspectives on how knowledge is obtained because it depicts how science emerges from culture and that the four dimensions of complexity correspond to four broad classes of science: the physical, biological, psychological and social sciences. Henriques further argues that developing such a system for integrating knowledge is not just an academic enterprise. He suggests that in an increasingly complex world, the fragmented state of knowledge can be seen as one of the most pressing social problems of our time. Henriques also believes that history seems to attest that the absence of a collective worldview ostensibly condemns humanity to an endless series of conflicts that inevitably stem from incompatible, partially correct, locally situated justification systems. Thus, from Henriques' perspective, there are good reasons for believing that if there was a shared, general background of explanation, humanity might be able to achieve much greater levels of harmonious relations. In a 2008 article on the ToK, [ 14 ] Henriques cites Oliver Reiser 's 1958 call for unifying scientific knowledge that Henriques implies is similar in theme to the ToK: With its depiction of the dimensions of complexity and interlocking theoretical joint points, Henriques' believes that his ToK System offers new avenues that might allow scholars to meet Reiser’s call for academic synthesis. Henriques, like Reiser, believes that with a shared sense of purpose and a common background of explanation, people might yet be able to integrate bodies of knowledge into a unified interpretation of humanity, with humanity's place in nature and its potentialities for creating the good society. See also Tree of knowledge (philosophy) by René Descartes Tinbergen's four questions Behavioral repertoire Consilience Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge – 1998 book by E.O. Wilson Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge – 1998 book by E.O. Wilson Descriptive psychology General System Theory Psychological behaviorism Social meaning-making The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution – 1959 book by C. P. Snow Unified theory of cognition Unity of science Metasystem transition References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} " "About Me" section of the ToK System website" . Archived from the original on 5 December 2008 . Retrieved 3 January 2009 . ^ " "The Tree of Knowledge System" section of the 8 key ideas in the Unified Theory of Knowledge website" . Archived from the original on 2 July 2022 . Retrieved 2 July 2022 . ^ a b c d e Henriques, G.R. (2003). The Tree of Knowledge System and the Theoretical Unification of Psychology. Archived 25 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine Review of General Psychology, 7, 150–182. ^ "Defining Psychology: Articles and Commentaries on a New Unified Theory (Part 1): Journal of Clinical Psychology: Vol 60, No 12" . Archived from the original on 3 March 2011 . Retrieved 30 July 2021 – via Wiley Online Library. ^ "Defining Psychology: Articles and Commentaries on a New Unified Theory (Part 2): Journal of Clinical Psychology: Vol 61, No 1" . Archived from the original on 16 December 2012 . Retrieved 30 July 2021 – via Wiley Online Library. ^ "Theory & Psychology - Volume 18, Number 6, Dec 01, 2008" . Sage Journals . ^ Geary, D. C. (2005). The motivation to control and the origin of mind: Exploring the life-mind joint point in the tree of knowledge. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 21–46. ^ a b Henriques, G.R. (2003). The tree of knowledge system and the theoretical unification of psychology. Archived 25 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine Review of General Psychology, 7, 150–182. ^ a b Henriques, G.R. (2004). Psychology Defined Archived 10 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine . Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1207–1221. ^ Homepage of Michael Katzko ^ Katzko, M. W. (2008). Pruning the Tree of Knowledge. Theory & Psychology , 18, 817–828. Abstract ^ Haaga, D.A.F. (2004). Defining psychology: What can it do for us? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1227–1230. ^ Lilienfeld, S.O. (2004). Defining psychology: Is it worth the trouble? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1249–1253. ^ Henriques, G.R. (2008). The problem of psychology and the integration of human knowledge: Contrasting Wilson's Consilience with the Tree of Knowledge System. Theory & Psychology, 18, 731–755. Final draft ^ Reiser, O.L. (1958). The integration of human knowledge. Boston: Porter Sargent. Bibliography Anchin, J.C. (2008). The critical role of the dialectic in viable metatheory: A commentary on Henriques' Tree of Knowledge System for integrating human knowledge. Theory & Psychology, 18, 801–816. Full text Calhoun, L.G. (2004). The unification of psychology: A noble quest. Journal of Clinical Psychology , 60, 1283–1289. Abstract Geary, D. C. (2005). The motivation to control and the origin of mind: Exploring the life-mind joint point in the tree of knowledge. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 21–46. Full text Gilbert, P. (2004). A much needed macro level view: A commentary on Henriques’ psychology defined. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1223–1226. Full text Goertzen, J.R. (2008). On the possibility of unification: The reality and nature of the crisis in psychology. Theory & Psychology, 18, 829–852. Full text Haaga, D.A.F. (2004). Defining psychology: What can it do for us? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1227–1230. Full text Hayes, S.C. (2004). Taxonomy as a contextualist views it. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1231–1236. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2008). The problem of psychology and the integration of human knowledge: Contrasting Wilson's Consilience with the Tree of Knowledge System. Theory & Psychology, 18, 731–755. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2005). A new vision for the field: Introduction to the second special issue on the unified theory. Journal of Clinical Psychology , 61, 3–6. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2005). Toward a useful mass movement. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 121–139. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2004). Psychology Defined. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1207–1221. Full text Archived 10 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine Henriques, G.R. (2004). The development of the unified theory and the future of psychotherapy. Psychotherapy Bulletin, 39, 16–21. Final draft Henriques, G.R., & Cobb, H.C. (2004). Introduction to the special issues on the unified theory. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1203–1205. Full text Henriques, G.R., & Sternberg, R. J. (2004). Unified professional psychology: Implications for combined-integrated doctoral training programs. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1051–1063. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2003). The Tree of Knowledge System and the Theoretical Unification of Psychology. Review of General Psychology, 7, 150–182. Full text Archived 25 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine . Henriques, G.R. (2002). The harmful dysfunction analysis and the differentiation between mental disorder and disease. Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice , 1, 157–173. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2000). Depression: Disease or behavioral shutdown mechanism? Journal of Science and Health Policy, 1, 152–165. Full text Jones, R. (2005). From that dirty little science grows a Tree of Knowledge. The Madison, 1, 36–45. Full text Katzko, M.W. (2008). Pruning the Tree of Knowledge. Theory & Psychology, 18, 817–828. Full text Katzko, M.W. (2004). Psychology's dilemma: An institutional neurosis? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1237–1242. Full text Kihlstrom, J.F. (2004). Unity within psychology, and unity between science and practice. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1243–1247. Full text Lilienfeld, S.O. (2004). Defining psychology: Is it worth the trouble? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1249–1253. Full text Mayer, J.D. (2004). How does psychotherapy influence personality? A theoretical integration. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1291–1315. Full text Presbury, J. (2004). Rooting the tree of knowledge: A response to Henriques’ psychology defined. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1255–1258. Full text Quackenbush, S.W. (2008). Theoretical unification as a practical project: Kant and the Tree of Knowledge System. Theory & Psychology, 18, 757–777. Full text Quackenbush, S.W. (2005). Remythologizing culture: Narrativity, justification, and the politics of personalization. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 67–80. Full text Archived 16 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine Rand, K.L., & Ilardi, S.S. (2005). Toward a consilient science of psychology. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 7–20. Full text Shaffer, L.S. (2008). Religion as a large-scale justification system: Does the Justification Hypothesis explain animistic attribution? Theory & Psychology, 18, 779–799. Full text Shaffer, L.S. (2006). Durkheim's aphorism, the Justification Hypothesis, and the nature of social facts. Sociological Viewpoints, fall issue, 57–70. Full text Shaffer, L.S. (2005). From mirror self-recognition to the looking glass self: Exploring the justification hypothesis. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 47–65 . Full text Shealy, C.N. (2005). Justifying the justification hypothesis: Scientific-humanism, Equilintegration (EI) Theory, and the Beliefs, Events, and Values Inventory (BEVI). Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 81–106. Full text Slife, B. (2005). Testing the limits of Henriques' proposal: Wittgensteinian lessons and hermenuetic dialogue. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 107–120. Full text Stam, H.J. (2004). Unifying psychology: Epistemological act or disciplinary maneuver? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1259–1262. Full text Stanovich, K.E. (2004). Metarepresentation and the great cognitive divide: A commentary on Henriques' "Psychology Defined". Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1263–1266. Full text Stricker, G. (2004). The unification of psychology and psychological organizations. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1267–1269. Full text Vazire, S., & Robins, R.W. (2004). Beyond the Justification Hypothesis: A Broader Theory of the Evolution of Self-Consciousness. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1271–1273. Full text Viney, W. (2004). Pluralism in the sciences is not easily dismissed. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1275–1278. Full text Yanchar, S.C. (2004). Some discontents with theoretical unification. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1279–1281. Full text External links The Official Tree of Knowledge Website Archived 6 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine Tree of Knowledge System/Expert article by Gregg Henriques at the Psychology Wiki This page uses content from the English-language version of Psychology Wiki . The original article was at Tree of Knowledge System/Expert article by Gregg Henriques . The list of authors can be seen in the page history . The text of both The Psychology Wiki and Wikipedia is available under the GNU Free Documentation License . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Appropriate notification 2 Inappropriate notification Toggle Inappropriate notification subsection 2.1 Spamming and excessive cross-posting 2.2 Campaigning 2.3 Votestacking 2.4 Stealth canvassing 2.1 Spamming and excessive cross-posting 2.2 Campaigning 2.3 Votestacking 2.4 Stealth canvassing 3 How to respond to canvassing 4 Other forms of inappropriate consensus-building 5 Templates 6 See also 7 Notes and references Wikipedia : Canvassing العربية Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা Català Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Македонски 日本語 Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Português Русский සිංහල Simple English Српски / srpski Svenska తెలుగు Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Project page Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiversity Wikidata item This page documents an English Wikipedia behavioral guideline . Editors should generally follow it, though exceptions may apply. Substantive edits to this page should reflect consensus . .mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain{float:right;margin:0 0 0 1em;border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);background-color:var(--background-color-base,#fff);padding:0.3em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;text-align:center;font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxleft{float:left;margin:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutlist{display:inline-block;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);margin-bottom:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain ul{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutanchordiv{position:relative;top:-3em}.mw-parser-output li .module-shortcutanchordiv{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mbox-imageright .module-shortcutboxplain{padding:0.4em 1em;line-height:1.3;margin:0;float:initial} Shortcuts .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} WP:CAN WP:CAN WP:CANVASS WP:CANVASS WP:CAN WP:CAN WP:CANVASS WP:CANVASS This page in a nutshell: When notifying other editors of discussions, keep the number of notifications small, keep the message text neutral, and don't preselect recipients according to their established opinions. Be open! In general, it is perfectly acceptable to notify other editors of ongoing discussions, provided that it be done with the intent to improve the quality of the discussion by broadening participation to more fully achieve consensus . Canvassing is notification done with the intention of influencing the outcome of a discussion in a particular way, and is considered inappropriate. This is because it compromises the normal consensus decision-making process, and therefore is generally considered disruptive behavior. Appropriate notification WP:APPNOTE WP:APPNOTE An editor who may wish to draw a wider range of informed, but uninvolved, editors to a discussion can place a message at any of the following: The talk page or noticeboard of one or more WikiProjects or other Wikipedia collaborations which may have interest in the topic under discussion. A central location (such as the Village pump or other relevant noticeboards ) for discussions that have a wider influence such as policy or guideline discussions. The talk page of one or more directly related articles . On the talk pages of a user mentioned in the discussion (particularly if the discussion concerns complaints about user behavior). On the user talk pages of concerned editors. Examples include: Editors who have made substantial edits to the topic or article Editors who have participated in previous discussions on the same topic (or closely related topics) Editors known for expertise in the field Editors who have asked to be kept informed Editors who have made substantial edits to the topic or article Editors who have participated in previous discussions on the same topic (or closely related topics) Editors known for expertise in the field Editors who have asked to be kept informed The audience must not be selected on the basis of their opinions—for example, if notices are sent to editors who previously supported deleting an article, then identical notices should be sent to those who supported keeping it. Do not send inappropriate notices, as defined in the section directly below , and do not send messages to users who have asked not to receive them. Notifications must be polite , neutrally worded with a neutral title, clear in presentation, and brief—the user can always find out more by clicking on the link to the discussion. The {{ subst:Please see }} template may help in notifying people in a quick, simple, and neutral manner. Note: It is good practice to leave a note at the discussion itself about notifications which have been made, particularly if made to individual users. Inappropriate notification WP:INAPPNOTE WP:INAPPNOTE Scale Message Audience Transparency Appropriate Limited posting AND Neutral AND Nonpartisan AND Open ↕ ↕ ↕ ↕ Inappropriate Mass posting OR Biased OR Partisan OR Secret Term Excessive cross-posting ("spamming") Campaigning Votestacking Stealth canvassing Inappropriate notification is generally considered to be disruptive. Canvassing normally involves the posting of messages. However, it may also include other kinds of solicitation, such as a custom signature to automatically append some promotional message to every signed post. Do not use a bot to send messages to multiple pages as this can be seen as a form of spamming. The following behaviors are regarded as characteristic of inappropriate notification (and may be seen as disruptive): Spamming : Posting an excessive number of messages to individual users, or to users with no significant connection to the topic at hand. [ 1 ] Campaigning : Posting a notification of discussion that presents the topic in a non-neutral manner. Vote-stacking : Posting messages to users selected based on their known opinions (which may be made known by a userbox , user category , or prior statement). [ 2 ] Vote-banking involves recruiting editors perceived as having a common viewpoint for a group , similar to a political party, in the expectation that notifying the group of any discussion related to that viewpoint will result in a numerical advantage, much as a form of prearranged vote stacking. Stealth canvassing : Contacting users off-wiki (by e-mail, IRC , or Discord , for example) to persuade them to join in discussions (unless there is a specific reason not to use talk pages) Soliciting support in indirect ways, such as using a custom signature with a message promoting a specific position on any issue being discussed. Below are brief explanations of the most common types of inappropriate notification: Spamming and excessive cross-posting Indiscriminately sending announcements to editors can be disruptive for any number of reasons. If the editors are uninvolved, the message has the function of "spam" and is disruptive to that user's experience. More importantly, recruiting too many editors to a dispute resolution can often make resolving the dispute impossible. Remember that the purpose of a notification is to improve the dispute resolution process, not to disrupt it. The inclusion of links to discussions, including featured content nominations, in signatures has been found to be disruptive spamming. [ 3 ] Campaigning Campaigning is an attempt to sway the person reading the message, conveyed through the use of tone, wording, or intent. While this may be appropriate as part of a specific individual discussion, it is inappropriate to canvass with such messages. Votestacking WP:VOTESTACK WP:VOTESTACK WP:VOTESTACKING WP:VOTESTACKING Votestacking is an attempt to sway consensus by selectively notifying editors who have or are thought to have a predetermined point of view or opinion (which may be determined, among other ways, from a userpage notice, such as a userbox , or from user categorization ), and thus encouraging them to participate in the discussion. In the case of a re-consideration of a previous debate (such as a "no consensus" result on an RFC, AFD or CFD), it is similarly inappropriate to send a disproportionate number of notifications specifically to those who expressed a particular viewpoint on the previous debate. Posting an appropriate notice on users' talk pages in order to inform editors on all "sides" of a debate (e.g., everyone who participated in a previous deletion debate on a given subject) may be appropriate under certain circumstances. Stealth canvassing WP:STEALTH WP:STEALTH Because it is less transparent than on-wiki notifications, the use of email, IRC, Discord, or other off-wiki communication to notify editors is strongly discouraged unless there is a significant reason for not using talk page notifications. Sending a notification to a group of editors by email is usually looked at more negatively than sending the same message to the same group of people on their talk pages. How to respond to canvassing The most effective response to quite recent, clearly disruptive canvassing is to politely request that the user(s) responsible for the canvassing stop posting notices, possibly using {{subst: Uw-canvass }} on their talk page. If they continue, they may be reported to the administrators' noticeboard for incidents , which may result in them being blocked from editing. Users with a prior history of disruptive canvassing, which they have previously been asked to discontinue, may be blocked immediately without further warning. Other forms of inappropriate consensus-building For other types of actions that are inappropriate in the consensus-building process, see the policy on consensus . Apart from canvassing, these include forum shopping (raising an issue on successive discussion pages until you get the result you want), sock puppetry and meat puppetry (bringing fictional or real outside participants into the discussion to create a false impression of support for your viewpoint), and tendentious editing . Templates {{ Uw-canvass }} , warning for user talk pages {{ Canvass warning }} , article talk page message, based on canvassing activity soliciting feedback from established accounts {{ Recruiting }} , article talk page message, based on sockpuppet activity {{ Not a ballot }} , for use on discussion pages {{ Canvassed }} , for use in a discussion, to express concern that a specific user was canvassed to the discussion {{ Rfc notice }} , to notify users and groups of users of an RfC in a neutral way {{ Spa }} , for use in a discussion, to inform other editors that a given user has made few edits outside of this discussion. See Wikipedia:Single-purpose account for more details on proper use of this template. See also Wikipedia:Articles for deletion § After nominating: Notify interested projects and editors Wikipedia:Cabals Wikipedia:Forum shop Wikipedia:Griefing Wikipedia:Mass message senders Wikipedia:Publicising discussions Wikipedia:Tag team Wikipedia:Talk page guidelines Wikipedia:WikiProject Democracy Notes and references ^ In 2005, the Arbitration Committee ruled that "[t]he occasional light use of cross-posting to talk pages is part of Wikipedia's common practice. However, excessive cross-posting goes against current Wikipedia community norms. In a broader context, it is "unwiki." See Wikipedia:Requests for arbitration/IZAK#Principles . ^ See Wikipedia:False consensus for a series of findings by the Arbitration Committee concerning vote-stacking and improper CANVASS ^ See the discussion at Wikipedia:Administrators' noticeboard/Archive262#Linking to discussions in signatures . Wikipedia behavioral guidelines Wikipedia glossary items Wikipedia project content guidelines This page was last edited on 22 December 2025, at 22:18 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
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Lalokiq laori Panrung ko engka pakkutanammu. You are not an Buginese speaker? Please visit here and introduce yourself! 😄 Pabbéré Pabbéré Pabbéré [[Berkas:231 UBLOHS Or 5475 overzicht Boegi 02.jpg|jmpl|center|300px|La Galigo, Wikiyapoléng .]] Wikipédiyawang Wikipédiyawang Wikipédiyawang Wikipédiya deqna jamingngi attentuang salaé. Sininna arrokikengngé polé ri Wikipédiyaédé, iyanaritu tanggunjawaqna polé niga-niga rokiwi. Ingobbi idiq ku maggabung ri gerruq Waqsaqé Wikimédiya Mangkassaraq . Iwajikkengngi idiq pasisseng alétaq ko pura taggabung. Jamaqna maneng Wikimédiya Wikipédiya ipassediya sicara cuma-cuma polé Yayasang Wikimédiya , séuwa organisasi nirlaba . Isaliwenna basa Ugiqé, engkato basa-basa Nusantara lainna, bangsana: Acé ᨞ Bali ᨞ Banjaraq ᨞ Banyumaseng ᨞ Gorontalo ᨞ Jawa ᨞ Madura ᨞ Malaju ᨞ Indonésiya ᨞ Marangkabo ᨞ Niyasaq ᨞ Sunra ᨞ Tetung Sibawa sijummela proyek maéga basa laingngé. Wikikamusuq Kamusuq maradéka Wikibooks Bobboq sibawa manual maradéka Wikisource Perpustakaan maradéka Wikinews Sumber karéba maradéka Wikiquote Koleksi petikan ada Wikivoyage Panduan perjalanan maradéka Commons Koleksi multimedia maradéka Meta-Wiki Penyelarasan proyek Wikimédiya Wikidata Pangkalan paddissengeng maradéka Wikiversity Bahan aggurung maradéka Wikispecies Panduan spesies MediaWiki Pembangunan perisian maradéka Jamaqna maneng Wikimédiya Wikipédiya ipassediya sicara cuma-cuma polé Yayasang Wikimédiya , séuwa organisasi nirlaba . Isaliwenna basa Ugiqé, engkato basa-basa Nusantara lainna, bangsana: Acé ᨞ Bali ᨞ Banjaraq ᨞ Banyumaseng ᨞ Gorontalo ᨞ Jawa ᨞ Madura ᨞ Malaju ᨞ Indonésiya ᨞ Marangkabo ᨞ Niyasaq ᨞ Sunra ᨞ Tetung Sibawa sijummela proyek maéga basa laingngé. Wikikamusuq Kamusuq maradéka Wikibooks Bobboq sibawa manual maradéka Wikisource Perpustakaan maradéka Wikinews Sumber karéba maradéka Wikiquote Koleksi petikan ada Wikivoyage Panduan perjalanan maradéka Commons Koleksi multimedia maradéka Meta-Wiki Penyelarasan proyek Wikimédiya Wikidata Pangkalan paddissengeng maradéka Wikiversity Bahan aggurung maradéka Wikispecies Panduan spesies MediaWiki Pembangunan perisian maradéka Jamaqna maneng Wikimédiya Wikikamusuq Kamusuq maradéka Wikibooks Bobboq sibawa manual maradéka Wikisource Perpustakaan maradéka Wikinews Sumber karéba maradéka Wikiquote Koleksi petikan ada Wikivoyage Panduan perjalanan maradéka Commons Koleksi multimedia maradéka Meta-Wiki Penyelarasan proyek Wikimédiya Wikidata Pangkalan paddissengeng maradéka Wikiversity Bahan aggurung maradéka Wikispecies Panduan spesies MediaWiki Pembangunan perisian maradéka Аԥсшәа Acèh Адыгабзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch Алтай тил አማርኛ Pangcah Aragonés Ænglisc Obolo अंगिका العربية ܐܪܡܝܐ الدارجة مصرى অসমীয়া Asturianu Atikamekw Авар Kotava अवधी Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Башҡортса Basa Bali Boarisch Žemaitėška Batak Toba Bikol Central Bajau Sama Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Betawi Български भोजपुरी Bislama Banjar ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ Bamanankan বাংলা བོད་ཡིག বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Brezhoneg Bosanski Batak Mandailing Буряад Català Chavacano de Zamboanga 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Нохчийн Cebuano Chamoru ᏣᎳᎩ Tsetsêhestâhese کوردی Corsu Nēhiyawēwin / ᓀᐦᐃᔭᐍᐏᐣ Qırımtatarca Čeština Kaszëbsczi Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ Чӑвашла Cymraeg Dansk Dagbanli Deutsch Dagaare Thuɔŋjäŋ Zazaki Dolnoserbski Kadazandusun डोटेली ދިވެހިބަސް ཇོང་ཁ Eʋegbe Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Mfantse Fulfulde Suomi Võro Na Vosa Vakaviti Føroyskt Fɔ̀ngbè Français Arpetan Nordfriisk Furlan Frysk Gaeilge Gagauz 贛語 Kriyòl gwiyannen Gàidhlig Galego گیلکی Avañe'ẽ गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni Bahasa Hulontalo 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 Ghanaian Pidgin ગુજરાતી Wayuunaiki Farefare Gungbe Gaelg Hausa 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî Hawaiʻi עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Hornjoserbsce Kreyòl ayisyen Magyar Հայերեն Արեւմտահայերէն Interlingua Jaku Iban Bahasa Indonesia Interlingue Igbo Igala Iñupiatun Ilokano ГӀалгӀай Ido Íslenska Italiano ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut 日本語 Patois La .lojban. 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Events Toggle Events subsection 1.1 January 1.2 February 1.3 March 1.4 April 1.5 May 1.6 June 1.7 July 1.8 August 1.9 September 1.10 October 1.11 November 1.12 December 1.13 Date unknown 1.1 January 1.2 February 1.3 March 1.4 April 1.5 May 1.6 June 1.7 July 1.8 August 1.9 September 1.10 October 1.11 November 1.12 December 1.13 Date unknown 2 Births Toggle Births subsection 2.1 January 2.2 February 2.3 March 2.4 April 2.5 May 2.6 June 2.7 July 2.8 August 2.9 September 2.10 October 2.11 November 2.12 December 2.1 January 2.2 February 2.3 March 2.4 April 2.5 May 2.6 June 2.7 July 2.8 August 2.9 September 2.10 October 2.11 November 2.12 December 3 Deaths Toggle Deaths subsection 3.1 January 3.2 February 3.3 March 3.4 April 3.5 May 3.6 June 3.7 July 3.8 August 3.9 September 3.10 October 3.11 November 3.12 December 3.1 January 3.2 February 3.3 March 3.4 April 3.5 May 3.6 June 3.7 July 3.8 August 3.9 September 3.10 October 3.11 November 3.12 December 4 Nobel Prizes 5 References 6 Further reading 1945 Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն Arpetan Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali বাংলা Banjar 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Български Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deutsch Dolnoserbski Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego ГӀалгӀай 贛語 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Ido Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Коми Kotava Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Кырык мары Latgaļu Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Livvinkarjala La .lojban. Lombard Magyar मैथिली Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Māori मराठी მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu Minangkabau 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Мокшень Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nāhuatl Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Nouormand Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Papiamentu Tok Pisin Plattdüütsch Polski Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Reo tahiti Ripoarisch Română Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sardu Scots Seeltersk Sesotho sa Leboa Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Ślůnski کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Tarandíne Татарча / tatarça တႆး తెలుగు Tetun ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Türkmençe Удмурт Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vahcuengh Vèneto Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon 文言 West-Vlams Winaray ייִדיש 粵語 Zazaki Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 Tolışi Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item Years Millennium 2nd millennium Centuries 19th century 20th century 21st century 19th century 20th century 21st century Decades 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s Years 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e 1945 by topic Subject Animation Archaeology Architecture Art Aviation Awards Comics Film Literature Poetry Meteorology Music Country Jazz Rail transport Radio Science Spaceflight Sports Football Television American British Animation Archaeology Architecture Art Aviation Awards Comics Film Literature Poetry Poetry Meteorology Music Country Jazz Country Jazz Rail transport Radio Science Spaceflight Sports Football Television American American British British By country Afghanistan Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria Canada China Denmark France Germany India Indonesia Ireland Italy Japan Malaya Netherlands New Zealand Norway Palestine Mandate Philippines Portugal South Africa South Korea Soviet Union Spain Sweden Switzerland Thailand Turkey United Kingdom United States Venezuela Afghanistan Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria Canada China Denmark France Germany India Indonesia Ireland Italy Japan Malaya Netherlands New Zealand Norway Palestine Mandate Philippines Portugal South Africa South Korea Soviet Union Spain Sweden Switzerland Thailand Turkey United Kingdom United States Venezuela Lists of leaders Sovereign states Sovereign state leaders Territorial governors Religious leaders Law Sovereign states Sovereign state leaders Territorial governors Religious leaders Law Birth and death categories Births Deaths Births Deaths Establishments and disestablishments categories Establishments Disestablishments Establishments Disestablishments Works category Works Introductions Works Introductions v t e v t e Gregorian calendar 1945 MCMXLV Ab urbe condita 2698 Armenian calendar 1394 ԹՎ ՌՅՂԴ Assyrian calendar 6695 Baháʼí calendar 101–102 Balinese saka calendar 1866–1867 Bengali calendar 1351–1352 Berber calendar 2895 British Regnal year 9 Geo. 6 – 10 Geo. 6 Buddhist calendar 2489 Burmese calendar 1307 Byzantine calendar 7453–7454 Chinese calendar 甲申 年 (Wood Monkey ) 4642 or 4435 — to — 乙酉年 (Wood Rooster ) 4643 or 4436 Coptic calendar 1661–1662 Discordian calendar 3111 Ethiopian calendar 1937–1938 Hebrew calendar 5705–5706 Hindu calendars - Vikram Samvat 2001–2002 - Shaka Samvat 1866–1867 - Kali Yuga 5045–5046 Holocene calendar 11945 Igbo calendar 945–946 Iranian calendar 1323–1324 Islamic calendar 1364–1365 Japanese calendar Shōwa 20 (昭和２０年) Javanese calendar 1875–1876 Juche calendar 34 Julian calendar Gregorian minus 13 days Korean calendar 4278 Minguo calendar ROC 34 民國34年 Nanakshahi calendar 477 Thai solar calendar 2488 Tibetan calendar ཤིང་ཕོ་སྤྲེ་ལོ་ (male Wood- Monkey ) 2071 or 1690 or 918 — to — ཤིང་མོ་བྱ་ལོ་ (female Wood- Bird ) 2072 or 1691 or 919 1945 ( MCMXLV ) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar , the 1945th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 945th year of the 2nd millennium , the 45th year of the 20th century , and the 6th year of the 1940s decade. A turning point [ 1 ] in human history , 1945 marked the end of World War II , ending with the defeat and occupation of Nazi Germany and the Empire of Japan by the United States and the Soviet Union in the world of two superpowers which has led the beginning of the Cold War (1945–1991). It is also the year the Nazi concentration camps were liberated and the only year in which atomic weapons have been used in warfare . Events World War II will be abbreviated as "WWII" January January 1 – WWII: Germany begins Operation Bodenplatte , an attempt by the Luftwaffe to cripple Allied air forces in the Low Countries . [ 2 ] Chenogne massacre : German prisoners are allegedly killed by American forces near the village of Chenogne, Belgium. Germany begins Operation Bodenplatte , an attempt by the Luftwaffe to cripple Allied air forces in the Low Countries . [ 2 ] Chenogne massacre : German prisoners are allegedly killed by American forces near the village of Chenogne, Belgium. January 6 – WWII: A German offensive recaptures Esztergom , Hungary from the Soviets. January 9 – WWII: American and Australian troops land at Lingayen Gulf on western coast of the largest Philippine island of Luzon , occupied by Japan since 1942. January 12 – WWII: The Soviet Union begins the Vistula–Oder Offensive in Eastern Europe, against the German Army . [ 3 ] January 13 – WWII: The Soviet Union begins the East Prussian Offensive , to eliminate German forces in East Prussia . January 16 – WWII: Adolf Hitler takes residence in the Führerbunker in Berlin. [ 4 ] January 17 WWII: The Soviet Union occupies Warsaw , Poland. The Holocaust : Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg , who has saved thousands of Jews, is taken into custody by a Soviet patrol during the Siege of Budapest and is never again seen publicly. [ 5 ] WWII: The Soviet Union occupies Warsaw , Poland. The Holocaust : Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg , who has saved thousands of Jews, is taken into custody by a Soviet patrol during the Siege of Budapest and is never again seen publicly. [ 5 ] January 18 – The Holocaust : The SS begins the evacuation of Auschwitz concentration camp . Nearly 60,000 prisoners, mostly Jews, are forced to march to other locations in Germany; as many as 15,000 die. The 7,000 too sick to move are left without supplies being distributed. January 19 – The Holocaust : Soviet forces liberate the Łódź Ghetto ; only 877 Jews of the initial population of 164,000 remain at this time. [ 6 ] January 20 – Germany begins the Evacuation of East Prussia . January 21 – 22 (night) – At the Grünhagen railroad station, located in East Prussia at this date, two trains, heading for Elbing , collide. At dawn the station is reached by Soviet Army infantry and tanks which destroy the station, killing between 140 and 150 people. January 23 – WWII: Hungary agrees to an armistice with the Allies . German Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz orders the start of Operation Hannibal , the mass evacuation by sea of German troops and civilians from the Courland Pocket , East Prussia and the Polish Corridor , evacuating an estimated 800,000-900,000 German civilians and 350,000 soldiers from advancing Soviet forces. Evacuation of Germans from Grünhagen . Hungary agrees to an armistice with the Allies . German Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz orders the start of Operation Hannibal , the mass evacuation by sea of German troops and civilians from the Courland Pocket , East Prussia and the Polish Corridor , evacuating an estimated 800,000-900,000 German civilians and 350,000 soldiers from advancing Soviet forces. Evacuation of Germans from Grünhagen . January 24 – WWII: AP war correspondent Joseph Morton , nine OSS men, and four SOE agents are executed by the Germans at Mauthausen concentration camp under Hitler's Commando Order of 1942, which stipulates the immediate execution of all captured Allied commandos or saboteurs without trial, even those in proper uniforms. Morton is the only Allied correspondent to be executed by the Axis during the war. January 25 – WWII: Hitler appoints Heinrich Himmler as commander of the hastily formed Army Group Vistula ( Heeresgruppe Weichsel ) to halt the Soviet Red Army 's Vistula–Oder offensive into Pomerania , despite Himmler's lack of military experience. [ 7 ] January 26 – WWII: 19-year-old U.S. Army Staff Sergeant Audie Murphy sees action at Holtzwihr , France, for which is awarded the Medal of Honor . January 27 The Holocaust : The Soviet Red Army liberates the Auschwitz and Birkenau concentration camps. WWII: The Soviet Red Army reaches to Wolf's Lair former Hitler headquarter [ 8 ] The Holocaust : The Soviet Red Army liberates the Auschwitz and Birkenau concentration camps. WWII: The Soviet Red Army reaches to Wolf's Lair former Hitler headquarter [ 8 ] January 30 – WWII: MV Wilhelm Gustloff , with over 10,000 mainly civilian Germans from Gotenhafen ( Gdynia ) is sunk in Gdańsk Bay by three torpedoes from Soviet submarine S-13 in the Baltic Sea ; up to 9,400, 5,000 of whom are children, are thought to have died – the greatest loss of life in a single ship sinking in history. Raid at Cabanatuan : 121 American soldiers and 800 Filipino guerrillas free 813 American prisoners of war from the Japanese-held camp in the city of Cabanatuan , in the Philippines . Adolf Hitler makes his last public speech, on broadcast radio, expressing the belief that Germany will triumph. MV Wilhelm Gustloff , with over 10,000 mainly civilian Germans from Gotenhafen ( Gdynia ) is sunk in Gdańsk Bay by three torpedoes from Soviet submarine S-13 in the Baltic Sea ; up to 9,400, 5,000 of whom are children, are thought to have died – the greatest loss of life in a single ship sinking in history. Raid at Cabanatuan : 121 American soldiers and 800 Filipino guerrillas free 813 American prisoners of war from the Japanese-held camp in the city of Cabanatuan , in the Philippines . Adolf Hitler makes his last public speech, on broadcast radio, expressing the belief that Germany will triumph. January 31 – WWII: The Battle of Hill 170 in the Burma Campaign ends with the British 3rd Commando Brigade defeating the Imperial Japanese Army 54th Division , causing the Japanese Twenty-Eighth Army to withdraw from the Arakan Peninsula. February February – Raymond L. Libby of American Cyanamid 's research laboratories, at Stamford, Connecticut , announces a method of orally administering the antibiotic penicillin . [ 9 ] February 3 – WWII: Battle of Manila : United States forces enter the outskirts of Manila to capture it from the Japanese Imperial Army , starting the battle. On February 4, U.S. Army forces liberate Santo Tomas Internment Camp in the city. The Soviet Union agrees to enter the Pacific War against Japan, once hostilities against Germany are concluded. Battle of Manila : United States forces enter the outskirts of Manila to capture it from the Japanese Imperial Army , starting the battle. On February 4, U.S. Army forces liberate Santo Tomas Internment Camp in the city. The Soviet Union agrees to enter the Pacific War against Japan, once hostilities against Germany are concluded. February 4 – 11 – WWII: President Franklin D. Roosevelt , Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Winston Churchill and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin hold the Yalta Conference . February 7 – WWII: General Douglas MacArthur returns to Manila . February 8 – The Alaska Anti-Discrimination Act of 1945, championed by charismatic native leader Elizabeth Peratrovich , is passed by the territorial Senate, after the legislature defeated a previous bill in 1943. February 9 Walter Ulbricht becomes leader of the German Communists in Moscow. WWII: " Black Friday ": A force of Allied Bristol Beaufighter aircraft suffers heavy casualties in an unsuccessful attack on German destroyer Z33 and escorting vessels sheltering in Førde Fjord , Norway. Walter Ulbricht becomes leader of the German Communists in Moscow. WWII: " Black Friday ": A force of Allied Bristol Beaufighter aircraft suffers heavy casualties in an unsuccessful attack on German destroyer Z33 and escorting vessels sheltering in Førde Fjord , Norway. February 10 – WWII: German troopship SS General von Steuben is sunk by the Soviet submarine S-13 ; 3,608 drown. [ 10 ] February 10 – 20 – WWII: Operation Kita : The Imperial Japanese Navy returns "Completion Force", containing both its Ise -class battleships , safely from Singapore to Kure in Japan despite Allied attacks. February 12 – A devastating tornado outbreak in Mississippi and Alabama kills 45 people and injures 427 others. [ 11 ] February 13 – WWII: The Budapest Offensive and the Siege of Budapest end with Nazi troops surrendering Budapest (Hungary) to Soviet -Romanian forces. Bombing of Dresden (Germany) by the British Royal Air Force and United States Army Air Forces ; 25,000-35,000 are estimated to have died. The Budapest Offensive and the Siege of Budapest end with Nazi troops surrendering Budapest (Hungary) to Soviet -Romanian forces. Bombing of Dresden (Germany) by the British Royal Air Force and United States Army Air Forces ; 25,000-35,000 are estimated to have died. February 16 – WWII: The Bombing of Wesel begins, destroying 97% of the town over three days. American and Filipino ground forces land on Corregidor Island in the Philippines . Combined American and Filipino forces recapture the Bataan Peninsula. Venezuela declares war on Germany. The Bombing of Wesel begins, destroying 97% of the town over three days. American and Filipino ground forces land on Corregidor Island in the Philippines . Combined American and Filipino forces recapture the Bataan Peninsula. Venezuela declares war on Germany. February 18 – March 5 – WWII: American and Brazilian troops kick off Operation Encore in Northern Italy, a successful limited action in the Northern Apennines that prepares for the western portion of the Allied Spring offensive . [ 12 ] February 19 – 20 – 980 (actual figure is disputed) [ 13 ] Japanese soldiers die as a result of being attacked by long saltwater crocodiles in Ramree, Burma . [ 14 ] February 19 – WWII: Battle of Iwo Jima – About 30,000 United States Marines land on Iwo Jima . February 21 – The last V-2 rocket is launched from Peenemünde . February 22 – WWII: Italian Front : The Battle of Monte Castello ends after nearly three months of fighting when the Brazilian Expeditionary Force expels German forces from a pivot point in the (Tuscan) North Apennines where their artillery was impeding the advance of the British Eighth Army toward Bologna . Uruguay declares war on Germany and Japan. Italian Front : The Battle of Monte Castello ends after nearly three months of fighting when the Brazilian Expeditionary Force expels German forces from a pivot point in the (Tuscan) North Apennines where their artillery was impeding the advance of the British Eighth Army toward Bologna . Uruguay declares war on Germany and Japan. February 23 – WWII: Battle of Iwo Jima : A group of United States Marines reach the top of Mount Suribachi on the island, and are photographed raising the American flag . The photo, Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima (taken by Joe Rosenthal ), later wins a Pulitzer Prize . The 11th Airborne Division , with Filipino guerrillas, free the captives of the Los Baños internment camp. The capital of the Philippines , Manila, is liberated by combined American and Filipino ground troops. The suburb of Intramuros is devastated. [ 15 ] The German garrison in Poznań capitulates to Red Army and Polish troops. Bombing of Pforzheim : The heaviest of a series of bombing raids on Pforzheim , Germany by Allied aircraft is carried out by the British Royal Air Force . As many as 17,600 people, or 31.4% of the town's population, are killed in the raid and about 83% of the town's buildings destroyed, two-thirds of its complete area and between 80 and 100% of the inner city. Turkey joins the war on the side of the Allies . Battle of Iwo Jima : A group of United States Marines reach the top of Mount Suribachi on the island, and are photographed raising the American flag . The photo, Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima (taken by Joe Rosenthal ), later wins a Pulitzer Prize . The 11th Airborne Division , with Filipino guerrillas, free the captives of the Los Baños internment camp. The capital of the Philippines , Manila, is liberated by combined American and Filipino ground troops. The suburb of Intramuros is devastated. [ 15 ] The German garrison in Poznań capitulates to Red Army and Polish troops. Bombing of Pforzheim : The heaviest of a series of bombing raids on Pforzheim , Germany by Allied aircraft is carried out by the British Royal Air Force . As many as 17,600 people, or 31.4% of the town's population, are killed in the raid and about 83% of the town's buildings destroyed, two-thirds of its complete area and between 80 and 100% of the inner city. Turkey joins the war on the side of the Allies . February 24 – Egyptian premier Ahmad Mahir Pasha is assassinated in Parliament after declaring war on Germany and Japan. February 27 – The Bombing of Mainz results in 1,209 confirmed dead; 80% of the city is destroyed. February 28 – In Bucharest , a violent demonstration takes place, during which the Bolşevic group opens fire on the army and protesters. In response, Andrei Y. Vishinsky , USSR vice commissioner of foreign affairs and president of the Allied Control Commission for Romania , travels to Bucharest to compel Nicolae Rădescu to resign as premier. March March 1 – President Franklin D. Roosevelt gives what will be his last address to a joint session of the United States Congress , reporting on the Yalta Conference . March 2 Former U.S. vice-president Henry A. Wallace starts his term of office as United States Secretary of Commerce , serving under President Franklin D. Roosevelt . The rocket-propelled Bachem Ba 349 Natter is first test launched at Stetten am kalten Markt . The launch fails and the pilot, Lothar Sieber , dies. [ 16 ] WWII: Allied troops lead by 10th Armored Division captures Trier oldest city in Germany. [ 17 ] Former U.S. vice-president Henry A. Wallace starts his term of office as United States Secretary of Commerce , serving under President Franklin D. Roosevelt . The rocket-propelled Bachem Ba 349 Natter is first test launched at Stetten am kalten Markt . The launch fails and the pilot, Lothar Sieber , dies. [ 16 ] WWII: Allied troops lead by 10th Armored Division captures Trier oldest city in Germany. [ 17 ] March 3 – WWII: Finland declares war on the Axis powers . United States and Filipino troops take Manila , Philippines . Pawłokoma massacre : A Polish Home Army unit massacres between 150 and 500 Ukrainian civilians in the Polish village of Pawłokoma . Bombing of the Bezuidenhout : The British Royal Air Force accidentally bombs the Bezuidenhout neighbourhood in The Hague , Netherlands, killing 511 people. Finland declares war on the Axis powers . United States and Filipino troops take Manila , Philippines . Pawłokoma massacre : A Polish Home Army unit massacres between 150 and 500 Ukrainian civilians in the Polish village of Pawłokoma . Bombing of the Bezuidenhout : The British Royal Air Force accidentally bombs the Bezuidenhout neighbourhood in The Hague , Netherlands, killing 511 people. March 4 In the United Kingdom, Princess Elizabeth (later Queen Elizabeth II), joins the Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS) as a truck driver/mechanic in London. The Swiss cities of Basel and Zürich are accidentally bombed by the United States. [ 18 ] In the United Kingdom, Princess Elizabeth (later Queen Elizabeth II), joins the Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS) as a truck driver/mechanic in London. The Swiss cities of Basel and Zürich are accidentally bombed by the United States. [ 18 ] March 5 – WWII: Brazilian troops take Castelnuovo ( Vergato ), in the last operations of the Allied Operation Encore . March 6 A Communist-led government is formed in Romania under Petru Groza , following Soviet intervention. Resistance fighters accidentally ambush and attempt to execute SS general Hanns Albin Rauter , the arch-persecutor of the Dutch. A Communist-led government is formed in Romania under Petru Groza , following Soviet intervention. Resistance fighters accidentally ambush and attempt to execute SS general Hanns Albin Rauter , the arch-persecutor of the Dutch. March 7 WWII: At the end of Operation Lumberjack , American troops seize the Ludendorff Bridge over the Rhine at Remagen , Germany and begin to cross; in the next 10 days, 25,000 troops with equipment are able to cross. 10th Armored Division captures city of Cologne [ 19 ] WWII: At the end of Operation Lumberjack , American troops seize the Ludendorff Bridge over the Rhine at Remagen , Germany and begin to cross; in the next 10 days, 25,000 troops with equipment are able to cross. 10th Armored Division captures city of Cologne [ 19 ] March 8 Josip Broz Tito forms a Provisional Government of the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia , in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . Nazi authorities kill 117 Dutch men, in reprisal for the attempted murder of Hanns Albin Rauter . Operation Sunrise : Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff meets with Allen Welsh Dulles of the United States Office of Strategic Services at Lucerne , Switzerland, to negotiate the surrender of the Axis forces in Italy to the Allies . Josip Broz Tito forms a Provisional Government of the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia , in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . Nazi authorities kill 117 Dutch men, in reprisal for the attempted murder of Hanns Albin Rauter . Operation Sunrise : Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff meets with Allen Welsh Dulles of the United States Office of Strategic Services at Lucerne , Switzerland, to negotiate the surrender of the Axis forces in Italy to the Allies . March 9 – 10 – WWII: Bombing of Tokyo : USAAF B-29 bombers attack Tokyo, Japan, with incendiary bombs , killing 100,000 citizens in the firebombing. It is the single most destructive conventional air attack of the war. March 11 The Empire of Japan establishes the Empire of Vietnam , a puppet state which will last only until August 23, with Bảo Đại as its ruler. The Sammarinese general election gives San Marino the world's first democratically elected communist government, which will hold power until 1957 . [ 20 ] The Empire of Japan establishes the Empire of Vietnam , a puppet state which will last only until August 23, with Bảo Đại as its ruler. The Sammarinese general election gives San Marino the world's first democratically elected communist government, which will hold power until 1957 . [ 20 ] March 12 – WWII: Swinemünde is destroyed by the USAAF, killing an estimated 8,000 to 23,000 civilians, mostly refugees saved by Operation Hannibal . March 15 – 31 – WWII: The Soviet Red Army carries out the Upper Silesian Offensive . March 15 – The 17th Academy Awards ceremony is held, broadcast via radio in the United States for the first time. Best Picture goes to Going My Way . March 16 – WWII: The Battle of Iwo Jima unofficially ends. The Bombing of Würzburg , as part of the Allied strategic bombing campaign against Nazi Germany, destroys 89% of the city and causes 4,000 deaths. The Battle of Iwo Jima unofficially ends. The Bombing of Würzburg , as part of the Allied strategic bombing campaign against Nazi Germany, destroys 89% of the city and causes 4,000 deaths. March 17 – WWII: Kobe , Japan is fire-bombed by 331 B-29 bombers, killing over 8,000 people. March 18 – WWII: The 40th Infantry Division, spearheaded by the 185th US Infantry Regiment, lands unopposed in Tigbauan forcing the Japanese forces to surrender and General Macario Peralta and Gen. Gen. Eichelberger to declare the Liberation of Panay, Romblon and Guimaras . [ 21 ] 1,250 American bombers attack Berlin. [ 22 ] Battle of Kolberg concludes with the Baltic seaport (designated a key Festung (fortress) by the Germans) taken by Polish and Soviet forces and ethnic Germans evacuated or expelled. [ 23 ] The 40th Infantry Division, spearheaded by the 185th US Infantry Regiment, lands unopposed in Tigbauan forcing the Japanese forces to surrender and General Macario Peralta and Gen. Gen. Eichelberger to declare the Liberation of Panay, Romblon and Guimaras . [ 21 ] 1,250 American bombers attack Berlin. [ 22 ] Battle of Kolberg concludes with the Baltic seaport (designated a key Festung (fortress) by the Germans) taken by Polish and Soviet forces and ethnic Germans evacuated or expelled. [ 23 ] March 19 – WWII: Adolf Hitler issues the " Nero Decree " ordering that all industries, military installations, machine shops, transportation facilities and communications facilities in Germany be destroyed ahead of Allied advances, but Albert Speer , placed in charge of the implementation, deliberately disobeys it. Off the coast of Japan, bombers hit the aircraft carrier USS Franklin , killing about 800 of her crewmen and crippling the ship. Adolf Hitler issues the " Nero Decree " ordering that all industries, military installations, machine shops, transportation facilities and communications facilities in Germany be destroyed ahead of Allied advances, but Albert Speer , placed in charge of the implementation, deliberately disobeys it. Off the coast of Japan, bombers hit the aircraft carrier USS Franklin , killing about 800 of her crewmen and crippling the ship. March 20 – WWII: Hitler dismisses Heinrich Himmler from his military command. [ 3 ] March 21 – WWII: British troops liberate Mandalay , Burma . Bulgarian and Soviet troops successfully defend the north bank of the Drava River , as the Battle of the Transdanubian Hills concludes. British troops liberate Mandalay , Burma . Bulgarian and Soviet troops successfully defend the north bank of the Drava River , as the Battle of the Transdanubian Hills concludes. March 22 The Arab League is formed, with the adoption of a charter in Cairo , Egypt. The Cathedral and the historic centre of Hildesheim in Germany are destroyed in a bombing of the city . The Arab League is formed, with the adoption of a charter in Cairo , Egypt. The Cathedral and the historic centre of Hildesheim in Germany are destroyed in a bombing of the city . March 24 WWII: Operation Varsity – Two airborne divisions capture bridges across the river Rhine to aid the Allied advance. The cartoon character Sylvester the cat debuts in Life with Feathers . WWII: Operation Varsity – Two airborne divisions capture bridges across the river Rhine to aid the Allied advance. The cartoon character Sylvester the cat debuts in Life with Feathers . March 26 – WWII: The Battle of Iwo Jima officially ends, with the destruction of the remaining areas of Japanese resistance, although there are Japanese holdouts here until 1949. March 27 – WWII: The United States Army Air Forces begins Operation Starvation , laying naval mines in many of Japan's seaways. Argentina declares war on Germany and Japan . The United States Army Air Forces begins Operation Starvation , laying naval mines in many of Japan's seaways. Argentina declares war on Germany and Japan . March 29 WWII: The Red Army almost destroys the German 4th Army , in the Heiligenbeil Pocket in East Prussia . WWII: American troops lead by 5th Infantry Division and 6th Armored Division captures city of Frankfurt after three days of battle [ 24 ] The "Clash of Titans": George Mikan and Bob Kurland duel at Madison Square Garden in New York, as Oklahoma State University defeats DePaul 52–44 in basketball . WWII: The Red Army almost destroys the German 4th Army , in the Heiligenbeil Pocket in East Prussia . WWII: American troops lead by 5th Infantry Division and 6th Armored Division captures city of Frankfurt after three days of battle [ 24 ] The "Clash of Titans": George Mikan and Bob Kurland duel at Madison Square Garden in New York, as Oklahoma State University defeats DePaul 52–44 in basketball . March 30 – WWII: The Red Army pushes most of the Axis forces out of Hungary into Austria. American official Alger Hiss is congratulated in Moscow for his part in bringing the positions of the Western powers and the Soviet Union closer to each other, at the Yalta Conference . The Red Army pushes most of the Axis forces out of Hungary into Austria. American official Alger Hiss is congratulated in Moscow for his part in bringing the positions of the Western powers and the Soviet Union closer to each other, at the Yalta Conference . April April 1 – WWII: Battle of Okinawa : The Tenth United States Army lands on Okinawa . April 4 – WWII: American troops liberate their first Nazi concentration camp, Ohrdruf extermination camp in Germany. The Soviet Red Army enters Bratislava and pushes to the outskirts of Vienna , taking it on April 13, after several days of intense fighting. American troops liberate their first Nazi concentration camp, Ohrdruf extermination camp in Germany. The Soviet Red Army enters Bratislava and pushes to the outskirts of Vienna , taking it on April 13, after several days of intense fighting. April 6 – WWII: Sarajevo is liberated from Nazi Germany and the Independent State of Croatia (a fascist puppet state ) by Yugoslav Partisans . The Battle of Slater's Knoll on Bougainville Island concludes with a decisive victory for the Australian Army 's 7th Brigade . Allied forces reach Merkers Salt Mines in Thuringia where gold reserves of the Nazi German Reichsbank and art treasures are stored. Sarajevo is liberated from Nazi Germany and the Independent State of Croatia (a fascist puppet state ) by Yugoslav Partisans . The Battle of Slater's Knoll on Bougainville Island concludes with a decisive victory for the Australian Army 's 7th Brigade . Allied forces reach Merkers Salt Mines in Thuringia where gold reserves of the Nazi German Reichsbank and art treasures are stored. April 7 – WWII: The only flight of the German ramming unit known as Sonderkommando Elbe takes place, resulting in the loss of some 24 B-17s and B-24s of the United States Eighth Air Force . Japanese battleship Yamato and nine other warships take part in Operation Ten-Go , a suicide attack on Allied forces engaged in the Battle of Okinawa. Yamato is sunk by U.S. Navy aircraft in the East China Sea 200 miles (320 km) north of Okinawa with the loss of 2,055 of 2,332 crew, together with five other Japanese warships. Kantarō Suzuki becomes Prime Minister of Japan . The only flight of the German ramming unit known as Sonderkommando Elbe takes place, resulting in the loss of some 24 B-17s and B-24s of the United States Eighth Air Force . Japanese battleship Yamato and nine other warships take part in Operation Ten-Go , a suicide attack on Allied forces engaged in the Battle of Okinawa. Yamato is sunk by U.S. Navy aircraft in the East China Sea 200 miles (320 km) north of Okinawa with the loss of 2,055 of 2,332 crew, together with five other Japanese warships. Kantarō Suzuki becomes Prime Minister of Japan . April 8 – The SS begins to evacuate the Buchenwald concentration camp ; inmates in the Buchenwald Resistance call for American aid, and overpower and kill the remaining guards. April 9 WWII: The Battle of Königsberg , in East Prussia , ends with Soviet forces capturing the city. Abwehr conspirators Wilhelm Canaris , Hans Oster and Hans von Dohnányi are hanged at Flossenberg concentration camp, along with pastor Dietrich Bonhoeffer . Johann Georg Elser , would-be assassin of Adolf Hitler , is executed at Dachau concentration camp . WWII: The Battle of Königsberg , in East Prussia , ends with Soviet forces capturing the city. Abwehr conspirators Wilhelm Canaris , Hans Oster and Hans von Dohnányi are hanged at Flossenberg concentration camp, along with pastor Dietrich Bonhoeffer . Johann Georg Elser , would-be assassin of Adolf Hitler , is executed at Dachau concentration camp . April 10 – WWII: Visoko is liberated by the 7th, 9th and 17th Krajina Brigades from the Tenth Division of Yugoslav Partisan forces. American troops lead by 84th Division captures city of Hanover after thousands of German troops surrenders [ 25 ] Visoko is liberated by the 7th, 9th and 17th Krajina Brigades from the Tenth Division of Yugoslav Partisan forces. American troops lead by 84th Division captures city of Hanover after thousands of German troops surrenders [ 25 ] April 11 – Buchenwald concentration camp is liberated by the United States Army . April 12 Vice President Harry S. Truman becomes the 33rd president of the United States upon the death of President Franklin D. Roosevelt at the Little White House in Warm Springs, Georgia of an intracerebral hemorrhage . President Truman is sworn in later this evening in the White House . A devastating tornado outbreak occurs across the United States, which kills 128 people and injures over 1,000 others. This is heavily overshadowed by the death of President Roosevelt. [ 26 ] WWII: The U.S. Ninth Army under General William H. Simpson crosses the Elbe River astride Magdeburg , and reaches Tangermünde — only 50 miles from Berlin . Richard Strauss completes composition of his Metamorphosen . Vice President Harry S. Truman becomes the 33rd president of the United States upon the death of President Franklin D. Roosevelt at the Little White House in Warm Springs, Georgia of an intracerebral hemorrhage . President Truman is sworn in later this evening in the White House . A devastating tornado outbreak occurs across the United States, which kills 128 people and injures over 1,000 others. This is heavily overshadowed by the death of President Roosevelt. [ 26 ] WWII: The U.S. Ninth Army under General William H. Simpson crosses the Elbe River astride Magdeburg , and reaches Tangermünde — only 50 miles from Berlin . Richard Strauss completes composition of his Metamorphosen . April 14 – WWII: The First Canadian Army assumes military control of the Netherlands, where German forces are trapped in the Atlantic Wall fortifications along the coastline. [ 27 ] Razing of Friesoythe : The 4th Canadian (Armoured) Division deliberately destroys the German town of Friesoythe , on the orders of Major General Christopher Vokes . Bombing of Potsdam The First Canadian Army assumes military control of the Netherlands, where German forces are trapped in the Atlantic Wall fortifications along the coastline. [ 27 ] Razing of Friesoythe : The 4th Canadian (Armoured) Division deliberately destroys the German town of Friesoythe , on the orders of Major General Christopher Vokes . Bombing of Potsdam April 15 – WWII: The Bergen-Belsen concentration camp is liberated by British and Canadian forces. The Canadian First Army reaches the coast in the northern Netherlands , and captures Arnhem . The Bergen-Belsen concentration camp is liberated by British and Canadian forces. The Canadian First Army reaches the coast in the northern Netherlands , and captures Arnhem . April 16 – WWII: The Battle of Berlin begins, opening with the Red Army launching the Battle of the Oder–Neisse and the Battle of the Seelow Heights . Canadian forces take Harlingen and occupy Leeuwarden and Groningen in the Netherlands. MV Goya is sunk by Soviet submarine L-3 in the Baltic Sea while evacuating German troops and civilians as part of Operation Hannibal ; 7,000–8,000 drown. Death marches from Flossenbürg concentration camp begin. The Battle of Berlin begins, opening with the Red Army launching the Battle of the Oder–Neisse and the Battle of the Seelow Heights . Canadian forces take Harlingen and occupy Leeuwarden and Groningen in the Netherlands. MV Goya is sunk by Soviet submarine L-3 in the Baltic Sea while evacuating German troops and civilians as part of Operation Hannibal ; 7,000–8,000 drown. Death marches from Flossenbürg concentration camp begin. April 17 – WWII: Battle of Montese : Brazilian forces liberate the town of Montese , Italy, from German forces. Inundation of the Wieringermeer in the Netherlands by occupying German forces. Battle of Montese : Brazilian forces liberate the town of Montese , Italy, from German forces. Inundation of the Wieringermeer in the Netherlands by occupying German forces. April 18 – American war correspondent Ernie Pyle is killed by Japanese machine gun fire on the island of Ie Shima off Okinawa . April 19 – Rodgers and Hammerstein 's Carousel , a musical play based on Ferenc Molnár 's Liliom , opens on Broadway , and becomes their second long-running stage classic. It includes the standard " You'll Never Walk Alone ". April 20 – WWII: On his 56th birthday, Adolf Hitler leaves his Führerbunker , to decorate a group of Hitler Youth soldiers in Berlin. It will be his last trip to the surface from his underground bunker. The German city of Nuremberg , previously the site of the Nuremberg rallies , is occupied by American troops. American troops lead by 2nd Infantry Division and 69th Infantry Division captures city of Leipzig [ 28 ] " Morotai Mutiny ": members of the Australian First Tactical Air Force based on the island of Morotai in the Dutch East Indies tender their resignations to protest their belief that they are being assigned to missions of no military importance and in which they are not specialists; a subsequent inquiry effectively vindicates them. [ 29 ] On his 56th birthday, Adolf Hitler leaves his Führerbunker , to decorate a group of Hitler Youth soldiers in Berlin. It will be his last trip to the surface from his underground bunker. The German city of Nuremberg , previously the site of the Nuremberg rallies , is occupied by American troops. American troops lead by 2nd Infantry Division and 69th Infantry Division captures city of Leipzig [ 28 ] " Morotai Mutiny ": members of the Australian First Tactical Air Force based on the island of Morotai in the Dutch East Indies tender their resignations to protest their belief that they are being assigned to missions of no military importance and in which they are not specialists; a subsequent inquiry effectively vindicates them. [ 29 ] April 22 – WWII: Heinrich Himmler , through Folke Bernadotte , Count of Wisborg, puts forth an offer of German surrender to the Western Allies, but not the Soviet Union. Adolf Hitler finally concedes that "everything is lost" [ 30 ] at a meeting in the Führerbunker after learning that SS-Obergruppenführer Felix Steiner cannot mobilize enough men to launch a counterattack on the Soviet forces which are surrounding Berlin. Heinrich Himmler , through Folke Bernadotte , Count of Wisborg, puts forth an offer of German surrender to the Western Allies, but not the Soviet Union. Adolf Hitler finally concedes that "everything is lost" [ 30 ] at a meeting in the Führerbunker after learning that SS-Obergruppenführer Felix Steiner cannot mobilize enough men to launch a counterattack on the Soviet forces which are surrounding Berlin. April 23 – WWII: Hermann Göring sends the Göring telegram to Hitler, seeking confirmation that he should take over leadership of Germany, in accordance with the decree of June 29, 1941. Hitler regards this as treason. The main Flossenbürg concentration camp is liberated by the United States Army. Hermann Göring sends the Göring telegram to Hitler, seeking confirmation that he should take over leadership of Germany, in accordance with the decree of June 29, 1941. Hitler regards this as treason. The main Flossenbürg concentration camp is liberated by the United States Army. April 24 – WWII: Battle of Berlin : Red Army troops complete encirclement of Berlin. [ 31 ] Retreating German troops destroy all the bridges over the Adige in Verona , including the historic Ponte di Castelvecchio and Ponte Pietra . Battle of Berlin : Red Army troops complete encirclement of Berlin. [ 31 ] Retreating German troops destroy all the bridges over the Adige in Verona , including the historic Ponte di Castelvecchio and Ponte Pietra . April 25 Founding negotiations for the United Nations begin in San Francisco . WWII – Elbe Day : United States and Soviet troops link up at the river Elbe , cutting Germany in two. Founding negotiations for the United Nations begin in San Francisco . WWII – Elbe Day : United States and Soviet troops link up at the river Elbe , cutting Germany in two. April 25 – 26 – WWII: The last major strategic bombing raid by RAF Bomber Command , the destruction of the oil refinery at Tønsberg in southern Norway, is carried out by 107 Avro Lancasters . April 26 – WWII: Battle of Bautzen : The last "successful" German panzer-offensive in Bautzen ends with the city recaptured. The British 3rd Infantry Division , under General Whistler , captures Bremen. [ 32 ] Nazi surrenders mean the British and Canadians now control the German border with Switzerland, from Basel to Lake Constance . Battle of Bautzen : The last "successful" German panzer-offensive in Bautzen ends with the city recaptured. The British 3rd Infantry Division , under General Whistler , captures Bremen. [ 32 ] Nazi surrenders mean the British and Canadians now control the German border with Switzerland, from Basel to Lake Constance . April 27 The last German formations withdraw from Finland to Norway. The Lapland War and thus, World War II in Finland , comes to an end and the Raising the Flag on the Three-Country Cairn photograph is taken. The provisional government of Austria headed by Karl Renner asserts its independence from Germany. [ 33 ] U.S. Ordnance troops find the coffins of Frederick William I of Prussia , Frederick the Great , Paul von Hindenburg and his wife in a salt mine in Germany. [ 34 ] The last German formations withdraw from Finland to Norway. The Lapland War and thus, World War II in Finland , comes to an end and the Raising the Flag on the Three-Country Cairn photograph is taken. The provisional government of Austria headed by Karl Renner asserts its independence from Germany. [ 33 ] U.S. Ordnance troops find the coffins of Frederick William I of Prussia , Frederick the Great , Paul von Hindenburg and his wife in a salt mine in Germany. [ 34 ] April 28 The bodies of Benito Mussolini , his mistress, Clara Petacci , and other followers are hung by their heels at a gas station in the public square of Milan , Piazzale Loreto, following their execution by Italian partisans after an attempt to flee the country. The Canadian First Army captures Emden and Wilhelmshaven . The bodies of Benito Mussolini , his mistress, Clara Petacci , and other followers are hung by their heels at a gas station in the public square of Milan , Piazzale Loreto, following their execution by Italian partisans after an attempt to flee the country. The Canadian First Army captures Emden and Wilhelmshaven . April 29 At the royal palace in Caserta , Lieutenant-Colonel Viktor von Schweinitz (representing General Heinrich von Vietinghoff ) and SS- Obersturmbannführer Eugen Wenner (representing Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff ) sign an unconditional instrument of surrender for all Axis powers forces in Italy, taking effect on May 2 . Italian General Rodolfo Graziani orders the Esercito Nazionale Repubblicano forces under his command to lay down their arms. [ 35 ] Dachau concentration camp is surrendered to U.S. forces, who kill SS guards at the camp and the nearby hamlet of Webling. [ 36 ] Brazilian forces liberate the commune of Fornovo di Taro , Italy, from German forces. Operation Manna : British Avro Lancaster bombers drop food into the Netherlands to prevent the starvation of the civilian population. Soviet soldiers hoist the Red flag over the Reich Chancellery in Berlin. Adolf Hitler marries his longtime mistress Eva Braun , in a closed civil ceremony in the Berlin Führerbunker , and signs his last will and testament . At the royal palace in Caserta , Lieutenant-Colonel Viktor von Schweinitz (representing General Heinrich von Vietinghoff ) and SS- Obersturmbannführer Eugen Wenner (representing Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff ) sign an unconditional instrument of surrender for all Axis powers forces in Italy, taking effect on May 2 . Italian General Rodolfo Graziani orders the Esercito Nazionale Repubblicano forces under his command to lay down their arms. [ 35 ] Dachau concentration camp is surrendered to U.S. forces, who kill SS guards at the camp and the nearby hamlet of Webling. [ 36 ] Brazilian forces liberate the commune of Fornovo di Taro , Italy, from German forces. Operation Manna : British Avro Lancaster bombers drop food into the Netherlands to prevent the starvation of the civilian population. Soviet soldiers hoist the Red flag over the Reich Chancellery in Berlin. Adolf Hitler marries his longtime mistress Eva Braun , in a closed civil ceremony in the Berlin Führerbunker , and signs his last will and testament . April 30 – WWII: Death of Adolf Hitler : Adolf Hitler and his wife of one day, Eva Braun , commit suicide as the Red Army approaches the Führerbunker in Berlin. Großadmiral Karl Dönitz succeeds Hitler as Reichspräsident (President of Germany) and Joseph Goebbels succeeds as Reichskanzler (Chancellor of Germany) , in accordance with Hitler's political testament the day earlier. American forces enter the Bavarian capital of Munich . Death of Adolf Hitler : Adolf Hitler and his wife of one day, Eva Braun , commit suicide as the Red Army approaches the Führerbunker in Berlin. Großadmiral Karl Dönitz succeeds Hitler as Reichspräsident (President of Germany) and Joseph Goebbels succeeds as Reichskanzler (Chancellor of Germany) , in accordance with Hitler's political testament the day earlier. American forces enter the Bavarian capital of Munich . May May – Interpol (being headquartered in Berlin) effectively ceases to exist (it is recreated on June 3 , 1946 ). May 1 – WWII: Reichssender Hamburg 's Flensburg radio station announces that Hitler has died in battle, "fighting up to his last breath against Bolshevism ." Joseph Goebbels carries out his sole official act as Chancellor of Germany, dictating a letter to the Soviet commander in Berlin advising of Hitler's death and requesting a ceasefire. When the latter is refused, he and his wife Magda kill their six children and commit suicide themselves. Karl Dönitz appoints Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk as the new de facto Chancellor of Germany , in the Flensburg Government . Troops of the Yugoslav 4th Army, together with the Slovene 9th Corpus NOV, enter Trieste . Mass suicide in Demmin : An estimated 700–2,500 suicides take place, after 80% of the town has been destroyed by the Soviets during the past three days. Reichssender Hamburg 's Flensburg radio station announces that Hitler has died in battle, "fighting up to his last breath against Bolshevism ." Joseph Goebbels carries out his sole official act as Chancellor of Germany, dictating a letter to the Soviet commander in Berlin advising of Hitler's death and requesting a ceasefire. When the latter is refused, he and his wife Magda kill their six children and commit suicide themselves. Karl Dönitz appoints Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk as the new de facto Chancellor of Germany , in the Flensburg Government . Troops of the Yugoslav 4th Army, together with the Slovene 9th Corpus NOV, enter Trieste . Mass suicide in Demmin : An estimated 700–2,500 suicides take place, after 80% of the town has been destroyed by the Soviets during the past three days. May 2 – WWII: The Soviet Union announces the fall of Berlin . The famous picture of Raising a Flag over the Reichstag was taken at this date. Lübeck is liberated by the British Army . The surrender of Axis troops in Italy comes into effect. A Holocaust death march from Dachau to the Austrian border is halted under two kilometers west of Waakirchen by the segregated, all- Nisei 522nd Field Artillery Battalion of the U.S. Army in southern Bavaria, saving several hundred prisoners. [ 37 ] Troops of the New Zealand Army 2nd Division enter Trieste a day after the Yugoslavs ; the German Army in Trieste surrenders to the New Zealand Army . Following the death or resignation of the Hitler Cabinet in Germany, the Schwerin von Krosigk cabinet first meets. Neuengamme concentration camp near Hamburg is evacuated at about this date. Expatriate American poet Ezra Pound is arrested by the Italian resistance movement but soon released by them as of no interest; on May 5 he turns himself in to the United States Army and is imprisoned as a traitor. The Soviet Union announces the fall of Berlin . The famous picture of Raising a Flag over the Reichstag was taken at this date. Lübeck is liberated by the British Army . The surrender of Axis troops in Italy comes into effect. A Holocaust death march from Dachau to the Austrian border is halted under two kilometers west of Waakirchen by the segregated, all- Nisei 522nd Field Artillery Battalion of the U.S. Army in southern Bavaria, saving several hundred prisoners. [ 37 ] Troops of the New Zealand Army 2nd Division enter Trieste a day after the Yugoslavs ; the German Army in Trieste surrenders to the New Zealand Army . Following the death or resignation of the Hitler Cabinet in Germany, the Schwerin von Krosigk cabinet first meets. Neuengamme concentration camp near Hamburg is evacuated at about this date. Expatriate American poet Ezra Pound is arrested by the Italian resistance movement but soon released by them as of no interest; on May 5 he turns himself in to the United States Army and is imprisoned as a traitor. May 3 – WWII: The prison ships Cap Arcona (5,000 dead), Thielbek (2,750 dead) and Deutschland (all survive) are sunk by the British Royal Air Force in Lübeck Bay. Rocket scientist Wernher von Braun and 120 members of his team surrender to U.S. forces (later going on to help start the U.S. space program). German Protestant theologian Gerhard Kittel is arrested by the French forces in Tübingen, Germany. Operation Dracula : British troops liberate the Burmese capital of Rangoon from Japanese forces. Capture of Hamburg : British troops of VIII Corps and XII Corps capture city of Hamburg [ 38 ] The prison ships Cap Arcona (5,000 dead), Thielbek (2,750 dead) and Deutschland (all survive) are sunk by the British Royal Air Force in Lübeck Bay. Rocket scientist Wernher von Braun and 120 members of his team surrender to U.S. forces (later going on to help start the U.S. space program). German Protestant theologian Gerhard Kittel is arrested by the French forces in Tübingen, Germany. Operation Dracula : British troops liberate the Burmese capital of Rangoon from Japanese forces. Capture of Hamburg : British troops of VIII Corps and XII Corps capture city of Hamburg [ 38 ] May 4 – WWII: German surrender at Lüneburg Heath : All German armed forces in northwest Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands surrender unconditionally to Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery , effective on May 5 at 08:00 hours British Double (and German) Summer Time. The Netherlands is liberated by British and Canadian troops. [ 39 ] Denmark is liberated. [ 40 ] Admiral Karl Dönitz orders all U-boats to cease offensive operations and return to bases in Norway. [ 41 ] The Holy Crown of Hungary is found in Mattsee , Austria, by the United States Army 86th Infantry Division . The U.S. government keeps the crown in Fort Knox for safekeeping from the Soviets until it is returned to Hungary on January 6 1978 . [ 42 ] German auxiliary cruiser Orion is sunk on her way to Copenhagen carrying refugees, with a loss of over 3,800 lives. American troops captures city of Salzburg [ 43 ] German surrender at Lüneburg Heath : All German armed forces in northwest Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands surrender unconditionally to Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery , effective on May 5 at 08:00 hours British Double (and German) Summer Time. The Netherlands is liberated by British and Canadian troops. [ 39 ] Denmark is liberated. [ 40 ] Admiral Karl Dönitz orders all U-boats to cease offensive operations and return to bases in Norway. [ 41 ] The Holy Crown of Hungary is found in Mattsee , Austria, by the United States Army 86th Infantry Division . The U.S. government keeps the crown in Fort Knox for safekeeping from the Soviets until it is returned to Hungary on January 6 1978 . [ 42 ] German auxiliary cruiser Orion is sunk on her way to Copenhagen carrying refugees, with a loss of over 3,800 lives. American troops captures city of Salzburg [ 43 ] May 5 – WWII: Prague uprising : Prague rises up against occupying Nazi forces, encouraged by radio broadcasts (giving rise to the Battle for Czech Radio ). The US 11th Armored Division liberates the prisoners of Mauthausen concentration camp , including Simon Wiesenthal . Canadian soldiers liberate the city of Amsterdam from Nazi occupation. A Japanese fire balloon kills six people, Elsie Mitchell and five children, near Bly, Oregon , when it explodes as they drag it from the woods. These are the only people killed by an enemy attack on the American mainland during WWII. Prague uprising : Prague rises up against occupying Nazi forces, encouraged by radio broadcasts (giving rise to the Battle for Czech Radio ). The US 11th Armored Division liberates the prisoners of Mauthausen concentration camp , including Simon Wiesenthal . Canadian soldiers liberate the city of Amsterdam from Nazi occupation. A Japanese fire balloon kills six people, Elsie Mitchell and five children, near Bly, Oregon , when it explodes as they drag it from the woods. These are the only people killed by an enemy attack on the American mainland during WWII. May 6 WWII: Mildred Gillars ("Axis Sally") delivers her last propaganda broadcast to Allied troops (the first was on December 11, 1941 ). Holocaust : Ebensee concentration camp in Austria is liberated by troops of the 80th Division (United States) . WWII: American troops of 16th Armored Division reaches city of Plzeň in Czech [ 44 ] WWII: Mildred Gillars ("Axis Sally") delivers her last propaganda broadcast to Allied troops (the first was on December 11, 1941 ). Holocaust : Ebensee concentration camp in Austria is liberated by troops of the 80th Division (United States) . WWII: American troops of 16th Armored Division reaches city of Plzeň in Czech [ 44 ] May 6 – 7 – The government of the Independent State of Croatia , the Nazi-affiliated fascist puppet state established in occupied Yugoslavia , flees Zagreb for a location near Klagenfurt in Austria, but is captured in the Bleiburg repatriations that then leads to mass executions. [ 45 ] May 7 – WWII: At 02:41, General Alfred Jodl signs the unconditional German Instrument of Surrender in SHAEF HQ at Reims , France, to end Germany's participation in the war. Surrender is effective on May 8 at 23:01 hours Central European Time (00:01 hours May 9 German Summer Time). This afternoon Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk , Leading Minister in the rump Flensburg Government , makes a broadcast announcing the German surrender and American journalist Edward Kennedy breaks an Allied embargo on news of the signing. [ 46 ] Numerous RAF Lancasters land in Germany to repatriate British prisoners of war. Some 4,500 ex-POWs are flown back to Great Britain over the next 24 hours. At 02:41, General Alfred Jodl signs the unconditional German Instrument of Surrender in SHAEF HQ at Reims , France, to end Germany's participation in the war. Surrender is effective on May 8 at 23:01 hours Central European Time (00:01 hours May 9 German Summer Time). This afternoon Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk , Leading Minister in the rump Flensburg Government , makes a broadcast announcing the German surrender and American journalist Edward Kennedy breaks an Allied embargo on news of the signing. [ 46 ] Numerous RAF Lancasters land in Germany to repatriate British prisoners of war. Some 4,500 ex-POWs are flown back to Great Britain over the next 24 hours. May 8 – WWII: Victory in Europe Day (VE Day) is observed by the western European powers as Nazi Germany surrenders, marking the end of WWII in Europe. Shortly before midnight (May 9 Moscow time) the final German Instrument of Surrender is signed at the seat of the Soviet Military Administration in Berlin- Karlshorst , attended by Allied representatives. Canadian troops move into Amsterdam , after German troops surrender. The surrender of the Dodecanese is signed in Symi . The Prague uprising ends with a ceasefire. The Eighth British Army , together with Slovene partisan troops and a motorized detachment of the Yugoslav 4th Army, arrives in Carinthia and Klagenfurt . The Croatian Armed Forces of the Independent State of Croatia are ordered by their commanders not to surrender to the Yugoslav Partisans , but to attempt to retreat to Austria and surrender to the British, part of the events leading to the Bleiburg repatriations . Hermann Göring surrenders himself to the United States Army near Radstadt . [ 47 ] Victory in Europe Day (VE Day) is observed by the western European powers as Nazi Germany surrenders, marking the end of WWII in Europe. Shortly before midnight (May 9 Moscow time) the final German Instrument of Surrender is signed at the seat of the Soviet Military Administration in Berlin- Karlshorst , attended by Allied representatives. Canadian troops move into Amsterdam , after German troops surrender. The surrender of the Dodecanese is signed in Symi . The Prague uprising ends with a ceasefire. The Eighth British Army , together with Slovene partisan troops and a motorized detachment of the Yugoslav 4th Army, arrives in Carinthia and Klagenfurt . The Croatian Armed Forces of the Independent State of Croatia are ordered by their commanders not to surrender to the Yugoslav Partisans , but to attempt to retreat to Austria and surrender to the British, part of the events leading to the Bleiburg repatriations . Hermann Göring surrenders himself to the United States Army near Radstadt . [ 47 ] May 8 – 29 – Sétif and Guelma massacre : in Algeria , thousands die as French troops and released Italian POWs kill an estimated 6,000 to 40,000 Algerian citizens. May 9 – WWII: The Soviet Union marks VE Day as the Red Army enters Prague. [ 48 ] Vidkun Quisling and other members of the collaborationist Quisling regime in Norway surrender to the Resistance ( Milorg ) and police at Møllergata 19 in Oslo, as part of the legal purge in Norway after World War II . General Alexander Löhr , Commander of German Army Group E near Topolšica, Slovenia , signs the capitulation of German occupation troops. Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : British forces take the surrender of the occupying troops, with Royal Navy ships HMS Bulldog arriving in St Peter Port , Guernsey , and HMS Beagle in St Helier , Jersey . The Soviet Union marks VE Day as the Red Army enters Prague. [ 48 ] Vidkun Quisling and other members of the collaborationist Quisling regime in Norway surrender to the Resistance ( Milorg ) and police at Møllergata 19 in Oslo, as part of the legal purge in Norway after World War II . General Alexander Löhr , Commander of German Army Group E near Topolšica, Slovenia , signs the capitulation of German occupation troops. Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : British forces take the surrender of the occupying troops, with Royal Navy ships HMS Bulldog arriving in St Peter Port , Guernsey , and HMS Beagle in St Helier , Jersey . May 10 – WWII: Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : Occupation of Sark ends, with British forces taking the surrender of the occupying troops and leaving them under the orders of Dame Sibyl Hathaway . May 12 Argentinian labour leader José Peter declares the Meat Industry Workers Federation dissolved. Rev. W. V. Awdry 's children's book The Three Railway Engines , first of The Railway Series , is published in England. Argentinian labour leader José Peter declares the Meat Industry Workers Federation dissolved. Rev. W. V. Awdry 's children's book The Three Railway Engines , first of The Railway Series , is published in England. May 14 – 15 – WWII: Battle of Poljana : The last battle of the War in Europe is fought at Poljana near Slovenj Gradec , Slovenia . May 15 – WWII: Surrender at Bleiburg – Retreating troops of the Croatian Armed Forces of the former puppet Independent State of Croatia (intermingled with fleeing civilians) attempt to surrender to the British Army at Bleiburg , but are directed to surrender to Yugoslav Partisans , who open fire on them. The remainder, after orders are given by Tito , are force-marched through Croatia and Serbia , interned or massacred, with thousands dying. [ 49 ] May 16 – WWII: Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : Occupation of Alderney ends, with British forces taking the surrender of the occupying troops, the civilian population having been evacuated. May 18 – WWII: Operation Unthinkable – British prime minister Winston Churchill secretly requests his military chiefs of staff to consider a plan for British, American and reactivated German forces to attack the Soviet Red Army on July 1 to preserve the independence of Poland. The operation is ruled militarily unfeasible. [ 50 ] May 23 The Flensburg Government is dissolved by the Allies, and German president Karl Dönitz and German chancellor Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk are arrested by British RAF Regiment personnel at Flensburg . They are respectively the last German head of state and head of government until 1949 . Heinrich Himmler , former head of the Nazi SS , commits suicide in British custody. The Flensburg Government is dissolved by the Allies, and German president Karl Dönitz and German chancellor Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk are arrested by British RAF Regiment personnel at Flensburg . They are respectively the last German head of state and head of government until 1949 . Heinrich Himmler , former head of the Nazi SS , commits suicide in British custody. May 28 – U.S.-born Irish-raised William Joyce (" Lord Haw-Haw ") is captured on the German border. He is later charged in London with high treason for his earlier English-language wartime broadcasts from German radio, convicted, and then hanged in January 1946. May 29 German communists, led by Walter Ulbricht , arrive in Berlin. Dutch painter Han van Meegeren is arrested for collaboration with the Nazis, but the "Dutch Golden Age" paintings he has sold to Hermann Göring (Koch) are later proved to be his own fakes. German communists, led by Walter Ulbricht , arrive in Berlin. Dutch painter Han van Meegeren is arrested for collaboration with the Nazis, but the "Dutch Golden Age" paintings he has sold to Hermann Göring (Koch) are later proved to be his own fakes. May 30 – The Iranian government demands that all Soviet and British troops leave the country. June June 1 – The British take over Lebanon and Syria . June 5 – The Allied Control Council , the military occupation governing body of Germany, formally takes power. June 7 – King Haakon VII of Norway returns to Norway five years to the day after leaving for exile in Britain. June 11 William Lyon Mackenzie King is re-elected as Canadian prime minister. The Franck Committee recommends against a surprise nuclear bombing of Japan. [ 51 ] William Lyon Mackenzie King is re-elected as Canadian prime minister. The Franck Committee recommends against a surprise nuclear bombing of Japan. [ 51 ] June 12 – The Yugoslav Army leaves Trieste , leaving the New Zealand Army in control. June 21 – WWII: The Battle of Okinawa ends, with U.S. occupation of the island until 1972 . June 24 – WWII: A victory parade is held in Red Square in Moscow. June 25 – Seán T. O'Kelly is elected the second president of Ireland . June 26 – The United Nations Charter is signed in San Francisco. June 29 – Czechoslovakia cedes Carpathian Ruthenia to the Soviet Union . June 30 – John von Neumann 's First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC is distributed, containing the first published description of the logical design of a computer, with stored-program and instruction data stored in the same address space within the memory ( von Neumann architecture ). July July 1 WWII: Germany is divided between the Allied occupation forces. WWII: Australian and other Allied forces launch an invasion of the east coast of Japanese-occupied Borneo near Balikpapan . WWII: Germany is divided between the Allied occupation forces. WWII: Australian and other Allied forces launch an invasion of the east coast of Japanese-occupied Borneo near Balikpapan . July 2 – The 1945 Sheikh Bashir rebellion breaks out in Burao and Erigavo in British Somaliland , led by Sheikh Bashir , a Somali religious leader. [ 52 ] July 4 – Brazilian cruiser Bahia is sunk by an accidentally induced explosion, killing more than 300 and stranding the survivors in shark-infested waters. July 5 The 1945 United Kingdom general election is held, though some constituencies delay their polls for local holiday reasons. Counting of votes and declaration of results are delayed until July 26 to allow for voting by the large number of service personnel still overseas. John Curtin , 14th Prime Minister of Australia , dies in office from heart failure at the age of 60. He is briefly replaced by his deputy Frank Forde , who serves as the 15th Prime Minister until a Labor Party leadership election is held to replace Curtin. WWII: The Philippines are declared liberated. The 1945 United Kingdom general election is held, though some constituencies delay their polls for local holiday reasons. Counting of votes and declaration of results are delayed until July 26 to allow for voting by the large number of service personnel still overseas. John Curtin , 14th Prime Minister of Australia , dies in office from heart failure at the age of 60. He is briefly replaced by his deputy Frank Forde , who serves as the 15th Prime Minister until a Labor Party leadership election is held to replace Curtin. WWII: The Philippines are declared liberated. July 6 – 7 – Schio massacre : 54 prisoners, mostly fascist sympathisers, are killed by members of the Italian resistance movement in Schio . July 8 – WWII: Harry S. Truman is informed that Japan will talk peace if it can retain the reign of the Emperor. [ 51 ] July 12 – Ben Chifley is elected leader of the Labor Party , and consequently becomes the 16th Prime Minister of Australia , defeating Frank Forde as well as Norman Makin and H.V. Evatt . As a result, Forde becomes the shortest-serving prime minister in Australian history; nevertheless, he retains his post as deputy leader. July 14 – WWII: Italy declares war on Japan. July 16 The Trinity Test , the first of an atomic bomb , using about six kilograms of plutonium , succeeds in unleashing an explosion equivalent to that of 22 kilotons of TNT. A train collision near Munich , Germany kills 102 war prisoners. The Trinity Test , the first of an atomic bomb , using about six kilograms of plutonium , succeeds in unleashing an explosion equivalent to that of 22 kilotons of TNT. A train collision near Munich , Germany kills 102 war prisoners. July 17 – August 2 – WWII: Potsdam Conference – At Potsdam , the three main Allied leaders hold their final summit of the war. President Truman officially informs Stalin that the U.S. has a powerful new weapon. July 21 – WWII: President Harry S. Truman approves the order for atomic bombs to be used against Japan. [ 51 ] July 23 – WWII: French marshal Philippe Pétain , who headed the Vichy government during WWII, goes on trial for treason. July 26 Winston Churchill resigns as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , after his Conservative Party is soundly defeated by the Labour Party in the 1945 general election . Clement Attlee becomes the new prime minister. It is the first time that Labour has governed Britain with a majority in the House of Commons . [ 53 ] The Potsdam Declaration demands Japan's unconditional surrender; Article 12, permitting Japan to retain the reign of the Emperor, has been deleted by President Truman. [ 51 ] Winston Churchill resigns as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , after his Conservative Party is soundly defeated by the Labour Party in the 1945 general election . Clement Attlee becomes the new prime minister. It is the first time that Labour has governed Britain with a majority in the House of Commons . [ 53 ] The Potsdam Declaration demands Japan's unconditional surrender; Article 12, permitting Japan to retain the reign of the Emperor, has been deleted by President Truman. [ 51 ] July 27 – WWII: Bombing of Aomori – Two USAAF B-29s drop a total of 60,000 leaflets on the city of Aomori , Japan, warning civilians of an air raid and urging them to leave immediately. The city was firebombed the next day, killing more than 1,700 people. July 28 WWII: Japan ambiguously rejects the Potsdam Declaration . [ 51 ] A North American B-25 Mitchell crashes into The Empire State Building , killing 14 people. [ 54 ] WWII: Japan ambiguously rejects the Potsdam Declaration . [ 51 ] A North American B-25 Mitchell crashes into The Empire State Building , killing 14 people. [ 54 ] July 29 The BBC Light Programme radio station is launched in the United Kingdom, aimed at mainstream light entertainment and music . WWII: Bombing of Aomori : The Japanese city of Aomori is firebombed by 63 USAAF B-29 heavy bombers , killing 1,767 civilians and destroying 18,045 homes. The BBC Light Programme radio station is launched in the United Kingdom, aimed at mainstream light entertainment and music . WWII: Bombing of Aomori : The Japanese city of Aomori is firebombed by 63 USAAF B-29 heavy bombers , killing 1,767 civilians and destroying 18,045 homes. July 30 – WWII: Heavy cruiser USS Indianapolis is hit and sunk by torpedoes from the Japanese submarine I-58 in the Philippine Sea . Some 900 survivors jump into the sea and are adrift for up to four days. Nearly 600 die before help arrives. Captain Charles B. McVay III of the cruiser is later court-martialed and convicted; in 2000, he is posthumously exonerated. [ 55 ] August August 6 – WWII: Atomic bombing of Hiroshima : United States Boeing B-29 Superfortress Enola Gay drops a uranium-235 atomic bomb , codenamed " Little Boy ", on the Japanese city of Hiroshima at 8:15 a.m. local time, resulting in between 90,000 and 146,000 deaths. August 7 – U.S. President Harry Truman announces the successful atomic bombing of Hiroshima, while he is returning from the Potsdam Conference aboard the U.S. Navy heavy cruiser USS Augusta (CA-31) , in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean. August 8 The United Nations Charter is ratified by the United States Senate, and this nation becomes the third to join the new international organization. WWII: The Soviet Union declares war on Japan. The United Nations Charter is ratified by the United States Senate, and this nation becomes the third to join the new international organization. WWII: The Soviet Union declares war on Japan. August 9 – WWII: Atomic bombing of Nagasaki : United States B-29 Bockscar drops a plutonium-239 atomic bomb, codenamed " Fat Man ", on the Japanese city of Nagasaki at 11:02 a.m. local time, resulting in between 39,000 and 80,000 deaths. The Soviet–Japanese War opens: The Soviet Union begins its army offensive against Japan, in the northern part of the Japanese-held puppet region of Manchuria including the northern peninsula of Korea that became involved with the 25th Army . [ 56 ] Atomic bombing of Nagasaki : United States B-29 Bockscar drops a plutonium-239 atomic bomb, codenamed " Fat Man ", on the Japanese city of Nagasaki at 11:02 a.m. local time, resulting in between 39,000 and 80,000 deaths. The Soviet–Japanese War opens: The Soviet Union begins its army offensive against Japan, in the northern part of the Japanese-held puppet region of Manchuria including the northern peninsula of Korea that became involved with the 25th Army . [ 56 ] August 10 – WWII: Japan offers to surrender to the Allies, "provided this does not prejudice the sovereignty of the Emperor". August 11 WWII: The Allies reply to the Japanese surrender offer by stating that Emperor Hirohito will be subject to the authority of the Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces . The Holocaust : Kraków pogrom – Róża Berger is shot dead by Polish militia. WWII: The Allies reply to the Japanese surrender offer by stating that Emperor Hirohito will be subject to the authority of the Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces . The Holocaust : Kraków pogrom – Róża Berger is shot dead by Polish militia. August 11 – 25 – Soviet troops complete the occupation of Sakhalin . August 13 – The Zionist World Congress approaches the British government to discuss the founding of the country of Israel . August 14 – WWII: Emperor Hirohito accepts the terms of the Potsdam Declaration . His recorded announcement of this is smuggled out of the Tokyo Imperial Palace . At 19:00 hrs in Washington, D.C. (23:00 GMT ), U.S. president Harry S. Truman announces the Japanese surrender. August 15 WWII: Bombing of Kumagaya , Japan, by the United States using conventional bombs, beginning at 00:23. Hirohito surrender broadcast (Gyokuon-hōsō) : Emperor Hirohito 's announcement of the unconditional surrender of Japan is broadcast on the radio a little after noon (12:00 Japan Standard Time is 03:00 GMT). This is probably the first time an Emperor of Japan has been heard by the common people. Delivered in formal classical Japanese , without directly referring to surrender and following official censorship of the country's weak position, the recorded speech is not immediately easily understood by ordinary people. The Allies call this day Victory over Japan Day (V-J Day). This ends the period of Japanese expansionism , and begins the period of the Occupation of Japan and sets the stage for Korean independence. The August Revolution in Vietnam begins, with the Viet Minh taking over the capital Hanoi , taking advantage of the collapse of Japanese power. The Provisional International Civil Aviation Organization is founded, as a specialized agency of the United Nations . WWII: Bombing of Kumagaya , Japan, by the United States using conventional bombs, beginning at 00:23. Hirohito surrender broadcast (Gyokuon-hōsō) : Emperor Hirohito 's announcement of the unconditional surrender of Japan is broadcast on the radio a little after noon (12:00 Japan Standard Time is 03:00 GMT). This is probably the first time an Emperor of Japan has been heard by the common people. Delivered in formal classical Japanese , without directly referring to surrender and following official censorship of the country's weak position, the recorded speech is not immediately easily understood by ordinary people. The Allies call this day Victory over Japan Day (V-J Day). This ends the period of Japanese expansionism , and begins the period of the Occupation of Japan and sets the stage for Korean independence. Bombing of Kumagaya , Japan, by the United States using conventional bombs, beginning at 00:23. Hirohito surrender broadcast (Gyokuon-hōsō) : Emperor Hirohito 's announcement of the unconditional surrender of Japan is broadcast on the radio a little after noon (12:00 Japan Standard Time is 03:00 GMT). This is probably the first time an Emperor of Japan has been heard by the common people. Delivered in formal classical Japanese , without directly referring to surrender and following official censorship of the country's weak position, the recorded speech is not immediately easily understood by ordinary people. The Allies call this day Victory over Japan Day (V-J Day). This ends the period of Japanese expansionism , and begins the period of the Occupation of Japan and sets the stage for Korean independence. The August Revolution in Vietnam begins, with the Viet Minh taking over the capital Hanoi , taking advantage of the collapse of Japanese power. The Provisional International Civil Aviation Organization is founded, as a specialized agency of the United Nations . August 17 Philippines President José P. Laurel issues an Executive Proclamation putting an end to the Second Philippine Republic , thus ending his term as President of the Philippines. Proclamation of Indonesian Independence : Indonesian nationalists Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declare the independence of the Republic of Indonesia , with Sukarno as president and Mohammad Hatta as vice-president, igniting the Indonesian National Revolution against the Dutch Empire . Philippines President José P. Laurel issues an Executive Proclamation putting an end to the Second Philippine Republic , thus ending his term as President of the Philippines. Proclamation of Indonesian Independence : Indonesian nationalists Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declare the independence of the Republic of Indonesia , with Sukarno as president and Mohammad Hatta as vice-president, igniting the Indonesian National Revolution against the Dutch Empire . August 18 – WWII: Death of Subhas Chandra Bose : Indian nationalist leader Subhas Chandra Bose is killed as a result of his overloaded Japanese plane crashing in Japanese Taiwan . August 19 – Chinese Civil War : Mao Zedong and Chiang Kai-shek meet in Chongqing to discuss an end to hostilities between the Communists and the Nationalists . August 22 – Kim Il Sung as the guerilla fighter returned to the Soviet-occupied capital Pyongyang after the Red Army entered the northern peninsula of Korea . August 23 – Soviet–Japanese War : Joseph Stalin orders the detention of Japanese prisoners of war in the Soviet Union . August 25 – Bảo Đại abdicates as Emperor of Vietnam , ending 2,000 years of dynastic and monarchic rule in the country and 143 years of the Nguyễn dynasty , Paris marked the first anniversary of liberation from Nazi rule by the French Resistance as a momentous event at the Battle of Normandy against Dietrich von Choltitz . August 30 – WWII: Vietnam 's capital Hanoi is taken by the Viet Minh , which ends the French occupation in what becomes North Vietnam , and thus the southern provinces become South Vietnam . This ends the August Revolution . August 31 WWII: Allied troops arrest German field marshal Walther von Brauchitsch . A team at American Cyanamid 's Lederle Laboratories, Pearl River, New York , led by Yellapragada Subbarow , announces they have obtained folic acid in a pure crystalline form. [ 57 ] This vitamin is abundant in green leaf vegetables , liver , kidney , and yeast . [ 58 ] WWII: Allied troops arrest German field marshal Walther von Brauchitsch . A team at American Cyanamid 's Lederle Laboratories, Pearl River, New York , led by Yellapragada Subbarow , announces they have obtained folic acid in a pure crystalline form. [ 57 ] This vitamin is abundant in green leaf vegetables , liver , kidney , and yeast . [ 58 ] September September 2 – World War II ends: Japanese general Tomoyuki Yamashita surrenders to Philippine and American forces at Kiangan, Ifugao . The final official Japanese Instrument of Surrender is accepted by the Supreme Allied Commander, General Douglas MacArthur , and Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz for the United States, and delegates from the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, the Netherlands, China, and others from a Japanese delegation led by Mamoru Shigemitsu , on board the American battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay . General Douglas MacArthur is given the title of Supreme Commander Allied Powers , and is also tasked with the occupation of Japan. [ 59 ] The Democratic Republic of Vietnam is officially established, by Ho Chi Minh . [ 59 ] Japanese general Tomoyuki Yamashita surrenders to Philippine and American forces at Kiangan, Ifugao . The final official Japanese Instrument of Surrender is accepted by the Supreme Allied Commander, General Douglas MacArthur , and Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz for the United States, and delegates from the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, the Netherlands, China, and others from a Japanese delegation led by Mamoru Shigemitsu , on board the American battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay . General Douglas MacArthur is given the title of Supreme Commander Allied Powers , and is also tasked with the occupation of Japan. [ 59 ] The Democratic Republic of Vietnam is officially established, by Ho Chi Minh . [ 59 ] September 4 – WWII: Japanese forces surrender on Wake Island , after hearing word of their country's surrender. September 5 Iva Toguri D'Aquino , a Japanese American suspected of being wartime radio propagandist " Tokyo Rose ", is arrested in Yokohama . Russian code clerk Igor Gouzenko comes forward with numerous documents implicating the Soviet Union in many spy rings in North America, both in the United States and in Canada. Iva Toguri D'Aquino , a Japanese American suspected of being wartime radio propagandist " Tokyo Rose ", is arrested in Yokohama . Russian code clerk Igor Gouzenko comes forward with numerous documents implicating the Soviet Union in many spy rings in North America, both in the United States and in Canada. September 8 U.S. troops arrive in Southern Korea , while the Soviet Union occupies the north , with the dividing line being the 38th parallel of latitude. This arrangement proves to be the indirect beginning of a divided Korea, which will lead to the Korean War when North Korea invades in 1950 . The Afghan government defeats a rebel force at Kunar Khas ; Gerald Crichton, the British Charge de 'affairs in Kabul, later describes the victory as the "turning point" of the Afghan tribal revolts of 1944–1947 . [ 60 ] U.S. troops arrive in Southern Korea , while the Soviet Union occupies the north , with the dividing line being the 38th parallel of latitude. This arrangement proves to be the indirect beginning of a divided Korea, which will lead to the Korean War when North Korea invades in 1950 . The Afghan government defeats a rebel force at Kunar Khas ; Gerald Crichton, the British Charge de 'affairs in Kabul, later describes the victory as the "turning point" of the Afghan tribal revolts of 1944–1947 . [ 60 ] September 9 Chairman of the Nationalist Government of China Chiang Kai-shek officially accepts the Japanese capitulation at Nanking . [ 59 ] Japanese troops in Keijō (present day Seoul ) formally relinquish control over Southern Korea to the United States, effectively ending Japan's 35-year rule of Korea. [ 61 ] Chairman of the Nationalist Government of China Chiang Kai-shek officially accepts the Japanese capitulation at Nanking . [ 59 ] Japanese troops in Keijō (present day Seoul ) formally relinquish control over Southern Korea to the United States, effectively ending Japan's 35-year rule of Korea. [ 61 ] September 10 – Vidkun Quisling is sentenced to death for being a Nazi collaborator in Norway. [ 59 ] September 11 Hideki Tojo , Japanese prime minister during most of World War II, attempts to commit suicide to avoid facing an Allied war crimes tribunal. Radio Republik Indonesia starts broadcasting. The Batu Lintang camp in Sarawak , Borneo is liberated by Australian forces. Hideki Tojo , Japanese prime minister during most of World War II, attempts to commit suicide to avoid facing an Allied war crimes tribunal. Radio Republik Indonesia starts broadcasting. The Batu Lintang camp in Sarawak , Borneo is liberated by Australian forces. September 12 Operation Tiderace : The Japanese Army formally surrenders to the British in Singapore . The office of governor-general of Korea is disbanded by the United States Army Military Government in Korea, formally ending Japan's 35-year rule in Korea. Operation Tiderace : The Japanese Army formally surrenders to the British in Singapore . The office of governor-general of Korea is disbanded by the United States Army Military Government in Korea, formally ending Japan's 35-year rule in Korea. September 18 Typhoon Makurazaki kills 3,746 people in Japan. The Japanese Army in Central China officially surrenders to the Chinese, in Wuhan . Typhoon Makurazaki kills 3,746 people in Japan. The Japanese Army in Central China officially surrenders to the Chinese, in Wuhan . September 20 – Mohandas Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru demand that all British troops depart India. September 24 – Postwar anti-Jewish violence in Slovakia : The Topoľčany pogrom is carried out in Czechoslovakia. October October – Arthur C. Clarke puts forward the idea of a geosynchronous communications satellite , in a Wireless World magazine article. October 1 – 15 – Operation Backfire : Three A4 rockets are launched near Cuxhaven , in a demonstration to Allied forces. October 2 – George Albert Smith becomes president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints . October 4 – The Partizan Belgrade sports club is founded in Belgrade , Serbia . October 5 – Hollywood Black Friday : A strike by the Set Decorator's Union in Hollywood results in a riot. October 8 – 15 – Hadamar Trial: Personnel of the Hadamar Euthanasia Centre , now in the American zone of Allied-occupied Germany , are the first to be tried for systematic extermination in Nazi Germany . October 9 – Former prime minister Pierre Laval is sentenced to death, for collaboration with the Nazis in Vichy France . [ 59 ] October 10 – The Nazi Party is dissolved by the Allied Powers. October 14 – Czechoslovakia : A new provisional national assembly is elected, Kim Il Sung made his first major public appearance in Pyongyang as the celebration of liberation where he was officially introduced to the public by the Soviet authorities as a national hero, a legendary guerrilla fighter and leader. [ 59 ] October 15 – 21 – The Fifth Pan-African Congress is held in Manchester . October 16 – The Food and Agriculture Organization is established at a meeting in Quebec City , as a specialized agency of the United Nations , Syngman Rhee returned to the southern peninsula of Korea as he arrived in Seoul by becoming a prominent figure under the U.S. occupation. October 17 – A massive number of people, headed for the General Confederation of Labour (Argentina) , gather in the Plaza de Mayo in Buenos Aires to demand Juan Perón 's release. This is known to the Peronists as the Día de la lealtad ( Loyalty Day ) and considered the founding day of Peronism . October 18 – Isaías Medina Angarita , president of Venezuela , is overthrown by a military coup . [ 59 ] October 19 – Members of the Indonesian People's Army attack Anglo-Dutch forces in Indonesia . [ 59 ] October 20 – Mongolians vote for independence from China. [ 59 ] October 21 – Women's suffrage : Women are allowed to vote in the French Legislative Election for the first time. October 22 – Rómulo Betancourt is named provisional president of Venezuela . [ 59 ] October 24 The United Nations is founded by ratification of its Charter , by 29 nations such as the United Kingdom , the United States , France , Canada , Egypt , Brazil , Haiti , Luxembourg , Russia (former USSR ) and others. [ 59 ] The International Court of Justice ("World Court") is established by the United Nations Charter . Norwegian Nazi leader Vidkun Quisling is executed by firing squad , for treason against Norway. [ 59 ] The United Nations is founded by ratification of its Charter , by 29 nations such as the United Kingdom , the United States , France , Canada , Egypt , Brazil , Haiti , Luxembourg , Russia (former USSR ) and others. [ 59 ] The International Court of Justice ("World Court") is established by the United Nations Charter . Norwegian Nazi leader Vidkun Quisling is executed by firing squad , for treason against Norway. [ 59 ] October 25 WWII: Japanese armed forces in Taiwan surrender to the Allies. Getúlio Vargas is deposed as president in Brazil; José Linhares is named temporary president. [ 59 ] Osijek prison massacre by Yugoslav secret police. WWII: Japanese armed forces in Taiwan surrender to the Allies. Getúlio Vargas is deposed as president in Brazil; José Linhares is named temporary president. [ 59 ] Osijek prison massacre by Yugoslav secret police. October 27 – November 20 – Indonesian National Revolution : Battle of Surabaya – Pro-independence Indonesian soldiers and militia fight British and British Indian troops in Surabaya . October 29 Getúlio Vargas resigns as president of Brazil. At Gimbels Department Store in New York City, the first ballpoint pens go on sale at $12.50 each. Getúlio Vargas resigns as president of Brazil. At Gimbels Department Store in New York City, the first ballpoint pens go on sale at $12.50 each. October 30 – The undivided country of India joins the United Nations . November November 1 International Labour Organization 's new constitution comes into effect. Telechron introduces the model 8H59 Musalarm, the first clock radio . Australia joins the United Nations . International Labour Organization 's new constitution comes into effect. Telechron introduces the model 8H59 Musalarm, the first clock radio . Australia joins the United Nations . November 5 – Colombia joins the United Nations . November 6 – Indonesians reject an offer of autonomy from the Dutch . [ 59 ] November 7 – South Africa and Mexico both joined the United Nations . November 9 – Soo Bahk Do and Moo Duk Kwan martial arts are founded in Korea . November 10 – Indonesian National Revolution : Battle of Surabaya – Following the killing of British officer Brigadier A. W. S. Mallaby on October 30, the British Indian Army (in support of its allied Dutch colonial administration) begins an advance on Surabaya in the Dutch East Indies against Indonesian nationalists; although most of the city is retaken in 3 days of heavy fighting, the strength of the resistance leads to today being celebrated as Heroes' Day (Hari Pahlawan) in Indonesia. November 11 – 1945 Yugoslavian parliamentary election : Marshal Josip Broz Tito and the People's Front win a decisive majority (90%) in the Yugoslavian Assembly. [ 59 ] November 15 Harry S. Truman , Clement Attlee and Mackenzie King share nuclear information with the U.N. and call for a United Nations Atomic Energy Commission . [ 51 ] [ 59 ] An offensive is begun in Manchuria by the Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalists) against further infiltration by the Chinese Communist Party . [ 59 ] Harry S. Truman , Clement Attlee and Mackenzie King share nuclear information with the U.N. and call for a United Nations Atomic Energy Commission . [ 51 ] [ 59 ] An offensive is begun in Manchuria by the Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalists) against further infiltration by the Chinese Communist Party . [ 59 ] November 16 Charles de Gaulle is unanimously elected president of France by the provisional government . [ 59 ] The United States controversially imports 88 German scientists to help in the production of rocket technology. The foundation of UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) is agreed at a meeting in London. Charles de Gaulle is unanimously elected president of France by the provisional government . [ 59 ] The United States controversially imports 88 German scientists to help in the production of rocket technology. The foundation of UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) is agreed at a meeting in London. November 18 – The Tudeh party starts a bloodless coup, and will form Azerbaijan within days. Soviet troops prevent Iranian troops from getting involved. November 20 – The Nuremberg trials begin: Trials against 22 Nazis for war crimes of World War II start at the Palace of Justice, Nuremberg . [ 59 ] November 26 – U.S. ambassador to China Patrick J. Hurley resigns after he is unable to broker a deal between Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Tse-tung . [ 59 ] November 28 The 1945 Balochistan earthquake causes a tsunami and kills 4,000. British fascist John Amery pleads guilty to treason, and is condemned to death. [ 62 ] The 1945 Balochistan earthquake causes a tsunami and kills 4,000. British fascist John Amery pleads guilty to treason, and is condemned to death. [ 62 ] November 29 The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is declared (this day is celebrated as Republic Day until the 1990s). Marshal Tito is named president. Assembly of the world's first general purpose electronic computer, the Electronic Numerical Integrator Analyzer and Computer ( ENIAC ), is completed in the United States, covering 1,800 square feet (170 m 2 ) of floor space, and the first set of calculations is run on it. The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is declared (this day is celebrated as Republic Day until the 1990s). Marshal Tito is named president. Assembly of the world's first general purpose electronic computer, the Electronic Numerical Integrator Analyzer and Computer ( ENIAC ), is completed in the United States, covering 1,800 square feet (170 m 2 ) of floor space, and the first set of calculations is run on it. December December 1 – German general Anton Dostler is executed by firing squad in Italy for the war crime of ordering the summary execution of captured U.S. commandos. The U.S. military tribunal which has tried him has not accepted his plea of " superior orders ", setting a precedent for future Allied war crimes trials . [ 63 ] December 2 General Eurico Gaspar Dutra is elected president of Brazil. French banks ( Bank of France , BNCI , CNEP , Crédit Lyonnais and Société Générale ) are nationalized. General Eurico Gaspar Dutra is elected president of Brazil. French banks ( Bank of France , BNCI , CNEP , Crédit Lyonnais and Société Générale ) are nationalized. December 3 – Communist demonstrations in Athens presage the Greek Civil War . December 4 – The United States Senate approves the entry of the United States into the United Nations by a vote of 65–7. December 5 – Flight 19 of United States Navy Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bombers disappears on a training exercise from Naval Air Station Fort Lauderdale . December 9 – American General George S. Patton is involved in a car accident in Germany, resulting in his death on December 21. December 21 – Iraq joins the United Nations . December 27 – Twenty-one nations ratify the articles creating the World Bank . [ 64 ] Date unknown A team at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (led by Charles D. Coryell ) discovers chemical element 61, the only one still missing between 1 and 96 on the periodic table , which they will name promethium . [ 65 ] Found by analysis of fission products of irradiated uranium fuel, its discovery is not made public until 1947. The Australian government introduces an Assisted Passage Migration Scheme to encourage the immigration of British subjects, at a fare of £ 10, hence they become known as " Ten Pound Poms ". [ 66 ] The first geothermal milk pasteurization is done in Klamath Falls, Oregon , United States. Births Births January · February · March · April · May · June · July · August · September · October · November · December January January 1 Pietro Grasso , Italian politician Jacky Ickx , Belgian racing driver Pietro Grasso , Italian politician Jacky Ickx , Belgian racing driver January 3 – Stephen Stills , American rock singer-songwriter ( Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young ) January 4 Sima Bina , Iranian vocalist Richard R. Schrock , American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate Sima Bina , Iranian vocalist Richard R. Schrock , American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate January 5 Júlio Isidro , Portuguese television presenter Robert Pindyck , American economist Júlio Isidro , Portuguese television presenter Robert Pindyck , American economist January 7 Shulamith Firestone , Canadian American feminist, writer (d. 2012 ) Raila Odinga , prime minister of Kenya (d. 2025 ) Shulamith Firestone , Canadian American feminist, writer (d. 2012 ) Raila Odinga , prime minister of Kenya (d. 2025 ) January 10 – Sir Rod Stewart , British rock singer January 12 – André Bicaba , Burkinabé sprinter January 14 – Einar Hákonarson , Icelandic painter January 15 Vince Foster , American deputy White House counsel during the first term of President Bill Clinton (d. 1993 ) Princess Michael of Kent , German-born member of the British Royal Family Vince Foster , American deputy White House counsel during the first term of President Bill Clinton (d. 1993 ) Princess Michael of Kent , German-born member of the British Royal Family January 17 – Javed Akhtar , Indian political activist, poet, lyricist and screenwriter January 20 – Robert Olen Butler , American writer January 21 Arthur Beetson , Australian rugby league player and coach (d. 2011 ) Martin Shaw , British actor Arthur Beetson , Australian rugby league player and coach (d. 2011 ) Martin Shaw , British actor January 24 – Subhash Ghai , Indian film director, producer and screenwriter January 25 – Leigh Taylor-Young , American actress January 26 Jacqueline du Pré , English cellist (d. 1987 ) Graham Williams , New Zealand rugby union player (d. 2018 ) Jacqueline du Pré , English cellist (d. 1987 ) Graham Williams , New Zealand rugby union player (d. 2018 ) January 27 – Harold Cardinal , Cree political leader, writer and lawyer (d. 2005 ) January 28 Karen Lynn Gorney , American actress ( Saturday Night Fever ) Chuck Pyle , American country-folk singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) Karen Lynn Gorney , American actress ( Saturday Night Fever ) Chuck Pyle , American country-folk singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) January 29 Jim Nicholson , Northern Irish politician Tom Selleck , American actor ( Magnum, P.I. ) Jim Nicholson , Northern Irish politician Tom Selleck , American actor ( Magnum, P.I. ) January 31 – Joseph Kosuth , American artist February February 1 – Yasuhiro Takai , Japanese professional baseball player (d. 2019 ) February 3 Bob Griese , American football player Philip Waruinge , Kenyan boxer Bob Griese , American football player Philip Waruinge , Kenyan boxer February 4 – John P. Jumper , United States Air Force general February 5 – Sarah Weddington , American attorney (d. 2021 ) February 6 – Bob Marley , Jamaican reggae singer-songwriter and musician (d. 1981 ) February 7 – Gerald Davies , Welsh rugby player February 9 Mia Farrow , American actress Yoshinori Ohsumi , Japanese cell biologist [ 67 ] Mia Farrow , American actress Yoshinori Ohsumi , Japanese cell biologist [ 67 ] February 10 – Koo Bon-moo , South Korean business executive (d. 2018 ) February 12 Luiz Carlos Alborghetti , Italian-Brazilian radio commenter, showman and political figure (d. 2009 ) Maud Adams , Swedish actress David D. Friedman , American economist Luiz Carlos Alborghetti , Italian-Brazilian radio commenter, showman and political figure (d. 2009 ) Maud Adams , Swedish actress David D. Friedman , American economist February 13 – Simon Schama , English historian [ 68 ] February 14 Adiss Harmandian , Lebanese-Armenian pop singer (d. 2019 ) Hans-Adam II, Prince of Liechtenstein Adiss Harmandian , Lebanese-Armenian pop singer (d. 2019 ) Hans-Adam II, Prince of Liechtenstein February 15 – Douglas Hofstadter , American cognitive scientist February 17 – Brenda Fricker , Irish actress [ 69 ] February 18 – Hashem Mahameed , Israeli politician (d. 2018 ) February 22 – Oliver , American singer ( Good Morning Starshine ) (d. 2000 ) February 24 – Barry Bostwick , American actor February 25 – Roy Saari , American swimmer (d. 2008 ) February 26 – Marta Kristen , Norwegian actress ( Lost In Space ) February 27 – Carl Anderson , American singer, actor ( Jesus Christ Superstar ) (d. 2004 ) February 28 Alexey Ekimov , Russian-born chemist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 70 ] Bubba Smith , American football player and actor (d. 2011 ) Alexey Ekimov , Russian-born chemist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 70 ] Bubba Smith , American football player and actor (d. 2011 ) March March 1 – Dirk Benedict , American actor March 3 – George Miller , Australian film director March 4 Dieter Meier , Swiss singer, writer Tommy Svensson , Swedish football manager, player Dieter Meier , Swiss singer, writer Tommy Svensson , Swedish football manager, player March 7 – Arthur Lee , American musician (d. 2006 ) March 8 Micky Dolenz , American actor, director and rock musician ( The Monkees ) Anselm Kiefer , German painter Micky Dolenz , American actor, director and rock musician ( The Monkees ) Anselm Kiefer , German painter March 9 Katja Ebstein , German singer Dennis Rader , American serial killer Katja Ebstein , German singer Dennis Rader , American serial killer March 10 – Nobuhiko Higashikuni , Japanese Imperial prince (d. 2019 ) March 13 Othman Abdullah , Malaysian footballer (d. 2015 ) Anatoly Fomenko , Russian mathematician Othman Abdullah , Malaysian footballer (d. 2015 ) Anatoly Fomenko , Russian mathematician March 14 – Michael Martin Murphey , American country singer-songwriter March 16 – Douglas Ahlstedt , American tenor March 17 Hassan Bechara , Lebanese wrestler (d. 2017 ) Hassan Bechara , Lebanese wrestler (d. 2017 ) March 18 Michael Reagan , American television personality, political commentator and Republican strategist Marta Suplicy , Brazilian politician and psychologist Michael Reagan , American television personality, political commentator and Republican strategist Marta Suplicy , Brazilian politician and psychologist March 20 Jay Ingram , Canadian television host, author and journalist Bobby Jameson , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) Pat Riley , American basketball coach Jay Ingram , Canadian television host, author and journalist Bobby Jameson , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) Pat Riley , American basketball coach March 21 – Charles Greene , American Olympic athlete (d. 2022 ) March 26 – Mikhail Voronin , Russian gymnast (d. 2004 ) March 27 – Władysław Stachurski , Polish football player, manager (d. 2013 ) March 28 Rodrigo Duterte , 16th President of the Philippines Raine Loo , Estonian actress Rodrigo Duterte , 16th President of the Philippines Raine Loo , Estonian actress March 29 Walt Frazier , African-American basketball player Willem Ruis , Dutch game show host (d. 1986 ) Walt Frazier , African-American basketball player Willem Ruis , Dutch game show host (d. 1986 ) March 30 – Eric Clapton , English rock guitarist and singer-songwriter [ 71 ] March 31 Nana Ampadu , Ghanaian musician (d. 2021 ) [ 72 ] Edwin Catmull , American computer scientist, President of Walt Disney Animation Studios [ 73 ] Nana Ampadu , Ghanaian musician (d. 2021 ) [ 72 ] Edwin Catmull , American computer scientist, President of Walt Disney Animation Studios [ 73 ] April April 2 – Linda Hunt , American actress [ 74 ] April 4 – Daniel Cohn-Bendit , French political activist [ 75 ] April 5 Cem Karaca , Turkish musician (d. 2004 ) Tommy Smith , English footballer (d. 2019 ) Cem Karaca , Turkish musician (d. 2004 ) Tommy Smith , English footballer (d. 2019 ) April 12 – Lee Jong-wook , South Korean Director-General of the World Health Organization (d. 2006 ) April 13 Lucha Corpi , Mexican poet Tony Dow , American actor, producer and director (d. 2022 ) Lowell George , American rock musician ( Little Feat ) (d. 1979 ) Lucha Corpi , Mexican poet Tony Dow , American actor, producer and director (d. 2022 ) Lowell George , American rock musician ( Little Feat ) (d. 1979 ) April 14 Ritchie Blackmore , English rock guitarist Tuilaʻepa Saʻilele Malielegaoi , 6th Prime Minister of Samoa Ritchie Blackmore , English rock guitarist Tuilaʻepa Saʻilele Malielegaoi , 6th Prime Minister of Samoa April 20 – Naftali Temu , Kenyan Olympic long-distance runner (d. 2003 ) April 21 – Ana Lúcia Torre , Brazilian actress April 24 – Larry Tesler , American computer scientist (cut, copy, paste) (d. 2020 ) April 25 – Björn Ulvaeus , Swedish rock songwriter ( ABBA ) April 29 – Tammi Terrell , African-American soul singer (d. 1970 ) April 30 – Lara Saint Paul , Eritrean-born Italian singer (d. 2018 ) May May 1 – Rita Coolidge , American pop singer May 2 – Bianca Jagger , Nicaraguan social activist [ 76 ] May 3 – Jeffrey C. Hall , American geneticist and chronobiologist, Nobel Prize laureate May 4 David Magson , Australian-British mathematician and businessman Narasimhan Ram , Indian journalist David Magson , Australian-British mathematician and businessman Narasimhan Ram , Indian journalist May 6 – Bob Seger , American rock singer May 7 – Robin Strasser , American actress May 8 – Keith Jarrett , American musician [ 77 ] May 9 – Jupp Heynckes , German footballer and manager May 11 Mary Cooney , American politician Hilda Pérez Carvajal , Venezuelan biologist Mary Cooney , American politician Hilda Pérez Carvajal , Venezuelan biologist May 13 – Tammam Salam , 34th Prime Minister of Lebanon May 14 – Yochanan Vollach , Israeli footballer and president of Maccabi Haifa, CEO May 15 – Duarte Pio, Duke of Braganza , heir to the Portuguese crown May 17 – Tony Roche , Australian tennis player May 19 – Pete Townshend , English rock guitarist, lyricist ( The Who ) May 20 – Anton Zeilinger , Austrian quantum physicist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 78 ] May 21 Richard Hatch , American actor ( Battlestar Galactica ) (d. 2017 ) Ernst Messerschmid , German physicist, astronaut Richard Hatch , American actor ( Battlestar Galactica ) (d. 2017 ) Ernst Messerschmid , German physicist, astronaut May 22 – Victoria Wyndham , American actress ( Another World ) May 23 Lauren Chapin , American child actress, evangelist Doris Mae Oulton , Canadian community developer Lauren Chapin , American child actress, evangelist Doris Mae Oulton , Canadian community developer May 24 – Priscilla Presley , American actress, businesswoman May 28 Patch Adams , American physician, comedian, social activist, clown and author John Fogerty , American rock singer ( Creedence Clearwater Revival ) Patch Adams , American physician, comedian, social activist, clown and author John Fogerty , American rock singer ( Creedence Clearwater Revival ) May 29 Gary Brooker , English rock keyboardist and singer-songwriter ( Procol Harum ) (d. 2022 ) [ 79 ] Jean-Pierre Van Rossem , Belgian businessman, fraudster and politician (d. 2018 ) Gary Brooker , English rock keyboardist and singer-songwriter ( Procol Harum ) (d. 2022 ) [ 79 ] Jean-Pierre Van Rossem , Belgian businessman, fraudster and politician (d. 2018 ) May 30 Andrea Bronfman , American philanthropist (d. 2006 ) Gladys Horton , American singer ( The Marvelettes ) (d. 2011 ) Andrea Bronfman , American philanthropist (d. 2006 ) Gladys Horton , American singer ( The Marvelettes ) (d. 2011 ) May 31 Rainer Werner Fassbinder , German film director (d. 1982 ) Laurent Gbagbo , President of Côte d'Ivoire Rainer Werner Fassbinder , German film director (d. 1982 ) Laurent Gbagbo , President of Côte d'Ivoire June June 1 – Frederica von Stade , American mezzo-soprano June 2 – Jon Peters , American film producer June 3 – Hale Irwin , American professional golfer June 4 – Anthony Braxton , American composer and musical instrumentalist June 5 John Carlos , American athlete Théophile Georges Kassab , Catholic prelate (d. 2013 ) Nechama Rivlin , Israeli socialite, 10th First lady of Israel (d. 2019 ) John Carlos , American athlete Théophile Georges Kassab , Catholic prelate (d. 2013 ) Nechama Rivlin , Israeli socialite, 10th First lady of Israel (d. 2019 ) June 6 – David Dukes , American actor (d. 2000 ) June 7 – Wolfgang Schüssel , Chancellor of Austria June 9 – Nike Wagner , German woman of the theater June 10 – Benny Gallagher , Scottish singer-songwriter and multi-instrumentalist, half of duo Gallagher and Lyle June 11 – Adrienne Barbeau , American actress, television personality and author ( Maude ) June 12 – Pat Jennings , Northern Irish footballer June 14 – Jörg Immendorff , German painter June 15 Françoise Chandernagor , French writer Miriam Defensor Santiago , Filipino politician (d. 2016 ) Françoise Chandernagor , French writer Miriam Defensor Santiago , Filipino politician (d. 2016 ) June 16 Claire Alexander , Canadian ice hockey player Ivan Lins , Latin Grammy-winning Brazilian musician Claire Alexander , Canadian ice hockey player Ivan Lins , Latin Grammy-winning Brazilian musician June 17 P. D. T. Acharya , Secretary General, Indian Lok Sabha Art Bell , American radio talk show host ( Coast to Coast AM ) (d. 2018 ) Ken Livingstone , British politician Eddy Merckx , Belgian cyclist P. D. T. Acharya , Secretary General, Indian Lok Sabha Art Bell , American radio talk show host ( Coast to Coast AM ) (d. 2018 ) Ken Livingstone , British politician Eddy Merckx , Belgian cyclist June 19 Radovan Karadžić , Serbian politician Aung San Suu Kyi , Myanmar politician and poet, Nobel Peace Prize recipient Radovan Karadžić , Serbian politician Aung San Suu Kyi , Myanmar politician and poet, Nobel Peace Prize recipient June 20 – Anne Murray , Canadian singer June 21 Roberto D'Angelo , Italian slalom canoeist Luis Castañeda Lossio , Peruvian politician Thiagarajan , Indian actor, director and producer Nirmalendu Goon , Bangladeshi poet Marijana Lubej , Slovenian sprinter Roberto D'Angelo , Italian slalom canoeist Luis Castañeda Lossio , Peruvian politician Thiagarajan , Indian actor, director and producer Nirmalendu Goon , Bangladeshi poet Marijana Lubej , Slovenian sprinter June 22 Juma Kapuya , Tanzanian politician Dieter Versen , German football defender (d. 2025 ) Juma Kapuya , Tanzanian politician Dieter Versen , German football defender (d. 2025 ) June 23 Ana Chumachenco , Italian violinist Kim Småge , Norwegian novelist, crime fiction writer, writer of short stories and children's writer Ana Chumachenco , Italian violinist Kim Småge , Norwegian novelist, crime fiction writer, writer of short stories and children's writer June 24 George Pataki , Governor of New York Betty Stöve , Dutch tennis player [ 80 ] Ali Akbar Velayati , Iranian physician, politician George Pataki , Governor of New York Betty Stöve , Dutch tennis player [ 80 ] Ali Akbar Velayati , Iranian physician, politician June 25 Lali Armengol , Spanish playwright, professor and theater director [ 81 ] Mohammed Bakar , Malaysian footballer Carolyn Cheeks Kilpatrick , American politician Baba Gana Kingibe , Nigerian politician Guillermo Mendoza , Mexican cyclist Chaiyasit Shinawatra , commander-in-chief of the Royal Thai Army Lali Armengol , Spanish playwright, professor and theater director [ 81 ] Mohammed Bakar , Malaysian footballer Carolyn Cheeks Kilpatrick , American politician Baba Gana Kingibe , Nigerian politician Guillermo Mendoza , Mexican cyclist Chaiyasit Shinawatra , commander-in-chief of the Royal Thai Army June 26 – Paul Chun , Hong Kong actor June 27 Jose Miguel Arroyo , First Gentleman of the Philippines Ami Ayalon , Israeli politician Norma Kamali , American fashion designer Catherine Lacoste , French amateur golfer Lu Sheng-yen , Taiwanese leader of the True Buddha School Jose Miguel Arroyo , First Gentleman of the Philippines Ami Ayalon , Israeli politician Norma Kamali , American fashion designer Catherine Lacoste , French amateur golfer Lu Sheng-yen , Taiwanese leader of the True Buddha School June 28 Ken Buchanan , Scottish undisputed world lightweight boxing champion (d. 2023 ) Raul Seixas , Brazilian rock singer (d. 1989 ) Ken Buchanan , Scottish undisputed world lightweight boxing champion (d. 2023 ) Raul Seixas , Brazilian rock singer (d. 1989 ) June 29 – Chandrika Kumaratunga , 5th President of Sri Lanka June 30 Kevin Jackman , Australian rules footballer Jerry Kenney , American Major League Baseball infielder Sean Scully , Irish-American-based painter, printmaker James Snyder Jr. , American author, attorney and politician Kevin Jackman , Australian rules footballer Jerry Kenney , American Major League Baseball infielder Sean Scully , Irish-American-based painter, printmaker James Snyder Jr. , American author, attorney and politician July July 1 Jane Cederqvist , Swedish freestyle swimmer Visu , Indian writer, director, stage, actor and talk-show host (d. 2020 ) Billy Rohr , American Major League Baseball player Debbie Harry , American rock singer ( Blondie ) Jane Cederqvist , Swedish freestyle swimmer Visu , Indian writer, director, stage, actor and talk-show host (d. 2020 ) Billy Rohr , American Major League Baseball player Debbie Harry , American rock singer ( Blondie ) July 2 – Linda Warren , American author July 3 – Thomas Mapfumo , Zimbabwean musician July 4 Tiong Thai King , Malaysian politician Steinar Amundsen , Norwegian sprint canoeist Tiong Thai King , Malaysian politician Steinar Amundsen , Norwegian sprint canoeist July 5 Nurul Islam Nahid , Bangladeshi politician Miroslav Mišković , Serbian business magnate, investor Nurul Islam Nahid , Bangladeshi politician Miroslav Mišković , Serbian business magnate, investor July 6 – Burt Ward , American actor ( Batman ) July 7 Heloísa Pinheiro , Brazilian model, businesswoman Moncef Marzouki , Tunisian politician; 4th President of Tunisia Li Chi-an , North Korean football striker Matti Salminen , Finnish bass singer Heloísa Pinheiro , Brazilian model, businesswoman Moncef Marzouki , Tunisian politician; 4th President of Tunisia Li Chi-an , North Korean football striker Matti Salminen , Finnish bass singer July 8 – Micheline Calmy-Rey , Swiss Federal Councilor July 9 Dean Koontz , American writer Mohammad Reza Nematzadeh , Iranian politician, engineer Dean Koontz , American writer Mohammad Reza Nematzadeh , Iranian politician, engineer July 10 Zlatko Tomčić , Croatian politician Daniel Ona Ondo , Gabonese politician Virginia Wade , English professional tennis player Ron Glass , African-American actor (d. 2016 ) Zlatko Tomčić , Croatian politician Daniel Ona Ondo , Gabonese politician Virginia Wade , English professional tennis player Ron Glass , African-American actor (d. 2016 ) July 11 – Richard Wesley , American playwright, screenwriter July 12 Leopoldo Mastelloni , Italian actor, comedian and singer Thor Martinsen , Norwegian ice hockey player Leopoldo Mastelloni , Italian actor, comedian and singer Thor Martinsen , Norwegian ice hockey player July 14 – Antun Vujić , Croatian politician, philosopher, political analyst, lexicographer and author July 15 Hong Ra-hee , South Korean billionaire businesswoman, philanthropist Jürgen Möllemann , German politician (d. 2003 ) Jan-Michael Vincent , American actor (d. 2019 ) Hong Ra-hee , South Korean billionaire businesswoman, philanthropist Jürgen Möllemann , German politician (d. 2003 ) Jan-Michael Vincent , American actor (d. 2019 ) July 16 Victor Sloan , Irish artist Çetin Tekindor , Turkish actor Roy Ho Ten Soeng , Dutch politician Jos Stelling , Dutch film director, screenwriter Victor Sloan , Irish artist Çetin Tekindor , Turkish actor Roy Ho Ten Soeng , Dutch politician Jos Stelling , Dutch film director, screenwriter July 17 Eduardo Olivera , Mexican modern pentathlete Kim Won-hong , North Korean politician, military leader Alexander, Crown Prince of Yugoslavia Eduardo Olivera , Mexican modern pentathlete Kim Won-hong , North Korean politician, military leader Alexander, Crown Prince of Yugoslavia July 19 Oleg Fotin , Russian swimmer Richard Henderson , Scottish molecular biologist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 82 ] Uri Rosenthal , Dutch politician Oleg Fotin , Russian swimmer Richard Henderson , Scottish molecular biologist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 82 ] Uri Rosenthal , Dutch politician July 20 Kim Carnes , American singer-songwriter ( Bette Davis Eyes ) Lothar Koepsel , German sailor Simbarashe Mumbengegwi , Zimbabwean politician and diplomat Kim Carnes , American singer-songwriter ( Bette Davis Eyes ) Lothar Koepsel , German sailor Simbarashe Mumbengegwi , Zimbabwean politician and diplomat July 21 John Lowe , English darts player Barry Richards , South African batsman John Lowe , English darts player Barry Richards , South African batsman July 23 – Edie McClurg , American actress July 24 – Azim Premji , Indian businessman July 26 Helen Mirren , British actress Helen Mirren , British actress July 28 – Jim Davis , American cartoonist ( Garfield ) July 30 Roger Dobkowitz , American producer Patrick Modiano , French novelist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 83 ] David Sanborn , American saxophonist (d. 2024 ) Roger Dobkowitz , American producer Patrick Modiano , French novelist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 83 ] David Sanborn , American saxophonist (d. 2024 ) August August 1 – Douglas Osheroff , American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate August 4 – Alan Mulally , American businessman, CEO of the Ford Motor Company August 5 – Loni Anderson , American actress ( WKRP in Cincinnati ) (d. 2025 ) August 8 – Julie Anne Robinson , British theatre, television, film director and producer August 9 – Posy Simmonds , English cartoonist August 12 Ron Mael , American musician ( Sparks ) [ 84 ] J. D. McClatchy , American poet and literary critic (d. 2018 ) Ron Mael , American musician ( Sparks ) [ 84 ] J. D. McClatchy , American poet and literary critic (d. 2018 ) August 14 Steve Martin , American actor and comedian Valeriy Shmarov , Ukrainian politician (d. 2018 ) Eliana Pittman , Brazilian singer, actress Faustin Twagiramungu , Prime Minister of Rwanda (d. 2023 ) Wim Wenders , German film director, producer Steve Martin , American actor and comedian Valeriy Shmarov , Ukrainian politician (d. 2018 ) Eliana Pittman , Brazilian singer, actress Faustin Twagiramungu , Prime Minister of Rwanda (d. 2023 ) Wim Wenders , German film director, producer August 15 Bobby Treviño , Mexican baseball player (d. 2018 ) Miyuki Matsuhisa , Japanese artistic gymnast Khaleda Zia , Bangladesh politician, Prime Minister of Bangladesh (d. 2025 ) [ 85 ] Bobby Treviño , Mexican baseball player (d. 2018 ) Miyuki Matsuhisa , Japanese artistic gymnast Khaleda Zia , Bangladesh politician, Prime Minister of Bangladesh (d. 2025 ) [ 85 ] August 17 – Katri Helena , Finnish singer August 19 – Ian Gillan , English rock singer ( Deep Purple ) August 22 David Chase , American writer, director and television producer Ron Dante , American rock singer-songwriter and record producer ( The Archies ) David Chase , American writer, director and television producer Ron Dante , American rock singer-songwriter and record producer ( The Archies ) August 24 – Vincent K. "Vince" McMahon , American professional wrestling promoter, chairman and CEO of WWE August 25 – Daniel Hulet , Belgian cartoonist (d. 2011 ) August 26 – Tom Ridge , American politician August 27 – Marianne Sägebrecht , German film actress August 29 Alyosha Abrahamyan , Armenian football player (d. 2018 ) Wyomia Tyus , American Olympic athlete Alyosha Abrahamyan , Armenian football player (d. 2018 ) Wyomia Tyus , American Olympic athlete August 31 Sir Van Morrison , Irish rock musician Itzhak Perlman , Israeli-born American violinist, conductor Sir Van Morrison , Irish rock musician Itzhak Perlman , Israeli-born American violinist, conductor September September 1 – Mustafa Balel , Turkish writer September 5 K. N. T. Sastry , Indian film critic, director and writer (d. 2018 ) Al Stewart , Scottish singer-songwriter ( Year of the Cat ) K. N. T. Sastry , Indian film critic, director and writer (d. 2018 ) Al Stewart , Scottish singer-songwriter ( Year of the Cat ) September 6 – Victor Ramahatra , 5th Prime Minister of Madagascar September 7 – Jacques Lemaire , Canadian ice hockey coach September 8 Ron "Pigpen" McKernan , American musician ( Grateful Dead ) (d. 1973 ) Rogatien Vachon , Canadian ice hockey player Ron "Pigpen" McKernan , American musician ( Grateful Dead ) (d. 1973 ) Rogatien Vachon , Canadian ice hockey player September 10 – José Feliciano , Puerto Rican-American singer (" Feliz Navidad ") September 11 – Franz Beckenbauer , German footballer and manager (d. 2024 ) September 12 – Richard Thaler , American economist September 14 – Benjamin Harjo Jr. , Native American artist September 15 – Jessye Norman , American soprano (d. 2019 ) September 16 – Pat Stevens , American voice actress (d. 2010 ) September 17 Phil Jackson , American basketball coach Bruce Spence , Australian actor Phil Jackson , American basketball coach Bruce Spence , Australian actor September 18 John McAfee , British-American computer programmer and businessman (d. 2021 ) [ 86 ] P. F. Sloan , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) John McAfee , British-American computer programmer and businessman (d. 2021 ) [ 86 ] P. F. Sloan , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) September 19 - Randolph Mantooth , American actor September 21 Shaw Clifton , Northern Ireland-born General of the Salvation Army Kay Ryan , American poet Shaw Clifton , Northern Ireland-born General of the Salvation Army Kay Ryan , American poet September 22 – Gonzaguinha , Brazilian singer, composer (d. 1991 ) September 24 – John Rutter , English choral composer, conductor September 26 – Bryan Ferry , English singer-songwriter and musician ( Roxy Music ) September 27 – Jack Goldstein , Canadian artist (d. 2003 ) September 29 – Nadezhda Chizhova , Russian athlete September 30 Ehud Olmert , 12th Prime Minister of Israel Ralph Siegel , German record producer, songwriter Ehud Olmert , 12th Prime Minister of Israel Ralph Siegel , German record producer, songwriter October October 1 Rod Carew , Panamanian-American baseball player Donny Hathaway , African-American soul singer-songwriter (d. 1979 ) Ram Nath Kovind , 14th President of India Rod Carew , Panamanian-American baseball player Donny Hathaway , African-American soul singer-songwriter (d. 1979 ) Ram Nath Kovind , 14th President of India October 2 Regina Torné , Mexican actress, singer and television presenter Don McLean , American singer-songwriter (" American Pie ") Regina Torné , Mexican actress, singer and television presenter Don McLean , American singer-songwriter (" American Pie ") October 3 – Viktor Saneyev , Soviet athlete and Olympic champion (d. 2022 ) October 6 – Ivan Graziani , Italian singer-songwriter (d. 1997 ) October 9 Vijaya Kumaratunga , Sri Lankan actor and politician (d. 1988 ) Archbishop Nikon of Boston , Albanian bishop (d. 2019 ) Vijaya Kumaratunga , Sri Lankan actor and politician (d. 1988 ) Archbishop Nikon of Boston , Albanian bishop (d. 2019 ) October 12 Aurore Clément , French actress Dusty Rhodes , American wrestler (d. 2015 ) Aurore Clément , French actress Dusty Rhodes , American wrestler (d. 2015 ) October 18 Norio Wakamoto , Japanese voice actor Yıldo , Turkish showman, footballer Norio Wakamoto , Japanese voice actor Yıldo , Turkish showman, footballer October 19 Angus Deaton , Scottish-born economist, recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences John Lithgow , American actor ( Third Rock from the Sun ) Angus Deaton , Scottish-born economist, recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences John Lithgow , American actor ( Third Rock from the Sun ) October 22 – Yvan Ponton , Canadian actor, sportscaster October 23 – Kim Larsen , Danish rock musician (d. 2018 ) October 24 Eugenie Scott , American Executive Director of the National Center for Science Education Sean Solomon , American Principal Investigator of NASA's MESSENGER mission to Mercury and director of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism at the Carnegie Institution for Science Eugenie Scott , American Executive Director of the National Center for Science Education Sean Solomon , American Principal Investigator of NASA's MESSENGER mission to Mercury and director of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism at the Carnegie Institution for Science October 25 Peter Ledger , Australian artist (d. 1994 ) David Schramm , American astrophysicist and educator (d. 1997 ) Keaton Yamada , Japanese voice actor Peter Ledger , Australian artist (d. 1994 ) David Schramm , American astrophysicist and educator (d. 1997 ) Keaton Yamada , Japanese voice actor October 26 Pat Conroy , American author (d. 2016 ) Jaclyn Smith , American actress, businesswoman ( Charlie's Angels ) Pat Conroy , American author (d. 2016 ) Jaclyn Smith , American actress, businesswoman ( Charlie's Angels ) October 27 Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva , 35th President of Brazil Carrie Snodgress , American actress (d. 2004 ) Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva , 35th President of Brazil Carrie Snodgress , American actress (d. 2004 ) October 29 Ching Li , Taiwanese actress (d. 2017 ) Melba Moore , African-American singer, actress Ching Li , Taiwanese actress (d. 2017 ) Melba Moore , African-American singer, actress October 30 – Henry Winkler , American actor, producer and director ( Happy Days ) November November 3 – Gerd Müller , German footballer (d. 2021 ) November 5 – Jacques Lanctôt , Canadian terrorist November 7 Bob Englehart , American editorial cartoonist Waljinah , Javanese singer Bob Englehart , American editorial cartoonist Waljinah , Javanese singer November 8 – Joseph James DeAngelo , American serial killer and serial rapist November 9 – Charlie Robinson , African-American actor (d. 2021 ) November 10 – Madeleine Juneau , Canadian museologist November 11 – Daniel Ortega , 58th and 62nd President of Nicaragua November 12 – Neil Young , Canadian singer-songwriter, musician November 15 – Anni-Frid Lyngstad , Norwegian-born rock singer ( ABBA ) November 17 Elvin Hayes , American basketball player Abdelmadjid Tebboune , President of Algeria Elvin Hayes , American basketball player Abdelmadjid Tebboune , President of Algeria November 18 Wilma Mankiller , Chief of the Cherokee Nation (d. 2010 ) Mahinda Rajapaksa , Sri Lankan politician, 6th President of Sri Lanka Wilma Mankiller , Chief of the Cherokee Nation (d. 2010 ) Mahinda Rajapaksa , Sri Lankan politician, 6th President of Sri Lanka November 21 – Goldie Hawn , American actress Kalervo Kummola – Finnish ice hockey executive, businessman, and politician Kalervo Kummola – Finnish ice hockey executive, businessman, and politician November 22 – Kari Tapio , Finnish singer (d. 2010 ) November 23 – Dennis Nilsen , Scottish serial killer (d. 2018 ) [ 87 ] November 24 – Nuruddin Farah , Somali novelist November 25 – Mary Jo Deschanel , American actress November 26 – John McVie , English rock musician ( Fleetwood Mac ) November 27 Barbara Anderson , American actress James Avery , African-American actor (d. 2013 ) Barbara Anderson , American actress James Avery , African-American actor (d. 2013 ) November 30 Roger Glover , English rock musician ( Deep Purple ) Radu Lupu , Romanian classical pianist (d. 2022 ) Roger Glover , English rock musician ( Deep Purple ) Radu Lupu , Romanian classical pianist (d. 2022 ) December December 1 Lyle Bien , American vice admiral [ 88 ] Bette Midler , American actress, comedian and singer Lyle Bien , American vice admiral [ 88 ] Bette Midler , American actress, comedian and singer December 2 – Tex Watson , American multiple murderer, 'Manson Family' member December 3 – Bozhidar Dimitrov , Bulgarian historian, politician and polemicist (d. 2018 ) December 4 – Geoff Emerick , English recording engineer (d. 2018 ) December 7 – Clive Russell , English actor December 8 – Julie Heldman , American tennis player [ 89 ] December 10 – John Ankerberg , American Christian television host, author and speaker December 11 – Sharafuddin of Selangor , Sultan of Selangor December 12 René Pétillon , French satirical, political cartoonist (d. 2018 ) Portia Simpson-Miller , 2-time Prime Minister of Jamaica Kathy Garver , American actress, author and online radio hostess Donald Pandiangan , Indonesian archery athlete (d. 2008 ) Heather North , American actress (d. 2017 ) René Pétillon , French satirical, political cartoonist (d. 2018 ) Portia Simpson-Miller , 2-time Prime Minister of Jamaica Kathy Garver , American actress, author and online radio hostess Donald Pandiangan , Indonesian archery athlete (d. 2008 ) Heather North , American actress (d. 2017 ) December 15 Michael King , New Zealand popular historian, author and biographer (d. 2004 ) Thaao Penghlis , Australian actor Michael King , New Zealand popular historian, author and biographer (d. 2004 ) Thaao Penghlis , Australian actor December 16 – Patti Deutsch , American voice actress (d. 2017 ) December 17 – Ernie Hudson , African-American actor December 18 – Carolyn Wood , American professional swimmer December 19 – Elaine Joyce , American actress, game show panelist December 20 Peter Criss , American rock drummer ( KISS ) Sivakant Tiwari , senior legal officer of the Singapore Legal Service (d. 2010 ) Peter Criss , American rock drummer ( KISS ) Sivakant Tiwari , senior legal officer of the Singapore Legal Service (d. 2010 ) December 21 – Mari Lill , Estonian actress December 22 – Diane Sawyer , American news journalist December 23 – Donald A. Ritchie , American historian December 24 Lemmy , British singer, bassist ( Motörhead ) (d. 2015 ) [ 90 ] Nicholas Meyer , American screenwriter, producer, director and novelist Sharafuddin of Selangor , Sultan of Selangor Steve Smith , Canadian actor, comedian and writer Lemmy , British singer, bassist ( Motörhead ) (d. 2015 ) [ 90 ] Nicholas Meyer , American screenwriter, producer, director and novelist Sharafuddin of Selangor , Sultan of Selangor Steve Smith , Canadian actor, comedian and writer December 25 – Noel Redding , English musician (d. 2003 ) [ 91 ] December 29 – Birendra of Nepal , King of Nepal (d. 2001 ) December 30 – Davy Jones , English-born pop singer, actor ( The Monkees ) (d. 2012 ) December 31 Barbara Carrera , Nicaraguan-American actress Vernon Wells , Australian actor [ 92 ] Connie Willis , American fiction writer Barbara Carrera , Nicaraguan-American actress Vernon Wells , Australian actor [ 92 ] Connie Willis , American fiction writer Deaths January January 2 – Sir Bertram Ramsay , British admiral (b. 1883 ) January 3 – Edgar Cayce , American mystic (b. 1877 ) January 4 – Ricardo Jiménez Oreamuno , 3-time President of Costa Rica (b. 1859 ) January 6 Josefa Llanes Escoda , Filipino women's suffrage advocate, founder of the Girl Scouts of the Philippines (b. 1898 ) Edith Frank , German-Dutch mother of Anne Frank (b. 1900 ) [ 93 ] Herbert Lumsden , British general (killed in action) (b. 1897 ) [ 94 ] Vladimir Vernadsky , Soviet mineralogist, geochemist (b. 1863 ) Josefa Llanes Escoda , Filipino women's suffrage advocate, founder of the Girl Scouts of the Philippines (b. 1898 ) Edith Frank , German-Dutch mother of Anne Frank (b. 1900 ) [ 93 ] Herbert Lumsden , British general (killed in action) (b. 1897 ) [ 94 ] Vladimir Vernadsky , Soviet mineralogist, geochemist (b. 1863 ) January 7 Alexander Stirling Calder , American sculptor (b. 1870 ) Thomas McGuire , American World War II fighter ace (killed in action) (b. 1920 ) Prince Rainer of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) Alexander Stirling Calder , American sculptor (b. 1870 ) Thomas McGuire , American World War II fighter ace (killed in action) (b. 1920 ) Prince Rainer of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) January 9 – Jüri Uluots , 8th Prime Minister of Estonia (b. 1890 ) January 10 – Pēteris Juraševskis , 8th Prime Minister of Latvia (b. 1872 ) January 12 – Teresio Olivelli , Italian Roman Catholic soldier and venerable (b. 1916 ) January 15 – Pedro Abad Santos , Filipino politician, brother of José Abad Santos (b. 1876 ) January 16 – José Fabella , Filipino physician (b. 1888 ) January 19 Petar Bojović , Serbian field marshal (b. 1858 ) Gustave Mesny , French Army general (b. 1886 ) Petar Bojović , Serbian field marshal (b. 1858 ) Gustave Mesny , French Army general (b. 1886 ) January 20 – Federico Pedrocchi , Italian artist, writer (killed on active service) (b. 1907 ) January 21 Francisco Moreno Fernández , Spanish admiral (b. 1883 ) [ 95 ] Sir Archibald Murray , British Army general (b. 1860 ) Francisco Moreno Fernández , Spanish admiral (b. 1883 ) [ 95 ] Sir Archibald Murray , British Army general (b. 1860 ) January 22 – Else Lasker-Schüler , German poet, author (b. 1869 ) January 23 Eugen Bolz , German politician, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1881 ) Nikolaus Gross , German Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1898 ) Newton E. Mason , United States Navy rear admiral (b. 1850 ) Eugen Bolz , German politician, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1881 ) Nikolaus Gross , German Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1898 ) Newton E. Mason , United States Navy rear admiral (b. 1850 ) January 29 – Hans Conrad Leipelt , Austrian member of the White Rose resistance movement in Nazi Germany (executed) (b. 1921 ) January 30 Sir William Goodenough , British admiral (b. 1867 ) Pedro Paulet , Peruvian scientist (b. 1874 ) Sir William Goodenough , British admiral (b. 1867 ) Pedro Paulet , Peruvian scientist (b. 1874 ) January 31 – Eddie Slovik , American soldier (executed for desertion) (b. 1920 ) [ 96 ] February February (or March) – Anne Frank , German-born Jewish diarist, writer (typhus in Bergen-Belsen concentration camp ) (b. 1929 ) [ 97 ] February 1 Ivan Bagryanov , 30th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1891 ) Dobri Bozhilov , 29th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1884 ) Bogdan Filov , Bulgarian archaeologist, historian and politician, 28th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1883 ) Petar Gabrovski , acting Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1898 ) Johan Huizinga , Dutch cultural historian (b. 1872 ) Prince Kiril of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1895 ) Ivan Bagryanov , 30th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1891 ) Dobri Bozhilov , 29th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1884 ) Bogdan Filov , Bulgarian archaeologist, historian and politician, 28th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1883 ) Petar Gabrovski , acting Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1898 ) Johan Huizinga , Dutch cultural historian (b. 1872 ) Prince Kiril of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1895 ) February 2 Adolf Brand , German campaigner for homosexuality (air raid victim) (b. 1874 ) Alfred Delp , German Jesuit priest and philosopher of the German Resistance, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1907 ) Carl Friedrich Goerdeler , German politician, civil servant, executive and economist, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1884 ) Gustav Heistermann von Ziehlberg , German general, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1898 ) Joe Hunt , American tennis champion (military aircraft crash) (b. 1919 ) Adolf Brand , German campaigner for homosexuality (air raid victim) (b. 1874 ) Alfred Delp , German Jesuit priest and philosopher of the German Resistance, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1907 ) Carl Friedrich Goerdeler , German politician, civil servant, executive and economist, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1884 ) Gustav Heistermann von Ziehlberg , German general, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1898 ) Joe Hunt , American tennis champion (military aircraft crash) (b. 1919 ) February 3 – Roland Freisler , Nazi German judge (air raid victim) (b. 1893 ) February 5 Denise Bloch , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1916 ) Lilian Rolfe , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1914 ) Violette Szabo , French/British World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1921 ) Denise Bloch , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1916 ) Lilian Rolfe , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1914 ) Violette Szabo , French/British World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1921 ) February 6 – Robert Brasillach , French writer (executed) (b. 1909 ) [ 98 ] February 8 – Robert Mallet-Stevens , French architect, designer (b. 1886 ) February 11 – Al Dubin , Swiss-born American songwriter (b. 1891 ) February 13 – Maria Orosa , Filipino technologist, chemist, humanitarian and WWII heroine (air raid victim) (b. 1893 ) February 16 – Otto Kittel , German fighter ace (killed in action) (b. 1917 ) [ 99 ] February 18 – Ivan Chernyakhovsky , Soviet general (died of wounds) (b. 1906 ) February 19 – John Basilone , American war hero (killed in action) (b. 1916 ) February 21 – Eric Liddell , British Olympic athlete (in internment camp) (b. 1902 ) February 22 – Sara Josephine Baker , American physician (b. 1873 ) February 23 José María Moncada , 19th President of Nicaragua (b. 1870 ) Aleksei Nikolaevich Tolstoy , Russian writer (b. 1883 ) [ 100 ] José María Moncada , 19th President of Nicaragua (b. 1870 ) Aleksei Nikolaevich Tolstoy , Russian writer (b. 1883 ) [ 100 ] February 24 – Josef Mayr-Nusser , Italian Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1910 ) February 25 – Mário de Andrade , Brazilian writer, photographer (b. 1893 ) February 26 – Millard Harmon , American general (b. 1888 ) [ 101 ] March March 2 – Emily Carr , Canadian painter (b. 1871 ) March 3 Gheorghe Avramescu , Romanian general (in custody) (b. 1884 ) Aleksandra Samusenko , Soviet WWII tank commander (died of wounds) (b. 1922 ) Gheorghe Avramescu , Romanian general (in custody) (b. 1884 ) Aleksandra Samusenko , Soviet WWII tank commander (died of wounds) (b. 1922 ) March 4 Harry Chauvel , Australian Army general (b. 1865 ) [ 102 ] Lucille La Verne , American actress (b. 1872 ) [ 103 ] Mark Sandrich , American film director (b. 1900 ) Harry Chauvel , Australian Army general (b. 1865 ) [ 102 ] Lucille La Verne , American actress (b. 1872 ) [ 103 ] Mark Sandrich , American film director (b. 1900 ) March 5 – George Alan Vasey , Australian general (killed in military aircraft accident) (b. 1895 ) March 12 – Friedrich Fromm , German Nazi official (executed) (b. 1888 ) March 14 – Francisco Braga , Brazilian composer (b. 1868 ) March 15 – Sava Caracaș , Romanian general (b. 1890 ) March 18 – William Grover-Williams , British/French racing driver, war hero (executed) (b. 1903 ) [ 104 ] March 19 – Marcel Callo , French Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (in concentration camp) (b. 1921 ) March 20 – Lord Alfred Douglas , English poet (b. 1870 ) March 22 Enrico Caviglia , Italian marshal (b. 1862 ) Heinrich Maier , Austrian Roman Catholic priest and blessed (b. 1908 ) Takeichi Nishi , Japanese equestrian gold medalist (1932), tank commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1902 ) Enrico Caviglia , Italian marshal (b. 1862 ) Heinrich Maier , Austrian Roman Catholic priest and blessed (b. 1908 ) Takeichi Nishi , Japanese equestrian gold medalist (1932), tank commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1902 ) March 23 – Élisabeth de Rothschild , French WWII heroine (b. 1902 ) March 26 David Lloyd George , British politician and statesman, 51st Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1863 ) Tadamichi Kuribayashi , Imperial Japanese Army general, commander of the battle of Iwo Jima (probably killed in action) (b. 1891 ) Boris Shaposhnikov , Soviet military leader, Marshal of the Soviet Union (b. 1882 ) Ichimaru Toshinosuke , Japanese naval aviator, commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1891 ) David Lloyd George , British politician and statesman, 51st Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1863 ) Tadamichi Kuribayashi , Imperial Japanese Army general, commander of the battle of Iwo Jima (probably killed in action) (b. 1891 ) Boris Shaposhnikov , Soviet military leader, Marshal of the Soviet Union (b. 1882 ) Ichimaru Toshinosuke , Japanese naval aviator, commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1891 ) March 27 – Halid Ziya Uşaklıgil , Turkish author (b. 1867 ) March 29 – Ferenc Csik , Hungarian swimmer (air raid victim) (b. 1913 ) March 30 – Maurice Rose , American general (killed in action) (b. 1899 ) [ 105 ] March 31 Hans Fischer , German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (suicide) (b. 1881 ) Torgny Segerstedt , Swedish newspaper editor, publicist (b. 1876 ) Maria Skobtsova , Soviet Orthodox nun and saint (killed by poison) (b. 1891 ) Natalia Tulasiewicz , Polish teacher and Roman Catholic blessed (murdered in concentration camp) (b. 1906 ) Hans Fischer , German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (suicide) (b. 1881 ) Torgny Segerstedt , Swedish newspaper editor, publicist (b. 1876 ) Maria Skobtsova , Soviet Orthodox nun and saint (killed by poison) (b. 1891 ) Natalia Tulasiewicz , Polish teacher and Roman Catholic blessed (murdered in concentration camp) (b. 1906 ) April April 7 Seiichi Itō , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1890 ) Aruga Kōsaku , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1897 ) Seiichi Itō , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1890 ) Aruga Kōsaku , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1897 ) April 9 Dietrich Bonhoeffer , German theologian (executed) (b. 1906 ) Wilhelm Canaris , German admiral, head of the Abwehr (executed) (b. 1887 ) Hans von Dohnanyi , Hungarian-born German lawyer, member of the German Resistance, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1902 ) Georg Elser , German carpenter and attempted assassin of Adolf Hitler (executed) (b. 1903 ) [ 106 ] Dietrich Bonhoeffer , German theologian (executed) (b. 1906 ) Wilhelm Canaris , German admiral, head of the Abwehr (executed) (b. 1887 ) Hans von Dohnanyi , Hungarian-born German lawyer, member of the German Resistance, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1902 ) Georg Elser , German carpenter and attempted assassin of Adolf Hitler (executed) (b. 1903 ) [ 106 ] April 10 Gloria Dickson , American actress (fire victim) (b. 1917 ) Hendrik Nicolaas Werkman , Dutch artist and printer (b. 1882 ) [ 107 ] Gloria Dickson , American actress (fire victim) (b. 1917 ) Hendrik Nicolaas Werkman , Dutch artist and printer (b. 1882 ) [ 107 ] April 11 – Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard , British colonial administrator (b. 1858 ) April 12 – Franklin D. Roosevelt , American political leader and statesman, 32nd President of the United States (b. 1882 ) April 13 – Ernst Cassirer , German philosopher (b. 1874 ) April 15 – Joachim Albrecht Eggeling , German SS general (suicide) (b. 1884 ) April 18 Sir Ambrose Fleming , British electrical engineer and physicist (b. 1849 ) Ernie Pyle , American journalist (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm, Prince of Albania (b. 1876 ) Sir Ambrose Fleming , British electrical engineer and physicist (b. 1849 ) Ernie Pyle , American journalist (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm, Prince of Albania (b. 1876 ) April 21 Pavle Đurišić , Montenegrin Serb army commander (b. 1909 ) [ citation needed ] Walter Model , German field marshal (suicide) (b. 1891 ) Pavle Đurišić , Montenegrin Serb army commander (b. 1909 ) [ citation needed ] Walter Model , German field marshal (suicide) (b. 1891 ) April 22 – Käthe Kollwitz , German artist (b. 1867 ) April 23 – Klaus Bonhoeffer , German resistance fighter, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1901 ) April 24 – Ernst-Robert Grawitz , German SS Reichsphysician (suicide) (b. 1899 ) April 28 Executed: Hermann Fegelein , German SS general (b. 1906 ) Benito Mussolini , Italian politician, journalist, 27th Prime Minister of Italy and Duce of Fascism (b. 1883 ) Clara Petacci , mistress of Benito Mussolini (b. 1912 ) Nicola Bombacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1879 ) Roberto Farinacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1892 ) Alessandro Pavolini , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1903 ) Executed: Hermann Fegelein , German SS general (b. 1906 ) Benito Mussolini , Italian politician, journalist, 27th Prime Minister of Italy and Duce of Fascism (b. 1883 ) Clara Petacci , mistress of Benito Mussolini (b. 1912 ) Nicola Bombacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1879 ) Roberto Farinacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1892 ) Alessandro Pavolini , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1903 ) Hermann Fegelein , German SS general (b. 1906 ) Benito Mussolini , Italian politician, journalist, 27th Prime Minister of Italy and Duce of Fascism (b. 1883 ) Clara Petacci , mistress of Benito Mussolini (b. 1912 ) Nicola Bombacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1879 ) Roberto Farinacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1892 ) Alessandro Pavolini , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1903 ) April 29 – Achille Starace , Italian Fascist politician (executed) (b. 1889 ) April 30 Luisa Ferida , Italian actress (executed) (b. 1914 ) Adolf Hitler , Austrian-born German politician, Führer of Germany (suicide) (b. 1889 ) Eva Braun , wife of Adolf Hitler (suicide) (b. 1912 ) Luisa Ferida , Italian actress (executed) (b. 1914 ) Adolf Hitler , Austrian-born German politician, Führer of Germany (suicide) (b. 1889 ) Eva Braun , wife of Adolf Hitler (suicide) (b. 1912 ) May May 1 Joseph Goebbels , Chancellor of Germany for 1 day and Reich Minister of Propaganda (suicide) (b. 1897 ) Magda Goebbels , wife of Joseph Goebbels (suicide) (b. 1901 ) Joseph Goebbels , Chancellor of Germany for 1 day and Reich Minister of Propaganda (suicide) (b. 1897 ) Magda Goebbels , wife of Joseph Goebbels (suicide) (b. 1901 ) May 2 Martin Bormann , Nazi Party leader and private secretary to Adolf Hitler (presumed suicide) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm Burgdorf , German general (suicide) (b. 1895 ) Hans Krebs , German general (suicide) (b. 1898 ) Prince Waldemar of Prussia (haemophilia) (b. 1889 ) Martin Bormann , Nazi Party leader and private secretary to Adolf Hitler (presumed suicide) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm Burgdorf , German general (suicide) (b. 1895 ) Hans Krebs , German general (suicide) (b. 1898 ) Prince Waldemar of Prussia (haemophilia) (b. 1889 ) May 3 – Mario Blasich , Italian physician, politician (b. 1878 ) May 4 – Fedor von Bock , German field marshal (killed in action) (b. 1880 ) [ 108 ] May 6 – Xhem Hasa , Albanian nationalist (assassinated) (b. 1908 ) May 7 – Vladimir Boyarsky , Soviet army officer (executed) (b. 1901 ) May 8 Francis Bruguière , American photographer (b. 1875 ) Julius Hirsch , German footballer (killed in Auschwitz concentration camp) (b. 1892 ) [ 109 ] Wilhelm Rediess , SS and Police Leader of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1900 ) Bernhard Rust , education minister of Nazi Germany (presumed suicide) (b. 1883 ) Josef Terboven , Reichskommissar of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1898 ) Francis Bruguière , American photographer (b. 1875 ) Julius Hirsch , German footballer (killed in Auschwitz concentration camp) (b. 1892 ) [ 109 ] Wilhelm Rediess , SS and Police Leader of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1900 ) Bernhard Rust , education minister of Nazi Germany (presumed suicide) (b. 1883 ) Josef Terboven , Reichskommissar of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1898 ) May 9 – Gustav Becking , German musicologist (b. 1894 ) May 10 – Konrad Henlein , Sudeten German Nazi leader (suicide) (b. 1898 ) May 11 Kiyoshi Ogawa , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1922 ) Seizō Yasunori , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1924 ) [ 110 ] Kiyoshi Ogawa , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1922 ) Seizō Yasunori , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1924 ) [ 110 ] May 14 Joseph Barthélemy , French jurist, politician and journalist (b. 1874 ) Heber J. Grant , 7th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b. 1856 ) Joseph Barthélemy , French jurist, politician and journalist (b. 1874 ) Heber J. Grant , 7th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b. 1856 ) May 15 Kenneth J. Alford , British soldier and composer (b. 1881 ) [ 111 ] Charles Williams , British author (b. 1886 ) Kenneth J. Alford , British soldier and composer (b. 1881 ) [ 111 ] Charles Williams , British author (b. 1886 ) May 16 – Kaju Sugiura , Japanese admiral (killed in action) (b. 1896 ) May 18 – William Joseph Simmons , American founder of the second Ku Klux Klan (b. 1880 ) May 19 – Philipp Bouhler , German Nazi leader and general (suicide) (b. 1899 ) May 21 – Prince Kan'in Kotohito , Japanese prince, member of the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office (b. 1865 ) May 23 – Heinrich Himmler , German politician, Reichsführer-SS (suicide) (b. 1900 ) May 24 – Robert Ritter von Greim , German field marshal (suicide) (b. 1892 ) May 25 Rafael Estrella Ureña , Dominican lawyer and politician, acting president of the Dominican Republic (b. 1889 ) Ishii Kikujirō , Japanese diplomat and politician (killed in bombing raid) (b. 1866 ) [ 112 ] Rafael Estrella Ureña , Dominican lawyer and politician, acting president of the Dominican Republic (b. 1889 ) Ishii Kikujirō , Japanese diplomat and politician (killed in bombing raid) (b. 1866 ) [ 112 ] May 31 Odilo Globocnik , Austrian Nazi leader (suicide) (b. 1904 ) Curt von Gottberg , German SS general (suicide) (b. 1896 ) Odilo Globocnik , Austrian Nazi leader (suicide) (b. 1904 ) Curt von Gottberg , German SS general (suicide) (b. 1896 ) June June 4 – Georg Kaiser , German dramatist (b. 1878 ) June 7 – Kitaro Nishida , Japanese philosopher (b. 1870 ) June 8 Robert Desnos , French poet, resistance fighter (typhoid) (b. 1900 ) Karl Hanke , German Nazi general and last Reichsführer-SS (killed) (b. 1903 ) Robert Desnos , French poet, resistance fighter (typhoid) (b. 1900 ) Karl Hanke , German Nazi general and last Reichsführer-SS (killed) (b. 1903 ) June 11 – Lurana W. Sheldon , American author and editor (b. 1862 ) June 13 – Minoru Ōta , Japanese admiral (suicide) (b. 1891 ) June 15 Carl Gustaf Ekman , Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1872 ) Amélie Rives Troubetzkoy , American author (b. 1863 ) Aris Velouchiotis , Greek World War II resistance leader (suicide) (b. 1905 ) Carl Gustaf Ekman , Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1872 ) Amélie Rives Troubetzkoy , American author (b. 1863 ) Aris Velouchiotis , Greek World War II resistance leader (suicide) (b. 1905 ) June 16 Nikolai Berzarin , Soviet Red Army general (b. 1904 ) Nils Edén , 15th Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1871 ) Nikolai Berzarin , Soviet Red Army general (b. 1904 ) Nils Edén , 15th Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1871 ) June 18 Florence Bascom , American geologist and educator (b. 1862 ) Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr. , American general (killed in action on Okinawa ) (b. 1886 ) Friedrich, Prince of Wied , German prince (b. 1872 ) Florence Bascom , American geologist and educator (b. 1862 ) Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr. , American general (killed in action on Okinawa ) (b. 1886 ) Friedrich, Prince of Wied , German prince (b. 1872 ) June 20 Robert Crewe-Milnes, 1st Marquess of Crewe , British politician (b. 1858 ) Luís Fernando de Orleans y Borbón , Spanish prince (b. 1888 ) Robert Crewe-Milnes, 1st Marquess of Crewe , British politician (b. 1858 ) Luís Fernando de Orleans y Borbón , Spanish prince (b. 1888 ) June 22 Isamu Chō , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1895 ) Mitsuru Ushijima , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) Isamu Chō , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1895 ) Mitsuru Ushijima , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) June 24 – José Gutiérrez Solana , Spanish painter (b. 1886 ) June 27 – Emil Hácha , 3rd President of Czechoslovakia , State President of Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (b. 1872 ) June 30 Germogen (Maximov) , Russian Orthodox Metropolitan (b. 1861 ) Gabriel El-Registan , Soviet poet (b. 1899 ) Germogen (Maximov) , Russian Orthodox Metropolitan (b. 1861 ) Gabriel El-Registan , Soviet poet (b. 1899 ) July July 1 – Félix Evaristo Mejía , Dominican diplomat, educator and writer (b. 1866 ) July 2 – Óscar R. Benavides , Peruvian field marshal, diplomat, politician and President of Peru (b. 1876 ) July 5 – John Curtin , 14th Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1885 ) July 7 – Peter To Rot , Papuan Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1912 ) July 9 – Luigi Aldrovandi Marescotti , Italian politician, diplomat (b. 1876 ) July 12 Boris Galerkin , Russian mathematician (b. 1871 ) [ 113 ] Wolfram von Richthofen , German field marshal (brain tumor) (b. 1895 ) Boris Galerkin , Russian mathematician (b. 1871 ) [ 113 ] Wolfram von Richthofen , German field marshal (brain tumor) (b. 1895 ) July 13 – Alla Nazimova , Russian-born American actress (b. 1879 ) July 17 – Ernst Busch , German field marshal, as prisoner of war (b. 1885 ) July 20 – Paul Valéry , French poet (b. 1871 ) July 24 – Arnold von Winckler , German general (b. 1856 ) July 25 – Malin Craig , United States Army general (b. 1875 ) July 28 – Margot Asquith, Countess of Oxford and Asquith (b. 1864 ) July 29 – Maria Pierina De Micheli , Italian Roman Catholic religious sister, mystic and blessed (b. 1890 ) July 31 – Artemio Ricarte , Filipino general (b. 1866 ) August August 1 – Blas Cabrera Felipe , Spanish physicist (b. 1878 ) August 2 – Pietro Mascagni , Italian composer (b. 1863 ) August 3 – Roman Kochanowski , Polish painter, illustrator (b. 1857 ) August 4 – Gerhard Gentzen , German mathematician and logician (starvation in prison camp) (b. 1909 ) August 5 – Nat Jaffe , American swing jazz pianist (b. 1918 ) August 7 – Jacques Vaillant de Guélis , British/French WWII hero (injuries received in automobile accident) (b. 1907 ) August 8 – Joseph Pujol, Le Pétomane , French flatulist (b. 1857 ) August 9 Harry Hillman , American track athlete (b. 1881 ) [ 114 ] Jun Tosaka , Japanese philosopher (in prison) (b. 1900 ) Harry Hillman , American track athlete (b. 1881 ) [ 114 ] Jun Tosaka , Japanese philosopher (in prison) (b. 1900 ) August 10 – Robert H. Goddard , American rocket scientist (b. 1882 ) August 12 – Karl Leisner , German Roman Catholic priest and blessed (b. 1915 ) August 15 Korechika Anami , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) Matome Ugaki , Japanese admiral (killed in action) (b. 1890 ) Korechika Anami , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) Matome Ugaki , Japanese admiral (killed in action) (b. 1890 ) August 16 – Takijirō Ōnishi , Japanese admiral (ritual suicide) (b. 1891 ) August 18 Subhas Chandra Bose , Leader of Indian National Army (Third-degree burns from aircrash) (b. 1897 ) [ 115 ] Sarala Devi Chaudhurani , Indian educationist (b. 1872 ) Subhas Chandra Bose , Leader of Indian National Army (Third-degree burns from aircrash) (b. 1897 ) [ 115 ] Sarala Devi Chaudhurani , Indian educationist (b. 1872 ) August 24 – Shizuichi Tanaka , Japanese general (suicide) (b. 1887 ) August 25 – Willis Augustus Lee , American admiral, Olympic shooter (b. 1888 ) August 26 Pio Collivadino , Argentinian painter (b. 1869 ) Franz Werfel , Austrian writer (b. 1890 ) Pio Collivadino , Argentinian painter (b. 1869 ) Franz Werfel , Austrian writer (b. 1890 ) August 27 – Blessed María Pilar Izquierdo Albero , Spanish Roman Catholic religious professed (b. 1906 ) August 29 – Fritz Pfleumer , German engineer, inventor (b. 1881 ) August 30 – Florencio Harmodio Arosemena , 6th President of Panama (b. 1872 ) August 31 Stefan Banach , Polish mathematician (b. 1892 ) Pope Macarius III of Alexandria , Egyptian patriarch, saint (b. 1872 ) Stefan Banach , Polish mathematician (b. 1892 ) Pope Macarius III of Alexandria , Egyptian patriarch, saint (b. 1872 ) September September 6 Witold Leon Czartoryski , Polish nobleman (b. 1864 ) John S. McCain Sr. , American admiral (b. 1884 ) Witold Leon Czartoryski , Polish nobleman (b. 1864 ) John S. McCain Sr. , American admiral (b. 1884 ) September 9 – Aage Bertelsen , Danish painter (b. 1873 ) September 12 – Hajime Sugiyama , Japanese general (suicide) (b. 1880 ) September 15 Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer , German physician and bacteriologist (b. 1858 ) [ 116 ] André Tardieu , 3-time prime minister of France (b. 1876 ) Anton Webern , Austrian composer (b. 1883 ) Zhang Mingqi , Qing dynasty politician (b. 1875 ) Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer , German physician and bacteriologist (b. 1858 ) [ 116 ] André Tardieu , 3-time prime minister of France (b. 1876 ) Anton Webern , Austrian composer (b. 1883 ) Zhang Mingqi , Qing dynasty politician (b. 1875 ) September 16 – John McCormack , Irish tenor (b. 1884 ) September 18 José Agripino Barnet , Cuban politician and diplomat, acting president of Cuba (b. 1864 ) Blind Willie Johnson , American gospel blues singer (b. 1897 ) José Agripino Barnet , Cuban politician and diplomat, acting president of Cuba (b. 1864 ) Blind Willie Johnson , American gospel blues singer (b. 1897 ) September 20 Augusto Tasso Fragoso , Brazilian soldier, statesman and interim president of Brazil (b. 1869 ) Eduard Wirths , German doctor, chief SS doctor at Auschwitz concentration camp (suicide) (b. 1909 ) Augusto Tasso Fragoso , Brazilian soldier, statesman and interim president of Brazil (b. 1869 ) Eduard Wirths , German doctor, chief SS doctor at Auschwitz concentration camp (suicide) (b. 1909 ) September 24 – Hans Geiger , German physicist, inventor (b. 1882 ) September 26 Béla Bartók , Hungarian composer (b. 1881 ) [ 117 ] Leonhard Kaupisch , German general (b. 1878 ) [ 118 ] Kiyoshi Miki , Japanese philosopher (b. 1897 ) Béla Bartók , Hungarian composer (b. 1881 ) [ 117 ] Leonhard Kaupisch , German general (b. 1878 ) [ 118 ] Kiyoshi Miki , Japanese philosopher (b. 1897 ) October October 1 – Walter Bradford Cannon , American physiologist (b. 1871 ) [ 119 ] October 6 – Leonardo Conti , German physician, Nazi officer (suicide) (b. 1900 ) October 8 – Felix Salten , Austrian author (b. 1869 ) [ 120 ] October 10 – Joseph Darnand , Vichy French politician (executed) (b. 1897 ) October 12 – Dmytro Antonovych , Soviet politician (b. 1877 ) October 13 – Milton S. Hershey , American chocolate tycoon (b. 1857 ) October 15 – Pierre Laval , French politician, 2-time Prime Minister of France (executed) (b. 1883 ) [ 59 ] October 18 – Frederick Hovey , American tennis player (b. 1868 ) October 19 Plutarco Elías Calles , Mexican general, politician and 40th President of Mexico (b. 1877) N. C. Wyeth , American illustrator (b. 1882 ) Plutarco Elías Calles , Mexican general, politician and 40th President of Mexico (b. 1877) N. C. Wyeth , American illustrator (b. 1882 ) October 21 Henry Armetta , Italian actor (b. 1888 ) Felicija Bortkevičienė , Lithuanian politician and publisher (b. 1873 ) [ 121 ] Henry Armetta , Italian actor (b. 1888 ) Felicija Bortkevičienė , Lithuanian politician and publisher (b. 1873 ) [ 121 ] October 24 Franklin Carmichael , Canadian landscape painter and graphic designer (b. 1890 ) [ 122 ] Vidkun Quisling , Norwegian Nazi collaborator (executed) (b. 1887 ) Franklin Carmichael , Canadian landscape painter and graphic designer (b. 1890 ) [ 122 ] Vidkun Quisling , Norwegian Nazi collaborator (executed) (b. 1887 ) October 25 – Robert Ley , German Nazi politician (suicide) (b. 1890 ) October 26 Adolf von Brudermann , Austro-Hungarian general (b. 1854 ) Paul Pelliot , French explorer (b. 1878 ) Adolf von Brudermann , Austro-Hungarian general (b. 1854 ) Paul Pelliot , French explorer (b. 1878 ) October 30 – Xian Xinghai , Chinese composer (b. 1905 ) October 31 Henry Ainley , British actor (b. 1879 ) Ignacio Zuloaga , Basque Spanish painter (b. 1870 ) Henry Ainley , British actor (b. 1879 ) Ignacio Zuloaga , Basque Spanish painter (b. 1870 ) November November 8 – August von Mackensen , German field marshal (b. 1849 ) November 11 – Jerome Kern , American composer (b. 1885 ) [ 123 ] November 13 – Sir Edwyn Alexander-Sinclair , British admiral (b. 1865 ) [ 124 ] November 16 – Sigurður Eggerz , Minister for Iceland during World War I and 2nd Prime Minister of Iceland (b. 1875 ) November 17 – Frederick Francis IV, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (b. 1882 ) November 20 – Francis William Aston , British chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1877 ) November 21 Robert Benchley , American humorist, theater critic and actor (b. 1889 ) [ 125 ] Ellen Glasgow , American novelist (b. 1873 ) [ 126 ] Alexander Patch , United States Army lieutenant general, World War II army commander (b. 1889 ) Jimmy Quinn , Scottish footballer (b. 1878 ) [ 127 ] Robert Benchley , American humorist, theater critic and actor (b. 1889 ) [ 125 ] Ellen Glasgow , American novelist (b. 1873 ) [ 126 ] Alexander Patch , United States Army lieutenant general, World War II army commander (b. 1889 ) Jimmy Quinn , Scottish footballer (b. 1878 ) [ 127 ] November 23 – Charles Coborn , British singer (b. 1852 ) November 27 – Josep Maria Sert , Spanish Catalan muralist (b. 1874 ) November 28 – Dwight F. Davis , American tennis player (b. 1879 ) November 30 – Shigeru Honjō , Japanese general (suicide) (b. 1876 ) December December 1 – Anton Dostler , German general (executed) (b. 1891 ) December 4 Thomas Hunt Morgan , American biologist, geneticist, embryologist and Nobel Prize in Physiology recipient (b. 1866 ) Richárd Weisz , Hungarian Olympic champion wrestler (b. 1879 ) [ 128 ] Thomas Hunt Morgan , American biologist, geneticist, embryologist and Nobel Prize in Physiology recipient (b. 1866 ) Richárd Weisz , Hungarian Olympic champion wrestler (b. 1879 ) [ 128 ] December 5 – Cosmo Gordon Lang , Archbishop of Canterbury (b. 1864 ) December 8 – Gabriellino D'Annunzio , Italian actor, director and screenwriter (b. 1886 ) December 12 – Prince Frederick of Schaumburg-Lippe (b. 1868 ) December 13 Johanna Bormann , German Nazi concentration camp guard (executed) (b. 1893 ) Henri Dentz , French general (b. 1881 ) Irma Grese , German camp guard at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1923 ) Josef Kramer , German commandant of Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1906 ) Elisabeth Volkenrath , German supervisor at Nazi concentration camps (executed) (b. 1919 ) Johanna Bormann , German Nazi concentration camp guard (executed) (b. 1893 ) Henri Dentz , French general (b. 1881 ) Irma Grese , German camp guard at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1923 ) Josef Kramer , German commandant of Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1906 ) Elisabeth Volkenrath , German supervisor at Nazi concentration camps (executed) (b. 1919 ) December 14 – Forrester Harvey , Irish actor (b. 1884 ) December 16 Giovanni Agnelli , Italian entrepreneur, founder of Fiat (b. 1866 ) Fumimaro Konoe , Japanese general, politician, and 23rd Prime Minister of Japan (suicide) (b. 1891 ) Giovanni Agnelli , Italian entrepreneur, founder of Fiat (b. 1866 ) Fumimaro Konoe , Japanese general, politician, and 23rd Prime Minister of Japan (suicide) (b. 1891 ) December 19 – Leonard F. Wing , American general and politician (b. 1893 ) [ 129 ] December 21 – George S. Patton , American general (injuries from automobile accident) (b. 1885 ) [ 130 ] December 22 – Otto Neurath , Austrian philosopher, political economist (b. 1892 ) December 26 Duy Tân , Emperor of Vietnam (b. 1900 ) Roger Keyes, 1st Baron Keyes , British admiral (b. 1872 ) Duy Tân , Emperor of Vietnam (b. 1900 ) Roger Keyes, 1st Baron Keyes , British admiral (b. 1872 ) December 28 – Theodore Dreiser , American novelist (b. 1871 ) [ 131 ] Nobel Prizes Physics – Wolfgang Pauli Chemistry – Artturi Ilmari Virtanen Physiology or Medicine – Sir Alexander Fleming , Ernst Chain , Howard Florey Literature – Gabriela Mistral Peace – Cordell Hull References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "What Was 1945 a Turning Point - 1377 Words | Bartleby" . ^ Girbig, Werner (1975). Six Months to Oblivion: The Eclipse of the Luftwaffe Fighter Force Over the Western Front, 1944/45 . Schiffer Publishing . p. 74. ISBN 978-0-88740-348-4 . ^ a b Duffy, Christopher (1991). Red Storm on the Reich: The Soviet March on Germany, 1945 . Routledge. ISBN 0-415-22829-8 . ^ "Life in the Führerbunker: Hitler's final days" . Sky HISTORY TV channel . Retrieved September 2, 2025 . ^ Si (July 22, 2025). "Raoul Wallenberg – World War II hero" . sweden.se . Retrieved September 27, 2025 . ^ Abraham J. Peck (1997). "The Agony of the Łódź Ghetto, 1941–1944" . The Chronicle of the Łódź Ghetto, 1941–1944 by Lucjan Dobroszycki , and The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum , Washington D.C . The Simon Wiesenthal Center . Retrieved March 25, 2015 . ^ Kershaw, Ian (2008). Hitler: A Biography . New York: Norton. p. 891. ISBN 978-0-393-06757-6 . ^ Wolf's Lair from Battlefields WW2 ^ "Penicillin Pills May Replace Injection" . The Milwaukee Sentinel . February 16, 1945 . Retrieved May 22, 2012 . [ permanent dead link ] ^ "SS General von Steuben [+1945]" . WreckSite . Retrieved December 6, 2010 . ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (1993). Significant tornadoes, 1680–1991: A Chronology and Analysis of Events . St. Johnsbury, Vermont: Environmental Films. pp. 922– 925. ISBN 1-879362-03-1 . ^ Ernest F. Fisher Jr., The Mediterranean Theater of Operations: Cassino to the Alps (Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, 1977), p. 425–434 ^ "Guinness World Records Website" . guinnessworldrecords.com . December 13, 2016. ^ Guinness Book of World Records . 2008. p. 137. ^ Battle of Manila Footnotes: Battle for Manila by Richard Connaughton , John Pimlott and Duncan Anderson (2002) Presidio Press ISBN 0-89141-771-0 pp 164–7 ^ Year by Year – 1945 . History International . ^ After The Battle #176 – The Allied Capture Of Trier ^ Air University Review . Department of the Air Force. 1976. p. 20. ^ 6. March 1945 - The U.S. Army occupies Cologne ^ Nohlen, Dieter ; Stöver, Philip, eds. (2010). Elections in Europe: A data handbook . Baden-Baden: Nomos. p. 1678. ISBN 978-3-8329-5609-7 . ^ "Proclamation No. 430, s. 1989 - DECLARING THE EIGHTEENTH DAY OF MARCH OF EVERY YEAR AS VICTORY DAY IN THE ISLANDS OF PANAY AND ROMBLON, INCLUDING THE CITIES OF ILOILO AND ROXAS" . Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines . Retrieved March 18, 2024 . ^ "Bombing Berlin: The Biggest Wartime Raid on Hitler's Capital" . The National WWII Museum - New Orleans . March 14, 2020 . Retrieved March 18, 2024 . ^ "Festung Kolberg 1945" (in Polish). Archived from the original on August 11, 2007 . Retrieved March 21, 2024 . {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ( link ) ^ Stanton, Shelby (2006). World War II Order of Battle: An Encyclopedic Reference to U.S. Army Ground Forces from Battalion through Division, 1939-1946 (2nd ed.). Stackpole Books. pp. 57, 84. ^ After The Battle #187 – THE ALLIED CAPTURE OF HANNOVER ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (July 1993). Significant Tornadoes, 1680–1991: A Chronology and Analysis of Events . St. Johnsbury, Vermont : The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. p. 919. ISBN 1-879362-03-1 . ^ "1945" . A WW2 Timeline . Worldwar-2.net. Archived from the original on April 28, 2012 . Retrieved November 7, 2012 . ^ Last Stand at Völkerschlachtdenkmal: The Battle of Leipzig, 1945 ^ Alexander, Kristen (September 1, 2004). " "Cleaning the Augean stables": the Morotai Mutiny?" . Sabretache . Military Historical Society of Australia. ^ Jones, Bill (1989). The Fatal Attraction of Adolf Hitler (Television documentary). BBC . Retrieved April 27, 2016 . ^ Ziemke, Earl F. (1969). Battle for Berlin: End of the Third Reich . Ballantine's Illustrated History of World War II, Battle Book #6. Ballantine Books. ^ Smythe, John (1967). Bolo Whistler: The Life of General Sir Lashmer Whistler . London: Muller. ^ "War Diary for Friday, 27 April 1945" . Stone & Stone Books . Retrieved March 28, 2016 . ^ MacDonogh, Giles (2007). After the Reich: The Brutal History of the Allied Occupation . New York: Basic Books. p. 93. ^ Ernest F. Fisher Jr., The Mediterranean Theater of Operations: Cassino to the Alps (Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, 1977), p. 524 ^ Duncan, George R. "Massacres and Atrocities of World War II" . Retrieved October 15, 2015 . ^ "Central Europe Campaign – 522nd Field Artillery Battalion" . Archived from the original on March 20, 2016 . Retrieved January 12, 2015 . Jewish prisoners from the outer Dachau camps were marched to Dachau, and then 70 miles south. Many of the Jewish marchers weighed less than 80 pounds. Shivering in their tattered striped uniforms, the "skeletons" marched 10 to 15 hours a day, passing more than a dozen Bavarian towns. If they stopped or fell behind, the SS guards shot them and left their corpses along the road. ^ Final Push To Hamburg ^ "Liberatione" . Lib.usc.edu. May 4, 1945. Archived from the original on April 14, 2016 . Retrieved January 16, 2012 . ^ "Befrielsen 1945 – Tidslinje" . Befrielsen1945.dk. January 2, 2012. Archived from the original on January 22, 2011 . Retrieved January 16, 2012 . ^ Waller, Derek (September 25, 2010). "U-Boats that Surrendered" . u-boat.net . Retrieved November 14, 2014 . ^ "Hungary: Recovery of Crown Jewels 1945" . Retrieved December 17, 2008 . ^ THE CITY OF SALZBURG IN 1945 ^ Liberation of Pilsen ^ Milcic, Allen. "Croatian Axis Forces in WWII" . Retrieved June 28, 2012 . ^ "Edward Kennedy, 58, Reporter Who Flashed '45 Surrender, Dies" . The New York Times . Associated Press. November 30, 1963 . Retrieved December 21, 2007 . ^ Killen, John (2003). The Luftwaffe: A History . Barnsley: Pen & Sword. pp. 299– 300. ISBN 978-1-78159-110-9 . ^ Colin F. Baxter; John Martin Carroll, eds. (2007). The American Military Tradition: From Colonial Times to the Present . Rowman & Littlefield. p. 181. ISBN 9780742544284 . ^ Bethell, Nicholas (1974). The Last Secret . London. ISBN 9780465038138 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( link ) ^ Norton-Taylor, Richard (October 2, 1998). "Churchill plotted invasion of Russia". The Guardian . London. ^ a b c d e f "1945 – The Decision to Drop the Bomb" . NuclearFiles . Archived from the original on April 6, 2010. ^ Mohamed, Jama (2002). " 'The Evils of Locust Bait': Popular Nationalism during the 1945 Anti-Locust Control Rebellion in Colonial Somaliland" . Past & Present (174): 184– 216. doi : 10.1093/past/174.1.184 . ISSN 0031-2746 . JSTOR 3600720 . ^ "1945: Labour landslide buries Churchill" . BBC News . April 5, 2005. ^ "Accident North American B-25D-20 Mitchell 41-30577, 28 Jul 1945" . aviation-safety.net . Retrieved May 10, 2023 . ^ "USS Indianapolis sinking: 'You could see sharks circling' " . BBC News . Archived from the original on April 18, 2018 . Retrieved June 20, 2018 . ^ Glantz, LTC David M. (June 1983). Leavenworth Papers No. 8 - August Storm: Soviet Tactical and Operational Combat in Manchuria, 1945 (PDF) . Fort Leavenworth , KS: Combat Studies Institute, U.S. Army Command and General Staff College. p. 1. ISSN 0195-3451 . Retrieved September 26, 2023 . ^ Angier, R. B.; Boothe, J. H.; Hutchings, B. L.; Mowat, J. H.; Semb, J.; Stokstad, E. L. R.; Subbarow, Y.; Waller, C. W.; Cosulich, D. B.; Fahrenbach, M. J.; Hultquist, M. E.; Kuh, E.; Northey, E. H.; Seeger, D. R.; Sickels, J. P.; Smith Jr, J. M. (1945). "Synthesis of a Compound Identical with the L. Casei Factor Isolated from Liver". Science . 102 (2644): 227– 28. Bibcode : 1945Sci...102..227A . doi : 10.1126/science.102.2644.227 . PMID 17778509 . ^ Hoffbrand, A. V.; Weir, D. G. (2001). "The history of folic acid". British Journal of Haematology . 113 (3): 579– 589. doi : 10.1046/j.1365-2141.2001.02822.x . PMID 11380441 . S2CID 22925228 . ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u Jessup, John E. (1989). A Chronology of Conflict and Resolution, 1945-1985 . New York: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-24308-5 . ^ Crichton, Gerald (February 1, 1946). "Review of events in Afghanistan, July-December 1945" . Foreign Office . ^ Myers, Brian Reynolds (December 16, 2023). "The Power to Mystify" . Sthele Press . Archived from the original on January 14, 2024 . Retrieved January 14, 2024 . Assertion that the emperor's surrender 'abruptly' ended Japan's occupation of the peninsula, which in fact continued in the southern part for more than three weeks? ^ "Amery sentenced to death: "A self-confessed traitor." ". The Times . No. 50312. November 29, 1945. p. 2. ^ Brennan, J. G.; Green, L. C. (1997). "The Case of General Dostler" . Naval War College Review . 50 (4): 115– 117. ISSN 0028-1484 . JSTOR 44638781 . ^ "75th Anniversary of World Bank Articles of Agreement Ratification" . World Bank . Retrieved May 5, 2022 . ^ "Discovery of Promethium" . Oak Ridge National Laboratory Review . 36 (1). 2003. Archived from the original on June 22, 2011 . Retrieved June 16, 2011 . ^ Hammerton, A. James; Thomson, Alistair (2005). 'Ten Pound Poms': Australia's Invisible Migrants . Manchester University Press. ISBN 0-719071321 . ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2016" . ^ William D. Rubinstein; Michael Jolles; Hilary L. Rubinstein (February 22, 2011). The Palgrave Dictionary of Anglo-Jewish History . Palgrave Macmillan. p. 868. ISBN 978-1-4039-3910-4 . [ permanent dead link ] ^ Chase's ... Calendar of Events . Contemporary Books. 2003. p. 138. ISBN 978-0-07-139098-9 . ^ "They planted an important seed for nanotechnology" (Press release). The Nobel Prize. October 4, 2023 . Retrieved October 7, 2023 . ^ Geoff Nicholson (1991). Big Noises: Rock Guitar in the 1990s . Quartet. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-7043-0145-0 . ^ "Profile of highlife legend Nana Ampadu" . GhanaWeb . September 30, 2021. Archived from the original on October 19, 2022 . Retrieved October 5, 2021 . ^ Avery, Laura (2004). Newsmakers . Gale Research. p. 61. ISBN 978-0-7876-6806-8 . ISSN 0899-0417 . OCLC 17977680 . ^ Bauer, Pat (March 29, 2022). "Linda Hunt" . Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved February 21, 2023 . ^ Encyclopedia of Contemporary German Culture . Taylor & Francis. 2013. ISBN 9781136816109 . ^ Events, Chase's Calendar of; McGraw-Hill (2007). "Birthday: Bianca Jagger" . Chase's Calendar of Events . McGraw Hill Professional. ISBN 9780071468183 . Retrieved August 5, 2025 . At the time of her marriage to Mick Jagger in 1971 it was reported that she was born in 1945, which is cited as her birth year by most published sources. The charitable organisations with which she has been associated have used 1950. ^ Colin Larkin , ed. (1997). The Virgin Encyclopedia of Popular Music (Concise ed.). Virgin Books . p. 666/7. ISBN 1-85227-745-9 . ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 2022" . Nobel Prize (Press release). The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences . October 4, 2022 . Retrieved October 6, 2022 . ^ Ruggieri, Melissa. "Procol Harum singer Gary Brooker, the voice of 'A Whiter Shade of Pale,' dies at 76" . USA Today . Retrieved February 23, 2022 . ^ "Betty Stöve" . Women's Tennis Association. ^ Dagnino, Maruja. "Lali Armengol Argemi". In Transparencia Venezuela (ed.). 20 mujeres venezolanas del siglo XX (PDF) . pp. 68– 71. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 6, 2021 . Retrieved June 12, 2022 . ^ Anon (2017). "Henderson, Dr Richard" . Who's Who (online Oxford University Press ed.). Oxford: A & C Black. doi : 10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.19818 . (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) ^ "Patrick Modiano" . Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved February 4, 2022 . ^ Easlea, Daryl (April 7, 2010). Talent Is An Asset: The Story Of Sparks . Omnibus Press. ISBN 9780857122377 – via Google Books. ^ "Khaleda Zia" . Britannica Presents 100 Women Trailblazers . February 25, 2020 . Retrieved July 27, 2021 . ^ "Obituary: John McAfee, antivirus software designer, dies aged 75" . The Times . June 24, 2021. Archived from the original on June 24, 2021 . Retrieved June 24, 2021 . ^ "Serial killer Dennis Nilsen dies in prison aged 72" . The Guardian . May 12, 2018 . Retrieved January 3, 2022 . ^ "Legacy Lyle Bien" . South Dakota Hall of Fame . Retrieved June 17, 2024 . ^ David J. Goldman (2014). Jewish Sports Stars; Athletic Heroes Past and Present ^ "Lemmy, Motörhead frontman – obituary" . The Daily Telegraph . December 29, 2015. Archived from the original on January 11, 2022 . Retrieved December 29, 2015 . ^ "Noel Redding" . The Guardian . May 15, 2003 . Retrieved May 4, 2022 . ^ "Vernon Wells" . Movies & TV Dept. The New York Times . 2014. Archived from the original on October 28, 2014. ^ "Edith Frank" . July 6, 2010. Archived from the original on July 6, 2010 . Retrieved October 18, 2017 . ^ Lumsden, Herbert ^ "Francisco Moreno Fernández: Biografía" [Francisco Moreno Fernández: Biography] (in Spanish). Madrid : Real Academia de la Historia. 2022 . Retrieved January 4, 2026 . ^ Kimmelman, Benedict B. (September–October 1987). "The Example Of Private Slovik" . American Heritage Magazine . 38 (6) . Retrieved October 5, 2012 . ^ "One day they simply weren't there any more..." (PDF) . anne frank house . March 2015 . Retrieved April 11, 2015 . ^ Kaplan, Alice (2000). The Collaborator: The Trial and Execution of Robert Brasillach . University of Chicago Press. p. 210. ISBN 978-0-226-42414-9 . ^ Zabecki, David T. , ed. (2019). The German War Machine in World War II . Santa Barbara, California: ABC-Clio . ISBN 978-1-44-086918-1 . ^ "Aleksey Nikolayevich, Count Tolstoy | Soviet writer | Britannica" . www.britannica.com . January 6, 2024. ^ "LIEUTENANT GENERAL MILLARD F. HARMON" . Air Force . [ dead link ] ^ Hill, Alec (1979). " 'Chauvel, Sir Henry George (Harry) (1865–1945)' " . Australian Dictionary of Biography . National Centre of Biography, Australian National University . ISBN 978-0-522-84459-7 . ISSN 1833-7538 . OCLC 70677943 . Retrieved January 11, 2010 . ^ "Preview unavailable" . ProQuest . ProQuest 107039613 . ^ "Casualty Details | CWGC" . www.cwgc.org . Retrieved March 8, 2021 . ^ MG Maurice Rose ^ "Georg Elser" . www.gdw-berlin.de . Retrieved January 4, 2025 . ^ "Ontdek amateurschilder, drukker, fotograaf Hendrik Nicolaas Werkman" . rkd.nl . ^ Evans, Richard J. (2008). The Third Reich at War: 1939–1945 . London: Allen Lane. p. 750. ISBN 978-0-7139-9742-2 . ^ Wallace, Sam (January 25, 2020). "The imperishable story of Julius Hirsch: the great goalscorer murdered at Auschwitz who adorns Stamford Bridge mural" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on January 12, 2022. ^ Maxwell Taylor Kennedy (November 3, 2009). Danger's Hour: The Story of the USS Bunker Hill and the Kamikaze Pilot Who Crippled Her . Simon and Schuster. p. 257. ISBN 978-0-7432-6081-7 . ^ "AAFA Bio - Kenneth J. Alford" . ^ "Ishii Kikujiro | Biography & Facts | Britannica" . www.britannica.com . March 15, 2024. ^ "Boris Galerkin" . TheFreeDictionary.com . ^ Harry Hillman Taken by Death, Cumberland News , August 10, 1945 ^ Firoz Alam (October 1, 2009). Subhas Chandra Bose . Sahni Publications. p. 121. ISBN 978-81-7564-242-3 . ^ Fildes, P. (February 13, 1956). "Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer, 1858-1945" . Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society . 2 (2): 237– 247. doi : 10.1098/rsbm.1956.0016 . S2CID 73380545 . ^ .mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)} Stevens, Halsey. 2018. " Béla Bartók: Hungarian Composer ". Encyclopædia Britannica online (accessed 27 September 2018). ^ "Kaupisch, Leonhard" (in German). lexikon-der-wehrmacht.de . Retrieved September 7, 2025 . ^ "Dr. W.B. Cannon, 73, Neurologist, Dead. Harvard Psychology Professor for 36 Years Noted for His Work on Traumatic Shock Became Professor in 1906" . New York Times . October 2, 1945 . Retrieved October 5, 2010 . ^ "Felix Salten | Austrian novelist | Britannica" . www.britannica.com . September 2, 2023. ^ "Felicija Bortkevičienė" . www.vle.lt . ^ Franklin Carmichael ^ Hugh Fordin, Stephen Sondheim (1995). Getting to Know Him: A Biography of Oscar Hammerstein II . Da Capo Press. p. 237. ISBN 0-306-80668-1 . [ permanent dead link ] ^ [Sinclair, Sir Edwyn Sinclair Alexander-, of Freswick (1865–1945)] ^ Billy Altman, Laughter's Gentle Soul: The Life of Robert Benchley . (New York City: W. W. Norton , 1997. ISBN 0-393-03833-5 ) Pages 352–362 ^ Inge, Tonette Bond. Encyclopedia of Southern Culture , ed. Charles Reagan Wilson and William R. Ferris. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989. Page 884. ^ FC, Celtic. "Jimmy Quinn" . Celtic FC . ^ Siegman, Joseph (2020). Jewish Sports Legends: The International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame . U of Nebraska Press. ISBN 9781496222121 . ^ Wing, Leonard Fish ^ Axelrod, Alan (2006), Patton: A Biography , London : Palgrave Macmillan , pp. 168– 9, ISBN 978-1-4039-7139-5 ^ Theodore Dreiser Recalled . Clemson University Press. 2017. p. 311. ISBN 9781942954446 . Further reading Ian Buruma . Year Zero: A History of 1945 (Penguin Press; 2013) 368 pages; covers liberation, revenge, decolonization, and the rise of the United Nations. excerpt International News Service, It Happened In 1945 The Essential Year Book (1946) Keith Lowe. Savage Continent: Europe in the Aftermath of World War II (2012) excerpt and text search McDannald, A. H. ed. The Americana Annual 1946 (1946) events of 1945 online ; encyclopedia yearbook global coverage in 950pp Walter Yust, ed. 10 Eventful Years, 1937 – 1946 Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 1947, 4 vol., encyclopedia yearbook online v t e Events by month v t e 1949 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1948 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1947 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1946 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1945 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1944 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1943 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1942 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1941 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1940 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Authority control databases National United States Czech Republic Israel United States Czech Republic Israel Other Yale LUX Yale LUX 1945 All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from May 2022 Articles with permanently dead external links CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown CS1 Polish-language sources (pl) CS1 maint: location missing publisher Articles with dead external links from February 2023 CS1 Spanish-language sources (es) Articles with dead external links from March 2025 CS1 German-language sources (de) Use mdy dates from August 2019 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Commons category link from Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2026 This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 01:14 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Wikipedia : Explanationism Project page Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version This is an essay . It contains the advice or opinions of one or more Wikipedia contributors. This page is not an encyclopedia article or a Wikipedia policy , as it has not been reviewed by the community and may reflect various opinions. .mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain{float:right;margin:0 0 0 1em;border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);background-color:var(--background-color-base,#fff);padding:0.3em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;text-align:center;font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxleft{float:left;margin:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutlist{display:inline-block;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);margin-bottom:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain ul{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutanchordiv{position:relative;top:-3em}.mw-parser-output li .module-shortcutanchordiv{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mbox-imageright .module-shortcutboxplain{padding:0.4em 1em;line-height:1.3;margin:0;float:initial} Shortcut .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} WP:EXPLISM WP:EXPLISM WP:EXPLISM WP:EXPLISM Explanationism is a concept of Wikipedia's purpose as being to some degree based in explanations – the human art of expressing and sharing understanding, and not just facts. Facts, figures and statistics are great. But without explanations to put these into context, or to help conceptualize their broader meaning, these facts are useless to everyone but experts who can interpret them. Explanationism requires having sufficient respect for people – even those who may lack understanding – such that they may gain understanding. Explanationists consider explanations to be an expression of good will. Formulating and crafting "explanations" runs counter to the human tendency to express ourselves in colloquial and local (non-universal) concepts. Likewise it runs in defiance to ideas about the protection of concepts through secrecy, exclusivism, hidden information, professional jargon , in-jokes , obfuscation , or cultures of silence . .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Wikipedia essays (?) v t e Essays on building, editing, and deleting content Philosophy Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Article construction 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles Writing article content Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Removing or deleting content Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Essays on building, editing, and deleting content Philosophy Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Article construction 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles Writing article content Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Removing or deleting content Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Philosophy Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Article construction 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles Writing article content Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Removing or deleting content Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Essays on civility The basics Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Philosophy A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent Dos Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Don'ts Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE WikiRelations WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace Essays on civility The basics Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Philosophy A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent Dos Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Don'ts Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE WikiRelations WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace The basics Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Philosophy A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent Dos Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Don'ts Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE WikiRelations WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace Essays on neutrality Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Essays on neutrality Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Essays on notability Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Essays on notability Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Humorous essays Adminitis Ain't no rules says a dog can't play basketball Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to edit warring ANI flu Anti-Wikipedian Anti-Wikipedianism Articlecountitis Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using the preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense Barnstaritis Before they were notable Be the fun police BOLD, revert, revert, revert cycle Boston Tea Party Butterfly effect CaPiTaLiZaTiOn MuCh? Case against LLM-generated articles Complete bollocks Counting forks Counting juntas Crap Delete the main page Diffusing conflict Don't stuff beans up your nose Don't-give-a-fuckism Don't abbreviate "Wikipedia" as "Wiki"! Don't delete the main page Editcountitis Edits Per Day Editsummarisis Editing under the influence Embrace Stop Signs Emerson Fart Five Fs of Wikipedia Seven Ages of Editor, by Will E. Spear-Shake Go ahead, vandalize How many Wikipedians does it take to change a lightbulb? How to get away with UPE How to put up a straight pole by pushing it at an angle How to vandalize correctly How to win a citation war Ignore all essays Ignore all user warnings Ignore every single rule Is that even an essay? Keep beating the horse List of really, really, really stupid article ideas that you really, really, really should not create Mess with the templates My local pond Newcomers are delicious, so go ahead and bite them Legal vandalism List of jokes about Wikipedia LTTAUTMAOK No climbing the Reichstag dressed as Spider-Man No episcopal threats No one cares about your garage band No one really cares No, really No self attacks Notability is not eternal Oops Defense Play the game Please be a giant dick, so we can ban you Please bite the newbies Please do not murder the newcomers Pledge of Tranquility Project S.C.R.A.M. R-e-s-p-e-c-t Requests for medication Requirements for adminship Rouge admin Rouge editor Sarcasm is really helpful Sausages for tasting Spaling Muich? Template madness The Night Before Wikimas The first rule of Wikipedia The Five Pillars of Untruth Things that should not be surprising The WikiBible Watchlistitis We are deletionist! Why is BFDI on Wikipedia? Why you shouldn't write articles with ChatGPT, according to ChatGPT Wikipedia is an MMORPG WTF? OMG! TMD TLA. ARG! Yes, falsely Yes legal threats Yes personal attacks You don't have to be mad to work here, but You should not write meaningless lists Humorous essays Adminitis Ain't no rules says a dog can't play basketball Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to edit warring ANI flu Anti-Wikipedian Anti-Wikipedianism Articlecountitis Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using the preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense Barnstaritis Before they were notable Be the fun police BOLD, revert, revert, revert cycle Boston Tea Party Butterfly effect CaPiTaLiZaTiOn MuCh? Case against LLM-generated articles Complete bollocks Counting forks Counting juntas Crap Delete the main page Diffusing conflict Don't stuff beans up your nose Don't-give-a-fuckism Don't abbreviate "Wikipedia" as "Wiki"! Don't delete the main page Editcountitis Edits Per Day Editsummarisis Editing under the influence Embrace Stop Signs Emerson Fart Five Fs of Wikipedia Seven Ages of Editor, by Will E. Spear-Shake Go ahead, vandalize How many Wikipedians does it take to change a lightbulb? How to get away with UPE How to put up a straight pole by pushing it at an angle How to vandalize correctly How to win a citation war Ignore all essays Ignore all user warnings Ignore every single rule Is that even an essay? Keep beating the horse List of really, really, really stupid article ideas that you really, really, really should not create Mess with the templates My local pond Newcomers are delicious, so go ahead and bite them Legal vandalism List of jokes about Wikipedia LTTAUTMAOK No climbing the Reichstag dressed as Spider-Man No episcopal threats No one cares about your garage band No one really cares No, really No self attacks Notability is not eternal Oops Defense Play the game Please be a giant dick, so we can ban you Please bite the newbies Please do not murder the newcomers Pledge of Tranquility Project S.C.R.A.M. R-e-s-p-e-c-t Requests for medication Requirements for adminship Rouge admin Rouge editor Sarcasm is really helpful Sausages for tasting Spaling Muich? Template madness The Night Before Wikimas The first rule of Wikipedia The Five Pillars of Untruth Things that should not be surprising The WikiBible Watchlistitis We are deletionist! Why is BFDI on Wikipedia? Why you shouldn't write articles with ChatGPT, according to ChatGPT Wikipedia is an MMORPG WTF? OMG! TMD TLA. ARG! Yes, falsely Yes legal threats Yes personal attacks You don't have to be mad to work here, but You should not write meaningless lists Adminitis Ain't no rules says a dog can't play basketball Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to edit warring ANI flu Anti-Wikipedian Anti-Wikipedianism Articlecountitis Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using the preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense Barnstaritis Before they were notable Be the fun police BOLD, revert, revert, revert cycle Boston Tea Party Butterfly effect CaPiTaLiZaTiOn MuCh? Case against LLM-generated articles Complete bollocks Counting forks Counting juntas Crap Delete the main page Diffusing conflict Don't stuff beans up your nose Don't-give-a-fuckism Don't abbreviate "Wikipedia" as "Wiki"! Don't delete the main page Editcountitis Edits Per Day Editsummarisis Editing under the influence Embrace Stop Signs Emerson Fart Five Fs of Wikipedia Seven Ages of Editor, by Will E. Spear-Shake Go ahead, vandalize How many Wikipedians does it take to change a lightbulb? How to get away with UPE How to put up a straight pole by pushing it at an angle How to vandalize correctly How to win a citation war Ignore all essays Ignore all user warnings Ignore every single rule Is that even an essay? Keep beating the horse List of really, really, really stupid article ideas that you really, really, really should not create Mess with the templates My local pond Newcomers are delicious, so go ahead and bite them Legal vandalism List of jokes about Wikipedia LTTAUTMAOK No climbing the Reichstag dressed as Spider-Man No episcopal threats No one cares about your garage band No one really cares No, really No self attacks Notability is not eternal Oops Defense Play the game Please be a giant dick, so we can ban you Please bite the newbies Please do not murder the newcomers Pledge of Tranquility Project S.C.R.A.M. R-e-s-p-e-c-t Requests for medication Requirements for adminship Rouge admin Rouge editor Sarcasm is really helpful Sausages for tasting Spaling Muich? Template madness The Night Before Wikimas The first rule of Wikipedia The Five Pillars of Untruth Things that should not be surprising The WikiBible Watchlistitis We are deletionist! Why is BFDI on Wikipedia? Why you shouldn't write articles with ChatGPT, according to ChatGPT Wikipedia is an MMORPG WTF? OMG! TMD TLA. ARG! Yes, falsely Yes legal threats Yes personal attacks You don't have to be mad to work here, but You should not write meaningless lists Adminitis Ain't no rules says a dog can't play basketball Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to edit warring ANI flu Anti-Wikipedian Anti-Wikipedianism Articlecountitis Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using the preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense Barnstaritis Before they were notable Be the fun police BOLD, revert, revert, revert cycle Boston Tea Party Butterfly effect CaPiTaLiZaTiOn MuCh? Case against LLM-generated articles Complete bollocks Counting forks Counting juntas Crap Delete the main page Diffusing conflict Don't stuff beans up your nose Don't-give-a-fuckism Don't abbreviate "Wikipedia" as "Wiki"! Don't delete the main page Editcountitis Edits Per Day Editsummarisis Editing under the influence Embrace Stop Signs Emerson Fart Five Fs of Wikipedia Seven Ages of Editor, by Will E. Spear-Shake Go ahead, vandalize How many Wikipedians does it take to change a lightbulb? How to get away with UPE How to put up a straight pole by pushing it at an angle How to vandalize correctly How to win a citation war Ignore all essays Ignore all user warnings Ignore every single rule Is that even an essay? Keep beating the horse List of really, really, really stupid article ideas that you really, really, really should not create Mess with the templates My local pond Newcomers are delicious, so go ahead and bite them Legal vandalism List of jokes about Wikipedia LTTAUTMAOK No climbing the Reichstag dressed as Spider-Man No episcopal threats No one cares about your garage band No one really cares No, really No self attacks Notability is not eternal Oops Defense Play the game Please be a giant dick, so we can ban you Please bite the newbies Please do not murder the newcomers Pledge of Tranquility Project S.C.R.A.M. R-e-s-p-e-c-t Requests for medication Requirements for adminship Rouge admin Rouge editor Sarcasm is really helpful Sausages for tasting Spaling Muich? Template madness The Night Before Wikimas The first rule of Wikipedia The Five Pillars of Untruth Things that should not be surprising The WikiBible Watchlistitis We are deletionist! Why is BFDI on Wikipedia? Why you shouldn't write articles with ChatGPT, according to ChatGPT Wikipedia is an MMORPG WTF? OMG! TMD TLA. ARG! Yes, falsely Yes legal threats Yes personal attacks You don't have to be mad to work here, but You should not write meaningless lists About essays About essays Essay guide Value of essays Difference between policies, guidelines and essays Don't cite essays as if they were policy Avoid writing redundant essays Finding an essay Quote your own essay Policies and guidelines About policies and guidelines Policies Guidelines How to contribute to Wikipedia guidance Policy writing is hard About essays About essays Essay guide Value of essays Difference between policies, guidelines and essays Don't cite essays as if they were policy Avoid writing redundant essays Finding an essay Quote your own essay Policies and guidelines About policies and guidelines Policies Guidelines How to contribute to Wikipedia guidance Policy writing is hard About essays Essay guide Value of essays Difference between policies, guidelines and essays Don't cite essays as if they were policy Avoid writing redundant essays Finding an essay Quote your own essay Essay guide Value of essays Difference between policies, guidelines and essays Don't cite essays as if they were policy Avoid writing redundant essays Finding an essay Quote your own essay Policies and guidelines About policies and guidelines Policies Guidelines How to contribute to Wikipedia guidance Policy writing is hard About policies and guidelines Policies Guidelines Policies Guidelines How to contribute to Wikipedia guidance Policy writing is hard Wikipedia essays Wikipedia essays about building the encyclopedia This page was last edited on 6 January 2022, at 18:59 (UTC) . 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Explanationism
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Help | Advanced Search quick links Login Help Pages About Computer Science > Artificial Intelligence Title: Generative AI collective behavior needs an interactionist paradigm Abstract: In this article, we argue that understanding the collective behavior of agents based on large language models (LLMs) is an essential area of inquiry, with important implications in terms of risks and benefits, impacting us as a society at many levels. We claim that the distinctive nature of LLMs--namely, their initialization with extensive pre-trained knowledge and implicit social priors, together with their capability of adaptation through in-context learning--motivates the need for an interactionist paradigm consisting of alternative theoretical foundations, methodologies, and analytical tools, in order to systematically examine how prior knowledge and embedded values interact with social context to shape emergent phenomena in multi-agent generative AI systems. We propose and discuss four directions that we consider crucial for the development and deployment of LLM-based collectives, focusing on theory, methods, and trans-disciplinary dialogue. Subjects: Artificial Intelligence (cs.AI) ; Computers and Society (cs.CY); Human-Computer Interaction (cs.HC); Machine Learning (cs.LG); Multiagent Systems (cs.MA) Cite as: arXiv:2601.10567 [cs.AI] (or arXiv:2601.10567v1 [cs.AI] for this version) Focus to learn more arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite Submission history Access Paper: View PDF HTML (experimental) TeX Source References & Citations NASA ADS Google Scholar Semantic Scholar BibTeX formatted citation Bookmark Bibliographic and Citation Tools Code, Data and Media Associated with this Article Demos Recommenders and Search Tools Author Venue Institution Topic arXivLabs: experimental projects with community collaborators arXivLabs is a framework that allows collaborators to develop and share new arXiv features directly on our website. Both individuals and organizations that work with arXivLabs have embraced and accepted our values of openness, community, excellence, and user data privacy. arXiv is committed to these values and only works with partners that adhere to them. Have an idea for a project that will add value for arXiv's community? Learn more about arXivLabs . About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status arXiv Operational Status
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https://arxiv.org/abs/2601.10567?context=cs.MA
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Page d’accueil Portails thématiques Article au hasard Contact Débuter sur Wikipédia Aide Communauté Pages spéciales Modifications récentes Faire un don Créer un compte Se connecter Faire un don Créer un compte Se connecter Sommaire Début 1 Origines du personnage 2 Évolution du personnage Afficher / masquer la sous-section Évolution du personnage 2.1 Âge d'or des comics 2.1.1 Mention des auteurs 2.1.2 Premiers temps 2.2 Âge d'argent des comics 2.2.1 Série télévisée des années 1960 2.3 Âge de bronze des comics 2.4 Âge moderne des comics 2.4.1 La renaissance DC 2.1 Âge d'or des comics 2.1.1 Mention des auteurs 2.1.2 Premiers temps 2.1.1 Mention des auteurs 2.1.2 Premiers temps 2.2 Âge d'argent des comics 2.2.1 Série télévisée des années 1960 2.2.1 Série télévisée des années 1960 2.3 Âge de bronze des comics 2.4 Âge moderne des comics 2.4.1 La renaissance DC 2.4.1 La renaissance DC 3 Description Afficher / masquer la sous-section Description 3.1 Personnalités 3.1.1 Bruce Wayne 3.1.2 Batman 3.1.2.1 Costume 3.1.2.2 Capacités 3.1.3 Matches Malone 3.2 Équipement 3.1 Personnalités 3.1.1 Bruce Wayne 3.1.2 Batman 3.1.2.1 Costume 3.1.2.2 Capacités 3.1.3 Matches Malone 3.1.1 Bruce Wayne 3.1.2 Batman 3.1.2.1 Costume 3.1.2.2 Capacités 3.1.2.1 Costume 3.1.2.2 Capacités 3.1.3 Matches Malone 3.2 Équipement 4 Univers Afficher / masquer la sous-section Univers 4.1 Lieux 4.1.1 Gotham City 4.1.2 Batcave 4.1.3 L'asile d'Arkham 4.2 Alliés 4.2.1 Robin 4.2.2 Alfred Pennyworth 4.2.3 Lucius Fox 4.2.4 Le commissaire James Gordon 4.2.5 Batgirl 4.2.6 Ace 4.2.7 Relation avec les autres super-héros 4.2.7.1 Les équipes de super-héros 4.2.7.2 Relations entre Batman et Superman 4.3 Vie sentimentale 4.3.1 Dans les comics 4.3.2 Dans les films 4.4 Ennemis 4.1 Lieux 4.1.1 Gotham City 4.1.2 Batcave 4.1.3 L'asile d'Arkham 4.1.1 Gotham City 4.1.2 Batcave 4.1.3 L'asile d'Arkham 4.2 Alliés 4.2.1 Robin 4.2.2 Alfred Pennyworth 4.2.3 Lucius Fox 4.2.4 Le commissaire James Gordon 4.2.5 Batgirl 4.2.6 Ace 4.2.7 Relation avec les autres super-héros 4.2.7.1 Les équipes de super-héros 4.2.7.2 Relations entre Batman et Superman 4.2.1 Robin 4.2.2 Alfred Pennyworth 4.2.3 Lucius Fox 4.2.4 Le commissaire James Gordon 4.2.5 Batgirl 4.2.6 Ace 4.2.7 Relation avec les autres super-héros 4.2.7.1 Les équipes de super-héros 4.2.7.2 Relations entre Batman et Superman 4.2.7.1 Les équipes de super-héros 4.2.7.2 Relations entre Batman et Superman 4.3 Vie sentimentale 4.3.1 Dans les comics 4.3.2 Dans les films 4.3.1 Dans les comics 4.3.2 Dans les films 4.4 Ennemis 5 Analyses et critiques Afficher / masquer la sous-section Analyses et critiques 5.1 Analyses 5.1.1 Batman justicier 5.1.2 Approche psychanalytique 5.2 Critiques 5.1 Analyses 5.1.1 Batman justicier 5.1.2 Approche psychanalytique 5.1.1 Batman justicier 5.1.2 Approche psychanalytique 5.2 Critiques 6 Séries de comics 7 Autres médias Afficher / masquer la sous-section Autres médias 7.1 Radio 7.2 Serials 7.3 Séries télévisées 7.3.1 Batman (années 1960) 7.3.2 Gotham (2014-2019) 7.3.3 Titans (2019-2023) 7.3.4 Gotham Knights (2023) 7.4 Arrowverse 7.4.1 Crisis on Infinite Earths (2019) 7.4.2 Batwoman (2020-2022) 7.5 Séries d'animation 7.6 Longs métrages 7.6.1 Premier long métrage 7.6.2 Tétralogie des années 1990 7.6.3 Trilogie de Christopher Nolan 7.6.4 Univers cinématographique DC 7.6.5 Film d'animations 7.7 Jeux vidéo 7.1 Radio 7.2 Serials 7.3 Séries télévisées 7.3.1 Batman (années 1960) 7.3.2 Gotham (2014-2019) 7.3.3 Titans (2019-2023) 7.3.4 Gotham Knights (2023) 7.3.1 Batman (années 1960) 7.3.2 Gotham (2014-2019) 7.3.3 Titans (2019-2023) 7.3.4 Gotham Knights (2023) 7.4 Arrowverse 7.4.1 Crisis on Infinite Earths (2019) 7.4.2 Batwoman (2020-2022) 7.4.1 Crisis on Infinite Earths (2019) 7.4.2 Batwoman (2020-2022) 7.5 Séries d'animation 7.6 Longs métrages 7.6.1 Premier long métrage 7.6.2 Tétralogie des années 1990 7.6.3 Trilogie de Christopher Nolan 7.6.4 Univers cinématographique DC 7.6.5 Film d'animations 7.6.1 Premier long métrage 7.6.2 Tétralogie des années 1990 7.6.3 Trilogie de Christopher Nolan 7.6.4 Univers cinématographique DC 7.6.5 Film d'animations 7.7 Jeux vidéo 8 Produits dérivés 9 Notes et références Afficher / masquer la sous-section Notes et références 9.1 Notes 9.2 Références bibliographiques 9.3 Autres références 9.1 Notes 9.2 Références bibliographiques 9.3 Autres références 10 Annexes Afficher / masquer la sous-section Annexes 10.1 Bibliographie 10.1.1 Ouvrages 10.1.2 Articles 10.2 Articles connexes 10.3 Liens externes 10.1 Bibliographie 10.1.1 Ouvrages 10.1.2 Articles 10.1.1 Ouvrages 10.1.2 Articles 10.2 Articles connexes 10.3 Liens externes Batman Afrikaans Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Betawi Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Нохчийн کوردی Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Arpetan Gaeilge Galego Ghanaian Pidgin ગુજરાતી עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Kreyòl ayisyen Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша ಕನ್ನಡ 한국어 Kurdî Kʋsaal Kernowek Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ नेपाली Nederlands Norsk bokmål Chi-Chewa Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sardu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Toki pona Türkçe Татарча / tatarça Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ 中文 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí 粵語 Article Discussion Lire Voir le texte source Voir l’historique Lire Voir le texte source Voir l’historique Pages liées Suivi des pages liées Téléverser un fichier Lien permanent Informations sur la page Citer cette page Obtenir l'URL raccourcie Télécharger le code QR Créer un livre Télécharger comme PDF Version imprimable Wikimedia Commons Élément Wikidata Vous lisez un « article de qualité » labellisé en 2014. Pour les articles homonymes, voir Batman (homonymie) . Batman .mw-parser-output .entete.persofiction{background-image:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Picto_infobox_masks.png")} Personnage de fiction apparaissant dans Batman . Cosplay de Batman. Alias Bruce Wayne (véritable identité) Naissance 1930 à Gotham , États-Unis Origine Américain Activité Propriétaire de Wayne Enterprises Superhéros Pouvoirs spéciaux Aucun super-pouvoir. Adresse Gotham , New Jersey , États-Unis Famille Thomas Wayne (père, décédé), Martha Wayne (mère, décédée), Phillip Wayne/Kane (oncle et père adoptif, décédé), Kate Kane (cousine), Alfred Pennyworth (majordome et tuteur légal), Dick Grayson (fils adoptif), Jason Todd (fils adoptif), Cassandra Cain (fille adoptive), Tim Drake (fils adoptif), Damian Wayne (fils avec Talia al Ghul), Helena Wayne (fille avec Catwoman, univers alternatif), Terry McGinnis (fils, univers alternatif), Matty McGinnis (fils, univers alternatif) Catwoman alias Selina Kyle (épouse) Affiliation JLA , Outsiders , Justice Society of America , All-Star Squadron . Ennemi de Ennemis de Batman Créé par Bob Kane Bill Finger Interprété par Lewis Wilson ( Batman , 1943 ) Robert Lowery ( Batman et Robin 1949 ) Adam West ( Batman , 1966 ) Michael Keaton ( Batman , 1989 , Batman : Le Défi , 1992 , The Flash , 2023 ) Kevin Conroy ( Batman contre le fantôme masqué , 1993 ; Batwoman ) Val Kilmer ( Batman Forever , 1995 ) George Clooney ( Batman et Robin , 1997 , The Flash , 2023 ) Christian Bale ( Batman Begins , 2005 ; The Dark Knight : Le Chevalier noir , 2008 , The Dark Knight Rises , 2012 ) David Mazouz et Mikhail Mudrik ( Gotham ) Ben Affleck ( Batman v Superman : L'Aube de la Justice , 2016 , Suicide Squad , 2016 , Justice League , 2017 , Zack Snyder's Justice League , 2021 , The Flash , 2023 ) Iain Glen ( Titans ) Dante Pereira-Olson (en) ( Joker , 2019 ) Robert Pattinson ( The Batman , 2022 ) Warren Christie ( Batwoman ) Première apparition Detective Comics n o 27 (date réelle 30 mars 1939 , date de couverture : mai 1939) [ 1 ] Éditeurs DC Comics modifier Bruce Wayne , alias Batman , est un super-héros de fiction appartenant à l'univers de DC Comics . Créé par le dessinateur Bob Kane et le scénariste Bill Finger , il apparaît pour la première fois dans le comic book Detective Comics n o 27 en 1939 — mai 1939 comme date sur la couverture mais la date réelle de parution est le 30 mars 1939 — sous le nom de The Bat-Man . Bien que ce soit le succès de Superman qui ait mené sa création, il se détache de ce modèle : il n'a aucun pouvoir . Batman est un humain qui a décidé de lutter contre le crime après avoir vu ses parents se faire abattre par un voleur dans Crime Alley, ruelle de Gotham City . Batman travaille également régulièrement avec Superman (du même univers de Comics) malgré plusieurs divergences d'opinions entre eux sur des techniques de lutte contre le crime. Batman a fait partie de plusieurs équipes : la Société de justice d'Amérique , la Ligue de justice d'Amérique et les Outsiders . Des surnoms lui sont parfois accolés : The Caped Crusader , The Dark Knight , The World's Greatest Detective [ n 1 ] , ou encore en français, le Justicier masqué, l'Homme chauve-souris ou le Chevalier Noir. Toute une série de super-vilains s'opposent régulièrement à lui. Selon les occasions, ces derniers s'attaquent mutuellement ou s'entraident quelquefois pour lui nuire. Parmi les ennemis récurrents de Batman se trouvent le Joker , Double-Face , l' Épouvantail , Bane , Ra's al Ghul , le Sphinx ou le Pingouin . Batman est devenu un personnage très populaire rapidement après sa première apparition, ce qui s'est traduit par la création de son propre titre Batman , en 1940 , dont le premier numéro voit l'apparition du Joker, son ennemi juré. Au cours des années, différentes interprétations du personnage ont été proposées. Par ailleurs, Batman a été adapté dans une grande variété de médias. À la télévision, il est dès les années 1940 le héros de deux serials , Batman et Batman et Robin , puis de la série Batman de 1966 à 1968, ainsi que d'un film réalisé par Leslie H. Martinson en 1966 et qui fait office de film pilote de cette même série télévisée. De multiples séries télévisées d' animation verront également le jour au fil du temps, dont Batman en 1992. Au cinéma deux séries de films lui ont été consacrées, la première dans les années 1990 a été réalisée par Tim Burton et Joel Schumacher , la seconde dans les années 2000 a été réalisée par Christopher Nolan , avant que Batman n'apparaisse dans les films de l' univers cinématographique DC à partir de 2016. Plusieurs jeux vidéo ont utilisé le personnage avec un succès relatif jusqu'à la dernière série de jeux inaugurée en 2009 par Arkham Asylum qui a été saluée par la critique et le public. Origines du personnage En avril 1938, dans le premier numéro d' Action Comics , publié par DC Comics , apparaît Superman [ 2 ] , le premier super-héros . L'immense succès du personnage pousse Harry Donenfeld et Jack Liebowitz , les propriétaires de DC, à répéter la formule et demandent à Bob Kane de créer un nouveau super-héros [ 3 ] , [ 4 ] . Âgé de 22 ans , Kane est déjà un auteur connu pour ses séries d'humour, comme Peter Pupp , ou d'aventures comme Rusty and his pals [ n 2 ] , [ 5 ] . Il s'attelle à la tâche qui doit lui apporter de substantiels revenus. En effet, le rédacteur en chef Vince Sullivan lui a affirmé que Siegel et Shuster, les créateurs de Superman, gagnent chacun 800 $ par semaine ; or Kane touche habituellement entre 35 et 50 $ [ 6 ] . Bob Kane s'inspire de l' hélicoptère et des études sur la chauve-souris de Léonard de Vinci , des films Le Signe de Zorro , Dracula et l' adaptation cinématographique The Bat Whispers [ 3 ] de la pièce de théâtre The Bat de Mary Roberts Rinehart , dont le personnage éponyme est un criminel masqué. Kane esquisse ensuite le personnage qui doit marier les qualités de détective de Sherlock Holmes [ 7 ] et les prouesses physiques des films de Douglas Fairbanks [ 8 ] . L'influence de Zorro est particulièrement perceptible dans les caractéristiques du personnage de justicier nocturne masqué : comportement diurne de riche dandy oisif pour détourner les soupçons sur son identité secrète, cape et costume noirs, majordome fidèle, mode de locomotion véloce de couleur noire, repaire secret sous une luxueuse villa, amitié avec un représentant de la loi, etc [ 9 ] . En guise de clin d'œil, plusieurs comics figurent ultérieurement le jeune Bruce Wayne et ses parents à la sortie d'un cinéma diffusant Le Signe de Zorro , juste avant le braquage virant au drame [ 10 ] . Le scénariste Bill Finger suggère de nombreuses modifications à Kane : la couleur du costume qui passe du rouge au gris [ 3 ] , l'apparence du héros en l'équipant d'une cagoule au lieu d'un simple masque, une cape au lieu des ailes, des gants ainsi que plusieurs autres détails [ 11 ] . À propos des sources d'inspiration du nom « Bruce Wayne », Finger précise que « le prénom de Bruce vient de Robert I er d'Écosse . (…) j'ai cherché un nom de famille suggérant le colonialisme . J'ai essayé Adams, Hancock… puis j'ai pensé à Anthony Wayne [ 12 ] , [ 13 ] . » Kane avait une idée pour un personnage nommé Batman , et il souhaitait me montrer les dessins. Il dessina un personnage qui ressemblait très fort à Superman avec des espèces de… collants rouges, je crois, avec des bottes… sans gants, sans gantelets… avec un petit masque loup . Il avait deux ailes rigides qui dépassaient, ressemblant à des ailes de chauve-souris. Et en dessous, il y avait un signe… BATMAN [ n 3 ] , [ 13 ] . Conception d'une machine volante à ailes battantes par Léonard de Vinci . Sherlock Holmes . Affiche du film Le Signe de Zorro ( 1920 ). Affiche du film The Bat Whispers ( 1930 ). Évolution du personnage Âge d'or des comics Mention des auteurs Après acceptation par DC de son projet scénarisé par Bill Finger , Bob Kane négocie un contrat avec DC qui oblige l'éditeur à signer les histoires de Batman du nom de Kane, même s'il n'a rien écrit ou dessiné [ 14 ] et qui indique que Kane doit livrer un certain nombre d'histoires du héros. La signature est parfois développée en Created by Bob Kane [ n 4 ] , [ 5 ] . Bien qu'il ait travaillé sur d'autres séries publiées par DC depuis les années 1940, Bill Finger n'est pas reconnu à sa juste valeur et sa participation à la création de Batman reste longtemps sous-estimée. Par exemple, dans le courrier des lecteurs de Batman n o 169 (février 1965 ), l'éditeur Julius Schwartz indique que Finger a créé le Sphinx mais son contrat ne mentionne pas une obligation de le créditer. À la mort de Finger en 1974, DC n'a toujours pas rétabli l'importance du rôle de ce dernier. Quelques années plus tard, Kane confirme les contributions de Finger ( « Batman était au début un super-héros, un justicier ; Bill en a fait un détective scientifique » ), tout en insistant sur son propre rôle dans la création du personnage [ 15 ] . C'est seulement en 2014 que le nom de Finger est inscrit comme scénariste de la première histoire de Batman dans la réédition gratuite du numéro 27 de Detective Comics prévue pour le mois de juillet 2014 [ 16 ] . Au milieu des années 1960 , le nom de Kane est retiré au profit des noms des scénaristes et dessinateurs. Ce ne sera qu'à la fin des années 1970 que la mention « créé par Bob Kane » sera rajoutée définitivement aux crédits, suivant l'exemple des histoires de Superman , où apparaît « créé par Jerry Siegel et Joe Shuster ». Premiers temps Présenté comme the Bat-Man , le super-héros masqué apparaît dans le numéro 27 du comic book Detective Comics publié le 30 mars 1939 . La couverture est postdatée au mois de mai 1939 [ 17 ] , selon la méthode éditoriale consistant à indiquer une date ultérieure à celle de la mise en vente pour que le titre reste plus longtemps sur les présentoirs des marchands de journaux avant d'en être retiré avec les autres invendus [ 18 ] . Bill Finger témoigne que le personnage « a été écrit dans le style des pulps , des magazines bon marché dans lesquels se trouvaient des récits de science-fiction, de fantasy, etc [ 19 ] » . L'intrigue de la première histoire de Batman, The Case of the Chemical Syndicate [ n 5 ] , est ainsi directement calquée sur celle de Partners of Peril (1936), un pulp où Theodore Tinsley (en) met en scène le ténébreux The Shadow [ 20 ] . Drapé dans une cape noire, les traits masqués par un large chapeau et une écharpe rouge sang, ce justicier impitoyable n'hésite pas à utiliser ses deux pistolets emblématiques [ 21 ] . Conformément à ce modèle [ 8 ] , Batman, à ses débuts, ne montre aucune réticence à tuer délibérément des criminels [ 22 ] . Par ailleurs, Bill Finger s'inspire de l'extravagante galerie de malfaiteurs représentée dans Dick Tracy , comics policier « hard-boiled », pour concevoir les ennemis du super-héros [ 23 ] . Graphiquement, la série s'inspire des films dans lesquels la mise en scène est recherchée et originale comme ceux d' Orson Welles [ 8 ] . Orson Welles grimé en The Shadow . Photographie promotionnelle d'une adaptation radiophonique des aventures du justicier des pulps (vers 1937-1938). Dick Tracy combat des gangsters truculents aux faciès grotesques, qui inspireront partiellement les super-vilains de Batman. Le personnage remporte un succès immédiat et dès 1940 il a droit à son propre comic-book trimestriel intitulé sobrement Batman . Dans le premier numéro apparaissent des personnages qui vont faire partie intégrante de l'univers du héros, à savoir le Joker et Catwoman [ 3 ] . Ce premier numéro est aussi remarquable par le fait que Batman tue un personnage en lui tirant dessus. L'éditeur de l'époque décide alors que Batman n'aura plus le droit de tuer ou d'utiliser un fusil [ 24 ] . La même année Batman rencontre Superman dans le comic-book World's Finest Comics [ 3 ] . Dès les premiers comics, on perçoit l'évolution physique du personnage. « En un an, il était complet, mon Batman définitif » , déclara Kane [ 25 ] . La ceinture remplie de gadgets fut introduite dans Detective Comics n o 29, suivie par le batarang, un boomerang ayant la forme d'une chauve-souris stylisée, et le premier « bat-véhicule » dans le n o 31. C'est deux épisodes plus tard, avec une brève histoire condensée sur deux pages, que l'on connaîtra les origines du personnage. Bruce Wayne est le fils d'un riche industriel assassiné avec son épouse par un criminel dans une allée de la ville fictive de Gotham (il faut attendre Batman n o 47 pour en savoir plus et apprendre le nom de l'assassin de ses parents : Joe Chill ). Bruce est témoin du meurtre et, traumatisé par cette catastrophe, s'entraîne pour lutter contre le crime une fois adulte. Lorsqu'une chauve-souris brise une fenêtre du manoir dans lequel il vit, Bruce considère cela comme un présage et décide de devenir the Bat-Man [ 26 ] . Batman est à l'origine un héros sombre. Les auteurs, dont Jerry Robinson qui assiste Bob Kane, s'inspirent du cinéma expressionniste allemand pour décrire un monde où le crime et la corruption règnent. Batman est le dernier recours face à des criminels insolites [ 26 ] . Toutefois, ce côté « pulp » commence à s'estomper dès 1940 dans Detective Comics n o 38 avec l'introduction de Robin , le partenaire de Batman [ 27 ] . Robin (dont le nom a été inspiré par Robin des Bois et par le nom anglais du rouge-gorge ) a été créé selon l'idée de Finger que Batman avait besoin d'un docteur Watson qui lui donnerait la réplique [ 28 ] . Batman devient aussi un des membres de la Société de justice d'Amérique . Il apparaît brièvement pour la première fois dans le septième numéro du magazine All Star Comics dans lequel sont racontées les aventures du groupe. Il participe toutefois assez peu aux missions de la Société de justice, restant membre honoraire [ 29 ] . Les relations de Batman avec la police ne sont alors pas conflictuelles. Il collabore avec la police de Gotham et devient même un membre d'honneur de celle-ci dans le septième numéro de Batman [ 22 ] . En 1943, Batman gagne son comic strip [ 30 ] auquel se consacre Bob Kane qui abandonne les comic books aux artistes de son studio. Kane est censé revenir au comic book en 1946, puisque selon l'accord signé avec DC Comics il doit dessiner et écrire un certain nombre de pages de Batman [ 14 ] . En réalité il ne dessine plus rien et laisse le travail à Lew Schwartz de 1946 à 1953 et Sheldon Moldoff de 1953 à 1967 [ 5 ] . Âge d'argent des comics Après la Seconde Guerre mondiale les lecteurs se désintéressent des comics de super-héros et se tournent vers d'autres genres comme les récits criminels ou les histoires d'horreur [ 31 ] . Batman reste une des rares séries de super-héros publiées dans les années 1950 [ 32 ] . Au milieu des années 1950, les histoires de Batman peuvent être rattachées au genre de la science-fiction , à l'instar de Superman. Les histoires créées par Dick Sprang sont caractéristiques de cette vision du héros confronté à des ennemis anecdotiques et dépouillé de l'aspect noir des origines [ 33 ] . Cependant, après la mise en place du Comics Code en 1954, cela n'apparaît pas suffisant. Les auteurs sont amenés à développer un aspect enfantin et le ton général de la série reste assez léger [ 26 ] jusqu'au milieu des années 1960, sous la plume de Bob Kane mais aussi de ses nègres littéraires Jerry Robinson, Dick Sprang , Jim Mooney , Lew S. Schwartz, Sheldon Moldoff et Joe Giella au dessin [ 34 ] et Gardner Fox au scénario [ 35 ] . Cela conduit à des épisodes semblables à celui où Batman devient un géant ou pousse à créer des personnages qui vont l'entourer et former une « famille » comme celle de Captain Marvel ou celle de Superman . Après Robin, sont créés Batgirl , Batwoman [ 36 ] , le bat-hound (un chien portant un masque comme Batman et l'aidant à chasser les criminels) [ 37 ] et même Bongo the Bat-Ape [ n 6 ] , [ 36 ] . Il est communément admis que l’ âge d'argent des comics commence en 1956, quand Barry Allen devient le nouveau Flash dans les pages du quatrième numéro du comic book Showcase [ 38 ] . Les super-héros de l' âge d'or dont les comics ont cessé de paraître sont recréés comme Green Lantern ou Atom . Cela n'affecte pas Batman dont les comic books n'ont jamais connu d'interruption. Cependant, lorsque Barry Allen découvre une autre Terre où vit le Flash de l'âge d'or, les responsables éditoriaux de DC Comics établissent que les super-héros de l'âge d'or vivent tous sur cette Terre, nommée Terre II, alors que ceux de cette nouvelle période nommée âge d'argent vivent sur Terre I [ L 1 ] . Durant l’âge d'argent, Batman collabore régulièrement avec d’autres héros, principalement Superman . Leur première rencontre dans cette période date de 1954 et a lieu dans le numéro 76 du comic book Superman [ 39 ] . Ils se retrouveront fréquemment par la suite et feront équipe dans la série World's Finest Comics à partir du numéro 71 de juillet-août 1954 jusqu'au numéro 323 de janvier 1986. Les histoires sont basées sur leur proche amitié, et sur des affaires nécessitant leurs talents combinés [ 40 ] . Batman est membre fondateur de la JLA dont la première histoire est publiée dans The Brave and the Bold [ n 7 ] n o 28 (1960) [ 41 ] . Série télévisée des années 1960 En 1964, les ventes des comics dans lesquels Batman est le héros chutent de façon spectaculaire ; Bob Kane pense même que « [DC] était en train de planifier la mort de Batman [ 42 ] » . Aussi quand Julius Schwartz est chargé de prendre en main les séries consacrées au héros, il adopte des mesures draconiennes. Tout d'abord, dans Detective Comics n o 327 (1964) le costume de Batman est redessiné afin de lui donner un aspect plus contemporain. C'est Carmine Infantino qui apporte alors son aide dans cette tâche. De plus, les personnages apparus dans les années 1950 ainsi que les extra-terrestres sont abandonnés. Cependant, l'amélioration des ventes des comics liés à Batman est surtout due au début de la série télévisée dont le premier épisode date du 12 janvier 1966. La série a une profonde influence sur le personnage car en plus du retour d'Alfred et de l'introduction de Batgirl , le côté kitsch de la série se ressent dans le comics. Grâce à la série, les ventes s'envolent pour atteindre une moyenne de 900 000 exemplaires, chiffre le plus important pour un comics de super-héros depuis les années 1950 [ 43 ] . Bien que la série télévisée et le comics rencontrent un certain succès, l'aspect kitsch commence à lasser le public. La série télévisée est arrêtée en 1968 [ 33 ] . Les ventes des comics baissent à nouveau. Comme Julius Schwartz l'a indiqué plus tard : « Quand la série TV était un succès, on m'a demandé de faire du kitsch, et bien sûr quand la série a périclité, les comics ont suivi [ 44 ] . » Âge de bronze des comics Carmine Infantino, devenu responsable éditorial, décide alors de confier le personnage à de jeunes auteurs, le scénariste Dennis O'Neil et le dessinateur Neal Adams . Ils tentent de libérer Batman de la légèreté qu'il avait prise à la suite de la série télévisée pour retrouver le véritable « vengeur nocturne » des origines [ 45 ] . L'ère O'Neil/Adams débute dans Detective Comics n o 395 (1970) avec une intrigue à l'atmosphère plus gothique. Dans une histoire écrite par Frank Robbins , Dick Grayson (Robin) retourne à l'université, faisant, à nouveau, de Batman un héros solitaire [ 46 ] . Les histoires de Batman deviennent plus sombres, plus violentes, avec le retour d’un Joker meurtrier et l’arrivée de Ra's al Ghul [ 33 ] . Elles sont à mettre en résonance avec le contexte politique de l'époque : hausse de la criminalité dans les grandes villes et « guerre contre la drogue » initiée par le président Richard Nixon [ 47 ] . Le ton général donné par O'Neil influence les histoires de Batman des années 1970 et 1980 ; les histoires de Detective Comics de Steve Englehart et Marshall Rogers sont considérées par de nombreuses personnes comme étant le point culminant de cette période [ 48 ] . Dennis O'Neil en 2009. Neal Adams en 2007. Steve Englehart en 1982. Marshall Rogers en 1979. Batman recommence aussi à travailler en solo dans les années 1970 et 1980 et fait occasionnellement équipe avec Robin ou Batgirl . Alors que la relation entre Batman et Robin s'affaiblit, ce dernier quitte définitivement Batman et devient Nightwing [ 46 ] , [ 49 ] . Dans les années 1970 et 1980, le comic book the Brave and the Bold est relié aux titres Batman, puisque dans chaque numéro ce dernier est associé à un héros DC différent. Batman fait aussi partie de la Ligue de justice mais en 1983, il quitte ce groupe pour former une nouvelle équipe, les Outsiders dont les aventures sont publiées dans le comic book Batman and the Oustsiders scénarisé par Mike W. Barr et dessiné par Jim Aparo . Batman quitte le groupe en 1985 au numéro 32 [ 50 ] . Âge moderne des comics En 1986 est publiée la maxi-série Crisis on Infinite Earths [ n 8 ] dans laquelle l'univers DC avec ses différentes dimensions, ses Terres 1, 2, X, S, etc. est entièrement recréé. Tous les évènements racontés dans les comics précédant ce cataclysme sont censés ne pas s'être produits et chaque héros commence, au sens propre, une nouvelle vie. Ainsi, DC réécrit l'histoire de son univers et adapte les origines de ses personnages. Dennis O'Neil, devenu rédacteur en chef de tous les titres Batman , s'occupe alors de l'image du héros après ces évènements. O'Neil a affirmé qu'on lui a donné la charge de relooker le personnage, mais il a plutôt essayé de donner un autre ton à la série, différent de tout ce qui avait été fait avant [ 51 ] . Frank Miller , avec David Mazzucchelli au dessin, redéfinit en 1987 les origines de Batman dans Batman : Année Un publié dans Batman du numéro 404 au 407 et donne au héros une personnalité plus sombre [ 52 ] . Auparavant, la série limitée de Frank Miller Batman: Dark Knight [ n 9 ] (1986) racontant l'histoire d'un Batman à la retraite reprenant du service, fait retrouver au personnage ses racines. Cette mini-série est un succès commercial et depuis lors est devenu une pierre angulaire de l'histoire des comics [ 53 ] . La série relance aussi la popularité de Batman [ 54 ] Alan Moore et Brian Bolland continuent dans cette direction avec Batman: The Killing Joke de 1988, dans lequel le Joker essaie de pousser à bout le Commissaire Gordon , l'enlève, le torture et rend infirme sa fille Barbara Gordon . Cette histoire et d'autres du même acabit changent l'image des comics en visant un public plus adulte [ 55 ] . Après le départ de Dick Grayson le premier Robin , Batman ne reste pas seul longtemps car un nouveau Robin fait son apparition en la personne de Jason Todd . Cependant, le duo est de courte durée car ce deuxième Robin est assassiné par le Joker en 1988, dans Un deuil dans la famille [ 56 ] . À la suite de cette perte, Batman s'endurcit et devient plus radical dans sa lutte contre le crime. Il travaille de nouveau en solitaire jusqu'à l'arrivée de Tim Drake qui devient le troisième Robin dans le récit A Lonely Place of Dying [ n 10 ] , [ 57 ] . D'autres héros se joignent à Batman au cours des ans comme Huntress [ 58 ] ou Azrael [ 59 ] . Ce dernier personnage joue un rôle essentiel dans le crossover Knightfall [ n 11 ] publié en 1993. Batman doit rattraper tous les prisonniers enfermés dans l' asile d'Arkham et libérés par Bane . Lorsque Batman, épuisé, affronte enfin Bane, celui-ci parvient à lui briser la colonne vertébrale et le laisse paralysé. Pour que Batman continue à arpenter les rues de Gotham, Bruce Wayne fait de Azrael son successeur. Toutefois celui-ci ne respecte pas les règles édictées par Bruce Wayne et lorsque ce dernier trouve le moyen de guérir et de revenir, il reprend son identité de Batman [ 60 ] . Doug Moench , Chuck Dixon , et Alan Grant sont les scénaristes qui travaillent sur les titres Batman pendant toute la durée de Knightfall , et s'occupent ensuite de tous les crossover du héros pendant les années 1990 . En 1994, le crossover Zero Hour [ n 12 ] provoque encore des changements dans la continuité de l'Univers DC. Entre autres, Joe Chill n'est pas identifié et le meurtrier des parents de Wayne devient un anonyme. Cependant, cette rupture de continuité est annulée en 2006 lors des évènements racontés dans Infinite Crisis [ 61 ] . Entre-temps, Batman a réintégré la Ligue de justice d'Amérique dans le comic book JLA scénarisé par Grant Morrison. Dans cette version de l'équipe, jugée par beaucoup comme l'une des meilleures, Batman, bien qu'il soit encadré de personnages ayant des super-pouvoirs, est montré comme un élément qui ne dépare pas dans le groupe et qui individuellement parvient à vaincre des ennemis apparemment plus forts que lui [ 62 ] . Dans les comics de Batman est éditée l'histoire Cataclysm qui sert d'introduction à No Man's Land publié en 1999. Cette aventure sur un an a un impact sur tous les titres Batman en dépeignant un Gotham ravagé par un séisme [ 60 ] . Une fois cette histoire finie, Dennis O'Neil cède sa place à Bob Schreck [ 63 ] . En 2003, Jeph Loeb , déjà scénariste d'aventures de Batman avec les maxi-séries Batman : Un long Halloween et Amère Victoire , et le dessinateur Jim Lee entament une histoire sur 12 numéros intitulée Silence . Batman, toujours tourmenté par la perte de Jason Todd, est confronté à un nouvel ennemi qui va remuer le couteau dans la plaie : Silence . Ce dernier essaie de tromper Batman en lui faisant croire que Jason Todd est revenu à la vie. La fin de l'histoire après avoir révélé l'identité de Silence et laissé celui-ci pour mort, s'achève sans que le mystère de la réapparition de Jason Todd soit résolu [ 64 ] . Alors que Crisis on Infinite Earths devait créer un univers cohérent, le résultat vingt ans plus tard est un monde sombre dans lequel des problèmes de continuité apparaissent. Pour résoudre ceux-ci et remettre au goût du jour un monde héroïque, DC Comics dans les années 2000 propose trois arcs narratifs. Batman joue un rôle important dans ceux-ci et principalement dans Identity Crisis [ n 13 ] , Infinite Crisis [ n 14 ] et Final Crisis [ n 15 ] . À la fin de ce dernier, Batman semble être tué par Darkseid . Dick Grayson prend l'identité du héros mort et Damian, le fils de Bruce Wayne et Talia Al'Ghul, est le nouveau Robin [ 65 ] . Néanmoins cette mort ne dure pas et en 2010, on assiste au retour de Bruce Wayne dans la mini série en 6 volumes The Return of Bruce Wayne [ n 16 ] signée Grant Morrison [ 66 ] . À la suite de cette histoire Batman est de retour dans le présent et arbore un nouveau costume. Il laisse Dick Grayson continuer son activité de justicier sous le nom de Batman avec son fils Damian Wayne comme nouveau Robin, trouvant qu'ils font de l'excellent travail à Gotham City. Il décide de parcourir le globe pour former un groupe (une « corporation ») de héros ayant une similarité avec lui, s'étant résolu à une vérité : le monde entier a besoin d'un Batman [ 67 ] . En France, il recrute Bilal Asselah, alias Nightrunner [ 68 ] . La renaissance DC En septembre 2011, DC Comics relance toutes ses séries avec un nouveau numéro 1. Cette recréation, semblable à celle de Crisis on Infinite Earths est nommée New 52 [ n 17 ] traduit en français par la renaissance DC . Cela fait suite aux évènements racontés dans la mini-série Flashpoint dans laquelle le héros Flash est précipité dans un univers alternatif créé par son ennemi Eobard Thawne alias Professeur Zoom . À la fin de la mini-série, Flash parvient à retourner dans le passé et modifie de ce fait la réalité DC. Le monde de Batman comme celui de tous les autres héros est transformé et certains épisodes sont annulés. Ainsi, Bruce Wayne est l'unique Batman, Dick Grayson est Nightwing et n'a jamais porté le costume du chevalier noir, Damian Wayne reste le nouveau Robin jusqu'à sa mort dans le huitième épisode du second volume de Batman Incorporated en 2013 [ 69 ] et Tim Drake est toujours Red Robin. Barbara Gordon est remise de sa paralysie et retrouve son identité de Batgirl ce qui signifie que les autres jeunes femmes présentées comme ayant porté le costume disparaissent de la continuité. Jason Todd a ressuscité et pris l'identité de Red Hood mais son passé est réécrit. Enfin Kate Kane reste Batwoman [ 70 ] . Outre la mort de Damian Wayne, un nombre considérable d'événements majeurs survient à cette période. D'abord, dans l'arc La Cour des hiboux , Batman affronte une organisation secrète de gens riches et puissants qui prétend contrôler Gotham dans l'ombre depuis sa création [ 71 ] . S'ensuit Le deuil de la famille qui présente le retour du Joker disparu au tout début du New 52 [ 72 ] . L'aventure suivante, intitulée Zero Year [ n 18 ] , se déroule six ans dans le passé, au moment où Bruce commence sa carrière de justicier. Il y affronte le Sphinx dans un Gotham post-apocalyptique [ 73 ] . En avril 2014, une nouvelle série hebdomadaire du nom de Batman Eternal [ n 19 ] est lancée. L'élément déclencheur est l'arrestation de Jim Gordon après un accident de train dont il serait coupable mais la série est présentée comme devant être riche en rebondissements [ 74 ] . Description Personnalités Habituellement, la relation entre le personnage principal et son identité de héros costumé est sans ambigüité. Le héros porte un masque qui sert seulement à cacher à ses ennemis et à la foule sa véritable personnalité afin de protéger sa vie privée et celle de ses proches. Toutefois, le cas de Batman est plus complexe. Les auteurs ont tendance à voir en Batman la réelle identité ; Bruce Wayne dans ses apparitions publiques ne serait qu'un masque, une façade. L'identité Bruce Wayne serait morte lors de l'assassinat de Martha et Thomas Wayne devant les yeux de leur fils et, à la place, l'enfant se serait forgé un autre moi incarné, l'âge adulte, en Batman. Toutefois, depuis Infinite Crisis et le film Batman Begins , les auteurs décrivent un Bruce Wayne dont la personnalité se situe entre l'image du play-boy et l'identité de Batman [ 75 ] . Bruce Wayne Bruce Wayne est le plus souvent dépeint comme un homme sain d'esprit, intelligent et d'une moralité sans faille [ 76 ] . Il est milliardaire et possède des entreprises rassemblées sous le nom générique de Wayne Enterprises. Après la mort de ses parents, il cherche à développer ses facultés afin de combattre le crime. Lorsqu'il revient à Gotham et devient Batman, il trouve là sa véritable identité et Bruce Wayne devient alors une image, celle d'un play-boy milliardaire dirigeant son entreprise et ayant une vie sociale semblable à celle des membres de sa classe sociale, bien qu'elle soit plus limitée à cause de ses nuits passées sous le masque de Batman [ O 1 ] . Wayne est aussi réputé pour sa participation à des œuvres de charité et une attitude favorable au développement d'une économie écologique [ 77 ] . Il a d'ailleurs créé la Fondation Wayne qui est une association d'aide aux victimes. Son souci d'améliorer la vie de ses concitoyens l'a même amené à être maire de Gotham et plus tard sénateur [ O 2 ] . Batman Pour combattre les criminels, Bruce Wayne crée une nouvelle identité. Ainsi naît le Bat-Man qui, la nuit, chasse les malfaiteurs et les saisit d'effroi. Constamment sur le qui-vive, il exerce un contrôle total sur ses sentiments et est prêt à tout pour atteindre son but [ L 2 ] . Batman mesure environ 1,90 mètre et pèse 95 kilos [ 78 ] . Certains des ennemis de Batman ont réussi à découvrir sa véritable identité, comme le docteur Hugo Strange [ 79 ] , Bane [ 80 ] , etc. Le Joker semble également la connaître mais ne paraît pas s'en soucier, considérant que Batman est sa véritable identité [ 81 ] . Costume Batman possède un costume qui doit inspirer la peur dans les bas-fonds de Gotham [ 82 ] . Les détails de ce costume changent avec le temps, mais certains éléments sont restés invariables : la cape aux extrémités pointues, le masque aux oreilles pointues qui couvre la majorité du visage, la ceinture multifonctions et le symbole de la chauve-souris sur la poitrine. C'est ce dernier qui a subi le plus de changements. En 1964 une ellipse jaune fut brièvement ajoutée. Les couleurs sont passées du bleu nuit à gris clair, puis noir et enfin gris foncé. La longueur de la cape ou des oreilles dépend beaucoup des dessinateurs. Les yeux, parfois visibles, sont, le plus souvent, masqués derrière des fentes blanches [ 83 ] . Capacités Sa force réside dans ses capacités de détective , son intelligence , ses capacités physiques et l'accès à une technologie de pointe [ 84 ] . Son entraînement, ses ressources, sa rigueur compensent ainsi largement l'absence d'un pouvoir spécifique. C'est un maître dans de nombreuses disciplines martiales (tout spécialement à mains nues) qui selon les époques ont varié. Dans les premiers temps, Batman pratique le judo et le jiujitsu puis le karaté et le kung-fu qu'il utilise des années 1950 aux années 1970. Depuis les années 1980, sa technique de combat est un mélange de différents arts martiaux [ 85 ] et ses capacités physiques sont dignes d'un niveau olympique [ 86 ] . Matches Malone Matches Malone était un gangster et un pyromane du New Jersey. Après sa mort, Batman adopta son identité afin d'infiltrer les organisations criminelles pour y glaner de précieux renseignements, impossibles à récolter autrement. Ce déguisement ne ressemble en rien à Bruce Wayne puisqu'il transforme sa voix, a une moustache, porte des lunettes, se vêt d'un imperméable rouge et affiche constamment une allumette aux lèvres (d'où le surnom Matches ) pour ressembler à ce qu'était le vrai bandit [ 87 ] . Équipement Dépourvu de super-pouvoir pour combattre le crime, Batman compte uniquement sur sa condition physique et sur ses gadgets. Son costume, conçu pour terrifier les criminels, est en kevlar ce qui le protège des balles, des armes blanches [ 88 ] alors que sa cape en nomex le protège du feu [ 89 ] . Sa ceinture, montrée pour la première fois en 1939 [ 88 ] , comprend plusieurs poches dans lesquelles il range des armes offensives et défensives [ 90 ] : les batarangs qui sont des boomerangs ayant la forme stylisée d'une chauve-souris, des capsules de gaz neutralisant et un taser [ 90 ] . Les batarangs peuvent être lancés à la main ou avec un pistolet spécial. Certains batarangs ont une fonction particulière (batarangs magnétiques, munis d'une caméra, lumineux, explosifs, etc [ 88 ] ). Une trousse à pharmacie est aussi glissée dans sa ceinture [ 91 ] . Batman utilise des costumes différents adaptés aux particularités des missions : plongée en haute mer, déplacement dans l'espace [ 92 ] , etc. Après avoir utilisé des véhicules banalisés, Batman construit la Batmobile à partir de 1941. Le véhicule est blindé et l'avant conçu sous la forme stylisée d'une tête de chauve-souris, peut servir de bélier. Le modèle varie selon les décennies. Dans les années 1950, c'est un roadster puis une berline , une voiture de sport dans les années 1960, un coupé sport pour la décennie 1970, un dragster dans les années 1980 suivi d'un véhicule futuriste. Ce véhicule, hors-norme, est équipé de nombreux gadgets et comprend un mini laboratoire de criminologie. La batmobile est le plus connu des engins de Batman mais ce n'est pas le seul. Selon ses besoins, Batman utilise un batcycle [ n 20 ] , un batplane, un batcopter, un batboat [ n 21 ] , un batsub [ n 22 ] et bien d'autres encore [ 93 ] . La Batmobile de la série TV. Vue sur l'avant de la Batmobile du film de Tim Burton (1989). Vue sur l'arrière de la Batmobile. Vue sur le bas de caisse de la Batmobile et son armement. Le Bat-Signal est utilisé par la police de Gotham pour requérir l'aide de Batman. C'est un puissant projecteur qui dessine l'insigne de Batman dans le ciel nocturne. Bob Kane a reconnu que son inspiration pour le Bat-Signal provient du film The Bat Whispers (1930) qui dépeignait un bandit dont le masque en forme de tête de chauve-souris produisait d'imposantes ombres de chauve-souris et qui signalait ses présumées prochaines victimes avec un signal de chauve-souris projeté sur les murs. Ce signal visible de tous les endroits de la ville est utilisé pour la première fois dans l'histoire Case of the Costume-Clad Killers [ n 23 ] publiée dans le numéro 60 de Detective Comics en février 1942 [ 94 ] . Univers Lieux Gotham City Les premières aventures de Batman sont situées à New York [ 95 ] . Toutefois, Bill Finger veut éviter toute confusion, dans l'esprit des lecteurs, entre cette ville de fiction et la réalité. En janvier 1941, dans Batman n o 4, New York est donc remplacée par une ville fictive appelée Gotham [ 96 ] . Cependant, le lien originel persiste. En effet Gotham est un surnom donné à la ville de New York par l'auteur Washington Irving . Celui-ci se moquait de la ville américaine en la reliant à la ville anglaise de Gotham qui, depuis des siècles, est renommée pour être habitée par des fous [ 97 ] . Inspirée par des villes comme Chicago ou New York , Gotham City est située sur la côte nord-est des États-Unis dans le New Jersey [ 97 ] . Selon certains auteurs, elle représente le New York des années 1970 gangrenée par la corruption. D'autres, l'imaginent comme le New York des années 2000 : propre et accueillante mais avec une part sombre dissimulée [ 76 ] . Elle concentre les aspects les plus noirs des villes américaines dangereuses et corrompues [ 98 ] . Le bien et le mal ne se reconnaissent pas immédiatement : ceux qui devraient défendre les citoyens, des policiers au maire sont susceptibles d'être des agents du mal. Contrairement à Metropolis où les malfaiteurs viennent le plus souvent de l'extérieur, Gotham produit les criminels qui tentent de la rançonner [ 99 ] . Gotham est par excellence une ville moderne, rationnelle et de ce fait ne peut produire que des êtres en souffrance [ 100 ] . Il a parfois été écrit que Gotham City était « New York at night » [ n 24 ] , en référence au fort taux de criminalité de la ville américaine [ 97 ] . Crime Alley est un secteur de Gotham qui est particulièrement important pour Batman car ses parents y sont morts. Il y revient chaque année en pèlerinage pour déposer des fleurs sur le lieu exact où ils sont décédés [ 101 ] . Batcave La Batcave est montrée, pour la première fois, dans le serial Batman sorti en 1943 [ 30 ] . C'est une base secrète aménagée dans un entrelacs de souterrains situés sous le manoir Wayne . Dans le passé elle avait servi de refuge aux esclaves en fuite vers les états du Nord. Alors qu'il est encore enfant, Bruce Wayne tombe dans cette grotte avant d'être sauvé par son père. Lorsqu'il décide de devenir Batman, il agrandit considérablement ce souterrain pour y conserver ses outils et ses véhicules qu'il utilise dans sa lutte contre le crime [ 102 ] , [ 103 ] , mais la salle contient aussi : un ensemble d'ordinateurs ; un atelier de mécanique ; un laboratoire de criminologie/criminalistique et balistique ; une zone pour les exercices physiques ; une salle des trophées où sont conservés des objets ayant appartenu à des criminels vaincus ; une salle de tir. une salle de test pour la Batmobile Un passage secret permet d'y accéder à partir du manoir [ 37 ] . Il existe des issues extérieures destinées au passage des véhicules de Batman (batmobile, batplane, batboat) [ 104 ] . L'asile d'Arkham L' asile d'Arkham est un institut particulier où des malades mentaux et certains des ennemis de Batman reconnus comme aliénés sont soignés. Le nom des lieux est directement inspiré de celui de la ville fictive d'Arkham imaginée par H. P. Lovecraft [ 105 ] . Il est mentionné pour la première fois en 1974 dans Batman n o 258 scénarisé par Denny O'Neil. Ce bâtiment est très ancien, tout en pierre et il est la propriété de la famille Arkham depuis le début du XX e siècle. Après le suicide de sa mère, devenue folle, Amadeus Arkham transforma la maison familiale en hôpital psychiatrique nommé Elizabeth Arkham Asylum for the Criminally Insane [ n 25 ] , [ 106 ] . Devenu fou lui-même, le propriétaire y finit ses jours, mais l'hôpital fut conservé par la suite. Le Joker, Double-Face ou encore Poison Ivy se retrouvent régulièrement entre les murs du bâtiment car déclarés aliénés. Les criminels reconnus responsables de leurs actes comme le Pingouin sont envoyés à la prison de Blackgate [ 107 ] . Cependant, certains malfaiteurs qui ne peuvent être détenus dans une prison classique, comme M. Freeze , sont aussi enfermés à Arkham car des équipements spéciaux de détention y sont présents. Tous ces détenus s'échappent assez régulièrement ou bien parviennent à se rendre maîtres de l'hôpital par une mutinerie ou des prises d'otages [ 108 ] . Les malades d'Arkham sont soignés par des psychiatres avec des méthodes vraiment violentes proches de la torture par électricité [ 109 ] . Le taux de guérison semble cependant très faible. En dehors des malades, l'asile est aussi occupé par les équipes soignantes dont beaucoup souffrent de troubles psychiques. C'est le cas d'Amadeus Arkham, de son neveu Jeremiah, devenu le second Black Mask , ou d'Harleen Quinzel, psychanalyste et psychothérapeute, qui va tomber sous l'emprise du Joker et va devenir la criminelle Harley Quinn [ 110 ] . Alliés Malgré sa réputation de héros solitaire, Batman collabore avec de nombreux personnages, parmi tous ses alliés on y compte Nightwing (Dick Grayson) , Red Hood (Jason Todd , Red Robin (Tim Dake) , Robin (Damian Wayne) , Alfred Pennyworth , James Gordon , Batgirl (Barbara Gordon) , Lucius Fox , Batwoman (Kathy Kane) , Catwoman (Selina Kyle) , Talia al Ghul , Batwing (Luke Fox) , Azrael et la Justice League . Robin Le personnage de Robin apparaît dans le numéro 38 de Detective Comics (date de couverture : avril 1940). Il devient si populaire que les ventes du comic book doublent presque [ 111 ] . Bruce Wayne recueille le jeune Dick Grayson, devenu orphelin après l'assassinat de ses parents, et, sous l'identité de Batman, décide de l'entraîner pour en faire son assistant [ 26 ] . À partir de 1947, Robin est aussi le héros d'histoires sans Batman dans le comic book Star Spangled [ 112 ] . En 1964, dans le cinquante-quatrième numéro du comics The Brave and the Bold , Robin s'allie avec Kid Flash et Aqualad contre le super-vilain M. Twister. Ainsi se crée l'équipe des Teen Titans qui en 1966 bénéficie de son propre comics [ 113 ] . En décembre 1969, dans Batman 217, Dick Grayson part pour l'université de l'Hudson et apparaît dès lors beaucoup moins dans les comics de Batman. En 1980, Marv Wolfman et George Perez recréent les Teens Titans sous le titre The New Teen Titans et Dick Grayson devient le chef du groupe. Plus tard, Batman ayant choisi un nouveau Robin, Dick Grayson abandonne son costume et prend une nouvelle identité, Nightwing [ 114 ] . Jason Todd est le deuxième adolescent à revêtir l'identité de Robin. Après la mort de ses parents, deux artistes de cirque, il est recueilli par Bruce Wayne et, dans le numéro 526 de Detective Comics (date de couverture : mai 1983), il reçoit le costume de Robin. Dick Grayson est encore formellement le titulaire du nom et durant quelques mois deux Robin coexistent. Le passage de relais a lieu dans Batman 368 (février 1984). Cette nouvelle incarnation ne rencontre pas l'adhésion des lecteurs et en 1988 Denny O'Neil, alors responsable éditorial des comic books de Batman, propose de faire voter les lecteurs pour qu'ils décident de la survie ou de la mort de Jason. Le vote a lieu par téléphone au mois de septembre. La mort est choisie avec une faible majorité de 28 voix [ 115 ] . Celle-ci est racontée dans l'histoire A Death in the Family [ n 26 ] ( Batman 426 à 429). Robin est capturé, torturé par le Joker et meurt dans l'explosion du repaire de l'assassin [ 116 ] . En 2005-2006, Jason Todd est ressuscité mais il porte désormais le masque de Red Hood , un justicier qui, contrairement à Batman, n'hésite pas à tuer ses adversaires [ 117 ] . Tim Drake , le troisième Robin, fait sa première apparition en 1989 dans l'histoire en cinq épisodes, A Lonely Place of Dying , parue dans Batman 440 à 442 et The New Teen Titans 60-61. Tim a déduit que Bruce Wayne et Dick Grayson étaient Batman et Robin et que Jason Todd avait ensuite remplacé Dick. Lorsqu'il rencontre les deux héros et qu'il leur annonce qu'il connaît leur double identité, Batman décide de recueillir Tim et en décembre 1990, dans Batman 457, Tim Drake devient le troisième Robin [ 57 ] . En 1987 Mike W. Barr écrit le scénario d'un roman graphique intitulé Batman : Le Fils du démon dessiné par Jerry Bingham . Dans cette histoire, Batman et la fille de Ra's Al Ghul, Talia, ont une relation amoureuse et Talia tombe enceinte. Elle fait croire à Bruce Wayne que l'enfant est mort-né alors qu'elle le fait adopter. L'idée que Batman puisse être père est jugée inacceptable par Denny O'Neil, le responsable éditorial des titres liés à Batman, aussi décide-t-il que cette histoire est en dehors de la continuité [ 118 ] . Cependant, en 2006, Grant Morrison introduit dans le monde de Batman son fils Damian qu'il a eu avec Talia. La fin du roman graphique est oubliée et dans ce nouvel ordre du récit, Talia a gardé son fils, a modifié son corps dans un laboratoire et chargé la Ligue des Assassins de l'éduquer. Quand Damian est âgé d'une dizaine d'années, Talia le confie à Batman pour qu'il veille sur lui et s'occupe de son éducation. Elle espère ainsi que Batman sera suffisamment occupé pour ne pas contrarier ses plans. Lorsque Batman semble être mort, Damian prend l'identité de Robin et Dick Grayson, celle de Batman. Le retour de Bruce Wayne ne change pas la situation, puisque celui-ci part pour créer l'équivalent d'un nouveau Batman dans de nombreux pays et lorsque Dick Grayson reprend le costume de Nightwing, Damian reste Robin. Le numéro 8 du second volume de Batman Incorporated marque la fin de cette équipe puisque Damian y trouve la mort [ 69 ] . Il sera cependant ressuscité par Batman lors d'un conflit contre Darkseid, lui rendant alors sa place auprès de son père [ 119 ] . Alfred Pennyworth Alfred Pennyworth est le fidèle serviteur de Bruce Wayne, un confident et une figure paternelle. Il apparaît pour la première fois dans Batman n o 16 d'avril/mai 1943 dans une histoire intitulée Here comes Alfred [ n 27 ] . Alfred Pennyworth est un majordome qui a été encouragé par son père — qui avait la même fonction pour le père de Bruce Wayne — à tenir ce rôle pour Bruce. Dès la première nuit, Alfred découvre la double identité de Bruce Wayne et de Dick Grayson. Il est donc engagé définitivement [ 120 ] . D'abord corpulent et sans moustache son apparence est rapidement modifiée. Pour qu'il devienne fin et moustachu comme l'acteur William Austin qui joue son rôle dans le serial Batman , le scénariste du comic book Detective Comics n o 83 publié en janvier 1944, le montre suivant un régime et se laissant pousser la moustache [ 121 ] . En 1957, son histoire est réécrite et il n'est plus question de l'arrivée impromptue, de la découverte accidentelle ou d'une apparence différente. Alfred est le majordome de Bruce Wayne depuis plusieurs mois lorsque Robin l'appelle pour soigner Batman. La révélation des identités secrètes arrive dès lors naturellement [ 120 ] . En juin 1964 dans Detective Comics n o 328, Alfred meurt en essayant de sauver Batman et Robin. Il est remplacé par Tante Harriet, la tante de Dick Grayson. Cette disparition tendait à limiter la perception d'une homosexualité de Batman. Cependant Alfred revient en octobre 1966 dans Detective Comics n o 356 et le personnage de tante Harriet est abandonné définitivement en 1968 dès que la série télévisée, dans laquelle elle jouait un rôle, cesse d'être diffusée [ 122 ] . Appelé initialement Alfred Beagle, il est rapidement renommé Alfred Pennyworth. C'est un excellent majordome responsable de tout le manoir Wayne et de la Batcave, doté de connaissances poussées en médecine qui lui ont permis souvent de soigner Batman [ 123 ] . Ses relations avec Batman furent cependant changées avec le temps, Alfred étant maintenant le majordome des Wayne depuis la naissance de Bruce, devenant alors son tuteur après la mort de ses parents et l'aidant à devenir Batman [ 124 ] . Lucius Fox Lucius Fox apparaît pour la première fois dans Batman 307 en janvier 1979 dans une histoire écrite par Len Wein et dessinée par John Calnan . Il est alors responsable de la fondation Wayne mais par la suite il devient le directeur général de la société Wayne Enterprises . Il est parfois sous-entendu qu'il connaît la double identité de Bruce Wayne mais ce dernier ne lui a jamais confié ce secret. Lucius Fox est aussi présent dans des dessins animés mettant en scène Batman ainsi que dans la trilogie Batman de Christopher Nolan , interprété par l'acteur Morgan Freeman . Dans ce dernier, il reste un ami de Bruce Wayne mais son histoire diffère de celle qui se trouve dans les comics [ 125 ] et il n'est pas seulement un génie de la finance capable de diriger les sociétés de Wayne, il est aussi un scientifique capable d'inventer des objets innovants [ L 3 ] . Le commissaire James Gordon Le commissaire James Gordon , créé par Bill Finger [ 5 ] apparaît dès la première aventure de Batman [ 26 ] . Dans les premières histoires, il considère Batman comme un criminel ou du moins un hors-la-loi. Il change d'avis dans le septième numéro de Batman dans l'histoire intitulée The People versus the Batman [ n 28 ] où il reconnaît l'aide du héros dans le triomphe de la justice et le nomme membre honoraire de la police [ 96 ] . Les deux hommes, malgré tous les changements opérés dans le monde de Batman, restent amis et éprouvent un respect mutuel même si leur vision de la justice est différente [ 126 ] . Tout comme Batman, Gordon est incorruptible et sa force morale est inébranlable. Bien que le Joker ait rendu sa fille Barbara paraplégique et qu'il l'ait torturé (dans le roman graphique Batman: The Killing Joke ), James Gordon demande à Batman de ne pas tuer le criminel. Plus tard, le joker assassine sa seconde femme, le lieutenant de police Sarah Essen [ 127 ] . Batgirl Plusieurs jeunes femmes ont porté le costume de Batgirl et ont lutté avec Batman. La première, Betty Kane est la nièce de Kathy Kane alias Batwoman. Elle est créée en 1961 et apparaît dans quelques comics en 1961 et 1964 [ 128 ] . La fille adoptive du commissaire Gordon, Barbara , a été la seconde Batgirl et reste la plus connue [ 128 ] . Après les événements racontés dans Batman: The Killing Joke , elle est obligée d'abandonner cette identité. Barbara Gordon décide d'aider toute la communauté des super-héros grâce à ses talents de pirate informatique , en prenant le pseudonyme d'Oracle. De même qu'elle ne révélait pas le secret de son identité de Batgirl à son père (bien qu'il l'ait deviné), Barbara Gordon lui cache qu'elle est Oracle [ 126 ] . Le personnage évolue grâce à une décision de John Ostrander qui, fâché après avoir lu The Killing Joke , décide de l'utiliser dans le comics Suicide Squad qu'il scénarise pour DC Comics. Ceci se révèle une bonne idée car le personnage gagne en sympathie chez les lecteurs. Cela amène la création du comics Birds of Prey dans lequel Oracle dirige une équipe de super-héroïnes [ 5 ] . Le costume est ensuite repris par Helena Bertinelli qui avait pris l'identité de Huntress avant de reprendre celle de Batgirl. Désavouée par Batman, elle reprend son ancienne identité. La dernière titulaire, Cassandra Cain , est une jeune fille élevée par son père, de la ligue des Assassins, pour être la tueuse parfaite. Elle abandonne son père, se réfugie auprès de Batman et devient Batgirl [ 128 ] . Depuis la recréation de l'univers DC lors des événements racontés dans la renaissance DC , Barbara Gordon a repris le costume de Batgirl. En effet, elle a pu être remise sur pied grâce à une opération et une longue convalescence après laquelle Barbara a de nouveau retrouvé l'usage de ses jambes [ 129 ] . Ace Ace le Bat-hound est un chien sauvé de la noyade par Bruce Wayne et Dick Grayson dans le numéro 92 de Batman publié en juin 1955. Emmené dans le manoir Wayne, le chien suit les deux héros jusque dans la batmobile. Ace a sur le front une marque facilement reconnaissable et pour éviter que des personnes l'identifient, Robin confectionne un masque. Ace permet à Batman et Robin d'arrêter les criminels mais Bruce, à la fin de l'épisode, rend Ace à son légitime propriétaire qui a été retrouvé. Toutefois, Ace revient dans Batman 97 en février 1956, puis dans plusieurs autres épisodes, avant de disparaître définitivement en 1963 [ 37 ] . Relation avec les autres super-héros Les équipes de super-héros En plus de collaborer avec Robin ou d'autres héros, Batman a fait partie de trois équipes : la Société de justice d'Amérique (souvent abrégée en JSA), la Ligue de justice d'Amérique et les Outsiders . En 1940, plusieurs super-héros décident de fonder la Société de justice d'Amérique, pour lutter plus efficacement contre les malfrats. Batman en est membre honoraire mais n'apparaît pas dans un premier temps dans leurs aventures. En août 1977, dans le numéro 29 du comic book DC Special , les origines de la Société de justice d'Amérique sont racontées pour la première fois. Batman et Superman apparaissent comme membres fondateurs, sur une idée de Franklin Delano Roosevelt , mais décident ensuite de ne pas être membres actifs du groupe [ 130 ] . En février 1960 dans le comic-book la Ligue de justice d'Amérique plusieurs héros se rassemblent après leur combat contre une entité extra-terrestre et Batman est l'un des membres fondateurs. Après les évènements racontés dans la maxi-série Crisis on Infinite Earths , ce passé est transformé et Batman reste un membre actif sans être un des créateurs du groupe [ 41 ] . Les relations avec les autres membres de la ligue ont évolué selon les périodes jusqu'au départ de Batman de l'équipe en 1983. Batman quitte la ligue car il critique l'inaction de ses camarades dans certaines situations (l'élément déclencheur étant le refus de la ligue de justice de libérer un employé de Wayne enterprise retenu en otage par l'état de Markovia). Pour le seconder, Batman recrute Metamorpho , Éclair noir , Halo , Katana et Géo-force qui forment dès lors les Outsiders . Batman quitte cependant le groupe au numéro 32 en 1985. Les Outsiders ont par la suite une vie éditoriale hachée avec des arrêts et des relances du titre jusqu'en novembre 2007 [ 131 ] . Batman reprend alors son rôle de chef de l'équipe mais son apparente mort laisse de nouveau les Outsiders seuls [ 132 ] . Relations entre Batman et Superman Des années 1950 à 1986, les deux hommes s'entendent très bien et sont très bons amis. Ils sont membres de la Société de justice d'Amérique puis de la Ligue de justice d'Amérique et luttent souvent côte à côte. Ils partagent un comics intitulé World's Finest Comics et leur amitié est basée sur un respect mutuel. Bien que l'un soit doté de pouvoirs extraordinaires, ils s'estiment égaux. Au combat, leurs valeurs sont identiques et tous deux sont d'une moralité irréprochable. À partir de 1986, sous l'influence de la mini-série Batman: Dark Knight de Frank Miller dans laquelle les deux personnages deviennent ennemis, les relations se distendent et sont plus conflictuelles. Ils sont alliés mais ont des visions différentes de la vie qui les amènent parfois à se combattre [ 118 ] . Bien que Superman semble devoir le vaincre, à chaque fois, Batman remporte la victoire [ 127 ] . L'arrêt en 1986 de World's Finest Comics est l'indice de cette transformation des rapports entre les deux héros. Un autre indice de cette évolution dans les comics montre que Batman garde un anneau de kryptonite confié par Superman, au cas où ce dernier, manipulé, se retournerait contre ses proches. Il se méfie de Superman, car il craint que sa puissance perturbe son esprit. Par exemple, dans l'avant-dernier épisode de Batman Beyond , Bruce Wayne remet un morceau de kryptonite verte à Terry, lorsque celui-ci lui apprend que le traître est Superman. Bruce n'est pas surpris : il fait comprendre à Terry que cela devait arriver un jour ou l'autre, même s'il s’avère que Superman était manipulé [ 133 ] . Vie sentimentale Dans les comics Depuis sa création, Batman entretien régulièrement des relations amoureuses. Les fiancées succèdent aux brèves amours car Batman, comme Bruce Wayne, n'est pas présenté comme un personnage capable de s'engager sérieusement [ 134 ] . De fait les femmes apparaissent plutôt comme une possible distraction empêchant le justicier d'accomplir sa tâche. Batman, digne successeur de Sherlock Holmes , se soucie uniquement de ce qui pourra l'aider dans sa mission et cela ne peut inclure une présence féminine [ 135 ] . Dans les premières histoires de Batman, la fiancée de Bruce Wayne s'appelle Julie Madison. Mais elle disparaît assez rapidement de la série [ 136 ] . La première femme que Bruce Wayne fréquente assidument est Vicki Vale , journaliste apparue dans Batman n o 49. La relation est épisodique et Vicki Vale, malgré ses tentatives, ne parvient jamais à prouver que Batman est l'alter ego de Bruce Wayne [ L 4 ] . D'autres femmes tournent ensuite autour de Bruce Wayne ou de Batman comme Julie Madison, l'infirmière Linda Page, Catwoman ou Batwoman [ 136 ] . Dans le numéro 233 du comic book Detective Comics apparaît pour la première fois Batwoman , alias Kathy Kane, avec laquelle une relation sentimentale compliquée va s'établir, Batman préférant le célibat alors que Batwoman tente de le convaincre de l'épouser [ 127 ] . Dans les années 1970, Steve Englehart crée le personnage de Silver St. Cloud, éprise de Bruce Wayne et dont ce dernier est amoureux. Silver découvre la double identité de Wayne mais le quitte car elle ne peut supporter l'idée de le voir partir chaque soir en craignant pour sa vie [ 137 ] . Après elle, Vicky Vale revient quelque temps avant d'être remplacée par la fille d'Alfred, Julia Pennyworth. Dans les années 1990 ce sont Shondra Kinsolving puis Vesper Fairchild qui servent de fiancées (Vicky Vale est aussi de retour lors de la sortie du film Batman de Tim Burton ). Vesper paie cette relation de sa vie quand elle est assassinée dans l'histoire Bruce Wayne : Murderer ? [ n 29 ] , [ 137 ] . Enfin il entretient une relation amoureuse avec sa garde du corps Sasha Bordeaux dans les années 2000 avant que celle-ci ne joue un rôle important durant Infinite Crisis [ 138 ] . De toutes les femmes pour lesquelles Bruce Wayne a éprouvé une attirance, deux sortent du lot. Catwoman et Talia al Ghul attirent le héros mais les chemins qu'elles suivent et qui les mettent hors la loi empêchent la concrétisation des sentiments. Catwoman pourrait être la femme idéale pour Batman mais cela supposerait qu'elle abandonne totalement sa carrière criminelle ou qu'il accepte qu'elle ne suive pas les mêmes règles éthiques que lui. Comme les deux options ne semblent jamais pouvoir se réaliser, les relations entre les deux sont vouées à l'échec [ 139 ] . Toutefois, dans l'univers parallèle de Terre-2 Batman et Catwoman, qui a abandonné le crime, se marient et ont une fille, Helena, qui devient The Huntress [ 58 ] . Talia al Ghul est, elle, amoureuse de Batman et grâce aux manœuvres de son père Ra's al Ghul se retrouve l'épouse de Bruce Wayne et la mère de son fils. Même si le mariage se révèle finalement sans valeur, la grossesse de Talia va jusqu'à son terme sans que Batman soit au courant. Des années plus tard, le fils de Bruce Wayne, Damian est présenté à ce dernier [ L 5 ] . Depuis les années 2000 l'impossibilité pour Bruce Wayne d'avoir une vie amoureuse normale s'explique par la place prépondérante de sa personnalité Batman. Obsédé par sa mission, Wayne ne peut se permettre de sacrifier celle-ci pour passer du temps avec une femme. Cela a été exprimé très clairement dans l'histoire Bruce Wayne : Murderer ? et celle qui la suit immédiatement, Bruce Wayne : Fugitive dans lesquelles Batman explique qu'il est enfin libéré de Bruce Wayne et que rien ne peut entraver son combat. Déjà en 1986, Denny O'Neil, alors directeur de la publication des titres de Batman, avait prescrit aux auteurs de présenter Bruce Wayne comme éternel célibataire appréciant les femmes [ n 30 ] , [ 140 ] . Dans les films Dans le film d'animation Batman contre le fantôme masqué , un personnage féminin nommé Andrea Baumont est créé pour l'occasion et est présenté comme ancienne fiancée de Bruce Wayne [ 141 ] . Dans le film Batman Begins , la seule femme qu'il aime est son amour de jeunesse, Rachel Dawes, assistante du procureur. Quand elle découvre que Bruce Wayne est Batman, elle préfère s'éloigner de lui tant qu'il reste résolu à endosser le costume du Chevalier noir, et se fiance plus tard avec Harvey Dent (dans The Dark Knight : Le Chevalier noir ). Elle meurt dans l'explosion d'un hangar, orchestrée par le Joker, alors que Batman sauve Harvey Dent [ 142 ] . Dans The Dark Knight Rises , Bruce Wayne entretient une relation avec Miranda Tate, qui se révèle plus tard être en réalité Talia al'Ghul , qui le trahit [ 143 ] . Il entame alors une relation avec Selina Kyle/Catwoman [ 144 ] . Ennemis À ses débuts, Batman combat essentiellement des criminels ou des gangsters mais les super-vilains costumés font rapidement leur apparition, composant l'une des plus mémorables galeries d'ennemis récurrents dans l'histoire des comics de super-héros [ 145 ] , [ 146 ] . Conformément à la tonalité de la série, les adversaires marquants de Batman sont généralement démunis de super-pouvoirs à l'instar du justicier masqué. Ils ne s'en montrent pas moins dangereux par la violence [ 147 ] et la psychopathie qui les caractérisent [ 148 ] . La plupart des Némésis de Batman ont été créées en 1939 et durant la décennie 1940 : le Joker (clown cruel et sadique, son ennemi juré) et Catwoman (alors appelée simplement « The Cat ») apparaissent tous deux dans le premier numéro du comic book Batman au printemps 1940 [ 149 ] . Le Pingouin naît en 1941 dans les pages du numéro 58 de Detective Comics et Double-Face en 1942 dans le numéro 66. Le Sphinx , en 1948, doit attendre le 140 e opus [ 36 ] . À côté de ces personnages hauts en couleur, Batman doit aussi faire face à des politiciens corrompus [ 99 ] Sont créés aussi durant cette période le Chapelier fou [ L 6 ] , l' Épouvantail [ L 7 ] , Hugo Strange [ 150 ] et Gueule d'argile [ 151 ] . D'autres émergent dans les années 1950, 1960 et 1970, avec Deadshot [ 152 ] , Killer Moth [ 153 ] , Firefly [ 154 ] , M. Freeze [ L 8 ] , Poison Ivy [ 155 ] , Man-Bat [ 156 ] , Ra's al Ghul [ 157 ] et Lady Shiva [ 158 ] . Killer Croc [ 159 ] ou le Ventriloque [ 159 ] sont imaginés dans les années 1980. M. Zsasz [ 159 ] , Bane [ L 9 ] et Harley Quinn [ L 10 ] dans les années 1990 et depuis l'an 2000 sont apparus Silence [ 160 ] et David Cain [ 161 ] . Les ennemis de Batman sont souvent le reflet de celui-ci. Ils représentent ce que Bruce Wayne aurait pu devenir. Double-face montre physiquement ses deux personnalités comme les deux faces d'une même pièce que sont aussi Batman et Bruce Wayne. Ra's al Ghul, dans le film Batman Begins tend tellement vers le bien qu'il est prêt à éliminer tous les criminels alors que Batman ne songe qu'à les arrêter. Le Joker est l'inverse de Batman : le chaos contre l'ordre, la folie contre la raison [ 162 ] . Analyses et critiques Analyses Superman et Batman sont les deux premiers super-héros de l'histoire et représentent chacun un type de super-héros. Selon Rick Marschall, tous les super-héros qui ont suivi se sont inspirés de l'un ou de l'autre et parfois des deux [ 35 ] . Ils partagent des traits de caractères communs comme le refus de tuer. Pourtant, Batman, dans ses premières aventures, n'hésite pas à menacer de mort les criminels, voire à utiliser une arme comme dans le premier numéro de Batman . Mais à la fin de 1941, le directeur de la publication décide que Batman ne doit jamais utiliser une arme . Ceci est annoncé clairement dans le quatrième numéro de Batman : « The Batman never carries or kills with a gun [ n 31 ] . » Les causes de ce changement sont multiples et liées. Comme les parents s'inquiètent de l'influence néfaste des comics, les ventes risquent de baisser. De plus le responsable éditorial préfère voir le personnage comme cela. Kane et Finger se soumettent facilement et Kane décide de transformer l'apparence de Batman pour qu'elle soit moins effrayante [ 22 ] . Dans cette même voie, il fait de Batman un membre honoraire de la police [ 22 ] . Cependant, cela n'implique pas un profond changement du personnage qui reste un adepte de l' auto-justice et élimine les criminels sans se soucier des lois [ 163 ] . Le personnage de Batman se plie facilement aux choix des auteurs. Il est, tout au long de sa carrière, constamment réinterprété pour s'adapter aux mœurs de l'époque, aussi bien dans les comics que dans les adaptations. Dans les années 1940, c'est une créature de la nuit combattant des nazis ou des vampires. Après-guerre, le ton devient plus léger et ses adversaires ne sont pas de telles incarnations du mal mais des êtres inconsistants comme des extra-terrestres. L'influence du feuilleton télévisé, qui ne prend pas au sérieux les affrontements entre Batman et ses ennemis, est importante et empêche Batman de retrouver ses origines inquiétantes. En revanche, les années 1970 montrent un héros beaucoup plus sombre qui répond à une époque de doute et de désillusion. Dans les années 1980, de nombreuses histoires mettent Batman en présence des maux réels, comme le terrorisme islamiste , qui touchent alors l'Amérique [ 76 ] . Dans les films, Batman est aussi une image de la société réelle. Ainsi, dans Batman Begins , il est, d'après l'aveu du coscénariste, un reflet d'une époque troublée [ 76 ] et son ennemi, Ra's Al Ghul, semble inspiré par Oussama ben Laden [ 164 ] . Batman justicier Si la création de Batman par Bruce Wayne s'explique par le désir de venger la mort de ses parents, la justification, plus discutable, de ses actes est possible uniquement parce qu'il s'agit d'une fiction. Batman, et Bruce Wayne, sont bons et les criminels sont sans aucun doute mauvais. La moralité irréprochable de Batman interdit de remettre en question son combat, même hors-la-loi, contre les criminels. Bruce Wayne, issu d'une lignée de riches et vertueux ancêtres, continue, comme un noble protecteur de son peuple, à s'occuper des habitants de Gotham. Sa richesse lui permet d'aider ceux qui en ont besoin et de subventionner les traitements nécessaires aux soins des malades mentaux [ 77 ] . Il est surnommé le prince de Gotham et ses actions l'identifient à un noble féodal. Cela explique aussi pourquoi Batman ne peut utiliser d'armes contre les criminels de Gotham. Il doit, comme un noble ou preux chevalier, les arrêter sans les tuer car ce sont aussi des sujets de Bruce Wayne [ 162 ] . Quoique certains puissent voir en Batman un fasciste , le critique Aeon J. Skoble note que le héros n'abuse pas de sa force. Il cherche à appréhender les criminels plutôt que de les tuer et use d'une violence proportionnée à celle de son adversaire [ 165 ] . Il incarne une règle de la société « ne violez pas la loi et craignez la » . Le système, « démocratie et American Way » , tel qu'il est doit perdurer et Batman, comme Superman, est là pour mettre hors d'état de nuire ceux qui pourraient le miner [ 166 ] . Approche psychanalytique Selon Michael L. Fleisher, la place ambiguë des femmes dans les aventures de Batman peut s'expliquer en se référant à la psychanalyse. Lorsque Bruce Wayne, enfant, voit sa mère mourir, il ressent cela comme un abandon. Toutes les femmes pouvant lui ressembler, il ne peut leur faire confiance [ 136 ] . Ce trouble psychique explique ainsi la complexité de ses rapports avec les femmes. De plus, Batman peut chercher des relations compliquées pour assouvir un désir inconscient d' « émasculation » se traduisant par la découverte de sa double identité. Si Vicky Vale découvre son identité secrète, c'en est fait de Batman mais ce dernier apprécie de jouer avec le feu [ 167 ] . Critiques Dans les années d'après-guerre les comics sont fortement critiqués par une partie de la population qui leur reproche leur violence, leur irréalisme et les sous-entendus sexuels. Ces critiques, qui peuvent s'exprimer parfois de façon violente avec des autodafés ont un impact grandissant après la parution du livre du psychologue Fredric Wertham , Seduction of the Innocent . Dans cet ouvrage, Wertham critique les rapports qu'entretiennent Bruce Wayne et Dick Grayson. Il ne suggère pas une relation homosexuelle mais rapporte que de nombreuses personnes considèrent que cette relation est réelle et, dès lors, Wertham exprime sa crainte que des adultes pourraient abuser sexuellement des enfants en expliquant qu'ils imitent Batman et Robin [ 36 ] , et ce, dans le contexte maccarthyste où le communisme est associé à l'homosexualité par des conservateurs [ 47 ] . Toutefois, la possible homosexualité de Batman a souvent été suggérée comme dans le film Batman et Robin de Joel Schumacher et les relations que peuvent entretenir Batman et son protégé peuvent même être vues comme étant de nature pédophile. DC Comics est intervenu plusieurs fois, en tant que société ou par l'intermédiaire de directeurs de la publication comme Denny O'Neil , pour rejeter toutes ces lectures [ 168 ] . L'idéologie que promeut Batman par ses actes est aussi critiquée. Ainsi, dans le comics Batman: Dark Knight ( The Dark Knight Returns ) de Frank Miller , Batman apparaît pour certains (Geoff Klock dans How to Read Super Hero Comics and Why ) comme « la pire espèce de fasciste réactionnaire » [ n 32 ] . Il est semblable à Ronald Reagan ou George H. W. Bush dans la justification de la violence pour combattre les ennemis [ 164 ] . Séries de comics Batman, depuis sa création, apparaît dans de très nombreux comics et plusieurs lui sont entièrement dédiés. Parfois, il partage la vedette avec Superman ou avec des groupes de super-héros. Il est souvent invité dans des séries d'autres héros et est la vedette de plusieurs romans graphiques. Par ailleurs, Il rencontre parfois des personnages d'autres maisons d'édition dans des crossover . Batman naît dans les pages du comic book Detective Comics n o 27. Rapidement il devient la vedette de cette anthologie et à partir du numéro 35, il est toujours présent sur la couverture [ 169 ] . Cependant les aventures d'autres personnages continuent à être racontées dans Detective comics jusqu'au numéro 568 qui est le premier dans lequel on ne trouve que Batman [ 170 ] . À l'été 1940, paraît Batman n o 1 qui est le premier comics à ne présenter que Batman. Il suit en cela Superman , premier comics consacré à un seul personnage [ 171 ] . Ces deux comic books consacrés à Batman paraissent depuis sans interruption avec, toutefois, une numérotation reprise au numéro 1 en septembre 2011 suite aux évènements racontés dans Flashpoint [ 172 ] . D'autres comics ont été consacrés à Batman : Legends of the Dark Knight de 1989 à 2007, Shadow of the Bat de 1992 à 2000, Batman Chronicles de 1995 à 2001, Batman : Gotham Knight de 2000 à 2006, Batman Confidential de 2007 à 2011, Batman : Streets of Gotham de 2009 à 2011, Batman and Robin depuis 2009 et Batman, Inc. de 2010 à 2013 [ 173 ] . Batman en dehors de ses comics attitrés est aussi un personnage récurrent dans des séries qu'il partage avec d'autres héros. À partir de l'été 1941, il apparaît dans l'anthologie trimestrielle World's Finest Comics où se retrouve aussi Superman [ 174 ] . Chacun est le héros de sa propre histoire mais, en juillet 1954 dans le numéro 71, ils participent à une aventure commune. Le duo est alors reformé quasiment à chaque numéro jusqu'en 1986 [ 40 ] . De même le comics The Brave and the Bold [ n 33 ] , à l'origine anthologie où aucun héros récurrent n'était présent, devient en 1966 une série dans laquelle Batman trouve à chaque fois un allié pour combattre la menace du moment [ 175 ] . Enfin, d'octobre 2003 à octobre 2011 Batman et Superman se partagent la vedette dans le comic book Superman/Batman [ 176 ] . Batman est aussi adapté dans d'autres pays comme au Japon où il connaît des versions mangas. La première est réalisée en 1966 par Jiro Kuwata et s'inspire de la version télévisée avec Adam West . Il faut ensuite attendre les années 2000 pour que le héros revienne dans ce format avec Batman: Child of Dreams de Kia Asamiya en 2001 et Batman: Death Mask de Yoshinori Natsume en 2008 [ 177 ] . Autres médias Comme Batman est un personnage avec plusieurs significations possibles, ses incarnations audiovisuelles ont pu développer un aspect particulier. Ainsi, le Batman incarné par Adam West a pu être jugé « innocent et sérieux » alors que le Bruce Wayne joué par Michael Keaton apparaîtrait comme excentrique mais en réalité semblable à un « personnage de films d'Orson Welles » [ 178 ] . Radio En 1940, est diffusé pour la première fois un feuilleton radiophonique qui a Superman pour héros principal. En mars 1945, Batman et Robin interviennent dans une histoire intitulée The Mistery of the Waxmen [ n 34 ] . Ils y reviendront à plusieurs reprises. C'est dans cette série radiophonique que Batman et Superman luttent ensemble pour la première fois. Les histoires, dans lesquelles ils luttent en commun, n'apparaissent dans les comics qu'en 1954 dans World's Finest où, jusqu'à cette date, leurs aventures se suivaient seulement. Batman est interprété par Stacy Harris puis par Matt Crowley ou Gary Merrill alors que Robin est toujours joué par Ronald Liss [ 179 ] . Serials En 1943 sort le serial Batman qui est programmé en 15 épisodes . Ce film à petit budget est réalisé par Lambert Hillyer et Lewis Wilson y joue Batman luttant contre des Japonais qui menacent Gotham. Ce serial connaît un très grand succès et influence le comics puisqu'il montre pour la première fois la Batcave et que le personnage d'Alfred va, dans le comics, changer d'apparence pour ressembler à celle de l'acteur William Austin qui l'interprète dans le film. Le succès de ce serial amène les producteurs à proposer en 1949, Batman et Robin , réalisé par Spencer Gordon Bennet et qui dure 15 épisodes . La distribution est entièrement renouvelée et Batman est joué par Robert Lowery [ 30 ] , [ 121 ] . Séries télévisées Batman (années 1960) Le 12 janvier 1966 [ 180 ] , ABC diffuse Hi Diddle Riddle , premier épisode de la série Batman , produite par William Dozier (qui joue aussi le narrateur [ 181 ] ), qui est maintenue durant trois saisons de 1966 à 1968 avec un total de 120 épisodes . Le personnage de Batman est interprété par Adam West [ n 35 ] , celui de Robin par Burt Ward et Alan Napier dans le rôle d'Alfred Pennyworth. Les épisodes durent une demi-heure et forment des paires. La première partie, diffusée le mercredi, s'arrête sur un moment dramatique ; la seconde montre sa résolution et la victoire des héros [ 182 ] . Alors que le comics retrouvait un aspect sombre, proche de celui des origines, la série est produite avec un ton humoristique [ 183 ] . Pour parfaire ce second degré il est demandé aux acteurs de jouer sérieusement leur rôle, le comique devant provenir de l'incongruité des situations. Cela est visible clairement lorsque Batman et Robin escaladent des murs. Le trucage, qui consiste à mettre un faux mur au sol sur lequel les héros tiennent une corde et à filmer après avoir tourné la caméra, n'est et ne se veut pas crédible. De même, lors des combats, des onomatopées semblables à celles des comics apparaissent sur l'écran de télévision pour marquer l'échange de coups [ 184 ] . La série est un succès immédiat alors que les tests de visionnage faisaient craindre un cuisant échec [ 180 ] . Ce succès se maintient également lorsqu'un film tiré de cette série est distribuée à l'été 1966. En revanche à partir de la deuxième saison, l'intérêt des spectateurs faiblit. Pour compenser les pertes, ABC demande que les épisodes ne fonctionnent plus en couple mais qu'ils soient indépendants. Des économies, faites sur les décors et les accessoires, affaiblissent la qualité de la série. Pour relancer l'intérêt, William Dozier a l'idée de créer une Batgirl . Après consultation des éditeurs de DC Comics elle apparaît dans la série mais elle ne suffit pas à relancer l'intérêt des téléspectateurs et après cette troisième saison Batman quitte les écrans en mars 1968 [ 185 ] . Les Anges de la nuit (2002-2003) Série centrée sur les personnages de Helena Kyle / Huntress, Barbara Gordon / Batgirl / Oracle et Dinah Redmond-Lance. Bruce Thomas interprète Batman dans le premier épisode Gotham (2014-2019) Le 22 septembre 2014 sur le réseau Fox est lancée la série Gotham créée par Bruno Heller . L'histoire est centrée sur James Gordon avant qu'il devienne le commissaire de Gotham [ 186 ] . Bruce Wayne est incarné par David Mazouz durant l'intégralité de la série. Titans (2019-2023) Dans cette série adaptée des comics Teen Titans , Batman y est plusieurs fois mentionné et on apprend que lui et Dick Grayson sont en froid. Malgré tout, il continue à veiller sur son ancien apprenti, envoyant Jason Todd, le nouveau Robin, le prévenir qu'il est en danger après avoir retrouvé d'anciens membres du cirque Haly assassinés. Dans une vision provoquée par Trigon, Dick se retrouvera face à un Batman radicalisé après une série d'évènements impliquant la mort de Alfred Pennyworth . Dick le traquera et le tuera, achevant sa transformation en esclave du démon, avant d'être sauvé par Raven . Dans la saison 2, Bruce Wayne apparait en chair et en os et est interprété par Iain Glen . Gotham Knights (2023) À la suite de la mort de Bruce Wayne, alias Batman, la ville de Gotham City n'est plus en sécurité. Turner Hayes, le fils adoptif de Bruce, est accusé à tort du meurtre de son père aux côtés de plusieurs enfants d'ennemis de Batman. Bruce Wayne est incarné par David Miller dans le premier épisode. Arrowverse Crisis on Infinite Earths (2019) Il est annoncé que Kevin Conroy , la voix originale de Batman dans la série d'animation éponyme , reprendra le rôle du justicier masqué en live-action dans le crossover Crisis on Infinite Earths de l'univers des séries Arrow , Flash , Supergirl de la chaîne The CW [ 187 ] . Il apparaît dans la seconde partie du crossover en tant que Bruce Wayne de Terre-99. Batwoman (2020-2022) En 2020, le dernier épisode de la première saison de Batwoman révèle que l'acteur Warren Christie a été choisi pour être le visage de Bruce Wayne (dont le personnage a quitté Gotham plusieurs années avant les évènements de la série) [ 188 ] . Séries d'animation Les auteurs Paul Dini et Bruce Timm sont les concepteurs de la série d'animation Batman diffusée entre 1992 et 1995 . Après le feuilleton télévisé diffusé de 1966 à 1968, Batman revient sur les écrans en 1968-1969 mais cette fois-ci comme personnage de série d'animation . Il partage la vedette avec Superman dans la série intitulée The Batman / Superman hour . Les épisodes de cette série, d'une très faible qualité, sont ensuite réutilisés pour une série intitulée Batman with Robin the Boy Wonder . De 1973 à 1979, Batman est de nouveau utilisé comme personnage de dessin animé dans la série Super Friends où il partage la vedette avec d'autres personnages issus des comics de DC comme Superman ou Wonder Woman [ 189 ] . Cette série est aussi très faible [ 189 ] et les deux contrastent avec celle créée en 1992, intitulée Batman de Paul Dini et Bruce Timm . Diffusé par la Fox ce dessin animé est reconnu comme une œuvre importante dans l'univers de Batman. Les mêmes auteurs réalisent en 1999 la série Batman, la relève dans laquelle Bruce Wayne, très âgé, a rangé son costume définitivement et sert de mentor à un jeune homme, Terry McGinnis, qui devient le nouveau Batman [ 190 ] . En 2004, sur Kids' WB et Cartoon Network , commence une nouvelle série, The Batman , destinée à un public plus jeune que la précédente. Elle dure jusqu'en 2008 et engendre une adaptation en comics intitulée The Batman Strikes [ 191 ] . Cette série est centrée sur les débuts de Batman et ses premières rencontres avec ses ennemis habituels [ 192 ] . En 2013, une série intitulée Prenez garde à Batman ! [ n 36 ] est lancée avec l'apparition de nouveaux personnages mais elle s'arrête en 2014 [ 193 ] . En 2019, le personnage fait son retour à la télévision dans la série Harley Quinn dans laquelle il est joué par Diedrich Bader qui lui prêtait déjà sa voix dans Batman : L'Alliance des héros [ 194 ] . Longs métrages Premier long métrage En 1966 sort le film Batman inspiré de la série télévisée diffusée à ce moment sur les écrans américains. Comme dans la série, Batman est joué par Adam West et Robin par Burt Ward . Les antagonistes principaux des héros sont le Joker (joué par Cesar Romero ), le Pingouin ( Burgess Meredith ) et le Sphinx ( Frank Gorshin ). Catwoman apparaît, jouée par Lee Meriwether et non par Julie Newmar détentrice du rôle dans la série télévisée. En effet, celle-ci est indisponible pour le tournage du film dirigé par Leslie H. Martinson réalisateur de deux épisodes de la série [ 195 ] . Le tournage, très rapide, commence dès l'achèvement de la première saison télévisée à la fin avril 1966 et se termine fin mai [ 175 ] . Le film est prêt à être distribué fin juillet et la première mondiale se tient à Austin le 30 juillet [ 196 ] . Bien que les critiques soient plutôt négatives et que les Américains commencent à se lasser de la « Batmania », le film est un succès [ 197 ] . Tétralogie des années 1990 L'acteur Michael Keaton et son costume de Batman , de Tim Burton . En 1986, portée par le succès de Batman: The Dark Knight Returns de Frank Miller et The Killing Joke d' Alan Moore , la société Warner Bros. décide de produire un film dont Batman est le héros. L'écriture du script et la nécessité d'attendre la fin du tournage de Beetlejuice réalisé par Tim Burton qui doit diriger le film reportent le tournage [ 198 ] . Lors de la pré-production les fans du comics se manifestent pour signifier leurs inquiétudes : Burton ne serait pas assez expérimenté, Michael Keaton dans le rôle de Batman et Jack Nicholson dans celui du Joker risqueraient de ne pas être crédibles, le film serait trop kitsch , etc [ 199 ] . Malgré ces attaques, le film, intitulé sobrement Batman , qui sort en 1989, est un succès. Burton s'empare du personnage pour en donner sa version dans son style personnel apprécié des critiques et du grand public [ O 3 ] . Batman rapporte 251 millions de dollars sur le marché nord-américain et 160 millions de dollars à l'international, soit un total d'environ 411 millions de dollars [ 200 ] . En 1992 sort une suite intitulée Batman : Le Défi avec encore Tim Burton à la réalisation et Michael Keaton dans le rôle-titre. Cette fois Batman doit combattre le Pingouin, joué par Danny DeVito , Catwoman, interprétée par Michelle Pfeiffer et Max Shreck interprété par Christopher Walken [ 201 ] . Tim Burton participe à la production du film et obtient d'être le seul responsable. Il crée alors une œuvre sombre qui n'a pas l'agrément de la Warner Bros. La Warner voulait un film tout public pour que les ventes de produits dérivés soient importantes alors que Tim Burton réalise un film pour un public adulte et ne se soucie pas du merchandising [ 202 ] . Malgré cela le film rapporte 160 millions de dollars seulement aux États-Unis, et 270 millions au total [ 203 ] . Après Batman : Le Défi , Warner ne souhaite plus que Tim Burton réalise une nouvelle aventure de Batman et préfère confier le troisième film intitulé Batman Forever à Joel Schumacher . Ce dernier accepte les demandes de l'entreprise et réalise un film qui peut être vu par les plus jeunes. Michael Keaton refuse de porter une troisième fois le costume du chevalier noir et il est remplacé par Val Kilmer . Les ennemis sont cette fois Double-Face , joué par Tommy Lee Jones , et l'Homme-mystère , joué par Jim Carrey . Robin, joué par Chris O'Donnell , apparaît pour la première fois et Nicole Kidman interprète le rôle de Chase Meridian. Bien que différente de la version de Tim Burton, celle de Schumacher est aussi inventive avec un travail sur la couleur, la photographie et le décor [ O 4 ] . Les résultats d'exploitation, bien qu'inférieurs à ceux du premier Batman, sont cependant supérieurs à ceux du deuxième film de Tim Burton. Aux États-Unis le film rapporte 184 millions de dollars et avec des recettes de plus de 152 millions dans le reste du monde, le total s'élève à plus de 336 millions de dollars [ 204 ] . Le dernier film de la série, intitulé Batman et Robin , est aussi réalisé par Joel Schumacher et sort en 1997. Val Kilmer laisse la place à George Clooney dans le rôle de Batman qui doit cette fois combattre Mr Freeze joué par Arnold Schwarzenegger et Poison Ivy jouée par Uma Thurman . Il est aidé par Robin toujours interprété par Chris O'Donnell et Batgirl interprétée par Alicia Silverstone . Bien que le film rapporte 237 millions de dollars, il est très mal reçu par les critiques et cet échec amène Warner Bros à ne pas produire un cinquième film comme prévu initialement [ 205 ] . Trilogie de Christopher Nolan L'acteur Christian Bale et son costume dans le dernier opus de la trilogie de Christopher Nolan . Après l'abandon de ce projet d'un cinquième film réalisé par Joel Schumacher et qui se serait appelé Batman Triumphant , d'autres scénarios sont proposés ( Batman: Darknight , Batman de Darren Aronofsky , Year One de Frank Miller repris ensuite par Lana et Andy Wachowski , etc.) [ 206 ] . Aucun de ces projets n'est retenu par Warner Bros et c'est seulement en 2005 que sort la première partie d'une trilogie réalisée par Christopher Nolan avec Christian Bale dans le rôle de Batman. Les titres de ces trois films sont Batman Begins (2005), The Dark Knight : Le Chevalier noir en 2008 et The Dark Knight Rises en 2012. Dès le début du projet, une trilogie est prévue dans laquelle les trois œuvres se répondent [ 207 ] . Aussi, plusieurs acteurs, en plus de Christian Bale, sont engagés pour le même rôle dans les trois films : Michael Caine joue Alfred Pennyworth , Morgan Freeman Lucius Fox, Gary Oldman Jim Gordon [ 208 ] . Christopher Nolan réussit à reprendre le personnage et créer une série qui ne doit plus rien aux films des années 1990. Avec Batman Begins il présente les débuts de l'homme chauve-souris qui, revenu à Gotham après une absence de 8 ans , doit combattre l'épouvantail joué par Cillian Murphy et Ra's Al Ghul interprété par Liam Neeson . Les choix esthétiques et le scénario de David S. Goyer contribuent au succès du film [ 209 ] qui rapporte plus de 374 millions de dollars dans le monde [ 210 ] . Le deuxième film intitulé The Dark Knight : Le Chevalier noir est aussi un succès critique et commercial. Cette fois Batman doit lutter contre le Joker, interprété par Heath Ledger qui assure une prestation qualifiée d'inoubliable [ 211 ] , et Double-Face, joué par Aaron Eckhart . Les recettes s'élèvent à plus d'un milliard de dollars [ 212 ] . ce qui le classe au 18 e rang du box-office mondial [ 213 ] . Il est suivi en 2012 par The Dark Knight Rises dans lequel Batman affronte Bane , joué par Tom Hardy , et Talia al Ghul , la fille de Ra's Al Ghul, le vilain du premier film, jouée par Marion Cotillard . L'accueil public et critique est excellent ; le site Rotten Tomatoes évalue la note moyenne des critiques à 8 sur 10 [ 214 ] . Les recettes du film dépassent celles du précédent opus pour s'établir à plus d'un milliard et 84 millions de dollars [ 215 ] . Univers cinématographique DC L'idée de produire une suite à The Dark Knight Rises est rapidement abandonnée car Christopher Nolan et Christian Bale ont clairement fait savoir qu'ils ne comptaient pas rajouter un quatrième volet à leur trilogie [ 216 ] . Toutefois, à la suite du succès de Man of Steel , Warner Bros. décide de créer un univers cohérent comme le concurrent Marvel Studios , et de lancer une franchise inspirée de DC Comics [ 217 ] . Zack Snyder prend les rênes de la réalisation du projet pour le retour de Batman au cinéma dans une aventure avec Superman , Batman v Superman : L'Aube de la Justice , sorti en 2016, à la fois suite de Man of Steel et une relance de Batman qui est interprété par Ben Affleck [ 218 ] . Par la suite, on retrouve Batman dans le film de David Ayer, Suicide Squad , en 2016, quoiqu'il n'y apparaisse que très peu. Il est de retour toutefois dans la suite de Batman V Superman , Justice League de Zack Snyder en 2017 toujours avec Ben Affleck dans le rôle de Bruce Wayne / Batman [ 219 ] . Un nouveau film, réalisé cette fois par Matt Reeves , est ensuite annoncé mais sans Ben Affleck [ 220 ] . En mai 2019, il est annoncé que le nouvel interprète de Batman sera Robert Pattinson [ 221 ] . Ce nouveau film, The Batman , sorti en mars 2022 [ 222 ] , ne fait cependant pas partie de l' univers cinématographique DC . En 2023 , Batman, sous les traits de Ben Affleck, apparaît dans le film de l' univers cinématographique DC , The Flash . Dans cette aventure, Flash voyage dans le multivers , ce qui l'amène à rencontrer dans une réalité alternative le personnage de Batman, interprété par Michael Keaton et dans une autre réalité celui de George Clooney . Dans ce film, apparaît également en caméo à travers des images d'archive la version d' Adam West . Film d'animations Dans les années 1990 le succès de la série animée amène la production de films d'animation qui sortent directement en vidéo comme Batman et Mr Freeze : Subzero en 1998 [ 223 ] , Batman, la relève : Le Retour du Joker en 2000 [ 224 ] , etc. Cependant avant cela un autre film, Batman contre le fantôme masqué était sorti en salles en 1993. Prévu à l'origine pour une sortie directe en vidéo, il est finalement diffusé dans les cinémas à partir du jour de Noël 1993 [ 225 ] . Malgré ses qualités, le film ne reste pas longtemps sur les écrans et disparaît au bout de quelques semaines [ 226 ] . Un long métrage basé sur la série Batman, la relève est édité en vidéo par Warner en 2000 Batman, la relève : Le Retour du Joker [ 227 ] . En 2007, DC Comics lance une collection de films destinés à la vente en vidéo et intitulée DC Universe Animated Original Movies . Batman est le personnage principal de nombre de ces films. On le retrouve ainsi dans Batman et Red Hood : Sous le masque rouge en 2010, Batman: The Dark Knight Returns en 2013 mais aussi dans des films mettant en scène la ligue de Justice comme Justice League Dark: Apokolips War en 2020 [ 228 ] . Par ailleurs, plusieurs films d'animations sont nés du partenariat entre Warner/DC avec la firme de jouets Lego et s'adressent plus aux enfants. Lego DC Comics: Batman Be-Leaguered (2014), Lego DC Comics Super Heroes : La Ligue des Justiciers contre la Ligue des Bizarro (2015) et Lego DC Comics Super Heroes : La Ligue des justiciers - L'Attaque de la Légion maudite (2015) sortent uniquement en vidéo. Lego Batman, le film est sorti cependant en salles en 2017. Il fait suite à La Grande Aventure Lego (2014), dans lequel Batman faisait une apparition. Batman revient ensuite dans La Grande Aventure Lego 2 (2019) [ 229 ] . En 2019, il rencontre les Tortues Ninja dans Batman vs. Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles de Jake Castorena [ 230 ] . Jeux vidéo Depuis 1986 et le jeu Batman , sorti sur Amstrad CPC , MSX et ZX Spectrum , Batman est le héros de nombreux jeux vidéo à son effigie . Toutefois, même si le personnage dirigé par le joueur et les ennemis qu'il combat ont les costumes des séries de DC Comics, rien de ce qui constitue l'univers de Batman n'est conservé dans les jeux jusqu'en 1989 , année de sortie du premier film de Tim Burton . La plupart de ces jeux seront alors des adaptations des diverses incarnations cinématographiques ou animées du personnage et dans tous les cas, le joueur est face à un jeu vidéo à défilement horizontal . En 1989, la société japonaise Sunsoft se penche sur le film et achète les droits, et sort une première version de type action - plates-formes simplement nommée Batman: The Video Game sur Nintendo Entertainment System . Cette adaptation NES du film est considérée comme l'un des meilleurs titres de cette console [ 231 ] , [ 232 ] . Puis, une seconde version , cette fois-ci de type beat them all , voit le jour sur une console naissante et plus puissante, la Mega Drive . Cette coïncidence de sortie ne signifie pas que le film serve nécessairement d'inspiration au jeu. Le Batman de 1989 ne garde que le costume et quelques accessoires du personnage alors que le second retient en plus quelques idées du film. À la sortie du deuxième film de Tim Burton , plusieurs éditeurs, Sega, GameTek UK et Konami, vont acquérir les droits afin de sortir chacun leur adaptation vidéoludique du film. En 1993, sort sur Game Boy Batman: The Animated Series inspiré par le dessin animé du même nom [ 233 ] , [ 234 ] . Sega et Konami vont sortir chacun leur version beat them all de The Adventures of Batman and Robin , une sur Mega Drive et une sur Super Nintendo et seront reçues positivement par la critique. En 2001, la même série animée est à l'origine du jeu Batman : Vengeance pour Xbox et PlayStation 2 . Le jeu, qui n'est plus à défilement horizontal, permet au joueur de retrouver le monde de l'animé et de combattre les personnages qui l'habitent ; la plupart des voix des personnages sont les mêmes dans la série et dans le jeu ( Mark Hamill en Joker, Arleen Sorkin en Harley Quinn, etc.) [ 235 ] . Parmi les jeux les plus réussis figure Batman: Arkham Asylum , un titre sorti en 2009 édité par Eidos Interactive qui reçoit d'excellentes critiques : les agrégateurs de notes lui octroient 91 sur 100 pour Metacritic et 91,89 % pour GameRankings [ 236 ] , [ 237 ] . Le jeu est alors à l'origine de la franchise Batman: Arkham , et connaît trois suites : Arkham City , Arkham Origins et Arkham Knight [ 238 ] . Arkham Asylum et ses suites sont conçues comme des œuvres dans lesquelles aucun des éléments constitutifs d'un jeu (scénario, jouabilité, graphisme, etc.) n'est délaissé. Le scénario est écrit par Paul Dini , auteur reconnu des dessins animés mettant en scène Batman, la jouabilité est excellente et le graphisme très riche [ 239 ] . Par ailleurs, cette série de jeux constitue, à partir des éléments classiques de l'univers Batman, un monde unique comme pouvaient l'être les séries de films. L'asile d'Arkham est le lieu où se déroule le premier jeu mais les jeux suivants quittent cette prison pour fous dangereux et emmènent Batman dans des endroits originaux. Arkham city, un regroupement de plusieurs quartiers de Gotham city transformé en quartier de haute sécurité, est une création pour le deuxième jeu où tous les fous d'Arkham mais aussi les criminels condamnés de la prison de Blackgate sont enfermés. À cette série de jeux s'ajoutent des parties développées dans des comic books ( Arkham City écrits par Paul Dini) et des bandes dessinées accessibles sur Internet ( Arkham Unhinged ) [ 240 ] . En attendant la sortie de Batman: Arkham Knight une préquelle , Arkham Origins , créée par Warner Bros. Games Montréal , a permis de patienter [ 241 ] . Le dernier opus de la série Arkham Knight sort enfin en juin 2015 et reçoit encore de très bonnes critiques comme celle de Gamekult [ 242 ] ou celle de IGN [ 243 ] . Plus récemment un jeu centré sur la bat-family est sortie Gotham Knights (jeu vidéo) Produits dérivés Le personnage de Batman est suffisamment connu pour que son image soit utilisée sur des produits dérivés. Ce sont surtout les incarnations télévisées ou cinématographiques qui ont entretenu ce phénomène. Ainsi, la série télévisée diffusée de 1966 à 1968 provoque une mode Batman et pour profiter de cette aubaine, DC Comics accorde des licences d'exploitation à de nombreuses entreprises. Dès lors, des costumes, des jouets, des livres, des cartes, etc. sont vendus alors que jusqu'à cette année Batman avait été très peu utilisé pour vendre des produits dérivés [ 180 ] . Le total des ventes portant l'image de Batman est alors estimé à 75 millions de dollars [ 244 ] . La carrière à l'écran de Batman dans les décennies suivantes permet de toucher un important public d'enfants et des produits dérivés sont fabriqués pour profiter du phénomène. Ainsi, une série de figurines en plastique créées par la société Mego propose de nombreux personnages et des accessoires (batmobile, batcave, etc.) [ 150 ] . Lors de la sortie du film de Tim Burton en 1989, la vente de produits dérivés est aussi importante puisque plus de trois cents licences sont accordées à des entreprises. L'une d'elles est particulière puisqu'il s'agit de la création par Prince d'un album inspiré par le film [ 245 ] . De même, la diffusion de dessins animés à partir de 1992 a entraîné la création de produits destinés aux enfants comme la série de jouets distribuée par Kenner [ 246 ] . Notes et références Notes ↑ « Le Croisé portant une cape », « Le Chevalier noir » et « Le plus grand détective du monde ». ↑ « Rusty et ses potes ». ↑ « Kane had an idea for a character called 'Batman', and he'd like me to see the drawings. I went over to Kane's, and he had drawn a character who looked very much like Superman with kind of… reddish tights, I believe, with boots… no gloves, no gauntlets… with a small domino mask, swinging on a rope. He had two stiff wings that were sticking out, looking like bat wings. And under it was a big sign… BATMAN. » ↑ « Batman créé par Bob Kane ». ↑ « Le cas du syndicat chimique ». ↑ « Bongo le bat-singe ». ↑ « Le Courageux et le Téméraire ». ↑ « Crise sur les Terres infinies ». ↑ Le titre original est Batman: Dark Knight ( The Dark Knight Returns ). ↑ « Un endroit isolé pour mourir ». ↑ « La Chute du chevalier » ; en version originale, il s'agit d'un jeu de mots entre knight (chevalier) et night (nuit), nightfall signifiant la tombée de la nuit. ↑ « L'heure zéro ». ↑ « Crise d'identité ». ↑ « Crise infinie ». ↑ « Crise finale ». ↑ « Le retour de Bruce Wayne ». ↑ 52 séries sont alors publiées par DC avec un numéro 1, d'où le nom de New 52 . ↑ « Année zéro ». ↑ « Batman éternel ». ↑ Une moto. ↑ Un navire. ↑ Un sous-marin. ↑ « Le cas des tueurs en costume ». ↑ « New York durant la nuit ». ↑ Littéralement : Asile Elizabeth Arkham pour les déments criminels. ↑ Une mort dans la famille. ↑ Alfred arrive. ↑ « Le peuple contre Batman ». ↑ « Bruce Wayne : assassin ? » ↑ « He is celibate…but appreciates women . » ↑ « Le Batman ne porte jamais d'arme et ne tue jamais avec un pistolet ». ↑ The worst sort of reactionary fascist. ↑ Littéralement « Le Courageux et le Téméraire ». ↑ « Le mystère des hommes d'argile ». ↑ Doublé dans la version française par Marc Cassot puis Hervé Bellon . ↑ Titre original : Beware the Batman . Références bibliographiques Travis Langley Batman and Psychology, A Dark and Stormy Knight ↑ p. 25-26. ↑ p. 44. ↑ p. 245. ↑ p. 52. ↑ p. 220. ↑ p. 142. ↑ p. 80. ↑ p. 32. ↑ p. 107. ↑ p. 145. Dennis O'Neil, Batman Unauthorized: Vigilantes, Jokers, and Heroes in Gotham City ↑ p. 148. ↑ p. 210. ↑ p. 22. ↑ p. 270. Autres références ↑ (en) « Catalog of Copyright Entries 1939 Periodicals, New Series Vol 34 Pt 2 », sur Library of Congress (consulté le 1 er novembre 2018 ) , p. 164. ↑ (en) The Comics Journal , Numéro 184 : Numéros 187 à 188 , Comics Journal, Incorporated, 1996 , p. 31 . ↑ a b c d et e Ayres 2010 , p. 50. ↑ Daniels 1999 , p. 18. ↑ a b c d et e (en) Brian Cronin , Was Superman a Spy? : And Other Comic Book Legends Revealed , Penguin, 2009 , 256 p. ( ISBN 9780452295322 , lire en ligne ) . ↑ (en) Arlen Shumer , « The Bat-Man cover Story » , dans Alter Ego, the Comic Book Artist Collection , TwoMorrows Publishing, 2001 ( lire en ligne ) . ↑ (en) Mike Ranieri , « World's Greatest » , dans Christopher Redmond (dir.), Sherlock Holmes is Like : Sixty Comparisons for an Incomparable Character , Wildside Press, 2018 , 278 p. ( ISBN 978-1-4794-4108-2 ) , p. 146 . ↑ a b et c Marschall 1990 , p. 4. ↑ Wright 2008 , p. 183-185. ↑ O'Nale, Jr. 2013 , p. 67. ↑ Daniels 1999 , p. 21, 23. ↑ Kane et Andrae 1989 , p. 44. ↑ a et b (en) Jim Steranko , The Steranko History of Comics , vol. 1, Supergraphics, 1970 , 84 p. ↑ a et b (en) Arie Kaplan , From Krakow to Krypton : Jews and Comic Books , Philadelphie, The Jewish Publication Society, 2008 , 225 p. ( ISBN 978-0-8276-0843-6 , lire en ligne ) , p. 53 . ↑ Kane et Andrae 1989 , p. 41. ↑ (en) Chris Sims, « 75 Years Later, Batman Co-Creator Bill Finger Gets A Cover Credit On ‘Detective Comics’ #27 Read More: Bill Finger Finally Gets A Credit For The First Batman Comic », sur comicsalliance.com , 5 juin 2014 (consulté le 20 juin 2014 ) . ↑ (en) « GCD :: Issue :: Detective Comics 27 », sur comics.org , Grand Comics Database (consulté le 8 mars 2013 ) . ↑ (en) Keith Dallas , « Introductory Note about the Chronological Structure of American Comic Book Chronicles » , dans Kurt F. Mitchell, American Comic Book Chronicles : The 1940s, 1940-1944 , TwoMorrows Publishing, 2019 , 288 p. ( ISBN 978-1-60549-089-2 ) , p. 4 . ↑ Daniels 1999 , p. 25. ↑ (en) Will Murray , « Two Dark Knights : Batman and the Shadow » , dans Michael Eury et Michael Kronenberg (dir.) (préf. Dennis O'Neil ), The Batcave Companion , TwoMorrows Publishing, 2009 , 240 p. ( ISBN 978-1-8939-0578-8 ) , p. 165 . ↑ Daniels 1999 , p. 25. ↑ a b c et d (en) Will Brooker, Batman Unmasked : Analyzing a Cultural Icon , Bloomsbury Publishing, 2013 , 368 p. ( ISBN 978-1-62356-019-5 , lire en ligne ) . ↑ (en) Garyn G. Roberts , Dick Tracy and American Culture : Morality and Mythology, Text and Context , Jefferson , McFarland & Company , 2003 , 350 p. ( ISBN 978-0-78641-698-1 ) , p. 27 . ↑ Daniels 1999 , p. 42. ↑ Daniels 1999 , p. 29. ↑ a b c d et e Ayres 2010 , p. 51. ↑ Wright 2003 , p. 17. ↑ Daniels 1999 , p. 38. ↑ (en) Jerry G. Bails , All Star Companion , TwoMorrows Publishing, 2004 , 208 p. ( ISBN 978-1-89390-505-4 , lire en ligne ) , p. 35 . ↑ a b et c Duncan et Smith 2013 , p. 76. ↑ (en) Jason Tondro , Superheroes of the Round Table : Comics Connections to Medieval and Renaissance Literature , McFarland, 2011 , 244 p. ( ISBN 978-0-78646-068-7 , lire en ligne ) , p. 20 . ↑ Misiroglu 2004 , p. 58. ↑ a b et c Ayres 2010 , p. 52. ↑ (en) Mark Evanier , « Col293 News from me », sur newsfromme.com , 9 juin 2000 (consulté le 8 février 2014 ) . ↑ a et b Marschall 1990 , p. 6. ↑ a b c et d Duncan et Smith 2013 , p. 70. ↑ a b et c (en) Craig Shutt, Baby Boomer Comics : The Wild, Wacky, Wonderful Comic Books of the 1960s! , Krause Publications, 2003 , 207 p. ( ISBN 978-0-87349-668-1 , lire en ligne ) , p. 95 . ↑ (en) Roy Thomas , « Who Created The Silver Age Flash ? », Alter Ego , vol. 3, n o 10, automne 2001 ( lire en ligne , consulté le 30 janvier 2012 ) . ↑ (en) « When Batman Met Superman: Their 10 Best First Meetings », sur newsarama.com , 18 novembre 2013 (consulté le 21 février 2014 ) . ↑ a et b Reinhart 2004 , p. 54. ↑ a et b (en) David S. Serchay, « Booker 2010 , p. 334. ↑ Daniels 1999 , p. 94. ↑ (en) Jim Casey , « Silver Age Comics » , dans Mark Bould, Andrew M. Butler, Adam Roberts et Sherryl Vint, The Routledge Companion to Science Fiction , Routledge, 2009 ( lire en ligne ) , p. 130 . ↑ Daniels 1999 , p. 115. ↑ Wright 2003 , p. 233. ↑ a et b (en) Brian K. Eason, « DC Flashback : Dick Grayson, Pt. I », sur comicbookresources.com , 18 décembre 2008 (consulté le 24 février 2014 ) . ↑ a et b William Blanc , « Bon anniversaire Batman ! » , L'Histoire n o 455, janvier 2019, p. 22-23 . ↑ Reinhart 2004 , p. 88. ↑ Misiroglu 2004 , p. 60. ↑ Misiroglu 2004 , p. 374. ↑ Daniels 1999 , p. 155 ; 157. ↑ (en) Julia Round, « Miller, Frank », dans Booker 2010 , p. 418. ↑ Daniels 1999 , p. 147 ; 149. ↑ Wright 2003 , p. 267. ↑ (en) Jackson Ayres, « Killing Joke, The », dans Booker 2010 , p. 344. ↑ Daniels 1999 , p. 161. ↑ a et b Reinhart 2004 , p. 122. ↑ a et b Misiroglu 2004 , p. 270. ↑ Misiroglu 2004 , p. 49. ↑ a et b Reinhart 2004 , p. 150. ↑ Brooker 2012 , p. 159. ↑ (en) Brandon Thomas, « Ambidextrous 296 : This is Why (Grant Morrison's JLA) », sur / , 30 avril 2009 (consulté le 17 mars 2014 ) . ↑ (en) Danny Fingeroth, « The Bob Schreck Interview », Write Now ! , TwoMorrows Publishing, n o 6, octobre 2003 , p. 61 . ↑ Reinhart 2004 , p. 203. ↑ (en) Tyler Weaver, Comics for Film, Games, and Animation : Using Comics to Construct Your Transmedia Storyworld , Taylor & Francis, 2013 , 352 p. 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Halperin , Heritage Comics Dallas Signature Auction Catalog #820 , Heritage Capital, 2006 , 501 p. , p. 168 . ↑ (en) « detective Comics Tiitle Index » ( Archive.org • Wikiwix • Archive.is • Google • Que faire ? ) , sur dcuguide.com (consulté le 19 juin 2014 ) . ↑ Wright 2003 , p. 9. ↑ Oliver Sava et Keith Phipps, « The New DC 52, Week 1 (Flashpoint #5 and Justice League) », sur avclub.com , 2 septembre 2011 (consulté le 2 août 2012 ) . ↑ (en) Bryan D. Fagan et Jody Condit Fagan, Comic Book Collections for Libraries , ABC-CLIO, 2011 , 162 p. 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Batman: The Video Game - Top 100 NES », sur IGN (consulté le 12 novembre 2014 ) . ↑ Rockstar78, « Test de Batman: The Video Game sur NES. », sur Jeuxvideo.com , 17 février 2010 . ↑ (en) « A Concise History of Batman in Video Games » ( Archive.org • Wikiwix • Archive.is • Google • Que faire ? ) , sur ugo.com , 24 août 2009 (consulté le 18 mai 2014 ) . ↑ (en) Robert Workman, « A history of Batman in video games », sur shacknews.com , 5 mars 2014 (consulté le 19 juillet 2014 ) . ↑ Reinhart 2004 , p. 202. ↑ (en) « Batman: Arkham Asylum for PC », GameRankings (consulté le 20 mars 2014 ) . ↑ (en) « Batman: Arkham Asylum », Metacritic (consulté le 20 mars 2014 ) . ↑ Yann Faucher, « Jeux vidéo. Un trailer dantesque pour le nouveau Batman Arkham Knight » ( Archive.org • Wikiwix • Archive.is • Google • Que faire ? ) , sur lexpress.fr , 5 mars 2014 (consulté le 18 mai 2014 ) . ↑ (en) Alex M. Wainer , Soul of the Dark Knight : Batman as Mythic Figure in Comics and Film , McFarland, 2014 , 208 p. ( ISBN 9780786471287 , lire en ligne ) , p. 140 . ↑ (en) Tyler Weaver, Comics for Film, Games, and Animation : Using Comics to Construct Your Transmedia Storyworld , Taylor & Francis, 2013 , 352 p. ( ISBN 9781136145735 , lire en ligne ) , p. 247-248 . ↑ (en) Jill Scharr, « Batman : Arkham Knight Producer Reveals More Story Insight, New Combat Features », sur newsarama.com , 27 mars 2014 (consulté le 29 juin 2014 ) . ↑ Amaebi, « Test de Batman: Arkham Knight », Gamekult , 24 juin 2015 (consulté le 26 juin 2015 ) . ↑ Aymeric Lallee, « Batman: Arkham Knight Test », sur IGN , 22 juin 2015 (consulté le 26 juin 2015 ) . ↑ Owczarski 2008 , p. 11. ↑ Owczarski 2008 , p. 115. ↑ Rhoades 2008 , p. 194. Annexes Bibliographie Ouvrages (en) M. Keith Booker ( dir. ), Encyclopedia of Comic Books and graphic novels , Greenwood Press, 2010 , 763 p. ( ISBN 978-1-10104-656-2 , lire en ligne ) Scott Beatty , Batman : l'encyclopédie du justicier de Gotham , Mascara, 2008 ( ISBN 978-2-91408-285-3 ) . (en) Scott Beatty et David Hahn ( préf. Chuck Dixon), The Batman Handbook : The Ultimate Training Manual , Philadelphie, Quirk Books, 2005 ( ISBN 978-1-59474-023-7 ) . (en) Will Brooker , Hunting the Dark Knight : Twenty-First Century Batman , I.B.Tauris, 2012 , 256 p. ( ISBN 978-1-84885-280-8 , lire en ligne ) . (en) Les Daniels , Batman : The Complete History , San Francisco, Chronicle Books, 1999 , 206 p. ( ISBN 0-8118-4232-0 ) (en) Les Daniels ( préf. Jenette Kahn ), DC Comics : Sixty Years of the World's Favorite Comic Book Heroes , Bulfinch, 1995 , 256 p. ( ISBN 978-0-82122-076-4 ) (en) Julian Darius, Improving the Foundations : Batman Begins from Comics to Screen , Sequart, 2011 , 264 p. ( ISBN 978-1-46621-432-3 , lire en ligne ) (en) Marc DiPaolo , War, Politics and Superheroes : Ethics and Propaganda in Comics and Film , Jefferson , McFarland & Company , 2011 , 330 p. ( ISBN 978-0-78644-718-3 , lire en ligne ) (en) Randy Duncan et Matthew J. Smith , Icons of the American Comic Book : From Captain America to Wonder Woman , Greenwood Publishing Group / ABC-CLIO , coll. « Greenwood Icons », 2013 , XV -920 p. ( ISBN 978-0-313-39923-7 ) (en) Gerard Jones , Men of Tomorrow : Geeks, Gangsters, and the Birth of the Comic Book , New York, Basic Books , 2005 ( ISBN 978-0-46503-657-8 ) . (en) Bob Kane et Tom Andrae , Batman and me , Eclipse Books, 1989 , 155 p. ( ISBN 978-1-56060-017-6 ) (en) Travis Langley, Batman and Psychology : A Dark and Stormy Knight , John Wiley & Sons, 2012 , 352 p. ( ISBN 978-1-11822-636-0 , lire en ligne ) (en) Gina Misiroglu , The Superhero Book : The Ultimate Encyclopedia Of Comic-Book Icons And Hollywood Heroes , Visible Ink Press, 2004 , 725 p. ( ISBN 1578591546 , lire en ligne ) (en) Dennis O'Neil ( dir. ), Batman Unauthorized : Vigilantes, Jokers, and Heroes in Gotham City , Dallas, BenBella Books, 2008 , 219 p. ( ISBN 978-1-9337-7130-4 ) . (en) Kimberly Ann Owczarski , "Batman", Time Warner, and Franchise Filmmaking in the Conglomerate Era , ProQuest, 2008 , 447 p. ( ISBN 978-0-54976-409-0 , lire en ligne ) (en) Mark S. Reinhart , The Batman Filmography , Jefferson , McFarland & Company , 2004 , 328 p. ( ISBN 978-1-47660-632-3 ) (en) Shirrel Rhoades , A Complete History of American Comic Books , Peter Lang, 2008 , 353 p. ( ISBN 1433101076 , lire en ligne ) (en) Jeff Rovin , The Encyclopedia of Super Villains , Facts on File Publications, 1987 , 416 p. ( ISBN 978-0-81601-356-2 ) (en) Bradford W. Wright , Comic Book Nation : The Transformation of Youth Culture in America , JHU Press, 2003 , 360 p. ( ISBN 978-0-80187-450-5 , lire en ligne ) (en) E. Paul Zehr , Becoming Batman : The Possibility of a Superhero , JHU Press, 2009 , 320 p. ( ISBN 978-0-80189-621-7 , lire en ligne ) Articles (en) Thomas Andrae , « Kane, Bob, and Bill Finger » , dans Randy Duncan et Matthew J. Smith (dir.), Icons of the American Comic Book : From Captain America to Wonder Woman , vol. 1, Greenwood Publishing Group / ABC-CLIO , coll. « Greenwood Icons », 2013 , XV -920 p. ( ISBN 978-0-313-39923-7 ) , p. 383-392 . (en) Jackson Ayres, « Batman » , dans M. Keith Booker (dir.), Encyclopedia of Comic Books and Graphic Novels , Santa Barbara , Grenwood , 2010 , xxii-xix-763 ( ISBN 9780313357466 ) , p. 50-53 . . (en) Tom Bondurant , « Silver anniversary : Steve Englehart and Marshall Rogers'Two Detectives » , dans Jeffery Klaehn, Inside the World of Comic Books , Black Rose Books Ltd, 2007 ( lire en ligne ) (en) David Finkelstein et Ross Macfarlane , « Batman's big birthday », The Guardian , 15 mars 1999 ( lire en ligne ) . (en) Michail-Chrysovalantis Markodimitrakis , « The New Batman » , dans Clive Bloom (dir.), The Palgrave Handbook of Contemporary Gothic , Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan , 2020 , XVIII -1253 p. ( ISBN 978-3-030-33135-1 ) , p. 1153-1167 . (en) Rick Marschall , « Foreword » , dans Bob Kane, Batman , New York, DC Comics, 1990 (en) Robert N. O'Nale, Jr. , « Batman » , dans Randy Duncan et Matthew J. Smith (dir.), Icons of the American Comic Book : From Captain America to Wonder Woman , vol. 1, Greenwood Publishing Group / ABC-CLIO , coll. « Greenwood Icons », 2013 , XV -920 p. ( ISBN 978-0-313-39923-7 ) , p. 67-80 . (en) Robin S. Rosenberg , « What's Wrong with Bruce Wayne ? » , dans Dennis O'Neil (dir.), Batman Unauthorized : Vigilantes, Jokers, and Heroes in Gotham City , Dallas, BenBella Books, 2008 , 219 p. ( ISBN 978-1-9337-7130-4 ) , p. 145-156 . (en) Scott Vollum et Cary D. Adkinson , « The portrayal of Crime and Justice in the Comic book Superhero Mythos », Journal of Criminal Justice and Popular Culture , vol. 10, n o 2, 2003 , p. 99-100 ( ISSN 1070-8286 ) (en) John C. Wright , « Heroes of Darkness and Light » , dans Dennis O'Neil (dir.), Batman Unauthorized : Vigilantes, Jokers, and Heroes in Gotham City , Dallas, BenBella Books, 2008 , 219 p. ( ISBN 978-1-9337-7130-4 ) , p. 181-196 . Articles connexes Sur les autres projets Wikimedia : Batman , sur le Wiktionnaire Liste des comics Batman Batman contre Superman Liens externes (en) Site officiel Ressources relatives aux beaux-arts : British Museum Te Papa Tongarewa British Museum Te Papa Tongarewa Ressource relative à la littérature : The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction Ressource relative à la bande dessinée : Comic Vine Comic Vine Ressource relative à la musique : MusicBrainz MusicBrainz Ressource relative à la recherche : ORCID ORCID Notices dans des dictionnaires ou encyclopédies généralistes : Britannica Enciclopedia De Agostini Gran Enciclopèdia Catalana Larousse Nationalencyklopedin Treccani Britannica Enciclopedia De Agostini Gran Enciclopèdia Catalana Larousse Nationalencyklopedin Treccani Notices d'autorité : VIAF BnF ( données ) IdRef LCCN GND Espagne Israël Catalogne Suède Tchéquie Argentine VIAF BnF ( données ) IdRef LCCN GND Espagne Israël Catalogne Suède Tchéquie Argentine (fr) Batman sur Urban Comics, éditeur officiel de DC Comics en France (en) Batman sur la Comic Book Database v · m Batman Comics Recueils et romans graphiques Âge moderne (1986-2011) Abduction Absolution Amère Victoire Batman : Année Un Arkham Asylum L'Avocat du diable La boucle est bouclée Cris dans la nuit Le Cœur de silence Batman:Le Culte Un deuil dans la famille Batman: Ego L'Enfant des rêves Batman : Le Fils du démon The Gauntlet (Le Défi) Batman: Gotham County Line - Outre-tombe Guerre au crime Happy birthday ! Batman : Halloween Batman: Harvest Breed L'Héritage maudit Hong Kong L'Île de monsieur Mayhew Joker Batman : Justice digitale The Killing Joke La Lame d'Azrael Un long Halloween Batman contre Man-Bat Minuit à Gotham La Mort des innocents Batman et les Monstres Batman et le Moine fou Mort à l'arrivée Batman : Noël La Nouvelle Aube Batman : D'ombre et de lumière L'Œil du serpent Batman - Catwoman : Proie Prédateurs nocturnes La Résurrection de Ra's al Ghul La Revanche de Bane Batman R.I.P. Secrets Scottish Connection Silence Sombre reflet Batman / Man-Bat : Les Troglodytes Batman: Under the Hood Year Two : L'Héritage du faucheur Renaissance (après 2011) La Cour des hiboux Le Deuil de la famille Batman Eternal Hors continuité Batman : Année 100 Batman : Créature de la nuit Batman: The Dark Prince Charming Batman: White Knight Batman et Dracula : Pluie de sang L'Héritage de Dracula La Brume pourpre Gotham au XIX e siècle La Tragédie du démon The Dark Knight de Frank Miller Année Un All-Star Batman and Robin, the Boy Wonder The Dark Knight Returns The Dark Knight Strikes Again The Dark Knight III: The Master Race Crossover Batman - Aliens Batman et Captain America Batman - Daredevil The Darkness - Batman Batman/Deathblow : Après l'incendie Batman, Doc Savage and The Spirit: First Wave Batman/Hellboy/Starman Batman contre Hulk Joker/Mask Batman - Judge Dredd : Jugement à Gotham Batman - Judge Dredd : La Grande Énigme Batman/Lobo Batman/Lobo : Menace fatale Batman avec Planetary Batman versus Predator Batman - Punisher Spawn - Batman Batman et Spider-Man Spider-Man - Batman : Esprits dérangés Batman/The Spirit Superman/Batman : Au service du monde Superman/Batman Batman - Superman: World Finest Batman - Tarzan : Les Griffes de Catwoman Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman : Trinité Autres séries Adaptations des films en BD Adaptation de la série animée ( Batman Adventures ) Adaptation de la série de 1966 ( Batman '66 ) Batman (comic strip) Intégrales Arcs et numéros Detective Comics n°27 (1939) - Knightfall (1993 – 1994) Cataclysme (1998) No Man's Land (1999) Batman : Meurtrier et Fugitif (2002) Battle for the Cowl (2009) Séries US Detective Comics (depuis 1939) Batman (depuis 1940) The Brave and the Bold (1955-1983) Batman Family (1975-1978) Batman et les Outsiders (1983 – 1987, 2007 – 2009) Batman: Legends of the Dark Knight (1989 – 2007) Shadow of the Bat (1992 – 2000) The Batman Chronicles (1995 – 2001) Batman: Gotham Knights (2000 – 2006) Batman Confidential (2006 – 2011) Batman and Robin (2009 - 2015) Batman Incorporated (2010 - 2013) Batman Beyond (depuis 1999) Séries de la Bat-Family Batgirl: Année Un Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Batwoman : Élégie Nightwing Red Hood and the Outlaws Red Robin Robin: Année Un Autres alliés Gotham Academy Gotham Central Mother Panic Recueils et romans graphiques Âge moderne (1986-2011) Abduction Absolution Amère Victoire Batman : Année Un Arkham Asylum L'Avocat du diable La boucle est bouclée Cris dans la nuit Le Cœur de silence Batman:Le Culte Un deuil dans la famille Batman: Ego L'Enfant des rêves Batman : Le Fils du démon The Gauntlet (Le Défi) Batman: Gotham County Line - Outre-tombe Guerre au crime Happy birthday ! Batman : Halloween Batman: Harvest Breed L'Héritage maudit Hong Kong L'Île de monsieur Mayhew Joker Batman : Justice digitale The Killing Joke La Lame d'Azrael Un long Halloween Batman contre Man-Bat Minuit à Gotham La Mort des innocents Batman et les Monstres Batman et le Moine fou Mort à l'arrivée Batman : Noël La Nouvelle Aube Batman : D'ombre et de lumière L'Œil du serpent Batman - Catwoman : Proie Prédateurs nocturnes La Résurrection de Ra's al Ghul La Revanche de Bane Batman R.I.P. Secrets Scottish Connection Silence Sombre reflet Batman / Man-Bat : Les Troglodytes Batman: Under the Hood Year Two : L'Héritage du faucheur Renaissance (après 2011) La Cour des hiboux Le Deuil de la famille Batman Eternal Hors continuité Batman : Année 100 Batman : Créature de la nuit Batman: The Dark Prince Charming Batman: White Knight Batman et Dracula : Pluie de sang L'Héritage de Dracula La Brume pourpre Gotham au XIX e siècle La Tragédie du démon The Dark Knight de Frank Miller Année Un All-Star Batman and Robin, the Boy Wonder The Dark Knight Returns The Dark Knight Strikes Again The Dark Knight III: The Master Race Âge moderne (1986-2011) Abduction Absolution Amère Victoire Batman : Année Un Arkham Asylum L'Avocat du diable La boucle est bouclée Cris dans la nuit Le Cœur de silence Batman:Le Culte Un deuil dans la famille Batman: Ego L'Enfant des rêves Batman : Le Fils du démon The Gauntlet (Le Défi) Batman: Gotham County Line - Outre-tombe Guerre au crime Happy birthday ! Batman : Halloween Batman: Harvest Breed L'Héritage maudit Hong Kong L'Île de monsieur Mayhew Joker Batman : Justice digitale The Killing Joke La Lame d'Azrael Un long Halloween Batman contre Man-Bat Minuit à Gotham La Mort des innocents Batman et les Monstres Batman et le Moine fou Mort à l'arrivée Batman : Noël La Nouvelle Aube Batman : D'ombre et de lumière L'Œil du serpent Batman - Catwoman : Proie Prédateurs nocturnes La Résurrection de Ra's al Ghul La Revanche de Bane Batman R.I.P. Secrets Scottish Connection Silence Sombre reflet Batman / Man-Bat : Les Troglodytes Batman: Under the Hood Year Two : L'Héritage du faucheur Renaissance (après 2011) La Cour des hiboux Le Deuil de la famille Batman Eternal Hors continuité Batman : Année 100 Batman : Créature de la nuit Batman: The Dark Prince Charming Batman: White Knight Batman et Dracula : Pluie de sang L'Héritage de Dracula La Brume pourpre Gotham au XIX e siècle La Tragédie du démon The Dark Knight de Frank Miller Année Un All-Star Batman and Robin, the Boy Wonder The Dark Knight Returns The Dark Knight Strikes Again The Dark Knight III: The Master Race Crossover Batman - Aliens Batman et Captain America Batman - Daredevil The Darkness - Batman Batman/Deathblow : Après l'incendie Batman, Doc Savage and The Spirit: First Wave Batman/Hellboy/Starman Batman contre Hulk Joker/Mask Batman - Judge Dredd : Jugement à Gotham Batman - Judge Dredd : La Grande Énigme Batman/Lobo Batman/Lobo : Menace fatale Batman avec Planetary Batman versus Predator Batman - Punisher Spawn - Batman Batman et Spider-Man Spider-Man - Batman : Esprits dérangés Batman/The Spirit Superman/Batman : Au service du monde Superman/Batman Batman - Superman: World Finest Batman - Tarzan : Les Griffes de Catwoman Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman : Trinité Batman - Aliens Batman et Captain America Batman - Daredevil The Darkness - Batman Batman/Deathblow : Après l'incendie Batman, Doc Savage and The Spirit: First Wave Batman/Hellboy/Starman Batman contre Hulk Joker/Mask Batman - Judge Dredd : Jugement à Gotham Batman - Judge Dredd : La Grande Énigme Batman/Lobo Batman/Lobo : Menace fatale Batman avec Planetary Batman versus Predator Batman - Punisher Spawn - Batman Batman et Spider-Man Spider-Man - Batman : Esprits dérangés Batman/The Spirit Superman/Batman : Au service du monde Superman/Batman Batman - Superman: World Finest Batman - Tarzan : Les Griffes de Catwoman Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman : Trinité Autres séries Adaptations des films en BD Adaptation de la série animée ( Batman Adventures ) Adaptation de la série de 1966 ( Batman '66 ) Batman (comic strip) Intégrales Adaptations des films en BD Adaptation de la série animée ( Batman Adventures ) Adaptation de la série de 1966 ( Batman '66 ) Batman (comic strip) Intégrales Arcs et numéros Detective Comics n°27 (1939) - Knightfall (1993 – 1994) Cataclysme (1998) No Man's Land (1999) Batman : Meurtrier et Fugitif (2002) Battle for the Cowl (2009) Detective Comics n°27 (1939) - Knightfall (1993 – 1994) Cataclysme (1998) No Man's Land (1999) Batman : Meurtrier et Fugitif (2002) Battle for the Cowl (2009) Séries US Detective Comics (depuis 1939) Batman (depuis 1940) The Brave and the Bold (1955-1983) Batman Family (1975-1978) Batman et les Outsiders (1983 – 1987, 2007 – 2009) Batman: Legends of the Dark Knight (1989 – 2007) Shadow of the Bat (1992 – 2000) The Batman Chronicles (1995 – 2001) Batman: Gotham Knights (2000 – 2006) Batman Confidential (2006 – 2011) Batman and Robin (2009 - 2015) Batman Incorporated (2010 - 2013) Batman Beyond (depuis 1999) Detective Comics (depuis 1939) Batman (depuis 1940) The Brave and the Bold (1955-1983) Batman Family (1975-1978) Batman et les Outsiders (1983 – 1987, 2007 – 2009) Batman: Legends of the Dark Knight (1989 – 2007) Shadow of the Bat (1992 – 2000) The Batman Chronicles (1995 – 2001) Batman: Gotham Knights (2000 – 2006) Batman Confidential (2006 – 2011) Batman and Robin (2009 - 2015) Batman Incorporated (2010 - 2013) Batman Beyond (depuis 1999) Séries de la Bat-Family Batgirl: Année Un Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Batwoman : Élégie Nightwing Red Hood and the Outlaws Red Robin Robin: Année Un Autres alliés Gotham Academy Gotham Central Mother Panic Batgirl: Année Un Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Batwoman : Élégie Nightwing Red Hood and the Outlaws Red Robin Robin: Année Un Autres alliés Gotham Academy Gotham Central Mother Panic Autres médias Cinéma Batman (1943) Batman et Robin (1949) Batman (1966) Batman (1989) Batman : Le Défi (1992) Batman Forever (1995) Batman et Robin (1997) Batman Begins (2005) The Dark Knight, Le Chevalier Noir (2008) Justice League: Mortal (projet annulé, 2009) The Dark Knight Rises (2012) Batman v Superman : L'Aube de la justice (2016) Justice League (2017) Zack Snyder's Justice League (2021) The Batman (2022) Batgirl (2022) The Flash (2023) Séries télévisées Batman (1966–1968) Les Anges de la nuit (2002–2003) Dans la grotte de Batman (téléfilm, 2003) Gotham (2014) Pennyworth (2019) Gotham Knights (2023) The Penguin (2024) Séries télévisées d'animation Les Aventures de Batman (1968–1969) Les Nouvelles Aventures de Batman (1977) Batman (1992–1995) Batman (1997–1999) Batman, la relève (1999–2001) Les Filles de Gotham (2000–2002) Batman (2004–2008) L'Alliance des héros (2008-2011) Prenez garde à Batman ! (2013-2014) Harley Quinn (2019) Batwheels (2022) Batman, le justicier masqué (2024) Films d'animation Batman contre le fantôme masqué (1993) Batman et Superman (1996) Batman et Mr. Freeze : Subzero (1998) Batman, la relève : le film (1999) Batman, la relève : Le Retour du Joker (2000) Batman : La Mystérieuse Batwoman (2003) Batman contre Dracula (2005) Batman : Contes de Gotham (2008) Superman/Batman : Ennemis publics (2009) Batman et Red Hood : Sous le masque rouge (2010) Superman/Batman : Apocalypse (2010) Batman: Year One (2011) Batman: The Dark Knight Returns (2012) Le Fils de Batman (2014) Batman : Assaut sur Arkham (2014) Lego DC Comics: Batman Be-Leaguered (2014) Batman vs. Robin (2015) Batman Unlimited : L'Instinct animal (2015) Batman Unlimited : Monstrueuse Pagaille (2015) Batman : Mauvais Sang (2016) Batman: The Killing Joke (2016) Batman Unlimited : Machines contre Mutants (2016) Batman : Le Retour des justiciers masqués (2016) Lego DC Comics Super Heroes : La Ligue des justiciers - S'évader de Gotham City (2016) Lego Batman, le film (2017) Batman vs. Double-Face (2017) Batman et Harley Quinn (2017) Scooby-Doo et Batman : L'Alliance des héros (2018) Batman: Gotham by Gaslight (2018) Batman Ninja (2018) Lego DC Batman : Une histoire de famille (2018) La Grande Aventure Lego 2 (2019) Batman et les Tortues Ninja (2019) Batman : Silence (2019) Batman: The Long Halloween (2021) Batman: Soul of the Dragon (2021) Krypto et les Super-Animaux (2022) Batman and Superman: Battle of the Super Sons (2022) L'Étrange Noël du petit Batman (2023) Batman : La Malédiction qui s'abattit sur Gotham (2023) Batman Ninja vs. Les Yakuzas (2025) Batman Azteca: Choque de imperios (2025) Animation Ligue de justice Voir Ligue de justice d'Amérique Jeux vidéo Liste de jeux vidéo Batman Podcasts Batman: The Audio Adventures (en) (2021) Batman Autopsie (2022) Bandes originales et chansons Batman (B.O., 1989) Batman (album, 1989) Batdance (1989) Partyman (1989) The Arms of Orion (1989) Scandalous! (1989) The Future (1989) Batman : Le Défi (1992) Face to Face (1992) Batman Forever (album, 1995) Batman Forever (B.O., 1995) Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me (1995) Kiss from a Rose (1995) The End Is the Beginning Is the End (1997) Cinéma Batman (1943) Batman et Robin (1949) Batman (1966) Batman (1989) Batman : Le Défi (1992) Batman Forever (1995) Batman et Robin (1997) Batman Begins (2005) The Dark Knight, Le Chevalier Noir (2008) Justice League: Mortal (projet annulé, 2009) The Dark Knight Rises (2012) Batman v Superman : L'Aube de la justice (2016) Justice League (2017) Zack Snyder's Justice League (2021) The Batman (2022) Batgirl (2022) The Flash (2023) Batman (1943) Batman et Robin (1949) Batman (1966) Batman (1989) Batman : Le Défi (1992) Batman Forever (1995) Batman et Robin (1997) Batman Begins (2005) The Dark Knight, Le Chevalier Noir (2008) Justice League: Mortal (projet annulé, 2009) The Dark Knight Rises (2012) Batman v Superman : L'Aube de la justice (2016) Justice League (2017) Zack Snyder's Justice League (2021) The Batman (2022) Batgirl (2022) The Flash (2023) Séries télévisées Batman (1966–1968) Les Anges de la nuit (2002–2003) Dans la grotte de Batman (téléfilm, 2003) Gotham (2014) Pennyworth (2019) Gotham Knights (2023) The Penguin (2024) Batman (1966–1968) Les Anges de la nuit (2002–2003) Dans la grotte de Batman (téléfilm, 2003) Gotham (2014) Pennyworth (2019) Gotham Knights (2023) The Penguin (2024) Séries télévisées d'animation Les Aventures de Batman (1968–1969) Les Nouvelles Aventures de Batman (1977) Batman (1992–1995) Batman (1997–1999) Batman, la relève (1999–2001) Les Filles de Gotham (2000–2002) Batman (2004–2008) L'Alliance des héros (2008-2011) Prenez garde à Batman ! (2013-2014) Harley Quinn (2019) Batwheels (2022) Batman, le justicier masqué (2024) Les Aventures de Batman (1968–1969) Les Nouvelles Aventures de Batman (1977) Batman (1992–1995) Batman (1997–1999) Batman, la relève (1999–2001) Les Filles de Gotham (2000–2002) Batman (2004–2008) L'Alliance des héros (2008-2011) Prenez garde à Batman ! (2013-2014) Harley Quinn (2019) Batwheels (2022) Batman, le justicier masqué (2024) Films d'animation Batman contre le fantôme masqué (1993) Batman et Superman (1996) Batman et Mr. Freeze : Subzero (1998) Batman, la relève : le film (1999) Batman, la relève : Le Retour du Joker (2000) Batman : La Mystérieuse Batwoman (2003) Batman contre Dracula (2005) Batman : Contes de Gotham (2008) Superman/Batman : Ennemis publics (2009) Batman et Red Hood : Sous le masque rouge (2010) Superman/Batman : Apocalypse (2010) Batman: Year One (2011) Batman: The Dark Knight Returns (2012) Le Fils de Batman (2014) Batman : Assaut sur Arkham (2014) Lego DC Comics: Batman Be-Leaguered (2014) Batman vs. Robin (2015) Batman Unlimited : L'Instinct animal (2015) Batman Unlimited : Monstrueuse Pagaille (2015) Batman : Mauvais Sang (2016) Batman: The Killing Joke (2016) Batman Unlimited : Machines contre Mutants (2016) Batman : Le Retour des justiciers masqués (2016) Lego DC Comics Super Heroes : La Ligue des justiciers - S'évader de Gotham City (2016) Lego Batman, le film (2017) Batman vs. Double-Face (2017) Batman et Harley Quinn (2017) Scooby-Doo et Batman : L'Alliance des héros (2018) Batman: Gotham by Gaslight (2018) Batman Ninja (2018) Lego DC Batman : Une histoire de famille (2018) La Grande Aventure Lego 2 (2019) Batman et les Tortues Ninja (2019) Batman : Silence (2019) Batman: The Long Halloween (2021) Batman: Soul of the Dragon (2021) Krypto et les Super-Animaux (2022) Batman and Superman: Battle of the Super Sons (2022) L'Étrange Noël du petit Batman (2023) Batman : La Malédiction qui s'abattit sur Gotham (2023) Batman Ninja vs. Les Yakuzas (2025) Batman Azteca: Choque de imperios (2025) Batman contre le fantôme masqué (1993) Batman et Superman (1996) Batman et Mr. Freeze : Subzero (1998) Batman, la relève : le film (1999) Batman, la relève : Le Retour du Joker (2000) Batman : La Mystérieuse Batwoman (2003) Batman contre Dracula (2005) Batman : Contes de Gotham (2008) Superman/Batman : Ennemis publics (2009) Batman et Red Hood : Sous le masque rouge (2010) Superman/Batman : Apocalypse (2010) Batman: Year One (2011) Batman: The Dark Knight Returns (2012) Le Fils de Batman (2014) Batman : Assaut sur Arkham (2014) Lego DC Comics: Batman Be-Leaguered (2014) Batman vs. Robin (2015) Batman Unlimited : L'Instinct animal (2015) Batman Unlimited : Monstrueuse Pagaille (2015) Batman : Mauvais Sang (2016) Batman: The Killing Joke (2016) Batman Unlimited : Machines contre Mutants (2016) Batman : Le Retour des justiciers masqués (2016) Lego DC Comics Super Heroes : La Ligue des justiciers - S'évader de Gotham City (2016) Lego Batman, le film (2017) Batman vs. Double-Face (2017) Batman et Harley Quinn (2017) Scooby-Doo et Batman : L'Alliance des héros (2018) Batman: Gotham by Gaslight (2018) Batman Ninja (2018) Lego DC Batman : Une histoire de famille (2018) La Grande Aventure Lego 2 (2019) Batman et les Tortues Ninja (2019) Batman : Silence (2019) Batman: The Long Halloween (2021) Batman: Soul of the Dragon (2021) Krypto et les Super-Animaux (2022) Batman and Superman: Battle of the Super Sons (2022) L'Étrange Noël du petit Batman (2023) Batman : La Malédiction qui s'abattit sur Gotham (2023) Batman Ninja vs. Les Yakuzas (2025) Batman Azteca: Choque de imperios (2025) Animation Ligue de justice Voir Ligue de justice d'Amérique Voir Ligue de justice d'Amérique Jeux vidéo Liste de jeux vidéo Batman Liste de jeux vidéo Batman Podcasts Batman: The Audio Adventures (en) (2021) Batman Autopsie (2022) Batman: The Audio Adventures (en) (2021) Batman Autopsie (2022) Bandes originales et chansons Batman (B.O., 1989) Batman (album, 1989) Batdance (1989) Partyman (1989) The Arms of Orion (1989) Scandalous! (1989) The Future (1989) Batman : Le Défi (1992) Face to Face (1992) Batman Forever (album, 1995) Batman Forever (B.O., 1995) Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me (1995) Kiss from a Rose (1995) The End Is the Beginning Is the End (1997) Batman (B.O., 1989) Batman (album, 1989) Batdance (1989) Partyman (1989) The Arms of Orion (1989) Scandalous! (1989) The Future (1989) Batman : Le Défi (1992) Face to Face (1992) Batman Forever (album, 1995) Batman Forever (B.O., 1995) Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me (1995) Kiss from a Rose (1995) The End Is the Beginning Is the End (1997) Arcs narratifs Versions alternatives (en) Arcs narratifs Versions alternatives (en) v · m Personnages de l’univers de Batman Super-héros Batman Bruce Wayne Jean-Paul Valley Dick Grayson Terry McGinnis Robin Dick Grayson Jason Todd Tim Drake Stephanie Brown Damian Wayne Carrie Kelley Batwoman Kathy Kane Kate Kane Batgirl Barbara Gordon Betty Kane Helena Bertinelli Cassandra Cain Stéphanie Brown Catwoman Selina Kyle Holly Robinson Autres alliés Azrael Anarky Bat-Mite Batwing Bluebird Huntress Nightwing Man-Bat Nightrunner Onyx Oracle Zatanna Creeper Équipes Ligue de justice d'Amérique Les Outsiders Batman Bruce Wayne Jean-Paul Valley Dick Grayson Terry McGinnis Bruce Wayne Jean-Paul Valley Dick Grayson Terry McGinnis Robin Dick Grayson Jason Todd Tim Drake Stephanie Brown Damian Wayne Carrie Kelley Dick Grayson Jason Todd Tim Drake Stephanie Brown Damian Wayne Carrie Kelley Batwoman Kathy Kane Kate Kane Kathy Kane Kate Kane Batgirl Barbara Gordon Betty Kane Helena Bertinelli Cassandra Cain Stéphanie Brown Barbara Gordon Betty Kane Helena Bertinelli Cassandra Cain Stéphanie Brown Catwoman Selina Kyle Holly Robinson Selina Kyle Holly Robinson Autres alliés Azrael Anarky Bat-Mite Batwing Bluebird Huntress Nightwing Man-Bat Nightrunner Onyx Oracle Zatanna Creeper Azrael Anarky Bat-Mite Batwing Bluebird Huntress Nightwing Man-Bat Nightrunner Onyx Oracle Zatanna Creeper Équipes Ligue de justice d'Amérique Les Outsiders Ligue de justice d'Amérique Les Outsiders Entourage Amis Alfred Pennyworth Harold Allnut Harvey Dent Julia Pennyworth Lucius Fox Leslie Thompkins Famille Thomas Wayne (père) Martha Wayne (mère) Damian Wayne (fils) Helena Wayne (fille) Ace (chien) Gotham Central Commissaire James Gordon Inspecteur Harvey Bullock Commissaire Loeb Jason Bard Sarah Essen Maggie Sawyer Renee Montoya Petites amies Rachel Dawes Sasha Bordeaux Selina Kyle Talia al Ghul Vicki Vale Alliés secondaires Amadeus Arkham Jeremiah Arkham Amis Alfred Pennyworth Harold Allnut Harvey Dent Julia Pennyworth Lucius Fox Leslie Thompkins Alfred Pennyworth Harold Allnut Harvey Dent Julia Pennyworth Lucius Fox Leslie Thompkins Famille Thomas Wayne (père) Martha Wayne (mère) Damian Wayne (fils) Helena Wayne (fille) Ace (chien) Thomas Wayne (père) Martha Wayne (mère) Damian Wayne (fils) Helena Wayne (fille) Ace (chien) Gotham Central Commissaire James Gordon Inspecteur Harvey Bullock Commissaire Loeb Jason Bard Sarah Essen Maggie Sawyer Renee Montoya Commissaire James Gordon Inspecteur Harvey Bullock Commissaire Loeb Jason Bard Sarah Essen Maggie Sawyer Renee Montoya Petites amies Rachel Dawes Sasha Bordeaux Selina Kyle Talia al Ghul Vicki Vale Rachel Dawes Sasha Bordeaux Selina Kyle Talia al Ghul Vicki Vale Alliés secondaires Amadeus Arkham Jeremiah Arkham Amadeus Arkham Jeremiah Arkham Ennemis Costumés Le Joker Le Sphinx L'Empoisonneuse L'Épouvantail Le Chapelier Fou Harley Quinn Mister Freeze Bane Silence Red Hood Deadshot Duela Dent Firefly Maxie Zeus Terrible Trio Le Roi du Temps Gangsters Double-Face Le Pingouin Le Ventriloque Black Mask Great White Shark Joe Chill Carmine Falcone Sofia Falcone Salvatore Maroni Rupert Thorne Ignatius Ogilvy Monstres Man-Bat Gueule d'argile Killer Croc Killer Moth Solomon Grundy Inque Orca Milliardaires Lex Luthor Killer Moth Ligue des Assassins Ra's al Ghul Talia al Ghul Nyssa Raatko (en) David Cain Lady Shiva Autres ennemis Henri Ducard Calendar Man Cluemaster Deathstroke Hugo Strange Simon Hurt Victor Zsasz Professeur Pyg Amanda Waller KGBeast Costumés Le Joker Le Sphinx L'Empoisonneuse L'Épouvantail Le Chapelier Fou Harley Quinn Mister Freeze Bane Silence Red Hood Deadshot Duela Dent Firefly Maxie Zeus Terrible Trio Le Roi du Temps Le Joker Le Sphinx L'Empoisonneuse L'Épouvantail Le Chapelier Fou Harley Quinn Mister Freeze Bane Silence Red Hood Deadshot Duela Dent Firefly Maxie Zeus Terrible Trio Le Roi du Temps Gangsters Double-Face Le Pingouin Le Ventriloque Black Mask Great White Shark Joe Chill Carmine Falcone Sofia Falcone Salvatore Maroni Rupert Thorne Ignatius Ogilvy Double-Face Le Pingouin Le Ventriloque Black Mask Great White Shark Joe Chill Carmine Falcone Sofia Falcone Salvatore Maroni Rupert Thorne Ignatius Ogilvy Monstres Man-Bat Gueule d'argile Killer Croc Killer Moth Solomon Grundy Inque Orca Man-Bat Gueule d'argile Killer Croc Killer Moth Solomon Grundy Inque Orca Milliardaires Lex Luthor Killer Moth Lex Luthor Killer Moth Ligue des Assassins Ra's al Ghul Talia al Ghul Nyssa Raatko (en) David Cain Lady Shiva Ra's al Ghul Talia al Ghul Nyssa Raatko (en) David Cain Lady Shiva Autres ennemis Henri Ducard Calendar Man Cluemaster Deathstroke Hugo Strange Simon Hurt Victor Zsasz Professeur Pyg Amanda Waller KGBeast Henri Ducard Calendar Man Cluemaster Deathstroke Hugo Strange Simon Hurt Victor Zsasz Professeur Pyg Amanda Waller KGBeast v · m Jeux vidéo Batman Jeux divers Batman (1986) The Caped Crusader (1988) Return of the Joker (1991) Dark Tomorrow (2003) Gotham City Impostors (2012) The Telltale Series (2016) The Enemy Within (2017) Gotham Knights (2022) Batman (1986) The Caped Crusader (1988) Return of the Joker (1991) Dark Tomorrow (2003) Gotham City Impostors (2012) The Telltale Series (2016) The Enemy Within (2017) Gotham Knights (2022) Jeux inspirés des films Batman (1989) The Video Game (1989) The Video Game (1990) Batman (1990, PC-Engine) Batman (1990, Arcade) Returns (1992, Atari) Returns (1992, GameTek) Returns (1992, Sega) Returns (1993, Konami) Forever (1995) Forever: The Arcade Game (1996) Batman et Robin (1998) Begins (2005) Batman (1989) The Video Game (1989) The Video Game (1990) Batman (1990, PC-Engine) Batman (1990, Arcade) Returns (1992, Atari) Returns (1992, GameTek) Returns (1992, Sega) Returns (1993, Konami) Forever (1995) Forever: The Arcade Game (1996) Batman et Robin (1998) Begins (2005) Arcade Batman (1990) Batman Forever: The Arcade Game (1996) Batman (en) (2013) Batman (1990) Batman Forever: The Arcade Game (1996) Batman (en) (2013) Lego Lego Batman , le jeu vidéo (2008) 2: DC Super Heroes (2012) 3 : Au-delà de Gotham (2014) L'Héritage du Chevalier noir ( 2026 ) Lego Batman , le jeu vidéo (2008) 2: DC Super Heroes (2012) 3 : Au-delà de Gotham (2014) L'Héritage du Chevalier noir ( 2026 ) Batman: Arkham Arkham Asylum (2009) Arkham City (2011) Lockdown (2011) Arkham Origins (2013) Mobile (2013) Blackgate (2013) Arkham Knight (2015) Arkham VR (2016) Arkham Asylum (2009) Arkham City (2011) Lockdown (2011) Lockdown (2011) Arkham Origins (2013) Mobile (2013) Blackgate (2013) Mobile (2013) Blackgate (2013) Arkham Knight (2015) Arkham VR (2016) Jeux inspirés de la série animée The Animated Series (1993) The Adventures of Batman & Robin (1994) Batman of the Future: Return of the Joker (2000) Chaos in Gotham (2001) Gotham City Racer (2001) Vengeance (2001) Rise of Sin Tzu (2003) L'Alliance des héros (2010) The Animated Series (1993) The Adventures of Batman & Robin (1994) Batman of the Future: Return of the Joker (2000) Chaos in Gotham (2001) Gotham City Racer (2001) Vengeance (2001) Rise of Sin Tzu (2003) L'Alliance des héros (2010) Liste de jeux Batman Liste de jeux Batman v · m Ligue de justice d'Amérique Membres fondateurs Aquaman Batman Cyborg Flash (Barry Allen) Green Lantern (Hal Jordan) Martian Manhunter Superman Wonder Woman Aquaman Batman Cyborg Flash (Barry Allen) Green Lantern (Hal Jordan) Martian Manhunter Superman Wonder Woman Autres membres Ambush Bug Animal Man Atom (Ray Palmer) Aztek Batgirl (Barbara Gordon) Big Barda Black Canary Black Lightning Blue Beetle Blue Devil Blue Jay Booster Gold Captain Atom Captain Cold Cassandra Cain Catwoman Citizen Steel Commander Steel Congo Bill John Constantine Creeper Doctor Fate Doctor Light Element Girl Elongated Man Etrigan Firestorm Flash (Wally West) Dick Grayson Green Arrow Green Lantern (Guy Gardner) Green Lantern (John Stewart) Green Lantern (Kyle Rayner) Connor Hawke Hawkgirl Hawkman Hourman Huntress (Helena Bertinelli) Huntress (Helena Wayne) Katana Lex Luthor Terry McGinnis Metamorpho Mister Miracle Mystek Nuklon Obsidian Adam Strange Phantom Stranger Plastic Man Plastique Power Girl Red Arrow (Roy Harper) Red Tornado Shazam Starman (Mikaal Tomas) Steel Supergirl (Kara Zor-El) Vixen Zatanna Ambush Bug Animal Man Atom (Ray Palmer) Aztek Batgirl (Barbara Gordon) Big Barda Black Canary Black Lightning Blue Beetle Blue Devil Blue Jay Booster Gold Captain Atom Captain Cold Cassandra Cain Catwoman Citizen Steel Commander Steel Congo Bill John Constantine Creeper Doctor Fate Doctor Light Element Girl Elongated Man Etrigan Firestorm Flash (Wally West) Dick Grayson Green Arrow Green Lantern (Guy Gardner) Green Lantern (John Stewart) Green Lantern (Kyle Rayner) Connor Hawke Hawkgirl Hawkman Hourman Huntress (Helena Bertinelli) Huntress (Helena Wayne) Katana Lex Luthor Terry McGinnis Metamorpho Mister Miracle Mystek Nuklon Obsidian Adam Strange Phantom Stranger Plastic Man Plastique Power Girl Red Arrow (Roy Harper) Red Tornado Shazam Starman (Mikaal Tomas) Steel Supergirl (Kara Zor-El) Vixen Zatanna Équipes All-Star Squadron Extreme Justice Justice League Europe Justice Legion Alpha Société de justice d'Amérique Les Jeunes Titans Ultramarines Young Justice All-Star Squadron Extreme Justice Justice League Europe Justice Legion Alpha Société de justice d'Amérique Les Jeunes Titans Ultramarines Young Justice Ennemis Amazo Brainiac La Calculette Cheetah Darkseid Despero Docteur Light (Arthur Light) Doomsday Eclipso Gang du Flush Royal Gorilla Grodd Harley Quinn Le Joker Krona Lex Luthor Ligue des Assassins Lobo Martiens blancs Maxwell Lord Ocean Master Poison Ivy Professeur Zoom Prometheus Ra's al Ghul Shaggy Man Solomon Grundy Steppenwolf Syndicat du Crime Ultra-Humanite Vandal Savage Zoom Amazo Brainiac La Calculette Cheetah Darkseid Despero Docteur Light (Arthur Light) Doomsday Eclipso Gang du Flush Royal Gorilla Grodd Harley Quinn Le Joker Krona Lex Luthor Ligue des Assassins Lobo Martiens blancs Maxwell Lord Ocean Master Poison Ivy Professeur Zoom Prometheus Ra's al Ghul Shaggy Man Solomon Grundy Steppenwolf Syndicat du Crime Ultra-Humanite Vandal Savage Zoom Arc narratifs Crisis on Infinite Earths (1985) Heure Zéro: Crise Temporelle (1994) Le Clou (1998) JLA : La Tour de Babel (2000) Identity Crisis (2004) Infinite Crisis (2006) Final Crisis (2008) Forever Evil (2013) Crossovers JLA/Avengers (2004) Crisis on Infinite Earths (1985) Heure Zéro: Crise Temporelle (1994) Le Clou (1998) JLA : La Tour de Babel (2000) Identity Crisis (2004) Infinite Crisis (2006) Final Crisis (2008) Forever Evil (2013) Crossovers JLA/Avengers (2004) Adaptations à d'autres médias Animation Le Plein de super (1976-1986) La Ligue des justiciers (2001-2006) La Ligue des justiciers : Nouvelle Frontière (2008) Batman : L'Alliance des héros (2008-2011) La Ligue des justiciers : Conflit sur les deux Terres (2010) La Ligue des justiciers : Nouvelle Génération (2010-2013) La Ligue des justiciers : Échec (2012) La Ligue des justiciers : Le Paradoxe Flashpoint (2013) Lego Batman, le film : Unité des super héros (2013) Les Aventures de la Ligue des justiciers : Piège temporel (2014) La Ligue des justiciers : Guerre (2014) Lego DC Comics: Batman Be-Leaguered (2014) La Ligue des justiciers : Le Trône de l'Atlantide (2015) La Ligue des justiciers : Dieux et Monstres (2015) Lego DC Comics Super Heroes : La Ligue des justiciers contre la Ligue des Bizarro (2015) Lego DC Comics Super Heroes : La Ligue des justiciers - L'Attaque de la Légion maudite (2015) Lego DC Comics Super Heroes : La Ligue des justiciers - L'Affrontement cosmique (2016) Lego DC Comics Super Heroes : La Ligue des justiciers - S'évader de Gotham City (2016) La Ligue des justiciers vs. les Teen Titans (2016) Justice League Dark (2017) Justice League vs. the Fatal Five (2019) Justice League Dark: Apokolips War (2020) Justice League: Warworld (2023) Justice League: Crisis on Infinite Earths (2024) Live action Justice League of America (1997) Justice League: Mortal (2009, annulé) Justice League (2017) Zack Snyder's Justice League (2021) Jeux vidéo Justice League Task Force (1995) Justice League: Injustice for All (2002) Justice League: Chronicles (2003) Héros de la Ligue des justiciers (2006) Injustice : Les dieux sont parmi nous (2013) Injustice 2 (2017) Animation Le Plein de super (1976-1986) La Ligue des justiciers (2001-2006) La Ligue des justiciers : Nouvelle Frontière (2008) Batman : L'Alliance des héros (2008-2011) La Ligue des justiciers : Conflit sur les deux Terres (2010) La Ligue des justiciers : Nouvelle Génération (2010-2013) La Ligue des justiciers : Échec (2012) La Ligue des justiciers : Le Paradoxe Flashpoint (2013) Lego Batman, le film : Unité des super héros (2013) Les Aventures de la Ligue des justiciers : Piège temporel (2014) La Ligue des justiciers : Guerre (2014) Lego DC Comics: Batman Be-Leaguered (2014) La Ligue des justiciers : Le Trône de l'Atlantide (2015) La Ligue des justiciers : Dieux et Monstres (2015) Lego DC Comics Super Heroes : La Ligue des justiciers contre la Ligue des Bizarro (2015) Lego DC Comics Super Heroes : La Ligue des justiciers - L'Attaque de la Légion maudite (2015) Lego DC Comics Super Heroes : La Ligue des justiciers - L'Affrontement cosmique (2016) Lego DC Comics Super Heroes : La Ligue des justiciers - S'évader de Gotham City (2016) La Ligue des justiciers vs. les Teen Titans (2016) Justice League Dark (2017) Justice League vs. the Fatal Five (2019) Justice League Dark: Apokolips War (2020) Justice League: Warworld (2023) Justice League: Crisis on Infinite Earths (2024) Le Plein de super (1976-1986) La Ligue des justiciers (2001-2006) La Ligue des justiciers : Nouvelle Frontière (2008) Batman : L'Alliance des héros (2008-2011) La Ligue des justiciers : Conflit sur les deux Terres (2010) La Ligue des justiciers : Nouvelle Génération (2010-2013) La Ligue des justiciers : Échec (2012) La Ligue des justiciers : Le Paradoxe Flashpoint (2013) Lego Batman, le film : Unité des super héros (2013) Les Aventures de la Ligue des justiciers : Piège temporel (2014) La Ligue des justiciers : Guerre (2014) Lego DC Comics: Batman Be-Leaguered (2014) La Ligue des justiciers : Le Trône de l'Atlantide (2015) La Ligue des justiciers : Dieux et Monstres (2015) Lego DC Comics Super Heroes : La Ligue des justiciers contre la Ligue des Bizarro (2015) Lego DC Comics Super Heroes : La Ligue des justiciers - L'Attaque de la Légion maudite (2015) Lego DC Comics Super Heroes : La Ligue des justiciers - L'Affrontement cosmique (2016) Lego DC Comics Super Heroes : La Ligue des justiciers - S'évader de Gotham City (2016) La Ligue des justiciers vs. les Teen Titans (2016) Justice League Dark (2017) Justice League vs. the Fatal Five (2019) Justice League Dark: Apokolips War (2020) Justice League: Warworld (2023) Justice League: Crisis on Infinite Earths (2024) Live action Justice League of America (1997) Justice League: Mortal (2009, annulé) Justice League (2017) Zack Snyder's Justice League (2021) Justice League of America (1997) Justice League: Mortal (2009, annulé) Justice League (2017) Zack Snyder's Justice League (2021) Jeux vidéo Justice League Task Force (1995) Justice League: Injustice for All (2002) Justice League: Chronicles (2003) Héros de la Ligue des justiciers (2006) Injustice : Les dieux sont parmi nous (2013) Injustice 2 (2017) Justice League Task Force (1995) Justice League: Injustice for All (2002) Justice League: Chronicles (2003) Héros de la Ligue des justiciers (2006) Injustice : Les dieux sont parmi nous (2013) Injustice 2 (2017) Voir aussi Gardner Fox (créateur) Liste des membres de la Ligue de justice d'Amérique Gardner Fox (créateur) Liste des membres de la Ligue de justice d'Amérique v · m Batgirl Créateurs Bill Finger Sheldon Moldoff ( Bette Kane ) Gardner Fox Carmine Infantino ( Barbara Gordon ) Kelley Puckett Damion Scott ( Cassandra Cain ) Chuck Dixon Tom Lyle ( Stephanie Brown ) Bill Finger Sheldon Moldoff ( Bette Kane ) Gardner Fox Carmine Infantino ( Barbara Gordon ) Kelley Puckett Damion Scott ( Cassandra Cain ) Chuck Dixon Tom Lyle ( Stephanie Brown ) Batgirl Bette Kane Barbara Gordon Cassandra Cain Stéphanie Brown Bette Kane Barbara Gordon Cassandra Cain Stéphanie Brown Alliés Batman Black Canary James Gordon Nightwing Oracle Alfred Pennyworth Proxy Robin Leslie Thompkins Alysia Yeoh (en) Équipe : Birds of Prey Batman Black Canary James Gordon Nightwing Oracle Alfred Pennyworth Proxy Robin Leslie Thompkins Alysia Yeoh (en) Équipe : Birds of Prey Ennemis James Gordon Jr Joker Harley Quinn Poison Ivy Knightfall Lady Shiva James Gordon Jr Joker Harley Quinn Poison Ivy Knightfall Lady Shiva Comics Batgirl: Année Un Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Batgirl: Année Un Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Autres médias Batman (série télévisée) The Batman/Superman Hour (en) Les Aventures de Batman Les Nouvelles Aventures de Batman (1977) Batman (1992) Batman et Robin Batman (1997) Les Filles de Gotham Les Anges de la nuit Batman (2004) La Ligue des justiciers : Nouvelle Génération DC Super Hero Girls DC Super Hero Girls : Héroïne de l'année DC Super Hero Girls (2019) Batgirl Batman (série télévisée) The Batman/Superman Hour (en) Les Aventures de Batman Les Nouvelles Aventures de Batman (1977) Batman (1992) Batman et Robin Batman (1997) Les Filles de Gotham Les Anges de la nuit Batman (2004) La Ligue des justiciers : Nouvelle Génération DC Super Hero Girls DC Super Hero Girls : Héroïne de l'année DC Super Hero Girls (2019) Batgirl Portail de DC Comics Batman Membre de la Ligue de justice d'Amérique Super-héros DC Super-héros sans super-pouvoirs Super-héros fondé sur un animal Série Delcourt Artiste martial de fiction Scientifique de fiction Homme d'affaires de fiction Riche de fiction Justicier de fiction Gentleman détective Orphelin de fiction Adopté de fiction Maître du déguisement de fiction Séducteur de fiction Chauve-souris dans la culture Antihéros Personnage créé par Bob Kane Personnage créé par Bill Finger Franchise Warner Bros. Pictures Personnage de fiction créé en 1939 Personnage de fiction américain Personnage de fiction masqué Bande dessinée se déroulant dans une ville ou un État fictif aux États-Unis Article contenant un lien mort Page en semi-protection longue Article contenant un appel à traduction en anglais Article utilisant une Infobox Article utilisant l'infobox Personnage (fiction) Page utilisant P856 Page utilisant P1711 Page utilisant P3544 Page pointant vers des bases externes Page pointant vers des bases relatives aux beaux-arts Page utilisant P5357 Page pointant vers des bases relatives à la littérature Page utilisant P5905 Page pointant vers des bases relatives à la bande dessinée Page utilisant P434 Page pointant vers des bases relatives à la musique Page utilisant P496 Page pointant vers des bases relatives à la recherche Page utilisant P1417 Page utilisant P6706 Page utilisant P1296 Page utilisant P6058 Page utilisant P3222 Page utilisant P3365 Page pointant vers des dictionnaires ou encyclopédies généralistes Article de Wikipédia avec notice d'autorité Portail:DC Comics/Articles liés Portail:Comics/Articles liés Portail:Warner Bros. Discovery/Articles liés Portail:Culture américaine/Articles liés Portail:États-Unis/Articles liés Article de qualité en serbo-croate Article de qualité en arabe Article de qualité en hongrois Bon article en russe Article de qualité en bosnien Article de qualité La dernière modification de cette page a été faite le 13 janvier 2026 à 08:35. Droit d'auteur : les textes sont disponibles sous licence Creative Commons attribution, partage dans les mêmes conditions ; d’autres conditions peuvent s’appliquer. Voyez les conditions d’utilisation pour plus de détails, ainsi que les crédits graphiques . En cas de réutilisation des textes de cette page, voyez comment citer les auteurs et mentionner la licence . Wikipedia® est une marque déposée de la Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , organisation de bienfaisance régie par le paragraphe 501(c)(3) du code fiscal des États-Unis. Politique de confidentialité À propos de Wikipédia Avertissements Contact Contacts juridiques & sécurité Code de conduite Développeurs Statistiques Déclaration sur les témoins (cookies) Version mobile
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https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batman
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Help | Advanced Search quick links Login Help Pages About Computer Science > Computation and Language Title: GROKE: Vision-Free Navigation Instruction Evaluation via Graph Reasoning on OpenStreetMap Abstract: The evaluation of navigation instructions remains a persistent challenge in Vision-and-Language Navigation (VLN) research. Traditional reference-based metrics such as BLEU and ROUGE fail to capture the functional utility of spatial directives, specifically whether an instruction successfully guides a navigator to the intended destination. Although existing VLN agents could serve as evaluators, their reliance on high-fidelity visual simulators introduces licensing constraints and computational costs, and perception errors further confound linguistic quality assessment. This paper introduces GROKE(Graph-based Reasoning over OSM Knowledge for instruction Evaluation), a vision-free training-free hierarchical LLM-based framework for evaluating navigation instructions using OpenStreetMap data. Through systematic ablation studies, we demonstrate that structured JSON and textual formats for spatial information substantially outperform grid-based and visual graph representations. Our hierarchical architecture combines sub-instruction planning with topological graph navigation, reducing navigation error by 68.5% compared to heuristic and sampling baselines on the Map2Seq dataset. The agent's execution success, trajectory fidelity, and decision patterns serve as proxy metrics for functional navigability given OSM-visible landmarks and topology, establishing a scalable and interpretable evaluation paradigm without visual dependencies. Code and data are available at this https URL . Comments: Under Review for ACL 2026 Subjects: Computation and Language (cs.CL) Cite as: arXiv:2601.07375 [cs.CL] (or arXiv:2601.07375v1 [cs.CL] for this version) Focus to learn more arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite (pending registration) Submission history Access Paper: View PDF HTML (experimental) TeX Source References & Citations NASA ADS Google Scholar Semantic Scholar BibTeX formatted citation Bookmark Bibliographic and Citation Tools Code, Data and Media Associated with this Article Demos Recommenders and Search Tools Author Venue Institution Topic arXivLabs: experimental projects with community collaborators arXivLabs is a framework that allows collaborators to develop and share new arXiv features directly on our website. Both individuals and organizations that work with arXivLabs have embraced and accepted our values of openness, community, excellence, and user data privacy. arXiv is committed to these values and only works with partners that adhere to them. Have an idea for a project that will add value for arXiv's community? Learn more about arXivLabs . About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status arXiv Operational Status
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https://arxiv.org/abs/2601.07375
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Pagina principală Schimbări recente Cafenea Articol aleatoriu Facebook Cum încep pe Wikipedia Ajutor Portaluri tematice Articole cerute Pagini speciale Donații Creare cont Autentificare Donații Creare cont Autentificare Cuprins Început 1 Prezent 2 Lista președinților Venezuelei 3 Note 4 Legături externe Președintele Venezuelei Aragonés العربية مصرى Azərbaycanca Български Català Chavacano de Zamboanga کوردی Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Español Eesti فارسی Suomi Français Galego עברית हिन्दी 日本語 한국어 Latviešu Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Norsk bokmål Português Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Svenska 中文 Articol Discuție Lectură Modificare Modificare sursă Istoric Lectură Modificare Modificare sursă Istoric Ce trimite aici Schimbări corelate Trimite fișier Legătură permanentă Informații despre pagină Citează acest articol Obține URL scurtat Descărcați codul QR Creare carte Descărcare ca PDF Versiune de tipărit Element Wikidata Președinte al Republicii Bolivariene a Venezuelei În funcție Nicolás Maduro din 5 martie 2013 Reședință oficială La Casona ( es ) Numit de Popular vote election Durata mandatului Șase ani Nelimitate Deținătorul inaugural Cristóbal Mendoza ( First Republic ) José Antonio Páez ( State of Venezuela ) Înființare 13 ianuarie 1830 Adjunct Vice President of Venezuela Website presidencia.gob.ve Modifică date / text Președintele Republicii Bolivariene a Venezuelei numit în mod colocvial Președintele Venezuelei este șeful de stat ales al Venezuelei și totodată șeful guvernului Venezuelei. În prezent mandatul prezidențial este de șase ani, cu posibilitate de referendum popular în ultimii trei ani al mandatului. În 15 februarie 2009 un referendum a anulat restricția anterioară care permitea cel mult două mandate prezidențiale. [ 1 ] Prezent În prezent, președintele în exercițiu este Nicolas Maduro. Termenul de „Presidente” este aplicabil acelor persoane, care au depus jurământul înainte de a ocupa oficiul prezidențial, după Declarația de independență. Primul președinte Cristóbal Mendoza a fost instalat în 5 iulie 1811 și de fapt făcea parte dintr-un triumvirat numit de Parlament și care se roteau săptămânal, ocupând alternativ funcția, ceilalți doi membrii erau Juan Escalona și Baltasar Padrón. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] . Lista președinților Venezuelei Partidul Conservator Partidul Liberal Independent Dictatură miolitară Grupare Democratică COPEI Uniune Națională Mișcarea A Cincea Republică/Partidul Socialist Unit # (toți) # (unic) # (selectați toți) Foto Președinte Mandatul Mod ocupare funcție Profesia 1 1 1 Cristóbal Mendoza , Juan Escalona , Baltasar Padrón 5 martie 1811 – 21 martie 1812 Triumvirat executiv ales de Primul Congres Avocat, căpitan, latifundiar 2 2 2 Simón Bolívar 6 august 1813 – 7 iulie 1814 Alegeri indirecte Militar (general) 3 3 2 Simón Bolívar 15 februarie 1819 – 17 decembrie 1819 Alegeri indirecte Militar (general) 4 4 3 José Antonio Páez 13 ianuarie 1830 – 20 ianuarie 1835 Alegeri indirecte Militar (general) 5 — 5 Andrés Narvarte 20 ianuarie 1835 – 9 februari 1835 Acting President Avocat / politician 6 5 4 José María Vargas 9 februarie 1835 – 9 iulie 1835 Alegeri indirecte Medic 7 — 6 José María Carreño 27 iulie 1835 – 20 august 1835 Acting President Militar (general) 8 — 4 José María Vargas 20 august 1835 – 24 aprilie 1836 Restaurare Medic 9 6 5 Andrés Narvarte 24 aprilie 1836 – 20 ianuarie 1837 Mandat interimar Avocat / politician 10 7 6 José María Carreño 20 ianuarie 1837 – 11 martie 1837 Mandat interimar Militar (general) 11 8 7 Carlos Soublette 11 martie 1837 – 1 februarie 1839 Mandat interimar Militar (general) 12 9 3 José Antonio Páez 1 februarie 1839 – 28 ianuarie 1843 Alegeri indirecte Militar (general) 13 10 7 Carlos Soublette 28 ianuarie 1843 – 20 ianuarie 1847 Alegeri indirecte Militar (general) 14 11 8 José Tadeo Monagas 20 ianuarie 1847 – 5 februarie 1851 Alegeri indirecte Militar (general) 15 12 9 José Gregorio Monagas 5 februarie 1851 – 20 ianuarie 1855 Alegeri indirecte Militar (general) 16 13 8 José Tadeo Monagas 20 ianuarie 1855 – 15 martie 1858 Alegeri indirecte Militar (general) 17 14 10 Pedro Gual Escandon 15 martie 1858 – 18 martie 1858 Președinte provizoriu Avocat 18 15 11 Julián Castro 18 martie 1858 – 2 august 1859 Lovitură de stat Militar (general) 19 16 10 Pedro Gual Escandon 2 august 1859 – 29 septembrie 1859 Președinte provizoriu Avocat 20 17 11 Manuel Felipe de Tovar 29 septembrie 1859 – 20 mai 1861 Lovitură de stat (primul mandat); Alegeri directe (al doilea mandat) Politician 21 18 10 Pedro Gual Escandon 20 mai 1861 – 29 august 1861 Președinte provizoriu Avocat 22 19 3 José Antonio Páez 29 august 1861 – 15 iunie 1863 Dictatură Militar (general) 23 20 12 Juan Crisóstomo Falcón 15 iunie 1863 – 18 martie 1865 Victorie în Războiul Federal (primul mandat) Militar (general) 24 20 12 Juan Crisóstomo Falcón 18 martie 1865 – 25 aprilie 1868 Alegeri indirecte (al doilea mandat) Militar (general) 25 21 13 Manuel Ezequiel Bruzual 25 aprilie 1868 – 28 iunie 1868 Președinte provizoriu Ofițer 26 22 14 Guillermo Tell Villegas 28 iunie 1868 – 20 februarie 1869 Președinte provizoriu Avocat / Military 27 23 15 José Ruperto Monagas 20 februarie 1869 – 16 aprilie 1870 Revoluție Militar (general) 28 24 14 Guillermo Tell Villegas 16 aprilie 1870 – 27 aprilie 1870 Președinte provizoriu Avocat / Militar 29 25 16 Antonio Guzmán Blanco 27 aprilie 1870 – 20 februarie 1873 Revoluție (primul mandat) Avocat / Militar (general) 30 25 16 Antonio Guzmán Blanco 20 februarie 1873 – 27 februarie 1877 Alegeri indirecte (al doilea mandat) Avocat / Militar (general) 31 26 17 Francisco Linares Alcántara 27 februarie 1877 – 30 noiembrie 1878 Alegeri indirecte Militar (general) 32 27 18 José Gregorio Valera 30 noiembrie 1878 – 26 februarie 1879 Președinte provizoriu Militar (general) 33 28 16 Antonio Guzmán Blanco 26 februarie 1879 – 12 mai 1880 Ales de Statele Federale Avocat / Militar (general) 34 28 16 Antonio Guzmán Blanco 12 mai 1880 – 1882 Ales de Statele Federale Avocat / Militar (general) 35 28 16 Antonio Guzmán Blanco 1882 – 26 aprilie 1884 Ales de Statele Federale Avocat / Militar (general) 36 29 18 Joaquín Sinforiano de Jesús Crespo 26 aprilie 1884 – 15 septembrie 1886 Ales de Statele Federale Militar (general) 37 30 16 Antonio Guzmán Blanco 15 septembrie 1886 – 8 august 1887 Ales de Statele Federale Avocat / Militar (general) 38 31 19 Hermógenes López 8 august 1887 – 2 iulie 1888 Numit interimar Militar (general) 39 32 20 Juan Pablo Rojas Paúl 2 iulie 1888 – 19 martie 1890 Ales de Statele Federale Avocat 40 33 27 Raimundo Andueza Palacio 19 martie 1890 – 17 iunie 1892 Ales de Statele Federale Avocat 41 34 — Guillermo Tell Villegas 17 iunie 1892 – 31 august 1892 Președinte provizoriu Avocat / Militar 42 — — Guillermo Tell Villegas Pulido 31 august 1892 – 7 octombrie 1892 Președinte provizoriu Avocat 43 35 28 Joaquín Sinforiano de Jesús Crespo 7 octombrie 1892 – 14 martie 1894 Revoluție Militar (general) 44 35 29 Joaquín Sinforiano de Jesús Crespo 14 martie 1894 – 28 februarie 1898 Ales de Statele Federale Militar (general) 45 36 30 Ignacio Andrade 28 februarie 1898 – 20 octombrie 1899 Alegeri directe Politician 46 37 31 Cipriano Castro Ruiz 20 octombrie 1899 – 19 decembrie 1908 Revoluție Militar (general) 47 38 32 Juan Vicente Gómez 19 decembrie 1908 – 5 august 1913 Lovitură de stat Militar (general) 48 — — José Gil Fortoul 5 august 1913 – 19 aprilie 1914 Președinte provizoriu numit Președinte provizoriu Avocat 49 — — Victorino Márquez Bustillos 19 aprilie 1914 – 1922 Președinte provizoriu numit Președinte provizoriu [ 4 ] Avocat / politician 50 40 32 Juan Vicente Gómez 1922 – 30 mai 1929 — Militar (general) 51 41 — Juan Bautista Pérez 30 mai 1929 – 13 iunie 1931 Alegeri indirecte de Adunarea Națională Avocat / magistrate 52 42 32 Juan Vicente Gómez 13 iunie 1931 – 17 decembrie 1935 Alegeri indirecte de Adunarea Națională Militar (general) 53 43 33 Eleazar López Contreras 18 decembrie 1935 – 30 iunie 1936 Mandat interimar (primul mandat) Militar (general) 54 43 34 Eleazar López Contreras 30 iunie 1936 – 5 mai 1941 Alegeri indirecte (al doilea mandat) Militar (general) 55 44 35 Isaías Medina Angarita 5 mai 1941 – 18 octombrie 1945 Alegeri indirecte Militar (general) 56 45 36 Rómulo Ernesto Betancourt Bello 19 octombrie 1945 – 17 februarie 1948 Lovitură de stat Politician 57 46 37 Rómulo Gallegos Freire 17 februarie 1948 – 24 noiembrie 1948 Alegeri directe Scriitor / Romancier 58 47 38 Carlos Delgado Chalbaud 24 noiembrie 1948 – 13 noiembrie 1950 Lovitură de stat Ofițer 59 48 39 Germán Suárez Flamerich 27 noiembrie 1950 – 2 decembrie 1952 Mandat interimar Avocat 60 49 40 Marcos Pérez Jiménez 2 decembrie 1952 – 23 ianuarie 1958 Alegeri indirecte Ofițer 61 50 41 Wolfgang Larrazábal 23 ianuarie 1958 – 14 noiembrie 1958 Lovitură de stat Contraamiral 62 51 42 Edgar Sanabria 14 noiembrie 1958 – 13 februarie 1959 Mandat interimar Avocat 63 52 43 Rómulo Ernesto Betancourt Bello 13 februarie 1959 – 13 martie 1964 Alegeri directe Politician 64 53 44 Raúl Leoni Otero 13 martie 1964 – 11 martie 1969 Alegeri directe Avocat 65 54 45 Rafael Caldera Rodríguez 11 martie 1969 – 12 martie 1974 Alegeri directe Avocat 66 55 46 Carlos Andrés Pérez Rodríguez 12 martie 1974 – 12 martie 12, 1979 Alegeri directe Politician 67 56 47 Luis Herrera Campins 12 martie 1979 – 2 februarie 1984 Alegeri directe Avocat 68 57 48 Jaime Lusinchi 2 februarie 1984 – 2 februarie 1989 Alegeri directe Medic 69 58 49 Carlos Andrés Pérez Rodríguez [ 5 ] 2 februarie 1989 – 21 mai 1993 Alegeri directe Politician 70 — — Octavio Lepage Barreto [ 6 ] 21 mai 1993 – 5 iunie 1993 Președinte interimar Avocat / Politician 71 59 50 Ramón José Velásquez 5 iunie 1993 – 2 februarie 1994 Președinte interimar Scriitor 72 60 51 Rafael Caldera Rodríguez 2 februarie 1994 – 2 februarie 1999 Alegeri directe Avocat 73 61 52 Hugo Rafael Chávez Frias 2 februarie 1999 – 10 ianuarie 2001 Alegeri directe Ofițer (Lt. colonel) 74 62 52 Hugo Rafael Chávez Frias 10 ianuarie 2001 – 10 ianuarie 2007 [ 7 ] Alegeri directe Ofițer (Lt. colonel) 75 63 52 Hugo Rafael Chávez Frías 10 ianuarie 2007 – 10 ianuarie 2013 Alegeri directe Ofițer (Lt. colonel) 76 64 52 Hugo Rafael Chávez Frías 10 ianuarie 2013 – 5 martie 2013 Alegeri directe Ofițer (Lt. colonel) 77 — 53 Nicolás Maduro 5 martie 2013 – 3 ianuarie 2026 Alegeri directe directe Politician Note ^ Chavez câștigă șansa pentru un nou mandat prezidențial ^ "Presidentes de Venezuela" at Consulado General de Bucaramanga ^ Briceño Perozo, Mario. "Mendoza, Cristóbal de" in Diccionario de Historia de Venezuela , Vol. 3. Caracas: Fundación Polar, 1999. ISBN 978-980-6397-37-8 ^ Bustillos a fost Președinte provizoriu numit după Juan Vicente Gómez. Gómez nu și-a asumat responsabilitatea președinției ci a rămas în continuare în fruntea armatei. ^ On 21 mai 1993 Pérez și-a dat demisia după ce a fost acuzat de corupție de Ministrul de Justiție. ^ Octavio Lepage was the President of Congress and was in charge of the government until Ramón J. Velásquez was elected by Congress on 5 iunie 1993. ^ La 11 aprilie 2002, ofițerii superiori au refuzat să execute ordinul lui Chávez privind execuția planului Plan Ávila . L-au arestat pe Chávez, spunând că și-a dat demisia, instaurându-l pe Pedro Carmona Estanga în funcția de președinte. După o revoltă sprijinită de forțele armate loiale lui Chávez, noul guvern a fost demis, iar Chávez restaurat în funcție pe 15 aprilie 2002. În perioada dintre demiterea lui Carmona și reîntoarcerea lui Chávez, vicepreședintele Diosdado Cabello și-a asumat funcția de președinte. Legături externe v d m Venezuela — Venezueleni — Limba spaniolă v d m Apărare · Capitala · Climă · Conducători · Cultură · Demografie · Drapel · Economie · Educație · Faună · Floră · Geografie · Hidrografie · Istorie · Orașe · Politică · Sănătate · Sport · Stemă · Subdiviziuni · Turism Apărare · Capitala · Climă · Conducători · Cultură · Demografie · Drapel · Economie · Educație · Faună · Floră · Geografie · Hidrografie · Istorie · Orașe · Politică · Sănătate · Sport · Stemă · Subdiviziuni · Turism Atlas · Cioturi · Formate · Imagini · Portal Istoria Venezuelei Liste de președinți Pagini ce folosesc legături automate către ISBN Ultima editare a paginii a fost efectuată la 8 ianuarie 2026, ora 17:53. Acest text este disponibil sub licența Creative Commons cu atribuire și distribuire în condiții identice ; pot exista și clauze suplimentare. 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Help | Advanced Search quick links Login Help Pages About Computer Science > Artificial Intelligence Title: Breaking Up with Normatively Monolithic Agency with GRACE: A Reason-Based Neuro-Symbolic Architecture for Safe and Ethical AI Alignment Abstract: As AI agents become increasingly autonomous, widely deployed in consequential contexts, and efficacious in bringing about real-world impacts, ensuring that their decisions are not only instrumentally effective but also normatively aligned has become critical. We introduce a neuro-symbolic reason-based containment architecture, Governor for Reason-Aligned ContainmEnt (GRACE), that decouples normative reasoning from instrumental decision-making and can contain AI agents of virtually any design. GRACE restructures decision-making into three modules: a Moral Module (MM) that determines permissible macro actions via deontic logic-based reasoning; a Decision-Making Module (DMM) that encapsulates the target agent while selecting instrumentally optimal primitive actions in accordance with derived macro actions; and a Guard that monitors and enforces moral compliance. The MM uses a reason-based formalism providing a semantic foundation for deontic logic, enabling interpretability, contestability, and justifiability. Its symbolic representation enriches the DMM's informational context and supports formal verification and statistical guarantees of alignment enforced by the Guard. We demonstrate GRACE on an example of a LLM therapy assistant, showing how it enables stakeholders to understand, contest, and refine agent behavior. Comments: 10 pages, 4 figures, accepted at 2nd Annual Conference of the International Association for Safe & Ethical AI (IASEAI'26) Subjects: Artificial Intelligence (cs.AI) ; Computers and Society (cs.CY) Cite as: arXiv:2601.10520 [cs.AI] (or arXiv:2601.10520v1 [cs.AI] for this version) Focus to learn more arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite (pending registration) Submission history Access Paper: View PDF HTML (experimental) TeX Source References & Citations NASA ADS Google Scholar Semantic Scholar BibTeX formatted citation Bookmark Bibliographic and Citation Tools Code, Data and Media Associated with this Article Demos Recommenders and Search Tools Author Venue Institution Topic arXivLabs: experimental projects with community collaborators arXivLabs is a framework that allows collaborators to develop and share new arXiv features directly on our website. Both individuals and organizations that work with arXivLabs have embraced and accepted our values of openness, community, excellence, and user data privacy. arXiv is committed to these values and only works with partners that adhere to them. Have an idea for a project that will add value for arXiv's community? Learn more about arXivLabs . About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status arXiv Operational Status
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early life and career 2 Political career Toggle Political career subsection 2.1 Pre-independence 2.2 Federation of Malaysia 2.3 Post-independence 2.3.1 Minister for Interior and Defence (1965–1967) 2.3.2 Minister for Finance (1967–1970) 2.3.3 Minister for Defence (1970–1979) 2.3.4 Deputy Prime Minister (1973–1984) 2.4 Other contributions 2.4.1 Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) 2.4.2 Defence Science Organisation (DSO) 2.4.3 Cultural, sports and recreation 2.1 Pre-independence 2.2 Federation of Malaysia 2.3 Post-independence 2.3.1 Minister for Interior and Defence (1965–1967) 2.3.2 Minister for Finance (1967–1970) 2.3.3 Minister for Defence (1970–1979) 2.3.4 Deputy Prime Minister (1973–1984) 2.3.1 Minister for Interior and Defence (1965–1967) 2.3.2 Minister for Finance (1967–1970) 2.3.3 Minister for Defence (1970–1979) 2.3.4 Deputy Prime Minister (1973–1984) 2.4 Other contributions 2.4.1 Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) 2.4.2 Defence Science Organisation (DSO) 2.4.3 Cultural, sports and recreation 2.4.1 Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) 2.4.2 Defence Science Organisation (DSO) 2.4.3 Cultural, sports and recreation 3 Personal life 4 Death 5 Honours and legacy 6 Publications 7 References Toggle References subsection 7.1 Notes 7.2 Citations 7.3 Sources 7.1 Notes 7.2 Citations 7.3 Sources 8 Further reading Toggle Further reading subsection 8.1 Books 8.2 Eulogies at the state funeral 8.3 Letters of condolence 8.4 News reports 8.1 Books 8.2 Eulogies at the state funeral 8.3 Letters of condolence 8.4 News reports 9 External links Goh Keng Swee Български Deutsch Bahasa Indonesia मैथिली मराठी Bahasa Melayu Русский Simple English Tiếng Việt 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Goh Keng Swee DUT .mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal} 吳慶瑞 Goh in 1948 2nd Deputy Prime Minister of Singapore In office 20 March 1973 – 1 January 1985 Serving with S. Rajaratnam (1980–1985) Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Toh Chin Chye Succeeded by Goh Chok Tong Ong Teng Cheong Chairman of the Monetary Authority of Singapore In office August 1980 – December 1997 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Hon Sui Sen Succeeded by Richard Hu Minister for Education In office 12 February 1979 – 2 January 1985 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Chua Sian Chin Succeeded by Tony Tan Minister for Defence In office 11 August 1970 – 11 February 1979 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Lim Kim San (as Minister for Interior and Defence) Succeeded by Howe Yoon Chong Minister for Finance In office 17 August 1967 – 10 August 1970 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Lim Kim San Succeeded by Hon Sui Sen In office 5 June 1959 – 8 August 1965 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Office established Succeeded by Lim Kim San Minister for Interior and Defence In office 9 August 1965 – 16 August 1967 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Office established Succeeded by Lim Kim San Member of the Malaysian Parliament for Singapore In office 2 November 1963 [ 1 ] – 9 August 1965 Preceded by Position established Succeeded by Position abolished Member of the Singapore Parliament for Kreta Ayer In office 30 May 1959 – 4 December 1984 Preceded by Constituency established Succeeded by Richard Hu ( PAP ) Personal details Born Robert Goh Keng Swee [ 2 ] ( 1918-10-06 ) 6 October 1918 Malacca , Straits Settlements Died 14 May 2010 (2010-05-14) (aged 91) Singapore Cause of death Bladder cancer Resting place Mandai Crematorium and Columbarium Nationality Singaporean Party People's Action Party Spouse(s) Alice Woon (m. 1942 div. 1986) Phua Swee Liang (m. 1991) [ 3 ] Children Goh Kian Chee (son) [ 3 ] Relatives Goh Hood Keng (uncle) Tan Cheng Lock (maternal uncle) Tan Siew Sin (maternal cousin) Education London School of Economics ( BSc , PhD ) Signature Military service Branch/service Singapore Volunteer Corps Years of service 1939–1942 Rank Colonel [ a ] Unit 20th People's Defence Force [ 4 ] Goh Keng Swee Traditional Chinese 吳慶瑞 Simplified Chinese 吴庆瑞 Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Wú Qìngruì Southern Min Hokkien POJ Gô͘ Khèng-sūi Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Wú Qìngruì Southern Min Hokkien POJ Gô͘ Khèng-sūi Goh Keng Swee [ b ] DUT (born Robert Goh Keng Swee ; [ 2 ] 6 October 1918 – 14 May 2010) was a Singaporean statesman and economist who served as the second Deputy Prime Minister of Singapore between 1973 and 1985. Goh is widely recognised as one of the founding fathers of modern Singapore. Goh was a member of the People's Action Party (PAP), which has governed the country continuously since independence. He was also a prominent member of the first generation of political leaders following Singapore's independence in 1965. He served as Minister for Finance from 1959 to 1965 and again from 1967 to 1970. He was Minister for Interior and Defence between 1965 and 1967, Minister for Defence from 1970 to 1979 and Minister for Education from 1979 to 1985. Throughout his entire political career, he represented the constituency of Kreta Ayer . As Minister for Interior and Defence, Goh's main objective was to strengthen the country's military and domestic security capabilities after the British had withdrawn its troops from Singapore, which made the newly independent nation vulnerable. A key policy was the creation of National Service (NS), a mandatory conscription system for able-bodied young males. Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew had mentioned that he had wanted a conscription consisting both men and women, similar to Israel . However, Goh rejected it, citing that the labour cost at least in its initial years would be too great for the newly independent nation. During Goh's tenure as Minister for Finance, he declined to allow the central bank to issue currency, favouring instead a currency board system as this would signal to citizens, academics and the financial world that governments cannot "spend their way to prosperity"; the Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS) was later established in 1971. In 1981, Goh also expressed the view that the central bank need not hold large amounts of cash in reserve to defend the currency, proposing that the Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) be established to invest excess reserves. At the time, it was unprecedented for a non- commodity -based economy to have such a sovereign wealth fund . Goh died in 2010 at the age of 91, and he was accorded a state funeral . Early life and career Goh was born in Malacca on 6 October 1918, then a part of the Straits Settlements , [ 5 ] into a middle class Peranakan family and the fifth of six children. [ 6 ] His father Goh Leng Inn was a manager of a rubber plantation, while his mother Tan Swee Eng, [ 7 ] came from the family that produced the Malaysian politicians Tan Cheng Lock and his son, Tan Siew Sin , who would later become Goh's lifelong political opponent. [ 8 ] [ 9 ] Goh was given the Christian name Robert, which he disliked and refused to respond to. When he was two years old, his family moved from Malacca to Singapore where his maternal grandparents owned several properties. The Gohs later relocated to the Pasir Panjang rubber estate when his father found work there and became manager in 1933. Like many Peranakan families, the Gohs spoke both English and Malay at home; church services were held at home on Sundays in Malay. [ 2 ] Goh's father Leng Inn and his brothers-in-law Chew Cheng Yong and Goh Hood Keng taught at the Anglo-Chinese School and were involved in the Middle Road Baba Church , where Hood Keng was pastor. Goh attended the church as well. [ 10 ] Goh attended the Anglo-Chinese School [ 6 ] between 1927 and 1936, where he ranked second in his class in the Senior Cambridge examinations. He graduated from Raffles College (now the National University of Singapore ) in 1939 with a Class II Diploma in Arts, with special distinction in economics . [ 7 ] After graduation, Goh joined the colonial Civil Service as a tax collector with the War Tax Department, though his superiors noted he was not very good at the job and he was nearly dismissed. [ 6 ] Shortly after the start of the Second World War , he joined the Singapore Volunteer Corps , a local militia, but returned to his previous work after the fall of Singapore . In 1942, Goh married Alice Woon, a secretary and colleague, [ 6 ] and they had one son, Goh Kian Chee, two years later. After the Japanese occupation ended, Goh moved his family back to Singapore in 1946 and joined the Department of Social Welfare, becoming a supervisor of its Research Section six months later. [ 7 ] Goh earned a scholarship to study at the London School of Economics . While in London, he met fellow students seeking independence for British Malaya , including Abdul Razak , Maurice Baker, Lee Kuan Yew and Toh Chin Chye . He was founding chairman of the Malayan Forum , a student discussion group formed in 1948. [ 5 ] [ 7 ] Goh graduated in 1951 with a first class honours in economics and won the William Farr Prize for the highest marks in statistics . [ 5 ] Returning to the Department of Social Welfare, he was appointed Assistant Secretary of Research. In 1952, together with fellow civil servant Kenneth Michael Byrne , he formed the Council of Joint Action to oppose salary and promotion policies favouring Europeans over Asians. Byrne later became Minister for Labour and Minister for Law . [ 7 ] Goh returned to the London School of Economics in 1954 for doctoral studies, supported by a University of London scholarship. He completed his PhD in economics in 1956, [ 11 ] and returned to the Department of Social Welfare, serving as assistant director and then Director. In 1958, he became Director of the Social and Economic Research Division in the Chief Minister's Office before resigning from the civil service in August to work full-time for the People's Action Party (PAP). [ 7 ] Political career Pre-independence Goh was a key member of the PAP's Central Executive Committee (CEC), and serving as vice-chairman. Goh contested in Kreta Ayer during the 1959 general election and won. He was subsequently elected into the Legislative Assembly on 30 May 1959, [ 12 ] and appointed Minister for Finance under Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew 's first Cabinet . As Minister for Finance, Goh assumed the stewardship of Singapore's economy . As a budget deficit of S$14 million was forecast that year, he introduced stringent fiscal discipline which including cutting civil service salaries. As a result of these measures, he was able to announce at the end of the year when delivering the budget that the government had achieved a surplus of $1 million. [ 13 ] Goh initiated the setting up of the Economic Development Board (EDB) which was established in August 1961 to attract foreign multinational corporations to invest in Singapore. [ 5 ] [ 14 ] The next year, he started the development of the Jurong industrial estate on the western end of the island which was then a swamp, offering incentives to local and foreign businesses to locate there. [ 5 ] [ 7 ] According to former Permanent Secretary Sim Kee Boon , Goh admitted that the Jurong project was "an act of faith and he himself jokingly said that this could prove to be Goh's folly". [ 14 ] Nonetheless, Goh also felt strongly that "the only way to avoid making mistakes is not to do anything. And that... will be the ultimate mistake." [ 15 ] In the 1960s, there were great pressures from communist agitators working through Chinese-medium schools and trade unions. Divisions existed within the PAP as well, with a pro-communist faction working to wrest control of the party from the moderate wing, of which Goh and Lee Kuan Yew were key members. A key source of division was the issue of merger with Malaya to form a new state of Malaysia. Goh and his fellow moderates believed this was a necessary condition for Singapore's economic development because Malaya was a key economic hinterland; merger would also provide an alternate vision against communism for Singapore's Chinese majority. In July 1961, 16 members of the pro-communist faction broke away from the PAP to form the Barisan Sosialis , and captured control of the main trade unions . Federation of Malaysia In 1961, the Singapore Government secured approval from Malaysian Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman for a merger, motivated in part by the Tunku's desire to stabilise the security situation in Singapore and to counter the perceived communist threat by the Malayan Communist Party . In 1963, Singapore joined Malaya , along with Sabah and Sarawak , to form the Federation of Malaysia. [ 16 ] However, the merger soon proved problematic for Singapore's leaders. Fundamental disagreements emerged over political and economic principles, particularly the issue of Malay dominance . Communal tensions escalated into violence in 1964, incited by both Malay and Chinese activists in Singapore. According to Lee, Goh played a key role in safeguarding Singapore's interests, especially in economic disputes with the Malaysian Minister of Finance and his own cousin Tan Siew Sin , whom he believed acted in hostility toward Singapore. After two difficult years within the Federation, Lee asked Goh to negotiate with Malaysian Deputy Prime Minister Tun Abdul Razak and Minister for External Affairs Ismail Abdul Rahman in July 1965. The aim was to explore the possibility of a looser arrangement for Singapore within Malaysia. However, following the discussions, all parties concluded that a clean break would be in the best interests of both sides. Tunku Abdul Rahman ultimately agreed to this course of action, paving the way for Singapore's separation from Malaysia. [ 17 ] Goh maintained a secret dossier that he codenamed " Albatross ", which contains files and notes from the months leading up to Singapore's independence. According to one of the file's documents, authored by Goh himself, Goh chose not to follow Lee's orders to negotiate for a "looser arrangement" but only ever broached separation with Tunku. Writing in his memoirs, Lee claimed that he only realised that Goh "never pressed Razak for a looser rearrangement as I had asked him to" in 1994. [ 18 ] Post-independence Minister for Interior and Defence (1965–1967) Upon the independence of Singapore in 1965, Goh relinquished his portfolio of Minister for Finance and became Minister for Interior and Defence in 1967, assuming responsibilities for strengthening Singapore's military and domestic security capabilities. A key policy was the creation of National Service , a mandatory conscription system for able-bodied young males. [ 19 ] Minister for Finance (1967–1970) Goh served as Minister for Finance again between 1967 and 1970, [ 5 ] [ 7 ] during which he declined to allow the central bank to issue currency, favouring instead a currency board system in the form of the Board of Commissioners of Currency, Singapore , as this would signal to citizens, academics and the financial world that governments cannot "spend their way to prosperity". Minister for Defence (1970–1979) On 11 August 1970, he was reappointed Minister for Defence . [ 5 ] [ 7 ] Deputy Prime Minister (1973–1984) On 1 March 1973, [ 12 ] Goh was appointed Deputy Prime Minister concurrently with his other Cabinet portfolio. [ 7 ] On 12 February 1979, Goh moved on from the Ministry of Defence to the Ministry of Education , where his Goh Report [ 20 ] greatly influenced the development of Singapore's education system. He was described as both a key political and strategic leader responsible for the transformation of the system over 30 years from "fair" to "great", according to a November 2010 McKinsey report. [ 21 ] He set up the Curriculum Development Institute, and introduced key policies such as religious education—subsequently discontinued and, in 1980, the channelling of students into different programmes of study according to their learning abilities, known as "streaming". [ 22 ] Goh served two terms as Minister for Education, his first term ended in 1980, and his second following the 1980 general election from 1981 until his retirement in 1985. From 1 June 1980, he was redesignated First Deputy Prime Minister upon S. Rajaratnam being made Second Deputy Prime Minister, and served as Chairman of the Monetary Authority of Singapore until he stepped down from Parliament on 3 December 1984, at the age of 66. [ 5 ] [ 7 ] [ 12 ] In a tribute to mark the occasion, Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew wrote: "A whole generation of Singaporeans take their present standard of living for granted because you had laid the foundations of the economy of modern Singapore." [ 23 ] Other contributions Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) In 1981, Goh expressed the view that the central bank need not hold large amounts of cash in reserve to defend the currency, proposing that the Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) be established to invest excess reserves. At the time, it was unprecedented for a non- commodity -based economy to have such a sovereign wealth fund . [ 24 ] The foreign merchant bank, Rothschild, advised on the GIC. [ 25 ] Defence Science Organisation (DSO) In 1971, Goh put together the Electronic Warfare Study Group, a team of newly graduated engineers who had excelled in their university studies that was headed by Tay Eng Soon , then a university lecturer. The group worked on Project Magpie, a secret project to develop Singapore's defence technology capabilities. In 1977, the group was renamed the Defence Science Organisation (DSO). Originally part of the Ministry of Defence, the organisation became a non-profit corporation called DSO National Laboratories in 1997. [ 26 ] Cultural, sports and recreation Goh was also responsible for projects that sought to improve Singaporeans' cultural and leisure life, such as the Jurong Bird Park , Singapore Zoo and the Singapore Symphony Orchestra . [ 27 ] He backed the construction of the Kreta Ayer People's Theatre in his constituency as a venue for Chinese opera performances. [ 28 ] In 1968, Goh encouraged the establishment of the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. Goh was also instrumental in introducing rugby in the Singapore Armed Forces and later in schools. In recognition of his role in promoting the sport, the Schools "C" Division Cup is named after him. [ 29 ] Impressed by an oceanarium in the Bahamas , he contacted the Sentosa Development Corporation and persuaded them to build an oceanarium in Singapore. [ 6 ] Underwater World opened in 1991. Personal life In 1986, Goh divorced his first wife Alice. In 1991, he married his former Ministry of Education colleague Phua Swee Liang. [ 6 ] [ 7 ] Goh suffered his first stroke in 1999, and a subsequent one in 2000 which affected the vision in his right eye. [ 30 ] According to Goh's daughter-in-law Tan Siok Sun, the medical condition caused him to become withdrawn and introverted. In July 2007, Tan published a biography titled Goh Keng Swee: A Portrait . Goh's second wife issued a statement claiming that Goh had not been consulted on the book and had indicated to her that he did not want any book to be written about him. "Therefore, the publication of this book is contrary to his wishes, and is a show of disregard and utmost disrespect to him." In an interview with The Straits Times , Tan said she did not start the dispute between Mrs. Goh and herself, nor did she wish to prolong it. [ 31 ] After retirement from politics, Goh continued to be active in public life, serving as Deputy Chairman of GIC between 1981 and 1994, Economic Adviser to the State Council of the People's Republic of China on Coastal Development and Adviser on Tourism in 1985, Deputy Chairman of the Monetary Authority of Singapore between 1985 and 1992, Chairman of the Singapore Totalisator Board between 1988 and 1990, Director of Gateway Technologies Services Pte. Ltd. from 1991 onward, Adviser to the United Overseas Bank Group from 1993 onward, Chairman of N. M. Rothschild & Sons (Singapore) Ltd. from 1994 onward, and vice-chairman of Hong Leong Asia Ltd. from 1995 onward. [ 5 ] Goh was also chairman of the Board of Governors of the Institute of East Asian Philosophies between 1983 and 1992, which was founded to study Confucianism . The institute later turned its focus on China's political and economic development, renaming itself the Institute of East Asian Political Economy, and Goh continued as Executive Chairman and chairman of the Board of Governors until 1995. [ 7 ] In April 1997, the institute was reconstituted as the East Asian Institute, an autonomous research organisation under the auspices of the National University of Singapore . [ 32 ] Death On 14 May 2010, Goh died in the early morning at his home in Dunbar Walk off East Coast Road in Siglap , at the age of 91. His death was as a result of his old age and pneumonia. [ 33 ] His body lay in state at Parliament House from 20 to 22 May, [ 34 ] and there was a state funeral on 23 May 2010 at the Singapore Conference Hall followed by a private ceremony for family members at the Mandai Crematorium . [ 35 ] The latter was conducted by the pastor-in-charge of Barker Road Methodist Church, with a message delivered by the Bishop of the Methodist Church in Singapore , Robert M. Solomon . [ 10 ] As a mark of respect, State flags at all Government buildings were flown at half-mast from 20 to 23 May. [ 36 ] Honours and legacy In 1966, Goh was made an Honorary Fellow of the London school of Economics . In 1972, he was the recipient of the Ramon Magsaysay Award for Government Services, which is often regarded as "Asia's Nobel Prize". [ 37 ] It is awarded to people who have demonstrated integrity in government, courageous service to the people, and pragmatic idealism within a democratic society. That same year, the Philippine Government conferred upon him the Order of Sikatuna , which is given to diplomats, officials and nationals of foreign states who have rendered conspicuous services in fostering, developing and strengthening relations between their country and the Philippines. [ 5 ] Following his retirement from politics, Goh was awarded the Order of Temasek (First Class, now known as High Distinction) in 1985, Singapore's highest civilian honour and second overall after the Star of Temasek . He was also presented with the LSE's Distinguished Alumnus Award on 21 January 1989, [ 38 ] and made the first Distinguished Fellow of the Economic Development Board Society in 1991. [ 5 ] Goh is known as one of Singapore's founding fathers. [ 13 ] [ 39 ] During the National Day Rally on 29 August 2010, Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong announced that the Singapore Command and Staff College , where senior officers of the Singapore Armed Forces receive training; and a complex to be constructed at the Ministry of Education's North Buona Vista Road headquarters for specialist teacher training academies in English language, physical education, sports and the arts would be respectively named the Goh Keng Swee Command and Staff College and the Goh Keng Swee Centre for Education. [ 40 ] Publications .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} The Economic Front: From a Malayan Point of View . Singapore: Government Printers. 1940. OCLC 226068826 . . Urban Incomes & Housing: A Report on the Social Survey of Singapore, 1953–54 . Singapore: [Department of Social Welfare]. 1956. OCLC 504452751 . . Techniques of National Income Estimation in Under-developed Territories, with Special Reference to Asia and Africa [Unpublished PhD thesis, University of London, London School of Economics, 1956] . London: University of London Library, Photographic Section. 1978. OCLC 63630985 . . This is How Your Money is Spent [Budget statement by Goh Keng Swee, Minister for Finance; Towards Socialism, vol. 3] . Singapore: Ministry of Finance . 1960. OCLC 63838096 . . Some Problems of Industrialisation [Towards Socialism; vol. 7] . Singapore: Government Printing Office. 1963. OCLC 17270555 . . Communism in Non-Communist Asian Countries . Singapore: Printed by the Government Printing Office for the Ministry of Culture . c. 1967. OCLC 433094 . . The Economics of Modernization and other Essays . [Singapore]: Asia Pacific Press. 1972. OCLC 534320 . . Later editions: The Economics of Modernization . Singapore: Federal Publications. 1995. ISBN 978-981-01-2317-8 . . The Economics of Modernization . Singapore: Marshall Cavendish Academic . 2004. ISBN 978-981-210-330-7 . . The Economics of Modernization . Singapore: Federal Publications. 1995. ISBN 978-981-01-2317-8 . . The Economics of Modernization . Singapore: Marshall Cavendish Academic . 2004. ISBN 978-981-210-330-7 . . Some Problems of Manpower Development in Singapore [Occasional publication (Singapore Training and Development Association); no. 1] . Singapore: Ad Hoc Publications Sub-committee, Singapore Training & Development Association. 1974. OCLC 226024028 . . Some Unsolved Problems of Economic Growth [Kesatuan lecture; 1] . Singapore: Kesatuan Akademis Universiti Singapura. 1976. ISBN 9971-68-076-9 . OCLC 3072805 . . The Practice of Economic Growth . Singapore: Federal Publications. 1977. OCLC 4465760 . . Later edition: The Practice of Economic Growth . Singapore: Federal Publications. 1995. ISBN 978-981-01-2322-2 . . The Practice of Economic Growth . Singapore: Federal Publications. 1995. ISBN 978-981-01-2322-2 . . Goh, Keng Swee; Education Study Team (1979). Report on the Ministry of Education 1978 . Singapore: Printed by Singapore National Printers. OCLC 416421063 . . Goh, Keng Swee (1995). Low, Linda (ed.). Wealth of East Asian Nations: Speeches and Writings . Singapore: Federal Publications. ISBN 978-981-01-2297-3 . . References Notes ^ Honorary, and during his tenure as the civilian head of the Ministry of the Interior and Defence. He oversaw the establishment of the Singapore Armed Forces (SAF) after 1965, a process that laid the foundation built primarily on National Service (NS) from 1967. [ 4 ] ^ simplified Chinese : 吴庆瑞 ; traditional Chinese : 吳慶瑞 ; Pe̍h-ōe-jī : Gô͘ Khèng-sūi ; pinyin : Wú Qìngruì Citations ^ "PARLIAMENTARY DEBATES DEWAN RA'AYAT (HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES) OFFICIAL REPORT" (PDF) . Dewan Rakyat . Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 August 2016 . Retrieved 19 August 2019 . ^ a b c Tan Siok Sun (7 July 2007), A shy, quiet boy who loved books [Excerpt from Goh Keng Swee, a Portrait ] , AsiaOne , archived from the original on 2 December 2012 , retrieved 15 May 2010 . ^ a b Obituary notice of Dr. Goh Keng Swee, The Straits Times (15 May 2010), p. C28. ^ a b Desker, Barry; Kwa, Chong Guan, eds. (2011). Goh Keng Swee: A Public Career Remembered . World Scientific. pp. 83, 98, 101. ISBN 978-9814407533 . ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Jenny Tien Mui Mun (8 October 2002), Dr Goh Keng Swee , Singapore Infopedia, National Library, Singapore , archived from the original on 23 June 2008 , retrieved 15 May 2010 . ^ a b c d e f Nur Dianah Suhaimi (16 May 2010), "His work was his passion: The late Goh Keng Swee showed brilliance even when he was a child", The Sunday Times , Singapore, p. 10 . ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m "From civil servant to PAP stalwart", The Straits Times (Saturday) , p. D2, 15 May 2010 . ^ Lee Kuan Yew (1998), The Singapore Story: Memoirs of Lee Kuan Yew , Singapore: Times Publishing, pp. 600–602 , ISBN 978-981-204-983-4 . ^ Tan Siok Sun (2007), Goh Keng Swee: A Portrait , Singapore: Editions Didier Millet , pp. 114– 115, ISBN 978-981-4155-82-3 . ^ a b "The lesser known side of Dr Goh Keng Swee" , Methodist Message , vol. 112, no. 7, p. 12, July 2010, archived from the original on 5 October 2018 . ^ His thesis was entitled Techniques of National Income Estimation in Under-developed Territories, with Special Reference to Asia, Malacca, Singapore and Africa [Unpublished PhD thesis, University of London, London School of Economics, 1956] , London: University of London Library, Photographic Section, 1978, OCLC 63630985 . ^ a b c "Parliament pays respects", The Straits Times , 18 May 2010 . ^ a b Lee Hsien Loong (24 May 2010), "A giant in our midst [eulogy by the Prime Minister]" , Today , pp. 12– 14, archived from the original on 25 May 2010 . ^ a b "A visionary who didn't believe in dreams: A look into the life of the man responsible for HDB flats, National Service, JTC ... even the Zoo", Weekend Today , pp. 12– 13, 15–16 May 2010 . ^ As recalled by Lim Siong Guan , Group President of GIC and former Head of the Singapore Civil Service : see Chua Mui Hoong (15 May 2010), "Passing of a S'pore titan: Former DPM Goh Keng Swee was economic architect of Singapore and mentor to many", The Straits Times , pp. A1 – A2 . ^ "Singapore – Road to Independence" . U.S. Library of Congress . Retrieved 27 June 2006 . ^ Lee Kuan Yew (24 May 2010), "He made the greatest difference: Eulogy by Minister Mentor Lee Kuan Yew", The Straits Times , p. A6 . ^ Chin, Soo Fang (7 December 2025). "New book sheds light on Singapore's secret negotiations for independence" . The Straits Times . ^ "National Service becomes compulsory - Singapore History" . eresources.nlb.gov.sg . Retrieved 1 January 2023 . ^ Goh Keng Swee; Education Study Team (1979), Report on the Ministry of Education 1978 , Singapore: Printed by Singapore National Printers, OCLC 416421063 . ^ Michael Barber; Chinezi Chijioke; Mona Mourshed (2010), Education: How the World's Most Improved School Systems Keep Getting Better , London: McKinsey & Company, pp. 101– 118 . ^ MOKHTAR, FARIS. "Timeline: How secondary school streaming evolved over the decades" . TODAY . Retrieved 1 January 2023 . ^ Chua Mui Hoong (15 May 2010), "Passing of a S'pore titan: Former DPM Goh Keng Swee was economic architect of Singapore and mentor to many", The Straits Times , pp. A1 – A2 . ^ Janadas Devan (15 May 2010), "Remembering Goh Keng Swee, 1918–2010", The Straits Times (Saturday) , p. D2 . ^ Hamilton-Hart, Natasha (2003). Asian states, Asian bankers : central banking in Southeast Asia . Singapore: Singapore University Press. p. 89 . ISBN 978-0801439872 . ^ Melanie Chew; Bernard Tan (2002), "A Tribute to Dr Goh Keng Swee" (PDF) , Creating the Technology Edge: DSO National Laboratories, Singapore 1972–2002 , Singapore: Epigram for DSO National Laboratories, pp. 4– 9, ISBN 978-981-04-7199-6 , archived from the original (PDF) on 28 September 2007 . ^ Saad, Imelda (15–16 May 2010), "S'pore's master builder" , Weekend Today , p. 2, archived from the original on 18 May 2010 . ^ Leong Weng Kam (15 May 2010), "A thinker and a doer: Dr Goh was a 'great intellectual', recall PAP Old Guard members", The Straits Times , p. A6 . ^ Saad, Imelda (15–16 May 2010), " 'One of the most brilliant architects' of the country, says SM Goh" , Weekend Today , p. 3, archived from the original on 18 May 2010 . ^ Nur Dianah Suhaimi (28 May 2010), "Love against the odds [interview with Dr. Phua Swee Liang]", The Straits Times , pp. A40 – A41 . ^ Lydia Lim (7 July 2007), "No regrets despite objections, except one" , The Straits Times (reproduced on the AsiaOne website) , archived from the original on 2 December 2012 . ^ EAI's profile & objectives , East Asia Institute, National University of Singapore , 2008, archived from the original on 21 December 2010 , retrieved 16 May 2010 . ^ "Farewell to one of Singapore's prime architects" , Weekend Today , p. 1, 15–16 May 2010, archived from the original on 16 May 2010 . See also Rachel Lin (15 May 2010), "A quiet passing for a quiet man: He lived simply, was a private man, with S'pore uppermost in his mind", The Straits Times , p. A3 . ^ Esther Ng (21 May 2010), "From all walks of life, they came to pay their respects: More than 5,000 queue up at Parliament House to honour Dr Goh" , Today , p. 3, archived from the original on 23 May 2010 ; Nur Dianah Suhaimi; Kor Kian Beng (22 May 2010), " 'Thank you and goodbye': Young and old, from near and far, over 7,000 pay respects to Dr Goh", The Straits Times , p. A16 . ^ Cassandra Chew (22 May 2010), "State funeral an honour reserved for rare few", The Straits Times , p. A16 ; Chua Mui Hoong (24 May 2010), "Goodbye, Dr Goh: Tributes flow at state funeral for one of Singapore's founding fathers", The Straits Times , pp. A1 – A2 ; Rachel Lin (24 May 2010), "A simple, moving funeral for Dr Goh: Nation mourns one of its founders in a sombre but intimate ceremony", The Straits Times , pp. A2 – A3 ; Zul Othman (24 May 2010), "A nation says goodbye" , Today , pp. 1 & 3, archived from the original on 29 May 2010 . ^ "State funeral on May 23" , Weekend Today , p. 2, 15–16 May 2010, archived from the original on 16 May 2010 . ^ 1972 Ramon Magsaysay Award for Government Services: Biography of Goh Keng Swee , Ramon Magsaysay Award Foundation, August 1972, archived from the original on 1 August 2008 , retrieved 15 May 2010 . ^ Phua Kai Hong (25 May 2010), "The day Dr Goh removed words from his citation [letter]" , Today , p. 8, archived from the original on 27 May 2010 . ^ "Remembering the three most outstanding founding fathers" . Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, NUS . Retrieved 10 August 2025 . ^ Clarissa Oon (30 August 2010), "SAF institute, education centre named after Goh Keng Swee", The Straits Times , p. B4 ; Alicia Wong (30 August 2010), "Military college and education centre to be named after Goh Keng Swee", Today , p. 13 . Sources "From civil servant to PAP stalwart". The Straits Times (Saturday) . 15 May 2010. p. D2. Nur Dianah Suhaimi (16 May 2010). His work was his passion: The late Goh Keng Swee showed brilliance even when he was a child . Singapore. p. 10. {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( link ) "Parliament pays respects". The Straits Times . 18 May 2010. Tien, Jenny Mui Mun (8 October 2002). "Dr Goh Keng Swee" . Singapore Infopedia, National Library, Singapore . Archived from the original on 23 June 2008 . Retrieved 15 May 2010 . Further reading Books Austin, Ian Patrick (2004). Goh Keng Swee and Southeast Asian Governance . Singapore: Marshall Cavendish Academic . ISBN 978-981-210-351-2 . Desker, Barry; Kwa, Chong Guan, eds. (2011). Goh Keng Swee – A Public Career Remembered . Singapore: World Scientific . ISBN 978-981-4291-38-5 . Doshi, Tilak; Coclanis, Peter (1999). "The Economic Architect: Goh Keng Swee". In Lam, Peng Er; Tan, Kevin (eds.). Lee's Lieutenants: Singapore's Old Guard . St. Leonards, N.S.W.: Allen & Unwin . pp. 24– 44. ISBN 978-1-86448-639-1 . Kuah, Adrian (2007). UnChartered territory: Dr Goh Keng Swee and the ST Engineering Story . Singapore: Published for ST Engineering by SNP International. ISBN 978-981-248-169-6 . Kwok, Kian-Woon (1999). "The Social Architect: Goh Keng Swee". In Lam, Peng Er; Tan, Kevin (eds.). Lee's Lieutenants: Singapore's Old Guard . St. Leonards, N.S.W.: Allen & Unwin. pp. 45– 69. ISBN 978-1-86448-639-1 . Nair, E. Shailaja (2008). The Master Sculptor: Goh Keng Swee [Great Singapore Stories. Founding Fathers.] Singapore: SNP Editions. ISBN 978-981-248-160-3 . Ngiam, Tong Dow (2006). A Mandarin and the Making of Public Policy: Reflections by Ngiam Tong Dow . Singapore: NUS Press . ISBN 978-9971-69-350-3 . Ooi, Kee Beng (2010). In Lieu of Ideology: The Intellectual Biography of Goh Keng Swee . Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 978-981-4311-30-4 . Tan, Siok Sun (2007). Goh Keng Swee: A Portrait . Singapore: Editions Didier Millet . ISBN 978-981-4155-82-3 . . Yeo, Siew Siang (1990). Tan Cheng Lock, the Straits Legislator and Chinese Leader . Petaling Jaya, Selangor: Pelanduk Publications. ISBN 978-967-978-236-3 . Eulogies at the state funeral Lee, Hsien Loong (24 May 2010). "Without him, much of S'pore wouldn't exist: Eulogy by Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong". The Straits Times . pp. A4 & A6. ; Lee, Hsien Loong (24 May 2010). "A giant in our midst [eulogy by the Prime Minister]" . Today . pp. 12– 14. Archived from the original on 25 May 2010. See also " 'He turned the tide for Singapore': PM Lee recounts Dr Goh's contributions and compassion" . Today . 24 May 2010. p. 4. Archived from the original on 26 May 2010. Lee, Kuan Yew (24 May 2010). "He made the greatest difference: Eulogy by Minister Mentor Lee Kuan Yew". The Straits Times . p. A6. . See also "As my troubleshooter, I gave him toughest jobs in Govt: MM" . Today . 24 May 2010. p. 3. Archived from the original on 26 May 2010. S. Dhanabalan (24 May 2010). "Singapore's greatest entrepreneur: Eulogy by S. Dhanabalan, chairman of Temasek Holdings". The Straits Times . p. A8. . See also "Dhanabalan: How Dr Goh changed my life" . Today . 24 May 2010. p. 4. Archived from the original on 26 May 2010. Goh, Ken-Yi (24 May 2010). "A caring, selfless grandfather: Eulogy by grandson Goh Ken-Yi". The Straits Times . p. A10. . See also Zul Othman (24 May 2010). "To me, he was simply a great grandfather" . Today . p. 2. Archived from the original on 26 May 2010. Hui, Marian (24 May 2010). "He motivated me to pursue my dreams: Excerpt of eulogy by Grand-niece Marian Hui". The Straits Times . p. A8. Letters of condolence Lee, Hsien Loong (15–16 May 2010). "A far-sighted visionary and pragmatic manager [letter from the Prime Minister to Mrs. Goh Keng Swee]" . Weekend Today . p. 10. Archived from the original on 16 May 2010. S.R. Nathan (15–16 May 2010). "Nothing too insignificant for his attention [letter from the president to Mrs. Goh Keng Swee]" . Weekend Today . p. 10. Archived from the original on 16 May 2010. Goh, Chok Tong (15–16 May 2010). "Practical and full of ideas [letter from the Senior Minister to Mrs. Goh Keng Swee]" . Weekend Today . p. 11. Archived from the original on 22 June 2011. Tan, Tony Keng Yam (15–16 May 2010). "Farsightedness and fortitude [letter from the Deputy Chairman and Executive Director of the Government Investment Corporation of Singapore to Mrs. Goh Keng Swee]" . Weekend Today . p. 11. Archived from the original on 16 May 2010. News reports Chang, Rachel; Cai, Haoxiang; Kor, Kian Beng (15 May 2010). "Ex-MPs recall a fearsome technocrat: A strict taskmaster who didn't suffer fools, but he was never brusque". The Straits Times . p. A8. "Leaders salute 'this marvellous man' ". The Straits Times . 15 May 2010. p. A4. S. Ramesh (15–16 May 2010). "A national hero who touched people's lives" . Weekend Today . p. 2. Archived from the original on 18 May 2010. "Goh Keng Swee: Passing of a colossus [editorial]". The Straits Times . 22 May 2010. p. A32. Balji, P.N. (22–23 May 2010). "Dr Goh, the Dream No 2" . Weekend Today . p. 11. Archived from the original on 30 May 2010. Devan, Janadas (23 May 2010). "Simply sincere: Dr Goh's simple yet eloquent writing style showed desire to reach out to ordinary people". The Sunday Times . Singapore. p. 35. External links Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Channel NewsAsia – Obituary: Goh Keng Swee 1918–2010 at the Wayback Machine (archived 1 April 2013), archived from the original on 1 April 2013 National Library Singapore – NLS Resource guide on Dr. Goh Keng Swee Political offices Preceded by New post Minister for Finance 1959–65 Succeeded by Lim Kim San Preceded by New post Minister for Defence 1965–67 Succeeded by Lim Kim San Preceded by Lim Kim San Minister for Finance 1967–70 Succeeded by Hon Sui Sen Preceded by Lim Kim San Minister for Finance 1970–79 Succeeded by Howe Yoon Chong Preceded by Chua Sian Chin Minister for Education 1979–80 Succeeded by Tony Tan Keng Yam Preceded by Tony Tan Keng Yam Minister for Education 1981–85 Succeeded by Tony Tan Keng Yam Preceded by Toh Chin Chye Deputy Prime Minister of Singapore 1973–85 Succeeded by Goh Chok Tong Parliament of Singapore New constituency Member of Parliament for Kreta Ayer 1959–84 Succeeded by Richard Hu Tsu Tau Military offices New title 1st Director, General Staff of Defence Force 1965-1967 Succeeded by T. J. D. Campbell Politics Biography Economics Singapore .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Ramon Magsaysay Award recipients v t e Government Service (1958–2008) Cambodia Ek Sonn Chan China Yuan Longping India C.D. Deshmukh J. M. Lyngdoh Indonesia Raden Kodijat Ali Sadikin Japan Morihiko Hiramatsu Hiroshi Kuroki Yukiharu Miki Laos Keo Viphakone Malaysia Mohamed Suffian Mohamed Hashim B. C. Shekhar Pakistan Akhtar Hameed Khan Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Jose Vasquez Aguilar Francisca Reyes-Aquino Hilario Davide Jr. Grace Padaca Jesse Robredo Jovito R. Salonga Miriam Defensor Santiago Haydee Yorac Singapore Goh Keng Swee Thailand Anand Panyarachun Chamlong Srimuang Jon Ungphakorn Phon Sangsingkeo Prawase Wasi Puey Ungpakorn Taiwan Shih-chu Hsu Li Kwoh-ting Jiang Menglin Government Service (1958–2008) Cambodia Ek Sonn Chan China Yuan Longping India C.D. Deshmukh J. M. Lyngdoh Indonesia Raden Kodijat Ali Sadikin Japan Morihiko Hiramatsu Hiroshi Kuroki Yukiharu Miki Laos Keo Viphakone Malaysia Mohamed Suffian Mohamed Hashim B. C. Shekhar Pakistan Akhtar Hameed Khan Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Jose Vasquez Aguilar Francisca Reyes-Aquino Hilario Davide Jr. Grace Padaca Jesse Robredo Jovito R. Salonga Miriam Defensor Santiago Haydee Yorac Singapore Goh Keng Swee Thailand Anand Panyarachun Chamlong Srimuang Jon Ungphakorn Phon Sangsingkeo Prawase Wasi Puey Ungpakorn Taiwan Shih-chu Hsu Li Kwoh-ting Jiang Menglin Cambodia Ek Sonn Chan Ek Sonn Chan China Yuan Longping Yuan Longping India C.D. Deshmukh J. M. Lyngdoh C.D. Deshmukh J. M. Lyngdoh Indonesia Raden Kodijat Ali Sadikin Raden Kodijat Ali Sadikin Japan Morihiko Hiramatsu Hiroshi Kuroki Yukiharu Miki Morihiko Hiramatsu Hiroshi Kuroki Yukiharu Miki Laos Keo Viphakone Keo Viphakone Malaysia Mohamed Suffian Mohamed Hashim B. C. Shekhar Mohamed Suffian Mohamed Hashim B. C. Shekhar Pakistan Akhtar Hameed Khan Ibn Abdur Rehman Akhtar Hameed Khan Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Jose Vasquez Aguilar Francisca Reyes-Aquino Hilario Davide Jr. Grace Padaca Jesse Robredo Jovito R. Salonga Miriam Defensor Santiago Haydee Yorac Jose Vasquez Aguilar Francisca Reyes-Aquino Hilario Davide Jr. Grace Padaca Jesse Robredo Jovito R. Salonga Miriam Defensor Santiago Haydee Yorac Singapore Goh Keng Swee Goh Keng Swee Thailand Anand Panyarachun Chamlong Srimuang Jon Ungphakorn Phon Sangsingkeo Prawase Wasi Puey Ungpakorn Anand Panyarachun Chamlong Srimuang Jon Ungphakorn Phon Sangsingkeo Prawase Wasi Puey Ungpakorn Taiwan Shih-chu Hsu Li Kwoh-ting Jiang Menglin Shih-chu Hsu Li Kwoh-ting Jiang Menglin Public Service (1958–2008) Burma Tee Tee Luce Ceylon Mary H. Rutnam China Gao Yaojie Jiang Yanyong Liang Congjie Wu Qing India Baba Amte Banoo Jehangir Coyaji Manibhai Desai Jayaprakash Narayan V. Shanta Indonesia H.B. Jassin Teten Masduki Pakistan Ruth Pfau Philippines Pedro Orata Center for Agriculture and Rural Development Mutually Reinforcing Institutions (CARD MRI) South Korea Kim Sun-tae Park Won-soon Spain based in Philippines Joaquin Villalonga Thailand Fua Hariphitak Mechai Viravaidya Nilawan Pintong Phra Parnchand Prateep Ungsongtham Hata Sirindhorn Sithiporn Kridakara Sophon Suphapong Therdchai Jivacate Thongbai Thongpao Public Service (1958–2008) Burma Tee Tee Luce Ceylon Mary H. Rutnam China Gao Yaojie Jiang Yanyong Liang Congjie Wu Qing India Baba Amte Banoo Jehangir Coyaji Manibhai Desai Jayaprakash Narayan V. Shanta Indonesia H.B. Jassin Teten Masduki Pakistan Ruth Pfau Philippines Pedro Orata Center for Agriculture and Rural Development Mutually Reinforcing Institutions (CARD MRI) South Korea Kim Sun-tae Park Won-soon Spain based in Philippines Joaquin Villalonga Thailand Fua Hariphitak Mechai Viravaidya Nilawan Pintong Phra Parnchand Prateep Ungsongtham Hata Sirindhorn Sithiporn Kridakara Sophon Suphapong Therdchai Jivacate Thongbai Thongpao Burma Tee Tee Luce Tee Tee Luce Ceylon Mary H. Rutnam Mary H. Rutnam China Gao Yaojie Jiang Yanyong Liang Congjie Wu Qing Gao Yaojie Jiang Yanyong Liang Congjie Wu Qing India Baba Amte Banoo Jehangir Coyaji Manibhai Desai Jayaprakash Narayan V. Shanta Baba Amte Banoo Jehangir Coyaji Manibhai Desai Jayaprakash Narayan V. Shanta Indonesia H.B. Jassin Teten Masduki H.B. Jassin Teten Masduki Pakistan Ruth Pfau Ruth Pfau Philippines Pedro Orata Center for Agriculture and Rural Development Mutually Reinforcing Institutions (CARD MRI) Pedro Orata Center for Agriculture and Rural Development Mutually Reinforcing Institutions (CARD MRI) South Korea Kim Sun-tae Park Won-soon Kim Sun-tae Park Won-soon Spain based in Philippines Joaquin Villalonga Joaquin Villalonga Thailand Fua Hariphitak Mechai Viravaidya Nilawan Pintong Phra Parnchand Prateep Ungsongtham Hata Sirindhorn Sithiporn Kridakara Sophon Suphapong Therdchai Jivacate Thongbai Thongpao Fua Hariphitak Mechai Viravaidya Nilawan Pintong Phra Parnchand Prateep Ungsongtham Hata Sirindhorn Sithiporn Kridakara Sophon Suphapong Therdchai Jivacate Thongbai Thongpao Community Leadership (1958–2008) Bangladesh Tahrunessa Abdullah Fazle Hasan Abed Muhammad Yunus Zafrullah Chowdhury Mohammed Yeasin Angela Gomes Burma Cynthia Maung India Mandakini Amte & Prakash Amte Mabelle Arole & Rajanikant Arole Pandurang Shastri Athavale Chandi Prasad Bhatt Ela Bhatt Vinoba Bhave Aruna Roy Shantha Sinha Rajendra Singh Japan Fusaye Ichikawa Laos Sombath Somphone Malaysia Tunku Abdul Rahman Nepal Mahabir Pun Philippines Gawad Kalinga Community Development Foundation Antonio Meloto Thailand Aree Valyasevi Krasae Chanawongse Prayong Ronnarong Tibet 14th Dalai Lama Community Leadership (1958–2008) Bangladesh Tahrunessa Abdullah Fazle Hasan Abed Muhammad Yunus Zafrullah Chowdhury Mohammed Yeasin Angela Gomes Burma Cynthia Maung India Mandakini Amte & Prakash Amte Mabelle Arole & Rajanikant Arole Pandurang Shastri Athavale Chandi Prasad Bhatt Ela Bhatt Vinoba Bhave Aruna Roy Shantha Sinha Rajendra Singh Japan Fusaye Ichikawa Laos Sombath Somphone Malaysia Tunku Abdul Rahman Nepal Mahabir Pun Philippines Gawad Kalinga Community Development Foundation Antonio Meloto Thailand Aree Valyasevi Krasae Chanawongse Prayong Ronnarong Tibet 14th Dalai Lama Bangladesh Tahrunessa Abdullah Fazle Hasan Abed Muhammad Yunus Zafrullah Chowdhury Mohammed Yeasin Angela Gomes Tahrunessa Abdullah Fazle Hasan Abed Muhammad Yunus Zafrullah Chowdhury Mohammed Yeasin Angela Gomes Burma Cynthia Maung Cynthia Maung India Mandakini Amte & Prakash Amte Mabelle Arole & Rajanikant Arole Pandurang Shastri Athavale Chandi Prasad Bhatt Ela Bhatt Vinoba Bhave Aruna Roy Shantha Sinha Rajendra Singh Mandakini Amte & Prakash Amte Mabelle Arole & Rajanikant Arole Pandurang Shastri Athavale Chandi Prasad Bhatt Ela Bhatt Vinoba Bhave Aruna Roy Shantha Sinha Rajendra Singh Japan Fusaye Ichikawa Fusaye Ichikawa Laos Sombath Somphone Sombath Somphone Malaysia Tunku Abdul Rahman Tunku Abdul Rahman Nepal Mahabir Pun Mahabir Pun Philippines Gawad Kalinga Community Development Foundation Antonio Meloto Gawad Kalinga Community Development Foundation Antonio Meloto Thailand Aree Valyasevi Krasae Chanawongse Prayong Ronnarong Aree Valyasevi Krasae Chanawongse Prayong Ronnarong Tibet 14th Dalai Lama 14th Dalai Lama Journalism, Literature, and the Creative Communication Arts (1958–2008) Bangladesh Matiur Rahman Abdullah Abu Sayeed Burma Edward Michael Law-Yone Ceylon or Sri Lanka Wannakuwatta Amaradeva Tarzie Vittachi India Mahasweta Devi Palagummi Sainath Amitabha Chowdhury Indonesia Atmakusumah Astraatmadja Mochtar Lubis Japan Akira Kurosawa Yasuji Hanamori Michiko Ishimure Akio Ishii Nepal Bharat Koirala Philippines Zacarias Sarian F. Sionil José Lino Brocka Radio Veritas James Reuter Bienvenido Lumbera Nick Joaquin Raul Locsin Eugenia Duran Apostol Sheila Coronel Thailand Prayoon Chanyavongs Great Britain based in Philippines Robert McCulloch Dick Journalism, Literature, and the Creative Communication Arts (1958–2008) Bangladesh Matiur Rahman Abdullah Abu Sayeed Burma Edward Michael Law-Yone Ceylon or Sri Lanka Wannakuwatta Amaradeva Tarzie Vittachi India Mahasweta Devi Palagummi Sainath Amitabha Chowdhury Indonesia Atmakusumah Astraatmadja Mochtar Lubis Japan Akira Kurosawa Yasuji Hanamori Michiko Ishimure Akio Ishii Nepal Bharat Koirala Philippines Zacarias Sarian F. Sionil José Lino Brocka Radio Veritas James Reuter Bienvenido Lumbera Nick Joaquin Raul Locsin Eugenia Duran Apostol Sheila Coronel Thailand Prayoon Chanyavongs Great Britain based in Philippines Robert McCulloch Dick Bangladesh Matiur Rahman Abdullah Abu Sayeed Matiur Rahman Abdullah Abu Sayeed Burma Edward Michael Law-Yone Edward Michael Law-Yone Ceylon or Sri Lanka Wannakuwatta Amaradeva Tarzie Vittachi Wannakuwatta Amaradeva Tarzie Vittachi India Mahasweta Devi Palagummi Sainath Amitabha Chowdhury Mahasweta Devi Palagummi Sainath Amitabha Chowdhury Indonesia Atmakusumah Astraatmadja Mochtar Lubis Atmakusumah Astraatmadja Mochtar Lubis Japan Akira Kurosawa Yasuji Hanamori Michiko Ishimure Akio Ishii Akira Kurosawa Yasuji Hanamori Michiko Ishimure Akio Ishii Nepal Bharat Koirala Bharat Koirala Philippines Zacarias Sarian F. Sionil José Lino Brocka Radio Veritas James Reuter Bienvenido Lumbera Nick Joaquin Raul Locsin Eugenia Duran Apostol Sheila Coronel Zacarias Sarian F. Sionil José Lino Brocka Radio Veritas James Reuter Bienvenido Lumbera Nick Joaquin Raul Locsin Eugenia Duran Apostol Sheila Coronel Thailand Prayoon Chanyavongs Prayoon Chanyavongs Great Britain based in Philippines Robert McCulloch Dick Robert McCulloch Dick Peace and International Understanding (1958–2008) China Tang Xiyang India Mother Teresa Jockin Arputham Laxminarayan Ramdas Indonesia Ahmad Syafi'i Maarif Japan Ikuo Hirayama Tetsu Nakamura Saburo Okita Seiei Toyama Nepal Sanduk Ruit Pakistan Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Operation Brotherhood Summer Institute of Linguistics William Masterson Harold Ray Watson International Institute of Rural Reconstruction Press Foundation of Asia Asian Institute of Management Corazon Aquino South Korea Pomnyun Sunim Thailand Asian Institute of Technology The Royal Project United States based in Thailand Genevieve Caulfield Peace and International Understanding (1958–2008) China Tang Xiyang India Mother Teresa Jockin Arputham Laxminarayan Ramdas Indonesia Ahmad Syafi'i Maarif Japan Ikuo Hirayama Tetsu Nakamura Saburo Okita Seiei Toyama Nepal Sanduk Ruit Pakistan Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Operation Brotherhood Summer Institute of Linguistics William Masterson Harold Ray Watson International Institute of Rural Reconstruction Press Foundation of Asia Asian Institute of Management Corazon Aquino South Korea Pomnyun Sunim Thailand Asian Institute of Technology The Royal Project United States based in Thailand Genevieve Caulfield China Tang Xiyang Tang Xiyang India Mother Teresa Jockin Arputham Laxminarayan Ramdas Mother Teresa Jockin Arputham Laxminarayan Ramdas Indonesia Ahmad Syafi'i Maarif Ahmad Syafi'i Maarif Japan Ikuo Hirayama Tetsu Nakamura Saburo Okita Seiei Toyama Ikuo Hirayama Tetsu Nakamura Saburo Okita Seiei Toyama Nepal Sanduk Ruit Sanduk Ruit Pakistan Ibn Abdur Rehman Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Operation Brotherhood Summer Institute of Linguistics William Masterson Harold Ray Watson International Institute of Rural Reconstruction Press Foundation of Asia Asian Institute of Management Corazon Aquino Operation Brotherhood Summer Institute of Linguistics William Masterson Harold Ray Watson International Institute of Rural Reconstruction Press Foundation of Asia Asian Institute of Management Corazon Aquino South Korea Pomnyun Sunim Pomnyun Sunim Thailand Asian Institute of Technology The Royal Project Asian Institute of Technology The Royal Project United States based in Thailand Genevieve Caulfield Genevieve Caulfield Emergent Leadership (2001–) Burma Ka Hsaw Wa China Chen Guangcheng Cambodia Oung Chanthol India Sanjiv Chaturvedi Arvind Kejriwal Nileema Mishra Sandeep Pandey Indonesia Ambrosius Ruwindrijarto Dita Indah Sari Philippines Benjamin Abadiano South Korea Yoon Hye-ran Sri Lanka Ananda Galappatti Timor-Leste Aniceto Guterres Lopes United States based in Hong Kong Chung To Emergent Leadership (2001–) Burma Ka Hsaw Wa China Chen Guangcheng Cambodia Oung Chanthol India Sanjiv Chaturvedi Arvind Kejriwal Nileema Mishra Sandeep Pandey Indonesia Ambrosius Ruwindrijarto Dita Indah Sari Philippines Benjamin Abadiano South Korea Yoon Hye-ran Sri Lanka Ananda Galappatti Timor-Leste Aniceto Guterres Lopes United States based in Hong Kong Chung To Burma Ka Hsaw Wa Ka Hsaw Wa China Chen Guangcheng Chen Guangcheng Cambodia Oung Chanthol Oung Chanthol India Sanjiv Chaturvedi Arvind Kejriwal Nileema Mishra Sandeep Pandey Sanjiv Chaturvedi Arvind Kejriwal Nileema Mishra Sandeep Pandey Indonesia Ambrosius Ruwindrijarto Dita Indah Sari Ambrosius Ruwindrijarto Dita Indah Sari Philippines Benjamin Abadiano Benjamin Abadiano South Korea Yoon Hye-ran Yoon Hye-ran Sri Lanka Ananda Galappatti Ananda Galappatti Timor-Leste Aniceto Guterres Lopes Aniceto Guterres Lopes United States based in Hong Kong Chung To Chung To Uncategorized (2009–) Bangladesh Syeda Rizwana Hasan A.H.M. Noman Khan Cambodia Yang Saing Koma Koul Panha China Fu Qiping Huo Daishan Ma Jun Pan Yue Yu Xiaogang India Kulandei Francis Harish Hande Deep Joshi Indonesia Hasanain Juaini Tri Mumpuni Japan Tadatoshi Akiba Philippines Alternative Indigenous Development Foundation , Inc. (AIDFI) Christopher Bernido Maria Victoria Carpio-Bernido Romulo Davide Antonio Oposa Jr. Taiwan Chen Shu-chu Thailand Krisana Kraisintu Uncategorized (2009–) Bangladesh Syeda Rizwana Hasan A.H.M. Noman Khan Cambodia Yang Saing Koma Koul Panha China Fu Qiping Huo Daishan Ma Jun Pan Yue Yu Xiaogang India Kulandei Francis Harish Hande Deep Joshi Indonesia Hasanain Juaini Tri Mumpuni Japan Tadatoshi Akiba Philippines Alternative Indigenous Development Foundation , Inc. (AIDFI) Christopher Bernido Maria Victoria Carpio-Bernido Romulo Davide Antonio Oposa Jr. Taiwan Chen Shu-chu Thailand Krisana Kraisintu Bangladesh Syeda Rizwana Hasan A.H.M. Noman Khan Syeda Rizwana Hasan A.H.M. Noman Khan Cambodia Yang Saing Koma Koul Panha Yang Saing Koma Koul Panha China Fu Qiping Huo Daishan Ma Jun Pan Yue Yu Xiaogang Fu Qiping Huo Daishan Ma Jun Pan Yue Yu Xiaogang India Kulandei Francis Harish Hande Deep Joshi Kulandei Francis Harish Hande Deep Joshi Indonesia Hasanain Juaini Tri Mumpuni Hasanain Juaini Tri Mumpuni Japan Tadatoshi Akiba Tadatoshi Akiba Philippines Alternative Indigenous Development Foundation , Inc. (AIDFI) Christopher Bernido Maria Victoria Carpio-Bernido Romulo Davide Antonio Oposa Jr. Alternative Indigenous Development Foundation , Inc. 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Nomenclature 2 History Toggle History subsection 2.1 Background 2.2 Late Qing literature and Republican-era reform (1850–1949) 2.3 First round of simplification (1949–1977) 2.4 Second round of simplification (1977–1986) 2.5 Since 1986 2.6 Outside mainland China 2.1 Background 2.2 Late Qing literature and Republican-era reform (1850–1949) 2.3 First round of simplification (1949–1977) 2.4 Second round of simplification (1977–1986) 2.5 Since 1986 2.6 Outside mainland China 3 Methodology Toggle Methodology subsection 3.1 Structural simplification 3.2 Derivation based on simplified components 3.3 Elimination of variants 3.4 Novel forms 3.5 Structural simplification 3.6 Simplifying components 3.7 Elimination of allographs 3.8 Novel forms 3.9 Inconsistencies 3.1 Structural simplification 3.2 Derivation based on simplified components 3.3 Elimination of variants 3.4 Novel forms 3.5 Structural simplification 3.6 Simplifying components 3.7 Elimination of allographs 3.8 Novel forms 3.9 Inconsistencies 4 Distribution Toggle Distribution subsection 4.1 Mainland China 4.2 Hong Kong 4.3 Taiwan 4.4 Southeast Asia 4.1 Mainland China 4.2 Hong Kong 4.3 Taiwan 4.4 Southeast Asia 5 In education Toggle In education subsection 5.1 Mainland China 5.2 Hong Kong 5.3 Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia 5.4 Chinese as a foreign language 5.4.1 Europe 5.4.2 East Asia 5.4.3 Southeast Asia 5.1 Mainland China 5.2 Hong Kong 5.3 Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia 5.4 Chinese as a foreign language 5.4.1 Europe 5.4.2 East Asia 5.4.3 Southeast Asia 5.4.1 Europe 5.4.2 East Asia 5.4.3 Southeast Asia 6 Use with computers Toggle Use with computers subsection 6.1 Internet usage 6.1 Internet usage 7 Criticism 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References Toggle References subsection 10.1 Citations 10.2 Works cited 10.1 Citations 10.2 Works cited 11 Further reading 12 External links Simplified Chinese characters Afrikaans العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Қазақша Ladin Ladino Latviešu Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी მარგალური مصرى Bahasa Melayu Minangkabau 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands नेपाली 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی پښتو Polski Português Română Русиньскый Русский සිංහල Simple English کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Vahcuengh Tiếng Việt 文言 Winaray 吴语 粵語 中文 Kumoring Toki pona Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item This article has multiple issues. 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( April 2018 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) Simplified Chinese Script type Logographic Published .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} 1956 1964 1977 1988 2013 1956 1964 1977 1988 2013 Period 1956–present Direction Left-to-right Top-to-bottom, columns right-to-left Left-to-right Top-to-bottom, columns right-to-left Official script .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} China Singapore China Singapore Languages Chinese Related scripts Parent systems Oracle bone script Small seal script Clerical script Regular script Simplified Chinese Small seal script Clerical script Regular script Simplified Chinese Clerical script Regular script Simplified Chinese Regular script Simplified Chinese Simplified Chinese Sister systems Traditional characters Kanji Chữ Nôm Hanja Khitan large script Khitan small script Bopomofo Traditional characters Kanji Chữ Nôm Hanja Khitan large script Khitan small script Bopomofo ISO 15924 ISO 15924 .mw-parser-output .monospaced{font-family:monospace,monospace} Hans (501) , Han (Simplified variant) Unicode Unicode range Not in Unicode Chinese name Simplified Chinese 简化字 Traditional Chinese 簡化字 Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Jiǎnhuàzì Bopomofo ㄐㄧㄢˇ ㄏㄨㄚˋ ㄗˋ Wade–Giles Chien 3 -hua 4 -tzŭ 4 Tongyong Pinyin Jiǎn-huà-zìh IPA [tɕjɛ̀n.xwâ.tsɹ̩̂] Yue: Cantonese Yale Romanization Gáan faa jih Jyutping Gaan2 faa3 zi6 IPA [kan˧˥ fa˧ tsi˨] Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Jiǎnhuàzì Bopomofo ㄐㄧㄢˇ ㄏㄨㄚˋ ㄗˋ Wade–Giles Chien 3 -hua 4 -tzŭ 4 Tongyong Pinyin Jiǎn-huà-zìh IPA [tɕjɛ̀n.xwâ.tsɹ̩̂] Yue: Cantonese Yale Romanization Gáan faa jih Jyutping Gaan2 faa3 zi6 IPA [kan˧˥ fa˧ tsi˨] Alternative Chinese name Simplified Chinese 简体字 Traditional Chinese 簡體字 Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Jiǎntǐzì Bopomofo ㄐㄧㄢˇ ㄊㄧˇ ㄗˋ Wade–Giles Chien 3 -tʻi 3 -tzŭ 4 Tongyong Pinyin Jiǎn-tǐ-zìh IPA [tɕjɛ̀n.tʰì.tsɹ̩̂] Yue: Cantonese Yale Romanization Gáan tái jih Jyutping Gaan2 tai2 zi6 IPA [kan˧˥ tʰɐj˧˥ tsi˨] Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Jiǎntǐzì Bopomofo ㄐㄧㄢˇ ㄊㄧˇ ㄗˋ Wade–Giles Chien 3 -tʻi 3 -tzŭ 4 Tongyong Pinyin Jiǎn-tǐ-zìh IPA [tɕjɛ̀n.tʰì.tsɹ̩̂] Yue: Cantonese Yale Romanization Gáan tái jih Jyutping Gaan2 tai2 zi6 IPA [kan˧˥ tʰɐj˧˥ tsi˨] This article contains phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) . For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA . For the distinction between [ ] , / / and ⟨ ⟩, see IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters . Simplified Chinese characters are one of two standardized character sets widely used to write the Chinese language , with the other being traditional characters . Their mass standardization during the 20th century was part of an initiative by the People's Republic of China (PRC) to promote literacy, and their use in ordinary circumstances on the mainland has been encouraged by the Chinese government since the 1950s. [ 1 ] They are the standard forms used in mainland China , Malaysia , and Singapore , while traditional characters are officially used in Hong Kong , Macau , and Taiwan . Simplification of a component—either a character or a sub-component called a radical —usually involves either a reduction in its total number of strokes , or an apparent streamlining of which strokes are chosen in what places—for example, the ⼓ ' WRAP ' radical used in the traditional character 沒 is simplified to ⼏ ' TABLE ' to form the simplified character 没 . [ 2 ] By systematically simplifying radicals, large swaths of the character sets are altered. Some simplifications were based on popular cursive forms that embody graphic or phonetic simplifications of the traditional forms. In addition, variant characters with identical pronunciation and meaning were reduced to a single standardized character, usually the simplest among all variants in form. Finally, many characters were left untouched by simplification and are thus identical between the traditional and simplified Chinese orthographies. The Chinese government has never officially announced the completion of the simplification process after the bulk of characters were introduced by the 1960s. In the wake of the Cultural Revolution , a second round of simplified characters was promulgated in 1977—largely composed of entirely new variants intended to artificially lower the stroke count, in contrast to the first round—but was massively unpopular and never saw consistent use. The second round of simplifications was ultimately retracted officially in 1986, well after they had largely ceased to be used due to their unpopularity and the confusion they caused. In August 2009, China began collecting public comments for a revised list of simplified characters; [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ] the resulting List of Commonly Used Standard Chinese Characters lists 8,105 characters, including a few revised forms, and was implemented for official use by China's State Council on 5 June 2013. [ 7 ] Chinese characters Chinese family of scripts Written Chinese Kanji Hanja Chữ Hán Chinese family of scripts Written Chinese Kanji Hanja Chữ Hán Evolution of script styles Neolithic symbols in China Oracle bone Bronze Seal Large Small Bird-worm Clerical Cursive Semi-cursive Regular Flat brush Modern typefaces Fangsong Ming Hei Neolithic symbols in China Oracle bone Bronze Seal Large Small Bird-worm Large Small Bird-worm Clerical Cursive Semi-cursive Regular Flat brush Modern typefaces Fangsong Ming Hei Fangsong Ming Hei Properties and classification Components Strokes order Radicals Orthography jiu zixing xin zixing Digital encoding Components Strokes order order Radicals Orthography jiu zixing xin zixing jiu zixing xin zixing Digital encoding Collation and standards Kangxi Dictionary forms (1716) Commonly Used Characters (PRC, 2013) Commonly-Used Characters (Hong Kong, 2007) Nan Min Recommended Characters (Taiwan, 2009) Standard Form of National Characters (Taiwan, 1982) Jōyō kanji (Japan, 2010) Kangxi Dictionary forms (1716) Commonly Used Characters (PRC, 2013) Commonly-Used Characters (Hong Kong, 2007) Nan Min Recommended Characters (Taiwan, 2009) Standard Form of National Characters (Taiwan, 1982) Jōyō kanji (Japan, 2010) Reforms Simplified characters second round Traditional characters debate Japanese script reform kyūjitai Simplified characters second round second round Traditional characters debate debate Japanese script reform kyūjitai kyūjitai Homographs and readings Literary and colloquial readings Kanbun Idu Literary and colloquial readings Kanbun Idu Variants Zetian characters Zetian characters Derived systems Kana man'yōgana hiragana katakana Jurchen script Khitan large small Nüshu Bopomofo Slavonic transcription Kana man'yōgana hiragana katakana man'yōgana hiragana katakana Jurchen script Khitan large small large small Nüshu Bopomofo Slavonic transcription Transliteration of Chinese Transliteration of Chinese .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e Nomenclature In Chinese, simplified characters are referred to by their official name 简化字 ; jiǎnhuàzì , or colloquially as 简体字 ; jiǎntǐzì ⓘ . The latter term refers broadly to all character variants featuring simplifications of character form or structure, [ note 1 ] a practice which has always been present as a part of the Chinese writing system. The official name tends to refer to the specific, systematic set published by the Chinese government, which includes not only simplifications of individual characters, but also a substantial reduction in the total number of characters through the merger of formerly distinct forms. [ 9 ] History Background According to Chinese palaeographer Qiu Xigui , the broadest trend in the evolution of Chinese characters over their history has been simplification, both in graphical shape ( 字形 ; zìxíng ), the "external appearances of individual graphs", and in graphical form ( 字体 ; 字體 ; zìtǐ ), "overall changes in the distinguishing features of graphic[al] shape and calligraphic style, [...] in most cases refer[ring] to rather obvious and rather substantial changes". [ 10 ] The initiatives following the founding of the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) to universalize the use of their small seal script across the recently conquered parts of the empire is generally seen as being the first real attempt at script reform in Chinese history. Before the 20th century, variation in character shape on the part of scribes, which would continue with the later invention of woodblock printing , was ubiquitous. For example, prior to the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) the character meaning 'bright' was written as either 明 or 朙 —with either 日 'Sun' or 囧 'window' on the left, with the 月 'Moon' component on the right. Li Si ( d. 208 BC ), the Chancellor of Qin, attempted to universalize the Qin small seal script across China following the wars that had politically unified the country for the first time. Li prescribed the 朙 form of the character for 'bright', but some scribes ignored this and continued to write the character as 明 . However, the increased usage of 朙 was followed by proliferation of a third variant: 眀 , with 目 'eye' on the left—likely derived as a contraction of 朙 . Ultimately, 明 became the character's standard form. [ 11 ] The Book of Han (111 AD) describes an earlier attempt made by King Xuan of Zhou ( d. 782 BC ) to unify character forms across the states of ancient China , with his chief chronicler having "[written] fifteen chapters describing" what is referred to as the " big seal script ". The traditional narrative, as also attested in the Shuowen Jiezi dictionary ( c. 100 AD ), is that the Qin small seal script that would later be imposed across China was originally derived from the Zhou big seal script with few modifications. However, the body of epigraphic evidence comparing the character forms used by scribes gives no indication of any real consolidation in character forms prior to the founding of the Qin. [ 12 ] The Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) that inherited the Qin administration coincided with the perfection of clerical script through the process of libian . Late Qing literature and Republican-era reform (1850–1949) New Culture Movement Background Aftermath of the 1911 Revolution Second Revolution Coronation of Yuan Shikai National Protection War Manchu Restoration Constitutional Protection Movement Warlord Era Eastward spread of Western learning Scientific Revolution Boxer Indemnity Scholarship French Revolution Russian Revolution May Fourth Movement Ideologies Democracy Science Scientism Anti-Confucianism Social Darwinism Anarchism Modernism Liberalism Socialism Communism New humanism Democracy Science Scientism Scientism Anti-Confucianism Social Darwinism Anarchism Modernism Liberalism Socialism Communism New humanism Practice Westernization East-west cultural debate Total Westernization Democratization Simplification of Chinese characters Romanization of Chinese languages Writing with vernacular Chinese National Language Movement Translation of foreign literature Sorting out national heritages Feminist movement Education reforms Westernization East-west cultural debate Total Westernization East-west cultural debate Total Westernization Democratization Simplification of Chinese characters Romanization of Chinese languages Writing with vernacular Chinese National Language Movement Translation of foreign literature Sorting out national heritages Feminist movement Education reforms Schools of thought Doubting Antiquity School Xueheng School Chinese Communist Party Creation Society New Confucianism Crescent Moon Society League of Left-Wing Writers Doubting Antiquity School Xueheng School Chinese Communist Party Creation Society New Confucianism Crescent Moon Society League of Left-Wing Writers Major publications New Youth The Critical Review A Madman's Diary The Tiger New Youth The Critical Review A Madman's Diary The Tiger Notable people Ba Jin Chen Duxiu Guo Moruo Hu Shih Lao She Li Dazhao Lu Xun Mao Dun Qian Xuantong Shen Congwen Yu Dafu Zhu Ziqing Kang Youwei Ba Jin Chen Duxiu Guo Moruo Hu Shih Lao She Li Dazhao Lu Xun Mao Dun Qian Xuantong Shen Congwen Yu Dafu Zhu Ziqing Kang Youwei v t e v t e Though most closely associated with the People's Republic, the idea of a mass simplification of character forms first gained traction in China during the early 20th century. In 1909, the educator and linguist Lufei Kui formally proposed the use of simplified characters in education for the first time. Over the following years—marked by the 1911 Xinhai Revolution that toppled the Qing dynasty , followed by growing social and political discontent that further erupted into the 1919 May Fourth Movement —many anti-imperialist intellectuals throughout China began to see the country's writing system as a serious impediment to its modernization. In 1916, a multi-part English-language article entitled "The Problem of the Chinese Language" co-authored by the Chinese linguist Yuen Ren Chao (1892–1982) and poet Hu Shih (1891–1962) has been identified as a turning point in the history of the Chinese script—as it was one of the first clear calls for China to move away from the use of characters entirely. [ 13 ] Instead, Chao proposed that the language be written with an alphabet, which he saw as more logical and efficient. The alphabetization and simplification campaigns would exist alongside one another among the Republican intelligentsia for the next several decades. [ 14 ] Recent commentators have echoed some contemporary claims that Chinese characters were blamed for the economic problems in China during that time. [ 15 ] Lu Xun , one of the most prominent Chinese authors of the 20th century, stated that "if Chinese characters are not destroyed, then China will die" ( 漢字不滅，中國必亡 ). During the 1930s and 1940s, discussions regarding simplification took place within the ruling Kuomintang (KMT) party. Many members of the Chinese intelligentsia maintained that simplification would increase literacy rates throughout the country. In 1935, the Republic of China Ministry of Education published the first official list of simplified forms, consisting of 324 characters collated by Peking University professor Qian Xuantong . However, fierce opposition within the KMT resulted in the list being rescinded in 1936. [ 16 ] First round of simplification (1949–1977) Work throughout the 1950s resulted in the 1956 promulgation of the Chinese Character Simplification Scheme , a draft of 515 simplified characters and 54 simplified components, whose simplifications would be present in most compound characters. Over the following decade, the Script Reform Committee deliberated on characters in the 1956 scheme, collecting public input regarding the recognizability of variants, and often approving forms in small batches. Parallel to simplification, there were also initiatives aimed at eliminating the use of characters entirely and replacing them with pinyin as an official Chinese alphabet, but this possibility was abandoned, confirmed by a speech given by Zhou Enlai in 1958. [ 17 ] In 1965, the PRC published the List of Commonly Used Characters for Printing [ zh ] (hereafter Characters for Printing ), which included standard printed forms for 6196 characters, including all of the forms from the 1956 scheme. [ 18 ] Second round of simplification (1977–1986) A second round of simplified characters was promulgated in 1977, but was poorly received by the public and quickly fell out of official use. It was ultimately formally rescinded in 1986. [ 19 ] The second-round simplifications were unpopular in large part because most of the forms were completely new, in contrast to the familiar variants comprising the majority of the first round. [ 20 ] With the rescission of the second round, work toward further character simplification largely came to an end. [ 21 ] Since 1986 In 1986, authorities retracted the second round completely, though they had been largely fallen out of use within a year of their initial introduction. That year, the authorities also promulgated a final version of the General List of Simplified Chinese Characters . It was identical to the 1964 list save for 6 changes—including the restoration of 3 characters that had been simplified in the first round: 叠 , 覆 , 像 ; the form 疊 is used instead of 叠 in regions using traditional characters. The Chinese government stated that it wished to keep Chinese orthography stable. The Chart of Generally Utilized Characters of Modern Chinese was published in 1988 and included 7000 simplified and unsimplified characters. Of these, half were also included in the revised List of Commonly Used Characters in Modern Chinese , which specified 2500 common characters and 1000 less common characters. [ 22 ] In 2009, the Chinese government published a major revision to the list which included a total of 8300 characters. No new simplifications were introduced. In addition, slight modifications to the orthography of 44 characters to fit traditional calligraphic rules were initially proposed, but were not implemented due to negative public response. [ 23 ] Also, the practice of unrestricted simplification of rare and archaic characters by analogy using simplified radicals or components is now discouraged. A State Language Commission official cited "oversimplification" as the reason for restoring some characters. The language authority declared an open comment period until 31 August 2009, for feedback from the public. [ 6 ] In 2013, the List of Commonly Used Standard Chinese Characters was published as a revision of the 1988 lists; it included a total of 8105 characters. [ 24 ] [ 25 ] It included 45 newly recognized standard characters that were previously considered variant forms, as well as official approval of 226 characters that had been simplified by analogy and had seen wide use but were not explicitly given in previous lists or documents. Outside mainland China Singapore underwent three successive rounds of character simplification , eventually arriving at the same set of simplified characters as mainland China. [ 26 ] The first round was promulgated by the Ministry of Education in 1969, consisting of 498 simplified characters derived from 502 traditional characters. A second round of 2287 simplified characters was promulgated in 1974. The second set contained 49 differences from the mainland China system; these were removed in the final round in 1976. In 1993, Singapore adopted the 1986 mainland China revisions. Unlike in mainland China, Singapore parents have the option of registering their children's names in traditional characters. Malaysia also promulgated a set of simplified characters in 1981, though completely identical to the mainland Chinese set. They are used in Chinese-language schools. Methodology This section may be in need of reorganization to comply with Wikipedia's layout guidelines . Please help by editing the article to make improvements to the overall structure. ( June 2024 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) Structural simplification All characters simplified this way are enumerated in Charts 1 and 2 of the 1986 General List of Simplified Chinese Characters , hereafter the General List . Chart 1 lists all 350 characters that are used by themselves, and can never serve as 'simplified character components'. Chart 2 lists 132 characters that are used by themselves as well as utilized as simplified character components to further derive other simplified characters. Chart 2 also lists 14 components or radicals that cannot be used by themselves, but can be generalized for derivation of more complex characters. Derivation based on simplified components Chart 3 of the General List includes 1753 characters which are simplified based on the same simplification principles used for components and radicals in Chart 2. This list is non-exhaustive, so if a character is not already found in Charts 1–3, but can be simplified in accordance with Chart 2, the character should be simplified. Elimination of variants Series One Organization List of Variant Characters [ zh ] accounts for some of the orthography differences in mainland China versus in Hong Kong and Taiwan. These are not simplifications of character structures, but rather reduction in number of total standard characters. For each set of variants with identical pronunciation and meaning, one character—usually the simplest—is elevated to the standard character set, and the rest are obsoleted. By 1993, 1027 variants were declared obsolete by this list. Among the chosen variants, those that appear in the 1986 Complete List are also simplified in character structure accordingly. Novel forms New standardized character forms originated from the 1965 Characters for Printing list containing 6196 characters. These tend to be vulgar variant forms for most of its characters. The 1988 List of Commonly Used Characters in Modern Chinese (hereafter Common Modern Characters ) contains 7000 characters, and replaces the 1965 list. Since the new forms take vulgar variants, many characters now appear slightly simpler compared to old forms, and as such are often mistaken as being structurally simplified. Structural simplification All characters simplified this way are enumerated in Chart 1 and Chart 2 in the 1986 Complete List . Characters in both charts are structurally simplified based on similar set of principles. They are separated into two charts to clearly mark those in Chart 2 as 'usable as simplified character components', based on which Chart 3 is derived. Merging homophonous characters: Adapting cursive shapes ( 草書楷化 ): Replacing a component with a simple arbitrary symbol (such as 又 and 乂 ): Omitting entire components : Omitting components, then applying further alterations : Structural changes that preserve the basic shape Replacing the phonetic component of phono-semantic compounds : Replacing an uncommon phonetic component : Replacing entirely with a newly coined phono-semantic compound : Removing radicals Only retaining single radicals Replacing with ancient forms or variants : [ note 2 ] Adopting ancient vulgar variants : [ note 2 ] Readopting abandoned phonetic-loan characters : Copying and modifying another traditional character : Simplifying components Based on 132 characters and 14 components listed in Chart 2 of the Complete List , the 1,753 derived characters found in Chart 3 can be created by systematically simplifying components using Chart 2 as a conversion table. While exercising such derivation, the following rules should be observed: The Complete List employs character components, not traditional radicals. A component refers to any conceivable part of a character, regardless of its position within the character, or its relative size compared to other components in the same character. For instance, in the character 摆 , not only is 扌 (a traditional radical) considered a component, but so is 罢 . Each of the 132 simplified characters in Chart 2, when used as a component in compound characters, systematically simplify compound characters in exactly the same way the Chart 2 character itself was simplified. For instance, 單 is simplified in Chart 2 to 单 . Based on the same principle, these derivations can be made: 彈 → 弹 ; 嬋 → 婵 ; 囅 → 冁 The 14 simplified components in Chart 2 are never used alone as individual characters. They only serve as components. Example of derived simplification based on the component 𦥯 , simplified to 𰃮 ( ), include: 學 → 学 ; 覺 → 觉 ; 黌 → 黉 Each of the 132 simplified characters in Chart 2, when used as a component in compound characters, systematically simplify compound characters in exactly the same way the Chart 2 character itself was simplified. For instance, 單 is simplified in Chart 2 to 单 . Based on the same principle, these derivations can be made: 彈 → 弹 ; 嬋 → 婵 ; 囅 → 冁 The 14 simplified components in Chart 2 are never used alone as individual characters. They only serve as components. Example of derived simplification based on the component 𦥯 , simplified to 𰃮 ( ), include: 學 → 学 ; 覺 → 觉 ; 黌 → 黉 Chart 1 collects 352 simplified characters that generally cannot be used as components . Even in rare cases where a Chart 1 character is found as a component in a compound character, the compound character cannot be simplified in the same way. For instance, 習 is simplified in Chart 1 to 习 , but 褶 cannot be simplified to ⿰衤习 . A character that is already explicitly listed as simplified character in the "Complete List of Simplified Characters" cannot be alternatively simplified based on derivation. For instance, 戰 and 誇 are simplified in Chart 1 to 战 and 夸 respectively, thus they cannot be simplified alternatively by derivation via 单 and 讠 in Chart 2 to 𢧐 and ⿰讠夸 . 過 is simplified in Chart 2 to 过 , thus it cannot be alternatively derived via 呙 in Chart 2 as 𬨨 . Sample derivations: Elimination of allographs The Series One List of Variant Characters reduces the number of total standard characters. First, amongst each set of variant characters sharing identical pronunciation and meaning, one character (usually the simplest in form) is elevated to the standard character set, and the rest are made obsolete. Then amongst the chosen variants, those that appear in the "Complete List of Simplified Characters" are also simplified in character structure accordingly. Some examples follow: Sample reduction of equivalent variants : Ancient variants with simple structure are preferred : Simpler vulgar forms are also chosen : The chosen variant was already simplified in Chart 1 : In some instances, the chosen variant is actually more complex than eliminated ones. An example is the character 搾 which is eliminated in favor of the variant form 榨 . The 扌 'HAND' with three strokes on the left of the eliminated 搾 is now seen as more complex, appearing as the ⽊ 'TREE' radical 木 , with four strokes, in the chosen variant 榨 . Not all characters standardised in the simplified set consist of fewer strokes. For instance, the traditional character 強 , with 11 strokes is standardised as 强 , with 12 strokes, which is a variant character. Such characters do not constitute simplified characters. Novel forms The new standardized character forms shown in the Characters for Publishing and revised through the Common Modern Characters list tend to adopt vulgar variant character forms. Since the new forms take vulgar variants, many characters now appear slightly simpler compared to old forms, and as such are often mistaken as structurally simplified characters. Some examples follow: The traditional component 釆 becomes 米 : The traditional component 囚 becomes 日 : The traditional "Break" stroke becomes the "Dot" stroke : The traditional components ⺥ and 爫 become ⺈ : The traditional component 奐 becomes 奂 : Inconsistencies A commonly cited example of the irregularity of simplification involves characters that share the "hand" component 又 , which is used in many simplified characters. While there is an observable pattern involving the replacement of 𦰩 with 又 as seen in 漢 → 汉 , 難 → 难 , 癱 → 瘫 , 嘆 → 叹 , 灘 → 滩 , when observing that 歎 → 叹 , 歡 → 欢 , 勸 → 劝 , 灌 (not simplified) and 罐 (not simplified), an inconsistency arises. This is due to the fact that in the Complete List of Simplified Characters, 漢 → 汉 appears in Chart 1 while 難 → 难 is listed in Chart 2 and 癱 → 瘫 as a derived character in the non-exhaustive list in Chart 3. Therefore, 难 is defined as a 'simplified character component' according to the standard, while 又 is not. Based on 难 , 癱 is simplified to 瘫 , and 灘 to 滩 . Since both 歡 → 欢 and 勸 → 劝 appear in Chart 1, they are not defined as derived characters. There are therefore no characters or components found in Chart 2 usable for derivation of 灌 and 罐 . Further investigation reveals that these two characters do not appear in Chart 1 nor in "Series One Organization List of Variant Characters". Thus they remain unchanged from traditional forms in the Common Modern Characters list. Distribution The People's Republic of China and Singapore generally use simplified characters. They appear very sparingly in texts originating in Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan, and overseas Chinese communities, although they are becoming more prevalent as mainland China becomes more integrated globally. Mainland China The Law of the People's Republic of China on the National Common Language and Characters implies that simplified Chinese characters are the country's standard script, with traditional Chinese being used for purposes such as ceremonies, cultural purposes such as calligraphy, for decoration, in publications and books on ancient literature and poetry, and for research purposes. Traditional characters remain ubiquitous on buildings that predate the promotion of simplified characters, such as former government buildings, religious buildings, educational institutions, and historical monuments. Traditional characters are also often used for commercial purposes, such as in shopfront displays and advertisements. As part of the one country, two systems model, the PRC has not attempted to force Hong Kong or Macau into using simplified characters. The PRC tends to print material intended for people in Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan, and overseas Chinese in traditional characters. For example, versions of the People's Daily are printed in traditional characters, and both People's Daily and Xinhua have traditional character versions of their website available, using Big5 encoding. Mainland companies selling products in Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan use traditional characters in order to communicate with consumers; the reverse is also true. Dictionaries published in mainland China generally show both simplified and their traditional counterparts. In digital media, many cultural phenomena imported from Hong Kong and Taiwan into mainland China, such as music videos, karaoke videos, subtitled movies, and subtitled dramas, use traditional Chinese characters. Hong Kong Textbooks, official statements, and newspapers show no signs of moving to simplified Chinese characters, including state-funded media. However, for example, Hong Konger students sometimes opt to write with simplified characters when taking notes or while taking exams, in order to write faster. It is common for Hong Kongers to learn traditional Chinese characters in school, as well as some simplified characters incidentally, usually by consuming media produced on the mainland. For use on computers, however, people tend to type Chinese characters using an IME with a traditional character set, such as Big5. In Hong Kong, as well as elsewhere, it is common for people to use both sets, due to the ease of conversion between the two sets. [ clarification needed ] Taiwan Simplified characters are not used in any official capacity in Taiwan, including in government and civil publications in Taiwan. However, they are sometimes used in calligraphy and informal handwriting. [ 27 ] It is also legal to import and distribute publications printed in simplified characters. Specific simplified forms predating the 20th century are in common use, such as 台 , the first character in the name "Taiwan", rivalling the orthodox form 臺 even in publications and academic contexts. Southeast Asia In Singapore, where Mandarin Chinese is one of the official languages, simplified characters are the official standard and are generally used in most of official publications as well as the government-controlled press. While simplified characters are taught exclusively in schools and are generally used in most of official publications, the government does not officially discourage the use of traditional characters and still allow parents to choose whether to have their child's Chinese name registered in simplified or traditional characters. Traditional characters are widely used by older Singaporeans, and are widespread on billboards, stall menus, and decorations, as well as in newspapers and on television. There is no restriction on the use of traditional characters in mass media, and television programs, books, magazines and music imported from Hong Kong and Taiwan are widely available, almost always using traditional characters. Many shop signs and menus in hawker centres and coffee shops continue to be written with traditional characters. [ 28 ] Chinese is not an official language in Malaysia, but over 90% of ethnic-Chinese students in the country are educated in Chinese schools, which have been teaching in simplified characters since 1981. [ citation needed ] Traditional characters are also widely used by older people and are likewise widespread on billboards, to a greater extent than in Singapore. [ citation needed ] Most of Malaysia's Chinese-language newspapers compromise by retaining traditional characters in article headlines, but opting to use simplified characters for the bodies of articles. [ citation needed ] In Indonesia, Chinese is not an official language. However, the country is also home to a sizable ethnic-Chinese community, and similarly to Malaysia, ethnic-Chinese students typically receive their education in Chinese-language schools that almost exclusively use simplified characters. Traditional characters are seldom used, typically only for stylistic purposes. [ citation needed ] In education In general, schools in mainland China, Malaysia and Singapore use simplified characters exclusively, while schools in Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan use traditional characters exclusively. Today, simplified Chinese characters predominate among college and university programs teaching Chinese as a foreign language outside of China, [ 29 ] such as those in the United States. [ 30 ] Mainland China In December 2004, Ministry of Education authorities rejected a proposal from a Beijing Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) political conference member that called for elementary schools to teach traditional Chinese characters in addition to the simplified ones. The conference member pointed out that many, especially young people, have difficulties with traditional Chinese characters; this is especially important in dealing with non-mainland communities such as Taiwan and Hong Kong. The educational authorities did not approve the recommendation, saying that it did not fit in with the "requirements as set out by the law" and it could potentially complicate the curricula. [ 31 ] A similar proposal was delivered to the first plenary session of the 11th CPPCC in March 2008. [ 32 ] Hong Kong Most, if not all, Chinese-language textbooks in Hong Kong are written in traditional characters. Before 1997, the use of simplified characters was generally discouraged by educators. [ citation needed ] After 1997, while students are still expected to be proficient and utilize traditional characters in formal settings, they may sometimes adopt a hybrid written form in informal settings to speed up writing. Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia Chinese textbooks in Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia are written exclusively in simplified characters, and only simplified characters are taught in school. Traditional characters are usually only taught to those taking up calligraphy as a co-curricular activity or Cantonese as an elective course at school. Chinese as a foreign language This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( March 2018 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) The majority of textbooks teaching Chinese are now based on simplified characters and Hanyu Pinyin – although there are textbooks originating in China which have a traditional version. For practical reasons, universities and schools prepare students who will be able to communicate with mainland China, so their obvious choice is to use simplified characters. In places where a particular set is not locally entrenched, such as Europe and the United States, instruction is now mostly simplified, as the economic importance of mainland China increases, and also because of the availability of textbooks printed in mainland China. Teachers of international students often recommend learning both systems. Europe In the United Kingdom, universities mainly teach Mandarin Chinese at the undergraduate level using the simplified characters coupled with pinyin. However, they will require the students to learn or be able to recognise the traditional forms if they are studying in Taiwan or Hong Kong (such as taking Cantonese courses). In Australia and New Zealand, schools, universities and TAFEs use predominantly simplified characters. Russia and most East European nations are traditionally oriented on the education of the PRC's system for teaching Chinese, which uses simplified characters but exposes the learners to both systems. East Asia In South Korea , universities have used predominantly simplified characters since the 1990s. In high school, Chinese is one of the selective subjects. By the regulation of the national curricula standards, bopomofo and traditional characters had been originally used before (since the 1940s), but by the change of regulation, pinyin and simplified characters have been used to pupils who enter the school in 1996 or later. Therefore, bopomofo and traditional characters disappeared after 1998 in South Korean high school Chinese curriculum. In Japan there are two types of schools. Simplified Chinese is taught instead of traditional Chinese in pro-mainland China schools. They also teach Pinyin, a romanization system for standard Chinese, while the Taiwan-oriented schools teach bopomofo, which uses phonetic symbols. However, the Taiwan-oriented schools are starting to teach simplified Chinese and pinyin to offer a more well-rounded education. [ 33 ] Southeast Asia In the Philippines , the use of simplified characters has become increasingly popular. Before the 1970s, Chinese schools in the Philippines were under the supervision of the Ministry of Education of the Republic of China. Hence, most books were using traditional characters. Traditional characters remained prevalent until the early 2000s. Institutions like the Confucius Institute , being the cultural arm of the People's Republic of China, are strong proponents of the use of simplified characters. Also, many schools are now importing their Mandarin textbooks from Singapore instead of Taiwan. Public universities such as the Linguistics and Asian Languages Department of the University of the Philippines use simplified characters in their teaching materials. On the other hand, private schools such as Chiang Kai Shek College and Saint Jude Catholic School remain major proponents of the usage of traditional characters. Some private universities, such as the Ateneo de Manila University , also use simplified characters. Use with computers In computer text applications, the GB encoding scheme most often renders simplified Chinese characters, while Big5 most often renders traditional characters. Although neither encoding has an explicit connection with a specific character set, the lack of a one-to-one mapping between the simplified and traditional sets established a de facto linkage. [ 4 ] Since simplified Chinese conflated many characters into one and since the initial version of the GB encoding scheme, known as GB 2312 -80, contained only one code point for each character, it is impossible to use GB 2312 to map to the bigger set of traditional characters. It is theoretically possible to use Big5 code to map to the smaller set of simplified character glyphs, although there is little market for such a product. Newer and alternative forms of GB have support for traditional characters. In particular, mainland authorities have now established GB 18030 as the official encoding standard for use in all mainland software publications. The encoding contains all East Asian characters included in Unicode 3.0. As such, GB 18030 encoding contains both simplified and traditional characters found in Big-5 and GB, as well as all characters found in Japanese and Korean encodings. Unicode deals with the issue of simplified and traditional characters as part of the project of Han unification by including code points for each. This was rendered necessary by the fact that the linkage between simplified characters and traditional characters is not one-to-one. While this means that a Unicode system can display both simplified and traditional characters, it also means that different localisation files are needed for each type. In font filenames and descriptions, the acronym SC is used to signify the use of simplified Chinese characters to differentiate fonts that use TC for traditional characters. [ 34 ] Internet usage The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)'s Internationalization working group recommends the use of the language tag zh-Hans as a language attribute value and Content-Language value to specify web-page content in simplified Chinese characters. [ 35 ] Criticism Author Liu Shahe was an outspoken critic of the simplification of Chinese characters. He wrote a dedicated column entitled "Simplified Characters are Unreasonable" in the Chinese edition of the Financial Times . [ 36 ] Some critics pejoratively refer to Simplified Chinese as 殘體字 meaning "crippled characters." [ 37 ] See also Language portal China portal Ambiguities in Chinese character simplification Chinese Character Simplification Scheme Second round of simplified Chinese characters Ryakuji Shinjitai Singapore Chinese characters Differences between Shinjitai and Simplified characters Modern Chinese characters Notes ^ The Xiandai Hanyu Guifan Cidian defines the term as "Chinese characters that have undergone simplification" ( 经过简化的汉字 ). [ 8 ] ^ a b This is very similar to the 'elimination of variants of the same character' in "Series One Organization List of Variant Characters", except that these eliminations happen in Chart 1 and Chart 2 of "Complete List of Simplified Characters". Characters simplified in Chart 2 can be further used for derivation of Chart 3, but those chosen in "Series One Organization List of Variant Characters" cannot. References Citations ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} 教育部就《汉字简化方案》等发布50周年答记者问 . GOV.cn (in Chinese). 2006-03-22. Archived from the original on 2022-03-24 . Retrieved 2011-01-20 . ^ 沒 "Unihan data for U+6C92" . www.unicode.org . Retrieved 2023-09-30 . "Unihan data for U+6CA1" . www.unicode.org . Retrieved 2023-09-30 . ^ 关于《通用规范汉字表》公开征求意见的公告 . china-language.gov.cn (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 2009-08-15 . Retrieved 2009-08-18 . ^ a b 汉字，该繁还是简？ . Xinhua 新华网 (in Chinese). 2009-04-09. Archived from the original on 2009-04-28 . Retrieved 2009-04-10 . ^ 专家称恢复繁体字代价太大 新规范汉字表将公布 . Xinhua 新华网 (in Chinese). 2009-04-09. Archived from the original on 2009-04-12 . Retrieved 2009-04-10 . Syndicated from 新京报 , 2009-04-09. Accessed 2009.04.10. ^ a b Wu, Jing; Guo, Likun (12 August 2009). "China to Regulate Use of Simplified Characters" . China View . Archived from the original on 2009-08-16 . Retrieved 2009-08-17 . ^ 国务院关于公布《通用规范汉字表》的通知 [Notice of the State Council on Promulgating the "Common Standard Chinese Characters Table"] (in Chinese). Government of the People's Republic of China. 2013-08-19. ^ 简体字 . 现代汉语规范词典 [ Xiandai Hanyu Guifan Cidian ] (in Chinese) (3rd ed.). Beijing: Foreign Language and Teaching Press. 2014. ISBN 978-7-5135-4562-4 . ^ 书同文 :《汉字简化方案》制订始末 (in Chinese). Xinhua. 2008-06-03. Archived from the original on 2013-11-11 . Retrieved 2024-03-16 . ^ Qiu 2000 , pp. 44–45. ^ Bökset 2006 , p. 19. ^ Bökset 2006 , p. 17. ^ Chao, Yuen Ren ; Hu, Shih (1916). "The problem of the Chinese language". The Chinese Students' Monthly . 11– 15. ^ Chen 1999 , pp. 150–153; Zhong 2019 , pp. 27–28. ^ Yen, Yuehping (2005). Calligraphy and Power in Contemporary Chinese Society . Routledge. ISBN 0-415-31753-3 . ^ Chen 1999 , pp. 150–153. ^ Bökset 2006 , pp. 27–29; Zhong 2019 , pp. 157–158. ^ Bökset 2006 , p. 32. ^ Chen 1999 , pp. 155–156. ^ Chen 1999 , pp. 159–160. ^ Chen 1999 , pp. 196–197. ^ Zhou 2003 , p. 79; Chen 1999 , p. 136. ^ 《通用规范汉字表》44个汉字"整形"引发争论 . CERNET 中国教育和科研计算机网 (in Chinese). 2009-08-24. Archived from the original on 2017-01-09 . Retrieved 2017-01-09 . ^ Li 2020 , pp. 145–146. ^ 国务院关于公布《通用规范汉字表》的通知 [State Council Announcement of the List of Commonly Used Standard Chinese Characters ] (in Chinese). Central People's Government of the People's Republic of China. 5 June 2013 . Retrieved 8 November 2023 . ^ Chia Shih Yar (谢世涯). 新加坡与中国调整简体字的评骘 [ A Comparative Study of the Revision of Simplified Chinese Characters Proposed by Singapore and China ]. Paper presented at The International Conference on Culture of Chinese Character. Convened by Beijing Normal University and Liaoning People Publishing House. Dandong, Liaoning, China. 9-11 Nov 1998 (in Chinese) – via huayuqiao.org. ^ Taylor & Taylor 2014 , p. 118. ^ Chia Shih Yar (谢世涯). 新加坡汉字规范的回顾与前瞻 [ Review and Prospect of Standardization of Chinese Characters in Singapore ]. Paper presented at The Fourth International Conference on Chinese Characters. Convened by The Society of Chinese Philology, Jiangsu Educational Publishing House and State Language Commission of PRC. Suzhou, China. 26–27 Nov 1997 (in Chinese) – via huayuqiao.org. ^ Xing, Janet Zhiqun (2006). Teaching and Learning Chinese as a Foreign Language: A Pedagogical Grammar . Hong Kong University Press . p. 105. ISBN 978-962-209-763-6 . For programs in teaching and learning Chinese as FL outside China, the simplified version has gradually gained ground and become the first choice because of student demand… ^ Norden, Bryan W. Van (2011). Introduction to Classical Chinese Philosophy . Hackett. p. 242. ISBN 978-1-60384-615-8 . Most contemporary Chinese language programs at U.S. colleges and universities emphasize the simplified form. ^ 市教委驳回政协委员普及繁体字教学建议 [City Education Committee Rejects Commissar of The Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference to Popularize the Traditional Character Teaching Suggestion]. Qiānlóng wǎng (in Chinese). 2004-12-08. Archived from the original on 2005-01-23. ^ 争鸣：繁体字教育进校园有必要吗？ [Debate: A Need to Introduce Traditional Characters to Schools?]. Xīnhuá wǎng 新华网 (in Chinese). 2008-03-14. Archived from the original on 2008-03-17 . Retrieved 2008-03-15 . ^ Co, Emily (23 December 2008). "School Bridges China-Japan Gap" . The Japan Times . Archived from the original on 2008-12-26 . Retrieved 2008-12-23 . ^ "Noto CJK" . Google Noto Fonts . ^ Richard Ishida (editor): Best Practice 13: Using Hans and Hant codes in Internationalization Best Practices: Specifying Language in XHTML & HTML Content – W3C Working Group Note 12 April 2007 . ^ Liu, Shahe. 简化字不讲理 [Simplified Characters Are Unreasonable]. Financial Times (in Chinese) . Retrieved 2021-06-01 . ^ 覆薰華君：「殘體字」爭論欠缺理性 . Hong Kong Inmedia (in Chinese). 2014-04-19 . Retrieved 2025-05-30 . Works cited Bökset, Roar (2006). Long Story of Short Forms: The Evolution of Simplified Chinese Characters (PDF) . Stockholm East Asian Monographs. Vol. 11. Stockholm University. ISBN 978-91-628-6832-1 . Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-12-02 . Retrieved 2024-03-12 . Chen Ping (陳平) (1999). Modern Chinese: History and Sociolinguistics (4th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-64572-0 . DeFrancis, John (1972) [1950]. Nationalism and language reform in China . New York: Octagon. ISBN 978-0-374-92095-1 . Li, Yu (2020). The Chinese Writing System in Asia: An Interdisciplinary Perspective . Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-90731-7 . Qiu Xigui (2000) [1988]. Chinese Writing . Translated by Gilbert L. Mattos; Norman, Jerry. Berkeley: Society for the Study of Early China and The Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California. ISBN 978-1-55729-071-7 . Taylor, Insup; Taylor, M. Martin (2014) [1995]. Writing and Literacy in Chinese, Korean, and Japanese . Studies in Written Language and Literacy. Vol. 14 (Rev. ed.). John Benjamins. ISBN 978-90-272-1794-3 . Zhong, Yurou (2019). Chinese Grammatology: Script Revolution and Literary Modernity, 1916–1958 . Columbia University Press. doi : 10.7312/zhon19262 . ISBN 978-0-231-54989-9 . Zhou Youguang (2003). The Historical Evolution of Chinese Languages and Scripts 中国语文的时代演进 (in English and Chinese). Translated by Zhang Liqing (张立青). Columbus: National East Asian Languages Resource Center, Ohio State University. ISBN 978-0-87415-349-1 . Further reading Bergman, Peter M. (1980). The Basic English-Chinese, Chinese-English Dictionary: Using Simplified Characters (with an Appendix Containing the Original Complex Characters) Transliterated in Accordance with the New, Official Chinese Phonetic Alphabet . New York: New American Library. ISBN 0-451-09262-7 . Chen, Huoping (1987). Simplified Chinese Characters . Torrance, CA: Heian. ISBN 0-89346-293-4 . External links Andrew West , Proposal to Encode Obsolete Simplified Chinese Characters Stroke Order Animation and Dictionary of Simplified Chinese Characters Simplified to Traditional Chinese Conversion Table v t e Types of writing systems v t e Overview History of writing Grapheme Lists Writing systems undeciphered inventors constructed Languages by writing system / by first written accounts Overview History of writing Grapheme History of writing Grapheme Lists Writing systems undeciphered inventors constructed Languages by writing system / by first written accounts Writing systems undeciphered inventors constructed undeciphered inventors constructed Languages by writing system / by first written accounts Types Abjads Numerals Aramaic Hatran Arabic Elifba Egyptian hieroglyphs Elymaic Hebrew Ashuri Cursive Rashi Solitreo Tifinagh Mandaic Manichaean Nabataean Ancient North Arabian Pahlavi Book Inscriptional Inscriptional Parthian Psalter Pegon Phoenician Paleo-Hebrew Pitman shorthand Proto-Sinaitic Punic Samaritan South Arabian Zabur Musnad Sogdian Syriac ʾEsṭrangēlā Serṭā Maḏnḥāyā Teeline Shorthand Ugaritic Abugidas Brahmic Northern Bengali–Assamese Bhaiksuki Brahmi script Devanagari Dogri Gujarati Gupta Gurmukhi Kaithi Kalinga Khema Khojki Khudabadi Laṇḍā Lepcha Mahajani Marchen Meitei Modi Multani Nagari Nandinagari Nepalese scripts Bhujimol Golmol Himmol Kummol Kvemmol Pachumol Pracalit Ranjana Tamyig Tirhuta Limbu Litumol Odia Karani ʼPhags-pa Sharada Siddhaṃ Soyombo Sylheti Nagri Takri Tibetan Uchen Umê Tocharian Zanabazar square Southern Ahom Balinese Batak Baybayin Bhattiprolu Buda Buhid Chakma Cham Fakkham Grantha Goykanadi Hanunoo Javanese Kadamba Kannada Karen Kawi Khmer Khom Thai Kulitan Lanna Langdi Lao Leke Lontara Bilang-bilang Makasar Malayalam Old Maldivian Dhives Akuru Eveyla Akuru Mon–Burmese Pallava Pyu Saurashtra Shan Sinhala Sukhothai Sundanese Old Sundanese Tagbanwa Tai Le New Tai Lue Tai Noi Tai Tham Tai Viet Lai Tay Tamil Tamil-Brahmi Tanchangya Telugu Thai Tigalari Ulu scripts Incung Lampung Lembak Ogan Pasemah Rejang Serawai Vatteluttu Kolezhuthu Malayanma Others Bharati Boyd's syllabic shorthand Canadian syllabics Blackfoot Déné syllabics Dham Fox I Geʽez Gunjala Gondi Japanese Braille Sarati Jenticha Kharosthi Mandombe Masaram Gondi Meroitic Miao Mwangwego Pahawh Hmong Sorang Sompeng Tengwar Thaana Thomas Natural Shorthand Warang Citi Rma Alphabets Linear Adlam Ariyaka Armenian Avestan Pazend Avoiuli Bassa Vah Carian Caucasian Albanian Cirth Coelbren Coorgi–Cox alphabet Coptic Cyrillic Serbian Early Deseret Duployan shorthand Chinook Eclectic shorthand Elbasan Enochian Etruscan Formosan Fox II Fraser Gabelsberger shorthand Gadabuursi Garay alphabet Georgian Asomtavruli Nuskhuri Mkhedruli Veso Bey Glagolitic Gothic Gregg shorthand Greek ( Archaic ) Greco-Iberian alphabet Hangul Hanifi Hurûf-ı munfasıla Sunuwar Kaddare Kayah Li Klingon Latin Beneventan Blackletter Carolingian minuscule Fraktur Gaelic Insular IPA Kurrent Merovingian Sigla Sütterlin Tironian notes Visigothic Luo Lycian Lydian Manchu Medefaidrin Molodtsov Mru Mundari Bani N'Ko Ogham Ol Chiki Old Hungarian Old Italic Old Permic Orkhon Old Uyghur Mongolian Evenki Galik alphabet Manchu Oirat Vagindra Ol Onal Osage Osmanya Pau Cin Hau Phrygian Pisidian Runic Anglo-Saxon Cipher Dalecarlian Elder Futhark Younger Futhark Gothic Marcomannic Medieval Staveless Shavian Sidetic Sorang Sompeng Sunuwar Tifinagh Todhri Tolong Siki Vellara Visible Speech Vithkuqi Wancho Warang Citi Yezidi Zaghawa Non-linear Braille Maritime flags Telegraph code New York Point Flag semaphore Moon type Ideograms Adinkra Aztec Blissymbols Dongba Ersu Shaba Emoji Isotype Kaidā Miꞌkmaw Mixtec New Epoch Notation Painting Nsibidi Anishinaabewibii'iganan Olmec Siglas poveiras Testerian Yerkish Zapotec Logograms Chinese family of scripts Chinese characters Simplified Traditional Oracle bone script Bronze scripts Seal script large small bird-worm Hanja Kanji Chữ Nôm Sawndip Bowen Chinese-influenced Jurchen Khitan large script Sui Tangut Cuneiform Akkadian Assyrian Elamite Hittite Luwian Sumerian Other logosyllabic Anatolian Bagam Cretan Isthmian Maya Proto-Elamite Tenevil Wiigwaasabak Yi (Classical) Logoconsonantal Demotic Hieratic Hieroglyphs Numerals Hindu-Arabic Abjad Attic (Greek) Muisca Roman Other Sitelen Pona Semi-syllabaries Full Linear Elamite Celtiberian Iberian Northeastern Southeastern Khom Dunging Redundant Espanca script Pahawh Hmong Khitan small script Southwest Paleohispanic Bopomofo Quốc Âm Tân Tự Sign languages ASLwrite SignWriting si5s Stokoe notation Syllabaries Afaka Bamum Bété Byblos Canadian Aboriginal Cherokee Cypriot Cypro-Minoan Ditema tsa Dinoko Eskayan Geba Great Lakes Algonquian Iban Idu Kana Hiragana Katakana Man'yōgana Hentaigana Sōgana Jindai moji Kikakui Kpelle Linear B Linear Elamite Lisu Loma Nüshu Nwagu Aneke script Old Persian cuneiform Sumerian Vai Woleai Yi Yugtun Types Abjads Numerals Aramaic Hatran Arabic Elifba Egyptian hieroglyphs Elymaic Hebrew Ashuri Cursive Rashi Solitreo Tifinagh Mandaic Manichaean Nabataean Ancient North Arabian Pahlavi Book Inscriptional Inscriptional Parthian Psalter Pegon Phoenician Paleo-Hebrew Pitman shorthand Proto-Sinaitic Punic Samaritan South Arabian Zabur Musnad Sogdian Syriac ʾEsṭrangēlā Serṭā Maḏnḥāyā Teeline Shorthand Ugaritic Abugidas Brahmic Northern Bengali–Assamese Bhaiksuki Brahmi script Devanagari Dogri Gujarati Gupta Gurmukhi Kaithi Kalinga Khema Khojki Khudabadi Laṇḍā Lepcha Mahajani Marchen Meitei Modi Multani Nagari Nandinagari Nepalese scripts Bhujimol Golmol Himmol Kummol Kvemmol Pachumol Pracalit Ranjana Tamyig Tirhuta Limbu Litumol Odia Karani ʼPhags-pa Sharada Siddhaṃ Soyombo Sylheti Nagri Takri Tibetan Uchen Umê Tocharian Zanabazar square Southern Ahom Balinese Batak Baybayin Bhattiprolu Buda Buhid Chakma Cham Fakkham Grantha Goykanadi Hanunoo Javanese Kadamba Kannada Karen Kawi Khmer Khom Thai Kulitan Lanna Langdi Lao Leke Lontara Bilang-bilang Makasar Malayalam Old Maldivian Dhives Akuru Eveyla Akuru Mon–Burmese Pallava Pyu Saurashtra Shan Sinhala Sukhothai Sundanese Old Sundanese Tagbanwa Tai Le New Tai Lue Tai Noi Tai Tham Tai Viet Lai Tay Tamil Tamil-Brahmi Tanchangya Telugu Thai Tigalari Ulu scripts Incung Lampung Lembak Ogan Pasemah Rejang Serawai Vatteluttu Kolezhuthu Malayanma Others Bharati Boyd's syllabic shorthand Canadian syllabics Blackfoot Déné syllabics Dham Fox I Geʽez Gunjala Gondi Japanese Braille Sarati Jenticha Kharosthi Mandombe Masaram Gondi Meroitic Miao Mwangwego Pahawh Hmong Sorang Sompeng Tengwar Thaana Thomas Natural Shorthand Warang Citi Rma Alphabets Linear Adlam Ariyaka Armenian Avestan Pazend Avoiuli Bassa Vah Carian Caucasian Albanian Cirth Coelbren Coorgi–Cox alphabet Coptic Cyrillic Serbian Early Deseret Duployan shorthand Chinook Eclectic shorthand Elbasan Enochian Etruscan Formosan Fox II Fraser Gabelsberger shorthand Gadabuursi Garay alphabet Georgian Asomtavruli Nuskhuri Mkhedruli Veso Bey Glagolitic Gothic Gregg shorthand Greek ( Archaic ) Greco-Iberian alphabet Hangul Hanifi Hurûf-ı munfasıla Sunuwar Kaddare Kayah Li Klingon Latin Beneventan Blackletter Carolingian minuscule Fraktur Gaelic Insular IPA Kurrent Merovingian Sigla Sütterlin Tironian notes Visigothic Luo Lycian Lydian Manchu Medefaidrin Molodtsov Mru Mundari Bani N'Ko Ogham Ol Chiki Old Hungarian Old Italic Old Permic Orkhon Old Uyghur Mongolian Evenki Galik alphabet Manchu Oirat Vagindra Ol Onal Osage Osmanya Pau Cin Hau Phrygian Pisidian Runic Anglo-Saxon Cipher Dalecarlian Elder Futhark Younger Futhark Gothic Marcomannic Medieval Staveless Shavian Sidetic Sorang Sompeng Sunuwar Tifinagh Todhri Tolong Siki Vellara Visible Speech Vithkuqi Wancho Warang Citi Yezidi Zaghawa Non-linear Braille Maritime flags Telegraph code New York Point Flag semaphore Moon type Ideograms Adinkra Aztec Blissymbols Dongba Ersu Shaba Emoji Isotype Kaidā Miꞌkmaw Mixtec New Epoch Notation Painting Nsibidi Anishinaabewibii'iganan Olmec Siglas poveiras Testerian Yerkish Zapotec Logograms Chinese family of scripts Chinese characters Simplified Traditional Oracle bone script Bronze scripts Seal script large small bird-worm Hanja Kanji Chữ Nôm Sawndip Bowen Chinese-influenced Jurchen Khitan large script Sui Tangut Cuneiform Akkadian Assyrian Elamite Hittite Luwian Sumerian Other logosyllabic Anatolian Bagam Cretan Isthmian Maya Proto-Elamite Tenevil Wiigwaasabak Yi (Classical) Logoconsonantal Demotic Hieratic Hieroglyphs Numerals Hindu-Arabic Abjad Attic (Greek) Muisca Roman Other Sitelen Pona Semi-syllabaries Full Linear Elamite Celtiberian Iberian Northeastern Southeastern Khom Dunging Redundant Espanca script Pahawh Hmong Khitan small script Southwest Paleohispanic Bopomofo Quốc Âm Tân Tự Sign languages ASLwrite SignWriting si5s Stokoe notation Syllabaries Afaka Bamum Bété Byblos Canadian Aboriginal Cherokee Cypriot Cypro-Minoan Ditema tsa Dinoko Eskayan Geba Great Lakes Algonquian Iban Idu Kana Hiragana Katakana Man'yōgana Hentaigana Sōgana Jindai moji Kikakui Kpelle Linear B Linear Elamite Lisu Loma Nüshu Nwagu Aneke script Old Persian cuneiform Sumerian Vai Woleai Yi Yugtun Abjads Numerals Aramaic Hatran Arabic Elifba Egyptian hieroglyphs Elymaic Hebrew Ashuri Cursive Rashi Solitreo Tifinagh Mandaic Manichaean Nabataean Ancient North Arabian Pahlavi Book Inscriptional Inscriptional Parthian Psalter Pegon Phoenician Paleo-Hebrew Pitman shorthand Proto-Sinaitic Punic Samaritan South Arabian Zabur Musnad Sogdian Syriac ʾEsṭrangēlā Serṭā Maḏnḥāyā Teeline Shorthand Ugaritic Abjads Numerals Aramaic Hatran Arabic Elifba Egyptian hieroglyphs Elymaic Hebrew Ashuri Cursive Rashi Solitreo Tifinagh Mandaic Manichaean Nabataean Ancient North Arabian Pahlavi Book Inscriptional Inscriptional Parthian Psalter Pegon Phoenician Paleo-Hebrew Pitman shorthand Proto-Sinaitic Punic Samaritan South Arabian Zabur Musnad Sogdian Syriac ʾEsṭrangēlā Serṭā Maḏnḥāyā Teeline Shorthand Ugaritic Numerals Aramaic Hatran Hatran Arabic Elifba Elifba Egyptian hieroglyphs Elymaic Hebrew Ashuri Cursive Rashi Solitreo Ashuri Cursive Rashi Solitreo Tifinagh Mandaic Manichaean Nabataean Ancient North Arabian Pahlavi Book Inscriptional Inscriptional Parthian Psalter Book Inscriptional Inscriptional Parthian Psalter Pegon Phoenician Paleo-Hebrew Paleo-Hebrew Pitman shorthand Proto-Sinaitic Punic Samaritan South Arabian Zabur Musnad Zabur Musnad Sogdian Syriac ʾEsṭrangēlā Serṭā Maḏnḥāyā ʾEsṭrangēlā Serṭā Maḏnḥāyā Teeline Shorthand Ugaritic Abugidas Brahmic Northern Bengali–Assamese Bhaiksuki Brahmi script Devanagari Dogri Gujarati Gupta Gurmukhi Kaithi Kalinga Khema Khojki Khudabadi Laṇḍā Lepcha Mahajani Marchen Meitei Modi Multani Nagari Nandinagari Nepalese scripts Bhujimol Golmol Himmol Kummol Kvemmol Pachumol Pracalit Ranjana Tamyig Tirhuta Limbu Litumol Odia Karani ʼPhags-pa Sharada Siddhaṃ Soyombo Sylheti Nagri Takri Tibetan Uchen Umê Tocharian Zanabazar square Southern Ahom Balinese Batak Baybayin Bhattiprolu Buda Buhid Chakma Cham Fakkham Grantha Goykanadi Hanunoo Javanese Kadamba Kannada Karen Kawi Khmer Khom Thai Kulitan Lanna Langdi Lao Leke Lontara Bilang-bilang Makasar Malayalam Old Maldivian Dhives Akuru Eveyla Akuru Mon–Burmese Pallava Pyu Saurashtra Shan Sinhala Sukhothai Sundanese Old Sundanese Tagbanwa Tai Le New Tai Lue Tai Noi Tai Tham Tai Viet Lai Tay Tamil Tamil-Brahmi Tanchangya Telugu Thai Tigalari Ulu scripts Incung Lampung Lembak Ogan Pasemah Rejang Serawai Vatteluttu Kolezhuthu Malayanma Others Bharati Boyd's syllabic shorthand Canadian syllabics Blackfoot Déné syllabics Dham Fox I Geʽez Gunjala Gondi Japanese Braille Sarati Jenticha Kharosthi Mandombe Masaram Gondi Meroitic Miao Mwangwego Pahawh Hmong Sorang Sompeng Tengwar Thaana Thomas Natural Shorthand Warang Citi Rma Abugidas Brahmic Northern Bengali–Assamese Bhaiksuki Brahmi script Devanagari Dogri Gujarati Gupta Gurmukhi Kaithi Kalinga Khema Khojki Khudabadi Laṇḍā Lepcha Mahajani Marchen Meitei Modi Multani Nagari Nandinagari Nepalese scripts Bhujimol Golmol Himmol Kummol Kvemmol Pachumol Pracalit Ranjana Tamyig Tirhuta Limbu Litumol Odia Karani ʼPhags-pa Sharada Siddhaṃ Soyombo Sylheti Nagri Takri Tibetan Uchen Umê Tocharian Zanabazar square Southern Ahom Balinese Batak Baybayin Bhattiprolu Buda Buhid Chakma Cham Fakkham Grantha Goykanadi Hanunoo Javanese Kadamba Kannada Karen Kawi Khmer Khom Thai Kulitan Lanna Langdi Lao Leke Lontara Bilang-bilang Makasar Malayalam Old Maldivian Dhives Akuru Eveyla Akuru Mon–Burmese Pallava Pyu Saurashtra Shan Sinhala Sukhothai Sundanese Old Sundanese Tagbanwa Tai Le New Tai Lue Tai Noi Tai Tham Tai Viet Lai Tay Tamil Tamil-Brahmi Tanchangya Telugu Thai Tigalari Ulu scripts Incung Lampung Lembak Ogan Pasemah Rejang Serawai Vatteluttu Kolezhuthu Malayanma Others Bharati Boyd's syllabic shorthand Canadian syllabics Blackfoot Déné syllabics Dham Fox I Geʽez Gunjala Gondi Japanese Braille Sarati Jenticha Kharosthi Mandombe Masaram Gondi Meroitic Miao Mwangwego Pahawh Hmong Sorang Sompeng Tengwar Thaana Thomas Natural Shorthand Warang Citi Rma Brahmic Northern Bengali–Assamese Bhaiksuki Brahmi script Devanagari Dogri Gujarati Gupta Gurmukhi Kaithi Kalinga Khema Khojki Khudabadi Laṇḍā Lepcha Mahajani Marchen Meitei Modi Multani Nagari Nandinagari Nepalese scripts Bhujimol Golmol Himmol Kummol Kvemmol Pachumol Pracalit Ranjana Tamyig Tirhuta Limbu Litumol Odia Karani ʼPhags-pa Sharada Siddhaṃ Soyombo Sylheti Nagri Takri Tibetan Uchen Umê Tocharian Zanabazar square Southern Ahom Balinese Batak Baybayin Bhattiprolu Buda Buhid Chakma Cham Fakkham Grantha Goykanadi Hanunoo Javanese Kadamba Kannada Karen Kawi Khmer Khom Thai Kulitan Lanna Langdi Lao Leke Lontara Bilang-bilang Makasar Malayalam Old Maldivian Dhives Akuru Eveyla Akuru Mon–Burmese Pallava Pyu Saurashtra Shan Sinhala Sukhothai Sundanese Old Sundanese Tagbanwa Tai Le New Tai Lue Tai Noi Tai Tham Tai Viet Lai Tay Tamil Tamil-Brahmi Tanchangya Telugu Thai Tigalari Ulu scripts Incung Lampung Lembak Ogan Pasemah Rejang Serawai Vatteluttu Kolezhuthu Malayanma Northern Bengali–Assamese Bhaiksuki Brahmi script Devanagari Dogri Gujarati Gupta Gurmukhi Kaithi Kalinga Khema Khojki Khudabadi Laṇḍā Lepcha Mahajani Marchen Meitei Modi Multani Nagari Nandinagari Nepalese scripts Bhujimol Golmol Himmol Kummol Kvemmol Pachumol Pracalit Ranjana Tamyig Tirhuta Limbu Litumol Odia Karani ʼPhags-pa Sharada Siddhaṃ Soyombo Sylheti Nagri Takri Tibetan Uchen Umê Tocharian Zanabazar square Bengali–Assamese Bhaiksuki Brahmi script Devanagari Dogri Gujarati Gupta Gurmukhi Kaithi Kalinga Khema Khojki Khudabadi Laṇḍā Lepcha Mahajani Marchen Meitei Modi Multani Nagari Nandinagari Nepalese scripts Bhujimol Golmol Himmol Kummol Kvemmol Pachumol Pracalit Ranjana Tamyig Tirhuta Limbu Litumol Bhujimol Golmol Himmol Kummol Kvemmol Pachumol Pracalit Ranjana Tamyig Tirhuta Limbu Litumol Odia Karani Karani ʼPhags-pa Sharada Siddhaṃ Soyombo Sylheti Nagri Takri Tibetan Uchen Umê Uchen Umê Tocharian Zanabazar square Southern Ahom Balinese Batak Baybayin Bhattiprolu Buda Buhid Chakma Cham Fakkham Grantha Goykanadi Hanunoo Javanese Kadamba Kannada Karen Kawi Khmer Khom Thai Kulitan Lanna Langdi Lao Leke Lontara Bilang-bilang Makasar Malayalam Old Maldivian Dhives Akuru Eveyla Akuru Mon–Burmese Pallava Pyu Saurashtra Shan Sinhala Sukhothai Sundanese Old Sundanese Tagbanwa Tai Le New Tai Lue Tai Noi Tai Tham Tai Viet Lai Tay Tamil Tamil-Brahmi Tanchangya Telugu Thai Tigalari Ulu scripts Incung Lampung Lembak Ogan Pasemah Rejang Serawai Vatteluttu Kolezhuthu Malayanma Ahom Balinese Batak Baybayin Bhattiprolu Buda Buhid Chakma Cham Fakkham Grantha Goykanadi Hanunoo Javanese Kadamba Kannada Karen Kawi Khmer Khom Thai Khom Thai Kulitan Lanna Langdi Lao Leke Lontara Bilang-bilang Bilang-bilang Makasar Malayalam Old Maldivian Dhives Akuru Eveyla Akuru Dhives Akuru Eveyla Akuru Mon–Burmese Pallava Pyu Saurashtra Shan Sinhala Sukhothai Sundanese Old Sundanese Old Sundanese Tagbanwa Tai Le New Tai Lue Tai Noi Tai Tham Tai Viet Lai Tay Tamil Tamil-Brahmi Tanchangya Telugu Thai Tigalari Ulu scripts Incung Lampung Lembak Ogan Pasemah Rejang Serawai Incung Lampung Lembak Ogan Pasemah Rejang Serawai Vatteluttu Kolezhuthu Malayanma Kolezhuthu Malayanma Others Bharati Boyd's syllabic shorthand Canadian syllabics Blackfoot Déné syllabics Dham Fox I Geʽez Gunjala Gondi Japanese Braille Sarati Jenticha Kharosthi Mandombe Masaram Gondi Meroitic Miao Mwangwego Pahawh Hmong Sorang Sompeng Tengwar Thaana Thomas Natural Shorthand Warang Citi Rma Bharati Boyd's syllabic shorthand Canadian syllabics Blackfoot Déné syllabics Blackfoot Déné syllabics Dham Fox I Geʽez Gunjala Gondi Japanese Braille Sarati Jenticha Kharosthi Mandombe Masaram Gondi Meroitic Miao Mwangwego Pahawh Hmong Sorang Sompeng Tengwar Thaana Thomas Natural Shorthand Warang Citi Rma Alphabets Linear Adlam Ariyaka Armenian Avestan Pazend Avoiuli Bassa Vah Carian Caucasian Albanian Cirth Coelbren Coorgi–Cox alphabet Coptic Cyrillic Serbian Early Deseret Duployan shorthand Chinook Eclectic shorthand Elbasan Enochian Etruscan Formosan Fox II Fraser Gabelsberger shorthand Gadabuursi Garay alphabet Georgian Asomtavruli Nuskhuri Mkhedruli Veso Bey Glagolitic Gothic Gregg shorthand Greek ( Archaic ) Greco-Iberian alphabet Hangul Hanifi Hurûf-ı munfasıla Sunuwar Kaddare Kayah Li Klingon Latin Beneventan Blackletter Carolingian minuscule Fraktur Gaelic Insular IPA Kurrent Merovingian Sigla Sütterlin Tironian notes Visigothic Luo Lycian Lydian Manchu Medefaidrin Molodtsov Mru Mundari Bani N'Ko Ogham Ol Chiki Old Hungarian Old Italic Old Permic Orkhon Old Uyghur Mongolian Evenki Galik alphabet Manchu Oirat Vagindra Ol Onal Osage Osmanya Pau Cin Hau Phrygian Pisidian Runic Anglo-Saxon Cipher Dalecarlian Elder Futhark Younger Futhark Gothic Marcomannic Medieval Staveless Shavian Sidetic Sorang Sompeng Sunuwar Tifinagh Todhri Tolong Siki Vellara Visible Speech Vithkuqi Wancho Warang Citi Yezidi Zaghawa Non-linear Braille Maritime flags Telegraph code New York Point Flag semaphore Moon type Alphabets Linear Adlam Ariyaka Armenian Avestan Pazend Avoiuli Bassa Vah Carian Caucasian Albanian Cirth Coelbren Coorgi–Cox alphabet Coptic Cyrillic Serbian Early Deseret Duployan shorthand Chinook Eclectic shorthand Elbasan Enochian Etruscan Formosan Fox II Fraser Gabelsberger shorthand Gadabuursi Garay alphabet Georgian Asomtavruli Nuskhuri Mkhedruli Veso Bey Glagolitic Gothic Gregg shorthand Greek ( Archaic ) Greco-Iberian alphabet Hangul Hanifi Hurûf-ı munfasıla Sunuwar Kaddare Kayah Li Klingon Latin Beneventan Blackletter Carolingian minuscule Fraktur Gaelic Insular IPA Kurrent Merovingian Sigla Sütterlin Tironian notes Visigothic Luo Lycian Lydian Manchu Medefaidrin Molodtsov Mru Mundari Bani N'Ko Ogham Ol Chiki Old Hungarian Old Italic Old Permic Orkhon Old Uyghur Mongolian Evenki Galik alphabet Manchu Oirat Vagindra Ol Onal Osage Osmanya Pau Cin Hau Phrygian Pisidian Runic Anglo-Saxon Cipher Dalecarlian Elder Futhark Younger Futhark Gothic Marcomannic Medieval Staveless Shavian Sidetic Sorang Sompeng Sunuwar Tifinagh Todhri Tolong Siki Vellara Visible Speech Vithkuqi Wancho Warang Citi Yezidi Zaghawa Non-linear Braille Maritime flags Telegraph code New York Point Flag semaphore Moon type Linear Adlam Ariyaka Armenian Avestan Pazend Avoiuli Bassa Vah Carian Caucasian Albanian Cirth Coelbren Coorgi–Cox alphabet Coptic Cyrillic Serbian Early Deseret Duployan shorthand Chinook Eclectic shorthand Elbasan Enochian Etruscan Formosan Fox II Fraser Gabelsberger shorthand Gadabuursi Garay alphabet Georgian Asomtavruli Nuskhuri Mkhedruli Veso Bey Glagolitic Gothic Gregg shorthand Greek ( Archaic ) Greco-Iberian alphabet Hangul Hanifi Hurûf-ı munfasıla Sunuwar Kaddare Kayah Li Klingon Latin Beneventan Blackletter Carolingian minuscule Fraktur Gaelic Insular IPA Kurrent Merovingian Sigla Sütterlin Tironian notes Visigothic Luo Lycian Lydian Manchu Medefaidrin Molodtsov Mru Mundari Bani N'Ko Ogham Ol Chiki Old Hungarian Old Italic Old Permic Orkhon Old Uyghur Mongolian Evenki Galik alphabet Manchu Oirat Vagindra Ol Onal Osage Osmanya Pau Cin Hau Phrygian Pisidian Runic Anglo-Saxon Cipher Dalecarlian Elder Futhark Younger Futhark Gothic Marcomannic Medieval Staveless Shavian Sidetic Sorang Sompeng Sunuwar Tifinagh Todhri Tolong Siki Vellara Visible Speech Vithkuqi Wancho Warang Citi Yezidi Zaghawa Adlam Ariyaka Armenian Avestan Pazend Pazend Avoiuli Bassa Vah Carian Caucasian Albanian Cirth Coelbren Coorgi–Cox alphabet Coptic Cyrillic Serbian Early Serbian Early Deseret Duployan shorthand Chinook Chinook Eclectic shorthand Elbasan Enochian Etruscan Formosan Fox II Fraser Gabelsberger shorthand Gadabuursi Garay alphabet Georgian Asomtavruli Nuskhuri Mkhedruli Asomtavruli Nuskhuri Mkhedruli Veso Bey Glagolitic Gothic Gregg shorthand Greek ( Archaic ) Greco-Iberian alphabet Hangul Hanifi Hurûf-ı munfasıla Sunuwar Kaddare Kayah Li Klingon Latin Beneventan Blackletter Carolingian minuscule Fraktur Gaelic Insular IPA Kurrent Merovingian Sigla Sütterlin Tironian notes Visigothic Beneventan Blackletter Carolingian minuscule Fraktur Gaelic Insular IPA Kurrent Merovingian Sigla Sütterlin Tironian notes Visigothic Luo Lycian Lydian Manchu Medefaidrin Molodtsov Mru Mundari Bani N'Ko Ogham Ol Chiki Old Hungarian Old Italic Old Permic Orkhon Old Uyghur Mongolian Evenki Galik alphabet Manchu Oirat Vagindra Mongolian Evenki Galik alphabet Manchu Oirat Vagindra Evenki Galik alphabet Manchu Oirat Vagindra Ol Onal Osage Osmanya Pau Cin Hau Phrygian Pisidian Runic Anglo-Saxon Cipher Dalecarlian Elder Futhark Younger Futhark Gothic Marcomannic Medieval Staveless Anglo-Saxon Cipher Dalecarlian Elder Futhark Younger Futhark Gothic Marcomannic Medieval Staveless Shavian Sidetic Sorang Sompeng Sunuwar Tifinagh Todhri Tolong Siki Vellara Visible Speech Vithkuqi Wancho Warang Citi Yezidi Zaghawa Non-linear Braille Maritime flags Telegraph code New York Point Flag semaphore Moon type Braille Maritime flags Telegraph code New York Point Flag semaphore Moon type Ideograms Adinkra Aztec Blissymbols Dongba Ersu Shaba Emoji Isotype Kaidā Miꞌkmaw Mixtec New Epoch Notation Painting Nsibidi Anishinaabewibii'iganan Olmec Siglas poveiras Testerian Yerkish Zapotec Ideograms Adinkra Aztec Blissymbols Dongba Ersu Shaba Emoji Isotype Kaidā Miꞌkmaw Mixtec New Epoch Notation Painting Nsibidi Anishinaabewibii'iganan Olmec Siglas poveiras Testerian Yerkish Zapotec Adinkra Aztec Blissymbols Dongba Ersu Shaba Emoji Isotype Kaidā Miꞌkmaw Mixtec New Epoch Notation Painting Nsibidi Anishinaabewibii'iganan Olmec Siglas poveiras Testerian Yerkish Zapotec Logograms Chinese family of scripts Chinese characters Simplified Traditional Oracle bone script Bronze scripts Seal script large small bird-worm Hanja Kanji Chữ Nôm Sawndip Bowen Chinese-influenced Jurchen Khitan large script Sui Tangut Cuneiform Akkadian Assyrian Elamite Hittite Luwian Sumerian Other logosyllabic Anatolian Bagam Cretan Isthmian Maya Proto-Elamite Tenevil Wiigwaasabak Yi (Classical) Logoconsonantal Demotic Hieratic Hieroglyphs Numerals Hindu-Arabic Abjad Attic (Greek) Muisca Roman Other Sitelen Pona Logograms Chinese family of scripts Chinese characters Simplified Traditional Oracle bone script Bronze scripts Seal script large small bird-worm Hanja Kanji Chữ Nôm Sawndip Bowen Chinese-influenced Jurchen Khitan large script Sui Tangut Cuneiform Akkadian Assyrian Elamite Hittite Luwian Sumerian Other logosyllabic Anatolian Bagam Cretan Isthmian Maya Proto-Elamite Tenevil Wiigwaasabak Yi (Classical) Logoconsonantal Demotic Hieratic Hieroglyphs Numerals Hindu-Arabic Abjad Attic (Greek) Muisca Roman Other Sitelen Pona Chinese family of scripts Chinese characters Simplified Traditional Oracle bone script Bronze scripts Seal script large small bird-worm Hanja Kanji Chữ Nôm Sawndip Bowen Chinese-influenced Jurchen Khitan large script Sui Tangut Chinese characters Simplified Traditional Oracle bone script Bronze scripts Seal script large small bird-worm Hanja Kanji Chữ Nôm Sawndip Bowen Simplified Traditional Oracle bone script Bronze scripts Seal script large small bird-worm large small bird-worm Hanja Kanji Chữ Nôm Sawndip Bowen Chinese-influenced Jurchen Khitan large script Sui Tangut Jurchen Khitan large script Sui Tangut Cuneiform Akkadian Assyrian Elamite Hittite Luwian Sumerian Akkadian Assyrian Elamite Hittite Luwian Sumerian Other logosyllabic Anatolian Bagam Cretan Isthmian Maya Proto-Elamite Tenevil Wiigwaasabak Yi (Classical) Anatolian Bagam Cretan Isthmian Maya Proto-Elamite Tenevil Wiigwaasabak Yi (Classical) Logoconsonantal Demotic Hieratic Hieroglyphs Demotic Hieratic Hieroglyphs Numerals Hindu-Arabic Abjad Attic (Greek) Muisca Roman Hindu-Arabic Abjad Attic (Greek) Muisca Roman Other Sitelen Pona Sitelen Pona Semi-syllabaries Full Linear Elamite Celtiberian Iberian Northeastern Southeastern Khom Dunging Redundant Espanca script Pahawh Hmong Khitan small script Southwest Paleohispanic Bopomofo Quốc Âm Tân Tự Semi-syllabaries Full Linear Elamite Celtiberian Iberian Northeastern Southeastern Khom Dunging Redundant Espanca script Pahawh Hmong Khitan small script Southwest Paleohispanic Bopomofo Quốc Âm Tân Tự Full Linear Elamite Celtiberian Iberian Northeastern Southeastern Khom Dunging Linear Elamite Celtiberian Iberian Northeastern Southeastern Northeastern Southeastern Khom Dunging Redundant Espanca script Pahawh Hmong Khitan small script Southwest Paleohispanic Bopomofo Quốc Âm Tân Tự Espanca script Pahawh Hmong Khitan small script Southwest Paleohispanic Bopomofo Quốc Âm Tân Tự Sign languages ASLwrite SignWriting si5s Stokoe notation Sign languages ASLwrite SignWriting si5s Stokoe notation ASLwrite SignWriting si5s Stokoe notation Syllabaries Afaka Bamum Bété Byblos Canadian Aboriginal Cherokee Cypriot Cypro-Minoan Ditema tsa Dinoko Eskayan Geba Great Lakes Algonquian Iban Idu Kana Hiragana Katakana Man'yōgana Hentaigana Sōgana Jindai moji Kikakui Kpelle Linear B Linear Elamite Lisu Loma Nüshu Nwagu Aneke script Old Persian cuneiform Sumerian Vai Woleai Yi Yugtun Syllabaries Afaka Bamum Bété Byblos Canadian Aboriginal Cherokee Cypriot Cypro-Minoan Ditema tsa Dinoko Eskayan Geba Great Lakes Algonquian Iban Idu Kana Hiragana Katakana Man'yōgana Hentaigana Sōgana Jindai moji Kikakui Kpelle Linear B Linear Elamite Lisu Loma Nüshu Nwagu Aneke script Old Persian cuneiform Sumerian Vai Woleai Yi Yugtun Afaka Bamum Bété Byblos Canadian Aboriginal Cherokee Cypriot Cypro-Minoan Ditema tsa Dinoko Eskayan Geba Great Lakes Algonquian Iban Idu Kana Hiragana Katakana Man'yōgana Hentaigana Sōgana Jindai moji Hiragana Katakana Man'yōgana Hentaigana Sōgana Jindai moji Kikakui Kpelle Linear B Linear Elamite Lisu Loma Nüshu Nwagu Aneke script Old Persian cuneiform Sumerian Vai Woleai Yi Yugtun v t e Braille ⠃⠗⠁⠊⠇⠇⠑ Braille cell 1829 braille International uniformity ASCII braille Unicode braille patterns Braille scripts French-ordered Albanian Azerbaijani Cantonese Catalan Chinese (mainland Mandarin) (largely reassigned) Czech Dutch 6-dot 8-dot English ( Unified English ) Esperanto French German Ghanaian Guarani Hawaiian Hungarian Iñupiaq IPA Irish Italian Latvian Lithuanian Luxembourgish (extended to 8-dot) Maltese Māori Navajo Nigerian Philippine Polish Portuguese Romanian Samoan Slovak South African Spanish Taiwanese Mandarin (largely reassigned) Turkish Vietnamese Welsh Yugoslav Zambian Nordic family Estonian Faroese Icelandic Scandinavian Danish Finnish Greenlandic Northern Sámi Norwegian Swedish Russian lineage family i.e. Cyrillic -mediated scripts Belarusian Bulgarian Kazakh Kyrgyz Mongolian Russian Tatar Ukrainian Egyptian lineage family i.e. Arabic -mediated scripts Arabic Persian Urdu (Pakistan) Indian lineage family i.e. Bharati Braille Devanagari (Hindi / Marathi / Nepali) Bengali (Bangla / Assamese) Gujarati Kannada Malayalam Odia Punjabi Sinhala Tamil Telugu Urdu (India) Other scripts Amharic Armenian Burmese Dzongkha (Bhutanese) Georgian Greek Hebrew Inuktitut (reassigned vowels) Khmer Thai and Lao (Japanese vowels) Tibetan Reordered Algerian Braille (obsolete) Frequency-based American Braille (obsolete) Independent Chinese semi-syllabaries Cantonese Mainland Chinese Mandarin Taiwanese Mandarin Two-cell Chinese (Shuangpin) Japanese Korean Eight-dot Dutch Luxembourgish Kanji Gardner–Salinas braille codes (GS8) Symbols in braille Braille music Canadian currency marks Computer Braille Code Gardner–Salinas braille codes (science; GS8/GS6) International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) Nemeth braille code Braille technology Braille e-book Braille embosser Braille translator Braille watch Mountbatten Brailler Optical braille recognition Perforation Perkins Brailler Refreshable braille display Slate and stylus Braigo People Louis Braille Charles Barbier Róża Czacka Valentin Haüy Harris Mowbray Thakur Vishva Narain Singh Sabriye Tenberken William Bell Wait Organisations Braille Institute of America Braille Without Borders Japan Braille Library National Braille Association Blindness organizations Schools for the blind American Printing House for the Blind Other tactile alphabets Decapoint Moon type New York Point Night writing Vibratese Related topics Accessible publishing Braille literacy RoboBraille v t e Braille ⠃⠗⠁⠊⠇⠇⠑ v t e Braille cell 1829 braille International uniformity ASCII braille Unicode braille patterns 1829 braille International uniformity ASCII braille Unicode braille patterns Braille scripts French-ordered Albanian Azerbaijani Cantonese Catalan Chinese (mainland Mandarin) (largely reassigned) Czech Dutch 6-dot 8-dot English ( Unified English ) Esperanto French German Ghanaian Guarani Hawaiian Hungarian Iñupiaq IPA Irish Italian Latvian Lithuanian Luxembourgish (extended to 8-dot) Maltese Māori Navajo Nigerian Philippine Polish Portuguese Romanian Samoan Slovak South African Spanish Taiwanese Mandarin (largely reassigned) Turkish Vietnamese Welsh Yugoslav Zambian Nordic family Estonian Faroese Icelandic Scandinavian Danish Finnish Greenlandic Northern Sámi Norwegian Swedish Russian lineage family i.e. Cyrillic -mediated scripts Belarusian Bulgarian Kazakh Kyrgyz Mongolian Russian Tatar Ukrainian Egyptian lineage family i.e. Arabic -mediated scripts Arabic Persian Urdu (Pakistan) Indian lineage family i.e. Bharati Braille Devanagari (Hindi / Marathi / Nepali) Bengali (Bangla / Assamese) Gujarati Kannada Malayalam Odia Punjabi Sinhala Tamil Telugu Urdu (India) Other scripts Amharic Armenian Burmese Dzongkha (Bhutanese) Georgian Greek Hebrew Inuktitut (reassigned vowels) Khmer Thai and Lao (Japanese vowels) Tibetan Reordered Algerian Braille (obsolete) Frequency-based American Braille (obsolete) Independent Chinese semi-syllabaries Cantonese Mainland Chinese Mandarin Taiwanese Mandarin Two-cell Chinese (Shuangpin) Japanese Korean Eight-dot Dutch Luxembourgish Kanji Gardner–Salinas braille codes (GS8) French-ordered Albanian Azerbaijani Cantonese Catalan Chinese (mainland Mandarin) (largely reassigned) Czech Dutch 6-dot 8-dot English ( Unified English ) Esperanto French German Ghanaian Guarani Hawaiian Hungarian Iñupiaq IPA Irish Italian Latvian Lithuanian Luxembourgish (extended to 8-dot) Maltese Māori Navajo Nigerian Philippine Polish Portuguese Romanian Samoan Slovak South African Spanish Taiwanese Mandarin (largely reassigned) Turkish Vietnamese Welsh Yugoslav Zambian Nordic family Estonian Faroese Icelandic Scandinavian Danish Finnish Greenlandic Northern Sámi Norwegian Swedish Russian lineage family i.e. Cyrillic -mediated scripts Belarusian Bulgarian Kazakh Kyrgyz Mongolian Russian Tatar Ukrainian Egyptian lineage family i.e. Arabic -mediated scripts Arabic Persian Urdu (Pakistan) Indian lineage family i.e. Bharati Braille Devanagari (Hindi / Marathi / Nepali) Bengali (Bangla / Assamese) Gujarati Kannada Malayalam Odia Punjabi Sinhala Tamil Telugu Urdu (India) Other scripts Amharic Armenian Burmese Dzongkha (Bhutanese) Georgian Greek Hebrew Inuktitut (reassigned vowels) Khmer Thai and Lao (Japanese vowels) Tibetan Albanian Azerbaijani Cantonese Catalan Chinese (mainland Mandarin) (largely reassigned) Czech Dutch 6-dot 8-dot 6-dot 8-dot English ( Unified English ) Esperanto French German Ghanaian Guarani Hawaiian Hungarian Iñupiaq IPA Irish Italian Latvian Lithuanian Luxembourgish (extended to 8-dot) Maltese Māori Navajo Nigerian Philippine Polish Portuguese Romanian Samoan Slovak South African Spanish Taiwanese Mandarin (largely reassigned) Turkish Vietnamese Welsh Yugoslav Zambian Nordic family Estonian Faroese Icelandic Scandinavian Danish Finnish Greenlandic Northern Sámi Norwegian Swedish Estonian Faroese Icelandic Scandinavian Danish Finnish Greenlandic Northern Sámi Norwegian Swedish Danish Finnish Greenlandic Northern Sámi Norwegian Swedish Russian lineage family i.e. Cyrillic -mediated scripts Belarusian Bulgarian Kazakh Kyrgyz Mongolian Russian Tatar Ukrainian Belarusian Bulgarian Kazakh Kyrgyz Mongolian Russian Tatar Ukrainian Egyptian lineage family i.e. Arabic -mediated scripts Arabic Persian Urdu (Pakistan) Arabic Persian Urdu (Pakistan) Indian lineage family i.e. Bharati Braille Devanagari (Hindi / Marathi / Nepali) Bengali (Bangla / Assamese) Gujarati Kannada Malayalam Odia Punjabi Sinhala Tamil Telugu Urdu (India) Devanagari (Hindi / Marathi / Nepali) Bengali (Bangla / Assamese) Gujarati Kannada Malayalam Odia Punjabi Sinhala Tamil Telugu Urdu (India) Other scripts Amharic Armenian Burmese Dzongkha (Bhutanese) Georgian Greek Hebrew Inuktitut (reassigned vowels) Khmer Thai and Lao (Japanese vowels) Tibetan Amharic Armenian Burmese Dzongkha (Bhutanese) Georgian Greek Hebrew Inuktitut (reassigned vowels) Khmer Thai and Lao (Japanese vowels) Tibetan Reordered Algerian Braille (obsolete) Algerian Braille (obsolete) Frequency-based American Braille (obsolete) American Braille (obsolete) Independent Chinese semi-syllabaries Cantonese Mainland Chinese Mandarin Taiwanese Mandarin Two-cell Chinese (Shuangpin) Japanese Korean Chinese semi-syllabaries Cantonese Mainland Chinese Mandarin Taiwanese Mandarin Two-cell Chinese (Shuangpin) Cantonese Mainland Chinese Mandarin Taiwanese Mandarin Two-cell Chinese (Shuangpin) Japanese Korean Eight-dot Dutch Luxembourgish Kanji Gardner–Salinas braille codes (GS8) Dutch Luxembourgish Kanji Gardner–Salinas braille codes (GS8) Symbols in braille Braille music Canadian currency marks Computer Braille Code Gardner–Salinas braille codes (science; GS8/GS6) International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) Nemeth braille code Braille music Canadian currency marks Computer Braille Code Gardner–Salinas braille codes (science; GS8/GS6) International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) Nemeth braille code Braille technology Braille e-book Braille embosser Braille translator Braille watch Mountbatten Brailler Optical braille recognition Perforation Perkins Brailler Refreshable braille display Slate and stylus Braigo Braille e-book Braille embosser Braille translator Braille watch Mountbatten Brailler Optical braille recognition Perforation Perkins Brailler Refreshable braille display Slate and stylus Braigo People Louis Braille Charles Barbier Róża Czacka Valentin Haüy Harris Mowbray Thakur Vishva Narain Singh Sabriye Tenberken William Bell Wait Louis Braille Charles Barbier Róża Czacka Valentin Haüy Harris Mowbray Thakur Vishva Narain Singh Sabriye Tenberken William Bell Wait Organisations Braille Institute of America Braille Without Borders Japan Braille Library National Braille Association Blindness organizations Schools for the blind American Printing House for the Blind Braille Institute of America Braille Without Borders Japan Braille Library National Braille Association Blindness organizations Schools for the blind American Printing House for the Blind Other tactile alphabets Decapoint Moon type New York Point Night writing Vibratese Decapoint Moon type New York Point Night writing Vibratese Related topics Accessible publishing Braille literacy RoboBraille Accessible publishing Braille literacy RoboBraille v t e Chinese language v t e Sinitic languages Varieties Mandarin Beijing Lingua franca of modern Chinese Standard forms Standard Chinese differences Old National Pronunciation Regional accents and varieties Guangdong [ zh ] Majie [ zh ] Liuzhou [ zh ] Sichuan Taiwan Central Taiwan [ zh ] Singapore-Malaysia [ zh ] Singapore Malaysia Kluang [ zh ] Beijing females [ zh ] Traditional dialects Jingcheng Beijing Huaicheng Chaofeng Northeastern Changchun Harbin Shenyang Taz Jilu Tianjin Jinan Jiaoliao Dalian Qingdao Weihai Central Plains Dongping Gangou Guanzhong Xi'an Luoyang Xuzhou Dungan Southwestern Sichuanese Chengdu–Chongqing (?) Minjiang Leshan Renshou–Fushun [ zh ] Zigong Kunming Nanping Wuhan Gui–Liu Wuming Jianghuai Nanjing Nantong Nanping Lanyin Lanzhou dialect [ zh ] Ürümqi dialect [ zh ] Other Junjiahua Qinjiang Gyami Jin Zhangjiakou–Hohhot Zhi–Yan Wu Taihu Shanghai Suzhou Kunshan Wuxi Changzhou (?) Hangzhou Shaoxing Ningbo Jinxiang Jiangyin Shadi Taizhou Wu Taizhou Tiantai Oujiang Wenzhou Rui'an Wencheng Wuzhou Jinhua Chu–Qu Quzhou Jiangshan Qingtian Xuanzhou Xuancheng Huizhou Ji-She [ zh ] Xiu-Yi [ zh ] Qi-De [ zh ] Yanzhou [ zh ] Jing-Zhan [ zh ] Gan Chang–Du Nanchang Yi–Liu Ying–Yi Da–Tong Xiang Changyi Changsha Loushao Shuangfeng Xiangxiang Wugang Ji–Xu Yong–Quan Qiyang Min Eastern Houguan [ zh ] Fuzhou Fuqing Changle Gutian Matsu Fu–Ning [ zh ] Ningde Fu'an Other Manjiang Zhongshan Longdu Nanlang Pu–Xian Putian Xianyou Southern Hokkien Quanzhou Zhangzhou Amoy Chawan Taiwan Philippines Penang Medan Singapore Southern Malaysia Teochew Swatow Haklau Pontianak Zhongshan Sanxiang Other Zhenan Longyan Leizhou Zhanjiang Hainan Wenchang Haikou Banqiao Inland Northern Jian'ou Jianyang Central Shao–Jiang Hakka Huiyang [ zh ] Changting Meixian Pontianak Singkawang Taiwan Sixian Hailu Raoping Tingzhou Wuhua Yue Yuehai Guangzhou Hong Kong Malaysia Xiguan Jiujiang Shiqi Weitou Dapeng Yunfu Siyi Taishan Xinhui [ zh ] Other Gao–Yang Goulou Wu–Hua Yong–Xun Luo–Guang Qin–Lian Pinghua Northern Pinghua Tongdao Younian Southern Pinghua Yongjiang Guandao Rongjiang Unclassified Shaozhou Tuhua Xiangnan Tuhua Danzhou Badong Yao Shehua Waxiang Yeheni Huizhou (Guangdong) Mai Laobeizi (?) Macro-Bai Bai Cai-Long Caijia Longjia Luren Varieties Mandarin Beijing Lingua franca of modern Chinese Standard forms Standard Chinese differences Old National Pronunciation Regional accents and varieties Guangdong [ zh ] Majie [ zh ] Liuzhou [ zh ] Sichuan Taiwan Central Taiwan [ zh ] Singapore-Malaysia [ zh ] Singapore Malaysia Kluang [ zh ] Beijing females [ zh ] Traditional dialects Jingcheng Beijing Huaicheng Chaofeng Northeastern Changchun Harbin Shenyang Taz Jilu Tianjin Jinan Jiaoliao Dalian Qingdao Weihai Central Plains Dongping Gangou Guanzhong Xi'an Luoyang Xuzhou Dungan Southwestern Sichuanese Chengdu–Chongqing (?) Minjiang Leshan Renshou–Fushun [ zh ] Zigong Kunming Nanping Wuhan Gui–Liu Wuming Jianghuai Nanjing Nantong Nanping Lanyin Lanzhou dialect [ zh ] Ürümqi dialect [ zh ] Other Junjiahua Qinjiang Gyami Jin Zhangjiakou–Hohhot Zhi–Yan Wu Taihu Shanghai Suzhou Kunshan Wuxi Changzhou (?) Hangzhou Shaoxing Ningbo Jinxiang Jiangyin Shadi Taizhou Wu Taizhou Tiantai Oujiang Wenzhou Rui'an Wencheng Wuzhou Jinhua Chu–Qu Quzhou Jiangshan Qingtian Xuanzhou Xuancheng Huizhou Ji-She [ zh ] Xiu-Yi [ zh ] Qi-De [ zh ] Yanzhou [ zh ] Jing-Zhan [ zh ] Gan Chang–Du Nanchang Yi–Liu Ying–Yi Da–Tong Xiang Changyi Changsha Loushao Shuangfeng Xiangxiang Wugang Ji–Xu Yong–Quan Qiyang Min Eastern Houguan [ zh ] Fuzhou Fuqing Changle Gutian Matsu Fu–Ning [ zh ] Ningde Fu'an Other Manjiang Zhongshan Longdu Nanlang Pu–Xian Putian Xianyou Southern Hokkien Quanzhou Zhangzhou Amoy Chawan Taiwan Philippines Penang Medan Singapore Southern Malaysia Teochew Swatow Haklau Pontianak Zhongshan Sanxiang Other Zhenan Longyan Leizhou Zhanjiang Hainan Wenchang Haikou Banqiao Inland Northern Jian'ou Jianyang Central Shao–Jiang Hakka Huiyang [ zh ] Changting Meixian Pontianak Singkawang Taiwan Sixian Hailu Raoping Tingzhou Wuhua Yue Yuehai Guangzhou Hong Kong Malaysia Xiguan Jiujiang Shiqi Weitou Dapeng Yunfu Siyi Taishan Xinhui [ zh ] Other Gao–Yang Goulou Wu–Hua Yong–Xun Luo–Guang Qin–Lian Pinghua Northern Pinghua Tongdao Younian Southern Pinghua Yongjiang Guandao Rongjiang Unclassified Shaozhou Tuhua Xiangnan Tuhua Danzhou Badong Yao Shehua Waxiang Yeheni Huizhou (Guangdong) Mai Laobeizi (?) Macro-Bai Bai Cai-Long Caijia Longjia Luren Mandarin Beijing Lingua franca of modern Chinese Standard forms Standard Chinese differences Old National Pronunciation Regional accents and varieties Guangdong [ zh ] Majie [ zh ] Liuzhou [ zh ] Sichuan Taiwan Central Taiwan [ zh ] Singapore-Malaysia [ zh ] Singapore Malaysia Kluang [ zh ] Beijing females [ zh ] Traditional dialects Jingcheng Beijing Huaicheng Chaofeng Northeastern Changchun Harbin Shenyang Taz Jilu Tianjin Jinan Jiaoliao Dalian Qingdao Weihai Central Plains Dongping Gangou Guanzhong Xi'an Luoyang Xuzhou Dungan Southwestern Sichuanese Chengdu–Chongqing (?) Minjiang Leshan Renshou–Fushun [ zh ] Zigong Kunming Nanping Wuhan Gui–Liu Wuming Jianghuai Nanjing Nantong Nanping Lanyin Lanzhou dialect [ zh ] Ürümqi dialect [ zh ] Other Junjiahua Qinjiang Gyami Beijing Lingua franca of modern Chinese Standard forms Standard Chinese differences Old National Pronunciation Regional accents and varieties Guangdong [ zh ] Majie [ zh ] Liuzhou [ zh ] Sichuan Taiwan Central Taiwan [ zh ] Singapore-Malaysia [ zh ] Singapore Malaysia Kluang [ zh ] Beijing females [ zh ] Traditional dialects Jingcheng Beijing Huaicheng Chaofeng Lingua franca of modern Chinese Standard forms Standard Chinese differences Old National Pronunciation Regional accents and varieties Guangdong [ zh ] Majie [ zh ] Liuzhou [ zh ] Sichuan Taiwan Central Taiwan [ zh ] Singapore-Malaysia [ zh ] Singapore Malaysia Kluang [ zh ] Beijing females [ zh ] Standard forms Standard Chinese differences Old National Pronunciation Standard Chinese differences differences Old National Pronunciation Regional accents and varieties Guangdong [ zh ] Majie [ zh ] Liuzhou [ zh ] Sichuan Taiwan Central Taiwan [ zh ] Singapore-Malaysia [ zh ] Singapore Malaysia Kluang [ zh ] Beijing females [ zh ] Guangdong [ zh ] Majie [ zh ] Liuzhou [ zh ] Sichuan Taiwan Central Taiwan [ zh ] Central Taiwan [ zh ] Singapore-Malaysia [ zh ] Singapore Malaysia Kluang [ zh ] Singapore Malaysia Kluang [ zh ] Kluang [ zh ] Beijing females [ zh ] Traditional dialects Jingcheng Beijing Huaicheng Chaofeng Jingcheng Beijing Huaicheng Beijing Huaicheng Chaofeng Northeastern Changchun Harbin Shenyang Taz Changchun Harbin Shenyang Taz Jilu Tianjin Jinan Tianjin Jinan Jiaoliao Dalian Qingdao Weihai Dalian Qingdao Weihai Central Plains Dongping Gangou Guanzhong Xi'an Luoyang Xuzhou Dungan Dongping Gangou Guanzhong Xi'an Xi'an Luoyang Xuzhou Dungan Southwestern Sichuanese Chengdu–Chongqing (?) Minjiang Leshan Renshou–Fushun [ zh ] Zigong Kunming Nanping Wuhan Gui–Liu Wuming Sichuanese Chengdu–Chongqing (?) Minjiang Leshan Renshou–Fushun [ zh ] Zigong Chengdu–Chongqing (?) Minjiang Leshan Leshan Renshou–Fushun [ zh ] Zigong Zigong Kunming Nanping Wuhan Gui–Liu Wuming Wuming Jianghuai Nanjing Nantong Nanping Nanjing Nantong Nanping Lanyin Lanzhou dialect [ zh ] Ürümqi dialect [ zh ] Lanzhou dialect [ zh ] Ürümqi dialect [ zh ] Other Junjiahua Qinjiang Gyami Junjiahua Qinjiang Gyami Jin Zhangjiakou–Hohhot Zhi–Yan Zhangjiakou–Hohhot Zhi–Yan Wu Taihu Shanghai Suzhou Kunshan Wuxi Changzhou (?) Hangzhou Shaoxing Ningbo Jinxiang Jiangyin Shadi Taizhou Wu Taizhou Tiantai Oujiang Wenzhou Rui'an Wencheng Wuzhou Jinhua Chu–Qu Quzhou Jiangshan Qingtian Xuanzhou Xuancheng Taihu Shanghai Suzhou Kunshan Wuxi Changzhou (?) Hangzhou Shaoxing Ningbo Jinxiang Jiangyin Shadi Shanghai Suzhou Kunshan Wuxi Changzhou (?) Hangzhou Shaoxing Ningbo Jinxiang Jiangyin Shadi Taizhou Wu Taizhou Tiantai Taizhou Tiantai Oujiang Wenzhou Rui'an Wencheng Wenzhou Rui'an Wencheng Wuzhou Jinhua Jinhua Chu–Qu Quzhou Jiangshan Qingtian Quzhou Jiangshan Qingtian Xuanzhou Xuancheng Xuancheng Huizhou Ji-She [ zh ] Xiu-Yi [ zh ] Qi-De [ zh ] Yanzhou [ zh ] Jing-Zhan [ zh ] Ji-She [ zh ] Xiu-Yi [ zh ] Qi-De [ zh ] Yanzhou [ zh ] Jing-Zhan [ zh ] Gan Chang–Du Nanchang Yi–Liu Ying–Yi Da–Tong Chang–Du Nanchang Nanchang Yi–Liu Ying–Yi Da–Tong Xiang Changyi Changsha Loushao Shuangfeng Xiangxiang Wugang Ji–Xu Yong–Quan Qiyang Changyi Changsha Changsha Loushao Shuangfeng Xiangxiang Wugang Shuangfeng Xiangxiang Wugang Ji–Xu Yong–Quan Qiyang Qiyang Min Eastern Houguan [ zh ] Fuzhou Fuqing Changle Gutian Matsu Fu–Ning [ zh ] Ningde Fu'an Other Manjiang Zhongshan Longdu Nanlang Pu–Xian Putian Xianyou Southern Hokkien Quanzhou Zhangzhou Amoy Chawan Taiwan Philippines Penang Medan Singapore Southern Malaysia Teochew Swatow Haklau Pontianak Zhongshan Sanxiang Other Zhenan Longyan Leizhou Zhanjiang Hainan Wenchang Haikou Banqiao Inland Northern Jian'ou Jianyang Central Shao–Jiang Eastern Houguan [ zh ] Fuzhou Fuqing Changle Gutian Matsu Fu–Ning [ zh ] Ningde Fu'an Other Manjiang Zhongshan Longdu Nanlang Houguan [ zh ] Fuzhou Fuqing Changle Gutian Matsu Fuzhou Fuqing Changle Gutian Matsu Fu–Ning [ zh ] Ningde Fu'an Ningde Fu'an Other Manjiang Zhongshan Longdu Nanlang Manjiang Zhongshan Longdu Nanlang Longdu Nanlang Pu–Xian Putian Xianyou Putian Xianyou Southern Hokkien Quanzhou Zhangzhou Amoy Chawan Taiwan Philippines Penang Medan Singapore Southern Malaysia Teochew Swatow Haklau Pontianak Zhongshan Sanxiang Other Zhenan Longyan Hokkien Quanzhou Zhangzhou Amoy Chawan Taiwan Philippines Penang Medan Singapore Southern Malaysia Quanzhou Zhangzhou Amoy Chawan Taiwan Philippines Penang Medan Singapore Southern Malaysia Teochew Swatow Haklau Pontianak Swatow Haklau Pontianak Zhongshan Sanxiang Sanxiang Other Zhenan Longyan Zhenan Longyan Leizhou Zhanjiang Zhanjiang Hainan Wenchang Haikou Banqiao Wenchang Haikou Banqiao Inland Northern Jian'ou Jianyang Central Shao–Jiang Northern Jian'ou Jianyang Jian'ou Jianyang Central Shao–Jiang Hakka Huiyang [ zh ] Changting Meixian Pontianak Singkawang Taiwan Sixian Hailu Raoping Tingzhou Wuhua Huiyang [ zh ] Changting Changting Meixian Pontianak Singkawang Taiwan Sixian Hailu Raoping Sixian Hailu Raoping Tingzhou Wuhua Yue Yuehai Guangzhou Hong Kong Malaysia Xiguan Jiujiang Shiqi Weitou Dapeng Yunfu Siyi Taishan Xinhui [ zh ] Other Gao–Yang Goulou Wu–Hua Yong–Xun Luo–Guang Qin–Lian Yuehai Guangzhou Hong Kong Malaysia Xiguan Jiujiang Shiqi Weitou Dapeng Yunfu Guangzhou Hong Kong Malaysia Hong Kong Malaysia Xiguan Jiujiang Shiqi Weitou Dapeng Yunfu Siyi Taishan Xinhui [ zh ] Taishan Xinhui [ zh ] Other Gao–Yang Goulou Wu–Hua Yong–Xun Luo–Guang Qin–Lian Gao–Yang Goulou Wu–Hua Yong–Xun Luo–Guang Qin–Lian Pinghua Northern Pinghua Tongdao Younian Southern Pinghua Yongjiang Guandao Rongjiang Northern Pinghua Tongdao Younian Tongdao Younian Southern Pinghua Yongjiang Guandao Rongjiang Yongjiang Guandao Rongjiang Unclassified Shaozhou Tuhua Xiangnan Tuhua Danzhou Badong Yao Shehua Waxiang Yeheni Huizhou (Guangdong) Mai Laobeizi (?) Macro-Bai Bai Cai-Long Caijia Longjia Luren Shaozhou Tuhua Xiangnan Tuhua Danzhou Badong Yao Shehua Waxiang Yeheni Huizhou (Guangdong) Mai Laobeizi Shaozhou Tuhua Xiangnan Tuhua Danzhou Badong Yao Shehua Waxiang Yeheni Huizhou (Guangdong) Mai Laobeizi (?) Macro-Bai Bai Cai-Long Caijia Longjia Luren Bai Cai-Long Caijia Longjia Luren Caijia Longjia Luren History, phonology, and grammar History Proto-Sino-Tibetan Old Chinese Eastern Han Middle Chinese Old Mandarin Middle Mandarin Proto-Min Proto-Hakka Ba–Shu Gan Phonology Historical Old Old National Cantonese Hokkien Northern Wu Mandarin Literary and colloquial readings Grammar Numerals Classifiers Honorifics Cantonese grammar Classical grammar Idioms Chengyu Xiehouyu History, phonology, and grammar History Proto-Sino-Tibetan Old Chinese Eastern Han Middle Chinese Old Mandarin Middle Mandarin Proto-Min Proto-Hakka Ba–Shu Gan Phonology Historical Old Old National Cantonese Hokkien Northern Wu Mandarin Literary and colloquial readings Grammar Numerals Classifiers Honorifics Cantonese grammar Classical grammar Idioms Chengyu Xiehouyu History Proto-Sino-Tibetan Old Chinese Eastern Han Middle Chinese Old Mandarin Middle Mandarin Proto-Min Proto-Hakka Ba–Shu Gan Proto-Sino-Tibetan Old Chinese Eastern Han Middle Chinese Old Mandarin Middle Mandarin Proto-Min Proto-Hakka Ba–Shu Gan Phonology Historical Old Old National Cantonese Hokkien Northern Wu Mandarin Literary and colloquial readings Historical Old Old Old National Cantonese Hokkien Northern Wu Mandarin Literary and colloquial readings Grammar Numerals Classifiers Honorifics Cantonese grammar Classical grammar Numerals Classifiers Honorifics Cantonese grammar Classical grammar Idioms Chengyu Xiehouyu Chengyu Xiehouyu Written Chinese and input methods Literary forms Official Classical Adoption in Japan in Vietnam Vernacular Written Cantonese Written Dungan Written Hokkien Written Sichuanese Scripts Logographic Script styles Oracle bone Bronze Seal Clerical Semi-cursive Cursive Chinese characters Simplified Traditional Punctuation Braille Cantonese Mainland Chinese Taiwanese Two-cell Phonetic Romanization Gwoyeu Romatzyh Hanyu Pinyin MPS II Postal Tongyong Pinyin Wade–Giles EFEO Lessing-Othmer Yale Cyrillization Dungan Cyrillic Bopomofo Cantonese Bopomofo Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols Taiwanese kana Taiwanese Hangul Xiao'erjing Nüshu Input methods Logographic Biaoxingma Boshiamy [ zh ] Cangjie Simplified CKC Dayi Stroke count Wubi (Wang Ma) ZhengMa Q9 Pinyin Google Microsoft Sogou Written Chinese and input methods Literary forms Official Classical Adoption in Japan in Vietnam Vernacular Written Cantonese Written Dungan Written Hokkien Written Sichuanese Scripts Logographic Script styles Oracle bone Bronze Seal Clerical Semi-cursive Cursive Chinese characters Simplified Traditional Punctuation Braille Cantonese Mainland Chinese Taiwanese Two-cell Phonetic Romanization Gwoyeu Romatzyh Hanyu Pinyin MPS II Postal Tongyong Pinyin Wade–Giles EFEO Lessing-Othmer Yale Cyrillization Dungan Cyrillic Bopomofo Cantonese Bopomofo Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols Taiwanese kana Taiwanese Hangul Xiao'erjing Nüshu Input methods Logographic Biaoxingma Boshiamy [ zh ] Cangjie Simplified CKC Dayi Stroke count Wubi (Wang Ma) ZhengMa Q9 Pinyin Google Microsoft Sogou Literary forms Official Classical Adoption in Japan in Vietnam Vernacular Written Cantonese Written Dungan Written Hokkien Written Sichuanese Official Classical Adoption in Japan in Vietnam Vernacular Classical Adoption in Japan in Vietnam Adoption in Japan in Vietnam Vernacular Written Cantonese Written Dungan Written Hokkien Written Sichuanese Scripts Logographic Script styles Oracle bone Bronze Seal Clerical Semi-cursive Cursive Chinese characters Simplified Traditional Punctuation Braille Cantonese Mainland Chinese Taiwanese Two-cell Phonetic Romanization Gwoyeu Romatzyh Hanyu Pinyin MPS II Postal Tongyong Pinyin Wade–Giles EFEO Lessing-Othmer Yale Cyrillization Dungan Cyrillic Bopomofo Cantonese Bopomofo Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols Taiwanese kana Taiwanese Hangul Xiao'erjing Nüshu Logographic Script styles Oracle bone Bronze Seal Clerical Semi-cursive Cursive Chinese characters Simplified Traditional Punctuation Script styles Oracle bone Bronze Seal Clerical Semi-cursive Cursive Oracle bone Bronze Seal Clerical Semi-cursive Cursive Chinese characters Simplified Traditional Simplified Traditional Punctuation Braille Cantonese Mainland Chinese Taiwanese Two-cell Cantonese Mainland Chinese Taiwanese Two-cell Phonetic Romanization Gwoyeu Romatzyh Hanyu Pinyin MPS II Postal Tongyong Pinyin Wade–Giles EFEO Lessing-Othmer Yale Cyrillization Dungan Cyrillic Bopomofo Cantonese Bopomofo Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols Taiwanese kana Taiwanese Hangul Xiao'erjing Nüshu Romanization Gwoyeu Romatzyh Hanyu Pinyin MPS II Postal Tongyong Pinyin Wade–Giles EFEO Lessing-Othmer Yale Gwoyeu Romatzyh Hanyu Pinyin MPS II Postal Tongyong Pinyin Wade–Giles EFEO Lessing-Othmer Yale Cyrillization Dungan Cyrillic Dungan Cyrillic Bopomofo Cantonese Bopomofo Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols Cantonese Bopomofo Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols Taiwanese kana Taiwanese Hangul Xiao'erjing Nüshu Input methods Logographic Biaoxingma Boshiamy [ zh ] Cangjie Simplified CKC Dayi Stroke count Wubi (Wang Ma) ZhengMa Q9 Pinyin Google Microsoft Sogou Logographic Biaoxingma Boshiamy [ zh ] Cangjie Simplified CKC Dayi Stroke count Wubi (Wang Ma) ZhengMa Q9 Biaoxingma Boshiamy [ zh ] Cangjie Simplified Simplified CKC Dayi Stroke count Wubi (Wang Ma) ZhengMa Q9 Pinyin Google Microsoft Sogou Google Microsoft Sogou List of varieties of Chinese Simplified Chinese characters Chinese language reform Pages using the Phonos extension Articles containing simplified Chinese-language text CS1 uses Chinese-language script (zh) CS1 Chinese-language sources (zh) Articles containing Chinese-language text CS1: long volume value Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use Oxford spelling from March 2024 All Wikipedia articles written in British English with Oxford spelling Articles needing additional references from April 2018 All articles needing additional references Articles that may contain original research from April 2018 All articles 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 In the Roman Republic 2 Under the empire Toggle Under the empire subsection 2.1 History 2.1.1 Under the Julio-Claudian dynasty 2.1.2 Year of the Four Emperors 2.1.3 Flavian dynasty 2.1.4 Antonine dynasty 2.1.5 Severan dynasty 2.1.6 3rd century 2.1.7 Dissolution 2.2 Participation in wars 2.3 Political role 2.4 Organization 2.4.1 Leadership 2.4.2 Size and composition 2.4.3 Praetorian Cavalry 2.4.4 Speculatores Augusti 2.5 Service in the Praetorian Guard 2.6 Equipment and traditions 2.1 History 2.1.1 Under the Julio-Claudian dynasty 2.1.2 Year of the Four Emperors 2.1.3 Flavian dynasty 2.1.4 Antonine dynasty 2.1.5 Severan dynasty 2.1.6 3rd century 2.1.7 Dissolution 2.1.1 Under the Julio-Claudian dynasty 2.1.2 Year of the Four Emperors 2.1.3 Flavian dynasty 2.1.4 Antonine dynasty 2.1.5 Severan dynasty 2.1.6 3rd century 2.1.7 Dissolution 2.2 Participation in wars 2.3 Political role 2.4 Organization 2.4.1 Leadership 2.4.2 Size and composition 2.4.3 Praetorian Cavalry 2.4.4 Speculatores Augusti 2.4.1 Leadership 2.4.2 Size and composition 2.4.3 Praetorian Cavalry 2.4.4 Speculatores Augusti 2.5 Service in the Praetorian Guard 2.6 Equipment and traditions 3 See also 4 Notes 5 Bibliography 6 External links Praetorian Guard Afrikaans العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Gaeilge Galego 贛語 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 吴语 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item This article includes a list of references , related reading , or external links , but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations . 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( June 2025 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) Politics of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 330–1453 Timeline Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 330–1453 Timeline Constitution Kingdom Republic Sullan republic Empire Augustan reforms Late Empire Kingdom Republic Sullan republic Sullan republic Empire Augustan reforms Augustan reforms Late Empire Political institutions Imperium Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Imperium Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Interrex Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Interrex Public law Mos maiorum Ius Senatus consultum Quaestio perpetua Senatus consultum ultimum Mos maiorum Ius Senatus consultum Quaestio perpetua Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Triumvir monetalis Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Triumvir monetalis Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries Other countries .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e Part of a series on the Military of ancient Rome 753 BC – AD 476 Structural history Army Unit types and ranks Decorations and punishments Legions Auxilia Generals Navy Fleets Admirals Army Unit types and ranks Decorations and punishments Legions Auxilia Generals Unit types and ranks Decorations and punishments Legions Auxilia Generals Navy Fleets Admirals Fleets Admirals Campaign history Regal Period Mid-Republic Wars and battles Regal Period Mid-Republic Wars and battles Technological history Military engineering Castra Siege engines Triumphal arches Roads Military engineering Castra Siege engines Triumphal arches Roads Castra Siege engines Triumphal arches Roads Political history Strategy and tactics Infantry tactics Infantry tactics Infantry tactics Frontiers and fortifications Limes Walls Limes Britannicus Antonine Wall Hadrian's Wall Saxon Shore Limes Germanicus Alb Limes Lauter Valley Limes Lower Germanic Limes Main Limes Neckar-Odenwald Limes Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes Wetterau Limes Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes Norican Limes Claustra Alpium Iuliarum Pannonian Limes Limes Alutanus Limes Moesiae Trajan's Wall Anastasian Wall Limes Sarmatiae Limes Arabicus Limes Tripolitanus Limes Mauretaniae Limes Walls Limes Britannicus Antonine Wall Hadrian's Wall Saxon Shore Limes Germanicus Alb Limes Lauter Valley Limes Lower Germanic Limes Main Limes Neckar-Odenwald Limes Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes Wetterau Limes Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes Norican Limes Claustra Alpium Iuliarum Pannonian Limes Limes Alutanus Limes Moesiae Trajan's Wall Anastasian Wall Limes Sarmatiae Limes Arabicus Limes Tripolitanus Limes Mauretaniae Limes Walls Walls Limes Britannicus Antonine Wall Hadrian's Wall Saxon Shore Antonine Wall Hadrian's Wall Saxon Shore Limes Germanicus Alb Limes Lauter Valley Limes Lower Germanic Limes Main Limes Neckar-Odenwald Limes Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes Wetterau Limes Alb Limes Lauter Valley Limes Lower Germanic Limes Main Limes Neckar-Odenwald Limes Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes Wetterau Limes Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes Norican Limes Claustra Alpium Iuliarum Pannonian Limes Limes Alutanus Limes Moesiae Trajan's Wall Anastasian Wall Limes Sarmatiae Limes Arabicus Limes Tripolitanus Limes Mauretaniae Ancient Rome portal v t e v t e The Praetorian Guard ( Latin : cohortes praetoriae ) was the imperial guard of the Imperial Roman army that served various roles for the Roman emperor including being a bodyguard unit, counterintelligence , crowd control and gathering military intelligence . During the Roman Republic , the Praetorian Guards were escorts for high-ranking political officials ( senators and procurators ) and were bodyguards for the senior officers of the Roman legions . In 27 BC, after Rome's transition from republic to empire, the first emperor of Rome, Augustus , designated the Praetorians as his personal security escort. For three centuries, the guards of the Roman emperor were also known for their palace intrigues, by whose influence upon imperial politics the Praetorians could overthrow an emperor and then proclaim his successor as the new caesar of Rome. In AD 312, Constantine the Great disbanded the cohortes praetoriae and destroyed their barracks at the Castra Praetoria . [ 1 ] In the Roman Republic The Praetorian Guard originated as bodyguards for Roman generals in the period of the Roman Republic (509–27 BC). During the longer campaigns of the Roman army of the late Republic , the personal bodyguard unit was the norm for a commander in the field. At camp, the cohors praetoria , a cohort of praetorians guarding the commander, was posted near the praetorium , the tent of the commander. The first historical record of the praetorians is as bodyguards for the Scipio family, ca. 275 BC. Generals with imperium (command authority of an army) also held public office, either as a magistrate or as a promagistrate ; each was provided with lictors to protect the person of the office-holder. In practice, the offices of Roman consul and of proconsul each had twelve lictors, whilst the offices of praetor and of propraetor each had six lictors. In the absence of an assigned, permanent personal bodyguard, senior field officers safeguarded themselves with temporary bodyguard units of selected soldiers. In Hispania Citerior , during the Siege of Numantia (134–133 BC), General Scipio Aemilianus safeguarded himself with a troop of 500 soldiers against the sorties of siege warfare aimed at killing Roman field commanders. At the end of 40 BC, two of the three co-rulers who were the Second Triumvirate , Octavian and Mark Antony , had Praetorian Guards. Octavian installed his praetorians within the pomerium , the religious and legal boundary of Rome; this was the first occasion when troops were permanently garrisoned in Rome proper. In the Orient, Antony commanded three cohorts; in 32 BC, Antony issued coins honouring his Praetorian Guard. According to the historian Orosius , [ citation needed ] Octavian commanded five cohorts at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC; in the aftermath of Roman civil war, the victorious Octavian then merged his forces with the forces of Antony as symbolic of their political reunification. At this point the force numbered at most 5 400 men organised into nine cohorts. [ 2 ] Later, as Augustus, the first Roman emperor (27 BC–AD 14), Octavian retained the Praetorians as his imperial bodyguard. Under the empire The legionaries known as the Praetorian Guard were first hand-picked veterans of the Roman army who served as bodyguards to the emperor. First established by Augustus, members of the Guard accompanied him on active campaign, protecting the civic administrations and rule of law imposed by the Senate and the emperor. The Praetorian Guard was ultimately dissolved by Emperor Constantine I in the early 4th century. They were distinct from the Imperial German Bodyguard which provided close personal protection for the early Roman emperors. They benefited from several advantages via their close proximity with the emperor: the Praetorians were the only ones admitted while bearing arms in the center of sacred Rome, the Pomerium . Their mandatory service was shorter in duration, for instance: 12 years with the Praetorians instead of 16 years in the legions starting year 13 BC, then carried to, respectively, 16 to 20 years in year 5 BC according to Tacitus . Their pay was higher than that of a legionary. Under Nero , the pay of a Praetorian was three and a half times that of a legionary, augmented by prime additions of donativum , granted by each new emperor. This additional pay was the equivalent of several years of pay and was often repeated at important events of the empire or events that touched the imperial family: birthdays, births and marriages. Major monetary distributions or food subsidies renewed and compensated the fidelity of the Praetorians following each failed particular attempted plot (such as that of Messalina against Claudius in AD 48 or Piso against Nero in AD 65). The Praetorians received substantially higher pay [ 3 ] than other Roman soldiers in any of the legions, on a system known as sesquiplex stipendum , or by pay-and-a-half. So if the legionaries received 250 denarii , the guards received 375 per annum. Domitian and Septimius Severus increased the stipendum (payment) to 1,500 denarii per year, distributed in January, May and September. Feared and dreaded by the population and by the Roman Senate , the Praetorians received no sympathy from the Roman people. A famous poem by Juvenal recalls the nail left in his foot by the sandal of a Praetorian rushing by him. "Praetorian" has a pejorative sense in French, recalling the often troubling role of the Praetorian of antiquity. History In ancient Rome , praetors were either civic or military leaders. The praetorians were initially elite guards for military praetors, under the republic. [ 4 ] The early Praetorian Guard was very different from what it became later, as a vital force in the power politics of Rome. While Augustus understood the need to have a protector in the maelstrom of Rome, he was careful to uphold the Republican veneer of his regime. Thus, he allowed only nine cohorts to be formed, each originally consisting of 500 men. He then increased them to 1,000 men each, allowing three units to be on duty at any given time in the capital. A small number of detached cavalry units ( turmae ) of 30 men each were also organized. While they patrolled inconspicuously in the palace and major buildings, the others were stationed in the towns surrounding Rome. This system was not radically changed with the appointment by Augustus in 2 BC of two Praetorian prefects , Quintus Ostorius Scapula and Publius Salvius Aper , although organization and command were enhanced. Tacitus reports that the number of cohorts was increased to twelve from nine in AD 47. In AD 69 it was briefly increased to sixteen cohorts by Vitellius , but Vespasian quickly reduced it again to nine. [ 5 ] Under the Julio-Claudian dynasty In Rome, the guards' principal duty was to mount the Guard at the house of Augustus on the Palatine, where the centuries and the turmae of the cohort in service mounted the guard outside the emperor's palace (the interior guard of the palace was mounted by the Imperial German Bodyguard , often also referred to as Batavi , and the Statores [ 6 ] Augusti, a sort of military police which were found in the general staff headquarters of the Roman Army). Every afternoon, the tribunus cohortis would receive the password from the emperor personally. The command of this cohort was assumed directly by the emperor and not by the Praetorian prefect. After the construction of the Praetorian camp in 23 BC, another similar serving tribune was placed in the Praetorian camp. The guards' functions included, among many, escorting the emperor and the members of the imperial family and, if necessary, to act as a sort of riot police. Certain Empresses exclusively commanded their own Praetorian Guard. According to Tacitus, in the year 23 BC, there were nine Praetorian cohorts (4,500 men, the equivalent of a legion) to maintain peace in Italy; three were stationed in Rome, and the others nearby. According to Boris Rankov in 1994, an inscription recently discovered suggested that, towards the end of the reign of Augustus , the number of cohorts increased to 12 during a brief period. [ 7 ] This inscription referred to one man who was the tribune of two successive cohorts: the eleventh cohort, apparently at the end of the reign of Augustus, and the fourth at the beginning of the reign of Tiberius . According to Tacitus, there were only nine cohorts in 23 AD. The three urban cohorts, which were numbered consecutively after the Praetorian cohorts, were removed near the end of the reign of Augustus; it seemed probable that the last three Praetorian cohorts were simply renamed as urban cohorts . The Praetorians first intervened on a battlefield since the wars of the end of the Republic during the mutinies of Pannonia and the mutinies of Germania . On the death of Augustus in AD 14, his successor Tiberius was confronted by mutinies in the two armies of the Rhine and Pannonia , who were protesting about their conditions of service being worse than the Praetorians. The forces of Pannonia were dealt with by Drusus Julius Caesar , son of Tiberius (distinct from Nero Claudius Drusus , brother of Tiberius), accompanied by two Praetorian cohorts, the Praetorian Cavalry, and Imperial German Bodyguards . The mutiny in Germania was repressed by the nephew and designated heir of Tiberius, Germanicus , who later led legions and detachments of the Guard in a two-year campaign in Germania, and succeeded in recovering two of the three legionary eagles which had been lost at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest . Sejanus rose in power under Tiberius , and was among the first prefects to exploit his position to pursue his own ambitions. He concentrated under his command all the Praetorian cohorts in the new camp. Sejanus held the title of prefect jointly with his father, under Augustus, but became sole prefect in AD 15, and used the position to render himself essential to the new emperor Tiberius, who was unable to persuade the Senate to share the responsibility of governing the Empire. Sejanus, however, alienated Drusus, son of Tiberius, and when Germanicus, the heir to the throne, died in AD 19 he was worried that Drusus would become the new emperor. Accordingly, he poisoned Drusus with the help of the latter's wife, and immediately launched a ruthless elimination program against all competitors, persuading Tiberius to make him his heir apparent. He almost succeeded, but his plot was discovered and revealed in AD 31, and Tiberius had him killed by the Cohortes urbanae , who were not under Sejanus's control. In AD 37 Caligula became emperor with the support of Naevius Sutorius Macro , Sejanus' successor as prefect of the Praetorian Guard. Under Caligula, whose reign lasted until AD 41, the overall strength of the Guard increased from 9 to 12 Praetorian cohorts. In year 41, disgust and hostility of a praetorian tribune, named Cassius Chaerea – whom Caligula teased without mercy due to his squeaky voice – led to the assassination of the emperor by officers of the guard. While the Imperial German Bodyguard sacked all in a search to apprehend the murderers, the Senate proclaimed the restoration of a Republic. The Praetorians, who were pillaging the Palace, discovered Claudius , uncle of Caligula , hidden behind a curtain. Needing an emperor to justify their own existence, they brought him forth to the Praetorian camp and proclaimed him emperor, the first emperor proclaimed by the Praetorian Guard. He compensated the guard with a prime bonus worth five years their salary. The Praetorians accompanied Emperor Claudius to Britain in 43 AD. When Claudius was poisoned, the Guard transferred their allegiance to Nero through the influence of his Praetorian prefect Sextus Afranius Burrus , who exercised a beneficial influence on the new emperor during the first eight years of his reign (Burrus died in 62 AD). Officers of the Guard, including one of the two successors of Burrus as the Praetorian prefect, participated in Piso's conspiracy in year 65. The other Praetorian prefect, Tigellinus , headed the suppression of the conspiracy, and the members of the Guard were paid a bonus of 500 denarii each. Year of the Four Emperors In AD 68, the new colleague of Tigellinus, Nymphidius Sabinus , managed to have the Praetorian Guard abandon Nero in favor of the contender Galba . Nymphidius Sabinus had promised 7,500 denarii per man, but Galba refused to pay, saying "It is my habit to recruit soldiers and not buy them". This permitted his rival Otho to bribe 23 Speculatores of the Praetorian Guard to proclaim him emperor. Despite the opposition of the cohorts in service in the palace, Galba and his designated successor, the young Piso, were lynched on 15 January. After supporting Otho against a third contender, Vitellius , the Praetorians were restrained following defeat and their centurions executed. They were replaced by 16 cohorts recruited from the legionnaires and auxiliaries loyal to Vitellius, almost 16,000 men. These ex-Praetorians then aided Vespasian , the fourth Emperor, leading the attack against the Praetorian camp. Flavian dynasty Under the Flavians, the Praetorians formed nine new cohorts, of which Titus , son of emperor Vespasian, became the prefect. Vespasian returned the effective strength of each unit to five hundred men. He also cancelled the guard service of the Praetorians at the entry to the emperor's palace, but retained guards within the palace itself. Under Vespasian's second son, Domitian , the number of cohorts was increased to 10, and the Praetorian Guard participated in fighting in Germania and on the Danube against the Dacians . It was in the course of these actions that the prefect Cornelius Fuscus was defeated and killed in 86. Antonine dynasty Following assassination of Domitian in 96 the Praetorians demanded the execution of their prefect, Titus Petronius Secundus , who had been implicated in the murder. At the death of Nerva , at the beginning of 98, the Guard supported Trajan , commander of the Army of the Rhine, as new emperor. He executed the remaining Praetorian prefect and his partisans. Trajan returned to Rome from the Rhine, probably accompanied by the new unit of equites singulares Augusti . The Praetorian Guard had participated in Trajan's two Dacian Wars (101–102 and 105–106). The Praetorian Guard served in the last campaign of Trajan against the Parthians of 113–117. During the 2nd century, the Praetorian Guard accompanied Lucius Verus in the Oriental War Campaign of 161–166 AD , and accompanied Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius in his northern campaigns of 169–175 and 178–180. Two prefects were killed during these expeditions. With the accession of Commodus , in 180, the Praetorian Guard returned to Rome. Tigidius Perennis (AD 182–185) and freedman Marcus Aurelius Cleander (AD 186–190) exercised considerable influence on the emperor. Perennis was killed by a delegation of 1,500 Lanciarii of the three legions of Britain which had come to complain about his interference in the affairs of the province. Cleander abused his influence to nominate and dismiss prefects. In 188, Cleander obtained the joint command of the Guard with the two prefects. He ordered a massacre of civilians carried out by the equites singulares Augusti , which led to an arranged battle with the Urban Cohorts . Severan dynasty Commodus fell victim to a conspiracy aided by his Praetorian prefect Quintus Aemilius Laetus in 192. The new emperor Pertinax , who took part in the conspiracy, paid the Praetorians a premium of 3,000 denarii; however he was assassinated three months later, on 28 March 193, by a group of Guards due to his refusal to further increase the premium which had already been paid. The Praetorians then put the empire up to auction and Didius Julianus bought the title of emperor. However, the armies of the Danube chose instead the governor of Pannonia Superior , Septimius Severus , who besieged Rome and tricked the Praetorians when they came out unarmed. The Praetorian Guard was dissolved and replaced by men transferred from Septimius's army. The new Guard of Septimius Severus made their mark against his rival Clodius Albinus at the Battle of Lyon in 197, and accompanied the emperor to the Orient from 197 to 202, then to Britannia from 208 until his death at York in 211. Caracalla , son of Septimius Severus, lost favour with his troops by assassinating his own brother and co-emperor, Geta, immediately after his succession. Finally, in 217, while on campaign in the Orient , he was assassinated at the instigation of his prefect Macrinus . After the elimination of the latter, the Praetorians opposed the new emperor Elagabalus , priest of the oriental cult of Elagabal, and replaced him by his 13-year-old cousin Severus Alexander in 222. In this period the position of Praetorian prefect in Italy came increasingly to resemble a general administrative post, and there was a tendency to appoint jurists such as Papinian , who occupied the post from 203 until his elimination and execution at the ascent of Caracalla. Under Severus Alexander the Praetorian prefecture was held by the lawyer Ulpian until his assassination by the Praetorian Guard in the presence of the emperor himself. 3rd century In the spring of 238, under Maximinus Thrax , the bulk of the Praetorian Guard was employed on active service. Defended by only a small residual garrison, the Praetorian camp was attacked by a civilian crowd acting in support of senators and Gordian emperors in revolt against Maximinus Thrax. The failure of Maximinus Thrax to win the civil war against the contenders Gordian I and Gordian II led to his death at the hands of his own troops, including the Praetorians. The senatorial candidates for the throne, Pupienus and Balbinus , recalled the Praetorian Guard to Rome, only to find themselves under attack by the Praetorians. Both were killed on 29 July 238 and Gordian III triumphed. After 238, literary and epigraphic sources dry up, and information on the Praetorian Guard becomes rare. In 249, the Praetorians assassinated Philippus II , son of the emperor Philip the Arab . In 272, in the reign of the emperor Aurelian , they took part in an expedition against Palmyra . In 284, Diocletian reduced the status of the Praetorians; they were no longer to be part of palace life, as Diocletian lived in Nicomedia , some 60 miles (100 km) from Byzantium in Asia Minor . Two new corps, the Ioviani and Herculiani (named after the gods Jove, or Jupiter , and Hercules , associated with the senior and junior emperor), replaced the Praetorians as the personal protectors of the emperors, a practice that remained intact with the Tetrarchy . In 297 they were in Africa with Maximian . By the time Diocletian retired on 1 May 305, their Castra Praetoria seems to have housed only a minor garrison of Rome. Dissolution During the early 4th century, Caesar Flavius Valerius Severus attempted to disband the Praetorian Guard on the orders of Galerius . In response, the Praetorians turned to Maxentius , the son of the retired emperor Maximian, and proclaimed him their emperor on 28 October 306. By 312, however, Constantine the Great marched on Rome with an army in order to eliminate Maxentius and gain control of the Western Roman Empire , leading to the Battle of the Milvian Bridge . Ultimately Constantine's army achieved a decisive victory against the Praetorians, whose emperor was killed during the fighting. With the death of Maxentius, Constantine definitively disbanded the remnants of the Praetorian Guard. The remaining soldiers were sent out to various corners of the empire, and the Castra Praetoria was dismantled in a grand gesture, inaugurating a new age in Roman history and ending that of the Praetorians. Participation in wars While campaigning, the Praetorians were the equal of any formation in the Roman army. On the death of Augustus in 14 AD, his successor, Tiberius, was faced with mutinies among both the Rhine and Pannonian legions. According to Tacitus , the Pannonian forces were dealt with by Tiberius' son Drusus , accompanied by two Praetorian cohorts, the Praetorian cavalry and some of the German bodyguard . The German mutiny was put down by Tiberius' nephew and adopted son Germanicus , his intended heir, who then led the legions and detachments of the Guard in an invasion of Germany over the next two years. The Guard saw much action in the Year of the Four Emperors in 69, fighting well for Otho at the first battle of Bedriacum . Under Domitian and Trajan, the guard took part in wars from Dacia to Mesopotamia , while with Marcus Aurelius, years were spent on the Danubian frontier during the Marcomannic Wars . Throughout the 3rd century, the Praetorians assisted the emperors in various campaigns. Political role The Praetorian Guard influenced and intervened in the imperial succession to name the new Caesar , which was a political decision that the unarmed Senate accepted, ratified, and proclaimed to the people of Rome. After the death of Sejanus , who was sacrificed for the donativum (imperial gift) promised by Tiberius, the Praetorians became exceptionally ambitious in their influence upon the politics of the Roman Empire. Either by volition or for a price, the Praetorian Guard would assassinate an emperor, bully the Praetorian prefects, or attack the Roman populace. In AD 41, conspirators from the senatorial class and from the Guard killed Emperor Caligula , his wife, and their daughter. Afterwards, the Praetorians installed Caligula's uncle Claudius upon the imperial throne of Rome, and challenged the Senate to oppose the Praetorian decision. In AD 69, the Year of the Four Emperors , after assassinating the Emperor Galba , because he did not offer them a donatium , the Praetorians gave their allegiance to Otho , whom they named as the new Caesar of Rome. To ensure the loyalty of the Praetorian Guard, Emperor Otho granted the Praetorians the right to appoint their own prefects. After defeating Otho, Vitellius disbanded the Praetorians and established a new Guard composed of sixteen cohorts . In his war against Vitellius, Vespasian relied upon the disgruntled cohorts dismissed by Emperor Vitellius, and, as Emperor Vespasian, he reduced the Praetorian Guard to nine cohorts and ensured their political loyalty by appointing his son, Titus , as prefect of the Praetorians. [ 8 ] Despite their political power, the Praetorian Guard had no formal role in governing the Roman Empire. Often after an outrageous act of violence, revenge by the new ruler was forthcoming. In 193, Didius Julianus purchased the Empire from the Guard for a vast sum, when the Guard auctioned it off after killing Pertinax . Later that year Septimius Severus marched into Rome, disbanded the Guard and started a new formation from his own Pannonian legions. Unruly mobs in Rome often fought with the Praetorians in vicious street battles during Maximinus Thrax 's reign. In 271, Aurelian sailed east to destroy the power of Palmyra , Syria, with a force of legionary detachments, Praetorian cohorts, and other cavalry units, and easily defeated the Palmyrenes. This led to the orthodox view that Diocletian and his colleagues evolved the sacer comitatus (the field escort of the emperors). The sacer comitatus included field units that used a selection process and command structure modeled after the old Praetorian cohorts, but it was not of uniform composition and was much larger than a Praetorian cohort. Organization Leadership Starting in the year 2 BC, the Praetorian prefect was the commanding officer of the Praetorian Guard (previously each cohort was independent and under the orders of a tribune of equestrian rank). This role (chief of all troops stationed in Rome), was in practice a key position of the Roman polity . From Vespasian onwards the Praetorian prefecture was always held by an equestrian of the eques order. ( Equestrians were traditionally that class of citizens who could equip themselves to serve in the Roman Army on horseback ). From the year 2 BC, the cohorts were under the control of two prefectures; however cohorts continued to be organized independently, each commanded by a tribune. Tribunes had as immediate subordinates ordinary Centurions , all of equal rank except for the trecenarius , the first and prime of all centurions of the Praetorian Cohorts, who commanded also the 300 speculatores , and with the exception of his second, the princeps castrorum . [ 9 ] From the second century the Praetorian prefect oversaw not only the Praetorian Cohorts but also the rest of the garrison of Rome, including the Cohortes urbanae ("urban cohorts") and the equites singulares Augusti , but not the Vigiles cohorts . Following the dissolution of the Praetorian Cohorts by the emperor Constantine after he defeated them at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312, the role of the Praetorian prefect in the Empire became purely administrative, ruling large territories ( prefectures ) comprising Roman dioceses (geographical subdivisions of the Roman Empire ) in the name of the Emperor. Size and composition The Praetorian Cohorts were designated as Equitatae ( cavalry ) Turmae (troops) with centuries formed of infantry , initially of 500 men each. [ 9 ] In order not to alienate the population of Rome, while conserving Republican civilian traditions, the Praetorians did not wear their armor while in the heart of the city. Instead they often wore a formal toga, which distinguished them from civilians but remained in a respectable civilian attire, the mark of a Roman citizen. Augustus, conscious of risking the only military force present in the city, often avoided concentrating them and imposed this dress code. From the reign of Tiberius, their camp was situated on the Quirinal Hill, outside Rome. In 26 AD, Sejanus , Praetorian prefect, and the favorite of emperor Tiberius , united the Urban Cohorts with nine Praetorian Cohorts, dispersed at that time throughout Italy, in one large camp situated beyond the Servian Wall , on the Esquiline Hill, the Castra Praetoria . For the 2nd century, calculations from lists of significant demobilisations suggest an increase in size to nearly 1,500 men per cohort (perhaps a doubling of 800 (since Vespasian), probably organized in 20 centuries) under Commodus in year (187–188) or under Septimius Severus (193–211), which matches the probable numbers of effectives for Urban Cohorts during the time of Cassius Dio . These figures suggest an overall size for the Guard of 4,500–6,000 men under Augustus, 12,800 under Vitellius , 7,200 under Vespasian, 8,000 from Domitian until Commodus or Septimius Severus, and 15,000 later on. [ 7 ] At the beginning of the 2nd century, Italians made up 89% of the Praetorian Guard. Under Septimius Severus, recruitment evolved to authorize the inclusion of legionaries of the Roman army, as well as of the battle hardened Army of the Danube . Severus stationed his supporters with him in Rome, and the Praetorian Guards remained loyal to his choices. Praetorian Cavalry Initially each cohort included, as for a Roman legion , a cavalry detachment; this should not be confused with the equites singulares Augusti who appeared under the emperor Trajan. The Praetorian could become a cavalryman ( Eques ) after almost five years service in the infantry . These Praetorians remained listed in their Centuries of origin, but operated in a turma of 30 men each commanded by an Optio equitum . There was probably one turma of cavalry for two centuries of infantry. [ 7 ] Hence, three turmae per cohorts of the Augustan period , five per cohort in 100 CE–200 CE, and ten per cohort after 200 CE, with a vexillum (flag) as emblem for each turma . Speculatores Augusti The speculatores Augusti were cavalrymen assigned to the same tasks as the Speculatores of the legions and the auxiliary units (messengers in charge of transmitting intelligence, and clandestine agents). About 300 in total (30 per cohort), they formed a unit under the orders of the senior Centurion , the Trecenarius . Selected for their impressive physique, they were used by the Emperor for clandestine operations and tasks such as arrests, imprisonment, and executions. One of their roles was to accompany the emperor on his foreign campaign journeys (a role which would later be handled by the Singulares/equites singulares Augusti ). Claudius was in the habit of surrounding himself with Speculatores when attending dinners. The close security protection detail of Galba, of Otho and the dynastic line of the Flavians appear to have been formed of Speculatores (who replaced the Imperial German Bodyguard disbanded by Galba ). Following the assassination of emperor Domitian, his successor Nerva was placed under the protection of Trajan, to counter possible revenge attempts and mutinies. Trajan was commander of the most important army of the time, that of the Army of Germania, and he nominated him as his heir. Accordingly, and following such an act, Trajan, aiming to reinforce his security detail in relation to the Speculatores who had remained loyal to Domitian, replaced them as close protection security detail with the Singulares/equites singulares Augusti (modelled on the Singulares of a provincial governor, a post held by Trajan). The some 300 Speculatores were reassigned by Trajan to the corps of Praetorian cohorts. [ 9 ] They were distinguished by a special (but unknown) style of boots, the Speculatoria Caliga (according to Suetonius ) and they received special honorific diplomas in bronze at demobilization. They had their own Equestrian instructors ( Exercitatores ). [ 7 ] Service in the Praetorian Guard Originally, the Praetorian Guard was recruited from the populations of central Italy ( Etruria , Umbria and Latium according to Tacitus ). Recruits were between 15 and 32 years of age, compared to legionary recruits who ranged from 18 to 23 years of age. According to Cassius Dio , during the first two centuries AD and before the reform of Septimius Severus , the Praetorians were exclusively limited to Italy, Spain (Roman province), Macedonia and Noricum (current Austria ). Under the reign of Vitellius , and starting from Septimius Severus, men were transferred from the Urban Vigiles , Urban cohorts , and the various legions . This recent method and manner of recruitment at the corps of the legions became the normal procedure to recruit in the 3rd century after Septimius Severus dealt with the undisciplined Praetorians who assassinated Pertinax in 193, and replaced them with men from his own Danube legions. At that time, the Praetorians represented the best soldiers from the legions (principally from Illyria). They were a group of elite of soldiers starting from the 3rd century, and not a category of socially privileged soldiers (such as the Italians at the time of Augustus). The Italians formed the base of the recruitment of the Legio II Parthica , a new legion created and stationed in Italy. To be admitted to the Guard, a man had to be in good physical condition, have a good moral character , and come from a respectable family. In addition, he had to make use of all sorts of patronages available to him in order to obtain letters of recommendations from important leading figures in society. Once past the recruitment procedure he was designated as Probatus , and assigned as a Miles (soldier) to one of the centuries of a cohort. After two years, if he attracted the attention of his superiors by influence or merit, he could attain the post of Immunis (similar to corporal), perhaps as a commis (junior chief) at general headquarters or as a technician. This promotion exempted him from daily chores. After another two years he could be promoted to Principalis , with a double salary, in charge of delivering messages ( Tesserarius ) or as an assistant centurion ( Optio ) or standard bearer ( Signifer ) at the corps of the century; or, if literate and numerate, he could join the administrative staff of the prefect. Only a few soldiers could attain the rank of Principalis ; however those who did, during the course of their service, were designated Evocati Augusti by the emperor. This designation allowed them to be promoted to technical administrative posts, or instructors in Rome, or to a century in a legion, and accordingly extend their career. Certain principalis could at the end of their career be promoted to Centurion in the Guard; this would be the peak of his career. Anyone ambitious for further promotion would need to transfer to a legion. The Military tribunes ( Tribuni Militum ) at the head of the cohorts were Roman cavalrymen . In contrast to many superior cadres of the Army, who originated from the Equestrian Order, these tribunes started their career in the ranks of the Guard and were promoted from the ranks in the hierarchy. Next after becoming Centurions , they had to serve for a period of one year as superior centurions in one or several legions before achieving the status of Primus pilus (the highest ranked Centurion in a legion). Upon return to Rome , they occupied successively the positions of Tribunes of the Vigiles, Tribune of the Urban Cohort and finally Tribune of the Guard. [ 7 ] [ 11 ] Other leading paths towards the tribunate were possible, including service entirely made in the legions, attaining the rank of Primus pilus before departing to Rome. Nevertheless, all tribunes were combat veterans with extensive military experience. [ 7 ] [ 11 ] Each tribune served in Rome for one year, following which, a certain number of the men would retire. A few of them, ranking placement at the top of the hierarchy, could obtain a second term as Primus Pilus and advance towards the superior echelons of the equestrian career, possibly becoming the Praetorian prefect. [ 7 ] [ 11 ] The majority of the prefects, however, were ordinary men of the equestrian rank by birth. The men who attained the command of the Guard following year 2 BC were equites with an elevated seniority, classifying right behind the prefect of Egypt. Starting from Vespasian, whose son, Titus was himself a Praetorian prefect, they were ranked first. Equipment and traditions The Praetorian Guard, like all legionnaires, disposed of various equipment to execute different missions. More particularly as bodyguard, escort or reserve military force, they housed adaptable equipment for each function. For heavy packed combat infantry lines ( Triplex Acies System ), they mounted helmets, armor ( Lorica segmentata , Lorica hamata , Lorica squamata specially in the 2nd and 3rd centuries), heavy colorful shields ( scuta ), heavy javelins ( pila ), and later even long spears and lighter javelins ( hasta , lancea ). Praetorian Guard helmets included tall Galea with elaborate detail worked into the metal. Shields were ovoid and more robust compared with the regular rectangular shape sometimes used by the legions. Each legion had its own emblem displayed on its Scutum (shield) and the Praetorian Guard were probably the only unit to include additional insignia on their shields. [ citation needed ] Each cohort had their own version of Praetorian insignia. Praetorian Guard units could wear lion skin capes and their colours were so decorated with awards, that the men had difficulty in carrying them on long marches. The Praetorian Guard colours included the winged goddess of victory . For escorts, the oval shields and lances replaced the scuta and pila. Missions in Rome at the heart of the city in principle were forbidden to soldiers, so they wore a toga. The Praetorian Guard, like all legionaries, shared similar insignia, mainly on their shields. Praetorian Guard shields included wings and thunderbolts , referring to Jupiter , and also uniquely included scorpions , stars and crescents . See also Ancient Rome portal Janissary - bodyguard corps composed of abducted Greek & Slavic Eastern Orthodox Christians from the Balkans who had been forcibly converted to Sunni Islam , employed to guard the sultans of the Ottoman Empire Praetorianism Pushtigban - bodyguard corps of the Sassanian Empire Scholae Palatinae - replacement of the Praetorian guards, composed of Germanic people in the Christianised Roman empire and later Goths , Armenians & Isuarian tribes in early Byzantine Empire Varangian Guard - bodyguard corps composed of Vikings , Anglo-Saxons & Christianised Rus mercenaries employed to guard the emperor of the Byzantine Empire Equites Hippeis Notes ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Andrews, Evan (8 July 2014). "8 Things You May Not Know About the Praetorian Guard" . Historyandsoon.wordpress.com . Retrieved 8 November 2025 . [ better source needed ] ^ Everitt, Anthony (2007). Augustus: Roms förste kejsare (in Swedish). Stockholm: Prisma. p. 256. ISBN 978-91-518-4849-5 . ^ "Roman Economy – Prices in Ancient Rome" . Ancientcoins.bis. Archived from the original on 13 January 2007 . Retrieved 13 June 2007 . ^ "8 Things You May Not Know About the Praetorian Guard" . HISTORY . 29 August 2018. ^ Bingham 1997, pp. 121–122. ^ In Rome, near the Emperor, they were designated as Statores Augusti ( Statores Praetorianorum starting from the 3rd century); they formed a numerus assigned by the Praetorian prefect. This numerus was formed of five principal centuries which commanded the military police . At their head, there was a Curator Statorum and a Praefectus Statorum . ^ a b c d e f g Rankov, Boris (1994). The Praetorian Guard . Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-85532-361-2 . ^ Bingham 1997, pp. 118–122. ^ a b c Le Bohec, Y. (1989). L'Armée Romaine [ The Roman Army ] (in French). Picard. ISBN 2-7084-0744-9 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( link ) ^ Musée de Cáceres . Q(uintus) Pomponius Potentinus / Ser(gia) h(ic) s(itus) e(st) / C(aius) Pomponius Potentinus / mil(es) c(o)hor(tis) IIII praet(oriae) / test(amento) fieri iussit . ^ a b c Petit, Paul (1974). Histoire générale de l'Empire romain [ General history of the Roman Empire ] (in French). Éditions du Seuil . p. 180. ISBN 2020026775 . Bibliography Cowan, Ross (2014). Roman Guardsman 62 BC-AD 324 . Oxford: Osprey. ISBN 9781782009252 . Goldsworthy, Adrian (2007). The Complete Roman Army . London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-05124-5 . Sandra J. Bingham, The Praetorian Guard: A History of Rome's Elite Special Forces (Waco 2012). Reviewed here . de la Bédoyère, Guy (2017). Praetorian: The Rise and Fall of Rome's Imperial Bodyguard . Yale: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-21895-4 . Marcel Durry [ fr ] , Les cohortes prétoriennes (Bibliothèque des Écoles françaises d'Athènes et de Rome, 146), Paris, De Boccard, 1938 Lawrence Keppie [ de ] , "The Praetorian Guard Before Sejanus", Athenaeum 84 (1996), 101–124, Legions and Veterans (Stuttgart 2000), 99–122 & addenda at 319–320 L. Passerini, Le Coorti Pretorie (Rome 1939) Rankov, Boris (2004). The Praetorian Guard . Oxford: Osprey. ISBN 1855323613 . M.P. Speidel , " Les prétoriens de Maxence ", Mélanges de l'École française de Rome , Antiquité 100 (1988), 183–188 M.P. Speidel, "Maxentius' Praetorians" in Roman Army Studies II (Stuttgart 1992), 385–389 – a revised English version of Speidel 1988 Speidel, M.P. (1994). Riding for Caesar . 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We gratefully acknowledge support from the Simons Foundation, member institutions , and all contributors. Donate Help | Advanced Search Showing 1–1 of 1 results for author: Chang, C K Show abstracts Hide abstracts arXiv:2601.10342 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI C-GRASP: Clinically-Grounded Reasoning for Affective Signal Processing Authors: Cheng Lin Cheng , Ting Chuan Lin , Chai Kai Chang Abstract : Heart rate variability (HRV) is a pivotal noninvasive marker for autonomic monitoring; however, applying Large Language Models (LLMs) to HRV interpretation is hindered by physiological hallucinations. These include respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) contamination, short-data instability in nonlinear metrics, and the neglect of individualized baselines in favor of population norms. We propose C-GRA… ▽ More Heart rate variability (HRV) is a pivotal noninvasive marker for autonomic monitoring; however, applying Large Language Models (LLMs) to HRV interpretation is hindered by physiological hallucinations. These include respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) contamination, short-data instability in nonlinear metrics, and the neglect of individualized baselines in favor of population norms. We propose C-GRASP (Clinically-Grounded Reasoning for Affective Signal Processing), a guardrailed RAG-enhanced pipeline that decomposes HRV interpretation into eight traceable reasoning steps. Central to C-GRASP is a Z-score Priority Hierarchy that enforces the weighting of individualized baseline shifts over normative statistics. The system effectively mitigates spectral hallucinations through automated RSA-aware guardrails, preventing contamination of frequency-domain indices. Evaluated on 414 trials from the DREAMER dataset, C-GRASP integrated with high-scale reasoning models (e.g., MedGemma3-thinking) achieved superior performance in 4-class emotion classification (37.3% accuracy) and a Clinical Reasoning Consistency (CRC) score of 69.6%. Ablation studies confirm that the individualized Delta Z-score module serves as the critical logical anchor, preventing the "population bias" common in native LLMs. Ultimately, C-GRASP transitions affective computing from black-box classification to transparent, evidence-based clinical decision support, paving the way for safer AI integration in biomedical engineering. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10342 [ pdf , ps , other ] C-GRASP: Clinically-Grounded Reasoning for Affective Signal Processing Authors: Cheng Lin Cheng , Ting Chuan Lin , Chai Kai Chang Abstract : Heart rate variability (HRV) is a pivotal noninvasive marker for autonomic monitoring; however, applying Large Language Models (LLMs) to HRV interpretation is hindered by physiological hallucinations. These include respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) contamination, short-data instability in nonlinear metrics, and the neglect of individualized baselines in favor of population norms. We propose C-GRA… ▽ More Heart rate variability (HRV) is a pivotal noninvasive marker for autonomic monitoring; however, applying Large Language Models (LLMs) to HRV interpretation is hindered by physiological hallucinations. These include respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) contamination, short-data instability in nonlinear metrics, and the neglect of individualized baselines in favor of population norms. We propose C-GRASP (Clinically-Grounded Reasoning for Affective Signal Processing), a guardrailed RAG-enhanced pipeline that decomposes HRV interpretation into eight traceable reasoning steps. Central to C-GRASP is a Z-score Priority Hierarchy that enforces the weighting of individualized baseline shifts over normative statistics. The system effectively mitigates spectral hallucinations through automated RSA-aware guardrails, preventing contamination of frequency-domain indices. Evaluated on 414 trials from the DREAMER dataset, C-GRASP integrated with high-scale reasoning models (e.g., MedGemma3-thinking) achieved superior performance in 4-class emotion classification (37.3% accuracy) and a Clinical Reasoning Consistency (CRC) score of 69.6%. Ablation studies confirm that the individualized Delta Z-score module serves as the critical logical anchor, preventing the "population bias" common in native LLMs. Ultimately, C-GRASP transitions affective computing from black-box classification to transparent, evidence-based clinical decision support, paving the way for safer AI integration in biomedical engineering. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History Toggle History subsection 1.1 1929–2008: Businessweek 1.2 2009–present: Bloomberg Businessweek 1.1 1929–2008: Businessweek 1.2 2009–present: Bloomberg Businessweek 2 Controversy Toggle Controversy subsection 2.1 "The Big Hack" 2.1 "The Big Hack" 3 Additional versions 4 Honors and awards 5 Employees 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links Bloomberg Businessweek العربية تۆرکجه Български Català Чӑвашла Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto فارسی Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Lietuvių മലയാളം मराठी Bahasa Melayu Монгол Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Português Română Русский Simple English Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 粵語 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Cover of the issue from February 15, 2021 Editor Brad Stone Categories Business Frequency monthly Total circulation 325,000 [ 1 ] (2018) Founded September 1929 ; 96 years ago ( 1929-09 ) , New York City First issue September 1929 ; 96 years ago ( 1929-09 ) , New York City Company Bloomberg L.P. Country United States Based in New York City Bloomberg Tower , 731 Lexington Avenue , Manhattan , New York City 10022, United States (business magazine) Citigroup Center , 153 East 53rd Street between Lexington and Third Avenue , Manhattan, New York City 10022 (market magazine) Language English Website bloomberg .com /businessweek ISSN 0007-7135 This article is part of a series about Michael Bloomberg This article is part of a series about Michael Bloomberg Political positions Electoral history Bloomberg L.P. Terminal News Television Radio Businessweek Markets Mayor of New York City Mayoralty Elections 2001 2005 2009 2020 presidential campaign Primaries Endorsements Bloomberg Philanthropies Beyond Coal Everytown for Gun Safety Willett Advisors Draft Bloomberg movement The Portable Bloomberg: The Wit and Wisdom of Michael Bloomberg Political positions Electoral history Terminal News Television Radio Businessweek Markets Mayoralty Elections 2001 2005 2009 2001 2005 2009 Primaries Endorsements Beyond Coal Everytown for Gun Safety Willett Advisors Draft Bloomberg movement The Portable Bloomberg: The Wit and Wisdom of Michael Bloomberg .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e Bloomberg Businessweek , previously known as BusinessWeek (and before that Business Week and The Business Week ), is an American monthly business magazine published 12 times a year. [ 2 ] The magazine debuted in New York City in September 1929. [ 3 ] Since 2009, the magazine has been owned by Bloomberg L.P. and became a monthly in June 2024. History 1929–2008: Businessweek The Business Week was first published based in New York City in September 1929, weeks before the stock market crash . [ 4 ] The magazine provided information and opinions on what was happening in the business world at the time. Early sections of the magazine included marketing, labor, finance, management and Washington Outlook, which made it one of the first publications to cover national political issues that directly impacted the business world. [ 5 ] The name of the magazine was shortened to Business Week in 1934. [ 6 ] Originally published as a resource for business managers, the magazine shifted its strategy in the 1970s and added consumers outside the business world. [ 3 ] By 1975, the magazine was carrying more advertising pages annually than any other magazine in the United States. [ 7 ] Stephen B. Shepard served as editor-in-chief from 1984 until 2005, when he was chosen to be the founding dean of the CUNY Graduate School of Journalism . Under Shepard, Businessweek ' s readership grew to more than six million in the late 1980s. [ 8 ] He was succeeded by Stephen J. Adler of The Wall Street Journal . [ 9 ] Businessweek began publishing its annual rankings of United States business school MBA programs in 1988. [ 10 ] In 2006, Businessweek started publishing annual rankings of undergraduate business programs in addition to its MBA program listing. [ 11 ] 2009–present: Bloomberg Businessweek Businessweek experienced a decline in circulation during the late-2000s recession as advertising revenues fell one-third by the start of 2009 and the magazine's circulation fell to 936,000. In July 2009, it was reported that McGraw-Hill was trying to sell Businessweek and had hired Evercore Partners to conduct the sale. [ 3 ] Because of the magazine's liabilities, it was suggested that it might change hands for the nominal price of $1 to an investor who was willing to incur losses turning the magazine around. [ 12 ] In late 2009, Bloomberg L.P. bought the magazine—reportedly for between $2 million to $5 million plus assumption of liabilities—and renamed it Bloomberg BusinessWeek . [ 13 ] News reports published in 2019 suggest McGraw-Hill received the high end of the speculated price, at $5 million, along with the assumption of debt. [ 14 ] [ 15 ] In early 2010, the magazine title was restyled as Bloomberg Businessweek (with a lowercase "w") as part of a redesign. [ 16 ] During the following years, the bold, eclectic, playful, and memetic face of Businessweek was cultivated largely by Businessweek 's creative director Richard Turley , then Rob Vargas (from 2014), and Deputy Creative director Tracy Ma (from 2011 through 2016). During her time at Businessweek , Ma worked on over 200 issues. [ 17 ] As of 2014 [update] , the magazine was losing $30 million per year, about half of the $60 million it was reported losing in 2009. [ 18 ] Adler resigned as editor-in-chief and was replaced by Josh Tyrangiel , who had been deputy managing editor of Time magazine. [ 19 ] In 2016, Bloomberg announced changes to Businessweek , which was losing between $20 and $30 million. Nearly 30 Bloomberg News journalists were let go across the U.S., Europe, and Asia, and it was announced that a new version of Bloomberg Businessweek would launch the following year. In addition, editor-in-chief Ellen Pollock stepped down from her position, and Washington Bureau Chief Megan Murphy was named editor-in-chief. [ 20 ] Megan Murphy served as editor from November 2016; [ 20 ] until she stepped down from the role in January 2018, and Joel Weber was appointed by the editorial board in her place. [ 21 ] Brad Stone was appointed editor of the magazine in January 2024, when the magazine switched to publishing biweekly. [ 22 ] In June of the same year, the magazine became a monthly. [ 23 ] Controversy "The Big Hack" On October 4, 2018, Bloomberg Businessweek published "The Big Hack: How China Used a Tiny Chip to Infiltrate U.S. Companies," an article by Jordan Robertson and Michael Riley that claimed that China had hacked dozens of technology corporations, including Amazon and Apple , by placing an extra integrated circuit on a Supermicro server motherboard during manufacturing. [ 24 ] Pingwest, a media company founded in Silicon Valley and based in Beijing , identified the chip mentioned in the article as a balun . The company pointed out that its size made it impossible to implement any form of attack; it did not have the storage space required to store commands that would allow a hacker to infiltrate the hardware. They suggested that Businessweek had underestimated security standards employed by Amazon and Apple. [ 25 ] Bloomberg's claims have faced significant scrutiny. By 2 p.m. on the day of publication, Apple, Amazon, and Supermicro issued blanket denials, which Bloomberg reported. [ 26 ] Within the week, the United States Department of Homeland Security stated that it saw no reason to question those refutations. [ 27 ] The National Security Agency , as well as the Government Communications Headquarters and National Cyber Security Centre of the United Kingdom, also denied the article's claims. [ 28 ] In 2021, Bloomberg published a follow-up article that stood by its allegations. [ 29 ] [ 30 ] Additional versions International editions of Businessweek were available on newsstands in Europe and Asia until 2005, when publication of regional editions was suspended to help increase foreign readership of customized European and Asian versions of Businessweek 's website. [ 31 ] That same year, however, the Russian edition was launched in collaboration with Rodionov Publishing House. [ 32 ] At the same time, Businessweek partnered with InfoPro Management, a publishing and market research company based in Beirut, Lebanon , to produce the Arabic version of the magazine in 22 Arab countries. [ 33 ] In 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek continued its international expansion and announced plans to introduce a Polish-language edition called Bloomberg Businessweek Polska , as well as a Chinese edition, which was relaunched in November 2011. [ 34 ] [ 35 ] [ 36 ] Also in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek launched an iPad version of the magazine using Apple's subscription billing service. [ 37 ] [ 38 ] The iPad edition was the first to use this subscription method, which allows one to subscribe via an iTunes account. [ 39 ] There are over 100,000 subscribers to the iPad edition of Businessweek . [ 40 ] Honors and awards In 2011, Adweek named Bloomberg Businessweek as the top business magazine in the U.S. [ 41 ] In 2012, Bloomberg Businessweek won the general excellence award for general-interest magazines at the National Magazine Awards . [ 42 ] Also in 2012, Bloomberg Businessweek editor Josh Tyrangiel was named magazine editor of the year by Ad Age . [ 43 ] In 2014, Bloomberg Businessweek won a Society of American Business Editors and Writers Best in Business award for magazines, general excellence. [ 44 ] In 2016, the Online Journalism Awards highlighted Bloomberg Businessweek 's explanatory reporting work on "What Is Code?" [ 45 ] [ 46 ] Employees Notable present and former employees of the magazine include: [ 47 ] Stephen B. Shepard , former editor-in-chief of BusinessWeek (1984–2005) and founding dean of the CUNY Graduate School of Journalism Elliott V. Bell , former publisher and editor-in-chief of BusinessWeek and Superintendent of Banks for the State of New York , advisor to Thomas E. Dewey Robert Kolker , former investigative journalist and author of Hidden Valley Road Brad Stone , former investigative journalist and author of books on tech companies Josh Tyrangiel , former editor and deputy managing editor of Time magazine Malcolm Muir , founder of the magazine, president of McGraw-Hill Publishing (1928–1937) Virgil Jordan , former editor and past president of The Conference Board Judith H. Dobrzynski , former senior editor Stephen J. Adler , former editor-in-chief of BusinessWeek (2005–2009), editor-in-chief of Reuters (2011–2021) Carla Robbins , former reporter and deputy editorial page editor of The New York Times (2007–2012) See also Bloomberg Markets Bloomberg News References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "History & Facts" . Bloomberg L.P . Retrieved April 27, 2016 . ^ "Bloomberg Businessweek: Annual Subscription" . Businessweek.com . Archived from the original on May 23, 2020 . Retrieved October 14, 2019 . ^ a b c "McGraw-Hill trying to sell BusinessWeek" . Reuters. July 13, 2009. Archived from the original on July 3, 2013 . Retrieved July 22, 2011 . ^ Delbridge, Emily (November 21, 2019). "The 8 Best Business Magazines of 2020" . The Balance Small Business . New York City: Dotdash. Best for Business News: Bloomberg Businessweek . Retrieved February 8, 2020 . ^ "A historical perspective of Businessweek, sold to Bloomberg" . Talking Biz News. October 13, 2009 . Retrieved August 14, 2010 . ^ [See decade histories at "Businessweek at 90: Covering Business Through the Decades" . ^ Jackson, Kenneth T.; Keller, Lisa; Flood, Nancy V., eds. (2010). The Encyclopedia of New York City (2nd ed.). New Haven: Yale University Press; New‑York Historical Society. p. 957. ISBN 978-0-300-18257-6 . LCCN 2010-31294 . OCLC 842264684 . OL 25891135M . ^ Moeller, Philip (July 31, 1988). "Controlling 'insider' information is impossible" . Toronto Star . Archived from the original on July 30, 2013 . Retrieved July 22, 2011 . ^ Steinberg, Jacques (December 7, 2004). "BusinessWeek Chooses Outsider as Editor in Chief" . The New York Times . Retrieved July 22, 2011 . ^ "BusinessWeek Business School Rankings" . BusinessWeek . Archived from the original on June 3, 2007 . Retrieved January 23, 2007 . ^ "Undergrad Rankings 2010" . BusinessWeek . Archived from the original on May 4, 2010 . Retrieved April 10, 2010 . ^ Edgecliffe-Johnson, Andrew (July 13, 2009). "Business Week sale may fetch only $1" . Financial Times . Retrieved April 1, 2013 . ^ "Bloomberg to take over BusinessWeek" . MSNBC . Associated Press . October 13, 2009 . Retrieved July 22, 2011 . ^ Clifford, Stephanie; Carr, David (October 13, 2009). "Bloomberg Buys BusinessWeek From McGraw-Hill" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Archived from the original on December 4, 2019 . Retrieved December 4, 2019 . Terms of the deal were not disclosed, but the price was said to be near $5 million, plus assumption of liabilities, which were $31.9 million as of April. ^ Yarow, Jay. "BusinessWeek Sale Gives McGraw Hill $5.9 Million After Taxes" . Business Insider . Retrieved December 4, 2019 . ^ Klenert, Josh (April 26, 2010). "Bloomberg Businessweek Redesign" . Society of Publication Designers. Archived from the original on March 10, 2011 . Retrieved April 13, 2011 . ^ Bourton, Lucy (December 4, 2018). "Laughing at the world of graphic design with Tracy Ma" . It's Nice That . ^ Bond, Shannon (December 10, 2014). "Bloomberg believes in Businessweek as a model" . Financial Times . Retrieved October 13, 2017 . ^ Clifford, Stephanie (November 18, 2009). "Deputy at Time Magazine to Be BusinessWeek Editor" . The New York Times . p. B3 . Retrieved July 22, 2011 . ^ a b Alpert, Lukas I. (November 17, 2016). "Bloomberg Changes Businessweek Leaders, Ends Political TV Program" . Wall Street Journal . ISSN 0099-9660 . Retrieved December 4, 2016 . ^ Tani, Maxwell (January 4, 2018). "Bloomberg Businessweek hires a new editor" . Business Insider . Insider, Inc . Retrieved January 10, 2019 . Bloomberg Businessweek announced a new editor on Thursday, shuffling its editorial structure. According to three people at Bloomberg, Bloomberg Markets magazine editor Joel Weber will take over the company's flagship Businessweek magazine, succeeding current editor Megan Murphy. ^ "What is Bloomberg Businessweek issue frequency? | Bloomberg Help Center" . Bloomberg News . March 24, 2024. Archived from the original on March 24, 2024 . Retrieved March 24, 2024 . ^ "Bloomberg Businessweek Relaunches with Debut Monthly Print Edition, Enhanced Digital Experience" . Bloomberg Media . Retrieved January 18, 2025 . ^ Robertson, Jordan; Riley, Michael (October 4, 2018). "China Used a Tiny Chip in a Hack That Infiltrated U.S. Companies" . Bloomberg Businessweek . Retrieved May 30, 2019 . ^ "彭博社曝光的"间谍芯片"，我在淘宝1块钱就能买一个" . pingwest.com (in Chinese) . Retrieved May 21, 2022 . ^ "The Big Hack: Statements From Amazon, Apple, Supermicro, and the Chinese Government" . Bloomberg News . October 4, 2018. ^ "Statement from DHS Press Secretary on Recent Media Reports of Potential Supply Chain Compromise" . October 6, 2018. ^ "DHS and GCHQ join Amazon and Apple in denying Bloomberg chip hack story" . ZDNet . Retrieved October 7, 2018 . ^ Robertson, Jordan; Riley, Michael (February 12, 2021). "The Long Hack: How China Exploited a U.S. Tech Supplier" . Bloomberg.com . Archived from the original on July 21, 2023 . Retrieved July 27, 2023 . ^ Moss, Sebastian (February 12, 2021). "Years later, Bloomberg doubles down on disputed Supermicro supply chain hack story" . Data Center Dynamics . Archived from the original on July 27, 2023 . Retrieved July 27, 2023 . ^ "BusinessWeek Announces Repositioning in Global Markets" . The McGraw-Hill Companies. Archived from the original on July 12, 2012 . Retrieved November 24, 2010 . ^ "Businessweek and Rodionov Publishing House to Launch Russian Edition of Businessweek in Fall 2005" . Media onLine. March 1, 2005 . Retrieved February 17, 2017 . ^ "Arabic edition of BusinessWeek hits newstands" . The Daily Star . Lebanon. Archived from the original on October 8, 2012 . Retrieved July 22, 2011 . ^ "Business magazines look overseas for growth" . BtoB Media Business. Archived from the original on July 26, 2011 . Retrieved July 22, 2011 . ^ "Report: China Magazine Industry Booming" . Min Online. Archived from the original on October 11, 2013 . Retrieved March 7, 2012 . ^ Lu Chang (December 17, 2011). "Magazine industry soars" . China Daily . Retrieved September 7, 2014 . ^ "Bloomberg Businessweek+ on the App Store" . App Store . Archived from the original on February 10, 2012 . Retrieved October 13, 2017 . ^ "Bloomberg Businessweek Magazine Subscription" . Businessweek Subscribe . Retrieved October 13, 2017 . ^ "Bloomberg Businesweek Underwhelms With iPad App (Demo)" . TechCrunch . April 11, 2011 . Retrieved April 11, 2011 . ^ "Bloomberg Businessweek to launch first iPhone app" . New Media Age . Retrieved March 7, 2012 . ^ Moses, Lucia (December 5, 2011). "Hot List: Magazines See what magazine brands are taking chances and embracing change" . Adweek . Retrieved May 22, 2015 . ^ Pompeo, Joe (May 4, 2012). "At the often stodgy National Magazine Awards, best disruptor of decorum goes to a 'lucky' guy from Dallas" . Capital New York . Archived from the original on December 28, 2014 . Retrieved May 22, 2015 . ^ Dumenco, Simon (October 15, 2012). "Ad Age's Magazine A-List: Josh Tyrangiel Is Editor of the Year" . Ad Age . Retrieved May 22, 2015 . ^ "Best in Business contest results, 2014 contest year" . Society of American Business Editors and Writers . Archived from the original on May 21, 2015 . Retrieved May 22, 2015 . ^ "Bloomberg Businessweek Award-Winning Work" . Online Journalism Awards . Retrieved July 25, 2024 . ^ Ford, Paul. "What Is Code? If You Don't Know, You Need to Read This" . Bloomberg.com . Retrieved July 25, 2024 . ^ "Bloomberg Businessweek - Company Profile and News" . Bloomberg.com . Retrieved July 25, 2024 . Further reading Coy, Peter; Ellis, James; Dwyer, Paula; Weber, Joel (December 20, 2019). "Businessweek at 90: Covering Business Through the Decades" . Bloomberg Businessweek . Retrieved June 14, 2020 . Whittick, Olivia (June 28, 2018). "Graphic Times WIth New York Times Designer Tracy Ma: On Garbage Design, Font Punchlines, and Fruitful Tension" . Ssense . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early life 2 Journalism and non-fiction 3 Fiction Toggle Fiction subsection 3.1 Romantic novels series 3.2 The Rutshire Chronicles 3.3 Little Mabel series 3.1 Romantic novels series 3.2 The Rutshire Chronicles 3.3 Little Mabel series 4 Personal life 5 Death and tributes 6 Honours, awards and recognition 7 Film and television productions Toggle Film and television productions subsection 7.1 Screenwriting and appearances 7.2 Adaptations 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 7.1 Screenwriting and appearances 7.2 Adaptations 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 8 Analysis 9 List of works Toggle List of works subsection 9.1 Fiction 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.2 Non-fiction 9.1 Fiction 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.2 Non-fiction 10 References 11 External links Jilly Cooper العربية Български Cymraeg Deutsch Español فارسی Français کٲشُر مصرى Polski Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska Türkçe Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item Dame Jilly Cooper DBE Cooper in 1974 Born Jill Sallitt ( 1937-02-21 ) 21 February 1937 Hornchurch , Essex, England Died 5 October 2025 (2025-10-05) (aged 88) Gloucester , England Occupation Author Genre Erotic , romance Notable works Rutshire Chronicles Spouse .mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-inline{display:inline} Leo Cooper ( m. 1961; died 2013) Children 2 Website jillycooper .co .uk Dame Jilly Cooper (born Jill Sallitt ; 21 February 1937 – 5 October 2025) was an English author and journalist, best known for her long-running Rutshire Chronicles series. She began her career in journalism and published several works of non-fiction, including books on class, animals and marriage, before turning to fiction. Her first book was How to Stay Married , which was published in 1969. She published several collections of journalism, alongside other non-fiction volumes throughout much of her career. Cooper's first novel to be published was the romance , Emily , which appeared in 1975 and was followed by five more, as well as a volume of short stories. Cooper was also an anthologist and wrote the Little Mabel series of children's books. Cooper went on to become a prominent figure in British popular literature, noted for her witty social commentary and depictions of upper-middle-class life. Her best-known works are the Rutshire Chronicles of which the 1985 novel Riders was the first; it was followed by ten more volumes with the latest installment Tackle! published in 2023. The series is known for its humour, sexuality and depictions of upper-class life; several of the volumes feature the character Rupert Campbell-Black as a key protagonist. Whilst Riders alone sold over one million copies, and her romance novels compared to those of Nancy Mitford and Barbara Cartland , not all reviews were positive. Private Eye lampooned Cooper and gave her the nickname 'Super Cooper', which she later used as a title for one of her own books. Nevertheless Cooper is recognised as one of the key writers of the bonkbuster novel, along with Jackie Collins , Shirley Conran and Judith Krantz . Whilst few academics have analysed her work, those that have, recognise her ability to portray large cast of characters and her focus on pleasure as a literary theme. Academic Ian Patterson compared her to Anthony Trollope and Charles Dickens . In 2025, the Jilly Cooper Prize was established as part of the Comedy Women in Print Awards to honour her contribution to comic fiction. After Cooper's death in the same year, Queen Camilla described her as a "wonderfully witty and compassionate friend". Cooper had received several honours during her lifetime, including that of Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2024 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity. Several of her works were adapted for television and radio, including the second Rutshire Chronicles volume, Rivals , which was adapted by Disney+ and released in 2024. It starred David Tennant and Aidan Turner . Early life Jill Sallitt was born in Hornchurch , Essex, on 21 February 1937 to Mary Elaine ( née Whincup) and Brigadier W. B. Sallitt. [ 1 ] She grew up in Ilkley , Yorkshire, and in Surrey . Cooper was educated at Moorfield School in Ilkley and Godolphin School in Salisbury , Wiltshire. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] She subsequently learnt to type in Oxford. [ 3 ] Journalism and non-fiction Aged 20, Cooper became a junior reporter for The Middlesex Independent , based in Brentford . [ 3 ] She worked for the paper from 1957 to 1959. Subsequently, she worked as an account executive, copywriter , publisher's reader and receptionist . [ 4 ] Her break came with a chance meeting at a dinner party with Godfrey Smith , the editor of The Sunday Times Magazine , who asked her to write a feature about her experiences as a young married woman. [ 4 ] This led to a column in which Cooper wrote about marriage , sex and housework . [ 3 ] That column ran from 1969 to 1982, when she moved to The Mail on Sunday , where she worked as a columnist for a further five years. [ 3 ] In parallel to her journalism, Cooper wrote several humorous and satirical books: her earliest columns led to the publication of her first book, the satirical How to Stay Married , in 1969, which was quickly followed by another satirical guide to working life, How to Survive from Nine to Five , in 1970. [ 5 ] Further satirical works were Men and Super Men , published in 1972, [ 6 ] and Women and Super Women , published in 1974. [ 7 ] The former has mixed reviews, with the Liverpool Daily Post describing the puns as bad, but that Cooper's writing had a "knowing adolescence". [ 6 ] In contrast the Evening Dispatch instructed all its readers to immediately buy it, as a guide to "men and sex". [ 8 ] Women and Super Women was reviewed positively by Clive James in The Observer , [ 9 ] whereas other reviews described the book as cruel (if funny) in its discussions of a wide range of women. [ 7 ] Cooper's journalism was first collected into a single volume, Jolly Super , in 1971. [ 5 ] That collection took its title from the nickname given to Cooper by Private Eye . [ 10 ] A further collection Jolly Super Too was published in 1973. [ 11 ] The Birmingham Evening Mail compared Cooper to Mick McManus as someone the public loved to hate, and stated that the book would deliver "a snigger a minute" to readers. [ 12 ] Jolly Superlative was published in 1975 and largely included pieces from The Sunday Times , but also Vogue , and was praised by The Daily Telegraph for its "limitless comic invention". [ 13 ] In 1977 another collection of journalism, Super Jilly, was reviewed by Clive James in the The Observer as "another breathless year-book by the Sunday Times' head-girl". [ 14 ] The same year How to Stay Married and How to Survive from Nine to Five were republished together in a single volume in 1977 under the revised title How To Survive Work and Wedlock. [ 15 ] The combined volume had mixed reviews from "saucy, but relevant" according to the Sydney Morning Herald , [ 16 ] to the Evening Standard describing how "Women's Lib must hate her insouciant approach to the woman's world". [ 17 ] The theme of class dominated much of her writing and her non-fiction with her work written from an explicitly upper-middle-class British perspective, with emphasis on the relationships between men and women and matters of social class in contemporary Britain. [ 2 ] Upon the publication of 1979's book Class , Ralf Dahrendorf reviewed it for the London Review of Books , describing the work as one where "the characters are fun, the observations acute". [ 18 ] Published in 2000 David Cannadine 's Class in Britain assessed Cooper's book, pointing out that Cooper herself had felt that it did not fully describe the intricacies of the British class system. [ 19 ] Another republication during this period was 1980's Super Cooper , which was a volume of excerpts from her earlier books Men and Super Men and Women and Super Women. [ 20 ] This was described the Sydney Morning Herald as a "brilliant guide to the sexes" and by the Liverpool as a volume "that never disappoints the reader". [ 20 ] [ 21 ] Jolly Marsupial another volume of journalism, this time focussing on Cooper's 1980 tour of Australia to promote the book Class , was published in 1982. [ 22 ] In 1981 Cooper published Intelligent and Loyal , which is a book about mongrels . [ 23 ] In it Cooper created her own humorous typology for mongrels. [ 24 ] To gather stories about mongrels for the book, Cooper put an advert in newspapers asking people to share stories about their pets for the book. [ 23 ] [ 25 ] As a result of the book's success Cooper and her dogs subsequently made public appearances, including on The Animals Roadshow in 1989. [ 26 ] In 1983 she published Animals in War , a book that recorded the contributions a variety of species made to the military. [ 27 ] Public response to the book led to a campaign, supported by Cooper, to establish the Animals in War Memorial . [ 28 ] [ 29 ] Cooper edited an anthology of prose and poetry entitled The British in Love . [ 30 ] With Tom Hartman she also co-edited a dictionary of quotations purely sourced from women entitled Violets and Vinegar . [ 31 ] In 2020, some of her writings on sex and marriage from the 1970s were republished as Between the Covers and praised for their honesty . [ 32 ] Fiction Cooper has been described as "the queen of the bonkbuster ", [ 33 ] however her first novels were romances. [ 34 ] [ 35 ] These were followed by the Rutshire Chronicles series, where dogs and horses featured heavily. [ 36 ] Cooper described the research she undertook for each novel as "like studying for an A-level". [ 37 ] Quoted in the Evening Standard in 1994, Cooper stated that she thought that product placement in literary works was acceptable and discussed how she had received thank you gifts as a result of unsolicited mentions in her novels. [ 38 ] Romantic novels series Cooper was encouraged to write romantic fiction by the editor Desmond Elliott , who had read the short stories she had written previously for teenage magazines. [ 34 ] At the time she was working in publicity for HarperCollins ; Elliott commissioned her with a six-book contract and the paperback rights were subsequently sold to Corgi Books . [ 34 ] The series sold in the 100,000s. [ 34 ] The contract was for Cooper to publish a novel every six months. [ 39 ] The first novel in the series was Emily , which was published in 1975. [ 40 ] Set on a remote Scottish island, its storyline follows Emily who moves to the island after a short courtship and marriage to a volatile artist. [ 41 ] Reviews were complimentary, [ 42 ] [ 43 ] although Auberon Waugh noted similarity between Emily and Devil's Cub by Georgette Heyer . [ 44 ] The work was compared to that of Nancy Mitford and Barbara Cartland . [ 39 ] Emily was followed by Harriet and then Bella , both published in 1976. [ 45 ] [ 46 ] In Harriet , the titular character becomes pregnant whilst at university and subsequently works as a nanny for an irascible screenwriter so she can take the baby with her. [ 47 ] In review, Barbara Cartland disliked the novel. [ 48 ] The novel Bella ' s storyline revolves around an actress whose fiancé is super-wealthy, but his family do not approve of Bella. [ 49 ] The novel mixes romance and mystery, as Bella is kidnapped. [ 49 ] Auberon Waugh praised the emotional engagement of the novel, but The Guardian described disappointment since good jokes were lost in the prose. [ 44 ] [ 50 ] In October 1993, seven years after Private Eye had pointed out the similarities, Cooper admitted that sections of Emily and Bella were plagiarised from The Dud Avocado (1958) by Elaine Dundy , but said that it was not deliberate. [ 51 ] The next novel in the series was Octavia , which was published in 1977, set in Britain during the 1970s. [ 52 ] Reviews were less positive than the previous novels, but Cooper's word-play continued to be praised. [ 53 ] In a review Auberon Waugh expressed frustration with the novel as he felt Cooper could write much better than the text. [ 54 ] Octavia was followed by the novel Prudence , which was set in the Lake District in England during a house party. [ 55 ] [ 56 ] The novel had a mixed reception upon publication, including from one reviewer who hoped it was the last in the series. [ 57 ] In response, Cooper's publisher, Desmond Elliott, wrote to the paper announcing that the next novel, Imogen , was due that same year and it too was likely to be enjoyed by hundreds of thousands of readers. [ 57 ] The final novel in the series is Imogen , which was published in 1978. [ 58 ] At the time of publication, the preceding five novels had sold 340,000 copies. [ 59 ] Set between Yorkshire and the south of France, it follows Imogen as she is seduced by a tennis player, who takes her on holiday, but ultimately falls in love with his best friend. [ 58 ] The novel was mostly received favourably, [ 60 ] although the character of Imogen was described in one review as "spineless". [ 61 ] It is cited as an example in academic texts on a variety of themes, including the allure of the French Riviera for Anglo-American culture, [ 62 ] and a cultural analysis of cohabitation in the 1970s. [ 63 ] Also grouped in the romance series is the short story collection Lisa & Co ; each story is based on some of Cooper's earliest writings for women's magazines in the 1960s. [ 64 ] [ 65 ] In 2017 in her book The Gender Games , transgender writer Juno Dawson described how her obsession with the "ultra-glam" covers of these romances as a child gave her a sense that she was not "very good at being a boy". [ 66 ] The Rutshire Chronicles The best-known of Cooper's works, each book of the Rutshire Chronicles is set in a glamorous and wealthy milieu , such as the worlds of show jumping or classical music . [ 67 ] [ 68 ] These books were noted for the luxurious lifestyles portrayed, the proliferation of animals and their wit. [ 69 ] The first in the series was Riders (1985), an international bestseller, which sold over one million copies. [ 70 ] The first version of Riders was written by 1970, but shortly after Cooper had finished it, she took it with her into the West End of London , but left the manuscript on a bus. The London Evening Standard put out an appeal, but it was never found. She was, she says, "devastated" and it took her more than a decade to start it again. [ 71 ] Set in the world of show-jumping, the novel is the first appearance of Cooper's ongoing central character Rupert Campbell-Black . [ 72 ] The novel centres on his rivalry with fellow show-jumper Jake Lovell and the novel's denouement is set in the Los Angeles Olympics . [ 73 ] The follow-up novel to Riders was Rivals , set in the world of commercial television. [ 74 ] Still featuring Campbell-Black, he joins forces with television presenter Declan O'Hara and other characters to take over the local television station. [ 75 ] [ 76 ] Despite some initial scepticism from her publisher about the setting, [ 77 ] the novel debuted at #2 on the Sunday Times bestseller list for hardback fiction on June 12, 1988. [ 78 ] The next novel in the series was Polo , published in 1991, and was a return to the horse-focussed settings that Cooper became known for. [ 79 ] Cooper researched the book by travelling to Palm Beach and to Argentina, meeting polo players there. [ 80 ] [ 81 ] The novel went to number 1 in the UK hardback bestseller list, on its first entry. [ 82 ] Based on a rivalry between British polo player Ricky France-Lynch and an American millionaire Bart Alderton, the novel follows the teams associated with the two figures as they compete around the world. [ 83 ] It also features Rupert Campbell-Black's illegitimate daughter Perdita as a key protagonist. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] [ 86 ] Following Polo , the next novel in the series was The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous , which followed the life of Lysander Hawkley, a man who rich women employed to encourage their unfaithful husbands to return to their marriages. [ 87 ] It was the first novel to feature Roberto Rannaldini, a conductor and sworn enemy of Rupert Campbell-Black. [ 88 ] The novel received a range of reviews, but was praised for its "plain" heroine and a sub-plot relating to miscarriage. [ 89 ] [ 90 ] The next in the series was Appassionata , which was based in the world of classical music and followed the career of soloist, then conductor, Abigail Rosen. [ 91 ] Cooper spent three years researching the novel and travelled on tour to Spain, twice, with the Royal Scottish National Orchestra (RSNO). [ 91 ] The novel was a bestseller, and a soundtrack to the novel was released in parallel to the book. [ 92 ] [ 93 ] Reviews were mixed, with praise for Cooper's research [ 93 ] balanced by suggestions that the cast of characters was too large and contrived plots. [ 94 ] [ 95 ] Cooper remained largely in the world of classical music for her next novel, Score! , but this time focussing on a production of the opera Don Carlos . [ 86 ] In it Rannaldini is directing a film of the production, but is murdered on set, leading to a police investigation. [ 96 ] The novel was a Number 1 bestseller upon its release. The book received mixed reviews, [ 97 ] [ 86 ] as well as the accusation that at some moments the book seemed to suggest "that the death of a dog is rather more grief-worthy than the death of a human". [ 98 ] Her following novel Pandora was set in the art world, [ 99 ] and followed the Belvedon family of dealers and artists, based in the neighbouring county of Larkshire. [ 100 ] Reviewing the novel in The Observer , Robert Macfarlane described how it depicted and lampooned Britart , conceptual art and the Turner Prize . [ 99 ] This theme was continued by the New Statesman , where a reviewer described one scene where a woman who is raped is also menstruating as "very Jake and Dinos Chapman ". [ 101 ] The next volume in the series was Wicked! which was published in 2006 and was set in a boarding school, going to No. 1 in the fiction charts on its release. [ 102 ] [ 103 ] The novel had mixed reviews with some writers sharing unease at the depictions of teenage sex and romance. [ 104 ] [ 86 ] The Guardian stated that running at over 800 pages, the book needed a thorough edit since it was "as long as Anna Karenina and that, surely, is a mistake". [ 105 ] Returning to the world of horses, the ninth novel Jump! was released in 2010. [ 106 ] It features characters from the Rutshire Chronicles in the world of National Hunt steeplechase racing and tells the transformation of a mutilated horse (Mrs Wilkinson) into a successful racehorse. [ 106 ] After publication, it was revealed that Cooper had named a goat in the book (Chisolm) in order to hit back at the critic Anne Chisholm. [ 107 ] The tenth novel in the series Jump! was set in the world of flat racing . [ 108 ] Whilst Cooper's descriptions of the Cotswolds and her descriptions of racing were praised, some reviewers criticised the characterisation and "depraved and ridiculous" sex scenes. [ 109 ] [ 110 ] [ 111 ] The eleventh book in the series was Tackle! , published in 2023 it was set in the world of football. [ 112 ] It was named by The Week as one of the best novels of 2023. [ 113 ] The novel features Rupert Campbell-Black becoming the director of a local football club, based on Cooper's local side Forest Green Rovers . [ 114 ] [ 115 ] The sexual content of the novel received mixed reviews, with praise for the oral sex featured, but dismay that other scenes felt "lacklustre". [ 116 ] Little Mabel series Cooper also wrote a series of four children's books based on the misadventures of a young mongrel puppy called Mabel. [ 117 ] The Little Mabel series comprised Little Mabel, Little Mabel's Great Escape, Little Mabel Wins and Little Mabel Saves the Day. [ 117 ] When interviewed in 2013 to discuss the inclusion of a new class for mongrels at Crufts , Cooper described her book Little Mabel Wins as "prophetic" since it featured a protest against mongrel discrimination at that dog show. [ 118 ] Two of the books featured in the British children's television series Jackanory , read by Victoria Wood and Liza Goddard . [ 119 ] [ 120 ] Personal life In 1961, she married Leo Cooper , a publisher of military history books. [ 121 ] The couple had met when she was aged eight and Cooper aged 10, although they did not marry until she was 24 and he was 27. [ 122 ] [ 3 ] The couple adopted two children and had five grandchildren. [ 123 ] [ 124 ] In 1982, the couple left Putney , south-west London, for an old manor house near Stroud , Gloucestershire. [ 121 ] [ 125 ] As she told The Field in 2002, "I loved London, but I used to cry because I missed the countryside. We did the usual married run: Earl’s Court ; Fulham ; Putney ; Move To The Country." [ 126 ] The Coopers' marriage was greatly disrupted in 1990 when publisher Sarah Johnson revealed that she and Leo had had an affair for several years. [ 127 ] [ 128 ] Leo was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease in 2002. He died on 29 November 2013, at the age of 80. [ 121 ] In 2010, Cooper [ which? ] suffered a minor stroke. [ 129 ] Cooper was a passenger in one of the derailed carriages in the Ladbroke Grove rail crash of 1999, in which 31 people died, [ 123 ] and crawled through a window to escape. She later spoke of feeling that her "number was up". [ 3 ] Cooper was a supporter of the Conservative Party , [ 130 ] and was also in favour of the Iraq War (2003 to 2011). [ 131 ] In a 2007 interview with The Guardian she said, "I loved Mrs Thatcher , I adored her, she was very very nice to me". [ 132 ] By 2012, however, she had grown disillusioned with the Conservatives, telling The Spectator that she was "disappointed with this government" and that the party was "full of terrible people now". [ 133 ] In 2018 Cooper said that because of the #MeToo movement , young men and women no longer feel free to flirt with one another and that she enjoyed being the subject of wolf whistles . [ 134 ] Cooper stated that she was a football fan and supported Leeds United when she lived in Yorkshire. [ 135 ] She was also a Manchester City fan. [ 136 ] Cooper campaigned for the preservation of limestone grasslands in Gloucestershire with the Trust for Nature Conservation. [ 137 ] Death and tributes On 4 October 2025, Cooper was attended to by paramedics after suffering a fall at her home in Bisley , Gloucestershire, which caused a fatal head injury. She was transported to Gloucestershire Royal Hospital , where her condition deteriorated. She died there on 5 October, aged 88, surrounded by family. [ 138 ] Queen Camilla , a long-term friend, led the tributes to Cooper, describing her as a legend and a "wonderfully witty and compassionate friend to me and so many", adding: "May her hereafter be filled with impossibly handsome men and devoted dogs." [ 139 ] The official spokesman of the prime minister, Keir Starmer , said: "Dame Jilly Cooper was a literary force whose wit, warmth and wisdom shaped British culture for over half a century and brought joy to millions." Famously a fan of Cooper's novels, former prime minister Rishi Sunak wrote on X : "Sad to hear of the passing of Dame Jilly Cooper, a storyteller whose wit and love of character brought joy to millions. My thoughts are with her family and fellow readers." [ 140 ] Others paying tribute to Cooper included comedian Helen Lederer , who wrote on X: "Trail blazer, wit, optimist and the giver of the greatest summer parties – you made it look simple." Broadcaster Gyles Brandreth wrote that she was "simply adorable". [ 141 ] Television presenter Kirstie Allsopp said Cooper was "a British institution, funny, enthusiastic and self deprecating, we don't see enough of it these days". [ 142 ] Piers Morgan posted: "Such a fabulously fun, mischievous, warm-hearted lady. If she was in a room, everyone would feel instantly cheerier." [ 142 ] Fellow broadcaster Russell Grant wrote on X: "Jilly was one of the most kind, courteous, generous, warm-hearted and smiley people I ever met when I worked on breakfast and morning TV." [ 143 ] Actress Dame Joanna Lumley , who starred in Cooper's early 1970s sitcom It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling , told BBC News: "She was entirely generous, hugely talented, prolific, enthusiastic, meticulous and wholly loveable: a darling friend and a brilliant person." [ 144 ] A number of authors have also recognised her and her legacy, including Jill Mansell who credited Cooper for inspiring her to be a writer. The Australian-British author Kathy Lette said: "A twinkle has gone out of the world." [ 144 ] Author and former doctor Adam Kay recalled being Cooper's "perhaps unlikely penpal", adding: "We have lost one of the greats." [ 139 ] Honours, awards and recognition Cooper was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2004 Birthday Honours for services to literature, Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2018 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity and Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2024 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity. [ 145 ] On 13 November 2009, Cooper was awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Letters by the University of Gloucestershire at a ceremony in Gloucester Cathedral . [ 146 ] In 2011, She was also awarded an Honorary Doctor of Letters at Anglia Ruskin University . [ 147 ] In 2024 she was named Harper's Bazaar ' s Author of the Year. [ 148 ] In 1997 local councillors in Ilkley , West Yorkshire, rejected a housing developers' proposal to name a street after Cooper. [ 149 ] Located on the site of the tennis courts of Ilkley Hall, where Cooper spent some of her childhood, the street was ultimately named after Thomas Maufe , who was awarded a Victoria Cross . Cooper stated that "[Maufe] is much more deserving than me." [ 149 ] A racehorse was named after Cooper, but it had to be euthanised in 2024 after a racing accident. [ 150 ] [ 151 ] In 2025, the Jilly Cooper Prize was established as part of the Comedy Women in Print Awards to honour her contribution to comic fiction. [ 152 ] The prize recognises works of fiction by women and non-binary authors that demonstrate a distinctive sense of humour, irreverence, and comic narrative voice. The award was introduced following Cooper’s death in 2024, with the intention of acknowledging her influence on contemporary comic fiction and her long-standing reputation for comedic prose, romantic satire, and portrayals of British high society. [ 153 ] The inaugural winner of the prize was Sara Pascoe , who received the award in 2025 for her novel Weirdo . [ 154 ] Film and television productions Screenwriting and appearances In 1971 Cooper wrote the comedy series It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling with Christopher Bond , about four posh young women sharing a flat in London, featuring Joanna Lumley and airing on BBC1 . [ 155 ] [ 156 ] In the 1980s she was a regular guest on the BBC television programme What's My Line? [ 157 ] According to a 2016 interview with Cooper, she was also the subject of a Spitting Image puppet, whose only line was "Sex sex sex sex sex sex". [ 5 ] Adaptations Romance series Emily was adapted by Eleanor Bron for Thames Television in 1976 as part of a six-part romance series. [ 158 ] [ 159 ] Directed by Alastair Reid , [ 160 ] it was broadcast on 6 April 1977. [ 161 ] Prudence was adapted for radio in 1979 by Capital Radio , starring Felicity Kendal as Prudence, [ 162 ] alongside Nigel Davenport and Gerald Harper . [ 163 ] In 2007 a television adaptation of four of the romance novels was proposed. [ 164 ] This was suggested as one of a four-part series focusing on Harriet , Bella , Octavia and one unspecified; the only episode to be filmed was Octavia . [ 164 ] The screenplay was written by Jonathan Harvey . [ 165 ] As of 2009 there was no date for its screening. [ 166 ] In 2013 The Telegraph reported that Harriet was being adapted into a musical by Eva Rice, novelist and daughter of Tim Rice . [ 167 ] Rutshire Chronicles Television adaptations of Cooper's novels were produced for ITV and Disney+. Other productions include the television mini-series The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous , starring Hugh Bonneville , produced by Sarah Lawson ; Riders ; [ 168 ] and, in 2024, Rivals , starring David Tennant , Aidan Turner and Alex Hassell , produced by Eliza Mellor. [ 169 ] The latter was renewed for a second series, which is expected to be released in 2026. [ 170 ] Analysis Cooper has been identified as one of the key writers of the bonkbuster novel, along with Jackie Collins , Shirley Conran and Judith Krantz . [ 70 ] Riders in particular is seen as a key text for the genre, embodying its themes of sex (sometimes coercive) and romance (sometimes unfulfilled). [ 70 ] Indeed, academic Emma Parker has described how the novel "exemplified" the genre. [ 171 ] Ian Patterson , writing for the London Review of Books is one of the few academics to seriously consider Cooper's literary oeuvre. [ 172 ] In his critique of her work, Patterson described how Cooper had a "propensity for subplots worthy of Trollope or Dickens". [ 97 ] Moreover, that her books are "worth thinking about" because they cover "pleasure, that most ticklish of subjects". [ 97 ] Patterson goes on to describe the themes of pleasure that Cooper deals with: "pleasure delayed and deferred, guilty pleasure, the pleasure of repetition and the problems of it", as well as "good pleasures, in various degrees, wrong but permissible pleasures, and unequivocally bad pleasures". [ 97 ] He praised Cooper's use of language, in particular "puns and other forms of verbal humour", which give the reader the impression that Cooper, as writer, is never far away. [ 97 ] On the Romance series, Patterson described the novels as "tightly structured, agreeably predictable wish-fulfilment narratives named for their heroines". [ 97 ] Beyond Cooper's novels, Patterson praised her portrait of Margaret Thatcher, and her Sunday Times columns. [ 97 ] Patterson compared Cooper to Ali Smith since in their writing they share a "fondness for both wordplay and wise children". [ 97 ] Cooper's use of humour as part of erotic writing has been discussed by Tim Miles, who described how there was "is little or no separation" of the two, especially in Riders. [ 173 ] In his analysis of the career of Mary Ward , academic Alan Deyermond describes how she was described as "the Jilly Cooper of her day", which became part of her professional denigration. [ 174 ] Cooper's use of horses as a repeated trope across many of her novels has been considered by academic Gail Cunningham, who described how Riders and Polo provided "women readers with an adult version of the pony book ". [ 175 ] List of works Fiction The Rutshire Chronicles Riders (1985) [ 176 ] Rivals (1988; also known as Players ) [ 177 ] Polo (1991) [ 178 ] The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous (1993) [ 179 ] Appassionata (1996) [ 180 ] Score! (1999) [ 181 ] Pandora (2002) [ 182 ] Wicked! (2006) [ 183 ] Jump! (2010) [ 184 ] Mount! (2016) [ 185 ] Tackle! (2023) [ 186 ] Romances Emily (1975) [ 187 ] Bella (1976) [ 188 ] Harriet (1976) [ 189 ] Octavia (1977) [ 190 ] Prudence (1978) [ 191 ] Imogen (1978) [ 192 ] Lisa & Co . (1981) [ 193 ] "Little Mabel" series Little Mabel (1980) [ 194 ] Little Mabel's Great Escape (1981) [ 195 ] Little Mabel Wins (1982) [ 196 ] Little Mabel Saves the Day (1985) [ 197 ] Other Araminta's Wedding (1993) [ 198 ] Non-fiction How to Stay Married (1969) [ 199 ] How To Survive from Nine To Five (1970) [ 200 ] Jolly Super (1971) [ 201 ] Men and Super Men (1972) [ 202 ] Jolly Super Too (1973) [ 203 ] Women and Super Women (1974) [ 204 ] Jolly Superlative (1975) [ 205 ] Supermen and Superwomen (1976) [ 206 ] How to Survive Work and Wedlock (1977); republication of earlier works [ 207 ] Superjilly (1977) [ 208 ] The British in Love (1979) [ 209 ] Class: A View from Middle England (1979) [ 210 ] Supercooper (1980) [ 211 ] Violets and Vinegar: An Anthology of Women's Writings and Sayings (1980) [ 212 ] Intelligent and Loyal (1981) [ 213 ] Jolly Marsupial (1982) [ 214 ] Animals in War (1983) [ 215 ] The Common Years (1984) [ 216 ] On Rugby (1984; with Leo Cooper ) [ 217 ] On Cricket (1985; with Leo Cooper) [ 218 ] Hotfoot to Zabriskie Point (1985; with Patrick Lichfield ) [ 219 ] Horse Mania! (1986; with Leo Cooper) [ 220 ] How To Survive Christmas (1986) [ 221 ] Turn Right at the Spotted Dog (1987) [ 222 ] Angels Rush In (1990) [ 223 ] Between the Covers (2020) [ 32 ] References ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Biography with magazine quotations" . 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"Between the Covers by Jilly Cooper review – as fresh as ever" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 14 December 2025 . ^ Moses, Claire (17 October 2024). "Jilly Cooper on Adapting Her Naughty Romance, 'Rivals,' for Disney+" . The New York Times . Retrieved 22 January 2025 . ^ a b c d "Desmond Elliott" . The Daily Telegraph . 30 August 2003. p. 29 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Harrison, Bernice (25 May 2013). "Jilly the filly buster" . The Irish Times . ^ "Jilly Cooper loved Hay so much she wants to base her next novel in Wales" . Hay Festival. 31 May 2018. ^ Matthews, Rachel (15 February 2020). "Mount! author Jilly Cooper: 'When I was younger, I ricocheted from one unsuitable man to another' " . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 15 February 2020 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ Fendley, Alison (9 March 1994). "And, after the break, Chapter Four..." Evening Standard . p. 191 . Retrieved 7 July 2025 . ^ a b King, Francis (16 November 1975). "Jungle warfare in the block" . Sunday Telegraph . p. 14 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Salutes to her". Evening Standard . 30 December 1975. p. 15. ^ "Emily by Jilly Cooper" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Archived from the original on 21 May 2025 . Retrieved 12 August 2025 . ^ Berridge, Elizabeth (6 November 1975). "Recent Fiction" . The Daily Telegraph . p. 13. Archived from the original on 22 June 2025 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Butler, Tony (12 November 1976). "Cooking ... for the love of it!" . Evening Herald . p. 13 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ a b Waugh, Auberon (6 July 1976). "Bella won't let you down!" . Evening Standard . p. 18 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper: Harriet" . The Bookseller . 10 July 1976. p. 7. ^ Monks, John (23 July 1976). "Jolly hockey sticks, it's Jilly" . Western Daily Press . p. 8. Archived from the original on 21 June 2025 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ "Harriet by Jilly Cooper" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Archived from the original on 21 May 2025 . Retrieved 12 August 2025 . ^ Cartland, Barbara (25 November 1976). "Could this be love? Don't be such a Silly Jilly" . Daily Express . p. 4. ^ a b "Bella by Jilly Cooper" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Archived from the original on 21 June 2025 . Retrieved 12 August 2025 . ^ "In brief" . The Observer . 11 July 1976. p. 23. Archived from the original on 21 June 2025 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ Boggan, Steve (26 October 1993). "Jilly falls at old hurdle" . The Independent . p. 3. ^ Conlan, Tara (19 July 2007). "ITV rides high with Cooper" . The Guardian . ^ "In brief" . The Observer . 28 August 1977. p. 24. Archived from the original on 20 June 2025 . Retrieved 20 June 2025 . ^ Waugh, Auberon (30 July 1977). "Glib Jilly in turgid mood about love". Liverpool Daily Post (Welsh Edition) . p. 4. ^ "Pru's problems" . The Bolton News . 11 March 1978. p. 6. Archived from the original on 21 June 2025 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ "High drama at sea" . Burton Observer and Chronicle . 1 December 1978. p. 9 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ a b Elliott, Desmond (28 March 1978). "Just a rumour" . Liverpool Daily Post (Merseyside ed.) . p. 2. Archived from the original on 21 June 2025 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ a b Cooper, Jilly (1978). Imogen . Corgi Books. pp. frontispiece. ^ "New in paperback". The Bookseller . 7 July 1979. p. 84. ^ "Novels in brief" . The Observer . 31 December 1978. p. 25 . Retrieved 8 June 2025 . ^ "Books of the Times" . Wokingham Times . 18 October 1979. p. 33. Archived from the original on 7 June 2025 . Retrieved 7 June 2025 . ^ Dark Allure of the Côte d'Azur: Beauty, Leisure and Violence on the French Riviera since the Eighteenth Century . Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. 27 January 2025. ISBN 978-3-11-145132-9 . Archived from the original on 17 July 2025 . Retrieved 12 August 2025 . ^ Probert, Rebecca (6 September 2012). The Changing Legal Regulation of Cohabitation: From Fornicators to Family, 1600–2010 . Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-02084-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). "Introduction". Lisa & Co (PDF) . Corgi. p. 13. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 May 2024 . Retrieved 2 August 2025 . ^ "Frothy romance" . Manchester Evening News . 5 November 1981. p. 14 . Retrieved 30 June 2025 . ^ Dawson, Juno (1 June 2017). The Gender Games: The Problem With Men and Women, From Someone Who Has Been Both . John Murray Press. ISBN 978-1-4736-4861-6 . ^ "BBC Radio 4 - Radio 4 in Four - Why we all adore Jilly Cooper" . BBC . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ Loughrey, Clarisse (30 January 2019). "Jilly Cooper says #MeToo movement has 'diminished' men" . The Independent . Retrieved 4 May 2023 . ^ Risbridger, Ella (28 October 2025). "Could there ever be another Jilly?" . The Bookseller . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ a b c Burge, Amy; McAlister, Jodi; Ireland, Charlotte (31 August 2023). " "Prince Charming with an Erection": The Sensational Pleasures of the Bonkbuster" . Contemporary Women's Writing . 17 (2): 137– 155. doi : 10.1093/cww/vpae002 . ISSN 1754-1484 . ^ Day, Elizabeth (24 April 2011). "Jilly Cooper: 'I'm a reasonable writer but I'm much too colloquial' " . The Guardian . Retrieved 4 May 2023 . ^ Saltzer, Bernice (1 May 1993). "Riders' Rivalry Reaches Boiling Point ." Hartlepool Mail . p. 11. ^ Laing, Olivia (10 November 2023). " 'Sex, puns and labradors': How Olivia Laing fell for Jilly Cooper's bonkbusters" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 14 November 2025 . ^ "Why you should read Rivals as literary fiction" . Varsity Online . Retrieved 15 May 2025 . ^ "Aidan Turner based Rivals character on his dad" . Yahoo News . 15 October 2024 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Venn, Lydia (18 October 2024). "What a Gen Z writer thought reading Jilly Cooper's Rivals for the first time" . Cosmopolitan . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Turner, Graham (27 March 1994). "How to Write a Best-Seller" . Sunday Telegraph . p. 37 . Retrieved 28 May 2025 . ^ "Hardbacks." Books. Sunday Times , June 12, 1988, 15[S5]. The Sunday Times Historical Archive. ^ Lewis, Tim (29 September 2024). " 'Are you good in bed?' Jilly Cooper on horses, lefties and which fictional character she would like to sleep with" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Bell, Jane (13 May 1992). "Jilly Makes a Mint". Aberdeen Evening Express . p. 6. ^ "Judging a Book by its Bonk" . Avidly . 19 February 2013 . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ Flood, Alison (10 September 2016). "Jilly Cooper: 'People were always coming up to us at parties and asking us to bed' " . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 7 April 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1992). Polo: A Legend of Fair Women and Brave Men . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-13552-8 . ^ Vlietstra, Amanda (13 September 2016). "5 (slightly naughty) reasons we're overexcited about Jilly Cooper's new book" . Horse & Hound . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ "A love letter to Jilly Cooper" . Red Online . 7 August 2018. Archived from the original on 31 January 2025 . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ a b c d Flood, Alison (9 August 2010). "Jilly Cooper: Queen of the bonkbuster" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ Walter, Natascha (22 May 1993). "The art of coarse litrutshire" . The Independent . Archived from the original on 7 July 2022 . Retrieved 27 May 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). The Man who Made Husbands Jealous . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15639-4 . ^ Oates, Quentin (30 April 1993). "Jilly goes solo – super". The Bookseller . p. 46. ^ Agg, Jennie (9 February 2023). Life, Almost: Miscarriage, Misconceptions and a Search for Answers from the Brink of Motherhood . Random House. ISBN 978-1-5291-9294-0 . ^ a b "Classical Music: Sex, Chopin and subterfuge - Music, Arts & Entertainment - The Independent" . Independent.co.uk . 26 December 2010. Archived from the original on 26 December 2010 . Retrieved 13 April 2025 . ^ Rasmussen, Sonja. "24 May 1996". Aberdeen Evening Express . p. 25. ^ a b Morley, Christopher (11 April 1996). "A wild tale of sex and drugs and barcarolles". Birmingham Daily Post . p. 14. ^ Campbell-Alexander, Melanie (25 April 1996). "Appassionata". Country Life . p. 85. ^ Ryan, Liz (19 April 1996). "Pointless orchestra tale is the pits". Evening Herald . p. 22. ^ Roberts, Gabriel (14 May 1999). "Jolly Jilly scores with new bonkbuster". Gloucester Citizen . p. 11. ^ a b c d e f g h Patterson, Ian (17 May 2017). "Miss Dior, Prodigally Applied" . London Review of Books . Vol. 39, no. 10. ISSN 0260-9592 . Retrieved 14 October 2025 . ^ Barker, Christine (15 May 1999). "True blue Jilly scores another winner". Birmingham Daily Post . p. 60. ^ a b MacFarlane, Robert (5 May 2002). "Laughing all the way to the bonk" . The Observer . ISSN 0029-7712 . Retrieved 15 April 2025 . ^ Letts, Quentin (11 April 2012). "Fumbling for right touch in Larkshire" . The Standard . Archived from the original on 22 April 2025 . Retrieved 15 April 2025 . ^ Holden, Wendy (13 May 2002). "Foreskin Saga". New Statesman . Vol. 131, no. 4587. ISSN 1364-7431 . ^ Elliott, Giles. "Da Vinci doubles up: Dan Brown's novel takes the top two spots in the chart with sales of his books set to pass 10 million in the UK this week." The Bookseller , no. 5230, 19 May 2006, p. 17. ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 April 2006). "Jilly Cooper goes back to school" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 7 July 2016 . Retrieved 16 April 2025 . ^ Martin, Tim (20 May 2006). "Wicked! by Jilly Cooper" . The Independent . Retrieved 16 April 2025 . ^ Briscoe, Joanna (13 May 2006). "Larks with toffs and oiks!" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 16 April 2025 . ^ a b Laing, Olivia (12 September 2010). "Jump! by Jilly Cooper" . The Observer . Retrieved 26 April 2021 . ^ "Jilly Cooper takes revenge on critic by naming goat after her" . The Daily Telegraph . London. 11 October 2010. Archived from the original on 2 December 2023 . Retrieved 3 April 2018 . ^ "Jilly Cooper - Meet the Author - Suffolk Libraries" . www.suffolklibraries.co.uk . Archived from the original on 25 November 2024 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ Radloff, Lili. "Book review: Mount by Jilly Cooper" . Life . Archived from the original on 22 April 2025 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper's ninth 'bonkbuster' falls short" . www.stuff.co.nz . Archived from the original on 15 July 2023 . Retrieved 25 May 2025 . ^ Bird, Orlando (8 September 2016). "Mount! by Jilly Cooper, review – 'back to basics' " . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 24 May 2024 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ Williams, Zoe (8 November 2023). "Bonk hard and start a business! 10 life lessons I learned from Jilly Cooper" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ "The best novels of 2023" . The Week . 10 February 2023 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Thorp, Clare. "From Riders to Tackle! – how Britain loves Jilly Cooper's raunchy novels" . www.bbc.com . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Silver, Madeleine (20 April 2024). " 'Bonkbuster' queen Jilly Cooper to swap horses for football" . Horse & Hound . Archived from the original on 20 April 2024 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Cooke, Rachel (12 November 2023). "Tackle! review – Jilly Cooper takes on the beautiful game" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ a b "Jilly's age of anxiety" . The Gloucestershire Echo . 13 December 1993. p. 9 . Retrieved 23 August 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Williamson, Charlotte (3 March 2013). "Why our mongrels are a dying breed" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 23 March 2021 . Retrieved 23 August 2025 . ^ "Leafing through the history of Jackanory on World Book Day" . BBC . Archived from the original on 18 August 2025 . Retrieved 18 August 2025 . ^ St Claire, Lynne (23 January 1987). "24 hour TV" . Evening Post . p. 2 . Retrieved 23 August 2025 . ^ a b c Obituary: Leo Cooper , The Daily Telegraph , 2 December 2013. ^ "About Jilly" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ a b Cooper, Jilly (17 September 2010). "Jilly Cooper interview" . The Daily Telegraph . Interviewed by Grice, Elizabeth. Archived from the original on 29 March 2019 . Retrieved 15 January 2026 . ^ Barber, Richard (7 April 2017). "Jilly Cooper: 'My books are my babies' " . The Guardian . Retrieved 29 March 2019 . ^ Horwell, Veronica (6 October 2025). "Dame Jilly Cooper obituary" . The Guardian . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "A Sporting Life – Dame Jilly Cooper" . The Field . 14 October 2024 . Retrieved 8 October 2025 . ^ Barber, Michael (3 December 2013). "Leo Cooper obituary: Publisher of military history books and husband of Jilly Cooper" . The Guardian . Retrieved 7 May 2020 . ^ Davies, Karin (2 September 1990). "Fiction into fact" . UPI . ^ Kennedy, Philippa (26 September 2010). "Jilly Cooper is still riding high" . The National . ^ "Women and gender in the Conservative party archive" . 24 November 2015. ^ Cooper, Jilly (16 February 2003). "Cover story: The voices for and against war" . The Sunday Times . Archived from the original on 5 March 2016 . Retrieved 29 February 2016 . ^ Pool, Hannah; Pool, Hannah Azieb (26 April 2007). "Question time" . The Guardian . ^ "The end is neigh: even Jilly Cooper has dumped Dave" . 3 December 2012. ^ Butterworth, Benjamin (29 July 2018). "Jilly Cooper says she loves being wolf-whistled as she criticises #MeToo movement" . The i Paper . Retrieved 28 February 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper: why I will write just one more novel" . Yorkshire Post . 25 October 2016 [8 October 2016]. Archived from the original on 4 May 2023 . Retrieved 4 May 2023 . ^ Glancy, Josh (28 July 2024). "Jilly Cooper: 'Upper classes are unbelievable, they just love sex' " . The Times . Archived from the original on 28 July 2024 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Clegg, Harry (24 June 1991). "Novelist is riding to rescue of wildlife heritage" . The Citizen . p. 8 . Retrieved 8 July 2025 . ^ De la Mare, Tess (11 November 2025). "Jilly Cooper died from head injury, says coroner" . BBC News . Retrieved 11 November 2025 . ^ a b "Jilly Cooper: Best-selling author of Rivals and Riders dies at 88" . BBC News . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "Camilla's tribute to 'legend' Dame Jilly Cooper after author's death aged 88" . The Independent . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "Author Jilly Cooper has passed away at 88" . Euro Weekly News . 6 October 2025. ^ a b "Queen pays tribute to 'legend' Jilly Cooper after author dies aged 88 – live updates" . BBC News . ^ Grant, Russell (6 October 2025). "Jilly was one of the most kind, courteous, generous, warm-hearted and smiley people I ever met when I worked on breakfast and morning TV" . X . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ a b "Tributes pour in from Rivals cast in honour of Dame Jilly Cooper" . The Independent . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "No. 64269" . The London Gazette (Supplement). 30 December 2023. p. N9. ^ University Announces Honorary Awards Archived 19 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine University of Gloucestershire ^ "Dame Jilly Cooper (1937-2025) - ARU" . www.aru.ac.uk . Retrieved 11 November 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper is our author of the year" . Harper's BAZAAR . 5 December 2024 . Retrieved 6 June 2025 . ^ a b Oldham, Nick (17 January 1997). "Jilly's Street? It's not such a novel idea" . Telegraph and Argus . p. 3 . Retrieved 7 June 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper (IRE) | Race Record & Form" . Racing Post . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper (IRE) | Horse Profile" . Sky Sports . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Kerridge, Jake (12 July 2019). "Jilly Cooper on the Comedy Women in Print Prize: 'Men are funnier than women? Rubbish!' " . The Telegraph . ISSN 0307-1235 . Retrieved 11 November 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper honoured with Comedy Women In Print prize" . Irish Independent . 10 July 2019 . Retrieved 9 November 2025 . ^ Loffhagen, Emma (4 November 2025). "Sara Pascoe's novel wins inaugural Jilly Cooper award" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 9 November 2025 . ^ "It's Awfully Bad For Your Eyes, Darling (Production)" . www.phill.co.uk . Archived from the original on 8 October 2025 . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ Storah, Peter (18 November 1971). "Jilly gets her own laugh show". Lancashire Telegraph . No. 23646. p. 2. ^ "You're a glamorous lot, says author Jilly ..." Western Daily Press . 22 February 1985. p. 7. Archived from the original on 8 July 2025 . Retrieved 8 July 2025 . ^ Macdonald, Keith (6 April 1977). "Eleanor misses out on Romance" . Manchester Evening News . p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Mitchell, Linton (17 February 1977). "Return to romance" . Reading Evening Post . p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Things go so wrong for Emily" . Evening Sentinel . 6 April 1977. p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Television and radio" . Scunthorpe Evening Telegraph . 6 April 1977. p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Drama for the 80s" . The Observer . 2 September 1979. p. 35 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ Howard, Geoffrey (31 August 1979). "Highlights on radio" . Ealing and Acton Gazette . p. 15 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ a b Richardson, Anna (27 July 2007). "Jilly romps to ITV" . The Bookseller . p. 34. ^ Coming Up Archived 28 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine thecustard.tv ^ Dowell, Ben (12 February 2009). "ITV delays single dramas in downturn" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 28 April 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper sets the stage for her West End debut" . The Daily Telegraph . 19 October 2018. Archived from the original on 19 October 2018 . Retrieved 17 May 2025 . ^ "Riders (1993)" . Archived from the original on 21 September 2019 . Retrieved 21 September 2019 . ^ Cormack, Morgan. "David Tennant, Aidan Turner to star in Jilly Cooper adaptation Rivals | Radio Times" . www.radiotimes.com . Retrieved 25 October 2025 . ^ Garden, House & (8 October 2024). "Rivals season 2: Hayley Atwell and Rupert Everett join the cast of the Disney+ adaptation of Jilly Cooper's novel" . House & Garden . Retrieved 25 October 2025 . ^ Parker, Emma (1 December 2006). "Sex Changes: The Politics of Pleasure in the Novels of Michèle Roberts" . Lit: Literature Interpretation Theory . 17 ( 3– 4): 325– 351. doi : 10.1080/10436920601000336 . ISSN 1043-6928 . ^ "Jilly Cooper compared to Charles Dickens and Anthony Trollope by Cambridge academic" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 13 May 2017 . Retrieved 14 October 2025 . ^ Miles, Tim (2011). "Sex, pies and Jilly Cooper: An online, cooperative analysis of humour and the erotic" . Comedy Studies . 2 (1): 63– 71. doi : 10.1386/cost.2.1.63_1 . ISSN 2040-610X . ^ Deyermond, Alan (2004). "Mary Ward, or the Incremental Denigration of a Hispanist" . Hispanic Research Journal . 5 (2): 177– 179. doi : 10.1179/hrj.2004.5.2.177 . ISSN 1468-2737 . ^ Cunningham G. 'Seizing the reins: women, girls and horses' in: Sceats, S. and Cunnigham, G. 2014. Image and Power : Women in Fiction in the Twentieth Century [Online]. Taylor & Francis. ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Riders . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15617-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Rivals . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15637-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (11 March 2025). Polo . Grand Central Publishing. ISBN 978-1-5387-7355-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). The Man who Made Husbands Jealous . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15639-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Appassionata. Jilly Cooper . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15638-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2000). Score! . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14579-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Pandora . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15640-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Wicked! . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15156-6 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2010). Jump! . Bantam Press. ISBN 978-0-593-06153-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (25 October 2016). Mount! . National Geographic Books. ISBN 978-0-593-07291-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2001). Tackle! . Ulverscroft, Charnwood. ISBN 978-1-4448-5217-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Emily . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15249-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Bella: A Deliciously Upbeat and Laugh-out-loud Romance from the Inimitable Multimillion-copy Bestselling Jilly Cooper . Transworld Publishers Limited. ISBN 978-0-552-15250-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Harriet . Transworld Publishers Limited. ISBN 978-0-552-15251-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Octavia: A light-hearted and hilarious romcom from the Sunday Times bestselling author of Rivals . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3218-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Prudence: The feel-good romance from the Sunday Times bestselling author of Rivals . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3228-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1979). Imogen . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11149-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1982). Lisa & Co . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-12041-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1980). Little Mabel . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11158-6 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Little Mabel's Great Escape . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11160-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1982). Little Mabel Wins . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11159-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1985). Little Mabel Saves the Day . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-12291-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (30 June 2012). Araminta's Wedding . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-5252-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 September 2011). How To Stay Married . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4464-9798-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 February 2012). How To Survive From Nine To Five . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0772-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Jolly Super . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11751-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 October 2011). Men and Supermen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0813-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1973). Jolly Super Too . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-30530-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 January 2012). Women And Superwomen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-3505-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Jolly Superlative . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11801-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Super Men and Super Women, by Jilly Cooper . ISBN 978-0-417-05370-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Work and Wedlock . London: Magnum Books. ISBN 978-0417018201 . Retrieved 9 October 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Superjilly . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-38620-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). The British in Love . Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-005650-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1999). Class: A View from Middle England . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14662-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Supercooper . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11832-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Hartman, Tom (1982). Violets and Vinegar: An Anthology of Women's Writings and Sayings . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11869-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Intelligent and Loyal: A Celebration of the Mongrel . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-48000-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 February 2012). Jolly Marsupial . Transworld. ISBN 978-1-4481-0902-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Animals In War . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3190-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1999). The Common Years . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14663-0 . ^ Cooper, Leo; Cooper, Jilly (1984). Leo & Jilly Cooper on Rugby . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2411-6 . ^ Cooper, Leo (1985). Leo & Jilly Cooper on Cricket . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2537-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Lichfield, Patrick (1985). Hotfoot to Zabriskie Point . Constable. ISBN 978-0-09-466760-0 . ^ Cooper, Leo; Cooper, Jilly (1986). Horse Mania! . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2665-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1986). How to Survive Christmas: An Xmasochist's Guide to the Darkest Days of the Year . Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-59780-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1988). Turn Right at the Spotted Dog: And Other Diversions . Chivers. ISBN 978-0-7451-0744-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (24 April 2012). Angels Rush In . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0810-7 . External links Official website Jilly Cooper at IMDb Jilly Cooper at the British Film Institute Portraits of Jilly Cooper at the National Portrait Gallery, London "The queen of chick lit" article , The Guardian , 15 June 2004 An interview with Cooper recorded in 2000 by meettheauthor.co.uk .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Jilly Cooper v t e Fiction Rutshire Chronicles Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Romance series Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Short stories Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Children's stories Little Mabel (series) Rutshire Chronicles Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Romance series Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Short stories Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Children's stories Little Mabel (series) Little Mabel (series) Non-fiction How to Stay Married How To Survive From Nine To Five Jolly Super Jolly Super Too Jolly Superlative Class Violets and Vinegar Intelligent and Loyal Jolly Marsupial Animals in War The Common Years How To Survive Christmas Turn Right at the Spotted Dog Angels Rush In Between the Covers How to Stay Married How To Survive From Nine To Five Jolly Super Jolly Super Too Jolly Superlative Class Violets and Vinegar Intelligent and Loyal Jolly Marsupial Animals in War The Common Years How To Survive Christmas Turn Right at the Spotted Dog Angels Rush In Between the Covers Adaptations It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling Riders The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Rivals It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling Riders The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Rivals Fictional characters Rupert Campbell-Black Rupert Campbell-Black Related Leo Cooper Leo Cooper Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Greece Poland Israel United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Greece Poland Israel Academics CiNii CiNii Artists MusicBrainz MusicBrainz People Trove Trove Other IdRef Open Library Yale LUX IdRef Open Library Yale LUX 1937 births 2025 deaths 20th-century English non-fiction writers 20th-century English novelists 20th-century English women writers 21st-century English non-fiction writers 21st-century English novelists 21st-century English women writers Accidental deaths from falls in the United Kingdom Accidental deaths in England British Book Award winners British women romantic fiction writers British women columnists Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire English romantic fiction writers English women journalists English women non-fiction writers English women novelists People educated at Godolphin School People from Hornchurch Survivors of railway accidents or incidents 21st-century British women novelists 20th-century British women novelists British children's writers British women children's writers Deaths from head injury CS1 maint: publisher location Pages containing London Gazette template with parameter supp set to y Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Use British English from October 2016 All Wikipedia articles written in British English Use dmy dates from October 2025 All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from January 2026 Commons category link from Wikidata National Portrait Gallery (London) person ID same as Wikidata This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 06:20 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Style and tone 2 Plot Toggle Plot subsection 2.1 Volume One 2.2 Volume Two 2.1 Volume One 2.2 Volume Two 3 Collected editions 4 References Batman: The Dark Knight Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item Batman: The Dark Knight Promotional art for the cover of Batman: The Dark Knight #1 (November 2010). Art by David Finch . Publication information Publisher DC Comics Schedule Monthly Format Ongoing series Genre .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Superhero Superhero Publication date (vol. 1) January – October 2011 (vol. 2) September 2011 – March 2014 No. of issues (vol. 1) : 5 (vol. 2) : 32 (#0-29 and #23.1-23.4) and 1 Annual Main character Bruce Wayne / Batman Creative team Written by David Finch Paul Jenkins Joe Harris Judd Winick Gregg Hurwitz Penciller (s) (vol. 1–2) David Finch Ed Benes Ethan van Sciver Inker (s) (vol. 1–2) Scott Williams Letterer Dave Sharpe Colorist (s) (vol. 1–2) Alex Sinclair Editor(s) Mike Marts Janelle Siegel Batman: The Dark Knight is an American comic book ongoing series and limited series , and featuring Batman , published by the comic book publishing company DC Comics . One of two new ongoing titles to feature Bruce Wayne after the " Batman: The Return of Bruce Wayne " storyline, The Dark Knight depicts Bruce Wayne's life in Gotham City following his new global commitment to the newly established Batman Incorporated . In the writer David Finch's words, the stories are about relationships and connections he has in Gotham City that he can't walk away from. [ 1 ] Style and tone Although the majority of his resources and time go into his new global project, Batman, Inc. , Finch describes his series as Bruce being unable to completely separate himself from his hometown and battleground for so many years. Finch states: "Even though Dick is here, it's not easy for Bruce to completely walk away. As much as Dick has proven himself, Bruce Wayne is still Bruce Wayne. It's very difficult for Bruce to just completely walk away from a fight he's been fighting his whole life. And then there's something in particular that keeps him interested as we kick off the series". Finch also addressed the nature of new, globally themed stories permeating most of the Batman line with Bruce Wayne, and how his title will stand out and largely apart from that trend: "Batman, in my book, is entirely in Gotham City. And yeah, this is the Batman we all know and love, and have for 70 years. Although Batman is spending time all over the world, he still has Gotham City as his home base, and he still has so many connections and ties and grudges and friendships in Gotham City". [ 1 ] Finch described his overall take on the character of Bruce Wayne: "Batman is a character that I know very well, and I had a strong sense of direction for him. I would be more reluctant to take on a character that I don't feel like I can relate to as well. He's very driven and black and white. I love that in a world of so much grey he can cut through it with so much clarity. Right or wrong, he never has to question. And there's something very engaging about a character that pushes his limits and never surrenders. There are so many variables and possibilities in a story, but you always know what Batman will do". [ 2 ] Plot Volume One Launched alongside Batman Incorporated , the first volume of the series would last five issues. The plot was made to bridge the gap between Black Mass and Batman Incorporated . It deals with Batman searching for his childhood friend, Dawn Golden who was involved with a conspiracy involving Killer Croc . Croc had ended up selling her to the Penguin, who was using her as a tool of revenge against his own personal humility and against Batman. Eventually Batman discovers her relations to Jason Blood and the demon Etrigan . In the end, Batman mourns the loss of Dawn who is fatally wounded. Volume Two DC Comics relaunched Batman: The Dark Knight with issue #1 in September 2011, as part of The New 52 . While David Finch was originally supposed to be the writer on the series permanently, Paul Jenkins was later announced to be co-writing issues. Joe Harris and Judd Winick had guest appearances before Gregg Hurwitz would take over the series. [ 3 ] "Knight Terrors": As Bruce is unable to keep up with the various legal conspiracies involving Batman Incorporated, he decides to investigate a breakout in Arkham. There he finds criminals being fed a modified fear toxin that is mixed in with venom which makes the criminals extremely strong and immune to fear. He finds it being given to criminals by a new foe named the White Rabbit. When Batman approaches her she quickly defeats him and injects him with the fear toxin which she then gives to the Flash. Bruce then finds Bane to be behind the new fear toxin and combats him, Bruce manages to burn the fear toxin out of his and the Flash's body's by getting pushed to the limit. Bruce manages to defeat Bane, but is left confused by the White Rabbit. Collected editions Title Material collected Published date ISBN Batman: The Dark Knight: Golden Dawn Batman: The Dark Knight (vol. 1) #1–5 and material from Superman/Batman #75, Batman: The Return #1 January 2012 .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} 978-1401232153 Batman: The Dark Knight Vol. 1: Knight Terrors Batman: The Dark Knight (vol. 2) #1-9 October 2012 978-1401235437 Batman: The Dark Knight Vol. 2: Cycle of Violence Batman: The Dark Knight (vol. 2) #0, #10-15 July 2013 978-1401240745 Batman: The Dark Knight Vol. 3: Mad Batman: The Dark Knight (vol. 2) #16-21, Annual #1 January 2014 978-1401242473 Batman: The Dark Knight Vol. 4: Clay Batman: The Dark Knight (vol. 2) #22–29 July 2014 978-1401246204 Batman: The Dark Knight Unwrapped by David Finch Batman: The Dark Knight (vol. 1) #1-3, Batman: The Return #1, Batman: The Dark Knight (vol. 2) #1-7, 9 (pencils only) May 2015 978-1401248840 DC New 52 Villains Omnibus Batman: The Dark Knight #23.1-23.4 and Justice League #23.1-23.4, Justice League of America #7.1-7.4, Justice League Dark #23.1-23.2, Aquaman #23.1-23.2, Earth-2 #15.1-15.2, The Flash #23.1-23.3, Green Arrow #23.1, Wonder Woman #23.1-23.2, Action Comics #23.1-23.4, Superman #23.1-23.4, Batman/Superman #3.1, Batman #23.1-23.4, Batman and Robin #23.1-23.4, Detective Comics #23.1-23.4, Green Lantern #23.1-23.4, Swamp Thing #23.1, Teen Titans #23.1-23.2 December 2013 978-1401244965 References ^ a b Rogers, Vaneta (2010-10-29). "Bat-Breakdown: David Finch Goes Writer/Artist w/ Dark Knight" . Newsarama . Archived from the original on 3 November 2010 . Retrieved 2010-11-27 . ^ Rogers, Vaneta (2010-07-13). "David Finch Talks in Detail about Batman: The Dark Knight" . Newsarama. Archived from the original on July 16, 2010 . Retrieved 2010-11-27 . ^ DC New 52: Batman: the Dark Knight Archived September 11, 2011, at the Wayback Machine .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Batman publications and storylines v t e Current series Absolute Batman Batgirl Batman Batman/Superman: World's Finest Batman and Robin Birds of Prey Detective Comics ( #27 ) Catwoman Harley Quinn Nightwing Poison Ivy Absolute Batman Batgirl Batman Batman/Superman: World's Finest Batman and Robin Birds of Prey Detective Comics ( #27 ) Catwoman Harley Quinn Nightwing Poison Ivy Completed ongoing series Azrael Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Batman (comic strip) Batman '66 Batman '89 Batman and the Outsiders Batman: Arkham Unhinged Batman: The Brave and the Bold Batman: The Dark Knight Batman: Gotham Knights Batman: Legends of the Dark Knight Batman: Shadow of the Bat Batman: Streets of Gotham The Batman Adventures The Batman Chronicles Batman Beyond Batman Confidential Batman Family Batman Incorporated The Batman Strikes! Batman/Superman Batwing Batwoman The Brave and the Bold Gotham by Midnight Gotham Central Gotham City Sirens Gotham Girls Grayson The Huntress The Joker Man-Bat Mother Panic The Penguin Red Hood/Arsenal Red Hood and the Outlaws Red Robin Robin Robin: Son of Batman Superman/Batman Tim Drake: Robin We Are Robin World's Finest Comics Azrael Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Batman (comic strip) Batman '66 Batman '89 Batman and the Outsiders Batman: Arkham Unhinged Batman: The Brave and the Bold Batman: The Dark Knight Batman: Gotham Knights Batman: Legends of the Dark Knight Batman: Shadow of the Bat Batman: Streets of Gotham The Batman Adventures The Batman Chronicles Batman Beyond Batman Confidential Batman Family Batman Incorporated The Batman Strikes! Batman/Superman Batwing Batwoman The Brave and the Bold Gotham by Midnight Gotham Central Gotham City Sirens Gotham Girls Grayson The Huntress The Joker Man-Bat Mother Panic The Penguin Red Hood/Arsenal Red Hood and the Outlaws Red Robin Robin Robin: Son of Batman Superman/Batman Tim Drake: Robin We Are Robin World's Finest Comics Completed miniseries Anarky Batman: Anarky Batman & Dracula trilogy Batman: Arkham City Batman: Battle for the Cowl Batman Black and White Batman: Cacophony Batman: Creature of the Night Batman: The Cult Batman: Damned Batman: The Dark Prince Charming Batman: The Doom That Came to Gotham Batman: Earth One Batman: Gates of Gotham Batman: GCPD Batman: Gotham County Line Batman: Gotham Knights – Gilded City Batman: The Imposter Batman: The Knight Batman: Orpheus Rising Batman: The Return of Bruce Wayne Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Batman: Three Jokers Batman: Thrillkiller Batman: Turning Points The Batman Who Laughs Batman: Year 100 Bat-Mite Dark Knights of Steel First Wave Flashpoint Beyond Flashpoint: Deadman and the Flying Graysons Gotham Underground Harley Quinn and Poison Ivy Man-Bat Penguin: Pain and Prejudice Poison Ivy: Cycle of Life and Death Red Hood: The Lost Days Section 8 Superman & Batman: Generations Trinity The Untold Legend of the Batman Batman Eternal Batman Eternal Batman and Robin Eternal Dark Moon Rising Batman and the Monster Men Batman and the Mad Monk The Long Halloween Batman: The Long Halloween Batman: Dark Victory Catwoman: When in Rome Millerverse The Dark Knight Returns The Dark Knight Strikes Again The Dark Knight III: The Master Race Murphyverse Batman: White Knight Curse of the White Knight White Knight Presents: Red Hood Beyond the White Knight Year One Batgirl: Year One The Riddler: Year One Two-Face: Year One Robin: Year One Anarky Batman: Anarky Batman: Anarky Batman & Dracula trilogy Batman: Arkham City Batman: Battle for the Cowl Batman Black and White Batman: Cacophony Batman: Creature of the Night Batman: The Cult Batman: Damned Batman: The Dark Prince Charming Batman: The Doom That Came to Gotham Batman: Earth One Batman: Gates of Gotham Batman: GCPD Batman: Gotham County Line Batman: Gotham Knights – Gilded City Batman: The Imposter Batman: The Knight Batman: Orpheus Rising Batman: The Return of Bruce Wayne Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Batman: Three Jokers Batman: Thrillkiller Batman: Turning Points The Batman Who Laughs Batman: Year 100 Bat-Mite Dark Knights of Steel First Wave Flashpoint Beyond Flashpoint: Deadman and the Flying Graysons Gotham Underground Harley Quinn and Poison Ivy Man-Bat Penguin: Pain and Prejudice Poison Ivy: Cycle of Life and Death Red Hood: The Lost Days Section 8 Superman & Batman: Generations Trinity The Untold Legend of the Batman Batman Eternal Batman Eternal Batman and Robin Eternal Batman Eternal Batman and Robin Eternal Dark Moon Rising Batman and the Monster Men Batman and the Mad Monk Batman and the Monster Men Batman and the Mad Monk The Long Halloween Batman: The Long Halloween Batman: Dark Victory Catwoman: When in Rome Batman: The Long Halloween Batman: Dark Victory Catwoman: When in Rome Millerverse The Dark Knight Returns The Dark Knight Strikes Again The Dark Knight III: The Master Race The Dark Knight Returns The Dark Knight Strikes Again The Dark Knight III: The Master Race Murphyverse Batman: White Knight Curse of the White Knight White Knight Presents: Red Hood Beyond the White Knight Batman: White Knight Curse of the White Knight White Knight Presents: Red Hood Beyond the White Knight Year One Batgirl: Year One The Riddler: Year One Two-Face: Year One Robin: Year One Batgirl: Year One The Riddler: Year One Two-Face: Year One Robin: Year One One-shots Arkham Asylum: A Serious House on Serious Earth Castle of the Bat Dark Knight Dynasty Dark Night: A True Batman Story Death of Innocents Digital Justice Gotham Noir Holy Terror Batman/Houdini: The Devil's Workshop In Darkest Knight The Killing Joke KnightGallery Leatherwing The Man Who Laughs Nine Lives Noël Elseworld's Finest: Supergirl & Batgirl The Joker: Devil's Advocate Batman/Poison Ivy: Cast Shadows Son of the Demon The 12 Cent Adventure Two Faces War on Crime The Batman Adventures: Mad Love The Berlin Batman Gotham by Gaslight Joker Poison Ivy: Thorns Red Hood vs. Anarky Superman and Batman: World's Funnest Arkham Asylum: A Serious House on Serious Earth Castle of the Bat Dark Knight Dynasty Dark Night: A True Batman Story Death of Innocents Digital Justice Gotham Noir Holy Terror Batman/Houdini: The Devil's Workshop In Darkest Knight The Killing Joke KnightGallery Leatherwing The Man Who Laughs Nine Lives Noël Elseworld's Finest: Supergirl & Batgirl The Joker: Devil's Advocate Batman/Poison Ivy: Cast Shadows Son of the Demon The 12 Cent Adventure Two Faces War on Crime The Batman Adventures: Mad Love The Berlin Batman Gotham by Gaslight Joker Poison Ivy: Thorns Red Hood vs. Anarky Superman and Batman: World's Funnest Storylines 1930-40s " The Case of the Chemical Syndicate " "Robin the Boy Wonder" "The Murders of Clayface" "The Crimes of Two-Face" "The Man Who Led a Double Life" "The End of Two-Face" "The Riddler" 1950s " The Man Behind the Red Hood! " " The Joker's Millions " "The Rainbow Batman" "The Superman of Planet X" "... Meets Bat-Mite" 1960s "Robin Dies at Dawn" "Beware of -- Poison Ivy" "The Million Dollar Debut of Batgirl" "One Bullet Too Many" 1970s "Challenge of the Man-Bat" "Tales of the Demon" "The Joker's Five-Way Revenge" "There is No Hope in Crime Alley" "The Deadshot Ricochet" "The Laughing Fish" 1980s " Batman: Year One " " Year Two " " Batman: A Death in the Family " " Year Three " " The Man Who Falls " " Anarky in Gotham City " 1990s " Gothic " "The Eye of the Beholder" " The Return of the Joker " " Prey " " The Last Arkham " " Knightfall " " Contagion " " Legacy " " Cataclysm " " No Man's Land " 2000s " Joker: Last Laugh " " Bruce Wayne: Fugitive " " Hush " " Broken City " " War Games " " City of Crime " " Under the Hood " " War Crimes " " Face the Face " " Batman and Son " " The Resurrection of Ra's al Ghul " " Batman R.I.P. " " Whatever Happened to the Caped Crusader? " " Batwoman: Elegy " 2010s " Bruce Wayne: The Road Home " " The Black Mirror " " Night of the Owls " " Death of the Family " " Zero Year " " Endgame " " Robin War " " The Button " " Dark Nights: Metal " 2020s " The Joker War " " Dark Nights: Death Metal " " Fear State " " Shadows of the Bat " " Shadow War " " Gotham War " 1930-40s " The Case of the Chemical Syndicate " "Robin the Boy Wonder" "The Murders of Clayface" "The Crimes of Two-Face" "The Man Who Led a Double Life" "The End of Two-Face" "The Riddler" " The Case of the Chemical Syndicate " "Robin the Boy Wonder" "The Murders of Clayface" "The Crimes of Two-Face" "The Man Who Led a Double Life" "The End of Two-Face" "The Riddler" 1950s " The Man Behind the Red Hood! " " The Joker's Millions " "The Rainbow Batman" "The Superman of Planet X" "... Meets Bat-Mite" " The Man Behind the Red Hood! " " The Joker's Millions " "The Rainbow Batman" "The Superman of Planet X" "... Meets Bat-Mite" 1960s "Robin Dies at Dawn" "Beware of -- Poison Ivy" "The Million Dollar Debut of Batgirl" "One Bullet Too Many" "Robin Dies at Dawn" "Beware of -- Poison Ivy" "The Million Dollar Debut of Batgirl" "One Bullet Too Many" 1970s "Challenge of the Man-Bat" "Tales of the Demon" "The Joker's Five-Way Revenge" "There is No Hope in Crime Alley" "The Deadshot Ricochet" "The Laughing Fish" "Challenge of the Man-Bat" "Tales of the Demon" "The Joker's Five-Way Revenge" "There is No Hope in Crime Alley" "The Deadshot Ricochet" "The Laughing Fish" 1980s " Batman: Year One " " Year Two " " Batman: A Death in the Family " " Year Three " " The Man Who Falls " " Anarky in Gotham City " " Batman: Year One " " Year Two " " Batman: A Death in the Family " " Year Three " " The Man Who Falls " " Anarky in Gotham City " 1990s " Gothic " "The Eye of the Beholder" " The Return of the Joker " " Prey " " The Last Arkham " " Knightfall " " Contagion " " Legacy " " Cataclysm " " No Man's Land " " Gothic " "The Eye of the Beholder" " The Return of the Joker " " Prey " " The Last Arkham " " Knightfall " " Contagion " " Legacy " " Cataclysm " " No Man's Land " 2000s " Joker: Last Laugh " " Bruce Wayne: Fugitive " " Hush " " Broken City " " War Games " " City of Crime " " Under the Hood " " War Crimes " " Face the Face " " Batman and Son " " The Resurrection of Ra's al Ghul " " Batman R.I.P. " " Whatever Happened to the Caped Crusader? " " Batwoman: Elegy " " Joker: Last Laugh " " Bruce Wayne: Fugitive " " Hush " " Broken City " " War Games " " City of Crime " " Under the Hood " " War Crimes " " Face the Face " " Batman and Son " " The Resurrection of Ra's al Ghul " " Batman R.I.P. " " Whatever Happened to the Caped Crusader? " " Batwoman: Elegy " 2010s " Bruce Wayne: The Road Home " " The Black Mirror " " Night of the Owls " " Death of the Family " " Zero Year " " Endgame " " Robin War " " The Button " " Dark Nights: Metal " " Bruce Wayne: The Road Home " " The Black Mirror " " Night of the Owls " " Death of the Family " " Zero Year " " Endgame " " Robin War " " The Button " " Dark Nights: Metal " 2020s " The Joker War " " Dark Nights: Death Metal " " Fear State " " Shadows of the Bat " " Shadow War " " Gotham War " " The Joker War " " Dark Nights: Death Metal " " Fear State " " Shadows of the Bat " " Shadow War " " Gotham War " Intercompany crossovers Batman/Aliens Batman/Hellboy/Starman Batman/Judge Dredd: Judgment on Gotham Batman/Spawn: War Devil Batman/Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Batman/Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Adventures Batman/The Spirit Batman Versus Predator Batman vs. Bigby! A Wolf in Gotham Daredevil/Batman: Eye for an Eye Ghost/Batgirl: The Resurrection Machine Harley & Ivy Meet Betty & Veronica Spawn/Batman Superman and Batman versus Aliens and Predator Deadpool/Batman and Batman/Deadpool Batman/Aliens Batman/Hellboy/Starman Batman/Judge Dredd: Judgment on Gotham Batman/Spawn: War Devil Batman/Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Batman/Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Adventures Batman/The Spirit Batman Versus Predator Batman vs. Bigby! A Wolf in Gotham Daredevil/Batman: Eye for an Eye Ghost/Batgirl: The Resurrection Machine Harley & Ivy Meet Betty & Veronica Spawn/Batman Superman and Batman versus Aliens and Predator Deadpool/Batman and Batman/Deadpool Incomplete All Star Batman & Robin, the Boy Wonder Batman: The Widening Gyre All Star Batman & Robin, the Boy Wonder Batman: The Widening Gyre Related topics Batman: Child of Dreams Batman: Haunted Knight Batman Legends DC Comics – The Legend of Batman Elseworlds The Further Adventures of The Joker Batman: Child of Dreams Batman: Haunted Knight Batman Legends DC Comics – The Legend of Batman Elseworlds The Further Adventures of The Joker Category Publications are listed alphabetically by published titles. Storylines are listed in publication order. Compiled without respect for canon or "current" continuity. Batman titles Superhero comics Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata This page was last edited on 2 January 2026, at 19:33 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batman:_The_Dark_Knight
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Events Toggle Events subsection 1.1 Pre-1600 1.2 1601–1900 1.3 1901–present 1.1 Pre-1600 1.2 1601–1900 1.3 1901–present 2 Births Toggle Births subsection 2.1 Pre-1600 2.2 1601–1900 2.3 1901–present 2.1 Pre-1600 2.2 1601–1900 2.3 1901–present 3 Deaths Toggle Deaths subsection 3.1 Pre-1600 3.2 1601–1900 3.3 1901–present 3.1 Pre-1600 3.2 1601–1900 3.3 1901–present 4 Holidays and observances 5 References 6 External links January 17 Afrikaans Alemannisch Алтай тил አማርኛ Anarâškielâ Ænglisc Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Авар Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali বাংলা Banjar 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Български བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština ChiShona Corsu Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego 贛語 ગુજરાતી 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî Хальмг 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Ido Igbo Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kiswahili Коми Kongo Kotava Kreyòl ayisyen Kurdî ລາວ Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Livvinkarjala La .lojban. Lombard Magyar मैथिली Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nāhuatl Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Nouormand Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ Papiamentu پښتو Перем коми Plattdüütsch Polski Ποντιακά Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Română Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла संस्कृतम् Scots Seeltersk Sesotho sa Leboa Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Ślůnski کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Taqbaylit Татарча / tatarça တႆး తెలుగు ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Türkmençe Тыва дыл Удмурт Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vahcuengh Vèneto Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon 文言 West-Vlams Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 Batak Mandailing Руски Tolışi ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikinews Wikiquote Wikidata item Page version status This is an accepted version of this page .mw-parser-output .calendar-purple{color:var(--color-base,#202122);background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .calendar-lightpurple{color:var(--color-base,#202122);background-color:#d8e0ff}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .calendar-purple{background-color:#2a2a5c}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .calendar-lightpurple{background-color:#202040}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .calendar-purple{background-color:#2a2a5c}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .calendar-lightpurple{background-color:#202040}} << January >> Su Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa 0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0 8 0 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 2026 January 17 in recent years 2025 (Friday) 2024 (Wednesday) 2023 (Tuesday) 2022 (Monday) 2021 (Sunday) 2020 (Friday) 2019 (Thursday) 2018 (Wednesday) 2017 (Tuesday) 2016 (Sunday) January 17 is the 17th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar ; 348 days remain until the end of the year (349 in leap years ). Events Pre-1600 38 BC – Octavian divorces his wife Scribonia and marries Livia Drusilla , ending the fragile peace between the Second Triumvirate and Sextus Pompey . [ 1 ] 1362 – Saint Marcellus' flood kills at least 25,000 people on the shores of the North Sea. [ 2 ] 1377 – Pope Gregory XI reaches Rome, after deciding to move the Papacy back to Rome from Avignon . [ 3 ] 1524 – Giovanni da Verrazzano sets sail westward from Madeira to find a sea route to the Pacific Ocean. [ 4 ] 1562 – France grants religious toleration to the Huguenots in the Edict of Saint-Germain . [ 5 ] 1595 – During the French Wars of Religion , Henry IV of France declares war on Spain. [ 6 ] 1601–1900 1608 – Emperor Susenyos I of Ethiopia surprises an Oromo army at Ebenat; his army reportedly kills 12,000 Oromo at the cost of 400 of his men. [ 7 ] 1648 – England's Long Parliament passes the " Vote of No Addresses ", breaking off negotiations with King Charles I and thereby setting the scene for the second phase of the English Civil War . [ 8 ] 1649 – The Second Ormonde Peace creates an alliance between the Irish Royalists and Confederates during the War of the Three Kingdoms . The coalition was then decisively defeated during the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland . [ 9 ] 1773 – Captain James Cook leads the first expedition to sail south of the Antarctic Circle . [ 10 ] 1781 – American Revolutionary War : Battle of Cowpens : Continental troops under Brigadier General Daniel Morgan defeat British forces under Lieutenant Colonel Banastre Tarleton at the battle in South Carolina . [ 11 ] 1799 – Maltese patriot Dun Mikiel Xerri , along with a number of other patriots, is executed. [ 12 ] 1811 – Mexican War of Independence : In the Battle of Calderón Bridge , a heavily outnumbered Spanish force of 6,000 troops defeats nearly 100,000 Mexican revolutionaries. [ 13 ] 1852 – The United Kingdom signs the Sand River Convention with the South African Republic . [ 14 ] 1873 – A group of Modoc warriors defeats the United States Army in the First Battle of the Stronghold , part of the Modoc War . [ 15 ] 1885 – A British force defeats a large Dervish army at the Battle of Abu Klea in the Sudan . [ 16 ] 1893 – Lorrin A. Thurston , along with the Citizens' Committee of Public Safety , led the Overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii and the government of Queen Liliʻuokalani . [ 17 ] 1899 – The United States takes possession of Wake Island in the Pacific Ocean. [ 18 ] 1901–present 1903 – El Yunque National Forest in Puerto Rico becomes part of the United States National Forest System as the Luquillo Forest Reserve. 1904 – Anton Chekhov 's The Cherry Orchard receives its premiere performance at the Moscow Art Theatre . [ 19 ] 1912 – British polar explorer Captain Robert Falcon Scott reaches the South Pole , one month after Roald Amundsen . 1915 – Russia defeats Ottoman Turkey in the Battle of Sarikamish during the Caucasus Campaign of World War I . 1917 – The United States pays Denmark $25 million for the Virgin Islands . [ 20 ] 1918 – Finnish Civil War : The first serious battles take place between the Red Guards and the White Guard . 1920 – Alcohol Prohibition begins in the United States as the Volstead Act goes into effect. [ 21 ] 1941 – Franco-Thai War : Vichy French forces inflict a decisive defeat over the Royal Thai Navy . 1943 – World War II : Greek submarine Papanikolis captures the 200-ton sailing vessel Agios Stefanos and mans her with part of her crew. 1944 – World War II: Allied forces launch the first of four assaults on Monte Cassino with the intention of breaking through the Winter Line and seizing Rome, an effort that would ultimately take four months and cost 105,000 Allied casualties. 1945 – World War II: The Vistula–Oder Offensive forces German troops out of Warsaw . 1945 – The SS-Totenkopfverbände begin the evacuation of the Auschwitz concentration camp as the Red Army closes in. 1945 – Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg is taken into Soviet custody while in Hungary; he is never publicly seen again. [ 22 ] 1946 – The UN Security Council holds its first session. 1948 – The Renville Agreement between the Netherlands and Indonesia is ratified. 1950 – The Great Brink's Robbery : Eleven thieves steal more than $2 million from an armored car company's offices in Boston . [ 23 ] 1950 – United Nations Security Council Resolution 79 relating to arms control is adopted. 1961 – U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower delivers a televised farewell address to the nation three days before leaving office, in which he warns against the accumulation of power by the " military–industrial complex " as well as the dangers of massive spending, especially deficit spending. 1961 – Former Congolese Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba is murdered together with former Minister of Youth and Sports of the Republic of the Congo Maurice Mpolo and former Senator from Kasai Province Joseph Okito in circumstances suggesting the support and complicity of the governments of Belgium and the United States. 1966 – Palomares incident : A B-52 bomber collides with a KC-135 Stratotanker over Spain, killing seven airmen, and dropping three 70-kiloton nuclear bombs near the town of Palomares and another one into the sea. 1969 – Black Panther Party members Bunchy Carter and John Huggins are killed during a meeting in Campbell Hall on the campus of UCLA . 1977 – Capital punishment in the United States resumes after a ten-year hiatus, as convicted murderer Gary Gilmore is executed by firing squad in Utah. 1981 – President of the Philippines Ferdinand Marcos lifts martial law eight years and five months after declaring it. 1991 – Gulf War : Operation Desert Storm begins early in the morning as aircraft strike positions across Iraq, it is also the first major combat sortie for the F-117 . LCDR Scott Speicher's F/A-18C Hornet from VFA-81 is shot down by a Mig-25 and is the first American casualty of the War. Iraq fires eight Scud missiles into Israel in an unsuccessful bid to provoke Israeli retaliation. 1991 – Crown Prince Harald of Norway becomes King Harald V , following the death of his father, King Olav V . 1992 – During a visit to South Korea, Japanese Prime Minister Kiichi Miyazawa apologizes for forcing Korean women into sexual slavery during World War II. 1994 – The 6.7 M w Northridge earthquake shakes the Greater Los Angeles Area with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX ( Violent ), leaving 57 people dead and more than 8,700 injured. 1995 – The 6.9 M w Great Hanshin earthquake shakes the southern Hyōgo Prefecture with a maximum Shindo of 7, leaving 5,502–6,434 people dead, and 251,301–310,000 displaced. 1996 – The Czech Republic applies for membership in the European Union . 1997 – Cape Canaveral Air Force Station : A Delta II carrying the GPS IIR-1 satellite explodes 13 seconds after launch, dropping 250 tons of burning rocket remains around the launch pad. 1998 – Clinton–Lewinsky scandal : Matt Drudge breaks the story of the Bill Clinton – Monica Lewinsky affair on his Drudge Report website. 2002 – Mount Nyiragongo erupts in the Democratic Republic of the Congo , displacing an estimated 400,000 people. 2007 – The Doomsday Clock is set to five minutes to midnight in response to North Korea 's nuclear testing. 2008 – British Airways Flight 38 crashes short of the runway at Heathrow Airport , injuring 47. [ 24 ] 2010 – Rioting begins between Muslim and Christian groups in Jos, Nigeria , results in at least 200 deaths. 2013 – Former cyclist Lance Armstrong confesses to his doping in an airing of Oprah's Next Chapter . [ 25 ] 2013 – Shahzad Luqman is murdered by members of Golden Dawn in Petralona , Athens , leading the creation of new measures to combat race-based attacks in Greece . [ 26 ] 2016 – President Barack Obama announces the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action , an agreement intended to limit Iran's nuclear program. [ 27 ] 2017 – The search for Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 is announced to be suspended. [ 28 ] 2023 – An avalanche strikes Nyingchi, Tibet , killing 28 people. [ 29 ] Births Pre-1600 1342 – Philip II, Duke of Burgundy (died 1404) 1429 – Antonio del Pollaiuolo , Italian artist (diedc. 1498 ) 1463 – Frederick III, Elector of Saxony (died 1525) 1463 – Antoine Duprat , French cardinal (died 1535) 1472 – Guidobaldo da Montefeltro , Italian captain (died 1508) 1484 – George Spalatin , German priest and reformer (died 1545) 1501 – Leonhart Fuchs , German physician and botanist (died 1566) 1504 – Pope Pius V (died 1572) [ 30 ] 1517 – Henry Grey, 1st Duke of Suffolk , English Duke (died 1554) 1560 – Gaspard Bauhin , Swiss botanist, physician, and academic (died 1624) 1574 – Robert Fludd , English physician, astrologer, and mathematician (died 1637) 1593 – William Backhouse , English alchemist and astrologer (died 1662) 1600 – Pedro Calderón de la Barca , Spanish playwright and poet (died 1681) 1601–1900 1612 – Thomas Fairfax , English general and politician (died 1671) 1640 – Jonathan Singletary Dunham , American settler (died 1724) 1659 – Antonio Veracini , Italian violinist and composer (died 1745) 1666 – Antonio Maria Valsalva , Italian anatomist and physician (died 1723) 1686 – Archibald Bower , Scottish historian and author (died 1766) 1693 – Melchor de Navarrete , Spanish colonial governor of Cartagena de Indias (Colombia, 1739 – 1742); of Spanish Florida (1749 – 1752); and of Yucatán (Mexico, 1754 – 1758) (died 1761) [ 31 ] 1706 – Benjamin Franklin , American publisher, inventor, and politician, 6th President of Pennsylvania (died 1790) 1712 – John Stanley , English organist and composer (died 1786) 1719 – William Vernon , American businessman (died 1806) 1728 – Johann Gottfried Müthel , German pianist and composer (died 1788) 1732 – Stanisław August Poniatowski , Polish-Lithuanian king (died 1798) 1734 – François-Joseph Gossec , French composer and conductor (died 1829) 1761 – Sir James Hall, 4th Baronet , Scottish geologist and geophysicist (died 1832) 1789 – August Neander , German historian and theologian (died 1850) 1793 – Antonio José Martínez , Spanish-American priest, rancher and politician (died 1867) 1814 – Ellen Wood , English author (died 1887) 1820 – Anne Brontë , English author and poet (died 1849) 1828 – Lewis A. Grant , American lawyer and general, Medal of Honor recipient (died 1918) 1828 – Ede Reményi , Hungarian violinist and composer (died 1898) 1832 – Henry Martyn Baird , American historian and academic (died 1906) 1834 – August Weismann , German biologist, zoologist, and geneticist (died 1914) 1850 – Joaquim Arcoverde de Albuquerque Cavalcanti , Brazilian cardinal (died 1930) 1850 – Alexander Taneyev , Russian pianist and composer (died 1918) 1851 – A. B. Frost , American author and illustrator (died 1928) 1853 – Alva Belmont , American suffragist (died 1933) [ 32 ] 1853 – T. Alexander Harrison , American painter and academic (died 1930) 1857 – Wilhelm Kienzl , Austrian pianist, composer, and conductor (died 1941) 1857 – Eugene Augustin Lauste , French-American engineer (died 1935) 1858 – Tomás Carrasquilla , Colombian author (died 1940) 1860 – Douglas Hyde , Irish academic and politician, 1st President of Ireland (died 1949) 1863 – David Lloyd George , Welsh lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (died 1945) 1863 – Konstantin Stanislavski , Russian actor and director (died 1938) 1865 – Sir Charles Fergusson, 7th Baronet , English general and politician, 3rd Governor-General of New Zealand (died 1951) 1867 – Carl Laemmle , German-born American film producer, co-founded Universal Studios (died 1939) 1867 – Sir Alfred Rawlinson, 3rd Baronet , English colonel, pilot, and polo player (died 1934) 1871 – David Beatty, 1st Earl Beatty , English admiral (died 1936) 1871 – Nicolae Iorga , Romanian historian and politician, 34th Prime Minister of Romania (died 1940) 1875 – Florencio Sánchez , Uruguayan journalist and playwright (died 1910) 1876 – Frank Hague , American lawyer and politician, 30th Mayor of Jersey City (died 1956) 1877 – Marie Zdeňka Baborová-Čiháková , Czech botanist and zoologist (died 1937) [ 33 ] 1877 – May Gibbs , English-Australian author and illustrator (died 1969) 1880 – Mack Sennett , Canadian-American actor, director, and producer (died 1960) 1881 – Antoni Łomnicki , Polish mathematician and academic (died 1941) 1881 – Harry Price , English psychologist and author (died 1948) 1882 – Noah Beery, Sr. , American actor (died 1946) 1883 – Compton Mackenzie , English-Scottish author, poet, and playwright (died 1972) 1886 – Glenn L. Martin , American pilot and businessman, founded the Glenn L. Martin Company (died 1955) 1887 – Ola Raknes , Norwegian psychoanalyst and philologist (died 1975) 1888 – Babu Gulabrai , Indian philosopher and author (died 1963) 1897 – Marcel Petiot , French physician and serial killer (died 1946) 1898 – Lela Mevorah , Serbian librarian (died 1972) [ 34 ] 1899 – Al Capone , American mob boss (died 1947) 1899 – Robert Maynard Hutchins , American philosopher and academic (died 1977) 1899 – Nevil Shute , English engineer and author (died 1960) 1901–present 1901 – Aron Gurwitsch , Lithuanian-American philosopher and author (died 1973) 1904 – Hem Vejakorn , Thai painter and illustrator (died 1969) 1905 – Ray Cunningham , American baseball player (died 2005) 1905 – Peggy Gilbert , American saxophonist and bandleader (died 2007) 1905 – Eduard Oja , Estonian composer, conductor, educator, and critic (died 1950) 1905 – Guillermo Stábile , Argentinian footballer and manager (died 1966) 1905 – Jan Zahradníček , Czech poet and translator (died 1960) 1907 – Henk Badings , Indonesian-Dutch composer and engineer (died 1987) 1907 – Alfred Wainwright , British fellwalker, guidebook author and illustrator (died 1991) 1908 – Cus D'Amato , American boxing manager and trainer (died 1985) 1911 – Busher Jackson , Canadian ice hockey player (died 1966) 1911 – John S. McCain Jr. , American admiral (died 1981) 1911 – George Stigler , American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (died 1991) 1914 – Anacleto Angelini , Italian-Chilean businessman (died 2007) 1914 – Irving Brecher , American director, producer, and screenwriter (died 2008) 1914 – Howard Marion-Crawford , English actor (died 1969) [ 35 ] 1914 – Paul Royle , Australian lieutenant and pilot (died 2015) 1914 – William Stafford , American poet and author (died 1993) 1916 – Peter Frelinghuysen Jr. , American lieutenant and politician (died 2011) 1917 – M. G. Ramachandran , Indian actor, director, and politician, 3rd Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu (died 1987) 1918 – Keith Joseph , English lawyer and politician, Secretary of State for Education (died 1994) 1918 – George M. Leader , American soldier and politician, 36th Governor of Pennsylvania (died 2013) 1920 – Georges Pichard , French author and illustrator (died 2003) 1921 – Jackie Henderson , Scottish footballer (died 2005) [ 36 ] 1921 – Asghar Khan , Pakistani general and politician (died 2018) 1921 – Charlie Mitten , English footballer and manager (died 2002) [ 37 ] 1921 – Antonio Prohías , Cuban cartoonist (died 1998) 1922 – Luis Echeverría , Mexican academic and politician, 50th President of Mexico (died 2022) [ 38 ] 1922 – Nicholas Katzenbach , American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 65th United States Attorney General (died 2012) 1922 – Betty White , American actress, game show panelist, television personality, and animal rights activist (died 2021) [ 39 ] 1923 – Rangeya Raghav , Indian author and playwright (died 1962) 1924 – Rik De Saedeleer , Belgian footballer and journalist (died 2013) 1924 – Jewel Plummer Cobb , American biologist, cancer researcher, and academic (died 2017) 1925 – Gunnar Birkerts , Latvian-American architect (died 2017) 1925 – Robert Cormier , American author and journalist (died 2000) 1925 – Abdul Hafeez Kardar , Pakistani cricketer and author (died 1996) 1926 – Newton N. Minow , American lawyer and politician (died 2023) [ 40 ] 1926 – Moira Shearer , Scottish-English ballerina and actress (died 2006) 1926 – Clyde Walcott , Barbadian cricketer (died 2006) 1927 – Thomas Anthony Dooley III , American physician and humanitarian (died 1961) 1927 – Eartha Kitt , American actress and singer (died 2008) [ 41 ] 1927 – Harlan Mathews , American lawyer and politician (died 2014) 1927 – E. W. Swackhamer , American director and producer (died 1994) 1928 – Jean Barraqué , French composer (died 1973) 1928 – Vidal Sassoon , English-American hairdresser and businessman (died 2012) [ 42 ] 1929 – Philip Latham , British actor (died 2020) [ 43 ] 1929 – Jacques Plante , Canadian-Swiss ice hockey player, coach, and sportscaster (died 1986) 1929 – Tan Boon Teik , Malaysian-Singaporean lawyer and politician, Attorney-General of Singapore (died 2012) 1931 – James Earl Jones , American actor (died 2024) [ 44 ] 1931 – Douglas Wilder , American sergeant and politician, 66th Governor of Virginia [ 42 ] 1931 – Don Zimmer , American baseball player, coach, and manager (died 2014) 1932 – John Cater , English actor (died 2009) [ 45 ] 1932 – Sheree North , American actress and dancer (died 2005) [ 46 ] 1933 – Dalida , Egyptian-French singer and actress (died 1987) 1933 – Prince Sadruddin Aga Khan , French-Pakistani diplomat, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (died 2003) 1933 – Shari Lewis , American actress, puppeteer/ventriloquist, and television host (died 1998) [ 42 ] 1934 – Donald Cammell , Scottish-American director and screenwriter (died 1996) [ 47 ] 1935 – Ruth Ann Minner , American businesswoman and politician, 72nd Governor of Delaware (died 2021) 1936 – John Boyd , English academic and diplomat, British ambassador to Japan (died 2019) 1936 – A. Thangathurai , Sri Lankan lawyer and politician (died 1997) 1937 – Alain Badiou , French philosopher and academic 1938 – John Bellairs , American author and academic (died 1991) 1938 – Toini Gustafsson , Swedish cross country skier 1939 – Christodoulos of Athens , Greek archbishop (died 2008) 1939 – Maury Povich , American talk show host and producer [ 48 ] 1940 – Nerses Bedros XIX Tarmouni , Egyptian-Armenian patriarch (died 2015) 1940 – Kipchoge Keino , Kenyan athlete [ 42 ] 1940 – Tabaré Vázquez , Uruguayan physician and politician, 39th President of Uruguay (died 2020) 1941 – István Horthy, Jr. , Hungarian physicist and architect 1942 – Muhammad Ali , American boxer and activist (died 2016) [ 49 ] 1942 – Ita Buttrose , Australian journalist and author 1942 – Ulf Hoelscher , German violinist and educator 1942 – Nigel McCulloch , English bishop 1943 – Chris Montez , American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1943 – René Préval , Haitian agronomist and politician, 52nd President of Haiti (died 2017) 1944 – Ann Oakley , English sociologist, author, and academic 1945 – Javed Akhtar , Indian poet, playwright, and composer 1945 – Anne Cutler , Australian psychologist and academic (died 2022) 1947 – Joanna David , English actress [ 48 ] 1947 – Jane Elliot , American actress [ 48 ] 1948 – Davíð Oddsson , Icelandic politician, 21st Prime Minister of Iceland 1949 – Anita Borg , American computer scientist and academic (died 2003) 1949 – Gyude Bryant , Liberian businessman and politician (died 2014) 1949 – Augustin Dumay , French violinist and conductor 1949 – Andy Kaufman , American actor and comedian (died 1984) [ 42 ] 1949 – Mick Taylor , English singer-songwriter and guitarist [ 42 ] 1950 – Luis López Nieves , Puerto Rican-American author and academic 1952 – Tom Deitz , American author (died 2009) [ 50 ] 1952 – Darrell Porter , American baseball player and sportscaster (died 2002) 1952 – Ryuichi Sakamoto , Japanese pianist, composer, and producer (died 2023) [ 51 ] 1953 – Jeff Berlin , American bass player and educator 1953 – Carlos Johnson , American singer and guitarist 1954 – Robert F. Kennedy, Jr. , American environmental lawyer, writer, and conspiracy theorist 1955 – Steve Earle , American singer-songwriter, musician, record producer, author and actor [ 48 ] 1955 – Pietro Parolin , Italian cardinal 1955 – Steve Javie , American basketball player and referee 1956 – Damian Green , English journalist and politician 1956 – Paul Young , English singer-songwriter and guitarist [ 48 ] 1957 – Steve Harvey , American actor, comedian, television personality and game show host [ 52 ] 1957 – Ann Nocenti , American journalist and author 1958 – Tony Kouzarides , English biologist, cancer researcher 1959 – Susanna Hoffs , American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actress [ 48 ] 1960 – John Crawford , American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1960 – Chili Davis , Jamaican-American baseball player and coach 1961 – Brian Helgeland , American director, producer, and screenwriter [ 48 ] 1962 – Jun Azumi , Japanese broadcaster and politician, 46th Japanese Minister of Finance 1962 – Jim Carrey , Canadian-American actor, comedian, and producer [ 48 ] 1962 – Sebastian Junger , American journalist and author [ 42 ] 1962 – Denis O'Hare , American actor and singer [ 48 ] 1963 – Colin Gordon , English footballer, agent, manager and chief executive [ 53 ] 1963 – Kai Hansen , German singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1964 – Michelle Obama , American lawyer and activist, 44th First Lady of the United States [ 48 ] 1964 – John Schuster , Samoan-New Zealand rugby player 1965 – Sylvain Turgeon , Canadian ice hockey player 1966 – Trish Johnson , English golfer 1966 – Joshua Malina , American actor [ 48 ] 1966 – Shabba Ranks , Jamaican rapper, musician, and songwriter [ 48 ] 1967 – Richard Hawley , English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1968 – Rowan Pelling , English journalist and author 1968 – Ilja Leonard Pfeijffer , Dutch author, poet, and scholar 1969 – Naveen Andrews , English actor [ 48 ] 1969 – Lukas Moodysson , Swedish director, screenwriter, and author 1969 – Tiësto , Dutch DJ and producer [ 48 ] 1970 – Cássio Alves de Barros , Brazilian footballer 1970 – Jeremy Roenick , American ice hockey player and actor 1970 – Genndy Tartakovsky , Russian-American animator, director, and producer [ 54 ] 1971 – Giorgos Balogiannis , Greek basketball player 1971 – Richard Burns , English race car driver (died 2005) 1971 – Kid Rock , American singer-songwriter, producer, and actor [ 48 ] 1971 – Sylvie Testud , French actress, director, and screenwriter 1973 – Cuauhtémoc Blanco , Mexican footballer and actor 1973 – Chris Bowen , Australian politician, 37th Treasurer of Australia 1973 – Liz Ellis , Australian netball player and sportscaster 1973 – Aaron Ward , Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster 1974 – Yang Chen , Chinese footballer and manager 1974 – Vesko Kountchev , Bulgarian viola player, composer, and producer 1974 – Derrick Mason , American football player 1975 – Freddy Rodriguez , American actor [ 48 ] 1977 – Leigh Whannell , Australian actor, director, screenwriter, and producer [ 48 ] 1978 – Lisa Llorens , Australian Paralympian [ 55 ] 1978 – Ricky Wilson , English singer-songwriter 1980 – Maksim Chmerkovskiy , Ukrainian-American dancer and choreographer [ 42 ] 1980 – Zooey Deschanel , American singer-songwriter and actress [ 48 ] 1980 – Modestas Stonys , Lithuanian footballer 1981 – Warren Feeney , Northern Irish footballer and manager 1981 – Ray J , American singer, actor, and television personality [ 56 ] 1981 – Michael Zigomanis , Canadian ice hockey player [ 57 ] 1982 – Dwyane Wade , American basketball player [ 42 ] 1982 – Andrew Webster , Australian rugby league player and coach [ 58 ] 1982 – Amanda Wilkinson , Canadian singer [ 48 ] 1983 – Álvaro Arbeloa , Spanish footballer 1983 – Ryan Gage , English actor [ 48 ] 1983 – Johannes Herber , German basketball player 1983 – Rick Kelly , Australian race car driver 1983 – Marcelo Garcia , Brazilian martial artist 1984 – Calvin Harris , Scottish singer-songwriter, DJ, and producer [ 48 ] 1984 – Dexter Lumis , American wrestler [ 59 ] 1985 – Pablo Barrientos , Argentinian footballer 1985 – Simone Simons , Dutch singer-songwriter 1986 – Viktor Stålberg , Swedish ice hockey player [ 60 ] 1987 – Cody Decker , American baseball player 1987 – Oleksandr Usyk , Ukrainian boxer [ 61 ] 1988 – Andrea Antonelli , Italian motorcycle racer (died 2013) 1988 – Earl Clark , American basketball player [ 62 ] 1988 – Will Genia , Australian rugby player 1988 – Jonathan Keltz , American actor [ 48 ] 1988 – Héctor Moreno , Mexican footballer 1989 – Taylor Jordan , American baseball player 1989 – Kelly Marie Tran , American actress [ 48 ] 1990 – Santiago Tréllez , Colombian footballer 1990 – Tyler Zeller , American basketball player [ 63 ] 1991 – Trevor Bauer , American baseball player 1991 – Willa Fitzgerald , American actress [ 42 ] 1991 – Esapekka Lappi , Finnish rally driver 1991 – Alise Post , American BMX rider 1992 – Stanislav Galiev , Russian ice hockey player [ 64 ] 1994 – Lucy Boynton , American-English actress [ 42 ] 1994 – Mark Steketee , Australian cricketer 1995 – Indya Moore , American actor and model [ 65 ] 1996 – Allonzo Trier , American basketball player [ 66 ] 1997 – Jake Paul , American boxer, actor, rapper, and social media personality [ 67 ] 1997 – Kyle Tucker , American baseball player [ 68 ] 1998 – Sophie Molineux , Australian cricketer 1998 – Jeff Reine-Adélaïde , French footballer 1999 – Isa Briones , American actor and singer [ 69 ] 2000 – Kang Chan-hee , South Korean singer and actor [ 70 ] 2000 – Devlin DeFrancesco , Canadian race car driver [ 71 ] 2000 – Ayo Dosunmu , American basketball player [ 72 ] 2001 – Enzo Fernández , Argentinian footballer [ 73 ] 2002 – Samuel , American singer based in South Korea. [ 74 ] 2003 – Robin Roefs , Dutch footballer [ 75 ] 2005 – Peio Canales , Spanish footballer [ 76 ] Deaths Pre-1600 395 – Theodosius I , Roman emperor (born 347) 644 – Sulpitius the Pious , French bishop and saint 764 – Joseph of Freising , German bishop 1040 – Mas'ud I of Ghazni , Sultan of the Ghaznavid Empire (born 998) 1156 – André de Montbard , fifth Grand Master of the Knights Templar 1168 – Thierry, Count of Flanders (born 1099) 1229 – Albert of Riga , German bishop (born 1165) 1329 – Roseline of Villeneuve , Carthusian nun (born 1263) 1334 – John of Brittany, Earl of Richmond (born 1266) 1345 – Henry of Asti , Greek patriarch 1345 – Martino Zaccaria , Genoese Lord of Chios 1369 – Peter I of Cyprus (born 1328) 1456 – Elisabeth of Lorraine-Vaudémont , French translator (born 1395) 1468 – Skanderbeg , Albanian soldier and politician (born 1405) 1523 – Elisabeth of Hesse-Marburg , German landgravine (born 1466) [ 77 ] [ 78 ] 1588 – Qi Jiguang , Chinese general (born 1528) 1598 – Feodor I of Russia (born 1557) 1601–1900 1617 – Fausto Veranzio , Croatian bishop and lexicographer (born 1551) 1705 – John Ray , English botanist and historian (born 1627) 1718 – Benjamin Church , American colonel (born 1639) 1737 – Matthäus Daniel Pöppelmann , German architect (born 1662) 1738 – Jean-François Dandrieu , French organist and composer (born 1682) 1751 – Tomaso Albinoni , Italian violinist and composer (born 1671) 1826 – Juan Crisóstomo Arriaga , Spanish-French composer (born 1806) 1834 – Giovanni Aldini , Italian physicist and academic (born 1762) 1850 – Elizabeth Simcoe , English-Canadian painter and author (born 1762) [ 79 ] 1861 – Lola Montez , Irish actress and dancer (born 1821) 1863 – Horace Vernet , French painter (born 1789) 1869 – Alexander Dargomyzhsky , Russian composer (born 1813) 1878 – Edward Shepherd Creasy , English historian and jurist (born 1812) 1884 – Hermann Schlegel , German ornithologist and herpetologist (born 1804) 1887 – William Giblin , Australian lawyer and politician, 13th Premier of Tasmania (born 1840) 1888 – Big Bear , Canadian tribal chief (born 1825) 1891 – George Bancroft , American historian and politician, 17th United States Secretary of the Navy (born 1800) 1893 – Rutherford B. Hayes , American general, lawyer, and politician, 19th President of the United States (born 1822) 1896 – Augusta Hall, Baroness Llanover , Welsh writer and patron of the arts (born 1802) [ 80 ] 1901–present 1903 – Ignaz Wechselmann , Hungarian architect and philanthropist (born 1828) 1908 – Ferdinand IV, Grand Duke of Tuscany (born 1835) 1909 – Agathon Meurman , Finnish politician and journalist (born 1826) [ 81 ] 1909 – Francis Smith , Australian lawyer, judge, and politician, 4th Premier of Tasmania (born 1819) 1911 – Francis Galton , English polymath, anthropologist, and geographer (born 1822) 1927 – Juliette Gordon Low , American founder of the Girl Scouts of the USA (born 1860) 1930 – Gauhar Jaan , One of the first performers to record music on 78 rpm records in India. (born 1873) 1931 – Grand Duke Peter Nikolaevich of Russia (born 1864) 1932 – Ahmet Derviş , Turkish general (born 1881) 1932 – Albert Jacka , Australian captain, Victoria Cross recipient (born 1893) 1933 – Louis Comfort Tiffany , American stained glass artist (born 1848) 1936 – Mateiu Caragiale , Romanian journalist, author, and poet (born 1885) 1942 – Walther von Reichenau , German field marshal (born 1884) 1947 – Pyotr Krasnov , Russian historian and general (born 1869) 1947 – Jean-Marie-Rodrigue Villeneuve , Canadian cardinal (born 1883) 1951 – Jyoti Prasad Agarwala , Indian poet, playwright, and director (born 1903) 1952 – Walter Briggs Sr. , American businessman (born 1877) 1961 – Patrice Lumumba , Congolese politician, 1st Prime Minister of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (born 1925) 1970 – Simon Kovar , Russian-American bassoon player and educator (born 1890) 1970 – Billy Stewart , American rhythm and blues singer and pianist (born 1937) 1972 – Betty Smith , American author and playwright (born 1896) 1977 – Dougal Haston , Scottish mountaineer (born 1940) 1977 – Gary Gilmore , American murderer (born 1940) 1981 – Loukas Panourgias , Greek footballer and lawyer (born 1899) 1984 – Kostas Giannidis , Greek pianist, composer, and conductor (born 1903) 1987 – Hugo Fregonese , Argentinian director and screenwriter (born 1908) 1987 – Lawrence Kohlberg , American psychologist and author (born 1927) [ 82 ] 1988 – Percy Qoboza , South African journalist and author (born 1938) 1990 – Panka Pelishek , Bulgarian pianist and music teacher (born 1899) [ 83 ] 1991 – Olav V of Norway (born 1903) 1992 – Frank Pullen , English soldier and businessman (born 1915) 1993 – Albert Hourani , English-Lebanese historian and academic (born 1915) 1994 – Yevgeni Ivanov , Russian spy (born 1926) 1994 – Helen Stephens , American runner, shot putter, and discus thrower (born 1918) 1996 – Barbara Jordan , American lawyer and politician (born 1936) 1996 – Sylvia Lawler , English geneticist (born 1922) 1997 – Bert Kelly , Australian farmer and politician, 20th Australian Minister for the Navy (born 1912) 1997 – Clyde Tombaugh , American astronomer and academic, discovered Pluto (born 1906) 2000 – Philip Jones , English trumpet player and educator (born 1928) 2000 – Ion Rațiu , Romanian journalist and politician (born 1917) 2002 – Camilo José Cela , Spanish author and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (born 1916) 2002 – Roman Personov , Russian physicist and academic (born 1932) 2003 – Richard Crenna , American actor and director (born 1926) 2004 – Raymond Bonham Carter , English banker (born 1929) 2004 – Harry Brecheen , American baseball player and coach (born 1914) 2004 – Ray Stark , American film producer (born 1915) 2004 – Noble Willingham , American actor (born 1931) 2005 – Charlie Bell , Australian businessman (born 1960) 2005 – Virginia Mayo , American actress, singer, and dancer (born 1920) 2005 – Albert Schatz , American microbiologist and academic (born 1920) 2005 – Zhao Ziyang , Chinese politician, 3rd Premier of the People's Republic of China (born 1919) 2006 – Pierre Grondin , Canadian surgeon (born 1925) 2007 – Art Buchwald , American journalist and author (born 1925) 2007 – Yevhen Kushnaryov , Ukrainian engineer and politician (born 1951) 2007 – Uwe Nettelbeck , German record producer, journalist and film critic (born 1940) [ 84 ] 2008 – Bobby Fischer , American chess player and author (born 1943) [ 85 ] 2008 – Ernie Holmes , American football player, wrestler, and actor (born 1948) 2009 – Anders Isaksson , Swedish journalist and historian (born 1943) 2010 – Gaines Adams , American football player (born 1983) 2010 – Jyoti Basu , Indian politician and 9th Chief Minister of West Bengal (born 1914) 2010 – Michalis Papakonstantinou , Greek journalist and politician, Foreign Minister of Greece (born 1919) 2010 – Erich Segal , American author and screenwriter (born 1937) 2011 – Don Kirshner , American songwriter and producer (born 1934) 2012 – Julius Meimberg , German soldier and pilot (born 1917) 2012 – Johnny Otis , American singer-songwriter and producer (born 1921) 2012 – Marty Springstead , American baseball player and umpire (born 1937) 2013 – Mehmet Ali Birand , Turkish journalist and author (born 1941) 2013 – Jakob Arjouni , German author (born 1964) 2013 – Yves Debay , Belgian journalist (born 1954) 2013 – John Nkomo , Zimbabwean politician, Vice President of Zimbabwe (born 1934) 2013 – Lizbeth Webb , English soprano and actress (born 1926) 2014 – Syedna Mohammed Burhanuddin , Indian spiritual leader, 52nd Da'i al-Mutlaq (born 1915) 2014 – Francine Lalonde , Canadian educator and politician (born 1940) 2014 – Alistair McAlpine, Baron McAlpine of West Green , English businessman and politician (born 1942) 2014 – John J. McGinty III , American captain, Medal of Honor recipient (born 1940) 2014 – Sunanda Pushkar , Indian-Canadian businesswoman (born 1962) 2014 – Suchitra Sen , Indian film actress (born 1931) [ 86 ] 2015 – Ken Furphy , English footballer and manager (born 1931) 2015 – Faten Hamama , Egyptian actress and producer (born 1931) 2015 – Don Harron , Canadian actor and screenwriter (born 1924) 2016 – Blowfly , American singer-songwriter and producer (born 1939) 2016 – Melvin Day , New Zealand painter and historian (born 1923) 2016 – V. Rama Rao , Indian lawyer and politician, 12th Governor of Sikkim (born 1935) 2016 – Sudhindra Thirtha , Indian religious leader (born 1926) 2017 – Tirrel Burton , American football player and coach (born 1929) 2017 – Colo , American western lowland gorilla , first gorilla born in captivity and oldest recorded (born 1956) [ 87 ] [ 88 ] 2019 – S. Balakrishnan , Malayalam movie composer (born 1948) [ 89 ] 2020 – Derek Fowlds , British actor (born1937) [ 90 ] 2021 – Rasheed Naz , Pakistani film and television actor (born 1948) [ 91 ] 2022 – Birju Maharaj , Indian dancer (born 1937) [ 92 ] 2023 – Lucile Randon , French supercentenarian (born 1904) [ 93 ] 2025 – Didier Guillaume , French politician, 25th Minister of State of Monaco (born 1959) [ 94 ] 2025 – Jules Feiffer , American cartoonist, playwright, screenwriter, and educator (born 1929) [ 95 ] 2025 – Punsalmaagiin Ochirbat , Mongolian politician, 1st President of Mongolia (born 1942) [ 96 ] 2025 – Denis Law , Scottish footballer (born 1940) [ 97 ] [ 98 ] Holidays and observances Christian feast day : Anthony the Great Blessed Angelo Paoli Blessed Gamelbert of Michaelsbuch Charles Gore ( Church of England ) Jenaro Sánchez Delgadillo (one of Saints of the Cristero War ) Mildgyth Our Lady of Pontmain Sulpitius the Pious January 17 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Anthony the Great Blessed Angelo Paoli Blessed Gamelbert of Michaelsbuch Charles Gore ( Church of England ) Jenaro Sánchez Delgadillo (one of Saints of the Cristero War ) Mildgyth Our Lady of Pontmain Sulpitius the Pious January 17 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) National Day ( Menorca , Spain ) The opening ceremony of Patras Carnival , celebrated until Clean Monday . ( Patras , Greece ) References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Anthony A. 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Retrieved June 20, 2023 . ^ "Noted music composer S Balakrishnan passes away" . Mathrubhumi . Archived from the original on 2019-01-19 . Retrieved 2019-01-17 . ^ Louise Randell. "Yes Minister and Heartbeat star Derek Fowlds dead at 82" . MSN . Retrieved 2020-01-18 . ^ "Veteran actor Rashid Naz passes away at 73" . Images . 2022-01-17 . Retrieved 2025-08-07 . ^ "Leading Indian dancer Birju Maharaj dies" . Reuters . 2022-01-17 . Retrieved 2022-01-18 . ^ "The world's oldest known person, French nun Lucile Randon, dead at 118" . France 24 . 2023-01-17 . Retrieved 2023-03-05 . ^ Beaudet, Florence (January 17, 2025). "Drôme : Didier Guillaume, ancien président du département et ancien ministre de l'Agriculture, est mort" . France Bleu (in French) . Retrieved January 18, 2025 . ^ Webster, Andy (January 21, 2025). "Jules Feiffer, Acerbic Cartoonist, Writer and Much Else, Dies at 95" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved January 21, 2025 . ^ "Mongolian ex-president passes away" . XinhauNet . January 18, 2025 . Retrieved January 18, 2025 . ^ "Denis Law obituary" . The Guardian, UK . January 19, 2025 . Retrieved January 19, 2025 . ^ "Man Utd and Scotland legend Law dies aged 84" . BBC Sport . January 17, 2025 . Retrieved January 24, 2025 . External links BBC: On This Day The New York Times : On This Day Historical Events on January 17 .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Months and days of the year v t e Today: January 16 , 2026 [refresh] January 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 February 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 March 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 April 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 May 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 June 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 July 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 August 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 September 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 October 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 November 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 December 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Related: List of non-standard dates Related: List of non-standard dates Days of January CS1 errors: ISBN date CS1 Czech-language sources (cs) CS1 Korean-language sources (ko) CS1 Dutch-language sources (nl) CS1 French-language sources (fr) Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages Wikipedia pending changes protected pages Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles using Mw magnitude scale Commons link from Wikidata This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 03:25 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early life and career 2 Political career Toggle Political career subsection 2.1 Pre-independence 2.2 Federation of Malaysia 2.3 Post-independence 2.3.1 Minister for Interior and Defence (1965–1967) 2.3.2 Minister for Finance (1967–1970) 2.3.3 Minister for Defence (1970–1979) 2.3.4 Deputy Prime Minister (1973–1984) 2.4 Other contributions 2.4.1 Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) 2.4.2 Defence Science Organisation (DSO) 2.4.3 Cultural, sports and recreation 2.1 Pre-independence 2.2 Federation of Malaysia 2.3 Post-independence 2.3.1 Minister for Interior and Defence (1965–1967) 2.3.2 Minister for Finance (1967–1970) 2.3.3 Minister for Defence (1970–1979) 2.3.4 Deputy Prime Minister (1973–1984) 2.3.1 Minister for Interior and Defence (1965–1967) 2.3.2 Minister for Finance (1967–1970) 2.3.3 Minister for Defence (1970–1979) 2.3.4 Deputy Prime Minister (1973–1984) 2.4 Other contributions 2.4.1 Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) 2.4.2 Defence Science Organisation (DSO) 2.4.3 Cultural, sports and recreation 2.4.1 Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) 2.4.2 Defence Science Organisation (DSO) 2.4.3 Cultural, sports and recreation 3 Personal life 4 Death 5 Honours and legacy 6 Publications 7 References Toggle References subsection 7.1 Notes 7.2 Citations 7.3 Sources 7.1 Notes 7.2 Citations 7.3 Sources 8 Further reading Toggle Further reading subsection 8.1 Books 8.2 Eulogies at the state funeral 8.3 Letters of condolence 8.4 News reports 8.1 Books 8.2 Eulogies at the state funeral 8.3 Letters of condolence 8.4 News reports 9 External links Goh Keng Swee Български Deutsch Bahasa Indonesia मैथिली मराठी Bahasa Melayu Русский Simple English Tiếng Việt 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Goh Keng Swee DUT .mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal} 吳慶瑞 Goh in 1948 2nd Deputy Prime Minister of Singapore In office 20 March 1973 – 1 January 1985 Serving with S. Rajaratnam (1980–1985) Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Toh Chin Chye Succeeded by Goh Chok Tong Ong Teng Cheong Chairman of the Monetary Authority of Singapore In office August 1980 – December 1997 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Hon Sui Sen Succeeded by Richard Hu Minister for Education In office 12 February 1979 – 2 January 1985 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Chua Sian Chin Succeeded by Tony Tan Minister for Defence In office 11 August 1970 – 11 February 1979 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Lim Kim San (as Minister for Interior and Defence) Succeeded by Howe Yoon Chong Minister for Finance In office 17 August 1967 – 10 August 1970 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Lim Kim San Succeeded by Hon Sui Sen In office 5 June 1959 – 8 August 1965 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Office established Succeeded by Lim Kim San Minister for Interior and Defence In office 9 August 1965 – 16 August 1967 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Office established Succeeded by Lim Kim San Member of the Malaysian Parliament for Singapore In office 2 November 1963 [ 1 ] – 9 August 1965 Preceded by Position established Succeeded by Position abolished Member of the Singapore Parliament for Kreta Ayer In office 30 May 1959 – 4 December 1984 Preceded by Constituency established Succeeded by Richard Hu ( PAP ) Personal details Born Robert Goh Keng Swee [ 2 ] ( 1918-10-06 ) 6 October 1918 Malacca , Straits Settlements Died 14 May 2010 (2010-05-14) (aged 91) Singapore Cause of death Bladder cancer Resting place Mandai Crematorium and Columbarium Nationality Singaporean Party People's Action Party Spouse(s) Alice Woon (m. 1942 div. 1986) Phua Swee Liang (m. 1991) [ 3 ] Children Goh Kian Chee (son) [ 3 ] Relatives Goh Hood Keng (uncle) Tan Cheng Lock (maternal uncle) Tan Siew Sin (maternal cousin) Education London School of Economics ( BSc , PhD ) Signature Military service Branch/service Singapore Volunteer Corps Years of service 1939–1942 Rank Colonel [ a ] Unit 20th People's Defence Force [ 4 ] Goh Keng Swee Traditional Chinese 吳慶瑞 Simplified Chinese 吴庆瑞 Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Wú Qìngruì Southern Min Hokkien POJ Gô͘ Khèng-sūi Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Wú Qìngruì Southern Min Hokkien POJ Gô͘ Khèng-sūi Goh Keng Swee [ b ] DUT (born Robert Goh Keng Swee ; [ 2 ] 6 October 1918 – 14 May 2010) was a Singaporean statesman and economist who served as the second Deputy Prime Minister of Singapore between 1973 and 1985. Goh is widely recognised as one of the founding fathers of modern Singapore. Goh was a member of the People's Action Party (PAP), which has governed the country continuously since independence. He was also a prominent member of the first generation of political leaders following Singapore's independence in 1965. He served as Minister for Finance from 1959 to 1965 and again from 1967 to 1970. He was Minister for Interior and Defence between 1965 and 1967, Minister for Defence from 1970 to 1979 and Minister for Education from 1979 to 1985. Throughout his entire political career, he represented the constituency of Kreta Ayer . As Minister for Interior and Defence, Goh's main objective was to strengthen the country's military and domestic security capabilities after the British had withdrawn its troops from Singapore, which made the newly independent nation vulnerable. A key policy was the creation of National Service (NS), a mandatory conscription system for able-bodied young males. Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew had mentioned that he had wanted a conscription consisting both men and women, similar to Israel . However, Goh rejected it, citing that the labour cost at least in its initial years would be too great for the newly independent nation. During Goh's tenure as Minister for Finance, he declined to allow the central bank to issue currency, favouring instead a currency board system as this would signal to citizens, academics and the financial world that governments cannot "spend their way to prosperity"; the Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS) was later established in 1971. In 1981, Goh also expressed the view that the central bank need not hold large amounts of cash in reserve to defend the currency, proposing that the Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) be established to invest excess reserves. At the time, it was unprecedented for a non- commodity -based economy to have such a sovereign wealth fund . Goh died in 2010 at the age of 91, and he was accorded a state funeral . Early life and career Goh was born in Malacca on 6 October 1918, then a part of the Straits Settlements , [ 5 ] into a middle class Peranakan family and the fifth of six children. [ 6 ] His father Goh Leng Inn was a manager of a rubber plantation, while his mother Tan Swee Eng, [ 7 ] came from the family that produced the Malaysian politicians Tan Cheng Lock and his son, Tan Siew Sin , who would later become Goh's lifelong political opponent. [ 8 ] [ 9 ] Goh was given the Christian name Robert, which he disliked and refused to respond to. When he was two years old, his family moved from Malacca to Singapore where his maternal grandparents owned several properties. The Gohs later relocated to the Pasir Panjang rubber estate when his father found work there and became manager in 1933. Like many Peranakan families, the Gohs spoke both English and Malay at home; church services were held at home on Sundays in Malay. [ 2 ] Goh's father Leng Inn and his brothers-in-law Chew Cheng Yong and Goh Hood Keng taught at the Anglo-Chinese School and were involved in the Middle Road Baba Church , where Hood Keng was pastor. Goh attended the church as well. [ 10 ] Goh attended the Anglo-Chinese School [ 6 ] between 1927 and 1936, where he ranked second in his class in the Senior Cambridge examinations. He graduated from Raffles College (now the National University of Singapore ) in 1939 with a Class II Diploma in Arts, with special distinction in economics . [ 7 ] After graduation, Goh joined the colonial Civil Service as a tax collector with the War Tax Department, though his superiors noted he was not very good at the job and he was nearly dismissed. [ 6 ] Shortly after the start of the Second World War , he joined the Singapore Volunteer Corps , a local militia, but returned to his previous work after the fall of Singapore . In 1942, Goh married Alice Woon, a secretary and colleague, [ 6 ] and they had one son, Goh Kian Chee, two years later. After the Japanese occupation ended, Goh moved his family back to Singapore in 1946 and joined the Department of Social Welfare, becoming a supervisor of its Research Section six months later. [ 7 ] Goh earned a scholarship to study at the London School of Economics . While in London, he met fellow students seeking independence for British Malaya , including Abdul Razak , Maurice Baker, Lee Kuan Yew and Toh Chin Chye . He was founding chairman of the Malayan Forum , a student discussion group formed in 1948. [ 5 ] [ 7 ] Goh graduated in 1951 with a first class honours in economics and won the William Farr Prize for the highest marks in statistics . [ 5 ] Returning to the Department of Social Welfare, he was appointed Assistant Secretary of Research. In 1952, together with fellow civil servant Kenneth Michael Byrne , he formed the Council of Joint Action to oppose salary and promotion policies favouring Europeans over Asians. Byrne later became Minister for Labour and Minister for Law . [ 7 ] Goh returned to the London School of Economics in 1954 for doctoral studies, supported by a University of London scholarship. He completed his PhD in economics in 1956, [ 11 ] and returned to the Department of Social Welfare, serving as assistant director and then Director. In 1958, he became Director of the Social and Economic Research Division in the Chief Minister's Office before resigning from the civil service in August to work full-time for the People's Action Party (PAP). [ 7 ] Political career Pre-independence Goh was a key member of the PAP's Central Executive Committee (CEC), and serving as vice-chairman. Goh contested in Kreta Ayer during the 1959 general election and won. He was subsequently elected into the Legislative Assembly on 30 May 1959, [ 12 ] and appointed Minister for Finance under Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew 's first Cabinet . As Minister for Finance, Goh assumed the stewardship of Singapore's economy . As a budget deficit of S$14 million was forecast that year, he introduced stringent fiscal discipline which including cutting civil service salaries. As a result of these measures, he was able to announce at the end of the year when delivering the budget that the government had achieved a surplus of $1 million. [ 13 ] Goh initiated the setting up of the Economic Development Board (EDB) which was established in August 1961 to attract foreign multinational corporations to invest in Singapore. [ 5 ] [ 14 ] The next year, he started the development of the Jurong industrial estate on the western end of the island which was then a swamp, offering incentives to local and foreign businesses to locate there. [ 5 ] [ 7 ] According to former Permanent Secretary Sim Kee Boon , Goh admitted that the Jurong project was "an act of faith and he himself jokingly said that this could prove to be Goh's folly". [ 14 ] Nonetheless, Goh also felt strongly that "the only way to avoid making mistakes is not to do anything. And that... will be the ultimate mistake." [ 15 ] In the 1960s, there were great pressures from communist agitators working through Chinese-medium schools and trade unions. Divisions existed within the PAP as well, with a pro-communist faction working to wrest control of the party from the moderate wing, of which Goh and Lee Kuan Yew were key members. A key source of division was the issue of merger with Malaya to form a new state of Malaysia. Goh and his fellow moderates believed this was a necessary condition for Singapore's economic development because Malaya was a key economic hinterland; merger would also provide an alternate vision against communism for Singapore's Chinese majority. In July 1961, 16 members of the pro-communist faction broke away from the PAP to form the Barisan Sosialis , and captured control of the main trade unions . Federation of Malaysia In 1961, the Singapore Government secured approval from Malaysian Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman for a merger, motivated in part by the Tunku's desire to stabilise the security situation in Singapore and to counter the perceived communist threat by the Malayan Communist Party . In 1963, Singapore joined Malaya , along with Sabah and Sarawak , to form the Federation of Malaysia. [ 16 ] However, the merger soon proved problematic for Singapore's leaders. Fundamental disagreements emerged over political and economic principles, particularly the issue of Malay dominance . Communal tensions escalated into violence in 1964, incited by both Malay and Chinese activists in Singapore. According to Lee, Goh played a key role in safeguarding Singapore's interests, especially in economic disputes with the Malaysian Minister of Finance and his own cousin Tan Siew Sin , whom he believed acted in hostility toward Singapore. After two difficult years within the Federation, Lee asked Goh to negotiate with Malaysian Deputy Prime Minister Tun Abdul Razak and Minister for External Affairs Ismail Abdul Rahman in July 1965. The aim was to explore the possibility of a looser arrangement for Singapore within Malaysia. However, following the discussions, all parties concluded that a clean break would be in the best interests of both sides. Tunku Abdul Rahman ultimately agreed to this course of action, paving the way for Singapore's separation from Malaysia. [ 17 ] Goh maintained a secret dossier that he codenamed " Albatross ", which contains files and notes from the months leading up to Singapore's independence. According to one of the file's documents, authored by Goh himself, Goh chose not to follow Lee's orders to negotiate for a "looser arrangement" but only ever broached separation with Tunku. Writing in his memoirs, Lee claimed that he only realised that Goh "never pressed Razak for a looser rearrangement as I had asked him to" in 1994. [ 18 ] Post-independence Minister for Interior and Defence (1965–1967) Upon the independence of Singapore in 1965, Goh relinquished his portfolio of Minister for Finance and became Minister for Interior and Defence in 1967, assuming responsibilities for strengthening Singapore's military and domestic security capabilities. A key policy was the creation of National Service , a mandatory conscription system for able-bodied young males. [ 19 ] Minister for Finance (1967–1970) Goh served as Minister for Finance again between 1967 and 1970, [ 5 ] [ 7 ] during which he declined to allow the central bank to issue currency, favouring instead a currency board system in the form of the Board of Commissioners of Currency, Singapore , as this would signal to citizens, academics and the financial world that governments cannot "spend their way to prosperity". Minister for Defence (1970–1979) On 11 August 1970, he was reappointed Minister for Defence . [ 5 ] [ 7 ] Deputy Prime Minister (1973–1984) On 1 March 1973, [ 12 ] Goh was appointed Deputy Prime Minister concurrently with his other Cabinet portfolio. [ 7 ] On 12 February 1979, Goh moved on from the Ministry of Defence to the Ministry of Education , where his Goh Report [ 20 ] greatly influenced the development of Singapore's education system. He was described as both a key political and strategic leader responsible for the transformation of the system over 30 years from "fair" to "great", according to a November 2010 McKinsey report. [ 21 ] He set up the Curriculum Development Institute, and introduced key policies such as religious education—subsequently discontinued and, in 1980, the channelling of students into different programmes of study according to their learning abilities, known as "streaming". [ 22 ] Goh served two terms as Minister for Education, his first term ended in 1980, and his second following the 1980 general election from 1981 until his retirement in 1985. From 1 June 1980, he was redesignated First Deputy Prime Minister upon S. Rajaratnam being made Second Deputy Prime Minister, and served as Chairman of the Monetary Authority of Singapore until he stepped down from Parliament on 3 December 1984, at the age of 66. [ 5 ] [ 7 ] [ 12 ] In a tribute to mark the occasion, Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew wrote: "A whole generation of Singaporeans take their present standard of living for granted because you had laid the foundations of the economy of modern Singapore." [ 23 ] Other contributions Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) In 1981, Goh expressed the view that the central bank need not hold large amounts of cash in reserve to defend the currency, proposing that the Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) be established to invest excess reserves. At the time, it was unprecedented for a non- commodity -based economy to have such a sovereign wealth fund . [ 24 ] The foreign merchant bank, Rothschild, advised on the GIC. [ 25 ] Defence Science Organisation (DSO) In 1971, Goh put together the Electronic Warfare Study Group, a team of newly graduated engineers who had excelled in their university studies that was headed by Tay Eng Soon , then a university lecturer. The group worked on Project Magpie, a secret project to develop Singapore's defence technology capabilities. In 1977, the group was renamed the Defence Science Organisation (DSO). Originally part of the Ministry of Defence, the organisation became a non-profit corporation called DSO National Laboratories in 1997. [ 26 ] Cultural, sports and recreation Goh was also responsible for projects that sought to improve Singaporeans' cultural and leisure life, such as the Jurong Bird Park , Singapore Zoo and the Singapore Symphony Orchestra . [ 27 ] He backed the construction of the Kreta Ayer People's Theatre in his constituency as a venue for Chinese opera performances. [ 28 ] In 1968, Goh encouraged the establishment of the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. Goh was also instrumental in introducing rugby in the Singapore Armed Forces and later in schools. In recognition of his role in promoting the sport, the Schools "C" Division Cup is named after him. [ 29 ] Impressed by an oceanarium in the Bahamas , he contacted the Sentosa Development Corporation and persuaded them to build an oceanarium in Singapore. [ 6 ] Underwater World opened in 1991. Personal life In 1986, Goh divorced his first wife Alice. In 1991, he married his former Ministry of Education colleague Phua Swee Liang. [ 6 ] [ 7 ] Goh suffered his first stroke in 1999, and a subsequent one in 2000 which affected the vision in his right eye. [ 30 ] According to Goh's daughter-in-law Tan Siok Sun, the medical condition caused him to become withdrawn and introverted. In July 2007, Tan published a biography titled Goh Keng Swee: A Portrait . Goh's second wife issued a statement claiming that Goh had not been consulted on the book and had indicated to her that he did not want any book to be written about him. "Therefore, the publication of this book is contrary to his wishes, and is a show of disregard and utmost disrespect to him." In an interview with The Straits Times , Tan said she did not start the dispute between Mrs. Goh and herself, nor did she wish to prolong it. [ 31 ] After retirement from politics, Goh continued to be active in public life, serving as Deputy Chairman of GIC between 1981 and 1994, Economic Adviser to the State Council of the People's Republic of China on Coastal Development and Adviser on Tourism in 1985, Deputy Chairman of the Monetary Authority of Singapore between 1985 and 1992, Chairman of the Singapore Totalisator Board between 1988 and 1990, Director of Gateway Technologies Services Pte. Ltd. from 1991 onward, Adviser to the United Overseas Bank Group from 1993 onward, Chairman of N. M. Rothschild & Sons (Singapore) Ltd. from 1994 onward, and vice-chairman of Hong Leong Asia Ltd. from 1995 onward. [ 5 ] Goh was also chairman of the Board of Governors of the Institute of East Asian Philosophies between 1983 and 1992, which was founded to study Confucianism . The institute later turned its focus on China's political and economic development, renaming itself the Institute of East Asian Political Economy, and Goh continued as Executive Chairman and chairman of the Board of Governors until 1995. [ 7 ] In April 1997, the institute was reconstituted as the East Asian Institute, an autonomous research organisation under the auspices of the National University of Singapore . [ 32 ] Death On 14 May 2010, Goh died in the early morning at his home in Dunbar Walk off East Coast Road in Siglap , at the age of 91. His death was as a result of his old age and pneumonia. [ 33 ] His body lay in state at Parliament House from 20 to 22 May, [ 34 ] and there was a state funeral on 23 May 2010 at the Singapore Conference Hall followed by a private ceremony for family members at the Mandai Crematorium . [ 35 ] The latter was conducted by the pastor-in-charge of Barker Road Methodist Church, with a message delivered by the Bishop of the Methodist Church in Singapore , Robert M. Solomon . [ 10 ] As a mark of respect, State flags at all Government buildings were flown at half-mast from 20 to 23 May. [ 36 ] Honours and legacy In 1966, Goh was made an Honorary Fellow of the London school of Economics . In 1972, he was the recipient of the Ramon Magsaysay Award for Government Services, which is often regarded as "Asia's Nobel Prize". [ 37 ] It is awarded to people who have demonstrated integrity in government, courageous service to the people, and pragmatic idealism within a democratic society. That same year, the Philippine Government conferred upon him the Order of Sikatuna , which is given to diplomats, officials and nationals of foreign states who have rendered conspicuous services in fostering, developing and strengthening relations between their country and the Philippines. [ 5 ] Following his retirement from politics, Goh was awarded the Order of Temasek (First Class, now known as High Distinction) in 1985, Singapore's highest civilian honour and second overall after the Star of Temasek . He was also presented with the LSE's Distinguished Alumnus Award on 21 January 1989, [ 38 ] and made the first Distinguished Fellow of the Economic Development Board Society in 1991. [ 5 ] Goh is known as one of Singapore's founding fathers. [ 13 ] [ 39 ] During the National Day Rally on 29 August 2010, Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong announced that the Singapore Command and Staff College , where senior officers of the Singapore Armed Forces receive training; and a complex to be constructed at the Ministry of Education's North Buona Vista Road headquarters for specialist teacher training academies in English language, physical education, sports and the arts would be respectively named the Goh Keng Swee Command and Staff College and the Goh Keng Swee Centre for Education. [ 40 ] Publications .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} The Economic Front: From a Malayan Point of View . Singapore: Government Printers. 1940. OCLC 226068826 . . Urban Incomes & Housing: A Report on the Social Survey of Singapore, 1953–54 . Singapore: [Department of Social Welfare]. 1956. OCLC 504452751 . . Techniques of National Income Estimation in Under-developed Territories, with Special Reference to Asia and Africa [Unpublished PhD thesis, University of London, London School of Economics, 1956] . London: University of London Library, Photographic Section. 1978. OCLC 63630985 . . This is How Your Money is Spent [Budget statement by Goh Keng Swee, Minister for Finance; Towards Socialism, vol. 3] . Singapore: Ministry of Finance . 1960. OCLC 63838096 . . Some Problems of Industrialisation [Towards Socialism; vol. 7] . Singapore: Government Printing Office. 1963. OCLC 17270555 . . Communism in Non-Communist Asian Countries . Singapore: Printed by the Government Printing Office for the Ministry of Culture . c. 1967. OCLC 433094 . . The Economics of Modernization and other Essays . [Singapore]: Asia Pacific Press. 1972. OCLC 534320 . . Later editions: The Economics of Modernization . Singapore: Federal Publications. 1995. ISBN 978-981-01-2317-8 . . The Economics of Modernization . Singapore: Marshall Cavendish Academic . 2004. ISBN 978-981-210-330-7 . . The Economics of Modernization . Singapore: Federal Publications. 1995. ISBN 978-981-01-2317-8 . . The Economics of Modernization . Singapore: Marshall Cavendish Academic . 2004. ISBN 978-981-210-330-7 . . Some Problems of Manpower Development in Singapore [Occasional publication (Singapore Training and Development Association); no. 1] . Singapore: Ad Hoc Publications Sub-committee, Singapore Training & Development Association. 1974. OCLC 226024028 . . Some Unsolved Problems of Economic Growth [Kesatuan lecture; 1] . Singapore: Kesatuan Akademis Universiti Singapura. 1976. ISBN 9971-68-076-9 . OCLC 3072805 . . The Practice of Economic Growth . Singapore: Federal Publications. 1977. OCLC 4465760 . . Later edition: The Practice of Economic Growth . Singapore: Federal Publications. 1995. ISBN 978-981-01-2322-2 . . The Practice of Economic Growth . Singapore: Federal Publications. 1995. ISBN 978-981-01-2322-2 . . Goh, Keng Swee; Education Study Team (1979). Report on the Ministry of Education 1978 . Singapore: Printed by Singapore National Printers. OCLC 416421063 . . Goh, Keng Swee (1995). Low, Linda (ed.). Wealth of East Asian Nations: Speeches and Writings . Singapore: Federal Publications. ISBN 978-981-01-2297-3 . . References Notes ^ Honorary, and during his tenure as the civilian head of the Ministry of the Interior and Defence. He oversaw the establishment of the Singapore Armed Forces (SAF) after 1965, a process that laid the foundation built primarily on National Service (NS) from 1967. [ 4 ] ^ simplified Chinese : 吴庆瑞 ; traditional Chinese : 吳慶瑞 ; Pe̍h-ōe-jī : Gô͘ Khèng-sūi ; pinyin : Wú Qìngruì Citations ^ "PARLIAMENTARY DEBATES DEWAN RA'AYAT (HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES) OFFICIAL REPORT" (PDF) . Dewan Rakyat . Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 August 2016 . Retrieved 19 August 2019 . ^ a b c Tan Siok Sun (7 July 2007), A shy, quiet boy who loved books [Excerpt from Goh Keng Swee, a Portrait ] , AsiaOne , archived from the original on 2 December 2012 , retrieved 15 May 2010 . ^ a b Obituary notice of Dr. Goh Keng Swee, The Straits Times (15 May 2010), p. C28. ^ a b Desker, Barry; Kwa, Chong Guan, eds. (2011). Goh Keng Swee: A Public Career Remembered . World Scientific. pp. 83, 98, 101. ISBN 978-9814407533 . ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Jenny Tien Mui Mun (8 October 2002), Dr Goh Keng Swee , Singapore Infopedia, National Library, Singapore , archived from the original on 23 June 2008 , retrieved 15 May 2010 . ^ a b c d e f Nur Dianah Suhaimi (16 May 2010), "His work was his passion: The late Goh Keng Swee showed brilliance even when he was a child", The Sunday Times , Singapore, p. 10 . ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m "From civil servant to PAP stalwart", The Straits Times (Saturday) , p. D2, 15 May 2010 . ^ Lee Kuan Yew (1998), The Singapore Story: Memoirs of Lee Kuan Yew , Singapore: Times Publishing, pp. 600–602 , ISBN 978-981-204-983-4 . ^ Tan Siok Sun (2007), Goh Keng Swee: A Portrait , Singapore: Editions Didier Millet , pp. 114– 115, ISBN 978-981-4155-82-3 . ^ a b "The lesser known side of Dr Goh Keng Swee" , Methodist Message , vol. 112, no. 7, p. 12, July 2010, archived from the original on 5 October 2018 . ^ His thesis was entitled Techniques of National Income Estimation in Under-developed Territories, with Special Reference to Asia, Malacca, Singapore and Africa [Unpublished PhD thesis, University of London, London School of Economics, 1956] , London: University of London Library, Photographic Section, 1978, OCLC 63630985 . ^ a b c "Parliament pays respects", The Straits Times , 18 May 2010 . ^ a b Lee Hsien Loong (24 May 2010), "A giant in our midst [eulogy by the Prime Minister]" , Today , pp. 12– 14, archived from the original on 25 May 2010 . ^ a b "A visionary who didn't believe in dreams: A look into the life of the man responsible for HDB flats, National Service, JTC ... even the Zoo", Weekend Today , pp. 12– 13, 15–16 May 2010 . ^ As recalled by Lim Siong Guan , Group President of GIC and former Head of the Singapore Civil Service : see Chua Mui Hoong (15 May 2010), "Passing of a S'pore titan: Former DPM Goh Keng Swee was economic architect of Singapore and mentor to many", The Straits Times , pp. A1 – A2 . ^ "Singapore – Road to Independence" . U.S. Library of Congress . Retrieved 27 June 2006 . ^ Lee Kuan Yew (24 May 2010), "He made the greatest difference: Eulogy by Minister Mentor Lee Kuan Yew", The Straits Times , p. A6 . ^ Chin, Soo Fang (7 December 2025). "New book sheds light on Singapore's secret negotiations for independence" . The Straits Times . ^ "National Service becomes compulsory - Singapore History" . eresources.nlb.gov.sg . Retrieved 1 January 2023 . ^ Goh Keng Swee; Education Study Team (1979), Report on the Ministry of Education 1978 , Singapore: Printed by Singapore National Printers, OCLC 416421063 . ^ Michael Barber; Chinezi Chijioke; Mona Mourshed (2010), Education: How the World's Most Improved School Systems Keep Getting Better , London: McKinsey & Company, pp. 101– 118 . ^ MOKHTAR, FARIS. "Timeline: How secondary school streaming evolved over the decades" . TODAY . Retrieved 1 January 2023 . ^ Chua Mui Hoong (15 May 2010), "Passing of a S'pore titan: Former DPM Goh Keng Swee was economic architect of Singapore and mentor to many", The Straits Times , pp. A1 – A2 . ^ Janadas Devan (15 May 2010), "Remembering Goh Keng Swee, 1918–2010", The Straits Times (Saturday) , p. D2 . ^ Hamilton-Hart, Natasha (2003). Asian states, Asian bankers : central banking in Southeast Asia . Singapore: Singapore University Press. p. 89 . ISBN 978-0801439872 . ^ Melanie Chew; Bernard Tan (2002), "A Tribute to Dr Goh Keng Swee" (PDF) , Creating the Technology Edge: DSO National Laboratories, Singapore 1972–2002 , Singapore: Epigram for DSO National Laboratories, pp. 4– 9, ISBN 978-981-04-7199-6 , archived from the original (PDF) on 28 September 2007 . ^ Saad, Imelda (15–16 May 2010), "S'pore's master builder" , Weekend Today , p. 2, archived from the original on 18 May 2010 . ^ Leong Weng Kam (15 May 2010), "A thinker and a doer: Dr Goh was a 'great intellectual', recall PAP Old Guard members", The Straits Times , p. A6 . ^ Saad, Imelda (15–16 May 2010), " 'One of the most brilliant architects' of the country, says SM Goh" , Weekend Today , p. 3, archived from the original on 18 May 2010 . ^ Nur Dianah Suhaimi (28 May 2010), "Love against the odds [interview with Dr. Phua Swee Liang]", The Straits Times , pp. A40 – A41 . ^ Lydia Lim (7 July 2007), "No regrets despite objections, except one" , The Straits Times (reproduced on the AsiaOne website) , archived from the original on 2 December 2012 . ^ EAI's profile & objectives , East Asia Institute, National University of Singapore , 2008, archived from the original on 21 December 2010 , retrieved 16 May 2010 . ^ "Farewell to one of Singapore's prime architects" , Weekend Today , p. 1, 15–16 May 2010, archived from the original on 16 May 2010 . See also Rachel Lin (15 May 2010), "A quiet passing for a quiet man: He lived simply, was a private man, with S'pore uppermost in his mind", The Straits Times , p. A3 . ^ Esther Ng (21 May 2010), "From all walks of life, they came to pay their respects: More than 5,000 queue up at Parliament House to honour Dr Goh" , Today , p. 3, archived from the original on 23 May 2010 ; Nur Dianah Suhaimi; Kor Kian Beng (22 May 2010), " 'Thank you and goodbye': Young and old, from near and far, over 7,000 pay respects to Dr Goh", The Straits Times , p. A16 . ^ Cassandra Chew (22 May 2010), "State funeral an honour reserved for rare few", The Straits Times , p. A16 ; Chua Mui Hoong (24 May 2010), "Goodbye, Dr Goh: Tributes flow at state funeral for one of Singapore's founding fathers", The Straits Times , pp. A1 – A2 ; Rachel Lin (24 May 2010), "A simple, moving funeral for Dr Goh: Nation mourns one of its founders in a sombre but intimate ceremony", The Straits Times , pp. A2 – A3 ; Zul Othman (24 May 2010), "A nation says goodbye" , Today , pp. 1 & 3, archived from the original on 29 May 2010 . ^ "State funeral on May 23" , Weekend Today , p. 2, 15–16 May 2010, archived from the original on 16 May 2010 . ^ 1972 Ramon Magsaysay Award for Government Services: Biography of Goh Keng Swee , Ramon Magsaysay Award Foundation, August 1972, archived from the original on 1 August 2008 , retrieved 15 May 2010 . ^ Phua Kai Hong (25 May 2010), "The day Dr Goh removed words from his citation [letter]" , Today , p. 8, archived from the original on 27 May 2010 . ^ "Remembering the three most outstanding founding fathers" . Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, NUS . Retrieved 10 August 2025 . ^ Clarissa Oon (30 August 2010), "SAF institute, education centre named after Goh Keng Swee", The Straits Times , p. B4 ; Alicia Wong (30 August 2010), "Military college and education centre to be named after Goh Keng Swee", Today , p. 13 . Sources "From civil servant to PAP stalwart". The Straits Times (Saturday) . 15 May 2010. p. D2. Nur Dianah Suhaimi (16 May 2010). His work was his passion: The late Goh Keng Swee showed brilliance even when he was a child . Singapore. p. 10. {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( link ) "Parliament pays respects". The Straits Times . 18 May 2010. Tien, Jenny Mui Mun (8 October 2002). "Dr Goh Keng Swee" . Singapore Infopedia, National Library, Singapore . Archived from the original on 23 June 2008 . Retrieved 15 May 2010 . Further reading Books Austin, Ian Patrick (2004). Goh Keng Swee and Southeast Asian Governance . Singapore: Marshall Cavendish Academic . ISBN 978-981-210-351-2 . Desker, Barry; Kwa, Chong Guan, eds. (2011). Goh Keng Swee – A Public Career Remembered . Singapore: World Scientific . ISBN 978-981-4291-38-5 . Doshi, Tilak; Coclanis, Peter (1999). "The Economic Architect: Goh Keng Swee". In Lam, Peng Er; Tan, Kevin (eds.). Lee's Lieutenants: Singapore's Old Guard . St. Leonards, N.S.W.: Allen & Unwin . pp. 24– 44. ISBN 978-1-86448-639-1 . Kuah, Adrian (2007). UnChartered territory: Dr Goh Keng Swee and the ST Engineering Story . Singapore: Published for ST Engineering by SNP International. ISBN 978-981-248-169-6 . Kwok, Kian-Woon (1999). "The Social Architect: Goh Keng Swee". In Lam, Peng Er; Tan, Kevin (eds.). Lee's Lieutenants: Singapore's Old Guard . St. Leonards, N.S.W.: Allen & Unwin. pp. 45– 69. ISBN 978-1-86448-639-1 . Nair, E. Shailaja (2008). The Master Sculptor: Goh Keng Swee [Great Singapore Stories. Founding Fathers.] Singapore: SNP Editions. ISBN 978-981-248-160-3 . Ngiam, Tong Dow (2006). A Mandarin and the Making of Public Policy: Reflections by Ngiam Tong Dow . Singapore: NUS Press . ISBN 978-9971-69-350-3 . Ooi, Kee Beng (2010). In Lieu of Ideology: The Intellectual Biography of Goh Keng Swee . Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 978-981-4311-30-4 . Tan, Siok Sun (2007). Goh Keng Swee: A Portrait . Singapore: Editions Didier Millet . ISBN 978-981-4155-82-3 . . Yeo, Siew Siang (1990). Tan Cheng Lock, the Straits Legislator and Chinese Leader . Petaling Jaya, Selangor: Pelanduk Publications. ISBN 978-967-978-236-3 . Eulogies at the state funeral Lee, Hsien Loong (24 May 2010). "Without him, much of S'pore wouldn't exist: Eulogy by Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong". The Straits Times . pp. A4 & A6. ; Lee, Hsien Loong (24 May 2010). "A giant in our midst [eulogy by the Prime Minister]" . Today . pp. 12– 14. Archived from the original on 25 May 2010. See also " 'He turned the tide for Singapore': PM Lee recounts Dr Goh's contributions and compassion" . Today . 24 May 2010. p. 4. Archived from the original on 26 May 2010. Lee, Kuan Yew (24 May 2010). "He made the greatest difference: Eulogy by Minister Mentor Lee Kuan Yew". The Straits Times . p. A6. . See also "As my troubleshooter, I gave him toughest jobs in Govt: MM" . Today . 24 May 2010. p. 3. Archived from the original on 26 May 2010. S. Dhanabalan (24 May 2010). "Singapore's greatest entrepreneur: Eulogy by S. Dhanabalan, chairman of Temasek Holdings". The Straits Times . p. A8. . See also "Dhanabalan: How Dr Goh changed my life" . Today . 24 May 2010. p. 4. Archived from the original on 26 May 2010. Goh, Ken-Yi (24 May 2010). "A caring, selfless grandfather: Eulogy by grandson Goh Ken-Yi". The Straits Times . p. A10. . See also Zul Othman (24 May 2010). "To me, he was simply a great grandfather" . Today . p. 2. Archived from the original on 26 May 2010. Hui, Marian (24 May 2010). "He motivated me to pursue my dreams: Excerpt of eulogy by Grand-niece Marian Hui". The Straits Times . p. A8. Letters of condolence Lee, Hsien Loong (15–16 May 2010). "A far-sighted visionary and pragmatic manager [letter from the Prime Minister to Mrs. Goh Keng Swee]" . Weekend Today . p. 10. Archived from the original on 16 May 2010. S.R. Nathan (15–16 May 2010). "Nothing too insignificant for his attention [letter from the president to Mrs. Goh Keng Swee]" . Weekend Today . p. 10. Archived from the original on 16 May 2010. Goh, Chok Tong (15–16 May 2010). "Practical and full of ideas [letter from the Senior Minister to Mrs. Goh Keng Swee]" . Weekend Today . p. 11. Archived from the original on 22 June 2011. Tan, Tony Keng Yam (15–16 May 2010). "Farsightedness and fortitude [letter from the Deputy Chairman and Executive Director of the Government Investment Corporation of Singapore to Mrs. Goh Keng Swee]" . Weekend Today . p. 11. Archived from the original on 16 May 2010. News reports Chang, Rachel; Cai, Haoxiang; Kor, Kian Beng (15 May 2010). "Ex-MPs recall a fearsome technocrat: A strict taskmaster who didn't suffer fools, but he was never brusque". The Straits Times . p. A8. "Leaders salute 'this marvellous man' ". The Straits Times . 15 May 2010. p. A4. S. Ramesh (15–16 May 2010). "A national hero who touched people's lives" . Weekend Today . p. 2. Archived from the original on 18 May 2010. "Goh Keng Swee: Passing of a colossus [editorial]". The Straits Times . 22 May 2010. p. A32. Balji, P.N. (22–23 May 2010). "Dr Goh, the Dream No 2" . Weekend Today . p. 11. Archived from the original on 30 May 2010. Devan, Janadas (23 May 2010). "Simply sincere: Dr Goh's simple yet eloquent writing style showed desire to reach out to ordinary people". The Sunday Times . Singapore. p. 35. External links Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Channel NewsAsia – Obituary: Goh Keng Swee 1918–2010 at the Wayback Machine (archived 1 April 2013), archived from the original on 1 April 2013 National Library Singapore – NLS Resource guide on Dr. Goh Keng Swee Political offices Preceded by New post Minister for Finance 1959–65 Succeeded by Lim Kim San Preceded by New post Minister for Defence 1965–67 Succeeded by Lim Kim San Preceded by Lim Kim San Minister for Finance 1967–70 Succeeded by Hon Sui Sen Preceded by Lim Kim San Minister for Finance 1970–79 Succeeded by Howe Yoon Chong Preceded by Chua Sian Chin Minister for Education 1979–80 Succeeded by Tony Tan Keng Yam Preceded by Tony Tan Keng Yam Minister for Education 1981–85 Succeeded by Tony Tan Keng Yam Preceded by Toh Chin Chye Deputy Prime Minister of Singapore 1973–85 Succeeded by Goh Chok Tong Parliament of Singapore New constituency Member of Parliament for Kreta Ayer 1959–84 Succeeded by Richard Hu Tsu Tau Military offices New title 1st Director, General Staff of Defence Force 1965-1967 Succeeded by T. J. D. Campbell Politics Biography Economics Singapore .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Ramon Magsaysay Award recipients v t e Government Service (1958–2008) Cambodia Ek Sonn Chan China Yuan Longping India C.D. Deshmukh J. M. Lyngdoh Indonesia Raden Kodijat Ali Sadikin Japan Morihiko Hiramatsu Hiroshi Kuroki Yukiharu Miki Laos Keo Viphakone Malaysia Mohamed Suffian Mohamed Hashim B. C. Shekhar Pakistan Akhtar Hameed Khan Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Jose Vasquez Aguilar Francisca Reyes-Aquino Hilario Davide Jr. Grace Padaca Jesse Robredo Jovito R. Salonga Miriam Defensor Santiago Haydee Yorac Singapore Goh Keng Swee Thailand Anand Panyarachun Chamlong Srimuang Jon Ungphakorn Phon Sangsingkeo Prawase Wasi Puey Ungpakorn Taiwan Shih-chu Hsu Li Kwoh-ting Jiang Menglin Government Service (1958–2008) Cambodia Ek Sonn Chan China Yuan Longping India C.D. Deshmukh J. M. Lyngdoh Indonesia Raden Kodijat Ali Sadikin Japan Morihiko Hiramatsu Hiroshi Kuroki Yukiharu Miki Laos Keo Viphakone Malaysia Mohamed Suffian Mohamed Hashim B. C. Shekhar Pakistan Akhtar Hameed Khan Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Jose Vasquez Aguilar Francisca Reyes-Aquino Hilario Davide Jr. Grace Padaca Jesse Robredo Jovito R. Salonga Miriam Defensor Santiago Haydee Yorac Singapore Goh Keng Swee Thailand Anand Panyarachun Chamlong Srimuang Jon Ungphakorn Phon Sangsingkeo Prawase Wasi Puey Ungpakorn Taiwan Shih-chu Hsu Li Kwoh-ting Jiang Menglin Cambodia Ek Sonn Chan Ek Sonn Chan China Yuan Longping Yuan Longping India C.D. Deshmukh J. M. Lyngdoh C.D. Deshmukh J. M. Lyngdoh Indonesia Raden Kodijat Ali Sadikin Raden Kodijat Ali Sadikin Japan Morihiko Hiramatsu Hiroshi Kuroki Yukiharu Miki Morihiko Hiramatsu Hiroshi Kuroki Yukiharu Miki Laos Keo Viphakone Keo Viphakone Malaysia Mohamed Suffian Mohamed Hashim B. C. Shekhar Mohamed Suffian Mohamed Hashim B. C. Shekhar Pakistan Akhtar Hameed Khan Ibn Abdur Rehman Akhtar Hameed Khan Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Jose Vasquez Aguilar Francisca Reyes-Aquino Hilario Davide Jr. Grace Padaca Jesse Robredo Jovito R. Salonga Miriam Defensor Santiago Haydee Yorac Jose Vasquez Aguilar Francisca Reyes-Aquino Hilario Davide Jr. Grace Padaca Jesse Robredo Jovito R. Salonga Miriam Defensor Santiago Haydee Yorac Singapore Goh Keng Swee Goh Keng Swee Thailand Anand Panyarachun Chamlong Srimuang Jon Ungphakorn Phon Sangsingkeo Prawase Wasi Puey Ungpakorn Anand Panyarachun Chamlong Srimuang Jon Ungphakorn Phon Sangsingkeo Prawase Wasi Puey Ungpakorn Taiwan Shih-chu Hsu Li Kwoh-ting Jiang Menglin Shih-chu Hsu Li Kwoh-ting Jiang Menglin Public Service (1958–2008) Burma Tee Tee Luce Ceylon Mary H. Rutnam China Gao Yaojie Jiang Yanyong Liang Congjie Wu Qing India Baba Amte Banoo Jehangir Coyaji Manibhai Desai Jayaprakash Narayan V. Shanta Indonesia H.B. Jassin Teten Masduki Pakistan Ruth Pfau Philippines Pedro Orata Center for Agriculture and Rural Development Mutually Reinforcing Institutions (CARD MRI) South Korea Kim Sun-tae Park Won-soon Spain based in Philippines Joaquin Villalonga Thailand Fua Hariphitak Mechai Viravaidya Nilawan Pintong Phra Parnchand Prateep Ungsongtham Hata Sirindhorn Sithiporn Kridakara Sophon Suphapong Therdchai Jivacate Thongbai Thongpao Public Service (1958–2008) Burma Tee Tee Luce Ceylon Mary H. Rutnam China Gao Yaojie Jiang Yanyong Liang Congjie Wu Qing India Baba Amte Banoo Jehangir Coyaji Manibhai Desai Jayaprakash Narayan V. Shanta Indonesia H.B. Jassin Teten Masduki Pakistan Ruth Pfau Philippines Pedro Orata Center for Agriculture and Rural Development Mutually Reinforcing Institutions (CARD MRI) South Korea Kim Sun-tae Park Won-soon Spain based in Philippines Joaquin Villalonga Thailand Fua Hariphitak Mechai Viravaidya Nilawan Pintong Phra Parnchand Prateep Ungsongtham Hata Sirindhorn Sithiporn Kridakara Sophon Suphapong Therdchai Jivacate Thongbai Thongpao Burma Tee Tee Luce Tee Tee Luce Ceylon Mary H. Rutnam Mary H. Rutnam China Gao Yaojie Jiang Yanyong Liang Congjie Wu Qing Gao Yaojie Jiang Yanyong Liang Congjie Wu Qing India Baba Amte Banoo Jehangir Coyaji Manibhai Desai Jayaprakash Narayan V. Shanta Baba Amte Banoo Jehangir Coyaji Manibhai Desai Jayaprakash Narayan V. Shanta Indonesia H.B. Jassin Teten Masduki H.B. Jassin Teten Masduki Pakistan Ruth Pfau Ruth Pfau Philippines Pedro Orata Center for Agriculture and Rural Development Mutually Reinforcing Institutions (CARD MRI) Pedro Orata Center for Agriculture and Rural Development Mutually Reinforcing Institutions (CARD MRI) South Korea Kim Sun-tae Park Won-soon Kim Sun-tae Park Won-soon Spain based in Philippines Joaquin Villalonga Joaquin Villalonga Thailand Fua Hariphitak Mechai Viravaidya Nilawan Pintong Phra Parnchand Prateep Ungsongtham Hata Sirindhorn Sithiporn Kridakara Sophon Suphapong Therdchai Jivacate Thongbai Thongpao Fua Hariphitak Mechai Viravaidya Nilawan Pintong Phra Parnchand Prateep Ungsongtham Hata Sirindhorn Sithiporn Kridakara Sophon Suphapong Therdchai Jivacate Thongbai Thongpao Community Leadership (1958–2008) Bangladesh Tahrunessa Abdullah Fazle Hasan Abed Muhammad Yunus Zafrullah Chowdhury Mohammed Yeasin Angela Gomes Burma Cynthia Maung India Mandakini Amte & Prakash Amte Mabelle Arole & Rajanikant Arole Pandurang Shastri Athavale Chandi Prasad Bhatt Ela Bhatt Vinoba Bhave Aruna Roy Shantha Sinha Rajendra Singh Japan Fusaye Ichikawa Laos Sombath Somphone Malaysia Tunku Abdul Rahman Nepal Mahabir Pun Philippines Gawad Kalinga Community Development Foundation Antonio Meloto Thailand Aree Valyasevi Krasae Chanawongse Prayong Ronnarong Tibet 14th Dalai Lama Community Leadership (1958–2008) Bangladesh Tahrunessa Abdullah Fazle Hasan Abed Muhammad Yunus Zafrullah Chowdhury Mohammed Yeasin Angela Gomes Burma Cynthia Maung India Mandakini Amte & Prakash Amte Mabelle Arole & Rajanikant Arole Pandurang Shastri Athavale Chandi Prasad Bhatt Ela Bhatt Vinoba Bhave Aruna Roy Shantha Sinha Rajendra Singh Japan Fusaye Ichikawa Laos Sombath Somphone Malaysia Tunku Abdul Rahman Nepal Mahabir Pun Philippines Gawad Kalinga Community Development Foundation Antonio Meloto Thailand Aree Valyasevi Krasae Chanawongse Prayong Ronnarong Tibet 14th Dalai Lama Bangladesh Tahrunessa Abdullah Fazle Hasan Abed Muhammad Yunus Zafrullah Chowdhury Mohammed Yeasin Angela Gomes Tahrunessa Abdullah Fazle Hasan Abed Muhammad Yunus Zafrullah Chowdhury Mohammed Yeasin Angela Gomes Burma Cynthia Maung Cynthia Maung India Mandakini Amte & Prakash Amte Mabelle Arole & Rajanikant Arole Pandurang Shastri Athavale Chandi Prasad Bhatt Ela Bhatt Vinoba Bhave Aruna Roy Shantha Sinha Rajendra Singh Mandakini Amte & Prakash Amte Mabelle Arole & Rajanikant Arole Pandurang Shastri Athavale Chandi Prasad Bhatt Ela Bhatt Vinoba Bhave Aruna Roy Shantha Sinha Rajendra Singh Japan Fusaye Ichikawa Fusaye Ichikawa Laos Sombath Somphone Sombath Somphone Malaysia Tunku Abdul Rahman Tunku Abdul Rahman Nepal Mahabir Pun Mahabir Pun Philippines Gawad Kalinga Community Development Foundation Antonio Meloto Gawad Kalinga Community Development Foundation Antonio Meloto Thailand Aree Valyasevi Krasae Chanawongse Prayong Ronnarong Aree Valyasevi Krasae Chanawongse Prayong Ronnarong Tibet 14th Dalai Lama 14th Dalai Lama Journalism, Literature, and the Creative Communication Arts (1958–2008) Bangladesh Matiur Rahman Abdullah Abu Sayeed Burma Edward Michael Law-Yone Ceylon or Sri Lanka Wannakuwatta Amaradeva Tarzie Vittachi India Mahasweta Devi Palagummi Sainath Amitabha Chowdhury Indonesia Atmakusumah Astraatmadja Mochtar Lubis Japan Akira Kurosawa Yasuji Hanamori Michiko Ishimure Akio Ishii Nepal Bharat Koirala Philippines Zacarias Sarian F. Sionil José Lino Brocka Radio Veritas James Reuter Bienvenido Lumbera Nick Joaquin Raul Locsin Eugenia Duran Apostol Sheila Coronel Thailand Prayoon Chanyavongs Great Britain based in Philippines Robert McCulloch Dick Journalism, Literature, and the Creative Communication Arts (1958–2008) Bangladesh Matiur Rahman Abdullah Abu Sayeed Burma Edward Michael Law-Yone Ceylon or Sri Lanka Wannakuwatta Amaradeva Tarzie Vittachi India Mahasweta Devi Palagummi Sainath Amitabha Chowdhury Indonesia Atmakusumah Astraatmadja Mochtar Lubis Japan Akira Kurosawa Yasuji Hanamori Michiko Ishimure Akio Ishii Nepal Bharat Koirala Philippines Zacarias Sarian F. Sionil José Lino Brocka Radio Veritas James Reuter Bienvenido Lumbera Nick Joaquin Raul Locsin Eugenia Duran Apostol Sheila Coronel Thailand Prayoon Chanyavongs Great Britain based in Philippines Robert McCulloch Dick Bangladesh Matiur Rahman Abdullah Abu Sayeed Matiur Rahman Abdullah Abu Sayeed Burma Edward Michael Law-Yone Edward Michael Law-Yone Ceylon or Sri Lanka Wannakuwatta Amaradeva Tarzie Vittachi Wannakuwatta Amaradeva Tarzie Vittachi India Mahasweta Devi Palagummi Sainath Amitabha Chowdhury Mahasweta Devi Palagummi Sainath Amitabha Chowdhury Indonesia Atmakusumah Astraatmadja Mochtar Lubis Atmakusumah Astraatmadja Mochtar Lubis Japan Akira Kurosawa Yasuji Hanamori Michiko Ishimure Akio Ishii Akira Kurosawa Yasuji Hanamori Michiko Ishimure Akio Ishii Nepal Bharat Koirala Bharat Koirala Philippines Zacarias Sarian F. Sionil José Lino Brocka Radio Veritas James Reuter Bienvenido Lumbera Nick Joaquin Raul Locsin Eugenia Duran Apostol Sheila Coronel Zacarias Sarian F. Sionil José Lino Brocka Radio Veritas James Reuter Bienvenido Lumbera Nick Joaquin Raul Locsin Eugenia Duran Apostol Sheila Coronel Thailand Prayoon Chanyavongs Prayoon Chanyavongs Great Britain based in Philippines Robert McCulloch Dick Robert McCulloch Dick Peace and International Understanding (1958–2008) China Tang Xiyang India Mother Teresa Jockin Arputham Laxminarayan Ramdas Indonesia Ahmad Syafi'i Maarif Japan Ikuo Hirayama Tetsu Nakamura Saburo Okita Seiei Toyama Nepal Sanduk Ruit Pakistan Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Operation Brotherhood Summer Institute of Linguistics William Masterson Harold Ray Watson International Institute of Rural Reconstruction Press Foundation of Asia Asian Institute of Management Corazon Aquino South Korea Pomnyun Sunim Thailand Asian Institute of Technology The Royal Project United States based in Thailand Genevieve Caulfield Peace and International Understanding (1958–2008) China Tang Xiyang India Mother Teresa Jockin Arputham Laxminarayan Ramdas Indonesia Ahmad Syafi'i Maarif Japan Ikuo Hirayama Tetsu Nakamura Saburo Okita Seiei Toyama Nepal Sanduk Ruit Pakistan Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Operation Brotherhood Summer Institute of Linguistics William Masterson Harold Ray Watson International Institute of Rural Reconstruction Press Foundation of Asia Asian Institute of Management Corazon Aquino South Korea Pomnyun Sunim Thailand Asian Institute of Technology The Royal Project United States based in Thailand Genevieve Caulfield China Tang Xiyang Tang Xiyang India Mother Teresa Jockin Arputham Laxminarayan Ramdas Mother Teresa Jockin Arputham Laxminarayan Ramdas Indonesia Ahmad Syafi'i Maarif Ahmad Syafi'i Maarif Japan Ikuo Hirayama Tetsu Nakamura Saburo Okita Seiei Toyama Ikuo Hirayama Tetsu Nakamura Saburo Okita Seiei Toyama Nepal Sanduk Ruit Sanduk Ruit Pakistan Ibn Abdur Rehman Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Operation Brotherhood Summer Institute of Linguistics William Masterson Harold Ray Watson International Institute of Rural Reconstruction Press Foundation of Asia Asian Institute of Management Corazon Aquino Operation Brotherhood Summer Institute of Linguistics William Masterson Harold Ray Watson International Institute of Rural Reconstruction Press Foundation of Asia Asian Institute of Management Corazon Aquino South Korea Pomnyun Sunim Pomnyun Sunim Thailand Asian Institute of Technology The Royal Project Asian Institute of Technology The Royal Project United States based in Thailand Genevieve Caulfield Genevieve Caulfield Emergent Leadership (2001–) Burma Ka Hsaw Wa China Chen Guangcheng Cambodia Oung Chanthol India Sanjiv Chaturvedi Arvind Kejriwal Nileema Mishra Sandeep Pandey Indonesia Ambrosius Ruwindrijarto Dita Indah Sari Philippines Benjamin Abadiano South Korea Yoon Hye-ran Sri Lanka Ananda Galappatti Timor-Leste Aniceto Guterres Lopes United States based in Hong Kong Chung To Emergent Leadership (2001–) Burma Ka Hsaw Wa China Chen Guangcheng Cambodia Oung Chanthol India Sanjiv Chaturvedi Arvind Kejriwal Nileema Mishra Sandeep Pandey Indonesia Ambrosius Ruwindrijarto Dita Indah Sari Philippines Benjamin Abadiano South Korea Yoon Hye-ran Sri Lanka Ananda Galappatti Timor-Leste Aniceto Guterres Lopes United States based in Hong Kong Chung To Burma Ka Hsaw Wa Ka Hsaw Wa China Chen Guangcheng Chen Guangcheng Cambodia Oung Chanthol Oung Chanthol India Sanjiv Chaturvedi Arvind Kejriwal Nileema Mishra Sandeep Pandey Sanjiv Chaturvedi Arvind Kejriwal Nileema Mishra Sandeep Pandey Indonesia Ambrosius Ruwindrijarto Dita Indah Sari Ambrosius Ruwindrijarto Dita Indah Sari Philippines Benjamin Abadiano Benjamin Abadiano South Korea Yoon Hye-ran Yoon Hye-ran Sri Lanka Ananda Galappatti Ananda Galappatti Timor-Leste Aniceto Guterres Lopes Aniceto Guterres Lopes United States based in Hong Kong Chung To Chung To Uncategorized (2009–) Bangladesh Syeda Rizwana Hasan A.H.M. Noman Khan Cambodia Yang Saing Koma Koul Panha China Fu Qiping Huo Daishan Ma Jun Pan Yue Yu Xiaogang India Kulandei Francis Harish Hande Deep Joshi Indonesia Hasanain Juaini Tri Mumpuni Japan Tadatoshi Akiba Philippines Alternative Indigenous Development Foundation , Inc. (AIDFI) Christopher Bernido Maria Victoria Carpio-Bernido Romulo Davide Antonio Oposa Jr. Taiwan Chen Shu-chu Thailand Krisana Kraisintu Uncategorized (2009–) Bangladesh Syeda Rizwana Hasan A.H.M. Noman Khan Cambodia Yang Saing Koma Koul Panha China Fu Qiping Huo Daishan Ma Jun Pan Yue Yu Xiaogang India Kulandei Francis Harish Hande Deep Joshi Indonesia Hasanain Juaini Tri Mumpuni Japan Tadatoshi Akiba Philippines Alternative Indigenous Development Foundation , Inc. (AIDFI) Christopher Bernido Maria Victoria Carpio-Bernido Romulo Davide Antonio Oposa Jr. Taiwan Chen Shu-chu Thailand Krisana Kraisintu Bangladesh Syeda Rizwana Hasan A.H.M. Noman Khan Syeda Rizwana Hasan A.H.M. Noman Khan Cambodia Yang Saing Koma Koul Panha Yang Saing Koma Koul Panha China Fu Qiping Huo Daishan Ma Jun Pan Yue Yu Xiaogang Fu Qiping Huo Daishan Ma Jun Pan Yue Yu Xiaogang India Kulandei Francis Harish Hande Deep Joshi Kulandei Francis Harish Hande Deep Joshi Indonesia Hasanain Juaini Tri Mumpuni Hasanain Juaini Tri Mumpuni Japan Tadatoshi Akiba Tadatoshi Akiba Philippines Alternative Indigenous Development Foundation , Inc. (AIDFI) Christopher Bernido Maria Victoria Carpio-Bernido Romulo Davide Antonio Oposa Jr. Alternative Indigenous Development Foundation , Inc. 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We gratefully acknowledge support from the Simons Foundation, member institutions , and all contributors. Donate Help | Advanced Search Showing 1–50 of 2,139 results for author: Zhao, X Show abstracts Hide abstracts 1 2 3 4 5 … arXiv:2601.10485 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI Panning for Gold: Expanding Domain-Specific Knowledge Graphs with General Knowledge Authors: Runhao Zhao , Weixin Zeng , Wentao Zhang , Chong Chen , Zhengpin Li , Xiang Zhao , Lei Chen Abstract : Domain-specific knowledge graphs (DKGs) often lack coverage compared to general knowledge graphs (GKGs). To address this, we introduce Domain-specific Knowledge Graph Fusion (DKGF), a novel task that enriches DKGs by integrating relevant facts from GKGs. DKGF faces two key challenges: high ambiguity in domain relevance and misalignment in knowledge granularity across graphs. We propose ExeFuse, a… ▽ More Domain-specific knowledge graphs (DKGs) often lack coverage compared to general knowledge graphs (GKGs). To address this, we introduce Domain-specific Knowledge Graph Fusion (DKGF), a novel task that enriches DKGs by integrating relevant facts from GKGs. DKGF faces two key challenges: high ambiguity in domain relevance and misalignment in knowledge granularity across graphs. We propose ExeFuse, a simple yet effective Fact-as-Program paradigm. It treats each GKG fact as a latent semantic program, maps abstract relations to granularity-aware operators, and verifies domain relevance via program executability on the target DKG. This unified probabilistic framework jointly resolves relevance and granularity issues. We construct two benchmarks, DKGF(W-I) and DKGF(Y-I), with 21 evaluation configurations. Extensive experiments validate the task's importance and our model's effectiveness, providing the first standardized testbed for DKGF. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 13 pages, 4 figures arXiv:2601.10485 [ pdf , ps , other ] Panning for Gold: Expanding Domain-Specific Knowledge Graphs with General Knowledge Authors: Runhao Zhao , Weixin Zeng , Wentao Zhang , Chong Chen , Zhengpin Li , Xiang Zhao , Lei Chen Abstract : Domain-specific knowledge graphs (DKGs) often lack coverage compared to general knowledge graphs (GKGs). To address this, we introduce Domain-specific Knowledge Graph Fusion (DKGF), a novel task that enriches DKGs by integrating relevant facts from GKGs. DKGF faces two key challenges: high ambiguity in domain relevance and misalignment in knowledge granularity across graphs. We propose ExeFuse, a… ▽ More Domain-specific knowledge graphs (DKGs) often lack coverage compared to general knowledge graphs (GKGs). To address this, we introduce Domain-specific Knowledge Graph Fusion (DKGF), a novel task that enriches DKGs by integrating relevant facts from GKGs. DKGF faces two key challenges: high ambiguity in domain relevance and misalignment in knowledge granularity across graphs. We propose ExeFuse, a simple yet effective Fact-as-Program paradigm. It treats each GKG fact as a latent semantic program, maps abstract relations to granularity-aware operators, and verifies domain relevance via program executability on the target DKG. This unified probabilistic framework jointly resolves relevance and granularity issues. We construct two benchmarks, DKGF(W-I) and DKGF(Y-I), with 21 evaluation configurations. Extensive experiments validate the task's importance and our model's effectiveness, providing the first standardized testbed for DKGF. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 13 pages, 4 figures arXiv:2601.09100 [ pdf ] cs.AI DScheLLM: Enabling Dynamic Scheduling through a Fine-Tuned Dual-System Large language Model Authors: Lixiang Zhang , Chenggong Zhao , Qing Gao , Xiaoke Zhao , Gengyi Bai , Jinhu Lv Abstract : Production scheduling is highly susceptible to dynamic disruptions, such as variations in processing times, machine availability, and unexpected task insertions. Conventional approaches typically rely on event-specific models and explicit analytical formulations, which limits their adaptability and generalization across previously unseen disturbances. To overcome these limitations, this paper prop… ▽ More Production scheduling is highly susceptible to dynamic disruptions, such as variations in processing times, machine availability, and unexpected task insertions. Conventional approaches typically rely on event-specific models and explicit analytical formulations, which limits their adaptability and generalization across previously unseen disturbances. To overcome these limitations, this paper proposes DScheLLM, a dynamic scheduling approach that leverages fine-tuned large language models within a dual-system (fast-slow) reasoning architecture to address disturbances of different scales. A unified large language model-based framework is constructed to handle dynamic events, where training datasets for both fast and slow reasoning modes are generated using exact schedules obtained from an operations research solver. The Huawei OpenPangu Embedded-7B model is subsequently fine-tuned under the hybrid reasoning paradigms using LoRA. Experimental evaluations on standard job shop scheduling benchmarks demonstrate that the fast-thinking mode can efficiently generate high-quality schedules and the slow-thinking mode can produce solver-compatible and well-formatted decision inputs. To the best of our knowledge, this work represents one of the earliest studies applying large language models to job shop scheduling in dynamic environments, highlighting their considerable potential for intelligent and adaptive scheduling optimization. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; v1 submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 14 pages, 6 figures arXiv:2601.09100 [ pdf ] DScheLLM: Enabling Dynamic Scheduling through a Fine-Tuned Dual-System Large language Model Authors: Lixiang Zhang , Chenggong Zhao , Qing Gao , Xiaoke Zhao , Gengyi Bai , Jinhu Lv Abstract : Production scheduling is highly susceptible to dynamic disruptions, such as variations in processing times, machine availability, and unexpected task insertions. Conventional approaches typically rely on event-specific models and explicit analytical formulations, which limits their adaptability and generalization across previously unseen disturbances. To overcome these limitations, this paper prop… ▽ More Production scheduling is highly susceptible to dynamic disruptions, such as variations in processing times, machine availability, and unexpected task insertions. Conventional approaches typically rely on event-specific models and explicit analytical formulations, which limits their adaptability and generalization across previously unseen disturbances. To overcome these limitations, this paper proposes DScheLLM, a dynamic scheduling approach that leverages fine-tuned large language models within a dual-system (fast-slow) reasoning architecture to address disturbances of different scales. A unified large language model-based framework is constructed to handle dynamic events, where training datasets for both fast and slow reasoning modes are generated using exact schedules obtained from an operations research solver. The Huawei OpenPangu Embedded-7B model is subsequently fine-tuned under the hybrid reasoning paradigms using LoRA. Experimental evaluations on standard job shop scheduling benchmarks demonstrate that the fast-thinking mode can efficiently generate high-quality schedules and the slow-thinking mode can produce solver-compatible and well-formatted decision inputs. To the best of our knowledge, this work represents one of the earliest studies applying large language models to job shop scheduling in dynamic environments, highlighting their considerable potential for intelligent and adaptive scheduling optimization. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; v1 submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 14 pages, 6 figures arXiv:2601.08834 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI cs.CL Reading or Reasoning? Format Decoupled Reinforcement Learning for Document OCR Authors: Yufeng Zhong , Lei Chen , Zhixiong Zeng , Xuanle Zhao , Deyang Jiang , Liming Zheng , Jing Huang , Haibo Qiu , Peng Shi , Siqi Yang , Lin Ma Abstract : Reading text from images or scanned documents via OCR models has been a longstanding focus of researchers. Intuitively, text reading is perceived as a straightforward perceptual task, and existing work primarily focuses on constructing enriched data engineering to enhance SFT capabilities. In this work, we observe that even advanced OCR models exhibit significantly higher entropy in formatted text… ▽ More Reading text from images or scanned documents via OCR models has been a longstanding focus of researchers. Intuitively, text reading is perceived as a straightforward perceptual task, and existing work primarily focuses on constructing enriched data engineering to enhance SFT capabilities. In this work, we observe that even advanced OCR models exhibit significantly higher entropy in formatted text (\emph{e.g.}, formula, table, etc.) compared to plain text, often by an order of magnitude. These statistical patterns reveal that advanced OCR models struggle with high output uncertainty when dealing with format sensitive document, suggesting that reasoning over diverse reading pathways may improve OCR performance. To address this, we propose format decoupled reinforcement learning (FD-RL), which leverages high-entropy patterns for targeted optimization. Our approach employs entropy-based data filtration strategy to identify format-intensive instances, and adopt format decoupled rewards tailored to different format types, enabling format-level validation rather than token-level memorization. FD-RL achieves an average score of 90.41 on OmniDocBench, setting a new record for end-to-end models on this highly popular benchmark. More importantly, we conduct comprehensive ablation studies over data, training, filtering, and rewarding strategies, thoroughly validating their effectiveness. △ Less Submitted 11 December, 2025; originally announced January 2026. Comments: technical report arXiv:2601.08834 [ pdf , ps , other ] Reading or Reasoning? Format Decoupled Reinforcement Learning for Document OCR Authors: Yufeng Zhong , Lei Chen , Zhixiong Zeng , Xuanle Zhao , Deyang Jiang , Liming Zheng , Jing Huang , Haibo Qiu , Peng Shi , Siqi Yang , Lin Ma Abstract : Reading text from images or scanned documents via OCR models has been a longstanding focus of researchers. Intuitively, text reading is perceived as a straightforward perceptual task, and existing work primarily focuses on constructing enriched data engineering to enhance SFT capabilities. In this work, we observe that even advanced OCR models exhibit significantly higher entropy in formatted text… ▽ More Reading text from images or scanned documents via OCR models has been a longstanding focus of researchers. Intuitively, text reading is perceived as a straightforward perceptual task, and existing work primarily focuses on constructing enriched data engineering to enhance SFT capabilities. In this work, we observe that even advanced OCR models exhibit significantly higher entropy in formatted text (\emph{e.g.}, formula, table, etc.) compared to plain text, often by an order of magnitude. These statistical patterns reveal that advanced OCR models struggle with high output uncertainty when dealing with format sensitive document, suggesting that reasoning over diverse reading pathways may improve OCR performance. To address this, we propose format decoupled reinforcement learning (FD-RL), which leverages high-entropy patterns for targeted optimization. Our approach employs entropy-based data filtration strategy to identify format-intensive instances, and adopt format decoupled rewards tailored to different format types, enabling format-level validation rather than token-level memorization. FD-RL achieves an average score of 90.41 on OmniDocBench, setting a new record for end-to-end models on this highly popular benchmark. More importantly, we conduct comprehensive ablation studies over data, training, filtering, and rewarding strategies, thoroughly validating their effectiveness. △ Less Submitted 11 December, 2025; originally announced January 2026. Comments: technical report arXiv:2601.08653 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI Prism: Towards Lowering User Cognitive Load in LLMs via Complex Intent Understanding Authors: Zenghua Liao , Jinzhi Liao , Xiang Zhao Abstract : Large Language Models are rapidly emerging as web-native interfaces to social platforms. On the social web, users frequently have ambiguous and dynamic goals, making complex intent understanding-rather than single-turn execution-the cornerstone of effective human-LLM collaboration. Existing approaches attempt to clarify user intents through sequential or parallel questioning, yet they fall short o… ▽ More Large Language Models are rapidly emerging as web-native interfaces to social platforms. On the social web, users frequently have ambiguous and dynamic goals, making complex intent understanding-rather than single-turn execution-the cornerstone of effective human-LLM collaboration. Existing approaches attempt to clarify user intents through sequential or parallel questioning, yet they fall short of addressing the core challenge: modeling the logical dependencies among clarification questions. Inspired by the Cognitive Load Theory, we propose Prism, a novel framework for complex intent understanding that enables logically coherent and efficient intent clarification. Prism comprises four tailored modules: a complex intent decomposition module, which decomposes user intents into smaller, well-structured elements and identifies logical dependencies among them; a logical clarification generation module, which organizes clarification questions based on these dependencies to ensure coherent, low-friction interactions; an intent-aware reward module, which evaluates the quality of clarification trajectories via an intent-aware reward function and leverages Monte Carlo Sample to simulate user-LLM interactions for large-scale,high-quality training data generation; and a self-evolved intent tuning module, which iteratively refines the LLM's logical clarification capability through data-driven feedback and optimization. Prism consistently outperforms existing approaches across clarification interactions, intent execution, and cognitive load benchmarks. It achieves stateof-the-art logical consistency, reduces logical conflicts to 11.5%, increases user satisfaction by 14.4%, and decreases task completion time by 34.8%. All data and code are released. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.08653 [ pdf , ps , other ] Prism: Towards Lowering User Cognitive Load in LLMs via Complex Intent Understanding Authors: Zenghua Liao , Jinzhi Liao , Xiang Zhao Abstract : Large Language Models are rapidly emerging as web-native interfaces to social platforms. On the social web, users frequently have ambiguous and dynamic goals, making complex intent understanding-rather than single-turn execution-the cornerstone of effective human-LLM collaboration. Existing approaches attempt to clarify user intents through sequential or parallel questioning, yet they fall short o… ▽ More Large Language Models are rapidly emerging as web-native interfaces to social platforms. On the social web, users frequently have ambiguous and dynamic goals, making complex intent understanding-rather than single-turn execution-the cornerstone of effective human-LLM collaboration. Existing approaches attempt to clarify user intents through sequential or parallel questioning, yet they fall short of addressing the core challenge: modeling the logical dependencies among clarification questions. Inspired by the Cognitive Load Theory, we propose Prism, a novel framework for complex intent understanding that enables logically coherent and efficient intent clarification. Prism comprises four tailored modules: a complex intent decomposition module, which decomposes user intents into smaller, well-structured elements and identifies logical dependencies among them; a logical clarification generation module, which organizes clarification questions based on these dependencies to ensure coherent, low-friction interactions; an intent-aware reward module, which evaluates the quality of clarification trajectories via an intent-aware reward function and leverages Monte Carlo Sample to simulate user-LLM interactions for large-scale,high-quality training data generation; and a self-evolved intent tuning module, which iteratively refines the LLM's logical clarification capability through data-driven feedback and optimization. Prism consistently outperforms existing approaches across clarification interactions, intent execution, and cognitive load benchmarks. It achieves stateof-the-art logical consistency, reduces logical conflicts to 11.5%, increases user satisfaction by 14.4%, and decreases task completion time by 34.8%. All data and code are released. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.08393 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.AI Controlled LLM Training on Spectral Sphere Authors: Tian Xie , Haoming Luo , Haoyu Tang , Yiwen Hu , Jason Klein Liu , Qingnan Ren , Yang Wang , Wayne Xin Zhao , Rui Yan , Bing Su , Chong Luo , Baining Guo Abstract : Scaling large models requires optimization strategies that ensure rapid convergence grounded in stability. Maximal Update Parametrization ($\boldsymbolμ$P) provides a theoretical safeguard for width-invariant $Θ(1)$ activation control, whereas emerging optimizers like Muon are only ``half-aligned'' with these constraints: they control updates but allow weights to drift. To address this limitation,… ▽ More Scaling large models requires optimization strategies that ensure rapid convergence grounded in stability. Maximal Update Parametrization ($\boldsymbolμ$P) provides a theoretical safeguard for width-invariant $Θ(1)$ activation control, whereas emerging optimizers like Muon are only ``half-aligned'' with these constraints: they control updates but allow weights to drift. To address this limitation, we introduce the \textbf{Spectral Sphere Optimizer (SSO)}, which enforces strict module-wise spectral constraints on both weights and their updates. By deriving the steepest descent direction on the spectral sphere, SSO realizes a fully $\boldsymbolμ$P-aligned optimization process. To enable large-scale training, we implement SSO as an efficient parallel algorithm within Megatron. Through extensive pretraining on diverse architectures, including Dense 1.7B, MoE 8B-A1B, and 200-layer DeepNet models, SSO consistently outperforms AdamW and Muon. Furthermore, we observe significant practical stability benefits, including improved MoE router load balancing, suppressed outliers, and strictly bounded activations. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.08393 [ pdf , ps , other ] Controlled LLM Training on Spectral Sphere Authors: Tian Xie , Haoming Luo , Haoyu Tang , Yiwen Hu , Jason Klein Liu , Qingnan Ren , Yang Wang , Wayne Xin Zhao , Rui Yan , Bing Su , Chong Luo , Baining Guo Abstract : Scaling large models requires optimization strategies that ensure rapid convergence grounded in stability. Maximal Update Parametrization ($\boldsymbolμ$P) provides a theoretical safeguard for width-invariant $Θ(1)$ activation control, whereas emerging optimizers like Muon are only ``half-aligned'' with these constraints: they control updates but allow weights to drift. To address this limitation,… ▽ More Scaling large models requires optimization strategies that ensure rapid convergence grounded in stability. Maximal Update Parametrization ($\boldsymbolμ$P) provides a theoretical safeguard for width-invariant $Θ(1)$ activation control, whereas emerging optimizers like Muon are only ``half-aligned'' with these constraints: they control updates but allow weights to drift. To address this limitation, we introduce the \textbf{Spectral Sphere Optimizer (SSO)}, which enforces strict module-wise spectral constraints on both weights and their updates. By deriving the steepest descent direction on the spectral sphere, SSO realizes a fully $\boldsymbolμ$P-aligned optimization process. To enable large-scale training, we implement SSO as an efficient parallel algorithm within Megatron. Through extensive pretraining on diverse architectures, including Dense 1.7B, MoE 8B-A1B, and 200-layer DeepNet models, SSO consistently outperforms AdamW and Muon. Furthermore, we observe significant practical stability benefits, including improved MoE router load balancing, suppressed outliers, and strictly bounded activations. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05870 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.AI IIB-LPO: Latent Policy Optimization via Iterative Information Bottleneck Authors: Huilin Deng , Hongchen Luo , Yue Zhu , Long Li , Zhuoyue Chen , Xinghao Zhao , Ming Li , Jihai Zhang , Mengchang Wang , Yang Cao , Yu Kang Abstract : Recent advances in Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards (RLVR) for Large Language Model (LLM) reasoning have been hindered by a persistent challenge: exploration collapse. The semantic homogeneity of random rollouts often traps models in narrow, over-optimized behaviors. While existing methods leverage policy entropy to encourage exploration, they face inherent limitations. Global entrop… ▽ More Recent advances in Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards (RLVR) for Large Language Model (LLM) reasoning have been hindered by a persistent challenge: exploration collapse. The semantic homogeneity of random rollouts often traps models in narrow, over-optimized behaviors. While existing methods leverage policy entropy to encourage exploration, they face inherent limitations. Global entropy regularization is susceptible to reward hacking, which can induce meaningless verbosity, whereas local token-selective updates struggle with the strong inductive bias of pre-trained models. To address this, we propose Latent Policy Optimization via Iterative Information Bottleneck (IIB-LPO), a novel approach that shifts exploration from statistical perturbation of token distributions to topological branching of reasoning trajectories. IIB-LPO triggers latent branching at high-entropy states to diversify reasoning paths and employs the Information Bottleneck principle both as a trajectory filter and a self-reward mechanism, ensuring concise and informative exploration. Empirical results across four mathematical reasoning benchmarks demonstrate that IIB-LPO achieves state-of-the-art performance, surpassing prior methods by margins of up to 5.3% in accuracy and 7.4% in diversity metrics. △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05870 [ pdf , ps , other ] IIB-LPO: Latent Policy Optimization via Iterative Information Bottleneck Authors: Huilin Deng , Hongchen Luo , Yue Zhu , Long Li , Zhuoyue Chen , Xinghao Zhao , Ming Li , Jihai Zhang , Mengchang Wang , Yang Cao , Yu Kang Abstract : Recent advances in Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards (RLVR) for Large Language Model (LLM) reasoning have been hindered by a persistent challenge: exploration collapse. The semantic homogeneity of random rollouts often traps models in narrow, over-optimized behaviors. While existing methods leverage policy entropy to encourage exploration, they face inherent limitations. Global entrop… ▽ More Recent advances in Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards (RLVR) for Large Language Model (LLM) reasoning have been hindered by a persistent challenge: exploration collapse. The semantic homogeneity of random rollouts often traps models in narrow, over-optimized behaviors. While existing methods leverage policy entropy to encourage exploration, they face inherent limitations. Global entropy regularization is susceptible to reward hacking, which can induce meaningless verbosity, whereas local token-selective updates struggle with the strong inductive bias of pre-trained models. To address this, we propose Latent Policy Optimization via Iterative Information Bottleneck (IIB-LPO), a novel approach that shifts exploration from statistical perturbation of token distributions to topological branching of reasoning trajectories. IIB-LPO triggers latent branching at high-entropy states to diversify reasoning paths and employs the Information Bottleneck principle both as a trajectory filter and a self-reward mechanism, ensuring concise and informative exploration. Empirical results across four mathematical reasoning benchmarks demonstrate that IIB-LPO achieves state-of-the-art performance, surpassing prior methods by margins of up to 5.3% in accuracy and 7.4% in diversity metrics. △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05187 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI SimuAgent: An LLM-Based Simulink Modeling Assistant Enhanced with Reinforcement Learning Authors: Yanchang Liang , Xiaowei Zhao Abstract : Large language models (LLMs) have revolutionized text-based code automation, but their potential in graph-oriented engineering workflows remains under-explored. We introduce SimuAgent, an LLM-powered modeling and simulation agent tailored for Simulink. SimuAgent replaces verbose XML with a concise, dictionary-style Python representation, dramatically cutting token counts, improving interpretabilit… ▽ More Large language models (LLMs) have revolutionized text-based code automation, but their potential in graph-oriented engineering workflows remains under-explored. We introduce SimuAgent, an LLM-powered modeling and simulation agent tailored for Simulink. SimuAgent replaces verbose XML with a concise, dictionary-style Python representation, dramatically cutting token counts, improving interpretability, and enabling fast, in-process simulation. A lightweight plan-execute architecture, trained in two stages, equips the agent with both low-level tool skills and high-level design reasoning. To tackle sparse rewards in long-horizon tasks, we propose Reflection-GRPO (ReGRPO), which augments Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO) with self-reflection traces that supply rich intermediate feedback, accelerating convergence and boosting robustness. Experiments on SimuBench, our newly released benchmark comprising 5300 multi-domain modeling tasks, show that a Qwen2.5-7B model fine-tuned with SimuAgent converges faster and achieves higher modeling accuracy than standard RL baselines, and even surpasses GPT-4o when evaluated with few-shot prompting on the same benchmark. Ablations confirm that the two-stage curriculum and abstract-reconstruct data augmentation further enhance generalization. SimuAgent trains and runs entirely on-premise with modest hardware, delivering a privacy-preserving, cost-effective solution for industrial model-driven engineering. SimuAgent bridges the gap between LLMs and graphical modeling environments, offering a practical solution for AI-assisted engineering design in industrial settings. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05187 [ pdf , ps , other ] SimuAgent: An LLM-Based Simulink Modeling Assistant Enhanced with Reinforcement Learning Authors: Yanchang Liang , Xiaowei Zhao Abstract : Large language models (LLMs) have revolutionized text-based code automation, but their potential in graph-oriented engineering workflows remains under-explored. We introduce SimuAgent, an LLM-powered modeling and simulation agent tailored for Simulink. SimuAgent replaces verbose XML with a concise, dictionary-style Python representation, dramatically cutting token counts, improving interpretabilit… ▽ More Large language models (LLMs) have revolutionized text-based code automation, but their potential in graph-oriented engineering workflows remains under-explored. We introduce SimuAgent, an LLM-powered modeling and simulation agent tailored for Simulink. SimuAgent replaces verbose XML with a concise, dictionary-style Python representation, dramatically cutting token counts, improving interpretability, and enabling fast, in-process simulation. A lightweight plan-execute architecture, trained in two stages, equips the agent with both low-level tool skills and high-level design reasoning. To tackle sparse rewards in long-horizon tasks, we propose Reflection-GRPO (ReGRPO), which augments Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO) with self-reflection traces that supply rich intermediate feedback, accelerating convergence and boosting robustness. Experiments on SimuBench, our newly released benchmark comprising 5300 multi-domain modeling tasks, show that a Qwen2.5-7B model fine-tuned with SimuAgent converges faster and achieves higher modeling accuracy than standard RL baselines, and even surpasses GPT-4o when evaluated with few-shot prompting on the same benchmark. Ablations confirm that the two-stage curriculum and abstract-reconstruct data augmentation further enhance generalization. SimuAgent trains and runs entirely on-premise with modest hardware, delivering a privacy-preserving, cost-effective solution for industrial model-driven engineering. SimuAgent bridges the gap between LLMs and graphical modeling environments, offering a practical solution for AI-assisted engineering design in industrial settings. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.04569 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CE Industrial Data-Service-Knowledge Governance: Toward Integrated and Trusted Intelligence for Industry 5.0 Authors: Hailiang Zhao , Ziqi Wang , Daojiang Hu , Zhiwei Ling , Wenzhuo Qian , Jiahui Zhai , Yuhao Yang , Zhipeng Gao , Mingyi Liu , Kai Di , Xinkui Zhao , Zhongjie Wang , Jianwei Yin , MengChu Zhou , Shuiguang Deng Abstract : The convergence of artificial intelligence, cyber-physical systems, and cross-enterprise data ecosystems has propelled industrial intelligence to unprecedented scales. Yet, the absence of a unified trust foundation across data, services, and knowledge layers undermines reliability, accountability, and regulatory compliance in real-world deployments. While existing surveys address isolated aspects,… ▽ More The convergence of artificial intelligence, cyber-physical systems, and cross-enterprise data ecosystems has propelled industrial intelligence to unprecedented scales. Yet, the absence of a unified trust foundation across data, services, and knowledge layers undermines reliability, accountability, and regulatory compliance in real-world deployments. While existing surveys address isolated aspects, such as data governance, service orchestration, and knowledge representation, none provides a holistic, cross-layer perspective on trustworthiness tailored to industrial settings. To bridge this gap, we present \textsc{Trisk} (TRusted Industrial Data-Service-Knowledge governance), a novel conceptual and taxonomic framework for trustworthy industrial intelligence. Grounded in a five-dimensional trust model (quality, security, privacy, fairness, and explainability), \textsc{Trisk} unifies 120+ representative studies along three orthogonal axes: governance scope (data, service, and knowledge), architectural paradigm (centralized, federated, or edge-embedded), and enabling technology (knowledge graphs, zero-trust policies, causal inference, etc.). We systematically analyze how trust propagates across digital layers, identify critical gaps in semantic interoperability, runtime policy enforcement, and operational/information technologies alignment, and evaluate the maturity of current industrial implementations. Finally, we articulate a forward-looking research agenda for Industry 5.0, advocating for an integrated governance fabric that embeds verifiable trust semantics into every layer of the industrial intelligence stack. This survey serves as both a foundational reference for researchers and a practical roadmap for engineers to deploy trustworthy AI in complex and multi-stakeholder environments. △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.04569 [ pdf , ps , other ] Industrial Data-Service-Knowledge Governance: Toward Integrated and Trusted Intelligence for Industry 5.0 Authors: Hailiang Zhao , Ziqi Wang , Daojiang Hu , Zhiwei Ling , Wenzhuo Qian , Jiahui Zhai , Yuhao Yang , Zhipeng Gao , Mingyi Liu , Kai Di , Xinkui Zhao , Zhongjie Wang , Jianwei Yin , MengChu Zhou , Shuiguang Deng Abstract : The convergence of artificial intelligence, cyber-physical systems, and cross-enterprise data ecosystems has propelled industrial intelligence to unprecedented scales. Yet, the absence of a unified trust foundation across data, services, and knowledge layers undermines reliability, accountability, and regulatory compliance in real-world deployments. While existing surveys address isolated aspects,… ▽ More The convergence of artificial intelligence, cyber-physical systems, and cross-enterprise data ecosystems has propelled industrial intelligence to unprecedented scales. Yet, the absence of a unified trust foundation across data, services, and knowledge layers undermines reliability, accountability, and regulatory compliance in real-world deployments. While existing surveys address isolated aspects, such as data governance, service orchestration, and knowledge representation, none provides a holistic, cross-layer perspective on trustworthiness tailored to industrial settings. To bridge this gap, we present \textsc{Trisk} (TRusted Industrial Data-Service-Knowledge governance), a novel conceptual and taxonomic framework for trustworthy industrial intelligence. Grounded in a five-dimensional trust model (quality, security, privacy, fairness, and explainability), \textsc{Trisk} unifies 120+ representative studies along three orthogonal axes: governance scope (data, service, and knowledge), architectural paradigm (centralized, federated, or edge-embedded), and enabling technology (knowledge graphs, zero-trust policies, causal inference, etc.). We systematically analyze how trust propagates across digital layers, identify critical gaps in semantic interoperability, runtime policy enforcement, and operational/information technologies alignment, and evaluate the maturity of current industrial implementations. Finally, we articulate a forward-looking research agenda for Industry 5.0, advocating for an integrated governance fabric that embeds verifiable trust semantics into every layer of the industrial intelligence stack. This survey serves as both a foundational reference for researchers and a practical roadmap for engineers to deploy trustworthy AI in complex and multi-stakeholder environments. △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.04554 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.IR Exploring Recommender System Evaluation: A Multi-Modal User Agent Framework for A/B Testing Authors: Wenlin Zhang , Xiangyang Li , Qiyuan Ge , Kuicai Dong , Pengyue Jia , Xiaopeng Li , Zijian Zhang , Maolin Wang , Yichao Wang , Huifeng Guo , Ruiming Tang , Xiangyu Zhao Abstract : In recommender systems, online A/B testing is a crucial method for evaluating the performance of different models. However, conducting online A/B testing often presents significant challenges, including substantial economic costs, user experience degradation, and considerable time requirements. With the Large Language Models' powerful capacity, LLM-based agent shows great potential to replace trad… ▽ More In recommender systems, online A/B testing is a crucial method for evaluating the performance of different models. However, conducting online A/B testing often presents significant challenges, including substantial economic costs, user experience degradation, and considerable time requirements. With the Large Language Models' powerful capacity, LLM-based agent shows great potential to replace traditional online A/B testing. Nonetheless, current agents fail to simulate the perception process and interaction patterns, due to the lack of real environments and visual perception capability. To address these challenges, we introduce a multi-modal user agent for A/B testing (A/B Agent). Specifically, we construct a recommendation sandbox environment for A/B testing, enabling multimodal and multi-page interactions that align with real user behavior on online platforms. The designed agent leverages multimodal information perception, fine-grained user preferences, and integrates profiles, action memory retrieval, and a fatigue system to simulate complex human decision-making. We validated the potential of the agent as an alternative to traditional A/B testing from three perspectives: model, data, and features. Furthermore, we found that the data generated by A/B Agent can effectively enhance the capabilities of recommendation models. Our code is publicly available at △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.04554 [ pdf , ps , other ] Exploring Recommender System Evaluation: A Multi-Modal User Agent Framework for A/B Testing Authors: Wenlin Zhang , Xiangyang Li , Qiyuan Ge , Kuicai Dong , Pengyue Jia , Xiaopeng Li , Zijian Zhang , Maolin Wang , Yichao Wang , Huifeng Guo , Ruiming Tang , Xiangyu Zhao Abstract : In recommender systems, online A/B testing is a crucial method for evaluating the performance of different models. However, conducting online A/B testing often presents significant challenges, including substantial economic costs, user experience degradation, and considerable time requirements. With the Large Language Models' powerful capacity, LLM-based agent shows great potential to replace trad… ▽ More In recommender systems, online A/B testing is a crucial method for evaluating the performance of different models. However, conducting online A/B testing often presents significant challenges, including substantial economic costs, user experience degradation, and considerable time requirements. With the Large Language Models' powerful capacity, LLM-based agent shows great potential to replace traditional online A/B testing. Nonetheless, current agents fail to simulate the perception process and interaction patterns, due to the lack of real environments and visual perception capability. To address these challenges, we introduce a multi-modal user agent for A/B testing (A/B Agent). Specifically, we construct a recommendation sandbox environment for A/B testing, enabling multimodal and multi-page interactions that align with real user behavior on online platforms. The designed agent leverages multimodal information perception, fine-grained user preferences, and integrates profiles, action memory retrieval, and a fatigue system to simulate complex human decision-making. We validated the potential of the agent as an alternative to traditional A/B testing from three perspectives: model, data, and features. Furthermore, we found that the data generated by A/B Agent can effectively enhance the capabilities of recommendation models. Our code is publicly available at △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.03702 [ pdf ] cs.MA A Chromatographic Process Design and Optimization Platform Powered by Large Language Models: A Case Application on Extract of Ginkgo Biloba Leaf Authors: Zhilong Tang , Shaohua Wu , Xinyan Zhao , Yu Wang , Xingchu Gong Abstract : Chromatographic separation technology has been widely applied in pharmaceutical, chemical, and food industries due to its high efficiency. However, traditional human-dependent chromatographic process development faces challenges such as reliance on expert experience, long development cycles, and labor intensity. ChromR, a large language model (LLM)-driven platform for chromatographic process desig… ▽ More Chromatographic separation technology has been widely applied in pharmaceutical, chemical, and food industries due to its high efficiency. However, traditional human-dependent chromatographic process development faces challenges such as reliance on expert experience, long development cycles, and labor intensity. ChromR, a large language model (LLM)-driven platform for chromatographic process design and optimization, is presented in this work. The platform integrates ChromLLM, a domain-specific LLM trained for chromatography, along with a multi-agent system and an automated chromatographic experimental device. The multi-agent system comprises four agents: domain knowledge answering, experimental design, experimental execution, and data analysis. ChromR enables automatic completion of the entire workflow-including initial process parameter recommendation, experimental design, automated execution, data analysis, and multi-objective optimization. By utilizing ChromR, dependency on expert knowledge is effectively reduced, while labor input and development time are significantly decreased. Chromatographic purification of the extract of Ginkgo biloba leaf (EGBL) was selected as a case study. ChromR successfully developed a chromatographic process within one week that meets multiple objectives, including fraction quality and production efficiency, reducing development time to approximately one-seventh of that required by the conventional paradigm. An intelligent, automated, and universally applicable new paradigm was established for chromatographic process development. △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.03702 [ pdf ] A Chromatographic Process Design and Optimization Platform Powered by Large Language Models: A Case Application on Extract of Ginkgo Biloba Leaf Authors: Zhilong Tang , Shaohua Wu , Xinyan Zhao , Yu Wang , Xingchu Gong Abstract : Chromatographic separation technology has been widely applied in pharmaceutical, chemical, and food industries due to its high efficiency. However, traditional human-dependent chromatographic process development faces challenges such as reliance on expert experience, long development cycles, and labor intensity. ChromR, a large language model (LLM)-driven platform for chromatographic process desig… ▽ More Chromatographic separation technology has been widely applied in pharmaceutical, chemical, and food industries due to its high efficiency. However, traditional human-dependent chromatographic process development faces challenges such as reliance on expert experience, long development cycles, and labor intensity. ChromR, a large language model (LLM)-driven platform for chromatographic process design and optimization, is presented in this work. The platform integrates ChromLLM, a domain-specific LLM trained for chromatography, along with a multi-agent system and an automated chromatographic experimental device. The multi-agent system comprises four agents: domain knowledge answering, experimental design, experimental execution, and data analysis. ChromR enables automatic completion of the entire workflow-including initial process parameter recommendation, experimental design, automated execution, data analysis, and multi-objective optimization. By utilizing ChromR, dependency on expert knowledge is effectively reduced, while labor input and development time are significantly decreased. Chromatographic purification of the extract of Ginkgo biloba leaf (EGBL) was selected as a case study. ChromR successfully developed a chromatographic process within one week that meets multiple objectives, including fraction quality and production efficiency, reducing development time to approximately one-seventh of that required by the conventional paradigm. An intelligent, automated, and universally applicable new paradigm was established for chromatographic process development. △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.03578 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL PsychEthicsBench: Evaluating Large Language Models Against Australian Mental Health Ethics Authors: Yaling Shen , Stephanie Fong , Yiwen Jiang , Zimu Wang , Feilong Tang , Qingyang Xu , Xiangyu Zhao , Zhongxing Xu , Jiahe Liu , Jinpeng Hu , Dominic Dwyer , Zongyuan Ge Abstract : The increasing integration of large language models (LLMs) into mental health applications necessitates robust frameworks for evaluating professional safety alignment. Current evaluative approaches primarily rely on refusal-based safety signals, which offer limited insight into the nuanced behaviors required in clinical practice. In mental health, clinically inadequate refusals can be perceived as… ▽ More The increasing integration of large language models (LLMs) into mental health applications necessitates robust frameworks for evaluating professional safety alignment. Current evaluative approaches primarily rely on refusal-based safety signals, which offer limited insight into the nuanced behaviors required in clinical practice. In mental health, clinically inadequate refusals can be perceived as unempathetic and discourage help-seeking. To address this gap, we move beyond refusal-centric metrics and introduce \texttt{PsychEthicsBench}, the first principle-grounded benchmark based on Australian psychology and psychiatry guidelines, designed to evaluate LLMs' ethical knowledge and behavioral responses through multiple-choice and open-ended tasks with fine-grained ethicality annotations. Empirical results across 14 models reveal that refusal rates are poor indicators of ethical behavior, revealing a significant divergence between safety triggers and clinical appropriateness. Notably, we find that domain-specific fine-tuning can degrade ethical robustness, as several specialized models underperform their base backbones in ethical alignment. PsychEthicsBench provides a foundation for systematic, jurisdiction-aware evaluation of LLMs in mental health, encouraging more responsible development in this domain. △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 17 pages arXiv:2601.03578 [ pdf , ps , other ] PsychEthicsBench: Evaluating Large Language Models Against Australian Mental Health Ethics Authors: Yaling Shen , Stephanie Fong , Yiwen Jiang , Zimu Wang , Feilong Tang , Qingyang Xu , Xiangyu Zhao , Zhongxing Xu , Jiahe Liu , Jinpeng Hu , Dominic Dwyer , Zongyuan Ge Abstract : The increasing integration of large language models (LLMs) into mental health applications necessitates robust frameworks for evaluating professional safety alignment. Current evaluative approaches primarily rely on refusal-based safety signals, which offer limited insight into the nuanced behaviors required in clinical practice. In mental health, clinically inadequate refusals can be perceived as… ▽ More The increasing integration of large language models (LLMs) into mental health applications necessitates robust frameworks for evaluating professional safety alignment. Current evaluative approaches primarily rely on refusal-based safety signals, which offer limited insight into the nuanced behaviors required in clinical practice. In mental health, clinically inadequate refusals can be perceived as unempathetic and discourage help-seeking. To address this gap, we move beyond refusal-centric metrics and introduce \texttt{PsychEthicsBench}, the first principle-grounded benchmark based on Australian psychology and psychiatry guidelines, designed to evaluate LLMs' ethical knowledge and behavioral responses through multiple-choice and open-ended tasks with fine-grained ethicality annotations. Empirical results across 14 models reveal that refusal rates are poor indicators of ethical behavior, revealing a significant divergence between safety triggers and clinical appropriateness. Notably, we find that domain-specific fine-tuning can degrade ethical robustness, as several specialized models underperform their base backbones in ethical alignment. PsychEthicsBench provides a foundation for systematic, jurisdiction-aware evaluation of LLMs in mental health, encouraging more responsible development in this domain. △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 17 pages arXiv:2601.03506 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI Reasoning Pattern Alignment Merging for Adaptive Reasoning Authors: Zhaofeng Zhong , Wei Yuan , Tong Chen , Xiangyu Zhao , Quoc Viet Hung Nguyen , Hongzhi Yin Abstract : Recent large reasoning models (LRMs) have made substantial progress in complex reasoning tasks, yet they often generate lengthy reasoning paths for every query, incurring unnecessary computation and latency. Existing speed-up approaches typically rely on retraining the model or designing sophisticated prompting, which are either prohibitively expensive or highly sensitive to the input and prompt f… ▽ More Recent large reasoning models (LRMs) have made substantial progress in complex reasoning tasks, yet they often generate lengthy reasoning paths for every query, incurring unnecessary computation and latency. Existing speed-up approaches typically rely on retraining the model or designing sophisticated prompting, which are either prohibitively expensive or highly sensitive to the input and prompt formulation. In this work, we study model merging as a lightweight alternative for efficient reasoning: by combining a long chain-of-thought (Long-CoT) reasoning model with a Short-CoT instruction model, we obtain an adaptive reasoner without training from scratch or requiring large-scale additional data. Building on this idea, we propose Reasoning Pattern Alignment Merging (RPAM), a layer-wise model merging framework based on feature alignment to facilitate query-adaptive reasoning. RPAM first constructs a small pattern-labeled calibration set that assigns each query an appropriate reasoning pattern. It then optimizes layer-wise merging coefficients by aligning the merged model's intermediate representations with those of the selected model, while a contrastive objective explicitly pushes them away from the non-selected model. Experiments on seven widely used reasoning benchmarks show that RPAM substantially reduces inference cost while maintaining strong performance. Upon article acceptance, we will provide open-source code to reproduce experiments for RPAM. △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 16 pages, 4 figures arXiv:2601.03506 [ pdf , ps , other ] Reasoning Pattern Alignment Merging for Adaptive Reasoning Authors: Zhaofeng Zhong , Wei Yuan , Tong Chen , Xiangyu Zhao , Quoc Viet Hung Nguyen , Hongzhi Yin Abstract : Recent large reasoning models (LRMs) have made substantial progress in complex reasoning tasks, yet they often generate lengthy reasoning paths for every query, incurring unnecessary computation and latency. Existing speed-up approaches typically rely on retraining the model or designing sophisticated prompting, which are either prohibitively expensive or highly sensitive to the input and prompt f… ▽ More Recent large reasoning models (LRMs) have made substantial progress in complex reasoning tasks, yet they often generate lengthy reasoning paths for every query, incurring unnecessary computation and latency. Existing speed-up approaches typically rely on retraining the model or designing sophisticated prompting, which are either prohibitively expensive or highly sensitive to the input and prompt formulation. In this work, we study model merging as a lightweight alternative for efficient reasoning: by combining a long chain-of-thought (Long-CoT) reasoning model with a Short-CoT instruction model, we obtain an adaptive reasoner without training from scratch or requiring large-scale additional data. Building on this idea, we propose Reasoning Pattern Alignment Merging (RPAM), a layer-wise model merging framework based on feature alignment to facilitate query-adaptive reasoning. RPAM first constructs a small pattern-labeled calibration set that assigns each query an appropriate reasoning pattern. It then optimizes layer-wise merging coefficients by aligning the merged model's intermediate representations with those of the selected model, while a contrastive objective explicitly pushes them away from the non-selected model. Experiments on seven widely used reasoning benchmarks show that RPAM substantially reduces inference cost while maintaining strong performance. Upon article acceptance, we will provide open-source code to reproduce experiments for RPAM. △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 16 pages, 4 figures arXiv:2601.03115 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL eess.AS Discovering and Causally Validating Emotion-Sensitive Neurons in Large Audio-Language Models Authors: Xiutian Zhao , Björn Schuller , Berrak Sisman Abstract : Emotion is a central dimension of spoken communication, yet, we still lack a mechanistic account of how modern large audio-language models (LALMs) encode it internally. We present the first neuron-level interpretability study of emotion-sensitive neurons (ESNs) in LALMs and provide causal evidence that such units exist in Qwen2.5-Omni, Kimi-Audio, and Audio Flamingo 3. Across these three widely us… ▽ More Emotion is a central dimension of spoken communication, yet, we still lack a mechanistic account of how modern large audio-language models (LALMs) encode it internally. We present the first neuron-level interpretability study of emotion-sensitive neurons (ESNs) in LALMs and provide causal evidence that such units exist in Qwen2.5-Omni, Kimi-Audio, and Audio Flamingo 3. Across these three widely used open-source models, we compare frequency-, entropy-, magnitude-, and contrast-based neuron selectors on multiple emotion recognition benchmarks. Using inference-time interventions, we reveal a consistent emotion-specific signature: ablating neurons selected for a given emotion disproportionately degrades recognition of that emotion while largely preserving other classes, whereas gain-based amplification steers predictions toward the target emotion. These effects arise with modest identification data and scale systematically with intervention strength. We further observe that ESNs exhibit non-uniform layer-wise clustering with partial cross-dataset transfer. Taken together, our results offer a causal, neuron-level account of emotion decisions in LALMs and highlight targeted neuron interventions as an actionable handle for controllable affective behaviors. △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 16 pages, 6 figures arXiv:2601.03115 [ pdf , ps , other ] Discovering and Causally Validating Emotion-Sensitive Neurons in Large Audio-Language Models Authors: Xiutian Zhao , Björn Schuller , Berrak Sisman Abstract : Emotion is a central dimension of spoken communication, yet, we still lack a mechanistic account of how modern large audio-language models (LALMs) encode it internally. We present the first neuron-level interpretability study of emotion-sensitive neurons (ESNs) in LALMs and provide causal evidence that such units exist in Qwen2.5-Omni, Kimi-Audio, and Audio Flamingo 3. Across these three widely us… ▽ More Emotion is a central dimension of spoken communication, yet, we still lack a mechanistic account of how modern large audio-language models (LALMs) encode it internally. We present the first neuron-level interpretability study of emotion-sensitive neurons (ESNs) in LALMs and provide causal evidence that such units exist in Qwen2.5-Omni, Kimi-Audio, and Audio Flamingo 3. Across these three widely used open-source models, we compare frequency-, entropy-, magnitude-, and contrast-based neuron selectors on multiple emotion recognition benchmarks. Using inference-time interventions, we reveal a consistent emotion-specific signature: ablating neurons selected for a given emotion disproportionately degrades recognition of that emotion while largely preserving other classes, whereas gain-based amplification steers predictions toward the target emotion. These effects arise with modest identification data and scale systematically with intervention strength. We further observe that ESNs exhibit non-uniform layer-wise clustering with partial cross-dataset transfer. Taken together, our results offer a causal, neuron-level account of emotion decisions in LALMs and highlight targeted neuron interventions as an actionable handle for controllable affective behaviors. △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 16 pages, 6 figures arXiv:2601.02712 [ pdf , ps , other ] eess.IV cs.MM Transform and Entropy Coding in AV2 Authors: Alican Nalci , Hilmi E. Egilmez , Madhu P. Krishnan , Keng-Shih Lu , Joe Young , Debargha Mukherjee , Lin Zheng , Jingning Han , Joel Sole , Xin Zhao , Tianqi Liu , Liang Zhao , Todd Nguyen , Urvang Joshi , Kruthika Koratti Sivakumar , Luhang Xu , Zhijun Lei , Yue Yu , Aki Kuusela , Minhua Zhou , Andrey Norkin , Adrian Grange Abstract : AV2 is the successor to the AV1 royalty-free video coding standard developed by the Alliance for Open Media (AOMedia). Its primary objective is to deliver substantial compression gains and subjective quality improvements while maintaining low-complexity encoder and decoder operations. This paper describes the transform, quantization and entropy coding design in AV2, including redesigned transform… ▽ More AV2 is the successor to the AV1 royalty-free video coding standard developed by the Alliance for Open Media (AOMedia). Its primary objective is to deliver substantial compression gains and subjective quality improvements while maintaining low-complexity encoder and decoder operations. This paper describes the transform, quantization and entropy coding design in AV2, including redesigned transform kernels and data-driven transforms, expanded transform partitioning, and a mode & coefficient dependent transform signaling. AV2 introduces several new coding tools including Intra/Inter Secondary Transforms (IST), Trellis Coded Quantization (TCQ), Adaptive Transform Coding (ATC), Probability Adaptation Rate Adjustment (PARA), Forward Skip Coding (FSC), Cross Chroma Component Transforms (CCTX), Parity Hiding (PH) tools and improved lossless coding. These advances enable AV2 to deliver the highest quality video experience for video applications at a significantly reduced bitrate. △ Less Submitted 5 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.02712 [ pdf , ps , other ] Transform and Entropy Coding in AV2 Authors: Alican Nalci , Hilmi E. Egilmez , Madhu P. Krishnan , Keng-Shih Lu , Joe Young , Debargha Mukherjee , Lin Zheng , Jingning Han , Joel Sole , Xin Zhao , Tianqi Liu , Liang Zhao , Todd Nguyen , Urvang Joshi , Kruthika Koratti Sivakumar , Luhang Xu , Zhijun Lei , Yue Yu , Aki Kuusela , Minhua Zhou , Andrey Norkin , Adrian Grange Abstract : AV2 is the successor to the AV1 royalty-free video coding standard developed by the Alliance for Open Media (AOMedia). Its primary objective is to deliver substantial compression gains and subjective quality improvements while maintaining low-complexity encoder and decoder operations. This paper describes the transform, quantization and entropy coding design in AV2, including redesigned transform… ▽ More AV2 is the successor to the AV1 royalty-free video coding standard developed by the Alliance for Open Media (AOMedia). Its primary objective is to deliver substantial compression gains and subjective quality improvements while maintaining low-complexity encoder and decoder operations. This paper describes the transform, quantization and entropy coding design in AV2, including redesigned transform kernels and data-driven transforms, expanded transform partitioning, and a mode & coefficient dependent transform signaling. AV2 introduces several new coding tools including Intra/Inter Secondary Transforms (IST), Trellis Coded Quantization (TCQ), Adaptive Transform Coding (ATC), Probability Adaptation Rate Adjustment (PARA), Forward Skip Coding (FSC), Cross Chroma Component Transforms (CCTX), Parity Hiding (PH) tools and improved lossless coding. These advances enable AV2 to deliver the highest quality video experience for video applications at a significantly reduced bitrate. △ Less Submitted 5 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.02680 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CR cs.LG Adversarial Contrastive Learning for LLM Quantization Attacks Authors: Dinghong Song , Zhiwei Xu , Hai Wan , Xibin Zhao , Pengfei Su , Dong Li Abstract : Model quantization is critical for deploying large language models (LLMs) on resource-constrained hardware, yet recent work has revealed severe security risks that benign LLMs in full precision may exhibit malicious behaviors after quantization. In this paper, we propose Adversarial Contrastive Learning (ACL), a novel gradient-based quantization attack that achieves superior attack effectiveness b… ▽ More Model quantization is critical for deploying large language models (LLMs) on resource-constrained hardware, yet recent work has revealed severe security risks that benign LLMs in full precision may exhibit malicious behaviors after quantization. In this paper, we propose Adversarial Contrastive Learning (ACL), a novel gradient-based quantization attack that achieves superior attack effectiveness by explicitly maximizing the gap between benign and harmful responses probabilities. ACL formulates the attack objective as a triplet-based contrastive loss, and integrates it with a projected gradient descent two-stage distributed fine-tuning strategy to ensure stable and efficient optimization. Extensive experiments demonstrate ACL's remarkable effectiveness, achieving attack success rates of 86.00% for over-refusal, 97.69% for jailbreak, and 92.40% for advertisement injection, substantially outperforming state-of-the-art methods by up to 44.67%, 18.84%, and 50.80%, respectively. △ Less Submitted 5 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 14 pages, 5 figures arXiv:2601.02680 [ pdf , ps , other ] Adversarial Contrastive Learning for LLM Quantization Attacks Authors: Dinghong Song , Zhiwei Xu , Hai Wan , Xibin Zhao , Pengfei Su , Dong Li Abstract : Model quantization is critical for deploying large language models (LLMs) on resource-constrained hardware, yet recent work has revealed severe security risks that benign LLMs in full precision may exhibit malicious behaviors after quantization. In this paper, we propose Adversarial Contrastive Learning (ACL), a novel gradient-based quantization attack that achieves superior attack effectiveness b… ▽ More Model quantization is critical for deploying large language models (LLMs) on resource-constrained hardware, yet recent work has revealed severe security risks that benign LLMs in full precision may exhibit malicious behaviors after quantization. In this paper, we propose Adversarial Contrastive Learning (ACL), a novel gradient-based quantization attack that achieves superior attack effectiveness by explicitly maximizing the gap between benign and harmful responses probabilities. ACL formulates the attack objective as a triplet-based contrastive loss, and integrates it with a projected gradient descent two-stage distributed fine-tuning strategy to ensure stable and efficient optimization. Extensive experiments demonstrate ACL's remarkable effectiveness, achieving attack success rates of 86.00% for over-refusal, 97.69% for jailbreak, and 92.40% for advertisement injection, substantially outperforming state-of-the-art methods by up to 44.67%, 18.84%, and 50.80%, respectively. △ Less Submitted 5 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 14 pages, 5 figures arXiv:2601.01718 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI Yuan3.0 Flash: An Open Multimodal Large Language Model for Enterprise Applications Authors: YuanLab. ai , : , Shawn Wu , Sean Wang , Louie Li , Darcy Chen , Allen Wang , Jiangang Luo , Xudong Zhao , Joseph Shen , Gawain Ma , Jasper Jia , Marcus Mao , Claire Wang , Hunter He , Carol Wang , Zera Zhang , Jason Wang , Chonly Shen , Leo Zhang , Logan Chen , Qasim Meng , James Gong , Danied Zhao , Penn Zheng , et al. (2 additional authors not shown) Abstract : We introduce Yuan3.0 Flash, an open-source Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) MultiModal Large Language Model featuring 3.7B activated parameters and 40B total parameters, specifically designed to enhance performance on enterprise-oriented tasks while maintaining competitive capabilities on general-purpose tasks. To address the overthinking phenomenon commonly observed in Large Reasoning Models (LRMs), we p… ▽ More We introduce Yuan3.0 Flash, an open-source Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) MultiModal Large Language Model featuring 3.7B activated parameters and 40B total parameters, specifically designed to enhance performance on enterprise-oriented tasks while maintaining competitive capabilities on general-purpose tasks. To address the overthinking phenomenon commonly observed in Large Reasoning Models (LRMs), we propose Reflection-aware Adaptive Policy Optimization (RAPO), a novel RL training algorithm that effectively regulates overthinking behaviors. In enterprise-oriented tasks such as retrieval-augmented generation (RAG), complex table understanding, and summarization, Yuan3.0 Flash consistently achieves superior performance. Moreover, it also demonstrates strong reasoning capabilities in domains such as mathematics, science, etc., attaining accuracy comparable to frontier model while requiring only approximately 1/4 to 1/2 of the average tokens. Yuan3.0 Flash has been fully open-sourced to facilitate further research and real-world deployment: △ Less Submitted 4 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.01718 [ pdf , ps , other ] Yuan3.0 Flash: An Open Multimodal Large Language Model for Enterprise Applications Authors: YuanLab. ai , : , Shawn Wu , Sean Wang , Louie Li , Darcy Chen , Allen Wang , Jiangang Luo , Xudong Zhao , Joseph Shen , Gawain Ma , Jasper Jia , Marcus Mao , Claire Wang , Hunter He , Carol Wang , Zera Zhang , Jason Wang , Chonly Shen , Leo Zhang , Logan Chen , Qasim Meng , James Gong , Danied Zhao , Penn Zheng , et al. (2 additional authors not shown) Abstract : We introduce Yuan3.0 Flash, an open-source Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) MultiModal Large Language Model featuring 3.7B activated parameters and 40B total parameters, specifically designed to enhance performance on enterprise-oriented tasks while maintaining competitive capabilities on general-purpose tasks. To address the overthinking phenomenon commonly observed in Large Reasoning Models (LRMs), we p… ▽ More We introduce Yuan3.0 Flash, an open-source Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) MultiModal Large Language Model featuring 3.7B activated parameters and 40B total parameters, specifically designed to enhance performance on enterprise-oriented tasks while maintaining competitive capabilities on general-purpose tasks. To address the overthinking phenomenon commonly observed in Large Reasoning Models (LRMs), we propose Reflection-aware Adaptive Policy Optimization (RAPO), a novel RL training algorithm that effectively regulates overthinking behaviors. In enterprise-oriented tasks such as retrieval-augmented generation (RAG), complex table understanding, and summarization, Yuan3.0 Flash consistently achieves superior performance. Moreover, it also demonstrates strong reasoning capabilities in domains such as mathematics, science, etc., attaining accuracy comparable to frontier model while requiring only approximately 1/4 to 1/2 of the average tokens. Yuan3.0 Flash has been fully open-sourced to facilitate further research and real-world deployment: △ Less Submitted 4 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.01501 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG Advanced Global Wildfire Activity Modeling with Hierarchical Graph ODE Authors: Fan Xu , Wei Gong , Hao Wu , Lilan Peng , Nan Wang , Qingsong Wen , Xian Wu , Kun Wang , Xibin Zhao Abstract : Wildfires, as an integral component of the Earth system, are governed by a complex interplay of atmospheric, oceanic, and terrestrial processes spanning a vast range of spatiotemporal scales. Modeling their global activity on large timescales is therefore a critical yet challenging task. While deep learning has recently achieved significant breakthroughs in global weather forecasting, its potentia… ▽ More Wildfires, as an integral component of the Earth system, are governed by a complex interplay of atmospheric, oceanic, and terrestrial processes spanning a vast range of spatiotemporal scales. Modeling their global activity on large timescales is therefore a critical yet challenging task. While deep learning has recently achieved significant breakthroughs in global weather forecasting, its potential for global wildfire behavior prediction remains underexplored. In this work, we reframe this problem and introduce the Hierarchical Graph ODE (HiGO), a novel framework designed to learn the multi-scale, continuous-time dynamics of wildfires. Specifically, we represent the Earth system as a multi-level graph hierarchy and propose an adaptive filtering message passing mechanism for both intra- and inter-level information flow, enabling more effective feature extraction and fusion. Furthermore, we incorporate GNN-parameterized Neural ODE modules at multiple levels to explicitly learn the continuous dynamics inherent to each scale. Through extensive experiments on the SeasFire Cube dataset, we demonstrate that HiGO significantly outperforms state-of-the-art baselines on long-range wildfire forecasting. Moreover, its continuous-time predictions exhibit strong observational consistency, highlighting its potential for real-world applications. △ Less Submitted 4 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.01501 [ pdf , ps , other ] Advanced Global Wildfire Activity Modeling with Hierarchical Graph ODE Authors: Fan Xu , Wei Gong , Hao Wu , Lilan Peng , Nan Wang , Qingsong Wen , Xian Wu , Kun Wang , Xibin Zhao Abstract : Wildfires, as an integral component of the Earth system, are governed by a complex interplay of atmospheric, oceanic, and terrestrial processes spanning a vast range of spatiotemporal scales. Modeling their global activity on large timescales is therefore a critical yet challenging task. While deep learning has recently achieved significant breakthroughs in global weather forecasting, its potentia… ▽ More Wildfires, as an integral component of the Earth system, are governed by a complex interplay of atmospheric, oceanic, and terrestrial processes spanning a vast range of spatiotemporal scales. Modeling their global activity on large timescales is therefore a critical yet challenging task. While deep learning has recently achieved significant breakthroughs in global weather forecasting, its potential for global wildfire behavior prediction remains underexplored. In this work, we reframe this problem and introduce the Hierarchical Graph ODE (HiGO), a novel framework designed to learn the multi-scale, continuous-time dynamics of wildfires. Specifically, we represent the Earth system as a multi-level graph hierarchy and propose an adaptive filtering message passing mechanism for both intra- and inter-level information flow, enabling more effective feature extraction and fusion. Furthermore, we incorporate GNN-parameterized Neural ODE modules at multiple levels to explicitly learn the continuous dynamics inherent to each scale. Through extensive experiments on the SeasFire Cube dataset, we demonstrate that HiGO significantly outperforms state-of-the-art baselines on long-range wildfire forecasting. Moreover, its continuous-time predictions exhibit strong observational consistency, highlighting its potential for real-world applications. △ Less Submitted 4 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.01498 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL From Failure to Mastery: Generating Hard Samples for Tool-use Agents Authors: Bingguang Hao , Zengzhuang Xu , Yuntao Wen , Xinyi Xu , Yang Liu , Tong Zhao , Maolin Wang , Long Chen , Dong Wang , Yicheng Chen , Cunyin Peng , Xiangyu Zhao , Chenyi Zhuang , Ji Zhang Abstract : The advancement of LLM agents with tool-use capabilities requires diverse and complex training corpora. Existing data generation methods, which predominantly follow a paradigm of random sampling and shallow generation, often yield simple and homogeneous trajectories that fail to capture complex, implicit logical dependencies. To bridge this gap, we introduce HardGen, an automatic agentic pipeline… ▽ More The advancement of LLM agents with tool-use capabilities requires diverse and complex training corpora. Existing data generation methods, which predominantly follow a paradigm of random sampling and shallow generation, often yield simple and homogeneous trajectories that fail to capture complex, implicit logical dependencies. To bridge this gap, we introduce HardGen, an automatic agentic pipeline designed to generate hard tool-use training samples with verifiable reasoning. Firstly, HardGen establishes a dynamic API Graph built upon agent failure cases, from which it samples to synthesize hard traces. Secondly, these traces serve as conditional priors to guide the instantiation of modular, abstract advanced tools, which are subsequently leveraged to formulate hard queries. Finally, the advanced tools and hard queries enable the generation of verifiable complex Chain-of-Thought (CoT), with a closed-loop evaluation feedback steering the continuous refinement of the process. Extensive evaluations demonstrate that a 4B parameter model trained with our curated dataset achieves superior performance compared to several leading open-source and closed-source competitors (e.g., GPT-5.2, Gemini-3-Pro and Claude-Opus-4.5). Our code, models, and dataset will be open-sourced to facilitate future research. △ Less Submitted 4 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.01498 [ pdf , ps , other ] From Failure to Mastery: Generating Hard Samples for Tool-use Agents Authors: Bingguang Hao , Zengzhuang Xu , Yuntao Wen , Xinyi Xu , Yang Liu , Tong Zhao , Maolin Wang , Long Chen , Dong Wang , Yicheng Chen , Cunyin Peng , Xiangyu Zhao , Chenyi Zhuang , Ji Zhang Abstract : The advancement of LLM agents with tool-use capabilities requires diverse and complex training corpora. Existing data generation methods, which predominantly follow a paradigm of random sampling and shallow generation, often yield simple and homogeneous trajectories that fail to capture complex, implicit logical dependencies. To bridge this gap, we introduce HardGen, an automatic agentic pipeline… ▽ More The advancement of LLM agents with tool-use capabilities requires diverse and complex training corpora. Existing data generation methods, which predominantly follow a paradigm of random sampling and shallow generation, often yield simple and homogeneous trajectories that fail to capture complex, implicit logical dependencies. To bridge this gap, we introduce HardGen, an automatic agentic pipeline designed to generate hard tool-use training samples with verifiable reasoning. Firstly, HardGen establishes a dynamic API Graph built upon agent failure cases, from which it samples to synthesize hard traces. Secondly, these traces serve as conditional priors to guide the instantiation of modular, abstract advanced tools, which are subsequently leveraged to formulate hard queries. Finally, the advanced tools and hard queries enable the generation of verifiable complex Chain-of-Thought (CoT), with a closed-loop evaluation feedback steering the continuous refinement of the process. Extensive evaluations demonstrate that a 4B parameter model trained with our curated dataset achieves superior performance compared to several leading open-source and closed-source competitors (e.g., GPT-5.2, Gemini-3-Pro and Claude-Opus-4.5). Our code, models, and dataset will be open-sourced to facilitate future research. △ Less Submitted 4 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.01022 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI cs.LG Decoupling Amplitude and Phase Attention in Frequency Domain for RGB-Event based Visual Object Tracking Authors: Shiao Wang , Xiao Wang , Haonan Zhao , Jiarui Xu , Bo Jiang , Lin Zhu , Xin Zhao , Yonghong Tian , Jin Tang Abstract : Existing RGB-Event visual object tracking approaches primarily rely on conventional feature-level fusion, failing to fully exploit the unique advantages of event cameras. In particular, the high dynamic range and motion-sensitive nature of event cameras are often overlooked, while low-information regions are processed uniformly, leading to unnecessary computational overhead for the backbone networ… ▽ More Existing RGB-Event visual object tracking approaches primarily rely on conventional feature-level fusion, failing to fully exploit the unique advantages of event cameras. In particular, the high dynamic range and motion-sensitive nature of event cameras are often overlooked, while low-information regions are processed uniformly, leading to unnecessary computational overhead for the backbone network. To address these issues, we propose a novel tracking framework that performs early fusion in the frequency domain, enabling effective aggregation of high-frequency information from the event modality. Specifically, RGB and event modalities are transformed from the spatial domain to the frequency domain via the Fast Fourier Transform, with their amplitude and phase components decoupled. High-frequency event information is selectively fused into RGB modality through amplitude and phase attention, enhancing feature representation while substantially reducing backbone computation. In addition, a motion-guided spatial sparsification module leverages the motion-sensitive nature of event cameras to capture the relationship between target motion cues and spatial probability distribution, filtering out low-information regions and enhancing target-relevant features. Finally, a sparse set of target-relevant features is fed into the backbone network for learning, and the tracking head predicts the final target position. Extensive experiments on three widely used RGB-Event tracking benchmark datasets, including FE108, FELT, and COESOT, demonstrate the high performance and efficiency of our method. The source code of this paper will be released on △ Less Submitted 2 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.01022 [ pdf , ps , other ] Decoupling Amplitude and Phase Attention in Frequency Domain for RGB-Event based Visual Object Tracking Authors: Shiao Wang , Xiao Wang , Haonan Zhao , Jiarui Xu , Bo Jiang , Lin Zhu , Xin Zhao , Yonghong Tian , Jin Tang Abstract : Existing RGB-Event visual object tracking approaches primarily rely on conventional feature-level fusion, failing to fully exploit the unique advantages of event cameras. In particular, the high dynamic range and motion-sensitive nature of event cameras are often overlooked, while low-information regions are processed uniformly, leading to unnecessary computational overhead for the backbone networ… ▽ More Existing RGB-Event visual object tracking approaches primarily rely on conventional feature-level fusion, failing to fully exploit the unique advantages of event cameras. In particular, the high dynamic range and motion-sensitive nature of event cameras are often overlooked, while low-information regions are processed uniformly, leading to unnecessary computational overhead for the backbone network. To address these issues, we propose a novel tracking framework that performs early fusion in the frequency domain, enabling effective aggregation of high-frequency information from the event modality. Specifically, RGB and event modalities are transformed from the spatial domain to the frequency domain via the Fast Fourier Transform, with their amplitude and phase components decoupled. High-frequency event information is selectively fused into RGB modality through amplitude and phase attention, enhancing feature representation while substantially reducing backbone computation. In addition, a motion-guided spatial sparsification module leverages the motion-sensitive nature of event cameras to capture the relationship between target motion cues and spatial probability distribution, filtering out low-information regions and enhancing target-relevant features. Finally, a sparse set of target-relevant features is fed into the backbone network for learning, and the tracking head predicts the final target position. Extensive experiments on three widely used RGB-Event tracking benchmark datasets, including FE108, FELT, and COESOT, demonstrate the high performance and efficiency of our method. The source code of this paper will be released on △ Less Submitted 2 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.00919 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.AI cs.CL Attention Needs to Focus: A Unified Perspective on Attention Allocation Authors: Zichuan Fu , Wentao Song , Guojing Li , Yejing Wang , Xian Wu , Yimin Deng , Hanyu Yan , Yefeng Zheng , Xiangyu Zhao Abstract : The Transformer architecture, a cornerstone of modern Large Language Models (LLMs), has achieved extraordinary success in sequence modeling, primarily due to its attention mechanism. However, despite its power, the standard attention mechanism is plagued by well-documented issues: representational collapse and attention sink. Although prior work has proposed approaches for these issues, they are o… ▽ More The Transformer architecture, a cornerstone of modern Large Language Models (LLMs), has achieved extraordinary success in sequence modeling, primarily due to its attention mechanism. However, despite its power, the standard attention mechanism is plagued by well-documented issues: representational collapse and attention sink. Although prior work has proposed approaches for these issues, they are often studied in isolation, obscuring their deeper connection. In this paper, we present a unified perspective, arguing that both can be traced to a common root -- improper attention allocation. We identify two failure modes: 1) Attention Overload, where tokens receive comparable high weights, blurring semantic features that lead to representational collapse; 2) Attention Underload, where no token is semantically relevant, yet attention is still forced to distribute, resulting in spurious focus such as attention sink. Building on this insight, we introduce Lazy Attention, a novel mechanism designed for a more focused attention distribution. To mitigate overload, it employs positional discrimination across both heads and dimensions to sharpen token distinctions. To counteract underload, it incorporates Elastic-Softmax, a modified normalization function that relaxes the standard softmax constraint to suppress attention on irrelevant tokens. Experiments on the FineWeb-Edu corpus, evaluated across nine diverse benchmarks, demonstrate that Lazy Attention successfully mitigates attention sink and achieves competitive performance compared to both standard attention and modern architectures, while reaching up to 59.58% attention sparsity. △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; v1 submitted 1 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: preprint arXiv:2601.00919 [ pdf , ps , other ] Attention Needs to Focus: A Unified Perspective on Attention Allocation Authors: Zichuan Fu , Wentao Song , Guojing Li , Yejing Wang , Xian Wu , Yimin Deng , Hanyu Yan , Yefeng Zheng , Xiangyu Zhao Abstract : The Transformer architecture, a cornerstone of modern Large Language Models (LLMs), has achieved extraordinary success in sequence modeling, primarily due to its attention mechanism. However, despite its power, the standard attention mechanism is plagued by well-documented issues: representational collapse and attention sink. Although prior work has proposed approaches for these issues, they are o… ▽ More The Transformer architecture, a cornerstone of modern Large Language Models (LLMs), has achieved extraordinary success in sequence modeling, primarily due to its attention mechanism. However, despite its power, the standard attention mechanism is plagued by well-documented issues: representational collapse and attention sink. Although prior work has proposed approaches for these issues, they are often studied in isolation, obscuring their deeper connection. In this paper, we present a unified perspective, arguing that both can be traced to a common root -- improper attention allocation. We identify two failure modes: 1) Attention Overload, where tokens receive comparable high weights, blurring semantic features that lead to representational collapse; 2) Attention Underload, where no token is semantically relevant, yet attention is still forced to distribute, resulting in spurious focus such as attention sink. Building on this insight, we introduce Lazy Attention, a novel mechanism designed for a more focused attention distribution. To mitigate overload, it employs positional discrimination across both heads and dimensions to sharpen token distinctions. To counteract underload, it incorporates Elastic-Softmax, a modified normalization function that relaxes the standard softmax constraint to suppress attention on irrelevant tokens. Experiments on the FineWeb-Edu corpus, evaluated across nine diverse benchmarks, demonstrate that Lazy Attention successfully mitigates attention sink and achieves competitive performance compared to both standard attention and modern architectures, while reaching up to 59.58% attention sparsity. △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; v1 submitted 1 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: preprint arXiv:2601.00575 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL InfoSynth: Information-Guided Benchmark Synthesis for LLMs Authors: Ishir Garg , Neel Kolhe , Xuandong Zhao , Dawn Song Abstract : Large language models (LLMs) have demonstrated significant advancements in reasoning and code generation. However, efficiently creating new benchmarks to evaluate these capabilities remains a challenge. Traditional benchmark creation relies on manual human effort, a process that is both expensive and time-consuming. Furthermore, existing benchmarks often contaminate LLM training data, necessitatin… ▽ More Large language models (LLMs) have demonstrated significant advancements in reasoning and code generation. However, efficiently creating new benchmarks to evaluate these capabilities remains a challenge. Traditional benchmark creation relies on manual human effort, a process that is both expensive and time-consuming. Furthermore, existing benchmarks often contaminate LLM training data, necessitating novel and diverse benchmarks to accurately assess their genuine capabilities. This work introduces InfoSynth, a novel framework for automatically generating and evaluating reasoning benchmarks guided by information-theoretic principles. We propose metrics based on KL-divergence and entropy to quantify benchmark novelty and diversity without relying on costly model evaluations. Building on this framework, we develop an end-to-end pipeline that synthesizes robust Python coding problems from seed datasets using genetic algorithms and iterative code feedback. Our method generates accurate test cases and solutions to new problems 97% of the time, and the synthesized benchmarks consistently exhibit higher novelty and diversity compared to their seed datasets. Moreover, our algorithm provides a method for controlling the novelty/diversity and difficulty of generated problems. InfoSynth offers a scalable, self-verifying pipeline for constructing high-quality, novel and diverse benchmarks for LLMs. Project Page: △ Less Submitted 2 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.00575 [ pdf , ps , other ] InfoSynth: Information-Guided Benchmark Synthesis for LLMs Authors: Ishir Garg , Neel Kolhe , Xuandong Zhao , Dawn Song Abstract : Large language models (LLMs) have demonstrated significant advancements in reasoning and code generation. However, efficiently creating new benchmarks to evaluate these capabilities remains a challenge. Traditional benchmark creation relies on manual human effort, a process that is both expensive and time-consuming. Furthermore, existing benchmarks often contaminate LLM training data, necessitatin… ▽ More Large language models (LLMs) have demonstrated significant advancements in reasoning and code generation. However, efficiently creating new benchmarks to evaluate these capabilities remains a challenge. Traditional benchmark creation relies on manual human effort, a process that is both expensive and time-consuming. Furthermore, existing benchmarks often contaminate LLM training data, necessitating novel and diverse benchmarks to accurately assess their genuine capabilities. This work introduces InfoSynth, a novel framework for automatically generating and evaluating reasoning benchmarks guided by information-theoretic principles. We propose metrics based on KL-divergence and entropy to quantify benchmark novelty and diversity without relying on costly model evaluations. Building on this framework, we develop an end-to-end pipeline that synthesizes robust Python coding problems from seed datasets using genetic algorithms and iterative code feedback. Our method generates accurate test cases and solutions to new problems 97% of the time, and the synthesized benchmarks consistently exhibit higher novelty and diversity compared to their seed datasets. Moreover, our algorithm provides a method for controlling the novelty/diversity and difficulty of generated problems. InfoSynth offers a scalable, self-verifying pipeline for constructing high-quality, novel and diverse benchmarks for LLMs. Project Page: △ Less Submitted 2 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.00477 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CR cs.SE Security in the Age of AI Teammates: An Empirical Study of Agentic Pull Requests on GitHub Authors: Mohammed Latif Siddiq , Xinye Zhao , Vinicius Carvalho Lopes , Beatrice Casey , Joanna C. S. Santos Abstract : Autonomous coding agents are increasingly deployed as AI teammates in modern software engineering, independently authoring pull requests (PRs) that modify production code at scale. This study aims to systematically characterize how autonomous coding agents contribute to software security in practice, how these security-related contributions are reviewed and accepted, and which observable signals a… ▽ More Autonomous coding agents are increasingly deployed as AI teammates in modern software engineering, independently authoring pull requests (PRs) that modify production code at scale. This study aims to systematically characterize how autonomous coding agents contribute to software security in practice, how these security-related contributions are reviewed and accepted, and which observable signals are associated with PR rejection. We conduct a large-scale empirical analysis of agent-authored PRs using the AIDev dataset, comprising of over 33,000 curated PRs from popular GitHub repositories. Security-relevant PRs are identified using a keyword filtering strategy, followed by manual validation, resulting in 1,293 confirmed security-related agentic-PRs. We then analyze prevalence, acceptance outcomes, and review latency across autonomous agents, programming ecosystems, and types of code changes. Moreover, we apply qualitative open coding to identify recurring security-related actions and underlying intents, and examine review metadata to identify early signals associated with PR rejection. Security-related Agentic-PRs constitute a meaningful share of agent activity (approximately 4\%). Rather than focusing solely on narrow vulnerability fixes, agents most frequently perform supportive security hardening activities, including testing, documentation, configuration, and improved error handling. Compared to non-security PRs, security-related Agentic-PRs exhibit lower merge rates and longer review latency, reflecting heightened human scrutiny, with variation across agents and programming ecosystems. PR rejection is more strongly associated with PR complexity and verbosity than with explicit security topics. △ Less Submitted 1 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Submitted to Information and Software Technology Journal arXiv:2601.00477 [ pdf , ps , other ] Security in the Age of AI Teammates: An Empirical Study of Agentic Pull Requests on GitHub Authors: Mohammed Latif Siddiq , Xinye Zhao , Vinicius Carvalho Lopes , Beatrice Casey , Joanna C. S. Santos Abstract : Autonomous coding agents are increasingly deployed as AI teammates in modern software engineering, independently authoring pull requests (PRs) that modify production code at scale. This study aims to systematically characterize how autonomous coding agents contribute to software security in practice, how these security-related contributions are reviewed and accepted, and which observable signals a… ▽ More Autonomous coding agents are increasingly deployed as AI teammates in modern software engineering, independently authoring pull requests (PRs) that modify production code at scale. This study aims to systematically characterize how autonomous coding agents contribute to software security in practice, how these security-related contributions are reviewed and accepted, and which observable signals are associated with PR rejection. We conduct a large-scale empirical analysis of agent-authored PRs using the AIDev dataset, comprising of over 33,000 curated PRs from popular GitHub repositories. Security-relevant PRs are identified using a keyword filtering strategy, followed by manual validation, resulting in 1,293 confirmed security-related agentic-PRs. We then analyze prevalence, acceptance outcomes, and review latency across autonomous agents, programming ecosystems, and types of code changes. Moreover, we apply qualitative open coding to identify recurring security-related actions and underlying intents, and examine review metadata to identify early signals associated with PR rejection. Security-related Agentic-PRs constitute a meaningful share of agent activity (approximately 4\%). Rather than focusing solely on narrow vulnerability fixes, agents most frequently perform supportive security hardening activities, including testing, documentation, configuration, and improved error handling. Compared to non-security PRs, security-related Agentic-PRs exhibit lower merge rates and longer review latency, reflecting heightened human scrutiny, with variation across agents and programming ecosystems. PR rejection is more strongly associated with PR complexity and verbosity than with explicit security topics. △ Less Submitted 1 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Submitted to Information and Software Technology Journal arXiv:2512.24952 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Beyond the Last Frame: Process-aware Evaluation for Generative Video Reasoning Authors: Yifan Li , Yukai Gu , Yingqian Min , Zikang Liu , Yifan Du , Kun Zhou , Min Yang , Wayne Xin Zhao , Minghui Qiu Abstract : Recent breakthroughs in video generation have demonstrated an emerging capability termed Chain-of-Frames (CoF) reasoning, where models resolve complex tasks through the generation of continuous frames. While these models show promise for Generative Video Reasoning (GVR), existing evaluation frameworks often rely on single-frame assessments, which can lead to outcome-hacking, where a model reaches… ▽ More Recent breakthroughs in video generation have demonstrated an emerging capability termed Chain-of-Frames (CoF) reasoning, where models resolve complex tasks through the generation of continuous frames. While these models show promise for Generative Video Reasoning (GVR), existing evaluation frameworks often rely on single-frame assessments, which can lead to outcome-hacking, where a model reaches a correct conclusion through an erroneous process. To address this, we propose a process-aware evaluation paradigm. We introduce VIPER, a comprehensive benchmark spanning 16 tasks across temporal, structural, symbolic, spatial, physics, and planning reasoning. Furthermore, we propose Process-outcome Consistency (POC@r), a new metric that utilizes VLM-as-Judge with a hierarchical rubric to evaluate both the validity of the intermediate steps and the final result. Our experiments reveal that state-of-the-art video models achieve POC@1.0 only about 20% and exhibit a significant outcome-hacking. We further explore the impact of test-time scaling and sampling robustness, highlighting a substantial gap between current video generation and true generalized visual reasoning. Our benchmark are released at △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; v1 submitted 31 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Work in progress arXiv:2512.24952 [ pdf , ps , other ] Beyond the Last Frame: Process-aware Evaluation for Generative Video Reasoning Authors: Yifan Li , Yukai Gu , Yingqian Min , Zikang Liu , Yifan Du , Kun Zhou , Min Yang , Wayne Xin Zhao , Minghui Qiu Abstract : Recent breakthroughs in video generation have demonstrated an emerging capability termed Chain-of-Frames (CoF) reasoning, where models resolve complex tasks through the generation of continuous frames. While these models show promise for Generative Video Reasoning (GVR), existing evaluation frameworks often rely on single-frame assessments, which can lead to outcome-hacking, where a model reaches… ▽ More Recent breakthroughs in video generation have demonstrated an emerging capability termed Chain-of-Frames (CoF) reasoning, where models resolve complex tasks through the generation of continuous frames. While these models show promise for Generative Video Reasoning (GVR), existing evaluation frameworks often rely on single-frame assessments, which can lead to outcome-hacking, where a model reaches a correct conclusion through an erroneous process. To address this, we propose a process-aware evaluation paradigm. We introduce VIPER, a comprehensive benchmark spanning 16 tasks across temporal, structural, symbolic, spatial, physics, and planning reasoning. Furthermore, we propose Process-outcome Consistency (POC@r), a new metric that utilizes VLM-as-Judge with a hierarchical rubric to evaluate both the validity of the intermediate steps and the final result. Our experiments reveal that state-of-the-art video models achieve POC@1.0 only about 20% and exhibit a significant outcome-hacking. We further explore the impact of test-time scaling and sampling robustness, highlighting a substantial gap between current video generation and true generalized visual reasoning. Our benchmark are released at △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; v1 submitted 31 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Work in progress arXiv:2512.24851 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.RO VLN-MME: Diagnosing MLLMs as Language-guided Visual Navigation agents Authors: Xunyi Zhao , Gengze Zhou , Qi Wu Abstract : Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) have demonstrated remarkable capabilities across a wide range of vision-language tasks. However, their performance as embodied agents, which requires multi-round dialogue spatial reasoning and sequential action prediction, needs further exploration. Our work investigates this potential in the context of Vision-and-Language Navigation (VLN) by introducing a… ▽ More Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) have demonstrated remarkable capabilities across a wide range of vision-language tasks. However, their performance as embodied agents, which requires multi-round dialogue spatial reasoning and sequential action prediction, needs further exploration. Our work investigates this potential in the context of Vision-and-Language Navigation (VLN) by introducing a unified and extensible evaluation framework to probe MLLMs as zero-shot agents by bridging traditional navigation datasets into a standardized benchmark, named VLN-MME. We simplify the evaluation with a highly modular and accessible design. This flexibility streamlines experiments, enabling structured comparisons and component-level ablations across diverse MLLM architectures, agent designs, and navigation tasks. Crucially, enabled by our framework, we observe that enhancing our baseline agent with Chain-of-Thought (CoT) reasoning and self-reflection leads to an unexpected performance decrease. This suggests MLLMs exhibit poor context awareness in embodied navigation tasks; although they can follow instructions and structure their output, their 3D spatial reasoning fidelity is low. VLN-MME lays the groundwork for systematic evaluation of general-purpose MLLMs in embodied navigation settings and reveals limitations in their sequential decision-making capabilities. We believe these findings offer crucial guidance for MLLM post-training as embodied agents. △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; v1 submitted 31 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.24851 [ pdf , ps , other ] VLN-MME: Diagnosing MLLMs as Language-guided Visual Navigation agents Authors: Xunyi Zhao , Gengze Zhou , Qi Wu Abstract : Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) have demonstrated remarkable capabilities across a wide range of vision-language tasks. However, their performance as embodied agents, which requires multi-round dialogue spatial reasoning and sequential action prediction, needs further exploration. Our work investigates this potential in the context of Vision-and-Language Navigation (VLN) by introducing a… ▽ More Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) have demonstrated remarkable capabilities across a wide range of vision-language tasks. However, their performance as embodied agents, which requires multi-round dialogue spatial reasoning and sequential action prediction, needs further exploration. Our work investigates this potential in the context of Vision-and-Language Navigation (VLN) by introducing a unified and extensible evaluation framework to probe MLLMs as zero-shot agents by bridging traditional navigation datasets into a standardized benchmark, named VLN-MME. We simplify the evaluation with a highly modular and accessible design. This flexibility streamlines experiments, enabling structured comparisons and component-level ablations across diverse MLLM architectures, agent designs, and navigation tasks. Crucially, enabled by our framework, we observe that enhancing our baseline agent with Chain-of-Thought (CoT) reasoning and self-reflection leads to an unexpected performance decrease. This suggests MLLMs exhibit poor context awareness in embodied navigation tasks; although they can follow instructions and structure their output, their 3D spatial reasoning fidelity is low. VLN-MME lays the groundwork for systematic evaluation of general-purpose MLLMs in embodied navigation settings and reveals limitations in their sequential decision-making capabilities. We believe these findings offer crucial guidance for MLLM post-training as embodied agents. △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; v1 submitted 31 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.24682 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CR CellSecInspector: Safeguarding Cellular Networks via Automated Security Analysis on Specifications Authors: Ke Xie , Xingyi Zhao , Yiwen Hu , Munshi Saifuzzaman , Wen Li , Shuhan Yuan , Tian Xie , Guan-Hua Tu Abstract : The complexity, interdependence, and rapid evolution of 3GPP specifications present fundamental challenges for ensuring the security of modern cellular networks. Manual reviews and existing automated approaches, which often depend on rule-based parsing or small sets of manually crafted security requirements, fail to capture deep semantic dependencies, cross-sentence/clause relationships, and evolv… ▽ More The complexity, interdependence, and rapid evolution of 3GPP specifications present fundamental challenges for ensuring the security of modern cellular networks. Manual reviews and existing automated approaches, which often depend on rule-based parsing or small sets of manually crafted security requirements, fail to capture deep semantic dependencies, cross-sentence/clause relationships, and evolving specification behaviors. In this work, we present CellSecInspector, an automated framework for security analysis of 3GPP specifications. CellSecInspector extracts structured state-condition-action (SCA) representations, models mobile network procedures with comprehensive function chains, systematically validates them against 9 foundational security properties under 4 adversarial scenarios, and automatically generates test cases. This end-to-end pipeline enables the automated discovery of vulnerabilities without relying on manually predefined security requirements or rules. Applying CellSecInspector to the well-studied 5G and 4G NAS and RRC specifications, it discovers 43 vulnerabilities, 8 of which are previously unreported. Our findings show that CellSecInspector is a scalable, adaptive, and effective solution to assess 3GPP specifications for safeguarding operational and next-generation cellular networks. △ Less Submitted 31 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.24682 [ pdf , ps , other ] CellSecInspector: Safeguarding Cellular Networks via Automated Security Analysis on Specifications Authors: Ke Xie , Xingyi Zhao , Yiwen Hu , Munshi Saifuzzaman , Wen Li , Shuhan Yuan , Tian Xie , Guan-Hua Tu Abstract : The complexity, interdependence, and rapid evolution of 3GPP specifications present fundamental challenges for ensuring the security of modern cellular networks. Manual reviews and existing automated approaches, which often depend on rule-based parsing or small sets of manually crafted security requirements, fail to capture deep semantic dependencies, cross-sentence/clause relationships, and evolv… ▽ More The complexity, interdependence, and rapid evolution of 3GPP specifications present fundamental challenges for ensuring the security of modern cellular networks. Manual reviews and existing automated approaches, which often depend on rule-based parsing or small sets of manually crafted security requirements, fail to capture deep semantic dependencies, cross-sentence/clause relationships, and evolving specification behaviors. In this work, we present CellSecInspector, an automated framework for security analysis of 3GPP specifications. CellSecInspector extracts structured state-condition-action (SCA) representations, models mobile network procedures with comprehensive function chains, systematically validates them against 9 foundational security properties under 4 adversarial scenarios, and automatically generates test cases. This end-to-end pipeline enables the automated discovery of vulnerabilities without relying on manually predefined security requirements or rules. Applying CellSecInspector to the well-studied 5G and 4G NAS and RRC specifications, it discovers 43 vulnerabilities, 8 of which are previously unreported. Our findings show that CellSecInspector is a scalable, adaptive, and effective solution to assess 3GPP specifications for safeguarding operational and next-generation cellular networks. △ Less Submitted 31 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.24663 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI Renormalization Group Guided Tensor Network Structure Search Authors: Maolin Wang , Bowen Yu , Sheng Zhang , Linjie Mi , Wanyu Wang , Yiqi Wang , Pengyue Jia , Xuetao Wei , Zenglin Xu , Ruocheng Guo , Xiangyu Zhao Abstract : Tensor network structure search (TN-SS) aims to automatically discover optimal network topologies and rank configurations for efficient tensor decomposition in high-dimensional data representation. Despite recent advances, existing TN-SS methods face significant limitations in computational tractability, structure adaptivity, and optimization robustness across diverse tensor characteristics. They… ▽ More Tensor network structure search (TN-SS) aims to automatically discover optimal network topologies and rank configurations for efficient tensor decomposition in high-dimensional data representation. Despite recent advances, existing TN-SS methods face significant limitations in computational tractability, structure adaptivity, and optimization robustness across diverse tensor characteristics. They struggle with three key challenges: single-scale optimization missing multi-scale structures, discrete search spaces hindering smooth structure evolution, and separated structure-parameter optimization causing computational inefficiency. We propose RGTN (Renormalization Group guided Tensor Network search), a physics-inspired framework transforming TN-SS via multi-scale renormalization group flows. Unlike fixed-scale discrete search methods, RGTN uses dynamic scale-transformation for continuous structure evolution across resolutions. Its core innovation includes learnable edge gates for optimization-stage topology modification and intelligent proposals based on physical quantities like node tension measuring local stress and edge information flow quantifying connectivity importance. Starting from low-complexity coarse scales and refining to finer ones, RGTN finds compact structures while escaping local minima via scale-induced perturbations. Extensive experiments on light field data, high-order synthetic tensors, and video completion tasks show RGTN achieves state-of-the-art compression ratios and runs 4-600$\times$ faster than existing methods, validating the effectiveness of our physics-inspired approach. △ Less Submitted 31 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Accepted to AAAI 2026 arXiv:2512.24663 [ pdf , ps , other ] Renormalization Group Guided Tensor Network Structure Search Authors: Maolin Wang , Bowen Yu , Sheng Zhang , Linjie Mi , Wanyu Wang , Yiqi Wang , Pengyue Jia , Xuetao Wei , Zenglin Xu , Ruocheng Guo , Xiangyu Zhao Abstract : Tensor network structure search (TN-SS) aims to automatically discover optimal network topologies and rank configurations for efficient tensor decomposition in high-dimensional data representation. Despite recent advances, existing TN-SS methods face significant limitations in computational tractability, structure adaptivity, and optimization robustness across diverse tensor characteristics. They… ▽ More Tensor network structure search (TN-SS) aims to automatically discover optimal network topologies and rank configurations for efficient tensor decomposition in high-dimensional data representation. Despite recent advances, existing TN-SS methods face significant limitations in computational tractability, structure adaptivity, and optimization robustness across diverse tensor characteristics. They struggle with three key challenges: single-scale optimization missing multi-scale structures, discrete search spaces hindering smooth structure evolution, and separated structure-parameter optimization causing computational inefficiency. We propose RGTN (Renormalization Group guided Tensor Network search), a physics-inspired framework transforming TN-SS via multi-scale renormalization group flows. Unlike fixed-scale discrete search methods, RGTN uses dynamic scale-transformation for continuous structure evolution across resolutions. Its core innovation includes learnable edge gates for optimization-stage topology modification and intelligent proposals based on physical quantities like node tension measuring local stress and edge information flow quantifying connectivity importance. Starting from low-complexity coarse scales and refining to finer ones, RGTN finds compact structures while escaping local minima via scale-induced perturbations. Extensive experiments on light field data, high-order synthetic tensors, and video completion tasks show RGTN achieves state-of-the-art compression ratios and runs 4-600$\times$ faster than existing methods, validating the effectiveness of our physics-inspired approach. △ Less Submitted 31 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Accepted to AAAI 2026 arXiv:2512.24157 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL Training Report of TeleChat3-MoE Authors: Xinzhang Liu , Chao Wang , Zhihao Yang , Zhuo Jiang , Xuncheng Zhao , Haoran Wang , Lei Li , Dongdong He , Luobin Liu , Kaizhe Yuan , Han Gao , Zihan Wang , Yitong Yao , Sishi Xiong , Wenmin Deng , Haowei He , Kaidong Yu , Yu Zhao , Ruiyu Fang , Yuhao Jiang , Yingyan Li , Xiaohui Hu , Xi Yu , Jingqi Li , Yanwei Liu , et al. (29 additional authors not shown) Abstract : TeleChat3-MoE is the latest series of TeleChat large language models, featuring a Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) architecture with parameter counts ranging from 105 billion to over one trillion,trained end-to-end on Ascend NPU cluster. This technical report mainly presents the underlying training infrastructure that enables reliable and efficient scaling to frontier model sizes. We detail systematic met… ▽ More TeleChat3-MoE is the latest series of TeleChat large language models, featuring a Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) architecture with parameter counts ranging from 105 billion to over one trillion,trained end-to-end on Ascend NPU cluster. This technical report mainly presents the underlying training infrastructure that enables reliable and efficient scaling to frontier model sizes. We detail systematic methodologies for operator-level and end-to-end numerical accuracy verification, ensuring consistency across hardware platforms and distributed parallelism strategies. Furthermore, we introduce a suite of performance optimizations, including interleaved pipeline scheduling, attention-aware data scheduling for long-sequence training,hierarchical and overlapped communication for expert parallelism, and DVM-based operator fusion. A systematic parallelization framework, leveraging analytical estimation and integer linear programming, is also proposed to optimize multi-dimensional parallelism configurations. Additionally, we present methodological approaches to cluster-level optimizations, addressing host- and device-bound bottlenecks during large-scale training tasks. These infrastructure advancements yield significant throughput improvements and near-linear scaling on clusters comprising thousands of devices, providing a robust foundation for large-scale language model development on hardware ecosystems. △ Less Submitted 30 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.24157 [ pdf , ps , other ] Training Report of TeleChat3-MoE Authors: Xinzhang Liu , Chao Wang , Zhihao Yang , Zhuo Jiang , Xuncheng Zhao , Haoran Wang , Lei Li , Dongdong He , Luobin Liu , Kaizhe Yuan , Han Gao , Zihan Wang , Yitong Yao , Sishi Xiong , Wenmin Deng , Haowei He , Kaidong Yu , Yu Zhao , Ruiyu Fang , Yuhao Jiang , Yingyan Li , Xiaohui Hu , Xi Yu , Jingqi Li , Yanwei Liu , et al. (29 additional authors not shown) Abstract : TeleChat3-MoE is the latest series of TeleChat large language models, featuring a Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) architecture with parameter counts ranging from 105 billion to over one trillion,trained end-to-end on Ascend NPU cluster. This technical report mainly presents the underlying training infrastructure that enables reliable and efficient scaling to frontier model sizes. We detail systematic met… ▽ More TeleChat3-MoE is the latest series of TeleChat large language models, featuring a Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) architecture with parameter counts ranging from 105 billion to over one trillion,trained end-to-end on Ascend NPU cluster. This technical report mainly presents the underlying training infrastructure that enables reliable and efficient scaling to frontier model sizes. We detail systematic methodologies for operator-level and end-to-end numerical accuracy verification, ensuring consistency across hardware platforms and distributed parallelism strategies. Furthermore, we introduce a suite of performance optimizations, including interleaved pipeline scheduling, attention-aware data scheduling for long-sequence training,hierarchical and overlapped communication for expert parallelism, and DVM-based operator fusion. A systematic parallelization framework, leveraging analytical estimation and integer linear programming, is also proposed to optimize multi-dimensional parallelism configurations. Additionally, we present methodological approaches to cluster-level optimizations, addressing host- and device-bound bottlenecks during large-scale training tasks. These infrastructure advancements yield significant throughput improvements and near-linear scaling on clusters comprising thousands of devices, providing a robust foundation for large-scale language model development on hardware ecosystems. △ Less Submitted 30 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.23864 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.RO cs.CV Learning to Feel the Future: DreamTacVLA for Contact-Rich Manipulation Authors: Guo Ye , Zexi Zhang , Xu Zhao , Shang Wu , Haoran Lu , Shihan Lu , Han Liu Abstract : Vision-Language-Action (VLA) models have shown remarkable generalization by mapping web-scale knowledge to robotic control, yet they remain blind to physical contact. Consequently, they struggle with contact-rich manipulation tasks that require reasoning about force, texture, and slip. While some approaches incorporate low-dimensional tactile signals, they fail to capture the high-resolution dynam… ▽ More Vision-Language-Action (VLA) models have shown remarkable generalization by mapping web-scale knowledge to robotic control, yet they remain blind to physical contact. Consequently, they struggle with contact-rich manipulation tasks that require reasoning about force, texture, and slip. While some approaches incorporate low-dimensional tactile signals, they fail to capture the high-resolution dynamics essential for such interactions. To address this limitation, we introduce DreamTacVLA, a framework that grounds VLA models in contact physics by learning to feel the future. Our model adopts a hierarchical perception scheme in which high-resolution tactile images serve as micro-vision inputs coupled with wrist-camera local vision and third-person macro vision. To reconcile these multi-scale sensory streams, we first train a unified policy with a Hierarchical Spatial Alignment (HSA) loss that aligns tactile tokens with their spatial counterparts in the wrist and third-person views. To further deepen the model's understanding of fine-grained contact dynamics, we finetune the system with a tactile world model that predicts future tactile signals. To mitigate tactile data scarcity and the wear-prone nature of tactile sensors, we construct a hybrid large-scale dataset sourced from both high-fidelity digital twin and real-world experiments. By anticipating upcoming tactile states, DreamTacVLA acquires a rich model of contact physics and conditions its actions on both real observations and imagined consequences. Across contact-rich manipulation tasks, it outperforms state-of-the-art VLA baselines, achieving up to 95% success, highlighting the importance of understanding physical contact for robust, touch-aware robotic agents. △ Less Submitted 29 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.23864 [ pdf , ps , other ] Learning to Feel the Future: DreamTacVLA for Contact-Rich Manipulation Authors: Guo Ye , Zexi Zhang , Xu Zhao , Shang Wu , Haoran Lu , Shihan Lu , Han Liu Abstract : Vision-Language-Action (VLA) models have shown remarkable generalization by mapping web-scale knowledge to robotic control, yet they remain blind to physical contact. Consequently, they struggle with contact-rich manipulation tasks that require reasoning about force, texture, and slip. While some approaches incorporate low-dimensional tactile signals, they fail to capture the high-resolution dynam… ▽ More Vision-Language-Action (VLA) models have shown remarkable generalization by mapping web-scale knowledge to robotic control, yet they remain blind to physical contact. Consequently, they struggle with contact-rich manipulation tasks that require reasoning about force, texture, and slip. While some approaches incorporate low-dimensional tactile signals, they fail to capture the high-resolution dynamics essential for such interactions. To address this limitation, we introduce DreamTacVLA, a framework that grounds VLA models in contact physics by learning to feel the future. Our model adopts a hierarchical perception scheme in which high-resolution tactile images serve as micro-vision inputs coupled with wrist-camera local vision and third-person macro vision. To reconcile these multi-scale sensory streams, we first train a unified policy with a Hierarchical Spatial Alignment (HSA) loss that aligns tactile tokens with their spatial counterparts in the wrist and third-person views. To further deepen the model's understanding of fine-grained contact dynamics, we finetune the system with a tactile world model that predicts future tactile signals. To mitigate tactile data scarcity and the wear-prone nature of tactile sensors, we construct a hybrid large-scale dataset sourced from both high-fidelity digital twin and real-world experiments. By anticipating upcoming tactile states, DreamTacVLA acquires a rich model of contact physics and conditions its actions on both real observations and imagined consequences. Across contact-rich manipulation tasks, it outperforms state-of-the-art VLA baselines, achieving up to 95% success, highlighting the importance of understanding physical contact for robust, touch-aware robotic agents. △ Less Submitted 29 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.23422 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL Entropy-Guided Token Dropout: Training Autoregressive Language Models with Limited Domain Data Authors: Jiapeng Wang , Yiwen Hu , Yanzipeng Gao , Haoyu Wang , Shuo Wang , Hongyu Lu , Jiaxin Mao , Wayne Xin Zhao , Junyi Li , Xiao Zhang Abstract : As access to high-quality, domain-specific data grows increasingly scarce, multi-epoch training has become a practical strategy for adapting large language models (LLMs). However, autoregressive models often suffer from performance degradation under repeated data exposure, where overfitting leads to a marked decline in model capability. Through empirical analysis, we trace this degradation to an i… ▽ More As access to high-quality, domain-specific data grows increasingly scarce, multi-epoch training has become a practical strategy for adapting large language models (LLMs). However, autoregressive models often suffer from performance degradation under repeated data exposure, where overfitting leads to a marked decline in model capability. Through empirical analysis, we trace this degradation to an imbalance in learning dynamics: predictable, low-entropy tokens are learned quickly and come to dominate optimization, while the model's ability to generalize on high-entropy tokens deteriorates with continued training. To address this, we introduce EntroDrop, an entropy-guided token dropout method that functions as structured data regularization. EntroDrop selectively masks low-entropy tokens during training and employs a curriculum schedule to adjust regularization strength in alignment with training progress. Experiments across model scales from 0.6B to 8B parameters show that EntroDrop consistently outperforms standard regularization baselines and maintains robust performance throughout extended multi-epoch training. These findings underscore the importance of aligning regularization with token-level learning dynamics when training on limited data. Our approach offers a promising pathway toward more effective adaptation of LLMs in data-constrained domains. △ Less Submitted 29 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.23422 [ pdf , ps , other ] Entropy-Guided Token Dropout: Training Autoregressive Language Models with Limited Domain Data Authors: Jiapeng Wang , Yiwen Hu , Yanzipeng Gao , Haoyu Wang , Shuo Wang , Hongyu Lu , Jiaxin Mao , Wayne Xin Zhao , Junyi Li , Xiao Zhang Abstract : As access to high-quality, domain-specific data grows increasingly scarce, multi-epoch training has become a practical strategy for adapting large language models (LLMs). However, autoregressive models often suffer from performance degradation under repeated data exposure, where overfitting leads to a marked decline in model capability. Through empirical analysis, we trace this degradation to an i… ▽ More As access to high-quality, domain-specific data grows increasingly scarce, multi-epoch training has become a practical strategy for adapting large language models (LLMs). However, autoregressive models often suffer from performance degradation under repeated data exposure, where overfitting leads to a marked decline in model capability. Through empirical analysis, we trace this degradation to an imbalance in learning dynamics: predictable, low-entropy tokens are learned quickly and come to dominate optimization, while the model's ability to generalize on high-entropy tokens deteriorates with continued training. To address this, we introduce EntroDrop, an entropy-guided token dropout method that functions as structured data regularization. EntroDrop selectively masks low-entropy tokens during training and employs a curriculum schedule to adjust regularization strength in alignment with training progress. Experiments across model scales from 0.6B to 8B parameters show that EntroDrop consistently outperforms standard regularization baselines and maintains robust performance throughout extended multi-epoch training. These findings underscore the importance of aligning regularization with token-level learning dynamics when training on limited data. Our approach offers a promising pathway toward more effective adaptation of LLMs in data-constrained domains. △ Less Submitted 29 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.23300 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL AI4Reading: Chinese Audiobook Interpretation System Based on Multi-Agent Collaboration Authors: Minjiang Huang , Jipeng Qiang , Yi Zhu , Chaowei Zhang , Xiangyu Zhao , Kui Yu Abstract : Audiobook interpretations are attracting increasing attention, as they provide accessible and in-depth analyses of books that offer readers practical insights and intellectual inspiration. However, their manual creation process remains time-consuming and resource-intensive. To address this challenge, we propose AI4Reading, a multi-agent collaboration system leveraging large language models (LLMs)… ▽ More Audiobook interpretations are attracting increasing attention, as they provide accessible and in-depth analyses of books that offer readers practical insights and intellectual inspiration. However, their manual creation process remains time-consuming and resource-intensive. To address this challenge, we propose AI4Reading, a multi-agent collaboration system leveraging large language models (LLMs) and speech synthesis technology to generate podcast, like audiobook interpretations. The system is designed to meet three key objectives: accurate content preservation, enhanced comprehensibility, and a logical narrative structure. To achieve these goals, we develop a framework composed of 11 specialized agents,including topic analysts, case analysts, editors, a narrator, and proofreaders that work in concert to explore themes, extract real world cases, refine content organization, and synthesize natural spoken language. By comparing expert interpretations with our system's output, the results show that although AI4Reading still has a gap in speech generation quality, the generated interpretative scripts are simpler and more accurate. △ Less Submitted 29 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: ACL 2025 demo arXiv:2512.23300 [ pdf , ps , other ] AI4Reading: Chinese Audiobook Interpretation System Based on Multi-Agent Collaboration Authors: Minjiang Huang , Jipeng Qiang , Yi Zhu , Chaowei Zhang , Xiangyu Zhao , Kui Yu Abstract : Audiobook interpretations are attracting increasing attention, as they provide accessible and in-depth analyses of books that offer readers practical insights and intellectual inspiration. However, their manual creation process remains time-consuming and resource-intensive. To address this challenge, we propose AI4Reading, a multi-agent collaboration system leveraging large language models (LLMs)… ▽ More Audiobook interpretations are attracting increasing attention, as they provide accessible and in-depth analyses of books that offer readers practical insights and intellectual inspiration. However, their manual creation process remains time-consuming and resource-intensive. To address this challenge, we propose AI4Reading, a multi-agent collaboration system leveraging large language models (LLMs) and speech synthesis technology to generate podcast, like audiobook interpretations. The system is designed to meet three key objectives: accurate content preservation, enhanced comprehensibility, and a logical narrative structure. To achieve these goals, we develop a framework composed of 11 specialized agents,including topic analysts, case analysts, editors, a narrator, and proofreaders that work in concert to explore themes, extract real world cases, refine content organization, and synthesize natural spoken language. By comparing expert interpretations with our system's output, the results show that although AI4Reading still has a gap in speech generation quality, the generated interpretative scripts are simpler and more accurate. △ Less Submitted 29 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: ACL 2025 demo arXiv:2512.23147 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV GeoTeacher: Geometry-Guided Semi-Supervised 3D Object Detection Authors: Jingyu Li , Xiaolong Zhao , Zhe Liu , Wenxiao Wu , Li Zhang Abstract : Semi-supervised 3D object detection, aiming to explore unlabeled data for boosting 3D object detectors, has emerged as an active research area in recent years. Some previous methods have shown substantial improvements by either employing heterogeneous teacher models to provide high-quality pseudo labels or enforcing feature-perspective consistency between the teacher and student networks. However,… ▽ More Semi-supervised 3D object detection, aiming to explore unlabeled data for boosting 3D object detectors, has emerged as an active research area in recent years. Some previous methods have shown substantial improvements by either employing heterogeneous teacher models to provide high-quality pseudo labels or enforcing feature-perspective consistency between the teacher and student networks. However, these methods overlook the fact that the model usually tends to exhibit low sensitivity to object geometries with limited labeled data, making it difficult to capture geometric information, which is crucial for enhancing the student model's ability in object perception and localization. In this paper, we propose GeoTeacher to enhance the student model's ability to capture geometric relations of objects with limited training data, especially unlabeled data. We design a keypoint-based geometric relation supervision module that transfers the teacher model's knowledge of object geometry to the student, thereby improving the student's capability in understanding geometric relations. Furthermore, we introduce a voxel-wise data augmentation strategy that increases the diversity of object geometries, thereby further improving the student model's ability to comprehend geometric structures. To preserve the integrity of distant objects during augmentation, we incorporate a distance-decay mechanism into this strategy. Moreover, GeoTeacher can be combined with different SS3D methods to further improve their performance. Extensive experiments on the ONCE and Waymo datasets indicate the effectiveness and generalization of our method and we achieve the new state-of-the-art results. Code will be available at △ Less Submitted 28 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.23147 [ pdf , ps , other ] GeoTeacher: Geometry-Guided Semi-Supervised 3D Object Detection Authors: Jingyu Li , Xiaolong Zhao , Zhe Liu , Wenxiao Wu , Li Zhang Abstract : Semi-supervised 3D object detection, aiming to explore unlabeled data for boosting 3D object detectors, has emerged as an active research area in recent years. Some previous methods have shown substantial improvements by either employing heterogeneous teacher models to provide high-quality pseudo labels or enforcing feature-perspective consistency between the teacher and student networks. However,… ▽ More Semi-supervised 3D object detection, aiming to explore unlabeled data for boosting 3D object detectors, has emerged as an active research area in recent years. Some previous methods have shown substantial improvements by either employing heterogeneous teacher models to provide high-quality pseudo labels or enforcing feature-perspective consistency between the teacher and student networks. However, these methods overlook the fact that the model usually tends to exhibit low sensitivity to object geometries with limited labeled data, making it difficult to capture geometric information, which is crucial for enhancing the student model's ability in object perception and localization. In this paper, we propose GeoTeacher to enhance the student model's ability to capture geometric relations of objects with limited training data, especially unlabeled data. We design a keypoint-based geometric relation supervision module that transfers the teacher model's knowledge of object geometry to the student, thereby improving the student's capability in understanding geometric relations. Furthermore, we introduce a voxel-wise data augmentation strategy that increases the diversity of object geometries, thereby further improving the student model's ability to comprehend geometric structures. To preserve the integrity of distant objects during augmentation, we incorporate a distance-decay mechanism into this strategy. Moreover, GeoTeacher can be combined with different SS3D methods to further improve their performance. Extensive experiments on the ONCE and Waymo datasets indicate the effectiveness and generalization of our method and we achieve the new state-of-the-art results. Code will be available at △ Less Submitted 28 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.22901 [ pdf , ps , other ] eess.SY cs.AI cs.LG eess.SP A Neural Network-Based Real-time Casing Collar Recognition System for Downhole Instruments Authors: Si-Yu Xiao , Xin-Di Zhao , Xiang-Zhan Wang , Tian-Hao Mao , Ying-Kai Liao , Xing-Yu Liao , Yu-Qiao Chen , Jun-Jie Wang , Shuang Liu , Tu-Pei Chen , Yang Liu Abstract : Accurate downhole positioning is critical in oil and gas operations but is often compromised by signal degradation in traditional surface-based Casing Collar Locator (CCL) monitoring. To address this, we present an in-situ, real-time collar recognition system using embedded neural network. We introduce lightweight "Collar Recognition Nets" (CRNs) optimized for resource-constrained ARM Cortex-M7 mi… ▽ More Accurate downhole positioning is critical in oil and gas operations but is often compromised by signal degradation in traditional surface-based Casing Collar Locator (CCL) monitoring. To address this, we present an in-situ, real-time collar recognition system using embedded neural network. We introduce lightweight "Collar Recognition Nets" (CRNs) optimized for resource-constrained ARM Cortex-M7 microprocessors. By leveraging temporal and depthwise separable convolutions, our most compact model reduces computational complexity to just 8,208 MACs while maintaining an F1 score of 0.972. Hardware validation confirms an average inference latency of 343.2 μs, demonstrating that robust, autonomous signal processing is feasible within the severe power and space limitations of downhole instrumentation. △ Less Submitted 28 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.22901 [ pdf , ps , other ] A Neural Network-Based Real-time Casing Collar Recognition System for Downhole Instruments Authors: Si-Yu Xiao , Xin-Di Zhao , Xiang-Zhan Wang , Tian-Hao Mao , Ying-Kai Liao , Xing-Yu Liao , Yu-Qiao Chen , Jun-Jie Wang , Shuang Liu , Tu-Pei Chen , Yang Liu Abstract : Accurate downhole positioning is critical in oil and gas operations but is often compromised by signal degradation in traditional surface-based Casing Collar Locator (CCL) monitoring. To address this, we present an in-situ, real-time collar recognition system using embedded neural network. We introduce lightweight "Collar Recognition Nets" (CRNs) optimized for resource-constrained ARM Cortex-M7 mi… ▽ More Accurate downhole positioning is critical in oil and gas operations but is often compromised by signal degradation in traditional surface-based Casing Collar Locator (CCL) monitoring. To address this, we present an in-situ, real-time collar recognition system using embedded neural network. We introduce lightweight "Collar Recognition Nets" (CRNs) optimized for resource-constrained ARM Cortex-M7 microprocessors. By leveraging temporal and depthwise separable convolutions, our most compact model reduces computational complexity to just 8,208 MACs while maintaining an F1 score of 0.972. Hardware validation confirms an average inference latency of 343.2 μs, demonstrating that robust, autonomous signal processing is feasible within the severe power and space limitations of downhole instrumentation. △ Less Submitted 28 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.22525 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV DreamOmni3: Scribble-based Editing and Generation Authors: Bin Xia , Bohao Peng , Jiyang Liu , Sitong Wu , Jingyao Li , Junjia Huang , Xu Zhao , Yitong Wang , Ruihang Chu , Bei Yu , Jiaya Jia Abstract : Recently unified generation and editing models have achieved remarkable success with their impressive performance. These models rely mainly on text prompts for instruction-based editing and generation, but language often fails to capture users intended edit locations and fine-grained visual details. To this end, we propose two tasks: scribble-based editing and generation, that enables more flexibl… ▽ More Recently unified generation and editing models have achieved remarkable success with their impressive performance. These models rely mainly on text prompts for instruction-based editing and generation, but language often fails to capture users intended edit locations and fine-grained visual details. To this end, we propose two tasks: scribble-based editing and generation, that enables more flexible creation on graphical user interface (GUI) combining user textual, images, and freehand sketches. We introduce DreamOmni3, tackling two challenges: data creation and framework design. Our data synthesis pipeline includes two parts: scribble-based editing and generation. For scribble-based editing, we define four tasks: scribble and instruction-based editing, scribble and multimodal instruction-based editing, image fusion, and doodle editing. Based on DreamOmni2 dataset, we extract editable regions and overlay hand-drawn boxes, circles, doodles or cropped image to construct training data. For scribble-based generation, we define three tasks: scribble and instruction-based generation, scribble and multimodal instruction-based generation, and doodle generation, following similar data creation pipelines. For the framework, instead of using binary masks, which struggle with complex edits involving multiple scribbles, images, and instructions, we propose a joint input scheme that feeds both the original and scribbled source images into the model, using different colors to distinguish regions and simplify processing. By applying the same index and position encodings to both images, the model can precisely localize scribbled regions while maintaining accurate editing. Finally, we establish comprehensive benchmarks for these tasks to promote further research. Experimental results demonstrate that DreamOmni3 achieves outstanding performance, and models and code will be publicly released. △ Less Submitted 27 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.22525 [ pdf , ps , other ] DreamOmni3: Scribble-based Editing and Generation Authors: Bin Xia , Bohao Peng , Jiyang Liu , Sitong Wu , Jingyao Li , Junjia Huang , Xu Zhao , Yitong Wang , Ruihang Chu , Bei Yu , Jiaya Jia Abstract : Recently unified generation and editing models have achieved remarkable success with their impressive performance. These models rely mainly on text prompts for instruction-based editing and generation, but language often fails to capture users intended edit locations and fine-grained visual details. To this end, we propose two tasks: scribble-based editing and generation, that enables more flexibl… ▽ More Recently unified generation and editing models have achieved remarkable success with their impressive performance. These models rely mainly on text prompts for instruction-based editing and generation, but language often fails to capture users intended edit locations and fine-grained visual details. To this end, we propose two tasks: scribble-based editing and generation, that enables more flexible creation on graphical user interface (GUI) combining user textual, images, and freehand sketches. We introduce DreamOmni3, tackling two challenges: data creation and framework design. Our data synthesis pipeline includes two parts: scribble-based editing and generation. For scribble-based editing, we define four tasks: scribble and instruction-based editing, scribble and multimodal instruction-based editing, image fusion, and doodle editing. Based on DreamOmni2 dataset, we extract editable regions and overlay hand-drawn boxes, circles, doodles or cropped image to construct training data. For scribble-based generation, we define three tasks: scribble and instruction-based generation, scribble and multimodal instruction-based generation, and doodle generation, following similar data creation pipelines. For the framework, instead of using binary masks, which struggle with complex edits involving multiple scribbles, images, and instructions, we propose a joint input scheme that feeds both the original and scribbled source images into the model, using different colors to distinguish regions and simplify processing. By applying the same index and position encodings to both images, the model can precisely localize scribbled regions while maintaining accurate editing. Finally, we establish comprehensive benchmarks for these tasks to promote further research. Experimental results demonstrate that DreamOmni3 achieves outstanding performance, and models and code will be publicly released. △ Less Submitted 27 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.22492 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.DC cs.AI cs.LG Role-Based Fault Tolerance System for LLM RL Post-Training Authors: Zhenqian Chen , Baoquan Zhong , Xiang Li , Qing Dai , Xinkui Zhao , Miao Ye , Ren Cheng , Lufei Zhang , Jianwei Yin Abstract : RL post-training for LLMs has been widely scaled to enhance reasoning and tool-using capabilities. However, RL post-training interleaves training and inference workloads, exposing the system to faults from both sides. Existing fault tolerance frameworks for LLMs target either training or inference, leaving the optimization potential in the asynchronous execution unexplored for RL. Our key insight… ▽ More RL post-training for LLMs has been widely scaled to enhance reasoning and tool-using capabilities. However, RL post-training interleaves training and inference workloads, exposing the system to faults from both sides. Existing fault tolerance frameworks for LLMs target either training or inference, leaving the optimization potential in the asynchronous execution unexplored for RL. Our key insight is role-based fault isolation so the failure in one machine does not affect the others. We treat trainer, rollout, and other management roles in RL training as distinct distributed sub-tasks. Instead of restarting the entire RL task in ByteRobust, we recover only the failed role and reconnect it to living ones, thereby eliminating the full-restart overhead including rollout replay and initialization delay. We present RobustRL, the first comprehensive robust system to handle GPU machine errors for RL post-training Effective Training Time Ratio improvement. (1) \textit{Detect}. We implement role-aware monitoring to distinguish actual failures from role-specific behaviors to avoid the false positive and delayed detection. (2) \textit{Restart}. For trainers, we implement a non-disruptive recovery where rollouts persist state and continue trajectory generation, while the trainer is rapidly restored via rollout warm standbys. For rollout, we perform isolated machine replacement without interrupting the RL task. (3) \textit{Reconnect}. We replace static collective communication with dynamic, UCX-based (Unified Communication X) point-to-point communication, enabling immediate weight synchronization between recovered roles. In an RL training task on a 256-GPU cluster with Qwen3-8B-Math workload under 10\% failure injection frequency, RobustRL can achieve an ETTR of over 80\% compared with the 60\% in ByteRobust and achieves 8.4\%-17.4\% faster in end-to-end training time. △ Less Submitted 27 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 16 pages, 19 figures arXiv:2512.22492 [ pdf , ps , other ] Role-Based Fault Tolerance System for LLM RL Post-Training Authors: Zhenqian Chen , Baoquan Zhong , Xiang Li , Qing Dai , Xinkui Zhao , Miao Ye , Ren Cheng , Lufei Zhang , Jianwei Yin Abstract : RL post-training for LLMs has been widely scaled to enhance reasoning and tool-using capabilities. However, RL post-training interleaves training and inference workloads, exposing the system to faults from both sides. Existing fault tolerance frameworks for LLMs target either training or inference, leaving the optimization potential in the asynchronous execution unexplored for RL. Our key insight… ▽ More RL post-training for LLMs has been widely scaled to enhance reasoning and tool-using capabilities. However, RL post-training interleaves training and inference workloads, exposing the system to faults from both sides. Existing fault tolerance frameworks for LLMs target either training or inference, leaving the optimization potential in the asynchronous execution unexplored for RL. Our key insight is role-based fault isolation so the failure in one machine does not affect the others. We treat trainer, rollout, and other management roles in RL training as distinct distributed sub-tasks. Instead of restarting the entire RL task in ByteRobust, we recover only the failed role and reconnect it to living ones, thereby eliminating the full-restart overhead including rollout replay and initialization delay. We present RobustRL, the first comprehensive robust system to handle GPU machine errors for RL post-training Effective Training Time Ratio improvement. (1) \textit{Detect}. We implement role-aware monitoring to distinguish actual failures from role-specific behaviors to avoid the false positive and delayed detection. (2) \textit{Restart}. For trainers, we implement a non-disruptive recovery where rollouts persist state and continue trajectory generation, while the trainer is rapidly restored via rollout warm standbys. For rollout, we perform isolated machine replacement without interrupting the RL task. (3) \textit{Reconnect}. We replace static collective communication with dynamic, UCX-based (Unified Communication X) point-to-point communication, enabling immediate weight synchronization between recovered roles. In an RL training task on a 256-GPU cluster with Qwen3-8B-Math workload under 10\% failure injection frequency, RobustRL can achieve an ETTR of over 80\% compared with the 60\% in ByteRobust and achieves 8.4\%-17.4\% faster in end-to-end training time. △ Less Submitted 27 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 16 pages, 19 figures arXiv:2512.22334 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.CL SciEvalKit: An Open-source Evaluation Toolkit for Scientific General Intelligence Authors: Yiheng Wang , Yixin Chen , Shuo Li , Yifan Zhou , Bo Liu , Hengjian Gao , Jiakang Yuan , Jia Bu , Wanghan Xu , Yuhao Zhou , Xiangyu Zhao , Zhiwang Zhou , Fengxiang Wang , Haodong Duan , Songyang Zhang , Jun Yao , Han Deng , Yizhou Wang , Jiabei Xiao , Jiaqi Liu , Encheng Su , Yujie Liu , Weida Wang , Junchi Yao , Shenghe Zheng , et al. (11 additional authors not shown) Abstract : We introduce SciEvalKit, a unified benchmarking toolkit designed to evaluate AI models for science across a broad range of scientific disciplines and task capabilities. Unlike general-purpose evaluation platforms, SciEvalKit focuses on the core competencies of scientific intelligence, including Scientific Multimodal Perception, Scientific Multimodal Reasoning, Scientific Multimodal Understanding,… ▽ More We introduce SciEvalKit, a unified benchmarking toolkit designed to evaluate AI models for science across a broad range of scientific disciplines and task capabilities. Unlike general-purpose evaluation platforms, SciEvalKit focuses on the core competencies of scientific intelligence, including Scientific Multimodal Perception, Scientific Multimodal Reasoning, Scientific Multimodal Understanding, Scientific Symbolic Reasoning, Scientific Code Generation, Science Hypothesis Generation and Scientific Knowledge Understanding. It supports six major scientific domains, spanning from physics and chemistry to astronomy and materials science. SciEvalKit builds a foundation of expert-grade scientific benchmarks, curated from real-world, domain-specific datasets, ensuring that tasks reflect authentic scientific challenges. The toolkit features a flexible, extensible evaluation pipeline that enables batch evaluation across models and datasets, supports custom model and dataset integration, and provides transparent, reproducible, and comparable results. By bridging capability-based evaluation and disciplinary diversity, SciEvalKit offers a standardized yet customizable infrastructure to benchmark the next generation of scientific foundation models and intelligent agents. The toolkit is open-sourced and actively maintained to foster community-driven development and progress in AI4Science. △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; v1 submitted 26 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.22334 [ pdf , ps , other ] SciEvalKit: An Open-source Evaluation Toolkit for Scientific General Intelligence Authors: Yiheng Wang , Yixin Chen , Shuo Li , Yifan Zhou , Bo Liu , Hengjian Gao , Jiakang Yuan , Jia Bu , Wanghan Xu , Yuhao Zhou , Xiangyu Zhao , Zhiwang Zhou , Fengxiang Wang , Haodong Duan , Songyang Zhang , Jun Yao , Han Deng , Yizhou Wang , Jiabei Xiao , Jiaqi Liu , Encheng Su , Yujie Liu , Weida Wang , Junchi Yao , Shenghe Zheng , et al. (11 additional authors not shown) Abstract : We introduce SciEvalKit, a unified benchmarking toolkit designed to evaluate AI models for science across a broad range of scientific disciplines and task capabilities. Unlike general-purpose evaluation platforms, SciEvalKit focuses on the core competencies of scientific intelligence, including Scientific Multimodal Perception, Scientific Multimodal Reasoning, Scientific Multimodal Understanding,… ▽ More We introduce SciEvalKit, a unified benchmarking toolkit designed to evaluate AI models for science across a broad range of scientific disciplines and task capabilities. Unlike general-purpose evaluation platforms, SciEvalKit focuses on the core competencies of scientific intelligence, including Scientific Multimodal Perception, Scientific Multimodal Reasoning, Scientific Multimodal Understanding, Scientific Symbolic Reasoning, Scientific Code Generation, Science Hypothesis Generation and Scientific Knowledge Understanding. It supports six major scientific domains, spanning from physics and chemistry to astronomy and materials science. SciEvalKit builds a foundation of expert-grade scientific benchmarks, curated from real-world, domain-specific datasets, ensuring that tasks reflect authentic scientific challenges. The toolkit features a flexible, extensible evaluation pipeline that enables batch evaluation across models and datasets, supports custom model and dataset integration, and provides transparent, reproducible, and comparable results. By bridging capability-based evaluation and disciplinary diversity, SciEvalKit offers a standardized yet customizable infrastructure to benchmark the next generation of scientific foundation models and intelligent agents. The toolkit is open-sourced and actively maintained to foster community-driven development and progress in AI4Science. △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; v1 submitted 26 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.21970 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.RO StereoVLA: Enhancing Vision-Language-Action Models with Stereo Vision Authors: Shengliang Deng , Mi Yan , Yixin Zheng , Jiayi Su , Wenhao Zhang , Xiaoguang Zhao , Heming Cui , Zhizheng Zhang , He Wang Abstract : Stereo cameras closely mimic human binocular vision, providing rich spatial cues critical for precise robotic manipulation. Despite their advantage, the adoption of stereo vision in vision-language-action models (VLAs) remains underexplored. In this work, we present StereoVLA, a VLA model that leverages rich geometric cues from stereo vision. We propose a novel Geometric-Semantic Feature Extractio… ▽ More Stereo cameras closely mimic human binocular vision, providing rich spatial cues critical for precise robotic manipulation. Despite their advantage, the adoption of stereo vision in vision-language-action models (VLAs) remains underexplored. In this work, we present StereoVLA, a VLA model that leverages rich geometric cues from stereo vision. We propose a novel Geometric-Semantic Feature Extraction module that utilizes vision foundation models to extract and fuse two key features: 1) geometric features from subtle stereo-view differences for spatial perception; 2) semantic-rich features from the monocular view for instruction following. Additionally, we propose an auxiliary Interaction-Region Depth Estimation task to further enhance spatial perception and accelerate model convergence. Extensive experiments show that our approach outperforms baselines by a large margin in diverse tasks under the stereo setting and demonstrates strong robustness to camera pose variations. △ Less Submitted 26 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.21970 [ pdf , ps , other ] StereoVLA: Enhancing Vision-Language-Action Models with Stereo Vision Authors: Shengliang Deng , Mi Yan , Yixin Zheng , Jiayi Su , Wenhao Zhang , Xiaoguang Zhao , Heming Cui , Zhizheng Zhang , He Wang Abstract : Stereo cameras closely mimic human binocular vision, providing rich spatial cues critical for precise robotic manipulation. Despite their advantage, the adoption of stereo vision in vision-language-action models (VLAs) remains underexplored. In this work, we present StereoVLA, a VLA model that leverages rich geometric cues from stereo vision. We propose a novel Geometric-Semantic Feature Extractio… ▽ More Stereo cameras closely mimic human binocular vision, providing rich spatial cues critical for precise robotic manipulation. Despite their advantage, the adoption of stereo vision in vision-language-action models (VLAs) remains underexplored. In this work, we present StereoVLA, a VLA model that leverages rich geometric cues from stereo vision. We propose a novel Geometric-Semantic Feature Extraction module that utilizes vision foundation models to extract and fuse two key features: 1) geometric features from subtle stereo-view differences for spatial perception; 2) semantic-rich features from the monocular view for instruction following. Additionally, we propose an auxiliary Interaction-Region Depth Estimation task to further enhance spatial perception and accelerate model convergence. Extensive experiments show that our approach outperforms baselines by a large margin in diverse tasks under the stereo setting and demonstrates strong robustness to camera pose variations. △ Less Submitted 26 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.21625 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL Rethinking Sample Polarity in Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards Authors: Xinyu Tang , Yuliang Zhan , Zhixun Li , Wayne Xin Zhao , Zhenduo Zhang , Zujie Wen , Zhiqiang Zhang , Jun Zhou Abstract : Large reasoning models (LRMs) are typically trained using reinforcement learning with verifiable reward (RLVR) to enhance their reasoning abilities. In this paradigm, policies are updated using both positive and negative self-generated rollouts, which correspond to distinct sample polarities. In this paper, we provide a systematic investigation into how these sample polarities affect RLVR training… ▽ More Large reasoning models (LRMs) are typically trained using reinforcement learning with verifiable reward (RLVR) to enhance their reasoning abilities. In this paradigm, policies are updated using both positive and negative self-generated rollouts, which correspond to distinct sample polarities. In this paper, we provide a systematic investigation into how these sample polarities affect RLVR training dynamics and behaviors. We find that positive samples sharpen existing correct reasoning patterns, while negative samples encourage exploration of new reasoning paths. We further explore how adjusting the advantage values of positive and negative samples at both the sample level and the token level affects RLVR training. Based on these insights, we propose an Adaptive and Asymmetric token-level Advantage shaping method for Policy Optimization, namely A3PO, that more precisely allocates advantage signals to key tokens across different polarities. Experiments across five reasoning benchmarks demonstrate the effectiveness of our approach. △ Less Submitted 25 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.21625 [ pdf , ps , other ] Rethinking Sample Polarity in Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards Authors: Xinyu Tang , Yuliang Zhan , Zhixun Li , Wayne Xin Zhao , Zhenduo Zhang , Zujie Wen , Zhiqiang Zhang , Jun Zhou Abstract : Large reasoning models (LRMs) are typically trained using reinforcement learning with verifiable reward (RLVR) to enhance their reasoning abilities. In this paradigm, policies are updated using both positive and negative self-generated rollouts, which correspond to distinct sample polarities. In this paper, we provide a systematic investigation into how these sample polarities affect RLVR training… ▽ More Large reasoning models (LRMs) are typically trained using reinforcement learning with verifiable reward (RLVR) to enhance their reasoning abilities. In this paradigm, policies are updated using both positive and negative self-generated rollouts, which correspond to distinct sample polarities. In this paper, we provide a systematic investigation into how these sample polarities affect RLVR training dynamics and behaviors. We find that positive samples sharpen existing correct reasoning patterns, while negative samples encourage exploration of new reasoning paths. We further explore how adjusting the advantage values of positive and negative samples at both the sample level and the token level affects RLVR training. Based on these insights, we propose an Adaptive and Asymmetric token-level Advantage shaping method for Policy Optimization, namely A3PO, that more precisely allocates advantage signals to key tokens across different polarities. Experiments across five reasoning benchmarks demonstrate the effectiveness of our approach. △ Less Submitted 25 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.19021 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.RO VLNVerse: A Benchmark for Vision-Language Navigation with Versatile, Embodied, Realistic Simulation and Evaluation Authors: Sihao Lin , Zerui Li , Xunyi Zhao , Gengze Zhou , Liuyi Wang , Rong Wei , Rui Tang , Juncheng Li , Hanqing Wang , Jiangmiao Pang , Anton van den Hengel , Jiajun Liu , Qi Wu Abstract : Despite remarkable progress in Vision-Language Navigation (VLN), existing benchmarks remain confined to fixed, small-scale datasets with naive physical simulation. These shortcomings limit the insight that the benchmarks provide into sim-to-real generalization, and create a significant research gap. Furthermore, task fragmentation prevents unified/shared progress in the area, while limited data sc… ▽ More Despite remarkable progress in Vision-Language Navigation (VLN), existing benchmarks remain confined to fixed, small-scale datasets with naive physical simulation. These shortcomings limit the insight that the benchmarks provide into sim-to-real generalization, and create a significant research gap. Furthermore, task fragmentation prevents unified/shared progress in the area, while limited data scales fail to meet the demands of modern LLM-based pretraining. To overcome these limitations, we introduce VLNVerse: a new large-scale, extensible benchmark designed for Versatile, Embodied, Realistic Simulation, and Evaluation. VLNVerse redefines VLN as a scalable, full-stack embodied AI problem. Its Versatile nature unifies previously fragmented tasks into a single framework and provides an extensible toolkit for researchers. Its Embodied design moves beyond intangible and teleporting "ghost" agents that support full-kinematics in a Realistic Simulation powered by a robust physics engine. We leverage the scale and diversity of VLNVerse to conduct a comprehensive Evaluation of existing methods, from classic models to MLLM-based agents. We also propose a novel unified multi-task model capable of addressing all tasks within the benchmark. VLNVerse aims to narrow the gap between simulated navigation and real-world generalization, providing the community with a vital tool to boost research towards scalable, general-purpose embodied locomotion agents. △ Less Submitted 21 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.19021 [ pdf , ps , other ] VLNVerse: A Benchmark for Vision-Language Navigation with Versatile, Embodied, Realistic Simulation and Evaluation Authors: Sihao Lin , Zerui Li , Xunyi Zhao , Gengze Zhou , Liuyi Wang , Rong Wei , Rui Tang , Juncheng Li , Hanqing Wang , Jiangmiao Pang , Anton van den Hengel , Jiajun Liu , Qi Wu Abstract : Despite remarkable progress in Vision-Language Navigation (VLN), existing benchmarks remain confined to fixed, small-scale datasets with naive physical simulation. These shortcomings limit the insight that the benchmarks provide into sim-to-real generalization, and create a significant research gap. Furthermore, task fragmentation prevents unified/shared progress in the area, while limited data sc… ▽ More Despite remarkable progress in Vision-Language Navigation (VLN), existing benchmarks remain confined to fixed, small-scale datasets with naive physical simulation. These shortcomings limit the insight that the benchmarks provide into sim-to-real generalization, and create a significant research gap. Furthermore, task fragmentation prevents unified/shared progress in the area, while limited data scales fail to meet the demands of modern LLM-based pretraining. To overcome these limitations, we introduce VLNVerse: a new large-scale, extensible benchmark designed for Versatile, Embodied, Realistic Simulation, and Evaluation. VLNVerse redefines VLN as a scalable, full-stack embodied AI problem. Its Versatile nature unifies previously fragmented tasks into a single framework and provides an extensible toolkit for researchers. Its Embodied design moves beyond intangible and teleporting "ghost" agents that support full-kinematics in a Realistic Simulation powered by a robust physics engine. We leverage the scale and diversity of VLNVerse to conduct a comprehensive Evaluation of existing methods, from classic models to MLLM-based agents. We also propose a novel unified multi-task model capable of addressing all tasks within the benchmark. VLNVerse aims to narrow the gap between simulated navigation and real-world generalization, providing the community with a vital tool to boost research towards scalable, general-purpose embodied locomotion agents. △ Less Submitted 21 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.18117 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.IR Factorized Transport Alignment for Multimodal and Multiview E-commerce Representation Learning Authors: Xiwen Chen , Yen-Chieh Lien , Susan Liu , María Castaños , Abolfazl Razi , Xiaoting Zhao , Congzhe Su Abstract : The rapid growth of e-commerce requires robust multimodal representations that capture diverse signals from user-generated listings. Existing vision-language models (VLMs) typically align titles with primary images, i.e., single-view, but overlook non-primary images and auxiliary textual views that provide critical semantics in open marketplaces such as Etsy or Poshmark. To this end, we propose a… ▽ More The rapid growth of e-commerce requires robust multimodal representations that capture diverse signals from user-generated listings. Existing vision-language models (VLMs) typically align titles with primary images, i.e., single-view, but overlook non-primary images and auxiliary textual views that provide critical semantics in open marketplaces such as Etsy or Poshmark. To this end, we propose a framework that unifies multimodal and multi-view learning through Factorized Transport, a lightweight approximation of optimal transport, designed for scalability and deployment efficiency. During training, the method emphasizes primary views while stochastically sampling auxiliary ones, reducing training cost from quadratic in the number of views to constant per item. At inference, all views are fused into a single cached embedding, preserving the efficiency of two-tower retrieval with no additional online overhead. On an industrial dataset of 1M product listings and 0.3M interactions, our approach delivers consistent improvements in cross-view and query-to-item retrieval, achieving up to +7.9% Recall@500 over strong multimodal baselines. Overall, our framework bridges scalability with optimal transport-based learning, making multi-view pretraining practical for large-scale e-commerce search. △ Less Submitted 19 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Accepted by WSDM'26 arXiv:2512.18117 [ pdf , ps , other ] Factorized Transport Alignment for Multimodal and Multiview E-commerce Representation Learning Authors: Xiwen Chen , Yen-Chieh Lien , Susan Liu , María Castaños , Abolfazl Razi , Xiaoting Zhao , Congzhe Su Abstract : The rapid growth of e-commerce requires robust multimodal representations that capture diverse signals from user-generated listings. Existing vision-language models (VLMs) typically align titles with primary images, i.e., single-view, but overlook non-primary images and auxiliary textual views that provide critical semantics in open marketplaces such as Etsy or Poshmark. To this end, we propose a… ▽ More The rapid growth of e-commerce requires robust multimodal representations that capture diverse signals from user-generated listings. Existing vision-language models (VLMs) typically align titles with primary images, i.e., single-view, but overlook non-primary images and auxiliary textual views that provide critical semantics in open marketplaces such as Etsy or Poshmark. To this end, we propose a framework that unifies multimodal and multi-view learning through Factorized Transport, a lightweight approximation of optimal transport, designed for scalability and deployment efficiency. During training, the method emphasizes primary views while stochastically sampling auxiliary ones, reducing training cost from quadratic in the number of views to constant per item. At inference, all views are fused into a single cached embedding, preserving the efficiency of two-tower retrieval with no additional online overhead. On an industrial dataset of 1M product listings and 0.3M interactions, our approach delivers consistent improvements in cross-view and query-to-item retrieval, achieving up to +7.9% Recall@500 over strong multimodal baselines. Overall, our framework bridges scalability with optimal transport-based learning, making multi-view pretraining practical for large-scale e-commerce search. △ Less Submitted 19 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Accepted by WSDM'26 arXiv:2512.17815 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CE q-bio.BM Structure-Aware Antibody Design with Affinity-Optimized Inverse Folding Authors: Xinyan Zhao , Yi-Ching Tang , Rivaaj Monsia , Victor J. Cantu , Ashwin Kumar Ramesh , Xiaozhong Liu , Zhiqiang An , Xiaoqian Jiang , Yejin Kim Abstract : Motivation: The clinical efficacy of antibody therapeutics critically depends on high-affinity target engagement, yet laboratory affinity-maturation campaigns are slow and costly. In computational settings, most protein language models (PLMs) are not trained to favor high-affinity antibodies, and existing preference optimization approaches introduce substantial computational overhead without clear… ▽ More Motivation: The clinical efficacy of antibody therapeutics critically depends on high-affinity target engagement, yet laboratory affinity-maturation campaigns are slow and costly. In computational settings, most protein language models (PLMs) are not trained to favor high-affinity antibodies, and existing preference optimization approaches introduce substantial computational overhead without clear affinity gains. Therefore, this work proposes SimBinder-IF, which converts the inverse folding model ESM-IF into an antibody sequence generator by freezing its structure encoder and training only its decoder to prefer experimentally stronger binders through preference optimization. Results: On the 11-assay AbBiBench benchmark, SimBinder-IF achieves a 55 percent relative improvement in mean Spearman correlation between log-likelihood scores and experimentally measured binding affinity compared to vanilla ESM-IF (from 0.264 to 0.410). In zero-shot generalization across four unseen antigen-antibody complexes, the correlation improves by 156 percent (from 0.115 to 0.294). SimBinder-IF also outperforms baselines in top-10 precision for ten-fold or greater affinity improvements. A case study redesigning antibody F045-092 for A/California/04/2009 (pdmH1N1) shows that SimBinder-IF proposes variants with substantially lower predicted binding free energy changes than ESM-IF (mean Delta Delta G -75.16 vs -46.57). Notably, SimBinder-IF trains only about 18 percent of the parameters of the full ESM-IF model, highlighting its parameter efficiency for high-affinity antibody generation. △ Less Submitted 19 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.17815 [ pdf , ps , other ] Structure-Aware Antibody Design with Affinity-Optimized Inverse Folding Authors: Xinyan Zhao , Yi-Ching Tang , Rivaaj Monsia , Victor J. Cantu , Ashwin Kumar Ramesh , Xiaozhong Liu , Zhiqiang An , Xiaoqian Jiang , Yejin Kim Abstract : Motivation: The clinical efficacy of antibody therapeutics critically depends on high-affinity target engagement, yet laboratory affinity-maturation campaigns are slow and costly. In computational settings, most protein language models (PLMs) are not trained to favor high-affinity antibodies, and existing preference optimization approaches introduce substantial computational overhead without clear… ▽ More Motivation: The clinical efficacy of antibody therapeutics critically depends on high-affinity target engagement, yet laboratory affinity-maturation campaigns are slow and costly. In computational settings, most protein language models (PLMs) are not trained to favor high-affinity antibodies, and existing preference optimization approaches introduce substantial computational overhead without clear affinity gains. Therefore, this work proposes SimBinder-IF, which converts the inverse folding model ESM-IF into an antibody sequence generator by freezing its structure encoder and training only its decoder to prefer experimentally stronger binders through preference optimization. Results: On the 11-assay AbBiBench benchmark, SimBinder-IF achieves a 55 percent relative improvement in mean Spearman correlation between log-likelihood scores and experimentally measured binding affinity compared to vanilla ESM-IF (from 0.264 to 0.410). In zero-shot generalization across four unseen antigen-antibody complexes, the correlation improves by 156 percent (from 0.115 to 0.294). SimBinder-IF also outperforms baselines in top-10 precision for ten-fold or greater affinity improvements. A case study redesigning antibody F045-092 for A/California/04/2009 (pdmH1N1) shows that SimBinder-IF proposes variants with substantially lower predicted binding free energy changes than ESM-IF (mean Delta Delta G -75.16 vs -46.57). Notably, SimBinder-IF trains only about 18 percent of the parameters of the full ESM-IF model, highlighting its parameter efficiency for high-affinity antibody generation. △ Less Submitted 19 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.17435 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.RO ImagineNav++: Prompting Vision-Language Models as Embodied Navigator through Scene Imagination Authors: Teng Wang , Xinxin Zhao , Wenzhe Cai , Changyin Sun Abstract : Visual navigation is a fundamental capability for autonomous home-assistance robots, enabling long-horizon tasks such as object search. While recent methods have leveraged Large Language Models (LLMs) to incorporate commonsense reasoning and improve exploration efficiency, their planning remains constrained by textual representations, which cannot adequately capture spatial occupancy or scene geom… ▽ More Visual navigation is a fundamental capability for autonomous home-assistance robots, enabling long-horizon tasks such as object search. While recent methods have leveraged Large Language Models (LLMs) to incorporate commonsense reasoning and improve exploration efficiency, their planning remains constrained by textual representations, which cannot adequately capture spatial occupancy or scene geometry--critical factors for navigation decisions. We explore whether Vision-Language Models (VLMs) can achieve mapless visual navigation using only onboard RGB/RGB-D streams, unlocking their potential for spatial perception and planning. We achieve this through an imagination-powered navigation framework, ImagineNav++, which imagines future observation images from candidate robot views and translates navigation planning into a simple best-view image selection problem for VLMs. First, a future-view imagination module distills human navigation preferences to generate semantically meaningful viewpoints with high exploration potential. These imagined views then serve as visual prompts for the VLM to identify the most informative viewpoint. To maintain spatial consistency, we develop a selective foveation memory mechanism, which hierarchically integrates keyframe observations via a sparse-to-dense framework, constructing a compact yet comprehensive memory for long-term spatial reasoning. This approach transforms goal-oriented navigation into a series of tractable point-goal navigation tasks. Extensive experiments on open-vocabulary object and instance navigation benchmarks show that ImagineNav++ achieves SOTA performance in mapless settings, even surpassing most map-based methods, highlighting the importance of scene imagination and memory in VLM-based spatial reasoning. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; v1 submitted 19 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 17 pages, 10 figures. arXiv admin note: text overlap with arXiv:2410.09874 arXiv:2512.17435 [ pdf , ps , other ] ImagineNav++: Prompting Vision-Language Models as Embodied Navigator through Scene Imagination Authors: Teng Wang , Xinxin Zhao , Wenzhe Cai , Changyin Sun Abstract : Visual navigation is a fundamental capability for autonomous home-assistance robots, enabling long-horizon tasks such as object search. While recent methods have leveraged Large Language Models (LLMs) to incorporate commonsense reasoning and improve exploration efficiency, their planning remains constrained by textual representations, which cannot adequately capture spatial occupancy or scene geom… ▽ More Visual navigation is a fundamental capability for autonomous home-assistance robots, enabling long-horizon tasks such as object search. While recent methods have leveraged Large Language Models (LLMs) to incorporate commonsense reasoning and improve exploration efficiency, their planning remains constrained by textual representations, which cannot adequately capture spatial occupancy or scene geometry--critical factors for navigation decisions. We explore whether Vision-Language Models (VLMs) can achieve mapless visual navigation using only onboard RGB/RGB-D streams, unlocking their potential for spatial perception and planning. We achieve this through an imagination-powered navigation framework, ImagineNav++, which imagines future observation images from candidate robot views and translates navigation planning into a simple best-view image selection problem for VLMs. First, a future-view imagination module distills human navigation preferences to generate semantically meaningful viewpoints with high exploration potential. These imagined views then serve as visual prompts for the VLM to identify the most informative viewpoint. To maintain spatial consistency, we develop a selective foveation memory mechanism, which hierarchically integrates keyframe observations via a sparse-to-dense framework, constructing a compact yet comprehensive memory for long-term spatial reasoning. This approach transforms goal-oriented navigation into a series of tractable point-goal navigation tasks. Extensive experiments on open-vocabulary object and instance navigation benchmarks show that ImagineNav++ achieves SOTA performance in mapless settings, even surpassing most map-based methods, highlighting the importance of scene imagination and memory in VLM-based spatial reasoning. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; v1 submitted 19 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 17 pages, 10 figures. arXiv admin note: text overlap with arXiv:2410.09874 arXiv:2512.17206 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Reasoning Palette: Modulating Reasoning via Latent Contextualization for Controllable Exploration for (V)LMs Authors: Rujiao Long , Yang Li , Xingyao Zhang , Weixun Wang , Tianqianjin Lin , Xi Zhao , Yuchi Xu , Wenbo Su , Junchi Yan , Bo Zheng Abstract : Exploration capacity shapes both inference-time performance and reinforcement learning (RL) training for large (vision-) language models, as stochastic sampling often yields redundant reasoning paths with little high-level diversity. This paper proposes Reasoning Palette, a novel latent-modulation framework that endows the model with a stochastic latent variable for strategic contextualization, gu… ▽ More Exploration capacity shapes both inference-time performance and reinforcement learning (RL) training for large (vision-) language models, as stochastic sampling often yields redundant reasoning paths with little high-level diversity. This paper proposes Reasoning Palette, a novel latent-modulation framework that endows the model with a stochastic latent variable for strategic contextualization, guiding its internal planning prior to token generation. This latent context is inferred from the mean-pooled embedding of a question-answer pair via a variational autoencoder (VAE), where each sampled latent potentially encodes a distinct reasoning context. During inference, a sampled latent is decoded into learnable token prefixes and prepended to the input prompt, modulating the model's internal reasoning trajectory. In this way, the model performs internal sampling over reasoning strategies prior to output generation, which shapes the style and structure of the entire response sequence. A brief supervised fine-tuning (SFT) warm-up phase allows the model to adapt to this latent conditioning. Within RL optimization, Reasoning Palette facilitates structured exploration by enabling on-demand injection for diverse reasoning modes, significantly enhancing exploration efficiency and sustained learning capability. Experiments across multiple reasoning benchmarks demonstrate that our method enables interpretable and controllable control over the (vision-) language model's strategic behavior, thereby achieving consistent performance gains over standard RL methods. △ Less Submitted 18 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.17206 [ pdf , ps , other ] Reasoning Palette: Modulating Reasoning via Latent Contextualization for Controllable Exploration for (V)LMs Authors: Rujiao Long , Yang Li , Xingyao Zhang , Weixun Wang , Tianqianjin Lin , Xi Zhao , Yuchi Xu , Wenbo Su , Junchi Yan , Bo Zheng Abstract : Exploration capacity shapes both inference-time performance and reinforcement learning (RL) training for large (vision-) language models, as stochastic sampling often yields redundant reasoning paths with little high-level diversity. This paper proposes Reasoning Palette, a novel latent-modulation framework that endows the model with a stochastic latent variable for strategic contextualization, gu… ▽ More Exploration capacity shapes both inference-time performance and reinforcement learning (RL) training for large (vision-) language models, as stochastic sampling often yields redundant reasoning paths with little high-level diversity. This paper proposes Reasoning Palette, a novel latent-modulation framework that endows the model with a stochastic latent variable for strategic contextualization, guiding its internal planning prior to token generation. This latent context is inferred from the mean-pooled embedding of a question-answer pair via a variational autoencoder (VAE), where each sampled latent potentially encodes a distinct reasoning context. During inference, a sampled latent is decoded into learnable token prefixes and prepended to the input prompt, modulating the model's internal reasoning trajectory. In this way, the model performs internal sampling over reasoning strategies prior to output generation, which shapes the style and structure of the entire response sequence. A brief supervised fine-tuning (SFT) warm-up phase allows the model to adapt to this latent conditioning. Within RL optimization, Reasoning Palette facilitates structured exploration by enabling on-demand injection for diverse reasoning modes, significantly enhancing exploration efficiency and sustained learning capability. Experiments across multiple reasoning benchmarks demonstrate that our method enables interpretable and controllable control over the (vision-) language model's strategic behavior, thereby achieving consistent performance gains over standard RL methods. △ Less Submitted 18 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.16969 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.CL cs.LG Probing Scientific General Intelligence of LLMs with Scientist-Aligned Workflows Authors: Wanghan Xu , Yuhao Zhou , Yifan Zhou , Qinglong Cao , Shuo Li , Jia Bu , Bo Liu , Yixin Chen , Xuming He , Xiangyu Zhao , Xiang Zhuang , Fengxiang Wang , Zhiwang Zhou , Qiantai Feng , Wenxuan Huang , Jiaqi Wei , Hao Wu , Yuejin Yang , Guangshuai Wang , Sheng Xu , Ziyan Huang , Xinyao Liu , Jiyao Liu , Cheng Tang , Wei Li , et al. (82 additional authors not shown) Abstract : Despite advances in scientific AI, a coherent framework for Scientific General Intelligence (SGI)-the ability to autonomously conceive, investigate, and reason across scientific domains-remains lacking. We present an operational SGI definition grounded in the Practical Inquiry Model (PIM: Deliberation, Conception, Action, Perception) and operationalize it via four scientist-aligned tasks: deep res… ▽ More Despite advances in scientific AI, a coherent framework for Scientific General Intelligence (SGI)-the ability to autonomously conceive, investigate, and reason across scientific domains-remains lacking. We present an operational SGI definition grounded in the Practical Inquiry Model (PIM: Deliberation, Conception, Action, Perception) and operationalize it via four scientist-aligned tasks: deep research, idea generation, dry/wet experiments, and experimental reasoning. SGI-Bench comprises over 1,000 expert-curated, cross-disciplinary samples inspired by Science's 125 Big Questions, enabling systematic evaluation of state-of-the-art LLMs. Results reveal gaps: low exact match (10--20%) in deep research despite step-level alignment; ideas lacking feasibility and detail; high code executability but low execution result accuracy in dry experiments; low sequence fidelity in wet protocols; and persistent multimodal comparative-reasoning challenges. We further introduce Test-Time Reinforcement Learning (TTRL), which optimizes retrieval-augmented novelty rewards at inference, enhancing hypothesis novelty without reference answer. Together, our PIM-grounded definition, workflow-centric benchmark, and empirical insights establish a foundation for AI systems that genuinely participate in scientific discovery. △ Less Submitted 18 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.16969 [ pdf , ps , other ] Probing Scientific General Intelligence of LLMs with Scientist-Aligned Workflows Authors: Wanghan Xu , Yuhao Zhou , Yifan Zhou , Qinglong Cao , Shuo Li , Jia Bu , Bo Liu , Yixin Chen , Xuming He , Xiangyu Zhao , Xiang Zhuang , Fengxiang Wang , Zhiwang Zhou , Qiantai Feng , Wenxuan Huang , Jiaqi Wei , Hao Wu , Yuejin Yang , Guangshuai Wang , Sheng Xu , Ziyan Huang , Xinyao Liu , Jiyao Liu , Cheng Tang , Wei Li , et al. (82 additional authors not shown) Abstract : Despite advances in scientific AI, a coherent framework for Scientific General Intelligence (SGI)-the ability to autonomously conceive, investigate, and reason across scientific domains-remains lacking. We present an operational SGI definition grounded in the Practical Inquiry Model (PIM: Deliberation, Conception, Action, Perception) and operationalize it via four scientist-aligned tasks: deep res… ▽ More Despite advances in scientific AI, a coherent framework for Scientific General Intelligence (SGI)-the ability to autonomously conceive, investigate, and reason across scientific domains-remains lacking. We present an operational SGI definition grounded in the Practical Inquiry Model (PIM: Deliberation, Conception, Action, Perception) and operationalize it via four scientist-aligned tasks: deep research, idea generation, dry/wet experiments, and experimental reasoning. SGI-Bench comprises over 1,000 expert-curated, cross-disciplinary samples inspired by Science's 125 Big Questions, enabling systematic evaluation of state-of-the-art LLMs. Results reveal gaps: low exact match (10--20%) in deep research despite step-level alignment; ideas lacking feasibility and detail; high code executability but low execution result accuracy in dry experiments; low sequence fidelity in wet protocols; and persistent multimodal comparative-reasoning challenges. We further introduce Test-Time Reinforcement Learning (TTRL), which optimizes retrieval-augmented novelty rewards at inference, enhancing hypothesis novelty without reference answer. Together, our PIM-grounded definition, workflow-centric benchmark, and empirical insights establish a foundation for AI systems that genuinely participate in scientific discovery. △ Less Submitted 18 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.16586 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI Yuan-TecSwin: A text conditioned Diffusion model with Swin-transformer blocks Authors: Shaohua Wu , Tong Yu , Shenling Wang , Xudong Zhao Abstract : Diffusion models have shown remarkable capacity in image synthesis based on their U-shaped architecture and convolutional neural networks (CNN) as basic blocks. The locality of the convolution operation in CNN may limit the model's ability to understand long-range semantic information. To address this issue, we propose Yuan-TecSwin, a text-conditioned diffusion model with Swin-transformer in this… ▽ More Diffusion models have shown remarkable capacity in image synthesis based on their U-shaped architecture and convolutional neural networks (CNN) as basic blocks. The locality of the convolution operation in CNN may limit the model's ability to understand long-range semantic information. To address this issue, we propose Yuan-TecSwin, a text-conditioned diffusion model with Swin-transformer in this work. The Swin-transformer blocks take the place of CNN blocks in the encoder and decoder, to improve the non-local modeling ability in feature extraction and image restoration. The text-image alignment is improved with a well-chosen text encoder, effective utilization of text embedding, and careful design in the incorporation of text condition. Using an adapted time step to search in different diffusion stages, inference performance is further improved by 10%. Yuan-TecSwin achieves the state-of-the-art FID score of 1.37 on ImageNet generation benchmark, without any additional models at different denoising stages. In a side-by-side comparison, we find it difficult for human interviewees to tell the model-generated images from the human-painted ones. △ Less Submitted 18 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.16586 [ pdf , ps , other ] Yuan-TecSwin: A text conditioned Diffusion model with Swin-transformer blocks Authors: Shaohua Wu , Tong Yu , Shenling Wang , Xudong Zhao Abstract : Diffusion models have shown remarkable capacity in image synthesis based on their U-shaped architecture and convolutional neural networks (CNN) as basic blocks. The locality of the convolution operation in CNN may limit the model's ability to understand long-range semantic information. To address this issue, we propose Yuan-TecSwin, a text-conditioned diffusion model with Swin-transformer in this… ▽ More Diffusion models have shown remarkable capacity in image synthesis based on their U-shaped architecture and convolutional neural networks (CNN) as basic blocks. The locality of the convolution operation in CNN may limit the model's ability to understand long-range semantic information. To address this issue, we propose Yuan-TecSwin, a text-conditioned diffusion model with Swin-transformer in this work. The Swin-transformer blocks take the place of CNN blocks in the encoder and decoder, to improve the non-local modeling ability in feature extraction and image restoration. The text-image alignment is improved with a well-chosen text encoder, effective utilization of text embedding, and careful design in the incorporation of text condition. Using an adapted time step to search in different diffusion stages, inference performance is further improved by 10%. Yuan-TecSwin achieves the state-of-the-art FID score of 1.37 on ImageNet generation benchmark, without any additional models at different denoising stages. In a side-by-side comparison, we find it difficult for human interviewees to tell the model-generated images from the human-painted ones. △ Less Submitted 18 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.16468 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI Quantifying and Bridging the Fidelity Gap: A Decisive-Feature Approach to Comparing Synthetic and Real Imagery Authors: Danial Safaei , Siddartha Khastgir , Mohsen Alirezaei , Jeroen Ploeg , Son Tong , Xingyu Zhao Abstract : Virtual testing using synthetic data has become a cornerstone of autonomous vehicle (AV) safety assurance. Despite progress in improving visual realism through advanced simulators and generative AI, recent studies reveal that pixel-level fidelity alone does not ensure reliable transfer from simulation to the real world. What truly matters is whether the system-under-test (SUT) bases its decisions… ▽ More Virtual testing using synthetic data has become a cornerstone of autonomous vehicle (AV) safety assurance. Despite progress in improving visual realism through advanced simulators and generative AI, recent studies reveal that pixel-level fidelity alone does not ensure reliable transfer from simulation to the real world. What truly matters is whether the system-under-test (SUT) bases its decisions on the same causal evidence in both real and simulated environments - not just whether images "look real" to humans. This paper addresses the lack of such a behavior-grounded fidelity measure by introducing Decisive Feature Fidelity (DFF), a new SUT-specific metric that extends the existing fidelity spectrum to capture mechanism parity - the agreement in causal evidence underlying the SUT's decisions across domains. DFF leverages explainable-AI (XAI) methods to identify and compare the decisive features driving the SUT's outputs for matched real-synthetic pairs. We further propose practical estimators based on counterfactual explanations, along with a DFF-guided calibration scheme to enhance simulator fidelity. Experiments on 2126 matched KITTI-VirtualKITTI2 pairs demonstrate that DFF reveals discrepancies overlooked by conventional output-value fidelity. Furthermore, results show that DFF-guided calibration improves decisive-feature and input-level fidelity without sacrificing output value fidelity across diverse SUTs. △ Less Submitted 18 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.16468 [ pdf , ps , other ] Quantifying and Bridging the Fidelity Gap: A Decisive-Feature Approach to Comparing Synthetic and Real Imagery Authors: Danial Safaei , Siddartha Khastgir , Mohsen Alirezaei , Jeroen Ploeg , Son Tong , Xingyu Zhao Abstract : Virtual testing using synthetic data has become a cornerstone of autonomous vehicle (AV) safety assurance. Despite progress in improving visual realism through advanced simulators and generative AI, recent studies reveal that pixel-level fidelity alone does not ensure reliable transfer from simulation to the real world. What truly matters is whether the system-under-test (SUT) bases its decisions… ▽ More Virtual testing using synthetic data has become a cornerstone of autonomous vehicle (AV) safety assurance. Despite progress in improving visual realism through advanced simulators and generative AI, recent studies reveal that pixel-level fidelity alone does not ensure reliable transfer from simulation to the real world. What truly matters is whether the system-under-test (SUT) bases its decisions on the same causal evidence in both real and simulated environments - not just whether images "look real" to humans. This paper addresses the lack of such a behavior-grounded fidelity measure by introducing Decisive Feature Fidelity (DFF), a new SUT-specific metric that extends the existing fidelity spectrum to capture mechanism parity - the agreement in causal evidence underlying the SUT's decisions across domains. DFF leverages explainable-AI (XAI) methods to identify and compare the decisive features driving the SUT's outputs for matched real-synthetic pairs. We further propose practical estimators based on counterfactual explanations, along with a DFF-guided calibration scheme to enhance simulator fidelity. Experiments on 2126 matched KITTI-VirtualKITTI2 pairs demonstrate that DFF reveals discrepancies overlooked by conventional output-value fidelity. Furthermore, results show that DFF-guided calibration improves decisive-feature and input-level fidelity without sacrificing output value fidelity across diverse SUTs. △ Less Submitted 18 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.15784 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.LG Beyond Training: Enabling Self-Evolution of Agents with MOBIMEM Authors: Zibin Liu , Cheng Zhang , Xi Zhao , Yunfei Feng , Bingyu Bai , Dahu Feng , Erhu Feng , Yubin Xia , Haibo Chen Abstract : Large Language Model (LLM) agents are increasingly deployed to automate complex workflows in mobile and desktop environments. However, current model-centric agent architectures struggle to self-evolve post-deployment: improving personalization, capability, and efficiency typically requires continuous model retraining/fine-tuning, which incurs prohibitive computational overheads and suffers from an… ▽ More Large Language Model (LLM) agents are increasingly deployed to automate complex workflows in mobile and desktop environments. However, current model-centric agent architectures struggle to self-evolve post-deployment: improving personalization, capability, and efficiency typically requires continuous model retraining/fine-tuning, which incurs prohibitive computational overheads and suffers from an inherent trade-off between model accuracy and inference efficiency. To enable iterative self-evolution without model retraining, we propose MOBIMEM, a memory-centric agent system. MOBIMEM first introduces three specialized memory primitives to decouple agent evolution from model weights: (1) Profile Memory uses a lightweight distance-graph (DisGraph) structure to align with user preferences, resolving the accuracy-latency trade-off in user profile retrieval; (2) Experience Memory employs multi-level templates to instantiate execution logic for new tasks, ensuring capability generalization; and (3) Action Memory records fine-grained interaction sequences, reducing the reliance on expensive model inference. Building upon this memory architecture, MOBIMEM further integrates a suite of OS-inspired services to orchestrate execution: a scheduler that coordinates parallel sub-task execution and memory operations; an agent record-and-replay (AgentRR) mechanism that enables safe and efficient action reuse; and a context-aware exception handling that ensures graceful recovery from user interruptions and runtime errors. Evaluation on AndroidWorld and top-50 apps shows that MOBIMEM achieves 83.1% profile alignment with 23.83 ms retrieval time (280x faster than GraphRAG baselines), improves task success rates by up to 50.3%, and reduces end-to-end latency by up to 9x on mobile devices. △ Less Submitted 15 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.15784 [ pdf , ps , other ] Beyond Training: Enabling Self-Evolution of Agents with MOBIMEM Authors: Zibin Liu , Cheng Zhang , Xi Zhao , Yunfei Feng , Bingyu Bai , Dahu Feng , Erhu Feng , Yubin Xia , Haibo Chen Abstract : Large Language Model (LLM) agents are increasingly deployed to automate complex workflows in mobile and desktop environments. However, current model-centric agent architectures struggle to self-evolve post-deployment: improving personalization, capability, and efficiency typically requires continuous model retraining/fine-tuning, which incurs prohibitive computational overheads and suffers from an… ▽ More Large Language Model (LLM) agents are increasingly deployed to automate complex workflows in mobile and desktop environments. However, current model-centric agent architectures struggle to self-evolve post-deployment: improving personalization, capability, and efficiency typically requires continuous model retraining/fine-tuning, which incurs prohibitive computational overheads and suffers from an inherent trade-off between model accuracy and inference efficiency. To enable iterative self-evolution without model retraining, we propose MOBIMEM, a memory-centric agent system. MOBIMEM first introduces three specialized memory primitives to decouple agent evolution from model weights: (1) Profile Memory uses a lightweight distance-graph (DisGraph) structure to align with user preferences, resolving the accuracy-latency trade-off in user profile retrieval; (2) Experience Memory employs multi-level templates to instantiate execution logic for new tasks, ensuring capability generalization; and (3) Action Memory records fine-grained interaction sequences, reducing the reliance on expensive model inference. Building upon this memory architecture, MOBIMEM further integrates a suite of OS-inspired services to orchestrate execution: a scheduler that coordinates parallel sub-task execution and memory operations; an agent record-and-replay (AgentRR) mechanism that enables safe and efficient action reuse; and a context-aware exception handling that ensures graceful recovery from user interruptions and runtime errors. Evaluation on AndroidWorld and top-50 apps shows that MOBIMEM achieves 83.1% profile alignment with 23.83 ms retrieval time (280x faster than GraphRAG baselines), improves task success rates by up to 50.3%, and reduces end-to-end latency by up to 9x on mobile devices. △ Less Submitted 15 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.15647 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Hard Labels In! Rethinking the Role of Hard Labels in Mitigating Local Semantic Drift Authors: Jiacheng Cui , Bingkui Tong , Xinyue Bi , Xiaohan Zhao , Jiacheng Liu , Zhiqiang Shen Abstract : Soft labels generated by teacher models have become a dominant paradigm for knowledge transfer and recent large-scale dataset distillation such as SRe2L, RDED, LPLD, offering richer supervision than conventional hard labels. However, we observe that when only a limited number of crops per image are used, soft labels are prone to local semantic drift: a crop may visually resemble another class, cau… ▽ More Soft labels generated by teacher models have become a dominant paradigm for knowledge transfer and recent large-scale dataset distillation such as SRe2L, RDED, LPLD, offering richer supervision than conventional hard labels. However, we observe that when only a limited number of crops per image are used, soft labels are prone to local semantic drift: a crop may visually resemble another class, causing its soft embedding to deviate from the ground-truth semantics of the original image. This mismatch between local visual content and global semantic meaning introduces systematic errors and distribution misalignment between training and testing. In this work, we revisit the overlooked role of hard labels and show that, when appropriately integrated, they provide a powerful content-agnostic anchor to calibrate semantic drift. We theoretically characterize the emergence of drift under few soft-label supervision and demonstrate that hybridizing soft and hard labels restores alignment between visual content and semantic supervision. Building on this insight, we propose a new training paradigm, Hard Label for Alleviating Local Semantic Drift (HALD), which leverages hard labels as intermediate corrective signals while retaining the fine-grained advantages of soft labels. Extensive experiments on dataset distillation and large-scale conventional classification benchmarks validate our approach, showing consistent improvements in generalization. On ImageNet-1K, we achieve 42.7% with only 285M storage for soft labels, outperforming prior state-of-the-art LPLD by 9.0%. Our findings re-establish the importance of hard labels as a complementary tool, and call for a rethinking of their role in soft-label-dominated training. △ Less Submitted 22 December, 2025; v1 submitted 17 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Code at: arXiv:2512.15647 [ pdf , ps , other ] Hard Labels In! Rethinking the Role of Hard Labels in Mitigating Local Semantic Drift Authors: Jiacheng Cui , Bingkui Tong , Xinyue Bi , Xiaohan Zhao , Jiacheng Liu , Zhiqiang Shen Abstract : Soft labels generated by teacher models have become a dominant paradigm for knowledge transfer and recent large-scale dataset distillation such as SRe2L, RDED, LPLD, offering richer supervision than conventional hard labels. However, we observe that when only a limited number of crops per image are used, soft labels are prone to local semantic drift: a crop may visually resemble another class, cau… ▽ More Soft labels generated by teacher models have become a dominant paradigm for knowledge transfer and recent large-scale dataset distillation such as SRe2L, RDED, LPLD, offering richer supervision than conventional hard labels. However, we observe that when only a limited number of crops per image are used, soft labels are prone to local semantic drift: a crop may visually resemble another class, causing its soft embedding to deviate from the ground-truth semantics of the original image. This mismatch between local visual content and global semantic meaning introduces systematic errors and distribution misalignment between training and testing. In this work, we revisit the overlooked role of hard labels and show that, when appropriately integrated, they provide a powerful content-agnostic anchor to calibrate semantic drift. We theoretically characterize the emergence of drift under few soft-label supervision and demonstrate that hybridizing soft and hard labels restores alignment between visual content and semantic supervision. Building on this insight, we propose a new training paradigm, Hard Label for Alleviating Local Semantic Drift (HALD), which leverages hard labels as intermediate corrective signals while retaining the fine-grained advantages of soft labels. Extensive experiments on dataset distillation and large-scale conventional classification benchmarks validate our approach, showing consistent improvements in generalization. On ImageNet-1K, we achieve 42.7% with only 285M storage for soft labels, outperforming prior state-of-the-art LPLD by 9.0%. Our findings re-establish the importance of hard labels as a complementary tool, and call for a rethinking of their role in soft-label-dominated training. △ Less Submitted 22 December, 2025; v1 submitted 17 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Code at: arXiv:2512.13472 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL Scaling Laws for Code: Every Programming Language Matters Authors: Jian Yang , Shawn Guo , Lin Jing , Wei Zhang , Aishan Liu , Chuan Hao , Zhoujun Li , Wayne Xin Zhao , Xianglong Liu , Weifeng Lv , Bryan Dai Abstract : Code large language models (Code LLMs) are powerful but costly to train, with scaling laws predicting performance from model size, data, and compute. However, different programming languages (PLs) have varying impacts during pre-training that significantly affect base model performance, leading to inaccurate performance prediction. Besides, existing works focus on language-agnostic settings, negle… ▽ More Code large language models (Code LLMs) are powerful but costly to train, with scaling laws predicting performance from model size, data, and compute. However, different programming languages (PLs) have varying impacts during pre-training that significantly affect base model performance, leading to inaccurate performance prediction. Besides, existing works focus on language-agnostic settings, neglecting the inherently multilingual nature of modern software development. Therefore, it is first necessary to investigate the scaling laws of different PLs, and then consider their mutual influences to arrive at the final multilingual scaling law. In this paper, we present the first systematic exploration of scaling laws for multilingual code pre-training, conducting over 1000+ experiments (Equivalent to 336,000+ H800 hours) across multiple PLs, model sizes (0.2B to 14B parameters), and dataset sizes (1T tokens). We establish comprehensive scaling laws for code LLMs across multiple PLs, revealing that interpreted languages (e.g., Python) benefit more from increased model size and data than compiled languages (e.g., Rust). The study demonstrates that multilingual pre-training provides synergistic benefits, particularly between syntactically similar PLs. Further, the pre-training strategy of the parallel pairing (concatenating code snippets with their translations) significantly enhances cross-lingual abilities with favorable scaling properties. Finally, a proportion-dependent multilingual scaling law is proposed to optimally allocate training tokens by prioritizing high-utility PLs (e.g., Python), balancing high-synergy pairs (e.g., JavaScript-TypeScript), and reducing allocation to fast-saturating languages (Rust), achieving superior average performance across all PLs compared to uniform distribution under the same compute budget. △ Less Submitted 15 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.13472 [ pdf , ps , other ] Scaling Laws for Code: Every Programming Language Matters Authors: Jian Yang , Shawn Guo , Lin Jing , Wei Zhang , Aishan Liu , Chuan Hao , Zhoujun Li , Wayne Xin Zhao , Xianglong Liu , Weifeng Lv , Bryan Dai Abstract : Code large language models (Code LLMs) are powerful but costly to train, with scaling laws predicting performance from model size, data, and compute. However, different programming languages (PLs) have varying impacts during pre-training that significantly affect base model performance, leading to inaccurate performance prediction. Besides, existing works focus on language-agnostic settings, negle… ▽ More Code large language models (Code LLMs) are powerful but costly to train, with scaling laws predicting performance from model size, data, and compute. However, different programming languages (PLs) have varying impacts during pre-training that significantly affect base model performance, leading to inaccurate performance prediction. Besides, existing works focus on language-agnostic settings, neglecting the inherently multilingual nature of modern software development. Therefore, it is first necessary to investigate the scaling laws of different PLs, and then consider their mutual influences to arrive at the final multilingual scaling law. In this paper, we present the first systematic exploration of scaling laws for multilingual code pre-training, conducting over 1000+ experiments (Equivalent to 336,000+ H800 hours) across multiple PLs, model sizes (0.2B to 14B parameters), and dataset sizes (1T tokens). We establish comprehensive scaling laws for code LLMs across multiple PLs, revealing that interpreted languages (e.g., Python) benefit more from increased model size and data than compiled languages (e.g., Rust). The study demonstrates that multilingual pre-training provides synergistic benefits, particularly between syntactically similar PLs. Further, the pre-training strategy of the parallel pairing (concatenating code snippets with their translations) significantly enhances cross-lingual abilities with favorable scaling properties. Finally, a proportion-dependent multilingual scaling law is proposed to optimally allocate training tokens by prioritizing high-utility PLs (e.g., Python), balancing high-synergy pairs (e.g., JavaScript-TypeScript), and reducing allocation to fast-saturating languages (Rust), achieving superior average performance across all PLs compared to uniform distribution under the same compute budget. △ Less Submitted 15 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.13396 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.IR doi 10.1145/3773966.3777992 Automated Information Flow Selection for Multi-scenario Multi-task Recommendation Authors: Chaohua Yang , Dugang Liu , Shiwei Li , Yuwen Fu , Xing Tang , Weihong Luo , Xiangyu Zhao , Xiuqiang He , Zhong Ming Abstract : Multi-scenario multi-task recommendation (MSMTR) systems must address recommendation demands across diverse scenarios while simultaneously optimizing multiple objectives, such as click-through rate and conversion rate. Existing MSMTR models typically consist of four information units: scenario-shared, scenario-specific, task-shared, and task-specific networks. These units interact to generate four… ▽ More Multi-scenario multi-task recommendation (MSMTR) systems must address recommendation demands across diverse scenarios while simultaneously optimizing multiple objectives, such as click-through rate and conversion rate. Existing MSMTR models typically consist of four information units: scenario-shared, scenario-specific, task-shared, and task-specific networks. These units interact to generate four types of relationship information flows, directed from scenario-shared or scenario-specific networks to task-shared or task-specific networks. However, these models face two main limitations: 1) They often rely on complex architectures, such as mixture-of-experts (MoE) networks, which increase the complexity of information fusion, model size, and training cost. 2) They extract all available information flows without filtering out irrelevant or even harmful content, introducing potential noise. Regarding these challenges, we propose a lightweight Automated Information Flow Selection (AutoIFS) framework for MSMTR. To tackle the first issue, AutoIFS incorporates low-rank adaptation (LoRA) to decouple the four information units, enabling more flexible and efficient information fusion with minimal parameter overhead. To address the second issue, AutoIFS introduces an information flow selection network that automatically filters out invalid scenario-task information flows based on model performance feedback. It employs a simple yet effective pruning function to eliminate useless information flows, thereby enhancing the impact of key relationships and improving model performance. Finally, we evaluate AutoIFS and confirm its effectiveness through extensive experiments on two public benchmark datasets and an online A/B test. △ Less Submitted 15 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 10 Pages, 6 Figures, WSDM 2026 Accepted arXiv:2512.13396 [ pdf , ps , other ] Automated Information Flow Selection for Multi-scenario Multi-task Recommendation Authors: Chaohua Yang , Dugang Liu , Shiwei Li , Yuwen Fu , Xing Tang , Weihong Luo , Xiangyu Zhao , Xiuqiang He , Zhong Ming Abstract : Multi-scenario multi-task recommendation (MSMTR) systems must address recommendation demands across diverse scenarios while simultaneously optimizing multiple objectives, such as click-through rate and conversion rate. Existing MSMTR models typically consist of four information units: scenario-shared, scenario-specific, task-shared, and task-specific networks. These units interact to generate four… ▽ More Multi-scenario multi-task recommendation (MSMTR) systems must address recommendation demands across diverse scenarios while simultaneously optimizing multiple objectives, such as click-through rate and conversion rate. Existing MSMTR models typically consist of four information units: scenario-shared, scenario-specific, task-shared, and task-specific networks. These units interact to generate four types of relationship information flows, directed from scenario-shared or scenario-specific networks to task-shared or task-specific networks. However, these models face two main limitations: 1) They often rely on complex architectures, such as mixture-of-experts (MoE) networks, which increase the complexity of information fusion, model size, and training cost. 2) They extract all available information flows without filtering out irrelevant or even harmful content, introducing potential noise. Regarding these challenges, we propose a lightweight Automated Information Flow Selection (AutoIFS) framework for MSMTR. To tackle the first issue, AutoIFS incorporates low-rank adaptation (LoRA) to decouple the four information units, enabling more flexible and efficient information fusion with minimal parameter overhead. To address the second issue, AutoIFS introduces an information flow selection network that automatically filters out invalid scenario-task information flows based on model performance feedback. It employs a simple yet effective pruning function to eliminate useless information flows, thereby enhancing the impact of key relationships and improving model performance. Finally, we evaluate AutoIFS and confirm its effectiveness through extensive experiments on two public benchmark datasets and an online A/B test. △ Less Submitted 15 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 10 Pages, 6 Figures, WSDM 2026 Accepted arXiv:2512.13368 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.IR BlossomRec: Block-level Fused Sparse Attention Mechanism for Sequential Recommendations Authors: Mengyang Ma , Xiaopeng Li , Wanyu Wang , Zhaocheng Du , Jingtong Gao , Pengyue Jia , Yuyang Ye , Yiqi Wang , Yunpeng Weng , Weihong Luo , Xiao Han , Xiangyu Zhao Abstract : Transformer structures have been widely used in sequential recommender systems (SRS). However, as user interaction histories increase, computational time and memory requirements also grow. This is mainly caused by the standard attention mechanism. Although there exist many methods employing efficient attention and SSM-based models, these approaches struggle to effectively model long sequences and… ▽ More Transformer structures have been widely used in sequential recommender systems (SRS). However, as user interaction histories increase, computational time and memory requirements also grow. This is mainly caused by the standard attention mechanism. Although there exist many methods employing efficient attention and SSM-based models, these approaches struggle to effectively model long sequences and may exhibit unstable performance on short sequences. To address these challenges, we design a sparse attention mechanism, BlossomRec, which models both long-term and short-term user interests through attention computation to achieve stable performance across sequences of varying lengths. Specifically, we categorize user interests in recommendation systems into long-term and short-term interests, and compute them using two distinct sparse attention patterns, with the results combined through a learnable gated output. Theoretically, it significantly reduces the number of interactions participating in attention computation. Extensive experiments on four public datasets demonstrate that BlossomRec, when integrated with state-of-the-art Transformer-based models, achieves comparable or even superior performance while significantly reducing memory usage, providing strong evidence of BlossomRec's efficiency and effectiveness.The code is available at △ Less Submitted 15 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.13368 [ pdf , ps , other ] BlossomRec: Block-level Fused Sparse Attention Mechanism for Sequential Recommendations Authors: Mengyang Ma , Xiaopeng Li , Wanyu Wang , Zhaocheng Du , Jingtong Gao , Pengyue Jia , Yuyang Ye , Yiqi Wang , Yunpeng Weng , Weihong Luo , Xiao Han , Xiangyu Zhao Abstract : Transformer structures have been widely used in sequential recommender systems (SRS). However, as user interaction histories increase, computational time and memory requirements also grow. This is mainly caused by the standard attention mechanism. Although there exist many methods employing efficient attention and SSM-based models, these approaches struggle to effectively model long sequences and… ▽ More Transformer structures have been widely used in sequential recommender systems (SRS). However, as user interaction histories increase, computational time and memory requirements also grow. This is mainly caused by the standard attention mechanism. Although there exist many methods employing efficient attention and SSM-based models, these approaches struggle to effectively model long sequences and may exhibit unstable performance on short sequences. To address these challenges, we design a sparse attention mechanism, BlossomRec, which models both long-term and short-term user interests through attention computation to achieve stable performance across sequences of varying lengths. Specifically, we categorize user interests in recommendation systems into long-term and short-term interests, and compute them using two distinct sparse attention patterns, with the results combined through a learnable gated output. Theoretically, it significantly reduces the number of interactions participating in attention computation. Extensive experiments on four public datasets demonstrate that BlossomRec, when integrated with state-of-the-art Transformer-based models, achieves comparable or even superior performance while significantly reducing memory usage, providing strong evidence of BlossomRec's efficiency and effectiveness.The code is available at △ Less Submitted 15 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. 1 2 3 4 5 … About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack
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https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&query=Zhao,+X
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Etymology 2 History Toggle History subsection 2.1 Prehistory and antiquity 2.2 Middle Ages 2.3 Union with Hungary and Austria 2.4 The World Wars and Yugoslavia 2.5 Independence 2.1 Prehistory and antiquity 2.2 Middle Ages 2.3 Union with Hungary and Austria 2.4 The World Wars and Yugoslavia 2.5 Independence 3 Geography Toggle Geography subsection 3.1 Climate 3.2 Biodiversity 3.1 Climate 3.2 Biodiversity 4 Governance Toggle Governance subsection 4.1 Law and judicial system 4.2 Foreign relations 4.3 Croatian diaspora 4.4 Military 4.5 Administrative divisions 4.1 Law and judicial system 4.2 Foreign relations 4.3 Croatian diaspora 4.4 Military 4.5 Administrative divisions 5 Economy Toggle Economy subsection 5.1 Tourism 5.2 Infrastructure 5.2.1 Motorways 5.2.2 Railways 5.2.3 Pelješac Bridge 5.2.4 Aviation 5.2.5 Ports 5.2.6 Energy 5.1 Tourism 5.2 Infrastructure 5.2.1 Motorways 5.2.2 Railways 5.2.3 Pelješac Bridge 5.2.4 Aviation 5.2.5 Ports 5.2.6 Energy 5.2.1 Motorways 5.2.2 Railways 5.2.3 Pelješac Bridge 5.2.4 Aviation 5.2.5 Ports 5.2.6 Energy 6 Demographics Toggle Demographics subsection 6.1 Religion 6.2 Languages 6.3 Education 6.4 Healthcare 6.1 Religion 6.2 Languages 6.3 Education 6.4 Healthcare 7 Culture Toggle Culture subsection 7.1 Arts, literature, and music 7.2 Media 7.3 Film industry 7.4 Cuisine 7.5 Sports 7.1 Arts, literature, and music 7.2 Media 7.3 Film industry 7.4 Cuisine 7.5 Sports 8 See also 9 Explanatory notes 10 Citations 11 General and cited references 12 External links Croatia Acèh Адыгэбзэ Адыгабзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ अंगिका Ænglisc Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés ܐܪܡܝܐ Արեւմտահայերէն Armãneashti Arpetan Asturianu अवधी Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Bislama Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Chamoru Chavacano de Zamboanga ChiShona ChiTumbuka Corsu Cymraeg Dagbanli Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deitsch Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Diné bizaad Dolnoserbski डोटेली ཇོང་ཁ Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara Eʋegbe فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Fulfulde Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego 贛語 گیلکی ગુજરાતી 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Hausa Hawaiʻi Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Ido Igbo Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue Iñupiatun Ирон IsiZulu Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kernowek Ikinyarwanda Ikirundi Kiswahili Коми Kongo Kotava Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Ladin Ladino ລາວ Latgaļu Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Lingua Franca Nova Livvinkarjala La .lojban. 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.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap} 45°48′47″N 15°58′39″E / 45.81306°N 15.97750°E / 45.81306; 15.97750 Official languages Croatian [ b ] Writing system Latin [ c ] Ethnic groups (2021) .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} 91.6% Croats 3.2% Serbs 5.2% others 91.6% Croats 3.2% Serbs 5.2% others Religion (2021) .mw-parser-output .treeview ul{padding:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .treeview li{padding:0;margin:0;list-style-type:none;list-style-image:none}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li{background:url(" 0 -2981px;padding-left:21px;text-indent:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li:last-child{background-position:0 -5971px}.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>.mw-empty-elt:first-child+.emptyline,.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>li:first-child{background-position:0 9px} 87.4% Christianity 79.0% Catholicism 3.3% Orthodoxy 5.1% other Christian 6.4% no religion 1.3% Islam 1.9% other 3.9% undeclared [ 1 ] .mw-parser-output .treeview ul{padding:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .treeview li{padding:0;margin:0;list-style-type:none;list-style-image:none}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li{background:url(" 0 -2981px;padding-left:21px;text-indent:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li:last-child{background-position:0 -5971px}.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>.mw-empty-elt:first-child+.emptyline,.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>li:first-child{background-position:0 9px} 87.4% Christianity 79.0% Catholicism 3.3% Orthodoxy 5.1% other Christian 87.4% Christianity 79.0% Catholicism 3.3% Orthodoxy 5.1% other Christian 79.0% Catholicism 3.3% Orthodoxy 5.1% other Christian 6.4% no religion 1.3% Islam 1.9% other 3.9% undeclared [ 1 ] Demonym .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} Croatian Croatian Government Unitary parliamentary republic • President Zoran Milanović • Prime Minister Andrej Plenković • Speaker of the Parliament Gordan Jandroković Legislature Sabor Establishment history • Duchy 7th century • Kingdom 925 • Croatia in personal union with Hungary 1102 • Joined Habsburg Monarchy 1 January 1527 • Secession from Austria-Hungary 29 October 1918 • Creation of Yugoslavia 4 December 1918 • Socialist Republic of Croatia of Yugoslavia 9 May 1944 • Declaration of independence 25 June 1991 Area • Total 56,561 [ 2 ] km 2 (21,838 sq mi) ( 124th ) • Water (%) 1.09 Population • 2024 estimate 3,866,233 [ 3 ] ( 130th ) • 2021 census 3,871,833 [ 4 ] ( 128th ) • Density 68.4/km 2 (177.2/sq mi) ( 152nd ) GDP .mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal} ( PPP ) 2026 estimate • Total $207.40 billion [ 5 ] ( 79th ) • Per capita $53,840 [ 5 ] ( 39th ) GDP (nominal) 2026 estimate • Total $113.13 billion [ 5 ] ( 74th ) • Per capita $29,370 [ 5 ] ( 47th ) Gini (2026) 30.0 [ 6 ] @media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}} medium inequality HDI (2023) 0.889 [ 7 ] very high ( 41st ) Currency Euro ( € ) ( EUR ) Time zone UTC +1 ( CET ) • Summer ( DST ) UTC +2 ( CEST ) Calling code +385 ISO 3166 code HR Internet TLD .hr and .eu .hr and .eu Croatia , [ d ] officially the Republic of Croatia , [ e ] is a country in Central and Southeast Europe, on the coast of the Adriatic Sea . It borders Slovenia to the northwest, Hungary to the northeast, Serbia to the east, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro to the southeast, and shares a maritime border with Italy to the west. Its capital and largest city, Zagreb , forms one of the country's primary subdivisions , with twenty counties . Other major urban centers include Split , Rijeka and Osijek . The country spans 56,594 square kilometres (21,851 square miles), and has a population of nearly 3.9 million. The Croats arrived in modern-day Croatia, then part of Roman Illyria , in the late 6th century. In the 7th century, they organized the territory into two duchies . Croatia was first internationally recognized as independent on 7 June 879 during the reign of Duke Branimir . Tomislav became the first king by 925, elevating Croatia to the status of a kingdom . During the succession crisis after the Trpimirović dynasty ended, Croatia entered a personal union with Hungary in 1102. In 1527, faced with Ottoman conquest , the Croatian Parliament elected Ferdinand I of Austria to the Croatian throne. In October 1918, the State of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs , independent from the Habsburg Empire , was proclaimed in Zagreb, and in December 1918, it merged into the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . Following the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941, most of Croatia was incorporated into a Nazi-installed puppet state, the Independent State of Croatia . A resistance movement led to the creation of the Socialist Republic of Croatia , which after the war became a founding member and constituent of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia . On 25 June 1991, Croatia declared independence , and the War of Independence was successfully fought over the next four years. Croatia is a republic and a parliamentary democracy . It is a member of the European Union , the Eurozone , the Schengen Area , NATO , the United Nations , the Council of Europe , the OSCE , the World Trade Organization , a founding member of the Union for the Mediterranean , and is currently in the process of joining the OECD . An active participant in United Nations peacekeeping , Croatia contributed troops to the International Security Assistance Force and was elected to fill a non-permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council in the 2008–2009 term for the first time. Croatia is a developed country with an advanced high-income economy . [ 9 ] Service , industrial sectors , and agriculture dominate the economy . Tourism is a significant source of revenue for the country, with nearly 20 million tourist arrivals as of 2019. [ 10 ] [ 11 ] [ 12 ] Since the 2000s, the Croatian government has heavily invested in infrastructure, especially transport routes and facilities along the Pan-European corridors . Croatia has also positioned itself as a regional energy leader in the early 2020s and is contributing to the diversification of Europe's energy supply via its floating liquefied natural gas import terminal off Krk island, LNG Hrvatska . [ 13 ] Croatia provides social security , universal health care , and tuition fee-free primary and secondary education while supporting culture through public institutions and corporate investments in media and publishing . Etymology Croatia's non-native name derives from Medieval Latin Croātia , itself a derivation of North-West Slavic * Xərwate , by liquid metathesis from Common Slavic period *Xorvat , from proposed Proto-Slavic *Xъrvátъ which possibly comes from the 3rd-century Scytho-Sarmatian form attested in the Tanais Tablets as Χοροάθος ( Khoroáthos , alternate forms comprise Khoróatos and Khoroúathos ). [ 14 ] The origin of the ethnonym is uncertain, but most probably is from Proto-Ossetian / Alanian * xurvæt- or * xurvāt- , in the meaning of "one who guards" ("guardian, protector"). [ 15 ] The oldest preserved record of the Croatian ethnonym's native variation *xъrvatъ is of the variable stem, attested in the Baška tablet in style zvъnъmirъ kralъ xrъvatъskъ (" Zvonimir , Croatian king "), [ 16 ] while the Latin variation Croatorum is archaeologically confirmed on a church inscription found in Bijaći near Trogir dated to the end of the 8th or early 9th century. [ 17 ] The presumably oldest stone inscription with fully preserved ethnonym is the 9th-century Branimir inscription found near Benkovac , where Duke Branimir is styled Dux Cruatorvm , likely dated between 879 and 892, during his rule. [ 18 ] The Latin term Chroatorum is attributed to a charter of Duke Trpimir I of Croatia , dated to 852 in a 1568 copy of a lost original, but it is not certain if the original was indeed older than the Branimir inscription. [ 19 ] [ 20 ] History Prehistory and antiquity The area known as Croatia today was inhabited throughout the prehistoric period . Neanderthal fossils dating to the middle Palaeolithic period were unearthed in northern Croatia, best presented at the Krapina site . [ 21 ] Remnants of Neolithic and Chalcolithic cultures were found in all regions. [ 22 ] The largest proportion of sites is in the valleys of northern Croatia. The most significant are Baden , Starčevo , and Vučedol cultures . [ 23 ] [ 24 ] Iron Age hosted the early Illyrian Hallstatt culture and the Celtic La Tène culture . [ 25 ] The region of modern-day Croatia was settled by Illyrians and Liburnians , while the first Greek colonies were established on the islands of Hvar , [ 26 ] Korčula , and Vis . [ 27 ] In 9 AD, the territory of today's Croatia became part of the Roman Empire . Emperor Diocletian was native to the region. He had a large palace built in Split , to which he retired after abdicating in AD 305. [ 28 ] During the 5th century, the last de jure Western Roman Emperor Julius Nepos ruled a small realm from the palace after fleeing Italy in 475. [ 29 ] Middle Ages The Roman period ends with Avar and Croat invasions in the late 6th and first half of the 7th century and the destruction of almost all Roman towns. Roman survivors retreated to more favourable sites on the coast, islands, and mountains. The city of Dubrovnik was founded by such survivors from Epidaurum . [ 30 ] There's some uncertainty about the ethnogenesis of Croats . The most accepted theory, the Slavic theory, proposes migration of White Croats from White Croatia during the Migration Period . Conversely, the Iranian theory proposes Sarmatian - Alanic origin of Proto-Croats, based on Tanais Tablets containing Ancient Greek inscriptions of given names Χορούαθος , Χοροάθος , and Χορόαθος (Khoroúathos, Khoroáthos, and Khoróathos) and their interpretation as anthroponyms related to the Croatian ethnonym . [ 31 ] According to the work De Administrando Imperio written by 10th-century Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII , Croats settled in the Roman province of Dalmatia in the first half of the 7th century after they defeated the Avars . [ 32 ] [ 33 ] [ 34 ] Although there exist some scholarly disputes about the account's reliability and interpretation, [ 35 ] [ 36 ] recent archaeological data has established that the migration and settlement of the Slavs/Croats was in the late 6th and early 7th century. [ 37 ] [ 38 ] [ 39 ] Eventually, a dukedom was formed, Duchy of Croatia , ruled by Borna , as attested by chronicles of Einhard starting in 818. The record represents the first document of Croatian realms, vassal states of Francia at the time. [ 40 ] Its neighbor to the North was Principality of Lower Pannonia , at the time ruled by duke Ljudevit who ruled the territories between the Drava and Sava rivers, centred from his fort at Sisak . This population and territory throughout history was tightly related and connected to Croats and Croatia. [ 41 ] Christianisation of Croats began in the 7th century at the time of archon Porga of Croatia , initially probably encompassed only the elite and related people, [ 42 ] but mostly finished by the 9th century. [ 43 ] [ 44 ] The Frankish overlordship ended during the reign of Mislav , [ 45 ] or his successor Trpimir I . [ 46 ] The native Croatian royal dynasty was founded by duke Trpimir I in the mid 9th century, who defeated the Byzantine and Bulgarian forces. [ 47 ] The first native Croatian ruler recognised by the Pope was duke Branimir , who received papal recognition from Pope John VIII on 7 June 879. [ 18 ] Tomislav was the first king of Croatia , noted as such in a letter of Pope John X in 925. Tomislav defeated Hungarian and Bulgarian invasions. [ 48 ] The medieval Croatian kingdom reached its peak in the 11th century during the reigns of Petar Krešimir IV (1058–1074) and Dmitar Zvonimir (1075–1089). [ 49 ] When Stjepan II died in 1091, ending the Trpimirović dynasty, Dmitar Zvonimir's brother-in-law Ladislaus I of Hungary claimed the Croatian crown. This led to a war and personal union with Hungary in 1102 under Coloman . [ 50 ] Union with Hungary and Austria For the next four centuries, the Kingdom of Croatia was ruled by the Sabor (parliament) and a Ban (viceroy) appointed by the king. [ 51 ] This period saw the rise of influential nobility such as the Frankopan and Šubić families to prominence, and ultimately numerous Bans from the two families. [ 52 ] An increasing threat of Ottoman conquest and a struggle against the Republic of Venice for control of coastal areas ensued. The Venetians controlled most of Dalmatia by 1428, except the city-state of Dubrovnik , which became independent. Ottoman conquests led to the 1493 Battle of Krbava field and the 1526 Battle of Mohács , both ending in decisive Ottoman victories. King Louis II died at Mohács, and in 1527, the Croatian Parliament met in Cetin and chose Ferdinand I of the House of Habsburg as the new ruler of Croatia, under the condition that he protects Croatia against the Ottoman Empire while respecting its political rights. [ 51 ] [ 53 ] Following the decisive Ottoman victories, Croatia was split into civilian and military territories in 1538. The military territories became known as the Croatian Military Frontier and were under direct Habsburg control. Ottoman advances in Croatia continued until the 1593 Battle of Sisak , the first decisive Ottoman defeat, when borders stabilised. [ 53 ] During the Great Turkish War (1683–1698), Slavonia was regained, but western Bosnia , which had been part of Croatia before the Ottoman conquest, remained outside Croatian control. [ 53 ] The present-day border between the two countries is a remnant of this outcome. Dalmatia , the southern part of the border, was similarly defined by the Fifth and the Seventh Ottoman–Venetian Wars . [ 54 ] The Ottoman wars drove demographic changes. During the 16th century, Croats from western and northern Bosnia , Lika , Krbava , the area between the rivers Una and Kupa , and especially from western Slavonia , migrated towards Austria . Present-day Burgenland Croats are direct descendants of these settlers. [ 55 ] [ 56 ] To replace the fleeing population, the Habsburgs encouraged Bosnians to provide military service in the Military Frontier . The Croatian Parliament supported King Charles III 's Pragmatic Sanction and signed their own Pragmatic Sanction in 1712 . [ 57 ] Subsequently, the emperor pledged to respect all privileges and political rights of the Kingdom of Croatia , and Queen Maria Theresa made significant contributions to Croatian affairs, such as introducing compulsory education. Between 1797 and 1809, the First French Empire increasingly occupied the eastern Adriatic coastline and its hinterland, ending the Venetian and the Ragusan republics , establishing the Illyrian Provinces . [ 53 ] In response, the Royal Navy blockaded the Adriatic Sea , leading to the Battle of Vis in 1811. [ 58 ] The Illyrian provinces were captured by the Austrians in 1813 and absorbed by the Austrian Empire following the Congress of Vienna in 1815. This led to the formation of the Kingdom of Dalmatia and the restoration of the Croatian Littoral to the Kingdom of Croatia under one crown. [ 59 ] The 1830s and 1840s featured romantic nationalism that inspired the Croatian National Revival , a political and cultural campaign advocating the unity of South Slavs within the empire. Its primary focus was establishing a standard language as a counterweight to Hungarian while promoting Croatian literature and culture. [ 60 ] During the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 , Croatia sided with Austria. Ban Josip Jelačić helped defeat the Hungarians in 1849 and ushered in a Germanisation policy. [ 61 ] This is around the time that Nikola Tesla was born in Smiljan . By the 1860s, the failure of the policy became apparent, leading to the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 . The creation of a personal union between the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary followed. The treaty left Croatia's status to Hungary, which was resolved by the Croatian–Hungarian Settlement of 1868 when the kingdoms of Croatia and Slavonia were united. [ 62 ] The Kingdom of Dalmatia remained under de facto Austrian control, while Rijeka retained the status of corpus separatum previously introduced in 1779. [ 50 ] After Austria-Hungary occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina following the 1878 Treaty of Berlin , the Military Frontier was abolished. The Croatian and Slavonian sectors of the Frontier returned to Croatia in 1881, [ 53 ] under provisions of the Croatian–Hungarian Settlement. [ 63 ] [ 64 ] Renewed efforts to reform Austria-Hungary , entailing federalisation with Croatia as a federal unit, were stopped by World War I . [ 65 ] The World Wars and Yugoslavia On 29 October 1918, the Croatian Parliament ( Sabor ) declared independence and decided to join the newly formed State of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs , [ 51 ] which in turn entered into union with the Kingdom of Serbia on 4 December 1918 to form the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes . [ 66 ] The Croatian Parliament never ratified the union with Serbia and Montenegro. [ 51 ] The 1921 constitution defining the country as a unitary state and abolition of Croatian Parliament and historical administrative divisions effectively ended Croatian autonomy. The new constitution was opposed by the most widely supported national political party—the Croatian Peasant Party (HSS) led by Stjepan Radić . [ 67 ] The political situation deteriorated further as Radić was assassinated in the National Assembly by NRS member, Serbian nationalist politician Puniša Račić in 1928, culminating in King Alexander I 's establishment of the 6 January Dictatorship in 1929. [ 68 ] The dictatorship formally ended in 1931 when the king imposed a more unitary constitution. [ 69 ] The HSS, now led by Vladko Maček , continued to advocate federalisation, resulting in the Cvetković–Maček Agreement of August 1939 and the autonomous Banovina of Croatia . The Yugoslav government retained control of defence, internal security, foreign affairs, trade, and transport while other matters were left to the Croatian Sabor and a crown-appointed Ban. [ 70 ] In April 1941, Yugoslavia was invaded by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy . Following the invasion, a German-Italian installed puppet state named the Independent State of Croatia (NDH) was established. Most of Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the region of Syrmia were incorporated into this state. Parts of Dalmatia were annexed by Italy , Hungary annexed the northern Croatian regions of Baranja and Međimurje . [ 71 ] The NDH regime was led by Ante Pavelić and the ultranationalist Ustaše , a fringe movement in pre-war Croatia. [ 72 ] With German and Italian military and political support, [ 73 ] the regime introduced racial laws and launched a genocide campaign against Serbs , Jews , and Roma . [ 74 ] Many were imprisoned in concentration camps ; the largest was the Jasenovac complex . [ 75 ] Anti-fascist Croats were targeted by the regime as well. [ 76 ] Several concentration camps (most notably the Rab , Gonars and Molat camps) were established in Italian-occupied territories, mostly for Slovenes and Croats. [ 75 ] At the same time, the Yugoslav Royalist and Serbian nationalist Chetniks pursued a genocidal campaign against Croats and Muslims , [ 74 ] [ 77 ] aided by Italy. [ 78 ] Nazi German forces committed crimes and reprisals against civilians in retaliation for Partisan actions, such as in the villages of Kamešnica and Lipa in 1944. [ 79 ] [ 80 ] A resistance movement emerged. On 22 June 1941, [ 81 ] the 1st Sisak Partisan Detachment was formed near Sisak , the first military unit formed by a resistance movement in occupied Europe . [ 82 ] That sparked the beginning of the Yugoslav Partisan movement, a communist, multi-ethnic anti-fascist resistance group led by Josip Broz Tito . [ 83 ] In ethnic terms, Croats were the second-largest contributors to the Partisan movement after Serbs. [ 84 ] In per capita terms, Croats contributed proportionately to their population within Yugoslavia. [ 85 ] By May 1944 (according to Tito), Croats made up 30% of the Partisan's ethnic composition, despite making up 22% of the population. [ 84 ] The movement grew fast, and at the Tehran Conference in December 1943, the Partisans gained recognition from the Allies . [ 86 ] With Allied support in logistics, equipment, training and airpower, and with the assistance of Soviet troops taking part in the 1944 Belgrade Offensive , the Partisans gained control of Yugoslavia and the border regions of Italy and Austria by May 1945. Members of the NDH armed forces and other Axis troops, as well as civilians, were in retreat towards Austria. Following their surrender, many were killed in the Yugoslav death march of Nazi collaborators . [ 87 ] In the following years, ethnic Germans faced persecution in Yugoslavia , and many were interned. [ 88 ] The political aspirations of the Partisan movement were reflected in the State Anti-fascist Council for the National Liberation of Croatia , which developed in 1943 as the bearer of Croatian statehood and later transformed into the Parliament in 1945, and AVNOJ —its counterpart at the Yugoslav level. [ 89 ] [ 90 ] Based on the studies on wartime and post-war casualties by demographer Vladimir Žerjavić and statistician Bogoljub Kočović , a total of 295,000 people from the territory (not including territories ceded from Italy after the war) died, which amounted to 7.3% of the population, [ 91 ] among whom were 125–137,000 Serbs, 118–124,000 Croats, 16–17,000 Jews, and 15,000 Roma. [ 92 ] [ 93 ] In addition, from areas joined to Croatia after the war, a total of 32,000 people died, among whom 16,000 were Italians and 15,000 were Croats. [ 94 ] Approximately 200,000 Croats from the entirety of Yugoslavia (including Croatia) and abroad were killed in total throughout the war and its immediate aftermath, approximately 5.4% of the population. [ 95 ] [ 96 ] After World War II , Croatia became a single-party socialist federal unit of the SFR Yugoslavia , ruled by the Communists , but having a degree of autonomy within the federation. In 1967, Croatian authors and linguists published a Declaration on the Status and Name of the Croatian Standard Language demanding equal treatment for their language. [ 97 ] The declaration contributed to a national movement seeking greater civil rights and redistribution of the Yugoslav economy, culminating in the Croatian Spring of 1971, which was suppressed by Yugoslav leadership. [ 98 ] Still, the 1974 Yugoslav Constitution gave increased autonomy to federal units, basically fulfilling a goal of the Croatian Spring and providing a legal basis for independence of the federative constituents. [ 99 ] At the same time, there was a substantial Croatian diaspora during the Cold War, which included efforts aimed at forming a government in exile. [ 100 ] Following Tito's death in 1980, the political situation in Yugoslavia deteriorated. National tension was fanned by the 1986 SANU Memorandum and the 1989 coups in Vojvodina, Kosovo, and Montenegro . [ 101 ] [ 102 ] In January 1990, the Communist Party fragmented along national lines, with the Croatian faction demanding a looser federation. [ 103 ] In the same year, the first multi-party elections were held in Croatia, while Franjo Tuđman 's win exacerbated nationalist tensions. [ 104 ] Some of the Serbs in Croatia left Sabor and declared autonomy of the unrecognised Republic of Serbian Krajina , intent on achieving independence from Croatia. [ 105 ] [ 106 ] Independence As tensions rose, Croatia declared independence on 25 June 1991. However, the full implementation of the declaration only came into effect after a three-month moratorium on the decision on 8 October 1991. [ 107 ] [ 108 ] In the meantime, tensions escalated into overt war when the Serbian-controlled Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) and various Serb paramilitary groups attacked Croatia. [ 109 ] By the end of 1991, a high-intensity conflict fought along a wide front reduced Croatia's control to about two-thirds of its territory. [ 110 ] [ 111 ] Serb paramilitary groups then began a campaign of killing, terror, and expulsion of the Croats in the occupied territories, killing thousands [ 112 ] of Croat civilians and expelling or displacing as many as 400,000–500,000 Croats and other non-Serbs from their homes. [ 113 ] [ 114 ] Serbs living in Croatian towns, especially those near the front lines, were subjected to various forms of discrimination. [ 115 ] Croatian Serbs in Eastern and Western Slavonia and parts of the Krajina were forced to flee or were expelled by Croatian forces, though on a restricted scale and in lesser numbers. [ 116 ] The Croatian Government publicly deplored these practices and sought to stop them, indicating that they were not a part of the Government's policy. [ 117 ] On 15 January 1992, Croatia gained diplomatic recognition by the European Economic Community , followed by the United Nations. [ 118 ] [ 119 ] The war effectively ended in August 1995 with a decisive victory by Croatia; [ 120 ] the event is commemorated each year on 5 August as Victory and Homeland Thanksgiving Day and the Day of Croatian Defenders . [ 121 ] Following the Croatian victory, about 200,000 Serbs from the self-proclaimed Republic of Serbian Krajina fled the region [ 122 ] and hundreds of mainly elderly Serb civilians were killed in the aftermath of the military operation, often in revenge attacks, accompanied by looting, seizing or burning down of their property. [ 123 ] Approximately half have returned since then. [ 114 ] Some 19,000 Serb homes were subsequently settled by Croat refugees from Bosnia and Herzegovina. [ 124 ] The remaining occupied areas were restored to Croatia following the Erdut Agreement of November 1995, concluding with the UNTAES mission in January 1998. [ 125 ] Most sources number the war deaths at around 20,000. [ 126 ] [ 127 ] [ 128 ] The 2000s were characterized by democratization, economic growth, structural and social reforms, and problems such as unemployment, corruption, and the inefficiency of public administration. [ 129 ] In November 2000 and March 2001, the Parliament amended the Constitution, first adopted on 22 December 1990, changing its bicameral structure back into its historic unicameral form and reducing presidential powers. [ 130 ] [ 131 ] Croatia joined the Partnership for Peace on 25 May 2000 [ 132 ] and became a member of the World Trade Organization on 30 November 2000. [ 133 ] On 29 October 2001, Croatia signed a Stabilisation and Association Agreement with the European Union, [ 134 ] submitted a formal application for the EU membership in 2003, [ 135 ] was given the status of a candidate country in 2004, [ 136 ] and began accession negotiations in 2005. [ 137 ] Although the Croatian economy enjoyed a significant boom in the early 2000s, the 2008 financial crisis forced the government to cut spending, thus provoking a public outcry. [ 138 ] Croatia served on the United Nations Security Council in the 2008–2009 term for the first time, assuming the non-permanent seat in December 2008. [ 139 ] On 1 April 2009, Croatia joined NATO . [ 140 ] A wave of anti-government protests in 2011 reflected a general dissatisfaction with the current political and economic situation. The protests brought together diverse political persuasions in response to recent government corruption scandals and called for early elections. On 28 October 2011 MPs voted to dissolve Parliament and the protests gradually subsided. President Ivo Josipović agreed to a dissolution of Sabor on Monday, 31 October and scheduled new elections for Sunday 4 December 2011. [ 141 ] [ 142 ] [ 143 ] On 30 June 2011, Croatia successfully completed EU accession negotiations. [ 144 ] The country signed the Accession Treaty on 9 December 2011 and held a referendum on 22 January 2012, where Croatian citizens voted in favor of an EU membership. [ 145 ] [ 146 ] Croatia joined the European Union on 1 July 2013. Croatia was affected by the 2015 European migrant crisis when Hungary's closure of borders with Serbia pushed over 700,000 refugees and migrants to pass through Croatia on their way to other EU countries. [ 147 ] On 19 October 2016, Andrej Plenković began serving as the current Croatian Prime Minister. [ 148 ] The most recent presidential elections, held on 5 January 2020, elected Zoran Milanović as president. [ 149 ] On 25 January 2022, the OECD Council decided to open accession negotiations with Croatia. Throughout the accession process, Croatia was to implement numerous reforms that will advance all spheres of activity – from public services and the justice system to education, transport, finance, health, and trade. In line with the OECD Accession Roadmap from June 2022, Croatia will undergo technical reviews by 25 OECD committees and is so far progressing at a faster pace than expected. Full membership is expected in 2025 and is the last big foreign policy goal Croatia still has to achieve. [ 150 ] [ 151 ] [ 152 ] [ 153 ] On 1 January 2023, Croatia adopted the euro as its official currency, replacing the kuna , and became the 20th Eurozone member. On the same day, Croatia became the 27th member of the border-free Schengen Area , thus marking its full EU integration. [ 154 ] Geography Croatia is situated in Central and Southeast Europe, on the coast of the Adriatic Sea . Hungary is to the northeast, Serbia to the east, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro to the southeast and Slovenia to the northwest. It lies mostly between latitudes 42° and 47° N and longitudes 13° and 20° E . [ 155 ] Part of the territory in the extreme south surrounding Dubrovnik is a practical exclave connected to the rest of the mainland by territorial waters , but separated on land by a short coastline strip belonging to Bosnia and Herzegovina around Neum . The Pelješac Bridge connects the exclave with mainland Croatia. [ 156 ] The territory covers 56,594 square kilometres (21,851 square miles), consisting of 56,414 square kilometres (21,782 square miles) of land and 128 square kilometres (49 square miles) of water. It is the world's 127th largest country. [ 157 ] Elevation ranges from the mountains of the Dinaric Alps with the highest point of the Dinara peak at 1,831 metres (6,007 feet) near the border with Bosnia and Herzegovina in the south [ 157 ] to the shore of the Adriatic Sea which makes up its entire southwest border. Insular Croatia consists of over a thousand islands and islets varying in size, 48 of which are permanently inhabited . The largest islands are Cres and Krk , [ 157 ] each of them having an area of around 405 square kilometres (156 square miles). The hilly northern parts of Hrvatsko Zagorje and the flat plains of Slavonia in the east which is part of the Pannonian Basin are traversed by major rivers such as Danube , Drava , Kupa , and the Sava . The Danube, Europe's second longest river, runs through the city of Vukovar in the extreme east and forms part of the border with Vojvodina . The central and southern regions near the Adriatic coastline and islands consist of low mountains and forested highlands. Natural resources found in quantities significant enough for production include oil, coal, bauxite, low-grade iron ore, calcium, gypsum, natural asphalt, silica, mica, clays, salt, and hydropower. [ 157 ] Karst topography makes up about half of Croatia and is especially prominent in the Dinaric Alps. [ 158 ] Croatia hosts deep caves , 49 of which are deeper than 250 m (820.21 ft), 14 deeper than 500 m (1,640.42 ft) and three deeper than 1,000 m (3,280.84 ft). Croatia's most famous lakes are the Plitvice lakes , a system of 16 lakes with waterfalls connecting them over dolomite and limestone cascades. The lakes are renowned for their distinctive colours, ranging from turquoise to mint green, grey or blue. [ 159 ] Climate Most of Croatia has a moderately warm and rainy continental climate as defined by the Köppen climate classification . Mean monthly temperature ranges between −3 °C (27 °F ) in January and 18 °C (64 °F) in July. The coldest parts of the country are Lika and Gorski Kotar featuring a snowy, forested climate at elevations above 1,200 metres (3,900 feet). The warmest areas are at the Adriatic coast and especially in its immediate hinterland characterised by Mediterranean climate , as the sea moderates temperature highs. Consequently, temperature peaks are more pronounced in continental areas. The lowest temperature of −35.5 °C (−31.9 °F) was recorded on 3 February 1919 in Čakovec , [ 160 ] and the highest temperature of 42.8 °C (109.0 °F) was recorded on 4 August 1981 in Ploče . [ 161 ] Mean annual precipitation ranges between 600 millimetres (24 inches) and 3,500 millimetres (140 inches) depending on geographic region and climate type. The least precipitation is recorded in the outer islands ( Biševo , Lastovo , Svetac , Vis ) and the eastern parts of Slavonia. However, in the latter case, rain occurs mostly during the growing season . The maximum precipitation levels are observed in the Dinaric Alps, in the Gorski Kotar peaks of Risnjak and Snježnik . [ 160 ] Prevailing winds in the interior are light to moderate northeast or southwest, and in the coastal area, prevailing winds are determined by local features. Higher wind velocities are more often recorded in cooler months along the coast, generally as the cool northeasterly bura or less frequently as the warm southerly jugo . The sunniest parts are the outer islands, Hvar and Korčula, where more than 2700 hours of sunshine are recorded per year, followed by the middle and southern Adriatic Sea area in general, and northern Adriatic coast, all with more than 2000 hours of sunshine per year. [ 162 ] Biodiversity Croatia can be subdivided into ecoregions based on climate and geomorphology. The country is one of the richest in Europe in terms of biodiversity. [ 163 ] [ 164 ] Croatia has four types of biogeographical regions—the Mediterranean along the coast and in its immediate hinterland, Alpine in most of Lika and Gorski Kotar, Pannonian along Drava and Danube, and Continental in the remaining areas. The most significant are karst habitats which include submerged karst, such as Zrmanja and Krka canyons and tufa barriers, as well as underground habitats. The country contains three ecoregions: Dinaric Mountains mixed forests , Pannonian mixed forests , and Illyrian deciduous forests . [ 165 ] The karst geology harbours approximately 7,000 caves and pits , some of which are the habitat of the only known aquatic cave vertebrate —the olm . Forests are abundant, covering 2,490,000 hectares (6,200,000 acres) or 44% of Croatian land area. Other habitat types include wetlands, grasslands, bogs, fens, scrub habitats, coastal and marine habitats. [ 166 ] In terms of phytogeography , Croatia is a part of the Boreal Kingdom and is a part of Illyrian and Central European provinces of the Circumboreal Region and the Adriatic province of the Mediterranean Region . The World Wide Fund for Nature divides Croatia between three ecoregions—Pannonian mixed forests, Dinaric Mountains mixed forests and Illyrian deciduous forests . [ 167 ] Croatia hosts 37,000 known plant and animal species, but their actual number is estimated to be between 50,000 and 100,000. [ 166 ] More than a thousand species are endemic, especially in Velebit and Biokovo mountains, Adriatic islands and karst rivers. Legislation protects 1,131 species. [ 166 ] The most serious threat is habitat loss and degradation. A further problem is presented by invasive alien species, especially Caulerpa taxifolia algae. Invasive algae are regularly monitored and removed to protect benthic habitat . Indigenous cultivated plant strains and domesticated animal breeds are numerous. They include five breeds of horses, five of cattle, eight of sheep, two of pigs, and one poultry. Indigenous breeds include nine that are endangered or critically endangered. [ 166 ] Croatia has 444 protected areas , encompassing 9% of the country. Those include eight national parks , two strict reserves, and ten nature parks . The most famous protected area and the oldest national park in Croatia is Plitvice Lakes National Park , a UNESCO World Heritage Site . Velebit Nature Park is a part of the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Programme . The strict and special reserves, as well as the national and nature parks, are managed and protected by the central government, while other protected areas are managed by counties. In 2005, the National Ecological Network was set up, as the first step in the preparation of the EU accession and joining of the Natura 2000 network. [ 166 ] Governance The Republic of Croatia is a unitary, constitutional state using a parliamentary system . Government powers in Croatia are legislative, executive, and judiciary powers. [ 168 ] The president of the republic ( Croatian : Predsjednik Republike ) is the head of state , directly elected to a five-year term and is limited by the Constitution to two terms. In addition to serving as commander in chief of the armed forces, the president has the procedural duty of appointing the prime minister with the parliament and has some influence on foreign policy. [ 168 ] The Government is headed by the prime minister , who has four deputy prime ministers and 16 ministers in charge of particular sectors. [ 169 ] As the executive branch , it is responsible for proposing legislation and a budget, enforcing the laws, and guiding foreign and internal policies. The Government is seated at Banski dvori in Zagreb. [ 168 ] Law and judicial system A unicameral parliament ( Sabor ) holds legislative power . The number of Sabor members can vary from 100 to 160. They are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms. Legislative sessions take place from 15 January to 15 July, and from 15 September to 15 December annually. [ 170 ] The two largest political parties in Croatia are the Croatian Democratic Union and the Social Democratic Party of Croatia . [ 171 ] Croatia has a civil law legal system in which law arises primarily from written statutes, with judges serving as implementers and not creators of law. Its development was largely influenced by German and Austrian legal systems. Croatian law is divided into two principal areas— private and public law . Before EU accession negotiations were completed, Croatian legislation had been fully harmonised with the Community acquis . [ 172 ] The main national courts are the Constitutional Court , which oversees violations of the Constitution, and the Supreme Court , which is the highest court of appeal. Administrative, Commercial, County , Misdemeanor, and Municipal courts handle cases in their respective domains. [ 173 ] Cases falling within judicial jurisdiction are in the first instance decided by a single professional judge, while appeals are deliberated in mixed tribunals of professional judges. Lay magistrates also participate in trials. [ 174 ] The State's Attorney Office is the judicial body constituted of public prosecutors empowered to instigate prosecution of perpetrators of offences. [ 175 ] Law enforcement agencies are organised under the authority of the Ministry of the Interior which consist primarily of the national police force. Croatia's security service is the Security and Intelligence Agency (SOA). [ 176 ] [ 177 ] Foreign relations Croatia has established diplomatic relations with 194 countries. [ 178 ] supporting 57 embassies, 30 consulates and eight permanent diplomatic missions. 56 foreign embassies and 67 consulates operate in the country in addition to offices of international organisations such as the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), International Organization for Migration (IOM), Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), World Bank , World Health Organization (WHO), International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), and UNICEF . [ 179 ] As of 2019, the Croatian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration employed 1,381 [ needs update ] personnel and expended 765.295 million kunas (€101.17 million). [ 180 ] Stated aims of Croatian foreign policy include enhancing relations with neighbouring countries, developing international co-operation and promotion of the Croatian economy and Croatia itself. [ 181 ] Croatia is a member of the European Union. As of 2021, Croatia had unsolved border issues with Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Serbia, and Slovenia. [ 182 ] Croatia is a member of NATO. [ 183 ] [ 184 ] On 1 January 2023, Croatia simultaneously joined both the Schengen Area and the Eurozone , [ 185 ] having previously joined the ERM II on 10 July 2020. Croatian diaspora The Croatian diaspora consists of communities of ethnic Croats and Croatian citizens living outside Croatia. Croatia maintains intensive contacts with Croatian communities abroad (e.g., administrative and financial support of cultural, sports activities, and economic initiatives). Croatia actively maintain foreign relations to strengthen and guarantee the rights of the Croatian minority in various host countries. [ 186 ] [ 187 ] [ 188 ] Military The Croatian Armed Forces (CAF) consist of the Air Force , Army , and Navy branches in addition to the Education and Training Command and Support Command. The CAF is headed by the General Staff , which reports to the defence minister , who in turn reports to the president. According to the constitution, the president is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. In case of immediate threat during wartime, he issues orders directly to the General Staff. [ 189 ] Following the 1991–95 war, defence spending and CAF size began a constant decline. As of 2019 [update] , military spending was an estimated 1.68% of the country's GDP, 67th globally. [ 190 ] In 2005 the budget fell below the NATO-required 2% of GDP, down from the record high of 11.1% in 1994. [ 191 ] Traditionally relying on conscripts, the CAF went through a period of reforms focused on downsizing, restructuring and professionalisation in the years before accession to NATO in April 2009. According to a presidential decree issued in 2006, the CAF employed around 18,100 active duty military personnel, 3,000 civilians and 2,000 voluntary conscripts between 18 and 30 years old in peacetime. [ 189 ] Until 2008 military service was obligatory for men at age 18 and conscripts served six-month tours of duty, reduced in 2001 from the earlier scheme of nine months. Conscientious objectors could instead opt for eight months of civilian service. [ 192 ] Compulsory conscription was abolished in January 2008, [ 157 ] but is set to be reintroduced in January 2025 with two months of active duty. The decision was influenced by the rising tensions in Europe and the region, following the Russian invasion of Ukraine . [ 193 ] [ 194 ] As of May 2019 [update] , the Croatian military had 72 members stationed in foreign countries as part of United Nations-led international peacekeeping forces. [ 195 ] As of 2019 [update] , 323 troops served the NATO-led ISAF force in Afghanistan. Another 156 served with KFOR in Kosovo. [ 196 ] [ 197 ] Croatia has a military-industrial sector that exported around 493 million kunas (€65,176 million) worth of military equipment in 2020. [ 198 ] Croatian-made weapons and vehicles used by CAF include the standard sidearm HS2000 manufactured by HS Produkt and the M-84D battle tank designed by the Đuro Đaković factory . Uniforms and helmets worn by CAF soldiers are locally produced and marketed to other countries. [ 199 ] According to the 2024 Global Peace Index , Croatia is the 15th most peaceful country in the world. [ 200 ] Administrative divisions Croatia was first divided into counties in the Middle Ages . [ 201 ] The divisions changed over time to reflect losses of territory to Ottoman conquest and subsequent liberation of the same territory, changes of the political status of Dalmatia, Dubrovnik, and Istria . The traditional division of the country into counties was abolished in the 1920s when the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes and the subsequent Kingdom of Yugoslavia introduced oblasts and banovinas respectively. [ 202 ] Communist-ruled Croatia, as a constituent part of post-World War II Yugoslavia, abolished earlier divisions and introduced municipalities, subdividing Croatia into approximately one hundred municipalities. Counties were reintroduced in 1992 legislation, significantly altered in terms of territory relative to the pre-1920s subdivisions. In 1918, the Transleithanian part was divided into eight counties with their seats in Bjelovar , Gospić , Ogulin , Osijek , Požega , Varaždin , Vukovar, and Zagreb. [ 203 ] [ 204 ] As of 1992, Croatia is divided into 20 counties and the capital city of Zagreb , the latter having the dual authority and legal status of a county and a city. County borders changed in some instances, last revised in 2006. The counties subdivide into 127 cities and 429 municipalities . [ 205 ] Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics (NUTS) division is performed in several tiers. NUTS 1 level considers the entire country in a single unit; three NUTS 2 regions come below that. Those are Northwest Croatia, Central and Eastern (Pannonian) Croatia, and Adriatic Croatia. The latter encompasses the counties along the Adriatic coast. Northwest Croatia includes Koprivnica-Križevci, Krapina-Zagorje, Međimurje, Varaždin, the city of Zagreb, and Zagreb counties and the Central and Eastern (Pannonian) Croatia includes the remaining areas—Bjelovar-Bilogora, Brod-Posavina, Karlovac, Osijek-Baranja, Požega-Slavonia, Sisak-Moslavina, Virovitica-Podravina, and Vukovar-Syrmia counties. Individual counties and the city of Zagreb also represent NUTS 3 level subdivision units in Croatia. The NUTS local administrative unit (LAU) divisions are two-tiered. LAU 1 divisions match the counties and the city of Zagreb in effect making those the same as NUTS 3 units, while LAU 2 subdivisions correspond to cities and municipalities. [ 206 ] Economy Croatia's economy qualifies as high-income and developed . [ 207 ] International Monetary Fund data puts the Croatian nominal GDP at $103.90 Billion for 2025, or $26,960 per capita. [ 208 ] Purchasing power parity (PPP) GDP is at 198.31 Billion, or $51,450 per capita. [ 208 ] According to Eurostat , Croatian GDP per capita in PPS stood at 78% of the EU average in 2024, with real GDP growth for the year being 2.8%. [ 209 ] [ 210 ] The average net salary of a Croatian worker in May 2025 was €1,451 per month, the average gross salary roughly €2,019 per month. [ 211 ] The unemployment rate is at 4.2% in October 2025, down from 7.2% in July 2019 and 9.6% in December 2018. [ 211 ] The unemployment rate between 1996 and 2018 averaged 17.38%, reaching an all-time high of 23.60% in January 2002 and a record low of 8.40% in September 2018. [ 212 ] In 2017, economic output was dominated by the service sector — accounting for 70.1% of GDP – followed by the industrial sector with 26.2% and agriculture accounting for 3.7%. [ 213 ] According to 2017 data, 1.9% of the workforce were employed in agriculture, 27.3% by industry and 70.8% in services. [ 213 ] Shipbuilding, food processing, pharmaceuticals, information technology, biochemical, and timber industry dominate the industrial sector. In 2018, Croatian exports were valued at 108 Billion kunas (€14.61 Billion) with 176 Billion kunas (€23.82 Billion) worth of imports. Croatia's largest trading partner was the rest of the European Union, led by Germany, Italy, and Slovenia. [ 214 ] According to Eurostat, Croatia has the highest quantity of water resources per capita in the EU (30,000 m 3 ). [ 215 ] As a result of the war, economic infrastructure sustained massive damage, particularly the tourism industry. From 1989 to 1993, the GDP fell 40.5%. The Croatian state still controls significant economic sectors, with government expenditures accounting for 40% of GDP. [ 216 ] A particular concern is a backlogged judiciary system, with inefficient public administration and corruption, upending land ownership. In the 2022 Corruption Perceptions Index , published by Transparency International , the country ranked 57th. [ 217 ] At the end of June 2020, the national debt stood at 85.3% of GDP. [ 218 ] Tourism Tourism dominates the Croatian service sector and accounts for up to 20% of GDP. Tourism income for 2019 was estimated to be €10.5 billion. [ 219 ] Its positive effects are felt throughout the economy, increasing retail business, and increasing seasonal employment. The industry is counted as an export business because foreign visitor spending significantly reduces the country's trade imbalance. [ 220 ] The tourist industry has rapidly grown, recording a sharp rise in tourist numbers since independence, attracting more than 17 million visitors each year (as of 2017 [update] ). [ 221 ] Germany, Slovenia, Austria, Italy, United Kingdom, Czechia, Poland, Hungary, France, Netherlands, Slovakia and Croatia itself provide the most visitors. [ 222 ] Tourist stays averaged 4.7 days in 2019. [ 223 ] Much of the tourist industry is concentrated along the coast. Opatija was the first holiday resort. It first became popular in the middle of the 19th century. By the 1890s, it had become one of the largest European health resorts. [ 224 ] Resorts sprang up along the coast and islands, offering services catering to mass tourism and various niche markets. The most significant are nautical tourism , supported by marinas with more than 16 thousand berths, cultural tourism relying on the appeal of medieval coastal cities and cultural events taking place during the summer. Inland areas offer agrotourism , mountain resorts , and spas . Zagreb is a significant destination, rivalling major coastal cities and resorts. [ 225 ] Croatia has unpolluted marine areas with nature reserves and 116 Blue Flag beaches . [ 226 ] Croatia was ranked first in Europe for swimming water quality in 2022 by European Environmental Agency . [ 227 ] Croatia ranked as the 23rd-most popular tourist destination in the world according to the World Tourism Organization in 2019. [ 228 ] About 15% of these visitors, [ which? ] [ quantify ] or over one million per year, participate in naturism , for which Croatia is famous. It was the first European country to develop commercial naturist resorts. [ 229 ] In 2023, luggage storage company Bounce gave Croatia the highest solo travel index in the world (7.58), [ 230 ] while a joint Pinterest and Zola wedding trends report from 2023 put Croatia among the most popular honeymoon destinations. [ 231 ] Infrastructure Motorways The motorway network was largely built in the late 1990s and the 2000s. As of December 2020, Croatia had completed 1,313.8 kilometres (816.4 miles) of motorways, connecting Zagreb to other regions and following various European routes and four Pan-European corridors . [ 232 ] [ 233 ] [ 234 ] The busiest motorways are the A1 , connecting Zagreb to Split and the A3 , passing east to west through northwest Croatia and Slavonia. [ 235 ] A widespread network of state roads in Croatia acts as motorway feeder roads while connecting major settlements. The high quality and safety levels of the Croatian motorway network were tested and confirmed by EuroTAP and EuroTest programmes. [ 236 ] [ 237 ] Railways Croatia has an extensive rail network spanning 2,604 kilometres (1,618 miles), including 984 kilometres (611 miles) of electrified railways and 254 kilometres (158 miles) of double track railways. [ 238 ] The most significant railways in Croatia are within the Pan-European transport corridors Vb and X connecting Rijeka to Budapest and Ljubljana to Belgrade, both via Zagreb . [ 232 ] Croatian Railways operates all rail services. [ 239 ] In 2024, the European Investment Bank committed €400 million to support the revitalization of the railway system, focusing on green and digital transformations. [ 240 ] [ 241 ] In July 2024, a significant agreement was signed for the acquisition of six electro-diesel multiple units (EDMUs) to improve connectivity between Split and Zagreb. Valued at €57.3 million and financed through an EIB loan, this project is part of the broader initiative to modernize Croatia's railway infrastructure. [ 241 ] Pelješac Bridge The construction of 2.4-kilometre-long Pelješac Bridge , the biggest infrastructure project in Croatia connects the two-halves of Dubrovnik-Neretva County and shortens the route from the West to the Pelješac peninsula and the islands of Korčula and Lastovo by more than 32 km. The construction of the Pelješac Bridge started in July 2018 after Croatian road operator Hrvatske ceste (HC) signed a 2.08 billion kuna deal for the works with a Chinese consortium led by China Road and Bridge Corporation (CRBC). The project was co-financed by the European Union with €357 million. The construction was completed in July 2022. [ 242 ] Aviation There are international airports in Dubrovnik , Osijek , Pula , Rijeka , Split , Zadar , and Zagreb . [ 243 ] The largest and busiest is Franjo Tuđman Airport in Zagreb. [ 244 ] In July 2024, the airline took delivery of its first Airbus A220 -300 aircraft, marking the beginning of a transition to a more modern and efficient fleet. [ 245 ] [ 246 ] This initiative includes the acquisition of 13 A220-300 and two A220-100 aircraft, aiming to enhance operational efficiency with 25% lower fuel consumption and reduced emissions. [ 245 ] [ 246 ] As of 2024, Croatia Airlines expanded its international network by introducing direct flights from Zagreb to Tirana , Berlin, and Stockholm . [ 247 ] Additionally, the airline launched services connecting Hamburg to Zagreb starting 1 July 2024. [ 248 ] Ports The busiest cargo seaport is the Port of Rijeka . The busiest passenger ports are Split and Zadar. [ 249 ] [ 250 ] Many minor ports serve ferries connecting numerous islands and coastal cities with ferry lines to several cities in Italy. [ 251 ] The largest river port is Vukovar , located on the Danube , representing the nation's outlet to the Pan-European transport corridor VII. [ 232 ] [ 252 ] Energy 610 kilometres (380 miles) of crude oil pipelines serve Croatia, connecting the Rijeka oil terminal with refineries in Rijeka and Sisak , and several transhipment terminals. The system has a capacity of 20 million tonnes per year. [ 253 ] The natural gas transportation system comprises 2,113 kilometres (1,313 miles) of trunk and regional pipelines, and more than 300 associated structures, connecting production rigs, the Okoli natural gas storage facility, 27 end-users and 37 distribution systems. [ 254 ] Croatia also plays an important role in regional energy security. The floating liquefied natural gas import terminal off Krk island LNG Hrvatska commenced operations on 1 January 2021, positioning Croatia as a regional energy leader and contributing to diversification of Europe's energy supply. [ 13 ] In 2010, Croatian energy production covered 85% of nationwide natural gas and 19% of oil demand. [ 255 ] In 2016, Croatia's primary energy production involved natural gas (24.8%), hydropower (28.3%), crude oil (13.6%), fuelwood (27.6%), and heat pumps and other renewable energy sources (5.7%). [ 256 ] In 2017, net total electrical power production reached 11,543 GWh, while it imported 12,157 GWh or about 40% of its electric power energy needs. [ 257 ] Krško Nuclear Power Plant (Slovenia) supplies a large part of Croatian imports. 50% is owned by Hrvatska elektroprivreda , providing 15% of Croatia's electricity. [ 258 ] Demographics Ethnic map of Croatia by municipalities (2021) Croats 91.6% Serbs 3.2% Other 5.2% 2021 Croatian Census [ 4 ] With an estimated population of 3.87 million in 2024, Croatia ranks 128th by population in the world. [ 259 ] Its 2018 population density was 72.9 inhabitants per square kilometre, making Croatia one of the more sparsely populated European countries. [ 260 ] The overall life expectancy in Croatia at birth was 77.7 years in 2024. [ 213 ] The total fertility rate of 1.46 children per mother, is one of the lowest in the world , far below the replacement rate of 2.1; it remains considerably below the high of 6.18 children rate in 1885. [ 213 ] [ 261 ] Croatia's death rate has continuously exceeded its birth rate since 1998. [ 262 ] Croatia subsequently has one of the world's oldest populations, with an average age of 45.1 years. [ 157 ] The population rose steadily from 2.1 million in 1857 until 1991, when it peaked at 4.7 million, with the exceptions of censuses taken in 1921 and 1948, i.e., following the world wars. [ 263 ] The natural growth rate is negative [ 157 ] with the demographic transition completed in the 1970s. [ 264 ] In recent years, the Croatian government has been pressured to increase permit quotas for foreign workers, reaching an all-time high of 68.100 in 2019. [ 265 ] In accordance with its immigration policy, Croatia is trying to entice emigrants to return. [ 266 ] From 2008 to 2018, Croatia's population dropped by 10%. [ 267 ] The population decrease was greater a result of war for independence. The war displaced large numbers of the population and emigration increased. In 1991, in predominantly occupied areas, more than 400,000 Croats were either removed from their homes by Serb forces or fled the violence. [ 268 ] During the war's final days, about 150–200,000 Serbs fled before the arrival of Croatian forces during Operation Storm . [ 122 ] [ 269 ] After the war, the number of displaced persons fell to about 250,000. The Croatian government cared for displaced persons via the social security system and the Office of Displaced Persons and Refugees. [ 270 ] Most of the territories abandoned during the war were settled by Croat refugees from Bosnia and Herzegovina, mostly from north-western Bosnia, while some displaced people returned to their homes. [ 271 ] [ 272 ] According to the 2013 United Nations report, 17.6% of Croatia's population were immigrants. [ 273 ] According to the 2021 census, the majority of inhabitants are Croats (91.6%), followed by Serbs (3.2%), Bosniaks (0.62%), Roma (0.46%), Albanians (0.36%), Italians (0.36%), Hungarians (0.27%), Czechs (0.20%), Slovenes (0.20%), Slovaks (0.10%), Macedonians (0.09%), Germans (0.09%), Montenegrins (0.08%), and others (1.56%). [ 4 ] Approximately 4 million Croats live abroad . [ 274 ] .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Largest cities or towns in Croatia (2011 Census by Croatian Bureau of Statistics ) [ 275 ] v t e Rank Name Counties Pop. 1 Zagreb Zagreb 790,017 2 Split Split-Dalmatia 178,102 3 Rijeka Primorje-Gorski Kotar 128,624 4 Osijek Osijek-Baranja 108,048 5 Zadar Zadar 75,062 6 Pula Istria 57,460 7 Slavonski Brod Brod-Posavina 59,141 8 Karlovac Karlovac 55,705 9 Varaždin Varaždin 46,946 10 Šibenik Šibenik-Knin 46,332 Religion Croatia has no official religion. Freedom of religion is a Constitutional right that protects all religious communities as equal before the law and considers them separated from the state . According to the 2021 census, 87.39% of Croatians identify as Christian; of these, Catholics make up the largest group, accounting for 78.97% of the population, after which follows Eastern Orthodoxy (3.32%), Protestantism (0.26%), and other Christians (4.83%). The largest religion after Christianity is Islam (1.32%). 4.71% of the population describe itself as non-religious. [ 276 ] In the Eurostat Eurobarometer Poll of 2010, 69% of the population responded that "they believe there is a God". [ 277 ] In a 2009 Gallup poll, 70% answered yes to the question "Is religion an important part of your daily life?" [ 278 ] Yet, only 24% of the population attends religious services regularly. [ 279 ] Languages Croatian is the official language of the Republic of Croatia and has been an official language of the European Union since Croatia's accession in 2013. [ 280 ] [ 281 ] Croatian replaced Latin as the official language of the Croatian government in the 19th century. [ 282 ] Following the Vienna Literary Agreement in 1850, the language and its Latin alphabet underwent reforms to create an unified "Croatian or Serbian" or " Serbo-Croatian " standard, which under various names became the official language of Yugoslavia . [ 283 ] In SFR Yugoslavia , from 1972 to 1989, the language was constitutionally designated as the "Croatian literary language" and the "Croatian or Serbian language". It was the result of a resistance to and secession from "Serbo-Croatian" in the form of the Declaration on the Status and Name of the Croatian Literary Language as part of the Croatian Spring . [ 284 ] Since gaining independence in the early 1990s, the Republic of Croatia constitutionally designates the language as "Croatian language" and regulates it through linguistic prescription . The long-standing aspiration for development of its own expressions and thus enrichment of the language, as opposed to the adoption of foreign solutions in the form of loanwords , has been described by linguists as Croatian linguistic purism . [ 285 ] Minority languages are in official use in local government units where more than a third of the population consists of national minorities or where local enabling legislation applies. Those languages are Czech , Hungarian , Italian , Serbian , and Slovak . [ 286 ] [ 287 ] The following minority languages are also recognised: Albanian , Bosnian , Bulgarian , German, Hebrew , Macedonian , Montenegrin , Polish , Romanian , Istro-Romanian , Romani , Russian, Rusyn , Slovene , Turkish , and Ukrainian . [ 287 ] According to the 2021 Census, 95.25% of citizens declared Croatian as their native language, 1.16% declared Serbian as their native language, while no other language reaches 0.26%. [ 288 ] Croatian is a member of the South Slavic languages and is written using the Latin alphabet . There are three major dialects spoken on the territory of Croatia, with standard Croatian based on the Shtokavian dialect. The Chakavian and Kajkavian dialects are distinguished from Shtokavian by their lexicon , phonology and syntax . [ 289 ] A 2011 survey revealed that 78% of Croats claim knowledge of at least one foreign language. [ 290 ] According to a 2005 EC survey, 49% of Croats speak English as the second language, 34% speak German, 14% speak Italian, 10% speak French, 4% speak Russian and 2% speak Spanish. However several large municipalities support minority languages . A majority of Slovenes (59%) have some knowledge of Croatian. [ 291 ] The country is a part of various language-based international associations, most notably the European Union Language Association. [ 292 ] Education As of 2021, the literacy rate in Croatia was 99.45%. [ 293 ] [ 294 ] Primary education in Croatia starts at the age of six or seven and consists of eight grades. In 2007 a law was passed to increase free, noncompulsory education until 18 years of age. Compulsory education consists of eight grades of elementary school. Secondary education is provided by gymnasiums and vocational schools. As of the 2022/2023 school year, there were 2,073 elementary schools and 738 upper secondary schools in Croatia. [ 295 ] Primary and secondary education are also available in languages of recognised minorities in Croatia, where classes are held in Czech, Hungarian, Italian, Serbian, German and Slovak languages. [ 296 ] There are 133 elementary and secondary level music and art schools , [ 297 ] as well as 83 elementary and 44 secondary schools for disabled children and youth [ 298 ] and 11 elementary and 52 secondary schools for adults. [ 299 ] Nationwide leaving exams ( Croatian : državna matura ) were introduced for secondary education students in the school year 2009–2010. It comprises three compulsory subjects (Croatian language, mathematics, and a foreign language) and optional subjects and is a prerequisite for university education. [ 300 ] Croatia has eight public universities and two private universities. [ 301 ] The University of Zadar , the first university in Croatia, was founded in 1396 and remained active until 1807, when other institutions of higher education took over until the foundation of the renewed University of Zadar in 2002. [ 302 ] The University of Zagreb , founded in 1669, is the oldest continuously operating university in Southeast Europe. [ 303 ] There are also 15 polytechnics , of which two are private, and 30 higher education institutions, of which 27 are private. [ 301 ] In total, there are 131 institutions of higher education in Croatia, attended by more than 160 thousand students. [ 304 ] In 2022, Croatia's research and development (R&D) expenditure was approximately 1.43% of GDP. Among the scientific institutes operating in Croatia, the largest is the Ruđer Bošković Institute in Zagreb. [ 305 ] The Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts in Zagreb is a learned society promoting language, culture, arts and science from its inception in 1866. [ 306 ] Croatia was ranked 40th in the Global Innovation Index in 2025. [ 307 ] [ 308 ] The European Investment Bank provided digital infrastructure and equipment to around 150 primary and secondary schools in Croatia. Twenty of these schools got specialised assistance in the form of gear, software, and services to help them integrate the teaching and administrative operations. [ 309 ] [ 310 ] In 2024, the EIB extended a €207 million loan to the City of Zagreb for infrastructure upgrades, including investments in renewable energy, energy efficiency projects, social and affordable housing, schools, and kindergartens. [ 311 ] [ 312 ] Additionally, the EIB signed a €49 million loan with the City of Split to co-finance its 2023–2027 multi-sector investment programme, which includes refurbishing public buildings, increasing energy efficiency, and improving technical equipment for public information and communication. [ 311 ] [ 312 ] Healthcare Croatia has a universal health care system, whose roots can be traced back to the Hungarian-Croatian Parliament Act of 1891, providing a form of mandatory insurance of all factory workers and craftsmen. [ 313 ] The population is covered by a basic health insurance plan provided by statute and optional insurance. In 2017, annual healthcare related expenditures reached 22.2 billion kuna (around €3.0 billion). [ 314 ] Healthcare expenditures comprise only 0.6% of private health insurance and public spending. [ 315 ] In 2022, Croatia spent around 7.2% of its GDP on healthcare. [ 316 ] In 2025, Croatia ranked 53rd in the world in life expectancy with 75.8 years for men and 81.9 years for women, and it had a low infant mortality rate of 3.3 per 1,000 live births . [ 317 ] There are hundreds of healthcare institutions in Croatia, including 75 hospitals, and 13 clinics with 23,049 beds. The hospitals and clinics care for more than 700 thousand patients per year and employ 6,642 medical doctors , including 4,773 specialists. [ 318 ] There is a total of 69,841 health workers. [ 319 ] There are 119 emergency units in health centres, responding to more than a million calls. [ 320 ] The principal cause of death in 2022 was cardiovascular disease at 34.3% for men and 43.8% for women, followed by hypertensive disease. [ 321 ] In 2022 it was estimated that 37% of Croatians are smokers. [ 322 ] According to 2022 data, 35.65% of the Croatian adult population is obese. [ 323 ] Culture Because of its geographical position, Croatia represents a blend of four different cultural spheres. It has been a crossroads of influences from western culture and the east since the schism between the Western Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empire , and also from Central Europe and Mediterranean culture . [ 325 ] The Illyrian movement was the most significant period of national cultural history, as the 19th century proved crucial to the emancipation of Croatians and saw unprecedented developments in all fields of art and culture, giving rise to many historical figures . [ 60 ] The Ministry of Culture is tasked with preserving the nation's cultural and natural heritage and overseeing its development. Further activities supporting the development of culture are undertaken at the local government level. [ 326 ] The UNESCO 's World Heritage List includes ten sites in Croatia and a list of Intangible Cultural Heritage of Croatia. [ 327 ] The country is also rich with intangible culture and holds 15 of UNESCO's World's intangible culture masterpieces , ranking fourth in the world. [ 328 ] A global cultural contribution from Croatia is the necktie, derived from the cravat originally worn by the 17th-century Croatian mercenaries in France. [ 329 ] [ 330 ] In 2019, Croatia had 95 professional theatres, 30 professional children's theatres, and 51 amateur theatres visited by more than 2.27 million viewers per year. Professional theatres employ 1,195 artists. There are 42 professional orchestras, ensembles, and choirs, attracting an annual attendance of 297 thousand. There are 75 cinemas with 166 screens and attendance of 5.026 million. [ 331 ] Croatia has 222 museums, visited by more than 2.71 million people in 2016. Furthermore, there are 1,768 libraries, containing 26.8 million volumes, and 19 state archives. [ 332 ] The book publishing market is dominated by several major publishers and the industry's centrepiece event— Interliber exhibition held annually at Zagreb Fair . [ 333 ] Arts, literature, and music Architecture in Croatia reflects influences of bordering nations. Austrian and Hungarian influence is visible in public spaces and buildings in the north and the central regions, architecture found along coasts of Dalmatia and Istria exhibits Venetian influence. [ 334 ] Squares named after culture heroes, parks, and pedestrian-only zones, are features of Croatian towns and cities, especially where large scale Baroque urban planning took place, for instance in Osijek ( Tvrđa ), Varaždin, and Karlovac. [ 335 ] [ 336 ] The subsequent influence of the Art Nouveau was reflected in contemporary architecture. [ 337 ] The architecture is the Mediterranean with a Venetian and Renaissance influence in major coastal urban areas exemplified in works of Giorgio da Sebenico and Nicolas of Florence such as the Cathedral of St. James in Šibenik. The oldest preserved examples of Croatian architecture are the 9th-century churches, with the largest and the most representative among them being Church of St. Donatus in Zadar . [ 338 ] [ 339 ] Besides the architecture encompassing the oldest artworks, there is a history of artists in Croatia reaching the Middle Ages. In that period the stone portal of the Trogir Cathedral was made by Radovan , representing the most important monument of Romanesque sculpture from Medieval Croatia . The Renaissance had the greatest impact on the Adriatic Sea coast since the remainder was embroiled in the Hundred Years' Croatian–Ottoman War. With the waning of the Ottoman Empire, art flourished during the Baroque and Rococo . The 19th and 20th centuries brought affirmation of numerous Croatian artisans, helped by several patrons of the arts such as bishop Josip Juraj Strossmayer . [ 340 ] Croatian artists of the period achieving renown were Vlaho Bukovac , Ivan Meštrović , and Ivan Generalić . [ 338 ] [ 341 ] The Baška tablet, a stone inscribed with the glagolitic alphabet found on the Krk island and dated to c. 1100 , is considered to be the oldest surviving prose in Croatian. [ 342 ] The beginning of more vigorous development of Croatian literature is marked by the Renaissance and Marko Marulić . Besides Marulić, Renaissance playwright Marin Držić , Baroque poet Ivan Gundulić , Croatian national revival poet Ivan Mažuranić , novelist, playwright, and poet August Šenoa , children's writer Ivana Brlić-Mažuranić , writer and journalist Marija Jurić Zagorka , poet and writer Antun Gustav Matoš , poet Antun Branko Šimić , expressionist and realist writer Miroslav Krleža , poet Tin Ujević and novelist, and short story writer Ivo Andrić are often cited as the greatest figures in Croatian literature. [ 343 ] [ 344 ] Croatian music varies from classical operas to modern-day rock. Vatroslav Lisinski created the country's first opera, Love and Malice , in 1846. Ivan Zajc composed more than a thousand pieces of music, including masses and oratorios. Pianist Ivo Pogorelić has performed across the world. [ 341 ] Media In Croatia, the Constitution guarantees the freedom of the press and the freedom of speech. [ 345 ] Croatia ranked 64th in the 2019 Press Freedom Index report compiled by Reporters Without Borders which noted that journalists who investigate corruption, organised crime or war crimes face challenges and that the Government was trying to influence the public broadcaster HRT 's editorial policies. [ 346 ] In its 2019 Freedom in the World report, the Freedom House classified freedoms of press and speech in Croatia as generally free from political interference and manipulation, noting that journalists still face threats and occasional attacks. [ 347 ] The state-owned news agency HINA runs a wire service in Croatian and English on politics, economics, society, and culture. [ 348 ] As of January 2021 [update] , there are thirteen nationwide free-to-air DVB-T television channels, with Croatian Radiotelevision (HRT) operating four, RTL Televizija three, and Nova TV operating two channels, and the Croatian Olympic Committee , Kapital Net d.o.o., and Author d.o.o. companies operate the remaining three. [ 350 ] Also, there are 21 regional or local DVB-T television channels. [ 351 ] The HRT is also broadcasting a satellite TV channel. [ 352 ] In 2020, there were 147 radio stations and 27 TV stations in Croatia. [ 353 ] [ 354 ] Cable television and IPTV networks are gaining ground. Cable television already serves 450 thousand people, around 10% of the total population of the country. [ 355 ] [ 356 ] In 2010, 267 newspapers and 2,676 magazines were published in Croatia. [ 353 ] The print media market is dominated by the Croatian-owned Hanza Media and Austrian-owned Styria Media Group who publish their flagship dailies Jutarnji list , Večernji list and 24sata . Other influential newspapers are Novi list and Slobodna Dalmacija . [ 357 ] [ 358 ] In 2020, 24sata was the most widely circulated daily newspaper, followed by Večernji list and Jutarnji list . [ 359 ] [ 360 ] Croatia competed in the Eurovision Song Contest as part of Yugoslavia since 1961. The first and only victory Yugoslavia achieved in the competition was accomplished by the Croatian pop band Riva in 1989. Since its debut at the 1993 contest , Croatia won two fourth places at the 1996 and 1999 contests, and one second place at the 2024 contest , marking the country's best result to date as an independent nation. [ 361 ] Film industry Croatia's film industry is small and heavily subsidised by the government, mainly through grants approved by the Ministry of Culture with films often being co-produced by HRT. [ 362 ] [ 363 ] Croatian cinema produces between five and ten feature films per year. [ 364 ] Pula Film Festival , the national film awards event held annually in Pula , is the most prestigious film event featuring national and international productions. [ 365 ] Animafest Zagreb , founded in 1972, is the prestigious annual film festival dedicated to the animated film. The first greatest accomplishment by Croatian filmmakers was achieved by Dušan Vukotić when he won the 1961 Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film for Ersatz ( Croatian : Surogat ). [ 366 ] Croatian film producer Branko Lustig won the Academy Awards for Best Picture for Schindler's List and Gladiator . [ 367 ] In addition to that, Croatian filmmaker Nebojša Slijepčević got nominated for 97th Academy Awards in category for Best Live Action Short Film for his 2024 movie The Man Who Could Not Remain Silent ( Croatian : Čovjek koji nije mogao šutjeti ), making it first Croatian nomination in that category, and first since its independence . [ 368 ] Before and since its independence , Croatia has become a popular filming destination amongs international filming productions, and a lot of blockbuster films and TV series have been filmed in Croatia including: Game of Thrones , Star Wars: The Last Jedi , Robin Hood in Dubrovnik, Speak No Evil , Season of the Witch and Titius in Istria, Infinity Pool in Šibenik, Canary Black , Hitman's Wife's Bodyguard , Sophie's Choice , Armour of God and Fiddler on the roof in Zagreb, Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again on island of Vis, Succession on the island of Korčula, Hercules , The Weekend Away , Bliss in Split, The Peacemaker and many others. [ 369 ] [ 370 ] Croatia became international filming location due to its biodiversity, landscape that can accommodate every visual requirements and cheaper filming costs. [ 371 ] [ 372 ] In last 11 years there has been 122 projects for international films in Croatia, and €263 million spent as part of the Filming in Croatia which increased in last years due to high demand for its location. [ 373 ] Cuisine Croatian traditional cuisine varies from one region to another. Dalmatia and Istria have culinary influences of Italian and other Mediterranean cuisines which prominently feature various seafood, cooked vegetables and pasta, and condiments such as olive oil and garlic. Austrian , Hungarian , Turkish , and Balkan culinary styles influenced continental cuisine. In that area, meats, freshwater fish, and vegetable dishes are predominant. [ 374 ] There are two distinct wine-producing regions in Croatia. The continental in the northeast of the country, especially Slavonia, produces premium wines, particularly whites. Along the north coast, Istrian and Krk wines are similar to those in neighbouring Italy, while further south in Dalmatia, Mediterranean-style red wines are the norm. [ 374 ] Annual production of wine exceeds 72 million litres as of 2017 [update] . [ 375 ] Croatia was almost exclusively a wine-consuming country up until the late 18th century when a more massive beer production and consumption started. [ 376 ] There are 11 restaurants in Croatia with a Michelin star and 89 restaurants bearing some of the Michelin's marks. [ 377 ] Sports Croatia has a long tradition of sports dating back to Roman times, followed by popular medieval knights' tournaments . [ 378 ] Modern organized sports began in the late 19th century with the founding of sports associations like Hrvatski Sokol in 1874. [ 378 ] By the early 20th century, many sports organizations emerged, including the Croatian Sports Association established in 1909. [ 379 ] Croatian sports' development has been closely related to the Olympic movement, with Franjo Bučar playing a key role in promoting sports for Croatian independence . [ 379 ] Sport is part of the school curriculum, and many children engage in extracurricular activities. [ 380 ] To support sports development, Croatia enacted the National Sport Programme in 2019. [ 381 ] Funding for sports comes from the state budget, sponsorship, and membership fees. [ 382 ] The Croatian Olympic Committee , established in 1991, oversees over 80 national sports associations. [ 383 ] The most popular sports in Croatia are football, basketball, handball, and water polo. [ 378 ] With about 12,500 sports associations, football is the most popular sport , hosting nearly 1,500 clubs and 110,000 players, achieving significant milestones, including bronze at the 1998 World Cup , silver at the 2018 World Cup and another bronze at 2022 World Cup . [ 378 ] Croatians have participated in the Olympics since 1992 and have won 59 Olympic medals, including 20 gold . [ 384 ] The national tennis team has won two Davis Cup titles and won a gold medal at the 2020 Summer Olympics in men's doubles. [ 385 ] The national handball and water polo teams are also been successful, each achieving multiple championships and medals. [ 386 ] Rowing has seen success as well, winning multiple Olympic and World Championship medals. [ 387 ] In gymnastics, athletes have also made their mark, winning medals in European and World Championships. [ 388 ] Croatia hosted several major sports competitions, including the 2009 World Men's Handball Championship , the 2007 World Table Tennis Championships , the 2000 World Rowing Championships , the 1987 Summer Universiade , the 1979 Mediterranean Games , and several European Championships , including the 2000 , 2018 and 2025 World Men's Handball Championship , 2024 Men's European Water Polo Championship . See also Croatia portal European Union portal Outline of Croatia Explanatory notes ^ In the recognised minority languages of Croatia and the most spoken second languages: Czech : Chorvatská republika German : Republik Kroatien French : République de Croatie Hungarian : Horvát Köztársaság Italian : Repubblica di Croazia Rusyn : Републіка Хорватія Serbian : Република Хрватска Slovak : Chorvátska republika Slovene : Republika Hrvaška Ukrainian : Респу́бліка Хорва́тія Czech : Chorvatská republika German : Republik Kroatien French : République de Croatie Hungarian : Horvát Köztársaság Italian : Repubblica di Croazia Rusyn : Републіка Хорватія Serbian : Република Хрватска Slovak : Chorvátska republika Slovene : Republika Hrvaška Ukrainian : Респу́бліка Хорва́тія ^ Apart from Croatian, counties have official regional languages that are used for official government business and commercially. The most notable minority languages in Croatia are Italian , Serbian and Hungarian . Other recognized minority languages include: Slovenian , German , Czech , Slovak , Ukrainian , Russian and Romani . ^ The writing system of Croatia is legally protected by the Croatian Parliament . ^ / k r oʊ ˈ eɪ ʃ ə / ⓘ , kroh- AY -shə ; Croatian : Hrvatska , .mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%} pronounced [xř̩ʋaːtskaː] ^ Croatian: Republika Hrvatska listen ⓘ , IPA transcription of " Republika Hrvatska ", pronounced [repǔblika xř̩ʋaːtskaː] . Citations ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Share of Croats in Croatia increases as census results published" . 22 September 2022. ^ "Hrvatska" [Croatia]. 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We gratefully acknowledge support from the Simons Foundation, member institutions , and all contributors. Donate Help | Advanced Search Showing 1–50 of 506 results for author: Yuan, H Show abstracts Hide abstracts 1 2 3 4 5 … arXiv:2601.10413 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.CR LADFA: A Framework of Using Large Language Models and Retrieval-Augmented Generation for Personal Data Flow Analysis in Privacy Policies Authors: Haiyue Yuan , Nikolay Matyunin , Ali Raza , Shujun Li Abstract : Privacy policies help inform people about organisations' personal data processing practices, covering different aspects such as data collection, data storage, and sharing of personal data with third parties. Privacy policies are often difficult for people to fully comprehend due to the lengthy and complex legal language used and inconsistent practices across different sectors and organisations. To… ▽ More Privacy policies help inform people about organisations' personal data processing practices, covering different aspects such as data collection, data storage, and sharing of personal data with third parties. Privacy policies are often difficult for people to fully comprehend due to the lengthy and complex legal language used and inconsistent practices across different sectors and organisations. To help conduct automated and large-scale analyses of privacy policies, many researchers have studied applications of machine learning and natural language processing techniques, including large language models (LLMs). While a limited number of prior studies utilised LLMs for extracting personal data flows from privacy policies, our approach builds on this line of work by combining LLMs with retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) and a customised knowledge base derived from existing studies. This paper presents the development of LADFA, an end-to-end computational framework, which can process unstructured text in a given privacy policy, extract personal data flows and construct a personal data flow graph, and conduct analysis of the data flow graph to facilitate insight discovery. The framework consists of a pre-processor, an LLM-based processor, and a data flow post-processor. We demonstrated and validated the effectiveness and accuracy of the proposed approach by conducting a case study that involved examining ten selected privacy policies from the automotive industry. Moreover, it is worth noting that LADFA is designed to be flexible and customisable, making it suitable for a range of text-based analysis tasks beyond privacy policy analysis. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10413 [ pdf , ps , other ] LADFA: A Framework of Using Large Language Models and Retrieval-Augmented Generation for Personal Data Flow Analysis in Privacy Policies Authors: Haiyue Yuan , Nikolay Matyunin , Ali Raza , Shujun Li Abstract : Privacy policies help inform people about organisations' personal data processing practices, covering different aspects such as data collection, data storage, and sharing of personal data with third parties. Privacy policies are often difficult for people to fully comprehend due to the lengthy and complex legal language used and inconsistent practices across different sectors and organisations. To… ▽ More Privacy policies help inform people about organisations' personal data processing practices, covering different aspects such as data collection, data storage, and sharing of personal data with third parties. Privacy policies are often difficult for people to fully comprehend due to the lengthy and complex legal language used and inconsistent practices across different sectors and organisations. To help conduct automated and large-scale analyses of privacy policies, many researchers have studied applications of machine learning and natural language processing techniques, including large language models (LLMs). While a limited number of prior studies utilised LLMs for extracting personal data flows from privacy policies, our approach builds on this line of work by combining LLMs with retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) and a customised knowledge base derived from existing studies. This paper presents the development of LADFA, an end-to-end computational framework, which can process unstructured text in a given privacy policy, extract personal data flows and construct a personal data flow graph, and conduct analysis of the data flow graph to facilitate insight discovery. The framework consists of a pre-processor, an LLM-based processor, and a data flow post-processor. We demonstrated and validated the effectiveness and accuracy of the proposed approach by conducting a case study that involved examining ten selected privacy policies from the automotive industry. Moreover, it is worth noting that LADFA is designed to be flexible and customisable, making it suitable for a range of text-based analysis tasks beyond privacy policy analysis. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10328 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG Meta Dynamic Graph for Traffic Flow Prediction Authors: Yiqing Zou , Hanning Yuan , Qianyu Yang , Ziqiang Yuan , Shuliang Wang , Sijie Ruan Abstract : Traffic flow prediction is a typical spatio-temporal prediction problem and has a wide range of applications. The core challenge lies in modeling the underlying complex spatio-temporal dependencies. Various methods have been proposed, and recent studies show that the modeling of dynamics is useful to meet the core challenge. While handling spatial dependencies and temporal dependencies using separ… ▽ More Traffic flow prediction is a typical spatio-temporal prediction problem and has a wide range of applications. The core challenge lies in modeling the underlying complex spatio-temporal dependencies. Various methods have been proposed, and recent studies show that the modeling of dynamics is useful to meet the core challenge. While handling spatial dependencies and temporal dependencies using separate base model structures may hinder the modeling of spatio-temporal correlations, the modeling of dynamics can bridge this gap. Incorporating spatio-temporal heterogeneity also advances the main goal, since it can extend the parameter space and allow more flexibility. Despite these advances, two limitations persist: 1) the modeling of dynamics is often limited to the dynamics of spatial topology (e.g., adjacency matrix changes), which, however, can be extended to a broader scope; 2) the modeling of heterogeneity is often separated for spatial and temporal dimensions, but this gap can also be bridged by the modeling of dynamics. To address the above limitations, we propose a novel framework for traffic prediction, called Meta Dynamic Graph (MetaDG). MetaDG leverages dynamic graph structures of node representations to explicitly model spatio-temporal dynamics. This generates both dynamic adjacency matrices and meta-parameters, extending dynamic modeling beyond topology while unifying the capture of spatio-temporal heterogeneity into a single dimension. Extensive experiments on four real-world datasets validate the effectiveness of MetaDG. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Accepted to AAAI 2026 arXiv:2601.10328 [ pdf , ps , other ] Meta Dynamic Graph for Traffic Flow Prediction Authors: Yiqing Zou , Hanning Yuan , Qianyu Yang , Ziqiang Yuan , Shuliang Wang , Sijie Ruan Abstract : Traffic flow prediction is a typical spatio-temporal prediction problem and has a wide range of applications. The core challenge lies in modeling the underlying complex spatio-temporal dependencies. Various methods have been proposed, and recent studies show that the modeling of dynamics is useful to meet the core challenge. While handling spatial dependencies and temporal dependencies using separ… ▽ More Traffic flow prediction is a typical spatio-temporal prediction problem and has a wide range of applications. The core challenge lies in modeling the underlying complex spatio-temporal dependencies. Various methods have been proposed, and recent studies show that the modeling of dynamics is useful to meet the core challenge. While handling spatial dependencies and temporal dependencies using separate base model structures may hinder the modeling of spatio-temporal correlations, the modeling of dynamics can bridge this gap. Incorporating spatio-temporal heterogeneity also advances the main goal, since it can extend the parameter space and allow more flexibility. Despite these advances, two limitations persist: 1) the modeling of dynamics is often limited to the dynamics of spatial topology (e.g., adjacency matrix changes), which, however, can be extended to a broader scope; 2) the modeling of heterogeneity is often separated for spatial and temporal dimensions, but this gap can also be bridged by the modeling of dynamics. To address the above limitations, we propose a novel framework for traffic prediction, called Meta Dynamic Graph (MetaDG). MetaDG leverages dynamic graph structures of node representations to explicitly model spatio-temporal dynamics. This generates both dynamic adjacency matrices and meta-parameters, extending dynamic modeling beyond topology while unifying the capture of spatio-temporal heterogeneity into a single dimension. Extensive experiments on four real-world datasets validate the effectiveness of MetaDG. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Accepted to AAAI 2026 arXiv:2601.09503 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI What Do LLM Agents Know About Their World? Task2Quiz: A Paradigm for Studying Environment Understanding Authors: Siyuan Liu , Hongbang Yuan , Xinze Li , Ziyue Zhu , Yixin Cao , Yu-Gang Jiang Abstract : Large language model (LLM) agents have demonstrated remarkable capabilities in complex decision-making and tool-use tasks, yet their ability to generalize across varying environments remains a under-examined concern. Current evaluation paradigms predominantly rely on trajectory-based metrics that measure task success, while failing to assess whether agents possess a grounded, transferable model of… ▽ More Large language model (LLM) agents have demonstrated remarkable capabilities in complex decision-making and tool-use tasks, yet their ability to generalize across varying environments remains a under-examined concern. Current evaluation paradigms predominantly rely on trajectory-based metrics that measure task success, while failing to assess whether agents possess a grounded, transferable model of the environment. To address this gap, we propose Task-to-Quiz (T2Q), a deterministic and automated evaluation paradigm designed to decouple task execution from world-state understanding. We instantiate this paradigm in T2QBench, a suite comprising 30 environments and 1,967 grounded QA pairs across multiple difficulty levels. Our extensive experiments reveal that task success is often a poor proxy for environment understanding, and that current memory machanism can not effectively help agents acquire a grounded model of the environment. These findings identify proactive exploration and fine-grained state representation as primary bottlenecks, offering a robust foundation for developing more generalizable autonomous agents. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09503 [ pdf , ps , other ] What Do LLM Agents Know About Their World? Task2Quiz: A Paradigm for Studying Environment Understanding Authors: Siyuan Liu , Hongbang Yuan , Xinze Li , Ziyue Zhu , Yixin Cao , Yu-Gang Jiang Abstract : Large language model (LLM) agents have demonstrated remarkable capabilities in complex decision-making and tool-use tasks, yet their ability to generalize across varying environments remains a under-examined concern. Current evaluation paradigms predominantly rely on trajectory-based metrics that measure task success, while failing to assess whether agents possess a grounded, transferable model of… ▽ More Large language model (LLM) agents have demonstrated remarkable capabilities in complex decision-making and tool-use tasks, yet their ability to generalize across varying environments remains a under-examined concern. Current evaluation paradigms predominantly rely on trajectory-based metrics that measure task success, while failing to assess whether agents possess a grounded, transferable model of the environment. To address this gap, we propose Task-to-Quiz (T2Q), a deterministic and automated evaluation paradigm designed to decouple task execution from world-state understanding. We instantiate this paradigm in T2QBench, a suite comprising 30 environments and 1,967 grounded QA pairs across multiple difficulty levels. Our extensive experiments reveal that task success is often a poor proxy for environment understanding, and that current memory machanism can not effectively help agents acquire a grounded model of the environment. These findings identify proactive exploration and fine-grained state representation as primary bottlenecks, offering a robust foundation for developing more generalizable autonomous agents. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.06501 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.IT Coding for Fading Channels with Imperfect CSI at the Transmitter and Quantized Feedback Authors: Yuhan Yang , Haoheng Yuan , Chao Qi , Fan Cheng , Bin Dai Abstract : The classical Schalkwijk-Kailath (SK) scheme for the additive Gaussian noise channel with noiseless feedback is highly efficient since its coding complexity is extremely low and the decoding error doubly exponentially decays as the coding blocklength tends to infinity. However, how to extend the SK scheme to channel models with memory has yet to be solved. In this paper, we first investigate how t… ▽ More The classical Schalkwijk-Kailath (SK) scheme for the additive Gaussian noise channel with noiseless feedback is highly efficient since its coding complexity is extremely low and the decoding error doubly exponentially decays as the coding blocklength tends to infinity. However, how to extend the SK scheme to channel models with memory has yet to be solved. In this paper, we first investigate how to design SK-type scheme for the 2-path quasi-static fading channel with noiseless feedback. By viewing the signal of the second path as a relay and adopting an amplify-and-forward (AF) relay strategy, we show that the interference path signal can help to enhance the transmission rate. Besides this, for arbitrary multi-path fading channel with feedback, we also present an SK-type scheme for such a model, which transforms the time domain channel into a frequency domain MIMO channel. △ Less Submitted 10 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 16 pages, 9 figures arXiv:2601.06501 [ pdf , ps , other ] Coding for Fading Channels with Imperfect CSI at the Transmitter and Quantized Feedback Authors: Yuhan Yang , Haoheng Yuan , Chao Qi , Fan Cheng , Bin Dai Abstract : The classical Schalkwijk-Kailath (SK) scheme for the additive Gaussian noise channel with noiseless feedback is highly efficient since its coding complexity is extremely low and the decoding error doubly exponentially decays as the coding blocklength tends to infinity. However, how to extend the SK scheme to channel models with memory has yet to be solved. In this paper, we first investigate how t… ▽ More The classical Schalkwijk-Kailath (SK) scheme for the additive Gaussian noise channel with noiseless feedback is highly efficient since its coding complexity is extremely low and the decoding error doubly exponentially decays as the coding blocklength tends to infinity. However, how to extend the SK scheme to channel models with memory has yet to be solved. In this paper, we first investigate how to design SK-type scheme for the 2-path quasi-static fading channel with noiseless feedback. By viewing the signal of the second path as a relay and adopting an amplify-and-forward (AF) relay strategy, we show that the interference path signal can help to enhance the transmission rate. Besides this, for arbitrary multi-path fading channel with feedback, we also present an SK-type scheme for such a model, which transforms the time domain channel into a frequency domain MIMO channel. △ Less Submitted 10 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 16 pages, 9 figures arXiv:2601.02386 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.IR cs.AI Tree of Preferences for Diversified Recommendation Authors: Hanyang Yuan , Ning Tang , Tongya Zheng , Jiarong Xu , Xintong Hu , Renhong Huang , Shunyu Liu , Jiacong Hu , Jiawei Chen , Mingli Song Abstract : Diversified recommendation has attracted increasing attention from both researchers and practitioners, which can effectively address the homogeneity of recommended items. Existing approaches predominantly aim to infer the diversity of user preferences from observed user feedback. Nonetheless, due to inherent data biases, the observed data may not fully reflect user interests, where underexplored p… ▽ More Diversified recommendation has attracted increasing attention from both researchers and practitioners, which can effectively address the homogeneity of recommended items. Existing approaches predominantly aim to infer the diversity of user preferences from observed user feedback. Nonetheless, due to inherent data biases, the observed data may not fully reflect user interests, where underexplored preferences can be overwhelmed or remain unmanifested. Failing to capture these preferences can lead to suboptimal diversity in recommendations. To fill this gap, this work aims to study diversified recommendation from a data-bias perspective. Inspired by the outstanding performance of large language models (LLMs) in zero-shot inference leveraging world knowledge, we propose a novel approach that utilizes LLMs' expertise to uncover underexplored user preferences from observed behavior, ultimately providing diverse and relevant recommendations. To achieve this, we first introduce Tree of Preferences (ToP), an innovative structure constructed to model user preferences from coarse to fine. ToP enables LLMs to systematically reason over the user's rationale behind their behavior, thereby uncovering their underexplored preferences. To guide diversified recommendations using uncovered preferences, we adopt a data-centric approach, identifying candidate items that match user preferences and generating synthetic interactions that reflect underexplored preferences. These interactions are integrated to train a general recommender for diversification. Moreover, we scale up overall efficiency by dynamically selecting influential users during optimization. Extensive evaluations of both diversity and relevance show that our approach outperforms existing methods in most cases and achieves near-optimal performance in others, with reasonable inference latency. △ Less Submitted 23 December, 2025; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.02386 [ pdf , ps , other ] Tree of Preferences for Diversified Recommendation Authors: Hanyang Yuan , Ning Tang , Tongya Zheng , Jiarong Xu , Xintong Hu , Renhong Huang , Shunyu Liu , Jiacong Hu , Jiawei Chen , Mingli Song Abstract : Diversified recommendation has attracted increasing attention from both researchers and practitioners, which can effectively address the homogeneity of recommended items. Existing approaches predominantly aim to infer the diversity of user preferences from observed user feedback. Nonetheless, due to inherent data biases, the observed data may not fully reflect user interests, where underexplored p… ▽ More Diversified recommendation has attracted increasing attention from both researchers and practitioners, which can effectively address the homogeneity of recommended items. Existing approaches predominantly aim to infer the diversity of user preferences from observed user feedback. Nonetheless, due to inherent data biases, the observed data may not fully reflect user interests, where underexplored preferences can be overwhelmed or remain unmanifested. Failing to capture these preferences can lead to suboptimal diversity in recommendations. To fill this gap, this work aims to study diversified recommendation from a data-bias perspective. Inspired by the outstanding performance of large language models (LLMs) in zero-shot inference leveraging world knowledge, we propose a novel approach that utilizes LLMs' expertise to uncover underexplored user preferences from observed behavior, ultimately providing diverse and relevant recommendations. To achieve this, we first introduce Tree of Preferences (ToP), an innovative structure constructed to model user preferences from coarse to fine. ToP enables LLMs to systematically reason over the user's rationale behind their behavior, thereby uncovering their underexplored preferences. To guide diversified recommendations using uncovered preferences, we adopt a data-centric approach, identifying candidate items that match user preferences and generating synthetic interactions that reflect underexplored preferences. These interactions are integrated to train a general recommender for diversification. Moreover, we scale up overall efficiency by dynamically selecting influential users during optimization. Extensive evaluations of both diversity and relevance show that our approach outperforms existing methods in most cases and achieves near-optimal performance in others, with reasonable inference latency. △ Less Submitted 23 December, 2025; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.01874 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI CogFlow: Bridging Perception and Reasoning through Knowledge Internalization for Visual Mathematical Problem Solving Authors: Shuhang Chen , Yunqiu Xu , Junjie Xie , Aojun Lu , Tao Feng , Zeying Huang , Ning Zhang , Yi Sun , Yi Yang , Hangjie Yuan Abstract : Despite significant progress, multimodal large language models continue to struggle with visual mathematical problem solving. Some recent works recognize that visual perception is a bottleneck in visual mathematical reasoning, but their solutions are limited to improving the extraction and interpretation of visual inputs. Notably, they all ignore the key issue of whether the extracted visual cues… ▽ More Despite significant progress, multimodal large language models continue to struggle with visual mathematical problem solving. Some recent works recognize that visual perception is a bottleneck in visual mathematical reasoning, but their solutions are limited to improving the extraction and interpretation of visual inputs. Notably, they all ignore the key issue of whether the extracted visual cues are faithfully integrated and properly utilized in subsequent reasoning. Motivated by this, we present CogFlow, a novel cognitive-inspired three-stage framework that incorporates a knowledge internalization stage, explicitly simulating the hierarchical flow of human reasoning: perception$\Rightarrow$internalization$\Rightarrow$reasoning. Inline with this hierarchical flow, we holistically enhance all its stages. We devise Synergistic Visual Rewards to boost perception capabilities in parametric and semantic spaces, jointly improving visual information extraction from symbols and diagrams. To guarantee faithful integration of extracted visual cues into subsequent reasoning, we introduce a Knowledge Internalization Reward model in the internalization stage, bridging perception and reasoning. Moreover, we design a Visual-Gated Policy Optimization algorithm to further enforce the reasoning is grounded with the visual knowledge, preventing models seeking shortcuts that appear coherent but are visually ungrounded reasoning chains. Moreover, we contribute a new dataset MathCog for model training, which contains samples with over 120K high-quality perception-reasoning aligned annotations. Comprehensive experiments and analysis on commonly used visual mathematical reasoning benchmarks validate the superiority of the proposed CogFlow. △ Less Submitted 5 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.01874 [ pdf , ps , other ] CogFlow: Bridging Perception and Reasoning through Knowledge Internalization for Visual Mathematical Problem Solving Authors: Shuhang Chen , Yunqiu Xu , Junjie Xie , Aojun Lu , Tao Feng , Zeying Huang , Ning Zhang , Yi Sun , Yi Yang , Hangjie Yuan Abstract : Despite significant progress, multimodal large language models continue to struggle with visual mathematical problem solving. Some recent works recognize that visual perception is a bottleneck in visual mathematical reasoning, but their solutions are limited to improving the extraction and interpretation of visual inputs. Notably, they all ignore the key issue of whether the extracted visual cues… ▽ More Despite significant progress, multimodal large language models continue to struggle with visual mathematical problem solving. Some recent works recognize that visual perception is a bottleneck in visual mathematical reasoning, but their solutions are limited to improving the extraction and interpretation of visual inputs. Notably, they all ignore the key issue of whether the extracted visual cues are faithfully integrated and properly utilized in subsequent reasoning. Motivated by this, we present CogFlow, a novel cognitive-inspired three-stage framework that incorporates a knowledge internalization stage, explicitly simulating the hierarchical flow of human reasoning: perception$\Rightarrow$internalization$\Rightarrow$reasoning. Inline with this hierarchical flow, we holistically enhance all its stages. We devise Synergistic Visual Rewards to boost perception capabilities in parametric and semantic spaces, jointly improving visual information extraction from symbols and diagrams. To guarantee faithful integration of extracted visual cues into subsequent reasoning, we introduce a Knowledge Internalization Reward model in the internalization stage, bridging perception and reasoning. Moreover, we design a Visual-Gated Policy Optimization algorithm to further enforce the reasoning is grounded with the visual knowledge, preventing models seeking shortcuts that appear coherent but are visually ungrounded reasoning chains. Moreover, we contribute a new dataset MathCog for model training, which contains samples with over 120K high-quality perception-reasoning aligned annotations. Comprehensive experiments and analysis on commonly used visual mathematical reasoning benchmarks validate the superiority of the proposed CogFlow. △ Less Submitted 5 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.01378 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI Empowering Small Language Models with Factual Hallucination-Aware Reasoning for Financial Classification Authors: Han Yuan , Yilin Wu , Li Zhang , Zheng Ma Abstract : Small language models (SLMs) are increasingly used for financial classification due to their fast inference and local deployability. However, compared with large language models, SLMs are more prone to factual hallucinations in reasoning and exhibit weaker classification performance. This raises a natural question: Can mitigating factual hallucinations improve SLMs' financial classification? To ad… ▽ More Small language models (SLMs) are increasingly used for financial classification due to their fast inference and local deployability. However, compared with large language models, SLMs are more prone to factual hallucinations in reasoning and exhibit weaker classification performance. This raises a natural question: Can mitigating factual hallucinations improve SLMs' financial classification? To address this, we propose a three-step pipeline named AAAI (Association Identification, Automated Detection, and Adaptive Inference). Experiments on three representative SLMs reveal that: (1) factual hallucinations are positively correlated with misclassifications; (2) encoder-based verifiers effectively detect factual hallucinations; and (3) incorporating feedback on factual errors enables SLMs' adaptive inference that enhances classification performance. We hope this pipeline contributes to trustworthy and effective applications of SLMs in finance. △ Less Submitted 4 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.01378 [ pdf , ps , other ] Empowering Small Language Models with Factual Hallucination-Aware Reasoning for Financial Classification Authors: Han Yuan , Yilin Wu , Li Zhang , Zheng Ma Abstract : Small language models (SLMs) are increasingly used for financial classification due to their fast inference and local deployability. However, compared with large language models, SLMs are more prone to factual hallucinations in reasoning and exhibit weaker classification performance. This raises a natural question: Can mitigating factual hallucinations improve SLMs' financial classification? To ad… ▽ More Small language models (SLMs) are increasingly used for financial classification due to their fast inference and local deployability. However, compared with large language models, SLMs are more prone to factual hallucinations in reasoning and exhibit weaker classification performance. This raises a natural question: Can mitigating factual hallucinations improve SLMs' financial classification? To address this, we propose a three-step pipeline named AAAI (Association Identification, Automated Detection, and Adaptive Inference). Experiments on three representative SLMs reveal that: (1) factual hallucinations are positively correlated with misclassifications; (2) encoder-based verifiers effectively detect factual hallucinations; and (3) incorporating feedback on factual errors enables SLMs' adaptive inference that enhances classification performance. We hope this pipeline contributes to trustworthy and effective applications of SLMs in finance. △ Less Submitted 4 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2512.22386 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.IR OxygenREC: An Instruction-Following Generative Framework for E-commerce Recommendation Authors: Xuegang Hao , Ming Zhang , Alex Li , Xiangyu Qian , Zhi Ma , Yanlong Zang , Shijie Yang , Zhongxuan Han , Xiaolong Ma , Jinguang Liu , Zhen Li , Zhida Jiang , Shusheng Wang , Ning Tang , Yanchen Qiao , Chenxiang Yang , Chen Sun , Jincheng Yuan , Chunhua Peng , Heng Hu , Peijun Yang , Baopeng Yuan , Caiyun Qiu , Zhaolong Xing , Haofei Yuan , et al. (8 additional authors not shown) Abstract : Traditional recommendation systems suffer from inconsistency in multi-stage optimization objectives. Generative Recommendation (GR) mitigates them through an end-to-end framework; however, existing methods still rely on matching mechanisms based on inductive patterns. Although responsive, they lack the ability to uncover complex user intents that require deductive reasoning based on world knowledg… ▽ More Traditional recommendation systems suffer from inconsistency in multi-stage optimization objectives. Generative Recommendation (GR) mitigates them through an end-to-end framework; however, existing methods still rely on matching mechanisms based on inductive patterns. Although responsive, they lack the ability to uncover complex user intents that require deductive reasoning based on world knowledge. Meanwhile, LLMs show strong deep reasoning capabilities, but their latency and computational costs remain challenging for industrial applications. More critically, there are performance bottlenecks in multi-scenario scalability: as shown in Figure 1, existing solutions require independent training and deployment for each scenario, leading to low resource utilization and high maintenance costs-a challenge unaddressed in GR literature. To address these, we present OxygenREC, an industrial recommendation system that leverages Fast-Slow Thinking to deliver deep reasoning with strict latency and multi-scenario requirements of real-world environments. First, we adopt a Fast-Slow Thinking architecture. Slow thinking uses a near-line LLM pipeline to synthesize Contextual Reasoning Instructions, while fast thinking employs a high-efficiency encoder-decoder backbone for real-time generation. Second, to ensure reasoning instructions effectively enhance recommendation generation, we introduce a semantic alignment mechanism with Instruction-Guided Retrieval (IGR) to filter intent-relevant historical behaviors and use a Query-to-Item (Q2I) loss for instruction-item consistency. Finally, to resolve multi-scenario scalability, we transform scenario information into controllable instructions, using unified reward mapping and Soft Adaptive Group Clip Policy Optimization (SA-GCPO) to align policies with diverse business objectives, realizing a train-once-deploy-everywhere paradigm. △ Less Submitted 31 December, 2025; v1 submitted 26 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 37 pages, 7 figures arXiv:2512.22386 [ pdf , ps , other ] OxygenREC: An Instruction-Following Generative Framework for E-commerce Recommendation Authors: Xuegang Hao , Ming Zhang , Alex Li , Xiangyu Qian , Zhi Ma , Yanlong Zang , Shijie Yang , Zhongxuan Han , Xiaolong Ma , Jinguang Liu , Zhen Li , Zhida Jiang , Shusheng Wang , Ning Tang , Yanchen Qiao , Chenxiang Yang , Chen Sun , Jincheng Yuan , Chunhua Peng , Heng Hu , Peijun Yang , Baopeng Yuan , Caiyun Qiu , Zhaolong Xing , Haofei Yuan , et al. (8 additional authors not shown) Abstract : Traditional recommendation systems suffer from inconsistency in multi-stage optimization objectives. Generative Recommendation (GR) mitigates them through an end-to-end framework; however, existing methods still rely on matching mechanisms based on inductive patterns. Although responsive, they lack the ability to uncover complex user intents that require deductive reasoning based on world knowledg… ▽ More Traditional recommendation systems suffer from inconsistency in multi-stage optimization objectives. Generative Recommendation (GR) mitigates them through an end-to-end framework; however, existing methods still rely on matching mechanisms based on inductive patterns. Although responsive, they lack the ability to uncover complex user intents that require deductive reasoning based on world knowledge. Meanwhile, LLMs show strong deep reasoning capabilities, but their latency and computational costs remain challenging for industrial applications. More critically, there are performance bottlenecks in multi-scenario scalability: as shown in Figure 1, existing solutions require independent training and deployment for each scenario, leading to low resource utilization and high maintenance costs-a challenge unaddressed in GR literature. To address these, we present OxygenREC, an industrial recommendation system that leverages Fast-Slow Thinking to deliver deep reasoning with strict latency and multi-scenario requirements of real-world environments. First, we adopt a Fast-Slow Thinking architecture. Slow thinking uses a near-line LLM pipeline to synthesize Contextual Reasoning Instructions, while fast thinking employs a high-efficiency encoder-decoder backbone for real-time generation. Second, to ensure reasoning instructions effectively enhance recommendation generation, we introduce a semantic alignment mechanism with Instruction-Guided Retrieval (IGR) to filter intent-relevant historical behaviors and use a Query-to-Item (Q2I) loss for instruction-item consistency. Finally, to resolve multi-scenario scalability, we transform scenario information into controllable instructions, using unified reward mapping and Soft Adaptive Group Clip Policy Optimization (SA-GCPO) to align policies with diverse business objectives, realizing a train-once-deploy-everywhere paradigm. △ Less Submitted 31 December, 2025; v1 submitted 26 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 37 pages, 7 figures arXiv:2512.22295 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Learning Dynamic Scene Reconstruction with Sinusoidal Geometric Priors Authors: Tian Guo , Hui Yuan , Philip Xu , David Elizondo Abstract : We propose SirenPose, a novel loss function that combines the periodic activation properties of sinusoidal representation networks with geometric priors derived from keypoint structures to improve the accuracy of dynamic 3D scene reconstruction. Existing approaches often struggle to maintain motion modeling accuracy and spatiotemporal consistency in fast moving and multi target scenes. By introduc… ▽ More We propose SirenPose, a novel loss function that combines the periodic activation properties of sinusoidal representation networks with geometric priors derived from keypoint structures to improve the accuracy of dynamic 3D scene reconstruction. Existing approaches often struggle to maintain motion modeling accuracy and spatiotemporal consistency in fast moving and multi target scenes. By introducing physics inspired constraint mechanisms, SirenPose enforces coherent keypoint predictions across both spatial and temporal dimensions. We further expand the training dataset to 600,000 annotated instances to support robust learning. Experimental results demonstrate that models trained with SirenPose achieve significant improvements in spatiotemporal consistency metrics compared to prior methods, showing superior performance in handling rapid motion and complex scene changes. △ Less Submitted 25 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.22295 [ pdf , ps , other ] Learning Dynamic Scene Reconstruction with Sinusoidal Geometric Priors Authors: Tian Guo , Hui Yuan , Philip Xu , David Elizondo Abstract : We propose SirenPose, a novel loss function that combines the periodic activation properties of sinusoidal representation networks with geometric priors derived from keypoint structures to improve the accuracy of dynamic 3D scene reconstruction. Existing approaches often struggle to maintain motion modeling accuracy and spatiotemporal consistency in fast moving and multi target scenes. By introduc… ▽ More We propose SirenPose, a novel loss function that combines the periodic activation properties of sinusoidal representation networks with geometric priors derived from keypoint structures to improve the accuracy of dynamic 3D scene reconstruction. Existing approaches often struggle to maintain motion modeling accuracy and spatiotemporal consistency in fast moving and multi target scenes. By introducing physics inspired constraint mechanisms, SirenPose enforces coherent keypoint predictions across both spatial and temporal dimensions. We further expand the training dataset to 600,000 annotated instances to support robust learning. Experimental results demonstrate that models trained with SirenPose achieve significant improvements in spatiotemporal consistency metrics compared to prior methods, showing superior performance in handling rapid motion and complex scene changes. △ Less Submitted 25 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.22027 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Patch-Discontinuity Mining for Generalized Deepfake Detection Authors: Huanhuan Yuan , Yang Ping , Zhengqin Xu , Junyi Cao , Shuai Jia , Chao Ma Abstract : The rapid advancement of generative artificial intelligence has enabled the creation of highly realistic fake facial images, posing serious threats to personal privacy and the integrity of online information. Existing deepfake detection methods often rely on handcrafted forensic cues and complex architectures, achieving strong performance in intra-domain settings but suffering significant degradat… ▽ More The rapid advancement of generative artificial intelligence has enabled the creation of highly realistic fake facial images, posing serious threats to personal privacy and the integrity of online information. Existing deepfake detection methods often rely on handcrafted forensic cues and complex architectures, achieving strong performance in intra-domain settings but suffering significant degradation when confronted with unseen forgery patterns. In this paper, we propose GenDF, a simple yet effective framework that transfers a powerful large-scale vision model to the deepfake detection task with a compact and neat network design. GenDF incorporates deepfake-specific representation learning to capture discriminative patterns between real and fake facial images, feature space redistribution to mitigate distribution mismatch, and a classification-invariant feature augmentation strategy to enhance generalization without introducing additional trainable parameters. Extensive experiments demonstrate that GenDF achieves state-of-the-art generalization performance in cross-domain and cross-manipulation settings while requiring only 0.28M trainable parameters, validating the effectiveness and efficiency of the proposed framework. △ Less Submitted 26 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Our paper was accepted by the IEEE Transactions on Multimedia arXiv:2512.22027 [ pdf , ps , other ] Patch-Discontinuity Mining for Generalized Deepfake Detection Authors: Huanhuan Yuan , Yang Ping , Zhengqin Xu , Junyi Cao , Shuai Jia , Chao Ma Abstract : The rapid advancement of generative artificial intelligence has enabled the creation of highly realistic fake facial images, posing serious threats to personal privacy and the integrity of online information. Existing deepfake detection methods often rely on handcrafted forensic cues and complex architectures, achieving strong performance in intra-domain settings but suffering significant degradat… ▽ More The rapid advancement of generative artificial intelligence has enabled the creation of highly realistic fake facial images, posing serious threats to personal privacy and the integrity of online information. Existing deepfake detection methods often rely on handcrafted forensic cues and complex architectures, achieving strong performance in intra-domain settings but suffering significant degradation when confronted with unseen forgery patterns. In this paper, we propose GenDF, a simple yet effective framework that transfers a powerful large-scale vision model to the deepfake detection task with a compact and neat network design. GenDF incorporates deepfake-specific representation learning to capture discriminative patterns between real and fake facial images, feature space redistribution to mitigate distribution mismatch, and a classification-invariant feature augmentation strategy to enhance generalization without introducing additional trainable parameters. Extensive experiments demonstrate that GenDF achieves state-of-the-art generalization performance in cross-domain and cross-manipulation settings while requiring only 0.28M trainable parameters, validating the effectiveness and efficiency of the proposed framework. △ Less Submitted 26 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Our paper was accepted by the IEEE Transactions on Multimedia arXiv:2512.21233 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.RO UniTacHand: Unified Spatio-Tactile Representation for Human to Robotic Hand Skill Transfer Authors: Chi Zhang , Penglin Cai , Haoqi Yuan , Chaoyi Xu , Zongqing Lu Abstract : Tactile sensing is crucial for robotic hands to achieve human-level dexterous manipulation, especially in scenarios with visual occlusion. However, its application is often hindered by the difficulty of collecting large-scale real-world robotic tactile data. In this study, we propose to collect low-cost human manipulation data using haptic gloves for tactile-based robotic policy learning. The misa… ▽ More Tactile sensing is crucial for robotic hands to achieve human-level dexterous manipulation, especially in scenarios with visual occlusion. However, its application is often hindered by the difficulty of collecting large-scale real-world robotic tactile data. In this study, we propose to collect low-cost human manipulation data using haptic gloves for tactile-based robotic policy learning. The misalignment between human and robotic tactile data makes it challenging to transfer policies learned from human data to robots. To bridge this gap, we propose UniTacHand, a unified representation to align robotic tactile information captured by dexterous hands with human hand touch obtained from gloves. First, we project tactile signals from both human hands and robotic hands onto a morphologically consistent 2D surface space of the MANO hand model. This unification standardizes the heterogeneous data structures and inherently embeds the tactile signals with spatial context. Then, we introduce a contrastive learning method to align them into a unified latent space, trained on only 10 minutes of paired data from our data collection system. Our approach enables zero-shot tactile-based policy transfer from humans to a real robot, generalizing to objects unseen in the pre-training data. We also demonstrate that co-training on mixed data, including both human and robotic demonstrations via UniTacHand, yields better performance and data efficiency compared with using only robotic data. UniTacHand paves a path toward general, scalable, and data-efficient learning for tactile-based dexterous hands. △ Less Submitted 29 December, 2025; v1 submitted 24 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: The first two authors contributed equally arXiv:2512.21233 [ pdf , ps , other ] UniTacHand: Unified Spatio-Tactile Representation for Human to Robotic Hand Skill Transfer Authors: Chi Zhang , Penglin Cai , Haoqi Yuan , Chaoyi Xu , Zongqing Lu Abstract : Tactile sensing is crucial for robotic hands to achieve human-level dexterous manipulation, especially in scenarios with visual occlusion. However, its application is often hindered by the difficulty of collecting large-scale real-world robotic tactile data. In this study, we propose to collect low-cost human manipulation data using haptic gloves for tactile-based robotic policy learning. The misa… ▽ More Tactile sensing is crucial for robotic hands to achieve human-level dexterous manipulation, especially in scenarios with visual occlusion. However, its application is often hindered by the difficulty of collecting large-scale real-world robotic tactile data. In this study, we propose to collect low-cost human manipulation data using haptic gloves for tactile-based robotic policy learning. The misalignment between human and robotic tactile data makes it challenging to transfer policies learned from human data to robots. To bridge this gap, we propose UniTacHand, a unified representation to align robotic tactile information captured by dexterous hands with human hand touch obtained from gloves. First, we project tactile signals from both human hands and robotic hands onto a morphologically consistent 2D surface space of the MANO hand model. This unification standardizes the heterogeneous data structures and inherently embeds the tactile signals with spatial context. Then, we introduce a contrastive learning method to align them into a unified latent space, trained on only 10 minutes of paired data from our data collection system. Our approach enables zero-shot tactile-based policy transfer from humans to a real robot, generalizing to objects unseen in the pre-training data. We also demonstrate that co-training on mixed data, including both human and robotic demonstrations via UniTacHand, yields better performance and data efficiency compared with using only robotic data. UniTacHand paves a path toward general, scalable, and data-efficient learning for tactile-based dexterous hands. △ Less Submitted 29 December, 2025; v1 submitted 24 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: The first two authors contributed equally arXiv:2512.20548 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI Advancing Multimodal Teacher Sentiment Analysis:The Large-Scale T-MED Dataset & The Effective AAM-TSA Model Authors: Zhiyi Duan , Xiangren Wang , Hongyu Yuan , Qianli Xing Abstract : Teachers' emotional states are critical in educational scenarios, profoundly impacting teaching efficacy, student engagement, and learning achievements. However, existing studies often fail to accurately capture teachers' emotions due to the performative nature and overlook the critical impact of instructional information on emotional expression. In this paper, we systematically investigate teache… ▽ More Teachers' emotional states are critical in educational scenarios, profoundly impacting teaching efficacy, student engagement, and learning achievements. However, existing studies often fail to accurately capture teachers' emotions due to the performative nature and overlook the critical impact of instructional information on emotional expression. In this paper, we systematically investigate teacher sentiment analysis by building both the dataset and the model accordingly. We construct the first large-scale teacher multimodal sentiment analysis dataset, T-MED. To ensure labeling accuracy and efficiency, we employ a human-machine collaborative labeling process. The T-MED dataset includes 14,938 instances of teacher emotional data from 250 real classrooms across 11 subjects ranging from K-12 to higher education, integrating multimodal text, audio, video, and instructional information. Furthermore, we propose a novel asymmetric attention-based multimodal teacher sentiment analysis model, AAM-TSA. AAM-TSA introduces an asymmetric attention mechanism and hierarchical gating unit to enable differentiated cross-modal feature fusion and precise emotional classification. Experimental results demonstrate that AAM-TSA significantly outperforms existing state-of-the-art methods in terms of accuracy and interpretability on the T-MED dataset. △ Less Submitted 26 December, 2025; v1 submitted 23 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.20548 [ pdf , ps , other ] Advancing Multimodal Teacher Sentiment Analysis:The Large-Scale T-MED Dataset & The Effective AAM-TSA Model Authors: Zhiyi Duan , Xiangren Wang , Hongyu Yuan , Qianli Xing Abstract : Teachers' emotional states are critical in educational scenarios, profoundly impacting teaching efficacy, student engagement, and learning achievements. However, existing studies often fail to accurately capture teachers' emotions due to the performative nature and overlook the critical impact of instructional information on emotional expression. In this paper, we systematically investigate teache… ▽ More Teachers' emotional states are critical in educational scenarios, profoundly impacting teaching efficacy, student engagement, and learning achievements. However, existing studies often fail to accurately capture teachers' emotions due to the performative nature and overlook the critical impact of instructional information on emotional expression. In this paper, we systematically investigate teacher sentiment analysis by building both the dataset and the model accordingly. We construct the first large-scale teacher multimodal sentiment analysis dataset, T-MED. To ensure labeling accuracy and efficiency, we employ a human-machine collaborative labeling process. The T-MED dataset includes 14,938 instances of teacher emotional data from 250 real classrooms across 11 subjects ranging from K-12 to higher education, integrating multimodal text, audio, video, and instructional information. Furthermore, we propose a novel asymmetric attention-based multimodal teacher sentiment analysis model, AAM-TSA. AAM-TSA introduces an asymmetric attention mechanism and hierarchical gating unit to enable differentiated cross-modal feature fusion and precise emotional classification. Experimental results demonstrate that AAM-TSA significantly outperforms existing state-of-the-art methods in terms of accuracy and interpretability on the T-MED dataset. △ Less Submitted 26 December, 2025; v1 submitted 23 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.15744 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG How Do Graph Signals Affect Recommendation: Unveiling the Mystery of Low and High-Frequency Graph Signals Authors: Feng Liu , Hao Cang , Huanhuan Yuan , Jiaqing Fan , Yongjing Hao , Fuzhen Zhuang , Guanfeng Liu , Pengpeng Zhao Abstract : Spectral graph neural networks (GNNs) are highly effective in modeling graph signals, with their success in recommendation often attributed to low-pass filtering. However, recent studies highlight the importance of high-frequency signals. The role of low-frequency and high-frequency graph signals in recommendation remains unclear. This paper aims to bridge this gap by investigating the influence o… ▽ More Spectral graph neural networks (GNNs) are highly effective in modeling graph signals, with their success in recommendation often attributed to low-pass filtering. However, recent studies highlight the importance of high-frequency signals. The role of low-frequency and high-frequency graph signals in recommendation remains unclear. This paper aims to bridge this gap by investigating the influence of graph signals on recommendation performance. We theoretically prove that the effects of low-frequency and high-frequency graph signals are equivalent in recommendation tasks, as both contribute by smoothing the similarities between user-item pairs. To leverage this insight, we propose a frequency signal scaler, a plug-and-play module that adjusts the graph signal filter function to fine-tune the smoothness between user-item pairs, making it compatible with any GNN model. Additionally, we identify and prove that graph embedding-based methods cannot fully capture the characteristics of graph signals. To address this limitation, a space flip method is introduced to restore the expressive power of graph embeddings. Remarkably, we demonstrate that either low-frequency or high-frequency graph signals alone are sufficient for effective recommendations. Extensive experiments on four public datasets validate the effectiveness of our proposed methods. Code is avaliable at △ Less Submitted 10 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.15744 [ pdf , ps , other ] How Do Graph Signals Affect Recommendation: Unveiling the Mystery of Low and High-Frequency Graph Signals Authors: Feng Liu , Hao Cang , Huanhuan Yuan , Jiaqing Fan , Yongjing Hao , Fuzhen Zhuang , Guanfeng Liu , Pengpeng Zhao Abstract : Spectral graph neural networks (GNNs) are highly effective in modeling graph signals, with their success in recommendation often attributed to low-pass filtering. However, recent studies highlight the importance of high-frequency signals. The role of low-frequency and high-frequency graph signals in recommendation remains unclear. This paper aims to bridge this gap by investigating the influence o… ▽ More Spectral graph neural networks (GNNs) are highly effective in modeling graph signals, with their success in recommendation often attributed to low-pass filtering. However, recent studies highlight the importance of high-frequency signals. The role of low-frequency and high-frequency graph signals in recommendation remains unclear. This paper aims to bridge this gap by investigating the influence of graph signals on recommendation performance. We theoretically prove that the effects of low-frequency and high-frequency graph signals are equivalent in recommendation tasks, as both contribute by smoothing the similarities between user-item pairs. To leverage this insight, we propose a frequency signal scaler, a plug-and-play module that adjusts the graph signal filter function to fine-tune the smoothness between user-item pairs, making it compatible with any GNN model. Additionally, we identify and prove that graph embedding-based methods cannot fully capture the characteristics of graph signals. To address this limitation, a space flip method is introduced to restore the expressive power of graph embeddings. Remarkably, we demonstrate that either low-frequency or high-frequency graph signals alone are sufficient for effective recommendations. Extensive experiments on four public datasets validate the effectiveness of our proposed methods. Code is avaliable at △ Less Submitted 10 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.15657 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.CV SoFlow: Solution Flow Models for One-Step Generative Modeling Authors: Tianze Luo , Haotian Yuan , Zhuang Liu Abstract : The multi-step denoising process in diffusion and Flow Matching models causes major efficiency issues, which motivates research on few-step generation. We present Solution Flow Models (SoFlow), a framework for one-step generation from scratch. By analyzing the relationship between the velocity function and the solution function of the velocity ordinary differential equation (ODE), we propose a Flo… ▽ More The multi-step denoising process in diffusion and Flow Matching models causes major efficiency issues, which motivates research on few-step generation. We present Solution Flow Models (SoFlow), a framework for one-step generation from scratch. By analyzing the relationship between the velocity function and the solution function of the velocity ordinary differential equation (ODE), we propose a Flow Matching loss and a solution consistency loss to train our models. The Flow Matching loss allows our models to provide estimated velocity fields for Classifier-Free Guidance (CFG) during training, which improves generation performance. Notably, our consistency loss does not require the calculation of the Jacobian-vector product (JVP), a common requirement in recent works that is not well-optimized in deep learning frameworks like PyTorch. Experimental results indicate that, when trained from scratch using the same Diffusion Transformer (DiT) architecture and an equal number of training epochs, our models achieve better FID-50K scores than MeanFlow models on the ImageNet 256x256 dataset. △ Less Submitted 17 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Our code is available at arXiv:2512.15657 [ pdf , ps , other ] SoFlow: Solution Flow Models for One-Step Generative Modeling Authors: Tianze Luo , Haotian Yuan , Zhuang Liu Abstract : The multi-step denoising process in diffusion and Flow Matching models causes major efficiency issues, which motivates research on few-step generation. We present Solution Flow Models (SoFlow), a framework for one-step generation from scratch. By analyzing the relationship between the velocity function and the solution function of the velocity ordinary differential equation (ODE), we propose a Flo… ▽ More The multi-step denoising process in diffusion and Flow Matching models causes major efficiency issues, which motivates research on few-step generation. We present Solution Flow Models (SoFlow), a framework for one-step generation from scratch. By analyzing the relationship between the velocity function and the solution function of the velocity ordinary differential equation (ODE), we propose a Flow Matching loss and a solution consistency loss to train our models. The Flow Matching loss allows our models to provide estimated velocity fields for Classifier-Free Guidance (CFG) during training, which improves generation performance. Notably, our consistency loss does not require the calculation of the Jacobian-vector product (JVP), a common requirement in recent works that is not well-optimized in deep learning frameworks like PyTorch. Experimental results indicate that, when trained from scratch using the same Diffusion Transformer (DiT) architecture and an equal number of training epochs, our models achieve better FID-50K scores than MeanFlow models on the ImageNet 256x256 dataset. △ Less Submitted 17 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Our code is available at arXiv:2512.13734 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.AI Plug-and-Play Parameter-Efficient Tuning of Embeddings for Federated Recommendation Authors: Haochen Yuan , Yang Zhang , Xiang He , Quan Z. Sheng , Zhongjie Wang Abstract : With the rise of cloud-edge collaboration, recommendation services are increasingly trained in distributed environments. Federated Recommendation (FR) enables such multi-end collaborative training while preserving privacy by sharing model parameters instead of raw data. However, the large number of parameters, primarily due to the massive item embeddings, significantly hampers communication effici… ▽ More With the rise of cloud-edge collaboration, recommendation services are increasingly trained in distributed environments. Federated Recommendation (FR) enables such multi-end collaborative training while preserving privacy by sharing model parameters instead of raw data. However, the large number of parameters, primarily due to the massive item embeddings, significantly hampers communication efficiency. While existing studies mainly focus on improving the efficiency of FR models, they largely overlook the issue of embedding parameter overhead. To address this gap, we propose a FR training framework with Parameter-Efficient Fine-Tuning (PEFT) based embedding designed to reduce the volume of embedding parameters that need to be transmitted. Our approach offers a lightweight, plugin-style solution that can be seamlessly integrated into existing FR methods. In addition to incorporating common PEFT techniques such as LoRA and Hash-based encoding, we explore the use of Residual Quantized Variational Autoencoders (RQ-VAE) as a novel PEFT strategy within our framework. Extensive experiments across various FR model backbones and datasets demonstrate that our framework significantly reduces communication overhead while improving accuracy. The source code is available at △ Less Submitted 14 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: This paper has been accepted for publication at AAAI 2026 arXiv:2512.13734 [ pdf , ps , other ] Plug-and-Play Parameter-Efficient Tuning of Embeddings for Federated Recommendation Authors: Haochen Yuan , Yang Zhang , Xiang He , Quan Z. Sheng , Zhongjie Wang Abstract : With the rise of cloud-edge collaboration, recommendation services are increasingly trained in distributed environments. Federated Recommendation (FR) enables such multi-end collaborative training while preserving privacy by sharing model parameters instead of raw data. However, the large number of parameters, primarily due to the massive item embeddings, significantly hampers communication effici… ▽ More With the rise of cloud-edge collaboration, recommendation services are increasingly trained in distributed environments. Federated Recommendation (FR) enables such multi-end collaborative training while preserving privacy by sharing model parameters instead of raw data. However, the large number of parameters, primarily due to the massive item embeddings, significantly hampers communication efficiency. While existing studies mainly focus on improving the efficiency of FR models, they largely overlook the issue of embedding parameter overhead. To address this gap, we propose a FR training framework with Parameter-Efficient Fine-Tuning (PEFT) based embedding designed to reduce the volume of embedding parameters that need to be transmitted. Our approach offers a lightweight, plugin-style solution that can be seamlessly integrated into existing FR methods. In addition to incorporating common PEFT techniques such as LoRA and Hash-based encoding, we explore the use of Residual Quantized Variational Autoencoders (RQ-VAE) as a novel PEFT strategy within our framework. Extensive experiments across various FR model backbones and datasets demonstrate that our framework significantly reduces communication overhead while improving accuracy. The source code is available at △ Less Submitted 14 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: This paper has been accepted for publication at AAAI 2026 arXiv:2512.13380 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.RO Universal Dexterous Functional Grasping via Demonstration-Editing Reinforcement Learning Authors: Chuan Mao , Haoqi Yuan , Ziye Huang , Chaoyi Xu , Kai Ma , Zongqing Lu Abstract : Reinforcement learning (RL) has achieved great success in dexterous grasping, significantly improving grasp performance and generalization from simulation to the real world. However, fine-grained functional grasping, which is essential for downstream manipulation tasks, remains underexplored and faces several challenges: the complexity of specifying goals and reward functions for functional grasps… ▽ More Reinforcement learning (RL) has achieved great success in dexterous grasping, significantly improving grasp performance and generalization from simulation to the real world. However, fine-grained functional grasping, which is essential for downstream manipulation tasks, remains underexplored and faces several challenges: the complexity of specifying goals and reward functions for functional grasps across diverse objects, the difficulty of multi-task RL exploration, and the challenge of sim-to-real transfer. In this work, we propose DemoFunGrasp for universal dexterous functional grasping. We factorize functional grasping conditions into two complementary components - grasping style and affordance - and integrate them into an RL framework that can learn to grasp any object with any functional grasping condition. To address the multi-task optimization challenge, we leverage a single grasping demonstration and reformulate the RL problem as one-step demonstration editing, substantially enhancing sample efficiency and performance. Experimental results in both simulation and the real world show that DemoFunGrasp generalizes to unseen combinations of objects, affordances, and grasping styles, outperforming baselines in both success rate and functional grasping accuracy. In addition to strong sim-to-real capability, by incorporating a vision-language model (VLM) for planning, our system achieves autonomous instruction-following grasp execution. △ Less Submitted 15 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 19 pages arXiv:2512.13380 [ pdf , ps , other ] Universal Dexterous Functional Grasping via Demonstration-Editing Reinforcement Learning Authors: Chuan Mao , Haoqi Yuan , Ziye Huang , Chaoyi Xu , Kai Ma , Zongqing Lu Abstract : Reinforcement learning (RL) has achieved great success in dexterous grasping, significantly improving grasp performance and generalization from simulation to the real world. However, fine-grained functional grasping, which is essential for downstream manipulation tasks, remains underexplored and faces several challenges: the complexity of specifying goals and reward functions for functional grasps… ▽ More Reinforcement learning (RL) has achieved great success in dexterous grasping, significantly improving grasp performance and generalization from simulation to the real world. However, fine-grained functional grasping, which is essential for downstream manipulation tasks, remains underexplored and faces several challenges: the complexity of specifying goals and reward functions for functional grasps across diverse objects, the difficulty of multi-task RL exploration, and the challenge of sim-to-real transfer. In this work, we propose DemoFunGrasp for universal dexterous functional grasping. We factorize functional grasping conditions into two complementary components - grasping style and affordance - and integrate them into an RL framework that can learn to grasp any object with any functional grasping condition. To address the multi-task optimization challenge, we leverage a single grasping demonstration and reformulate the RL problem as one-step demonstration editing, substantially enhancing sample efficiency and performance. Experimental results in both simulation and the real world show that DemoFunGrasp generalizes to unseen combinations of objects, affordances, and grasping styles, outperforming baselines in both success rate and functional grasping accuracy. In addition to strong sim-to-real capability, by incorporating a vision-language model (VLM) for planning, our system achieves autonomous instruction-following grasp execution. △ Less Submitted 15 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 19 pages arXiv:2512.13080 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.RO Spatial-Aware VLA Pretraining through Visual-Physical Alignment from Human Videos Authors: Yicheng Feng , Wanpeng Zhang , Ye Wang , Hao Luo , Haoqi Yuan , Sipeng Zheng , Zongqing Lu Abstract : Vision-Language-Action (VLA) models provide a promising paradigm for robot learning by integrating visual perception with language-guided policy learning. However, most existing approaches rely on 2D visual inputs to perform actions in 3D physical environments, creating a significant gap between perception and action grounding. To bridge this gap, we propose a Spatial-Aware VLA Pretraining paradig… ▽ More Vision-Language-Action (VLA) models provide a promising paradigm for robot learning by integrating visual perception with language-guided policy learning. However, most existing approaches rely on 2D visual inputs to perform actions in 3D physical environments, creating a significant gap between perception and action grounding. To bridge this gap, we propose a Spatial-Aware VLA Pretraining paradigm that performs explicit alignment between visual space and physical space during pretraining, enabling models to acquire 3D spatial understanding before robot policy learning. Starting from pretrained vision-language models, we leverage large-scale human demonstration videos to extract 3D visual and 3D action annotations, forming a new source of supervision that aligns 2D visual observations with 3D spatial reasoning. We instantiate this paradigm with VIPA-VLA, a dual-encoder architecture that incorporates a 3D visual encoder to augment semantic visual representations with 3D-aware features. When adapted to downstream robot tasks, VIPA-VLA achieves significantly improved grounding between 2D vision and 3D action, resulting in more robust and generalizable robotic policies. △ Less Submitted 15 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.13080 [ pdf , ps , other ] Spatial-Aware VLA Pretraining through Visual-Physical Alignment from Human Videos Authors: Yicheng Feng , Wanpeng Zhang , Ye Wang , Hao Luo , Haoqi Yuan , Sipeng Zheng , Zongqing Lu Abstract : Vision-Language-Action (VLA) models provide a promising paradigm for robot learning by integrating visual perception with language-guided policy learning. However, most existing approaches rely on 2D visual inputs to perform actions in 3D physical environments, creating a significant gap between perception and action grounding. To bridge this gap, we propose a Spatial-Aware VLA Pretraining paradig… ▽ More Vision-Language-Action (VLA) models provide a promising paradigm for robot learning by integrating visual perception with language-guided policy learning. However, most existing approaches rely on 2D visual inputs to perform actions in 3D physical environments, creating a significant gap between perception and action grounding. To bridge this gap, we propose a Spatial-Aware VLA Pretraining paradigm that performs explicit alignment between visual space and physical space during pretraining, enabling models to acquire 3D spatial understanding before robot policy learning. Starting from pretrained vision-language models, we leverage large-scale human demonstration videos to extract 3D visual and 3D action annotations, forming a new source of supervision that aligns 2D visual observations with 3D spatial reasoning. We instantiate this paradigm with VIPA-VLA, a dual-encoder architecture that incorporates a 3D visual encoder to augment semantic visual representations with 3D-aware features. When adapted to downstream robot tasks, VIPA-VLA achieves significantly improved grounding between 2D vision and 3D action, resulting in more robust and generalizable robotic policies. △ Less Submitted 15 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.10573 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG Is the Information Bottleneck Robust Enough? Towards Label-Noise Resistant Information Bottleneck Learning Authors: Yi Huang , Qingyun Sun , Yisen Gao , Haonan Yuan , Xingcheng Fu , Jianxin Li Abstract : The Information Bottleneck (IB) principle facilitates effective representation learning by preserving label-relevant information while compressing irrelevant information. However, its strong reliance on accurate labels makes it inherently vulnerable to label noise, prevalent in real-world scenarios, resulting in significant performance degradation and overfitting. To address this issue, we propose… ▽ More The Information Bottleneck (IB) principle facilitates effective representation learning by preserving label-relevant information while compressing irrelevant information. However, its strong reliance on accurate labels makes it inherently vulnerable to label noise, prevalent in real-world scenarios, resulting in significant performance degradation and overfitting. To address this issue, we propose LaT-IB, a novel Label-Noise ResistanT Information Bottleneck method which introduces a "Minimal-Sufficient-Clean" (MSC) criterion. Instantiated as a mutual information regularizer to retain task-relevant information while discarding noise, MSC addresses standard IB's vulnerability to noisy label supervision. To achieve this, LaT-IB employs a noise-aware latent disentanglement that decomposes the latent representation into components aligned with to the clean label space and the noise space. Theoretically, we first derive mutual information bounds for each component of our objective including prediction, compression, and disentanglement, and moreover prove that optimizing it encourages representations invariant to input noise and separates clean and noisy label information. Furthermore, we design a three-phase training framework: Warmup, Knowledge Injection and Robust Training, to progressively guide the model toward noise-resistant representations. Extensive experiments demonstrate that LaT-IB achieves superior robustness and efficiency under label noise, significantly enhancing robustness and applicability in real-world scenarios with label noise. △ Less Submitted 11 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Accepted by the Main Technical Track of the 40th Annual AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AAAI-2026) arXiv:2512.10573 [ pdf , ps , other ] Is the Information Bottleneck Robust Enough? Towards Label-Noise Resistant Information Bottleneck Learning Authors: Yi Huang , Qingyun Sun , Yisen Gao , Haonan Yuan , Xingcheng Fu , Jianxin Li Abstract : The Information Bottleneck (IB) principle facilitates effective representation learning by preserving label-relevant information while compressing irrelevant information. However, its strong reliance on accurate labels makes it inherently vulnerable to label noise, prevalent in real-world scenarios, resulting in significant performance degradation and overfitting. To address this issue, we propose… ▽ More The Information Bottleneck (IB) principle facilitates effective representation learning by preserving label-relevant information while compressing irrelevant information. However, its strong reliance on accurate labels makes it inherently vulnerable to label noise, prevalent in real-world scenarios, resulting in significant performance degradation and overfitting. To address this issue, we propose LaT-IB, a novel Label-Noise ResistanT Information Bottleneck method which introduces a "Minimal-Sufficient-Clean" (MSC) criterion. Instantiated as a mutual information regularizer to retain task-relevant information while discarding noise, MSC addresses standard IB's vulnerability to noisy label supervision. To achieve this, LaT-IB employs a noise-aware latent disentanglement that decomposes the latent representation into components aligned with to the clean label space and the noise space. Theoretically, we first derive mutual information bounds for each component of our objective including prediction, compression, and disentanglement, and moreover prove that optimizing it encourages representations invariant to input noise and separates clean and noisy label information. Furthermore, we design a three-phase training framework: Warmup, Knowledge Injection and Robust Training, to progressively guide the model toward noise-resistant representations. Extensive experiments demonstrate that LaT-IB achieves superior robustness and efficiency under label noise, significantly enhancing robustness and applicability in real-world scenarios with label noise. △ Less Submitted 11 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Accepted by the Main Technical Track of the 40th Annual AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AAAI-2026) arXiv:2512.10227 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CE An Efficient Graph-Transformer Operator for Learning Physical Dynamics with Manifolds Embedding Authors: Pengwei Liu , Xingyu Ren , Pengkai Wang , Hangjie Yuan , Zhongkai Hao , Guanyu Chen , Chao Xu , Dong Ni , Shengze Cai Abstract : Accurate and efficient physical simulations are essential in science and engineering, yet traditional numerical solvers face significant challenges in computational cost when handling simulations across dynamic scenarios involving complex geometries, varying boundary/initial conditions, and diverse physical parameters. While deep learning offers promising alternatives, existing methods often strug… ▽ More Accurate and efficient physical simulations are essential in science and engineering, yet traditional numerical solvers face significant challenges in computational cost when handling simulations across dynamic scenarios involving complex geometries, varying boundary/initial conditions, and diverse physical parameters. While deep learning offers promising alternatives, existing methods often struggle with flexibility and generalization, particularly on unstructured meshes, which significantly limits their practical applicability. To address these challenges, we propose PhysGTO, an efficient Graph-Transformer Operator for learning physical dynamics through explicit manifold embeddings in both physical and latent spaces. In the physical space, the proposed Unified Graph Embedding module aligns node-level conditions and constructs sparse yet structure-preserving graph connectivity to process heterogeneous inputs. In the latent space, PhysGTO integrates a lightweight flux-oriented message-passing scheme with projection-inspired attention to capture local and global dependencies, facilitating multilevel interactions among complex physical correlations. This design ensures linear complexity relative to the number of mesh points, reducing both the number of trainable parameters and computational costs in terms of floating-point operations (FLOPs), and thereby allowing efficient inference in real-time applications. We introduce a comprehensive benchmark spanning eleven datasets, covering problems with unstructured meshes, transient flow dynamics, and large-scale 3D geometries. PhysGTO consistently achieves state-of-the-art accuracy while significantly reducing computational costs, demonstrating superior flexibility, scalability, and generalization in a wide range of simulation tasks. △ Less Submitted 10 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: arXiv:2512.10227 [ pdf , ps , other ] An Efficient Graph-Transformer Operator for Learning Physical Dynamics with Manifolds Embedding Authors: Pengwei Liu , Xingyu Ren , Pengkai Wang , Hangjie Yuan , Zhongkai Hao , Guanyu Chen , Chao Xu , Dong Ni , Shengze Cai Abstract : Accurate and efficient physical simulations are essential in science and engineering, yet traditional numerical solvers face significant challenges in computational cost when handling simulations across dynamic scenarios involving complex geometries, varying boundary/initial conditions, and diverse physical parameters. While deep learning offers promising alternatives, existing methods often strug… ▽ More Accurate and efficient physical simulations are essential in science and engineering, yet traditional numerical solvers face significant challenges in computational cost when handling simulations across dynamic scenarios involving complex geometries, varying boundary/initial conditions, and diverse physical parameters. While deep learning offers promising alternatives, existing methods often struggle with flexibility and generalization, particularly on unstructured meshes, which significantly limits their practical applicability. To address these challenges, we propose PhysGTO, an efficient Graph-Transformer Operator for learning physical dynamics through explicit manifold embeddings in both physical and latent spaces. In the physical space, the proposed Unified Graph Embedding module aligns node-level conditions and constructs sparse yet structure-preserving graph connectivity to process heterogeneous inputs. In the latent space, PhysGTO integrates a lightweight flux-oriented message-passing scheme with projection-inspired attention to capture local and global dependencies, facilitating multilevel interactions among complex physical correlations. This design ensures linear complexity relative to the number of mesh points, reducing both the number of trainable parameters and computational costs in terms of floating-point operations (FLOPs), and thereby allowing efficient inference in real-time applications. We introduce a comprehensive benchmark spanning eleven datasets, covering problems with unstructured meshes, transient flow dynamics, and large-scale 3D geometries. PhysGTO consistently achieves state-of-the-art accuracy while significantly reducing computational costs, demonstrating superior flexibility, scalability, and generalization in a wide range of simulation tasks. △ Less Submitted 10 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: arXiv:2512.09924 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV ReViSE: Towards Reason-Informed Video Editing in Unified Models with Self-Reflective Learning Authors: Xinyu Liu , Hangjie Yuan , Yujie Wei , Jiazheng Xing , Yujin Han , Jiahao Pan , Yanbiao Ma , Chi-Min Chan , Kang Zhao , Shiwei Zhang , Wenhan Luo , Yike Guo Abstract : Video unified models exhibit strong capabilities in understanding and generation, yet they struggle with reason-informed visual editing even when equipped with powerful internal vision-language models (VLMs). We attribute this gap to two factors: 1) existing datasets are inadequate for training and evaluating reasoning-aware video editing, and 2) an inherent disconnect between the models' reasonin… ▽ More Video unified models exhibit strong capabilities in understanding and generation, yet they struggle with reason-informed visual editing even when equipped with powerful internal vision-language models (VLMs). We attribute this gap to two factors: 1) existing datasets are inadequate for training and evaluating reasoning-aware video editing, and 2) an inherent disconnect between the models' reasoning and editing capabilities, which prevents the rich understanding from effectively instructing the editing process. Bridging this gap requires an integrated framework that connects reasoning with visual transformation. To address this gap, we introduce the Reason-Informed Video Editing (RVE) task, which requires reasoning about physical plausibility and causal dynamics during editing. To support systematic evaluation, we construct RVE-Bench, a comprehensive benchmark with two complementary subsets: Reasoning-Informed Video Editing and In-Context Video Generation. These subsets cover diverse reasoning dimensions and real-world editing scenarios. Building upon this foundation, we propose the ReViSE, a Self-Reflective Reasoning (SRF) framework that unifies generation and evaluation within a single architecture. The model's internal VLM provides intrinsic feedback by assessing whether the edited video logically satisfies the given instruction. The differential feedback that refines the generator's reasoning behavior during training. Extensive experiments on RVE-Bench demonstrate that ReViSE significantly enhances editing accuracy and visual fidelity, achieving a 32% improvement of the Overall score in the reasoning-informed video editing subset over state-of-the-art methods. △ Less Submitted 10 December, 2025; v1 submitted 10 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Project Page: [this https URL]( arXiv:2512.09924 [ pdf , ps , other ] ReViSE: Towards Reason-Informed Video Editing in Unified Models with Self-Reflective Learning Authors: Xinyu Liu , Hangjie Yuan , Yujie Wei , Jiazheng Xing , Yujin Han , Jiahao Pan , Yanbiao Ma , Chi-Min Chan , Kang Zhao , Shiwei Zhang , Wenhan Luo , Yike Guo Abstract : Video unified models exhibit strong capabilities in understanding and generation, yet they struggle with reason-informed visual editing even when equipped with powerful internal vision-language models (VLMs). We attribute this gap to two factors: 1) existing datasets are inadequate for training and evaluating reasoning-aware video editing, and 2) an inherent disconnect between the models' reasonin… ▽ More Video unified models exhibit strong capabilities in understanding and generation, yet they struggle with reason-informed visual editing even when equipped with powerful internal vision-language models (VLMs). We attribute this gap to two factors: 1) existing datasets are inadequate for training and evaluating reasoning-aware video editing, and 2) an inherent disconnect between the models' reasoning and editing capabilities, which prevents the rich understanding from effectively instructing the editing process. Bridging this gap requires an integrated framework that connects reasoning with visual transformation. To address this gap, we introduce the Reason-Informed Video Editing (RVE) task, which requires reasoning about physical plausibility and causal dynamics during editing. To support systematic evaluation, we construct RVE-Bench, a comprehensive benchmark with two complementary subsets: Reasoning-Informed Video Editing and In-Context Video Generation. These subsets cover diverse reasoning dimensions and real-world editing scenarios. Building upon this foundation, we propose the ReViSE, a Self-Reflective Reasoning (SRF) framework that unifies generation and evaluation within a single architecture. The model's internal VLM provides intrinsic feedback by assessing whether the edited video logically satisfies the given instruction. The differential feedback that refines the generator's reasoning behavior during training. Extensive experiments on RVE-Bench demonstrate that ReViSE significantly enhances editing accuracy and visual fidelity, achieving a 32% improvement of the Overall score in the reasoning-informed video editing subset over state-of-the-art methods. △ Less Submitted 10 December, 2025; v1 submitted 10 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Project Page: [this https URL]( arXiv:2512.08334 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV HybridSplat: Fast Reflection-baked Gaussian Tracing using Hybrid Splatting Authors: Chang Liu , Hongliang Yuan , Lianghao Zhang , Sichao Wang , Jianwei Guo , Shi-Sheng Huang Abstract : Rendering complex reflection of real-world scenes using 3D Gaussian splatting has been a quite promising solution for photorealistic novel view synthesis, but still faces bottlenecks especially in rendering speed and memory storage. This paper proposes a new Hybrid Splatting(HybridSplat) mechanism for Gaussian primitives. Our key idea is a new reflection-baked Gaussian tracing, which bakes the vie… ▽ More Rendering complex reflection of real-world scenes using 3D Gaussian splatting has been a quite promising solution for photorealistic novel view synthesis, but still faces bottlenecks especially in rendering speed and memory storage. This paper proposes a new Hybrid Splatting(HybridSplat) mechanism for Gaussian primitives. Our key idea is a new reflection-baked Gaussian tracing, which bakes the view-dependent reflection within each Gaussian primitive while rendering the reflection using tile-based Gaussian splatting. Then we integrate the reflective Gaussian primitives with base Gaussian primitives using a unified hybrid splatting framework for high-fidelity scene reconstruction. Moreover, we further introduce a pipeline-level acceleration for the hybrid splatting, and reflection-sensitive Gaussian pruning to reduce the model size, thus achieving much faster rendering speed and lower memory storage while preserving the reflection rendering quality. By extensive evaluation, our HybridSplat accelerates about 7x rendering speed across complex reflective scenes from Ref-NeRF, NeRF-Casting with 4x fewer Gaussian primitives than similar ray-tracing based Gaussian splatting baselines, serving as a new state-of-the-art method especially for complex reflective scenes. △ Less Submitted 15 December, 2025; v1 submitted 9 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Project URL: arXiv:2512.08334 [ pdf , ps , other ] HybridSplat: Fast Reflection-baked Gaussian Tracing using Hybrid Splatting Authors: Chang Liu , Hongliang Yuan , Lianghao Zhang , Sichao Wang , Jianwei Guo , Shi-Sheng Huang Abstract : Rendering complex reflection of real-world scenes using 3D Gaussian splatting has been a quite promising solution for photorealistic novel view synthesis, but still faces bottlenecks especially in rendering speed and memory storage. This paper proposes a new Hybrid Splatting(HybridSplat) mechanism for Gaussian primitives. Our key idea is a new reflection-baked Gaussian tracing, which bakes the vie… ▽ More Rendering complex reflection of real-world scenes using 3D Gaussian splatting has been a quite promising solution for photorealistic novel view synthesis, but still faces bottlenecks especially in rendering speed and memory storage. This paper proposes a new Hybrid Splatting(HybridSplat) mechanism for Gaussian primitives. Our key idea is a new reflection-baked Gaussian tracing, which bakes the view-dependent reflection within each Gaussian primitive while rendering the reflection using tile-based Gaussian splatting. Then we integrate the reflective Gaussian primitives with base Gaussian primitives using a unified hybrid splatting framework for high-fidelity scene reconstruction. Moreover, we further introduce a pipeline-level acceleration for the hybrid splatting, and reflection-sensitive Gaussian pruning to reduce the model size, thus achieving much faster rendering speed and lower memory storage while preserving the reflection rendering quality. By extensive evaluation, our HybridSplat accelerates about 7x rendering speed across complex reflective scenes from Ref-NeRF, NeRF-Casting with 4x fewer Gaussian primitives than similar ray-tracing based Gaussian splatting baselines, serving as a new state-of-the-art method especially for complex reflective scenes. △ Less Submitted 15 December, 2025; v1 submitted 9 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Project URL: arXiv:2512.07857 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG SA$^{2}$GFM: Enhancing Robust Graph Foundation Models with Structure-Aware Semantic Augmentation Authors: Junhua Shi , Qingyun Sun , Haonan Yuan , Xingcheng Fu Abstract : We present Graph Foundation Models (GFMs) which have made significant progress in various tasks, but their robustness against domain noise, structural perturbations, and adversarial attacks remains underexplored. A key limitation is the insufficient modeling of hierarchical structural semantics, which are crucial for generalization. In this paper, we propose SA$^{2}$GFM, a robust GFM framework tha… ▽ More We present Graph Foundation Models (GFMs) which have made significant progress in various tasks, but their robustness against domain noise, structural perturbations, and adversarial attacks remains underexplored. A key limitation is the insufficient modeling of hierarchical structural semantics, which are crucial for generalization. In this paper, we propose SA$^{2}$GFM, a robust GFM framework that improves domain-adaptive representations through Structure-Aware Semantic Augmentation. First, we encode hierarchical structural priors by transforming entropy-based encoding trees into structure-aware textual prompts for feature augmentation. The enhanced inputs are processed by a self-supervised Information Bottleneck mechanism that distills robust, transferable representations via structure-guided compression. To address negative transfer in cross-domain adaptation, we introduce an expert adaptive routing mechanism, combining a mixture-of-experts architecture with a null expert design. For efficient downstream adaptation, we propose a fine-tuning module that optimizes hierarchical structures through joint intra- and inter-community structure learning. Extensive experiments demonstrate that SA$^{2}$GFM outperforms 9 state-of-the-art baselines in terms of effectiveness and robustness against random noise and adversarial perturbations for node and graph classification. △ Less Submitted 15 December, 2025; v1 submitted 26 November, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.07857 [ pdf , ps , other ] SA$^{2}$GFM: Enhancing Robust Graph Foundation Models with Structure-Aware Semantic Augmentation Authors: Junhua Shi , Qingyun Sun , Haonan Yuan , Xingcheng Fu Abstract : We present Graph Foundation Models (GFMs) which have made significant progress in various tasks, but their robustness against domain noise, structural perturbations, and adversarial attacks remains underexplored. A key limitation is the insufficient modeling of hierarchical structural semantics, which are crucial for generalization. In this paper, we propose SA$^{2}$GFM, a robust GFM framework tha… ▽ More We present Graph Foundation Models (GFMs) which have made significant progress in various tasks, but their robustness against domain noise, structural perturbations, and adversarial attacks remains underexplored. A key limitation is the insufficient modeling of hierarchical structural semantics, which are crucial for generalization. In this paper, we propose SA$^{2}$GFM, a robust GFM framework that improves domain-adaptive representations through Structure-Aware Semantic Augmentation. First, we encode hierarchical structural priors by transforming entropy-based encoding trees into structure-aware textual prompts for feature augmentation. The enhanced inputs are processed by a self-supervised Information Bottleneck mechanism that distills robust, transferable representations via structure-guided compression. To address negative transfer in cross-domain adaptation, we introduce an expert adaptive routing mechanism, combining a mixture-of-experts architecture with a null expert design. For efficient downstream adaptation, we propose a fine-tuning module that optimizes hierarchical structures through joint intra- and inter-community structure learning. Extensive experiments demonstrate that SA$^{2}$GFM outperforms 9 state-of-the-art baselines in terms of effectiveness and robustness against random noise and adversarial perturbations for node and graph classification. △ Less Submitted 15 December, 2025; v1 submitted 26 November, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.07805 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.AI cs.CL Group Representational Position Encoding Authors: Yifan Zhang , Zixiang Chen , Yifeng Liu , Zhen Qin , Huizhuo Yuan , Kangping Xu , Yang Yuan , Quanquan Gu , Andrew Chi-Chih Yao Abstract : We present GRAPE (Group RepresentAtional Position Encoding), a unified framework for positional encoding based on group actions. GRAPE brings together two families of mechanisms: (i) multiplicative rotations (Multiplicative GRAPE) in $\mathrm{SO}(d)$ and (ii) additive logit biases (Additive GRAPE) arising from unipotent actions in the general linear group $\mathrm{GL}$. In Multiplicative GRAPE, a… ▽ More We present GRAPE (Group RepresentAtional Position Encoding), a unified framework for positional encoding based on group actions. GRAPE brings together two families of mechanisms: (i) multiplicative rotations (Multiplicative GRAPE) in $\mathrm{SO}(d)$ and (ii) additive logit biases (Additive GRAPE) arising from unipotent actions in the general linear group $\mathrm{GL}$. In Multiplicative GRAPE, a position $n \in \mathbb{Z}$ (or $t \in \mathbb{R}$) acts as $\mathbf{G}(n)=\exp(n\,ω\,\mathbf{L})$ with a rank-2 skew generator $\mathbf{L} \in \mathbb{R}^{d \times d}$, yielding a relative, compositional, norm-preserving map with a closed-form matrix exponential. RoPE is recovered exactly when the $d/2$ planes are the canonical coordinate pairs with log-uniform spectrum. Learned commuting subspaces and compact non-commuting mixtures strictly extend this geometry to capture cross-subspace feature coupling at $O(d)$ and $O(r d)$ cost per head, respectively. In Additive GRAPE, additive logits arise as rank-1 (or low-rank) unipotent actions, recovering ALiBi and the Forgetting Transformer (FoX) as exact special cases while preserving an exact relative law and streaming cacheability. Altogether, GRAPE supplies a principled design space for positional geometry in long-context models, subsuming RoPE and ALiBi as special cases. Project Page: △ Less Submitted 29 December, 2025; v1 submitted 8 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Project Page: arXiv:2512.07805 [ pdf , ps , other ] Group Representational Position Encoding Authors: Yifan Zhang , Zixiang Chen , Yifeng Liu , Zhen Qin , Huizhuo Yuan , Kangping Xu , Yang Yuan , Quanquan Gu , Andrew Chi-Chih Yao Abstract : We present GRAPE (Group RepresentAtional Position Encoding), a unified framework for positional encoding based on group actions. GRAPE brings together two families of mechanisms: (i) multiplicative rotations (Multiplicative GRAPE) in $\mathrm{SO}(d)$ and (ii) additive logit biases (Additive GRAPE) arising from unipotent actions in the general linear group $\mathrm{GL}$. In Multiplicative GRAPE, a… ▽ More We present GRAPE (Group RepresentAtional Position Encoding), a unified framework for positional encoding based on group actions. GRAPE brings together two families of mechanisms: (i) multiplicative rotations (Multiplicative GRAPE) in $\mathrm{SO}(d)$ and (ii) additive logit biases (Additive GRAPE) arising from unipotent actions in the general linear group $\mathrm{GL}$. In Multiplicative GRAPE, a position $n \in \mathbb{Z}$ (or $t \in \mathbb{R}$) acts as $\mathbf{G}(n)=\exp(n\,ω\,\mathbf{L})$ with a rank-2 skew generator $\mathbf{L} \in \mathbb{R}^{d \times d}$, yielding a relative, compositional, norm-preserving map with a closed-form matrix exponential. RoPE is recovered exactly when the $d/2$ planes are the canonical coordinate pairs with log-uniform spectrum. Learned commuting subspaces and compact non-commuting mixtures strictly extend this geometry to capture cross-subspace feature coupling at $O(d)$ and $O(r d)$ cost per head, respectively. In Additive GRAPE, additive logits arise as rank-1 (or low-rank) unipotent actions, recovering ALiBi and the Forgetting Transformer (FoX) as exact special cases while preserving an exact relative law and streaming cacheability. Altogether, GRAPE supplies a principled design space for positional geometry in long-context models, subsuming RoPE and ALiBi as special cases. Project Page: △ Less Submitted 29 December, 2025; v1 submitted 8 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Project Page: arXiv:2512.05991 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV EmoDiffTalk:Emotion-aware Diffusion for Editable 3D Gaussian Talking Head Authors: Chang Liu , Tianjiao Jing , Chengcheng Ma , Xuanqi Zhou , Zhengxuan Lian , Qin Jin , Hongliang Yuan , Shi-Sheng Huang Abstract : Recent photo-realistic 3D talking head via 3D Gaussian Splatting still has significant shortcoming in emotional expression manipulation, especially for fine-grained and expansive dynamics emotional editing using multi-modal control. This paper introduces a new editable 3D Gaussian talking head, i.e. EmoDiffTalk. Our key idea is a novel Emotion-aware Gaussian Diffusion, which includes an action uni… ▽ More Recent photo-realistic 3D talking head via 3D Gaussian Splatting still has significant shortcoming in emotional expression manipulation, especially for fine-grained and expansive dynamics emotional editing using multi-modal control. This paper introduces a new editable 3D Gaussian talking head, i.e. EmoDiffTalk. Our key idea is a novel Emotion-aware Gaussian Diffusion, which includes an action unit (AU) prompt Gaussian diffusion process for fine-grained facial animator, and moreover an accurate text-to-AU emotion controller to provide accurate and expansive dynamic emotional editing using text input. Experiments on public EmoTalk3D and RenderMe-360 datasets demonstrate superior emotional subtlety, lip-sync fidelity, and controllability of our EmoDiffTalk over previous works, establishing a principled pathway toward high-quality, diffusion-driven, multimodal editable 3D talking-head synthesis. To our best knowledge, our EmoDiffTalk is one of the first few 3D Gaussian Splatting talking-head generation framework, especially supporting continuous, multimodal emotional editing within the AU-based expression space. △ Less Submitted 10 December, 2025; v1 submitted 30 November, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.05991 [ pdf , ps , other ] EmoDiffTalk:Emotion-aware Diffusion for Editable 3D Gaussian Talking Head Authors: Chang Liu , Tianjiao Jing , Chengcheng Ma , Xuanqi Zhou , Zhengxuan Lian , Qin Jin , Hongliang Yuan , Shi-Sheng Huang Abstract : Recent photo-realistic 3D talking head via 3D Gaussian Splatting still has significant shortcoming in emotional expression manipulation, especially for fine-grained and expansive dynamics emotional editing using multi-modal control. This paper introduces a new editable 3D Gaussian talking head, i.e. EmoDiffTalk. Our key idea is a novel Emotion-aware Gaussian Diffusion, which includes an action uni… ▽ More Recent photo-realistic 3D talking head via 3D Gaussian Splatting still has significant shortcoming in emotional expression manipulation, especially for fine-grained and expansive dynamics emotional editing using multi-modal control. This paper introduces a new editable 3D Gaussian talking head, i.e. EmoDiffTalk. Our key idea is a novel Emotion-aware Gaussian Diffusion, which includes an action unit (AU) prompt Gaussian diffusion process for fine-grained facial animator, and moreover an accurate text-to-AU emotion controller to provide accurate and expansive dynamic emotional editing using text input. Experiments on public EmoTalk3D and RenderMe-360 datasets demonstrate superior emotional subtlety, lip-sync fidelity, and controllability of our EmoDiffTalk over previous works, establishing a principled pathway toward high-quality, diffusion-driven, multimodal editable 3D talking-head synthesis. To our best knowledge, our EmoDiffTalk is one of the first few 3D Gaussian Splatting talking-head generation framework, especially supporting continuous, multimodal emotional editing within the AU-based expression space. △ Less Submitted 10 December, 2025; v1 submitted 30 November, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.05091 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Visual Reasoning Tracer: Object-Level Grounded Reasoning Benchmark Authors: Haobo Yuan , Yueyi Sun , Yanwei Li , Tao Zhang , Xueqing Deng , Henghui Ding , Lu Qi , Anran Wang , Xiangtai Li , Ming-Hsuan Yang Abstract : Recent advances in Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) have significantly improved performance on tasks such as visual grounding and visual question answering. However, the reasoning processes of these models remain largely opaque; they typically output only final predictions without revealing the intermediate steps or fine-grained evidence (e.g., pixels, locations) that lead to the result. T… ▽ More Recent advances in Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) have significantly improved performance on tasks such as visual grounding and visual question answering. However, the reasoning processes of these models remain largely opaque; they typically output only final predictions without revealing the intermediate steps or fine-grained evidence (e.g., pixels, locations) that lead to the result. This contrasts with human intelligence, which naturally operates through a chain of visual reasoning. To address this limitation, we introduce the Visual Reasoning Tracer (VRT) task, which requires models to not only localize the target object but also explicitly predict the intermediate objects that form the reasoning path. To advance research in this area, we contribute: (1) VRT-Bench, a human-annotated benchmark for evaluating visual reasoning; (2) a new metric for assessing the quality of reasoning traces; and (3) VRT-80k, a large-scale dataset for reasoning model training. Our experiments reveal that while existing models often produce the correct final output, they struggle to ground their intermediate reasoning. In contrast, models trained on VRT-80k achieve substantial improvements in tracing the reasoning path. △ Less Submitted 4 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Technical Report; Project Page: arXiv:2512.05091 [ pdf , ps , other ] Visual Reasoning Tracer: Object-Level Grounded Reasoning Benchmark Authors: Haobo Yuan , Yueyi Sun , Yanwei Li , Tao Zhang , Xueqing Deng , Henghui Ding , Lu Qi , Anran Wang , Xiangtai Li , Ming-Hsuan Yang Abstract : Recent advances in Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) have significantly improved performance on tasks such as visual grounding and visual question answering. However, the reasoning processes of these models remain largely opaque; they typically output only final predictions without revealing the intermediate steps or fine-grained evidence (e.g., pixels, locations) that lead to the result. T… ▽ More Recent advances in Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) have significantly improved performance on tasks such as visual grounding and visual question answering. However, the reasoning processes of these models remain largely opaque; they typically output only final predictions without revealing the intermediate steps or fine-grained evidence (e.g., pixels, locations) that lead to the result. This contrasts with human intelligence, which naturally operates through a chain of visual reasoning. To address this limitation, we introduce the Visual Reasoning Tracer (VRT) task, which requires models to not only localize the target object but also explicitly predict the intermediate objects that form the reasoning path. To advance research in this area, we contribute: (1) VRT-Bench, a human-annotated benchmark for evaluating visual reasoning; (2) a new metric for assessing the quality of reasoning traces; and (3) VRT-80k, a large-scale dataset for reasoning model training. Our experiments reveal that while existing models often produce the correct final output, they struggle to ground their intermediate reasoning. In contrast, models trained on VRT-80k achieve substantial improvements in tracing the reasoning path. △ Less Submitted 4 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Technical Report; Project Page: arXiv:2512.03503 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL Understanding LLM Reasoning for Abstractive Summarization Authors: Haohan Yuan , Haopeng Zhang Abstract : While the reasoning capabilities of Large Language Models (LLMs) excel in analytical tasks such as mathematics and code generation, their utility for abstractive summarization remains widely assumed but largely unverified. To bridge this gap, we first tailor general reasoning strategies to the summarization domain. We then conduct a systematic, large scale comparative study of 8 reasoning strategi… ▽ More While the reasoning capabilities of Large Language Models (LLMs) excel in analytical tasks such as mathematics and code generation, their utility for abstractive summarization remains widely assumed but largely unverified. To bridge this gap, we first tailor general reasoning strategies to the summarization domain. We then conduct a systematic, large scale comparative study of 8 reasoning strategies and 3 Large Reasoning Models (LRMs) across 8 diverse datasets, assessing both summary quality and faithfulness. Our findings show that reasoning is not a universal solution and its effectiveness is highly dependent on the specific strategy and context. Specifically, we observe a trade-off between summary quality and factual faithfulness: explicit reasoning strategies tend to improve fluency at the expense of factual grounding, while implicit reasoning in LRMs exhibits the inverse pattern. Furthermore, increasing an LRM's internal reasoning budget does not improve, and can even hurt, factual consistency, suggesting that effective summarization demands faithful compression rather than creative over-thinking. △ Less Submitted 8 December, 2025; v1 submitted 3 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 26 pages,15 figures arXiv:2512.03503 [ pdf , ps , other ] Understanding LLM Reasoning for Abstractive Summarization Authors: Haohan Yuan , Haopeng Zhang Abstract : While the reasoning capabilities of Large Language Models (LLMs) excel in analytical tasks such as mathematics and code generation, their utility for abstractive summarization remains widely assumed but largely unverified. To bridge this gap, we first tailor general reasoning strategies to the summarization domain. We then conduct a systematic, large scale comparative study of 8 reasoning strategi… ▽ More While the reasoning capabilities of Large Language Models (LLMs) excel in analytical tasks such as mathematics and code generation, their utility for abstractive summarization remains widely assumed but largely unverified. To bridge this gap, we first tailor general reasoning strategies to the summarization domain. We then conduct a systematic, large scale comparative study of 8 reasoning strategies and 3 Large Reasoning Models (LRMs) across 8 diverse datasets, assessing both summary quality and faithfulness. Our findings show that reasoning is not a universal solution and its effectiveness is highly dependent on the specific strategy and context. Specifically, we observe a trade-off between summary quality and factual faithfulness: explicit reasoning strategies tend to improve fluency at the expense of factual grounding, while implicit reasoning in LRMs exhibits the inverse pattern. Furthermore, increasing an LRM's internal reasoning budget does not improve, and can even hurt, factual consistency, suggesting that effective summarization demands faithful compression rather than creative over-thinking. △ Less Submitted 8 December, 2025; v1 submitted 3 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 26 pages,15 figures arXiv:2512.01715 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.RO DiG-Flow: Discrepancy-Guided Flow Matching for Robust VLA Models Authors: Wanpeng Zhang , Ye Wang , Hao Luo , Haoqi Yuan , Yicheng Feng , Sipeng Zheng , Qin Jin , Zongqing Lu Abstract : Vision-Language-Action (VLA) models trained with flow matching have demonstrated impressive capabilities on robotic manipulation tasks. However, their performance often degrades under distribution shift and on complex multi-step tasks, suggesting that the learned representations may not robustly capture task-relevant semantics. We introduce DiG-Flow, a principled framework that enhances VLA robust… ▽ More Vision-Language-Action (VLA) models trained with flow matching have demonstrated impressive capabilities on robotic manipulation tasks. However, their performance often degrades under distribution shift and on complex multi-step tasks, suggesting that the learned representations may not robustly capture task-relevant semantics. We introduce DiG-Flow, a principled framework that enhances VLA robustness through geometric regularization. Our key insight is that the distributional discrepancy between observation and action embeddings provides a meaningful geometric signal: lower transport cost indicates compatible representations, while higher cost suggests potential misalignment. DiG-Flow computes a discrepancy measure between empirical distributions of observation and action embeddings, maps it to a modulation weight via a monotone function, and applies residual updates to the observation embeddings before flow matching. Crucially, this intervention operates at the representation level without modifying the flow matching path or target vector field. We provide theoretical guarantees showing that discrepancy-guided training provably decreases the training objective, and that guided inference refinement converges with contraction. Empirically, DiG-Flow integrates into existing VLA architectures with negligible overhead and consistently improves performance, with particularly pronounced gains on complex multi-step tasks and under limited training data. △ Less Submitted 1 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.01715 [ pdf , ps , other ] DiG-Flow: Discrepancy-Guided Flow Matching for Robust VLA Models Authors: Wanpeng Zhang , Ye Wang , Hao Luo , Haoqi Yuan , Yicheng Feng , Sipeng Zheng , Qin Jin , Zongqing Lu Abstract : Vision-Language-Action (VLA) models trained with flow matching have demonstrated impressive capabilities on robotic manipulation tasks. However, their performance often degrades under distribution shift and on complex multi-step tasks, suggesting that the learned representations may not robustly capture task-relevant semantics. We introduce DiG-Flow, a principled framework that enhances VLA robust… ▽ More Vision-Language-Action (VLA) models trained with flow matching have demonstrated impressive capabilities on robotic manipulation tasks. However, their performance often degrades under distribution shift and on complex multi-step tasks, suggesting that the learned representations may not robustly capture task-relevant semantics. We introduce DiG-Flow, a principled framework that enhances VLA robustness through geometric regularization. Our key insight is that the distributional discrepancy between observation and action embeddings provides a meaningful geometric signal: lower transport cost indicates compatible representations, while higher cost suggests potential misalignment. DiG-Flow computes a discrepancy measure between empirical distributions of observation and action embeddings, maps it to a modulation weight via a monotone function, and applies residual updates to the observation embeddings before flow matching. Crucially, this intervention operates at the representation level without modifying the flow matching path or target vector field. We provide theoretical guarantees showing that discrepancy-guided training provably decreases the training objective, and that guided inference refinement converges with contraction. Empirically, DiG-Flow integrates into existing VLA architectures with negligible overhead and consistently improves performance, with particularly pronounced gains on complex multi-step tasks and under limited training data. △ Less Submitted 1 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2511.22396 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI Asking like Socrates: Socrates helps VLMs understand remote sensing images Authors: Run Shao , Ziyu Li , Zhaoyang Zhang , Linrui Xu , Xinran He , Hongyuan Yuan , Bolei He , Yongxing Dai , Yiming Yan , Yijun Chen , Wang Guo , Haifeng Li Abstract : Recent multimodal reasoning models, inspired by DeepSeek-R1, have significantly advanced vision-language systems. However, in remote sensing (RS) tasks, we observe widespread pseudo reasoning: models narrate the process of reasoning rather than genuinely reason toward the correct answer based on visual evidence. We attribute this to the Glance Effect, where a single, coarse perception of large-sca… ▽ More Recent multimodal reasoning models, inspired by DeepSeek-R1, have significantly advanced vision-language systems. However, in remote sensing (RS) tasks, we observe widespread pseudo reasoning: models narrate the process of reasoning rather than genuinely reason toward the correct answer based on visual evidence. We attribute this to the Glance Effect, where a single, coarse perception of large-scale RS imagery results in incomplete understanding and reasoning based on linguistic self-consistency instead of visual evidence. To address this, we propose RS-EoT (Remote Sensing Evidence-of-Thought), a language-driven, iterative visual evidence-seeking paradigm. To instill this paradigm, we propose SocraticAgent, a self-play multi-agent system that synthesizes reasoning traces via alternating cycles of reasoning and visual inspection. To enhance and generalize these patterns, we propose a two-stage progressive RL strategy: first, RL on fine-grained Grounding tasks to enhance RS-EoT capabilities, followed by RL on RS VQA to generalize to broader understanding scenarios. Experiments show RS-EoT achieves state-of-the-art performance on multiple RS VQA and grounding benchmarks. Analyses reveal clear iterative cycles of reasoning and evidence seeking, confirming RS-EoT mitigates the Glance Effect and enables genuine evidence-grounded reasoning. Our code, data, and models are available at △ Less Submitted 27 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: 20 pages, 8 figures arXiv:2511.22396 [ pdf , ps , other ] Asking like Socrates: Socrates helps VLMs understand remote sensing images Authors: Run Shao , Ziyu Li , Zhaoyang Zhang , Linrui Xu , Xinran He , Hongyuan Yuan , Bolei He , Yongxing Dai , Yiming Yan , Yijun Chen , Wang Guo , Haifeng Li Abstract : Recent multimodal reasoning models, inspired by DeepSeek-R1, have significantly advanced vision-language systems. However, in remote sensing (RS) tasks, we observe widespread pseudo reasoning: models narrate the process of reasoning rather than genuinely reason toward the correct answer based on visual evidence. We attribute this to the Glance Effect, where a single, coarse perception of large-sca… ▽ More Recent multimodal reasoning models, inspired by DeepSeek-R1, have significantly advanced vision-language systems. However, in remote sensing (RS) tasks, we observe widespread pseudo reasoning: models narrate the process of reasoning rather than genuinely reason toward the correct answer based on visual evidence. We attribute this to the Glance Effect, where a single, coarse perception of large-scale RS imagery results in incomplete understanding and reasoning based on linguistic self-consistency instead of visual evidence. To address this, we propose RS-EoT (Remote Sensing Evidence-of-Thought), a language-driven, iterative visual evidence-seeking paradigm. To instill this paradigm, we propose SocraticAgent, a self-play multi-agent system that synthesizes reasoning traces via alternating cycles of reasoning and visual inspection. To enhance and generalize these patterns, we propose a two-stage progressive RL strategy: first, RL on fine-grained Grounding tasks to enhance RS-EoT capabilities, followed by RL on RS VQA to generalize to broader understanding scenarios. Experiments show RS-EoT achieves state-of-the-art performance on multiple RS VQA and grounding benchmarks. Analyses reveal clear iterative cycles of reasoning and evidence seeking, confirming RS-EoT mitigates the Glance Effect and enables genuine evidence-grounded reasoning. Our code, data, and models are available at △ Less Submitted 27 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: 20 pages, 8 figures arXiv:2511.20994 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI cs.CR GuardTrace-VL: Detecting Unsafe Multimodel Reasoning via Iterative Safety Supervision Authors: Yuxiao Xiang , Junchi Chen , Zhenchao Jin , Changtao Miao , Haojie Yuan , Qi Chu , Tao Gong , Nenghai Yu Abstract : Multimodal large reasoning models (MLRMs) are increasingly deployed for vision-language tasks that produce explicit intermediate rationales. However, reasoning traces can contain unsafe content even when the final answer is non-harmful, creating deployment risks. Existing multimodal safety guards primarily evaluate only the input question and the final answer, neglecting the intermediate reasoning… ▽ More Multimodal large reasoning models (MLRMs) are increasingly deployed for vision-language tasks that produce explicit intermediate rationales. However, reasoning traces can contain unsafe content even when the final answer is non-harmful, creating deployment risks. Existing multimodal safety guards primarily evaluate only the input question and the final answer, neglecting the intermediate reasoning process. This oversight allows undetected harm, such as biased inferences or policy-violating use of visual context, to emerge during reasoning. We introduce GuardTrace-VL, a vision-aware safety auditor that monitors the full Question-Thinking-Answer (QTA) pipeline via joint image-text analysis, enabling detection of unsafe content as it emerges in the reasoning stage. To support training and evaluation, we construct the GuardTrace dataset, which is generated through diverse prompting strategies and refined via a MLRM- and human-based voting and verification pipeline. Furthermore, we propose a three-stage progressive training scheme combined with the data refinement process, enabling the model to learn nuanced and context-dependent safety preferences according to different risk levels. On our proposed test set covering both in-domain and out-of-domain scenarios, GuardTrace-VL model achieves an F1 score of 93.1% on unsafe reasoning detection tasks, representing a 13.5% improvement in F1 score compared to the previous strongest multimodal safety defense methods. The codes will be made publicly available. △ Less Submitted 25 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.20994 [ pdf , ps , other ] GuardTrace-VL: Detecting Unsafe Multimodel Reasoning via Iterative Safety Supervision Authors: Yuxiao Xiang , Junchi Chen , Zhenchao Jin , Changtao Miao , Haojie Yuan , Qi Chu , Tao Gong , Nenghai Yu Abstract : Multimodal large reasoning models (MLRMs) are increasingly deployed for vision-language tasks that produce explicit intermediate rationales. However, reasoning traces can contain unsafe content even when the final answer is non-harmful, creating deployment risks. Existing multimodal safety guards primarily evaluate only the input question and the final answer, neglecting the intermediate reasoning… ▽ More Multimodal large reasoning models (MLRMs) are increasingly deployed for vision-language tasks that produce explicit intermediate rationales. However, reasoning traces can contain unsafe content even when the final answer is non-harmful, creating deployment risks. Existing multimodal safety guards primarily evaluate only the input question and the final answer, neglecting the intermediate reasoning process. This oversight allows undetected harm, such as biased inferences or policy-violating use of visual context, to emerge during reasoning. We introduce GuardTrace-VL, a vision-aware safety auditor that monitors the full Question-Thinking-Answer (QTA) pipeline via joint image-text analysis, enabling detection of unsafe content as it emerges in the reasoning stage. To support training and evaluation, we construct the GuardTrace dataset, which is generated through diverse prompting strategies and refined via a MLRM- and human-based voting and verification pipeline. Furthermore, we propose a three-stage progressive training scheme combined with the data refinement process, enabling the model to learn nuanced and context-dependent safety preferences according to different risk levels. On our proposed test set covering both in-domain and out-of-domain scenarios, GuardTrace-VL model achieves an F1 score of 93.1% on unsafe reasoning detection tasks, representing a 13.5% improvement in F1 score compared to the previous strongest multimodal safety defense methods. The codes will be made publicly available. △ Less Submitted 25 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.20573 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV VQ-VA World: Towards High-Quality Visual Question-Visual Answering Authors: Chenhui Gou , Zilong Chen , Zeyu Wang , Feng Li , Deyao Zhu , Zicheng Duan , Kunchang Li , Chaorui Deng , Hongyi Yuan , Haoqi Fan , Cihang Xie , Jianfei Cai , Hamid Rezatofighi Abstract : This paper studies Visual Question-Visual Answering (VQ-VA): generating an image, rather than text, in response to a visual question -- an ability that has recently emerged in proprietary systems such as NanoBanana and GPT-Image. To also bring this capability to open-source models, we introduce VQ-VA World, a data-centric framework built around an agentic pipeline for large-scale, targeted data co… ▽ More This paper studies Visual Question-Visual Answering (VQ-VA): generating an image, rather than text, in response to a visual question -- an ability that has recently emerged in proprietary systems such as NanoBanana and GPT-Image. To also bring this capability to open-source models, we introduce VQ-VA World, a data-centric framework built around an agentic pipeline for large-scale, targeted data construction. Leveraging web-scale deployment, this pipeline crawls a massive amount of ~1.8M high-quality, interleaved image-text samples for model training. For evaluation, we further release IntelligentBench, a human-curated benchmark that systematically assesses VQ-VA along the aspects of world knowledge, design knowledge, and reasoning. Training with VQ-VA World data yields strong empirical gains: it helps LightFusion attain 53.06 on IntelligentBench, substantially surpassing the best prior open-source baselines (i.e., 7.78 from vanilla LightFusion; 1.94 from UniWorld-V1), and significantly narrowing the gap toward leading proprietary systems (e.g., 81.67 from NanoBanana; 82.64 from GPT-Image). By releasing the full suite of model weights, datasets, and pipelines, we hope to stimulate future research on VQ-VA. △ Less Submitted 25 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.20573 [ pdf , ps , other ] VQ-VA World: Towards High-Quality Visual Question-Visual Answering Authors: Chenhui Gou , Zilong Chen , Zeyu Wang , Feng Li , Deyao Zhu , Zicheng Duan , Kunchang Li , Chaorui Deng , Hongyi Yuan , Haoqi Fan , Cihang Xie , Jianfei Cai , Hamid Rezatofighi Abstract : This paper studies Visual Question-Visual Answering (VQ-VA): generating an image, rather than text, in response to a visual question -- an ability that has recently emerged in proprietary systems such as NanoBanana and GPT-Image. To also bring this capability to open-source models, we introduce VQ-VA World, a data-centric framework built around an agentic pipeline for large-scale, targeted data co… ▽ More This paper studies Visual Question-Visual Answering (VQ-VA): generating an image, rather than text, in response to a visual question -- an ability that has recently emerged in proprietary systems such as NanoBanana and GPT-Image. To also bring this capability to open-source models, we introduce VQ-VA World, a data-centric framework built around an agentic pipeline for large-scale, targeted data construction. Leveraging web-scale deployment, this pipeline crawls a massive amount of ~1.8M high-quality, interleaved image-text samples for model training. For evaluation, we further release IntelligentBench, a human-curated benchmark that systematically assesses VQ-VA along the aspects of world knowledge, design knowledge, and reasoning. Training with VQ-VA World data yields strong empirical gains: it helps LightFusion attain 53.06 on IntelligentBench, substantially surpassing the best prior open-source baselines (i.e., 7.78 from vanilla LightFusion; 1.94 from UniWorld-V1), and significantly narrowing the gap toward leading proprietary systems (e.g., 81.67 from NanoBanana; 82.64 from GPT-Image). By releasing the full suite of model weights, datasets, and pipelines, we hope to stimulate future research on VQ-VA. △ Less Submitted 25 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.17989 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.AI cs.CR Privacy Auditing of Multi-domain Graph Pre-trained Model under Membership Inference Attacks Authors: Jiayi Luo , Qingyun Sun , Yuecen Wei , Haonan Yuan , Xingcheng Fu , Jianxin Li Abstract : Multi-domain graph pre-training has emerged as a pivotal technique in developing graph foundation models. While it greatly improves the generalization of graph neural networks, its privacy risks under membership inference attacks (MIAs), which aim to identify whether a specific instance was used in training (member), remain largely unexplored. However, effectively conducting MIAs against multi-dom… ▽ More Multi-domain graph pre-training has emerged as a pivotal technique in developing graph foundation models. While it greatly improves the generalization of graph neural networks, its privacy risks under membership inference attacks (MIAs), which aim to identify whether a specific instance was used in training (member), remain largely unexplored. However, effectively conducting MIAs against multi-domain graph pre-trained models is a significant challenge due to: (i) Enhanced Generalization Capability: Multi-domain pre-training reduces the overfitting characteristics commonly exploited by MIAs. (ii) Unrepresentative Shadow Datasets: Diverse training graphs hinder the obtaining of reliable shadow graphs. (iii) Weakened Membership Signals: Embedding-based outputs offer less informative cues than logits for MIAs. To tackle these challenges, we propose MGP-MIA, a novel framework for Membership Inference Attacks against Multi-domain Graph Pre-trained models. Specifically, we first propose a membership signal amplification mechanism that amplifies the overfitting characteristics of target models via machine unlearning. We then design an incremental shadow model construction mechanism that builds a reliable shadow model with limited shadow graphs via incremental learning. Finally, we introduce a similarity-based inference mechanism that identifies members based on their similarity to positive and negative samples. Extensive experiments demonstrate the effectiveness of our proposed MGP-MIA and reveal the privacy risks of multi-domain graph pre-training. △ Less Submitted 22 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: Accepted by AAAI 2026(Oral) arXiv:2511.17989 [ pdf , ps , other ] Privacy Auditing of Multi-domain Graph Pre-trained Model under Membership Inference Attacks Authors: Jiayi Luo , Qingyun Sun , Yuecen Wei , Haonan Yuan , Xingcheng Fu , Jianxin Li Abstract : Multi-domain graph pre-training has emerged as a pivotal technique in developing graph foundation models. While it greatly improves the generalization of graph neural networks, its privacy risks under membership inference attacks (MIAs), which aim to identify whether a specific instance was used in training (member), remain largely unexplored. However, effectively conducting MIAs against multi-dom… ▽ More Multi-domain graph pre-training has emerged as a pivotal technique in developing graph foundation models. While it greatly improves the generalization of graph neural networks, its privacy risks under membership inference attacks (MIAs), which aim to identify whether a specific instance was used in training (member), remain largely unexplored. However, effectively conducting MIAs against multi-domain graph pre-trained models is a significant challenge due to: (i) Enhanced Generalization Capability: Multi-domain pre-training reduces the overfitting characteristics commonly exploited by MIAs. (ii) Unrepresentative Shadow Datasets: Diverse training graphs hinder the obtaining of reliable shadow graphs. (iii) Weakened Membership Signals: Embedding-based outputs offer less informative cues than logits for MIAs. To tackle these challenges, we propose MGP-MIA, a novel framework for Membership Inference Attacks against Multi-domain Graph Pre-trained models. Specifically, we first propose a membership signal amplification mechanism that amplifies the overfitting characteristics of target models via machine unlearning. We then design an incremental shadow model construction mechanism that builds a reliable shadow model with limited shadow graphs via incremental learning. Finally, we introduce a similarity-based inference mechanism that identifies members based on their similarity to positive and negative samples. Extensive experiments demonstrate the effectiveness of our proposed MGP-MIA and reveal the privacy risks of multi-domain graph pre-training. △ Less Submitted 22 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: Accepted by AAAI 2026(Oral) arXiv:2511.17982 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CR cs.AI Towards Effective, Stealthy, and Persistent Backdoor Attacks Targeting Graph Foundation Models Authors: Jiayi Luo , Qingyun Sun , Lingjuan Lyu , Ziwei Zhang , Haonan Yuan , Xingcheng Fu , Jianxin Li Abstract : Graph Foundation Models (GFMs) are pre-trained on diverse source domains and adapted to unseen targets, enabling broad generalization for graph machine learning. Despite that GFMs have attracted considerable attention recently, their vulnerability to backdoor attacks remains largely underexplored. A compromised GFM can introduce backdoor behaviors into downstream applications, posing serious secur… ▽ More Graph Foundation Models (GFMs) are pre-trained on diverse source domains and adapted to unseen targets, enabling broad generalization for graph machine learning. Despite that GFMs have attracted considerable attention recently, their vulnerability to backdoor attacks remains largely underexplored. A compromised GFM can introduce backdoor behaviors into downstream applications, posing serious security risks. However, launching backdoor attacks against GFMs is non-trivial due to three key challenges. (1) Effectiveness: Attackers lack knowledge of the downstream task during pre-training, complicating the assurance that triggers reliably induce misclassifications into desired classes. (2) Stealthiness: The variability in node features across domains complicates trigger insertion that remains stealthy. (3) Persistence: Downstream fine-tuning may erase backdoor behaviors by updating model parameters. To address these challenges, we propose GFM-BA, a novel Backdoor Attack model against Graph Foundation Models. Specifically, we first design a label-free trigger association module that links the trigger to a set of prototype embeddings, eliminating the need for knowledge about downstream tasks to perform backdoor injection. Then, we introduce a node-adaptive trigger generator, dynamically producing node-specific triggers, reducing the risk of trigger detection while reliably activating the backdoor. Lastly, we develop a persistent backdoor anchoring module that firmly anchors the backdoor to fine-tuning-insensitive parameters, enhancing the persistence of the backdoor under downstream adaptation. Extensive experiments demonstrate the effectiveness, stealthiness, and persistence of GFM-BA. △ Less Submitted 22 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: Accepted by AAAI 2026 arXiv:2511.17982 [ pdf , ps , other ] Towards Effective, Stealthy, and Persistent Backdoor Attacks Targeting Graph Foundation Models Authors: Jiayi Luo , Qingyun Sun , Lingjuan Lyu , Ziwei Zhang , Haonan Yuan , Xingcheng Fu , Jianxin Li Abstract : Graph Foundation Models (GFMs) are pre-trained on diverse source domains and adapted to unseen targets, enabling broad generalization for graph machine learning. Despite that GFMs have attracted considerable attention recently, their vulnerability to backdoor attacks remains largely underexplored. A compromised GFM can introduce backdoor behaviors into downstream applications, posing serious secur… ▽ More Graph Foundation Models (GFMs) are pre-trained on diverse source domains and adapted to unseen targets, enabling broad generalization for graph machine learning. Despite that GFMs have attracted considerable attention recently, their vulnerability to backdoor attacks remains largely underexplored. A compromised GFM can introduce backdoor behaviors into downstream applications, posing serious security risks. However, launching backdoor attacks against GFMs is non-trivial due to three key challenges. (1) Effectiveness: Attackers lack knowledge of the downstream task during pre-training, complicating the assurance that triggers reliably induce misclassifications into desired classes. (2) Stealthiness: The variability in node features across domains complicates trigger insertion that remains stealthy. (3) Persistence: Downstream fine-tuning may erase backdoor behaviors by updating model parameters. To address these challenges, we propose GFM-BA, a novel Backdoor Attack model against Graph Foundation Models. Specifically, we first design a label-free trigger association module that links the trigger to a set of prototype embeddings, eliminating the need for knowledge about downstream tasks to perform backdoor injection. Then, we introduce a node-adaptive trigger generator, dynamically producing node-specific triggers, reducing the risk of trigger detection while reliably activating the backdoor. Lastly, we develop a persistent backdoor anchoring module that firmly anchors the backdoor to fine-tuning-insensitive parameters, enhancing the persistence of the backdoor under downstream adaptation. Extensive experiments demonstrate the effectiveness, stealthiness, and persistence of GFM-BA. △ Less Submitted 22 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: Accepted by AAAI 2026 arXiv:2511.17939 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.LG Neural Graph Navigation for Intelligent Subgraph Matching Authors: Yuchen Ying , Yiyang Dai , Wenda Li , Wenjie Huang , Rui Wang , Tongya Zheng , Yu Wang , Hanyang Yuan , Mingli Song Abstract : Subgraph matching, a cornerstone of relational pattern detection in domains ranging from biochemical systems to social network analysis, faces significant computational challenges due to the dramatically growing search space. Existing methods address this problem within a filtering-ordering-enumeration framework, in which the enumeration stage recursively matches the query graph against the candid… ▽ More Subgraph matching, a cornerstone of relational pattern detection in domains ranging from biochemical systems to social network analysis, faces significant computational challenges due to the dramatically growing search space. Existing methods address this problem within a filtering-ordering-enumeration framework, in which the enumeration stage recursively matches the query graph against the candidate subgraphs of the data graph. However, the lack of awareness of subgraph structural patterns leads to a costly brute-force enumeration, thereby critically motivating the need for intelligent navigation in subgraph matching. To address this challenge, we propose Neural Graph Navigation (NeuGN), a neuro-heuristic framework that transforms brute-force enumeration into neural-guided search by integrating neural navigation mechanisms into the core enumeration process. By preserving heuristic-based completeness guarantees while incorporating neural intelligence, NeuGN significantly reduces the \textit{First Match Steps} by up to 98.2\% compared to state-of-the-art methods across six real-world datasets. △ Less Submitted 22 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: Under review at AAAI 2026 arXiv:2511.17939 [ pdf , ps , other ] Neural Graph Navigation for Intelligent Subgraph Matching Authors: Yuchen Ying , Yiyang Dai , Wenda Li , Wenjie Huang , Rui Wang , Tongya Zheng , Yu Wang , Hanyang Yuan , Mingli Song Abstract : Subgraph matching, a cornerstone of relational pattern detection in domains ranging from biochemical systems to social network analysis, faces significant computational challenges due to the dramatically growing search space. Existing methods address this problem within a filtering-ordering-enumeration framework, in which the enumeration stage recursively matches the query graph against the candid… ▽ More Subgraph matching, a cornerstone of relational pattern detection in domains ranging from biochemical systems to social network analysis, faces significant computational challenges due to the dramatically growing search space. Existing methods address this problem within a filtering-ordering-enumeration framework, in which the enumeration stage recursively matches the query graph against the candidate subgraphs of the data graph. However, the lack of awareness of subgraph structural patterns leads to a costly brute-force enumeration, thereby critically motivating the need for intelligent navigation in subgraph matching. To address this challenge, we propose Neural Graph Navigation (NeuGN), a neuro-heuristic framework that transforms brute-force enumeration into neural-guided search by integrating neural navigation mechanisms into the core enumeration process. By preserving heuristic-based completeness guarantees while incorporating neural intelligence, NeuGN significantly reduces the \textit{First Match Steps} by up to 98.2\% compared to state-of-the-art methods across six real-world datasets. △ Less Submitted 22 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: Under review at AAAI 2026 arXiv:2511.17923 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI Towards Efficient LLM-aware Heterogeneous Graph Learning Authors: Wenda Li , Tongya Zheng , Shunyu Liu , Yu Wang , Kaixuan Chen , Hanyang Yuan , Bingde Hu , Zujie Ren , Mingli Song , Gang Chen Abstract : Heterogeneous graphs are widely present in real-world complex networks, where the diversity of node and relation types leads to complex and rich semantics. Efforts for modeling complex relation semantics in heterogeneous graphs are restricted by the limitations of predefined semantic dependencies and the scarcity of supervised signals. The advanced pre-training and fine-tuning paradigm leverages g… ▽ More Heterogeneous graphs are widely present in real-world complex networks, where the diversity of node and relation types leads to complex and rich semantics. Efforts for modeling complex relation semantics in heterogeneous graphs are restricted by the limitations of predefined semantic dependencies and the scarcity of supervised signals. The advanced pre-training and fine-tuning paradigm leverages graph structure to provide rich self-supervised signals, but introduces semantic gaps between tasks. Large Language Models (LLMs) offer significant potential to address the semantic issues of relations and tasks in heterogeneous graphs through their strong reasoning capabilities in textual modality, but their incorporation into heterogeneous graphs is largely limited by computational complexity. Therefore, in this paper, we propose an Efficient LLM-Aware (ELLA) framework for heterogeneous graphs, addressing the above issues. To capture complex relation semantics, we propose an LLM-aware Relation Tokenizer that leverages LLM to encode multi-hop, multi-type relations. To reduce computational complexity, we further employ a Hop-level Relation Graph Transformer, which help reduces the complexity of LLM-aware relation reasoning from exponential to linear. To bridge semantic gaps between pre-training and fine-tuning tasks, we introduce the fine-grained task-aware textual Chain-of-Thought (CoT) prompts. Extensive experiments on four heterogeneous graphs show that our proposed ELLA outperforms state-of-the-art methods in the performance and efficiency. In particular, ELLA scales up to 13b-parameter LLMs and achieves up to a 4x speedup compared with existing LLM-based methods. Our code is publicly available at △ Less Submitted 22 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.17923 [ pdf , ps , other ] Towards Efficient LLM-aware Heterogeneous Graph Learning Authors: Wenda Li , Tongya Zheng , Shunyu Liu , Yu Wang , Kaixuan Chen , Hanyang Yuan , Bingde Hu , Zujie Ren , Mingli Song , Gang Chen Abstract : Heterogeneous graphs are widely present in real-world complex networks, where the diversity of node and relation types leads to complex and rich semantics. Efforts for modeling complex relation semantics in heterogeneous graphs are restricted by the limitations of predefined semantic dependencies and the scarcity of supervised signals. The advanced pre-training and fine-tuning paradigm leverages g… ▽ More Heterogeneous graphs are widely present in real-world complex networks, where the diversity of node and relation types leads to complex and rich semantics. Efforts for modeling complex relation semantics in heterogeneous graphs are restricted by the limitations of predefined semantic dependencies and the scarcity of supervised signals. The advanced pre-training and fine-tuning paradigm leverages graph structure to provide rich self-supervised signals, but introduces semantic gaps between tasks. Large Language Models (LLMs) offer significant potential to address the semantic issues of relations and tasks in heterogeneous graphs through their strong reasoning capabilities in textual modality, but their incorporation into heterogeneous graphs is largely limited by computational complexity. Therefore, in this paper, we propose an Efficient LLM-Aware (ELLA) framework for heterogeneous graphs, addressing the above issues. To capture complex relation semantics, we propose an LLM-aware Relation Tokenizer that leverages LLM to encode multi-hop, multi-type relations. To reduce computational complexity, we further employ a Hop-level Relation Graph Transformer, which help reduces the complexity of LLM-aware relation reasoning from exponential to linear. To bridge semantic gaps between pre-training and fine-tuning tasks, we introduce the fine-grained task-aware textual Chain-of-Thought (CoT) prompts. Extensive experiments on four heterogeneous graphs show that our proposed ELLA outperforms state-of-the-art methods in the performance and efficiency. In particular, ELLA scales up to 13b-parameter LLMs and achieves up to a 4x speedup compared with existing LLM-based methods. Our code is publicly available at △ Less Submitted 22 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.17502 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.RO RynnVLA-002: A Unified Vision-Language-Action and World Model Authors: Jun Cen , Siteng Huang , Yuqian Yuan , Kehan Li , Hangjie Yuan , Chaohui Yu , Yuming Jiang , Jiayan Guo , Xin Li , Hao Luo , Fan Wang , Deli Zhao , Hao Chen Abstract : We introduce RynnVLA-002, a unified Vision-Language-Action (VLA) and world model. The world model leverages action and visual inputs to predict future image states, learning the underlying physics of the environment to refine action generation. Conversely, the VLA model produces subsequent actions from image observations, enhancing visual understanding and supporting the world model's image genera… ▽ More We introduce RynnVLA-002, a unified Vision-Language-Action (VLA) and world model. The world model leverages action and visual inputs to predict future image states, learning the underlying physics of the environment to refine action generation. Conversely, the VLA model produces subsequent actions from image observations, enhancing visual understanding and supporting the world model's image generation. The unified framework of RynnVLA-002 enables joint learning of environmental dynamics and action planning. Our experiments show that RynnVLA-002 surpasses individual VLA and world models, demonstrating their mutual enhancement. We evaluate RynnVLA-002 in both simulation and real-world robot tasks. RynnVLA-002 achieves 97.4% success rate on the LIBERO simulation benchmark without pretraining, while in real-world LeRobot experiments, its integrated world model boosts the overall success rate by 50%. △ Less Submitted 23 November, 2025; v1 submitted 21 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.17502 [ pdf , ps , other ] RynnVLA-002: A Unified Vision-Language-Action and World Model Authors: Jun Cen , Siteng Huang , Yuqian Yuan , Kehan Li , Hangjie Yuan , Chaohui Yu , Yuming Jiang , Jiayan Guo , Xin Li , Hao Luo , Fan Wang , Deli Zhao , Hao Chen Abstract : We introduce RynnVLA-002, a unified Vision-Language-Action (VLA) and world model. The world model leverages action and visual inputs to predict future image states, learning the underlying physics of the environment to refine action generation. Conversely, the VLA model produces subsequent actions from image observations, enhancing visual understanding and supporting the world model's image genera… ▽ More We introduce RynnVLA-002, a unified Vision-Language-Action (VLA) and world model. The world model leverages action and visual inputs to predict future image states, learning the underlying physics of the environment to refine action generation. Conversely, the VLA model produces subsequent actions from image observations, enhancing visual understanding and supporting the world model's image generation. The unified framework of RynnVLA-002 enables joint learning of environmental dynamics and action planning. Our experiments show that RynnVLA-002 surpasses individual VLA and world models, demonstrating their mutual enhancement. We evaluate RynnVLA-002 in both simulation and real-world robot tasks. RynnVLA-002 achieves 97.4% success rate on the LIBERO simulation benchmark without pretraining, while in real-world LeRobot experiments, its integrated world model boosts the overall success rate by 50%. △ Less Submitted 23 November, 2025; v1 submitted 21 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.16963 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV doi 10.1109/ICIP51287.2024.10647237 Two Heads Better than One: Dual Degradation Representation for Blind Super-Resolution Authors: Hsuan Yuan , Shao-Yu Weng , I-Hsuan Lo , Wei-Chen Chiu , Yu-Syuan Xu , Hao-Chien Hsueh , Jen-Hui Chuang , Ching-Chun Huang Abstract : Previous methods have demonstrated remarkable performance in single image super-resolution (SISR) tasks with known and fixed degradation (e.g., bicubic downsampling). However, when the actual degradation deviates from these assumptions, these methods may experience significant declines in performance. In this paper, we propose a Dual Branch Degradation Extractor Network to address the blind SR pro… ▽ More Previous methods have demonstrated remarkable performance in single image super-resolution (SISR) tasks with known and fixed degradation (e.g., bicubic downsampling). However, when the actual degradation deviates from these assumptions, these methods may experience significant declines in performance. In this paper, we propose a Dual Branch Degradation Extractor Network to address the blind SR problem. While some blind SR methods assume noise-free degradation and others do not explicitly consider the presence of noise in the degradation model, our approach predicts two unsupervised degradation embeddings that represent blurry and noisy information. The SR network can then be adapted to blur embedding and noise embedding in distinct ways. Furthermore, we treat the degradation extractor as a regularizer to capitalize on differences between SR and HR images. Extensive experiments on several benchmarks demonstrate our method achieves SOTA performance in the blind SR problem. △ Less Submitted 21 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.16963 [ pdf , ps , other ] Two Heads Better than One: Dual Degradation Representation for Blind Super-Resolution Authors: Hsuan Yuan , Shao-Yu Weng , I-Hsuan Lo , Wei-Chen Chiu , Yu-Syuan Xu , Hao-Chien Hsueh , Jen-Hui Chuang , Ching-Chun Huang Abstract : Previous methods have demonstrated remarkable performance in single image super-resolution (SISR) tasks with known and fixed degradation (e.g., bicubic downsampling). However, when the actual degradation deviates from these assumptions, these methods may experience significant declines in performance. In this paper, we propose a Dual Branch Degradation Extractor Network to address the blind SR pro… ▽ More Previous methods have demonstrated remarkable performance in single image super-resolution (SISR) tasks with known and fixed degradation (e.g., bicubic downsampling). However, when the actual degradation deviates from these assumptions, these methods may experience significant declines in performance. In this paper, we propose a Dual Branch Degradation Extractor Network to address the blind SR problem. While some blind SR methods assume noise-free degradation and others do not explicitly consider the presence of noise in the degradation model, our approach predicts two unsupervised degradation embeddings that represent blurry and noisy information. The SR network can then be adapted to blur embedding and noise embedding in distinct ways. Furthermore, we treat the degradation extractor as a regularizer to capitalize on differences between SR and HR images. Extensive experiments on several benchmarks demonstrate our method achieves SOTA performance in the blind SR problem. △ Less Submitted 21 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.15191 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI HISE-KT: Synergizing Heterogeneous Information Networks and LLMs for Explainable Knowledge Tracing with Meta-Path Optimization Authors: Zhiyi Duan , Zixing Shi , Hongyu Yuan , Qi Wang Abstract : Knowledge Tracing (KT) aims to mine students' evolving knowledge states and predict their future question-answering performance. Existing methods based on heterogeneous information networks (HINs) are prone to introducing noises due to manual or random selection of meta-paths and lack necessary quality assessment of meta-path instances. Conversely, recent large language models (LLMs)-based methods… ▽ More Knowledge Tracing (KT) aims to mine students' evolving knowledge states and predict their future question-answering performance. Existing methods based on heterogeneous information networks (HINs) are prone to introducing noises due to manual or random selection of meta-paths and lack necessary quality assessment of meta-path instances. Conversely, recent large language models (LLMs)-based methods ignore the rich information across students, and both paradigms struggle to deliver consistently accurate and evidence-based explanations. To address these issues, we propose an innovative framework, HIN-LLM Synergistic Enhanced Knowledge Tracing (HISE-KT), which seamlessly integrates HINs with LLMs. HISE-KT first builds a multi-relationship HIN containing diverse node types to capture the structural relations through multiple meta-paths. The LLM is then employed to intelligently score and filter meta-path instances and retain high-quality paths, pioneering automated meta-path quality assessment. Inspired by educational psychology principles, a similar student retrieval mechanism based on meta-paths is designed to provide a more valuable context for prediction. Finally, HISE-KT uses a structured prompt to integrate the target student's history with the retrieved similar trajectories, enabling the LLM to generate not only accurate predictions but also evidence-backed, explainable analysis reports. Experiments on four public datasets show that HISE-KT outperforms existing KT baselines in both prediction performance and interpretability. △ Less Submitted 19 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.15191 [ pdf , ps , other ] HISE-KT: Synergizing Heterogeneous Information Networks and LLMs for Explainable Knowledge Tracing with Meta-Path Optimization Authors: Zhiyi Duan , Zixing Shi , Hongyu Yuan , Qi Wang Abstract : Knowledge Tracing (KT) aims to mine students' evolving knowledge states and predict their future question-answering performance. Existing methods based on heterogeneous information networks (HINs) are prone to introducing noises due to manual or random selection of meta-paths and lack necessary quality assessment of meta-path instances. Conversely, recent large language models (LLMs)-based methods… ▽ More Knowledge Tracing (KT) aims to mine students' evolving knowledge states and predict their future question-answering performance. Existing methods based on heterogeneous information networks (HINs) are prone to introducing noises due to manual or random selection of meta-paths and lack necessary quality assessment of meta-path instances. Conversely, recent large language models (LLMs)-based methods ignore the rich information across students, and both paradigms struggle to deliver consistently accurate and evidence-based explanations. To address these issues, we propose an innovative framework, HIN-LLM Synergistic Enhanced Knowledge Tracing (HISE-KT), which seamlessly integrates HINs with LLMs. HISE-KT first builds a multi-relationship HIN containing diverse node types to capture the structural relations through multiple meta-paths. The LLM is then employed to intelligently score and filter meta-path instances and retain high-quality paths, pioneering automated meta-path quality assessment. Inspired by educational psychology principles, a similar student retrieval mechanism based on meta-paths is designed to provide a more valuable context for prediction. Finally, HISE-KT uses a structured prompt to integrate the target student's history with the retrieved similar trajectories, enabling the LLM to generate not only accurate predictions but also evidence-backed, explainable analysis reports. Experiments on four public datasets show that HISE-KT outperforms existing KT baselines in both prediction performance and interpretability. △ Less Submitted 19 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.10997 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.LG PROMISE: Prompt-Attentive Hierarchical Contrastive Learning for Robust Cross-Modal Representation with Missing Modalities Authors: Jiajun Chen , Sai Cheng , Yutao Yuan , Yirui Zhang , Haitao Yuan , Peng Peng , Yi Zhong Abstract : Multimodal models integrating natural language and visual information have substantially improved generalization of representation models. However, their effectiveness significantly declines in real-world situations where certain modalities are missing or unavailable. This degradation primarily stems from inconsistent representation learning between complete multimodal data and incomplete modality… ▽ More Multimodal models integrating natural language and visual information have substantially improved generalization of representation models. However, their effectiveness significantly declines in real-world situations where certain modalities are missing or unavailable. This degradation primarily stems from inconsistent representation learning between complete multimodal data and incomplete modality scenarios. Existing approaches typically address missing modalities through relatively simplistic generation methods, yet these approaches fail to adequately preserve cross-modal consistency, leading to suboptimal performance. To overcome this limitation, we propose a novel multimodal framework named PROMISE, a PROMpting-Attentive HIerarchical ContraStive LEarning approach designed explicitly for robust cross-modal representation under conditions of missing modalities. Specifically, PROMISE innovatively incorporates multimodal prompt learning into a hierarchical contrastive learning framework, equipped with a specially designed prompt-attention mechanism. This mechanism dynamically generates robust and consistent representations for scenarios where particular modalities are absent, thereby effectively bridging the representational gap between complete and incomplete data. Extensive experiments conducted on benchmark datasets, along with comprehensive ablation studies, clearly demonstrate the superior performance of PROMISE compared to current state-of-the-art multimodal methods. △ Less Submitted 14 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: Accepted by AAAI'2026 Main Conference arXiv:2511.10997 [ pdf , ps , other ] PROMISE: Prompt-Attentive Hierarchical Contrastive Learning for Robust Cross-Modal Representation with Missing Modalities Authors: Jiajun Chen , Sai Cheng , Yutao Yuan , Yirui Zhang , Haitao Yuan , Peng Peng , Yi Zhong Abstract : Multimodal models integrating natural language and visual information have substantially improved generalization of representation models. However, their effectiveness significantly declines in real-world situations where certain modalities are missing or unavailable. This degradation primarily stems from inconsistent representation learning between complete multimodal data and incomplete modality… ▽ More Multimodal models integrating natural language and visual information have substantially improved generalization of representation models. However, their effectiveness significantly declines in real-world situations where certain modalities are missing or unavailable. This degradation primarily stems from inconsistent representation learning between complete multimodal data and incomplete modality scenarios. Existing approaches typically address missing modalities through relatively simplistic generation methods, yet these approaches fail to adequately preserve cross-modal consistency, leading to suboptimal performance. To overcome this limitation, we propose a novel multimodal framework named PROMISE, a PROMpting-Attentive HIerarchical ContraStive LEarning approach designed explicitly for robust cross-modal representation under conditions of missing modalities. Specifically, PROMISE innovatively incorporates multimodal prompt learning into a hierarchical contrastive learning framework, equipped with a specially designed prompt-attention mechanism. This mechanism dynamically generates robust and consistent representations for scenarios where particular modalities are absent, thereby effectively bridging the representational gap between complete and incomplete data. Extensive experiments conducted on benchmark datasets, along with comprehensive ablation studies, clearly demonstrate the superior performance of PROMISE compared to current state-of-the-art multimodal methods. △ Less Submitted 14 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: Accepted by AAAI'2026 Main Conference arXiv:2511.08626 [ pdf , ps , other ] eess.IV cs.AI cs.CV SAMora: Enhancing SAM through Hierarchical Self-Supervised Pre-Training for Medical Images Authors: Shuhang Chen , Hangjie Yuan , Pengwei Liu , Hanxue Gu , Tao Feng , Dong Ni Abstract : The Segment Anything Model (SAM) has demonstrated significant potential in medical image segmentation. Yet, its performance is limited when only a small amount of labeled data is available, while there is abundant valuable yet often overlooked hierarchical information in medical data. To address this limitation, we draw inspiration from self-supervised learning and propose SAMora, an innovative fr… ▽ More The Segment Anything Model (SAM) has demonstrated significant potential in medical image segmentation. Yet, its performance is limited when only a small amount of labeled data is available, while there is abundant valuable yet often overlooked hierarchical information in medical data. To address this limitation, we draw inspiration from self-supervised learning and propose SAMora, an innovative framework that captures hierarchical medical knowledge by applying complementary self-supervised learning objectives at the image, patch, and pixel levels. To fully exploit the complementarity of hierarchical knowledge within LoRAs, we introduce HL-Attn, a hierarchical fusion module that integrates multi-scale features while maintaining their distinct characteristics. SAMora is compatible with various SAM variants, including SAM2, SAMed, and H-SAM. Experimental results on the Synapse, LA, and PROMISE12 datasets demonstrate that SAMora outperforms existing SAM variants. It achieves state-of-the-art performance in both few-shot and fully supervised settings while reducing fine-tuning epochs by 90%. The code is available at △ Less Submitted 8 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.08626 [ pdf , ps , other ] SAMora: Enhancing SAM through Hierarchical Self-Supervised Pre-Training for Medical Images Authors: Shuhang Chen , Hangjie Yuan , Pengwei Liu , Hanxue Gu , Tao Feng , Dong Ni Abstract : The Segment Anything Model (SAM) has demonstrated significant potential in medical image segmentation. Yet, its performance is limited when only a small amount of labeled data is available, while there is abundant valuable yet often overlooked hierarchical information in medical data. To address this limitation, we draw inspiration from self-supervised learning and propose SAMora, an innovative fr… ▽ More The Segment Anything Model (SAM) has demonstrated significant potential in medical image segmentation. Yet, its performance is limited when only a small amount of labeled data is available, while there is abundant valuable yet often overlooked hierarchical information in medical data. To address this limitation, we draw inspiration from self-supervised learning and propose SAMora, an innovative framework that captures hierarchical medical knowledge by applying complementary self-supervised learning objectives at the image, patch, and pixel levels. To fully exploit the complementarity of hierarchical knowledge within LoRAs, we introduce HL-Attn, a hierarchical fusion module that integrates multi-scale features while maintaining their distinct characteristics. SAMora is compatible with various SAM variants, including SAM2, SAMed, and H-SAM. Experimental results on the Synapse, LA, and PROMISE12 datasets demonstrate that SAMora outperforms existing SAM variants. It achieves state-of-the-art performance in both few-shot and fully supervised settings while reducing fine-tuning epochs by 90%. The code is available at △ Less Submitted 8 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.07028 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.IR Wavelet Enhanced Adaptive Frequency Filter for Sequential Recommendation Authors: Huayang Xu , Huanhuan Yuan , Guanfeng Liu , Junhua Fang , Lei Zhao , Pengpeng Zhao Abstract : Sequential recommendation has garnered significant attention for its ability to capture dynamic preferences by mining users' historical interaction data. Given that users' complex and intertwined periodic preferences are difficult to disentangle in the time domain, recent research is exploring frequency domain analysis to identify these hidden patterns. However, current frequency-domain-based meth… ▽ More Sequential recommendation has garnered significant attention for its ability to capture dynamic preferences by mining users' historical interaction data. Given that users' complex and intertwined periodic preferences are difficult to disentangle in the time domain, recent research is exploring frequency domain analysis to identify these hidden patterns. However, current frequency-domain-based methods suffer from two key limitations: (i) They primarily employ static filters with fixed characteristics, overlooking the personalized nature of behavioral patterns; (ii) While the global discrete Fourier transform excels at modeling long-range dependencies, it can blur non-stationary signals and short-term fluctuations. To overcome these limitations, we propose a novel method called Wavelet Enhanced Adaptive Frequency Filter for Sequential Recommendation. Specifically, it consists of two vital modules: dynamic frequency-domain filtering and wavelet feature enhancement. The former is used to dynamically adjust filtering operations based on behavioral sequences to extract personalized global information, and the latter integrates wavelet transform to reconstruct sequences, enhancing blurred non-stationary signals and short-term fluctuations. Finally, these two modules work to achieve comprehensive performance and efficiency optimization in long sequential recommendation scenarios. Extensive experiments on four widely-used benchmark datasets demonstrate the superiority of our work. △ Less Submitted 26 November, 2025; v1 submitted 10 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: Accepted by AAAI 2026 arXiv:2511.07028 [ pdf , ps , other ] Wavelet Enhanced Adaptive Frequency Filter for Sequential Recommendation Authors: Huayang Xu , Huanhuan Yuan , Guanfeng Liu , Junhua Fang , Lei Zhao , Pengpeng Zhao Abstract : Sequential recommendation has garnered significant attention for its ability to capture dynamic preferences by mining users' historical interaction data. Given that users' complex and intertwined periodic preferences are difficult to disentangle in the time domain, recent research is exploring frequency domain analysis to identify these hidden patterns. However, current frequency-domain-based meth… ▽ More Sequential recommendation has garnered significant attention for its ability to capture dynamic preferences by mining users' historical interaction data. Given that users' complex and intertwined periodic preferences are difficult to disentangle in the time domain, recent research is exploring frequency domain analysis to identify these hidden patterns. However, current frequency-domain-based methods suffer from two key limitations: (i) They primarily employ static filters with fixed characteristics, overlooking the personalized nature of behavioral patterns; (ii) While the global discrete Fourier transform excels at modeling long-range dependencies, it can blur non-stationary signals and short-term fluctuations. To overcome these limitations, we propose a novel method called Wavelet Enhanced Adaptive Frequency Filter for Sequential Recommendation. Specifically, it consists of two vital modules: dynamic frequency-domain filtering and wavelet feature enhancement. The former is used to dynamically adjust filtering operations based on behavioral sequences to extract personalized global information, and the latter integrates wavelet transform to reconstruct sequences, enhancing blurred non-stationary signals and short-term fluctuations. Finally, these two modules work to achieve comprehensive performance and efficiency optimization in long sequential recommendation scenarios. Extensive experiments on four widely-used benchmark datasets demonstrate the superiority of our work. △ Less Submitted 26 November, 2025; v1 submitted 10 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: Accepted by AAAI 2026 arXiv:2511.06230 [ pdf ] cs.CL cs.AI Overview of CHIP 2025 Shared Task 2: Discharge Medication Recommendation for Metabolic Diseases Based on Chinese Electronic Health Records Authors: Juntao Li , Haobin Yuan , Ling Luo , Tengxiao Lv , Yan Jiang , Fan Wang , Ping Zhang , Huiyi Lv , Jian Wang , Yuanyuan Sun , Hongfei Lin Abstract : Discharge medication recommendation plays a critical role in ensuring treatment continuity, preventing readmission, and improving long-term management for patients with chronic metabolic diseases. This paper present an overview of the CHIP 2025 Shared Task 2 competition, which aimed to develop state-of-the-art approaches for automatically recommending appro-priate discharge medications using real-… ▽ More Discharge medication recommendation plays a critical role in ensuring treatment continuity, preventing readmission, and improving long-term management for patients with chronic metabolic diseases. This paper present an overview of the CHIP 2025 Shared Task 2 competition, which aimed to develop state-of-the-art approaches for automatically recommending appro-priate discharge medications using real-world Chinese EHR data. For this task, we constructed CDrugRed, a high-quality dataset consisting of 5,894 de-identified hospitalization records from 3,190 patients in China. This task is challenging due to multi-label nature of medication recommendation, het-erogeneous clinical text, and patient-specific variability in treatment plans. A total of 526 teams registered, with 167 and 95 teams submitting valid results to the Phase A and Phase B leaderboards, respectively. The top-performing team achieved the highest overall performance on the final test set, with a Jaccard score of 0.5102, F1 score of 0.6267, demonstrating the potential of advanced large language model (LLM)-based ensemble systems. These re-sults highlight both the promise and remaining challenges of applying LLMs to medication recommendation in Chinese EHRs. The post-evaluation phase remains open at △ Less Submitted 9 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.06230 [ pdf ] Overview of CHIP 2025 Shared Task 2: Discharge Medication Recommendation for Metabolic Diseases Based on Chinese Electronic Health Records Authors: Juntao Li , Haobin Yuan , Ling Luo , Tengxiao Lv , Yan Jiang , Fan Wang , Ping Zhang , Huiyi Lv , Jian Wang , Yuanyuan Sun , Hongfei Lin Abstract : Discharge medication recommendation plays a critical role in ensuring treatment continuity, preventing readmission, and improving long-term management for patients with chronic metabolic diseases. This paper present an overview of the CHIP 2025 Shared Task 2 competition, which aimed to develop state-of-the-art approaches for automatically recommending appro-priate discharge medications using real-… ▽ More Discharge medication recommendation plays a critical role in ensuring treatment continuity, preventing readmission, and improving long-term management for patients with chronic metabolic diseases. This paper present an overview of the CHIP 2025 Shared Task 2 competition, which aimed to develop state-of-the-art approaches for automatically recommending appro-priate discharge medications using real-world Chinese EHR data. For this task, we constructed CDrugRed, a high-quality dataset consisting of 5,894 de-identified hospitalization records from 3,190 patients in China. This task is challenging due to multi-label nature of medication recommendation, het-erogeneous clinical text, and patient-specific variability in treatment plans. A total of 526 teams registered, with 167 and 95 teams submitting valid results to the Phase A and Phase B leaderboards, respectively. The top-performing team achieved the highest overall performance on the final test set, with a Jaccard score of 0.5102, F1 score of 0.6267, demonstrating the potential of advanced large language model (LLM)-based ensemble systems. These re-sults highlight both the promise and remaining challenges of applying LLMs to medication recommendation in Chinese EHRs. The post-evaluation phase remains open at △ Less Submitted 9 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.05592 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG GRAVER: Generative Graph Vocabularies for Robust Graph Foundation Models Fine-tuning Authors: Haonan Yuan , Qingyun Sun , Junhua Shi , Xingcheng Fu , Bryan Hooi , Jianxin Li , Philip S. Yu Abstract : Inspired by the remarkable success of foundation models in language and vision, Graph Foundation Models (GFMs) hold significant promise for broad applicability across diverse graph tasks and domains. However, existing GFMs struggle with unstable few-shot fine-tuning, where both performance and adaptation efficiency exhibit significant fluctuations caused by the randomness in the support sample sel… ▽ More Inspired by the remarkable success of foundation models in language and vision, Graph Foundation Models (GFMs) hold significant promise for broad applicability across diverse graph tasks and domains. However, existing GFMs struggle with unstable few-shot fine-tuning, where both performance and adaptation efficiency exhibit significant fluctuations caused by the randomness in the support sample selection and structural discrepancies between the pre-trained and target graphs. How to fine-tune GFMs robustly and efficiently to enable trustworthy knowledge transfer across domains and tasks is the major challenge. In this paper, we propose GRAVER, a novel Generative gRAph VocabulariEs for Robust GFM fine-tuning framework that tackles the aforementioned instability via generative augmentations. Specifically, to identify transferable units, we analyze and extract key class-specific subgraph patterns by ego-graph disentanglement and validate their transferability both theoretically and empirically. To enable effective pre-training across diverse domains, we leverage a universal task template based on ego-graph similarity and construct graph vocabularies via graphon-based generative experts. To facilitate robust and efficient prompt fine-tuning, we grave the support samples with in-context vocabularies, where the lightweight MoE-CoE network attentively routes knowledge from source domains. Extensive experiments demonstrate the superiority of GRAVER over effectiveness, robustness, and efficiency on downstream few-shot node and graph classification tasks compared with 15 state-of-the-art baselines. △ Less Submitted 5 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: Accepted by the NeurIPS 2025 arXiv:2511.05592 [ pdf , ps , other ] GRAVER: Generative Graph Vocabularies for Robust Graph Foundation Models Fine-tuning Authors: Haonan Yuan , Qingyun Sun , Junhua Shi , Xingcheng Fu , Bryan Hooi , Jianxin Li , Philip S. Yu Abstract : Inspired by the remarkable success of foundation models in language and vision, Graph Foundation Models (GFMs) hold significant promise for broad applicability across diverse graph tasks and domains. However, existing GFMs struggle with unstable few-shot fine-tuning, where both performance and adaptation efficiency exhibit significant fluctuations caused by the randomness in the support sample sel… ▽ More Inspired by the remarkable success of foundation models in language and vision, Graph Foundation Models (GFMs) hold significant promise for broad applicability across diverse graph tasks and domains. However, existing GFMs struggle with unstable few-shot fine-tuning, where both performance and adaptation efficiency exhibit significant fluctuations caused by the randomness in the support sample selection and structural discrepancies between the pre-trained and target graphs. How to fine-tune GFMs robustly and efficiently to enable trustworthy knowledge transfer across domains and tasks is the major challenge. In this paper, we propose GRAVER, a novel Generative gRAph VocabulariEs for Robust GFM fine-tuning framework that tackles the aforementioned instability via generative augmentations. Specifically, to identify transferable units, we analyze and extract key class-specific subgraph patterns by ego-graph disentanglement and validate their transferability both theoretically and empirically. To enable effective pre-training across diverse domains, we leverage a universal task template based on ego-graph similarity and construct graph vocabularies via graphon-based generative experts. To facilitate robust and efficient prompt fine-tuning, we grave the support samples with in-context vocabularies, where the lightweight MoE-CoE network attentively routes knowledge from source domains. Extensive experiments demonstrate the superiority of GRAVER over effectiveness, robustness, and efficiency on downstream few-shot node and graph classification tasks compared with 15 state-of-the-art baselines. △ Less Submitted 5 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: Accepted by the NeurIPS 2025 arXiv:2511.02354 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG Evolving Graph Learning for Out-of-Distribution Generalization in Non-stationary Environments Authors: Qingyun Sun , Jiayi Luo , Haonan Yuan , Xingcheng Fu , Hao Peng , Jianxin Li , Philip S. Yu Abstract : Graph neural networks have shown remarkable success in exploiting the spatial and temporal patterns on dynamic graphs. However, existing GNNs exhibit poor generalization ability under distribution shifts, which is inevitable in dynamic scenarios. As dynamic graph generation progresses amid evolving latent non-stationary environments, it is imperative to explore their effects on out-of-distribution… ▽ More Graph neural networks have shown remarkable success in exploiting the spatial and temporal patterns on dynamic graphs. However, existing GNNs exhibit poor generalization ability under distribution shifts, which is inevitable in dynamic scenarios. As dynamic graph generation progresses amid evolving latent non-stationary environments, it is imperative to explore their effects on out-of-distribution (OOD) generalization. This paper proposes a novel Evolving Graph Learning framework for OOD generalization (EvoOOD) by environment-aware invariant pattern recognition. Specifically, we first design an environment sequential variational auto-encoder to model environment evolution and infer the underlying environment distribution. Then, we introduce a mechanism for environment-aware invariant pattern recognition, tailored to address environmental diversification through inferred distributions. Finally, we conduct fine-grained causal interventions on individual nodes using a mixture of instantiated environment samples. This approach helps to distinguish spatio-temporal invariant patterns for OOD prediction, especially in non-stationary environments. Experimental results demonstrate the superiority of EvoGOOD on both real-world and synthetic dynamic datasets under distribution shifts. To the best of our knowledge, it is the first attempt to study the dynamic graph OOD generalization problem from the environment evolution perspective. △ Less Submitted 22 November, 2025; v1 submitted 4 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: Accepted by TPAMI arXiv:2511.02354 [ pdf , ps , other ] Evolving Graph Learning for Out-of-Distribution Generalization in Non-stationary Environments Authors: Qingyun Sun , Jiayi Luo , Haonan Yuan , Xingcheng Fu , Hao Peng , Jianxin Li , Philip S. Yu Abstract : Graph neural networks have shown remarkable success in exploiting the spatial and temporal patterns on dynamic graphs. However, existing GNNs exhibit poor generalization ability under distribution shifts, which is inevitable in dynamic scenarios. As dynamic graph generation progresses amid evolving latent non-stationary environments, it is imperative to explore their effects on out-of-distribution… ▽ More Graph neural networks have shown remarkable success in exploiting the spatial and temporal patterns on dynamic graphs. However, existing GNNs exhibit poor generalization ability under distribution shifts, which is inevitable in dynamic scenarios. As dynamic graph generation progresses amid evolving latent non-stationary environments, it is imperative to explore their effects on out-of-distribution (OOD) generalization. This paper proposes a novel Evolving Graph Learning framework for OOD generalization (EvoOOD) by environment-aware invariant pattern recognition. Specifically, we first design an environment sequential variational auto-encoder to model environment evolution and infer the underlying environment distribution. Then, we introduce a mechanism for environment-aware invariant pattern recognition, tailored to address environmental diversification through inferred distributions. Finally, we conduct fine-grained causal interventions on individual nodes using a mixture of instantiated environment samples. This approach helps to distinguish spatio-temporal invariant patterns for OOD prediction, especially in non-stationary environments. Experimental results demonstrate the superiority of EvoGOOD on both real-world and synthetic dynamic datasets under distribution shifts. To the best of our knowledge, it is the first attempt to study the dynamic graph OOD generalization problem from the environment evolution perspective. △ Less Submitted 22 November, 2025; v1 submitted 4 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: Accepted by TPAMI arXiv:2511.01678 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV UniLumos: Fast and Unified Image and Video Relighting with Physics-Plausible Feedback Authors: Ropeway Liu , Hangjie Yuan , Bo Dong , Jiazheng Xing , Jinwang Wang , Rui Zhao , Yan Xing , Weihua Chen , Fan Wang Abstract : Relighting is a crucial task with both practical demand and artistic value, and recent diffusion models have shown strong potential by enabling rich and controllable lighting effects. However, as they are typically optimized in semantic latent space, where proximity does not guarantee physical correctness in visual space, they often produce unrealistic results, such as overexposed highlights, misa… ▽ More Relighting is a crucial task with both practical demand and artistic value, and recent diffusion models have shown strong potential by enabling rich and controllable lighting effects. However, as they are typically optimized in semantic latent space, where proximity does not guarantee physical correctness in visual space, they often produce unrealistic results, such as overexposed highlights, misaligned shadows, and incorrect occlusions. We address this with UniLumos, a unified relighting framework for both images and videos that brings RGB-space geometry feedback into a flow matching backbone. By supervising the model with depth and normal maps extracted from its outputs, we explicitly align lighting effects with the scene structure, enhancing physical plausibility. Nevertheless, this feedback requires high-quality outputs for supervision in visual space, making standard multi-step denoising computationally expensive. To mitigate this, we employ path consistency learning, allowing supervision to remain effective even under few-step training regimes. To enable fine-grained relighting control and supervision, we design a structured six-dimensional annotation protocol capturing core illumination attributes. Building upon this, we propose LumosBench, a disentangled attribute-level benchmark that evaluates lighting controllability via large vision-language models, enabling automatic and interpretable assessment of relighting precision across individual dimensions. Extensive experiments demonstrate that UniLumos achieves state-of-the-art relighting quality with significantly improved physical consistency, while delivering a 20x speedup for both image and video relighting. Code is available at △ Less Submitted 3 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: NeurIPS 2025 arXiv:2511.01678 [ pdf , ps , other ] UniLumos: Fast and Unified Image and Video Relighting with Physics-Plausible Feedback Authors: Ropeway Liu , Hangjie Yuan , Bo Dong , Jiazheng Xing , Jinwang Wang , Rui Zhao , Yan Xing , Weihua Chen , Fan Wang Abstract : Relighting is a crucial task with both practical demand and artistic value, and recent diffusion models have shown strong potential by enabling rich and controllable lighting effects. However, as they are typically optimized in semantic latent space, where proximity does not guarantee physical correctness in visual space, they often produce unrealistic results, such as overexposed highlights, misa… ▽ More Relighting is a crucial task with both practical demand and artistic value, and recent diffusion models have shown strong potential by enabling rich and controllable lighting effects. However, as they are typically optimized in semantic latent space, where proximity does not guarantee physical correctness in visual space, they often produce unrealistic results, such as overexposed highlights, misaligned shadows, and incorrect occlusions. We address this with UniLumos, a unified relighting framework for both images and videos that brings RGB-space geometry feedback into a flow matching backbone. By supervising the model with depth and normal maps extracted from its outputs, we explicitly align lighting effects with the scene structure, enhancing physical plausibility. Nevertheless, this feedback requires high-quality outputs for supervision in visual space, making standard multi-step denoising computationally expensive. To mitigate this, we employ path consistency learning, allowing supervision to remain effective even under few-step training regimes. To enable fine-grained relighting control and supervision, we design a structured six-dimensional annotation protocol capturing core illumination attributes. Building upon this, we propose LumosBench, a disentangled attribute-level benchmark that evaluates lighting controllability via large vision-language models, enabling automatic and interpretable assessment of relighting precision across individual dimensions. Extensive experiments demonstrate that UniLumos achieves state-of-the-art relighting quality with significantly improved physical consistency, while delivering a 20x speedup for both image and video relighting. Code is available at △ Less Submitted 3 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: NeurIPS 2025 arXiv:2511.00097 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.AI GraphKeeper: Graph Domain-Incremental Learning via Knowledge Disentanglement and Preservation Authors: Zihao Guo , Qingyun Sun , Ziwei Zhang , Haonan Yuan , Huiping Zhuang , Xingcheng Fu , Jianxin Li Abstract : Graph incremental learning (GIL), which continuously updates graph models by sequential knowledge acquisition, has garnered significant interest recently. However, existing GIL approaches focus on task-incremental and class-incremental scenarios within a single domain. Graph domain-incremental learning (Domain-IL), aiming at updating models across multiple graph domains, has become critical with t… ▽ More Graph incremental learning (GIL), which continuously updates graph models by sequential knowledge acquisition, has garnered significant interest recently. However, existing GIL approaches focus on task-incremental and class-incremental scenarios within a single domain. Graph domain-incremental learning (Domain-IL), aiming at updating models across multiple graph domains, has become critical with the development of graph foundation models (GFMs), but remains unexplored in the literature. In this paper, we propose Graph Domain-Incremental Learning via Knowledge Dientanglement and Preservation (GraphKeeper), to address catastrophic forgetting in Domain-IL scenario from the perspectives of embedding shifts and decision boundary deviations. Specifically, to prevent embedding shifts and confusion across incremental graph domains, we first propose the domain-specific parameter-efficient fine-tuning together with intra- and inter-domain disentanglement objectives. Consequently, to maintain a stable decision boundary, we introduce deviation-free knowledge preservation to continuously fit incremental domains. Additionally, for graphs with unobservable domains, we perform domain-aware distribution discrimination to obtain precise embeddings. Extensive experiments demonstrate the proposed GraphKeeper achieves state-of-the-art results with 6.5%~16.6% improvement over the runner-up with negligible forgetting. Moreover, we show GraphKeeper can be seamlessly integrated with various representative GFMs, highlighting its broad applicative potential. △ Less Submitted 30 October, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: Accepted by the Main Track of NeurIPS-2025 arXiv:2511.00097 [ pdf , ps , other ] GraphKeeper: Graph Domain-Incremental Learning via Knowledge Disentanglement and Preservation Authors: Zihao Guo , Qingyun Sun , Ziwei Zhang , Haonan Yuan , Huiping Zhuang , Xingcheng Fu , Jianxin Li Abstract : Graph incremental learning (GIL), which continuously updates graph models by sequential knowledge acquisition, has garnered significant interest recently. However, existing GIL approaches focus on task-incremental and class-incremental scenarios within a single domain. Graph domain-incremental learning (Domain-IL), aiming at updating models across multiple graph domains, has become critical with t… ▽ More Graph incremental learning (GIL), which continuously updates graph models by sequential knowledge acquisition, has garnered significant interest recently. However, existing GIL approaches focus on task-incremental and class-incremental scenarios within a single domain. Graph domain-incremental learning (Domain-IL), aiming at updating models across multiple graph domains, has become critical with the development of graph foundation models (GFMs), but remains unexplored in the literature. In this paper, we propose Graph Domain-Incremental Learning via Knowledge Dientanglement and Preservation (GraphKeeper), to address catastrophic forgetting in Domain-IL scenario from the perspectives of embedding shifts and decision boundary deviations. Specifically, to prevent embedding shifts and confusion across incremental graph domains, we first propose the domain-specific parameter-efficient fine-tuning together with intra- and inter-domain disentanglement objectives. Consequently, to maintain a stable decision boundary, we introduce deviation-free knowledge preservation to continuously fit incremental domains. Additionally, for graphs with unobservable domains, we perform domain-aware distribution discrimination to obtain precise embeddings. Extensive experiments demonstrate the proposed GraphKeeper achieves state-of-the-art results with 6.5%~16.6% improvement over the runner-up with negligible forgetting. Moreover, we show GraphKeeper can be seamlessly integrated with various representative GFMs, highlighting its broad applicative potential. △ Less Submitted 30 October, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: Accepted by the Main Track of NeurIPS-2025 arXiv:2510.26451 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.AI Robust Graph Condensation via Classification Complexity Mitigation Authors: Jiayi Luo , Qingyun Sun , Beining Yang , Haonan Yuan , Xingcheng Fu , Yanbiao Ma , Jianxin Li , Philip S. Yu Abstract : Graph condensation (GC) has gained significant attention for its ability to synthesize smaller yet informative graphs. However, existing studies often overlook the robustness of GC in scenarios where the original graph is corrupted. In such cases, we observe that the performance of GC deteriorates significantly, while existing robust graph learning technologies offer only limited effectiveness. Th… ▽ More Graph condensation (GC) has gained significant attention for its ability to synthesize smaller yet informative graphs. However, existing studies often overlook the robustness of GC in scenarios where the original graph is corrupted. In such cases, we observe that the performance of GC deteriorates significantly, while existing robust graph learning technologies offer only limited effectiveness. Through both empirical investigation and theoretical analysis, we reveal that GC is inherently an intrinsic-dimension-reducing process, synthesizing a condensed graph with lower classification complexity. Although this property is critical for effective GC performance, it remains highly vulnerable to adversarial perturbations. To tackle this vulnerability and improve GC robustness, we adopt the geometry perspective of graph data manifold and propose a novel Manifold-constrained Robust Graph Condensation framework named MRGC. Specifically, we introduce three graph data manifold learning modules that guide the condensed graph to lie within a smooth, low-dimensional manifold with minimal class ambiguity, thereby preserving the classification complexity reduction capability of GC and ensuring robust performance under universal adversarial attacks. Extensive experiments demonstrate the robustness of \ModelName\ across diverse attack scenarios. △ Less Submitted 22 November, 2025; v1 submitted 30 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: Accepted by Neurips 2025 (Spotlight) arXiv:2510.26451 [ pdf , ps , other ] Robust Graph Condensation via Classification Complexity Mitigation Authors: Jiayi Luo , Qingyun Sun , Beining Yang , Haonan Yuan , Xingcheng Fu , Yanbiao Ma , Jianxin Li , Philip S. Yu Abstract : Graph condensation (GC) has gained significant attention for its ability to synthesize smaller yet informative graphs. However, existing studies often overlook the robustness of GC in scenarios where the original graph is corrupted. In such cases, we observe that the performance of GC deteriorates significantly, while existing robust graph learning technologies offer only limited effectiveness. Th… ▽ More Graph condensation (GC) has gained significant attention for its ability to synthesize smaller yet informative graphs. However, existing studies often overlook the robustness of GC in scenarios where the original graph is corrupted. In such cases, we observe that the performance of GC deteriorates significantly, while existing robust graph learning technologies offer only limited effectiveness. Through both empirical investigation and theoretical analysis, we reveal that GC is inherently an intrinsic-dimension-reducing process, synthesizing a condensed graph with lower classification complexity. Although this property is critical for effective GC performance, it remains highly vulnerable to adversarial perturbations. To tackle this vulnerability and improve GC robustness, we adopt the geometry perspective of graph data manifold and propose a novel Manifold-constrained Robust Graph Condensation framework named MRGC. Specifically, we introduce three graph data manifold learning modules that guide the condensed graph to lie within a smooth, low-dimensional manifold with minimal class ambiguity, thereby preserving the classification complexity reduction capability of GC and ensuring robust performance under universal adversarial attacks. Extensive experiments demonstrate the robustness of \ModelName\ across diverse attack scenarios. △ Less Submitted 22 November, 2025; v1 submitted 30 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: Accepted by Neurips 2025 (Spotlight) arXiv:2510.24711 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Routing Matters in MoE: Scaling Diffusion Transformers with Explicit Routing Guidance Authors: Yujie Wei , Shiwei Zhang , Hangjie Yuan , Yujin Han , Zhekai Chen , Jiayu Wang , Difan Zou , Xihui Liu , Yingya Zhang , Yu Liu , Hongming Shan Abstract : Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) has emerged as a powerful paradigm for scaling model capacity while preserving computational efficiency. Despite its notable success in large language models (LLMs), existing attempts to apply MoE to Diffusion Transformers (DiTs) have yielded limited gains. We attribute this gap to fundamental differences between language and visual tokens. Language tokens are semantically… ▽ More Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) has emerged as a powerful paradigm for scaling model capacity while preserving computational efficiency. Despite its notable success in large language models (LLMs), existing attempts to apply MoE to Diffusion Transformers (DiTs) have yielded limited gains. We attribute this gap to fundamental differences between language and visual tokens. Language tokens are semantically dense with pronounced inter-token variation, while visual tokens exhibit spatial redundancy and functional heterogeneity, hindering expert specialization in vision MoE. To this end, we present ProMoE, an MoE framework featuring a two-step router with explicit routing guidance that promotes expert specialization. Specifically, this guidance encourages the router to partition image tokens into conditional and unconditional sets via conditional routing according to their functional roles, and refine the assignments of conditional image tokens through prototypical routing with learnable prototypes based on semantic content. Moreover, the similarity-based expert allocation in latent space enabled by prototypical routing offers a natural mechanism for incorporating explicit semantic guidance, and we validate that such guidance is crucial for vision MoE. Building on this, we propose a routing contrastive loss that explicitly enhances the prototypical routing process, promoting intra-expert coherence and inter-expert diversity. Extensive experiments on ImageNet benchmark demonstrate that ProMoE surpasses state-of-the-art methods under both Rectified Flow and DDPM training objectives. Code and models will be made publicly available. △ Less Submitted 28 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.24711 [ pdf , ps , other ] Routing Matters in MoE: Scaling Diffusion Transformers with Explicit Routing Guidance Authors: Yujie Wei , Shiwei Zhang , Hangjie Yuan , Yujin Han , Zhekai Chen , Jiayu Wang , Difan Zou , Xihui Liu , Yingya Zhang , Yu Liu , Hongming Shan Abstract : Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) has emerged as a powerful paradigm for scaling model capacity while preserving computational efficiency. Despite its notable success in large language models (LLMs), existing attempts to apply MoE to Diffusion Transformers (DiTs) have yielded limited gains. We attribute this gap to fundamental differences between language and visual tokens. Language tokens are semantically… ▽ More Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) has emerged as a powerful paradigm for scaling model capacity while preserving computational efficiency. Despite its notable success in large language models (LLMs), existing attempts to apply MoE to Diffusion Transformers (DiTs) have yielded limited gains. We attribute this gap to fundamental differences between language and visual tokens. Language tokens are semantically dense with pronounced inter-token variation, while visual tokens exhibit spatial redundancy and functional heterogeneity, hindering expert specialization in vision MoE. To this end, we present ProMoE, an MoE framework featuring a two-step router with explicit routing guidance that promotes expert specialization. Specifically, this guidance encourages the router to partition image tokens into conditional and unconditional sets via conditional routing according to their functional roles, and refine the assignments of conditional image tokens through prototypical routing with learnable prototypes based on semantic content. Moreover, the similarity-based expert allocation in latent space enabled by prototypical routing offers a natural mechanism for incorporating explicit semantic guidance, and we validate that such guidance is crucial for vision MoE. Building on this, we propose a routing contrastive loss that explicitly enhances the prototypical routing process, promoting intra-expert coherence and inter-expert diversity. Extensive experiments on ImageNet benchmark demonstrate that ProMoE surpasses state-of-the-art methods under both Rectified Flow and DDPM training objectives. Code and models will be made publicly available. △ Less Submitted 28 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.23451 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI cs.CV Omni-Reward: Towards Generalist Omni-Modal Reward Modeling with Free-Form Preferences Authors: Zhuoran Jin , Hongbang Yuan , Kejian Zhu , Jiachun Li , Pengfei Cao , Yubo Chen , Kang Liu , Jun Zhao Abstract : Reward models (RMs) play a critical role in aligning AI behaviors with human preferences, yet they face two fundamental challenges: (1) Modality Imbalance, where most RMs are mainly focused on text and image modalities, offering limited support for video, audio, and other modalities; and (2) Preference Rigidity, where training on fixed binary preference pairs fails to capture the complexity and di… ▽ More Reward models (RMs) play a critical role in aligning AI behaviors with human preferences, yet they face two fundamental challenges: (1) Modality Imbalance, where most RMs are mainly focused on text and image modalities, offering limited support for video, audio, and other modalities; and (2) Preference Rigidity, where training on fixed binary preference pairs fails to capture the complexity and diversity of personalized preferences. To address the above challenges, we propose Omni-Reward, a step toward generalist omni-modal reward modeling with support for free-form preferences, consisting of: (1) Evaluation: We introduce Omni-RewardBench, the first omni-modal RM benchmark with free-form preferences, covering nine tasks across five modalities including text, image, video, audio, and 3D; (2) Data: We construct Omni-RewardData, a multimodal preference dataset comprising 248K general preference pairs and 69K instruction-tuning pairs for training generalist omni-modal RMs; (3) Model: We propose Omni-RewardModel, which includes both discriminative and generative RMs, and achieves strong performance on Omni-RewardBench as well as other widely used reward modeling benchmarks. △ Less Submitted 27 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: 48 pages, 17 figures arXiv:2510.23451 [ pdf , ps , other ] Omni-Reward: Towards Generalist Omni-Modal Reward Modeling with Free-Form Preferences Authors: Zhuoran Jin , Hongbang Yuan , Kejian Zhu , Jiachun Li , Pengfei Cao , Yubo Chen , Kang Liu , Jun Zhao Abstract : Reward models (RMs) play a critical role in aligning AI behaviors with human preferences, yet they face two fundamental challenges: (1) Modality Imbalance, where most RMs are mainly focused on text and image modalities, offering limited support for video, audio, and other modalities; and (2) Preference Rigidity, where training on fixed binary preference pairs fails to capture the complexity and di… ▽ More Reward models (RMs) play a critical role in aligning AI behaviors with human preferences, yet they face two fundamental challenges: (1) Modality Imbalance, where most RMs are mainly focused on text and image modalities, offering limited support for video, audio, and other modalities; and (2) Preference Rigidity, where training on fixed binary preference pairs fails to capture the complexity and diversity of personalized preferences. To address the above challenges, we propose Omni-Reward, a step toward generalist omni-modal reward modeling with support for free-form preferences, consisting of: (1) Evaluation: We introduce Omni-RewardBench, the first omni-modal RM benchmark with free-form preferences, covering nine tasks across five modalities including text, image, video, audio, and 3D; (2) Data: We construct Omni-RewardData, a multimodal preference dataset comprising 248K general preference pairs and 69K instruction-tuning pairs for training generalist omni-modal RMs; (3) Model: We propose Omni-RewardModel, which includes both discriminative and generative RMs, and achieves strong performance on Omni-RewardBench as well as other widely used reward modeling benchmarks. △ Less Submitted 27 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: 48 pages, 17 figures arXiv:2510.23009 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV UGAE: Unified Geometry and Attribute Enhancement for G-PCC Compressed Point Clouds Authors: Pan Zhao , Hui Yuan , Chongzhen Tian , Tian Guo , Raouf Hamzaoui , Zhigeng Pan Abstract : Lossy compression of point clouds reduces storage and transmission costs; however, it inevitably leads to irreversible distortion in geometry structure and attribute information. To address these issues, we propose a unified geometry and attribute enhancement (UGAE) framework, which consists of three core components: post-geometry enhancement (PoGE), pre-attribute enhancement (PAE), and post-attri… ▽ More Lossy compression of point clouds reduces storage and transmission costs; however, it inevitably leads to irreversible distortion in geometry structure and attribute information. To address these issues, we propose a unified geometry and attribute enhancement (UGAE) framework, which consists of three core components: post-geometry enhancement (PoGE), pre-attribute enhancement (PAE), and post-attribute enhancement (PoAE). In PoGE, a Transformer-based sparse convolutional U-Net is used to reconstruct the geometry structure with high precision by predicting voxel occupancy probabilities. Building on the refined geometry structure, PAE introduces an innovative enhanced geometry-guided recoloring strategy, which uses a detail-aware K-Nearest Neighbors (DA-KNN) method to achieve accurate recoloring and effectively preserve high-frequency details before attribute compression. Finally, at the decoder side, PoAE uses an attribute residual prediction network with a weighted mean squared error (W-MSE) loss to enhance the quality of high-frequency regions while maintaining the fidelity of low-frequency regions. UGAE significantly outperformed existing methods on three benchmark datasets: 8iVFB, Owlii, and MVUB. Compared to the latest G-PCC test model (TMC13v29), UGAE achieved an average BD-PSNR gain of 9.98 dB and 90.98% BD-bitrate savings for geometry under the D1 metric, as well as a 3.67 dB BD-PSNR improvement with 56.88% BD-bitrate savings for attributes on the Y component. Additionally, it improved perceptual quality significantly. △ Less Submitted 27 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.23009 [ pdf , ps , other ] UGAE: Unified Geometry and Attribute Enhancement for G-PCC Compressed Point Clouds Authors: Pan Zhao , Hui Yuan , Chongzhen Tian , Tian Guo , Raouf Hamzaoui , Zhigeng Pan Abstract : Lossy compression of point clouds reduces storage and transmission costs; however, it inevitably leads to irreversible distortion in geometry structure and attribute information. To address these issues, we propose a unified geometry and attribute enhancement (UGAE) framework, which consists of three core components: post-geometry enhancement (PoGE), pre-attribute enhancement (PAE), and post-attri… ▽ More Lossy compression of point clouds reduces storage and transmission costs; however, it inevitably leads to irreversible distortion in geometry structure and attribute information. To address these issues, we propose a unified geometry and attribute enhancement (UGAE) framework, which consists of three core components: post-geometry enhancement (PoGE), pre-attribute enhancement (PAE), and post-attribute enhancement (PoAE). In PoGE, a Transformer-based sparse convolutional U-Net is used to reconstruct the geometry structure with high precision by predicting voxel occupancy probabilities. Building on the refined geometry structure, PAE introduces an innovative enhanced geometry-guided recoloring strategy, which uses a detail-aware K-Nearest Neighbors (DA-KNN) method to achieve accurate recoloring and effectively preserve high-frequency details before attribute compression. Finally, at the decoder side, PoAE uses an attribute residual prediction network with a weighted mean squared error (W-MSE) loss to enhance the quality of high-frequency regions while maintaining the fidelity of low-frequency regions. UGAE significantly outperformed existing methods on three benchmark datasets: 8iVFB, Owlii, and MVUB. Compared to the latest G-PCC test model (TMC13v29), UGAE achieved an average BD-PSNR gain of 9.98 dB and 90.98% BD-bitrate savings for geometry under the D1 metric, as well as a 3.67 dB BD-PSNR improvement with 56.88% BD-bitrate savings for attributes on the Y component. Additionally, it improved perceptual quality significantly. △ Less Submitted 27 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.21084 [ pdf ] cs.CL cs.AI Chinese Discharge Drug Recommendation in Metabolic Diseases with Large Language Models Authors: Juntao Li , Haobin Yuan , Ling Luo , Yan Jiang , Fan Wang , Ping Zhang , Huiyi Lv , Jian Wang , Yuanyuan Sun , Hongfei Lin Abstract : Intelligent drug recommendation based on Electronic Health Records (EHRs) is critical for improving the quality and efficiency of clinical decision-making. By leveraging large-scale patient data, drug recommendation systems can assist physicians in selecting the most appropriate medications according to a patient's medical history, diagnoses, laboratory results, and comorbidities. Recent advances… ▽ More Intelligent drug recommendation based on Electronic Health Records (EHRs) is critical for improving the quality and efficiency of clinical decision-making. By leveraging large-scale patient data, drug recommendation systems can assist physicians in selecting the most appropriate medications according to a patient's medical history, diagnoses, laboratory results, and comorbidities. Recent advances in large language models (LLMs) have shown remarkable capabilities in complex reasoning and medical text understanding, making them promising tools for drug recommendation tasks. However, the application of LLMs for Chinese clinical medication recommendation remains largely unexplored. In this work, we conduct a systematic investigation of LLM-based methodologies for Chinese discharge medication recommendation. We evaluate several representative LLM families (GLM, Llama, Qwen) under a unified methodological framework including zero-shot prompting, in-context learning, chain-of-thought prompting, and supervised fine-tuning using LoRA. We analyze model behavior across reasoning styles, error patterns, domain adaptation mechanisms, and robustness. Experimental results show that while supervised fine-tuning improves model performance, there remains substantial room for improvement, with the best model achieving the F1 score of 0.5648 and Jaccard score of 0.4477. Our findings highlight both the potential and limitations of LLMs for Chinese drug recommendation. △ Less Submitted 5 December, 2025; v1 submitted 23 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.21084 [ pdf ] Chinese Discharge Drug Recommendation in Metabolic Diseases with Large Language Models Authors: Juntao Li , Haobin Yuan , Ling Luo , Yan Jiang , Fan Wang , Ping Zhang , Huiyi Lv , Jian Wang , Yuanyuan Sun , Hongfei Lin Abstract : Intelligent drug recommendation based on Electronic Health Records (EHRs) is critical for improving the quality and efficiency of clinical decision-making. By leveraging large-scale patient data, drug recommendation systems can assist physicians in selecting the most appropriate medications according to a patient's medical history, diagnoses, laboratory results, and comorbidities. Recent advances… ▽ More Intelligent drug recommendation based on Electronic Health Records (EHRs) is critical for improving the quality and efficiency of clinical decision-making. By leveraging large-scale patient data, drug recommendation systems can assist physicians in selecting the most appropriate medications according to a patient's medical history, diagnoses, laboratory results, and comorbidities. Recent advances in large language models (LLMs) have shown remarkable capabilities in complex reasoning and medical text understanding, making them promising tools for drug recommendation tasks. However, the application of LLMs for Chinese clinical medication recommendation remains largely unexplored. In this work, we conduct a systematic investigation of LLM-based methodologies for Chinese discharge medication recommendation. We evaluate several representative LLM families (GLM, Llama, Qwen) under a unified methodological framework including zero-shot prompting, in-context learning, chain-of-thought prompting, and supervised fine-tuning using LoRA. We analyze model behavior across reasoning styles, error patterns, domain adaptation mechanisms, and robustness. Experimental results show that while supervised fine-tuning improves model performance, there remains substantial room for improvement, with the best model achieving the F1 score of 0.5648 and Jaccard score of 0.4477. Our findings highlight both the potential and limitations of LLMs for Chinese drug recommendation. △ Less Submitted 5 December, 2025; v1 submitted 23 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. 1 2 3 4 5 … About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Portal : Current events/June 2020 Portal Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version June 2020 was the sixth month of that leap year. The month, which began on a Monday , ended on a Tuesday after 30 days. Portal:Current events This is an archived version of Wikipedia's Current events Portal from June 2020. edit history watch ISIL -linked militants attack a police station in South Kalimantan , Indonesia , killing an officer. One of the militants is shot dead as he tries to attack other policemen. ( Jakarta Globe ) COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 pandemic in Armenia Prime Minister Nikol Pashinyan , his wife and their four children test positive for COVID-19 . (Reuters) COVID-19 pandemic in Hong Kong The annual Tiananmen Square massacre vigil in Hong Kong is banned for the first time since 1990 citing health concerns due to COVID-19. The Hong Kong Alliance in Support of Patriotic Democratic Movements of China , who organize the vigil, say the ban signals the end of Hong Kong's " one country, two systems ". (BBC News) COVID-19 pandemic in Armenia Prime Minister Nikol Pashinyan , his wife and their four children test positive for COVID-19 . (Reuters) Prime Minister Nikol Pashinyan , his wife and their four children test positive for COVID-19 . (Reuters) COVID-19 pandemic in Hong Kong The annual Tiananmen Square massacre vigil in Hong Kong is banned for the first time since 1990 citing health concerns due to COVID-19. The Hong Kong Alliance in Support of Patriotic Democratic Movements of China , who organize the vigil, say the ban signals the end of Hong Kong's " one country, two systems ". (BBC News) The annual Tiananmen Square massacre vigil in Hong Kong is banned for the first time since 1990 citing health concerns due to COVID-19. The Hong Kong Alliance in Support of Patriotic Democratic Movements of China , who organize the vigil, say the ban signals the end of Hong Kong's " one country, two systems ". (BBC News) Kivu Ebola epidemic The World Health Organization reports six new cases of ebola , and UNICEF reports five deaths, in a renewed outbreak of the disease in Mbandaka , Équateur Province , Democratic Republic of the Congo . (CNN) The World Health Organization reports six new cases of ebola , and UNICEF reports five deaths, in a renewed outbreak of the disease in Mbandaka , Équateur Province , Democratic Republic of the Congo . (CNN) United States–Zimbabwe relations , George Floyd protests Zimbabwe summons the U.S. envoy for comments by U.S. National Security Advisor Robert C. O'Brien suggesting that Zimbabwe is among "foreign adversaries" that could face retaliation for trying to foment unrest in the U.S. over the killing of George Floyd . (AP News) Zimbabwe summons the U.S. envoy for comments by U.S. National Security Advisor Robert C. O'Brien suggesting that Zimbabwe is among "foreign adversaries" that could face retaliation for trying to foment unrest in the U.S. over the killing of George Floyd . (AP News) Killing of George Floyd George Floyd protests Shooting of James Scurlock Prosecutors conclude a bar owner who fatally shot a protester during protests in Omaha, Nebraska , acted in self-defense and therefore will not press charges against him. ( Omaha World-Herald ) Shooting of David McAtee Police and National Guard troops open fire on a group of protesters after allegedly being fired upon in Louisville, Kentucky , resulting in the death of David McAtee, a local barbecue shop owner. An investigation is ongoing, while the LMPD Chief has been fired, as the officers involved in the shooting did not have their body cameras turned on. (Associated Press) George Floyd protests in Washington, D.C. An active duty military police battalion of 200 to 250 troops are deployed in the U.S. capital Washington, D.C. , to provide security as protests continue. Defense officials say the troops are from Fort Bragg in North Carolina . (CNN) Forty cities across the United States impose overnight curfews in order to quell the violence from the protests. (CNN) Two protesters are shot and killed during riots in Davenport, Iowa . In a separate incident, a police vehicle is ambushed , resulting in the wounding of an officer. ( The Des Moines Register ) Two bystanders are shot and killed by "outside agitators" during protests in Cicero, Illinois . (CBS Chicago) Police shoot and kill an armed man wearing body armor at a protest in Las Vegas . In another incident, a policeman is shot and critically injured. ( Reno Gazette Journal ) Anonymous sources suggest President Donald Trump is considering invoking the 1807 Insurrection Act to deploy the military to respond to protests throughout the country. (NBC News) Four police officers are shot in St. Louis amid rioting in the downtown area of the city. ( New York Post ) An independent autopsy concludes George Floyd died of " asphyxiation from sustained pressure" and that there was "neck and back compression that led to a lack of blood flow to the brain" and that Floyd died at the scene of his arrest and not at the hospital, contradicting the Hennepin County, Minnesota coroner 's report. ( USA Today ) Two police vehicles drive into a crowd of protesters in New York . Similar vehicle incidents also occur in Denver and Minneapolis . ( USA Today ) George Floyd protests Shooting of James Scurlock Prosecutors conclude a bar owner who fatally shot a protester during protests in Omaha, Nebraska , acted in self-defense and therefore will not press charges against him. ( Omaha World-Herald ) Shooting of David McAtee Police and National Guard troops open fire on a group of protesters after allegedly being fired upon in Louisville, Kentucky , resulting in the death of David McAtee, a local barbecue shop owner. An investigation is ongoing, while the LMPD Chief has been fired, as the officers involved in the shooting did not have their body cameras turned on. (Associated Press) George Floyd protests in Washington, D.C. An active duty military police battalion of 200 to 250 troops are deployed in the U.S. capital Washington, D.C. , to provide security as protests continue. Defense officials say the troops are from Fort Bragg in North Carolina . (CNN) Forty cities across the United States impose overnight curfews in order to quell the violence from the protests. (CNN) Two protesters are shot and killed during riots in Davenport, Iowa . In a separate incident, a police vehicle is ambushed , resulting in the wounding of an officer. ( The Des Moines Register ) Two bystanders are shot and killed by "outside agitators" during protests in Cicero, Illinois . (CBS Chicago) Police shoot and kill an armed man wearing body armor at a protest in Las Vegas . In another incident, a policeman is shot and critically injured. ( Reno Gazette Journal ) Anonymous sources suggest President Donald Trump is considering invoking the 1807 Insurrection Act to deploy the military to respond to protests throughout the country. (NBC News) Four police officers are shot in St. Louis amid rioting in the downtown area of the city. ( New York Post ) Shooting of James Scurlock Prosecutors conclude a bar owner who fatally shot a protester during protests in Omaha, Nebraska , acted in self-defense and therefore will not press charges against him. ( Omaha World-Herald ) Prosecutors conclude a bar owner who fatally shot a protester during protests in Omaha, Nebraska , acted in self-defense and therefore will not press charges against him. ( Omaha World-Herald ) Shooting of David McAtee Police and National Guard troops open fire on a group of protesters after allegedly being fired upon in Louisville, Kentucky , resulting in the death of David McAtee, a local barbecue shop owner. An investigation is ongoing, while the LMPD Chief has been fired, as the officers involved in the shooting did not have their body cameras turned on. (Associated Press) Police and National Guard troops open fire on a group of protesters after allegedly being fired upon in Louisville, Kentucky , resulting in the death of David McAtee, a local barbecue shop owner. An investigation is ongoing, while the LMPD Chief has been fired, as the officers involved in the shooting did not have their body cameras turned on. (Associated Press) George Floyd protests in Washington, D.C. An active duty military police battalion of 200 to 250 troops are deployed in the U.S. capital Washington, D.C. , to provide security as protests continue. Defense officials say the troops are from Fort Bragg in North Carolina . (CNN) An active duty military police battalion of 200 to 250 troops are deployed in the U.S. capital Washington, D.C. , to provide security as protests continue. Defense officials say the troops are from Fort Bragg in North Carolina . (CNN) Forty cities across the United States impose overnight curfews in order to quell the violence from the protests. (CNN) Two protesters are shot and killed during riots in Davenport, Iowa . In a separate incident, a police vehicle is ambushed , resulting in the wounding of an officer. ( The Des Moines Register ) Two bystanders are shot and killed by "outside agitators" during protests in Cicero, Illinois . (CBS Chicago) Police shoot and kill an armed man wearing body armor at a protest in Las Vegas . In another incident, a policeman is shot and critically injured. ( Reno Gazette Journal ) Anonymous sources suggest President Donald Trump is considering invoking the 1807 Insurrection Act to deploy the military to respond to protests throughout the country. (NBC News) Four police officers are shot in St. Louis amid rioting in the downtown area of the city. ( New York Post ) An independent autopsy concludes George Floyd died of " asphyxiation from sustained pressure" and that there was "neck and back compression that led to a lack of blood flow to the brain" and that Floyd died at the scene of his arrest and not at the hospital, contradicting the Hennepin County, Minnesota coroner 's report. ( USA Today ) Two police vehicles drive into a crowd of protesters in New York . Similar vehicle incidents also occur in Denver and Minneapolis . ( USA Today ) edit history watch A US$ 5 billion class action lawsuit is filed against Alphabet Inc. and Google , alleging the company violates users' right to privacy by tracking them in Chrome 's incognito mode . (BBC News) COVID-19 pandemic in India India approves the use of remdesivir to treat emergency COVID-19 cases that require immediate attention. ( The Jakarta Post ) India approves the use of remdesivir to treat emergency COVID-19 cases that require immediate attention. ( The Jakarta Post ) Philippines–United States relations President Rodrigo Duterte suspends for six months the termination of the Philippines–United States Visiting Forces Agreement . Foreign Affairs Secretary Teodoro Locsin Jr. says the decision comes due to "political and other developments in the region". (Al Jazeera) President Rodrigo Duterte suspends for six months the termination of the Philippines–United States Visiting Forces Agreement . Foreign Affairs Secretary Teodoro Locsin Jr. says the decision comes due to "political and other developments in the region". (Al Jazeera) United States–Venezuela relations U.S. Secretary of State Mike Pompeo announces sanctions on four shipping firms for transporting oil from Venezuela. Three firms are based in the Marshall Islands and another in Greece . Venezuelan Foreign Minister Jorge Arreaza responds by saying Pompeo has a "criminal obsession" with Venezuela. (Reuters) U.S. Secretary of State Mike Pompeo announces sanctions on four shipping firms for transporting oil from Venezuela. Three firms are based in the Marshall Islands and another in Greece . Venezuelan Foreign Minister Jorge Arreaza responds by saying Pompeo has a "criminal obsession" with Venezuela. (Reuters) George Floyd protests in Washington, D.C. James N. Miller , former U.S. Under Secretary of Defense for Policy , announces his resignation from the Defense Science Board , citing disagreement with the Trump administration 's actions against protestors in Washington, D.C. ( The Washington Post ) James N. Miller , former U.S. Under Secretary of Defense for Policy , announces his resignation from the Defense Science Board , citing disagreement with the Trump administration 's actions against protestors in Washington, D.C. ( The Washington Post ) In France , despite being banned by the police headquarters, a demonstration organized by the Justice pour Adama movement in Paris gathered 20,000 participants. They were protesting for charges against police officers who had killed a young black man, Adama Traoré, during his arrest in 2016. They also demonstrated in support of the Black Lives Matter movement in the United States, and in protest against police violence against black and Arab individuals in France in general. Some clashes occur at the end of the event. Other smaller demonstrations took place in the towns of Lyon , Marseille and Lille . (France 24) edit history watch 2020 North Indian Ocean cyclone season , Cyclone Nisarga , COVID-19 pandemic in India Severe Cyclonic Storm Nisarga makes landfall south of Mumbai . This is the first time a tropical cyclone has targeted the megacity since 1891. About 100,000 people have been evacuated from low-lying areas in the western Indian states of Maharashtra and Gujarat , areas already hard-hit by the COVID-19 pandemic. (NPR) (India Meteorological Department) Severe Cyclonic Storm Nisarga makes landfall south of Mumbai . This is the first time a tropical cyclone has targeted the megacity since 1891. About 100,000 people have been evacuated from low-lying areas in the western Indian states of Maharashtra and Gujarat , areas already hard-hit by the COVID-19 pandemic. (NPR) (India Meteorological Department) 2019 Ridgecrest earthquakes A .mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help} M w 5.5 aftershock to the 2019 Ridgecrest earthquakes of July 2019 takes place. It is the third-largest earthquake of the sequence, taking place only 11 kilometres (6.8 mi) from the Garlock Fault . (NBC Los Angeles) ( The Los Angeles Times ) A .mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help} M w 5.5 aftershock to the 2019 Ridgecrest earthquakes of July 2019 takes place. It is the third-largest earthquake of the sequence, taking place only 11 kilometres (6.8 mi) from the Garlock Fault . (NBC Los Angeles) ( The Los Angeles Times ) Norilsk oil spill Russian President Vladimir Putin declares a state of emergency after 20,000 tons of oil leaked into the Ambarnaya River near the Siberian city of Norilsk within the Arctic Circle on May 26, 2020. The spill happened when a fuel tank in a Nornickel NTEK power plant collapsed. Putin lambasted the company for not reporting the incident. The World Wildlife Fund said the accident is believed to be the second-largest in modern Russian history. (BBC News) ( The Guardian ) Russian President Vladimir Putin declares a state of emergency after 20,000 tons of oil leaked into the Ambarnaya River near the Siberian city of Norilsk within the Arctic Circle on May 26, 2020. The spill happened when a fuel tank in a Nornickel NTEK power plant collapsed. Putin lambasted the company for not reporting the incident. The World Wildlife Fund said the accident is believed to be the second-largest in modern Russian history. (BBC News) ( The Guardian ) Hong Kong–United Kingdom relations , 2019–20 Hong Kong protests Prime Minister Boris Johnson announces that the United Kingdom will change its immigration laws to offer a pathway to UK citizenship for all Hong Kong citizens who are eligible for BN(O) status, if the government of China imposes new security laws on the territory. (BBC News) Prime Minister Boris Johnson announces that the United Kingdom will change its immigration laws to offer a pathway to UK citizenship for all Hong Kong citizens who are eligible for BN(O) status, if the government of China imposes new security laws on the territory. (BBC News) Killing of George Floyd George Floyd protests George Floyd protests in California Vallejo police announce that Sean Monterrosa, a 22-year-old Hispanic resident of San Francisco , was shot and killed by police the day before at a Walgreens . Police allege that a hammer in his pocket was mistaken for a gun. Monterrosa was on his knees. ( The San Francisco Chronicle ) Los Angeles Mayor Eric Garcetti pledges to cut the budget of the Los Angeles Police Department by up to $150 million in the wake of allegations of police misconduct during protests. ( Los Angeles Times ) George Floyd protests in Texas Texas State University President Denise Trauth announces on social media that a 20-year-old African-American student protestor, Justin Howell, had been critically injured by a bean bag round fired by Austin police on Sunday. Police maintain that Howell was not the intended target. ( Austin American-Statesman ) Death of David Dorn African-American former police captain David Dorn is shot and killed while trying to protect a pawn shop in St. Louis . (CNN) U.S. Senator Tom Cotton ( R – AR ) publishes a op-ed for the New York Times calling for the mobilization of American troops in response to the protests. ( The New York Times ) The criminal charge for former Minneapolis Police officer Derek Chauvin in the death of George Floyd is upgraded to second-degree murder , while the three officers who helped restrain Floyd are charged with aiding and abetting murder. (CNBC) George Floyd protests George Floyd protests in California Vallejo police announce that Sean Monterrosa, a 22-year-old Hispanic resident of San Francisco , was shot and killed by police the day before at a Walgreens . Police allege that a hammer in his pocket was mistaken for a gun. Monterrosa was on his knees. ( The San Francisco Chronicle ) Los Angeles Mayor Eric Garcetti pledges to cut the budget of the Los Angeles Police Department by up to $150 million in the wake of allegations of police misconduct during protests. ( Los Angeles Times ) George Floyd protests in Texas Texas State University President Denise Trauth announces on social media that a 20-year-old African-American student protestor, Justin Howell, had been critically injured by a bean bag round fired by Austin police on Sunday. Police maintain that Howell was not the intended target. ( Austin American-Statesman ) Death of David Dorn African-American former police captain David Dorn is shot and killed while trying to protect a pawn shop in St. Louis . (CNN) U.S. Senator Tom Cotton ( R – AR ) publishes a op-ed for the New York Times calling for the mobilization of American troops in response to the protests. ( The New York Times ) George Floyd protests in California Vallejo police announce that Sean Monterrosa, a 22-year-old Hispanic resident of San Francisco , was shot and killed by police the day before at a Walgreens . Police allege that a hammer in his pocket was mistaken for a gun. Monterrosa was on his knees. ( The San Francisco Chronicle ) Los Angeles Mayor Eric Garcetti pledges to cut the budget of the Los Angeles Police Department by up to $150 million in the wake of allegations of police misconduct during protests. ( Los Angeles Times ) Vallejo police announce that Sean Monterrosa, a 22-year-old Hispanic resident of San Francisco , was shot and killed by police the day before at a Walgreens . Police allege that a hammer in his pocket was mistaken for a gun. Monterrosa was on his knees. ( The San Francisco Chronicle ) Los Angeles Mayor Eric Garcetti pledges to cut the budget of the Los Angeles Police Department by up to $150 million in the wake of allegations of police misconduct during protests. ( Los Angeles Times ) George Floyd protests in Texas Texas State University President Denise Trauth announces on social media that a 20-year-old African-American student protestor, Justin Howell, had been critically injured by a bean bag round fired by Austin police on Sunday. Police maintain that Howell was not the intended target. ( Austin American-Statesman ) Texas State University President Denise Trauth announces on social media that a 20-year-old African-American student protestor, Justin Howell, had been critically injured by a bean bag round fired by Austin police on Sunday. Police maintain that Howell was not the intended target. ( Austin American-Statesman ) Death of David Dorn African-American former police captain David Dorn is shot and killed while trying to protect a pawn shop in St. Louis . (CNN) African-American former police captain David Dorn is shot and killed while trying to protect a pawn shop in St. Louis . (CNN) U.S. Senator Tom Cotton ( R – AR ) publishes a op-ed for the New York Times calling for the mobilization of American troops in response to the protests. ( The New York Times ) The criminal charge for former Minneapolis Police officer Derek Chauvin in the death of George Floyd is upgraded to second-degree murder , while the three officers who helped restrain Floyd are charged with aiding and abetting murder. (CNBC) Papua conflict , 2019 Papua protests An administrative court in Jakarta rules that it was unlawful for the Government of Indonesia to shut down the internet in Papua and West Papua during heightened security tensions caused by antiracism protests in the two provinces last year. ( The Jakarta Post ) An administrative court in Jakarta rules that it was unlawful for the Government of Indonesia to shut down the internet in Papua and West Papua during heightened security tensions caused by antiracism protests in the two provinces last year. ( The Jakarta Post ) Former Lesotho First Lady Maesiah Thabane is arrested on charges of murder. Her husband, former Lesotho Prime Minister Tom Thabane , is also accused of murder but not formally charged. (Reuters) A court in France orders Rwandan genocide suspect Félicien Kabuga to be handed over to a United Nations tribunal for trial. Kabuga's lawyers said that their client would not receive a fair trial at a UN tribunal and that his health was too fragile to be transferred amidst the pandemic . However, French justice said his transfer is "not incompatible" with the decision. (Reuters) Former President of Ecuador Abdalá Bucaram is arrested for illegal possession of weapons during a raid on his home against corruption. (CNN Español) SpaceX successfully launches and deploys 60 Starlink satellites into a low Earth orbit from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station . This brings the total number of Starlink satellites in orbit to 482. (Space.com) edit history watch Second Libyan Civil War 2019–20 Western Libya campaign The Government of National Accord (GNA) says they are in full control of the Libyan capital, Tripoli , after forces of the Libyan National Army (LNA), loyal to Field Marshal Khalifa Haftar , retreat from the capital after months of intense clashes in the city. (Reuters) The GNA recaptures Tripoli International Airport on the outskirts of the capital following the withdrawal of LNA forces. (BBC News) 2019–20 Western Libya campaign The Government of National Accord (GNA) says they are in full control of the Libyan capital, Tripoli , after forces of the Libyan National Army (LNA), loyal to Field Marshal Khalifa Haftar , retreat from the capital after months of intense clashes in the city. (Reuters) The GNA recaptures Tripoli International Airport on the outskirts of the capital following the withdrawal of LNA forces. (BBC News) The Government of National Accord (GNA) says they are in full control of the Libyan capital, Tripoli , after forces of the Libyan National Army (LNA), loyal to Field Marshal Khalifa Haftar , retreat from the capital after months of intense clashes in the city. (Reuters) The GNA recaptures Tripoli International Airport on the outskirts of the capital following the withdrawal of LNA forces. (BBC News) Removal of Confederate monuments and memorials Virginia Governor Ralph Northam orders the removal of the Robert E. Lee Monument in the state capital Richmond , saying, "In Virginia, we no longer preach a false version of history ". (BBC News) Virginia Governor Ralph Northam orders the removal of the Robert E. Lee Monument in the state capital Richmond , saying, "In Virginia, we no longer preach a false version of history ". (BBC News) COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 pandemic in Senegal After violent protests erupt across the country against a lockdown imposed to combat the virus, the government announces it will "relax" the restrictions. Interior Minister Aly Ngouille Ndiaye says the curfew will be shortened and inter-regional travel ban lifted. (Reuters) COVID-19 pandemic in Brazil Brazil surpasses Italy with the third-highest COVID-19 death toll. ( The Guardian ) COVID-19 pandemic in Senegal After violent protests erupt across the country against a lockdown imposed to combat the virus, the government announces it will "relax" the restrictions. Interior Minister Aly Ngouille Ndiaye says the curfew will be shortened and inter-regional travel ban lifted. (Reuters) After violent protests erupt across the country against a lockdown imposed to combat the virus, the government announces it will "relax" the restrictions. Interior Minister Aly Ngouille Ndiaye says the curfew will be shortened and inter-regional travel ban lifted. (Reuters) COVID-19 pandemic in Brazil Brazil surpasses Italy with the third-highest COVID-19 death toll. ( The Guardian ) Brazil surpasses Italy with the third-highest COVID-19 death toll. ( The Guardian ) North Korea–South Korea relations North Korea issues a warning that it would end a 2018 inter-Korean military agreement if South Korea fails to stop defectors and activists from sending anti-Pyongyang leaflets into the demilitarized zone (DMZ) . (DW) North Korea issues a warning that it would end a 2018 inter-Korean military agreement if South Korea fails to stop defectors and activists from sending anti-Pyongyang leaflets into the demilitarized zone (DMZ) . (DW) Iran–United States relations U.S. Navy veteran Michael R. White is released from Iranian custody. White was under house arrest for nearly two years and is now en-route to Zurich , Switzerland. (Al Jazeera) U.S. Navy veteran Michael R. White is released from Iranian custody. White was under house arrest for nearly two years and is now en-route to Zurich , Switzerland. (Al Jazeera) George Floyd protests George Floyd protests in California Los Angeles officials announce an end to the county-wide curfew amid continuing protests. ( Los Angeles Times ) Buffalo police shoving incident Two Buffalo police officers are suspended without pay after shoving a 75-year-old protestor to the ground. He has been hospitalized from the resulting head injury. ( The New York Times ) George Floyd protests in California Los Angeles officials announce an end to the county-wide curfew amid continuing protests. ( Los Angeles Times ) Los Angeles officials announce an end to the county-wide curfew amid continuing protests. ( Los Angeles Times ) Buffalo police shoving incident Two Buffalo police officers are suspended without pay after shoving a 75-year-old protestor to the ground. He has been hospitalized from the resulting head injury. ( The New York Times ) Two Buffalo police officers are suspended without pay after shoving a 75-year-old protestor to the ground. He has been hospitalized from the resulting head injury. ( The New York Times ) Shooting of Ahmaud Arbery One of the suspects involved in the shooting death of Ahmaud Arbery testifies that the gunman who shot and killed Arbery had shouted a racial slur at the victim moments after his death. The allegation opens up the possibility for hate crime charges. ( The Washington Post ) One of the suspects involved in the shooting death of Ahmaud Arbery testifies that the gunman who shot and killed Arbery had shouted a racial slur at the victim moments after his death. The allegation opens up the possibility for hate crime charges. ( The Washington Post ) Freedom of religion in Russia A court in Russian -controlled Crimea jails a Jehovah's Witness for six years for practicing an outlawed religion in the territory. (Reuters) A court in Russian -controlled Crimea jails a Jehovah's Witness for six years for practicing an outlawed religion in the territory. (Reuters) Riots break out and the governor’s palace is attacked in Guadalajara , Mexico , after police officers in Ixtlahuacán de los Membrillos beat a young worker to death for not wearing a medical mask. ( Puerto Vallarta Daily News ) 31st anniversary of the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests , 2019–20 Hong Kong protests The mass annual vigil commemorating the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests at Victoria Park , Hong Kong , is banned by the city police for the first time, citing concerns of local COVID-19 transmissions. Local commemorations are held across the city. (Hong Kong Free Press) Tens of thousands of people, in multiple locations across Hong Kong, defy the ban against gatherings to observe the anniversary, carrying lit candles and chanting democracy slogans. The largest group, in Victoria Park, heard Lee Cheuk-yan , former Chairman of the Hong Kong Alliance in Support of Patriotic Democratic Movements in China , read the Alliance's manifesto and vow to return next year. ( South China Morning Post ) ( International Business Times ) The mass annual vigil commemorating the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests at Victoria Park , Hong Kong , is banned by the city police for the first time, citing concerns of local COVID-19 transmissions. Local commemorations are held across the city. (Hong Kong Free Press) Tens of thousands of people, in multiple locations across Hong Kong, defy the ban against gatherings to observe the anniversary, carrying lit candles and chanting democracy slogans. The largest group, in Victoria Park, heard Lee Cheuk-yan , former Chairman of the Hong Kong Alliance in Support of Patriotic Democratic Movements in China , read the Alliance's manifesto and vow to return next year. ( South China Morning Post ) ( International Business Times ) edit history watch Second Libyan Civil War 2019–20 Western Libya campaign Turkish -backed GNA forces enter the strategic Libyan National Army -held town of Tarhuna , west of Tripoli . The town is considered to be a stronghold for Field Marshal Khalifa Haftar . The GNA operations room say its forces have reached the centre of the town. (Reuters) 2019–20 Western Libya campaign Turkish -backed GNA forces enter the strategic Libyan National Army -held town of Tarhuna , west of Tripoli . The town is considered to be a stronghold for Field Marshal Khalifa Haftar . The GNA operations room say its forces have reached the centre of the town. (Reuters) Turkish -backed GNA forces enter the strategic Libyan National Army -held town of Tarhuna , west of Tripoli . The town is considered to be a stronghold for Field Marshal Khalifa Haftar . The GNA operations room say its forces have reached the centre of the town. (Reuters) 2020 Democratic Republic of the Congo massacres The High Commissioner for Human Rights of the United Nations , Michelle Bachelet , says that more than 1,300 civilians have been killed in recent months and half a million displaced in three provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo amid a resurgence of attacks on the civilian population by different armed groups. Bachelet says these attacks "may amount to crimes against humanity and war crimes ". (Al Jazeera) The High Commissioner for Human Rights of the United Nations , Michelle Bachelet , says that more than 1,300 civilians have been killed in recent months and half a million displaced in three provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo amid a resurgence of attacks on the civilian population by different armed groups. Bachelet says these attacks "may amount to crimes against humanity and war crimes ". (Al Jazeera) Mali War , Operation Barkhane The French Minister of the Armed Forces Florence Parly says that AQIM emir Abdelmalek Droukdel , along with members of his inner circle, had been killed in northern Mali on 3 June 2020. She also says that French forces had also captured a senior AQIM commander in an operation in May. (BBC News) The French Minister of the Armed Forces Florence Parly says that AQIM emir Abdelmalek Droukdel , along with members of his inner circle, had been killed in northern Mali on 3 June 2020. She also says that French forces had also captured a senior AQIM commander in an operation in May. (BBC News) List of mass shootings in the United States in 2020 Seven people are killed in an overnight shooting and arson at a residence in Valhermoso Springs, Alabama . Police believe the incident was a targeted attack, but no suspects are in custody. (ABC News) (WAFF-TV) Seven people are killed in an overnight shooting and arson at a residence in Valhermoso Springs, Alabama . Police believe the incident was a targeted attack, but no suspects are in custody. (ABC News) (WAFF-TV) A three-alarm fire causes major damage to Amazon 's distribution center in Redlands, California . Despite the extent of the damage and the collapse of the roof, no injuries are reported as the staff was safely evacuated. The cause of the fire is currently under investigation. (CNN) COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 pandemic in the United States COVID-19 pandemic in New York City New York City reports its first day without COVID-19 deaths since March 11. (CNBC) COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom The COVID-19 death toll in the United Kingdom passes over 40,000. ( The Independent ) COVID-19 pandemic in the United States COVID-19 pandemic in New York City New York City reports its first day without COVID-19 deaths since March 11. (CNBC) COVID-19 pandemic in New York City New York City reports its first day without COVID-19 deaths since March 11. (CNBC) New York City reports its first day without COVID-19 deaths since March 11. (CNBC) COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom The COVID-19 death toll in the United Kingdom passes over 40,000. ( The Independent ) The COVID-19 death toll in the United Kingdom passes over 40,000. ( The Independent ) Buffalo police shoving incident 57 members of the Buffalo Police Department's Emergency Response Team resign in protest of the city's decision to suspend two officers after injuring a 75-year-old on Thursday. (ABC News) 57 members of the Buffalo Police Department's Emergency Response Team resign in protest of the city's decision to suspend two officers after injuring a 75-year-old on Thursday. (ABC News) 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries Former Vice President Joe Biden surpasses the required 1,991 delegates to win the Democratic nomination. He will face off against incumbent President Donald Trump in the general election in November. (NPR) Former Vice President Joe Biden surpasses the required 1,991 delegates to win the Democratic nomination. He will face off against incumbent President Donald Trump in the general election in November. (NPR) 2020 Saint Kitts and Nevis general election Citizens of Saint Kitts and Nevis head to the polls in the country's latest general election . (Foreign Brief) Citizens of Saint Kitts and Nevis head to the polls in the country's latest general election . (Foreign Brief) edit history watch Second Libyan Civil War 2019–20 Western Libya campaign The Government of National Accord (GNA) says its forces have taken full control of Bani Walid , including Bani Walid Airport , and Al ‘Urban without facing any resistance, as Libyan National Army forces abandon their positions. ( The Libya Observer ) GNA forces state that they have discovered 160 bodies in and around a hospital in the recently captured Tarhuna , including the bodies of women and young children, which the GNA Ministry of Health remark appear to have only recently been killed. ( The Libya Observer ) GNA forces say they have begun a military operation to recapture the coastal city of Sirte from pro- Haftar forces. ( Daily Sabah ) Egyptian President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi says Khalifa Haftar supports a ceasefire starting Monday, June 8, with the condition that all "foreign mercenaries leave Libyan territory". (Al Jazeera) 2019–20 Western Libya campaign The Government of National Accord (GNA) says its forces have taken full control of Bani Walid , including Bani Walid Airport , and Al ‘Urban without facing any resistance, as Libyan National Army forces abandon their positions. ( The Libya Observer ) GNA forces state that they have discovered 160 bodies in and around a hospital in the recently captured Tarhuna , including the bodies of women and young children, which the GNA Ministry of Health remark appear to have only recently been killed. ( The Libya Observer ) GNA forces say they have begun a military operation to recapture the coastal city of Sirte from pro- Haftar forces. ( Daily Sabah ) Egyptian President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi says Khalifa Haftar supports a ceasefire starting Monday, June 8, with the condition that all "foreign mercenaries leave Libyan territory". (Al Jazeera) The Government of National Accord (GNA) says its forces have taken full control of Bani Walid , including Bani Walid Airport , and Al ‘Urban without facing any resistance, as Libyan National Army forces abandon their positions. ( The Libya Observer ) GNA forces state that they have discovered 160 bodies in and around a hospital in the recently captured Tarhuna , including the bodies of women and young children, which the GNA Ministry of Health remark appear to have only recently been killed. ( The Libya Observer ) GNA forces say they have begun a military operation to recapture the coastal city of Sirte from pro- Haftar forces. ( Daily Sabah ) Egyptian President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi says Khalifa Haftar supports a ceasefire starting Monday, June 8, with the condition that all "foreign mercenaries leave Libyan territory". (Al Jazeera) COVID-19 pandemic in Vatican City Vatican Press Secretary announces that the last remaining patient has recovered and that there are zero active cases in the state. (Vatican News) Vatican Press Secretary announces that the last remaining patient has recovered and that there are zero active cases in the state. (Vatican News) George Floyd protests George Floyd protests in the United Kingdom Tens of thousands of people demonstrate against racism in the United Kingdom . A protest on Whitehall in London turns violent and a mounted officer falls from her horse, which then bolts. (Sky News) (BBC News) Buffalo police shoving incident Two Buffalo police officers are charged with assault after they were recorded on video violently shoving a 75-year-old man to the ground and causing him to be hospitalized with a head injury. ( The Washington Post ) George Floyd protests in the United Kingdom Tens of thousands of people demonstrate against racism in the United Kingdom . A protest on Whitehall in London turns violent and a mounted officer falls from her horse, which then bolts. (Sky News) (BBC News) Tens of thousands of people demonstrate against racism in the United Kingdom . A protest on Whitehall in London turns violent and a mounted officer falls from her horse, which then bolts. (Sky News) (BBC News) Buffalo police shoving incident Two Buffalo police officers are charged with assault after they were recorded on video violently shoving a 75-year-old man to the ground and causing him to be hospitalized with a head injury. ( The Washington Post ) Two Buffalo police officers are charged with assault after they were recorded on video violently shoving a 75-year-old man to the ground and causing him to be hospitalized with a head injury. ( The Washington Post ) The government of Malaysia rejects a USD$ 3 billion settlement offered by Goldman Sachs in a lawsuit over the 1MDB scandal . (Reuters) 2020 Kaohsiung mayoral recall vote Incumbent mayor of Kaohsiung and former presidential candidate Han Kuo-yu is removed from office after 939,090 people voted for his recall, vastly exceeding the minimum threshold of 574,996 votes. This marks the first time a mayor has been successfully recalled in Taiwan . (Central News Agency) Incumbent mayor of Kaohsiung and former presidential candidate Han Kuo-yu is removed from office after 939,090 people voted for his recall, vastly exceeding the minimum threshold of 574,996 votes. This marks the first time a mayor has been successfully recalled in Taiwan . (Central News Agency) edit history watch Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir Protests erupt in Kashmir after Indian Army troops kill nine militants and destroy a house with explosives. Protesters demand an end to the Indian occupation of, and direct federal rule over, the territory. (Al Jazeera) Protests erupt in Kashmir after Indian Army troops kill nine militants and destroy a house with explosives. Protesters demand an end to the Indian occupation of, and direct federal rule over, the territory. (Al Jazeera) A Ku Klux Klan leader drives a car into a group of protesters during the George Floyd protests in Virginia , injuring a person. The attacker may face hate crime charges. (BBC News) COVID-19 pandemic The number of worldwide cases of COVID-19 surpasses seven million. The United States remains the global epicenter, accounting for approximately 26% of all reported and confirmed cases in the world. (CNN) The number of worldwide cases of COVID-19 surpasses seven million. The United States remains the global epicenter, accounting for approximately 26% of all reported and confirmed cases in the world. (CNN) COVID-19 pandemic in Brazil The Brazilian government alters the country's COVID-19 death toll on the Health Ministry 's website following a change in protocol for the release of pandemic-related data to the general public. President Jair Bolsonaro orders interim minister Gen. Eduardo Pazuello to limit the number of divulged deaths to under 1,000 per day. ( The Guardian ) ( O Estado de S. Paulo ) The Brazilian government alters the country's COVID-19 death toll on the Health Ministry 's website following a change in protocol for the release of pandemic-related data to the general public. President Jair Bolsonaro orders interim minister Gen. Eduardo Pazuello to limit the number of divulged deaths to under 1,000 per day. ( The Guardian ) ( O Estado de S. Paulo ) COVID-19 pandemic in Saudi Arabia The total tally of cases in Saudi Arabia exceeds 100,000. (Reuters) The total tally of cases in Saudi Arabia exceeds 100,000. (Reuters) List of monuments and memorials removed during the George Floyd protests George Floyd protests in the United Kingdom The statue of Edward Colston , a 17th-century slave trader, is pulled down by anti-racism demonstrators and thrown into Bristol Harbour , England . ( The Guardian ) George Floyd protests in Richmond, Virginia Black Lives Matter supporters tear down the 128-year-old statue of Confederate General Williams Carter Wickham in Monroe Park in Richmond, Virginia . ( The Hill ) George Floyd protests in the United Kingdom The statue of Edward Colston , a 17th-century slave trader, is pulled down by anti-racism demonstrators and thrown into Bristol Harbour , England . ( The Guardian ) The statue of Edward Colston , a 17th-century slave trader, is pulled down by anti-racism demonstrators and thrown into Bristol Harbour , England . ( The Guardian ) George Floyd protests in Richmond, Virginia Black Lives Matter supporters tear down the 128-year-old statue of Confederate General Williams Carter Wickham in Monroe Park in Richmond, Virginia . ( The Hill ) Black Lives Matter supporters tear down the 128-year-old statue of Confederate General Williams Carter Wickham in Monroe Park in Richmond, Virginia . ( The Hill ) Shooting of Iyad Halaq Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu expresses his condolences for the death of a Palestinian man with autism and says he "expects a full investigation into the matter" from Interior Security Minister Amir Ohana . (Reuters) Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu expresses his condolences for the death of a Palestinian man with autism and says he "expects a full investigation into the matter" from Interior Security Minister Amir Ohana . (Reuters) 2020 boogaloo killings The Federal Bureau of Investigation is investigating a possible link between the May 30 drive-by shooting that killed a Federal Protective Service officer at Oakland, California , to a shootout in the Santa Cruz Mountains yesterday, which left a deputy dead and two other officers injured. The gunman, who was armed with a rifle and improvised explosive devices , was also wounded and taken into custody. (ABC News) The Federal Bureau of Investigation is investigating a possible link between the May 30 drive-by shooting that killed a Federal Protective Service officer at Oakland, California , to a shootout in the Santa Cruz Mountains yesterday, which left a deputy dead and two other officers injured. The gunman, who was armed with a rifle and improvised explosive devices , was also wounded and taken into custody. (ABC News) The Philippine Department of Justice probes the proliferation of sockpuppet Facebook accounts that have been using the identities of students and journalists involved in protests against the passage of an anti-terrorism bill . (Bloomberg) Killing of George Floyd The Minneapolis City Council passes a resolution to begin the process of abolishing the Minneapolis Police Department . Mayor Jacob Frey has publicly opposed the measure. ( Star Tribune ) The Minneapolis City Council passes a resolution to begin the process of abolishing the Minneapolis Police Department . Mayor Jacob Frey has publicly opposed the measure. ( Star Tribune ) edit history watch Armed conflicts and attacks Second Libyan Civil War 2019–20 Western Libya campaign , Turkish military intervention in the Second Libyan Civil War Turkish -backed GNA forces enter the Libyan National Army -held city of Sirte and capture two districts. (Anadolu Agency) The United Nations Support Mission in Libya (UNSMIL) says it has received "numerous" reports of looting and destruction of public and private property in the town of Tarhuna , which was recently captured by GNA forces. Videos uploaded to social media appear to show GNA fighters torching the homes of families accused of supporting Khalifa Haftar . (Reuters) 2019–20 Western Libya campaign , Turkish military intervention in the Second Libyan Civil War Turkish -backed GNA forces enter the Libyan National Army -held city of Sirte and capture two districts. (Anadolu Agency) The United Nations Support Mission in Libya (UNSMIL) says it has received "numerous" reports of looting and destruction of public and private property in the town of Tarhuna , which was recently captured by GNA forces. Videos uploaded to social media appear to show GNA fighters torching the homes of families accused of supporting Khalifa Haftar . (Reuters) Turkish -backed GNA forces enter the Libyan National Army -held city of Sirte and capture two districts. (Anadolu Agency) The United Nations Support Mission in Libya (UNSMIL) says it has received "numerous" reports of looting and destruction of public and private property in the town of Tarhuna , which was recently captured by GNA forces. Videos uploaded to social media appear to show GNA fighters torching the homes of families accused of supporting Khalifa Haftar . (Reuters) Mali War The government orders an inquiry into the killing of 43 civilians in two villages in Mopti . Human rights groups accused the Malian Armed Forces of being responsible for the killings, in a volatile part of the country that has seen a resurgence of insurgent attacks. (Al Jazeera) The government orders an inquiry into the killing of 43 civilians in two villages in Mopti . Human rights groups accused the Malian Armed Forces of being responsible for the killings, in a volatile part of the country that has seen a resurgence of insurgent attacks. (Al Jazeera) Business and economy Multinational energy company BP announces in a conference call that it is cutting 15% of its workforce, which is roughly 10,000 jobs. (Reuters) Health and environment COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand New Zealand has no active cases, as the last remaining patient is reported to have recovered. (Stuff) New Zealand moves to its lowest alert level effective midnight local time (12 UTC), removing most restrictions but maintaining strict border controls. (Stuff) COVID-19 pandemic in South Africa Most schools in South Africa re-open after Education Minister Angie Motshekga says that efforts to contain the virus allowed 95% of schools to return to classes. South Africa has recorded nearly 50,000 cases and almost 1,000 deaths. (Reuters) COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand New Zealand has no active cases, as the last remaining patient is reported to have recovered. (Stuff) New Zealand moves to its lowest alert level effective midnight local time (12 UTC), removing most restrictions but maintaining strict border controls. (Stuff) New Zealand has no active cases, as the last remaining patient is reported to have recovered. (Stuff) New Zealand moves to its lowest alert level effective midnight local time (12 UTC), removing most restrictions but maintaining strict border controls. (Stuff) COVID-19 pandemic in South Africa Most schools in South Africa re-open after Education Minister Angie Motshekga says that efforts to contain the virus allowed 95% of schools to return to classes. South Africa has recorded nearly 50,000 cases and almost 1,000 deaths. (Reuters) Most schools in South Africa re-open after Education Minister Angie Motshekga says that efforts to contain the virus allowed 95% of schools to return to classes. South Africa has recorded nearly 50,000 cases and almost 1,000 deaths. (Reuters) edit history watch Armed conflicts and attacks Gubio massacre Insurgents destroy a village in Gubio , Borno State , Nigeria , killing 81 residents. No group has claimed responsibility for the massacre , which is believed to have been carried out by the Islamist Boko Haram terror group. (BBC News) Insurgents destroy a village in Gubio , Borno State , Nigeria , killing 81 residents. No group has claimed responsibility for the massacre , which is believed to have been carried out by the Islamist Boko Haram terror group. (BBC News) Arts and culture The American reality TV program Cops is canceled after 31 years amid police brutality protests . ( The Washington Post ) The film Gone with the Wind is removed from the HBO Max streaming service. They say the 1939 film, which takes place in Georgia during the American Civil War and the Reconstruction era , was "a product of its time" and depicted "ethnic and racial prejudices" that "were wrong then and are wrong today". (BBC News) Disasters and accidents Fifty-three migrants die when a boat carrying them sinks off the coast of Tunisia on its way to Italy . (Reuters) Health and environment COVID-19 pandemic A Harvard University study suggests that COVID-19 may have been spreading in China as early as August 2019. ( The Guardian ) A Harvard University study suggests that COVID-19 may have been spreading in China as early as August 2019. ( The Guardian ) China removes pangolin scales from its 2020 list of approved ingredients used in traditional Chinese medicine . This comes after China upgraded all species of pangolin from second-class to first-class protected animals considering their rapidly decreasing numbers due to over-hunting and habitat destruction . ( Global Times ) International relations North Korea–South Korea relations North Korea announces it is severing hotlines with South Korea in retaliation for actions taken by defectors who sent anti- Pyongyang leaflets to the border . In addition, South Korea says the North refused to respond to calls to its liaison office. (Al Jazeera) North Korea announces it is severing hotlines with South Korea in retaliation for actions taken by defectors who sent anti- Pyongyang leaflets to the border . In addition, South Korea says the North refused to respond to calls to its liaison office. (Al Jazeera) Law and crime George Floyd protests in the United Kingdom The Mayor of London Sadiq Khan establishes the Commission for Diversity in the Public Realm in order to review statues in London . A statue of merchant and slave owner Robert Milligan is removed. ( The Independent ) The Mayor of London Sadiq Khan establishes the Commission for Diversity in the Public Realm in order to review statues in London . A statue of merchant and slave owner Robert Milligan is removed. ( The Independent ) Tanzanian opposition leader Freeman Mbowe is attacked by unidentified assailants as he enters his home. His party, the Chadema , says the attack may have been politically motivated. (Reuters) Darfur militia leader Ali Kushayb is handed over to the International Criminal Court in The Hague , where he is accused of crimes against humanity and war crimes , including murder and rape . He had surrendered in the Central African Republic . (Reuters) Politics and elections Politics of Burundi Incumbent President Pierre Nkurunziza dies at the age of 55. Pascal Nyabenda , president of the National Assembly , assumes the presidential office ad interim . (BBC News) Incumbent President Pierre Nkurunziza dies at the age of 55. Pascal Nyabenda , president of the National Assembly , assumes the presidential office ad interim . (BBC News) edit history watch A gunman opens fire at a police station in Paso Robles, California , injuring a deputy with the San Luis Obispo Sheriff's Office. He then flees and kills a transient, leading to a manhunt. ( The San Francisco Chronicle ) 2020 Assam gas and oil leak Two firefighters are killed and four others are injured in a Baghjan gas well blowout fire in Assam , Northeast India . ( Indian Express ) Two firefighters are killed and four others are injured in a Baghjan gas well blowout fire in Assam , Northeast India . ( Indian Express ) North Korea–South Korea relations A day after North Korea severed its hotlines with South Korea over defectors who sent anti- Pyongyang leaflets to the border , South Korea announces it is taking legal action against two organisations that conducted such operations, saying that they "have created tension between the two Koreas and caused danger to the border-area residents' lives and safety". (Reuters) A day after North Korea severed its hotlines with South Korea over defectors who sent anti- Pyongyang leaflets to the border , South Korea announces it is taking legal action against two organisations that conducted such operations, saying that they "have created tension between the two Koreas and caused danger to the border-area residents' lives and safety". (Reuters) Territorial disputes of India and Nepal The Nepali parliament moves to approve a new map and revision of the national emblem which includes territory in India 's Uttarakhand state. ( Times of India ) The Nepali parliament moves to approve a new map and revision of the national emblem which includes territory in India 's Uttarakhand state. ( Times of India ) Assassination of Olof Palme Sweden closes the case of the murder of Prime Minister Olof Palme in 1986 after 34 years of investigation, indicating Stig Engström as the suspected murderer. (CNN) Sweden closes the case of the murder of Prime Minister Olof Palme in 1986 after 34 years of investigation, indicating Stig Engström as the suspected murderer. (CNN) Killing of George Floyd , Police reform in the United States Several people, including George Floyd 's brother, testify about police brutality and systemic racism before the U.S. House Judiciary Committee in support of the Justice in Policing Act of 2020 . (NPR) Several people, including George Floyd 's brother, testify about police brutality and systemic racism before the U.S. House Judiciary Committee in support of the Justice in Policing Act of 2020 . (NPR) 2020 Polish presidential election , LGBT rights in Poland Ahead of the upcoming presidential election, President Andrzej Duda vows to ban teaching about LGBT issues in Polish schools in a bid to secure re-election. Duda is a staunch ally of the ruling right-wing populist Law and Justice party. (Reuters) Ahead of the upcoming presidential election, President Andrzej Duda vows to ban teaching about LGBT issues in Polish schools in a bid to secure re-election. Duda is a staunch ally of the ruling right-wing populist Law and Justice party. (Reuters) 2020 Sri Lankan parliamentary election Sri Lanka postpones, for a second time, the election from June 20 to August 5 due to the COVID-19 pandemic . (Reuters) Sri Lanka postpones, for a second time, the election from June 20 to August 5 due to the COVID-19 pandemic . (Reuters) Modern display of the Confederate battle flag NASCAR announces that the display of the Confederate flag will be prohibited from all of its events and properties. (ESPN) NASCAR announces that the display of the Confederate flag will be prohibited from all of its events and properties. (ESPN) edit history watch Maghreb insurgency At least 10 Ivorian soldiers are killed and six others wounded at the border with Burkina Faso when an armed group ambushed them; one of the attackers was also killed. It is the first attack in the country since the 2016 Grand-Bassam shootings . (Al Jazeera) At least 10 Ivorian soldiers are killed and six others wounded at the border with Burkina Faso when an armed group ambushed them; one of the attackers was also killed. It is the first attack in the country since the 2016 Grand-Bassam shootings . (Al Jazeera) The death toll from the sinking of a ship carrying 53 migrants off the coast of Tunisia on Tuesday rises to at least 46 as more bodies are recovered from the sea . (Reuters) The Ministry of Emergency Management of China says that flooding in south and central China has killed more than a dozen people and forced hundreds of thousands to seek emergency shelter since 2 June. (Al Jazeera) COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 pandemic in the United States The United States surpasses two million cases of COVID-19 , the first country in the world to do so. (CNN) COVID-19 pandemic in the United States The United States surpasses two million cases of COVID-19 , the first country in the world to do so. (CNN) The United States surpasses two million cases of COVID-19 , the first country in the world to do so. (CNN) Iraq–United States relations , Withdrawal of U.S. troops from Iraq (2020) The United States and Iraq begin negotiations, conducted remotely, to discuss the withdrawal of U.S. troops and countering Iranian influence. ( The New York Times ) The United States and Iraq begin negotiations, conducted remotely, to discuss the withdrawal of U.S. troops and countering Iranian influence. ( The New York Times ) United States war crimes U.S. President Donald Trump authorizes sanctions against the International Criminal Court in retaliation for their investigation into potential war crimes by U.S. officials. (CNN) U.S. President Donald Trump authorizes sanctions against the International Criminal Court in retaliation for their investigation into potential war crimes by U.S. officials. (CNN) Bærum mosque shooting A court in Norway sentences Philip Manshaus to 21 years in prison for the racially-motivated murder of his stepsister and for attempting to kill Muslim worshippers. It is the longest prison sentence allowed by law . The prison term contains a provision that his release can be put off indefinitely should he still be considered a threat to society. (Al Jazeera) A court in Norway sentences Philip Manshaus to 21 years in prison for the racially-motivated murder of his stepsister and for attempting to kill Muslim worshippers. It is the longest prison sentence allowed by law . The prison term contains a provision that his release can be put off indefinitely should he still be considered a threat to society. (Al Jazeera) Turkey–United States relations , 2016–present purges in Turkey A court in Turkey sentences a U.S. Consulate employee, Metin Topuz, to 8 years and 9 months in prison on charges of aiding the followers of Fethullah Gülen , the U.S.-based preacher who is accused in Turkey of being the mastermind behind a failed coup attempt in 2016 against Erdoğan . The U.S. Embassy in Ankara releases a statement on Twitter saying officials were "deeply disappointed" in the decision. ( The New York Times ) A court in Turkey sentences a U.S. Consulate employee, Metin Topuz, to 8 years and 9 months in prison on charges of aiding the followers of Fethullah Gülen , the U.S.-based preacher who is accused in Turkey of being the mastermind behind a failed coup attempt in 2016 against Erdoğan . The U.S. Embassy in Ankara releases a statement on Twitter saying officials were "deeply disappointed" in the decision. ( The New York Times ) An attacker, believed to be a former student, kills the deputy head and injures five others with a knife at a school in Vrútky , Slovakia , before being killed by responding police officers. (BBC News) The Senate of the Republic of Colombia approves a resolution banning the testing of cosmetics on animals , as well as the commercialization of cosmetics which are actively tested on animals. (La FM) Dalton Tagelagi is elected new Premier of Niue by the Assembly . (RNZ) 2020 AFL season , George Floyd protests in Australia After a ten-week suspension due to the COVID-19 pandemic , the 2020 AFL season resumes with Collingwood facing Richmond at the MCG . Before the match began, both teams knelt to show solidarity with the George Floyd protests . The match finished in a draw. (News.com.au) After a ten-week suspension due to the COVID-19 pandemic , the 2020 AFL season resumes with Collingwood facing Richmond at the MCG . Before the match began, both teams knelt to show solidarity with the George Floyd protests . The match finished in a draw. (News.com.au) edit history watch Second Libyan Civil War 2019–20 Western Libya campaign Eight mass graves containing hundreds of bodies are discovered in western Libya , most of them in the town of Tarhuna . The Government of National Accord (GNA) says the remains are of captured GNA fighters and civilians, apparent evidence of war crimes . (Al Jazeera) 2019–20 Western Libya campaign Eight mass graves containing hundreds of bodies are discovered in western Libya , most of them in the town of Tarhuna . The Government of National Accord (GNA) says the remains are of captured GNA fighters and civilians, apparent evidence of war crimes . (Al Jazeera) Eight mass graves containing hundreds of bodies are discovered in western Libya , most of them in the town of Tarhuna . The Government of National Accord (GNA) says the remains are of captured GNA fighters and civilians, apparent evidence of war crimes . (Al Jazeera) June 2020 Afghanistan attacks Four people are killed and eight others injured by the bombing of a mosque in Kabul . No group claimed responsibility. (Reuters) Four people are killed and eight others injured by the bombing of a mosque in Kabul . No group claimed responsibility. (Reuters) About 30 Indians cross the border into Nepal and clash with Nepali police when stopped in the district of Sarlahi . Nepali border guards opened fire, killing one man and injuring two. According to police, the forces fired when one of the men snatched a gun from them. (Al Jazeera) Sanrio founder and CEO Shintaro Tsuji , whose company is best known for creating Hello Kitty , announces he will resign on July 1 citing a need to "transform the company to better respond to today's rapidly changing business environment." His grandson Tomokuni Tsuji is expected to replace him. (BBC News) Brazil 's state -run oil company Petrobras says it will not do business with tankers that visited Venezuela in the past year, adhering to sanctions placed by the United States . (Reuters) LGBTQ rights in the United States , Abortion in the United States The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services removes protections against discrimination within Obamacare for transgender people and women seeking abortions . The move is condemned by civil rights groups and Democratic officials. (Reuters) The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services removes protections against discrimination within Obamacare for transgender people and women seeking abortions . The move is condemned by civil rights groups and Democratic officials. (Reuters) Slavery in Australia Prime Minister Scott Morrison apologizes for saying there was "no slavery " in Australia . He says that he was referring specifically to the fact that the first Australian colony of New South Wales was set up without the widespread use of slave labor . (CNN) Prime Minister Scott Morrison apologizes for saying there was "no slavery " in Australia . He says that he was referring specifically to the fact that the first Australian colony of New South Wales was set up without the widespread use of slave labor . (CNN) Lebanese liquidity crisis Hundreds protest over the handling of the country's economic crisis, many calling for Hassan Diab 's government to resign. The Lebanese pound has lost 70 percent of its value since October, when protests began. The government announced the central bank will begin injecting more United States dollars into the market on Monday. (BBC News) (Al Jazeera) Hundreds protest over the handling of the country's economic crisis, many calling for Hassan Diab 's government to resign. The Lebanese pound has lost 70 percent of its value since October, when protests began. The government announced the central bank will begin injecting more United States dollars into the market on Monday. (BBC News) (Al Jazeera) 2020 Republican Party presidential primaries , Donald Trump 2020 presidential campaign U.S. President Donald Trump announces the MAGA Rally that was to be held on June 19, in Tulsa, Oklahoma , is rescheduled to June 20. The rally's original date had been widely criticized because the 19th is Juneteenth , the date commemorating the end of American slavery. The location was also criticized due to it being where the 1921 Tulsa race massacre took place, because of the ongoing George Floyd protests . (CNN) ( The Hill ) U.S. President Donald Trump announces the MAGA Rally that was to be held on June 19, in Tulsa, Oklahoma , is rescheduled to June 20. The rally's original date had been widely criticized because the 19th is Juneteenth , the date commemorating the end of American slavery. The location was also criticized due to it being where the 1921 Tulsa race massacre took place, because of the ongoing George Floyd protests . (CNN) ( The Hill ) President-elect of Burundi Évariste Ndayishimiye is set to take power immediately, days after the death of incumbent Pierre Nkurunziza , as the constitutional court says "it is not necessary to have an interim period", and that Ndayishimiye should be sworn-in "as soon as possible". (Reuters) On the 122nd anniversary of the Philippines 's independence from Spain , more than a thousand protestors march at the main campus of the University of the Philippines in Manila to protest a controversial anti-terrorism bill introduced by President Rodrigo Duterte . (Reuters) Twitter says it has removed a network of more than 170,000 accounts it says were spreading pro- Communist Party of China propaganda on the social media platform, saying the Chinese-based network had links to earlier state -backed operations on Facebook and YouTube . More than a thousand Russia -based misinformation accounts are also removed. (BBC News) edit history watch 2020 Monguno and Nganzai massacres ISWAP kills over 20 soldiers and 40 civilians in attacks in Monguno and Nganzai in Borno , Nigeria – four days after they killed 82 civilians in Gubio . (Reuters) ISWAP kills over 20 soldiers and 40 civilians in attacks in Monguno and Nganzai in Borno , Nigeria – four days after they killed 82 civilians in Gubio . (Reuters) Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen Coalition spokesman Turki al-Malki says the armed forces destroyed a ballistic missile targeting the Saudi border city of Najran . In a statement, the spokesman said the missile was launched from the Yemeni city of Saada and that some people were slightly injured when it was destroyed. The Houthis did not claim responsibility. (Al Jazeera) Coalition spokesman Turki al-Malki says the armed forces destroyed a ballistic missile targeting the Saudi border city of Najran . In a statement, the spokesman said the missile was launched from the Yemeni city of Saada and that some people were slightly injured when it was destroyed. The Houthis did not claim responsibility. (Al Jazeera) COVID-19 pandemic in Chile More than 3,100 deaths are officially reported in the country. However, an investigation reported the Ministry of Health told the World Health Organization that the death toll reached 5,000 cases. (France24) Jaime Mañalich is succeeded by Enrique Paris as Minister of Health . (France24) More than 3,100 deaths are officially reported in the country. However, an investigation reported the Ministry of Health told the World Health Organization that the death toll reached 5,000 cases. (France24) Jaime Mañalich is succeeded by Enrique Paris as Minister of Health . (France24) Czech Republic–Poland relations , COVID-19 pandemic in Poland Poland 's Ministry of National Defence admits its army briefly invaded and occupied the Czech Republic for several days last month in a "misunderstanding", the Polish soldiers took up positions near a chapel on the Czech side of the border in Moravia as part of coronavirus measures, and prevented Czech visitors from the site. (BBC News) Poland 's Ministry of National Defence admits its army briefly invaded and occupied the Czech Republic for several days last month in a "misunderstanding", the Polish soldiers took up positions near a chapel on the Czech side of the border in Moravia as part of coronavirus measures, and prevented Czech visitors from the site. (BBC News) Killing of Rayshard Brooks Protestors set fire to a Wendy's restaurant in Atlanta , Georgia , U.S., in response to Rayshard Brooks' death the evening before. Outside the restaurant the previous day, two police officers shot Brooks after he attempted to escape from them after a tussle in which he took one of the officer's taser and discharged it at one of them following a DUI investigation. ( The Guardian ) Protestors set fire to a Wendy's restaurant in Atlanta , Georgia , U.S., in response to Rayshard Brooks' death the evening before. Outside the restaurant the previous day, two police officers shot Brooks after he attempted to escape from them after a tussle in which he took one of the officer's taser and discharged it at one of them following a DUI investigation. ( The Guardian ) COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom ; Crime in Greater Manchester A man is killed, a woman raped and three others stabbed at two "quarantine raves " late Saturday that attracted 6,000 people in Greater Manchester . They were a clear breach of coronavirus legislation. (BBC News) A man is killed, a woman raped and three others stabbed at two "quarantine raves " late Saturday that attracted 6,000 people in Greater Manchester . They were a clear breach of coronavirus legislation. (BBC News) A court in China sentences an Australian man to death for drug trafficking . The man had been arrested in 2013 at Baiyun Airport in Guangzhou . The Australian government condemns the verdict. (Reuters) Colombian businessman Alex Saab is arrested in Cape Verde a week after Colombian authorities froze his assets following the opening an investigation against him for alleged money laundering . The Nicolás Maduro -led Government of Venezuela denounces the arrest as an arbitrary detention and violation of international law. (Reuters) George Floyd protests George Floyd protests in the United States George Floyd protests in California Protesters gather outside the One America News Network headquarters in San Diego , California , US for their misinformation about the Buffalo police shoving incident , including labeling protester Martin Gugino as a “ Antifa provocateur”. ( Times of San Diego ) George Floyd protests in the United Kingdom Protests organized by Black Lives Matter are cancelled in London before the arrival of counter-protesters, including members of the far-right , although some BLM supporters arrived. Far-right protesters and police clashed at a demonstration in Trafalgar Square . (BBC News) (Reuters) ( The Times ) French riot police clash with anti-racism protesters in central Paris , as thousands march onto the Place de la République to protest police brutality against the country's immigrants . (Reuters) George Floyd protests in the United States George Floyd protests in California Protesters gather outside the One America News Network headquarters in San Diego , California , US for their misinformation about the Buffalo police shoving incident , including labeling protester Martin Gugino as a “ Antifa provocateur”. ( Times of San Diego ) George Floyd protests in California Protesters gather outside the One America News Network headquarters in San Diego , California , US for their misinformation about the Buffalo police shoving incident , including labeling protester Martin Gugino as a “ Antifa provocateur”. ( Times of San Diego ) Protesters gather outside the One America News Network headquarters in San Diego , California , US for their misinformation about the Buffalo police shoving incident , including labeling protester Martin Gugino as a “ Antifa provocateur”. ( Times of San Diego ) George Floyd protests in the United Kingdom Protests organized by Black Lives Matter are cancelled in London before the arrival of counter-protesters, including members of the far-right , although some BLM supporters arrived. Far-right protesters and police clashed at a demonstration in Trafalgar Square . (BBC News) (Reuters) ( The Times ) Protests organized by Black Lives Matter are cancelled in London before the arrival of counter-protesters, including members of the far-right , although some BLM supporters arrived. Far-right protesters and police clashed at a demonstration in Trafalgar Square . (BBC News) (Reuters) ( The Times ) French riot police clash with anti-racism protesters in central Paris , as thousands march onto the Place de la République to protest police brutality against the country's immigrants . (Reuters) 2020 Polish presidential election , LGBT rights in Poland President Andrzej Duda compares the " LGBT ideology " to " communist indoctrination" ahead of the upcoming presidential elections. Opposition candidate Robert Biedroń condemns his remarks. (Reuters) President Andrzej Duda compares the " LGBT ideology " to " communist indoctrination" ahead of the upcoming presidential elections. Opposition candidate Robert Biedroń condemns his remarks. (Reuters) edit history watch Armed conflicts and attacks Afghan peace process ; Taliban insurgency ; June 2020 Afghanistan attacks The Interior Ministry accuses the Taliban of killing or wounding more than 400 Afghan security forces personnel in the last week and said the insurgent group had increased attacks ahead of expected peace talks. He also accused them of attacking religious scholars to put "psychological pressure" on the government . (AFP via Al Arabiya) The Interior Ministry accuses the Taliban of killing or wounding more than 400 Afghan security forces personnel in the last week and said the insurgent group had increased attacks ahead of expected peace talks. He also accused them of attacking religious scholars to put "psychological pressure" on the government . (AFP via Al Arabiya) Kurdish–Turkish conflict (2015–present) The Turkish Defense Ministry says that military jets successfully targeted PKK militants in Sinjar and Qandil, Iraq , among other places, as part of Operation Claw . The ministry claimed it was in response to increased militant attacks on Turkish bases. (Reuters) The Turkish Defense Ministry says that military jets successfully targeted PKK militants in Sinjar and Qandil, Iraq , among other places, as part of Operation Claw . The ministry claimed it was in response to increased militant attacks on Turkish bases. (Reuters) A drone strike in northwestern Syria kills two high-ranking members of the Guardians of Religion Organization , linked to al-Qaeda , according to opposition war monitors. (AP via Al Arabiya) Disasters and accidents At least 19 people are killed and more than 172 injured Saturday after a liquefied gas tanker exploded on a Chinese highway near the city of Wenling . Close to 100 fire trucks responded. Some people are still missing. (UPI) Health and environment COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 pandemic in Africa COVID-19 pandemic in Egypt Egypt reports the highest daily rise in both active cases and deaths since the start of the pandemic . (Reuters) COVID-19 pandemic in Ghana Ghanaian Minister of the Health Kwaku Agyemang-Manu is hospitalized with COVID-19. (VOA) COVID-19 pandemic in the United States COVID-19 pandemic in Florida Florida reports two consecutive days of 2,000-plus new COVID-19 cases as more counties reopen their beaches. Miami's mayor says this information does not include data from Memorial Day weekend and the George Floyd protests . (ABC News) COVID-19 pandemic in Africa COVID-19 pandemic in Egypt Egypt reports the highest daily rise in both active cases and deaths since the start of the pandemic . (Reuters) COVID-19 pandemic in Ghana Ghanaian Minister of the Health Kwaku Agyemang-Manu is hospitalized with COVID-19. (VOA) COVID-19 pandemic in Egypt Egypt reports the highest daily rise in both active cases and deaths since the start of the pandemic . (Reuters) Egypt reports the highest daily rise in both active cases and deaths since the start of the pandemic . (Reuters) COVID-19 pandemic in Ghana Ghanaian Minister of the Health Kwaku Agyemang-Manu is hospitalized with COVID-19. (VOA) Ghanaian Minister of the Health Kwaku Agyemang-Manu is hospitalized with COVID-19. (VOA) COVID-19 pandemic in the United States COVID-19 pandemic in Florida Florida reports two consecutive days of 2,000-plus new COVID-19 cases as more counties reopen their beaches. Miami's mayor says this information does not include data from Memorial Day weekend and the George Floyd protests . (ABC News) COVID-19 pandemic in Florida Florida reports two consecutive days of 2,000-plus new COVID-19 cases as more counties reopen their beaches. Miami's mayor says this information does not include data from Memorial Day weekend and the George Floyd protests . (ABC News) Florida reports two consecutive days of 2,000-plus new COVID-19 cases as more counties reopen their beaches. Miami's mayor says this information does not include data from Memorial Day weekend and the George Floyd protests . (ABC News) Politics and elections Morocco 's state-run news agency Maghreb Arabe Press reports that King Mohammed VI has undergone successful heart surgery in Rabat ; the king underwent a similar surgery two years ago in Paris . (Reuters) edit history watch Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen The United Nations remove Saudi Arabia from a blacklist of countries accused of "killing or maiming children, following a sustained significant decrease in air strikes". Saudi Arabia had threatened to cut funding to the UN. (Reuters) The United Nations remove Saudi Arabia from a blacklist of countries accused of "killing or maiming children, following a sustained significant decrease in air strikes". Saudi Arabia had threatened to cut funding to the UN. (Reuters) Mali War The armed forces say an ambush on a military convoy in central Mali has killed at least 24 troops and left others missing. No group has claimed responsibility for the attack. (BBC News) (Al Jazeera) The armed forces say an ambush on a military convoy in central Mali has killed at least 24 troops and left others missing. No group has claimed responsibility for the attack. (BBC News) (Al Jazeera) China–United States trade war The U.S. Department of Commerce announces it will relax the blacklist against Huawei to allow American companies to work with the Chinese telecom on setting 5G network standards. (Reuters) The U.S. Department of Commerce announces it will relax the blacklist against Huawei to allow American companies to work with the Chinese telecom on setting 5G network standards. (Reuters) A United States Air Force 48th Fighter Wing F-15 Eagle based at RAF Lakenheath , England crashes into the North Sea , 74 miles (119 km) off the East Yorkshire coast, killing the pilot. (BBC News) At least three houses are damaged after an Indonesian Air Force Hawk 209 crashes into a residential area of Kampar , Riau . There are no fatalities in the incident. ( The Jakarta Post ) COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 pandemic in North America COVID-19 pandemic in the United States Rep. Tom Rice (R-SC) tests positive for COVID-19 , becoming the 8th member of Congress to do so. ( The Hill ) COVID-19 pandemic in Asia , COVID-19 pandemic in Africa The World Health Organization (WHO) and UNICEF warn that 51,000 children could die in West Asia and North Africa due to the disruptive impact of the pandemic on healthcare systems. ( Middle East Eye ) COVID-19 pandemic in North America COVID-19 pandemic in the United States Rep. Tom Rice (R-SC) tests positive for COVID-19 , becoming the 8th member of Congress to do so. ( The Hill ) COVID-19 pandemic in the United States Rep. Tom Rice (R-SC) tests positive for COVID-19 , becoming the 8th member of Congress to do so. ( The Hill ) Rep. Tom Rice (R-SC) tests positive for COVID-19 , becoming the 8th member of Congress to do so. ( The Hill ) COVID-19 pandemic in Asia , COVID-19 pandemic in Africa The World Health Organization (WHO) and UNICEF warn that 51,000 children could die in West Asia and North Africa due to the disruptive impact of the pandemic on healthcare systems. ( Middle East Eye ) The World Health Organization (WHO) and UNICEF warn that 51,000 children could die in West Asia and North Africa due to the disruptive impact of the pandemic on healthcare systems. ( Middle East Eye ) Killing of Rayshard Brooks The Fulton County medical examiner declares Rayshard Brooks' death a homicide . Brooks was shot in the back by an Atlanta Police officer while fleeing from an attempted arrest for driving under the influence in which he stole an officer's taser and fired it at him on June 12. (BBC News) The Fulton County medical examiner declares Rayshard Brooks' death a homicide . Brooks was shot in the back by an Atlanta Police officer while fleeing from an attempted arrest for driving under the influence in which he stole an officer's taser and fired it at him on June 12. (BBC News) LGBTQ rights in the United States The Supreme Court of the United States delivers its decision in the case of Bostock v. Clayton County, Georgia , ruling that the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits employment discrimination against individuals on the basis of their sexual orientation and gender identity . (BBC News) The Supreme Court of the United States delivers its decision in the case of Bostock v. Clayton County, Georgia , ruling that the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits employment discrimination against individuals on the basis of their sexual orientation and gender identity . (BBC News) Hundreds of French police are brought in as reinforcements to the city of Dijon , as over 150 Chechens from around France have gathered to avenge the alleged assault of a Chechen teenager by local drug dealers . During the violence, several people are reported injured and one person suffered gunshot wounds. (BBC News) ( The Jerusalem Post ) Maria Ressa , CEO of Philippine news site Rappler , is found guilty of libel by a Manila court over a 2012 story linking a businessman to various crimes. She faces up to six years in prison. (Reuters) Sudan 's public prosecutor announces the discovery of a mass grave containing the remains of students who were killed in 1998 when they tried to evade conscription . The prosecutor accused former ruler Omar al-Bashir . (Reuters) A court in Russia sentences former U.S. Marine Paul Whelan to 16 years in prison for espionage . The U.S ambassador to Russia John Sullivan condemns the sentencing as "a mockery of justice" in a statement to media after the verdict. (CNN) Black Lives Matter activist Oluwatoyin Salau is found dead in Tallahassee, Florida , US, after going missing on June 6. Shortly before her disappearance, Salau tweeted that she had been sexually assaulted by a black man. Her death is currently being treated as a homicide . (CNN) The Nepali Department of Immigration says that it will deport five foreign tourists (three Chinese, an American and an Australian) and ban them from entering Nepal for two years after they joined protests against the government's response to the coronavirus outbreak . (CNA) Politics of Kyrgyzstan Kyrgyz Prime Minister Mukhammedkalyi Abylgaziev resigns from in connection with allegations against the government in a criminal case on the extension and renewal of radio frequency resource. (Reuters) Kyrgyz Prime Minister Mukhammedkalyi Abylgaziev resigns from in connection with allegations against the government in a criminal case on the extension and renewal of radio frequency resource. (Reuters) edit history watch Sino-Indian border dispute 2020 China–India skirmishes At least 20 Indian soldiers and an unknown number of Chinese soldiers have been killed in a clash in Ladakh in the disputed Kashmir region , amid rising tensions between the two countries . Local media reported that the Indian soldiers were "beaten to death", and the Indian Army says no shots were fired. (BBC News) 2020 China–India skirmishes At least 20 Indian soldiers and an unknown number of Chinese soldiers have been killed in a clash in Ladakh in the disputed Kashmir region , amid rising tensions between the two countries . Local media reported that the Indian soldiers were "beaten to death", and the Indian Army says no shots were fired. (BBC News) At least 20 Indian soldiers and an unknown number of Chinese soldiers have been killed in a clash in Ladakh in the disputed Kashmir region , amid rising tensions between the two countries . Local media reported that the Indian soldiers were "beaten to death", and the Indian Army says no shots were fired. (BBC News) Mali War President Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta says that opposition leader Soumaïla Cissé , who was kidnapped in late March, is alive. Keïta said "we know who his captors are [...] And if it pleases God, he will come back soon". (Al Jazeera) President Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta says that opposition leader Soumaïla Cissé , who was kidnapped in late March, is alive. Keïta said "we know who his captors are [...] And if it pleases God, he will come back soon". (Al Jazeera) 2020 boogaloo killings The alleged gunman in a fatal attack on Santa Cruz County deputies is also charged with last month's murder of a Federal Protective Service officer in Oakland, California . A second man is also charged as an accomplice. Both men had ties to the far-right boogaloo movement . (NBC News) The alleged gunman in a fatal attack on Santa Cruz County deputies is also charged with last month's murder of a Federal Protective Service officer in Oakland, California . A second man is also charged as an accomplice. Both men had ties to the far-right boogaloo movement . (NBC News) The World Trade Organization rules that the Saudi government violated Qatar ’s intellectual property rights by promoting the pirate TV station beoutQ , which aired Qatari programs like beIN Sports after Saudi Arabia and several other Middle Eastern countries cut ties with the Kingdom during the Qatar diplomatic crisis . The Qatari Communications Minister applauds the decision, while Saudi Arabia denies any involvement. (Al Jazeera) COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 pandemic in mainland China Beijing closes all schools, locks down several residential estates and imposes a partial travel ban, urging residents not to leave the city, after 27 more COVID-19 cases are confirmed in the city, bringing the total to 106 new cases in the last five days. The new outbreak is linked to the Xinfadi Market . ( The Nations ) COVID-19 pandemic in Brazil Brazil 's Ministry of Health reports a record 34,918 new confirmed cases of COVID-19 and 1,282 more deaths in the last 24 hours. Despite the record daily rise, Chief of Staff of the Presidency Walter Souza Braga Netto says the virus is now under control. (Reuters) COVID-19 pandemic in Honduras President Juan Orlando Hernández says that he, his wife, and their aides have been diagnosed with COVID-19. (CNA) The total cases surpass eight million worldwide. (RNZ) COVID-19 pandemic in mainland China Beijing closes all schools, locks down several residential estates and imposes a partial travel ban, urging residents not to leave the city, after 27 more COVID-19 cases are confirmed in the city, bringing the total to 106 new cases in the last five days. The new outbreak is linked to the Xinfadi Market . ( The Nations ) Beijing closes all schools, locks down several residential estates and imposes a partial travel ban, urging residents not to leave the city, after 27 more COVID-19 cases are confirmed in the city, bringing the total to 106 new cases in the last five days. The new outbreak is linked to the Xinfadi Market . ( The Nations ) COVID-19 pandemic in Brazil Brazil 's Ministry of Health reports a record 34,918 new confirmed cases of COVID-19 and 1,282 more deaths in the last 24 hours. Despite the record daily rise, Chief of Staff of the Presidency Walter Souza Braga Netto says the virus is now under control. (Reuters) Brazil 's Ministry of Health reports a record 34,918 new confirmed cases of COVID-19 and 1,282 more deaths in the last 24 hours. Despite the record daily rise, Chief of Staff of the Presidency Walter Souza Braga Netto says the virus is now under control. (Reuters) COVID-19 pandemic in Honduras President Juan Orlando Hernández says that he, his wife, and their aides have been diagnosed with COVID-19. (CNA) President Juan Orlando Hernández says that he, his wife, and their aides have been diagnosed with COVID-19. (CNA) The total cases surpass eight million worldwide. (RNZ) North Korea–South Korea relations The General Staff Department of the Korean People's Army says they are on "high alert" and are looking at plans to mobilize the army into the demilitarized zone , in response to defector groups in South Korea sending propaganda material across the border . (BBC News) North Korea blows up the four-storey Inter-Korean Liaison Office in the Kaesong Industrial Region , according to South Korean authorities. Kim Yo-jong , the sister of Supreme Leader Kim Jong-un , had earlier threatened to destroy the "useless" building. A neighbouring apartment complex used by South Korean officials appears to have partially collapsed in the explosion. (Yonhap) (Al Jazeera) The General Staff Department of the Korean People's Army says they are on "high alert" and are looking at plans to mobilize the army into the demilitarized zone , in response to defector groups in South Korea sending propaganda material across the border . (BBC News) North Korea blows up the four-storey Inter-Korean Liaison Office in the Kaesong Industrial Region , according to South Korean authorities. Kim Yo-jong , the sister of Supreme Leader Kim Jong-un , had earlier threatened to destroy the "useless" building. A neighbouring apartment complex used by South Korean officials appears to have partially collapsed in the explosion. (Yonhap) (Al Jazeera) Chinese intelligence activity abroad , Sino-Russian relations since 1991 Russian investigators accuse Valery Mitko, President of Arctic Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg and one of the country's leading Arctic researchers, "of treason" after alleging that he gave a document containing state secrets to Chinese intelligence in early 2018 at China's Dalian Maritime University, where he was a visiting professor. Mitko and his lawyer Ivan Pavlov deny any wrongdoing and say that all the materials were openly available. (CNN) Russian investigators accuse Valery Mitko, President of Arctic Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg and one of the country's leading Arctic researchers, "of treason" after alleging that he gave a document containing state secrets to Chinese intelligence in early 2018 at China's Dalian Maritime University, where he was a visiting professor. Mitko and his lawyer Ivan Pavlov deny any wrongdoing and say that all the materials were openly available. (CNN) Police reform in the United States In the aftermath of the killing of George Floyd last month, U.S. President Donald Trump signs an executive order limiting the use of police chokeholds , except in cases where “deadly force is allowed by law”. (CNBC) In the aftermath of the killing of George Floyd last month, U.S. President Donald Trump signs an executive order limiting the use of police chokeholds , except in cases where “deadly force is allowed by law”. (CNBC) Moldova asks the U.S. to extradite businessman Vladimir Plahotniuc after accusing him of "involvement in the theft of $1 billion from banks in 2014–2015". (Reuters) Pacific Gas and Electric Company CEO Bill Johnson pleads guilty on behalf of his company to 84 counts of felony involuntary manslaughter in the 2018 Camp Fire , the deadliest wildfire in California 's history, as well as one felony count of unlawfully starting a fire. PG&E will pay a maximum fine of US$ 3.5 million, as well as an additional US$500,000 for the cost of investigations. (Al Jazeera) (The Sacramento Bee ) The Indonesian National Police says that they have arrested Russ Medlin, an American fugitive wanted at home in connection with a $700 million cryptocurrency scam, on local teenage sex charges. ( The Jakarta Post ) 2020 Tanzanian general election President John Magufuli dissolves parliament ahead of the election. In the decision, he highlights his government 's achievements, citing "expanding infrastructure such as roads, electricity generation and reforming the mining sector". (Reuters) President John Magufuli dissolves parliament ahead of the election. In the decision, he highlights his government 's achievements, citing "expanding infrastructure such as roads, electricity generation and reforming the mining sector". (Reuters) edit history watch Kurdish–Turkish conflict (2015–present) The Turkish Army launches a joint air-land external operation Claw-Eagle and Claw-Tiger into Northern Iraq against Kurdish insurgents . ( The Guardian ) The Turkish Army launches a joint air-land external operation Claw-Eagle and Claw-Tiger into Northern Iraq against Kurdish insurgents . ( The Guardian ) Kashmir conflict , India–Pakistan relations Four civilians are killed following Indian bombardment of territory in Pakistan -administered Kashmir , according to Pakistani officials. (Al Jazeera) Four civilians are killed following Indian bombardment of territory in Pakistan -administered Kashmir , according to Pakistani officials. (Al Jazeera) Actions against memorials in the United Kingdom during the George Floyd protests , Rhodes Must Fall The Oriel College governing body votes to remove a 109-year-old statue of Cecil Rhodes from the college grounds amid anti-racism protests. Campaigners say the statue is a symbol of racism and British imperialism . (BBC News) The Oriel College governing body votes to remove a 109-year-old statue of Cecil Rhodes from the college grounds amid anti-racism protests. Campaigners say the statue is a symbol of racism and British imperialism . (BBC News) COVID-19 pandemic in Kazakhstan , Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic Kazakhstan 's sovereign wealth fund Samruk-Kazyna announces that plans to sell shares in the state -run oil and gas company KazMunayGaz abroad will be delayed from this year to 2022 due to the pandemic . (Reuters) Kazakhstan 's sovereign wealth fund Samruk-Kazyna announces that plans to sell shares in the state -run oil and gas company KazMunayGaz abroad will be delayed from this year to 2022 due to the pandemic . (Reuters) COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 pandemic in the United States Johns Hopkins University says that the death toll due to the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States has surpassed the number of American casualties during World War I . (CTV News) COVID-19 pandemic in Honduras President Juan Orlando Hernández is hospitalized for COVID-19 and is being treated for pneumonia . Although receiving medicine via an intravenous drip , the president is claimed to be generally in good health, according to a spokesman for the Health Ministry. (Reuters) COVID-19 pandemic in Brazil Paulinho Paiakan , leader of the indigenous Kayapo tribe, dies after being hospitalized with COVID-19 in Redenção , Brazil . (France24) COVID-19 pandemic in the United States Johns Hopkins University says that the death toll due to the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States has surpassed the number of American casualties during World War I . (CTV News) Johns Hopkins University says that the death toll due to the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States has surpassed the number of American casualties during World War I . (CTV News) COVID-19 pandemic in Honduras President Juan Orlando Hernández is hospitalized for COVID-19 and is being treated for pneumonia . Although receiving medicine via an intravenous drip , the president is claimed to be generally in good health, according to a spokesman for the Health Ministry. (Reuters) President Juan Orlando Hernández is hospitalized for COVID-19 and is being treated for pneumonia . Although receiving medicine via an intravenous drip , the president is claimed to be generally in good health, according to a spokesman for the Health Ministry. (Reuters) COVID-19 pandemic in Brazil Paulinho Paiakan , leader of the indigenous Kayapo tribe, dies after being hospitalized with COVID-19 in Redenção , Brazil . (France24) Paulinho Paiakan , leader of the indigenous Kayapo tribe, dies after being hospitalized with COVID-19 in Redenção , Brazil . (France24) North Korea–South Korea relations North Korea rejects South Korea 's offer to send special envoys to defuse the current tensions on the peninsula , after having destroyed the Inter-Korean Liaison Office , and says the Korean People's Army will re-enter the demilitarized Kaesong and Mount Kumgang areas. (Yonhap) (Reuters) North Korea rejects South Korea 's offer to send special envoys to defuse the current tensions on the peninsula , after having destroyed the Inter-Korean Liaison Office , and says the Korean People's Army will re-enter the demilitarized Kaesong and Mount Kumgang areas. (Yonhap) (Reuters) China–Japan relations Japan says it will keep a close watch over the disputed Senkaku Islands after Chinese ships are seen near the islands for 65 days in a row. Chief Cabinet Secretary Yoshihide Suga says that Japan has protested to China over the issue and that it would respond "calmly and firmly". (Reuters) Japan says it will keep a close watch over the disputed Senkaku Islands after Chinese ships are seen near the islands for 65 days in a row. Chief Cabinet Secretary Yoshihide Suga says that Japan has protested to China over the issue and that it would respond "calmly and firmly". (Reuters) Syria–United States relations U.S. Secretary of State Mike Pompeo announces "toughest sanctions" on Syrian president Bashar al-Assad and his wife Asma in an effort to end the decade-long civil war in the country. (Reuters) U.S. Secretary of State Mike Pompeo announces "toughest sanctions" on Syrian president Bashar al-Assad and his wife Asma in an effort to end the decade-long civil war in the country. (Reuters) 2020 United Nations Security Council election Norway and Ireland win seats in the United Nations Security Council , joining new members India and Mexico . Canada , which was considered a favorite, and had strongly campaigned for a seat for four years on the council, fails to get enough votes. Canadian Foreign Minister François-Philippe Champagne says he is proud of the campaign but declines to comment on the reasons for their loss. (AP) Norway and Ireland win seats in the United Nations Security Council , joining new members India and Mexico . Canada , which was considered a favorite, and had strongly campaigned for a seat for four years on the council, fails to get enough votes. Canadian Foreign Minister François-Philippe Champagne says he is proud of the campaign but declines to comment on the reasons for their loss. (AP) Papua conflict , 2019 Papua protests A court in Indonesia sentences Chairman of the National Committee for West Papua Buchtar Tabuni and six others to 11 months in prison for treason . The seven men were charged after they joined anti-racism protests that swept across two provinces in Western New Guinea last August. (Al Jazeera) A court in Indonesia sentences Chairman of the National Committee for West Papua Buchtar Tabuni and six others to 11 months in prison for treason . The seven men were charged after they joined anti-racism protests that swept across two provinces in Western New Guinea last August. (Al Jazeera) Killing of Rayshard Brooks Former Atlanta Police officer Garrett Rolfe is charged with murder and 10 other crimes in the death of Rayshard Brooks. Brooks was shot twice in the back after he fled from an attempted DUI arrest and stole another officer's taser. This officer, Devin Brosnan, has been charged with aggravated assault and two other crimes in the case. (NPR) Former Atlanta Police officer Garrett Rolfe is charged with murder and 10 other crimes in the death of Rayshard Brooks. Brooks was shot twice in the back after he fled from an attempted DUI arrest and stole another officer's taser. This officer, Devin Brosnan, has been charged with aggravated assault and two other crimes in the case. (NPR) The Supreme Council of Kyrgyzstan confirms former first deputy prime minister Kubatbek Boronov as the new prime minister . (Reuters) Vanuatu 's opposition leader Ralph Regenvanu says he is taking the decision to suspend his party from parliament to the Supreme Court, saying the decision was an "outrage". (RNZ) Cook Islands Prime Minister Henry Puna says he is stepping down in September after nearly a decade in power. His deputy and Finance Minister Mark Brown will take over. (RNZ) The Indian Department of Telecommunications bars the state -run telecommunication company Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited from upgrading its 4G network with Chinese equipment, as tensions between India and China mount over the recent border skirmishes . (NDTV) edit history watch COVID-19 pandemic in Canada The total number of COVID-19 cases in Canada surpasses 100,000, with 8,266 deaths recorded. (Reuters) The total number of COVID-19 cases in Canada surpasses 100,000, with 8,266 deaths recorded. (Reuters) India–Nepal relations The upper house of Nepal 's parliament approves a new map for the country which includes territories controlled by India . The map requires the approval of President Bidhya Devi Bhandari . India opposes the move, saying that the decision to include Limpiyadhura , Lipulekh and Kalapani is not based on evidence or historical facts. (Al Jazeera) The upper house of Nepal 's parliament approves a new map for the country which includes territories controlled by India . The map requires the approval of President Bidhya Devi Bhandari . India opposes the move, saying that the decision to include Limpiyadhura , Lipulekh and Kalapani is not based on evidence or historical facts. (Al Jazeera) 2020 United Nations Security Council election After a second round of voting, Kenya defeats Djibouti in becoming a non-permanent member on the United Nations Security Council starting in 2021. They will join four other newly-elected members, India , Ireland , Norway and Mexico . (Al Jazeera) After a second round of voting, Kenya defeats Djibouti in becoming a non-permanent member on the United Nations Security Council starting in 2021. They will join four other newly-elected members, India , Ireland , Norway and Mexico . (Al Jazeera) Department of Homeland Security v. Regents of the University of California , Immigration to the United States The U.S. Supreme Court rules in a 5–4 decision that the rescission of the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) policy was "arbitrary and capricious" under the Administrative Procedure Act (APA) and reversed the order rescinding it. Chief Justice John Roberts casts the deciding vote, along with the four liberal Justices. (NPR) The U.S. Supreme Court rules in a 5–4 decision that the rescission of the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) policy was "arbitrary and capricious" under the Administrative Procedure Act (APA) and reversed the order rescinding it. Chief Justice John Roberts casts the deciding vote, along with the four liberal Justices. (NPR) Aftermath of the 2020 Burundian general election Évariste Ndayishimiye takes office as the President of Burundi , following the sudden death of his predecessor Pierre Nkurunziza , his inauguration was advanced to June 18. (Al Jazeera) Évariste Ndayishimiye takes office as the President of Burundi , following the sudden death of his predecessor Pierre Nkurunziza , his inauguration was advanced to June 18. (Al Jazeera) Brazil 's Education Minister Abraham Weintraub announces his resignation . He did not give a reason; it is believed to be due to derogatory remarks he made about the Supreme Federal Court . (Reuters) Censorship in the United States , Donald Trump on social media Facebook removes a post condemning antifa by U.S. President Donald Trump 's re-election campaign , stating the post's symbol for the group was similar to the one used by the Nazis to identify political prisoners. (BBC News) Facebook removes a post condemning antifa by U.S. President Donald Trump 's re-election campaign , stating the post's symbol for the group was similar to the one used by the Nazis to identify political prisoners. (BBC News) Australian Prime Minister Scott Morrison says "all levels of government", as well as essential service providers and businesses, are being targeted by a sophisticated state-backed cyberattack . Morrison did not say which state is behind the attack. (BBC News) COVID-19 pandemic in the State of Palestine Local sporting events, such as equestrianism , resume in the Gaza Strip today. As of tomorrow, football competitions will be played without spectators. (Reuters) Local sporting events, such as equestrianism , resume in the Gaza Strip today. As of tomorrow, football competitions will be played without spectators. (Reuters) In Germany Matthias Grosse is appointed as president of the national German speed skating association, DESG [ de ] . This is seen by national and international media as very remarkable as controversial person and parter of drug banned speed skater Claudia Pechstein . ( Der Spiegel ) (De Volkskrant) (Deutschlandfunk) edit history watch Operations Claw-Eagle and Claw-Tiger Five Kurdish civilians near Dohuk in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq are killed by Turkish airstrikes . (AFP) Five Kurdish civilians near Dohuk in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq are killed by Turkish airstrikes . (AFP) COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 pandemic in Brazil Brazil 's Ministry of Health reports 54,771 new cases and that there are now 1,032,913 confirmed cases of COVID-19 in the country, becoming the second country in the world, after the United States , to surpass one million cases. (BBC News) (Bloomberg) COVID-19 pandemic in Brazil Brazil 's Ministry of Health reports 54,771 new cases and that there are now 1,032,913 confirmed cases of COVID-19 in the country, becoming the second country in the world, after the United States , to surpass one million cases. (BBC News) (Bloomberg) Brazil 's Ministry of Health reports 54,771 new cases and that there are now 1,032,913 confirmed cases of COVID-19 in the country, becoming the second country in the world, after the United States , to surpass one million cases. (BBC News) (Bloomberg) Nuclear program of Iran The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) passes a resolution, the first since 2012, calling on Iran to open two of its nuclear sites to international inspectors. Iran strongly opposes the IAEA resolution, which it says was "based on false allegations" from Israel . ( Middle East Eye ) The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) passes a resolution, the first since 2012, calling on Iran to open two of its nuclear sites to international inspectors. Iran strongly opposes the IAEA resolution, which it says was "based on false allegations" from Israel . ( Middle East Eye ) The Caribbean Community (CARICOM) says "sorry is not enough" from British financial institutions that benefited from the Atlantic slave trade , and demands reparations from the United Kingdom . This comes after the Bank of England apologized for the "inexcusable connections" of some of its past governors and directors to slavery . (Reuters) COVID-19 pandemic in Zimbabwe Health Minister Obadiah Moyo is arrested and accused of corruption in government procurement of around $60 million worth of medical equipment. (Reuters) Health Minister Obadiah Moyo is arrested and accused of corruption in government procurement of around $60 million worth of medical equipment. (Reuters) Shooting of Breonna Taylor Louisville Mayor Greg Fischer announces the immediate termination of LMPD Officer Brett Hankison over violating departmental policy on the use of force against Breonna Taylor. Hankison is one of three officers involved in the shooting, and prior to the incident had previously been investigated and disciplined for alleged misconduct . ( The Courier-Journal ) Louisville Mayor Greg Fischer announces the immediate termination of LMPD Officer Brett Hankison over violating departmental policy on the use of force against Breonna Taylor. Hankison is one of three officers involved in the shooting, and prior to the incident had previously been investigated and disciplined for alleged misconduct . ( The Courier-Journal ) Abortion in Tennessee , Heartbeat bill Lawmakers in the U.S. state of Tennessee pass the country's toughest anti- abortion laws, banning the procedure from the moment of fetal heartbeat at around six weeks of pregnancy. Governor Bill Lee hails the law while several organizations say they plan to go to the courts over the issue. (Reuters) Lawmakers in the U.S. state of Tennessee pass the country's toughest anti- abortion laws, banning the procedure from the moment of fetal heartbeat at around six weeks of pregnancy. Governor Bill Lee hails the law while several organizations say they plan to go to the courts over the issue. (Reuters) Shooting of Matthew Hunt A police officer is killed and another seriously injured in a shooting in Massey, New Zealand . This is the first time a law enforcement officer in New Zealand has been killed in the line of duty since 2009 . The shooter fled, injuring a civilian in the process, but he has since been arrested. (BBC News) A police officer is killed and another seriously injured in a shooting in Massey, New Zealand . This is the first time a law enforcement officer in New Zealand has been killed in the line of duty since 2009 . The shooter fled, injuring a civilian in the process, but he has since been arrested. (BBC News) 2020 Belarusian presidential election President Alexander Lukashenko announces the arrest of main opposition rival Viktar Babaryka for possible financial crimes. ( Moscow Times ) President Alexander Lukashenko announces the arrest of main opposition rival Viktar Babaryka for possible financial crimes. ( Moscow Times ) 2020 Hong Kong legislative election Activist Joshua Wong announces he is running for the legislature, setting up a new legal battle with authorities after he was barred from running in the previous election. (Reuters) Activist Joshua Wong announces he is running for the legislature, setting up a new legal battle with authorities after he was barred from running in the previous election. (Reuters) Tens of thousands of protesters descend on the Malian capital of Bamako , demanding President Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta resign over his failure to solve the country's myriad of problems. (Reuters) The world’s second-largest egg is discovered on Seymour Island , Antarctica . The egg, which is also the very first fossil egg from Antarctica and the largest soft-shelled egg ever discovered, may challenge the notion that mosasaurs and plesiosaurs were fully viviparous according to scientists. (CBC) Numerous professional wrestlers and others in the professional wrestling industry, particularly in the United Kingdom , are accused of sexual abuse, sexual misconduct and other forms of physical and mental abuse on social media, using the hashtag #SpeakingOut. ( Sports Illustrated ) WWE releases a statement, indicating a "zero tolerance" policy on several types of abuse, and later in the day come to terms on the release of Gentleman Jack Gallagher after he is accused of sexual assault ( Wrestling Observer/Figure Four Online ) All Elite Wrestling release a statement saying that Jimmy Havoc has entered a rehabilitation facility and will evaluate his status in the company after his treatment is completed, after he is accused of domestic abuse and rape, and of punching a fan. ( Wrestling Observer/Figure Four Online ) The National Wrestling Alliance announces that Vice President Dave Lagana has resigned from the company after he is accused of sexual assault. ( Pro Wrestling Sheet ) WWE releases a statement, indicating a "zero tolerance" policy on several types of abuse, and later in the day come to terms on the release of Gentleman Jack Gallagher after he is accused of sexual assault ( Wrestling Observer/Figure Four Online ) All Elite Wrestling release a statement saying that Jimmy Havoc has entered a rehabilitation facility and will evaluate his status in the company after his treatment is completed, after he is accused of domestic abuse and rape, and of punching a fan. ( Wrestling Observer/Figure Four Online ) The National Wrestling Alliance announces that Vice President Dave Lagana has resigned from the company after he is accused of sexual assault. ( Pro Wrestling Sheet ) edit history watch 2020 Forbury Gardens stabbings Three people are killed and three others injured in a mass stabbing at Forbury Gardens in Reading , Berkshire , United Kingdom. A suspect was arrested by Thames Valley Police . ( The Daily Telegraph ) Three people are killed and three others injured in a mass stabbing at Forbury Gardens in Reading , Berkshire , United Kingdom. A suspect was arrested by Thames Valley Police . ( The Daily Telegraph ) A statue of former Soviet Union leader Vladimir Lenin is officially unveiled in the German city of Gelsenkirchen , North Rhine-Westphalia . It is first ever statue of a Soviet figure in the former West Germany . Despite strong opposition from local officials, the state court in Münster has blocked attempts to remove it. (Euronews) COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 pandemic in the United States COVID-19 pandemic in Arizona The City of Phoenix and Maricopa County officials pass a mandate requiring all residents to wear masks in "places of public accommodation". The mandate makes exemptions for children under two years old and people with certain health conditions. (AZCentral) COVID-19 pandemic in Australia Following a new spike in coronavirus infections, Victoria delays its easing of restrictions and imposes new limits on the size of gatherings. (News.com.au) COVID-19 pandemic in India India reports its highest toll of cases to date, recording 14,516 cases, reaching a total of 395,047 and 12,948 deaths. The government in the capital New Delhi orders hospitals to cancel any leave and have workers return to duty immediately. (Reuters) COVID-19 pandemic in the United States COVID-19 pandemic in Arizona The City of Phoenix and Maricopa County officials pass a mandate requiring all residents to wear masks in "places of public accommodation". The mandate makes exemptions for children under two years old and people with certain health conditions. (AZCentral) COVID-19 pandemic in Arizona The City of Phoenix and Maricopa County officials pass a mandate requiring all residents to wear masks in "places of public accommodation". The mandate makes exemptions for children under two years old and people with certain health conditions. (AZCentral) The City of Phoenix and Maricopa County officials pass a mandate requiring all residents to wear masks in "places of public accommodation". The mandate makes exemptions for children under two years old and people with certain health conditions. (AZCentral) COVID-19 pandemic in Australia Following a new spike in coronavirus infections, Victoria delays its easing of restrictions and imposes new limits on the size of gatherings. (News.com.au) Following a new spike in coronavirus infections, Victoria delays its easing of restrictions and imposes new limits on the size of gatherings. (News.com.au) COVID-19 pandemic in India India reports its highest toll of cases to date, recording 14,516 cases, reaching a total of 395,047 and 12,948 deaths. The government in the capital New Delhi orders hospitals to cancel any leave and have workers return to duty immediately. (Reuters) India reports its highest toll of cases to date, recording 14,516 cases, reaching a total of 395,047 and 12,948 deaths. The government in the capital New Delhi orders hospitals to cancel any leave and have workers return to duty immediately. (Reuters) North Korea–South Korea relations The North Korean state news agency KCNA reports that "enraged" North Koreans are preparing to launch propaganda leaflets across the Military Demarcation Line , in response to propaganda leaflets sent by North Korean defectors . (Reuters) The North Korean state news agency KCNA reports that "enraged" North Koreans are preparing to launch propaganda leaflets across the Military Demarcation Line , in response to propaganda leaflets sent by North Korean defectors . (Reuters) U.S. President Donald Trump fires the United States Attorney for the Southern District of New York Geoffrey Berman , whose office had been investigating the president's personal lawyer, Rudy Giuliani . (Reuters) A court in the Democratic Republic of the Congo sentences former president 's chief of staff Vital Kamerhe to 20 years in prison for "diverting public funds worth 48.8M dollars". (Al Jazeera) 2020 Belarusian presidential election Internet access is interrupted and hundreds are detained after mass protests break out in Belarus over the arrest of opposition candidate Viktar Babaryka , including reporters from Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty . (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty) Internet access is interrupted and hundreds are detained after mass protests break out in Belarus over the arrest of opposition candidate Viktar Babaryka , including reporters from Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty . (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty) Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on sports COVID-19 pandemic in Australia , 2020 AFL season The 2020 AFL season is threatened with another postponement after an Essendon player tests positive for coronavirus, leading to all players in the club being quarantined . The Essendon v Melbourne match set for 21 June is subsequently cancelled. (News.com.au) COVID-19 pandemic in Australia , 2020 AFL season The 2020 AFL season is threatened with another postponement after an Essendon player tests positive for coronavirus, leading to all players in the club being quarantined . The Essendon v Melbourne match set for 21 June is subsequently cancelled. (News.com.au) The 2020 AFL season is threatened with another postponement after an Essendon player tests positive for coronavirus, leading to all players in the club being quarantined . The Essendon v Melbourne match set for 21 June is subsequently cancelled. (News.com.au) edit history watch 2020 Forbury Gardens stabbings The fatal mass stabbing yesterday at Forbury Gardens in Reading, United Kingdom , is declared by the police to have been a terrorist attack. (BBC News) The fatal mass stabbing yesterday at Forbury Gardens in Reading, United Kingdom , is declared by the police to have been a terrorist attack. (BBC News) Yemeni Civil War Forces of the Southern Transitional Council (STC) seize control of the island of Socotra . President Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi condemns it as a "full-fledged" coup , while the governor of the island condemns the United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia for "turning a blind eye". (Reuters) Forces of the Southern Transitional Council (STC) seize control of the island of Socotra . President Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi condemns it as a "full-fledged" coup , while the governor of the island condemns the United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia for "turning a blind eye". (Reuters) Afghan peace process The Afghan government accuses the Taliban of kidnapping about 60 civilians in the last week in the province of Daykundi . The Taliban deny the accusation and blames the government for civilian casualties during the past week. At least 26 women and children have been freed and elder tribal leaders are mediating for the release of the rest of abductees. (Reuters) The Afghan government accuses the Taliban of kidnapping about 60 civilians in the last week in the province of Daykundi . The Taliban deny the accusation and blames the government for civilian casualties during the past week. At least 26 women and children have been freed and elder tribal leaders are mediating for the release of the rest of abductees. (Reuters) Somali Civil War Two bombs explode in front of a military official's house in Wanlaweyn , killing four people. In another attack, in Galmudug , three men drove a car packed with bombs against a checkpoint after ignoring orders to stop, killing three soldiers. (Al Jazeera) Two bombs explode in front of a military official's house in Wanlaweyn , killing four people. In another attack, in Galmudug , three men drove a car packed with bombs against a checkpoint after ignoring orders to stop, killing three soldiers. (Al Jazeera) Second Libyan Civil War , Egypt–Libya relations The Government of National Accord 's Presidential Council says Egyptian president Abdel Fattah el-Sisi 's threats to take military action in Libya constitutes "a declaration of war" on the country. ( The Libya Observer ) The Government of National Accord 's Presidential Council says Egyptian president Abdel Fattah el-Sisi 's threats to take military action in Libya constitutes "a declaration of war" on the country. ( The Libya Observer ) COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 pandemic in Spain The state of emergency in Spain officially finishes after more than 100 days. ( The Guardian ) COVID-19 pandemic in Brazil Brazil 's Ministry of Health reports 641 more deaths from COVID-19 , bringing the death toll in the country to over 50,000. (BBC News) COVID-19 pandemic in Spain The state of emergency in Spain officially finishes after more than 100 days. ( The Guardian ) The state of emergency in Spain officially finishes after more than 100 days. ( The Guardian ) COVID-19 pandemic in Brazil Brazil 's Ministry of Health reports 641 more deaths from COVID-19 , bringing the death toll in the country to over 50,000. (BBC News) Brazil 's Ministry of Health reports 641 more deaths from COVID-19 , bringing the death toll in the country to over 50,000. (BBC News) List of mass shootings in the United States in 2020 One person is killed while eleven others are injured during a mass shooting in Minneapolis , Minnesota . The incident involved people shooting at one another. ( The New York Times ) One person is killed while eleven others are injured during a mass shooting in Minneapolis , Minnesota . The incident involved people shooting at one another. ( The New York Times ) 2020 Serbian parliamentary election Parliamentary elections are held in Serbia roughly one month after the measures to fight the COVID-19 pandemic were lifted. (Reuters) Parliamentary elections are held in Serbia roughly one month after the measures to fight the COVID-19 pandemic were lifted. (Reuters) edit history watch Coronavirus recession , Immigration to the United States U.S. President Donald Trump suspends the entry of some skilled and seasonal workers entering the United States , claiming it will open jobs to citizens. Business groups criticize this move as stifling economic recovery. (Reuters) U.S. President Donald Trump suspends the entry of some skilled and seasonal workers entering the United States , claiming it will open jobs to citizens. Business groups criticize this move as stifling economic recovery. (Reuters) India–Nepal relations Nepalese authorities stop officials of the Water Resources Department of the Bihar government from carrying out infrastructural maintenance work in Indian territory along the India–Nepal border , claiming the area as part of its territory. The incident comes four days after the lower house of the Nepalese parliament approved a new map of the country that included Indian territory in the Indian state of Uttarakhand . ( Times of India ) Nepalese authorities stop officials of the Water Resources Department of the Bihar government from carrying out infrastructural maintenance work in Indian territory along the India–Nepal border , claiming the area as part of its territory. The incident comes four days after the lower house of the Nepalese parliament approved a new map of the country that included Indian territory in the Indian state of Uttarakhand . ( Times of India ) China–United States relations The U.S. State Department adds four Chinese media organizations , including the public broadcasting service China Central Television , to its list of organizations participating in "foreign missions" due to their connections with the ruling Communist Party . They will be required to report all their employees and any real estate holdings to the American government. (Al Jazeera) The U.S. State Department adds four Chinese media organizations , including the public broadcasting service China Central Television , to its list of organizations participating in "foreign missions" due to their connections with the ruling Communist Party . They will be required to report all their employees and any real estate holdings to the American government. (Al Jazeera) China announces its decision to join the United Nations Arms Trade Treaty . (AFP via The Jakarta Post ) Thousands of Palestinians and dozens of foreign diplomats attend a rally in Jericho to oppose Israel 's plan to unilaterally annex the Jordan Valley and the settlements in the occupied West Bank . (Al Jazeera) A police officer of the New York City Police Department is suspended without pay after he is captured on camera using a chokehold against a 35-year-old man in Queens . The use of chokeholds by police was recently banned, both in New York City and the state of New York . ( The Independent ) Two suspects are arrested in Oregon in connection to a mass shooting at a residence in Valhermoso Springs, Alabama , on June 4 that killed seven people. (WBRC) 2020 Kiribati presidential election Citizens in Kiribati head to the polls to elect their President . The main issue of the election is whether to maintain relations with China or Taiwan . Incumbent Taneti Maamau , who switched recognition from Taiwan to China last year, is facing candidate Banuera Berina who favors re-establishing relations with Taiwan. (RNZ) Citizens in Kiribati head to the polls to elect their President . The main issue of the election is whether to maintain relations with China or Taiwan . Incumbent Taneti Maamau , who switched recognition from Taiwan to China last year, is facing candidate Banuera Berina who favors re-establishing relations with Taiwan. (RNZ) Apple's transition to ARM processors Apple Inc. announces a transition of its personal computer products from using Intel processors to using ARM -based processors designed by Apple. Since 2006, the company has used Intel processors in its computer offerings. ( The Verge ) Apple Inc. announces a transition of its personal computer products from using Intel processors to using ARM -based processors designed by Apple. Since 2006, the company has used Intel processors in its computer offerings. ( The Verge ) 2020 NASCAR Cup Series George Floyd protests § Sports industry NASCAR launches an investigation after a noose was found in the garage area of Bubba Wallace , the lone African-American driver in the series, at Talladega Superspeedway , in Talladega, Alabama , vowing to "eliminate [those responsible] from the sport". Wallace had recently successfully pushed NASCAR to enforce a five-year-old ban on the Confederate flag being displayed at its race tracks and properties. A plane pulling a banner with a Confederate flag and the phrase "Defund NASCAR" flew over the race track on June 21. (CTV News) (BBC News) The United States Department of Justice and Federal Bureau of Investigation launch their own investigations in order to determine whether criminal charges can be brought. ( USA Today ) George Floyd protests § Sports industry NASCAR launches an investigation after a noose was found in the garage area of Bubba Wallace , the lone African-American driver in the series, at Talladega Superspeedway , in Talladega, Alabama , vowing to "eliminate [those responsible] from the sport". Wallace had recently successfully pushed NASCAR to enforce a five-year-old ban on the Confederate flag being displayed at its race tracks and properties. A plane pulling a banner with a Confederate flag and the phrase "Defund NASCAR" flew over the race track on June 21. (CTV News) (BBC News) The United States Department of Justice and Federal Bureau of Investigation launch their own investigations in order to determine whether criminal charges can be brought. ( USA Today ) NASCAR launches an investigation after a noose was found in the garage area of Bubba Wallace , the lone African-American driver in the series, at Talladega Superspeedway , in Talladega, Alabama , vowing to "eliminate [those responsible] from the sport". Wallace had recently successfully pushed NASCAR to enforce a five-year-old ban on the Confederate flag being displayed at its race tracks and properties. A plane pulling a banner with a Confederate flag and the phrase "Defund NASCAR" flew over the race track on June 21. (CTV News) (BBC News) The United States Department of Justice and Federal Bureau of Investigation launch their own investigations in order to determine whether criminal charges can be brought. ( USA Today ) edit history watch Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen The Houthis launch ballistic missiles and drones against Saudi Arabia , including its capital Riyadh . Saudi-led coalition spokesman Turki al-Maliki says that Saudi forces "managed to intercept and destroy" the missiles and drones. The military says that they destroyed "eight booby-trapped unmanned aircraft [used by the Houthis] to target civilian objects and civilians in the kingdom". (Al Jazeera) The Houthis launch ballistic missiles and drones against Saudi Arabia , including its capital Riyadh . Saudi-led coalition spokesman Turki al-Maliki says that Saudi forces "managed to intercept and destroy" the missiles and drones. The military says that they destroyed "eight booby-trapped unmanned aircraft [used by the Houthis] to target civilian objects and civilians in the kingdom". (Al Jazeera) Somali Civil War (2009–present) Two civilians are killed after a suicide bombing occurs at a Turkish military installation in Mogadishu , Turkey's largest overseas military base. Al-Shabaab claims responsibility. ( The New York Times ) Two civilians are killed after a suicide bombing occurs at a Turkish military installation in Mogadishu , Turkey's largest overseas military base. Al-Shabaab claims responsibility. ( The New York Times ) 2020 Oaxaca earthquake A major earthquake strikes southern Mexico , with its epicenter 15 miles (24.1km) northeast of Santa María Xadani , Oaxaca , resulting in the death of five people. It was measured at 7.4 magnitude and a tsunami warning was issued. (CNN) A major earthquake strikes southern Mexico , with its epicenter 15 miles (24.1km) northeast of Santa María Xadani , Oaxaca , resulting in the death of five people. It was measured at 7.4 magnitude and a tsunami warning was issued. (CNN) COVID-19 vaccine Imperial College London administers the first dose of their proposed COVID-19 vaccine, which is undergoing a clinical trial. (Imperial College London) Imperial College London administers the first dose of their proposed COVID-19 vaccine, which is undergoing a clinical trial. (Imperial College London) North Korea–South Korea relations Amid increasing tensions and in spite of warnings from the South Korean government , hundreds of thousands of anti- Kim leaflets are floated across the border by a group of North Korean defectors . (Associated Press) Amid increasing tensions and in spite of warnings from the South Korean government , hundreds of thousands of anti- Kim leaflets are floated across the border by a group of North Korean defectors . (Associated Press) Killing of Rayshard Brooks Fulton County authorities charge a woman with arson in relation to an Atlanta Wendy's restaurant being burnt down the day after police killed Rayshard Brooks there after he fled when they tried to arrest him for DUI . The woman's lawyer said she was Brooks' girlfriend. ( The New York Post ) ( The New York Post ) Fulton County authorities charge a woman with arson in relation to an Atlanta Wendy's restaurant being burnt down the day after police killed Rayshard Brooks there after he fled when they tried to arrest him for DUI . The woman's lawyer said she was Brooks' girlfriend. ( The New York Post ) ( The New York Post ) A court in Kyrgyzstan sentences former President Almazbek Atambayev to 11 years in prison on corruption charges, which he denies. (Reuters) A court in Turkey sentences a former mayor of a Kurdish city and opposition member to 16 years in prison for "being a member of a terrorist group, abusing power and inciting to violence and hatred". The head of a local human rights organization says "all the charges against her are fabricated". (Al Arabiya) American porn star Ron Jeremy is charged with the rape of three women and sexual assault of another. ( The Guardian ) 2020 Kiribati presidential election Incumbent Taneti Maamau is re-elected as President of Kiribati with 26,053 votes to 17,866 votes by Banuera Berina , in a blow for Taiwan and its efforts to regain recognition from the Pacific country. (RNZ) Incumbent Taneti Maamau is re-elected as President of Kiribati with 26,053 votes to 17,866 votes by Banuera Berina , in a blow for Taiwan and its efforts to regain recognition from the Pacific country. (RNZ) 2020 Malawian presidential election After the results of the last general election in Malawi were annulled by the country's Constitutional Court in February, new elections are held. (BBC News) After the results of the last general election in Malawi were annulled by the country's Constitutional Court in February, new elections are held. (BBC News) 2020 Singaporean general election President Halimah Yacob dissolves Parliament and polling day is set on 10 July. (CNA) President Halimah Yacob dissolves Parliament and polling day is set on 10 July. (CNA) 2020 Kentucky Democratic presidential primary , 2020 United States Senate election in Kentucky Voters in Kentucky head to the polls to nominate a Democrat to face Senate Majority leader Mitch McConnell . Former Vice President Joe Biden also won the state primary. (CNN) ( The Hill ) Voters in Kentucky head to the polls to nominate a Democrat to face Senate Majority leader Mitch McConnell . Former Vice President Joe Biden also won the state primary. (CNN) ( The Hill ) 2020 NASCAR Cup Series George Floyd protests § Sports industry NASCAR and the Federal Bureau of Investigation conclude their investigation of the noose found in the garage area of Bubba Wallace , the lone African-American driver in the series, at Talladega Superspeedway . The investigation concluded the "noose" was in fact the garage door pull, and had not been touched or moved since early last fall. (ABC News) George Floyd protests § Sports industry NASCAR and the Federal Bureau of Investigation conclude their investigation of the noose found in the garage area of Bubba Wallace , the lone African-American driver in the series, at Talladega Superspeedway . The investigation concluded the "noose" was in fact the garage door pull, and had not been touched or moved since early last fall. (ABC News) NASCAR and the Federal Bureau of Investigation conclude their investigation of the noose found in the garage area of Bubba Wallace , the lone African-American driver in the series, at Talladega Superspeedway . The investigation concluded the "noose" was in fact the garage door pull, and had not been touched or moved since early last fall. (ABC News) edit history watch Second Libyan Civil War , Central Libya offensive (2020) The speaker of the Libyan House of Representatives , Aguila Saleh Issa , asks Egypt to intervene in Libya if the armed forces of the Government of National Accord attempt to capture the city of Sirte . (Al Jazeera) The speaker of the Libyan House of Representatives , Aguila Saleh Issa , asks Egypt to intervene in Libya if the armed forces of the Government of National Accord attempt to capture the city of Sirte . (Al Jazeera) Segway Inc. announces that production of its personal transporter will end on July 15. Production began in 2001. (BBC News) Bayer AG announces it has agreed to pay US$ 10 billion to resolve thousands of lawsuits regarding claims that the Monsanto herbicide Roundup causes cancer . Court-appointed mediator Kenneth Feinberg says the deal is a "constructive and reasonable" resolution. (NBC News) Japanese manufacturing company Olympus announces it is exiting the camera business after 84 years, stating its financial losses caused by their inability to compete with smartphone cameras was a major factor in the decision. (BBC News) North Korea–South Korea relations The North Korean state news agency KCNA reports that the country will suspend military action plans against the South after a meeting of the Central Military Commission presided by Kim Jong-un . North Korea had protested against defectors sending leaflets to the border, and Kim's sister Kim Yo-jong had threatened a military response. (Al Jazeera) The North Korean state news agency KCNA reports that the country will suspend military action plans against the South after a meeting of the Central Military Commission presided by Kim Jong-un . North Korea had protested against defectors sending leaflets to the border, and Kim's sister Kim Yo-jong had threatened a military response. (Al Jazeera) COVID-19 pandemic in Europe Ambassadors for EU member states meet today to develop criteria for reopening external borders to travelers on July 1. European Commission guidance is that non- EU countries whose COVID-19 status, e.g., the number of new infections, the trend in new infections, and testing and tracing, are comparable or better than the EU average will make the safe list. Other factors, such as reciprocity and links to the EU, will also be considered. Travelers from countries such as Brazil , Russia , and the United States may be barred based on these rules. (BBC News) ( The New York Times ) Ambassadors for EU member states meet today to develop criteria for reopening external borders to travelers on July 1. European Commission guidance is that non- EU countries whose COVID-19 status, e.g., the number of new infections, the trend in new infections, and testing and tracing, are comparable or better than the EU average will make the safe list. Other factors, such as reciprocity and links to the EU, will also be considered. Travelers from countries such as Brazil , Russia , and the United States may be barred based on these rules. (BBC News) ( The New York Times ) Iran–United States relations ; United States–Venezuela relations U.S. Secretary of State Mike Pompeo announces sanctions on five Iranian ship captains who delivered fuel to Venezuela and reaffirms support for disputed President Juan Guaidó over Nicolás Maduro . (Reuters) U.S. Secretary of State Mike Pompeo announces sanctions on five Iranian ship captains who delivered fuel to Venezuela and reaffirms support for disputed President Juan Guaidó over Nicolás Maduro . (Reuters) War crimes in the Kosovo War The Specialist Prosecutor's Office announces that it has submitted for court approval an indictment against President Hashim Thaçi and nine other former Kosovo Liberation Army fighters alleging that they committed war crimes and crimes against humanity during the Kosovo War . Following the announcement, President Thaçi cancels his upcoming trip to the United States . ( Sydney Morning Herald ) The Specialist Prosecutor's Office announces that it has submitted for court approval an indictment against President Hashim Thaçi and nine other former Kosovo Liberation Army fighters alleging that they committed war crimes and crimes against humanity during the Kosovo War . Following the announcement, President Thaçi cancels his upcoming trip to the United States . ( Sydney Morning Herald ) George Floyd protests The U.S. Senate fails to invoke cloture on a 55–45 vote effectively tabling a police misconduct bill introduced by the Republicans , after the Democrats argued that it did not do enough to incentivize change. (Reuters) Leaders of the Capitol Hill Autonomous Zone announce the zone's disestablishment. (CNN) The U.S. Senate fails to invoke cloture on a 55–45 vote effectively tabling a police misconduct bill introduced by the Republicans , after the Democrats argued that it did not do enough to incentivize change. (Reuters) Leaders of the Capitol Hill Autonomous Zone announce the zone's disestablishment. (CNN) 2020 Mongolian legislative election Mongolian voters head to the polls to elect the members of the State Great Khural . A record number of more than 600 candidates are competing for the 76 seats in the parliament. (Bloomberg) Mongolian voters head to the polls to elect the members of the State Great Khural . A record number of more than 600 candidates are competing for the 76 seats in the parliament. (Bloomberg) Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on sports Former Boston Red Sox player Eddie Kasko dies at age 88. (Boston) 2020 Major League Baseball season Major League Baseball Commissioner Rob Manfred unilaterally implements a 60-game season. Players will report to training camps on July 1 in order to resume spring training and prepare for a July 23 or 24 Opening Day . (ESPN) 2020 Major League Baseball season Major League Baseball Commissioner Rob Manfred unilaterally implements a 60-game season. Players will report to training camps on July 1 in order to resume spring training and prepare for a July 23 or 24 Opening Day . (ESPN) Major League Baseball Commissioner Rob Manfred unilaterally implements a 60-game season. Players will report to training camps on July 1 in order to resume spring training and prepare for a July 23 or 24 Opening Day . (ESPN) English football club Leeds United F.C. issue an apology after a cardboard cutout of former al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden was displayed in the stands at their Elland Road stadium. ( The New Zealand Herald ) (BBC Sport) edit history watch Insurgency in the Maghreb Unidentified gunmen kidnap 10 humanitarian aid workers in southwestern Niger , their NGO reports. Gunmen in the area have previously stolen several vehicles from the International Committee of the Red Cross and Médecins Sans Frontières . (Al Jazeera) Unidentified gunmen kidnap 10 humanitarian aid workers in southwestern Niger , their NGO reports. Gunmen in the area have previously stolen several vehicles from the International Committee of the Red Cross and Médecins Sans Frontières . (Al Jazeera) Iraqi insurgency (2017–present) Iraqi security forces raid the headquarters of the Iranian -backed Kata'ib Hezbollah , detaining three high-ranking commanders of the group, and at least 20 other fighters. (Reuters) Iraqi security forces raid the headquarters of the Iranian -backed Kata'ib Hezbollah , detaining three high-ranking commanders of the group, and at least 20 other fighters. (Reuters) At least 100 people are killed by lightning strikes as a monsoon storm batters India 's northeastern states of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh . (Reuters) COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 pandemic in Africa COVID-19 pandemic in the Democratic Republic of the Congo Health officials in the Democratic Republic of the Congo say the number of cases reached 6,411 there with 198 new infections in the past 24 hours. (Anadolu Agency) COVID-19 pandemic in the Central African Republic In the Central African Republic , the number of infections climbs by 88 in the past 24 hours to reach 3,051. (Anadolu Agency) COVID-19 pandemic in Iraq Iraq confirms 107 new deaths from the virus, bringing the death toll to 1,437. (Anadolu Agency) COVID-19 pandemic in the United States The U.S. reports 37,077 cases, the largest number of new cases in a single day. (CNN) COVID-19 pandemic in Portugal Portuguese government orders the lockdown of 19 districts of Lisboa despite the end of the "calamity status". ( Politico ) COVID-19 pandemic in Africa COVID-19 pandemic in the Democratic Republic of the Congo Health officials in the Democratic Republic of the Congo say the number of cases reached 6,411 there with 198 new infections in the past 24 hours. (Anadolu Agency) COVID-19 pandemic in the Central African Republic In the Central African Republic , the number of infections climbs by 88 in the past 24 hours to reach 3,051. (Anadolu Agency) COVID-19 pandemic in the Democratic Republic of the Congo Health officials in the Democratic Republic of the Congo say the number of cases reached 6,411 there with 198 new infections in the past 24 hours. (Anadolu Agency) Health officials in the Democratic Republic of the Congo say the number of cases reached 6,411 there with 198 new infections in the past 24 hours. (Anadolu Agency) COVID-19 pandemic in the Central African Republic In the Central African Republic , the number of infections climbs by 88 in the past 24 hours to reach 3,051. (Anadolu Agency) In the Central African Republic , the number of infections climbs by 88 in the past 24 hours to reach 3,051. (Anadolu Agency) COVID-19 pandemic in Iraq Iraq confirms 107 new deaths from the virus, bringing the death toll to 1,437. (Anadolu Agency) Iraq confirms 107 new deaths from the virus, bringing the death toll to 1,437. (Anadolu Agency) COVID-19 pandemic in the United States The U.S. reports 37,077 cases, the largest number of new cases in a single day. (CNN) The U.S. reports 37,077 cases, the largest number of new cases in a single day. (CNN) COVID-19 pandemic in Portugal Portuguese government orders the lockdown of 19 districts of Lisboa despite the end of the "calamity status". ( Politico ) Portuguese government orders the lockdown of 19 districts of Lisboa despite the end of the "calamity status". ( Politico ) Kivu Ebola epidemic The Democratic Republic of the Congo announces the end of the second outbreak of Ebola in the country, which has killed more than 2,200 people. (Reuters) The Democratic Republic of the Congo announces the end of the second outbreak of Ebola in the country, which has killed more than 2,200 people. (Reuters) Kosovo formally designates Lebanese political party Hezbollah and its paramilitary wing as a terrorist organization . (Al Arabiya) Rasmus Paludan , leader of the far-right Danish political party Hard Line , is sentenced to prison for one month for a string of offences, including hate speech , defamation and dangerous driving . (BBC News) War crimes in the Kosovo War Kosovo Prime Minister Avdullah Hoti cancels his trip to the United States where talks between Kosovo and Serbia were to be held, after his country's President Hashim Thaçi is indicted by the Kosovo Specialist Chambers and Specialist Prosecutor's Office on war crimes charges. Thaçi also canceled his trip to mediate with Serbia after learning of the indictment the day prior. (AP News) Kosovo Prime Minister Avdullah Hoti cancels his trip to the United States where talks between Kosovo and Serbia were to be held, after his country's President Hashim Thaçi is indicted by the Kosovo Specialist Chambers and Specialist Prosecutor's Office on war crimes charges. Thaçi also canceled his trip to mediate with Serbia after learning of the indictment the day prior. (AP News) 2020 Russian constitutional referendum After having been postponed once due to the COVID-19 pandemic , voting about potential amendments to the Constitution of Russia kicks off. The result of the referendum might, amongst other changes, prolong the mandate of President Vladimir Putin . Voting continues until the 1st of July. (DW) After having been postponed once due to the COVID-19 pandemic , voting about potential amendments to the Constitution of Russia kicks off. The result of the referendum might, amongst other changes, prolong the mandate of President Vladimir Putin . Voting continues until the 1st of July. (DW) The Leader of the UK's Labour Party , Keir Starmer , sacks his Shadow Secretary of State for Education Rebecca Long-Bailey for sharing an article on social media that says American police were trained by Mossad to use the knee-on-neck restraint that killed George Floyd , which Israeli police say is false. (BBC News) 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup FIFA announces that the 2023 Women's World Cup will be jointly hosted by Australia and New Zealand . (FIFA) FIFA announces that the 2023 Women's World Cup will be jointly hosted by Australia and New Zealand . (FIFA) 2019–20 Premier League Liverpool become Premier League champions for the first time and win their first top-flight title since the 1989–90 season , after rivals Manchester City fail to win against Chelsea in a 2–1 defeat at Stamford Bridge . (BBC Sport) Liverpool become Premier League champions for the first time and win their first top-flight title since the 1989–90 season , after rivals Manchester City fail to win against Chelsea in a 2–1 defeat at Stamford Bridge . (BBC Sport) edit history watch War in Afghanistan , Afghan peace process The government and the Taliban agree to start intra-Afghan talks by mid-July after the issue of releasing the "most dangerous" Taliban prisoners has been solved, according to a government spokesman. The group did not comment on the announcement. (Al Arabiya) The United States Intelligence Community claims that Russia offered Taliban -affiliated groups bounties to kill American soldiers . ( The New York Times ) The government and the Taliban agree to start intra-Afghan talks by mid-July after the issue of releasing the "most dangerous" Taliban prisoners has been solved, according to a government spokesman. The group did not comment on the announcement. (Al Arabiya) The United States Intelligence Community claims that Russia offered Taliban -affiliated groups bounties to kill American soldiers . ( The New York Times ) British - Dutch consumer company Unilever , owner of brands including Lipton and Dove , announces that they will suspend advertising on social media sites such as Facebook and Twitter for the rest of the year, saying that they have not been doing enough to counter "divisiveness and hate speech during this polarized election period in the U.S. " (Reuters) Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic Intu Properties , the owner and operator of the United Kingdom 's largest shopping centres such as the MetroCentre and Lakeside Shopping Centre , collapses into administration, following months of lockdown due to the COVID-19 pandemic . (BBC News) Intu Properties , the owner and operator of the United Kingdom 's largest shopping centres such as the MetroCentre and Lakeside Shopping Centre , collapses into administration, following months of lockdown due to the COVID-19 pandemic . (BBC News) COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 pandemic in Spain A University of Barcelona -led investigation uncovers traces of SARS-CoV-2 in frozen Barcelona sewage samples drawn on 12 March 2019, more than half a year before the first publicly confirmed case of COVID-19 in China . ( El Mundo ) (Reuters) COVID-19 pandemic in the United States The U.S. reports 39,972 more COVID-19 cases, the largest number of new cases in a single day. ( USA Today ) COVID-19 pandemic in Spain A University of Barcelona -led investigation uncovers traces of SARS-CoV-2 in frozen Barcelona sewage samples drawn on 12 March 2019, more than half a year before the first publicly confirmed case of COVID-19 in China . ( El Mundo ) (Reuters) A University of Barcelona -led investigation uncovers traces of SARS-CoV-2 in frozen Barcelona sewage samples drawn on 12 March 2019, more than half a year before the first publicly confirmed case of COVID-19 in China . ( El Mundo ) (Reuters) COVID-19 pandemic in the United States The U.S. reports 39,972 more COVID-19 cases, the largest number of new cases in a single day. ( USA Today ) The U.S. reports 39,972 more COVID-19 cases, the largest number of new cases in a single day. ( USA Today ) Glasgow hotel stabbings Six people are injured in a mass stabbing in central Glasgow , Scotland . The attacker was shot dead by police . (BBC News) Six people are injured in a mass stabbing in central Glasgow , Scotland . The attacker was shot dead by police . (BBC News) 2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt A court in Turkey sentences 121 people to life in prison for their role in the 2016 attempted coup . Eighty-six were sentenced to "aggravated" life imprisonment for "attempting to violate the constitution". (Al Arabiya) A court in Turkey sentences 121 people to life in prison for their role in the 2016 attempted coup . Eighty-six were sentenced to "aggravated" life imprisonment for "attempting to violate the constitution". (Al Arabiya) Iran and state-sponsored terrorism A Danish court sentences a Norwegian-Iranian man to seven years in prison for spying on behalf of Iranian intelligence and for conspiring to assassinate the leader of the Arab Struggle Movement for the Liberation of Ahvaz . He will be expelled permanently from the country upon the end of his sentence. (Reuters) A Danish court sentences a Norwegian-Iranian man to seven years in prison for spying on behalf of Iranian intelligence and for conspiring to assassinate the leader of the Arab Struggle Movement for the Liberation of Ahvaz . He will be expelled permanently from the country upon the end of his sentence. (Reuters) A court in the United Kingdom sentences an 18-year-old man to 15 years in prison for attempted murder for throwing a six-year-old French boy off the roof of the Tate Modern art gallery in London in December. He was 17 at the time of the crime, and said he "wanted to be on the television news". The boy survived but suffered life-changing injuries. (Reuters) (BBC News) (CNN) The Chief of Police of Mexico City , Omar García Harfuch, is injured but "out of danger" in an assassination attempt upon him. Two of his bodyguards and a passerby were killed. García Harfuch blamed the attack on the Jalisco New Generation Cartel (CJNG). (Reuters) George Floyd protests Employees at Whole Foods Market , an Amazon subsidiary , working in multiple U.S. locations are being sent home for refusing to take off Black Lives Matter face masks . Workers are protesting these actions. ( Boston Globe ) (Fox News) Employees at Whole Foods Market , an Amazon subsidiary , working in multiple U.S. locations are being sent home for refusing to take off Black Lives Matter face masks . Workers are protesting these actions. ( Boston Globe ) (Fox News) Statehood movement in the District of Columbia , Proposals for a 51st state in the United States The United States House of Representatives passes a bill that would make Washington, D.C. a U.S. state, with the exception of important government buildings. This legislation is unlikely to pass in the Republican -held United States Senate and President Donald Trump has expressed opposition to the matter. (CNBC) The United States House of Representatives passes a bill that would make Washington, D.C. a U.S. state, with the exception of important government buildings. This legislation is unlikely to pass in the Republican -held United States Senate and President Donald Trump has expressed opposition to the matter. (CNBC) edit history watch June 2020 Afghanistan attacks ; War in Afghanistan Two Afghanistan Independent Human Rights Commission workers are killed when a bomb attached to their vehicle explodes in Kabul . The Taliban denies responsibility and no other group has claimed responsibility. The attack is condemned by the United Nations . (Reuters) Two Afghanistan Independent Human Rights Commission workers are killed when a bomb attached to their vehicle explodes in Kabul . The Taliban denies responsibility and no other group has claimed responsibility. The attack is condemned by the United Nations . (Reuters) Insurgency in Cabo Delgado An ISIL -affiliated group attacks a town near billion-dollar gas projects managed by Total S.A. and Exxon Mobil in Mocímboa da Praia , Mozambique . An army spokesman reports that the armed forces suffered casualties in the attack. (Reuters) An ISIL -affiliated group attacks a town near billion-dollar gas projects managed by Total S.A. and Exxon Mobil in Mocímboa da Praia , Mozambique . An army spokesman reports that the armed forces suffered casualties in the attack. (Reuters) Hinduism in Pakistan The government of Prime Minister Imran Khan approves a grant of Rs 100 million for the construction of the first Hindu temple in the capital of Islamabad . (DAWN) The government of Prime Minister Imran Khan approves a grant of Rs 100 million for the construction of the first Hindu temple in the capital of Islamabad . (DAWN) COVID-19 pandemic in India India surpasses 500,000 cases after reporting 18,552 new cases in the last 24 hours, the highest toll to date. India also reports a total 15,685 deaths from the disease. (AP News) India surpasses 500,000 cases after reporting 18,552 new cases in the last 24 hours, the highest toll to date. India also reports a total 15,685 deaths from the disease. (AP News) Libyan Civil War , Wagner Group Libya 's international-recognized government, the Government of National Accord , calls for the United States and the European Union to impose sanctions on individuals and " mercenaries ", after its National Oil Corporation stated that Russian mercenaries and other foreign actors had forced their way into the Sharara oilfield . (Al Jazeera) Libya 's international-recognized government, the Government of National Accord , calls for the United States and the European Union to impose sanctions on individuals and " mercenaries ", after its National Oil Corporation stated that Russian mercenaries and other foreign actors had forced their way into the Sharara oilfield . (Al Jazeera) Red Bluff shooting An employee is killed and four others injured in a mass shooting at a Walmart distribution center in Red Bluff, California , United States . The shooter was then confronted by responding police officers and fatally shot during a shootout . (AP News) An employee is killed and four others injured in a mass shooting at a Walmart distribution center in Red Bluff, California , United States . The shooter was then confronted by responding police officers and fatally shot during a shootout . (AP News) George Floyd protests One person is killed and another injured when a gunman opened fire at people protesting the shooting of Breonna Taylor in Louisville , Kentucky , United States. (AP News) One person is killed and another injured when a gunman opened fire at people protesting the shooting of Breonna Taylor in Louisville , Kentucky , United States. (AP News) Hong Kong 1 July marches Police in Hong Kong ban the 1 July march for the first time in 17 years. In a letter of objection addressed to protest organizer and convenor of the Civil Human Rights Front (CHRF) Jimmy Sham , police cite "persisting social unrest" and vandalism . Chief Secretary Matthew Cheung rejects an appeal by the CHRF who have said they will appeal the ban. (Hong Kong Free Press) Police in Hong Kong ban the 1 July march for the first time in 17 years. In a letter of objection addressed to protest organizer and convenor of the Civil Human Rights Front (CHRF) Jimmy Sham , police cite "persisting social unrest" and vandalism . Chief Secretary Matthew Cheung rejects an appeal by the CHRF who have said they will appeal the ban. (Hong Kong Free Press) 2020 Icelandic presidential election Citizens of Iceland cast their vote in the latest presidential elections . Incumbent president Guðni Th. Jóhannesson is expected to be the clear winner of the election. (DW) Citizens of Iceland cast their vote in the latest presidential elections . Incumbent president Guðni Th. Jóhannesson is expected to be the clear winner of the election. (DW) Irish government formation Following long negotiations, the new Irish government is voted into office by Dáil Éireann . The government is formed after a historic coalition deal between Fianna Fáil , Fine Gael and the Green Party . Fianna Fáil leader Micheál Martin takes office as Taoiseach (Prime Minister), with outgoing Taoiseach Leo Varadkar as Tánaiste (Deputy Prime Minister), due to return to the post in December 2022 as part of the coalition deal. (RTÉ) Following long negotiations, the new Irish government is voted into office by Dáil Éireann . The government is formed after a historic coalition deal between Fianna Fáil , Fine Gael and the Green Party . Fianna Fáil leader Micheál Martin takes office as Taoiseach (Prime Minister), with outgoing Taoiseach Leo Varadkar as Tánaiste (Deputy Prime Minister), due to return to the post in December 2022 as part of the coalition deal. (RTÉ) 2020 Malawian presidential election Lazarus Chakwera has been elected President with 58.57% of the votes. ( Nyasa Times ) Lazarus Chakwera has been elected President with 58.57% of the votes. ( Nyasa Times ) edit history watch List of name changes due to the George Floyd protests Princeton University says it will remove the name of former U.S. President Woodrow Wilson from its public policy school and a residential college , calling him "a racist". Christopher L. Eisgruber says that "Woodrow Wilson's racist thinking and policies make him an inappropriate namesake for a school or college whose scholars, students and alumni must stand firmly against racism in all its forms". (Al Jazeera) Princeton University says it will remove the name of former U.S. President Woodrow Wilson from its public policy school and a residential college , calling him "a racist". Christopher L. Eisgruber says that "Woodrow Wilson's racist thinking and policies make him an inappropriate namesake for a school or college whose scholars, students and alumni must stand firmly against racism in all its forms". (Al Jazeera) Following negotiations with creditors, Chesapeake Energy applies for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in the United States. It will seek to restructure its debts in order to continue operations. The company is experiencing cash flow and liquidity issues due to low energy prices and large amounts of debt. (Reuters) COVID-19 pandemic The worldwide COVID-19 case total surpasses 10 million while the worldwide death total surpasses 500,000. The United States remains the leading nation in cases, accounting for over 25 percent of both cases and deaths worldwide. (NBC News) (Al Jazeera) The worldwide COVID-19 case total surpasses 10 million while the worldwide death total surpasses 500,000. The United States remains the leading nation in cases, accounting for over 25 percent of both cases and deaths worldwide. (NBC News) (Al Jazeera) Second Libyan Civil War , Libya–Sudan relations Sudan says it has detained 122 of its nationals, including eight children, who were heading to neighboring Libya to fight as " mercenaries ". Sudanese Foreign Minister Asma Mohamed Abdalla says, "We cannot get involved in a conflict in any neighboring country." ( Arab News ) Sudan says it has detained 122 of its nationals, including eight children, who were heading to neighboring Libya to fight as " mercenaries ". Sudanese Foreign Minister Asma Mohamed Abdalla says, "We cannot get involved in a conflict in any neighboring country." ( Arab News ) 2020 Icelandic presidential election Incumbent president Guðni Th. Jóhannesson wins re-election with 92% of the votes. (Euronews) Incumbent president Guðni Th. Jóhannesson wins re-election with 92% of the votes. (Euronews) 2020 Polish presidential election Voters in Poland head to the polls to elect their next president . The election had to be postponed once due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic . (DW) Incumbent president Andrzej Duda wins the first round of voting. He will face Mayor of Warsaw Rafał Trzaskowski in a second-round runoff. (BBC News) Voters in Poland head to the polls to elect their next president . The election had to be postponed once due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic . (DW) Incumbent president Andrzej Duda wins the first round of voting. He will face Mayor of Warsaw Rafał Trzaskowski in a second-round runoff. (BBC News) Reactions to the George Floyd protests The Mississippi Legislature votes to remove the Confederate battle flag from its 126-year-old state flag and to form a commission to redesign a new flag. Mississippi is the last U.S. state to display the Confederate battle emblem. The bill now heads to Governor Tate Reeves to sign into law. (NPR) The Mississippi Legislature votes to remove the Confederate battle flag from its 126-year-old state flag and to form a commission to redesign a new flag. Mississippi is the last U.S. state to display the Confederate battle emblem. The bill now heads to Governor Tate Reeves to sign into law. (NPR) 2020 NFL season The New England Patriots reach an agreement to sign quarterback Cam Newton . He will replace the Patriots' longtime quarterback Tom Brady , who left the team in March. (AP) The New England Patriots reach an agreement to sign quarterback Cam Newton . He will replace the Patriots' longtime quarterback Tom Brady , who left the team in March. (AP) edit history watch War in Afghanistan June 2020 Afghanistan attacks At least 23 civilians are killed when rockets hit a cattle market in Sangin , Helmand . The government and the Taliban blame each other for the attack. (Reuters) June 2020 Afghanistan attacks At least 23 civilians are killed when rockets hit a cattle market in Sangin , Helmand . The government and the Taliban blame each other for the attack. (Reuters) At least 23 civilians are killed when rockets hit a cattle market in Sangin , Helmand . The government and the Taliban blame each other for the attack. (Reuters) 2020 Pakistan Stock Exchange attack An attack on the Pakistan Stock Exchange building in Karachi leaves at least seven people dead. The Balochistan Liberation Army (BLA) claims responsibility. However, the BLA's claim could not be independently verified. (Reuters) An attack on the Pakistan Stock Exchange building in Karachi leaves at least seven people dead. The Balochistan Liberation Army (BLA) claims responsibility. However, the BLA's claim could not be independently verified. (Reuters) Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic , Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the arts and cultural heritage Cirque du Soleil files for bankruptcy in Canada and cuts 3,500 jobs. (CNN) Cirque du Soleil files for bankruptcy in Canada and cuts 3,500 jobs. (CNN) At least 32 people die when their ferry collides with another vessel and sinks in the Buriganga River , near Bangladesh 's capital Dhaka . There are still about 20 passengers missing. (BBC News) Iran–United States relations Iran issues an arrest warrant against U.S. President Donald Trump and asks Interpol for help. Tehran prosecutor Ali Alqasimehr accuses Trump and 30 others of "murder and terrorism charges" for the killing of Qasem Soleimani in January. Interpol refuses the request. (Al Jazeera) Iran issues an arrest warrant against U.S. President Donald Trump and asks Interpol for help. Tehran prosecutor Ali Alqasimehr accuses Trump and 30 others of "murder and terrorism charges" for the killing of Qasem Soleimani in January. Interpol refuses the request. (Al Jazeera) Censorship in India , China–India relations The Indian Ministry of Information Technology blocks 59 Chinese apps, including video sharing app TikTok , citing security and privacy concerns. The bans come as tensions mount between the two countries over the recent border skirmishes . ( Times of India ) The Indian Ministry of Information Technology blocks 59 Chinese apps, including video sharing app TikTok , citing security and privacy concerns. The bans come as tensions mount between the two countries over the recent border skirmishes . ( Times of India ) China–United States relations The United States formally revokes Hong Kong 's special trade status; it is now seen as equivalent to mainland China. (Reuters) The United States formally revokes Hong Kong 's special trade status; it is now seen as equivalent to mainland China. (Reuters) Fillon affair Former Prime Minister of France François Fillon and his wife Penelope are found guilty in a fake jobs case, in which Penelope was paid € 1.156 million for work she did not do as a parliamentary aide. François is sentenced to five years in prison, three of them suspended , and is barred from office for ten years; Penelope will also serve a three year suspended sentence. (BBC News) Former Prime Minister of France François Fillon and his wife Penelope are found guilty in a fake jobs case, in which Penelope was paid € 1.156 million for work she did not do as a parliamentary aide. François is sentenced to five years in prison, three of them suspended , and is barred from office for ten years; Penelope will also serve a three year suspended sentence. (BBC News) Golden State Killer Joseph James DeAngelo pleads guilty to all of the charges pressed against him, including 13 counts of first-degree murder. ( The Sacramento Bee ) Joseph James DeAngelo pleads guilty to all of the charges pressed against him, including 13 counts of first-degree murder. ( The Sacramento Bee ) Social media use by Donald Trump Reddit bans approximately 2,000 communities for violating its rules on hate speech, including The_Donald , which was dedicated to U.S. President Donald Trump and his supporters. ( The New York Times ) Twitch suspends U.S. President Donald Trump's account due to "hateful conduct" from two videos from 2015 and 2016 in which he made comments about Mexicans, which were found to be offensive and in breach of their community guidelines. ( The New York Times ) Reddit bans approximately 2,000 communities for violating its rules on hate speech, including The_Donald , which was dedicated to U.S. President Donald Trump and his supporters. ( The New York Times ) Twitch suspends U.S. President Donald Trump's account due to "hateful conduct" from two videos from 2015 and 2016 in which he made comments about Mexicans, which were found to be offensive and in breach of their community guidelines. ( The New York Times ) edit history watch Rohingya conflict Three military officers are found guilty of atrocities against the Rohingya by a court-martial in Myanmar . No details were provided on the perpetrators, their crimes, or their sentences. (Al Jazeera) Three military officers are found guilty of atrocities against the Rohingya by a court-martial in Myanmar . No details were provided on the perpetrators, their crimes, or their sentences. (Al Jazeera) Afghan peace process Taliban spokesman Suhail Shaheen says on Twitter that there was a videoconference on Monday between U.S. Secretary of State Mike Pompeo and Taliban official Mullah Baradar to discuss the peace process. The group reiterated its commitments to not attack American personnel , to engage in intra-Afghan talks and "not let anyone to use its soil to attack other countries". The meeting was confirmed by the U.S. State Department . (Reuters) Taliban spokesman Suhail Shaheen says on Twitter that there was a videoconference on Monday between U.S. Secretary of State Mike Pompeo and Taliban official Mullah Baradar to discuss the peace process. The group reiterated its commitments to not attack American personnel , to engage in intra-Afghan talks and "not let anyone to use its soil to attack other countries". The meeting was confirmed by the U.S. State Department . (Reuters) Mali War The United Nations Security Council votes unanimously to extend the mandate of MINUSMA , the United Nations peacekeeping force in Mali , until June 30, 2021. (Xinhuanet) The United Nations Security Council votes unanimously to extend the mandate of MINUSMA , the United Nations peacekeeping force in Mali , until June 30, 2021. (Xinhuanet) List of monuments and memorials removed during the George Floyd protests A vandalized statue of former King Leopold II of Belgium is removed from public display in the city of Ghent amid anti-racism protests. (ABC News) A vandalized statue of former King Leopold II of Belgium is removed from public display in the city of Ghent amid anti-racism protests. (ABC News) A large explosion at a medical clinic in Tehran , Iran , kills at least 19 people, mostly women, according to Iranian authorities. A gas leak is suspected as being the cause. (BBC News) COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 pandemic in the United States COVID-19 pandemic in Georgia Savannah Mayor Van R. Johnson orders residents to wear masks in public as cases surge. ( The Hill ) COVID-19 pandemic in Massachusetts Massachusetts reports no COVID-19 deaths for the first time in months. ( Boston Globe ) COVID-19 pandemic in Mexico The COVID-19 death toll in Mexico reaches to 28,000, surpassing Spain . (Reuters) COVID-19 pandemic in Fiji Fiji quarantines 160 peacekeeping soldiers who returned from the Middle East on Saturday after the army had expressed concern that some of the troops may have been in contact with infected people. (RNZ) COVID-19 pandemic in the United States COVID-19 pandemic in Georgia Savannah Mayor Van R. Johnson orders residents to wear masks in public as cases surge. ( The Hill ) COVID-19 pandemic in Massachusetts Massachusetts reports no COVID-19 deaths for the first time in months. ( Boston Globe ) COVID-19 pandemic in Georgia Savannah Mayor Van R. Johnson orders residents to wear masks in public as cases surge. ( The Hill ) Savannah Mayor Van R. Johnson orders residents to wear masks in public as cases surge. ( The Hill ) COVID-19 pandemic in Massachusetts Massachusetts reports no COVID-19 deaths for the first time in months. ( Boston Globe ) Massachusetts reports no COVID-19 deaths for the first time in months. ( Boston Globe ) COVID-19 pandemic in Mexico The COVID-19 death toll in Mexico reaches to 28,000, surpassing Spain . (Reuters) The COVID-19 death toll in Mexico reaches to 28,000, surpassing Spain . (Reuters) COVID-19 pandemic in Fiji Fiji quarantines 160 peacekeeping soldiers who returned from the Middle East on Saturday after the army had expressed concern that some of the troops may have been in contact with infected people. (RNZ) Fiji quarantines 160 peacekeeping soldiers who returned from the Middle East on Saturday after the army had expressed concern that some of the troops may have been in contact with infected people. (RNZ) India–Pakistan relations ; 2020 Pakistan Stock Exchange attack Prime Minister Imran Khan says "There is no doubt that India is behind the attack" on the Pakistan Stock Exchange yesterday. India rebuffs the accusation and says it had nothing to do with the assault. (Reuters) Prime Minister Imran Khan says "There is no doubt that India is behind the attack" on the Pakistan Stock Exchange yesterday. India rebuffs the accusation and says it had nothing to do with the assault. (Reuters) Belgium–Democratic Republic of the Congo relations In a letter to President Felix Tshisekedi , King Philippe of Belgium addresses the atrocities in the Congo Free State under the rule of King Leopold II : "I would like to express my deepest regrets for the wounds of the past, the pain of today, which is rekindled by the discrimination all too present in our society." ( The Guardian ) In a letter to President Felix Tshisekedi , King Philippe of Belgium addresses the atrocities in the Congo Free State under the rule of King Leopold II : "I would like to express my deepest regrets for the wounds of the past, the pain of today, which is rekindled by the discrimination all too present in our society." ( The Guardian ) Latvia–Russia relations Latvia bans seven channels belonging to Russian state -run news network RT , claiming it was trying to present the country as a failed state . Dmitry Kiselyov , head of the separate Russian state-run news agency Rossiya Segodnya , dismisses the claim and accuses the Latvian government of Russophobia in its ruling. (AP News) Latvia bans seven channels belonging to Russian state -run news network RT , claiming it was trying to present the country as a failed state . Dmitry Kiselyov , head of the separate Russian state-run news agency Rossiya Segodnya , dismisses the claim and accuses the Latvian government of Russophobia in its ruling. (AP News) 2017–2018 Iranian protests A court in Iran sentences former journalist and activist Ruhollah Zam to death for fueling anti- government unrest in late 2017 on social media . He was convicted of being corrupt on Earth . (Reuters) A court in Iran sentences former journalist and activist Ruhollah Zam to death for fueling anti- government unrest in late 2017 on social media . He was convicted of being corrupt on Earth . (Reuters) 2020 boogaloo killings Facebook bans groups affiliated with the boogaloo movement , which was linked to a pair of attacks in California , US, that left two dead and three injured earlier this month and late last month. (AP via WEYI-TV) Facebook bans groups affiliated with the boogaloo movement , which was linked to a pair of attacks in California , US, that left two dead and three injured earlier this month and late last month. (AP via WEYI-TV) Police in Vatican City raid the department in charge of the maintenance and restoration of St. Peter's Basilica . The raid came due to suspicion of corruption in the awarding of building contracts . (Al Jazeera) Vietnam 's civil aviation authority grounds all Pakistani pilots flying for Vietnamese airlines, as global aviation regulators respond to revelations by Pakistani authorities that more than 250 pilots obtaining licences fraudulently. (Al Jazeera) Hong Kong national security law China passes the controversial Hong Kong national security law . ( The New York Times ) The political party Demosistō of social activist Joshua Wong is disbanded following the passing of the law. Wong urges the international community to keep "speaking up for Hong Kong people". (Reuters) China passes the controversial Hong Kong national security law . ( The New York Times ) The political party Demosistō of social activist Joshua Wong is disbanded following the passing of the law. Wong urges the international community to keep "speaking up for Hong Kong people". (Reuters) Demonstrations break out in Addis Ababa , Ethiopia, following the shooting death of protest singer Hachalu Hundessa . (BBC News) German Defence Minister Annegret Kramp-Karrenbauer orders the "partial dissolution" of the country's elite Kommando Spezialkräfte (KSK) special forces command over its suspected ties to the far-right . The KSK also has a "toxic leadership culture", according to the Defence Minister. (BBC News) Mississippi governor Tate Reeves signs a bill into legislation abandoning the state's flag . ( The Washington Post ) Reactions to the George Floyd protests The Premier League reaffirms its support of the Black Lives Matter movement, saying it was not political but moral support and that it was "aware of the risk posed by groups that seek to hijack popular causes and campaigns". It comes after one group, UKBLM, received widespread criticism for calling for the dismantling of capitalism , and tweeted "Free Palestine ". (Reuters) The Premier League reaffirms its support of the Black Lives Matter movement, saying it was not political but moral support and that it was "aware of the risk posed by groups that seek to hijack popular causes and campaigns". It comes after one group, UKBLM, received widespread criticism for calling for the dismantling of capitalism , and tweeted "Free Palestine ". (Reuters) Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on sports Minor League Baseball cancels its 2020 season due to the COVID-19 pandemic . (CNN) Minor League Baseball cancels its 2020 season due to the COVID-19 pandemic . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early life and career 2 Political career Toggle Political career subsection 2.1 Pre-independence 2.2 Federation of Malaysia 2.3 Post-independence 2.3.1 Minister for Interior and Defence (1965–1967) 2.3.2 Minister for Finance (1967–1970) 2.3.3 Minister for Defence (1970–1979) 2.3.4 Deputy Prime Minister (1973–1984) 2.4 Other contributions 2.4.1 Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) 2.4.2 Defence Science Organisation (DSO) 2.4.3 Cultural, sports and recreation 2.1 Pre-independence 2.2 Federation of Malaysia 2.3 Post-independence 2.3.1 Minister for Interior and Defence (1965–1967) 2.3.2 Minister for Finance (1967–1970) 2.3.3 Minister for Defence (1970–1979) 2.3.4 Deputy Prime Minister (1973–1984) 2.3.1 Minister for Interior and Defence (1965–1967) 2.3.2 Minister for Finance (1967–1970) 2.3.3 Minister for Defence (1970–1979) 2.3.4 Deputy Prime Minister (1973–1984) 2.4 Other contributions 2.4.1 Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) 2.4.2 Defence Science Organisation (DSO) 2.4.3 Cultural, sports and recreation 2.4.1 Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) 2.4.2 Defence Science Organisation (DSO) 2.4.3 Cultural, sports and recreation 3 Personal life 4 Death 5 Honours and legacy 6 Publications 7 References Toggle References subsection 7.1 Notes 7.2 Citations 7.3 Sources 7.1 Notes 7.2 Citations 7.3 Sources 8 Further reading Toggle Further reading subsection 8.1 Books 8.2 Eulogies at the state funeral 8.3 Letters of condolence 8.4 News reports 8.1 Books 8.2 Eulogies at the state funeral 8.3 Letters of condolence 8.4 News reports 9 External links Goh Keng Swee Български Deutsch Bahasa Indonesia मैथिली मराठी Bahasa Melayu Русский Simple English Tiếng Việt 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Goh Keng Swee DUT .mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal} 吳慶瑞 Goh in 1948 2nd Deputy Prime Minister of Singapore In office 20 March 1973 – 1 January 1985 Serving with S. Rajaratnam (1980–1985) Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Toh Chin Chye Succeeded by Goh Chok Tong Ong Teng Cheong Chairman of the Monetary Authority of Singapore In office August 1980 – December 1997 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Hon Sui Sen Succeeded by Richard Hu Minister for Education In office 12 February 1979 – 2 January 1985 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Chua Sian Chin Succeeded by Tony Tan Minister for Defence In office 11 August 1970 – 11 February 1979 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Lim Kim San (as Minister for Interior and Defence) Succeeded by Howe Yoon Chong Minister for Finance In office 17 August 1967 – 10 August 1970 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Lim Kim San Succeeded by Hon Sui Sen In office 5 June 1959 – 8 August 1965 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Office established Succeeded by Lim Kim San Minister for Interior and Defence In office 9 August 1965 – 16 August 1967 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Office established Succeeded by Lim Kim San Member of the Malaysian Parliament for Singapore In office 2 November 1963 [ 1 ] – 9 August 1965 Preceded by Position established Succeeded by Position abolished Member of the Singapore Parliament for Kreta Ayer In office 30 May 1959 – 4 December 1984 Preceded by Constituency established Succeeded by Richard Hu ( PAP ) Personal details Born Robert Goh Keng Swee [ 2 ] ( 1918-10-06 ) 6 October 1918 Malacca , Straits Settlements Died 14 May 2010 (2010-05-14) (aged 91) Singapore Cause of death Bladder cancer Resting place Mandai Crematorium and Columbarium Nationality Singaporean Party People's Action Party Spouse(s) Alice Woon (m. 1942 div. 1986) Phua Swee Liang (m. 1991) [ 3 ] Children Goh Kian Chee (son) [ 3 ] Relatives Goh Hood Keng (uncle) Tan Cheng Lock (maternal uncle) Tan Siew Sin (maternal cousin) Education London School of Economics ( BSc , PhD ) Signature Military service Branch/service Singapore Volunteer Corps Years of service 1939–1942 Rank Colonel [ a ] Unit 20th People's Defence Force [ 4 ] Goh Keng Swee Traditional Chinese 吳慶瑞 Simplified Chinese 吴庆瑞 Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Wú Qìngruì Southern Min Hokkien POJ Gô͘ Khèng-sūi Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Wú Qìngruì Southern Min Hokkien POJ Gô͘ Khèng-sūi Goh Keng Swee [ b ] DUT (born Robert Goh Keng Swee ; [ 2 ] 6 October 1918 – 14 May 2010) was a Singaporean statesman and economist who served as the second Deputy Prime Minister of Singapore between 1973 and 1985. Goh is widely recognised as one of the founding fathers of modern Singapore. Goh was a member of the People's Action Party (PAP), which has governed the country continuously since independence. He was also a prominent member of the first generation of political leaders following Singapore's independence in 1965. He served as Minister for Finance from 1959 to 1965 and again from 1967 to 1970. He was Minister for Interior and Defence between 1965 and 1967, Minister for Defence from 1970 to 1979 and Minister for Education from 1979 to 1985. Throughout his entire political career, he represented the constituency of Kreta Ayer . As Minister for Interior and Defence, Goh's main objective was to strengthen the country's military and domestic security capabilities after the British had withdrawn its troops from Singapore, which made the newly independent nation vulnerable. A key policy was the creation of National Service (NS), a mandatory conscription system for able-bodied young males. Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew had mentioned that he had wanted a conscription consisting both men and women, similar to Israel . However, Goh rejected it, citing that the labour cost at least in its initial years would be too great for the newly independent nation. During Goh's tenure as Minister for Finance, he declined to allow the central bank to issue currency, favouring instead a currency board system as this would signal to citizens, academics and the financial world that governments cannot "spend their way to prosperity"; the Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS) was later established in 1971. In 1981, Goh also expressed the view that the central bank need not hold large amounts of cash in reserve to defend the currency, proposing that the Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) be established to invest excess reserves. At the time, it was unprecedented for a non- commodity -based economy to have such a sovereign wealth fund . Goh died in 2010 at the age of 91, and he was accorded a state funeral . Early life and career Goh was born in Malacca on 6 October 1918, then a part of the Straits Settlements , [ 5 ] into a middle class Peranakan family and the fifth of six children. [ 6 ] His father Goh Leng Inn was a manager of a rubber plantation, while his mother Tan Swee Eng, [ 7 ] came from the family that produced the Malaysian politicians Tan Cheng Lock and his son, Tan Siew Sin , who would later become Goh's lifelong political opponent. [ 8 ] [ 9 ] Goh was given the Christian name Robert, which he disliked and refused to respond to. When he was two years old, his family moved from Malacca to Singapore where his maternal grandparents owned several properties. The Gohs later relocated to the Pasir Panjang rubber estate when his father found work there and became manager in 1933. Like many Peranakan families, the Gohs spoke both English and Malay at home; church services were held at home on Sundays in Malay. [ 2 ] Goh's father Leng Inn and his brothers-in-law Chew Cheng Yong and Goh Hood Keng taught at the Anglo-Chinese School and were involved in the Middle Road Baba Church , where Hood Keng was pastor. Goh attended the church as well. [ 10 ] Goh attended the Anglo-Chinese School [ 6 ] between 1927 and 1936, where he ranked second in his class in the Senior Cambridge examinations. He graduated from Raffles College (now the National University of Singapore ) in 1939 with a Class II Diploma in Arts, with special distinction in economics . [ 7 ] After graduation, Goh joined the colonial Civil Service as a tax collector with the War Tax Department, though his superiors noted he was not very good at the job and he was nearly dismissed. [ 6 ] Shortly after the start of the Second World War , he joined the Singapore Volunteer Corps , a local militia, but returned to his previous work after the fall of Singapore . In 1942, Goh married Alice Woon, a secretary and colleague, [ 6 ] and they had one son, Goh Kian Chee, two years later. After the Japanese occupation ended, Goh moved his family back to Singapore in 1946 and joined the Department of Social Welfare, becoming a supervisor of its Research Section six months later. [ 7 ] Goh earned a scholarship to study at the London School of Economics . While in London, he met fellow students seeking independence for British Malaya , including Abdul Razak , Maurice Baker, Lee Kuan Yew and Toh Chin Chye . He was founding chairman of the Malayan Forum , a student discussion group formed in 1948. [ 5 ] [ 7 ] Goh graduated in 1951 with a first class honours in economics and won the William Farr Prize for the highest marks in statistics . [ 5 ] Returning to the Department of Social Welfare, he was appointed Assistant Secretary of Research. In 1952, together with fellow civil servant Kenneth Michael Byrne , he formed the Council of Joint Action to oppose salary and promotion policies favouring Europeans over Asians. Byrne later became Minister for Labour and Minister for Law . [ 7 ] Goh returned to the London School of Economics in 1954 for doctoral studies, supported by a University of London scholarship. He completed his PhD in economics in 1956, [ 11 ] and returned to the Department of Social Welfare, serving as assistant director and then Director. In 1958, he became Director of the Social and Economic Research Division in the Chief Minister's Office before resigning from the civil service in August to work full-time for the People's Action Party (PAP). [ 7 ] Political career Pre-independence Goh was a key member of the PAP's Central Executive Committee (CEC), and serving as vice-chairman. Goh contested in Kreta Ayer during the 1959 general election and won. He was subsequently elected into the Legislative Assembly on 30 May 1959, [ 12 ] and appointed Minister for Finance under Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew 's first Cabinet . As Minister for Finance, Goh assumed the stewardship of Singapore's economy . As a budget deficit of S$14 million was forecast that year, he introduced stringent fiscal discipline which including cutting civil service salaries. As a result of these measures, he was able to announce at the end of the year when delivering the budget that the government had achieved a surplus of $1 million. [ 13 ] Goh initiated the setting up of the Economic Development Board (EDB) which was established in August 1961 to attract foreign multinational corporations to invest in Singapore. [ 5 ] [ 14 ] The next year, he started the development of the Jurong industrial estate on the western end of the island which was then a swamp, offering incentives to local and foreign businesses to locate there. [ 5 ] [ 7 ] According to former Permanent Secretary Sim Kee Boon , Goh admitted that the Jurong project was "an act of faith and he himself jokingly said that this could prove to be Goh's folly". [ 14 ] Nonetheless, Goh also felt strongly that "the only way to avoid making mistakes is not to do anything. And that... will be the ultimate mistake." [ 15 ] In the 1960s, there were great pressures from communist agitators working through Chinese-medium schools and trade unions. Divisions existed within the PAP as well, with a pro-communist faction working to wrest control of the party from the moderate wing, of which Goh and Lee Kuan Yew were key members. A key source of division was the issue of merger with Malaya to form a new state of Malaysia. Goh and his fellow moderates believed this was a necessary condition for Singapore's economic development because Malaya was a key economic hinterland; merger would also provide an alternate vision against communism for Singapore's Chinese majority. In July 1961, 16 members of the pro-communist faction broke away from the PAP to form the Barisan Sosialis , and captured control of the main trade unions . Federation of Malaysia In 1961, the Singapore Government secured approval from Malaysian Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman for a merger, motivated in part by the Tunku's desire to stabilise the security situation in Singapore and to counter the perceived communist threat by the Malayan Communist Party . In 1963, Singapore joined Malaya , along with Sabah and Sarawak , to form the Federation of Malaysia. [ 16 ] However, the merger soon proved problematic for Singapore's leaders. Fundamental disagreements emerged over political and economic principles, particularly the issue of Malay dominance . Communal tensions escalated into violence in 1964, incited by both Malay and Chinese activists in Singapore. According to Lee, Goh played a key role in safeguarding Singapore's interests, especially in economic disputes with the Malaysian Minister of Finance and his own cousin Tan Siew Sin , whom he believed acted in hostility toward Singapore. After two difficult years within the Federation, Lee asked Goh to negotiate with Malaysian Deputy Prime Minister Tun Abdul Razak and Minister for External Affairs Ismail Abdul Rahman in July 1965. The aim was to explore the possibility of a looser arrangement for Singapore within Malaysia. However, following the discussions, all parties concluded that a clean break would be in the best interests of both sides. Tunku Abdul Rahman ultimately agreed to this course of action, paving the way for Singapore's separation from Malaysia. [ 17 ] Goh maintained a secret dossier that he codenamed " Albatross ", which contains files and notes from the months leading up to Singapore's independence. According to one of the file's documents, authored by Goh himself, Goh chose not to follow Lee's orders to negotiate for a "looser arrangement" but only ever broached separation with Tunku. Writing in his memoirs, Lee claimed that he only realised that Goh "never pressed Razak for a looser rearrangement as I had asked him to" in 1994. [ 18 ] Post-independence Minister for Interior and Defence (1965–1967) Upon the independence of Singapore in 1965, Goh relinquished his portfolio of Minister for Finance and became Minister for Interior and Defence in 1967, assuming responsibilities for strengthening Singapore's military and domestic security capabilities. A key policy was the creation of National Service , a mandatory conscription system for able-bodied young males. [ 19 ] Minister for Finance (1967–1970) Goh served as Minister for Finance again between 1967 and 1970, [ 5 ] [ 7 ] during which he declined to allow the central bank to issue currency, favouring instead a currency board system in the form of the Board of Commissioners of Currency, Singapore , as this would signal to citizens, academics and the financial world that governments cannot "spend their way to prosperity". Minister for Defence (1970–1979) On 11 August 1970, he was reappointed Minister for Defence . [ 5 ] [ 7 ] Deputy Prime Minister (1973–1984) On 1 March 1973, [ 12 ] Goh was appointed Deputy Prime Minister concurrently with his other Cabinet portfolio. [ 7 ] On 12 February 1979, Goh moved on from the Ministry of Defence to the Ministry of Education , where his Goh Report [ 20 ] greatly influenced the development of Singapore's education system. He was described as both a key political and strategic leader responsible for the transformation of the system over 30 years from "fair" to "great", according to a November 2010 McKinsey report. [ 21 ] He set up the Curriculum Development Institute, and introduced key policies such as religious education—subsequently discontinued and, in 1980, the channelling of students into different programmes of study according to their learning abilities, known as "streaming". [ 22 ] Goh served two terms as Minister for Education, his first term ended in 1980, and his second following the 1980 general election from 1981 until his retirement in 1985. From 1 June 1980, he was redesignated First Deputy Prime Minister upon S. Rajaratnam being made Second Deputy Prime Minister, and served as Chairman of the Monetary Authority of Singapore until he stepped down from Parliament on 3 December 1984, at the age of 66. [ 5 ] [ 7 ] [ 12 ] In a tribute to mark the occasion, Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew wrote: "A whole generation of Singaporeans take their present standard of living for granted because you had laid the foundations of the economy of modern Singapore." [ 23 ] Other contributions Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) In 1981, Goh expressed the view that the central bank need not hold large amounts of cash in reserve to defend the currency, proposing that the Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) be established to invest excess reserves. At the time, it was unprecedented for a non- commodity -based economy to have such a sovereign wealth fund . [ 24 ] The foreign merchant bank, Rothschild, advised on the GIC. [ 25 ] Defence Science Organisation (DSO) In 1971, Goh put together the Electronic Warfare Study Group, a team of newly graduated engineers who had excelled in their university studies that was headed by Tay Eng Soon , then a university lecturer. The group worked on Project Magpie, a secret project to develop Singapore's defence technology capabilities. In 1977, the group was renamed the Defence Science Organisation (DSO). Originally part of the Ministry of Defence, the organisation became a non-profit corporation called DSO National Laboratories in 1997. [ 26 ] Cultural, sports and recreation Goh was also responsible for projects that sought to improve Singaporeans' cultural and leisure life, such as the Jurong Bird Park , Singapore Zoo and the Singapore Symphony Orchestra . [ 27 ] He backed the construction of the Kreta Ayer People's Theatre in his constituency as a venue for Chinese opera performances. [ 28 ] In 1968, Goh encouraged the establishment of the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. Goh was also instrumental in introducing rugby in the Singapore Armed Forces and later in schools. In recognition of his role in promoting the sport, the Schools "C" Division Cup is named after him. [ 29 ] Impressed by an oceanarium in the Bahamas , he contacted the Sentosa Development Corporation and persuaded them to build an oceanarium in Singapore. [ 6 ] Underwater World opened in 1991. Personal life In 1986, Goh divorced his first wife Alice. In 1991, he married his former Ministry of Education colleague Phua Swee Liang. [ 6 ] [ 7 ] Goh suffered his first stroke in 1999, and a subsequent one in 2000 which affected the vision in his right eye. [ 30 ] According to Goh's daughter-in-law Tan Siok Sun, the medical condition caused him to become withdrawn and introverted. In July 2007, Tan published a biography titled Goh Keng Swee: A Portrait . Goh's second wife issued a statement claiming that Goh had not been consulted on the book and had indicated to her that he did not want any book to be written about him. "Therefore, the publication of this book is contrary to his wishes, and is a show of disregard and utmost disrespect to him." In an interview with The Straits Times , Tan said she did not start the dispute between Mrs. Goh and herself, nor did she wish to prolong it. [ 31 ] After retirement from politics, Goh continued to be active in public life, serving as Deputy Chairman of GIC between 1981 and 1994, Economic Adviser to the State Council of the People's Republic of China on Coastal Development and Adviser on Tourism in 1985, Deputy Chairman of the Monetary Authority of Singapore between 1985 and 1992, Chairman of the Singapore Totalisator Board between 1988 and 1990, Director of Gateway Technologies Services Pte. Ltd. from 1991 onward, Adviser to the United Overseas Bank Group from 1993 onward, Chairman of N. M. Rothschild & Sons (Singapore) Ltd. from 1994 onward, and vice-chairman of Hong Leong Asia Ltd. from 1995 onward. [ 5 ] Goh was also chairman of the Board of Governors of the Institute of East Asian Philosophies between 1983 and 1992, which was founded to study Confucianism . The institute later turned its focus on China's political and economic development, renaming itself the Institute of East Asian Political Economy, and Goh continued as Executive Chairman and chairman of the Board of Governors until 1995. [ 7 ] In April 1997, the institute was reconstituted as the East Asian Institute, an autonomous research organisation under the auspices of the National University of Singapore . [ 32 ] Death On 14 May 2010, Goh died in the early morning at his home in Dunbar Walk off East Coast Road in Siglap , at the age of 91. His death was as a result of his old age and pneumonia. [ 33 ] His body lay in state at Parliament House from 20 to 22 May, [ 34 ] and there was a state funeral on 23 May 2010 at the Singapore Conference Hall followed by a private ceremony for family members at the Mandai Crematorium . [ 35 ] The latter was conducted by the pastor-in-charge of Barker Road Methodist Church, with a message delivered by the Bishop of the Methodist Church in Singapore , Robert M. Solomon . [ 10 ] As a mark of respect, State flags at all Government buildings were flown at half-mast from 20 to 23 May. [ 36 ] Honours and legacy In 1966, Goh was made an Honorary Fellow of the London school of Economics . In 1972, he was the recipient of the Ramon Magsaysay Award for Government Services, which is often regarded as "Asia's Nobel Prize". [ 37 ] It is awarded to people who have demonstrated integrity in government, courageous service to the people, and pragmatic idealism within a democratic society. That same year, the Philippine Government conferred upon him the Order of Sikatuna , which is given to diplomats, officials and nationals of foreign states who have rendered conspicuous services in fostering, developing and strengthening relations between their country and the Philippines. [ 5 ] Following his retirement from politics, Goh was awarded the Order of Temasek (First Class, now known as High Distinction) in 1985, Singapore's highest civilian honour and second overall after the Star of Temasek . He was also presented with the LSE's Distinguished Alumnus Award on 21 January 1989, [ 38 ] and made the first Distinguished Fellow of the Economic Development Board Society in 1991. [ 5 ] Goh is known as one of Singapore's founding fathers. [ 13 ] [ 39 ] During the National Day Rally on 29 August 2010, Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong announced that the Singapore Command and Staff College , where senior officers of the Singapore Armed Forces receive training; and a complex to be constructed at the Ministry of Education's North Buona Vista Road headquarters for specialist teacher training academies in English language, physical education, sports and the arts would be respectively named the Goh Keng Swee Command and Staff College and the Goh Keng Swee Centre for Education. [ 40 ] Publications .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} The Economic Front: From a Malayan Point of View . Singapore: Government Printers. 1940. OCLC 226068826 . . Urban Incomes & Housing: A Report on the Social Survey of Singapore, 1953–54 . Singapore: [Department of Social Welfare]. 1956. OCLC 504452751 . . Techniques of National Income Estimation in Under-developed Territories, with Special Reference to Asia and Africa [Unpublished PhD thesis, University of London, London School of Economics, 1956] . London: University of London Library, Photographic Section. 1978. OCLC 63630985 . . This is How Your Money is Spent [Budget statement by Goh Keng Swee, Minister for Finance; Towards Socialism, vol. 3] . Singapore: Ministry of Finance . 1960. OCLC 63838096 . . Some Problems of Industrialisation [Towards Socialism; vol. 7] . Singapore: Government Printing Office. 1963. OCLC 17270555 . . Communism in Non-Communist Asian Countries . Singapore: Printed by the Government Printing Office for the Ministry of Culture . c. 1967. OCLC 433094 . . The Economics of Modernization and other Essays . [Singapore]: Asia Pacific Press. 1972. OCLC 534320 . . Later editions: The Economics of Modernization . Singapore: Federal Publications. 1995. ISBN 978-981-01-2317-8 . . The Economics of Modernization . Singapore: Marshall Cavendish Academic . 2004. ISBN 978-981-210-330-7 . . The Economics of Modernization . Singapore: Federal Publications. 1995. ISBN 978-981-01-2317-8 . . The Economics of Modernization . Singapore: Marshall Cavendish Academic . 2004. ISBN 978-981-210-330-7 . . Some Problems of Manpower Development in Singapore [Occasional publication (Singapore Training and Development Association); no. 1] . Singapore: Ad Hoc Publications Sub-committee, Singapore Training & Development Association. 1974. OCLC 226024028 . . Some Unsolved Problems of Economic Growth [Kesatuan lecture; 1] . Singapore: Kesatuan Akademis Universiti Singapura. 1976. ISBN 9971-68-076-9 . OCLC 3072805 . . The Practice of Economic Growth . Singapore: Federal Publications. 1977. OCLC 4465760 . . Later edition: The Practice of Economic Growth . Singapore: Federal Publications. 1995. ISBN 978-981-01-2322-2 . . The Practice of Economic Growth . Singapore: Federal Publications. 1995. ISBN 978-981-01-2322-2 . . Goh, Keng Swee; Education Study Team (1979). Report on the Ministry of Education 1978 . Singapore: Printed by Singapore National Printers. OCLC 416421063 . . Goh, Keng Swee (1995). Low, Linda (ed.). Wealth of East Asian Nations: Speeches and Writings . Singapore: Federal Publications. ISBN 978-981-01-2297-3 . . References Notes ^ Honorary, and during his tenure as the civilian head of the Ministry of the Interior and Defence. He oversaw the establishment of the Singapore Armed Forces (SAF) after 1965, a process that laid the foundation built primarily on National Service (NS) from 1967. [ 4 ] ^ simplified Chinese : 吴庆瑞 ; traditional Chinese : 吳慶瑞 ; Pe̍h-ōe-jī : Gô͘ Khèng-sūi ; pinyin : Wú Qìngruì Citations ^ "PARLIAMENTARY DEBATES DEWAN RA'AYAT (HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES) OFFICIAL REPORT" (PDF) . Dewan Rakyat . Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 August 2016 . Retrieved 19 August 2019 . ^ a b c Tan Siok Sun (7 July 2007), A shy, quiet boy who loved books [Excerpt from Goh Keng Swee, a Portrait ] , AsiaOne , archived from the original on 2 December 2012 , retrieved 15 May 2010 . ^ a b Obituary notice of Dr. Goh Keng Swee, The Straits Times (15 May 2010), p. C28. ^ a b Desker, Barry; Kwa, Chong Guan, eds. (2011). Goh Keng Swee: A Public Career Remembered . World Scientific. pp. 83, 98, 101. ISBN 978-9814407533 . ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Jenny Tien Mui Mun (8 October 2002), Dr Goh Keng Swee , Singapore Infopedia, National Library, Singapore , archived from the original on 23 June 2008 , retrieved 15 May 2010 . ^ a b c d e f Nur Dianah Suhaimi (16 May 2010), "His work was his passion: The late Goh Keng Swee showed brilliance even when he was a child", The Sunday Times , Singapore, p. 10 . ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m "From civil servant to PAP stalwart", The Straits Times (Saturday) , p. D2, 15 May 2010 . ^ Lee Kuan Yew (1998), The Singapore Story: Memoirs of Lee Kuan Yew , Singapore: Times Publishing, pp. 600–602 , ISBN 978-981-204-983-4 . ^ Tan Siok Sun (2007), Goh Keng Swee: A Portrait , Singapore: Editions Didier Millet , pp. 114– 115, ISBN 978-981-4155-82-3 . ^ a b "The lesser known side of Dr Goh Keng Swee" , Methodist Message , vol. 112, no. 7, p. 12, July 2010, archived from the original on 5 October 2018 . ^ His thesis was entitled Techniques of National Income Estimation in Under-developed Territories, with Special Reference to Asia, Malacca, Singapore and Africa [Unpublished PhD thesis, University of London, London School of Economics, 1956] , London: University of London Library, Photographic Section, 1978, OCLC 63630985 . ^ a b c "Parliament pays respects", The Straits Times , 18 May 2010 . ^ a b Lee Hsien Loong (24 May 2010), "A giant in our midst [eulogy by the Prime Minister]" , Today , pp. 12– 14, archived from the original on 25 May 2010 . ^ a b "A visionary who didn't believe in dreams: A look into the life of the man responsible for HDB flats, National Service, JTC ... even the Zoo", Weekend Today , pp. 12– 13, 15–16 May 2010 . ^ As recalled by Lim Siong Guan , Group President of GIC and former Head of the Singapore Civil Service : see Chua Mui Hoong (15 May 2010), "Passing of a S'pore titan: Former DPM Goh Keng Swee was economic architect of Singapore and mentor to many", The Straits Times , pp. A1 – A2 . ^ "Singapore – Road to Independence" . U.S. Library of Congress . Retrieved 27 June 2006 . ^ Lee Kuan Yew (24 May 2010), "He made the greatest difference: Eulogy by Minister Mentor Lee Kuan Yew", The Straits Times , p. A6 . ^ Chin, Soo Fang (7 December 2025). "New book sheds light on Singapore's secret negotiations for independence" . The Straits Times . ^ "National Service becomes compulsory - Singapore History" . eresources.nlb.gov.sg . Retrieved 1 January 2023 . ^ Goh Keng Swee; Education Study Team (1979), Report on the Ministry of Education 1978 , Singapore: Printed by Singapore National Printers, OCLC 416421063 . ^ Michael Barber; Chinezi Chijioke; Mona Mourshed (2010), Education: How the World's Most Improved School Systems Keep Getting Better , London: McKinsey & Company, pp. 101– 118 . ^ MOKHTAR, FARIS. "Timeline: How secondary school streaming evolved over the decades" . TODAY . Retrieved 1 January 2023 . ^ Chua Mui Hoong (15 May 2010), "Passing of a S'pore titan: Former DPM Goh Keng Swee was economic architect of Singapore and mentor to many", The Straits Times , pp. A1 – A2 . ^ Janadas Devan (15 May 2010), "Remembering Goh Keng Swee, 1918–2010", The Straits Times (Saturday) , p. D2 . ^ Hamilton-Hart, Natasha (2003). Asian states, Asian bankers : central banking in Southeast Asia . Singapore: Singapore University Press. p. 89 . ISBN 978-0801439872 . ^ Melanie Chew; Bernard Tan (2002), "A Tribute to Dr Goh Keng Swee" (PDF) , Creating the Technology Edge: DSO National Laboratories, Singapore 1972–2002 , Singapore: Epigram for DSO National Laboratories, pp. 4– 9, ISBN 978-981-04-7199-6 , archived from the original (PDF) on 28 September 2007 . ^ Saad, Imelda (15–16 May 2010), "S'pore's master builder" , Weekend Today , p. 2, archived from the original on 18 May 2010 . ^ Leong Weng Kam (15 May 2010), "A thinker and a doer: Dr Goh was a 'great intellectual', recall PAP Old Guard members", The Straits Times , p. A6 . ^ Saad, Imelda (15–16 May 2010), " 'One of the most brilliant architects' of the country, says SM Goh" , Weekend Today , p. 3, archived from the original on 18 May 2010 . ^ Nur Dianah Suhaimi (28 May 2010), "Love against the odds [interview with Dr. Phua Swee Liang]", The Straits Times , pp. A40 – A41 . ^ Lydia Lim (7 July 2007), "No regrets despite objections, except one" , The Straits Times (reproduced on the AsiaOne website) , archived from the original on 2 December 2012 . ^ EAI's profile & objectives , East Asia Institute, National University of Singapore , 2008, archived from the original on 21 December 2010 , retrieved 16 May 2010 . ^ "Farewell to one of Singapore's prime architects" , Weekend Today , p. 1, 15–16 May 2010, archived from the original on 16 May 2010 . See also Rachel Lin (15 May 2010), "A quiet passing for a quiet man: He lived simply, was a private man, with S'pore uppermost in his mind", The Straits Times , p. A3 . ^ Esther Ng (21 May 2010), "From all walks of life, they came to pay their respects: More than 5,000 queue up at Parliament House to honour Dr Goh" , Today , p. 3, archived from the original on 23 May 2010 ; Nur Dianah Suhaimi; Kor Kian Beng (22 May 2010), " 'Thank you and goodbye': Young and old, from near and far, over 7,000 pay respects to Dr Goh", The Straits Times , p. A16 . ^ Cassandra Chew (22 May 2010), "State funeral an honour reserved for rare few", The Straits Times , p. A16 ; Chua Mui Hoong (24 May 2010), "Goodbye, Dr Goh: Tributes flow at state funeral for one of Singapore's founding fathers", The Straits Times , pp. A1 – A2 ; Rachel Lin (24 May 2010), "A simple, moving funeral for Dr Goh: Nation mourns one of its founders in a sombre but intimate ceremony", The Straits Times , pp. A2 – A3 ; Zul Othman (24 May 2010), "A nation says goodbye" , Today , pp. 1 & 3, archived from the original on 29 May 2010 . ^ "State funeral on May 23" , Weekend Today , p. 2, 15–16 May 2010, archived from the original on 16 May 2010 . ^ 1972 Ramon Magsaysay Award for Government Services: Biography of Goh Keng Swee , Ramon Magsaysay Award Foundation, August 1972, archived from the original on 1 August 2008 , retrieved 15 May 2010 . ^ Phua Kai Hong (25 May 2010), "The day Dr Goh removed words from his citation [letter]" , Today , p. 8, archived from the original on 27 May 2010 . ^ "Remembering the three most outstanding founding fathers" . Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, NUS . Retrieved 10 August 2025 . ^ Clarissa Oon (30 August 2010), "SAF institute, education centre named after Goh Keng Swee", The Straits Times , p. B4 ; Alicia Wong (30 August 2010), "Military college and education centre to be named after Goh Keng Swee", Today , p. 13 . Sources "From civil servant to PAP stalwart". The Straits Times (Saturday) . 15 May 2010. p. D2. Nur Dianah Suhaimi (16 May 2010). His work was his passion: The late Goh Keng Swee showed brilliance even when he was a child . Singapore. p. 10. {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( link ) "Parliament pays respects". The Straits Times . 18 May 2010. Tien, Jenny Mui Mun (8 October 2002). "Dr Goh Keng Swee" . Singapore Infopedia, National Library, Singapore . Archived from the original on 23 June 2008 . Retrieved 15 May 2010 . Further reading Books Austin, Ian Patrick (2004). Goh Keng Swee and Southeast Asian Governance . Singapore: Marshall Cavendish Academic . ISBN 978-981-210-351-2 . Desker, Barry; Kwa, Chong Guan, eds. (2011). Goh Keng Swee – A Public Career Remembered . Singapore: World Scientific . ISBN 978-981-4291-38-5 . Doshi, Tilak; Coclanis, Peter (1999). "The Economic Architect: Goh Keng Swee". In Lam, Peng Er; Tan, Kevin (eds.). Lee's Lieutenants: Singapore's Old Guard . St. Leonards, N.S.W.: Allen & Unwin . pp. 24– 44. ISBN 978-1-86448-639-1 . Kuah, Adrian (2007). UnChartered territory: Dr Goh Keng Swee and the ST Engineering Story . Singapore: Published for ST Engineering by SNP International. ISBN 978-981-248-169-6 . Kwok, Kian-Woon (1999). "The Social Architect: Goh Keng Swee". In Lam, Peng Er; Tan, Kevin (eds.). Lee's Lieutenants: Singapore's Old Guard . St. Leonards, N.S.W.: Allen & Unwin. pp. 45– 69. ISBN 978-1-86448-639-1 . Nair, E. Shailaja (2008). The Master Sculptor: Goh Keng Swee [Great Singapore Stories. Founding Fathers.] Singapore: SNP Editions. ISBN 978-981-248-160-3 . Ngiam, Tong Dow (2006). A Mandarin and the Making of Public Policy: Reflections by Ngiam Tong Dow . Singapore: NUS Press . ISBN 978-9971-69-350-3 . Ooi, Kee Beng (2010). In Lieu of Ideology: The Intellectual Biography of Goh Keng Swee . Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 978-981-4311-30-4 . Tan, Siok Sun (2007). Goh Keng Swee: A Portrait . Singapore: Editions Didier Millet . ISBN 978-981-4155-82-3 . . Yeo, Siew Siang (1990). Tan Cheng Lock, the Straits Legislator and Chinese Leader . Petaling Jaya, Selangor: Pelanduk Publications. ISBN 978-967-978-236-3 . Eulogies at the state funeral Lee, Hsien Loong (24 May 2010). "Without him, much of S'pore wouldn't exist: Eulogy by Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong". The Straits Times . pp. A4 & A6. ; Lee, Hsien Loong (24 May 2010). "A giant in our midst [eulogy by the Prime Minister]" . Today . pp. 12– 14. Archived from the original on 25 May 2010. See also " 'He turned the tide for Singapore': PM Lee recounts Dr Goh's contributions and compassion" . Today . 24 May 2010. p. 4. Archived from the original on 26 May 2010. Lee, Kuan Yew (24 May 2010). "He made the greatest difference: Eulogy by Minister Mentor Lee Kuan Yew". The Straits Times . p. A6. . See also "As my troubleshooter, I gave him toughest jobs in Govt: MM" . Today . 24 May 2010. p. 3. Archived from the original on 26 May 2010. S. Dhanabalan (24 May 2010). "Singapore's greatest entrepreneur: Eulogy by S. Dhanabalan, chairman of Temasek Holdings". The Straits Times . p. A8. . See also "Dhanabalan: How Dr Goh changed my life" . Today . 24 May 2010. p. 4. Archived from the original on 26 May 2010. Goh, Ken-Yi (24 May 2010). "A caring, selfless grandfather: Eulogy by grandson Goh Ken-Yi". The Straits Times . p. A10. . See also Zul Othman (24 May 2010). "To me, he was simply a great grandfather" . Today . p. 2. Archived from the original on 26 May 2010. Hui, Marian (24 May 2010). "He motivated me to pursue my dreams: Excerpt of eulogy by Grand-niece Marian Hui". The Straits Times . p. A8. Letters of condolence Lee, Hsien Loong (15–16 May 2010). "A far-sighted visionary and pragmatic manager [letter from the Prime Minister to Mrs. Goh Keng Swee]" . Weekend Today . p. 10. Archived from the original on 16 May 2010. S.R. Nathan (15–16 May 2010). "Nothing too insignificant for his attention [letter from the president to Mrs. Goh Keng Swee]" . Weekend Today . p. 10. Archived from the original on 16 May 2010. Goh, Chok Tong (15–16 May 2010). "Practical and full of ideas [letter from the Senior Minister to Mrs. Goh Keng Swee]" . Weekend Today . p. 11. Archived from the original on 22 June 2011. Tan, Tony Keng Yam (15–16 May 2010). "Farsightedness and fortitude [letter from the Deputy Chairman and Executive Director of the Government Investment Corporation of Singapore to Mrs. Goh Keng Swee]" . Weekend Today . p. 11. Archived from the original on 16 May 2010. News reports Chang, Rachel; Cai, Haoxiang; Kor, Kian Beng (15 May 2010). "Ex-MPs recall a fearsome technocrat: A strict taskmaster who didn't suffer fools, but he was never brusque". The Straits Times . p. A8. "Leaders salute 'this marvellous man' ". The Straits Times . 15 May 2010. p. A4. S. Ramesh (15–16 May 2010). "A national hero who touched people's lives" . Weekend Today . p. 2. Archived from the original on 18 May 2010. "Goh Keng Swee: Passing of a colossus [editorial]". The Straits Times . 22 May 2010. p. A32. Balji, P.N. (22–23 May 2010). "Dr Goh, the Dream No 2" . Weekend Today . p. 11. Archived from the original on 30 May 2010. Devan, Janadas (23 May 2010). "Simply sincere: Dr Goh's simple yet eloquent writing style showed desire to reach out to ordinary people". The Sunday Times . Singapore. p. 35. External links Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Channel NewsAsia – Obituary: Goh Keng Swee 1918–2010 at the Wayback Machine (archived 1 April 2013), archived from the original on 1 April 2013 National Library Singapore – NLS Resource guide on Dr. Goh Keng Swee Political offices Preceded by New post Minister for Finance 1959–65 Succeeded by Lim Kim San Preceded by New post Minister for Defence 1965–67 Succeeded by Lim Kim San Preceded by Lim Kim San Minister for Finance 1967–70 Succeeded by Hon Sui Sen Preceded by Lim Kim San Minister for Finance 1970–79 Succeeded by Howe Yoon Chong Preceded by Chua Sian Chin Minister for Education 1979–80 Succeeded by Tony Tan Keng Yam Preceded by Tony Tan Keng Yam Minister for Education 1981–85 Succeeded by Tony Tan Keng Yam Preceded by Toh Chin Chye Deputy Prime Minister of Singapore 1973–85 Succeeded by Goh Chok Tong Parliament of Singapore New constituency Member of Parliament for Kreta Ayer 1959–84 Succeeded by Richard Hu Tsu Tau Military offices New title 1st Director, General Staff of Defence Force 1965-1967 Succeeded by T. J. D. Campbell Politics Biography Economics Singapore .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Ramon Magsaysay Award recipients v t e Government Service (1958–2008) Cambodia Ek Sonn Chan China Yuan Longping India C.D. Deshmukh J. M. Lyngdoh Indonesia Raden Kodijat Ali Sadikin Japan Morihiko Hiramatsu Hiroshi Kuroki Yukiharu Miki Laos Keo Viphakone Malaysia Mohamed Suffian Mohamed Hashim B. C. Shekhar Pakistan Akhtar Hameed Khan Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Jose Vasquez Aguilar Francisca Reyes-Aquino Hilario Davide Jr. Grace Padaca Jesse Robredo Jovito R. Salonga Miriam Defensor Santiago Haydee Yorac Singapore Goh Keng Swee Thailand Anand Panyarachun Chamlong Srimuang Jon Ungphakorn Phon Sangsingkeo Prawase Wasi Puey Ungpakorn Taiwan Shih-chu Hsu Li Kwoh-ting Jiang Menglin Government Service (1958–2008) Cambodia Ek Sonn Chan China Yuan Longping India C.D. Deshmukh J. M. Lyngdoh Indonesia Raden Kodijat Ali Sadikin Japan Morihiko Hiramatsu Hiroshi Kuroki Yukiharu Miki Laos Keo Viphakone Malaysia Mohamed Suffian Mohamed Hashim B. C. Shekhar Pakistan Akhtar Hameed Khan Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Jose Vasquez Aguilar Francisca Reyes-Aquino Hilario Davide Jr. Grace Padaca Jesse Robredo Jovito R. Salonga Miriam Defensor Santiago Haydee Yorac Singapore Goh Keng Swee Thailand Anand Panyarachun Chamlong Srimuang Jon Ungphakorn Phon Sangsingkeo Prawase Wasi Puey Ungpakorn Taiwan Shih-chu Hsu Li Kwoh-ting Jiang Menglin Cambodia Ek Sonn Chan Ek Sonn Chan China Yuan Longping Yuan Longping India C.D. Deshmukh J. M. Lyngdoh C.D. Deshmukh J. M. Lyngdoh Indonesia Raden Kodijat Ali Sadikin Raden Kodijat Ali Sadikin Japan Morihiko Hiramatsu Hiroshi Kuroki Yukiharu Miki Morihiko Hiramatsu Hiroshi Kuroki Yukiharu Miki Laos Keo Viphakone Keo Viphakone Malaysia Mohamed Suffian Mohamed Hashim B. C. Shekhar Mohamed Suffian Mohamed Hashim B. C. Shekhar Pakistan Akhtar Hameed Khan Ibn Abdur Rehman Akhtar Hameed Khan Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Jose Vasquez Aguilar Francisca Reyes-Aquino Hilario Davide Jr. Grace Padaca Jesse Robredo Jovito R. Salonga Miriam Defensor Santiago Haydee Yorac Jose Vasquez Aguilar Francisca Reyes-Aquino Hilario Davide Jr. Grace Padaca Jesse Robredo Jovito R. Salonga Miriam Defensor Santiago Haydee Yorac Singapore Goh Keng Swee Goh Keng Swee Thailand Anand Panyarachun Chamlong Srimuang Jon Ungphakorn Phon Sangsingkeo Prawase Wasi Puey Ungpakorn Anand Panyarachun Chamlong Srimuang Jon Ungphakorn Phon Sangsingkeo Prawase Wasi Puey Ungpakorn Taiwan Shih-chu Hsu Li Kwoh-ting Jiang Menglin Shih-chu Hsu Li Kwoh-ting Jiang Menglin Public Service (1958–2008) Burma Tee Tee Luce Ceylon Mary H. Rutnam China Gao Yaojie Jiang Yanyong Liang Congjie Wu Qing India Baba Amte Banoo Jehangir Coyaji Manibhai Desai Jayaprakash Narayan V. Shanta Indonesia H.B. Jassin Teten Masduki Pakistan Ruth Pfau Philippines Pedro Orata Center for Agriculture and Rural Development Mutually Reinforcing Institutions (CARD MRI) South Korea Kim Sun-tae Park Won-soon Spain based in Philippines Joaquin Villalonga Thailand Fua Hariphitak Mechai Viravaidya Nilawan Pintong Phra Parnchand Prateep Ungsongtham Hata Sirindhorn Sithiporn Kridakara Sophon Suphapong Therdchai Jivacate Thongbai Thongpao Public Service (1958–2008) Burma Tee Tee Luce Ceylon Mary H. Rutnam China Gao Yaojie Jiang Yanyong Liang Congjie Wu Qing India Baba Amte Banoo Jehangir Coyaji Manibhai Desai Jayaprakash Narayan V. Shanta Indonesia H.B. Jassin Teten Masduki Pakistan Ruth Pfau Philippines Pedro Orata Center for Agriculture and Rural Development Mutually Reinforcing Institutions (CARD MRI) South Korea Kim Sun-tae Park Won-soon Spain based in Philippines Joaquin Villalonga Thailand Fua Hariphitak Mechai Viravaidya Nilawan Pintong Phra Parnchand Prateep Ungsongtham Hata Sirindhorn Sithiporn Kridakara Sophon Suphapong Therdchai Jivacate Thongbai Thongpao Burma Tee Tee Luce Tee Tee Luce Ceylon Mary H. Rutnam Mary H. Rutnam China Gao Yaojie Jiang Yanyong Liang Congjie Wu Qing Gao Yaojie Jiang Yanyong Liang Congjie Wu Qing India Baba Amte Banoo Jehangir Coyaji Manibhai Desai Jayaprakash Narayan V. Shanta Baba Amte Banoo Jehangir Coyaji Manibhai Desai Jayaprakash Narayan V. Shanta Indonesia H.B. Jassin Teten Masduki H.B. Jassin Teten Masduki Pakistan Ruth Pfau Ruth Pfau Philippines Pedro Orata Center for Agriculture and Rural Development Mutually Reinforcing Institutions (CARD MRI) Pedro Orata Center for Agriculture and Rural Development Mutually Reinforcing Institutions (CARD MRI) South Korea Kim Sun-tae Park Won-soon Kim Sun-tae Park Won-soon Spain based in Philippines Joaquin Villalonga Joaquin Villalonga Thailand Fua Hariphitak Mechai Viravaidya Nilawan Pintong Phra Parnchand Prateep Ungsongtham Hata Sirindhorn Sithiporn Kridakara Sophon Suphapong Therdchai Jivacate Thongbai Thongpao Fua Hariphitak Mechai Viravaidya Nilawan Pintong Phra Parnchand Prateep Ungsongtham Hata Sirindhorn Sithiporn Kridakara Sophon Suphapong Therdchai Jivacate Thongbai Thongpao Community Leadership (1958–2008) Bangladesh Tahrunessa Abdullah Fazle Hasan Abed Muhammad Yunus Zafrullah Chowdhury Mohammed Yeasin Angela Gomes Burma Cynthia Maung India Mandakini Amte & Prakash Amte Mabelle Arole & Rajanikant Arole Pandurang Shastri Athavale Chandi Prasad Bhatt Ela Bhatt Vinoba Bhave Aruna Roy Shantha Sinha Rajendra Singh Japan Fusaye Ichikawa Laos Sombath Somphone Malaysia Tunku Abdul Rahman Nepal Mahabir Pun Philippines Gawad Kalinga Community Development Foundation Antonio Meloto Thailand Aree Valyasevi Krasae Chanawongse Prayong Ronnarong Tibet 14th Dalai Lama Community Leadership (1958–2008) Bangladesh Tahrunessa Abdullah Fazle Hasan Abed Muhammad Yunus Zafrullah Chowdhury Mohammed Yeasin Angela Gomes Burma Cynthia Maung India Mandakini Amte & Prakash Amte Mabelle Arole & Rajanikant Arole Pandurang Shastri Athavale Chandi Prasad Bhatt Ela Bhatt Vinoba Bhave Aruna Roy Shantha Sinha Rajendra Singh Japan Fusaye Ichikawa Laos Sombath Somphone Malaysia Tunku Abdul Rahman Nepal Mahabir Pun Philippines Gawad Kalinga Community Development Foundation Antonio Meloto Thailand Aree Valyasevi Krasae Chanawongse Prayong Ronnarong Tibet 14th Dalai Lama Bangladesh Tahrunessa Abdullah Fazle Hasan Abed Muhammad Yunus Zafrullah Chowdhury Mohammed Yeasin Angela Gomes Tahrunessa Abdullah Fazle Hasan Abed Muhammad Yunus Zafrullah Chowdhury Mohammed Yeasin Angela Gomes Burma Cynthia Maung Cynthia Maung India Mandakini Amte & Prakash Amte Mabelle Arole & Rajanikant Arole Pandurang Shastri Athavale Chandi Prasad Bhatt Ela Bhatt Vinoba Bhave Aruna Roy Shantha Sinha Rajendra Singh Mandakini Amte & Prakash Amte Mabelle Arole & Rajanikant Arole Pandurang Shastri Athavale Chandi Prasad Bhatt Ela Bhatt Vinoba Bhave Aruna Roy Shantha Sinha Rajendra Singh Japan Fusaye Ichikawa Fusaye Ichikawa Laos Sombath Somphone Sombath Somphone Malaysia Tunku Abdul Rahman Tunku Abdul Rahman Nepal Mahabir Pun Mahabir Pun Philippines Gawad Kalinga Community Development Foundation Antonio Meloto Gawad Kalinga Community Development Foundation Antonio Meloto Thailand Aree Valyasevi Krasae Chanawongse Prayong Ronnarong Aree Valyasevi Krasae Chanawongse Prayong Ronnarong Tibet 14th Dalai Lama 14th Dalai Lama Journalism, Literature, and the Creative Communication Arts (1958–2008) Bangladesh Matiur Rahman Abdullah Abu Sayeed Burma Edward Michael Law-Yone Ceylon or Sri Lanka Wannakuwatta Amaradeva Tarzie Vittachi India Mahasweta Devi Palagummi Sainath Amitabha Chowdhury Indonesia Atmakusumah Astraatmadja Mochtar Lubis Japan Akira Kurosawa Yasuji Hanamori Michiko Ishimure Akio Ishii Nepal Bharat Koirala Philippines Zacarias Sarian F. 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Sionil José Lino Brocka Radio Veritas James Reuter Bienvenido Lumbera Nick Joaquin Raul Locsin Eugenia Duran Apostol Sheila Coronel Thailand Prayoon Chanyavongs Prayoon Chanyavongs Great Britain based in Philippines Robert McCulloch Dick Robert McCulloch Dick Peace and International Understanding (1958–2008) China Tang Xiyang India Mother Teresa Jockin Arputham Laxminarayan Ramdas Indonesia Ahmad Syafi'i Maarif Japan Ikuo Hirayama Tetsu Nakamura Saburo Okita Seiei Toyama Nepal Sanduk Ruit Pakistan Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Operation Brotherhood Summer Institute of Linguistics William Masterson Harold Ray Watson International Institute of Rural Reconstruction Press Foundation of Asia Asian Institute of Management Corazon Aquino South Korea Pomnyun Sunim Thailand Asian Institute of Technology The Royal Project United States based in Thailand Genevieve Caulfield Peace and International Understanding (1958–2008) China Tang Xiyang India Mother Teresa Jockin Arputham Laxminarayan Ramdas Indonesia Ahmad Syafi'i Maarif Japan Ikuo Hirayama Tetsu Nakamura Saburo Okita Seiei Toyama Nepal Sanduk Ruit Pakistan Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Operation Brotherhood Summer Institute of Linguistics William Masterson Harold Ray Watson International Institute of Rural Reconstruction Press Foundation of Asia Asian Institute of Management Corazon Aquino South Korea Pomnyun Sunim Thailand Asian Institute of Technology The Royal Project United States based in Thailand Genevieve Caulfield China Tang Xiyang Tang Xiyang India Mother Teresa Jockin Arputham Laxminarayan Ramdas Mother Teresa Jockin Arputham Laxminarayan Ramdas Indonesia Ahmad Syafi'i Maarif Ahmad Syafi'i Maarif Japan Ikuo Hirayama Tetsu Nakamura Saburo Okita Seiei Toyama Ikuo Hirayama Tetsu Nakamura Saburo Okita Seiei Toyama Nepal Sanduk Ruit Sanduk Ruit Pakistan Ibn Abdur Rehman Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Operation Brotherhood Summer Institute of Linguistics William Masterson Harold Ray Watson International Institute of Rural Reconstruction Press Foundation of Asia Asian Institute of Management Corazon Aquino Operation Brotherhood Summer Institute of Linguistics William Masterson Harold Ray Watson International Institute of Rural Reconstruction Press Foundation of Asia Asian Institute of Management Corazon Aquino South Korea Pomnyun Sunim Pomnyun Sunim Thailand Asian Institute of Technology The Royal Project Asian Institute of Technology The Royal Project United States based in Thailand Genevieve Caulfield Genevieve Caulfield Emergent Leadership (2001–) Burma Ka Hsaw Wa China Chen Guangcheng Cambodia Oung Chanthol India Sanjiv Chaturvedi Arvind Kejriwal Nileema Mishra Sandeep Pandey Indonesia Ambrosius Ruwindrijarto Dita Indah Sari Philippines Benjamin Abadiano South Korea Yoon Hye-ran Sri Lanka Ananda Galappatti Timor-Leste Aniceto Guterres Lopes United States based in Hong Kong Chung To Emergent Leadership (2001–) Burma Ka Hsaw Wa China Chen Guangcheng Cambodia Oung Chanthol India Sanjiv Chaturvedi Arvind Kejriwal Nileema Mishra Sandeep Pandey Indonesia Ambrosius Ruwindrijarto Dita Indah Sari Philippines Benjamin Abadiano South Korea Yoon Hye-ran Sri Lanka Ananda Galappatti Timor-Leste Aniceto Guterres Lopes United States based in Hong Kong Chung To Burma Ka Hsaw Wa Ka Hsaw Wa China Chen Guangcheng Chen Guangcheng Cambodia Oung Chanthol Oung Chanthol India Sanjiv Chaturvedi Arvind Kejriwal Nileema Mishra Sandeep Pandey Sanjiv Chaturvedi Arvind Kejriwal Nileema Mishra Sandeep Pandey Indonesia Ambrosius Ruwindrijarto Dita Indah Sari Ambrosius Ruwindrijarto Dita Indah Sari Philippines Benjamin Abadiano Benjamin Abadiano South Korea Yoon Hye-ran Yoon Hye-ran Sri Lanka Ananda Galappatti Ananda Galappatti Timor-Leste Aniceto Guterres Lopes Aniceto Guterres Lopes United States based in Hong Kong Chung To Chung To Uncategorized (2009–) Bangladesh Syeda Rizwana Hasan A.H.M. 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Meteoroids Toggle Meteoroids subsection 1.1 Composition 1.2 In the Solar System 1.3 Collision with Earth's atmosphere 1.1 Composition 1.2 In the Solar System 1.3 Collision with Earth's atmosphere 2 Meteorites Toggle Meteorites subsection 2.1 Impact craters 2.2 Gallery of meteorites 2.1 Impact craters 2.2 Gallery of meteorites 3 See also Toggle See also subsection 3.1 Relating to meteoroids 3.2 Relating to meteorites 3.1 Relating to meteoroids 3.2 Relating to meteorites 4 References 5 External links Meteoroid Afrikaans العربية Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Azərbaycanca বাংলা Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Bikol Central Български Boarisch Bosanski Català Чӑвашла Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego ગુજરાતી 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ಕನ್ನಡ Къарачай-малкъар ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Limburgs Magyar Македонски മലയാളം मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands नेपाली 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Oromoo Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча پنجابی Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Русский Shqip සිංහල سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Soomaaliga کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Taqbaylit తెలుగు ไทย Thuɔŋjäŋ Tsetsêhestâhese Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 粵語 中文 ရခိုင် ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Wikidata item A meteoroid ( / ˈ m iː t i ə r ɔɪ d / MEE -tee-ə-royd ) [ 1 ] is a small body in outer space . Meteoroids are distinguished as objects significantly smaller than asteroids , ranging in size from grains to objects up to one meter (3.28 feet) wide. [ 2 ] Objects smaller than meteoroids are classified as micrometeoroids or space dust . [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] Many are fragments from comets or asteroids, whereas others are collision impact debris ejected from bodies such as the Moon or Mars . [ 5 ] [ 6 ] [ 7 ] The visible passage of a meteoroid, comet, or asteroid entering Earth's atmosphere is called a meteor , and a series of many meteors appearing seconds or minutes apart and appearing to originate from the same fixed point in the sky is called a meteor shower . An estimated 25 million meteoroids, micrometeoroids and other space debris enter Earth's atmosphere each day, [ 8 ] which results in an estimated 15,000 tonnes (16,535 short tons) of that material entering the atmosphere each year. [ 9 ] A meteorite is the remains of a meteoroid that has survived the ablation of its surface material during its passage through the atmosphere as a meteor and has impacted the ground. Meteoroids In 1961, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) defined a meteoroid as "a solid object moving in interplanetary space, of a size considerably smaller than an asteroid and considerably larger than an atom". [ 10 ] [ 11 ] In 1995, Beech and Steel, writing in the Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society , proposed a new definition where a meteoroid would be between 100 μm and 10 meters across. [ 12 ] In 2010, following the discovery of asteroids below 10 m in size, Rubin and Grossman proposed a revision of the previous definition of meteoroid to objects between 10 μm and one meter in diameter in order to maintain the distinction. [ 2 ] According to Rubin and Grossman, the minimum size of an asteroid is given by what can be discovered from Earth-bound telescopes, so the distinction between meteoroid and asteroid is fuzzy. Some of the smallest asteroids discovered (based on absolute magnitude H ) are 2008 TS 26 with H = 33.2 [ 13 ] and 2011 CQ 1 with H = 32.1 [ 14 ] both with an estimated size of one meter. [ 15 ] In April 2017, the IAU adopted an official revision of its definition, limiting size to between 30 μm (0.0012 in) and one meter in diameter, but allowing for a deviation for any object causing a meteor. [ 16 ] Objects smaller than meteoroids are classified as micrometeoroids and interplanetary dust . The Minor Planet Center does not use the term "meteoroid". Composition Almost all meteoroids contain extraterrestrial nickel and iron. They have three main classifications: iron, stone, and stony-iron. Some stone meteoroids contain grain-like inclusions known as chondrules and are called chondrites . Stony meteoroids without these features are called " achondrites ", which are typically formed from extraterrestrial igneous activity; they contain little or no extraterrestrial iron. [ 17 ] The composition of meteoroids can be inferred as they pass through Earth's atmosphere from their trajectories and the light spectra of the resulting meteor. Their effects on radio signals also give information, especially useful for daytime meteors, which are otherwise very difficult to observe. From these trajectory measurements, meteoroids have been found to have many different orbits, some clustering in streams (see meteor showers ) often associated with a parent comet , others apparently sporadic. Debris from meteoroid streams may eventually be scattered into other orbits. The light spectra, combined with trajectory and light curve measurements, have yielded various compositions and densities, ranging from fragile snowball-like objects with density about a quarter that of ice, [ 18 ] to nickel-iron rich dense rocks. The study of meteorites also gives insights into the composition of non-ephemeral meteoroids. In the Solar System Most meteoroids come from the asteroid belt , having been perturbed by the gravitational influences of planets, but others are particles from comets , giving rise to meteor showers . Some meteoroids are fragments from bodies such as Mars or the Moon , that have been thrown into space by an impact. Meteoroids travel around the Sun in a variety of orbits and at various velocities. The fastest move at about 42 km/s through space in the vicinity of Earth's orbit. This is escape velocity from the Sun, equal to the square root of two times Earth's speed, and is the upper speed limit of objects in the vicinity of Earth, unless they come from interstellar space. Earth travels at about 29.6 km/s, so when meteoroids meet the atmosphere head-on (which only occurs when meteors are in a retrograde orbit such as the Leonids , which are associated with the retrograde comet 55P/Tempel–Tuttle ) the combined speed may reach about 71 km/s (see Specific energy#Astrodynamics ). Meteoroids moving through Earth's orbital space average about 20 km/s, [ 19 ] but due to Earth's gravity meteors such as the Phoenicids can make atmospheric entry at as slow as about 11 km/s. On January 17, 2013, at 05:21 PST, a one meter comet from the Oort cloud entered Earth atmosphere over California and Nevada . [ 20 ] The object had a retrograde orbit with perihelion at 0.98 ± 0.03 AU . It approached from the direction of the constellation Virgo (which was in the south about 50° above the horizon at the time), and collided head-on with Earth's atmosphere at 72 ± 6 km/s [ 20 ] vaporising more than 100 km above ground over a period of several seconds. Collision with Earth's atmosphere When meteoroids intersect with Earth's atmosphere at night, they are likely to become visible as meteors . If meteoroids survive the entry through the atmosphere and reach Earth's surface, they are called meteorites . Meteorites are transformed in structure and chemistry by the heat of entry and force of impact. A noted 4-meter (13 ft) asteroid , 2008 TC 3 , was observed in space on a collision course with Earth on 6 October 2008 and entered Earth's atmosphere the next day, striking a remote area of northern Sudan. It was the first time that a meteoroid had been observed in space and tracked prior to impacting Earth. [ 10 ] NASA has produced a map showing the most notable asteroid collisions with Earth and its atmosphere from 1994 to 2013 from data gathered by U.S. government sensors. [ 21 ] Meteorites A meteorite is a portion of a meteoroid or asteroid that survives its passage through the atmosphere and hits the ground without being destroyed. [ 22 ] Meteorites are sometimes, but not always, found in association with hypervelocity impact craters ; during energetic collisions, the entire impactor may be vaporized, leaving no meteorites. Geologists use the term "bolide" in a different sense from astronomers to indicate a very large impactor . For example, the USGS uses the term to mean a generic large crater-forming projectile in a manner "to imply that we do not know the precise nature of the impacting body ... whether it is a rocky or metallic asteroid, or an icy comet for example". [ 23 ] Meteoroids also hit other bodies in the Solar System. On such stony bodies as the Moon or Mars that have little or no atmosphere, they leave enduring craters. Impact craters Meteoroid collisions with solid Solar System objects, including the Moon, Mercury , Callisto , Ganymede , and most small moons and asteroids , create impact craters, which are the dominant geographic features of many of those objects. On other planets and moons with active surface geological processes, such as Earth, Venus , Mars , Europa , Io , and Titan , visible impact craters may become eroded , buried, or transformed by tectonics over time. In early literature, before the significance of impact cratering was widely recognised, the terms cryptoexplosion or cryptovolcanic structure were often used to describe what are now recognised as impact-related features on Earth. [ 24 ] Molten terrestrial material ejected from a meteorite impact crater can cool and solidify into an object known as a tektite . These are often mistaken for meteorites. Terrestrial rock, sometimes with pieces of the original meteorite, created or modified by an impact of a meteorite is called impactite . Gallery of meteorites Two tektites , molten terrestrial ejecta from a meteorite impact A partial slice of the Esquel pallasite Willamette Meteorite , from Oregon, US Meteorite, which fell in Wisconsin in 1868 Marília Meteorite , a chondrite H4, which fell in Marília , Brazil (1971) Children posing behind a replica of the Tucson Meteorite at the Arizona Museum of Natural History [ 25 ] Meteorite with brecciation and carbon inclusions from Tindouf , Algeria [ 26 ] See also Glossary of meteoritics Relating to meteoroids Interplanetary dust Micrometeoroid Near-Earth object Relating to meteorites Baetyl – Sacred stones possibly originating as meteorites Impact crater Impact event Interplanetary dust cloud § Collecting interplanetary dust on Earth Meteorite Micrometeorite Tektite References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "meteoroid" . Cambridge English Dictionary . ^ a b c Rubin, Alan E.; Grossman, Jeffrey N. (January 2010). "Meteorite and meteoroid: New comprehensive definitions". Meteoritics & Planetary Science . 45 (1): 114– 122. Bibcode : 2010M&PS...45..114R . doi : 10.1111/j.1945-5100.2009.01009.x . S2CID 129972426 . ) ^ Atkinson, Nancy (2 June 2015). "What is the difference between asteroids and meteorites" . Universe Today . ^ "meteoroids" . The Free Dictionary . Retrieved 1 August 2015 . ^ "Meteoroid" . National Geographic . Archived from the original on 7 October 2015 . Retrieved 24 August 2015 . ^ "Meteors & Meteorites" . NASA . Archived from the original on 26 December 2003 . Retrieved 1 August 2015 . ^ "Asteroid Fast Facts" . NASA. 31 March 2014 . Retrieved 1 August 2015 . ^ Lidz, Franz (2019-01-09). "The Oldest Material in the Smithsonian Institution Came From Outer Space" . Smithsonian . Retrieved 2019-01-09 . ^ Gary, Stuart (2011-12-22). "Survey finds not all meteors the same" . ABC Science . ABC. ^ a b "Glossary International Meteor Organization" . International Meteor Organization (IMO) . Retrieved 2011-09-16 . ^ Millman, Peter M. (1961). "A report on meteor terminology". Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada . 55 : 265– 267. Bibcode : 1961JRASC..55..265M . ^ Beech, Martin; Steel, Duncan (September 1995). "On the Definition of the Term Meteoroid". Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society . 36 (3): 281– 284. Bibcode : 1995QJRAS..36..281B . ) ^ "JPL Small-Body Database Search Engine: H > 29 (mag)" . JPL Solar System Dynamics . Retrieved 2013-01-28 . ^ "JPL Small-Body Database Browser: (2011 CQ1)" (2011-02-04 last obs). ^ Yeomans, Donald K.; Chodas, Paul; Chesley, Steve (November 9, 2009). "Small Asteroid 2009 VA Whizzes By the Earth" . NASA's Near Earth Object Program Office. Archived from the original on November 12, 2009 . Retrieved 2013-01-28 . ^ Vincent Perlerin (September 26, 2017). "Definitions of terms in meteor astronomy (IAU)" . News . International Meteor Organization . Retrieved 2018-01-22 . ^ Notkin, Geoffrey. "Meteorite types and classification" . Meteorwritings . Geology.com . Retrieved 2014-03-02 . ^ Povenmire, Harold (2000). "Physical Dynamics of the Upsilon Pegasid Fireball – European Network 190882A" (PDF) . Lunar and Planetary Science Conference : 1183. Bibcode : 2000LPI....31.1183P . ^ Interagency Group (Space) Working Group on Orbital Debris (February 1989). "Report on Orbital Debris" . NASA Technical Reports Server : 1. hdl : 2060/19900003319 . Archived from the original on 2023-05-31 . Retrieved 2023-05-31 . ^ a b Jenniskens, Peter . "2013 January 17 Sierra Nevada fireball" . SETI Institute . Retrieved 2014-11-16 . | "Earth Collides Head-On with Small Comet" . SETI Institute . Archived from the original on 2013-01-28 . Retrieved 2013-01-25 . ^ "New Map Shows Frequency of Small Asteroid Impacts, Provides Clues on Larger Asteroid Population" . NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) . Retrieved 17 February 2025 . ^ The Oxford Illustrated Dictionary . 1976. Second Edition. Oxford University Press. p. 533 ^ "What is a Bolide?" . woodshole.er.usgs.gov . Retrieved 2011-09-16 . ^ French, Bevan M. (1998). "Traces of Catastrophe: A Handbook of Shock-Metamorphic Effects in Terrestrial Meteorite Impact Structures" . Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution . p. 97. ^ "Arizona Through Time" . Arizona Museum of Natural History . Retrieved 2024-09-03 . ^ "Northwest Africa 869" . Meteoritical Bulletin Database . The Meteoritical Society. External links A History of Meteors and Other Atmospheric Phenomena American Meteor Society British Astronomical Society meteor page International Meteor Organization Live Meteor Scanner Meteoroids Page at NASA's Solar System Exploration Meteor shower predictions Archived 2011-07-03 at the Wayback Machine Meteor Showers and Viewing Tips Society for Popular Astronomy – Meteor Section Minor Planet Center: Asteroid Hazards, Part 2: The Challenge of Detection on YouTube (min. 7:14) Earth Impact Effects Program Estimates crater size and other effects of a specified body colliding with Earth. .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Small Solar System bodies v t e Minor planets Designation Groups List Moon Meanings of names Asteroid Active Aten asteroid Asteroid belt Family Jupiter trojan Near-Earth Spectral types Distant minor planet Centaur Neptune trojan Damocloid Trans-Neptunian object Detached Kuiper belt Oort cloud Scattered disc Designation Groups List Moon Meanings of names Designation Groups List Moon Meanings of names Asteroid Active Aten asteroid Asteroid belt Family Jupiter trojan Near-Earth Spectral types Active Aten asteroid Asteroid belt Family Jupiter trojan Near-Earth Spectral types Distant minor planet Centaur Neptune trojan Damocloid Trans-Neptunian object Detached Kuiper belt Oort cloud Scattered disc Centaur Neptune trojan Centaur Neptune trojan Damocloid Trans-Neptunian object Detached Kuiper belt Oort cloud Scattered disc Detached Kuiper belt Oort cloud Scattered disc Comets Extinct Great Halley-type Hyperbolic Long-period Lost Near-parabolic Periodic Sungrazing Extinct Great Halley-type Hyperbolic Long-period Lost Near-parabolic Periodic Sungrazing Other Cosmic dust Meteoroids Space debris Cosmic dust Meteoroids Space debris v t e Meteorites and meteoritics v t e Meteorite ... Glossary Fall bolide impactite statistics strewn field Find hunting Largest Micrometeorite Notable Parent body Glossary Fall bolide impactite statistics strewn field bolide impactite statistics strewn field Find hunting hunting Largest Micrometeorite Notable Parent body Classification By type , class , clan , group and grouplet Chondrite Carbonaceous CB CH CI CK CM CO CR CV C ungrouped Enstatite EH EL Kakangari Ordinary H L LL Rumuruti Achondrite Primitive Acapulcoite Brachinite IAB IIICD Lodranite Ureilite Winonaite Asteroidal Angrite Aubrite HED Diogenite Eucrite Howardite Lunar Impact breccia Mare basalts List Martian Basaltic Breccia NWA 7034 Chassignites Kaidun Nakhlites Orthopyroxenite ALH84001 Shergottites Martian meteorites list Meteorites on Mars list Iron IC IIAB IIC IID IIE IIG IIIAB IIIE IIIF IVA IVB Stony-iron Mesosiderite Pallasite Main group Eagle Station Pyroxene Structural Ataxite Hexahedrite Octahedrite Obsolete terms Amphoterite Nonmagmatic meteorite By type , class , clan , group and grouplet Chondrite Carbonaceous CB CH CI CK CM CO CR CV C ungrouped Enstatite EH EL Kakangari Ordinary H L LL Rumuruti Achondrite Primitive Acapulcoite Brachinite IAB IIICD Lodranite Ureilite Winonaite Asteroidal Angrite Aubrite HED Diogenite Eucrite Howardite Lunar Impact breccia Mare basalts List Martian Basaltic Breccia NWA 7034 Chassignites Kaidun Nakhlites Orthopyroxenite ALH84001 Shergottites Martian meteorites list Meteorites on Mars list Iron IC IIAB IIC IID IIE IIG IIIAB IIIE IIIF IVA IVB Stony-iron Mesosiderite Pallasite Main group Eagle Station Pyroxene Chondrite Carbonaceous CB CH CI CK CM CO CR CV C ungrouped Enstatite EH EL Kakangari Ordinary H L LL Rumuruti Carbonaceous CB CH CI CK CM CO CR CV C ungrouped CB CH CI CK CM CO CR CV C ungrouped Enstatite EH EL EH EL Kakangari Ordinary H L LL H L LL Rumuruti Achondrite Primitive Acapulcoite Brachinite IAB IIICD Lodranite Ureilite Winonaite Asteroidal Angrite Aubrite HED Diogenite Eucrite Howardite Lunar Impact breccia Mare basalts List Martian Basaltic Breccia NWA 7034 Chassignites Kaidun Nakhlites Orthopyroxenite ALH84001 Shergottites Martian meteorites list Meteorites on Mars list Primitive Acapulcoite Brachinite IAB IIICD Lodranite Ureilite Winonaite Acapulcoite Brachinite IAB IIICD Lodranite Ureilite Winonaite Asteroidal Angrite Aubrite HED Diogenite Eucrite Howardite Angrite Aubrite HED Diogenite Eucrite Howardite Diogenite Eucrite Howardite Lunar Impact breccia Mare basalts List Impact breccia Mare basalts List Martian Basaltic Breccia NWA 7034 Chassignites Kaidun Nakhlites Orthopyroxenite ALH84001 Shergottites Martian meteorites list Meteorites on Mars list Basaltic Breccia NWA 7034 NWA 7034 Chassignites Kaidun Nakhlites Orthopyroxenite ALH84001 ALH84001 Shergottites Martian meteorites list Meteorites on Mars list Iron IC IIAB IIC IID IIE IIG IIIAB IIIE IIIF IVA IVB IC IIAB IIC IID IIE IIG IIIAB IIIE IIIF IVA IVB Stony-iron Mesosiderite Pallasite Main group Eagle Station Pyroxene Mesosiderite Pallasite Main group Eagle Station Pyroxene Main group Eagle Station Pyroxene Structural Ataxite Hexahedrite Octahedrite Ataxite Hexahedrite Octahedrite Obsolete terms Amphoterite Nonmagmatic meteorite Amphoterite Nonmagmatic meteorite Mineralogy and petrology Characteristics shock TKW weathering Grains chondrule presolar Minerals Ca–Al-rich inclusion extraterrestrial materials meteoric iron Patterns Neumann lines Widmanstätten CI1 fossils Characteristics shock TKW weathering shock TKW weathering Grains chondrule presolar chondrule presolar Minerals Ca–Al-rich inclusion extraterrestrial materials meteoric iron Ca–Al-rich inclusion extraterrestrial materials meteoric iron Patterns Neumann lines Widmanstätten Neumann lines Widmanstätten CI1 fossils Lists Meteorites by find location type Awards Journals Organizations Meteorites by find location type find location type Awards Journals Organizations See also: Asteroid Atmospheric entry Comet Impact event Meteor shower Meteoroid Near-Earth object See also: Asteroid Atmospheric entry Comet Impact event Meteor shower shower Meteoroid Near-Earth object v t e Modern impact events v t e On Earth Pre-2000 1490 Qingyang 1783 Great Meteor 1860 Great Meteor 1908 Tunguska 1913 Great Meteor Procession 1930 Curuçá River 1938 Chicora meteor 1947 Sikhote-Alin meteor 1969 Murchison meteor 1972 Great Daylight Fireball 1990 Earth-grazing meteoroid Post-2000 2002 Eastern Mediterranean event 2007 Carancas impact event 2008 TC 3 impact 2008 Buzzard Coulee meteor 2009 Sulawesi superbolide 2012 Sutter's Mill meteor 2012 United Kingdom meteoroid 2012 Novato meteor 2013 Chelyabinsk meteor Chelyabinsk meteorite 2013 Braunschweig meteor 2014 AA impact 2014 Ontario fireball CNEOS 2014-01-08 2015 Kerala meteoroid 2015 Thailand bolide WT1190F impact 2017 China bolide 2018 LA impact 2018 Kamchatka meteor 2019 MO impact 2020 China bolide 2021 Winchcombe meteor 2022 EB 5 impact 2022 WJ 1 impact 2023 CX 1 impact 2024 BX 1 impact 2024 RW 1 impact 2024 UQ impact 2024 XA 1 impact Pre-2000 1490 Qingyang 1783 Great Meteor 1860 Great Meteor 1908 Tunguska 1913 Great Meteor Procession 1930 Curuçá River 1938 Chicora meteor 1947 Sikhote-Alin meteor 1969 Murchison meteor 1972 Great Daylight Fireball 1990 Earth-grazing meteoroid 1490 Qingyang 1783 Great Meteor 1860 Great Meteor 1908 Tunguska 1913 Great Meteor Procession 1930 Curuçá River 1938 Chicora meteor 1947 Sikhote-Alin meteor 1969 Murchison meteor 1972 Great Daylight Fireball 1990 Earth-grazing meteoroid Post-2000 2002 Eastern Mediterranean event 2007 Carancas impact event 2008 TC 3 impact 2008 Buzzard Coulee meteor 2009 Sulawesi superbolide 2012 Sutter's Mill meteor 2012 United Kingdom meteoroid 2012 Novato meteor 2013 Chelyabinsk meteor Chelyabinsk meteorite 2013 Braunschweig meteor 2014 AA impact 2014 Ontario fireball CNEOS 2014-01-08 2015 Kerala meteoroid 2015 Thailand bolide WT1190F impact 2017 China bolide 2018 LA impact 2018 Kamchatka meteor 2019 MO impact 2020 China bolide 2021 Winchcombe meteor 2022 EB 5 impact 2022 WJ 1 impact 2023 CX 1 impact 2024 BX 1 impact 2024 RW 1 impact 2024 UQ impact 2024 XA 1 impact 2002 Eastern Mediterranean event 2007 Carancas impact event 2008 TC 3 impact 2008 Buzzard Coulee meteor 2009 Sulawesi superbolide 2012 Sutter's Mill meteor 2012 United Kingdom meteoroid 2012 Novato meteor 2013 Chelyabinsk meteor Chelyabinsk meteorite Chelyabinsk meteorite 2013 Braunschweig meteor 2014 AA impact 2014 Ontario fireball CNEOS 2014-01-08 2015 Kerala meteoroid 2015 Thailand bolide WT1190F impact 2017 China bolide 2018 LA impact 2018 Kamchatka meteor 2019 MO impact 2020 China bolide 2021 Winchcombe meteor 2022 EB 5 impact 2022 WJ 1 impact 2023 CX 1 impact 2024 BX 1 impact 2024 RW 1 impact 2024 UQ impact 2024 XA 1 impact On Mars Impact events on Mars On Jupiter Impact events on Jupiter 1994 Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 2009 Jupiter impact 2010 Jupiter impact Impact events on Jupiter 1994 Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 2009 Jupiter impact 2010 Jupiter impact Lists Predicted asteroid impacts on Earth Asteroid close approaches to Earth Comets Bolides Meteor air bursts Meteorite falls Minor planets Asteroids crossing Earth's orbit Predicted asteroid impacts on Earth Asteroid close approaches to Earth Comets Bolides Meteor air bursts Meteorite falls Meteor air bursts Meteorite falls Minor planets Asteroids crossing Earth's orbit See also Asteroid impact prediction Asteroid impact avoidance Bolide Earth-grazing fireball Meteor procession Meteor shower Meteorite Meteoroid Near-Earth object Potentially hazardous object Asteroid impact prediction Asteroid impact avoidance Bolide Earth-grazing fireball Meteor procession Meteor shower Meteorite Meteoroid Near-Earth object Potentially hazardous object v t e Planetary defense v t e Main topics Asteroid Bolide Earth-grazing fireball Impact event Meteor air burst Meteor procession Meteor shower Meteorite Meteoroid Near-Earth object Potentially hazardous object Earth-crossing minor planets Asteroid close approaches Asteroid Bolide Earth-grazing fireball Impact event Meteor air burst Meteor procession Meteor shower Meteorite Meteoroid Near-Earth object Potentially hazardous object Earth-crossing minor planets Asteroid close approaches Defense Asteroid impact avoidance Asteroid laser ablation Gravity tractor Ion-beam shepherd Asteroid impact avoidance Asteroid laser ablation Gravity tractor Ion-beam shepherd Asteroid laser ablation Gravity tractor Ion-beam shepherd Space probes Dawn Deep Impact HAMMER AIDA Hera DART Halley Armada Hayabusa Hayabusa2 MASCOT NEAR Shoemaker NEA Scout New Horizons OSIRIS-REx PROCYON Rosetta Philae Stardust Dawn Deep Impact HAMMER AIDA Hera DART Hera DART Halley Armada Hayabusa Hayabusa2 MASCOT MASCOT NEAR Shoemaker NEA Scout New Horizons OSIRIS-REx PROCYON Rosetta Philae Philae Stardust NEO tracking ATLAS Catalina Sky Survey LINEAR LONEOS NEAT NEODyS NEO Surveyor NEOSSat OGS Telescope Orbit@home Pan-STARRS SCAP Sentinel Space Telescope Sentry Spacewatch WISE ATLAS Catalina Sky Survey LINEAR LONEOS NEAT NEODyS NEO Surveyor NEOSSat OGS Telescope Orbit@home Pan-STARRS SCAP Sentinel Space Telescope Sentry Spacewatch WISE Organizations B612 Foundation Japan Spaceguard Association The Meteoritical Society NEOShield Planetary Defense Coordination Office Spaceguard The Spaceguard Foundation Space Situational Awareness Programme United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs B612 Foundation Japan Spaceguard Association The Meteoritical Society NEOShield Planetary Defense Coordination Office Spaceguard The Spaceguard Foundation Space Situational Awareness Programme United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs Hazard rating Torino scale Palermo scale Torino scale Palermo scale Potential threats 1950 DA 101955 Bennu 2010 RF 12 99942 Apophis 2024 YR 4 List of objects with non-zero Torino ratings 1950 DA 101955 Bennu 2010 RF 12 99942 Apophis 2024 YR 4 List of objects with non-zero Torino ratings Related categories Impact events Fiction about meteoroids Fiction about impact events Impact events Fiction about meteoroids Fiction about impact events v t e Solar System v t e Sun Mercury Venus Earth Mars Ceres Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Orcus Pluto Haumea Quaoar Makemake Gonggong Eris Sedna Sun Mercury Venus Earth Mars Ceres Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Orcus Pluto Haumea Quaoar Makemake Gonggong Eris Sedna Planets , dwarfs , minors Terrestrials Mercury Venus Earth Mars Giants Gas Jupiter Saturn Ice Uranus Neptune Dwarfs Ceres Orcus Pluto Haumea Quaoar Makemake Gonggong Eris Sedna Large Minor Planets Salacia Varuna Ixion List Moons Earth Moon Claimed Mars Phobos Deimos Jupiter Ganymede Callisto Io Europa all 97 Saturn Titan Rhea Iapetus Dione Tethys Enceladus Mimas Hyperion Phoebe all 274 Uranus Titania Oberon Umbriel Ariel Miranda all 29 Neptune Triton Proteus Nereid all 16 Pluto Charon Nix Hydra Kerberos Styx Orcus Vanth Haumea Hiʻiaka Namaka Quaoar Weywot Makemake S/2015 (136472) 1 Gonggong Xiangliu Eris Dysnomia Exploration ( outline ) Colonization Discovery astronomy historical models timeline Space probes timeline list Human spaceflight space stations list programs Mercury Venus Moon mining Mars Ceres Asteroids mining Comets Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto Deep space Hypothetical objects Bagby's moon Chiron Coatlicue Counter-Earth Chrysalis Fifth Giant Hyperion Lilith Mercury's moon Neith Nemesis Nibiru Petit's moon Phaeton Planet Nine Effects Planet Ten Planet V Planet X Subsatellites Synestia Theia Themis Tyche Vulcan Vulcanoids Waltemath's moons Lists Comets Possible dwarf planets Gravitationally rounded objects Minor planets Natural satellites Solar System models Solar System objects by size by discovery date Interstellar and circumstellar molecules Rings Planetary Jovian Saturnian ( Rhean ?) Uranian Neptunian Minor objects' Charikloan Chironean Haumean Quaoarian Formation, evolution , contents, and History Star formation Accretion Accretion disk Excretion Capture theory Capture of Triton Circumplanetary disk Circumstellar disc Circumstellar envelope Coatlicue Co-orbital configuration Trojan moons Co-orbital moons Cosmic dust Debris disk Detached object Disk instability EXCEDE Exozodiacal dust Extraterrestrial materials Curation Sample-return mission Frost/Ice/Snow line Giant-impact hypothesis Grand tack hypothesis Gravitational collapse Hills cloud Hill sphere Interplanetary dust cloud Interplanetary medium/space Interstellar cloud Interstellar medium Interstellar space Kuiper belt Kuiper cliff Late Heavy Bombardment Molecular cloud Nebular hypothesis Nice model Nice 2 model Five-planet Nice model Oort cloud Oort limit Outer space Planet Disrupted Migration System Planetesimal Formation Merging stars Protoplanetary disk Ring system Roche limit vs. Hill sphere Rubble pile Scattered disc Small Solar System bodies Asteroid belt Asteroids Ceres Vesta Pallas Hygiea active List families PHA exceptional Kirkwood gap Centaurs Comets Damocloids Meteoroids Minor planets names and meanings moons Planetesimal Planetary orbit-crossers Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Trojans Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Trojan camp Greek camp Saturn Uranus Neptune Near-Earth objects NEAs Trans-Neptunian objects Kuiper belt Cubewanos Plutinos Detached objects Sednoids Scattered disc Hills cloud Oort cloud Oort limit Related Double planet Lagrange point Moonlet Syzygy Tidal locking Planets , dwarfs , minors Terrestrials Mercury Venus Earth Mars Giants Gas Jupiter Saturn Ice Uranus Neptune Dwarfs Ceres Orcus Pluto Haumea Quaoar Makemake Gonggong Eris Sedna Large Minor Planets Salacia Varuna Ixion List Moons Earth Moon Claimed Mars Phobos Deimos Jupiter Ganymede Callisto Io Europa all 97 Saturn Titan Rhea Iapetus Dione Tethys Enceladus Mimas Hyperion Phoebe all 274 Uranus Titania Oberon Umbriel Ariel Miranda all 29 Neptune Triton Proteus Nereid all 16 Pluto Charon Nix Hydra Kerberos Styx Orcus Vanth Haumea Hiʻiaka Namaka Quaoar Weywot Makemake S/2015 (136472) 1 Gonggong Xiangliu Eris Dysnomia Exploration ( outline ) Colonization Discovery astronomy historical models timeline Space probes timeline list Human spaceflight space stations list programs Mercury Venus Moon mining Mars Ceres Asteroids mining Comets Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto Deep space Hypothetical objects Bagby's moon Chiron Coatlicue Counter-Earth Chrysalis Fifth Giant Hyperion Lilith Mercury's moon Neith Nemesis Nibiru Petit's moon Phaeton Planet Nine Effects Planet Ten Planet V Planet X Subsatellites Synestia Theia Themis Tyche Vulcan Vulcanoids Waltemath's moons Lists Comets Possible dwarf planets Gravitationally rounded objects Minor planets Natural satellites Solar System models Solar System objects by size by discovery date Interstellar and circumstellar molecules Planets , dwarfs , minors Terrestrials Mercury Venus Earth Mars Giants Gas Jupiter Saturn Ice Uranus Neptune Dwarfs Ceres Orcus Pluto Haumea Quaoar Makemake Gonggong Eris Sedna Large Minor Planets Salacia Varuna Ixion List Terrestrials Mercury Venus Earth Mars Mercury Venus Earth Mars Giants Gas Jupiter Saturn Ice Uranus Neptune Gas Jupiter Saturn Jupiter Saturn Ice Uranus Neptune Uranus Neptune Dwarfs Ceres Orcus Pluto Haumea Quaoar Makemake Gonggong Eris Sedna Ceres Orcus Pluto Haumea Quaoar Makemake Gonggong Eris Sedna Large Minor Planets Salacia Varuna Ixion List Salacia Varuna Ixion List Moons Earth Moon Claimed Mars Phobos Deimos Jupiter Ganymede Callisto Io Europa all 97 Saturn Titan Rhea Iapetus Dione Tethys Enceladus Mimas Hyperion Phoebe all 274 Uranus Titania Oberon Umbriel Ariel Miranda all 29 Neptune Triton Proteus Nereid all 16 Pluto Charon Nix Hydra Kerberos Styx Orcus Vanth Haumea Hiʻiaka Namaka Quaoar Weywot Makemake S/2015 (136472) 1 Gonggong Xiangliu Eris Dysnomia Earth Moon Claimed Moon Claimed Claimed Mars Phobos Deimos Phobos Deimos Jupiter Ganymede Callisto Io Europa all 97 Ganymede Callisto Io Europa all 97 Saturn Titan Rhea Iapetus Dione Tethys Enceladus Mimas Hyperion Phoebe all 274 Titan Rhea Iapetus Dione Tethys Enceladus Mimas Hyperion Phoebe all 274 Uranus Titania Oberon Umbriel Ariel Miranda all 29 Titania Oberon Umbriel Ariel Miranda all 29 Neptune Triton Proteus Nereid all 16 Triton Proteus Nereid all 16 Pluto Charon Nix Hydra Kerberos Styx Charon Nix Hydra Kerberos Styx Orcus Vanth Vanth Haumea Hiʻiaka Namaka Hiʻiaka Namaka Quaoar Weywot Weywot Makemake S/2015 (136472) 1 S/2015 (136472) 1 Gonggong Xiangliu Xiangliu Eris Dysnomia Dysnomia Exploration ( outline ) Colonization Discovery astronomy historical models timeline Space probes timeline list Human spaceflight space stations list programs Mercury Venus Moon mining Mars Ceres Asteroids mining Comets Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto Deep space Colonization Discovery astronomy historical models timeline astronomy historical models timeline Space probes timeline list timeline list Human spaceflight space stations list programs space stations list programs Mercury Venus Moon mining mining Mars Ceres Asteroids mining mining Comets Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto Deep space Hypothetical objects Bagby's moon Chiron Coatlicue Counter-Earth Chrysalis Fifth Giant Hyperion Lilith Mercury's moon Neith Nemesis Nibiru Petit's moon Phaeton Planet Nine Effects Planet Ten Planet V Planet X Subsatellites Synestia Theia Themis Tyche Vulcan Vulcanoids Waltemath's moons Bagby's moon Chiron Coatlicue Counter-Earth Chrysalis Fifth Giant Hyperion Lilith Mercury's moon Neith Nemesis Nibiru Petit's moon Phaeton Planet Nine Effects Effects Planet Ten Planet V Planet X Subsatellites Synestia Theia Themis Tyche Vulcan Vulcanoids Vulcanoids Waltemath's moons Lists Comets Possible dwarf planets Gravitationally rounded objects Minor planets Natural satellites Solar System models Solar System objects by size by discovery date Interstellar and circumstellar molecules Comets Possible dwarf planets Gravitationally rounded objects Minor planets Natural satellites Solar System models Solar System objects by size by discovery date by size by discovery date Interstellar and circumstellar molecules Rings Planetary Jovian Saturnian ( Rhean ?) Uranian Neptunian Minor objects' Charikloan Chironean Haumean Quaoarian Formation, evolution , contents, and History Star formation Accretion Accretion disk Excretion Capture theory Capture of Triton Circumplanetary disk Circumstellar disc Circumstellar envelope Coatlicue Co-orbital configuration Trojan moons Co-orbital moons Cosmic dust Debris disk Detached object Disk instability EXCEDE Exozodiacal dust Extraterrestrial materials Curation Sample-return mission Frost/Ice/Snow line Giant-impact hypothesis Grand tack hypothesis Gravitational collapse Hills cloud Hill sphere Interplanetary dust cloud Interplanetary medium/space Interstellar cloud Interstellar medium Interstellar space Kuiper belt Kuiper cliff Late Heavy Bombardment Molecular cloud Nebular hypothesis Nice model Nice 2 model Five-planet Nice model Oort cloud Oort limit Outer space Planet Disrupted Migration System Planetesimal Formation Merging stars Protoplanetary disk Ring system Roche limit vs. Hill sphere Rubble pile Scattered disc Small Solar System bodies Asteroid belt Asteroids Ceres Vesta Pallas Hygiea active List families PHA exceptional Kirkwood gap Centaurs Comets Damocloids Meteoroids Minor planets names and meanings moons Planetesimal Planetary orbit-crossers Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Trojans Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Trojan camp Greek camp Saturn Uranus Neptune Near-Earth objects NEAs Trans-Neptunian objects Kuiper belt Cubewanos Plutinos Detached objects Sednoids Scattered disc Hills cloud Oort cloud Oort limit Related Double planet Lagrange point Moonlet Syzygy Tidal locking Rings Planetary Jovian Saturnian ( Rhean ?) Uranian Neptunian Minor objects' Charikloan Chironean Haumean Quaoarian Planetary Jovian Saturnian ( Rhean ?) Uranian Neptunian Jovian Saturnian ( Rhean ?) Uranian Neptunian Minor objects' Charikloan Chironean Haumean Quaoarian Charikloan Chironean Haumean Quaoarian Formation, evolution , contents, and History Star formation Accretion Accretion disk Excretion Capture theory Capture of Triton Circumplanetary disk Circumstellar disc Circumstellar envelope Coatlicue Co-orbital configuration Trojan moons Co-orbital moons Cosmic dust Debris disk Detached object Disk instability EXCEDE Exozodiacal dust Extraterrestrial materials Curation Sample-return mission Frost/Ice/Snow line Giant-impact hypothesis Grand tack hypothesis Gravitational collapse Hills cloud Hill sphere Interplanetary dust cloud Interplanetary medium/space Interstellar cloud Interstellar medium Interstellar space Kuiper belt Kuiper cliff Late Heavy Bombardment Molecular cloud Nebular hypothesis Nice model Nice 2 model Five-planet Nice model Oort cloud Oort limit Outer space Planet Disrupted Migration System Planetesimal Formation Merging stars Protoplanetary disk Ring system Roche limit vs. Hill sphere Rubble pile Scattered disc Star formation Accretion Accretion disk Excretion Excretion Capture theory Capture of Triton Capture of Triton Circumplanetary disk Circumstellar disc Circumstellar envelope Coatlicue Co-orbital configuration Trojan moons Co-orbital moons Trojan moons Co-orbital moons Cosmic dust Debris disk Detached object Disk instability EXCEDE Exozodiacal dust Extraterrestrial materials Curation Sample-return mission Curation Sample-return mission Frost/Ice/Snow line Giant-impact hypothesis Grand tack hypothesis Gravitational collapse Hills cloud Hill sphere Interplanetary dust cloud Interplanetary medium/space Interstellar cloud Interstellar medium Interstellar space Kuiper belt Kuiper cliff Late Heavy Bombardment Molecular cloud Nebular hypothesis Nice model Nice 2 model Five-planet Nice model Nice 2 model Five-planet Nice model Oort cloud Oort limit Oort limit Outer space Planet Disrupted Migration System Planetesimal Formation Merging stars Protoplanetary disk Disrupted Migration System Planetesimal Formation Merging stars Merging stars Protoplanetary disk Ring system Roche limit vs. Hill sphere vs. Hill sphere Rubble pile Scattered disc Small Solar System bodies Asteroid belt Asteroids Ceres Vesta Pallas Hygiea active List families PHA exceptional Kirkwood gap Centaurs Comets Damocloids Meteoroids Minor planets names and meanings moons Planetesimal Planetary orbit-crossers Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Trojans Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Trojan camp Greek camp Saturn Uranus Neptune Near-Earth objects NEAs Trans-Neptunian objects Kuiper belt Cubewanos Plutinos Detached objects Sednoids Scattered disc Hills cloud Oort cloud Oort limit Asteroid belt Asteroids Ceres Vesta Pallas Hygiea active List families PHA exceptional Kirkwood gap Ceres Vesta Pallas Hygiea active List families PHA exceptional Kirkwood gap Centaurs Comets Damocloids Meteoroids Minor planets names and meanings moons names and meanings moons Planetesimal Planetary orbit-crossers Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Trojans Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Trojan camp Greek camp Saturn Uranus Neptune Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Trojan camp Greek camp Trojan camp Greek camp Saturn Uranus Neptune Near-Earth objects NEAs NEAs Trans-Neptunian objects Kuiper belt Cubewanos Plutinos Detached objects Sednoids Scattered disc Hills cloud Oort cloud Oort limit Kuiper belt Cubewanos Plutinos Cubewanos Plutinos Detached objects Sednoids Scattered disc Hills cloud Oort cloud Oort limit Oort limit Related Double planet Lagrange point Moonlet Syzygy Tidal locking Double planet Lagrange point Moonlet Syzygy Tidal locking Outline of the Solar System Solar System portal Astronomy portal Earth sciences portal Solar System → Local Interstellar Cloud → Local Bubble → Gould Belt → Orion Arm → Milky Way → Milky Way subgroup → Local Group → Local Sheet → Local Volume → Virgo Supercluster → Laniakea Supercluster → Pisces–Cetus Supercluster Complex → Local Hole → Observable universe → Universe Each arrow ( → ) may be read as "within" or "part of". 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early life and education 2 Military career Toggle Military career subsection 2.1 Inter-war period 2.2 World War II 2.2.1 Alaska 2.2.2 Battle of Okinawa 2.2.3 Death 2.1 Inter-war period 2.2 World War II 2.2.1 Alaska 2.2.2 Battle of Okinawa 2.2.3 Death 2.2.1 Alaska 2.2.2 Battle of Okinawa 2.2.3 Death 3 Personal life 4 Legacy 5 Military awards 6 Dates of rank 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 External links Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr. Afrikaans العربية Čeština Deutsch Español Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Magyar مصرى 日本語 Norsk bokmål Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Polski Português Svenska Українська Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr. Buckner as a brigadier general , 1940 Born ( 1886-07-18 ) 18 July 1886 Munfordville, Kentucky , United States Died 18 June 1945 (1945-06-18) (aged 58) Okinawa , Japan Allegiance United States Branch United States Army Service years 1908–1945 ( killed in action ) Rank Lieutenant General General (posthumous) Service number 0-2730 Unit Infantry Branch Commands Tenth United States Army Alaska Defense Command 22nd Infantry Regiment Conflicts .mw-parser-output .treeview ul{padding:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .treeview li{padding:0;margin:0;list-style-type:none;list-style-image:none}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li{background:url(" 0 -2981px;padding-left:21px;text-indent:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li:last-child{background-position:0 -5971px}.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>.mw-empty-elt:first-child+.emptyline,.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>li:first-child{background-position:0 9px} Philippine–American War World War I World War II Aleutian Islands campaign Battle of Attu Volcano and Ryukyu Islands campaign Battle of Okinawa † Philippine–American War World War I World War II Aleutian Islands campaign Battle of Attu Volcano and Ryukyu Islands campaign Battle of Okinawa † Aleutian Islands campaign Battle of Attu Battle of Attu Volcano and Ryukyu Islands campaign Battle of Okinawa † Battle of Okinawa † Awards Distinguished Service Cross Army Distinguished Service Medal Navy Distinguished Service Medal Purple Heart Spouse Adele Blanc Buckner Relations Simon Bolivar Buckner (father) Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr. ( / ˈ s aɪ m ə n ˈ b ɒ l ɪ v ər ˈ b ʌ k n ər / SY -mən BOL -i-vər BUK -nər ; 18 July 1886 – 18 June 1945) was a lieutenant general in the United States Army during World War II who served in the Pacific Theater . As commanding general of Alaska Defense Command , Buckner commanded American-Canadian forces in the Aleutian Islands campaign , including the Battle of Attu and the Kiska Expedition . Following that assignment, he was promoted to command the Tenth Army , which conducted the amphibious invasion of the Japanese island of Okinawa in 1945. He was killed during the closing days of the Battle of Okinawa by enemy artillery fire, making him the highest-ranking United States military officer lost to enemy fire during World War II. [ 1 ] Buckner, Lesley J. McNair , Frank Maxwell Andrews , and Millard Harmon , all lieutenant generals at the time of their deaths, were the highest-ranking Americans to be killed in World War II . Buckner and McNair were posthumously promoted to the rank of four-star general on 19 July 1954, by a Special Act of Congress (Public Law 83-508). Early life and education Buckner was the son of Confederate general Simon Bolivar Buckner and his wife Delia Hayes Claiborne. Buckner and his father are named after the Venezuelan soldier and statesman, Simón Bolívar , who led what are currently the countries of Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Panama, Peru, and Bolivia to independence from the Spanish Empire. His father was Governor of Kentucky from 1887 to 1891, and was the Gold Democratic Party's candidate for Vice President of the United States in 1896. [ 2 ] Buckner was raised near Munfordville, Kentucky , and accompanied his father on his 1896 presidential campaign when he served as the running mate of ex-Union general John M. Palmer . Military career Buckner attended the Virginia Military Institute . When he turned 18 in the summer of 1904, his father asked President Theodore Roosevelt to grant him an appointment to West Point . Roosevelt granted this request and Buckner graduated in the class of 1908. He served two military tours in the Philippines , and wrote about his adventures in Tales of the Philippines – In the Early 1900s . [ 3 ] It was on a transport ship headed to Manila when he had a revelation about the importance of military service. Writing to his mother: In civil life success is inseparably linked with money but in military life there is a much higher aim. To render the greatest possible service to his government is the duty of every officer, and this should be his highest ambition. The civilian works chiefly for himself and is considered successful according to what he has done for himself. The incentive which we have in our work is expressed in the motto of our Alma Mater, "Duty, Honor, Country", and it is far more satisfactory to have this before us than to feel that we are working purely from motives of self-interest. [ 4 ] In civil life success is inseparably linked with money but in military life there is a much higher aim. To render the greatest possible service to his government is the duty of every officer, and this should be his highest ambition. The civilian works chiefly for himself and is considered successful according to what he has done for himself. The incentive which we have in our work is expressed in the motto of our Alma Mater, "Duty, Honor, Country", and it is far more satisfactory to have this before us than to feel that we are working purely from motives of self-interest. [ 4 ] During World War I , he served as a temporary major, drilling discipline into aviator cadets. [ 5 ] Inter-war period For the 17 years beginning May 1919, Buckner's assignments were not with troops but with military schools as follows: four years as tactical officer at the United States Military Academy , West Point, New York ; one year as student at The Infantry School at Fort Benning , Georgia; four years at the Command and General Staff School , Ft. Leavenworth , Kansas, with the first year as a student (distinguished graduate), then three years as instructor; four years at the Army War College , Washington, D.C., with year one as student then three years as executive officer; four more years at West Point, as Assistant Commandant and Commandant of Cadets. At West Point, "His rule is remembered for constructive progressiveness, with a share of severity tempered with hard, sound sense, and justice." [ 6 ] However, one cadet's parent commented: "Buckner forgets cadets are born, not quarried". [ 5 ] Buckner was with troops for the rest of his career. In September 1936 he became executive officer of the 23rd Infantry Regiment at Ft. Sam Houston in Texas. Promoted to colonel in January 1937, he was given command of the 66th Infantry (Light Tank) at Ft. Meade in Maryland. In September 1938, he commanded of the 22nd Infantry at Ft. McClellan , Alabama. From November 1939 to August 1940 he was Chief of Staff of the 6th Division at Camp Jackson in South Carolina, Ft. Benning in Georgia, and Camp Beauregard in Louisiana. [ 6 ] World War II Alaska Buckner was promoted to brigadier general in 1940 and was assigned to fortify and protect Alaska as commander of the Army's Alaska Defense Command . He was promoted to major general in August 1941. He became known as a hard, tough leader, sleeping under a single sheet no matter how cold it was and denying his men the use of under arm deodorants, declaring that a man should smell like a man. [ 6 ] The Japanese launched a surprise attack on Dutch Harbor 3–5 June 1942; farther west, Imperial Japanese forces seized the islands Kiska and Attu , bringing ashore some 7,000 troops (at Kiska) and nearly 3,000 at Attu. American commanders, including Buckner, feared that the Japanese would use the islands as bases to strike within range along the rest of the US West Coast . Lieutenant Paul Bishop of the 28th Bombardment Group recalled that: General Simon B. Buckner Jr. said to us that the Japanese would have the opportunity to set up airbases in the Aleutians, making coastal cities like Anchorage , Seattle , and San Francisco vulnerable within range to attack by their bombers. The fear of that scenario was real at the time because the Japanese were nearly invincible and ruthless in Asia and the Pacific. We knew that they bombed China relentlessly and by surprise on Pearl Harbor , so we had to make sure it wouldn't happen here in the continental U.S. similar to what the Germans did over London and Coventry . [ 7 ] General Simon B. Buckner Jr. said to us that the Japanese would have the opportunity to set up airbases in the Aleutians, making coastal cities like Anchorage , Seattle , and San Francisco vulnerable within range to attack by their bombers. The fear of that scenario was real at the time because the Japanese were nearly invincible and ruthless in Asia and the Pacific. We knew that they bombed China relentlessly and by surprise on Pearl Harbor , so we had to make sure it wouldn't happen here in the continental U.S. similar to what the Germans did over London and Coventry . [ 7 ] Buckner gave orders in June 1942 for the indigenous Aleut people to be evacuated and for their villages to be burned. The Aleut people were not allowed to return until 1945, after the war was over. [ 8 ] Buckner furthermore objected to the deployment of African American troops in Alaska, writing to his superiors of his concern that they would remain after the war, "with the natural result that they would interbreed with the Indians and the Eskimos and produce an astonishingly objectionable race of mongrels which would be a problem". [ 9 ] The campaign to take back Attu Island took nearly a year. The Battle for Attu , Operation Landcrab, occurred across three weeks in May 1943. The casualties on both sides were high. On shore, some 549 US soldiers were killed, 1,148 were wounded, and 1,814 suffered cold and disease. Of the 2,900 Japanese garrison, only 28 survived. The loyal courage, vigorous energy and determined fortitude of our armed forces in Alaska—on land, in the air and on the water—have turned back the tide of Japanese invasion, ejected the enemy from our shores and made a fortress of our last frontier. But this is only the beginning. We have opened the road to Tokyo ; the shortest, most direct and most devastating to our enemies. May we soon travel that road to victory. The loyal courage, vigorous energy and determined fortitude of our armed forces in Alaska—on land, in the air and on the water—have turned back the tide of Japanese invasion, ejected the enemy from our shores and made a fortress of our last frontier. But this is only the beginning. We have opened the road to Tokyo ; the shortest, most direct and most devastating to our enemies. May we soon travel that road to victory. — Lieutenant General Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr., a few months after the Aleutian Islands Campaign [ 10 ] Subsequently, in August 1943, Kiska was invaded by Canadian and US soldiers. However, its Japanese garrison had been secretly withdrawn under cover of fog prior to the arrival of Allied forces. Allied commanders refused to believe that the Japanese could have completely evacuated Kiska. For eight days, troops searched the island, firing into the dense fog and sometimes accidentally shooting their comrades. The bombardment and invasion of the deserted island was written off as a "training exercise", and the Aleutian Campaign officially ended after 439 days of warfare. In 1943, Buckner was promoted to lieutenant general . [ 6 ] Battle of Okinawa In July 1944, Buckner was sent to Hawaii to organize the Tenth Army , which was composed of both Army and Marine Corps units. The original mission of the Tenth Army was to prepare for Operation Causeway , the invasion of Taiwan. However, this operation was canceled, and Buckner's command was instead ordered to prepare for the Battle of Okinawa . Beginning on April 1, 1945, this turned out to be one of the largest, slowest, and bloodiest sea–land–air battles in American military history. Despite historic amphibious assets, Buckner insisted on a frontal assault on the dug-in Japanese; though extremely costly in American lives, his strategy was ultimately successful. Late in the battle, Buckner failed to realize that the Japanese were pulling back to a secondary defensive line, allowing the Japanese to avoid destruction and escape with a significant force. Reducing this force in the southern part of the island cost enormous casualties, especially among the civilian population, who were trapped in the battle zone. Total American deaths during the battle of Okinawa were 12,513. A quote of his from 1945 was reported in the newspapers back home when he said that he intended to Christianize the Japanese and that "the best way to do that was to give them a Christian burial". [ 11 ] Death On June 18, Buckner arrived in his command jeep which was flying its standard 3-star flag to visit a forward observation post on a ridge approximately 300 yards (270 m) behind the front lines, as Marine infantry advanced on the Japanese-held Ibaru Ridge. Visits from the general were not always welcome as his presence frequently drew enemy fire, usually as he was departing. Buckner had arrived with his standard three stars showing on the front of his steel helmet and a nearby Marine outpost sent a signal to Buckner's position stating that they could clearly see the general's three stars on his helmet. Told of this, Buckner replaced his own helmet with an unmarked one. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] As Buckner stood at the outpost, a small flat-trajectory Japanese artillery shell of unknown caliber (estimated to have been 47mm) struck a coral rock outcrop near him, and fragments pierced his chest. [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Buckner was carried by stretcher to a nearby aid station, where he died on the operating table. He was succeeded in command by Marine General Roy Geiger . Buckner was the highest-ranking American military officer killed during World War II, and he remained the highest-ranked officer killed in action until the death of Lieutenant General Timothy Maude during the September 11 attacks in 2001. Personal life Buckner was married to Adele Blanc Buckner (1893–1988). They had three children: Simon Bolivar Buckner III, Mary Blanc Buckner, and William Claiborne Buckner. [ citation needed ] Legacy Named in honor of Buckner: Fort Buckner , an Army sub-post of the Marine Corps' Camp Foster on Okinawa, is home to the 78th Signal Battalion and E Co. of the 53rd Signal Battalion and includes a small memorial to its namesake. [ 16 ] USNS General Simon B. Buckner (T-AP-123) , an Admiral W. S. Benson class troop transport . Nakagusuku Bay on the East side of Okinawa was nicknamed "Buckner Bay" in the 1940s by American military personnel. They often refer to it as such to this day, even in official correspondence. [ 17 ] West Point 's Camp Buckner, where yearlings (incoming sophomores) go through Cadet Field Training (CFT). Several places built in Alaska during Cold War-related military construction, including: Buckner Gymnasium (also Fieldhouse and Physical Fitness Center) at Fort Richardson (now part of Joint Base Elmendorf-Richardson ) in Anchorage, Alaska , a post which the general established during World War II. The Buckner Building in Whittier, Alaska , once the largest building in Alaska by square footage. Buckner Drive in the Nunaka Valley subdivision of Anchorage, originally built as military housing. Buckner Gymnasium (also Fieldhouse and Physical Fitness Center) at Fort Richardson (now part of Joint Base Elmendorf-Richardson ) in Anchorage, Alaska , a post which the general established during World War II. The Buckner Building in Whittier, Alaska , once the largest building in Alaska by square footage. Buckner Drive in the Nunaka Valley subdivision of Anchorage, originally built as military housing. Buckner Drive in Fort Leavenworth's Normandy Village. Buckner Avenue in Fort George Meade's Heritage Park. Buckner Gate at Fort Shafter , Hawaii. [ 18 ] Buckner Hall, the Headquarters Building at the former Fort McClellan Buckner Circle, the street at the former Fort McClellan where the senior officer homes (20) were located, all facing a central greenspace Buckner Road, Mount Vernon, Virginia, along with McNair Road, Patton Road and Stillwell Avenue, all US Army generals in Woodlawn Manor neighborhood. Buckner Blvd., Dallas, Texas. Military awards Buckner's military decorations and awards include: Distinguished Service Cross Army Distinguished Service Medal Navy Distinguished Service Medal Purple Heart World War I Victory Medal American Defense Service Medal Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal World War II Victory Medal Dates of rank Insignia Rank Component Date No insignia Cadet USMA 16 June 1904 No insignia in 1908 Second Lieutenant Regular Army 14 February 1908 First Lieutenant Regular Army 5 August 1914 Captain Regular Army 5 May 1917 Major Temporary 5 August 1917 Captain Regular Army 21 August 1919 Major Regular Army 1 July 1920 Lieutenant Colonel Regular Army 1 April 1932 Colonel Regular Army 11 January 1937 Brigadier General Regular Army 1 September 1940 Major General Army of the United States 4 August 1941 Lieutenant General Army of the United States 4 May 1943 General Posthumous 19 July 1954 [ 19 ] References ^ Sarantakes p. 129 ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Stickles, Arndt M. (1940). Simon Bolivar Buckner : borderland knight ([Reprint ed.]. ed.). Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press. p. 409. ISBN 978-0-8078-5356-6 . {{ cite book }} : ISBN / Date incompatibility ( help ) ^ Simon B. Buckner Jr. Tales of the Philippines – In the Early 1900s , ISBN 978-1-54397-264-1 ^ Kolakowski, Christopher L., ed. (2023). Tenth Army Commander . Casemate Publishers. pp. 9– 10. ISBN 978-1-63624-199-9 . ^ a b Buck's Battle, Time Magazine ^ a b c d "Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr" . 1-22infantry.org . ^ Parshall, Jonathan; Anthony Tully (2005). Shattered Sword: The Untold Story of the Battle of Midway . Potomac Books. p. 57 . ISBN 978-1-57488-924-6 . ^ Mobley, Charles (2015). World War II Aleut relocation camps in southeast Alaska (PDF) . Anchorage. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-9853948-0-6 . Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 February 2017 . Retrieved 31 August 2020 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( link ) ^ Grandin, Greg (2019). The end of the myth : from the frontier to the border wall in the mind of America (First ed.). New York. ISBN 978-1-250-17982-1 . OCLC 1057732664 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( link ) ^ "The Battle of the Aleutians, October 1943" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 April 2019. ^ "10th Army Chief" . Star-Gazette (Elmira, New York). 3 April 1945. p. 2 . Retrieved 5 September 2018 . ^ "GEN Simon Bolivar Buckner, Jr" . www.militaryhallofhonor.com . ^ "Simon Buckner – Recipient – Military Times Hall Of Valor" . valor.militarytimes.com . ^ Military Vol XVII, pp22 & 23 ^ Marine Corps Gazette, p.103 ^ The Patriot Files: " Fort Buckner Archived 2022-04-20 at the Wayback Machine " ^ US Navy Typhoon Havens Handbook: " Buckner Bay Archived 2013-10-06 at the Wayback Machine " ^ "Tour Fort Shafter, Hawaii" . Archived from the original on 26 February 2013 . Retrieved 23 August 2013 . ^ Official Register of Commissioned Officers of the United States Army, 1945. pg. 124. Bibliography Kolakowski, Christopher L., ed. (2024). Tenth Army Commander: The World War II Diary of Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr . Casemate Publishers. ISBN 978-1-63624-199-9 . Sarantakes, Nicholas, ed. (2004). Seven Stars, The Okinawa Battle Diaries of Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr. and Joseph Stilwell . Texas A & M University Press, College Station. ISBN 978-1-58544-294-2 . Sledge, Eugene B. (1990). With the Old Breed: At Peleliu and Okinawa . Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-506714-9 . Taaffe, Stephen R. (2013). Marshall and His Generals: U.S. Army Commanders in World War II . Lawrence, Kansas : University Press of Kansas . ISBN 978-0-7006-1942-9 . OCLC 840162019 . "Buck's Battle" . Time Magazine . 16 April 1945. Archived from the original on 4 February 2013 . Retrieved 31 August 2008 . Haley, J. Fred (November 1982). "The Death of General Simon Bolivar Buckner". Marine Corps Gazette : 103. McKenney, Tom C (June 2000). "Lt. Gen. Simon Bolivar Buckner's death". Military . No. 1. XVII : 22, 23. External links Papers of Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr., Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library Family Home Page His monument at Kuniyoshi, Itoman City Okinawa, where he died. (in English) USNS General Simon B. Buckner (T-AP-123) Generals of World War II General Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr. Deadeyes 96th Infantry Division Operations in Snow and Extreme Cold-Basic Field Manual Manuscript at Dartmouth College Library Military offices New command Commanding General of the Tenth United States Army 1944–1945 Succeeded by Roy Geiger .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e U.S. governors of the Ryukyu Islands v t e USMGR (1945–50) Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr. (1945) Roy Geiger (1945) * Joseph Stilwell (1945) Fred Clute Wallace (1945–46) ‡ Lawrence A. Lawson (1945) Fremont Byron Hodson Sr. (1945–46) Leo Donovan (1946) Frederic Lord Hayden (1946–48) William W. Eagles (1948–49) Josef R. Sheetz (1949–50) Robert B. McClure (1950) Harry B. Sherman (1950) * Robert S. Beightler (1950) Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr. (1945) Roy Geiger (1945) * Joseph Stilwell (1945) Fred Clute Wallace (1945–46) ‡ Lawrence A. Lawson (1945) Fremont Byron Hodson Sr. (1945–46) Leo Donovan (1946) Frederic Lord Hayden (1946–48) William W. Eagles (1948–49) Josef R. Sheetz (1949–50) Robert B. McClure (1950) Harry B. Sherman (1950) * Robert S. Beightler (1950) USCAR (1950–72) Governors and Commanders-in-Chief, Far East Command (in Tokyo ) Douglas MacArthur (1950–51) Matthew Ridgway (1951–52) Mark W. Clark (1952–53) John E. Hull (1953–55) Maxwell D. Taylor (1955) Lyman Lemnitzer (1955–57) Deputy governors and Commanding Generals, Ryukyu Islands Command (in Naha ) Robert S. Beightler (1950–51) Harry B. Sherman (1951) * Robert S. Beightler (1951–52) James Malcolm Lewis (1952–53) David Ayres Depue Ogden (1953–55) James Edward Moore (1955–57) High Commissioners James Edward Moore (1957–58) Donald Prentice Booth (1958–61) Paul Caraway (1961–64) Albert Watson II (1964–66) Ferdinand Thomas Unger (1966–68) James Benjamin Lampert (1968–72) Civil Administrators Vonna F. Burger (1955–59) John G. Ondrick (1959–62) Shannon Boyd-Bailey McCune (1962–64) Gerald Warner (1964–67) Stanley Sherman Carpenter (1967–69) Robert A. Fearey (1969–72) Governors and Commanders-in-Chief, Far East Command (in Tokyo ) Douglas MacArthur (1950–51) Matthew Ridgway (1951–52) Mark W. Clark (1952–53) John E. Hull (1953–55) Maxwell D. Taylor (1955) Lyman Lemnitzer (1955–57) Douglas MacArthur (1950–51) Matthew Ridgway (1951–52) Mark W. Clark (1952–53) John E. Hull (1953–55) Maxwell D. Taylor (1955) Lyman Lemnitzer (1955–57) Deputy governors and Commanding Generals, Ryukyu Islands Command (in Naha ) Robert S. Beightler (1950–51) Harry B. Sherman (1951) * Robert S. Beightler (1951–52) James Malcolm Lewis (1952–53) David Ayres Depue Ogden (1953–55) James Edward Moore (1955–57) Robert S. Beightler (1950–51) Harry B. Sherman (1951) * Robert S. Beightler (1951–52) James Malcolm Lewis (1952–53) David Ayres Depue Ogden (1953–55) James Edward Moore (1955–57) High Commissioners James Edward Moore (1957–58) Donald Prentice Booth (1958–61) Paul Caraway (1961–64) Albert Watson II (1964–66) Ferdinand Thomas Unger (1966–68) James Benjamin Lampert (1968–72) James Edward Moore (1957–58) Donald Prentice Booth (1958–61) Paul Caraway (1961–64) Albert Watson II (1964–66) Ferdinand Thomas Unger (1966–68) James Benjamin Lampert (1968–72) Civil Administrators Vonna F. Burger (1955–59) John G. Ondrick (1959–62) Shannon Boyd-Bailey McCune (1962–64) Gerald Warner (1964–67) Stanley Sherman Carpenter (1967–69) Robert A. Fearey (1969–72) Vonna F. Burger (1955–59) John G. Ondrick (1959–62) Shannon Boyd-Bailey McCune (1962–64) Gerald Warner (1964–67) Stanley Sherman Carpenter (1967–69) Robert A. Fearey (1969–72) * Acting officeholder ‡ Commanding General, Island Command Okinawa * Acting officeholder ‡ Commanding General, Island Command Okinawa Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF FAST WorldCat National United States Italy Netherlands Israel United States Italy Netherlands Israel Other Open Library NARA SNAC Yale LUX Open Library NARA SNAC Yale LUX 1886 births 1945 deaths American white supremacists Military personnel from Kentucky United States Military Academy faculty United States Army Command and General Staff College faculty United States Army War College faculty Virginia Military Institute alumni United States Army War College alumni United States Army Infantry Branch personnel United States Army generals United States Army personnel killed in World War II United States Army personnel of World War I United States Army generals of World War II United States Military Academy alumni United States Army Command and General Staff College alumni Burials at Frankfort Cemetery People from Hart County, Kentucky Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army) Commandants of the Corps of Cadets of the United States Military Academy Recipients of the Navy Distinguished Service Medal Aleutian Islands campaign CS1 errors: ISBN date CS1 maint: location missing publisher Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from December 2024 Use American English from December 2024 All Wikipedia articles written in American English All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from July 2025 Commons category link is on Wikidata This page was last edited on 12 November 2025, at 05:13 (UTC) . 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Help | Advanced Search quick links Login Help Pages About Artificial Intelligence Authors and titles for recent submissions Fri, 16 Jan 2026 Thu, 15 Jan 2026 Wed, 14 Jan 2026 Tue, 13 Jan 2026 Mon, 12 Jan 2026 See today's new changes Tue, 13 Jan 2026 (showing first 50 of 356 entries ) About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status arXiv Operational Status
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We gratefully acknowledge support from the Simons Foundation, member institutions , and all contributors. Donate Help | Advanced Search Showing 1–13 of 13 results for author: Beniwal, A Show abstracts Hide abstracts arXiv:2601.10245 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.CL cs.LG TRIM: Hybrid Inference via Targeted Stepwise Routing in Multi-Step Reasoning Tasks Authors: Vansh Kapoor , Aman Gupta , Hao Chen , Anurag Beniwal , Jing Huang , Aviral Kumar Abstract : Multi-step reasoning tasks like mathematical problem solving are vulnerable to cascading failures, where a single incorrect step leads to complete solution breakdown. Current LLM routing methods assign entire queries to one model, treating all reasoning steps as equal. We propose TRIM (Targeted routing in multi-step reasoning tasks), which routes only critical steps$\unicode{x2013}$those likely to… ▽ More Multi-step reasoning tasks like mathematical problem solving are vulnerable to cascading failures, where a single incorrect step leads to complete solution breakdown. Current LLM routing methods assign entire queries to one model, treating all reasoning steps as equal. We propose TRIM (Targeted routing in multi-step reasoning tasks), which routes only critical steps$\unicode{x2013}$those likely to derail the solution$\unicode{x2013}$to larger models while letting smaller models handle routine continuations. Our key insight is that targeted step-level interventions can fundamentally transform inference efficiency by confining expensive calls to precisely those steps where stronger models prevent cascading errors. TRIM operates at the step-level: it uses process reward models to identify erroneous steps and makes routing decisions based on step-level uncertainty and budget constraints. We develop several routing strategies within TRIM, ranging from a simple threshold-based policy to more expressive policies that reason about long-horizon accuracy-cost trade-offs and uncertainty in step-level correctness estimates. On MATH-500, even the simplest thresholding strategy surpasses prior routing methods with 5x higher cost efficiency, while more advanced policies match the strong, expensive model's performance using 80% fewer expensive model tokens. On harder benchmarks such as AIME, TRIM achieves up to 6x higher cost efficiency. All methods generalize effectively across math reasoning tasks, demonstrating that step-level difficulty represents fundamental characteristics of reasoning. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10245 [ pdf , ps , other ] TRIM: Hybrid Inference via Targeted Stepwise Routing in Multi-Step Reasoning Tasks Authors: Vansh Kapoor , Aman Gupta , Hao Chen , Anurag Beniwal , Jing Huang , Aviral Kumar Abstract : Multi-step reasoning tasks like mathematical problem solving are vulnerable to cascading failures, where a single incorrect step leads to complete solution breakdown. Current LLM routing methods assign entire queries to one model, treating all reasoning steps as equal. We propose TRIM (Targeted routing in multi-step reasoning tasks), which routes only critical steps$\unicode{x2013}$those likely to… ▽ More Multi-step reasoning tasks like mathematical problem solving are vulnerable to cascading failures, where a single incorrect step leads to complete solution breakdown. Current LLM routing methods assign entire queries to one model, treating all reasoning steps as equal. We propose TRIM (Targeted routing in multi-step reasoning tasks), which routes only critical steps$\unicode{x2013}$those likely to derail the solution$\unicode{x2013}$to larger models while letting smaller models handle routine continuations. Our key insight is that targeted step-level interventions can fundamentally transform inference efficiency by confining expensive calls to precisely those steps where stronger models prevent cascading errors. TRIM operates at the step-level: it uses process reward models to identify erroneous steps and makes routing decisions based on step-level uncertainty and budget constraints. We develop several routing strategies within TRIM, ranging from a simple threshold-based policy to more expressive policies that reason about long-horizon accuracy-cost trade-offs and uncertainty in step-level correctness estimates. On MATH-500, even the simplest thresholding strategy surpasses prior routing methods with 5x higher cost efficiency, while more advanced policies match the strong, expensive model's performance using 80% fewer expensive model tokens. On harder benchmarks such as AIME, TRIM achieves up to 6x higher cost efficiency. All methods generalize effectively across math reasoning tasks, demonstrating that step-level difficulty represents fundamental characteristics of reasoning. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2511.15976 [ pdf ] cs.CL TOD-ProcBench: Benchmarking Complex Instruction-Following in Task-Oriented Dialogues Authors: Sarik Ghazarian , Abhinav Gullapalli , Swair Shah , Anurag Beniwal , Nanyun Peng , Narayanan Sadagopan , Zhou Yu Abstract : In real-world task-oriented dialogue (TOD) settings, agents are required to strictly adhere to complex instructions while conducting multi-turn conversations with customers. These instructions are typically presented in natural language format and include general guidelines and step-by-step procedures with complex constraints. Existing TOD benchmarks often oversimplify the complex nature of these… ▽ More In real-world task-oriented dialogue (TOD) settings, agents are required to strictly adhere to complex instructions while conducting multi-turn conversations with customers. These instructions are typically presented in natural language format and include general guidelines and step-by-step procedures with complex constraints. Existing TOD benchmarks often oversimplify the complex nature of these instructions by reducing them to simple schemas composed of intents, slots, and API call configurations. To address this gap and systematically benchmark LLMs' instruction-following capabilities, we propose TOD-ProcBench, a challenging benchmark featuring complex process instructions with intricate, fine-grained constraints that evaluates various LLMs' abilities to understand and follow instructions in multi-turn TODs. Our benchmark dataset comprises instruction documents derived from the high-quality ABCD dataset with corresponding conversations under human quality control. We formulate fine-grained constraints and action procedures as multi-level condition-action instruction statements. We design three tasks to comprehensively benchmark LLMs' complex instruction-following capabilities in multi-turn TODs. Task 1 evaluates how LLMs retrieve the most relevant statement from a complex instruction and predict the corresponding next action. In Task 2, we synthesize instruction-violating responses by injecting inconsistencies and manipulating the original instructions, and then we analyze how effectively LLMs can identify instruction-violating responses. Task 3 investigates LLMs' abilities in conditional generation of instruction-following responses based on the original complex instructions. Additionally, we conduct studies on the impact of multilingual settings and different instruction text formats on compliance performance. We release our benchmark under the Llama 3.3 Community License Agreement. △ Less Submitted 19 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.15976 [ pdf ] TOD-ProcBench: Benchmarking Complex Instruction-Following in Task-Oriented Dialogues Authors: Sarik Ghazarian , Abhinav Gullapalli , Swair Shah , Anurag Beniwal , Nanyun Peng , Narayanan Sadagopan , Zhou Yu Abstract : In real-world task-oriented dialogue (TOD) settings, agents are required to strictly adhere to complex instructions while conducting multi-turn conversations with customers. These instructions are typically presented in natural language format and include general guidelines and step-by-step procedures with complex constraints. Existing TOD benchmarks often oversimplify the complex nature of these… ▽ More In real-world task-oriented dialogue (TOD) settings, agents are required to strictly adhere to complex instructions while conducting multi-turn conversations with customers. These instructions are typically presented in natural language format and include general guidelines and step-by-step procedures with complex constraints. Existing TOD benchmarks often oversimplify the complex nature of these instructions by reducing them to simple schemas composed of intents, slots, and API call configurations. To address this gap and systematically benchmark LLMs' instruction-following capabilities, we propose TOD-ProcBench, a challenging benchmark featuring complex process instructions with intricate, fine-grained constraints that evaluates various LLMs' abilities to understand and follow instructions in multi-turn TODs. Our benchmark dataset comprises instruction documents derived from the high-quality ABCD dataset with corresponding conversations under human quality control. We formulate fine-grained constraints and action procedures as multi-level condition-action instruction statements. We design three tasks to comprehensively benchmark LLMs' complex instruction-following capabilities in multi-turn TODs. Task 1 evaluates how LLMs retrieve the most relevant statement from a complex instruction and predict the corresponding next action. In Task 2, we synthesize instruction-violating responses by injecting inconsistencies and manipulating the original instructions, and then we analyze how effectively LLMs can identify instruction-violating responses. Task 3 investigates LLMs' abilities in conditional generation of instruction-following responses based on the original complex instructions. Additionally, we conduct studies on the impact of multilingual settings and different instruction text formats on compliance performance. We release our benchmark under the Llama 3.3 Community License Agreement. △ Less Submitted 19 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2509.03403 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.AI Beyond Correctness: Harmonizing Process and Outcome Rewards through RL Training Authors: Chenlu Ye , Zhou Yu , Ziji Zhang , Hao Chen , Narayanan Sadagopan , Jing Huang , Tong Zhang , Anurag Beniwal Abstract : Reinforcement learning with verifiable rewards (RLVR) has emerged to be a predominant paradigm for mathematical reasoning tasks, offering stable improvements in reasoning ability. However, Outcome Reward Models (ORMs) in RLVR are too coarse-grained to distinguish flawed reasoning within correct answers or valid reasoning within incorrect answers. This lack of granularity introduces noisy and misle… ▽ More Reinforcement learning with verifiable rewards (RLVR) has emerged to be a predominant paradigm for mathematical reasoning tasks, offering stable improvements in reasoning ability. However, Outcome Reward Models (ORMs) in RLVR are too coarse-grained to distinguish flawed reasoning within correct answers or valid reasoning within incorrect answers. This lack of granularity introduces noisy and misleading gradients significantly and hinders further progress in reasoning process quality. While Process Reward Models (PRMs) offer fine-grained guidance for intermediate steps, they frequently suffer from inaccuracies and are susceptible to reward hacking. To resolve this dilemma, we introduce PRocess cOnsistency Filter (PROF), an effective data process curation method that harmonizes noisy, fine-grained process rewards with accurate, coarse-grained outcome rewards. Rather than naively blending PRM and ORM in the objective function (arXiv:archive/2506.18896), PROF leverages their complementary strengths through consistency-driven sample selection. Our approach retains correct responses with higher averaged process values and incorrect responses with lower averaged process values, while maintaining positive/negative training sample balance. Extensive experiments demonstrate that our method not only consistently improves the final accuracy over $4\%$ compared to the blending approaches, but also strengthens the quality of intermediate reasoning steps. Codes and training recipes are available at △ Less Submitted 3 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. arXiv:2509.03403 [ pdf , ps , other ] Beyond Correctness: Harmonizing Process and Outcome Rewards through RL Training Authors: Chenlu Ye , Zhou Yu , Ziji Zhang , Hao Chen , Narayanan Sadagopan , Jing Huang , Tong Zhang , Anurag Beniwal Abstract : Reinforcement learning with verifiable rewards (RLVR) has emerged to be a predominant paradigm for mathematical reasoning tasks, offering stable improvements in reasoning ability. However, Outcome Reward Models (ORMs) in RLVR are too coarse-grained to distinguish flawed reasoning within correct answers or valid reasoning within incorrect answers. This lack of granularity introduces noisy and misle… ▽ More Reinforcement learning with verifiable rewards (RLVR) has emerged to be a predominant paradigm for mathematical reasoning tasks, offering stable improvements in reasoning ability. However, Outcome Reward Models (ORMs) in RLVR are too coarse-grained to distinguish flawed reasoning within correct answers or valid reasoning within incorrect answers. This lack of granularity introduces noisy and misleading gradients significantly and hinders further progress in reasoning process quality. While Process Reward Models (PRMs) offer fine-grained guidance for intermediate steps, they frequently suffer from inaccuracies and are susceptible to reward hacking. To resolve this dilemma, we introduce PRocess cOnsistency Filter (PROF), an effective data process curation method that harmonizes noisy, fine-grained process rewards with accurate, coarse-grained outcome rewards. Rather than naively blending PRM and ORM in the objective function (arXiv:archive/2506.18896), PROF leverages their complementary strengths through consistency-driven sample selection. Our approach retains correct responses with higher averaged process values and incorrect responses with lower averaged process values, while maintaining positive/negative training sample balance. Extensive experiments demonstrate that our method not only consistently improves the final accuracy over $4\%$ compared to the blending approaches, but also strengthens the quality of intermediate reasoning steps. Codes and training recipes are available at △ Less Submitted 3 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. arXiv:2507.22923 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI How and Where to Translate? The Impact of Translation Strategies in Cross-lingual LLM Prompting Authors: Aman Gupta , Yingying Zhuang , Zhou Yu , Ziji Zhang , Anurag Beniwal Abstract : Despite advances in the multilingual capabilities of Large Language Models (LLMs), their performance varies substantially across different languages and tasks. In multilingual retrieval-augmented generation (RAG)-based systems, knowledge bases (KB) are often shared from high-resource languages (such as English) to low-resource ones, resulting in retrieved information from the KB being in a differe… ▽ More Despite advances in the multilingual capabilities of Large Language Models (LLMs), their performance varies substantially across different languages and tasks. In multilingual retrieval-augmented generation (RAG)-based systems, knowledge bases (KB) are often shared from high-resource languages (such as English) to low-resource ones, resulting in retrieved information from the KB being in a different language than the rest of the context. In such scenarios, two common practices are pre-translation to create a mono-lingual prompt and cross-lingual prompting for direct inference. However, the impact of these choices remains unclear. In this paper, we systematically evaluate the impact of different prompt translation strategies for classification tasks with RAG-enhanced LLMs in multilingual systems. Experimental results show that an optimized prompting strategy can significantly improve knowledge sharing across languages, therefore improve the performance on the downstream classification task. The findings advocate for a broader utilization of multilingual resource sharing and cross-lingual prompt optimization for non-English languages, especially the low-resource ones. △ Less Submitted 21 July, 2025; originally announced July 2025. Comments: Accepted at Prompt Optimization KDD '25 arXiv:2507.22923 [ pdf , ps , other ] How and Where to Translate? The Impact of Translation Strategies in Cross-lingual LLM Prompting Authors: Aman Gupta , Yingying Zhuang , Zhou Yu , Ziji Zhang , Anurag Beniwal Abstract : Despite advances in the multilingual capabilities of Large Language Models (LLMs), their performance varies substantially across different languages and tasks. In multilingual retrieval-augmented generation (RAG)-based systems, knowledge bases (KB) are often shared from high-resource languages (such as English) to low-resource ones, resulting in retrieved information from the KB being in a differe… ▽ More Despite advances in the multilingual capabilities of Large Language Models (LLMs), their performance varies substantially across different languages and tasks. In multilingual retrieval-augmented generation (RAG)-based systems, knowledge bases (KB) are often shared from high-resource languages (such as English) to low-resource ones, resulting in retrieved information from the KB being in a different language than the rest of the context. In such scenarios, two common practices are pre-translation to create a mono-lingual prompt and cross-lingual prompting for direct inference. However, the impact of these choices remains unclear. In this paper, we systematically evaluate the impact of different prompt translation strategies for classification tasks with RAG-enhanced LLMs in multilingual systems. Experimental results show that an optimized prompting strategy can significantly improve knowledge sharing across languages, therefore improve the performance on the downstream classification task. The findings advocate for a broader utilization of multilingual resource sharing and cross-lingual prompt optimization for non-English languages, especially the low-resource ones. △ Less Submitted 21 July, 2025; originally announced July 2025. Comments: Accepted at Prompt Optimization KDD '25 arXiv:2506.02527 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI cs.IR Multilingual Information Retrieval with a Monolingual Knowledge Base Authors: Yingying Zhuang , Aman Gupta , Anurag Beniwal Abstract : Multilingual information retrieval has emerged as powerful tools for expanding knowledge sharing across languages. On the other hand, resources on high quality knowledge base are often scarce and in limited languages, therefore an effective embedding model to transform sentences from different languages into a feature vector space same as the knowledge base language becomes the key ingredient for… ▽ More Multilingual information retrieval has emerged as powerful tools for expanding knowledge sharing across languages. On the other hand, resources on high quality knowledge base are often scarce and in limited languages, therefore an effective embedding model to transform sentences from different languages into a feature vector space same as the knowledge base language becomes the key ingredient for cross language knowledge sharing, especially to transfer knowledge available in high-resource languages to low-resource ones. In this paper we propose a novel strategy to fine-tune multilingual embedding models with weighted sampling for contrastive learning, enabling multilingual information retrieval with a monolingual knowledge base. We demonstrate that the weighted sampling strategy produces performance gains compared to standard ones by up to 31.03\% in MRR and up to 33.98\% in Recall@3. Additionally, our proposed methodology is language agnostic and applicable for both multilingual and code switching use cases. △ Less Submitted 3 June, 2025; originally announced June 2025. Comments: 6 pages, accepted at GENNEXT@SIGIR25 arXiv:2506.02527 [ pdf , ps , other ] Multilingual Information Retrieval with a Monolingual Knowledge Base Authors: Yingying Zhuang , Aman Gupta , Anurag Beniwal Abstract : Multilingual information retrieval has emerged as powerful tools for expanding knowledge sharing across languages. On the other hand, resources on high quality knowledge base are often scarce and in limited languages, therefore an effective embedding model to transform sentences from different languages into a feature vector space same as the knowledge base language becomes the key ingredient for… ▽ More Multilingual information retrieval has emerged as powerful tools for expanding knowledge sharing across languages. On the other hand, resources on high quality knowledge base are often scarce and in limited languages, therefore an effective embedding model to transform sentences from different languages into a feature vector space same as the knowledge base language becomes the key ingredient for cross language knowledge sharing, especially to transfer knowledge available in high-resource languages to low-resource ones. In this paper we propose a novel strategy to fine-tune multilingual embedding models with weighted sampling for contrastive learning, enabling multilingual information retrieval with a monolingual knowledge base. We demonstrate that the weighted sampling strategy produces performance gains compared to standard ones by up to 31.03\% in MRR and up to 33.98\% in Recall@3. Additionally, our proposed methodology is language agnostic and applicable for both multilingual and code switching use cases. △ Less Submitted 3 June, 2025; originally announced June 2025. Comments: 6 pages, accepted at GENNEXT@SIGIR25 arXiv:2506.00210 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI REIC: RAG-Enhanced Intent Classification at Scale Authors: Ziji Zhang , Michael Yang , Zhiyu Chen , Yingying Zhuang , Shu-Ting Pi , Qun Liu , Rajashekar Maragoud , Vy Nguyen , Anurag Beniwal Abstract : Accurate intent classification is critical for efficient routing in customer service, ensuring customers are connected with the most suitable agents while reducing handling times and operational costs. However, as companies expand their product lines, intent classification faces scalability challenges due to the increasing number of intents and variations in taxonomy across different verticals. In… ▽ More Accurate intent classification is critical for efficient routing in customer service, ensuring customers are connected with the most suitable agents while reducing handling times and operational costs. However, as companies expand their product lines, intent classification faces scalability challenges due to the increasing number of intents and variations in taxonomy across different verticals. In this paper, we introduce REIC, a Retrieval-augmented generation Enhanced Intent Classification approach, which addresses these challenges effectively. REIC leverages retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) to dynamically incorporate relevant knowledge, enabling precise classification without the need for frequent retraining. Through extensive experiments on real-world datasets, we demonstrate that REIC outperforms traditional fine-tuning, zero-shot, and few-shot methods in large-scale customer service settings. Our results highlight its effectiveness in both in-domain and out-of-domain scenarios, demonstrating its potential for real-world deployment in adaptive and large-scale intent classification systems. △ Less Submitted 17 November, 2025; v1 submitted 30 May, 2025; originally announced June 2025. Comments: Accepted by EMNLP 2025 (Industry Track) arXiv:2506.00210 [ pdf , ps , other ] REIC: RAG-Enhanced Intent Classification at Scale Authors: Ziji Zhang , Michael Yang , Zhiyu Chen , Yingying Zhuang , Shu-Ting Pi , Qun Liu , Rajashekar Maragoud , Vy Nguyen , Anurag Beniwal Abstract : Accurate intent classification is critical for efficient routing in customer service, ensuring customers are connected with the most suitable agents while reducing handling times and operational costs. However, as companies expand their product lines, intent classification faces scalability challenges due to the increasing number of intents and variations in taxonomy across different verticals. In… ▽ More Accurate intent classification is critical for efficient routing in customer service, ensuring customers are connected with the most suitable agents while reducing handling times and operational costs. However, as companies expand their product lines, intent classification faces scalability challenges due to the increasing number of intents and variations in taxonomy across different verticals. In this paper, we introduce REIC, a Retrieval-augmented generation Enhanced Intent Classification approach, which addresses these challenges effectively. REIC leverages retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) to dynamically incorporate relevant knowledge, enabling precise classification without the need for frequent retraining. Through extensive experiments on real-world datasets, we demonstrate that REIC outperforms traditional fine-tuning, zero-shot, and few-shot methods in large-scale customer service settings. Our results highlight its effectiveness in both in-domain and out-of-domain scenarios, demonstrating its potential for real-world deployment in adaptive and large-scale intent classification systems. △ Less Submitted 17 November, 2025; v1 submitted 30 May, 2025; originally announced June 2025. Comments: Accepted by EMNLP 2025 (Industry Track) arXiv:2505.14569 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.CL cs.LG Agent Context Protocols Enhance Collective Inference Authors: Devansh Bhardwaj , Arjun Beniwal , Shreyas Chaudhari , Ashwin Kalyan , Tanmay Rajpurohit , Karthik R. Narasimhan , Ameet Deshpande , Vishvak Murahari Abstract : AI agents have become increasingly adept at complex tasks such as coding, reasoning, and multimodal understanding. However, building generalist systems requires moving beyond individual agents to collective inference -- a paradigm where multi-agent systems with diverse, task-specialized agents complement one another through structured communication and collaboration. Today, coordination is usually… ▽ More AI agents have become increasingly adept at complex tasks such as coding, reasoning, and multimodal understanding. However, building generalist systems requires moving beyond individual agents to collective inference -- a paradigm where multi-agent systems with diverse, task-specialized agents complement one another through structured communication and collaboration. Today, coordination is usually handled with imprecise, ad-hoc natural language, which limits complex interaction and hinders interoperability with domain-specific agents. We introduce Agent context protocols (ACPs): a domain- and agent-agnostic family of structured protocols for agent-agent communication, coordination, and error handling. ACPs combine (i) persistent execution blueprints -- explicit dependency graphs that store intermediate agent outputs -- with (ii) standardized message schemas, enabling robust and fault-tolerant multi-agent collective inference. ACP-powered generalist systems reach state-of-the-art performance: 28.3 % accuracy on AssistantBench for long-horizon web assistance and best-in-class multimodal technical reports, outperforming commercial AI systems in human evaluation. ACPs are highly modular and extensible, allowing practitioners to build top-tier generalist agents quickly. △ Less Submitted 20 May, 2025; originally announced May 2025. arXiv:2505.14569 [ pdf , ps , other ] Agent Context Protocols Enhance Collective Inference Authors: Devansh Bhardwaj , Arjun Beniwal , Shreyas Chaudhari , Ashwin Kalyan , Tanmay Rajpurohit , Karthik R. Narasimhan , Ameet Deshpande , Vishvak Murahari Abstract : AI agents have become increasingly adept at complex tasks such as coding, reasoning, and multimodal understanding. However, building generalist systems requires moving beyond individual agents to collective inference -- a paradigm where multi-agent systems with diverse, task-specialized agents complement one another through structured communication and collaboration. Today, coordination is usually… ▽ More AI agents have become increasingly adept at complex tasks such as coding, reasoning, and multimodal understanding. However, building generalist systems requires moving beyond individual agents to collective inference -- a paradigm where multi-agent systems with diverse, task-specialized agents complement one another through structured communication and collaboration. Today, coordination is usually handled with imprecise, ad-hoc natural language, which limits complex interaction and hinders interoperability with domain-specific agents. We introduce Agent context protocols (ACPs): a domain- and agent-agnostic family of structured protocols for agent-agent communication, coordination, and error handling. ACPs combine (i) persistent execution blueprints -- explicit dependency graphs that store intermediate agent outputs -- with (ii) standardized message schemas, enabling robust and fault-tolerant multi-agent collective inference. ACP-powered generalist systems reach state-of-the-art performance: 28.3 % accuracy on AssistantBench for long-horizon web assistance and best-in-class multimodal technical reports, outperforming commercial AI systems in human evaluation. ACPs are highly modular and extensible, allowing practitioners to build top-tier generalist agents quickly. △ Less Submitted 20 May, 2025; originally announced May 2025. arXiv:2505.11423 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL When Thinking Fails: The Pitfalls of Reasoning for Instruction-Following in LLMs Authors: Xiaomin Li , Zhou Yu , Zhiwei Zhang , Xupeng Chen , Ziji Zhang , Yingying Zhuang , Narayanan Sadagopan , Anurag Beniwal Abstract : Reasoning-enhanced large language models (RLLMs), whether explicitly trained for reasoning or prompted via chain-of-thought (CoT), have achieved state-of-the-art performance on many complex reasoning tasks. However, we uncover a surprising and previously overlooked phenomenon: explicit CoT reasoning can significantly degrade instruction-following accuracy. Evaluating 15 models on two benchmarks: I… ▽ More Reasoning-enhanced large language models (RLLMs), whether explicitly trained for reasoning or prompted via chain-of-thought (CoT), have achieved state-of-the-art performance on many complex reasoning tasks. However, we uncover a surprising and previously overlooked phenomenon: explicit CoT reasoning can significantly degrade instruction-following accuracy. Evaluating 15 models on two benchmarks: IFEval (with simple, rule-verifiable constraints) and ComplexBench (with complex, compositional constraints), we consistently observe performance drops when CoT prompting is applied. Through large-scale case studies and an attention-based analysis, we identify common patterns where reasoning either helps (e.g., with formatting or lexical precision) or hurts (e.g., by neglecting simple constraints or introducing unnecessary content). We propose a metric, constraint attention, to quantify model focus during generation and show that CoT reasoning often diverts attention away from instruction-relevant tokens. To mitigate these effects, we introduce and evaluate four strategies: in-context learning, self-reflection, self-selective reasoning, and classifier-selective reasoning. Our results demonstrate that selective reasoning strategies, particularly classifier-selective reasoning, can substantially recover lost performance. To our knowledge, this is the first work to systematically expose reasoning-induced failures in instruction-following and offer practical mitigation strategies. △ Less Submitted 1 September, 2025; v1 submitted 16 May, 2025; originally announced May 2025. arXiv:2505.11423 [ pdf , ps , other ] When Thinking Fails: The Pitfalls of Reasoning for Instruction-Following in LLMs Authors: Xiaomin Li , Zhou Yu , Zhiwei Zhang , Xupeng Chen , Ziji Zhang , Yingying Zhuang , Narayanan Sadagopan , Anurag Beniwal Abstract : Reasoning-enhanced large language models (RLLMs), whether explicitly trained for reasoning or prompted via chain-of-thought (CoT), have achieved state-of-the-art performance on many complex reasoning tasks. However, we uncover a surprising and previously overlooked phenomenon: explicit CoT reasoning can significantly degrade instruction-following accuracy. Evaluating 15 models on two benchmarks: I… ▽ More Reasoning-enhanced large language models (RLLMs), whether explicitly trained for reasoning or prompted via chain-of-thought (CoT), have achieved state-of-the-art performance on many complex reasoning tasks. However, we uncover a surprising and previously overlooked phenomenon: explicit CoT reasoning can significantly degrade instruction-following accuracy. Evaluating 15 models on two benchmarks: IFEval (with simple, rule-verifiable constraints) and ComplexBench (with complex, compositional constraints), we consistently observe performance drops when CoT prompting is applied. Through large-scale case studies and an attention-based analysis, we identify common patterns where reasoning either helps (e.g., with formatting or lexical precision) or hurts (e.g., by neglecting simple constraints or introducing unnecessary content). We propose a metric, constraint attention, to quantify model focus during generation and show that CoT reasoning often diverts attention away from instruction-relevant tokens. To mitigate these effects, we introduce and evaluate four strategies: in-context learning, self-reflection, self-selective reasoning, and classifier-selective reasoning. Our results demonstrate that selective reasoning strategies, particularly classifier-selective reasoning, can substantially recover lost performance. To our knowledge, this is the first work to systematically expose reasoning-induced failures in instruction-following and offer practical mitigation strategies. △ Less Submitted 1 September, 2025; v1 submitted 16 May, 2025; originally announced May 2025. arXiv:2502.21239 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL Semantic Volume: Quantifying and Detecting both External and Internal Uncertainty in LLMs Authors: Xiaomin Li , Zhou Yu , Ziji Zhang , Yingying Zhuang , Swair Shah , Narayanan Sadagopan , Anurag Beniwal Abstract : Large language models (LLMs) have demonstrated remarkable performance across diverse tasks by encoding vast amounts of factual knowledge. However, they are still prone to hallucinations, generating incorrect or misleading information, often accompanied by high uncertainty. Existing methods for hallucination detection primarily focus on quantifying internal uncertainty, which arises from missing or… ▽ More Large language models (LLMs) have demonstrated remarkable performance across diverse tasks by encoding vast amounts of factual knowledge. However, they are still prone to hallucinations, generating incorrect or misleading information, often accompanied by high uncertainty. Existing methods for hallucination detection primarily focus on quantifying internal uncertainty, which arises from missing or conflicting knowledge within the model. However, hallucinations can also stem from external uncertainty, where ambiguous user queries lead to multiple possible interpretations. In this work, we introduce Semantic Volume, a novel mathematical measure for quantifying both external and internal uncertainty in LLMs. Our approach perturbs queries and responses, embeds them in a semantic space, and computes the Gram matrix determinant of the embedding vectors, capturing their dispersion as a measure of uncertainty. Our framework provides a generalizable and unsupervised uncertainty detection method without requiring internal access to LLMs. We conduct extensive experiments on both external and internal uncertainty detections, demonstrating that our Semantic Volume method consistently outperforms existing baselines in both tasks. Additionally, we provide theoretical insights linking our measure to differential entropy, unifying and extending previous sampling-based uncertainty measures such as the semantic entropy. Semantic Volume is shown to be a robust and interpretable approach to improving the reliability of LLMs by systematically detecting uncertainty in both user queries and model responses. △ Less Submitted 11 November, 2025; v1 submitted 28 February, 2025; originally announced February 2025. arXiv:2502.21239 [ pdf , ps , other ] Semantic Volume: Quantifying and Detecting both External and Internal Uncertainty in LLMs Authors: Xiaomin Li , Zhou Yu , Ziji Zhang , Yingying Zhuang , Swair Shah , Narayanan Sadagopan , Anurag Beniwal Abstract : Large language models (LLMs) have demonstrated remarkable performance across diverse tasks by encoding vast amounts of factual knowledge. However, they are still prone to hallucinations, generating incorrect or misleading information, often accompanied by high uncertainty. Existing methods for hallucination detection primarily focus on quantifying internal uncertainty, which arises from missing or… ▽ More Large language models (LLMs) have demonstrated remarkable performance across diverse tasks by encoding vast amounts of factual knowledge. However, they are still prone to hallucinations, generating incorrect or misleading information, often accompanied by high uncertainty. Existing methods for hallucination detection primarily focus on quantifying internal uncertainty, which arises from missing or conflicting knowledge within the model. However, hallucinations can also stem from external uncertainty, where ambiguous user queries lead to multiple possible interpretations. In this work, we introduce Semantic Volume, a novel mathematical measure for quantifying both external and internal uncertainty in LLMs. Our approach perturbs queries and responses, embeds them in a semantic space, and computes the Gram matrix determinant of the embedding vectors, capturing their dispersion as a measure of uncertainty. Our framework provides a generalizable and unsupervised uncertainty detection method without requiring internal access to LLMs. We conduct extensive experiments on both external and internal uncertainty detections, demonstrating that our Semantic Volume method consistently outperforms existing baselines in both tasks. Additionally, we provide theoretical insights linking our measure to differential entropy, unifying and extending previous sampling-based uncertainty measures such as the semantic entropy. Semantic Volume is shown to be a robust and interpretable approach to improving the reliability of LLMs by systematically detecting uncertainty in both user queries and model responses. △ Less Submitted 11 November, 2025; v1 submitted 28 February, 2025; originally announced February 2025. arXiv:2411.00427 [ pdf , other ] cs.CL cs.AI DARD: A Multi-Agent Approach for Task-Oriented Dialog Systems Authors: Aman Gupta , Anirudh Ravichandran , Ziji Zhang , Swair Shah , Anurag Beniwal , Narayanan Sadagopan Abstract : Task-oriented dialogue systems are essential for applications ranging from customer service to personal assistants and are widely used across various industries. However, developing effective multi-domain systems remains a significant challenge due to the complexity of handling diverse user intents, entity types, and domain-specific knowledge across several domains. In this work, we propose DARD (… ▽ More Task-oriented dialogue systems are essential for applications ranging from customer service to personal assistants and are widely used across various industries. However, developing effective multi-domain systems remains a significant challenge due to the complexity of handling diverse user intents, entity types, and domain-specific knowledge across several domains. In this work, we propose DARD (Domain Assigned Response Delegation), a multi-agent conversational system capable of successfully handling multi-domain dialogs. DARD leverages domain-specific agents, orchestrated by a central dialog manager agent. Our extensive experiments compare and utilize various agent modeling approaches, combining the strengths of smaller fine-tuned models (Flan-T5-large & Mistral-7B) with their larger counterparts, Large Language Models (LLMs) (Claude Sonnet 3.0). We provide insights into the strengths and limitations of each approach, highlighting the benefits of our multi-agent framework in terms of flexibility and composability. We evaluate DARD using the well-established MultiWOZ benchmark, achieving state-of-the-art performance by improving the dialogue inform rate by 6.6% and the success rate by 4.1% over the best-performing existing approaches. Additionally, we discuss various annotator discrepancies and issues within the MultiWOZ dataset and its evaluation system. △ Less Submitted 1 November, 2024; originally announced November 2024. arXiv:2411.00427 [ pdf , other ] DARD: A Multi-Agent Approach for Task-Oriented Dialog Systems Authors: Aman Gupta , Anirudh Ravichandran , Ziji Zhang , Swair Shah , Anurag Beniwal , Narayanan Sadagopan Abstract : Task-oriented dialogue systems are essential for applications ranging from customer service to personal assistants and are widely used across various industries. However, developing effective multi-domain systems remains a significant challenge due to the complexity of handling diverse user intents, entity types, and domain-specific knowledge across several domains. In this work, we propose DARD (… ▽ More Task-oriented dialogue systems are essential for applications ranging from customer service to personal assistants and are widely used across various industries. However, developing effective multi-domain systems remains a significant challenge due to the complexity of handling diverse user intents, entity types, and domain-specific knowledge across several domains. In this work, we propose DARD (Domain Assigned Response Delegation), a multi-agent conversational system capable of successfully handling multi-domain dialogs. DARD leverages domain-specific agents, orchestrated by a central dialog manager agent. Our extensive experiments compare and utilize various agent modeling approaches, combining the strengths of smaller fine-tuned models (Flan-T5-large & Mistral-7B) with their larger counterparts, Large Language Models (LLMs) (Claude Sonnet 3.0). We provide insights into the strengths and limitations of each approach, highlighting the benefits of our multi-agent framework in terms of flexibility and composability. We evaluate DARD using the well-established MultiWOZ benchmark, achieving state-of-the-art performance by improving the dialogue inform rate by 6.6% and the success rate by 4.1% over the best-performing existing approaches. Additionally, we discuss various annotator discrepancies and issues within the MultiWOZ dataset and its evaluation system. △ Less Submitted 1 November, 2024; originally announced November 2024. arXiv:2211.14935 [ pdf , other ] cs.IR cs.AI cs.CY cs.LG RecXplainer: Amortized Attribute-based Personalized Explanations for Recommender Systems Authors: Sahil Verma , Chirag Shah , John P. Dickerson , Anurag Beniwal , Narayanan Sadagopan , Arjun Seshadri Abstract : Recommender systems influence many of our interactions in the digital world -- impacting how we shop for clothes, sorting what we see when browsing YouTube or TikTok, and determining which restaurants and hotels we are shown when using hospitality platforms. Modern recommender systems are large, opaque models trained on a mixture of proprietary and open-source datasets. Naturally, issues of trust… ▽ More Recommender systems influence many of our interactions in the digital world -- impacting how we shop for clothes, sorting what we see when browsing YouTube or TikTok, and determining which restaurants and hotels we are shown when using hospitality platforms. Modern recommender systems are large, opaque models trained on a mixture of proprietary and open-source datasets. Naturally, issues of trust arise on both the developer and user side: is the system working correctly, and why did a user receive (or not receive) a particular recommendation? Providing an explanation alongside a recommendation alleviates some of these concerns. The status quo for auxiliary recommender system feedback is either user-specific explanations (e.g., "users who bought item B also bought item A") or item-specific explanations (e.g., "we are recommending item A because you watched/bought item B"). However, users bring personalized context into their search experience, valuing an item as a function of that item's attributes and their own personal preferences. In this work, we propose RecXplainer, a novel method for generating fine-grained explanations based on a user's preferences over the attributes of recommended items. We evaluate RecXplainer on five real-world and large-scale recommendation datasets using five different kinds of recommender systems to demonstrate the efficacy of RecXplainer in capturing users' preferences over item attributes and using them to explain recommendations. We also compare RecXplainer to five baselines and show RecXplainer's exceptional performance on ten metrics. △ Less Submitted 29 August, 2023; v1 submitted 27 November, 2022; originally announced November 2022. Comments: Awarded the Best Student Paper at TEA Workshop at NeurIPS 2022 arXiv:2211.14935 [ pdf , other ] RecXplainer: Amortized Attribute-based Personalized Explanations for Recommender Systems Authors: Sahil Verma , Chirag Shah , John P. Dickerson , Anurag Beniwal , Narayanan Sadagopan , Arjun Seshadri Abstract : Recommender systems influence many of our interactions in the digital world -- impacting how we shop for clothes, sorting what we see when browsing YouTube or TikTok, and determining which restaurants and hotels we are shown when using hospitality platforms. Modern recommender systems are large, opaque models trained on a mixture of proprietary and open-source datasets. Naturally, issues of trust… ▽ More Recommender systems influence many of our interactions in the digital world -- impacting how we shop for clothes, sorting what we see when browsing YouTube or TikTok, and determining which restaurants and hotels we are shown when using hospitality platforms. Modern recommender systems are large, opaque models trained on a mixture of proprietary and open-source datasets. Naturally, issues of trust arise on both the developer and user side: is the system working correctly, and why did a user receive (or not receive) a particular recommendation? Providing an explanation alongside a recommendation alleviates some of these concerns. The status quo for auxiliary recommender system feedback is either user-specific explanations (e.g., "users who bought item B also bought item A") or item-specific explanations (e.g., "we are recommending item A because you watched/bought item B"). However, users bring personalized context into their search experience, valuing an item as a function of that item's attributes and their own personal preferences. In this work, we propose RecXplainer, a novel method for generating fine-grained explanations based on a user's preferences over the attributes of recommended items. We evaluate RecXplainer on five real-world and large-scale recommendation datasets using five different kinds of recommender systems to demonstrate the efficacy of RecXplainer in capturing users' preferences over item attributes and using them to explain recommendations. We also compare RecXplainer to five baselines and show RecXplainer's exceptional performance on ten metrics. △ Less Submitted 29 August, 2023; v1 submitted 27 November, 2022; originally announced November 2022. Comments: Awarded the Best Student Paper at TEA Workshop at NeurIPS 2022 arXiv:2207.12033 [ pdf , other ] cs.IR Contrastive Learning for Interactive Recommendation in Fashion Authors: Karin Sevegnani , Arjun Seshadri , Tian Wang , Anurag Beniwal , Julian McAuley , Alan Lu , Gerard Medioni Abstract : Recommender systems and search are both indispensable in facilitating personalization and ease of browsing in online fashion platforms. However, the two tools often operate independently, failing to combine the strengths of recommender systems to accurately capture user tastes with search systems' ability to process user queries. We propose a novel remedy to this problem by automatically recommend… ▽ More Recommender systems and search are both indispensable in facilitating personalization and ease of browsing in online fashion platforms. However, the two tools often operate independently, failing to combine the strengths of recommender systems to accurately capture user tastes with search systems' ability to process user queries. We propose a novel remedy to this problem by automatically recommending personalized fashion items based on a user-provided text request. Our proposed model, WhisperLite, uses contrastive learning to capture user intent from natural language text and improves the recommendation quality of fashion products. WhisperLite combines the strength of CLIP embeddings with additional neural network layers for personalization, and is trained using a composite loss function based on binary cross entropy and contrastive loss. The model demonstrates a significant improvement in offline recommendation retrieval metrics when tested on a real-world dataset collected from an online retail fashion store, as well as widely used open-source datasets in different e-commerce domains, such as restaurants, movies and TV shows, clothing and shoe reviews. We additionally conduct a user study that captures user judgements on the relevance of the model's recommended items, confirming the relevancy of WhisperLite's recommendations in an online setting. △ Less Submitted 25 July, 2022; originally announced July 2022. arXiv:2207.12033 [ pdf , other ] Contrastive Learning for Interactive Recommendation in Fashion Authors: Karin Sevegnani , Arjun Seshadri , Tian Wang , Anurag Beniwal , Julian McAuley , Alan Lu , Gerard Medioni Abstract : Recommender systems and search are both indispensable in facilitating personalization and ease of browsing in online fashion platforms. However, the two tools often operate independently, failing to combine the strengths of recommender systems to accurately capture user tastes with search systems' ability to process user queries. We propose a novel remedy to this problem by automatically recommend… ▽ More Recommender systems and search are both indispensable in facilitating personalization and ease of browsing in online fashion platforms. However, the two tools often operate independently, failing to combine the strengths of recommender systems to accurately capture user tastes with search systems' ability to process user queries. We propose a novel remedy to this problem by automatically recommending personalized fashion items based on a user-provided text request. Our proposed model, WhisperLite, uses contrastive learning to capture user intent from natural language text and improves the recommendation quality of fashion products. WhisperLite combines the strength of CLIP embeddings with additional neural network layers for personalization, and is trained using a composite loss function based on binary cross entropy and contrastive loss. The model demonstrates a significant improvement in offline recommendation retrieval metrics when tested on a real-world dataset collected from an online retail fashion store, as well as widely used open-source datasets in different e-commerce domains, such as restaurants, movies and TV shows, clothing and shoe reviews. We additionally conduct a user study that captures user judgements on the relevance of the model's recommended items, confirming the relevancy of WhisperLite's recommendations in an online setting. △ Less Submitted 25 July, 2022; originally announced July 2022. arXiv:2204.04812 [ pdf , other ] cs.CV cs.AI cs.IR cs.LG OutfitTransformer: Learning Outfit Representations for Fashion Recommendation Authors: Rohan Sarkar , Navaneeth Bodla , Mariya I. Vasileva , Yen-Liang Lin , Anurag Beniwal , Alan Lu , Gerard Medioni Abstract : Learning an effective outfit-level representation is critical for predicting the compatibility of items in an outfit, and retrieving complementary items for a partial outfit. We present a framework, OutfitTransformer, that uses the proposed task-specific tokens and leverages the self-attention mechanism to learn effective outfit-level representations encoding the compatibility relationships betwee… ▽ More Learning an effective outfit-level representation is critical for predicting the compatibility of items in an outfit, and retrieving complementary items for a partial outfit. We present a framework, OutfitTransformer, that uses the proposed task-specific tokens and leverages the self-attention mechanism to learn effective outfit-level representations encoding the compatibility relationships between all items in the entire outfit for addressing both compatibility prediction and complementary item retrieval tasks. For compatibility prediction, we design an outfit token to capture a global outfit representation and train the framework using a classification loss. For complementary item retrieval, we design a target item token that additionally takes the target item specification (in the form of a category or text description) into consideration. We train our framework using a proposed set-wise outfit ranking loss to generate a target item embedding given an outfit, and a target item specification as inputs. The generated target item embedding is then used to retrieve compatible items that match the rest of the outfit. Additionally, we adopt a pre-training approach and a curriculum learning strategy to improve retrieval performance. Since our framework learns at an outfit-level, it allows us to learn a single embedding capturing higher-order relations among multiple items in the outfit more effectively than pairwise methods. Experiments demonstrate that our approach outperforms state-of-the-art methods on compatibility prediction, fill-in-the-blank, and complementary item retrieval tasks. We further validate the quality of our retrieval results with a user study. △ Less Submitted 15 April, 2022; v1 submitted 10 April, 2022; originally announced April 2022. arXiv:2204.04812 [ pdf , other ] OutfitTransformer: Learning Outfit Representations for Fashion Recommendation Authors: Rohan Sarkar , Navaneeth Bodla , Mariya I. Vasileva , Yen-Liang Lin , Anurag Beniwal , Alan Lu , Gerard Medioni Abstract : Learning an effective outfit-level representation is critical for predicting the compatibility of items in an outfit, and retrieving complementary items for a partial outfit. We present a framework, OutfitTransformer, that uses the proposed task-specific tokens and leverages the self-attention mechanism to learn effective outfit-level representations encoding the compatibility relationships betwee… ▽ More Learning an effective outfit-level representation is critical for predicting the compatibility of items in an outfit, and retrieving complementary items for a partial outfit. We present a framework, OutfitTransformer, that uses the proposed task-specific tokens and leverages the self-attention mechanism to learn effective outfit-level representations encoding the compatibility relationships between all items in the entire outfit for addressing both compatibility prediction and complementary item retrieval tasks. For compatibility prediction, we design an outfit token to capture a global outfit representation and train the framework using a classification loss. For complementary item retrieval, we design a target item token that additionally takes the target item specification (in the form of a category or text description) into consideration. We train our framework using a proposed set-wise outfit ranking loss to generate a target item embedding given an outfit, and a target item specification as inputs. The generated target item embedding is then used to retrieve compatible items that match the rest of the outfit. Additionally, we adopt a pre-training approach and a curriculum learning strategy to improve retrieval performance. Since our framework learns at an outfit-level, it allows us to learn a single embedding capturing higher-order relations among multiple items in the outfit more effectively than pairwise methods. Experiments demonstrate that our approach outperforms state-of-the-art methods on compatibility prediction, fill-in-the-blank, and complementary item retrieval tasks. We further validate the quality of our retrieval results with a user study. △ Less Submitted 15 April, 2022; v1 submitted 10 April, 2022; originally announced April 2022. About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Events Toggle Events subsection 1.1 1501–1509 1.2 1510s 1.3 1520s 1.4 1530s 1.5 1540s 1.6 1550s 1.7 1560s 1.8 1570s 1.9 1580s 1.10 1590–1600 1.11 Undated 1.1 1501–1509 1.2 1510s 1.3 1520s 1.4 1530s 1.5 1540s 1.6 1550s 1.7 1560s 1.8 1570s 1.9 1580s 1.10 1590–1600 1.11 Undated 2 Gallery 3 Inventions, discoveries, introductions 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links 16th century Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ العربية Aragonés Arpetan Asturianu Авар Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Čeština Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gàidhlig Galego 贛語 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Kotava Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingua Franca Nova Lombard Magyar Македонски Māori मराठी მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nāhuatl Nederlands Nedersaksies 日本語 Napulitano Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Nouormand Novial Occitan Олык марий Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Papiamentu Plattdüütsch Polski Português Qaraqalpaqsha Română Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Seeltersk Sesotho sa Leboa Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça တႆး ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Türkmençe Українська اردو Vèneto Tiếng Việt Võro Walon Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש 粵語 Zazaki Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 Tolışi Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item This article needs additional citations for verification . 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Find sources: "16th century" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR ( September 2022 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) Millennia 2nd millennium Centuries 15th century 16th century 17th century 15th century 16th century 17th century Timelines 15th century 16th century 17th century 15th century 16th century 17th century State leaders 15th century 16th century 17th century 15th century 16th century 17th century Decades 1500s 1510s 1520s 1530s 1540s 1550s 1560s 1570s 1580s 1590s 1500s 1510s 1520s 1530s 1540s 1550s 1560s 1570s 1580s 1590s Categories: Births – Deaths Establishments – Disestablishments .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e The 16th century begins with the Julian year 1501 ( MDI ) and ends with either the Julian or the Gregorian year 1600 ( MDC ) (depending on the reckoning used; the Gregorian calendar introduced a lapse of 10 days in October 1582). [ 1 ] The Habsburg Spanish Empire , Portuguese Empire , Ottoman Empire , Safavid Persia , Mughal India and Ming China were the most powerful and hegemonic states. The Renaissance in Italy and Europe saw the emergence of important artists, authors and scientists, and led to the foundation of important subjects which include accounting and political science . Copernicus proposed the heliocentric universe , which was met with strong resistance, and Tycho Brahe refuted the theory of celestial spheres through observational measurement of the 1572 appearance of a Milky Way supernova . These events directly challenged the long-held notion of an immutable universe supported by Ptolemy and Aristotle , and led to major revolutions in astronomy and science. Galileo Galilei became a champion of the new sciences, invented the first thermometer and made substantial contributions in the fields of physics and astronomy , becoming a major figure in the Scientific Revolution in Europe. Spain and Portugal colonized large parts of Central and South America , followed by France and England in Northern America and the Lesser Antilles . The Portuguese became the masters of trade between Brazil , the coasts of Africa, and their possessions in the Indies , whereas the Spanish came to dominate the Greater Antilles , Mexico , Peru , and opened trade across the Pacific Ocean , linking the Americas with the Indies. English and French privateers began to practice persistent theft of Spanish and Portuguese treasures. This era of colonialism established mercantilism as the leading school of economic thought, where the economic system was viewed as a zero-sum game in which any gain by one party required a loss by another. The mercantilist doctrine encouraged the many intra-European wars of the period and arguably fueled European expansion and imperialism throughout the world until the 19th century or early 20th century . The Reformation in central and northern Europe gave a major blow to the authority of the papacy and the Catholic Church . In England , the British-Italian Alberico Gentili wrote the first book on public international law and divided secularism from canon law and Catholic theology. European politics became dominated by religious conflicts, with the groundwork for the epochal Thirty Years' War being laid towards the end of the century. In the Middle East , the Ottoman Empire continued to expand, with the sultan taking the title of caliph , while dealing with a resurgent Persia. Iran and Iraq were caught by a major popularity of the Shia sect of Islam under the rule of the Safavid dynasty of warrior-mystics, providing grounds for a Persia independent of the majority- Sunni Muslim world . [ 2 ] In the Indian subcontinent , following the defeat of the Delhi Sultanate and Vijayanagara Empire , new powers emerged, the Sur Empire founded by Sher Shah Suri , Deccan sultanates , Rajput states , and the Mughal Empire [ 3 ] by Emperor Babur , a direct descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan . [ 4 ] His successors Humayun and Akbar , enlarged the empire to include most of South Asia . Japan suffered a severe civil war at this time, known as the Sengoku period , and emerged from it as a unified nation under Toyotomi Hideyoshi . China was ruled by the Ming dynasty, which was becoming increasingly isolationist , coming into conflict with Japan over the control of Korea as well as Japanese pirates . In Africa, Christianity had begun to spread in Central Africa and Southern Africa . Until the Scramble for Africa in the late 19th century, most of Africa was left uncolonized. Events 1501–1509 1501 : Michelangelo returns to his native Florence to begin work on the statue David . 1501 : Safavid dynasty reunifies Iran and rules over it until 1736 . Safavids adopt a Shia branch of Islam . [ 5 ] 1501 : First Battle of Cannanore between the Third Portuguese Armada and Kingdom of Cochin under João da Nova and Zamorin of Kozhikode 's navy marks the beginning of Portuguese conflicts in the Indian Ocean . 1502 : First reported African slaves in the New World 1502 : The Crimean Khanate sacks Sarai in the Golden Horde , ending its existence. 1503 : Spain defeats France at the Battle of Cerignola . Considered to be the first battle in history won by gunpowder small arms. 1503 : Leonardo da Vinci begins painting the Mona Lisa and completes it three years later. 1503 : Nostradamus is born on either December 14 or December 21. 1504 : A period of drought , with famine in all of Spain. 1504 : Death of Isabella I of Castile ; Joanna of Castile becomes the Queen. 1504 : Foundation of the Sultanate of Sennar by Amara Dunqas , in what is modern Sudan 1505 : Zhengde Emperor ascends the throne of Ming dynasty . 1505 : Martin Luther enters St. Augustine's Monastery at Erfurt, Germany, on 17 July and begins his journey to instigating the Reformation . 1505 : Sultan Trenggono builds the first Muslim kingdom in Java, called Demak , in Indonesia. Many other small kingdoms were established in other islands to fight against Portuguese. Each kingdom introduced local language as a way of communication and unity. 1506 : Leonardo da Vinci completes the Mona Lisa . 1506 : King Afonso I of Kongo wins the battle of Mbanza Kongo, resulting in Catholicism becoming Kongo's state religion. Battle of Cerignola : El Gran Capitan finds the corpse of Louis d'Armagnac, Duke of Nemours 1506 : At least two thousand converted Jews are massacred in a Lisbon riot, Portugal. 1506 : Christopher Columbus dies in Valladolid , Spain . 1506 : Poland is invaded by Tatars from the Crimean Khanate . 1507 : The first recorded epidemic of smallpox in the New World on the island of Hispaniola . It devastates the native Taíno population. [ 6 ] 1507 : Afonso de Albuquerque conquered Hormuz and Muscat , among other bases in the Persian Gulf , taking control of the region at the entrance of the Gulf . 1508 : The Christian-Islamic power struggle in Europe and West Asia spills over into the Indian Ocean as Battle of Chaul during the Portuguese-Mamluk War 1508 – 1512 : Michelangelo paints the Sistine Chapel ceiling . 1509 : The defeat of joint fleet of the Sultan of Gujarat , the Mamlûk Burji Sultanate of Egypt , and the Zamorin of Calicut with support of the Republic of Venice and the Ottoman Empire in Battle of Diu marks the beginning of Portuguese dominance of the Spice trade and the Indian Ocean . 1509 : The Portuguese king sends Diogo Lopes de Sequeira to find Malacca , the eastern terminus of Asian trade. After initially receiving Sequeira, Sultan Mahmud Shah captures and/or kills several of his men and attempts an assault on the four Portuguese ships, which escape. [ 7 ] The Javanese fleet is also destroyed in Malacca. 1509 : Krishnadevaraya ascends the throne of Vijayanagara Empire . 1510s 1509 – 1510 : The 'great plague ' in various parts of Tudor England . [ 8 ] 1510 : Afonso de Albuquerque of Portugal conquers Goa in India. 1511 : Afonso de Albuquerque of Portugal conquers Malacca , the capital of the Sultanate of Malacca in present-day Malaysia. 1512 : Copernicus writes Commentariolus , and proclaims the Sun the center of the Solar System . 1512 : The southern part (historical core) of the Kingdom of Navarre is invaded by Castile and Aragon . 1512 : Qutb Shahi dynasty , founded by Quli Qutb Mulk , rules Golconda Sultanate until 1687 . 1512 : The first Portuguese exploratory expedition was sent eastward from Malacca (in present-day Malaysia) to search for the ' Spice Islands ' ( Maluku ) led by Francisco Serrão . Serrão is shipwrecked but struggles on to Hitu (northern Ambon ) and wins the favour of the local rulers. [ 9 ] 1513 : Machiavelli writes The Prince , a treatise about political philosophy 1513 : The Portuguese mariner Jorge Álvares lands at Macau , China, during the Ming dynasty . 1513 : Henry VIII defeats the French at the Battle of the Spurs . 1513 : The Battle of Flodden Field in which invading Scots are defeated by Henry VIII 's forces. 1513 : Sultan Selim I ("The Grim") orders the massacre of Shia Muslims in Anatolia (present-day Turkey). 1513 : Vasco Núñez de Balboa , in service of Spain arrives at the Pacific Ocean (which he called Mar del Sur) across the Isthmus of Panama . He was the first European to do so. 1514 : The Battle of Orsha halts Muscovy 's expansion into Eastern Europe . 1514 : Dózsa rebellion (peasant revolt) in Hungary . Martin Luther initiated the Reformation with his Ninety-five Theses in 1517. 1514 : The Battle of Chaldiran , the Ottoman Empire gains decisive victory against Safavid dynasty . 1515 : Ascension of Francis I of France as King of France following the death of Louis XII . 1515 : The Ottoman Empire wrests Eastern Anatolia from the Safavids after the Battle of Chaldiran . 1515 : The Ottomans conquer the last beyliks of Anatolia, the Dulkadirs and the Ramadanids . 1516 – 1517 : The Ottomans defeat the Mamluks and gain control of Egypt , Arabia , and the Levant . 1517 : The Sweating sickness epidemic in Tudor England . [ 10 ] 1517 : The Reformation begins when Martin Luther posts his Ninety-five Theses in Saxony . 1518 : The Treaty of London was a non-aggression pact between the major European nations. The signatories were Burgundy, France, England, the Holy Roman Empire, the Netherlands, the Papal States and Spain, all of whom agreed not to attack one another and to come to the aid of any that were under attack. 1518 : Mir Chakar Khan Rind leaves Baluchistan and settles in Punjab . 1518 : Leo Africanus , also known as al-Hasan ibn Muhammad al-Wazzan al-Fasi, an Andalusian Berber diplomat who is best known for his book Descrittione dell’Africa (Description of Africa), is captured by Spanish pirates; he is taken to Rome and presented to Pope Leo X . 1518 : The dancing plague of 1518 begins in Strasbourg , lasting for about one month. 1519 : Leonardo da Vinci dies of natural causes on May 2. Europe at the time of the accession of Charles V in 1519 1519 : Wang Yangming , the Chinese philosopher and governor of Jiangxi province, describes his intent to use the firepower of the fo-lang-ji , a breech-loading Portuguese culverin , in order to suppress the rebellion of Prince Zhu Chenhao . 1519 : Barbary pirates led by Hayreddin Barbarossa , a Turk appointed to ruling position in Algiers by the Ottoman Empire, raid Provence and Toulon in southern France . 1519 : Death of Emperor Maximilian ; Charles I of Austria , Spain , and the Low Countries becomes Emperor of Holy Roman Empire as Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (ruled until 1556). 1519 – 1522 : Spanish expedition commanded by Magellan and Elcano are the first to Circumnavigate the Earth. 1519 – 1521 : Hernán Cortés leads the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire . 1520s 1520 – 1566 : The reign of Suleiman the Magnificent marks the zenith of the Ottoman Empire . 1520 : The first European diplomatic mission to Ethiopia , sent by the Portuguese , arrives at Massawa 9 April, and reaches the imperial encampment of Emperor Dawit II in Shewa 9 October. 1520 : Vijayanagara Empire forces under Krishnadevaraya defeat the Adil Shahi under at the Battle of Raichur 1520 : Sultan Ali Mughayat Shah of Aceh begins an expansionist campaign capturing Daya on the west Sumatran coast (in present-day Indonesia), and the pepper and gold producing lands on the east coast. 1520 : The Portuguese established a trading post in the village of Lamakera on the eastern side of Solor (in present-day Indonesia) as a transit harbour between Maluku and Malacca . 1521 : Belgrade (in present-day Serbia) is captured by the Ottoman Empire. 1521 : After building fortifications at Tuen Mun , the Portuguese attempt to invade Ming dynasty China, but are expelled by Chinese naval forces. 1521 : Philippines encountered by Ferdinand Magellan . He was later killed in the Battle of Mactan in central Philippines in the same year. 1521 : Jiajing Emperor ascended the throne of Ming dynasty , China. 1521 : November, Ferdinand Magellan 's expedition reaches Maluku (in present-day Indonesia) and after trade with Ternate returns to Europe with a load of cloves . 1521 : Pati Unus leads the invasion of Malacca (in present-day Malaysia) against the Portuguese occupation. Pati Unus was killed in this battle, and was succeeded by his brother, sultan Trenggana . 1522 : Rhodes falls to the Ottomans of Suleiman the Magnificent . [ 11 ] Sack of Rome of 1527 by Charles V 's forces (painting by Johannes Lingelbach ) 1522 : The Portuguese ally themselves with the rulers of Ternate (in present-day Indonesia) and begin construction of a fort. [ 9 ] 1522 : August, Luso-Sundanese Treaty signed between Portugal and Sunda Kingdom granted Portuguese permit to build fortress in Sunda Kelapa . 1523 : Sweden gains independence from the Kalmar Union . 1523 : The Cacao bean is introduced to Spain by Hernán Cortés 1524 – 1525 : German Peasants' War in the Holy Roman Empire . 1524 : Giovanni da Verrazzano is the first European to explore the Atlantic coast of North America between South Carolina and Newfoundland . 1524 : Ismail I , the founder of Safavid dynasty , dies and Tahmasp I becomes king. Gun-wielding Ottoman Janissaries and defending Knights of Saint John at the siege of Rhodes in 1522, from an Ottoman manuscript 1525 : Timurid Empire forces under Babur defeat the Lodi dynasty at the First Battle of Panipat , end of the Delhi Sultanate . 1525 : German and Spanish forces defeat France at the Battle of Pavia , Francis I of France is captured. 1526 : The Ottomans defeat the Kingdom of Hungary at the Battle of Mohács . 1526 : Mughal Empire , founded by Babur. 1527 : Sack of Rome with Pope Clement VII escaping and the Swiss Guards defending the Vatican being killed. The sack of the city of Rome considered the end of the Italian Renaissance . 1527 : Protestant Reformation begins in Sweden . 1527 : The last ruler of Majapahit falls from power. This state (located in present-day Indonesia) was finally extinguished at the hands of the Demak . A large number of courtiers, artisans, priests, and members of the royalty moved east to the island of Bali; however, the power and the seat of government transferred to Demak under the leadership of Pangeran, later Sultan Fatah . 1527 : June 22, The Javanese Prince Fatahillah of the Cirebon Sultanate successfully defeated the Portuguese armed forces at the site of the Sunda Kelapa Harbor. The city was then renamed Jayakarta , meaning "a glorious victory." This eventful day came to be acknowledged as Jakarta's Founding Anniversary. 1527 : Mughal Empire forces defeat the Rajput led by Rana Sanga of Mewar at the Battle of Khanwa 1529 : The Austrians defeat the Ottoman Empire at the siege of Vienna . 1529 : Treaty of Zaragoza defined the antimeridian of Tordesillas attributing the Moluccas to Portugal and Philippines to Spain. 1529 : Imam Ahmad Gurey defeats the Ethiopian Emperor Dawit II in the Battle of Shimbra Kure , the opening clash of the Ethiopian–Adal War . 1530s 1531 – 1532 : The Church of England breaks away from the Catholic Church and recognizes King Henry VIII as the head of the Church. 1531 : The Inca Civil War is fought between the two brothers, Atahualpa and Huáscar . 1532 : Francisco Pizarro leads the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire . 1532 : Foundation of São Vicente , the first permanent Portuguese settlement in the Americas. 1533 : Anne Boleyn becomes Queen of England. 1533 : Elizabeth Tudor is born. 1534 : Jacques Cartier claims Canada for France. 1534 : The Ottomans capture Baghdad from the Safavids . 1534 : Affair of the Placards , where King Francis I becomes more active in repression of French Protestants. 1535 : The Münster Rebellion , an attempt of radical, millennialist , Anabaptists to establish a theocracy , ends in bloodshed. 1535 : The Portuguese in Ternate depose Sultan Tabariji (or Tabarija) and send him to Portuguese Goa where he converts to Christianity and bequeaths his Portuguese godfather Jordao de Freitas the island of Ambon . [ 12 ] Hairun becomes the next sultan. 1536 : Catherine of Aragon dies in Kimbolton Castle , in England. Territorial expansion of the Ottoman Empire under Suleiman (in red and orange) 1536 : In England, Anne Boleyn is beheaded for adultery and treason. 1536 : Establishment of the Inquisition in Portugal. 1536 : Foundation of Buenos Aires (in present-day Argentina) by Pedro de Mendoza . 1537 : The Portuguese establish Recife in Pernambuco , north-east of Brazil . 1537 : William Tyndale 's partial translation of the Bible into English is published, which would eventually be incorporated into the King James Bible . 1538 : Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada founds Bogotá . 1538 : Spanish – Venetian fleet is defeated by the Ottoman Turks at the Battle of Preveza . 1539 : Hernando de Soto explores inland North America. 1540s 1540 : The Society of Jesus , or the Jesuits, is founded by Ignatius of Loyola and six companions with the approval of Pope Paul III . 1540 : Sher Shah Suri founds the Suri dynasty in South Asia , an ethnic Pashtun ( Pathan ) of the house of Sur , who supplanted the Mughal dynasty as rulers of North India during the reign of the relatively ineffectual second Mughal emperor Humayun . Sher Shah Suri decisively defeats Humayun in the Battle of Bilgram (May 17, 1540). 1541 : Pedro de Valdivia founds Santiago in Chile. 1541 : An Algerian military campaign by Charles V of Spain ( Habsburg ) is unsuccessful. 1541 : Amazon River is encountered and explored by Francisco de Orellana . 1541 : Capture of Buda and the absorption of the major part of Hungary by the Ottoman Empire . 1541 : Sahib I Giray of Crimea invades Russia . 1542 : The Italian War of 1542–1546 War resumes between Francis I of France and Emperor Charles V . This time Henry VIII is allied with the Emperor, while James V of Scotland and Sultan Suleiman I are allied with the French . 1542 : Akbar The Great is born in the Rajput Umarkot Fort 1542 : Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos named the island of Samar and Leyte Las Islas Filipinas honoring Philip II of Spain and became the official name of the archipelago . 1543 : Ethiopian / Portuguese troops defeat the Adal army led by Imam Ahmad Gurey at the Battle of Wayna Daga ; Imam Ahmad Gurey is killed at this battle. 1543 : Copernicus publishes his theory that the Earth and the other planets revolve around the Sun 1543 : The Nanban trade period begins after Portuguese traders make contact with Japan . 1544 : The French defeat an Imperial – Spanish army at the Battle of Ceresole . Scenes of everyday life in Ming China , by Qiu Ying 1544 : Battle of the Shirts in Scotland . The Frasers and Macdonalds of Clan Ranald fight over a disputed chiefship; reportedly, 5 Frasers and 8 Macdonalds survive. 1545 : Songhai forces sack the Malian capital of Niani 1545 : The Council of Trent meets for the first time in Trent (in northern Italy). 1546 : Michelangelo Buonarroti is made chief architect of St. Peter's Basilica . 1546 : Francis Xavier works among the peoples of Ambon, Ternate and Morotai (Moro) laying the foundations for a permanent mission. (to 1547) 1547 : Henry VIII dies in the Palace of Whitehall on 28 January at the age of 55. 1547 : Francis I dies in the Château de Rambouillet on 31 March at the age of 52. 1547 : Edward VI becomes King of England and Ireland on 28 January and is crowned on 20 February at the age of 9. 1547 : Emperor Charles V decisively dismantles the Schmalkaldic League at the Battle of Mühlberg . 1547 : Grand Prince Ivan the Terrible is crowned tsar of (All) Russia, thenceforth becoming the first Russian tsar . 1548 : Battle of Uedahara : Firearms are used for the first time on the battlefield in Japan , and Takeda Shingen is defeated by Murakami Yoshikiyo . 1548 : Askia Daoud , who reigned from 1548 to 1583, establishes public libraries in Timbuktu (in present-day Mali). 1548 : The Ming dynasty government of China issues a decree banning all foreign trade and closes down all seaports along the coast; these Hai jin laws came during the Wokou wars with Japanese pirates. 1549 : Tomé de Sousa establishes Salvador in Bahia , north-east of Brazil . 1549 : Arya Penangsang with the support of his teacher, Sunan Kudus, avenges the death of Raden Kikin by sending an envoy named Rangkud to kill Sunan Prawoto by Keris Kyai Satan Kober (in present-day Indonesia). 1550s 1550 : The architect Mimar Sinan builds the Süleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul . 1550 : Mongols led by Altan Khan invade China and besiege Beijing . 1550 – 1551 : Valladolid debate concerning the human rights of the Indigenous people of the Americas . 1551 : Fifth outbreak of sweating sickness in England . John Caius of Shrewsbury writes the first full contemporary account of the symptoms of the disease. 1551 : North African pirates enslave the entire population of the Maltese island Gozo , between 5,000 and 6,000, sending them to Libya . 1552 : Russia conquers the Khanate of Kazan in central Asia. 1552 : Jesuit China Mission, Francis Xavier dies. 1553 : Mary Tudor becomes the first queen regnant of England and restores the Church of England under Papal authority. 1553 : The Portuguese found a settlement at Macau . 1554 : Missionaries José de Anchieta and Manuel da Nóbrega establishes São Paulo , southeast Brazil . 1554 : Princess Elizabeth is imprisoned in the Tower of London upon the orders of Mary I for suspicion of being involved in the Wyatt rebellion . 1555 : The Muscovy Company is the first major English joint stock trading company. 1556 : Publication in Venice of Delle Navigiationi et Viaggi (terzo volume) by Giovanni Battista Ramusio , secretary of Council of Ten, with plan La Terra de Hochelaga , an illustration of the Hochelaga . [ 13 ] 1556 : The Shaanxi earthquake in China is history's deadliest known earthquake during the Ming dynasty . 1556 : Georgius Agricola , the "Father of Mineralogy ", publishes his De re metallica . 1556 : Akbar defeats Hemu at the Second battle of Panipat . 1556 : Russia conquers the Astrakhan Khanate . 1556 – 1605 : During his reign, Akbar expands the Mughal Empire in a series of conquests (in the Indian subcontinent). Political map of the world in 1556 1556 : Mir Chakar Khan Rind captures Delhi with Humayun . 1556 : Pomponio Algerio , radical theologian, is executed by boiling in oil as part of the Roman Inquisition . 1557 : Habsburg Spain declares bankruptcy. Philip II of Spain had to declare four state bankruptcies in 1557, 1560, 1575 and 1596. 1557 : The Portuguese settle in Macau (on the western side of the Pearl River Delta across from present-day Hong Kong). 1557 : The Ottomans capture Massawa , all but isolating Ethiopia from the rest of the world. 1558 : Elizabeth Tudor becomes Queen Elizabeth I at age 25. 1558 – 1603 : The Elizabethan era is considered the height of the English Renaissance . 1558 – 1583 : Livonian War between Poland, Grand Principality of Lithuania, Sweden, Denmark and Russia. 1558 : After 200 years, the Kingdom of England loses Calais to France. 1559 : With the Peace of Cateau Cambrésis , the Italian Wars conclude. 1559 : Sultan Hairun of Ternate (in present-day Indonesia) protests the Portuguese's Christianisation activities in his lands. Hostilities between Ternate and the Portuguese. 1560s 1560 : Ottoman navy defeats the Spanish fleet at the Battle of Djerba . 1560 : Elizabeth Bathory is born in Nyirbator, Hungary. 1560 : By winning the Battle of Okehazama , Oda Nobunaga becomes one of the pre-eminent warlords of Japan . 1560 : Jeanne d'Albret declares Calvinism the official religion of Navarre . 1560 : Lazarus Church, Macau 1561 : Sir Francis Bacon is born in London . 1561 : The fourth battle of Kawanakajima between the Uesugi and Takeda at Hachimanbara takes place. 1561 : Guido de Bres draws up the Belgic Confession of Protestant faith. 1562 : Mughal emperor Akbar reconciles the Muslim and Hindu factions by marrying into the powerful Rajput Hindu caste. 1562 – 1598 : French Wars of Religion between Catholics and Huguenots . 1562 : Massacre of Wassy and Battle of Dreux in the French Wars of Religion . 1562 : Portuguese Dominican priests build a palm-trunk fortress which Javanese Muslims burned down the following year. The fort was rebuilt from more durable materials and the Dominicans commenced the Christianisation of the local population. [ 12 ] 1563 : Plague outbreak claimed 80,000 people in Elizabethan England . In London alone, over 20,000 people died of the disease. 1564 : Galileo Galilei born on February 15 1564 : William Shakespeare baptized 26 April 1565 : Deccan sultanates defeat the Vijayanagara Empire at the Battle of Talikota . 1565 : Mir Chakar Khan Rind dies at aged 97. 1565 : Estácio de Sá establishes Rio de Janeiro in Brazil . 1565 : The Hospitallers , a Crusading Order, defeat the Ottoman Empire at the siege of Malta (1565) . 1565 : Miguel López de Legazpi establishes in Cebu the first Spanish settlement in the Philippines starting a period of Spanish colonization that would last over three hundred years. 1565 : Spanish navigator Andres de Urdaneta discovers the maritime route from Asia to the Americas across the Pacific Ocean , also known as the tornaviaje . 1565 : Royal Exchange is founded by Thomas Gresham . 1566 : Suleiman the Magnificent , ruler of the Ottoman Empire , dies on September 7, during the battle of Szigetvar . Siege of Valenciennes during the Dutch War of Independence in 1567 1566 – 1648 : Eighty Years' War between Spain and the Netherlands . 1566 : Da le Balle Contrade d'Oriente, composed by Cipriano de Rore . 1567 : After 45 years' reign, Jiajing Emperor died in the Forbidden City , Longqing Emperor ascended the throne of Ming dynasty . 1567 : Mary, Queen of Scots , is imprisoned by Elizabeth I . 1568 : The Transylvanian Diet , under the patronage of the prince John Sigismund Zápolya , the former king of Hungary , inspired by the teachings of Ferenc Dávid , the founder of the Unitarian Church of Transylvania , promulgates the Edict of Torda , the first law of freedom of religion and of conscience in the World. 1568 – 1571 : Morisco Revolt in Spain. 1568 – 1600 : The Azuchi-Momoyama period in Japan. 1568 : Hadiwijaya sent his adopted son and son in-law Sutawijaya , who would later become the first ruler of the Mataram dynasty of Indonesia, to kill Arya Penangsang . 1569 : Rising of the North in England. 1569 : Mercator 1569 world map published by Gerardus Mercator . 1569 : The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth is created with the Union of Lublin , which lasts until 1795 . 1569 : Peace treaty signed by Sultan Hairun of Ternate and Governor Lopez de Mesquita of Portugal. 1570s 1570 : Ivan the Terrible , tsar of Russia, orders the massacre of inhabitants of Novgorod . 1570 : Pope Pius V issues Regnans in Excelsis , a papal bull excommunicating all who obeyed Elizabeth I and calling on all Catholics to rebel against her. 1570 : Sultan Hairun of Ternate (in present-day Indonesia) is killed by the Portuguese. [ 12 ] Babullah becomes the next Sultan. 1570 : 20,000 inhabitants of Nicosia in Cyprus were massacred and every church, public building, and palace was looted. Cyprus fell to the Ottoman Turks the following year. 1571 : Pope Pius V completes the Holy League as a united front against the Ottoman Turks , responding to the fall of Cyprus to the Ottomans. 1571 : The Spanish-led Holy League navy destroys the Ottoman navy at the Battle of Lepanto . 1571 : Crimean Tatars attack and sack Moscow , burning everything but the Kremlin . 1571 : American Indians kill Spanish missionaries in what would later be Jamestown, Virginia . 1571 : Spanish conquistador Miguel López de Legazpi establishes Manila , Philippines as the capital of the Spanish East Indies . 1572 : Brielle is taken from Habsburg Spain by Protestant Watergeuzen in the Capture of Brielle , in the Eighty Years' War . 1572 : Spanish conquistadores apprehend the last Inca leader Tupak Amaru at Vilcabamba, Peru , and execute him in Cuzco . 1572 : Jeanne d'Albret dies aged 43 and is succeeded by Henry of Navarre . 1572 : Catherine de' Medici instigates the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre , which takes the lives of Protestant leader Gaspard de Coligny and thousands of Huguenots . The violence spreads from Paris to other cities and the countryside. 1572 : First edition of the epic The Lusiads of Luís Vaz de Camões , three years after the author returned from the East. [ 14 ] 1572 : The 9 years old Taizi , Zhu Yijun ascended the throne of Ming dynasty, known as Wanli Emperor . 1573 : After heavy losses on both sides the siege of Haarlem ends in a Spanish victory. St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of French Protestants 1574 : in the Eighty Years' War the capital of Zeeland , Middelburg declares for the Protestants. 1574 : After a siege of 4 months the siege of Leiden ends in a comprehensive Dutch rebel victory. 1575 : Oda Nobunaga finally captures Nagashima fortress. 1575 : Following a five-year war, the Ternateans under Sultan Babullah defeated the Portuguese. 1576 : Tahmasp I , Safavid shah, dies. 1576 : The Battle of Haldighati is fought between the ruler of Mewar , Maharana Pratap and the Mughal Empire 's forces under Emperor Akbar led by Raja Man Singh . 1576 : Sack of Antwerp by badly paid Spanish soldiers. 1577 – 1580 : Francis Drake circles the world . 1577 : Ki Ageng Pemanahan built his palace in Pasargede or Kotagede. 1578 : King Sebastian of Portugal is killed at the Battle of Alcazarquivir . 1578 : The Portuguese establish a fort on Tidore but the main centre for Portuguese activities in Maluku becomes Ambon. [ 12 ] 1578 : Sonam Gyatso is conferred the title of Dalai Lama by Tumed Mongol ruler, Altan Khan . Recognised as the reincarnation of two previous Lamas, Sonam Gyatso becomes the third Dalai Lama in the lineage. [ 15 ] 1578 : Governor-General Francisco de Sande officially declared war against Brunei in 1578, starting the Castilian War of 1578 . 1579 : The Union of Utrecht unifies the northern Netherlands, a foundation for the later Dutch Republic . 1579 : The Union of Arras unifies the southern Netherlands, a foundation for the later states of the Spanish Netherlands , the Austrian Netherlands and Belgium . The Irish Gaelic chieftain's feast, from The Image of Ireland 1579 : The British navigator Sir Francis Drake passes through Maluku and transit in Ternate on his circumnavigation of the world. The Portuguese establish a fort on Tidore but the main centre for Portuguese activities in Maluku becomes Ambon. [ 16 ] 1580s 1580 : Drake 's royal reception after his attacks on Spanish possessions influences Philip II of Spain to build up the Spanish Armada . English ships in Spanish harbours are impounded. 1580 : Spain unifies with Portugal under Philip II . The struggle for the throne of Portugal ends the Portuguese Empire . The Spanish and Portuguese crowns are united for 60 years, i.e. until 1640. 1580 – 1587 : Nagasaki comes under control of the Jesuits . 1581 : Dutch Act of Abjuration , declaring abjuring allegiance to Philip II of Spain. 1581 : Bayinnaung dies at the age of 65. 1582 : Oda Nobunaga commits seppuku during the Honnō-ji Incident coup by his general, Akechi Mitsuhide . 1582 : Pope Gregory XIII issues the Gregorian calendar . The last day of the Julian calendar was Thursday, 4 October 1582 and this was followed by the first day of the Gregorian calendar, Friday, 15 October 1582 1582 : Yermak Timofeyevich conquers the Siberia Khanate on behalf of the Stroganovs . 1583 : Denmark builds the world's first theme park, Bakken . 1583 : Death of Sultan Babullah of Ternate . 1584 – 1585 : After the siege of Antwerp , many of its merchants flee to Amsterdam . According to Luc-Normand Tellier, "At its peak, between 1510 and 1557, Antwerp concentrated about 40% of the world trade...It is estimated that the port of Antwerp was earning the Spanish crown seven times more revenues than the Americas ." [ 17 ] 1584 : Ki Ageng Pemanahan died. Sultan Pajang raised Sutawijaya, son of Ki Ageng Pemanahan as the new ruler in Mataram , titled "Loring Ngabehi Market" (because of his home in the north of the market). 1585 : Akbar annexes Kashmir and adds it to the Kabul Subah Portuguese fusta in India from a book by Jan Huygen van Linschoten 1585 : Colony at Roanoke founded in North America. 1585 – 1604 : The Anglo-Spanish War is fought on both sides of the Atlantic. 1587 : Mary, Queen of Scots is executed by Elizabeth I . 1587 : The reign of Abbas I marks the zenith of the Safavid dynasty . 1587 : Troops that would invade Pajang Mataram Sultanate storm ravaged the eruption of Mount Merapi. Sutawijaya and his men survived. 1588 : Mataram into the kingdom with Sutawijaya as Sultan, titled "Senapati Ingalaga Sayidin Panatagama" means the warlord and cleric Manager Religious Life. 1588 : England repulses the Spanish Armada . 1589 : Spain repulses the English Armada . 1589 : Catherine de' Medici dies at aged 69. 1590–1600 1590 : Siege of Odawara : the Go-Hojo clan surrender to Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and Japan is unified. 1591 : Gazi Giray leads a huge Tatar expedition against Moscow . 1591 : In Mali , Moroccan forces of the Sultan Ahmad al-Mansur led by Judar Pasha defeat the Songhai Empire at the Battle of Tondibi . 1592 – 1593 : John Stow reports 10,675 plague deaths in London , a city of approximately 200,000 people. 1592 – 1598 : Korea, with the help of Ming dynasty China, repels two Japanese invasions . 1593 – 1606 : The Long War between the Habsburg monarchy and the Ottoman Turks . 1594 : St. Paul's College, Macau , founded by Alessandro Valignano . 1595 : First Dutch expedition to Indonesia sets sail for the East Indies with two hundred and forty-nine men and sixty-four cannons led by Cornelis de Houtman . [ 18 ] 1596 : Birth of René Descartes . 1596 : June, de Houtman's expedition reaches Banten the main pepper port of West Java where they clash with both the Portuguese and Indonesians. It then sails east along the north coast of Java losing twelve crew to a Javanese attack at Sidayu and killing a local ruler in Madura . [ 18 ] 1597 : Romeo and Juliet is published. 1597 : Cornelis de Houtman's expedition returns to the Netherlands with enough spices to make a considerable profit. [ 18 ] 1598 : The Edict of Nantes ends the French Wars of Religion . 1598 : Abbas I moves Safavids capital from Qazvin to Isfahan in 1598. 1598 – 1613 : Russia descends into anarchy during the Time of Troubles . 1598 : The Portuguese require an armada of 90 ships to put down a Solorese uprising. [ 12 ] (to 1599) 1598 : More Dutch fleets leave for Indonesia and most are profitable. [ 18 ] Edo period screen depicting the Battle of Sekigahara 1598 : The province of Santa Fe de Nuevo México is established in Northern New Spain . The region would later become a territory of Mexico, the New Mexico Territory in the United States, and the US State of New Mexico . 1598 : Death of Toyotomi Hideyoshi , known as the unifier of Japan. 1599 : The Mali Empire is defeated at the Battle of Jenné . 1599 : The van Neck expedition returns to Europe. The expedition makes a 400 per cent profit. [ 18 ] (to 1600) 1599 : March, Leaving Europe the previous year, a fleet of eight ships under Jacob van Neck was the first Dutch fleet to reach the ‘Spice Islands’ of Maluku. [ 18 ] 1600 : Giordano Bruno is burned at the stake for heresy in Rome . Siege of Fiľakovo castle during the Long Turkish War 1600 : Battle of Sekigahara in Japan . End of the Warring States period and beginning of the Edo period . 1600 : The Portuguese win a major naval battle in the bay of Ambon. [ 19 ] Later in the year, the Dutch join forces with the local Hituese in an anti-Portuguese alliance, in return for which the Dutch would have the sole right to purchase spices from Hitu. [ 19 ] 1600 : Elizabeth I grants a charter to the British East India Company beginning the English advance in Asia. 1600 : Michael the Brave unifies the three principalities: Wallachia , Moldavia and Transylvania after the Battle of Șelimbăr from 1599. Undated Polybius' The Histories translated into Italian , English , German and French . [ 20 ] Mississippian culture disappears. Medallion rug, variant Star Ushak style, Anatolia (modern Turkey ), is made. It is now kept at the Saint Louis Art Museum . Gallery Hernan Cortes (1485–1547) Henry VIII , (1491–1547) King of England and Ireland Don Fernando Álvarez de Toledo (1507–1582) Suleiman the Magnificent , Sultan of the Ottoman Empire (1520–1566) Ivan IV the Terrible (1530–1584) Oda Nobunaga (1534–1582) Sir Francis Drake (c. 1540 – 1596) Alberico Gentili , (1552–1608) the Father of international law Philip II of Spain , King of Spain (1556–1598) Akbar the Great , Mughal emperor (1556–1605) Inventions, discoveries, introductions The Columbian Exchange introduces many plants, animals and diseases to the Old and New Worlds . Introduction of the spinning wheel revolutionizes textile production in Europe. The letter J is introduced into the English alphabet . The Age of Sail began, encompassing the period of roughly 1571–1862, when large, sail-powered wooden naval warships dominated the high seas, mounting a large variety of types and sizes of cannon as their main armament. 1500 : First portable watch is created by Peter Henlein of Germany . The Iberian Union in 1598, under Philip II , King of Spain and Portugal 1513 : Juan Ponce de León sights Florida and Vasco Núñez de Balboa sights the eastern edge of the Pacific Ocean . 1519 – 1522 : Ferdinand Magellan and Juan Sebastián Elcano lead the first circumnavigation of the world. 1519 – 1540 : In America, Hernando de Soto expeditions map the Gulf of Mexico coastline and bays. 1525 : Modern square root symbol (√) 1540 : Francisco Vásquez de Coronado sights the Grand Canyon . 1541 – 42 : Francisco de Orellana sails the length of the Amazon River . 1542 – 43 : Firearms are introduced into Japan by the Portuguese . 1543 : Copernicus publishes his theory that the Earth and the other planets revolve around the Sun 1545 : Theory of complex numbers is first developed by Gerolamo Cardano of Italy. 1558 : Camera obscura is first used in Europe by Giambattista della Porta of Italy . 1559 – 1562 : Spanish settlements in Alabama / Florida and Georgia confirm dangers of hurricanes and local native warring tribes. 1565 : Spanish settlers outside New Spain (Mexico) colonize Florida 's coastline at St. Augustine . 1565 : Invention of the graphite pencil (in a wooden holder) by Conrad Gesner . Modernized in 1812 . 1568 : Gerardus Mercator creates the first Mercator projection map. 1572 : Supernova SN 1572 is observed by Tycho Brahe in the Milky Way . 1582 : Gregorian calendar is introduced in Europe by Pope Gregory XIII and adopted by Catholic countries. c. 1583 : Galileo Galilei of Pisa , Italy identifies the constant swing of a pendulum , leading to development of reliable timekeepers. 1585 : earliest known reference to the ' sailing carriage ' in China . 1589 : William Lee invents the stocking frame . 1591 : First flush toilet is introduced by Sir John Harrington of England , the design published under the title 'The Metamorphosis of Ajax'. 1593 : Galileo Galilei invents a thermometer . 1596 : William Barents discovers Spitsbergen . 1597 : Opera in Florence by Jacopo Peri . See also Entertainment in the 16th century References ^ Modern reference works on the period tend to follow the introduction of the Gregorian calendar for the sake of clarity; thus NASA's lunar eclipse catalogue states "The Gregorian calendar is used for all dates from 1582 Oct 15 onwards. Before that date, the Julian calendar is used." For dates after 15 October 1582, care must be taken to avoid confusion of the two styles. ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} de Vries, Jan (14 September 2009). "The limits of globalization in the early modern world". The Economic History Review . 63 (3): 710– 733. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.186.2862 . doi : 10.1111/j.1468-0289.2009.00497.x . JSTOR 40929823 . S2CID 219969360 . SSRN 1635517 . ^ Singh, Sarina; Lindsay Brown; Paul Clammer; Rodney Cocks; John Mock (2008). Pakistan & the Karakoram Highway . Vol. 7, illustrated. Lonely Planet. p. 137. ISBN 978-1-74104-542-0 . Retrieved 23 August 2010 . ^ Babur (2006). Babur Nama . Penguin Books. p. vii. ISBN 978-0-14-400149-1 . ^ "16th Century Timeline (1501 to 1600)" . fsmitha.com. Archived from the original on February 3, 2009. ^ "History of Smallpox – Smallpox Through the Ages" Archived 2019-09-24 at the Wayback Machine . Texas Department of State Health Services. ^ Ricklefs (1991), p.23 ^ "A LIST OF NATIONAL EPIDEMICS OF PLAGUE IN ENGLAND 1348–1665" . Archived from the original on 2009-05-08 . Retrieved 2009-04-25 . ^ a b Ricklefs (1991), page 24 ^ The Sweating Sickness . Story of London. . Accessed 2009-04-25. Archived 2009-05-03. ^ Sandra Arlinghaus. "Life Span of Suleiman the Magnificent 1494–1566" . Personal.umich.edu . Retrieved 2013-05-05 . ^ a b c d e Ricklefs (1991), page 25 ^ "La Terra De Hochelaga – Jaques Cartier a Hochelaga" . jacquescarter.org. Archived from the original on December 23, 2008. ^ "The Lusiads" . World Digital Library . 1800–1882 . Retrieved 2013-08-31 . ^ Schwieger, Peter (2014). The Dalai Lama and the Emperor of China: a political history of the Tibetan institution of reincarnation . New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231538602 . OCLC 905914446 . ^ Miller, George, ed. (1996). To The Spice Islands and Beyond: Travels in Eastern Indonesia . New York: Oxford University Press. pp. xv. ISBN 967-65-3099-9 . ^ Luc-Normand Tellier (2009). " Urban world history: an economic and geographical perspective ". PUQ. p.308. ISBN 2-7605-1588-5 ^ a b c d e f Ricklefs (1991), page 27 ^ a b Ricklefs (1991), page 28 ^ Polybius: The Rise Of The Roman Empire , Page 36, Penguin, 1979. Further reading Langer, William. An Encyclopedia of World History (5th ed. 1973); highly detailed outline of events online free External links @media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}} Media related to 16th century at Wikimedia Commons Timelines of 16th century events, science, culture and persons Millennia Centuries Decades Years Millennia Centuries Decades Years v t e Decades and years 16th century 14th century ← 15th century ← ↔ → 17th century → 18th century 1490s 1490 1491 1492 1493 1494 1495 1496 1497 1498 1499 1500s 1500 1501 1502 1503 1504 1505 1506 1507 1508 1509 1510s 1510 1511 1512 1513 1514 1515 1516 1517 1518 1519 1520s 1520 1521 1522 1523 1524 1525 1526 1527 1528 1529 1530s 1530 1531 1532 1533 1534 1535 1536 1537 1538 1539 1540s 1540 1541 1542 1543 1544 1545 1546 1547 1548 1549 1550s 1550 1551 1552 1553 1554 1555 1556 1557 1558 1559 1560s 1560 1561 1562 1563 1564 1565 1566 1567 1568 1569 1570s 1570 1571 1572 1573 1574 1575 1576 1577 1578 1579 1580s 1580 1581 1582 1583 1584 1585 1586 1587 1588 1589 1590s 1590 1591 1592 1593 1594 1595 1596 1597 1598 1599 1600s 1600 1601 1602 1603 1604 1605 1606 1607 1608 1609 v t e Centuries and millennia Millennium Century BC (BCE) 4th 40th 39th 38th 37th 36th 35th 34th 33rd 32nd 31st 3rd 30th 29th 28th 27th 26th 25th 24th 23rd 22nd 21st 2nd 20th 19th 18th 17th 16th 15th 14th 13th 12th 11th 1st 10th 9th 8th 7th 6th 5th 4th 3rd 2nd 1st AD (CE) 1st 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 2nd 11th 12th 13th 14th 15th 16th 17th 18th 19th 20th 3rd 21st 22nd 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 28th 29th 30th v t e Decades and years v t e 16th century 14th century ← 15th century ← ↔ → 17th century → 18th century 1490s 1490 1491 1492 1493 1494 1495 1496 1497 1498 1499 1500s 1500 1501 1502 1503 1504 1505 1506 1507 1508 1509 1510s 1510 1511 1512 1513 1514 1515 1516 1517 1518 1519 1520s 1520 1521 1522 1523 1524 1525 1526 1527 1528 1529 1530s 1530 1531 1532 1533 1534 1535 1536 1537 1538 1539 1540s 1540 1541 1542 1543 1544 1545 1546 1547 1548 1549 1550s 1550 1551 1552 1553 1554 1555 1556 1557 1558 1559 1560s 1560 1561 1562 1563 1564 1565 1566 1567 1568 1569 1570s 1570 1571 1572 1573 1574 1575 1576 1577 1578 1579 1580s 1580 1581 1582 1583 1584 1585 1586 1587 1588 1589 1590s 1590 1591 1592 1593 1594 1595 1596 1597 1598 1599 1600s 1600 1601 1602 1603 1604 1605 1606 1607 1608 1609 1490s 1490 1491 1492 1493 1494 1495 1496 1497 1498 1499 1500s 1500 1501 1502 1503 1504 1505 1506 1507 1508 1509 1510s 1510 1511 1512 1513 1514 1515 1516 1517 1518 1519 1520s 1520 1521 1522 1523 1524 1525 1526 1527 1528 1529 1530s 1530 1531 1532 1533 1534 1535 1536 1537 1538 1539 1540s 1540 1541 1542 1543 1544 1545 1546 1547 1548 1549 1550s 1550 1551 1552 1553 1554 1555 1556 1557 1558 1559 1560s 1560 1561 1562 1563 1564 1565 1566 1567 1568 1569 1570s 1570 1571 1572 1573 1574 1575 1576 1577 1578 1579 1580s 1580 1581 1582 1583 1584 1585 1586 1587 1588 1589 1590s 1590 1591 1592 1593 1594 1595 1596 1597 1598 1599 1600s 1600 1601 1602 1603 1604 1605 1606 1607 1608 1609 v t e Centuries and millennia v t e Millennium Century BC (BCE) 4th 40th 39th 38th 37th 36th 35th 34th 33rd 32nd 31st 3rd 30th 29th 28th 27th 26th 25th 24th 23rd 22nd 21st 2nd 20th 19th 18th 17th 16th 15th 14th 13th 12th 11th 1st 10th 9th 8th 7th 6th 5th 4th 3rd 2nd 1st AD (CE) 1st 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 2nd 11th 12th 13th 14th 15th 16th 17th 18th 19th 20th 3rd 21st 22nd 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 28th 29th 30th Millennium Century BC (BCE) 4th 40th 39th 38th 37th 36th 35th 34th 33rd 32nd 31st 3rd 30th 29th 28th 27th 26th 25th 24th 23rd 22nd 21st 2nd 20th 19th 18th 17th 16th 15th 14th 13th 12th 11th 1st 10th 9th 8th 7th 6th 5th 4th 3rd 2nd 1st AD (CE) 1st 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 2nd 11th 12th 13th 14th 15th 16th 17th 18th 19th 20th 3rd 21st 22nd 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 28th 29th 30th Authority control databases International FAST FAST National United States 2 France BnF data Czech Republic Israel United States 2 2 France BnF data Czech Republic Israel Artists KulturNav KulturNav Other Yale LUX Yale LUX 16th century Centuries Early modern period 2nd millennium CS1: long volume value Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles needing additional references from September 2022 All articles needing additional references Commons category link from Wikidata This page was last edited on 8 January 2026, at 20:30 (UTC) . 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Help | Advanced Search quick links Login Help Pages About Computer Science > Artificial Intelligence Title: Generative AI collective behavior needs an interactionist paradigm Abstract: In this article, we argue that understanding the collective behavior of agents based on large language models (LLMs) is an essential area of inquiry, with important implications in terms of risks and benefits, impacting us as a society at many levels. We claim that the distinctive nature of LLMs--namely, their initialization with extensive pre-trained knowledge and implicit social priors, together with their capability of adaptation through in-context learning--motivates the need for an interactionist paradigm consisting of alternative theoretical foundations, methodologies, and analytical tools, in order to systematically examine how prior knowledge and embedded values interact with social context to shape emergent phenomena in multi-agent generative AI systems. We propose and discuss four directions that we consider crucial for the development and deployment of LLM-based collectives, focusing on theory, methods, and trans-disciplinary dialogue. Subjects: Artificial Intelligence (cs.AI) ; Computers and Society (cs.CY); Human-Computer Interaction (cs.HC); Machine Learning (cs.LG); Multiagent Systems (cs.MA) Cite as: arXiv:2601.10567 [cs.AI] (or arXiv:2601.10567v1 [cs.AI] for this version) Focus to learn more arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite Submission history Access Paper: View PDF HTML (experimental) TeX Source References & Citations NASA ADS Google Scholar Semantic Scholar BibTeX formatted citation Bookmark Bibliographic and Citation Tools Code, Data and Media Associated with this Article Demos Recommenders and Search Tools Author Venue Institution Topic arXivLabs: experimental projects with community collaborators arXivLabs is a framework that allows collaborators to develop and share new arXiv features directly on our website. Both individuals and organizations that work with arXivLabs have embraced and accepted our values of openness, community, excellence, and user data privacy. arXiv is committed to these values and only works with partners that adhere to them. Have an idea for a project that will add value for arXiv's community? Learn more about arXivLabs . About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status arXiv Operational Status
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Background Toggle Background subsection 1.1 Economic crisis in Iran 1.2 Comparison to previous protests 1.1 Economic crisis in Iran 1.2 Comparison to previous protests 2 Protests Toggle Protests subsection 2.1 Initial bazaar 2.1.1 28 December 2025 2.1.2 29 December 2.2 Spread across Iran 2.2.1 30 December 2.2.2 31 December 2.3 2026 2.3.1 1 January 2.3.2 2 January 2.3.3 3 January 2.3.4 4 January 2.3.5 5 January 2.3.6 6 January 2.3.7 7 January 2.3.8 8 January 2.3.9 9 January 2.3.10 10 January 2.3.11 11 January 2.3.12 12 January 2.3.13 13 January 2.3.14 14 January 2.3.15 15 January 2.1 Initial bazaar 2.1.1 28 December 2025 2.1.2 29 December 2.1.1 28 December 2025 2.1.2 29 December 2.2 Spread across Iran 2.2.1 30 December 2.2.2 31 December 2.2.1 30 December 2.2.2 31 December 2.3 2026 2.3.1 1 January 2.3.2 2 January 2.3.3 3 January 2.3.4 4 January 2.3.5 5 January 2.3.6 6 January 2.3.7 7 January 2.3.8 8 January 2.3.9 9 January 2.3.10 10 January 2.3.11 11 January 2.3.12 12 January 2.3.13 13 January 2.3.14 14 January 2.3.15 15 January 2.3.1 1 January 2.3.2 2 January 2.3.3 3 January 2.3.4 4 January 2.3.5 5 January 2.3.6 6 January 2.3.7 7 January 2.3.8 8 January 2.3.9 9 January 2.3.10 10 January 2.3.11 11 January 2.3.12 12 January 2.3.13 13 January 2.3.14 14 January 2.3.15 15 January 3 Methods Toggle Methods subsection 3.1 Protesters 3.1.1 National strikes 3.1.2 Demonstrations 3.1.3 Slogans and symbols 3.1.4 Organisation 3.1.5 Territorial control 3.1 Protesters 3.1.1 National strikes 3.1.2 Demonstrations 3.1.3 Slogans and symbols 3.1.4 Organisation 3.1.5 Territorial control 3.1.1 National strikes 3.1.2 Demonstrations 3.1.3 Slogans and symbols 3.1.4 Organisation 3.1.5 Territorial control 4 Suppression, persecution and executions Toggle Suppression, persecution and executions subsection 4.1 Internet blackouts 4.2 Recruitment of foreign militias 4.3 Internal propaganda and coercion 4.4 Direct order for live fire on protesters 4.5 Persecution 4.5.1 Erfan Soltani 4.1 Internet blackouts 4.2 Recruitment of foreign militias 4.3 Internal propaganda and coercion 4.4 Direct order for live fire on protesters 4.5 Persecution 4.5.1 Erfan Soltani 4.5.1 Erfan Soltani 5 Casualties Toggle Casualties subsection 5.1 Casualties, arrests, executions, and injured protesters 5.1.1 31 December 5.1.2 1 January 5.1.3 2 January 5.1.4 3 January 5.1.5 4 January 5.1.6 5 January 5.1.7 6 January 5.1.8 7 January 5.1.9 8 January 5.1.10 9 January 5.1.11 10 January 5.1.12 11 January 5.1.13 12 January 5.1.14 13 January 5.1.15 15 January 5.1.16 Executions 5.2 Government forces 5.3 Notable victims 5.4 Foreign victims 5.1 Casualties, arrests, executions, and injured protesters 5.1.1 31 December 5.1.2 1 January 5.1.3 2 January 5.1.4 3 January 5.1.5 4 January 5.1.6 5 January 5.1.7 6 January 5.1.8 7 January 5.1.9 8 January 5.1.10 9 January 5.1.11 10 January 5.1.12 11 January 5.1.13 12 January 5.1.14 13 January 5.1.15 15 January 5.1.16 Executions 5.1.1 31 December 5.1.2 1 January 5.1.3 2 January 5.1.4 3 January 5.1.5 4 January 5.1.6 5 January 5.1.7 6 January 5.1.8 7 January 5.1.9 8 January 5.1.10 9 January 5.1.11 10 January 5.1.12 11 January 5.1.13 12 January 5.1.14 13 January 5.1.15 15 January 5.1.16 Executions 5.2 Government forces 5.3 Notable victims 5.4 Foreign victims 6 Reactions Toggle Reactions subsection 6.1 Domestic 6.2 International 6.2.1 Sovereign states 6.2.2 Intergovernmental and international organisations 6.2.3 Political parties and organisations 6.2.4 Corporate organisations 6.2.5 International travel advisories 6.2.6 Polling 6.1 Domestic 6.2 International 6.2.1 Sovereign states 6.2.2 Intergovernmental and international organisations 6.2.3 Political parties and organisations 6.2.4 Corporate organisations 6.2.5 International travel advisories 6.2.6 Polling 6.2.1 Sovereign states 6.2.2 Intergovernmental and international organisations 6.2.3 Political parties and organisations 6.2.4 Corporate organisations 6.2.5 International travel advisories 6.2.6 Polling 7 Analysis Toggle Analysis subsection 7.1 View of the protests as an uprising 7.1 View of the protests as an uprising 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 2025–2026 Iranian protests العربية Azərbaycanca বাংলা Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia עברית ქართული کٲشُر Қазақша Kurdî Bahasa Melayu Nederlands नेपाली 日本語 Português Română Русский Саха тыла Simple English کوردی Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 中文 Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF 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Please update outdated or incomplete information with citations to reliable sources . ( January 2026 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) 2025–2026 Iranian protests Part of the protests against the government of Iran and the Iranian economic crisis and Gen Z protests Cities in Iran where protests have been reported as of 8 January 2026. (Click to zoom in.) Date 28 December 2025 – present (19 days) Location 512 locations across 180 cities in all 31 provinces of Iran . [ 1 ] The protests are recorded in multiple cities across Iran , primarily Tehran ( Grand Bazaar and commercial districts), Ahvaz , Arak , Dargahan , Farsan , Fasa , Fuladshahr , Hamadan , Isfahan , Izeh , Kermanshah , Mashhad , Marlik , Najafabad , Nurabad , Qeshm , Qom , Shiraz , Sari and others. [ a ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] Caused by Political issues Authoritarianism Human rights abuses Political corruption Internet censorship and blackouts Systemic/ideological issues Foreign proxy involvement Mandatory hijab enforcement Ethnic-based discrimination Religious persecution Economic issues Economic mismanagement International sanctions Rising price of food and essential goods Currency crisis – Severe depreciation of the Iranian rial Water and energy shortages Authoritarianism Human rights abuses Political corruption Internet censorship and blackouts Systemic/ideological issues Foreign proxy involvement Mandatory hijab enforcement Ethnic-based discrimination Religious persecution Economic issues Economic mismanagement International sanctions Rising price of food and essential goods Currency crisis – Severe depreciation of the Iranian rial Water and energy shortages Goals Overthrow of the Islamic Republic government [ 4 ] [ 5 ] Return of Reza Pahlavi to lead a transitional government (some factions) [ 6 ] End of economic mismanagement Stabilisation of exchange rates Addressing of civilians' and merchants' hardships Overthrow of the Islamic Republic government [ 4 ] [ 5 ] Return of Reza Pahlavi to lead a transitional government (some factions) [ 6 ] End of economic mismanagement Stabilisation of exchange rates Addressing of civilians' and merchants' hardships Stabilisation of exchange rates Addressing of civilians' and merchants' hardships Methods Street protests, marches, arsons , and rooftop demonstrations Chants and slogans Strikes and shop closures (led by bazaar merchants and shopkeepers) Online activism Student activism Riots Rebellion Insurgency Street protests, marches, arsons , and rooftop demonstrations Chants and slogans Strikes and shop closures (led by bazaar merchants and shopkeepers) Online activism Student activism Riots Rebellion Insurgency Status Ongoing Protests suppressed by force Nationwide internet and mobile networks shut down Protests suppressed by force Nationwide internet and mobile networks shut down Parties Iranian opposition Anti-government demonstrators Student demonstrators [ 7 ] Police and military defectors Supported by: Political groups: Iran National Council for Free Elections (INC) [ 6 ] [ 8 ] [ 9 ] People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran (MEK) [ 10 ] .mw-parser-output .treeview ul{padding:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .treeview li{padding:0;margin:0;list-style-type:none;list-style-image:none}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li{background:url(" 0 -2981px;padding-left:21px;text-indent:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li:last-child{background-position:0 -5971px}.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>.mw-empty-elt:first-child+.emptyline,.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>li:first-child{background-position:0 9px} National Council of Resistance of Iran (NCRI) [ 11 ] [ 12 ] [ 13 ] Solidarity for a Secular Democratic Republic in Iran [ 10 ] Separatist groups: Kurdish separatists Democratic Party of Iranian Kurdistan [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Kurdistan Freedom Party [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Kurdistan Free Life Party [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Organisation of Iranian Kurdistan Struggle [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Komala Party of Iranian Kurdistan [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Revolutionary Toilers Association [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Kurdistan Toilers Association [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Kurdistan National Guard Zagros Tornado units [ 16 ] Baloch separatists People's Fighters Front [ 17 ] [ 18 ] [ 19 ] Balochistan People's Party [ 20 ] [ 21 ] South Azerbaijani separatists South Azerbaijan Organizations Cooperation Council [ 22 ] [ bare URL ] Coordination Council of Azerbaijani Parties in Iran [ 23 ] Labour, civil, and retiree groups: Free Workers Union of Iran [ 24 ] Iranian Writers Association [ 24 ] Coordination Council of Iranian Teachers Trade Associations [ 24 ] Haft Tappeh Sugarcane Workers Syndicate [ 24 ] Coordination Committee to Help Form Independent Labour Organisations [ 24 ] Khuzestan Retired Workers [ 24 ] Union of Retirees Group [ 24 ] Kurdish Women's Organisations [ 24 ] Retirees Union [ 25 ] Kermanshah Electricity and Metal Association [ 25 ] "Stop Executions" [ 25 ] "Justice Seekers" [ 25 ] Coordination Council for Protests of Contract Oil Workers [ 25 ] Coordination Council for Protests of Non-Formal Oil Workers [ 25 ] Coordination Council of Nurses Protests [ 25 ] "Neday-e Zanan-e Iran" [ 25 ] World Iranian Christian Alliance [ 26 ] Government of Iran Armed Forces Islamic Republic of Iran Army [ 16 ] Police Command Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) Basij Nabi Akram Corps [ 27 ] Ground Forces [ 28 ] Pro-government counterprotesters [ 29 ] and plainclothesmen Pro-Government foreign Shia militias [ 21 ] Popular Mobilisation Forces Kata'ib Hezbollah Harakat al-Nujaba Kata'ib Sayyid ul-Shuhada Badr Organisation Hezbollah Liwa Fatemiyoun Liwa Zainebiyoun Iranian opposition Anti-government demonstrators Student demonstrators [ 7 ] Police and military defectors Supported by: Political groups: Iran National Council for Free Elections (INC) [ 6 ] [ 8 ] [ 9 ] People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran (MEK) [ 10 ] .mw-parser-output .treeview ul{padding:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .treeview li{padding:0;margin:0;list-style-type:none;list-style-image:none}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li{background:url(" 0 -2981px;padding-left:21px;text-indent:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li:last-child{background-position:0 -5971px}.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>.mw-empty-elt:first-child+.emptyline,.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>li:first-child{background-position:0 9px} National Council of Resistance of Iran (NCRI) [ 11 ] [ 12 ] [ 13 ] Solidarity for a Secular Democratic Republic in Iran [ 10 ] Separatist groups: Kurdish separatists Democratic Party of Iranian Kurdistan [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Kurdistan Freedom Party [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Kurdistan Free Life Party [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Organisation of Iranian Kurdistan Struggle [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Komala Party of Iranian Kurdistan [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Revolutionary Toilers Association [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Kurdistan Toilers Association [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Kurdistan National Guard Zagros Tornado units [ 16 ] Baloch separatists People's Fighters Front [ 17 ] [ 18 ] [ 19 ] Balochistan People's Party [ 20 ] [ 21 ] South Azerbaijani separatists South Azerbaijan Organizations Cooperation Council [ 22 ] [ bare URL ] Coordination Council of Azerbaijani Parties in Iran [ 23 ] Labour, civil, and retiree groups: Free Workers Union of Iran [ 24 ] Iranian Writers Association [ 24 ] Coordination Council of Iranian Teachers Trade Associations [ 24 ] Haft Tappeh Sugarcane Workers Syndicate [ 24 ] Coordination Committee to Help Form Independent Labour Organisations [ 24 ] Khuzestan Retired Workers [ 24 ] Union of Retirees Group [ 24 ] Kurdish Women's Organisations [ 24 ] Retirees Union [ 25 ] Kermanshah Electricity and Metal Association [ 25 ] "Stop Executions" [ 25 ] "Justice Seekers" [ 25 ] Coordination Council for Protests of Contract Oil Workers [ 25 ] Coordination Council for Protests of Non-Formal Oil Workers [ 25 ] Coordination Council of Nurses Protests [ 25 ] "Neday-e Zanan-e Iran" [ 25 ] World Iranian Christian Alliance [ 26 ] Iranian opposition Anti-government demonstrators Student demonstrators [ 7 ] Police and military defectors Iran National Council for Free Elections (INC) [ 6 ] [ 8 ] [ 9 ] People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran (MEK) [ 10 ] .mw-parser-output .treeview ul{padding:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .treeview li{padding:0;margin:0;list-style-type:none;list-style-image:none}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li{background:url(" 0 -2981px;padding-left:21px;text-indent:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li:last-child{background-position:0 -5971px}.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>.mw-empty-elt:first-child+.emptyline,.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>li:first-child{background-position:0 9px} National Council of Resistance of Iran (NCRI) [ 11 ] [ 12 ] [ 13 ] National Council of Resistance of Iran (NCRI) [ 11 ] [ 12 ] [ 13 ] National Council of Resistance of Iran (NCRI) [ 11 ] [ 12 ] [ 13 ] Solidarity for a Secular Democratic Republic in Iran [ 10 ] Kurdish separatists Democratic Party of Iranian Kurdistan [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Kurdistan Freedom Party [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Kurdistan Free Life Party [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Organisation of Iranian Kurdistan Struggle [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Komala Party of Iranian Kurdistan [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Revolutionary Toilers Association [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Kurdistan Toilers Association [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Kurdistan National Guard Zagros Tornado units [ 16 ] Kurdish separatists Democratic Party of Iranian Kurdistan [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Kurdistan Freedom Party [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Kurdistan Free Life Party [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Organisation of Iranian Kurdistan Struggle [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Komala Party of Iranian Kurdistan [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Revolutionary Toilers Association [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Kurdistan Toilers Association [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Kurdistan National Guard Zagros Tornado units [ 16 ] Democratic Party of Iranian Kurdistan [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Kurdistan Freedom Party [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Kurdistan Free Life Party [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Organisation of Iranian Kurdistan Struggle [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Komala Party of Iranian Kurdistan [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Revolutionary Toilers Association [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Kurdistan Toilers Association [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Kurdistan National Guard Zagros Tornado units [ 16 ] Zagros Tornado units [ 16 ] Baloch separatists People's Fighters Front [ 17 ] [ 18 ] [ 19 ] Balochistan People's Party [ 20 ] [ 21 ] Baloch separatists People's Fighters Front [ 17 ] [ 18 ] [ 19 ] Balochistan People's Party [ 20 ] [ 21 ] People's Fighters Front [ 17 ] [ 18 ] [ 19 ] Balochistan People's Party [ 20 ] [ 21 ] South Azerbaijani separatists South Azerbaijan Organizations Cooperation Council [ 22 ] [ bare URL ] Coordination Council of Azerbaijani Parties in Iran [ 23 ] South Azerbaijani separatists South Azerbaijan Organizations Cooperation Council [ 22 ] [ bare URL ] Coordination Council of Azerbaijani Parties in Iran [ 23 ] South Azerbaijan Organizations Cooperation Council [ 22 ] [ bare URL ] Coordination Council of Azerbaijani Parties in Iran [ 23 ] Free Workers Union of Iran [ 24 ] Iranian Writers Association [ 24 ] Coordination Council of Iranian Teachers Trade Associations [ 24 ] Haft Tappeh Sugarcane Workers Syndicate [ 24 ] Coordination Committee to Help Form Independent Labour Organisations [ 24 ] Khuzestan Retired Workers [ 24 ] Union of Retirees Group [ 24 ] Kurdish Women's Organisations [ 24 ] Retirees Union [ 25 ] Kermanshah Electricity and Metal Association [ 25 ] "Stop Executions" [ 25 ] "Justice Seekers" [ 25 ] Coordination Council for Protests of Contract Oil Workers [ 25 ] Coordination Council for Protests of Non-Formal Oil Workers [ 25 ] Coordination Council of Nurses Protests [ 25 ] "Neday-e Zanan-e Iran" [ 25 ] World Iranian Christian Alliance [ 26 ] Government of Iran Armed Forces Islamic Republic of Iran Army [ 16 ] Police Command Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) Basij Nabi Akram Corps [ 27 ] Ground Forces [ 28 ] Pro-government counterprotesters [ 29 ] and plainclothesmen Pro-Government foreign Shia militias [ 21 ] Popular Mobilisation Forces Kata'ib Hezbollah Harakat al-Nujaba Kata'ib Sayyid ul-Shuhada Badr Organisation Hezbollah Liwa Fatemiyoun Liwa Zainebiyoun Government of Iran Armed Forces Islamic Republic of Iran Army [ 16 ] Police Command Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) Basij Nabi Akram Corps [ 27 ] Ground Forces [ 28 ] Pro-government counterprotesters [ 29 ] and plainclothesmen Pro-Government foreign Shia militias [ 21 ] Popular Mobilisation Forces Kata'ib Hezbollah Harakat al-Nujaba Kata'ib Sayyid ul-Shuhada Badr Organisation Hezbollah Liwa Fatemiyoun Liwa Zainebiyoun Armed Forces Islamic Republic of Iran Army [ 16 ] Police Command Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) Basij Nabi Akram Corps [ 27 ] Ground Forces [ 28 ] Islamic Republic of Iran Army [ 16 ] Police Command Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) Basij Nabi Akram Corps [ 27 ] Ground Forces [ 28 ] Basij Nabi Akram Corps [ 27 ] Nabi Akram Corps [ 27 ] Ground Forces [ 28 ] Pro-government counterprotesters [ 29 ] and plainclothesmen Pro-Government foreign Shia militias [ 21 ] Popular Mobilisation Forces Kata'ib Hezbollah Harakat al-Nujaba Kata'ib Sayyid ul-Shuhada Badr Organisation Hezbollah Liwa Fatemiyoun Liwa Zainebiyoun Popular Mobilisation Forces Kata'ib Hezbollah Harakat al-Nujaba Kata'ib Sayyid ul-Shuhada Badr Organisation Kata'ib Hezbollah Harakat al-Nujaba Kata'ib Sayyid ul-Shuhada Badr Organisation Hezbollah Liwa Fatemiyoun Liwa Zainebiyoun Lead figures .mw-parser-output .infobox-columns{display:flex}.mw-parser-output .infobox .infobox-columns-text-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .infobox-columns>div{box-sizing:border-box;width:50%;padding:2px}.mw-parser-output .infobox-columns-3>div{width:33.33%}.mw-parser-output .infobox-columns-4>div{width:25%}.mw-parser-output .infobox-columns>div:not(:first-child){border-left:1px dotted #aaa;padding-left:5px} .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} "Broadly leaderless" [ 30 ] [ 31 ] [ 32 ] [ 33 ] Reza Pahlavi [ 34 ] [ 35 ] Ali Khamenei ( Supreme Leader of Iran ) Masoud Pezeshkian ( President of Iran ) Others: Gholam-Hossein Mohseni-Eje'i ( Chief Justice of Iran ) Mohammad Bagher Qalibaf ( Speaker of the Parliament of the Islamic Republic Iran ) Ali Larijani ( Supreme National Security Council ) Abbas Araghchi ( Minister of Foreign Affairs ) Abdolrahim Mousavi ( General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Islamic Republic of Iran ) Amir Hatami ( Commander-in-Chief of the Iranian Army ) Ahmad-Reza Radan (Chief Commander of the Police Command of the Islamic Republic of Iran Mohammad Pakpour (Commander of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps Ground Forces Gholamreza Soleimani (Commander of the Basij ) "Broadly leaderless" [ 30 ] [ 31 ] [ 32 ] [ 33 ] Reza Pahlavi [ 34 ] [ 35 ] Ali Khamenei ( Supreme Leader of Iran ) Masoud Pezeshkian ( President of Iran ) Gholam-Hossein Mohseni-Eje'i ( Chief Justice of Iran ) Mohammad Bagher Qalibaf ( Speaker of the Parliament of the Islamic Republic Iran ) Ali Larijani ( Supreme National Security Council ) Abbas Araghchi ( Minister of Foreign Affairs ) Abdolrahim Mousavi ( General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Islamic Republic of Iran ) Amir Hatami ( Commander-in-Chief of the Iranian Army ) Ahmad-Reza Radan (Chief Commander of the Police Command of the Islamic Republic of Iran Mohammad Pakpour (Commander of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps Ground Forces Gholamreza Soleimani (Commander of the Basij ) Gholam-Hossein Mohseni-Eje'i ( Chief Justice of Iran ) Mohammad Bagher Qalibaf ( Speaker of the Parliament of the Islamic Republic Iran ) Ali Larijani ( Supreme National Security Council ) Abbas Araghchi ( Minister of Foreign Affairs ) Abdolrahim Mousavi ( General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Islamic Republic of Iran ) Amir Hatami ( Commander-in-Chief of the Iranian Army ) Ahmad-Reza Radan (Chief Commander of the Police Command of the Islamic Republic of Iran Mohammad Pakpour (Commander of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps Ground Forces Gholamreza Soleimani (Commander of the Basij ) Number Millions (per Iran International) [ 36 ] Widespread deployment 800 Iranian-backed Iraqi militiamen (per Iranian opposition) [ 21 ] Tens of thousands of counter-protesters in Tehran [ 37 ] Millions (per Iran International) [ 36 ] Widespread deployment 800 Iranian-backed Iraqi militiamen (per Iranian opposition) [ 21 ] Tens of thousands of counter-protesters in Tehran [ 37 ] Casualties Deaths ~2,000–3,000 overall (per Iranian government officials) [ b ] >4,370 overall (per HRANA ) [ c ] 12,000 protesters (per Iran International ) [ 42 ] 12,000–20,000 protesters (per activist groups) [ 43 ] Arrested 19,097 [ d ] Precise casualties uncertain due to Internet and telephone blackout imposed by the government since 8 January 2026 Beginning on 28 December 2025, demonstrations erupted across multiple cities in Iran amid nationwide unrest against the Islamic Republic government and a deepening economic crisis . The events have been described as the largest uprising since the 1979 Islamic Revolution . [ e ] The ensuing crackdown, carried out under Ali Khamenei's direct order for live fire on protesters, resulted in massacres that left tens of thousands of protesters dead , making them some of the largest massacres in modern Iranian history . [ 42 ] [ 43 ] [ 49 ] Initially sparked by frustration over record-high inflation , food prices, and currency depreciation, the protests quickly evolved into a broader movement demanding an end to the current regime. [ 50 ] Beginning with the bazaari (shopkeepers and merchants) in Tehran's Grand Bazaar and later university students, the demonstrations soon spread not only to major cities but also small settlements chanting anti-government slogans [ 51 ] [ 52 ] [ 53 ] and destroying symbols of the government and the IRGC . [ 54 ] [ 55 ] Although largely leaderless, the protests escalated on 8 January following the call for unified protests by Reza Pahlavi, Crown Prince of Iran and the subsequent call for a general strike by the Komala Party of Iranian Kurdistan . [ 56 ] [ 57 ] Many demonstrators have been calling for Pahlavi's return to Iran; [ 58 ] he has called for a peaceful transition and a referendum to decide Iran's future political system. [ 6 ] The Iranian government has cut off Internet access and telephone services in an attempt to prevent protesters from organising. [ 58 ] It has accused the United States and Israel of fuelling the protests, [ 54 ] which analysts suggest may be a tactic to increase security forces' willingness to kill protesters. [ 21 ] As of 9 January, millions took to the streets in protests across all 31 provinces. By 10 January 2026, Iran International reported that at least 2,000 protesters had been killed nationwide over the previous 48 hours amid the internet blackout, as Iranian security forces escalated their use of live ammunition against demonstrators. [ 59 ] Hospitals in Tehran and Shiraz were reported to be overwhelmed by injured protesters, many suffering gunshot wounds. [ 60 ] Iran's foreign ministry spokesperson confirmed security forces fired on protesters, raising international concern over human rights. [ 61 ] In addition, thousands were arrested during the violent crackdown. [ 62 ] Despite the blackout, on 10 January 2026, The Guardian documented multiple reports of security forces opening fire on demonstrations, with one eyewitness stating they saw " hundreds of bodies " across Tehran. [ 63 ] On 11 January, Time reported that an expatriate group of academics and professionals estimated the death toll at 6,000, based on reports from hospitals, without including bodies taken directly to morgues rather than hospitals. [ 64 ] On 13 January, Iran International reported that at least 12,000 had been killed; CBS News reported on the same day that activist groups in Iran estimated at least 12,000 deaths and possibly as many as 20,000. [ 42 ] [ 43 ] Background Economic crisis in Iran Beginning in 2024, Iran's economy experienced sharp inflation, a devalued currency, and an energy deficit, culminating in repeated electricity and gas disruptions and apologies from Iranian president Masoud Pezeshkian . Iran had also suffered from major declines in global influence such as with the fall of the Assad regime in Syria, a major ally. [ 65 ] In the final months of 2025, Iran's economy experienced an unprecedented surge in exchange rates , a sharp depreciation of the Iranian rial with the US dollar reaching approximately 145,000 Iranian tomans . [ 66 ] [ 67 ] Additionally, the country's state statistics centre reported an inflation rate of 42.2% in December 2025, an increase of 1.8% compared to November. [ 44 ] Food prices rose by 72%, while health and medical goods increased by 50% year-on-year. [ 44 ] Iran is experiencing a mismanaged water crisis . [ 45 ] Reports in Iranian media also indicated that the government planned to raise taxes with the start of the Iranian new year on 21 March, fuelling further concern among citizens. [ 44 ] Some protest messaging linked economic hardship to criticism of the government's foreign policy priorities; during the December 2025 demonstrations, some participants chanted " Neither Gaza nor Lebanon, My Life for Iran ". [ 68 ] Discontent in Iran has also been alleged to have been due to political corruption, with protesters accusing the Iranian government of authoritarianism and prioritising proxies such as Hezbollah and Hamas over domestic needs. [ 46 ] Additionally, Iran faces challenges from ethnic secessionist movements from the Kurds , Azerbaijanis , Khuzestani Arabs , and Balochs and from major powers like the United States and Israel. [ 69 ] Inflation had surged to 48.6% in October 2025 and 42.2% in December, straining household budgets. [ 44 ] On 29 December, the Iranian rial reached its lowest value (1.45 million to the US dollar), then by 3 January, the government increased the value of the rial to 1.38 million in an attempt to control the people. This had no effect, and on 6 January, the rial broke its record low again (reaching 1.5 million to the US dollar), causing a sharp increase in prices, including food and other essential goods. [ 70 ] [ 44 ] The economic crisis, which had been developing over several years, is accompanied by fears of renewed conflict following the 2025 Twelve-Day War with Israel and renewed UN nuclear -related sanctions imposed through the "snapback" mechanism . [ 71 ] [ 44 ] Economic analysts cited government monetary and fiscal policies, economic mismanagement, chronic budget deficits, and the continuation of international sanctions as key contributing factors. These conditions directly affected trade guilds, particularly businesses dependent on imports. Severe exchange-rate volatility left many merchants unable to price goods, secure supplies, or continue economic activity. [ 72 ] [ 73 ] [ 74 ] [ 70 ] Economic uncertainty grew in Iran throughout 2025. In June 2025, Iran was involved in an armed conflict with Israel , during which Iran's nuclear programme was targeted, and its nuclear facilities were also struck by the United States . [ 75 ] [ 44 ] In September 2025, the United Nations reimposed sanctions on Iran through the snapback mechanism, freezing Iranian assets abroad, halting arms transactions, and imposing penalties related to the country's ballistic missile programme . [ 71 ] [ 44 ] Many Iranians fear a broader confrontation involving the United States , which contributed to market instability. [ 44 ] According to The Guardian , the economic crisis was the catalyst for the protests; however, they had expanded into an expression of grievances against government corruption. [ 50 ] It further reported of voices calling for the overthrow of the government, and distrust in the government's calls for dialogue, seeing them as self-serving and deceptive. [ 50 ] NPR reported that months before the protests, public anger and frustration had been mounting due to severe energy shortages, civil rights abuses and widespread corruption, and that the protests sparked concerns that they could deteriorate into something much more serious. [ 76 ] According to The Atlantic , the political character of the protests was manifested by protesters chanting " Death to the Dictator " in reference to Supreme leader of Iran Ali Khamenei , [ 77 ] and their loss of faith in Pezeshkian, who was elected in 2024 on the platform and promises of good governance, but had overseen water and electricity cuts, while failing to deliver on the promise of lifting internet censorship . [ 77 ] Pezeshkian also promised to meet with protest representatives, and recognised "the constitutional right of peaceful protest", [ 77 ] although he lacks control over Iranian security forces. By 1 January 2026, dozens of protesters had been arrested and there were several documented cases of security forces firing live ammunition at protesters, including students, pensioners, and members of Gen Z . [ 77 ] Students at Shahid Beheshti University released a statement declaring that "This criminal system has taken our future hostage for 47 years. It won't be changed with reform or with false promises". [ 77 ] Comparison to previous protests Part of a series on Liberalism in Iran Ideologies Conservative Monarchism Islamic Reformist National Religious Progressivism Radical Mosaddeghism Secular Social Conservative Monarchism Monarchism Islamic Reformist Reformist National Religious Religious Progressivism Radical Mosaddeghism Mosaddeghism Secular Social Principles Civil and political rights Equality Free trade Human rights Liberal democracy Social justice Reformist groups Anti-imperialism Zionist Islamic democracy Islamic modernism Moderate conservatism Realpolitik Republicanism Sovereigntism Mosaddeghist groups Anti-clericalism Anti-communism Anti-imperialism Freedom of the press Iranian nationalism Popular sovereignty Secular state Social democracy Sovereigntism Monarchist groups (post-1979) Anti-clericalism Anti-communism Economic freedom Iranian nationalism Persian Royalism Qajar dynasty Pahlavi dynasty Secular state Westernisation Civil and political rights Equality Free trade Human rights Liberal democracy Social justice Anti-imperialism Zionist Zionist Islamic democracy Islamic modernism Moderate conservatism Realpolitik Republicanism Sovereigntism Anti-clericalism Anti-communism Anti-imperialism Freedom of the press Iranian nationalism Popular sovereignty Secular state Social democracy Sovereigntism Anti-clericalism Anti-communism Economic freedom Iranian nationalism Persian Persian Royalism Qajar dynasty Pahlavi dynasty Qajar dynasty Pahlavi dynasty Secular state Westernisation History Persian Constitutional Revolution Governments of Mohammad Mosaddegh Chain murders of Iran Mohammad Khatami's reforms Woman, Life, Freedom movement Protests 1979 (International Women's Day) 1999 2003 2009 2011–2012 2016 2017–2018 2018–2019 2019–2020 2021–2022 2022–2023 2025–2026 Persian Constitutional Revolution Governments of Mohammad Mosaddegh Chain murders of Iran Mohammad Khatami's reforms Woman, Life, Freedom movement Protests 1979 (International Women's Day) 1999 2003 2009 2011–2012 2016 2017–2018 2018–2019 2019–2020 2021–2022 2022–2023 2025–2026 1979 (International Women's Day) 1999 2003 2009 2011–2012 2016 2017–2018 2018–2019 2019–2020 2021–2022 2022–2023 2025–2026 Intellectuals Jahanbegloo Shariati Shayegan Soroush Reformists Aghajari Malekian Shabestari Tajzadeh Jahanbegloo Shariati Shayegan Soroush Aghajari Malekian Shabestari Tajzadeh Politicians Alam Alijani Bakhtiar Bazargan Ebadi Fatemi Mosaddegh Pahlavi I (early) Sadighi Sanjabi Shariatmadari Yazdi Zaim Reformists Damad Ebtekar Khomeini (Hassan) Khomeini (Hussein) Karroubi Khatami Mohtashami Montazeri Mousavi Nouri Pezeshkian Rafsanjani Rouhani Saanei Shahindokht Zanjani Zarif Exile opposition Bashirtash Boniadi Pahlavi (Reza) Rajavi Alam Alijani Bakhtiar Bazargan Ebadi Fatemi Mosaddegh Pahlavi I (early) Sadighi Sanjabi Shariatmadari Yazdi Zaim Damad Ebtekar Khomeini (Hassan) Khomeini (Hussein) Karroubi Khatami Mohtashami Montazeri Mousavi Nouri Pezeshkian Rafsanjani Rouhani Saanei Shahindokht Zanjani Zarif Bashirtash Boniadi Pahlavi (Reza) Rajavi Commentators Alinejad Baghi Ganji Kar Nafisi Reformists Abdi Hajjarian Zeidabadi Alinejad Baghi Ganji Kar Nafisi Abdi Hajjarian Zeidabadi Parties Active Association of Combatant Clerics Freedom Movement National Front Iran Party Iran National Council Constitutionalist Party Iran-Novin Party National Democratic Front United Republicans Voice of the Nation Defunct Democrat Party Muslim People's Republic Party National Council of Resistance of Iran National Resistance Movement of Iran People's Party People's Mojahedin Organisation of Iran Radical Movement of Iran Revival Party Revolutionary Republican Party of Iran Progressives Social Democratic Party Association of Combatant Clerics Freedom Movement National Front Iran Party Iran National Council Constitutionalist Party Constitutionalist Party Iran-Novin Party National Democratic Front United Republicans Voice of the Nation Democrat Party Muslim People's Republic Party National Council of Resistance of Iran National Resistance Movement of Iran People's Party People's Mojahedin Organisation of Iran Radical Movement of Iran Revival Party Revolutionary Republican Party of Iran Progressives Social Democratic Party Alliances Council for Coordinating the Reforms Front Reformists Front Council for Coordinating the Reforms Front Reformists Front Media Ayandegan Iran International (overseas) Reformists Aftab Yazd Etemaad Shargh Asr-e Maa Asrar Ayande-ye No Bahar Ebtekar Ham-Mihan Hayat-e-No Hambastegi Khordad Salam Yas-e No Zan Ayandegan Iran International (overseas) Aftab Yazd Etemaad Shargh Asr-e Maa Asrar Ayande-ye No Bahar Ebtekar Ham-Mihan Hayat-e-No Hambastegi Khordad Salam Yas-e No Zan Related topics Dialogue Among Civilisations Iranian opposition Islamic feminism Islamo-leftism LGBTQ rights in Iran Transgender rights Secularism in Iran Politics of Iran Anarchism Conservatism Socialism Women's rights in Iran Feminism " Woman, Life, Freedom " Dialogue Among Civilisations Iranian opposition Islamic feminism Islamo-leftism LGBTQ rights in Iran Transgender rights Transgender rights Secularism in Iran Politics of Iran Anarchism Conservatism Socialism Anarchism Conservatism Socialism Women's rights in Iran Feminism Feminism " Woman, Life, Freedom " Liberalism portal Iran portal Liberalism portal Iran portal .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e The protests were described as Iran's largest since 2022, when nationwide demonstrations erupted following the death of 22-year-old Mahsa Amini while in police custody for allegedly wearing her hijab improperly. [ 44 ] On 30 December, Ellie Borhan, a British-Iranian activist, viewed this wave of protests as stronger than previous ones. [ 78 ] Iranian public faith in their government faded since the 2022 crackdown on the Woman, Life, Freedom movement during the Mahsa Amini protests . [ 65 ] Protests were previously held in May 2025 by truck drivers beginning in Bandar Abbas , who blocked roads and ports in Iran due to discontent over low salaries, high insurance rates, and possible hikes in fuel prices in the future. [ 79 ] Protest slogans have shifted ideologically compared to the 2022 protests. Some new chants increasingly reflect monarchist sentiments. [ 80 ] Already in June 2025, during the Iran–Israel war , the exiled crown prince Reza Pahlavi had intensified his political efforts and appealed to the international community to help the Iranian people force out Ali Khamenei 's religious dictatorship offering himself up as interim leader to take over running the country. [ 81 ] In comparison to the Amini protests which were mainly fuelled by girls and women, young men played larger roles in later rounds of the 2025–2026 protests. [ 82 ] Market traders were influential during the 1979 Islamic Revolution , helping to mobilise public support that ultimately led to the overthrow of the monarchy. [ 44 ] The demonstrations were notable in the context of a large-scale government crackdown on dissidents, including arrests of prominent opponents and the highest number of executions in nearly 40 years. [ 75 ] Executions in Iran have reportedly doubled in 2025 compared to 2024; the execution trends were on the rise since 2022, with activists alleging that the Islamic Republic aims to use executions to instil fear in their population and therefore suppress internal opposition. [ 83 ] Kurdish-majority regions in Iran have previously undergone severe repression stemming from the Amini protests in 2022, leading to fears of ethnic crackdowns from the government. This was in part due to Iran's accusing Kurdish opposition groups of having incited the 2022 protests. Despite this, Kurdish opposition groups have continued to call for solidarity in the nationwide protests and strikes. Iran has also repeatedly accused Kurdish militias from Iraq of attempting to incite unrest, including in the protests in 2026. [ 84 ] [ 58 ] [ 28 ] [ 85 ] Likewise, Baloch regions in Iran, long suffering from underdevelopment and political exclusion, have also previously been subject to violent crackdowns in the Amini protests. [ 86 ] On 10 December 2025, Iranian Baloch- Sunni militant groups like the Jaysh al-Adl announced a merge into a united organisation called the Jebhe-ye Mobaarezin-e Mardomi ( People's Fighters Front ). In its coalition video, the union rejected Shia Islam -led clerical rule in the Islamic Republic. The same day, the group carried out an attack on an Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps regional command, killing four of its soldiers and wounding three others; it announced responsibility for the attack the next day. [ 87 ] Protests Initial bazaar 28 December 2025 On 28 December, groups of shopkeepers and merchants at Alaeddin Shopping Centre in Tehran and other commercial centres, including Charsou Mall, went on strike by closing their shops. Simultaneously, protest gatherings formed around these locations, and images and videos of widespread shop closures circulated on social media. [ 73 ] According to reports, protesters cited the rising dollar exchange rate and market instability, warning that continued conditions would lead to the bankruptcy of many small and medium-sized businesses. Some gatherings extended into surrounding streets, including Jomhuri Street . [ 72 ] [ 88 ] [ 89 ] Other people had joined in with the shopkeepers to protest against economic conditions at Jomhuri Street. Elsewhere, iron traders at Iran closed their shops in similar protests of the devalued currency. [ 90 ] Around the time that the protests began, the value of the Iranian rial sunk to a record low of 1.45 million per US dollar before slightly recovering to 1.38 million. [ 91 ] The rial had lost approximately 40 percent of its value since the Iran–Israel war, in part due to the sinking of oil revenue from US sanctions. The year on year inflation rate was up at 42.2 percent. The protests were first started by shopkeepers who sold electronic goods in central Tehran who shut down their stores. [ 70 ] State media revealed blurred footage of initially smaller-scale protests from merchants. [ 91 ] Videos and eyewitness accounts showed groups of merchants chanting slogans against economic mismanagement and in some cases expressing anti-government sentiments. [ 88 ] Protesters also chanted " Law Enforcement , support, support", calling on security forces to back the protests. [ 92 ] The protesters' main demands included stabilising exchange rates, addressing merchants' economic hardships, creating a predictable business environment, and preventing losses caused by market volatility. [ 72 ] [ 88 ] There were no reported clashes with security forces on this day and it remained peaceful. [ 93 ] 29 December The protests continued into their second day on 29 December and expanded across various parts of Tehran, including the Grand Bazaar . Merchants and shopkeepers closed their businesses and gathered in the streets to protest the unprecedented collapse of the rial and sharp increases in currency and gold prices. Protesters voiced opposition to economic conditions and government management, citing declining purchasing power and rising living costs. Videos shared online showed continued gatherings around Lalehzar, Chaharsouq, and Jomhuri Street, with participants largely non-violent while conveying critical messages toward government economic policies. [ 94 ] [ 95 ] [ 96 ] The merchants at the Grand Bazaar in Tehran joined the electronic goods shopkeepers who had started the protests the previous day. [ 70 ] Footage verified by independent sources showed crowds at malls near Tehran's Grand Bazaar chanting "freedom" ( Persian : آزادی , romanised : Âzâdi ). [ 75 ] Law enforcement forces used tear gas to disperse demonstrators outside the Alaeddin Shopping Centre. [ 96 ] Protests also spread to other cities in Iran. [ 97 ] On the night of 29 December 2025, protests were reported in several regions across Iran, including Qeshm in the south, and Zanjan and Hamadan in the north. Demonstrators chanted slogans critical of the supreme leader, including " Death to the Dictator " on Qeshm Island and "Seyyed Ali [Khamenei] will be toppled this year" in Zanjan . [ 98 ] [ 75 ] A video and photo of an unidentified protester went viral, who defiantly sat in the middle of the Jomhuri Eslami Street at Tehran and refused to move for motorbike security forces, but later was beaten and forced to leave. The protester became known as Tehran's Tank Man , a reference to the Tank Man during the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre . [ 99 ] [ 100 ] [ 78 ] [ 101 ] Spread across Iran 30 December By the third day of protests, strikes and security measures had expanded, with shops closing in parts of Tehran such as Shoush and Molavi, as well as in Isfahan's Naqsh-e Jahan Square . Heavy security deployments were reported in Tehran, Mashhad, and at Khajeh Nasir University . Government responses included ordering temporary closures in 11 provinces, including Tehran province, due to cold weather and energy constraints. Security forces fired on protesters in Hamadan and deployed tear gas in Tehran and Malard. [ 97 ] [ 102 ] Demonstrations spread to additional cities, including Kermanshah , Shiraz, Yazd , and parts of Tehran such as Shadabad and Shush. Students from universities including Amirkabir , Beheshti , Khajeh Nasir, Sharif , Science and Culture and Tehran Science and Technology as well as Isfahan University of Technology and Yazd University joined rallies, chanting slogans such as "Death to the Dictator", " Death to Khamenei ", " Neither Gaza nor Lebanon, My Life for Iran ", "We are all together", and "Seyyed Ali (Khamenei) will be toppled this year". [ 102 ] [ 103 ] [ 104 ] [ 105 ] [ 106 ] President Masoud Pezeshkian , called on the government to listen to citizens' demands. In response, a government spokesman said a Communication Group would be implemented. [ 107 ] [ 108 ] Pezeshkian's comments do not appear to have appeased the protesters, whose demands go beyond just economic stability. [ 105 ] Furthermore, some Iranians have expressed scepticism in the government's ability to solve the economic problems, citing previous government statements that they are unable to do much about solving the economic problems. [ 109 ] Human rights organisations and Gen Z student groups reported that 11 protesters were arrested in the Shoush Square area in Tehran and that five students were detained and four were later released. [ 110 ] [ 111 ] [ 112 ] Another news report published that one student was severely injured at Tehran's Amirkabir University during a crackdown on a campus gathering by members of the Basij militia of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps . [ 110 ] Videos on social media appeared to show students chanting slogans critical of the government, removing signs associated with the office of the Supreme Leader's representatives, and confronting security forces at university entrances. [ 110 ] 31 December The people of Isfahan, Kermanshah, and Fasa gathered on the fourth day of protests. In Fasa, people held a large rally in front of the governor's office, and in Kermanshah, the markets went on a complete strike. According to reports, police fired live ammunition and tear gas, at the protesters. [ 113 ] [ 114 ] At the same time, in Shirvan , working and retired teachers gathered in front of the Education Department. In Kermanshah, repressive forces have been deployed from Ferdowsi Square to the garage (about 8 kilometres), and the heavy presence of security forces is noticeable. [ 115 ] One person named Mahdi Samavati was reported to have been killed outside the governor's office protest in Fasa. The semi-official Mehr News Agency quoted the governor of Fasa as denying this report. [ 116 ] Video recordings disseminated online and distributed by the People's Mojahedin Organisation of Iran depict severe confrontations between demonstrators and security forces in several cities, including Tehran , Isfahan , Shiraz , and Kermanshah . [ citation needed ] Protester Amirhesam Khodayarifard was killed by a handgun shot to the head by an Iranian security force member in a protest in Kuhdasht , Lorestan province on 31 December. [ 117 ] The state-run IRNA news agency and Mehr confirmed the death and stated that Khodayarifard was a member of the Basij . [ 118 ] Government authorities pressured Khodayarifard's family to state that he had been a Basij member and called for online social media silence on the topic. [ 117 ] The shooting occurred during clashes with protesters. According to Mehr , 13 police officers and Basij members were injured. [ 118 ] [ 119 ] The government ordered nationwide total business shutdown in most of the country due to "cold weather", [ 120 ] although some analysts say that the real intention is to stifle protests. [ 121 ] The shutdown was applied to 21 out of Iran's 31 provinces. [ 122 ] The government began threatening to crack down on protesters, [ 109 ] and the US State Deparment stated that they were concerned about protesters "facing intimidation, violence, and arrests". [ 123 ] Video footage records protesters like merchants, women's rights activists, and students commonly shouting the slogans "Death to the dictator" and "Neither Gaza nor Lebanon, my life for Iran". [ 46 ] [ 50 ] In response to the ongoing protests, the Iranian government appointed Abdolnasser Hemmati, a former economics minister, as the new governor of the Central Bank of Iran , following Mohammad Reza Farzin's resignation. [ 124 ] 2026 1 January On the fifth day of protests, workers and employees of the central fruit and vegetable market in Tehran stopped working and joined the nationwide uprising by stopping the distribution cycle. Chanting the slogan, "You know with zeal, support support", the protesters called on marketers and the general public to strengthen the national will for change by expanding the strikes. Police officers used tear gas to disperse the demonstrators. [ 125 ] According to reports, Sarira Karimi, secretary of the faculty council of the Faculty of Law and Political Science and a member of the faculty council of the University of Tehran, who had been arrested on 31 December 2025, was released on 1 January 2026. [ 126 ] Protesters were reported to have gathered in Marvdasht and chanted slogans against the Islamic Republic government, such as "This is the year of blood, Seyyed Ali is overthrown". [ 127 ] In Mashhad, protesters gathered at Saadi Metro Station , where riot police attempted to disperse the crowd with force. [ 127 ] In the Sistan and Baluchestan province , a group of Baluch prisoners released a statement calling on locals to join the wider protests and urged for slogans like "Death to the dictator" and "Baluchestan is awake and despises dictatorship". [ 128 ] In Lorestan , home to the Lur minority , protesters were reported lighting fires in the streets while also chanting, "This is the year of blood, Seyyed Ali is overthrown". Additional reports claim officers used live ammunition against protesters. [ 129 ] In Lordegan County , gatherings took place in several parts of Lordegan City , including around the governor's office and the municipality square. According to these reports, as tensions escalated, some individuals attempted to damage government and bank buildings. Police used tear gas to disperse the crowds, and clashes were reported between the two sides. Several people were injured during the unrest, and unconfirmed reports suggested that multiple deaths had occurred. [ 130 ] At least three people, including a boy, were killed in Lordegan. [ 131 ] [ 132 ] There was a heavy presence of government forces in Qom . 2 January On 2 January, according to credible media reports, protests continued in large numbers in Tehran, Qom, Isfahan, Shiraz, Ilam , Mashhad, Karaj, Zanjan, Hamadan , and Qeshm. [ 133 ] In Zahedan and Tehran, protests became active again. Funerals for protesters killed by the security forces were held in Fuladshahr , Kuhdasht , and Marvdasht , during which participants expressed opposition to the government, including chants of "Death to Khamenei". At the Kuhdasht funeral for Khodayarifard, Basij and IRGC forces were chased away from the funeral with stones and chants. Khodayarifard's father confirmed that his son was not a Basij member. [ 134 ] In the Sadaf district of Hamadan province , protesters were seen setting fire to a Quran and attempted to attack a mosque before being stopped by authorities. [ 135 ] 3 January Protests on 3 January were greater in geographic spread and numbers of protesters than on previous days, and the security presence was also greater. [ 136 ] The National Council of Resistance of Iran (NCRI) and Human Rights Activists News Agency (HRANA) named some of the locations of demonstrations, including Kazerun, Malekshahi, Kermanshah, Shiraz, Mashhad, Arkavaz, Isfahan, Tehran, Hafshejan, Karaj, Shahrekord, and Fardis. HRANA reported a cumulative count of 16 fatalities since the beginning of the protests, including one member of government security forces. [ 137 ] [ 136 ] The themes of the protests, as represented by slogans chanted on 3 January, ranged from economic injustice and governance problems to calls for freedom and justice. HRANA viewed the protest aims as having evolved, with "the boundary between trade-related and everyday demands and political demands ha[ving] become blurred, and [the] ongoing protests hav[ing] taken shape on the basis of accumulated, multilayered grievances." [ 136 ] Following statements by US president Donald Trump , where he warns Iran that if they shoot protesters, the United States will come to their rescue, [ 138 ] Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei responded on 3 January by saying "We will not yield to the enemy ", and stating that the "rioters must be put in their place." [ 139 ] [ 140 ] On the same day, the US State Department made a statement condemning suppression on protesters' funerals. [ 141 ] Cloudflare reported a 35% decrease in internet traffic in Iran, with Iranian internet users reporting frequent outages and slow connections . [ 142 ] 4 January There was a heavy presence of security forces in the Grand Bazaar of Tehran. [ 97 ] Protests and strikes took place in at least 20 major cities and small towns throughout Iran. [ 143 ] Donald Trump said that Iranian authorities would be "hit very hard" should additional protesters be killed. [ 144 ] In Shiraz, videos showed the police assaulting and beating a man on the ground. When protesters threw projectiles at the police, officers moved toward them on motorcycles. Moments later, a protester poured gasoline on one officer setting him alight. [ 145 ] 5 January On the ninth day, the protests continued throughout Iran. In Tehran's Bagh-e Sepahsalar neighbourhood, voices echoed chants of "Death to Khamenei". Near Tehran University, special forces stood on high alert, while reports of widespread strikes emerged from cities such as Marvdasht, where resistance pulsed through daily life. [ 146 ] In Yasuj, security forces confronted the families of detainees gathered outside the governor's office. Reports say that the protests have reached the smaller towns of Saman, Sangsar, and Kushk, as part of dissatisfaction of the Iranian people. [ 147 ] In addition to the cities previously mentioned, protests were reported in several other locations across the country, including Saman in Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Province, Sangsar in Semnan Province, Zahedan, Fardis in Karaj, Meshkan in Fars Province, and Noorabad in Mamasani. Demonstrations were further documented in Qazvin, Hamedan, Ilam, Mashhad, Neyshabur, Abadeh, Bushehr, Babol, Bojnourd, Kushk in Isfahan Province, Shazand in Markazi Province, as well as the northern cities of Rasht and Sari. According to reports, protesters in these areas gathered in public spaces, chanting slogans and expressing dissatisfaction with the Khamenei government, reflecting the continued spread of nationwide unrest. [ 148 ] [ 149 ] [ 146 ] 6 January In a joint statement, several major Kurdish political groups, including the Kurdistan Democratic Party of Iran (KDPI), Komala , the Revolutionary Toilers Association, the Kurdistan Toilers Association, the Khabat Organisation , the Kurdistan Freedom Party (PAK), and the Kurdistan Free Life Party (PJAK), expressed support for the protests and called on Kurds in Iran to carry out strikes and demonstrations. [ 14 ] [ 15 ] [ 150 ] The cities of Abdanan and Malekshahi , both in the Kurdish region of Iran, were abandoned by the country's security forces, leaving control of the cities to the protesters. [ 151 ] A sit-in was conducted by protesters at the Grand Bazaar in Tehran. [ 152 ] Merchants at the market held strikes, in particular with many shops in the corridors of the gold and currency, fabric, and footwear and home appliances markets partially or fully closed. The strikes appeared to be spontaneous, and according to some reports the Bazaar became a "war zone". [ 153 ] [ 154 ] The sit-in was dispersed by security forces using tear gas. [ 152 ] The total number of protest locations over the ten days was estimate by HRANA to be 285 locations in 88 cities [ 155 ] across 27 provinces, with protests having taken place in 22 universities. The slogans of the protests continued to cover a wide range of economic, social and political grievances. [ 153 ] In Yazdan Shahr , locals reported that police used excessive force against protesters, initially deploying tear gas and later firing live ammunition at civilians. [ 154 ] The security forces' raids on the Sina Hospital in Tehran and on the Imam Khomeini Hospital in Ilam , aiming to arrest injured protesters, gained national attention. In Ilam, families and medical staff resisted the security forces. Security forces' methods of attack at the Ilam hospital included firing tear gas inside the buildings and hospital grounds. The Minister of Interior was ordered to investigate the Ilam raid and provide a report. [ 153 ] On 6 January, a total of 15 forced video confessions by arrested protesters had been broadcast on official media. [ 153 ] On online social media , Reza Pahlavi called for chants to take place from homes and in streets at 20:00 (8 pm) IRST on the evenings of 8 and 9 January. He explained the aim as being to "keep [the] demonstrations disciplined, and as large as possible". He promised to "announce the next calls to action" depending on the response to his call. [ 156 ] 7 January According to HRANA , street gatherings, protests and strikes took place in 37 cities in 24 provinces, bring the total since the beginning of the protests to 348 sites across 111 cities in 31 provinces. Ten universities joined the protest on 7 January, making a total of 45. The total number of televised forced confessions by arrestees rose to 40. Artists and teachers published statements supporting the protests and criticising the security forces' repression against protest participants. [ 157 ] HRANA interpreted the continuation of the protests despite arrests and violence by the security forces as showing that "a significant portion of [Iranian] society [had come to view] the cost of protest as lower than the cost of silence and inaction". Key themes continued to be economic and governance grievances, seen as "two facets of a single issue". HRANA interpreted the artists' and teachers' statements as showing that "professional and cultural sectors [we]re increasingly aligning themselves with the protest narrative". [ 157 ] Militants of the Baloch nationalist militant organisation People's Fighters Front (PFF) assassinated Mahmoud Haqiqat, the police chief of Iranshahr . [ 17 ] [ 18 ] [ 150 ] IRGC-affiliated media reported that protesters killed two Law Enforcement Command officers during protests in Lordegan as well as an unspecified security force member in Malekshahi. [ 150 ] In Mashhad , protesters were seen lowering a massive flag of the Islamic Republic and later ripping it in half. [ 158 ] The Komala Party of Iranian Kurdistan called for a general strike in Iran, receiving support from six other Iranian Kurdish opposition parties. The authorities attempted to forcibly disperse the existing protests over economic conditions in the cities of western Iran ( Iranian Kurdistan ) ahead of the announced date, reportedly with the use of live ammunition. [ 56 ] [ 57 ] 8 January Protests escalated after 20:00, the time specified in Reza Pahlavi's calls for demonstrations. Immediate telephone line and internet cuts occurred in several cities, following a common government practice before it commits intense crackdowns. [ 30 ] Starlink satellite internet service was unaffected, allowing some users to bypass government-controlled internet blackouts. [ 159 ] Crowds chanting in Tehran appeared to be mainly pro-Pahlavi. CBS News described the protests as reaching "a possible tipping point ", [ 160 ] [ 161 ] [ 162 ] and according to Euronews it represented "a new escalation in the protest movement". [ 30 ] In Qaemiyeh , protesters pulled down a statue of Qasem Soleimani , an IRGC commander who was assassinated by the United States in 2020 and declared a martyr by the Islamic Republic shortly thereafter. [ 163 ] In Mashhad, a group of protesters had taken down and torn up a large flag of the Islamic Republic. [ 164 ] Norway-based human rights organisation Hengaw claimed that two IRGC Ground Forces members were killed during the protests in Kermanshah . [ 28 ] A police officer in Malard County at the Tehran province was killed from a stabbing after attempts to control local unrest. [ 165 ] Human rights groups have also verified a video showing "distressed family members" in Ghadir hospital in Tehran, looking through a body-pile of protesters killed by Islamic Republic security forces. [ 63 ] 9 January Protesters took to the streets of Iran on Friday night, videos and eyewitness reports show. [ 166 ] Pahlavi asked US president Donald Trump to support the Iranian protesters. [ 167 ] The Economist reported that the protests had grown to be the biggest since 2009 , while "some veteran Iran-watchers thought the protests were the biggest since the overthrow of the shah in 1979." [ 168 ] NDTV 24x7 reported a viral protest trend of Iranian women lighting cigarettes to burn pictures of Khamenei in videos, gaining popularity on social media platforms like X , Reddit , Instagram , and Telegram . Because burning Khamenei's image is illegal in Iran, observers have interpreted the videos as deliberate acts of defiance, with the women rejecting state authority over their personal freedoms. [ 169 ] The trend has been recorded by multiple other news outlets, which similarly note rejection of strict religious and governmental standards over women. [ 170 ] [ 171 ] [ 172 ] Khamenei addressed the protests in a brief televised appearance. [ 173 ] [ 174 ] In his address, Khamenei called President Trump "arrogant", saying that his hands were stained with the blood of Iranians, and further stating that Trump would be overthrown like other arrogant leaders. [ 173 ] [ 174 ] He described the protesters as harmful individuals and rioters. [ 175 ] A fire broke out at an Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting office in Isfahan . [ 176 ] Protesters also set fire to buildings in Tehran, including mosques in the Gholhak and Sa'adat Abad neighbourhoods. [ 177 ] Opposition media reported that clashes between protesters and security forces in Kermanshah Province had killed at least 10 IRGC Kermanshah Nabi Akram Corps members. [ 27 ] Gholam-Hossein Mohseni-Eje'i , Iran's judiciary chief, stated that protesters would face decisive and severe punishment, applied to the fullest extent of the law. [ 178 ] Senior officers of American intelligence told Axios that their evaluation that these protests were not capable of destabilising the regime was "being reassessed". [ 179 ] US president Donald Trump warned Iran's authorities against killing demonstrators while praising Iranians as "brave people" amid nationwide protests on Thursday. [ 166 ] The Twemoji emoji library changed the Iran flag emoji from the flag of the Islamic Republic to the modern design of the Lion and Sun flag . [ 180 ] Airline flights from the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Oman, and Turkey to Iranian cities were cancelled amid the mass protests. [ 181 ] As of 9 January, protests across all 31 provinces left millions in the streets, with at least 217 killed in Tehran alone, while hospitals in Tehran and Shiraz were overwhelmed by injured protesters, many with gunshot wounds. [ 182 ] [ 60 ] In addition, thousands were arrested by the violent crackdown. [ 62 ] Nobel laureate Shirin Ebadi warned that, under the Internet blackout , the Islamic Republic may massacre the protesters. [ 183 ] Despite the internet outage, on 10 January 2026, The Guardian documented multiple reports of Islamic Republic security forces opening fire on demonstrations, causing many casualties among the protesters, with one eyewitness stating they saw "hundreds of bodies" throughout Tehran. [ 63 ] Doctors at hospitals in Tehran and Shiraz reported being overwhelmed by large numbers of injured protesters, with some facilities suspending non-urgent admissions and surgeries due to the influx of patients, many of whom suffered gunshot wounds to the head and eyes. [ 60 ] In an audio message sent to CNN, an Iranian doctor in the city of Nishapur stated that Iranian security forces killed "at least 30 people" and "among them were children", they further stated that "a 5-year-old child was shot while in their mother's arms." [ 184 ] According to the doctor's description, security forces had shot pedestrians and bystanders as well. [ 184 ] They added that "Hospitals are extremely chaotic and patients terrified to admit and be identified, for this reason, we are trying to inform people and treat them privately in clinics." [ 184 ] The Kurdistan National Guard announced that its Zagros Tornado units attacked an IRGC base in Nourabad , Lorestan Province, and injured three IRGC members. [ 16 ] 10 January During the midnight until dawn, Tehran municipality workers were reportedly tasked to clear and collect the cartridge cases off the streets and to deliver them to security forces. [ 185 ] Despite the continued internet shutdown imposed by Islamic Republic authorities, thousands of protesters gathered in Tehran and throughout Iran overnight on 9–10 January, chanting "Death to Khamenei", and "Long live the shah". [ 63 ] This followed a call by Reza Pahlavi for protesters to seize control over the city centres and hoist the pre-regime Lion and Sun flag , with a promise he would return to Iran soon. [ 63 ] The Internet blockade disrupted everyday life, including digital transactions, as well as the functioning of hospitals, pharmacies, banks, and bureaus. Many businesses did not open. [ 185 ] The Internet outage has also prevented proper documentation of the size of the demonstrations, as well as the extent of police brutality against the protesters; [ 63 ] Iranian Nobel peace prize winner Shirin Ebadi had issued a warning on 9 January 2026, about the possibility of a planned "massacre under the cover of a sweeping communications blackout", stating that she had already heard testimonies reporting hundreds of wounded protesters at a single Tehran hospital. [ 63 ] On 10 January 2026, The Guardian received additional reports via Starlink, stating: "We're standing up for a revolution, but we need help. Snipers have been stationed behind the Tajrish Arg area [one of the affluent areas of Tehran]." [ 63 ] Another protester testified that throughout the city, many protesters had been shot, stating, "We saw hundreds of bodies", while a third testimony from a protester confirmed this by saying that they had witnessed a "very high" number of protesters being killed as security forces opened fire on them. [ 63 ] Human Rights activists stated that the testimonies were consistent with the reports they had received. [ 63 ] The Guardian stated that despite the Internet blackout, protesters had requested that international media cover the reports of increasing police brutality, with one activist saying "please make sure to state clearly that they are killing people with live ammunition." [ 63 ] According to The Guardian , much of the international community, including the EU and the US, showed clear support for the protesters. [ 63 ] US Secretary of State Marco Rubio posted on X (formerly Twitter) , "The United States supports the brave people of Iran", [ 63 ] and US president Donald Trump "Iran is looking at FREEDOM, perhaps like never before. The USA stands ready to help!!!" [ 186 ] Mohammad Movahedi-Azad , attorney general of Iran , stated that protesters may be charged as the "enemy of god", or moharebeh , a crime prosecutable by death, according to CBS News , which also reported that state media's reports of order and "no news of any gathering or chaos in Tehran and most provinces" were contradicted by a photo of ongoing demonstrations in Sa'adat Abad , Tehran, obtained by the Associated Press , and a surveillance video from Fars News Agency in which protesters in Isfahan threw petrol bombs and at least one appeared to be firing a long gun . The Young Journalists' Club , associated with state media, reported that protesters killed three members of the volunteer Basij militia of the IRGC in Gachsaran . Reza Pahlavi called for protests to continue through Sunday, while also stating in a social media post that he was "preparing to return to my homeland" and that the goal of the protests should be to seize city centres. [ 187 ] According to an analysis of photos by BBC Persian, the protesters in different cities were engaged in violent conflict with government forces until dawn. [ 188 ] A video from Punak neighbourhood of Tehran shows that as the government turned off the street lights, the protesters set off fireworks and created a sea of light using their smartphones in defiance. [ 188 ] [ 189 ] Deutsche Welle later fact checked and confirmed that the video was fabricated using artificial intelligence technology and old footage, with the aim of misleading people's understanding of the protests in Iran. [ 190 ] Videos published by BBC Persian shows explosions amid protests in Kerman and gunshots in Mashhad . [ 188 ] Unlike previous days, on Saturday mostly IRGC and Basij were mobilised, who use live ammunition, according to witnesses in Tehran and Karaj. [ 191 ] On 10 January, Iran International reported that at least 2,000 protesters had been killed over the previous 48 hours alone amidst the internet blackout , as Iranian security forces escalated their use of lethal force against demonstrators nationwide. [ 59 ] As a result all online service have been shut down too, including ATM machines, international phone calls, credit card transactions and business networks, as well as most news sources and social media. [ 192 ] 11 January Khamenei and senior Iranian officials said they were willing to talk to the protesters about economic issues, but also characterised the unrest as incitement by "rioters" and said the protests were funded by foreign powers (the United States and Israel). Iranian state media reported that President Masoud Pezeshkian gave a speech accusing foreign "terrorists" of inciting the protests; Pezeshkian also mentioned: "We are determined, and have decided, to resolve economic problems by any means possible" [ 193 ] [ 194 ] Parliament speaker Mohammad Bagher Ghalibaf gave a speech during a parliament session in which he warned of United States military bases and regional ships and Israel would both be subject to retaliation if Iran is attacked by the United States in reference to Trump's prior threats. In the session, hardliner politicians went at the dais and shouted " Death to America ". Demonstrators rallied in Paris, Vilnius, and London in solidarity with the ongoing protests in Iran and urged Western governments to support the Iranian people seeking freedom. [ 195 ] The New York Times reported that Trump was briefed on military options on Iran but did not yet make a final decision. [ 196 ] Forbes reported that the Iranian government successfully shut down the Starlink internet amidst the internet blackout . [ 197 ] Other sources say Iran has successfully disrupted Starlink network connectivity nationwide, reporting that up to 80% of Starlink traffic was interrupted due to coordinated jamming operations. [ 198 ] [ 199 ] [ 200 ] During a solidarity rally in Los Angeles on 11 January, a U-Haul truck was used to ram into protesters at Westwood . [ 201 ] [ 202 ] In Iran, fighters from the Balochi People's Fighters Front killed one Law Enforcement Command officer and injured another in an attack on an LEC patrol vehicle in Dashtiari County , Sistan and Baluchistan Province. [ 21 ] 12 January In Tehran, tens of thousands of people participated in a pro-government rally after being called by leaders to counter the protests. People are seen flying the Iranian flag and chanting Islamic slogans and figures like Haydar, referring to Ali . [ 29 ] [ 37 ] However, reports from Iran International stated the images and videos were altered . [ 203 ] [ 204 ] President Masoud Pezeshkian was seen taking part in the rally. [ 205 ] US president Donald Trump stated that Iran has reached out to the United States to negotiate its nuclear programme, following his threat to strike the Islamic Republic over its violent crackdown on protesters. [ 206 ] Also Esmail Baghaei , spokesperson for the Iranian Ministry of Foreign Affairs , publicly confirmed that security forces had directly fired on protesting citizens, statements that drew widespread attention and concern both domestically and internationally, highlighting criticism of the Iranian government's handling of the demonstrations, raising questions about the proportionality of its response, and drawing scrutiny from human rights organisations regarding the broader state of civil liberties and fundamental rights in the country. [ 61 ] 13 January On 13 January, Iran International reported that at least 12,000 people had been killed, describing the massacre as the "largest killing in Iranian contemporary history ". [ 42 ] CBS News reported that 12,000 people have been killed, and possibly 20,000, as Iran's phone services were being restored, and new information was being released. [ 43 ] President Trump urged Iranians to keep protesting and stated that help was on the way, with no details. Trump said in a post on Truth Social : [ 207 ] [ 208 ] "Iranian Patriots, KEEP PROTESTING – TAKE OVER YOUR INSTITUTIONS!!! Save the names of the killers and abusers. They will pay a big price. I have cancelled all meetings with Iranian Officials until the senseless killing of protesters STOPS. HELP IS ON ITS WAY. MIGA [ Make Iran Great Again ]!!! PRESIDENT DONALD J. TRUMP" "Iranian Patriots, KEEP PROTESTING – TAKE OVER YOUR INSTITUTIONS!!! Save the names of the killers and abusers. They will pay a big price. I have cancelled all meetings with Iranian Officials until the senseless killing of protesters STOPS. HELP IS ON ITS WAY. MIGA [ Make Iran Great Again ]!!! PRESIDENT DONALD J. TRUMP" When a reporter asked Trump what he meant by "help is on its way", he simply replied, "You're going to have to figure that one out. I'm sorry." [ 209 ] 14 January The Kurdistan Freedom Party assaulted the IRGC's headquarters in Kermanshah and, allegedly, according to the KFP's own claims, succesfully infiltrated the headquarters and caused severe IRGC casualties. [ 210 ] Armed Kurdish groups designated as terrorists by Turkey clashed with the IRGC while seeking to cross the border from Iraq and Turkey into Iran; the IRGC had received warning about their movements from Turkey. [ 211 ] A video, analyzed by BBC Verify and BBC Persian, showed, according to forensic examination, nearly 200 bodies were scattered in the morgue, many with obvious wounds, including one victim who was only 16 years old. [ 212 ] The Iranian Human Rights Organisation (IHR), based in Norway, said that at least 3,428 protesters were killed by Iranian security forces and at least 10,000 protesters were arrested during the peak of the unrest in Iran from January 8 to 12. [ 213 ] The head of Iran's judiciary stated that those arrested during the nationwide protests would be swiftly tried and executed. [ 213 ] [ 214 ] [ 215 ] Washington has threatened military action in response to the crackdown. [ 214 ] [ 216 ] British and American troops are withdrawing from Al Udeid Air Base in Qatar. [ 217 ] [ 218 ] The US stated that the withdrawal was a precautionary measure. [ 218 ] "It's a posture change and not an ordered evacuation," a diplomat told Reuters. [ 217 ] Italy and Poland, among other countries, have been urging their citizens to leave Iran "immediately". [ 219 ] [ 220 ] [ 221 ] [ 222 ] Donald Trump said in the Oval Office that he had been informed that killings in Iran's crackdown on the country's protest was ceased, and he believed that "there are no plans for executions," referring to the death sentence of Erfan Soltani . [ 223 ] According to AFP, Iranian state television broadcast footage of Donald Trump's attempted assassination at the 2024 Butler, Pennsylvania rally , accompanied by the Persian message "This time, [the bullet] won't miss," which angered Texas Republican Senator Ted Cruz and other close allies of President Trump. [ 224 ] [ 225 ] [ 226 ] 15 January The Iranian government imposed a nationwide curfew to prevent any protests. ISW recorded zero protests on 15 January. [ 227 ] Methods Protesters National strikes Nationwide strikes were conducted by businesses, stores, cafes, and workers as well as by online shops and social media influencers. [ 231 ] [ 232 ] [ 233 ] [ 234 ] [ 235 ] Demonstrations Protests are in the form of street demonstrations chanting slogans, car honking , [ 236 ] [ 237 ] lighting fires, [ 236 ] and removing surveillance cameras. [ 238 ] [ 239 ] In order not to be identified and later arrested, many protesters wear masks and dark clothes, reminiscent of V for Vendetta . [ 191 ] As the street lights are turned off by the government, the protesters defiantly set off fireworks and create a sea of light using their smartphones in the darkness of the city. [ 236 ] [ 188 ] [ 189 ] Slogans and symbols During the protests, several notable slogans were chanted by demonstrators, reflecting anti-government sentiments, calls for the restoration of the monarchy, and unity among protesters. These slogans were frequently documented in videos and reports by Persian-language media outlets such as Manoto and Iran International . Many drew on historical references to the Pahlavi dynasty , while others directly targeted Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei or the Islamic Republic's leadership. Symbols associated with the protests included the Lion and Sun flag , which was waved in several demonstrations as a sign of monarchist aspirations and opposition to the government. [ 229 ] [ 53 ] [ 240 ] On 9 January 2026, X changed the Iran flag emoji from the Islamic Republic flag to the modern design of the Lion and Sun flag . [ 180 ] " Death to the Dictator " ( Persian : مرگ بر دیکتاتور , romanised : Marg bar Diktâtor )—a general anti-authoritarian chant targeting the government's leadership, reported in Tehran, Isfahan, Kermanshah, Malard , Nahavand, Noorabad , and Karaj . [ 241 ] [ 242 ] [ 243 ] [ 244 ] [ 245 ] [ 52 ] [ 246 ] [ 247 ] [ 248 ] " Death to Khamenei " ( Persian : مرگ بر خامنهای , romanised : Marg bar Khâmene'i )—direct call against Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei, heard in Isfahan, Farsan , Arak, and other protest sites. Previously used during the 2021–2022 and 2022–2023 protests . [ 249 ] [ 250 ] [ 251 ] [ 252 ] " Reza Shah , may your soul be blessed" ( Persian : رضا شاه، روحت شاد , romanised : Rezâ Shâh, ruhat shâd )—a slogan honouring Reza Shah Pahlavi, founder of the Pahlavi dynasty, chanted in Hamadan , Tehran , Isfahan , Kermanshah , and other locations. [ 253 ] [ 250 ] " Neither Gaza nor Lebanon, My Life for Iran " ( Persian : نه غزه نه لبنان، جانم فدای ایران , romanised : Na Qazze na Lebnan, jânam fadâ-ye Irân )—a chant that expresses the opposition of some Iranians to the Islamic Republic's military, financial, and political support for Palestinian militant groups , neglecting the needs and interests of Iran itself. [ 68 ] [ 254 ] "Don't be afraid, don't be afraid, we are all together" ( Persian : نترسید، نترسید، ما همه با هم هستیم , romanised : Natarsid, natarsid, mâ hame bâ ham hastim )—a chant promoting unity and courage among protesters, chanted during nighttime gatherings in Isfahan. [ 255 ] [ 247 ] "Dishonourable, dishonourable" ( Persian : بیشرف، بیشرف , romanised : Bi-sharaf, bi-sharaf )—directed at security forces or government officials. [ 256 ] "Freedom, freedom, freedom" ( Persian : آزادی، آزادی، آزادی , romanised : Āzādi, āzādi, āzādi ). [ 257 ] [ 252 ] "Long live the Shah " ( Persian : جاوید شاه , romanised : Jâvid Shâh )—repeated chants calling for the return of the monarchy , heard in Hamadan , Arak , Nahavand , Dehloran , and other cities during nighttime protests. [ 53 ] [ 258 ] [ 259 ] [ 260 ] [ 8 ] [ 261 ] [ 262 ] [ 81 ] [ 263 ] "This is the final battle, Pahlavi will return" ( Persian : این آخرین نبرده، پهلوی برمیگرده , romanised : In âkharin nabarde, Pahlavi barmigarde )—a phrase conveying determination for regime change and the return of the Pahlavi family, chanted in Arak, Rasht , Khorramabad , Isfahan, Nahavand, and Dorud . [ 51 ] [ 264 ] [ 265 ] [ 250 ] [ 53 ] [ 247 ] "The Shah is coming home, Zahhak is overthrown" ( Persian : شاه مییاد به خونه، ضحاک سرنگونه , romanised : Shâh mi-yâd be khune, Zahâk sarnegune )—referencing Persian mythology ( Zahhak as a tyrant) to symbolise the overthrow of the current government and return of the Shah. [ 266 ] "Death to the oppressor, whether Shah or Rahbar" ( Persian : مرگ بر ستمگر، چه شاه باشد چه رهبر )—a general anti-Islamic Republic and anti-monarchy chant mainly by expressed by supporters of the National Council of Resistance of Iran (NCRI). [ 11 ] [ 12 ] [ non-primary source needed ] Organisation As of 7 January, HRANA viewed the protests as being networked. [ 157 ] The Associated Press viewed the first steps of protests as "broadly leaderless" before 8 January, and described Reza Pahlavi's influence after the call for demonstration on 8 January as unclear; however, when the time clocked at 8 p.m., chanting broke out across Tehran, with crowds shouting anti-regime slogans and expressing support for the shah's return. [ 267 ] IranWire viewed Generation Z Iranians as "one of the most visible and active groups" in the 2025–2026 protests, whose political views were strongly impacted by the Mahsa Amini protests of 2022–2023. [ 268 ] Territorial control According to human rights activist Hamid Enayat, Malekshahi and Abdanan effectively came under protesters' control on 6 January when security forces fled from the protesters. [ 269 ] Suppression, persecution and executions Internet blackouts On 8 January 2026, the government imposed significant restrictions on telephone and internet access to limit communication and the dissemination of information. Unlike the Twelve-Day War , there has not been an official internet shut down nationwide. However, connectivity was heavily disrupted in cities experiencing active demonstrations, making it difficult for citizens to send messages, share media, or organise further protests. These measures were widely seen as part of the authorities' efforts to suppress dissent and control the narrative around the unrest. [ 270 ] On 9 January it was reported by multiple media outlets that Iran, in a largely unprecedented measure, had activated military-grade jammers to disrupt civilian Starlink signals. [ 197 ] [ 271 ] [ 272 ] Initially only 30 percent of the media traffic was affected but it rose to 80 percent within several hours. [ 197 ] [ 271 ] However, from the morning after the blackout began, Islamic Republic authorities issued a "white list" which allowed government affiliated institutions and accounts limited access to the internet, included were governmet aligned media and Telegram channels, as well as some universities. [ 271 ] Forbes quoted VPN expert Simon Migliano [ 273 ] as saying that "Iran's current nationwide blackout is a blunt instrument intended to crush dissent." [ 197 ] Migliano also addressed the cost of the internet shutdown, saying "this 'kill switch' approach comes at a staggering price, draining $1.56 million from Iran's economy every single hour the internet is down." [ 197 ] By 11 January, Iran shut down the Starlink internet for the first time. [ 197 ] Recruitment of foreign militias The presence of Iraqi Popular Mobilisation Forces , Arabic-speaking mercenaries, Lebanon's Hezbollah , and the Afghan Liwa Fatemiyoun in suppressing protests was reported. [ 274 ] [ 275 ] [ 276 ] [ 277 ] Iran International reported that on 2 January 2026, Iraqi militias affiliated with the Iranian government recruited forces to assist Iranian security forces in suppressing protests in Iran. [ 276 ] On 6 January 2026, it was reported that approximately 800 members of Iraqi Shia militia groups, including Kata'ib Hezbollah , Harakat al-Nujaba , Sayyid al-Shuhada , and the Badr Organisation had been sent to Iran. [ 276 ] The troops were reportedly transported through the border crossings of Shalamcheh , Chazabeh , and Khosravi , officially under the cover of a "pilgrimage to the holy sites of Imam Reza in Mashhad ", while in practice they were gathered at a base in Ahvaz before being dispatched to various regions to assist in suppressing protests. [ 276 ] According to Iran International , "The reason behind this move by the Islamic Republic could be its concern that the Iranian police might not follow orders to attack unarmed, ordinary people, or simply because its forces are insufficient to stop protests in more than 100 cities". [ 278 ] On 9 January 2026 the United States warned Iran against using foreign militias to crush protests. [ 279 ] According to The Media Line , Iraqi Shiite militia members were recruited to help suppress Iranian protesters, receiving $600 each. By 11 January, more than 60 buses, each carrying about 50 people, had crossed the Iraq‑Iran border. [ 280 ] On 15 Jan, an Iraqi source stated to CNN that "nearly 5,000" fighters from Iraqi militias had crossed into Iran over the preceding weeks. [ 281 ] Internal propaganda and coercion The Iranian government has been accused of using footage of protesters' bodies in morgues to demoralise future protests. [ 282 ] Families trying to receive the bodies of their loved ones have often times been forced to pay compensation for the bullets that killed their relatives. [ 282 ] [ 283 ] Reports stated that security forces and Revolutionary Guard members raided and intimidated the families of protesters who were killed, imposed restrictions on the retrieval and burial of bodies, and warned that families would be charged fees. [ 283 ] There have been reports that families were unable to locate the remains of their relatives after authorities buried them in locations far from where the deaths occurred. [ 282 ] Reports have also indicated that the authorities retained the remains until families consented to official accounts describing the deceased as aligned with the government and Basij rather than as protesters. [ 282 ] [ 284 ] Likewise, images and videos from the pro-government rallies were reported to have been altered . [ 203 ] [ 204 ] Direct order for live fire on protesters Sources close to Iran’s Supreme National Security Council and the presidential office report that the killing of protesters was carried out on the direct order of Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei, with full approval from senior state officials. The council allegedly authorised live fire, which was executed mainly by the IRGC in what is described as a deliberate, organised operation exceptional in scale and intensity. [ 49 ] On 13 January the Guardian reported that Islamic Republic security forces were documented using shotguns and rifles with live ammunition, [ 285 ] as well as heavy DShK machine guns against protesters, [ 286 ] with a Tehran doctor stating that security forces were "shooting to kill". [ 285 ] A spokesperson from the Abdorrahman Boroumand Center for Human Rights cited evidence that even when using "less lethal" weapons, security forces were deliberately shooting at the heads, eyes, genitals and vital organs of the protesters, so as terrorise protesters by mutilating them and causing them permanent disability, [ 285 ] reusing the tactic employed in the 2022 Mahsa Amini protests. [ 285 ] At least one young girl had been shot in the pelvic area and was in critical condition. [ 285 ] and a medic in Tehran reported that there were "direct shots to the heads of the young people, to their hearts as well." [ 287 ] Additionally, multiple testimonies have revealed Iranian security forces raiding hospitals to arrest, [ 288 ] and in many cases execute, hospitalised protesters. [ 289 ] [ 286 ] On 4 January, according to Namdar Baghaei Yazdi, vice president of the Iranian Medical Society UK, security forces in full riot gear stormed Imam Khomeini Hospital in Ilam, attacked medical personnel with tear gas and shotgun pellets and arrested injured protesters, [ 290 ] with another similar assault being carried out by security forces on 6 January in Sina Hospital in Tehran. [ 290 ] Yazdi was quoted as saying "Hospitals are no longer sacred in Iran, and we are very concerned for our medical colleagues there who are already at risk from the regime." [ 290 ] A doctor from southern Iran reported that security forces had "finished off" protesters who had been hospitalised at the time, [ 286 ] [ 289 ] further stating "they killed many, arrested many, and many are on the run. The situation is very bad." [ 289 ] According to The Times, another doctor from Tehran stated that security forces had "gone into hospitals and forcibly taken the corpses of protesters with them", and some of the wounded protesters treat their injuries at home and avoid being admitted to the hospital out of fear of being arrested. [ 291 ] Persecution On 5 January 2026, Gholamhossein Mohseni Ejei, head of the judiciary in the Islamic Republic, stated that there would be no leniency for "rioters" despite the right to demonstrate, [ 292 ] [ 293 ] and the judiciary's Mizan news agency quoted him saying "I instruct the attorney general and prosecutors across the country to act in accordance with the law and with resolve against the rioters and those who support them (...) and to show no leniency or indulgence," [ 292 ] [ 293 ] and stressing that the penalty would be "decisive" and "maximum". [ 294 ] [ 294 ] Regarding the rapid trials and executions or protesters, Iran state television shared a video in which Mohseni-Ejei said "If we want to do a job, we should do it now. If we want to do something, we have to do it quickly, if it becomes late, two months, three months later, it doesn't have the same effect. If we want to do something, we have to do that fast." [ 295 ] [ 296 ] On 10 January, Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei said that the demands of protesters in the country are "completely fair," but "rioters" should "be put in their place." [ 293 ] On 13 January, in a televised statement from the office of the Tehran prosecutor, the office declared that an undeclared number of protesters would be charged with " moharebeh ", or "waging war against God", an offence punished by death in Iran , and used extensively in the past by the regime's judiciary. [ 297 ] According to the Human Rights Activists News Agency, as of 14 January 2026, over 18,400 people had been arrested. [ 295 ] According to Iran International, on 10 January 2026 the "One Word" lawyers' network, citing the internet shutdown isolating protesters from the outside world, called on the international community and Iranian judges to prevent the show trials and extrajudicial executions of protesters following the orders of Ali Khamenei and senior judicial officials. [ 298 ] In its statement, the network detailed new orders from Khamenei instructing security forces "to deal harshly with protesters in recent gatherings" as well as separate statements from the Head of the Judiciary, the Attorney General of the country, and the Tehran Prosecutor calling for "extraordinary, out-of-order proceedings and the imposition of the most severe punishments in the cases of detained protesters." [ 298 ] Erfan Soltani According to the BBC, on 8 January 2026, clothes shop owner Erfan Soltani was arrested in his home for allegedly being connected with the protests in Fardis, while he was denied a lawyer and his family was not notified of the charges brought against him. [ 299 ] Several days later, Soltani was notified that he was to face execution on 14 January, less that a week after his arrest. [ 299 ] However after US president Donald Trump told reporters that the US would take "very strong action" if the regime were to execute protesters, Iranian Foreign Minister Abbas Araghchi denied any plan to hang people in a televised interview, and Soltani's family was notified that his execution had been postponed, while the judiciary stated that the charges against him only consisted of "colluding against national security" and "propaganda activities against the establishment" which are not punishable by death in Iran. [ 299 ] The state broadcasting company IRIB claimed that reports of Soltani's pending execution were a "blatant act of news fabrication." [ 299 ] Casualties Casualties, arrests, executions, and injured protesters 31 December On 31 December 2025, during a protest in Fuladshahr , Dariush Ansari Bakhtiariwand was shot with a Kalashnikov rifle by security forces. He died before reaching medical care. [ 300 ] While participating in a protest in Kuhdasht on 31 December, Amirhesam Khodayarifard (reported to be 21, [ 118 ] or 22 years old) [ 117 ] was shot dead with a bullet to the head by a plainclothes retired IRGC agent. [ 301 ] Eyewitness testimony and video evidence showed that Khodayarifard was among the protesters. [ 117 ] Government media stated that protesters had been throwing rocks at security forces, and that Khodayarafid was killed after the rocks had been thrown. [ 302 ] Governmental media, including Mehr News Agency , [ 118 ] claimed that Khodayarifard was a member of the Basij . The governor of Kuhdasht, an Imam of Friday Prayer , and Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) members visited Khodayarifard's family. Permission for the family to access Khodayarifard's body and carry out a burial was conditioned on the family making a televised statement stating that Khodayarifard had been a member of the Basij. [ 117 ] Governmental authorities gave warnings on Telegram and Instagram forbidding the publication of information about Khodayarifard's killing. [ 117 ] As of 5 January 2026 [update] , the authorities, who were pressuring Khodayarifard's family to state that he was a Basij member, had not given the body to Khodayarifard's family, according to IranWire . [ 301 ] 1 January Two protesters, Ahmad Jalil, 21, and Sajjad Valamanesh, 28, were killed in Lordegan on 1 January 2026. Both were shot by security forces with live ammunition and died later from their injuries. [ 303 ] [ 304 ] On the evening of 1 January, two men and a teenage boy, Shayan Asadollahi, 30, Vahab Musavi, and Mostafa, 15, residents of Azna (in Lorestan province) were killed by gunfire from security forces. [ 132 ] The IRGC-aligned Fars News Agency stated that the protesters had either tried to attack a police station [ 305 ] or had tried to disarm the security forces. [ 132 ] Ahmadreza Amani, 28, was shot in the chest by security forces at around 18:00 IRST in Azna and died in hospital. [ 306 ] Khodadad Shirvani, 33, a Marvdasht resident, was shot with shotgun pellets by security forces on the same evening in Marvdasht. He died after being transferred to a hospital. [ 307 ] In Nurabad (Lorestan province), Ahad Ebrahimpour Abdoli, 35, was lethally shot the same evening with three bullets (one to his heart) by security forces during a protest in Ba'ath Square in Nurabad. Security forces and the Imam of Friday Prayer pressured Abdoli's family to say that he was a Basij member and that he was shot by "enemy forces". [ 308 ] 2 January On 2 January, a 42-year-old protester, Ali Azizi Jafarabadi, a Kurdish man from Harsin County was shot dead by security forces in Harsin . [ 309 ] 3 January On 3 January, the total number of arrested protesters had increased to 132 according to Hengaw [ 310 ] or 582 according to HRANA . [ 136 ] Iran International estimated the death count of protesters to be at least eight, the number of locations to be 113 locations in 46 cities across 22 provinces, with at least 44 people shot and wounded by live ammunition or pellet guns fired by Iranian security forces. [ 97 ] [ 311 ] Four protesters were shot dead with "military-grade" weapons by IRGC members at protests in Malekshahi County in Ilam province ; forty were injured and many taken to hospital. [ 312 ] 4 January By the early morning of 4 January, Iran International reported the death toll from the protests to have risen to at least 16. [ 313 ] HRANA estimated that since the beginning of the protests there had been 990 arrests and 51 cases of injuries to protesters, mostly from pellet and plastic bullets. [ 143 ] 5 January The total number of arrested protesters rose to 1,200 on 5 January. [ 314 ] Iranian authorities claimed to have arrested a Mossad agent partaking in the protests, with the agent allegedly confessed to being recruited, trained by, and continuing communication with Mossad, and said that Mossad handlers told him to go to people's residences, but was later instructed to move his "operations" to local marketplaces. [ 315 ] 6 January On 6 January, a total of 2,076 protesters had been arrested, and at least 34 protesters and 2 police officers had been killed, according to HRANA . [ 153 ] 7 January HRANA estimated 140 new arrests of protesters or identifications of previously arrested protesters, making a total of 2217, including 165 minors and 46 university students. HRANA counted at total since the beginning of the protests as 38 deaths, including 29 adult protesters, 5 minor protesters, and 4 security officers. [ 157 ] 8 January In response to intensified protests on 8 January 2026, the government initiated a nationwide outage of internet and telephone services, a tactic often used prior to using deadly force against protesters, in order to suppress news and evade scrutiny. According to social media reports, a massacre began in Fardis , where government forces allegedly killed 50 protesters with a machine gun. [ 316 ] 9 January On 9 January, HRANA estimated that a total of 2,311 protesters had been arrested and at least 65 were dead. [ 1 ] Time reported that they were in contact with a Tehran-based doctor who informed them that over 217 protester deaths had been recorded across six hospitals in the city, while Iranian Nobel Peace Prize laureate Shirin Ebadi warned that authorities might carry out a massacre under the cover of the widespread internet blackout . [ 182 ] [ 183 ] Reports from two hospitals in Rasht and Tehran indicate overall 110 dead bodies being transferred to these two hospitals during 8 and 9 January. Some wounded people had military-grade bullets in head and neck, indicating that the shootings were intended to kill. [ 317 ] 10 January Amidst the internet blackout during the protests, Iran International stated their most conservative estimates indicated that at least 2,000 people had been killed by government forces over the past 48 hours alone. [ 59 ] On 10 January, HRANA estimated that 2,638 protesters had been arrested and confirmed that 116 fatalities had occurred. [ 318 ] The Centre for Human Rights in Iran warned that a "massacre is unfolding." It said hundreds of protesters had been killed since the government cut off internet access, and security forces, as in the past, shot people in the eyes with metal pellets and rubber bullets. It reported that hospitals were overwhelmed, and that casualties continue to rise. [ 319 ] 11 January According to a US-based rights group, more than 500 people have been killed in Iran's protests, with 579 additional deaths under investigation (raising the total to 1,123), while over 10,681 people have been arrested. [ 320 ] The People's Mojahedin Organisation of Iran reported that more than 3,000 people had been killed in the protests by 11 January. Their figures, based on local sources, hospitals, and families, show the regime even displayed some bodies on state TV, falsely blaming protesters for their deaths. [ 321 ] [ 322 ] By 11 January, Time reported that, starting with reports from a handful of Tehran hospitals, an informal, expatriate group of academics and professionals calculated that protester deaths could have reached 6,000 through Saturday the 10th. [ 64 ] 12 January On 12 January, CNN reported that given the government's internet shutdown and the slow trickle of information emerging from Iran, the full scale of casualties remains unclear. [ 323 ] 13 January On 13 January, Iran International reported that at least 12,000 people had been killed, describing the massacre as the "largest killing in Iranian contemporary history ". [ 42 ] CBS News reported that activist groups in Iran estimated 12,000 people to have been killed, and possibly 20,000, based on medical reports. [ 43 ] 15 January By 15 January, fatality reports saw a significant increase as internet connectivity was partially restored. [ 324 ] While confirmed figures from the U.S.-based Human Rights Activists News Agency ( HRANA) stood at approximately 2,000-2,500 deaths [ 325 ] [ 324 ] , other rights organisations such as Iran Human Rights (IHR) reported at least 3,428 fatalities. [ 286 ] At the same time, leaked internal documents from the Supreme National Security Council and the presidential office, reported by Iran International , suggested that as many as 12,000 people may have been killed during the peak crackdown between January 8 and 10. [ 326 ] CBS News cited sources within Iran claiming the total death toll could potentially reach 20,000. [ 327 ] [ 328 ] Executions On 12 January 2026, it was reported that 26-year-old protester, Erfan Soltani , was sentenced to be executed on 14 January, making him one of the first of these protesters to be handed an execution sentence . [ 329 ] Soltani was arrested during protests in Fardis on 8 January. [ 329 ] [ 330 ] [ 331 ] Human rights groups and activists report that Soltani was denied access to a lawyer, a fair trial , or any opportunity to appeal. [ 329 ] Government forces Government authorities repeatedly presented fatalities during the protests as members of the security forces killed by protesters, after which evidence from witnesses and family statements showed that the victim had been shot by the security forces. [ 332 ] Government media claimed that Amirhesam Khodayarifard, killed on 31 December, was a member of the Basij . [ 119 ] Eyewitness reports and video evidence, collected by Hengaw , contradicted this claim, in particular showing that he was standing among the protesters and was killed by a shot to the head by a security forces member. [ 117 ] Initially, authorities conditioned family access to Khodayarifard's body on the family making a televised statement that he was a Basij member. [ 117 ] During the funeral, which took place on 2 January, Khodayarifard's father confirmed that his son was not a Basij member. [ 134 ] On 3 January, Agence France-Presse referred to a statement by Mehr that IRGC member Latif Karimi was killed during clashes in Malekshahi County , [ 333 ] during which four protesters were killed by the IRGC. [ 334 ] On 4 January, eyewitnesses and other sources clarified that Karimi was present among the protesters when he was shot by IRGC members, and died in Imam Khomeini Hospital in Ilam . Karimi was a retired brigadier-general by profession. Karimi's son stated on Telegram , "My father's only 'crime' was telling [the government security forces] not to shoot at the people." [ 332 ] On 7 January, militants of the Baloch nationalist militant organisation People's Fighters Front (PFF) assassinated Mahmoud Haqiqat, the police chief of Iranshahr . [ 17 ] [ 18 ] [ 150 ] IRGC-affiliated media reported that protesters killed two Law Enforcement Command officers during protests in Lordegan as well as an unspecified security force member in Malekshahi. [ 150 ] On 8 January, Norway-based human rights organisation Hengaw claimed that two IRGC Ground Forces members were killed during the protests in Kermanshah . [ 28 ] A police officer in Malard County at the Tehran province was killed from a stabbing after attempts to control local unrest. [ 165 ] On 9 January, Opposition media reported that clashes between protesters and security forces in Kermanshah Province killed at least 10 IRGC Ground Forces Nabi Akram Unit members. [ 27 ] On 11 January, fighters from the PFF killed one Law Enforcement Command officer and injured another in an attack on an LEC patrol vehicle in Dashtiari County , Sistan and Baluchistan Province. [ 21 ] Notable victims Shahram Maghsoudi , powerlifting champion [ 335 ] Foreign victims Canadian minister of foreign affairs Anita Anand confirmed that a Canadian citizen was killed by the Islamic Republic forces during the protests. [ 336 ] Reactions Reactions to the protests ranged from calls for dialogue and economic relief to warnings of force. Domestic Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei said officials should talk to protesters, but added that "rioters must be put in their place". [ 337 ] As the unrest continued, President Masoud Pezeshkian announced economic measures including changes to foreign-exchange subsidies intended to shift support directly to consumers. [ 338 ] Vice President Mohammad Reza Aref attempted to resign during the first days of the protests, but it was not accepted by President Pezeshkian. [ 339 ] Mohammad Baqer Qalibaf , Speaker of the Islamic Consultative Assembly , said "Malicious individuals and organised movements want to turn any kind of public demand and protest into chaos and chaos using their trained agents in the square, but the Iranian nation has repeatedly demonstrated its vigilance, awareness, and compassion for the country's security". [ 340 ] On 10 January 2026, the IRGC warned that safeguarding security is a "red line". [ 341 ] Chief Justice Gholam-Hossein Mohseni-Eje'i , the head of Iran's judiciary, said that the punishment for rioters would "be decisive, maximum and without any legal leniency". [ 342 ] Attorney general Mohammad Movahedi Azad warned that anyone taking part in demonstrations is an " enemy of God ", a crime that carries the death penalty under Iranian law. [ 343 ] International Sovereign states United States – US president Donald Trump warned that the United States would intervene if Iranian authorities violently suppressed "peaceful protests". [ 344 ] On 9 January 2026, Trump stated on Truth Social that the US was "locked and loaded and ready to go" if the Iranian security forces killed protesters. [ 345 ] Trump later said that US is considering "very strong options" as a response to the Iran protests, among them possible military intervention, and he said: "we will hit them at levels that they've never been hit before". [ 346 ] A senior American official told The New York Times that Israeli prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu urged President Trump to delay a potential American attack against Iran. [ 347 ] On 15 January, multiple sources reported that Carrier Strike Group 3 was expected to arrive in the Middle East in "about a week", and The New York Times reported that an array of combat and refueling aircraft "were expected to start flowing into the region soon". [ 348 ] [ 349 ] Israel – Netanyahu said Israel "[identifies] with the struggle of the Iranian people for freedom, liberty and justice". He also mentioned the possibility that the people would take their fate into their hands. [ 350 ] Mossad , Israel's intelligence agency , claimed it was "with [the Iranian protesters] in the field". [ 351 ] Israel's former defence minister, Yoav Gallant , stated "At this time, when what matters is the action of the masses on the ground, we need to stay behind and direct things with an invisible hand". [ 352 ] Mossad , Israel's intelligence agency , claimed it was "with [the Iranian protesters] in the field". [ 351 ] Israel's former defence minister, Yoav Gallant , stated "At this time, when what matters is the action of the masses on the ground, we need to stay behind and direct things with an invisible hand". [ 352 ] France , Germany , and the United Kingdom 's leaders released a joint statement on 9 January urging Iran to exercise restraint. [ 62 ] German chancellor Friedrich Merz spoke out against the violent suppression of Iranian protesters, saying, "This violence is not an expression of strength, but rather a sign of weakness. This violence must end", [ 353 ] later saying "If a regime can only keep itself in power by force, then it's effectively at the end. I believe we are now seeing the final days and weeks of this regime. In any case, it has no legitimacy through elections in the population. The population is now rising up against this regime." [ 354 ] [ 355 ] German chancellor Friedrich Merz spoke out against the violent suppression of Iranian protesters, saying, "This violence is not an expression of strength, but rather a sign of weakness. This violence must end", [ 353 ] later saying "If a regime can only keep itself in power by force, then it's effectively at the end. I believe we are now seeing the final days and weeks of this regime. In any case, it has no legitimacy through elections in the population. The population is now rising up against this regime." [ 354 ] [ 355 ] Australia and Canada issued a joint statement condemning Iran's use of force against protesters. [ 356 ] New Zealand – Foreign minister Winston Peters expressed concern about the killing of protesters and described protests as a "fundamental human right." [ 357 ] Poland – On 15 January 2026, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs summoned the Iranian ambassador to express concern over the growing number of casualties and arrests, and called on Iran to cease violence against the protesters and initiate talks. [ 358 ] Turkey – Foreign minister Hakan Fidan stated that the protests in Iran were "being manipulated from abroad by Iran's rivals", including the United States and Israel, expressed a wish for the resolution of the perceived antagonism between Iran and the West through negotiations, and called on Iran to engage in "very genuine reconciliation and cooperation" with other Middle Eastern countries. [ 359 ] Vatican City – Pope Leo XIV expressed concern. [ 360 ] United Kingdom – On 13 January 2026, Foreign Secretary Yvette Cooper summoned the Iranian ambassador over the mass killings. [ 361 ] British Secretary of State for Transport Heidi Alexander told Sky News that the current priority is to "stem the violence" in Iran. She said Iran is a threat to the Middle East and represses its own people. [ 362 ] Intergovernmental and international organisations European Union : The European External Action Service urged Iran's security forces to exercise restraint and called on authorities to uphold rights including freedom of expression and peaceful assembly. [ 363 ] The EU also co-signed the aforementioned joint statement issued by Australia and Canada. [ 356 ] European Commission President Ursula von der Leyen , urged the release of imprisoned Iranian protesters, condemned the violent crackdown, and called for internet access to be restored, saying Europe stands "fully behind" those demonstrating. [ 364 ] European Commission President Ursula von der Leyen , urged the release of imprisoned Iranian protesters, condemned the violent crackdown, and called for internet access to be restored, saying Europe stands "fully behind" those demonstrating. [ 364 ] The United Nations criticised Iran's internet shutdown and violation of civil liberties. [ 365 ] Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch condemned the violent repression and documented indiscriminate killings and arrests. [ 366 ] [ 367 ] Political parties and organisations United Kingdom – Kemi Badenoch , the leader of the United Kingdom's opposition Conservative Party , told the BBC that she would "not have an issue" with Iranian regime change and said she supported the involvement of the US and its allies. She claimed that Iran posed a direct threat to the UK, saying it would "very happily wipe out the UK if it felt it could get away with it". [ 362 ] The Mobarizoun Popular Front, a newly-formed Baloch nationalist organisation, expressed its support for the protests. [ 19 ] The Army of the Men of the Naqshbandi Order expressed support for the Iranian opposition against the Iranian government in early January, calling the Iranian government a "fraudulent mullah regime." [ 368 ] The Kurdistan Free Life Party (PJAK) co-chair Amir Kerimi stated that the Islamic Republic had lost its social legitimacy and described the situation as an opportunity to build "a democratic and decentralised Iran … that transcends the nation-state , based on the self-governance of the people", while indicating "the construction of a new authoritarian regime through Reza Pahlavi" as his biggest concern. [ 369 ] Corporate organisations From 9 January 2026, multiple international airlines suspended or cancelled flights to and from Iran due to the protests, the internet blackout, and security concerns. Turkish Airlines cancelled flights between Istanbul and Iranian cities including Tehran, Tabriz and Mashhad, while AJet and Pegasus Airlines suspended all services to Iran. UAE carriers flydubai and Emirates halted flights to Iranian destinations, and Qatar Airways cancelled several flights from Doha to Iran. In Europe, Austrian Airlines cancelled its Vienna-Tehran flight on 9 January. Lufthansa , which had planned to resume flights on 16 January after it suspended them due to regional security concerns, delayed its plans to resume services due to the protests. [ 370 ] [ 371 ] [ 372 ] [ 181 ] [ 373 ] International travel advisories Since the outbreak of the protests, several countries have issued travel advisories or warnings for Iran and have advised their citizens to leave the country. These advisories cite security concerns and potential disruptions to transportation and communications. Countries that have issued such advisories include the United States, [ 374 ] the United Kingdom, [ 375 ] Canada, [ 376 ] Australia, [ 377 ] Germany, [ 378 ] France, [ 379 ] New Zealand, [ 380 ] Ireland, [ 381 ] and India. [ 382 ] Polling A January 2026 Quinnipiac poll, found that 70% oppose U.S. military involvement in Iran, 79% of Democrats, 80% of independents and 53% of Republicans opposed military involvement. [ 383 ] [ 384 ] [ 385 ] Analysis On 30 December, Iran International suggested that the protests were a "historic break" of Iranian bazaar merchants, historically a critical and old ally of the Islamic Republic, from the Iranian government. Such breaks, the news agency suggested, were fuelled by the Islamic Republic's blame towards the merchants as "price gougers" for rejecting state-standardised pricing and being unable to restock market inventories if they complied to their demands. Anger towards the government by merchants were also caused by the proposed 2025–26 Iranian budget , which would prioritise deficit spending and large tax increases to make up for a decline in oil revenues for government funding. [ 386 ] On 2 January, Iran International cited the opinion of analysts, including intelligence analysts and journalists, who suggested that Iran might have entered the early stages of regime collapse. [ 387 ] On 4 January, according to the New York Times , Iranian officials, including foreign minister Abbas Araghchi , described the government as being in a "survival mode", with difficulties in either reversing economic problems or handling the military threat of attack by the United States or Israel. Pezeshkian held two emergency meetings following the start of the protests. Some of his advisers recommended that he publicly criticise the role of Khamenei as supreme leader. [ 252 ] A 5 January analysis in Foreign Policy argues that the 2025–2026 protests differ from the Mahsa Amini protests in that the 2025–2026 protests are more geographically widespread, including small towns rather than just major cities, and involve a broader range of groups, including students, workers, women, and ethnic minorities. The analysis also saw differences in the international context as significant, with Trump's unpredictability and overt willingness to violate international law as a factor differing from Biden's approach, and the fall of the Assad regime as a weakening of Iran's regional support. The authors also saw the focus of the 2025–2026 protests as shifting from social reform to regime change. [ 7 ] In early January 2026, The Times referred to intelligence reports stating that Khamenei had an escape plan, for him and about twenty close associates and family members, including Khamenei's son Mojtaba Khamenei , ready to flee to Moscow in case security forces defected to the side of the protesters. Beni Sabti, a former Israeli intelligence officer, stated that he expected Moscow to be Khamenei's preferred location of exile if he fled. [ 254 ] Social scientist Mali Rezaei viewed the protests as showing a "deepening rupture between society and the ideological foundations of the state". She argued that one of the factors behind the protests was the context of Iran's multi-millenial history and ethnic and cultural diversity, in which the seventh century CE Muslim conquest of Persia left in place "a persistent resistance to absolutism". She pointed to a 2020 GAMAAN study that found that irreligion in Iran and support for secularism was growing. In addition to economic factors, Rezaei saw environmental crises such as the disappearance of Lake Urmia as playing a role. She viewed the Iranian government's destruction of some elements of Persian culture and a "passivity in defending [cultural] legacy" as a weakening of the government's protection of "the nation". Rezaei saw the Mahsa Amini protests and the Woman, Life, Freedom slogan as a key turning point in which the protest movement evolved to avoid cooptation by either the government and individual celebrities. She viewed the pro-Pahlavi slogans as mainly representing a desire for a secular democracy, not absolute monarchy, that would recover national agency . [ 388 ] View of the protests as an uprising On 10 January, human rights activist Hamid Enayat suggested that "dozens of instances" of disarmament of security forces during the protests, and the "breakdown of the deterrent function" of the Iranian state's monopoly of violence indicated a transition to a new phase , that of an uprising . Enayat cited cases of protesters stopping security forces on buses, disarming them and tying their hands, and a case of a stun gun being taken from a security forces member and used against him. He argued that Malekshahi County effectively came under insurgent control on 6 January when security forces fled from the protesters. He saw the protests as having shifted to a phase in which the Iranian state had lost its power to frighten citizens into obedience. [ 269 ] On 11 January, historian Mark Almond disagreed with comparison of the Iranian protests to the fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989. He argued that it would be more like the Storming of the Bastille , because, if successful, the overthrow of the Islamic Republic would be a rebellion against an internally developed regime, rather than one imposed internationally. He argued that the protests already qualified for the term "revolution". [ 389 ] In contradistinction most Israeli analysts believed that the conditions for successful revolution had not yet been met, the existential threat to the regime notwithstanding. [ 390 ] [ 391 ] A minority view, such as held by retired Brigadier General Amir Avivi , chairman of the Israel Defence and Security Forum (IDSF),is that the Iranian regime faces imminent collapse. [ 392 ] See also Iran portal Middle East portal Politics portal 2025 Iran internal crisis 2025–26 Iranian budget Deaths during the Mahsa Amini protests Iran Prosperity Project Iranian energy crisis Iranian opposition Killing of Saghar Etemadi Political repression in the Islamic Republic of Iran Notes ^ Protests reported in over 145 locations, including Abadan , Abdanan , Ahvaz , Aligudarz , Alvand , Amlash , Amol , Arak , Arakvaz , Arsanjan , Asadabad , Asaluyeh , Ashkhaneh , Astara , Lorestan , Babaheydar , Babol , Bagh-e Malek , Bandar Abbas , Bandar Ganaveh , Bandar-e Anzali , Bandar Kangan , Baneh , Borazjan , Borujerd , Chaboksar , Chaharbagh , Chenar Shahijan , Dargahan , Dehloran , Delijan , Dezful , Dogonbadan , Dorud , Eqlid , Esfarayen , Eslamabad-e Gharb , Eslamshahr , Falavarjan , Fariman , Farsan , Fasa , Firuzabad , Firuzkuh , Fuladshahr , Garmdarreh , Garmsar , Gilan-e Gharb , Gonabad , Gorgan , Hafshejan , Hamadan , Harsin , Holeylan County , Ilam , Isfahan , Izeh , Jahrom , Junqan , Juyabad , Karaj , Kashan , Kavar , Kazerun , Kerend-e Gharb , Kerman , Kermanshah , Khash , Khomeyni Shahr , Khorramabad , Kish Island , Kuhchenar County , Kuhdasht , Lahijan , Lali , Lordegan , Lumar , Mahabad , Mahallat , Malard , Malayer , Maragheh , Marivan , Marvdasht , Mashhad , Meshkan , Murmuri , Nahavand , Najafabad , Neqab , Neyriz , Nishapur , Nurabad , Pardis , Paveh , Qaen , Qasr-e Shirin , Qazvin , Qeydar , Qom , Qorveh , Ramhormoz , Rasht , Robat Karim , Rudsar , Sabzevar , Safashahr , Sahneh , Salehabad, Ilam , Saman, Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari , Saqqez , Sarpol-e Zahab , Sarvestan , Sari , Saveh , Semnan , Shahin Shahr , Shahrekord , Shahrud , Shalamzar , Shazand , Shiraz , Shirvan , Shush , Sonqor , Tabriz , Tehran , Tonekabon , Torbat-e Heydarieh , Tuyserkan , Urmia , Vahdatiyeh , Varamin , Varzaneh , Yasuj , Yazd , Yazdan Shahr , Zabol , Zahedan , Zanjan , Zarqan , Zarrinshahr and Zibashahr . ^ Lower estimate per an official speaking to Reuters , upper estimate per an official speaking to The New York Times . [ 38 ] [ 39 ] Including 121 security forces, per Iranian state media. [ 40 ] ^ Including 2,478 protestors, 163 government affiliated individuals, 20 non-protesting civilians, 16 minors and 1,693 other unidentified deaths. [ 41 ] ^ Including 800 individuals who received death sentences. [ 41 ] ^ Attributed to multiple sources: [ 44 ] [ 45 ] [ 46 ] [ 47 ] [ 48 ] [ 10 ] References ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Day Thirteen of the Protests: Nighttime Demonstrations Continue Amid Internet Shutdown" . 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Institute for the Study of War . Retrieved 13 January 2026 . The regime may be framing protesters as "terrorists" and linking them to the United States and Israel to increase security forces' willingness to use lethal force against protesters and reduce the risk of defections. ^ "Iran is Cut off from Internet as Protests Calling for Regime Change Intensify" . The New York Times . ^ "Iran's protests no longer speak language of reform [OPINION]" . Azernews.Az . 9 January 2026. ^ a b c d e f g h "Iranian Authorities Intensify Crackdown on Protests with Live Fire, Arbitrary Arrests, and Attacks on Hospitals" . Center for Human Rights in Iran . 6 January 2026. ^ a b c d e f g h "Iranian labor, civil and retiree groups voice support for protests" . 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Haaretz . ^ "Iran Protests, Explained: How Real Is the Danger to the Regime, and How Might Trump Intervene? - Iran" . ^ "Live - Iran closes airspace as US moves carrier strike group to Mideast" . www.iranintl.com . 15 January 2026. v t e 2025–2026 Iranian protests v t e Overview General Timeline [ fa ] Reactions Geographical scope [ fa ] Map Background Corruption Ethnic-based discrimination Inflation [ fa ] Food International sanctions Iran and state-sponsored terrorism Economic crisis Internal crisis Twelve-Day War United States strikes on Iranian nuclear sites Mahsa Amini protests Sex segregation Energy crisis Water scarcity General Timeline [ fa ] Reactions Geographical scope [ fa ] Map Timeline [ fa ] Reactions Geographical scope [ fa ] Map Map Background Corruption Ethnic-based discrimination Inflation [ fa ] Food International sanctions Iran and state-sponsored terrorism Economic crisis Internal crisis Twelve-Day War United States strikes on Iranian nuclear sites Mahsa Amini protests Sex segregation Energy crisis Water scarcity Corruption Ethnic-based discrimination Inflation [ fa ] Food Food International sanctions Iran and state-sponsored terrorism Economic crisis Internal crisis Twelve-Day War United States strikes on Iranian nuclear sites United States strikes on Iranian nuclear sites Mahsa Amini protests Sex segregation Energy crisis Water scarcity People Deaths Saghar Etemadi Amirhesam Khodayarifard Shayan Asadollahi Reza Ghanbari Mohammad Nouri Reza Moradi Abdolvand Latif Karimi Kadyvrian brothers Death sentences Erfan Soltani Diaspora Reza Pahlavi Deaths Saghar Etemadi Amirhesam Khodayarifard Shayan Asadollahi Reza Ghanbari Mohammad Nouri Reza Moradi Abdolvand Latif Karimi Kadyvrian brothers Saghar Etemadi Amirhesam Khodayarifard Shayan Asadollahi Reza Ghanbari Mohammad Nouri Reza Moradi Abdolvand Latif Karimi Kadyvrian brothers Death sentences Erfan Soltani Erfan Soltani Diaspora Reza Pahlavi Reza Pahlavi Armed forces IRGC Cyber Command Basij Iranian police Special Units State-sponsored foreign militia [ fa ] IRGC Cyber Command Basij Cyber Command Basij Iranian police Special Units Special Units State-sponsored foreign militia [ fa ] Events Tehran's Tank Man Massacres Fardis Malekshahi Internet blackout Los Angeles ramming attack Tehran's Tank Man Massacres Fardis Malekshahi Fardis Malekshahi Internet blackout Los Angeles ramming attack Slogans " Death to Khamenei " " Death to the Dictator " " Neither Gaza nor Lebanon, My Life for Iran " " This is the final battle, Pahlavi will return " " Javid Shah [ fa ] " " Death to Khamenei " " Death to the Dictator " " Neither Gaza nor Lebanon, My Life for Iran " " This is the final battle, Pahlavi will return " " Javid Shah [ fa ] " Related PMOI/MEK NCRI Kurdish separatism in Iran Sistan and Baluchestan insurgency People's Fighters Front Iranian opposition Political repression in the Islamic Republic of Iran Lion and Sun flag Lion and Sun Pahlavi dynasty Iran International PMOI/MEK NCRI NCRI Kurdish separatism in Iran Sistan and Baluchestan insurgency People's Fighters Front People's Fighters Front Iranian opposition Political repression in the Islamic Republic of Iran Lion and Sun flag Lion and Sun Lion and Sun Pahlavi dynasty Iran International v t e Protests in Iran v t e 19th century Tobacco Protest (1890–1892) Tobacco Protest (1890–1892) 20th century 1906 revolution 1952 riots 1963 riots Iranian Revolution 1978 Qom protest 1978 Tabriz protests Black Friday (1978) 1979 Women Day protests 1981 protests 1999 student protests 1906 revolution 1952 riots 1963 riots Iranian Revolution 1978 Qom protest 1978 Tabriz protests Black Friday (1978) 1978 Qom protest 1978 Tabriz protests Black Friday (1978) 1979 Women Day protests 1981 protests 1999 student protests 21st century 2003 student protests 2005 Ahvaz unrest Green Movement 2009 presidential election protests 2009 Ashura protests 2011–2012 protests 2011 Khuzestan protests 2015 Mahabad riots 2015 Fitilieh programme protests 2016 Cyrus the Great Revolt 2017–2018 protests Iranian protests against compulsory hijab 2018 Dervish protests 2018 protests 2018–2019 general strikes and protests 2018 water protests August 2018 uprising 2018 protest movement 2018 university protests 2019 protests 2019–2020 protests Mahshahr massacre 2019 Sistan and Baluchestan protests Ukraine International Airlines Flight 752 protests 2021 Sistan and Baluchestan protests 2021–2022 protests 2021 water protests 2022 food protests Mahsa Amini protests May 2025 Iranian protests 2025–2026 Iranian protests 2003 student protests 2005 Ahvaz unrest Green Movement 2009 presidential election protests 2009 Ashura protests 2009 presidential election protests 2009 Ashura protests 2009 Ashura protests 2011–2012 protests 2011 Khuzestan protests 2011 Khuzestan protests 2015 Mahabad riots 2015 Fitilieh programme protests 2016 Cyrus the Great Revolt 2017–2018 protests Iranian protests against compulsory hijab 2018 Dervish protests 2018 protests 2018–2019 general strikes and protests 2018 water protests August 2018 uprising 2018 protest movement 2018 university protests 2019 protests 2019–2020 protests Mahshahr massacre Mahshahr massacre 2019 Sistan and Baluchestan protests Ukraine International Airlines Flight 752 protests 2021 Sistan and Baluchestan protests 2021–2022 protests 2021 water protests 2022 food protests 2021 water protests 2022 food protests Mahsa Amini protests May 2025 Iranian protests 2025–2026 Iranian protests v t e Ali Khamenei v t e Politics Ahl Al-Bayt World Assembly Assassination attempt October 1981 Iranian presidential election 1985 Iranian presidential election Supreme Leader of Iran Statement of 14 Political Activists Executive Order 13876 Mahsa Amini protests 2025–2026 Iranian protests Ahl Al-Bayt World Assembly Assassination attempt October 1981 Iranian presidential election 1985 Iranian presidential election Supreme Leader of Iran Statement of 14 Political Activists Executive Order 13876 Mahsa Amini protests 2025–2026 Iranian protests Policies Fatwa against nuclear weapons Islamic clerics in politics Iran Slogan of the Year Second Phase of the Revolution Sex segregation Anti-Zionism 8-Article Command to the Chiefs of Branches Fatwa against nuclear weapons Islamic clerics in politics Iran Slogan of the Year Second Phase of the Revolution Sex segregation Anti-Zionism 8-Article Command to the Chiefs of Branches Books and messages A 250 Years Old Person An Outline of Islamic Thought in the Quran Four main books of Biographical-Evaluation Ghena Palestine Ruhe-Tawhid, Nafye Obudiate GheireKhoda Sharh-e Esm Fatwa against insulting revered Sunni figures To the Youth in Europe and North America To the Youth in Western Countries Israel won't exist in 25 years A 250 Years Old Person An Outline of Islamic Thought in the Quran Four main books of Biographical-Evaluation Ghena Palestine Ruhe-Tawhid, Nafye Obudiate GheireKhoda Sharh-e Esm Fatwa against insulting revered Sunni figures To the Youth in Europe and North America To the Youth in Western Countries Israel won't exist in 25 years Family Mansoureh Khojasteh Bagherzadeh (wife) Mostafa (son) Mojtaba (son) Masoud (son) Javad (father) Mohammad (brother) Hadi (brother) Badri (sister) Ali Tehrani (brother-in-law) Farideh Moradkhani (niece) Mahmoud Moradkhani (nephew) Co-fathers-in-law : Azizollah Khoshvaght Gholam-Ali Haddad-Adel Mohsen Kharazi Mohammad Mohammadi Golpayegani Mansoureh Khojasteh Bagherzadeh (wife) Mostafa (son) Mojtaba (son) Masoud (son) Javad (father) Mohammad (brother) Hadi (brother) Badri (sister) Ali Tehrani (brother-in-law) Farideh Moradkhani (niece) Mahmoud Moradkhani (nephew) Co-fathers-in-law : Azizollah Khoshvaght Gholam-Ali Haddad-Adel Mohsen Kharazi Mohammad Mohammadi Golpayegani Economy Wealth of Khamenei family Wealth of Khamenei family Category 2025–2026 Iranian protests 2020s internet outages 2025 labor disputes and strikes 2025 protests 2026 in Iran 2026 labor disputes and strikes 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Birth and first marriage to Tiberius Claudius Nero 2 Wife to Augustus 3 Reign of Tiberius 4 Death and aftermath 5 Personality 6 Legacy 7 In literature and popular culture Toggle In literature and popular culture subsection 7.1 In ancient literature 7.2 In modern literature 7.3 On television and film 7.1 In ancient literature 7.2 In modern literature 7.3 On television and film 8 Descendants 9 See also 10 Notes 11 Further reading 12 External links Livia العربية Arpetan Asturianu Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська اردو 吴语 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Livia Drusilla Julia Augusta Bust, Musée Saint-Raymond Roman empress Tenure 16 January 27 BC – 19 August AD 14 Born 30 January 59 BC [ 1 ] Rome , Italy, Roman Republic Died AD 29 (aged 87) Rome, Italy, Roman Empire Burial Mausoleum of Augustus Spouses .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Tiberius Claudius Nero (43–39 BC) Augustus (38 BC – AD 14) Tiberius Claudius Nero (43–39 BC) Augustus (38 BC – AD 14) Issue Tiberius Nero Claudius Drusus Tiberius Nero Claudius Drusus Dynasty Julio-Claudian Father Marcus Livius Drusus Claudianus Mother Alfidia Livia Drusilla (30 January 59 BC – AD 29) was Roman empress from 27 BC to AD 14 as the wife of Augustus , the first Roman emperor . She was known as Julia Augusta after her formal adoption into the Julia gens in AD 14. Livia was the daughter of senator Marcus Livius Drusus Claudianus and his wife Alfidia . She married Tiberius Claudius Nero around 43 BC, and they had two sons, Tiberius and Drusus . In 38 BC, she divorced Tiberius Claudius Nero and married the political leader Octavian. The Senate granted Octavian the title Augustus in 27 BC, effectively making him emperor. In her role as Roman empress, Livia served as an influential confidant to her husband and was rumored to have been responsible for the deaths of several of his relatives, including his grandson Agrippa Postumus . After Augustus died in AD 14, Tiberius was elevated, and Livia continued to exert political influence as the mother of the emperor until her death in AD 29. She was grandmother of the emperor Claudius , great-grandmother of the emperor Caligula , and great-great-grandmother of the emperor Nero . Livia was deified by Claudius in AD 42, bestowing her the title Diva Augusta . Birth and first marriage to Tiberius Claudius Nero Roman imperial dynasties A cult statue of Livia represented as Ops , with sheaf of wheat and cornucopia , 1st century Julio-Claudian dynasty Chronology Augustus 27 BCE – CE 14 Tiberius CE 14–37 Caligula CE 37–41 Claudius CE 41–54 Nero CE 54–68 Preceded by Roman Republic Followed by Year of the Four Emperors Preceded by Roman Republic Followed by Year of the Four Emperors .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e Livia Drusilla was born on 30 January 59 BC as the daughter of Marcus Livius Drusus Claudianus by his wife Alfidia . The diminutive Drusilla often found in her name suggests that she was not her father's first daughter. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] She may have had a brother named Gaius Livius Drusus who had two daughters named Livia Pulchra and Livilla. [ 4 ] [ 5 ] Her father also adopted Marcus Livius Drusus Libo . She was married around 43 BC [ 6 ] to Tiberius Claudius Nero , her cousin of patrician status who was fighting with her father on the side of Julius Caesar 's assassins against Octavian. Her father committed suicide in the Battle of Philippi , along with Gaius Cassius Longinus and Marcus Junius Brutus , but her husband continued fighting against Octavian, now on behalf of Mark Antony and his brother Lucius Antonius . Her first child, the future emperor Tiberius , was born in 42 BC. In 40 BC, the family was forced to flee Italy in order to avoid the recriminations of Octavian in the aftermath of the siege of Perusia . They joined with Sextus Pompeius , a son of Pompey Magnus , who opposed the Second Triumvirate from his base in Sicily . Later, Livia, her husband Tiberius Nero and their two-year-old son, Tiberius, moved on to Greece . [ 7 ] Wife to Augustus After peace was established between the Triumvirate and the followers of Sextus Pompeius, a general amnesty was announced, and Livia returned to Rome, where she was personally introduced to Octavian in 39 BC. At this time, Livia already had a son, the future emperor Tiberius , and was pregnant with the second, Nero Claudius Drusus (also known as Drusus the Elder). Legend said that Octavian fell immediately in love with her, despite the fact that he was still married to Scribonia . [ 8 ] Octavian divorced Scribonia on 30 October 39 BC, the very day Scribonia gave birth to his only biological child, daughter Julia the Elder . [ 9 ] Seemingly around that time, when Livia was six months pregnant with her second child, Tiberius Claudius Nero was persuaded or forced by Octavian to divorce Livia. She gave birth on 14 January; three days later Octavian married Livia after waiving the traditional waiting period. On the day of his wedding to Livia, Octavian received a supposed omen of an eagle dropping a white hen with a laurel branch in its mouth into Livia's lap. This omen was interpreted as being an indication toward Livia's fertility, as she had given birth to two sons in her short four years of marriage to Nero. [ 10 ] This was ironic because her first pregnancy by Augustus ended in a stillbirth, and she was unable to ever conceive another child. [ 10 ] Tiberius Claudius Nero was present at the wedding, giving her in marriage "just as a father would." [ 11 ] The importance of the patrician Claudii to Octavian's cause, and the political survival of the Claudii Nerones are probably more rational explanations for the tempestuous union. Nevertheless, Livia and Augustus remained married for the next 51 years, despite the fact that they had no children apart from the single stillbirth. She always enjoyed the status of privileged counselor to her husband, petitioning him on the behalf of others and influencing his policies, an unusual role for a Roman wife in a culture dominated by the pater familias . [ 8 ] After Mark Antony's suicide following the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, Octavian returned to Rome triumphant; on 16 January 27 BC, the Senate bestowed upon him the honorary title of Augustus ("honorable" or "revered one"). Augustus rejected monarchical titles, instead choosing to refer to himself as Princeps Civitatis ("First Citizen of the State") or Princeps Senatus ("First among the Senate"). He and Livia formed the role model for Roman households. Despite their wealth and power, Augustus' family continued to live modestly in their house on the Palatine Hill . Livia would set the pattern for the noble Roman matrona . She wore neither excessive jewelry nor pretentious costumes; she took care of the household and her husband (often making his clothes herself), always faithful and dedicated. In 35 BC, Octavian gave Livia the unprecedented honor of ruling her own finances and dedicated a public statue to her. She owned and effectively administered copper mines in Gaul, estates of palm groves in Judea , and dozens of papyrus marshes in Egypt . She had her own circle of clients and pushed many protégés into political offices, including the grandfathers of the later emperors Galba and Otho . [ 8 ] With Augustus being the father of only one daughter (Julia by Scribonia), Livia revealed herself to be an ambitious mother and soon started to push her own sons, Tiberius and Drusus, into power. [ 8 ] Drusus was a trusted general and married Augustus' favorite niece, Antonia Minor , having three children: the popular general Germanicus , Livilla , and the future emperor Claudius . Drusus was killed in a riding accident only a few years later, dying in 9 BC. [ 10 ] This was also the same year in which Livia was honored by the dedication of the Ara Pacis Augustae as a birthday present. [ 10 ] Tiberius married Augustus' daughter Julia in 11 BC and was ultimately adopted as Augustus' heir in AD 4. Rumor had it that Livia was behind the death of Augustus' nephew Marcellus in 23 BC. [ 12 ] After Julia's two elder sons by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa , whom Augustus had adopted as sons and successors, had died, the one remaining son, Agrippa Postumus , was adopted at the same time as Tiberius, but later Agrippa Postumus was sent into exile and finally killed. Tacitus charges that Livia was not altogether innocent of these deaths [ 13 ] and Cassius Dio also mentions such rumours. [ 14 ] There are also rumors mentioned by Tacitus and Cassius Dio that Livia brought about Augustus' death by poisoning fresh figs, although modern historians view this as unlikely. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] Augustus' granddaughter was Julia the Younger . Sometime between AD 1 and 14, her husband Lucius Aemilius Paullus was executed as a conspirator in a revolt. [ 17 ] Modern historians theorize that Julia's exile was not actually for adultery but for involvement in Paullus' revolt. [ 18 ] Tacitus alleged that Livia had plotted against her stepdaughter's family and ruined them. Julia died in AD 29 on the island to which she had been sent in exile twenty years earlier. [ 19 ] Reign of Tiberius Augustus died on 19 August AD 14, being deified by the senate shortly afterward. In his will, he left one third of his property to Livia, and the other two thirds to Tiberius . In the will, he also adopted her into the Julian family and granted her the honorific title of Augusta . These dispositions permitted Livia to maintain her status and power after her husband's death, under the new name of Julia Augusta . Tacitus and Cassius Dio wrote that rumours persisted that Augustus was poisoned by Livia, but these are mainly dismissed as malicious fabrications spread by political enemies of the dynasty. The most famous of these rumors was that Livia, unable to poison his food in the kitchens because Augustus insisted on only eating figs picked fresh from his garden, smeared each fruit with poison while still on the tree to preempt him. [ 20 ] In Imperial times, a variety of fig cultivated in Roman gardens was called the Liviana , perhaps because of her reputed horticultural abilities, or as a tongue-in-cheek reference to this rumor. [ 21 ] For some time, Livia and her son Tiberius , the new emperor, appeared to get along with each other. Speaking against her became treason in AD 20, and in AD 24 he granted his mother a theater seat among the Vestal Virgins . Livia exercised unofficial but very real power in Rome. Eventually, Tiberius became resentful of his mother's political status, particularly against the idea that it was she who had given him the throne. At the beginning of his reign Tiberius vetoed the unprecedented title Mater Patriae ("Mother of the Fatherland") that the Senate wished to bestow upon her, in the same manner in which Augustus had been named Pater Patriae ("Father of the Fatherland") [ 8 ] (Tiberius also consistently refused the title of Pater Patriae for himself). The historians Tacitus and Cassius Dio depict an overweening, even domineering dowager, ready to interfere in Tiberius’ decisions. The most notable instances were the cases of Urgulania , grandmother of Claudius's first wife Plautia Urgulanilla , who correctly assumed that her friendship with the empress placed her above the law; [ 22 ] [ 23 ] and Munatia Plancina , suspected of murdering Germanicus and saved at Livia's entreaty. [ 24 ] (Plancina committed suicide in AD 33 after being accused again of murder after Livia's death.) A notice from AD 22 records that Julia Augusta (Livia) dedicated a statue to Augustus in the center of Rome, placing her own name even before that of Tiberius. Ancient historians give as a reason for Tiberius' retirement to Capri his inability to endure his mother any longer. [ 22 ] [ 25 ] Until AD 22 there had, according to Tacitus, been "a genuine harmony between mother and son, or a hatred well concealed;" [ 26 ] Dio tells us that at the time of his accession already Tiberius heartily loathed her. [ 27 ] Death and aftermath In AD 22 she had fallen ill, and Tiberius hastened back to Rome in order to be with her. [ 26 ] However, in AD 29 when she finally fell ill and died, he remained on Capri, pleading pressure of work and sending Caligula to deliver the funeral oration. [ 28 ] [ 29 ] [ 30 ] Suetonius adds the macabre detail that "when she died... after a delay of several days, during which he held out hope of his coming, [she was at last] buried because the condition of the corpse made it necessary...". Divine honours he also vetoed, stating that this was in accord with her own instructions. Later he vetoed all the honours the Senate had granted her after her death and cancelled the fulfillment of her will. [ 30 ] It was not until 13 years later, in AD 42 during the reign of her grandson Claudius , that all her honours were restored and her deification finally completed. She was named Diva Augusta ( The Divine Augusta ), and an elephant-drawn chariot conveyed her image to all public games. A statue of her was set up in the Temple of Augustus along with her husband's, races were held in her honor, and women were to invoke her name in their sacred oaths. Her and Augustus' tomb was later sacked at an unknown date. Her Villa ad Gallinas Albas north of Rome is currently being excavated; its famous frescoes of imaginary garden views may be seen at the National Roman Museum . [ 31 ] One of the most famous statues of Augustus (the Augustus of Prima Porta ) came from the grounds of the villa. Personality While reporting various unsavory hearsay, the ancient sources generally portray Livia as a woman of proud and queenly attributes, faithful to her imperial husband. Dio records two of her utterances: "Once, when some naked men met her and were to be put to death in consequence, she saved their lives by saying that to a chaste woman such men are in no way different from statues. When someone asked her how she had gained respect from Augustus, she answered that it was by being scrupulously chaste herself, doing gladly whatever pleased him, not meddling with any of his affairs, and, in particular, by pretending neither to hear nor to notice the favourites of his passion." [ 32 ] With the passage of time, however, some thought that with widowhood a haughtiness and an overt craving for power and the outward trappings of status came increasingly to the fore. [ citation needed ] Livia had always been a principal beneficiary of the climate of adulation that Augustus had done so much to create, and which Tiberius despised ("a strong contempt for honours", Tacitus, Annals 4.37). In AD 24, whenever she attended the theatre, a seat among the Vestals was typically reserved for her ( Annals 4.16), but this may have been intended more as an honour for the Vestals than for her (cf. Ovid, Tristia , 4.2.13f, Epist. ex Ponto 4.13.29f). Livia played a vital role in the formation of her children Tiberius and Drusus. Attention focuses on her part in the divorce of her first husband, father of Tiberius, in 39/38 BC. Her role in this is unknown, as well as in Tiberius's divorce of Vipsania Agrippina in 12 BC at Augustus's insistence: whether it was merely neutral or passive, or whether she actively colluded in Caesar's wishes. Legacy The Roman tribe Livia was named in her honor. [ 33 ] In literature and popular culture In ancient literature The ancient sources all agree that Livia was Augustus' best confidant and counselor, but the extent of her influence remained disputed due to the numerous attempts by her political enemies to defame her dynasty. According to Suetonius, who had access to imperial records, Augustus would write down lists of items to be discussed with Livia, and then take careful notes of her replies to be consulted again later. [ 34 ] In Tacitus' Annals , meanwhile, Livia is famously depicted as having great influence, to the extent where she "had the aged Augustus firmly under control—so much so that he exiled his only surviving grandson to the island of Planasia"; [ 35 ] Tacitus goes on to call her "a real catastrophe to the nation as a mother, and to the house of the Caesars as a stepmother" and "a compliant wife, but an overbearing mother". [ 36 ] Livia's image appears in ancient visual media such as coins and portraits. Following Octavia the Younger , Cleopatra and possibly Fulvia , she was the third (or fourth) woman to appear on provincial coins in 16 BC. On official Roman coinage, she was probably portrayed as Salus Augusta on the dupondius of Tiberius. [ 37 ] Her portrait images can be chronologically identified partially from the progression of her hair designs, which represented more than keeping up with the fashions of the time as her depiction with such contemporary details translated into a political statement of representing the ideal Roman woman. Livia's image evolves with different styles of portraiture that trace her effect on imperial propaganda that helped bridge the gap between her role as wife to the emperor Augustus, to mother of the emperor Tiberius. Becoming more than the "beautiful woman" she is described as in ancient texts, Livia serves as a public image for the idealization of Roman feminine qualities, a motherly figure, and eventually a goddesslike representation that alludes to her virtue. Livia's power in symbolizing the renewal of the Republic with the female virtues Pietas and Concordia in public displays had a dramatic effect on the visual representation of future imperial women as ideal, honorable mothers and wives of Rome. [ 38 ] Livia also restored the temple of the Bona Dea. [ 10 ] Livia is mentioned by Pliny the Elder , who describes the vines of the Pulcino wine ("Vinum Pucinum" - today at best " Prosecco "). This then special and rare wine from the sunny slopes northeast of Barcola in the direction of the place Prosecco or Duino (near the historic place Castellum Pucinum) was according to Pliny the favorite wine of the Empress Livia. She is said to have loved this Vinum Pucinum for its medicinal properties and at the end of her long life (she was 87) she attributed her old age to its consumption and commended it to everyone as an "elixir for a long life". [ 39 ] [ 40 ] [ 41 ] In modern literature In the popular fictional work I, Claudius by Robert Graves —based on Tacitus' innuendo—Livia is portrayed as a thoroughly Machiavellian , scheming political mastermind. Determined never to allow republican governance to flower again, as she felt they led to corruption and civil war, and devoted to bringing Tiberius to power and then maintaining him there, she is involved in nearly every death or disgrace in the Julio-Claudian family up to the time of her death. On her deathbed she only fears divine punishment for all she had done, and secures the promise of future deification by her grandson Claudius, an act which, she believes, will guarantee her a blissful afterlife. However, this portrait of her is balanced by her intense devotion to the well-being of the Empire as a whole, and her machinations are justified as a necessarily cruel means to what she firmly considers a noble aspiration: the common good of the Romans, achievable only under strict imperial rule. [ 42 ] [ 43 ] In John Maddox Roberts 's short story "The King of Sacrifices," set in his SPQR series , Livia hires Decius Metellus to investigate the murder of one of Julia the Elder 's lovers. In Antony and Cleopatra by Colleen McCullough , Livia is portrayed as a cunning and effective advisor to her husband, whom she loves passionately. Luke Devenish's "Empress of Rome" novels, Den of Wolves (2008) and Nest of Vipers (2010), have Livia as a central character in a fictionalized account of her life and times. Livia plays an important role in two Marcus Corvinus mysteries by David Wishart, Ovid (1995) and Germanicus (1997). She is mentioned posthumously in Sejanus (1998). On television and film In the 1968 ITV television series The Caesars , Livia was played by Sonia Dresdel . [ 44 ] In the 1976 BBC television series I, Claudius based on the book, Livia was played by Siân Phillips . [ 45 ] Phillips won a BAFTA for her portrayal of the role. [ 46 ] In the 2003 television film Imperium: Augustus , (one of a series), Livia was portrayed by Charlotte Rampling . [ 47 ] In the 2007 HBO /BBC television series Rome , Livia was dramatized by Alice Henley. [ 48 ] Livia Drusilla is the series-protagonist of Sky Atlantic’s episodic period drama Domina (2021-2023), relating the rise of the Roman Principate with a focus on Livia's role and relationships. She is portrayed as having sworn a sacred oath to her father 's shade to restore the Republic and to be playing a long con to that effect in concert with Gn. Calpurnius Piso . The child Livia is played by Meadow Nobrega, the adolescent and young adult Livia by Nadia Parkes , and the adult Livia by Kasia Smutniak . [ 49 ] Descendants Her marriage with Augustus produced only one pregnancy, which miscarried. However, through her sons by her first husband, Tiberius and Drusus , she was a direct ancestor of all of the Julio-Claudian emperors as well as most of the extended Julio-Claudian imperial family. See also Julio-Claudian family tree List of Roman and Byzantine empresses Notes ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Barrett, Anthony A. (2002). "Appendix 5: Livia's Birthdate" . Livia: First Lady of Imperial Rome . Yale University Press. pp. 309– 310. ISBN 9780300102987 . JSTOR j.ctt1nq0jw . ^ For Livia's portraiture and representations, see: Rolf Winkes, Livia, Octavia, Iulia – Porträts und Darstellungen , Archaeologia Transatlantica XIII, Louvain-la-Neuve and Providence, 1995. ^ Chrystal, Paul (2017). "5: Livia Drusilla (58 BC–AD 29)". Roman Women: The Women who influenced the History of Rome . Fonthill Media. ^ Istituto italiana per la storia antica (1968). Miscellanea Greca e Romana . Studi pubblicati dall'Istituto italiano per la storia antica. Vol. 2– 3. Rome: University of Wisconsin - Madison. pp. 352– 353. ^ Pinsent, John (1976). Liverpool Classical Monthly. Vol. 1–2 . Indiana University. p. 2. ^ Livia, First Lady of Imperial Rome by Anthony A. Barrett , Yale University Press. ^ Fraschetti, Augusto (2001). "Livia the Politician" . In Fraschetti, Fraschetti (ed.). Roman Women . Translated by Lappin, Linda. Chicago & London: University of Chicago Press . pp. 100– 102. ISBN 9780226260945 . ^ a b c d e Hurley, D. (1999). "Livia (Wife of Augustus) ." Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors. ^ Cassius Dio. Roman History Book 48, Ch. 34.3 . (Vol. VI, Loeb Classical Library edition, 1917. Harvard University Press. Translation by Earnest Cary) ^ a b c d e Flory, Marleen B. “Livia and the History of Public Honorific Statues for Women in Rome.” Transactions of the American Philological Association , vol. 123, [Johns Hopkins University Press, American Philological Association], 1993, pp. 287–308, doi : 10.2307/284333 . ^ Cassius Dio. Roman History Book 48, Ch. 44.1–3 ^ Cassius Dio. Book 53, Ch. 33.4 ^ Tacitus. Annals. Book 1, Ch. 3; Book 1, Ch. 6. ( The Works of Tacitus tr. by Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb 1864–1877) ^ Cassius Dio. Roman History Book 53, Ch. 33.4 ; Book 55, Ch. 10a ; Book 55, Ch. 32 ; Book 57, Ch.3.6 ^ Tacitus. Annals Book 1, Ch. 5 ^ Cassius Dio. Roman History Book 55, Ch. 22.2 ; Book 56, Ch. 30 ^ Suetonius, Life of Augustus Ch. 19 ^ Norwood, Frances, "The Riddle of Ovid's Relegatio" Classical Philology (1963) p. 154 ^ Tacitus. Annals Book 4, Ch. 71 ^ Cassius Dio. Roman History Book 54, Ch. 30 . ^ Mary Beard (2014). Confronting the Classics . p. 131. ^ a b Cassius Dio, Book 57, Ch. 12 ^ Tacitus, Annals Book 2, Ch. 34 ^ Tacitus, Annals Book 3, Ch.17 ^ Tacitus, Annals Book 4, Ch. 57 ^ a b Tacitus, 3.6eirca4 ^ Cassius Dio, Book 57, Ch. 3.3 ^ Tacitus, Annals Book 5, Ch. 1 ^ Cassius Dio, Book 58, Ch.2 ^ a b Suetonius, Life of Tiberius Ch. 51 . ^ Lusnia, Susann S. (29 October 2016). "Review of: The Villa of Livia Ad Gallinas Albas. A Study in the Augustan Villa and Garden. Archaeologica Transatlantica XX" . Bryn Mawr Classical Review . Retrieved 29 October 2016 . ^ Cassius Dio, Book 58, Ch. 2.3-5 ^ Chow, John K. (1992). Patronage and Power: A Study of Social Networks in Corinth . The Library of New Testament Studies 75. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 44. ISBN 9780567111869 . ^ Suetonius. "Life of Augustus"; "Life of Tiberius"; "Life of Claudius," in The Twelve Caesars. Translated by Robert Graves, 1957. Revised by Michael Grant, 1979. NY: Viking Penguin, 1986. ^ Tacitus (1 September 2004). The Annals . Hackett Publishing. ISBN 9781603840156 . ^ Tacitus. Annals of Imperial Rome. Translated by Michael Grant. NY: Viking Penguin, 1987. ^ Kleiner, Fred S. (2020). "Review of Tracene Harvey, Julia Augusta: images of Rome's first empress on the coins of the Roman Empire. London; New York: Routledge, 2019. 264 p.. ISBN 9781472478689. $112.00. " . Bryn Mawr Classical Review . ^ I Claudia II: Women in Roman art and society . Edited by Diana E. E. Kleiner and Susan B. Matheson Yale University Art Gallery. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2000. ^ Pliny "The natural history of Caius Plinius Secundus" (approx. AD 77), third volume, 14th book. ^ Zeno Saracino, „Pompei in miniatura“: la storia di „Vallicula“ o Barcola", In: Trieste All News, 29 September 2018. ^ PLIN. Nat. XIV, 6: Iulia Augusta LXXXVI annos vitae Pucino vino rettulit acceptos, non alio usa. Gignitur in sinu Hadriatici maris non procul a Timavo fonte, saxoso colle, maritimo adflatu paucas coquente anforas … nec aliud aptius medicamentis indicatur. ^ Unsworth, Barry (2 September 2006). "Unreliable witness" . The Guardian . Retrieved 15 July 2022 . ^ Harrisson, Juliette (4 May 2018). "What Makes a Good Ancient World Drama?" . Den of Geek . Retrieved 15 July 2022 . ^ "1960's TV Shows - The caesars" . nostalgiacentral.com . 14 June 2019. ^ "themakeupgallery - Greece & Rome - Livia I, Claudius" . themakeupgallery.info . 5 December 2005. Archived from the original on 3 November 2016 . Retrieved 3 November 2016 . ^ "Siân Phillips CBE Culture award 2015 winner" . gov.wales . 13 September 2017. ^ "charlotte Rampling as Livia Drusilla film title Imperium - Augustus 2003" . alamy.com . 2003. ^ "Empress of Rome - The Life of Livia by Matthew Dennison" . The Times . 1 May 2010. ^ "The truth behind Ancient Rome's most controversial woman" . bbc.com . 7 May 2021. ^ Their names are unknown, but it is known that all of them were killed by Nero, thus descent from this line is extinct. ^ Drusus Julius Caesar, Tiberius' son, married Livilla, Nero Claudius Drusus' daughter, who was the mother of his three children. Further reading Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Adler, Eric (2011). "Cassius Dio's Livia and the Conspiracy of Cinna Magnus" (PDF) . Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies . 51 (1): 133– 154. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 June 2021. Bartman, Elizabeth (1999). Portraits of Livia: Imaging the Imperial Woman in Augustan Rome . Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521583947 . Barrett, Anthony A. (2001). "Tacitus, Livia and the evil stepmother". Rheinisches Museum für Philologie . 144 (2): 171– 175. JSTOR 41234489 . ————————— (2002). Livia: First Lady of Imperial Rome . Cambridge: Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300102987 . JSTOR j.ctt1nq0jw . Beard, Mary (2013). Confronting the Classics: Traditions, Adventures and Innovations . New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 9780871407160 . Bertolazzi, Riccardo (2015). "Depiction of Livia and Julia Domna by Cassius Dio" (PDF) . Acta Antiqua Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae . 55 ( 1– 4): 413– 432. doi : 10.1556/068.2015.55.1-4.28 . Bolder-Boos, Marion (2024). "Livias Bauten in Rom. Zur Rolle der Kaiserin im augusteischen Bauprogramm" [Livia's Buildings in the City of Rome and the Role of the Empress in Augustus' Building Programme]. In: Römische Mitteilungen 130 , pp. 162-192. Dennison, Matthew (2011). Livia, Empress of Rome: A Biography . New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0312658649 . Minaud, Gérard (2012). "La vie de Livie, femme d'Auguste" [The life of Livia, wife of Augustus]. Les vies de 12 femmes d'empereur romain – Devoirs, Intrigues & Voluptés [ The Lives of 12 Roman Emperor's Wives - Duty, Intrigue & Pleasure ] (in French). Paris: L’Harmattan. pp. 13– 38. ISBN 978-2-336-00291-0 . Kunst, Christiane (2009). "Das Liviabild im Wandel" [The image of Livia in flux]. In Losemann, Volker (ed.). Alte Geschichte zwischen Wissenschaft und Politik: Gedenkschrift Karl Christ [ Ancient history between science and politics: Gedenkschrift Karl Christ ]. Philippika: Marburger altertumskundliche Abhandlungen (in German). Vol. 29. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. pp. 313– 336. ISBN 978-3-447-05905-3 . Winkes, Rolf (1995). Livia, Octavia, Iulia: Porträts und Darstellungen [ Livia, Octavia, Iulia: portraits and representations ]. Archaeologia transatlantica (in German). Vol. 13. Providence & Louvain-la-Neuve: Brown University. OCLC 37599354 . External links As goddess and priestess of Demeter Portraits of Livia Livia: Love and Politics (in Spanish) v t e Roman and Byzantine empresses v t e Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Livia Livia Orestilla Lollia Paulina Milonia Caesonia Messalina Agrippina the Younger Claudia Octavia Poppaea Sabina Statilia Messalina Galeria Fundana Domitia Longina Pompeia Plotina Vibia Sabina Faustina the Elder Faustina the Younger Lucilla Bruttia Crispina Flavia Titiana Manlia Scantilla Julia Domna (w. Fulvia Plautilla ) Julia Cornelia Paula Aquilia Severa Annia Faustina Sallustia Orbiana Livia Livia Orestilla Lollia Paulina Milonia Caesonia Messalina Agrippina the Younger Claudia Octavia Poppaea Sabina Statilia Messalina Galeria Fundana Domitia Longina Pompeia Plotina Vibia Sabina Faustina the Elder Faustina the Younger Lucilla Bruttia Crispina Flavia Titiana Manlia Scantilla Julia Domna (w. Fulvia Plautilla ) Julia Cornelia Paula Aquilia Severa Annia Faustina Sallustia Orbiana Crisis 235–285 Caecilia Paulina (?) Tranquillina Marcia Otacilia Severa Herennia Etruscilla Cornelia Supera Cornelia Salonina Ulpia Severina Magnia Urbica Caecilia Paulina (?) Tranquillina Marcia Otacilia Severa Herennia Etruscilla Cornelia Supera Cornelia Salonina Ulpia Severina Magnia Urbica Dominate 284–610 Prisca Eutropia Galeria Valeria Flavia Maximiana Theodora Minervina (?) Fausta Valeria Maximilla Flavia Julia Constantia Eusebia Faustina Helena Charito Marina Severa Justina Domnica Constantia Laeta Aelia Flaccilla Galla Western Empire 395–480 Maria Thermantia Galla Placidia Licinia Eudoxia Marcia Euphemia Placidia Eastern Empire 395–610 Aelia Eudoxia Aelia Eudocia Pulcheria Verina Ariadne Zenonis Euphemia Theodora Sophia Ino Anastasia Constantina Leontia Prisca Eutropia Galeria Valeria Flavia Maximiana Theodora Minervina (?) Fausta Valeria Maximilla Flavia Julia Constantia Eusebia Faustina Helena Charito Marina Severa Justina Domnica Constantia Laeta Aelia Flaccilla Galla Western Empire 395–480 Maria Thermantia Galla Placidia Licinia Eudoxia Marcia Euphemia Placidia Maria Thermantia Galla Placidia Licinia Eudoxia Marcia Euphemia Placidia Eastern Empire 395–610 Aelia Eudoxia Aelia Eudocia Pulcheria Verina Ariadne Zenonis Euphemia Theodora Sophia Ino Anastasia Constantina Leontia Aelia Eudoxia Aelia Eudocia Pulcheria Verina Ariadne Zenonis Euphemia Theodora Sophia Ino Anastasia Constantina Leontia Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 610–1453 Fabia Eudokia Martina Gregoria Fausta Anastasia Eudokia Theodora of Khazaria Maria Tzitzak Maria Eudokia Anna Irene of Athens Maria of Amnia Theodote Theophano of Athens Prokopia Theodosia Thekla Euphrosyne Theodora Thekla Eudokia Dekapolitissa Eudokia Ingerina Theophano Martinakia Zoe Zaoutzaina Eudokia Baïana Zoe Karbonopsina Helena Lekapene Theodora Theophano Theodora Helena Zoë Theodora Catherine of Bulgaria Eudokia Makrembolitissa Maria of Alania Irene Doukaina Irene of Hungary (w. Dobrodeia of Kiev ) Bertha of Sulzbach Maria of Antioch Agnes of France Margaret of Hungary Euphrosyne Doukaina Kamatera Eudokia Angelina Anna Komnene Angelina Philippa of Armenia Maria of Courtenay Irene Laskarina Anna of Hohenstaufen Elena Asenina of Bulgaria Theodora Palaiologina (w. Anna of Hungary ) Irene of Montferrat Rita of Armenia Irene of Brunswick Anna of Savoy Helena Kantakouzene Irene Asanina (w. Irene Palaiologina ) Keratsa of Bulgaria Irene Gattilusio Helena Dragaš (w. Anna of Moscow ) Sophia of Montferrat Maria of Trebizond Fabia Eudokia Martina Gregoria Fausta Anastasia Eudokia Theodora of Khazaria Maria Tzitzak Maria Eudokia Anna Irene of Athens Maria of Amnia Theodote Theophano of Athens Prokopia Theodosia Thekla Euphrosyne Theodora Thekla Eudokia Dekapolitissa Eudokia Ingerina Theophano Martinakia Zoe Zaoutzaina Eudokia Baïana Zoe Karbonopsina Helena Lekapene Theodora Theophano Theodora Helena Zoë Theodora Catherine of Bulgaria Eudokia Makrembolitissa Maria of Alania Irene Doukaina Irene of Hungary (w. Dobrodeia of Kiev ) Bertha of Sulzbach Maria of Antioch Agnes of France Margaret of Hungary Euphrosyne Doukaina Kamatera Eudokia Angelina Anna Komnene Angelina Philippa of Armenia Maria of Courtenay Irene Laskarina Anna of Hohenstaufen Elena Asenina of Bulgaria Theodora Palaiologina (w. Anna of Hungary ) Irene of Montferrat Rita of Armenia Irene of Brunswick Anna of Savoy Helena Kantakouzene Irene Asanina (w. Irene Palaiologina ) Keratsa of Bulgaria Irene Gattilusio Helena Dragaš (w. Anna of Moscow ) Sophia of Montferrat Maria of Trebizond See also Roman emperor list Byzantine emperor Augustae Roman emperor list list Byzantine emperor Augustae Italics indicates a consort to a junior co-emperor, underlining indicates a consort to an emperor variously regarded as either legitimate or a usurper, and bold incidates an empress regnant. Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Netherlands Norway Sweden Poland Vatican Israel Catalonia United States France BnF data Netherlands Norway Sweden Poland Vatican Israel Catalonia Artists ULAN ULAN People Deutsche Biographie DDB Deutsche Biographie DDB Other IdRef Yale LUX IdRef Yale LUX Julio-Claudian dynasty Livia 59 BC births 29 deaths Livii Drusi Julii Caesares Wives of Augustus Deified Roman empresses 1st-century BC Roman women 1st-century BC Romans 1st-century Roman empresses Augustae Burials at the Mausoleum of Augustus Ancient Roman adoptees Family of Tiberius Mothers of Roman emperors Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from January 2024 Use British English from November 2025 All Wikipedia articles written in British English Articles containing French-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from June 2019 CS1 French-language sources (fr) CS1 German-language sources (de) Commons category link is on Wikidata Articles with Spanish-language sources (es) This page was last edited on 29 December 2025, at 19:35 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Dimensions and planes of existence Toggle Dimensions and planes of existence subsection 1.1 Matter/Object — Physical sciences 1.2 Life/Organism — Biological sciences 1.3 Mind/Animal — (Basic) psychological sciences 1.4 Culture/Person — Human social sciences 1.1 Matter/Object — Physical sciences 1.2 Life/Organism — Biological sciences 1.3 Mind/Animal — (Basic) psychological sciences 1.4 Culture/Person — Human social sciences 2 Theoretical joint points Toggle Theoretical joint points subsection 2.1 Quantum gravity 2.2 The modern synthesis 2.3 Behavioral investment theory 2.4 Justification systems theory 2.1 Quantum gravity 2.2 The modern synthesis 2.3 Behavioral investment theory 2.4 Justification systems theory 3 The "problem of psychology" Toggle The "problem of psychology" subsection 3.1 Solution 3.1 Solution 4 Consciousness and human behavior 5 Toward the integration of human knowledge 6 See also 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 External links Tree of knowledge system العربية Español فارسی Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page . ( Learn how and when to remove these messages ) A major contributor to this article appears to have a close connection with its subject. It may require cleanup to comply with Wikipedia's content policies, particularly neutral point of view . Please discuss further on the talk page . See our advice if the article is about you and read our scam warning in case someone asks for money to edit this article. ( October 2020 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines . Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references . ( September 2022 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) A major contributor to this article appears to have a close connection with its subject. It may require cleanup to comply with Wikipedia's content policies, particularly neutral point of view . Please discuss further on the talk page . See our advice if the article is about you and read our scam warning in case someone asks for money to edit this article. ( October 2020 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines . Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references . ( September 2022 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) The tree of knowledge ( ToK ) system is a new [ when? ] map of Big History that traces cosmic evolution across four different planes of existence, identified as Matter, Life, Mind and Culture that are mapped respectively by the physical, biological, psychological and social domains of science. The Tree of Knowledge (ToK) System was developed by Gregg Henriques , who is a professor and core faculty member in the Combined-Integrated Doctoral Program in Clinical and School Psychology at James Madison University . [ 1 ] The ToK System is part of a larger Unified Theory of Knowledge that Henriques describes as a consilient scientific humanistic philosophy for the 21st Century. The official Unified Theory of Knowledge website describes the ToK System as: [ 2 ] [A] theory of scientific knowledge that defines the human knower in relation to the known. It achieves this novel accomplishment by solving the problem of psychology and giving rise to a truly consilient view of the scientific landscape. It accomplishes this via dividing the evolution of behavioral complexity into four different planes of existence...The ToK also characterizes modern empirical natural science as a kind of justification system that functions to map complexity and change. [A] theory of scientific knowledge that defines the human knower in relation to the known. It achieves this novel accomplishment by solving the problem of psychology and giving rise to a truly consilient view of the scientific landscape. It accomplishes this via dividing the evolution of behavioral complexity into four different planes of existence...The ToK also characterizes modern empirical natural science as a kind of justification system that functions to map complexity and change. The outline of the ToK System was first published in 2003 in Review of General Psychology . [ 3 ] Two special issues of the Journal of Clinical Psychology in December 2004 [ 4 ] and January 2005 [ 5 ] were devoted to the elaboration and evaluation of the model. In 2008, a special issue of Theory & Psychology [ 6 ] was devoted to the ToK System. In 2011, Henriques published A New Unified Theory of Psychology . That same year he also launched the blog Theory of Knowledge: A Unified Approach to Psychology and Philosophy on Psychology Today , which remains active. There is also a Theory Of Knowledge Society and discussion listserve that is devoted to discussing Henriques' work and other big picture viewpoints. In some ways, the ToK System reflects a fairly common hierarchy of nature and of the sciences that has been represented in one way or another since the time of Auguste Comte , who in the 19th century used a hierarchical conception of nature to argue for the existence of sociology. It also has clear parallels with Aristotle's conception of the scales of nature and the first four levels of the Great Chain of Being . Despite some overlap with a number of traditional schemes, the ToK System is properly thought of as a new theory of both ontic reality and our scientific knowledge of that reality. One of the most important and salient features of the Tree of Knowledge is how it represents reality as consisting of four different planes of existence. The theory is that, following Matter, Life, Mind and Culture each represent complex adaptive landscapes that are organized and mediated by novel emergent information processing and communication systems. Specifically, DNA/RNA store information that is processed by cells which then engage in intercellular communication to create the plane of existence called Life. Similarly, the brain and nervous system store and process information in animals which then engage in communication networks on the complex adaptive plane called Mind. Finally, linguistic storage and processing and communication between human beings generates the emergence of the Culture-Person plane of existence. The separable planes of existence or dimension of complexity argument is one of the most crucial aspects of the system. Many have argued nature is hierarchically leveled; for example, a list of such levels might be subatomic particles , atoms , molecules , cells , organ structures, multi-celled organisms, consciousness , and society is common. The ToK System embraces a view of nature as levels, but adds the notion that there are also separable dimensions of complexity . The difference becomes particularly clear in the extension of the ToK System into the Periodic Table of Behavior . The Periodic Table of Behavior (PTB) shows that natural science can be arranged in terms of the four fundamental dimensions (i.e., matter, life, mind, and culture) and three fundamental levels of analysis (i.e., part, whole, group). The PTB also demonstrates that behavior is a central concept in science. Epistemologically, natural scientists view the world via a third person behavioral lens. Ontologically, science is about mapping different kinds of behaviors that take place in nature at various levels and dimensions of analysis. The second central insight of the ToK System is that it shows how natural science is a particular kind of justification system that emerges out of Culture based on novel methods and specific epistemological commitments and assumptions (i.e., an exterior view point, quantification and experimentation). This epistemology and methodology functions to justify scientific ontology, which in turn maps the ontic reality. Specifically, the domains of the physical, biological, (basic) psychological and social sciences map the ontic dimensions of matter, life, mind and culture. The Periodic Table of Behavior further shows how science is a justification system that is arranged to map behavioral frequencies at different dimensions of complexity and levels of analysis. Dimensions and planes of existence This section relies largely or entirely on a single source . Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page . Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources at this section. ( April 2024 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) Matter/Object — Physical sciences The dimension of matter refers to the set of material objects and their behaviors through time. In accordance with modern cosmology , matter is theorized to have emerged from a pure energy singularity at the Big Bang . Space and time were also born at such a point. Nonliving material objects range in complexity from subatomic particles to large organic molecules. The physical sciences (i.e., physics , chemistry , geology, astronomy ) describe the behavior of material objects. [ 3 ] Life/Organism — Biological sciences The dimension of life refers to organisms and their behaviors through time. Living objects are considered a unique subset of material objects. Just as quantum particles form the fundamental units of material complexity, genes are the fundamental units of living information. Although many questions about the emergence of life remain unanswered, in accordance with modern biology, the ToK posits that natural selection operating on genetic combinations through time is the unified theory of biology and forms the foundational understanding for the emergence of organic complexity. [ 3 ] Mind/Animal — (Basic) psychological sciences Mind/cognition in the ToK system refers to the set of mental behaviors. Mental behaviors are behaviors of animals mediated by the nervous system that produce a functional effect on the animal-environment relationship. As such, Mind/cognition is essentially synonymous with what behavioral psychologists have meant when they use the term behavior. Thus, a fly avoiding a fly swatter, a rat pushing a bar or a human getting a drink of water are all mental behaviors. Mind is not synonymous with sentience or the capacity for mental experience, although such processes are presumed to emerge in the mental/cognitive dimension. Cognition , in the broad sense of the term is meaning bodily-neuro-social information processing, as in EEEE Cognition: Embodied, Embedded, Enactive, Extended. While cognitive science stands for naturalist study of mind, psychology is an approach grounded in the tradition of humanities, especially philosophy. Thus, by defining mind as mental behavior, Henriques argues that the ToK System provides a way to bridge the epistemological differences between cognitive and behavioral science . [ 3 ] Henriques argues that comparative psychology , ethology, and (animal) cognitive behavioral neuroscience should all be thought of as parts of the discipline that maps the animal-mental domain. Culture/Person — Human social sciences Culture in the ToK system refers to the set of sociolinguistic behaviors, which range from large scale nation states to individual human justifications for particular actions. Just as genetic information processing is associated with the Life dimension and neuronal information processing associated with the Mind dimension, symbolic information processing emerges with the Cultural dimension. [ 3 ] Henriques argues that human cognitive science, human psychology and the social sciences (i.e., anthropology, sociology, political science, and economics) work to map this domain. Theoretical joint points Quantum gravity Quantum gravity refers to the imagined merger between the twin pillars of physical science which are quantum mechanics , the study of the microscopic (e.g., electrons), and general relativity , the science of the macroscopic (e.g., galaxies ). Currently, these two great domains of science cannot be effectively interwoven into a single, physical Theory of Everything , yet progress is being made, most notably through string theory , loop quantum gravity , black hole thermodynamics and the study of the early universe. Some of the difficulties combining these two pillars of physical science are philosophical in nature and it is possible that the macro view of knowledge offered by the ToK may eventually aid in the construction of a coherent theory of quantum gravity. The reason the ToK might help is that it locates scientific knowledge in relationship to the physical universe. The modern synthesis The modern synthesis refers to the merger of genetics with natural selection which occurred in the 1930s and 1940s and offers a reasonably complete framework for understanding the emergence of biological complexity. Although there remain significant gaps in biological knowledge surrounding questions such as the origin of life and the emergence of sexual reproduction, the modern synthesis represents the most complete and well-substantiated joint point. Behavioral investment theory Behavioral investment theory (BIT) is a metatheoretical formulation for the mind, brain and animal behavioral sciences. Henriques proposes that it enables the merger of the selection science of behaviorism with the information science of cognitive neuroscience that has conceptual parallels with the modern synthesis. BIT posits that the nervous system evolved as an increasingly flexible computational control system that coordinates the behavioral expenditure of energy of the animal as a whole. Expenditure of behavioral energy is theorized to be computed on an investment value system built evolutionarily through natural selection operating on genetic combinations and ontogenetically through behavioral selection operating on neural combinations. As such, the current behavioral investments of the animal are conceptualized as the joint product of the two vectors of phylogeny and ontogeny . A unique element of BIT is that it finds a core of agreement and builds bridges between five brain-behavior paradigms: (1) cognitive science ; (2) behavioral science ; (3) evolutionary theory and genetics; (4) neuroscience; and (5) cybernetics / systems theory . David C. Geary noted the similarities between his "motive-to-control" hypothesis and Henriques' Behavioral Investment Theory, which were developed independently of each other. Furthermore, Geary suggested that his model "seem[ed] to fill in many of the proximate mechanisms and evolutionary pressures that define the life-mind joint point, and provided a framework for further development of the mind-culture joint point." [ 7 ] Justification systems theory The justification systems theory (JUST; formerly known as the justification hypothesis) posits that the evolution of language reached a tipping point with emergence of propositional claims. Specifically, propositional claims can be questioned, which generates the "question-answer" dynamic. This creates the problem of justification, which Henriques argues drives both the design of the human self-consciousness system as a mental organ of justification and gives rise to the evolution of the Culture-Person plane of existence. JUST is a novel proposal that allows for both the understanding of the evolution of culture and for identifying what makes humans distinct animals. A basic initial claim of JUST is that the process of justification is a crucial component of human mental behavior at both the individual and societal level. Unlike all other animals, humans everywhere ask for and give explanations for their actions. Arguments, debates, moral dictates, rationalizations, and excuses all involve the process of explaining why one's claims, thoughts or actions are warranted. In virtually every form of social exchange, from warfare to politics to family struggles to science, humans are constantly justifying their behavioral investments to themselves and others. JUST consists of three key postulates: The first is that the evolution of propositional language must have created the problem of justification, which involves three interlocking problems of deciphering what is (1) analytically true and what is (2) good for the group and (3) good for the individual. The second postulate is that the structure and functional design of human consciousness can be understood as a solution to the problem of justification. Specifically, the three domains of human consciousness that Henriques identifies in the Updated Tripartite Model of the (1) experiential; (2) private narrator; and (3) public narrator are directly consistent with adaptive pressures that arise from the logic of the problem of justification. This analysis deepens when one considers the dynamic relationships and filtering that takes place between these three domains. The third postulate is that culture can be understood as large scale justification systems that coordinate the behavior of human populations. Cultural systems are seen to evolve much in the same way as organisms do in biological evolution: there is a process of variation, selection and retention of belief systems. The "problem of psychology" The ToK System emerged as a consequence of Henriques wrestling with what he calls "the problem of psychology". Henriques argues that the most difficult problem in psychology as a discipline is that while there is incredible diversity offered by different approaches to psychology, and there is no consensus model of what psychology actually is. [ 8 ] [ 9 ] Specifically, Henriques argues that the field lacks a clear definition, an agreed upon subject matter, and a coherent conceptual framework . The problem has been long standing, identified as the "crisis" by Lev Vygotsky in the mid 1920s. Henriques further argues that the patent tendency of psychology has been toward theoretical and substantial fragmentation and increasing insularity among the "specialties." In other words, the discipline has fragmented into different schools of thought and methodology, with no overall framework to interpret and integrate the research of different areas. At its best, the different approaches are a strength of psychology; different approaches lead to novel ideas, and prevent psychologists from clinging to a paradigm that fails to explain a phenomenon. At its worst, adherents of one particular school cling to their beliefs concerning the relative importance of their research and disregard or are ignorant of different approaches. In most cases, individual psychologists have to determine for themselves which elements of which perspective to apply, and how to integrate them into their overall understanding. Henriques argues that the problem of psychology is a central feature of modern knowledge systems. In A New Unified Theory of Psychology , he described it as follows: The problem of psychology is the joint observation that the field cannot be coherently defined and yet it connects more deeply than any other discipline to the three great branches of learning. Taken together, these observations suggest that the problem of psychology is a profound problem in academia at large. This conclusion is bolstered by the fact that as psychology has lumbered along acquiring findings but not foundational clarity, the fragmentation of human knowledge has grown exponentially. All of this suggests that the question, "What is psychology?" is profoundly important, one of the central questions in all of philosophy. Asking the right questions is often the most important step in getting the right answer. My interest in psychotherapy integration ultimately led me to ask the question, "What is psychology?”. Although I had no idea at the time, it turns out that this is the right question. And, as startling as it sounds, because psychology connects to so many different domains, the correct answer to it opens up a whole new vision for integrating human knowledge. The problem of psychology is the joint observation that the field cannot be coherently defined and yet it connects more deeply than any other discipline to the three great branches of learning. Taken together, these observations suggest that the problem of psychology is a profound problem in academia at large. This conclusion is bolstered by the fact that as psychology has lumbered along acquiring findings but not foundational clarity, the fragmentation of human knowledge has grown exponentially. All of this suggests that the question, "What is psychology?" is profoundly important, one of the central questions in all of philosophy. Asking the right questions is often the most important step in getting the right answer. My interest in psychotherapy integration ultimately led me to ask the question, "What is psychology?”. Although I had no idea at the time, it turns out that this is the right question. And, as startling as it sounds, because psychology connects to so many different domains, the correct answer to it opens up a whole new vision for integrating human knowledge. The reason for psychology's fragmentation, according to the ToK System, is that there has been no meta-theoretical frame that allows scholars to agree on the basic questions that need to be addressed. As such, the different schools of thought in psychology are like the blind men who each grab a part of the elephant and proclaim they have discovered its true nature. With its novel depiction of evolving dimensions of complexity, the ToK allows scholars finally to see the elephant. In his 2003 Review of General Psychology paper, [ 8 ] Henriques used the ToK System with the attempt to clarify and align the views of B.F. Skinner and Sigmund Freud . These luminaries were chosen because when one considers their influence and historical opposition, it can readily be argued that they represent two schools of thought that are the most difficult to integrate. Henriques used the meta-perspective offered by the ToK to argue how one can retain the key insights from each school of thought, identify errors and points of confusion, and integrate the insights into a coherent whole. Cultural and personality psychologist, Michael Katzko, [ 10 ] however critiques Henriques' position on "the problem of psychology": There is a very good reason for skepticism regarding the repeated claims that the one unique problem of psychology, applicable across the entire discipline, has been identified and that the ToK System solves it. The reason is given by the detail with which alternatives have been worked out, be they historical studies of institutional development or critical commentaries on the rhetorical structure of psychology's literature. [ 11 ] There is a very good reason for skepticism regarding the repeated claims that the one unique problem of psychology, applicable across the entire discipline, has been identified and that the ToK System solves it. The reason is given by the detail with which alternatives have been worked out, be they historical studies of institutional development or critical commentaries on the rhetorical structure of psychology's literature. [ 11 ] Solution The problem of psychology, according to the ToK, is its conceptual incoherence, which Henriques identifies by the following: When the various conceptions of psychology (e.g., behavioral, humanistic, cognitive) are viewed through the lens of the ToK System, psychology spans two different dimensions of complexity: the mental and the cultural. In other words, the discipline has historically spanned two fundamentally separate problems: If, as previously thought, nature simply consisted of levels of complexity, psychology would not be crisply defined in relationship to biology or the social sciences. And, indeed, it is frequently suggested that psychology exists in an amorphous space between biology and the social sciences. However, with its dimension of complexity depiction, the ToK System suggests that psychology can be crisply defined as the science of mind, which is the third dimension of complexity. Furthermore, because human behavior exists in the fourth dimension, psychology must be divided into two broad scientific domains of Psychological formalism is defined as the science of mind and corresponds to the behavior of animal objects. Human psychology is considered to be a unique subset of psychological formalism that deals with human behavior at the level of the individual. Because human behavior is immersed in the larger socio-cultural context (level four in the ToK System), human psychology is considered a hybrid discipline that merges the pure science of psychology with the social sciences. It is important to point out that there are other disciplines the ToK System would classify as “hybrids.” Molecular genetics, for example, is a hybrid between chemistry and biology and neuroscience is a hybrid between biology and psychology. As with Henriques' proposed conception of human psychology, both of these disciplines adopt an object level perspective (molecular and cellular, respectively) on phenomena that simultaneously exist as part of meta-level system processes (life and mind, respectively). [ 9 ] Though David A. F. Haaga "congratulate[d] Dr. Henriques' ambitious, scholarly, provocative paper", and "found the Tree of Knowledge taxonomy, the theoretical joint points, the evolutionary history, and the levels of emergent properties highly illuminating", he asks the rhetorical questions, If it is so difficult to define terms such as 'psychology' with such precision, why bother? Why not just agree that we all have at least a rough idea of what psychology is, and take the rest of the afternoon off? After all, if theoretical or empirical work improves our understanding of some aspect of the world or our fellow people, or improves our ability to help people enhance their physical or emotional well being, what difference does it make whether this work is considered a part of psychology, of cognitive science, of behavioral neuroscience, of public health, or what have you? This raises the question of what definitions in general are good for. [ 12 ] If it is so difficult to define terms such as 'psychology' with such precision, why bother? Why not just agree that we all have at least a rough idea of what psychology is, and take the rest of the afternoon off? After all, if theoretical or empirical work improves our understanding of some aspect of the world or our fellow people, or improves our ability to help people enhance their physical or emotional well being, what difference does it make whether this work is considered a part of psychology, of cognitive science, of behavioral neuroscience, of public health, or what have you? This raises the question of what definitions in general are good for. [ 12 ] In a similar vein, Scott O. Lilienfeld, who described Henriques' effort as "thoughtful", contended that psychology is "an inherently fuzzy concept that resists precise definition" and that "attempts to define psychology [would be] likely to hamper rather than foster consilience across disciplines". Lilienfield went on further to suggest that the scientist-practitioner gap in psychology lies not in definitional issues, but in different "epistemic attitudes" between these two groups. He stated that scientists have an epistemic attitude of empiricism , (where questions regarding human nature are settled by scientific evidence), and that practitioners have an epistemic attitude of romanticism , (where questions of human nature are settled by intuition). Lilienfeld suggested that the solution to the scientist-practitioner gulf isn't definitional, but in "train[ing] future clinical scientists to appreciate the proper places of romanticism and empiricism within science". [ 13 ] Consciousness and human behavior A frequent question and point of confusion in the ToK System is the definition and meaning of consciousness . As mentioned above, mind is not synonymous with consciousness. And, to understand consciousness from a ToK vantage point, it is crucial to recognize that the term is often ambiguous in its meaning. Two primary meanings are sentience , which is the capacity for mental experience and self-awareness , which is the capacity to be aware of one's awareness. Sentience is conceptualized as a "level 3" phenomenon, possessed by many animals other than humans and is defined as a "perceived" electro-neuro-chemical representation of animal-environment relations. The ingredient of neurological behavior that allows for the emergence of mental experience is considered the "hard" problem of consciousness and the ToK System does not address this question explicitly. In contrast, through the Justification Hypothesis (see below), the ToK System involves a very direct analysis of the other issue of consciousness, that of self-awareness . Another frequent question that is raised is "Where does individual human behavior fall on the ToK?" To analyze human behavior from the context of the ToK, one uses the ToK like a prism to separate the dimensions of behavior into physiochemical, biogenetic, neuropsychological and sociolinguistic. Thus if we imagine a conversation between a husband and wife as follows: Wife: “You are late again.” Husband: “Please, not now. It was a stressful day, traffic was bad, and you know that if work needs to be done, I can’t just leave it.” Wife: “You are late again.” Husband: “Please, not now. It was a stressful day, traffic was bad, and you know that if work needs to be done, I can’t just leave it.” The words represent the sociolinguistic dimension and are understood as a function of justification. Justification systems are seen both at the level of individual, micro-social and societal (i.e., the context of justification in which men work and women stay at home). The actions of the husband and wife in terms of facial expression , body movement, etc. are seen as the mental dimension and are understood as a function of behavioral investment. The physiological make up of the organ systems and cells of each body is seen as the biogenetic dimension. Finally, the position, temperature, molecular make up is seen as the physiochemical dimension. Each of the more basic dimensions represent conditions of possibility that allow for the emergence of the higher dimension of process. Thus, insufficient oxygen disrupts organic processes which in turn renders neuropsychological and sociolinguistic processes impossible. Toward the integration of human knowledge As stated above, the ToK System proposes a new epistemology with the goal of moving academic knowledge toward what E.O. Wilson termed consilience . Consilience is the interlocking of fact and theory into a coherent, holistic view of knowledge. Henriques argues that the ToK affords new perspectives on how knowledge is obtained because it depicts how science emerges from culture and that the four dimensions of complexity correspond to four broad classes of science: the physical, biological, psychological and social sciences. Henriques further argues that developing such a system for integrating knowledge is not just an academic enterprise. He suggests that in an increasingly complex world, the fragmented state of knowledge can be seen as one of the most pressing social problems of our time. Henriques also believes that history seems to attest that the absence of a collective worldview ostensibly condemns humanity to an endless series of conflicts that inevitably stem from incompatible, partially correct, locally situated justification systems. Thus, from Henriques' perspective, there are good reasons for believing that if there was a shared, general background of explanation, humanity might be able to achieve much greater levels of harmonious relations. In a 2008 article on the ToK, [ 14 ] Henriques cites Oliver Reiser 's 1958 call for unifying scientific knowledge that Henriques implies is similar in theme to the ToK: With its depiction of the dimensions of complexity and interlocking theoretical joint points, Henriques' believes that his ToK System offers new avenues that might allow scholars to meet Reiser’s call for academic synthesis. Henriques, like Reiser, believes that with a shared sense of purpose and a common background of explanation, people might yet be able to integrate bodies of knowledge into a unified interpretation of humanity, with humanity's place in nature and its potentialities for creating the good society. See also Tree of knowledge (philosophy) by René Descartes Tinbergen's four questions Behavioral repertoire Consilience Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge – 1998 book by E.O. Wilson Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge – 1998 book by E.O. Wilson Descriptive psychology General System Theory Psychological behaviorism Social meaning-making The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution – 1959 book by C. P. Snow Unified theory of cognition Unity of science Metasystem transition References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} " "About Me" section of the ToK System website" . Archived from the original on 5 December 2008 . Retrieved 3 January 2009 . ^ " "The Tree of Knowledge System" section of the 8 key ideas in the Unified Theory of Knowledge website" . Archived from the original on 2 July 2022 . Retrieved 2 July 2022 . ^ a b c d e Henriques, G.R. (2003). The Tree of Knowledge System and the Theoretical Unification of Psychology. Archived 25 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine Review of General Psychology, 7, 150–182. ^ "Defining Psychology: Articles and Commentaries on a New Unified Theory (Part 1): Journal of Clinical Psychology: Vol 60, No 12" . Archived from the original on 3 March 2011 . Retrieved 30 July 2021 – via Wiley Online Library. ^ "Defining Psychology: Articles and Commentaries on a New Unified Theory (Part 2): Journal of Clinical Psychology: Vol 61, No 1" . Archived from the original on 16 December 2012 . Retrieved 30 July 2021 – via Wiley Online Library. ^ "Theory & Psychology - Volume 18, Number 6, Dec 01, 2008" . Sage Journals . ^ Geary, D. C. (2005). The motivation to control and the origin of mind: Exploring the life-mind joint point in the tree of knowledge. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 21–46. ^ a b Henriques, G.R. (2003). The tree of knowledge system and the theoretical unification of psychology. Archived 25 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine Review of General Psychology, 7, 150–182. ^ a b Henriques, G.R. (2004). Psychology Defined Archived 10 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine . Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1207–1221. ^ Homepage of Michael Katzko ^ Katzko, M. W. (2008). Pruning the Tree of Knowledge. Theory & Psychology , 18, 817–828. Abstract ^ Haaga, D.A.F. (2004). Defining psychology: What can it do for us? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1227–1230. ^ Lilienfeld, S.O. (2004). Defining psychology: Is it worth the trouble? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1249–1253. ^ Henriques, G.R. (2008). The problem of psychology and the integration of human knowledge: Contrasting Wilson's Consilience with the Tree of Knowledge System. Theory & Psychology, 18, 731–755. Final draft ^ Reiser, O.L. (1958). The integration of human knowledge. Boston: Porter Sargent. Bibliography Anchin, J.C. (2008). The critical role of the dialectic in viable metatheory: A commentary on Henriques' Tree of Knowledge System for integrating human knowledge. Theory & Psychology, 18, 801–816. Full text Calhoun, L.G. (2004). The unification of psychology: A noble quest. Journal of Clinical Psychology , 60, 1283–1289. Abstract Geary, D. C. (2005). The motivation to control and the origin of mind: Exploring the life-mind joint point in the tree of knowledge. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 21–46. Full text Gilbert, P. (2004). A much needed macro level view: A commentary on Henriques’ psychology defined. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1223–1226. Full text Goertzen, J.R. (2008). On the possibility of unification: The reality and nature of the crisis in psychology. Theory & Psychology, 18, 829–852. Full text Haaga, D.A.F. (2004). Defining psychology: What can it do for us? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1227–1230. Full text Hayes, S.C. (2004). Taxonomy as a contextualist views it. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1231–1236. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2008). The problem of psychology and the integration of human knowledge: Contrasting Wilson's Consilience with the Tree of Knowledge System. Theory & Psychology, 18, 731–755. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2005). A new vision for the field: Introduction to the second special issue on the unified theory. Journal of Clinical Psychology , 61, 3–6. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2005). Toward a useful mass movement. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 121–139. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2004). Psychology Defined. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1207–1221. Full text Archived 10 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine Henriques, G.R. (2004). The development of the unified theory and the future of psychotherapy. Psychotherapy Bulletin, 39, 16–21. Final draft Henriques, G.R., & Cobb, H.C. (2004). Introduction to the special issues on the unified theory. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1203–1205. Full text Henriques, G.R., & Sternberg, R. J. (2004). Unified professional psychology: Implications for combined-integrated doctoral training programs. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1051–1063. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2003). The Tree of Knowledge System and the Theoretical Unification of Psychology. Review of General Psychology, 7, 150–182. Full text Archived 25 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine . Henriques, G.R. (2002). The harmful dysfunction analysis and the differentiation between mental disorder and disease. Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice , 1, 157–173. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2000). Depression: Disease or behavioral shutdown mechanism? Journal of Science and Health Policy, 1, 152–165. Full text Jones, R. (2005). From that dirty little science grows a Tree of Knowledge. The Madison, 1, 36–45. Full text Katzko, M.W. (2008). Pruning the Tree of Knowledge. Theory & Psychology, 18, 817–828. Full text Katzko, M.W. (2004). Psychology's dilemma: An institutional neurosis? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1237–1242. Full text Kihlstrom, J.F. (2004). Unity within psychology, and unity between science and practice. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1243–1247. Full text Lilienfeld, S.O. (2004). Defining psychology: Is it worth the trouble? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1249–1253. Full text Mayer, J.D. (2004). How does psychotherapy influence personality? A theoretical integration. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1291–1315. Full text Presbury, J. (2004). Rooting the tree of knowledge: A response to Henriques’ psychology defined. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1255–1258. Full text Quackenbush, S.W. (2008). Theoretical unification as a practical project: Kant and the Tree of Knowledge System. Theory & Psychology, 18, 757–777. Full text Quackenbush, S.W. (2005). Remythologizing culture: Narrativity, justification, and the politics of personalization. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 67–80. Full text Archived 16 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine Rand, K.L., & Ilardi, S.S. (2005). Toward a consilient science of psychology. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 7–20. Full text Shaffer, L.S. (2008). Religion as a large-scale justification system: Does the Justification Hypothesis explain animistic attribution? Theory & Psychology, 18, 779–799. Full text Shaffer, L.S. (2006). Durkheim's aphorism, the Justification Hypothesis, and the nature of social facts. Sociological Viewpoints, fall issue, 57–70. Full text Shaffer, L.S. (2005). From mirror self-recognition to the looking glass self: Exploring the justification hypothesis. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 47–65 . Full text Shealy, C.N. (2005). Justifying the justification hypothesis: Scientific-humanism, Equilintegration (EI) Theory, and the Beliefs, Events, and Values Inventory (BEVI). Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 81–106. Full text Slife, B. (2005). Testing the limits of Henriques' proposal: Wittgensteinian lessons and hermenuetic dialogue. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 107–120. Full text Stam, H.J. (2004). Unifying psychology: Epistemological act or disciplinary maneuver? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1259–1262. Full text Stanovich, K.E. (2004). Metarepresentation and the great cognitive divide: A commentary on Henriques' "Psychology Defined". Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1263–1266. Full text Stricker, G. (2004). The unification of psychology and psychological organizations. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1267–1269. Full text Vazire, S., & Robins, R.W. (2004). Beyond the Justification Hypothesis: A Broader Theory of the Evolution of Self-Consciousness. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1271–1273. Full text Viney, W. (2004). Pluralism in the sciences is not easily dismissed. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1275–1278. Full text Yanchar, S.C. (2004). Some discontents with theoretical unification. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1279–1281. Full text External links The Official Tree of Knowledge Website Archived 6 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine Tree of Knowledge System/Expert article by Gregg Henriques at the Psychology Wiki This page uses content from the English-language version of Psychology Wiki . The original article was at Tree of Knowledge System/Expert article by Gregg Henriques . The list of authors can be seen in the page history . The text of both The Psychology Wiki and Wikipedia is available under the GNU Free Documentation License . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Words that may introduce bias Toggle Words that may introduce bias subsection 1.1 Puffery 1.2 Contentious labels 1.3 Unsupported attributions 1.4 Expressions of doubt 1.5 Editorializing 1.6 Synonyms for said 1.1 Puffery 1.2 Contentious labels 1.3 Unsupported attributions 1.4 Expressions of doubt 1.5 Editorializing 1.6 Synonyms for said 2 Expressions that lack precision Toggle Expressions that lack precision subsection 2.1 Euphemisms 2.2 Clichés and idioms 2.3 Relative time references 2.4 Unspecified places or events 2.5 Survived by 2.6 Person or office? 2.7 Neologisms and new compounds 2.8 Easily confused terms 2.1 Euphemisms 2.2 Clichés and idioms 2.3 Relative time references 2.4 Unspecified places or events 2.5 Survived by 2.6 Person or office? 2.7 Neologisms and new compounds 2.8 Easily confused terms 3 Vulgarities, obscenities, and profanities 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 External links Wikipedia : Manual of Style/Words to watch العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Italiano עברית Magyar Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 粵語 中文 Project page Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikinews Wikivoyage Wikidata item This guideline is a part of the English Wikipedia's Manual of Style . Editors should generally follow it, though exceptions may apply. Substantive edits to this page should reflect consensus . .mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain{float:right;margin:0 0 0 1em;border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);background-color:var(--background-color-base,#fff);padding:0.3em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;text-align:center;font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxleft{float:left;margin:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutlist{display:inline-block;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);margin-bottom:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain ul{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutanchordiv{position:relative;top:-3em}.mw-parser-output li .module-shortcutanchordiv{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mbox-imageright .module-shortcutboxplain{padding:0.4em 1em;line-height:1.3;margin:0;float:initial} Shortcuts .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} MOS:WTW MOS:WTW WP:WTW WP:WTW MOS:WTW MOS:WTW WP:WTW WP:WTW This page in a nutshell: Be cautious with expressions that may introduce bias, lack precision, or include offensive terms. Use clear, direct language. Let facts alone do the talking. 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Record charts Stringed instruments Novels Television Video games Visual arts Writing about fiction See also: WikiProject style advice Regional Canada China (and Chinese) France (and French) Hawaii India Indonesia Ireland Japan Korea Malaysia Pakistan Philippines Poland Singapore See also: Naming conventions (geographic names) WikiProject style advice Canada China (and Chinese) France (and French) Hawaii India Indonesia Ireland Japan Korea Malaysia Pakistan Philippines Poland Singapore See also: Naming conventions (geographic names) WikiProject style advice Science and technology Chemistry Compound classes Chemicals References and external links Safety Structure drawing Computer science Mathematics Medicine Taxonomy See also: WikiProject style advice Chemistry Compound classes Chemicals References and external links Safety Structure drawing Compound classes Chemicals References and external links Safety Structure drawing Computer science Mathematics Medicine Taxonomy See also: WikiProject style advice Other Blazons Cue sports ( Snooker ) Islam Latter Day Saints Legal Military history Trademarks See also: WikiProject style advice history legal and cultural religion and education sports and games Blazons Cue sports ( Snooker ) Islam Latter Day Saints Legal Military history Trademarks See also: WikiProject style advice history legal and cultural religion and education sports and games history legal and cultural religion and education sports and games Related guidelines Article size Article titles Categories, lists, and navigation templates Categorization Hatnotes Subpages Understandability Article size Article titles Categories, lists, and navigation templates Categorization Hatnotes Subpages Understandability Simplified Contents Tips Simplified Contents Tips .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e There are no forbidden words or expressions on Wikipedia, but certain expressions should be used with caution because they may introduce bias or imprecise meaning. Strive to eliminate expressions that are flattering, disparaging, vague, clichéd, or endorsing of a particular viewpoint. The advice in this guideline is not limited to the examples provided and should not be applied rigidly . If a word can be replaced by one with less potential for misunderstanding, it should be. [ 1 ] Some words have specific technical meanings in some contexts and are acceptable in those contexts, e.g. claim in law . What matters is that articles should be well written and be consistent with the core content policies – Neutral point of view , No original research , and Verifiability . The guideline does not apply to quotations, which should be faithfully reproduced from the original sources ( .mw-parser-output div.crossreference{padding-left:0} see Wikipedia:Manual of Style § Quotations ). If you do not feel you can improve the problematic wording of an article yourself, a template message can be added to draw the attention of other editors to an article needing a cleanup . Words that may introduce bias Puffery MOS:PUFFERY MOS:PUFFERY MOS:PEACOCK MOS:PEACOCK MOS:FLOWERY MOS:FLOWERY Words to watch: legendary, best, great, greatest, acclaimed, iconic, visionary, outstanding, leading, celebrated, popular, award-winning, landmark, cutting-edge, innovative, revolutionary, extraordinary, brilliant, hit, famous, renowned, remarkable, prestigious, world-class, respected, notable, virtuoso, honorable, awesome, unique, pioneering, phenomenal, prominent ... Words such as these are often used without attribution to promote the subject of an article , while neither imparting nor plainly summarizing verifiable information. They are known as "peacock terms" by Wikipedia contributors. [ a ] Instead of making subjective proclamations about a subject's importance, use facts and attribution to demonstrate it. An article suffering from such language should be rewritten to correct the problem or, if an editor is unsure how best to make a correction, the article may be tagged with an appropriate template, such as {{ Peacock inline }} . Puffery is an example of positively loaded language ; negatively loaded language should be avoided just as much. People responsible for "public spending" (the neutral term) can be loaded both ways, as "tax-and-spend politicians borrowing off the backs of our grandchildren" or "public servants ensuring crucial investment in our essential infrastructure for the public good". Contentious labels MOS:LABEL MOS:LABEL MOS:RACIST MOS:RACIST MOS:MYTH MOS:MYTH MOS:TERRORIST MOS:TERRORIST WP:CONTENTIOUS WP:CONTENTIOUS MOS:CONTROVERSIAL MOS:CONTROVERSIAL Words to watch: cult, racist, perverted, sexist, homophobic, transphobic, misogynistic, sect, fundamentalist, heretic, extremist, denialist, terrorist, freedom fighter, bigot, myth, neo-Nazi , -gate , pseudo-, controversial ... Value-laden labels – such as calling an organization a cult , an individual a racist , sexist , terrorist , or freedom fighter , or a sexual practice a perversion – may express contentious opinion and are best avoided unless widely used by reliable sources to describe the subject, in which case use in-text attribution . Avoid myth in its informal sense, and establish the scholarly context for any formal use of the term. The prefix pseudo- indicates something false or spurious, which may be debatable. The suffix ‑gate suggests the existence of a scandal. Use these in articles only when they are in wide use externally, e.g. Gamergate , with in-text attribution if in doubt. Rather than describing an individual using the subjective and vague term controversial , instead give readers information about relevant controversies. Make sure, as well, that reliable sources establish the existence of a controversy and that the term is not used to grant a fringe viewpoint undue weight. [ b ] For the term pseudoscience : per the policy Wikipedia:Neutral point of view , pseudoscientific views "should be clearly described as such". Per the content guideline Wikipedia:Fringe theories , the term pseudoscience , if supported by reliable sources, may be used to distinguish fringe theories from mainstream science. For additional guidance on -ist/-ism terms, see § Neologisms and new compounds , below. Unsupported attributions MOS:WEASEL MOS:WEASEL MOS:AWW MOS:AWW Words to watch: some people say, many people remember, many scholars state, it is believed/regarded/considered, many are of the opinion, most feel, experts declare, it is often reported, it is widely thought, research has shown, science says, scientists claim, it is often said, officially, is widely regarded as, X has been described as Y ... Weasel words are words and phrases aimed at creating an impression that something specific and meaningful has been said, when in fact only a vague or ambiguous claim has been communicated. A common form of weasel wording is through vague attribution, where a statement is dressed with authority , yet has no substantial basis. Phrases such as those above present the appearance of support for statements but can deny the reader the opportunity to assess the source of the viewpoint. They may disguise a biased view. Claims about what people say, think, feel, or believe, and what has been shown, demonstrated, or proved should be clearly attributed. [ c ] The examples above are not automatically weasel words . They may legitimately be used in the lead section of an article or in a topic sentence of a paragraph when the article body or the rest of the paragraph can supply attribution. Likewise, views that are properly attributed to a reliable source may use similar expressions, if those expressions accurately represent the opinions of the source . Reliable sources may analyze and interpret, but for editors to do so would violate the Wikipedia:No original research or Wikipedia:Neutral point of view policies. Equally, editorial irony such as "Despite the fact that fishermen catch fish, they don't tend to find any" and damning with faint praise , like "It is known that person X is skilled in golf, but is inferior to person Y" have no place in Wikipedia articles. Articles including weasel words should ideally be rewritten such that they are supported by reliable sources; alternatively, they may be tagged with the {{ Weasel }} , {{ By whom }} , or similar templates to identify the problem to future readers (who may elect to fix the problem). Expressions of doubt MOS:ACCUSE MOS:ACCUSE MOS:ACCUSED MOS:ACCUSED MOS:ALLEGED MOS:ALLEGED MOS:DOUBT MOS:DOUBT MOS:SCAREQUOTES MOS:SCAREQUOTES Words to watch: supposed, apparent, purported, alleged, accused, so-called ... Also, scare-quoting: a Yale "report" ; undue emphasis: "... a Baptist church" Words such as supposed, apparent, alleged , and purported can imply that a given point is inaccurate, although alleged and accused are appropriate when wrongdoing is asserted but undetermined, such as with people awaiting or undergoing a criminal trial; when these are used, ensure that the source of the accusation is clear. So-called can mean commonly named, falsely named , or contentiously named , and it can be difficult to tell these apart. Simply called is preferable for the first meaning; detailed and attributed explanations are preferable for the others. Misused punctuation can also have similar effects. Quotation marks, when not marking an actual quotation, [ d ] may be interpreted as " scare quotes ", indicating that the writer is distancing themself from the otherwise common interpretation of the quoted expression. The use of emphasis may turn an innocuous word into a loaded expression, so such occurrences should also be considered carefully. Editorializing MOS:EDITORIAL MOS:EDITORIAL MOS:OP-ED MOS:OP-ED MOS:OFCOURSE MOS:OFCOURSE WP:OFCOURSE WP:OFCOURSE Words to watch: notably, it should be noted, arguably, interestingly, essentially, utterly, actually, only, clearly, absolutely, of course, without a doubt, indeed, happily, sadly, tragically, aptly, fortunately, unfortunately, untimely ... Using descriptors like notable ( notably , it should be noted ) or interesting ( interestingly ) to highlight something as particularly significant or certain without attributing that opinion should usually be avoided so as to maintain an impartial tone . Words such as fundamentally , essentially , and basically can indicate particular interpretive viewpoints and thus should also be attributed in controversial cases. Care should be used with actually and the modifiers only and just , which imply something being contrary to expectations; make sure the expectation is verifiable and broadly shared rather than assumed. Clearly, obviously, naturally , and of course all presume too much about the reader's knowledge and perspective and often amount to verbiage. Wikipedia should not take a view on whether an event was fortunate or not. This kind of persuasive writing approach is also against the Wikipedia:No original research policy (Wikipedia does not try to steer the reader to a particular interpretation or conclusion) and the Instructional and presumptuous language guideline (Wikipedia does not break the fourth wall and write at the reader, other than with navigational hatnotes ). Words to watch: but, despite, however, though, although, furthermore, while ... More subtly, editorializing can produce implications that are not supported by the sources . When used to link two statements, words such as but, despite, however , and although may imply a relationship where none exists, possibly unduly calling the validity of the first statement into question while giving undue weight to the credibility of the second. Synonyms for said MOS:SAID MOS:SAID MOS:SAY MOS:SAY MOS:CLAIM MOS:CLAIM WP:SAYS WP:SAYS Words to watch: reveal, point out, clarify, expose, explain, find, note, observe, insist, speculate, surmise, claim, assert, admit, confess, deny, confirm ... In some types of writing, repeated use of said is considered tedious , and writers are encouraged to employ synonyms. On Wikipedia, it is more important to avoid language that makes undue implications. Said , described , wrote , commented , remarked , and according to are almost always neutral and accurate. Stated is usually acceptable, especially in formal contexts (e.g., a declaration in court). Extra care is needed with more loaded terms . For example, to write that a person noted , observed , clarified , explained , exposed , found , pointed out , showed , confirmed , or revealed something can imply objectivity or truthfulness, instead of simply conveying the fact that it was said . To write that someone insisted , speculated , or surmised can suggest the degree of the person's carefulness, resoluteness, or access to evidence, even when such things are unverifiable. To say that someone asserted or claimed something can call their statement's credibility into question, by emphasizing any potential contradiction or implying disregard for evidence. Similarly, be judicious in using admit , confess , reveal , and deny , particularly for living persons , because these verbs can inappropriately imply culpability . To avoid the twin pitfalls of biased wording and tedious repetition of "he said ... she said ...", consider rewriting the prose to remove the need for such verbs in the first place; it is often repeated information , rather than the repetition of specific words, that creates a sense of repetition in prose. Overuse of variation is also likely to introduce an unencyclopedic tone , unclarity, and even unintended humour or muddled metaphor. Expressions that lack precision Euphemisms MOS:EUPHEMISM MOS:EUPHEMISM MOS:EUPH MOS:EUPH Words to watch: passed away, gave their life, eternal rest, make love, challenge, an issue with, collateral damage, differently abled ... Euphemisms should generally be avoided in favor of more neutral and precise terms. Died and had sex are neutral and accurate; passed away and made love are euphemisms. Some words and phrases that are proper in many contexts also have euphemistic senses that should be avoided: civilian casualties should not be masked as collateral damage . Problems can be named without spinning them as challenges ; disputes should not be smoothed over by saying that people have issues with it. If a person has a medical condition, say just that, specifying the condition to the extent that is relevant and supported by appropriate sources. See Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Medicine-related articles § Careful language for more guidance on writing about medical conditions. See also MOS:SUICIDE . Norms vary for expressions about disabilities and disabled people. Do not assume that plain language is inappropriate. [ 2 ] The goal is to express ideas clearly and directly without causing unnecessary offense. See also Wikipedia:WikiProject Disability/Style advice . Clichés and idioms MOS:CLICHE MOS:CLICHE MOS:IDIOM MOS:IDIOM Words to watch: lion's share, tip of the iceberg, landslide, white elephant, gild the lily, take the plunge, ace up the sleeve, bird in the hand, twist of fate, at the end of the day ... Clichés and idioms should generally be avoided in favor of direct, literal expressions. Lion's share is often misunderstood and a landslide victory is imprecise; instead use a term such as all, most, two-thirds , or whatever matches the context. The tip of the iceberg should be reserved for discussions of icebergs . If something is seen as wasteful excess, do not call it gilding the lily or a white elephant ; instead, describe the wasteful thing in terms of the actions or events that led to the excess. Instead of writing that someone took the plunge , state their action matter-of-factly. In general, if a literal reading of a phrase makes no sense given the context, the sentence needs rewording. Some idioms are common only in certain parts of the world, and many readers are not native speakers of English; articles should not presume familiarity with particular phrases. Wiktionary has a long list of English idioms , many of which should be avoided. Relative time references MOS:RELTIME MOS:RELTIME MOS:REALTIME MOS:REALTIME Words to watch: recently, lately, currently, today, presently, to date, X years ago, formerly, in the past, traditionally, this/last/next (year/month/winter/spring/summer/fall/autumn), yesterday, tomorrow, in the future, now, to this day, soon, since ... Absolute specifications of time are preferred to relative constructions using recently, currently , and so on, because the latter may go out of date. "By January 2026 contributions had dropped" has the same meaning as "Recently, contributions have dropped", but the first sentence retains its meaning as time passes. Recently type constructions may be ambiguous even at the time of writing: Was it in the last week? Month? Year? [ e ] The information that "The current president, Alberto Fernández , took office in 2019", or "Alberto Fernández has been president since 2019", is better rendered "Alberto Fernández became president in 2019". Wordings such as "17 years ago" or "Jones is 65 years old" should be rewritten as "in 2009", "Jones was 65 years old at the time of the incident", or "Jones was born in 1961". If a direct quote contains relative time, ensure the date of the quote is clear, such as "Joe Bloggs in 2007 called it 'one of the best books of the last decade'". When material in an article may become out of date, follow the Wikipedia:As of guideline, which allows information to be written in a less time-dependent way. [ f ] There are also several templates for alerting readers to time-sensitive wording problems. [ g ] Expressions like "former", "in the past", and "traditionally" lump together unspecified periods in the past. "Traditional" is particularly pernicious because it implies immemorial established usage. It is better to use explicit dates supported by sources: instead of "hamburgers are a traditional American food", say "the hamburger was invented in about 1900 and became widely popular in the United States in the 1930s". [ h ] Similarly, phrases such as "in recent years" or "in modern times" should be reworded to a more specific time or period, as far as can be determined from the sources, such as "since the 1990s" or "in the mid-2010s". [ i ] If there are no sources, or the sources do not specify a time or period, a {{ When }} template may be added to ask for clarification. Because seasons differ between the northern and southern hemispheres, try to use months, quarters, or other non-seasonal terms such as mid-year unless the season itself is pertinent ( spring blossoms, autumn harvest ); see Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers § Seasons of the year . Unspecified places or events MOS:WHATPLACE MOS:WHATPLACE Words to watch: this country, here, there, somewhere, sometimes, often, occasionally, somehow ... As in the previous section, prefer specific statements to general ones. It is better to use explicit descriptions, based on reliable sources, of when, where, or how an event occurred. Instead of saying "In April 2012, Senator Smith somehow managed to increase his approval rating by 10%", say "In April 2012, Senator Smith's approval rating increased by 10%, which respondents attributed to his new position on foreign policy. .mw-parser-output .fakelinks{color:var(--color-progressive,#0645ad);cursor:default}.mw-parser-output .fakelinks:hover{color:var(--color-progressive--hover,#0645ad)} [1] " Instead of saying "Senator Smith often discusses foreign policy in his speeches", say "Senator Smith discussed foreign policy during his election campaign, and subsequently during his victory speech at the State Convention Center. [2] " Remember that Wikipedia is a global encyclopedia, and does not assume particular places or times are the default. We emphasize facts and viewpoints to the same degree that they are emphasized by the reliable sources. Terms like this country should not be used. Survived by MOS:SURVIVEDBY MOS:SURVIVEDBY Words to watch: is/was survived by, [Name]'s survivors include , ... Phrasing such as "Smith died in 1982, survived by her husband Jack and two sons" should be avoided; this information can be made more complete and spread out through the article. The "survived by" phrasing is a common way to end newspaper obituaries and legal death notices, and is relevant at the time of death or for inheritance purposes. But an encyclopedia article covers the subject's entire life, not just their death, and information about children and spouses might be presented in an infobox or in sections about the subject's personal life. From such information readers can generally infer which family members died after the subject, so this information is not usually worth highlighting explicitly except in unusual situations (such as when children predecease their parents, or an inheritance is disputed). Even in a stub article , a different arrangement with more details sounds more like an encyclopedia and less like an obituary: "Smith married Jack in 1957. The couple had two sons. She died in 1982." Note also that to say "...survived by two children" doesn't prove that the subject only had two children; she might have had others who predeceased her. If so, obits will usually add "a third child died in infancy". Whether or not lack of mention of predeceasing children is sufficient for us to indicate that there weren't any is beyond the scope of this rule. As of 2025, about 14,700 articles require copyediting to fix this language . Person or office? MOS:PERSONOROFFICE MOS:PERSONOROFFICE It is necessary for a reference work to distinguish carefully between an office and an incumbent. A newspaper does not usually need to make this distinction; for a newspaper "President X" and "the President" are one and the same during X's presidency. President X nominates new justices of the US Supreme Court – No; whoever is US president at the time does. President George W. Bush nominated John Roberts as Chief Justice – Yes, as this will always be true. The president nominated John Roberts as Chief Justice in 2005 – Yes, as the year makes this clear. The guest list included Charles, Prince of Wales – This is usually acceptable for events between Charles III 's creation as Prince of Wales in 1958 and his accession to the throne in 2022, as a confusion with Charles I of England , Prince of Wales from 1616 to 1625, is highly unlikely. In any event, "Charles, Prince of Wales" would usually be linked . The guest list included the Prince of Wales or The Duke and Duchess of Kent , while common in UK news sources, is ambiguous without a name. Former President Richard Nixon met with Mao Zedong in 1972 – This is incorrect because Nixon was not a former US president at the time; he was still in office. Write President Richard Nixon met with Mao Zedong in 1972. The construction then-President Nixon is often superfluous, unless the context calls for distinctions between periods of Nixon's career, other holders of the office, or between other people also named Nixon. Neologisms and new compounds MOS:NEO MOS:NEO Neologisms are expressions coined recently or in isolated circumstances to which they have remained restricted. In most cases, they do not appear in general-interest dictionaries, though they may be used routinely within certain communities or professions. They should generally be avoided because their definitions tend to be unstable and many do not last. Where the use of a neologism is necessary to describe recent developments in a certain field, its meaning must be supported by reliable sources. Adding common prefixes or suffixes such as pre-, post-, non-, anti- , or -like to existing words to create new compounds can aid brevity, but make sure the resulting terms are not misleading or offensive, and that they do not lend undue weight to a point of view. For instance, adding -ism or -ist to a word may suggest that a tenuous belief system is well-established, that a belief's adherents are particularly dogmatic or ideological (as in abortionism ), or that factual statements are actually a matter of doctrine (as in evolutionism ). Some words, by their structure, can suggest extended forms that may turn out to be contentious (e.g. lesbian and transgender imply the longer words lesbianism and transgenderism , which are sometimes taken as offensive for seeming to imply a belief system or agenda). For additional guidance on -ist/-ism terms, see § Contentious labels , above. Easily confused terms MOS:CONFUSE MOS:CONFUSE MOS:ARAB MOS:ARAB Do not use similar or related words in a way that blurs meaning or is incorrect or distorting. For example, the adjective Arab refers to people and things of ethnic Arab origin. The term Arabic generally refers to the Arabic language or writing system, and related concepts. Arabian relates to the Arabian Peninsula or historical Arabia . (These terms are all capitalized , e.g. Arabic script and Arabian horse , aside from a few conventionalized exceptions that have lost their cultural connection, such as gum arabic .) Do not substitute these terms for Islamic , Muslim , Islamist , Middle-eastern , etc.; a Muslim Arab is someone who is both Arab and Muslim. Similar concerns pertain to many cultural, scientific, and other topics and the terminology used about them. When in doubt about a term, consult major modern dictionaries. Vulgarities, obscenities, and profanities MOS:VULGAR MOS:VULGAR Wikipedia is not censored , and the inclusion of material that might offend is compatible with its purpose as an encyclopedia . Quotes should always be verbatim and as they appear in the original source . However, language that is vulgar , obscene , or profane should be used only if its omission would make an article less accurate or relevant, and if there is no non-obscene alternative. Such words should not be used outside quotations and names except where they are themselves an article topic. See also Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Medicine-related articles § Careful language – precision matters, and Wikipedia cannot advise Wikipedia:Manual of Style § Subset terms – avoid redundant ones Wikipedia:Article titles – see especially the sections on neutrality and precision List of English idioms on Wiktionary Notes ^ The template {{ Peacock inline }} is available for inline notation of such language where used inappropriately. ^ The template {{ POV-statement }} is available for inline notation of such language where used inappropriately. ^ The templates {{ Who }} , {{ Which }} , {{ By whom }} , or {{ Attribution needed }} are available for editors to request an individual statement be more clearly attributed. ^ Some sources may use quotation marks to highlight that a word is special for some reason (names of works, words as words, words in other languages, etc). See Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Text formatting on how to deal with those cases when writing Wikipedia articles. ^ In long-view sciences such as palaeontology, recent may have terms-of-art meanings such as "within the last 11,700 years" – the Holocene – and does not go out of date. ^ The "as of" technique is implemented in the {{ As of }} template; it additionally tags information that will become dated. {{ as of |2026|01}} produces the text As of January 2026 [update] and categorises the article appropriately. "A new widget is currently being developed" can usefully become something like "a new widget was under development as of 2008 [update] " or, if supported by a source, "it was announced in November 2007 that a new widget was being developed" (no need for {{ As of }} template). The {{ Age }} template always displays current age when the text is displayed in Wikipedia, but may not be correct for printouts and non-live text: a person born on 25 December 2000 would be 25 [entered as {{Age|2000|12|25}} ] years old now. ^ For example, the template {{ When }} is available for editors to indicate when a sentence, or part of one, should be worded more precisely. The {{ Out of date }} template may be used when an article's factual accuracy may be compromised due to out-of-date information. ^ See also: WikiProject Food and Drink, on "original", "traditional", "authentic", and other distracting terminology . However, "traditional" has permissible usage as a term of art in particular disciplines, including folklore studies and cultural anthropology : "a traditional song of Jamaica" (as opposed to a modern composition of known authorship), "a traditional religious practice of the Penitentes of northern New Mexico dating to the Conquistador era" (in contrast to a matter of codified Roman Catholic doctrinal practice). ^ Given that such descriptions often reflect the time in which editors have been writing since Wikipedia's launch in 2001, more fitting descriptions often include "by the early 21st century", "since the early 2000s", or "in the 2010s and 2020s". References ^ See, e.g.: .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Gowers, Ernest (1954). The Complete Plain Words . Be short, be simple, be human. ^ The National Federation of the Blind , for instance, opposes terms such as sightless , in favor of the straightforward blind . Similarly, the same group argues there is no need to substitute awkward circumlocutions such as people with blindness for the simpler phrase blind people ; see "Resolution 93-01" , National Federation of the Blind, July 9, 1993, accessed April 26, 2010. 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Fictional character biography 2 Abilities 3 In other media Toggle In other media subsection 3.1 Television 3.2 Film 3.1 Television 3.2 Film 4 References 5 External links Antiope (character) Español فارسی 한국어 Italiano עברית Português Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item Antiope Antiope, from Wonder Woman vol. 2 #177 (February 2002). Art by Phil Jimenez . Publication information Publisher DC Comics First appearance Wonder Woman #312 (February 1984) Created by Dan Mishkin (writer) Don Heck (penciler) In-story information Team affiliations Amazons Abilities Enhanced strength, enhanced speed, enhanced durability, and highly developed fighting skills. Antiope is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics , usually as a supporting character in stories featuring Wonder Woman and the Amazons of Paradise Island/ Themyscira . Created by writer Dan Mishkin and visualized by artist Don Heck , she first appeared in Wonder Woman #312 (February 1984), and is based on the mythological Antiope , one of the mythological Amazons . [ 1 ] In most incarnations Antiope is depicted as the sister of Wonder Woman's mother, Queen Hippolyta . In the continuity of DC Comics' 2011 reboot, The New 52 , she is also known as Alcippe , and is Hippolyta's mother and the founding leader of the Amazons of Bana-Mighdall , who is worshiped by them as a sacred ancestor. In the 2017 DC Extended Universe live-action feature film Wonder Woman , she was portrayed by Robin Wright . Wright returned to portray the character in flashbacks in the 2020 film Wonder Woman 1984 . Fictional character biography Antiope is introduced in Wonder Woman #312 in February 1984 as a high-ranking Amazon who is disillusioned with Hippolyta's rule and plots to overthrow her. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] She is killed by the Anti-Monitor 's Shadow Demons in Crisis on Infinite Earths . [ 4 ] Following Crisis on Infinite Earths , DC's continuity is rebooted. Antiope is resurrected and depicted as the reincarnation of a woman who was killed years prior. She helps found Themyscira before being killed by Ariadne , and returns as a spirit to guide Hippolyta's daughter Diana. [ 3 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ] [ 7 ] Abilities All Themyscirian Amazons possess various degrees of superhuman strength, speed, stamina and extraordinarily acute senses which were gifts they were blessed with by their gods. As shown by various tribe members, they have the capability to break apart steel and concrete with their bare hands, [ 8 ] jump over 12 feet from a standing position, [ 9 ] have a high durability factor, [ 10 ] enhanced healing, [ 11 ] and the ability to absorb and process a vast amount of knowledge in a short period of time. [ 12 ] Themyscirian Amazons can heal themselves by merging with the Earth and reforming their bodies. [ 11 ] [ 13 ] In other media Television Antiope appears in Justice League , voiced by Maggie Wheeler . [ 14 ] Antiope appears in the DC Super Hero Girls episode "#AwesomeAuntAntiope", voiced by April Winchell . This version is rebellious, fun-loving, and rides a motorcycle. Film Antiope appears in films set in the DC Extended Universe (DCEU), portrayed by Robin Wright : Antiope first appears in Wonder Woman (2017). [ 15 ] Director Patty Jenkins said that they needed "someone who seems under control and is not overly aggressive, but who is truly a badass", regarding Wright's casting as Antiope. [ 16 ] Producer Charles Roven calls the character "the greatest warrior of all time". [ 17 ] In the film, Diana is jointly raised by Queen Hippolyta, her sister General Antiope, and Lieutenant Menalippe ; while Hippolyta wants to shield young Diana from the outside world, Antiope wants to train her as a warrior. [ 15 ] Hippolyta and Antiope share the secret that Diana is Hippolyta's daughter with the god Zeus , and that their nemesis, the war god Ares , will someday try to destroy her as he did the other gods who opposed him. Going against Hippolyta's wishes, Antiope secretly trains Diana in combat, [ 3 ] and ultimately convinces Hippolyta that though Diana's use of her powers will attract Ares, only learning to use them can save her. When the Germans later invade Themyscira in pursuit of Steve Trevor , Antiope sacrifices herself to save Diana. Antiope appears in a flashback in Justice League (2017), fighting Darkseid 's first attempted invasion of Earth millennia ago. [ 18 ] Antiope appears in a flashback in Wonder Woman 1984 (2020). [ 19 ] When Diana was a child, Antiope prepared her for an athletic competition. However, when Diana fell off her horse and took a shortcut to catch up to it missing the checkpoint, Antiope pulled her out of the competition while commenting that "no true hero is born from lies". Antiope first appears in Wonder Woman (2017). [ 15 ] Director Patty Jenkins said that they needed "someone who seems under control and is not overly aggressive, but who is truly a badass", regarding Wright's casting as Antiope. [ 16 ] Producer Charles Roven calls the character "the greatest warrior of all time". [ 17 ] In the film, Diana is jointly raised by Queen Hippolyta, her sister General Antiope, and Lieutenant Menalippe ; while Hippolyta wants to shield young Diana from the outside world, Antiope wants to train her as a warrior. [ 15 ] Hippolyta and Antiope share the secret that Diana is Hippolyta's daughter with the god Zeus , and that their nemesis, the war god Ares , will someday try to destroy her as he did the other gods who opposed him. Going against Hippolyta's wishes, Antiope secretly trains Diana in combat, [ 3 ] and ultimately convinces Hippolyta that though Diana's use of her powers will attract Ares, only learning to use them can save her. When the Germans later invade Themyscira in pursuit of Steve Trevor , Antiope sacrifices herself to save Diana. Antiope appears in a flashback in Justice League (2017), fighting Darkseid 's first attempted invasion of Earth millennia ago. [ 18 ] Antiope appears in a flashback in Wonder Woman 1984 (2020). [ 19 ] When Diana was a child, Antiope prepared her for an athletic competition. However, when Diana fell off her horse and took a shortcut to catch up to it missing the checkpoint, Antiope pulled her out of the competition while commenting that "no true hero is born from lies". References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Jimenez, Phil; Wells, John (2010). The Essential Wonder Woman Encyclopedia . Del Rey. pp. 30– 31. ISBN 978-0345501073 . ^ Wonder Woman , vol. 1, no. 312 (February 1984). DC Comics. ^ a b c Spindler, Colin (5 June 2017). "Characters from Wonder Woman with more meaning than you realize" . Looper.com . Retrieved June 27, 2017 . ^ Wonder Woman , vol. 1, no. 328 (October 1985). DC Comics. ^ Wonder Woman , vol. 2, no. 1 (February 1987). DC Comics. ^ Wonder Woman , vol. 2, no. 29 (April 1989). DC Comics. ^ Wonder Woman , vol. 2, no. 177 (February 2002). DC Comics. ^ Wonder Woman vol. 2 #59 ^ Wonder Woman vol. 2 #57 ^ Wonder Woman: Our Worlds at War #1 (October 2001) ^ a b Wonder Woman vol. 2 #30 ^ Wonder Woman vol. 2 #3 ^ Wonder Woman vol. 2 #120 ^ "Antiope Voice - Justice League (TV Show)" . Behind The Voice Actors . Retrieved November 11, 2024 . A green check mark indicates that a role has been confirmed using a screenshot (or collage of screenshots) of a title's list of voice actors and their respective characters found in its credits or other reliable sources of information. ^ a b Sperling, Nicole (March 24, 2016). " Wonder Woman : Gal Gadot, Robin Wright, Connie Nielsen first look" . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved March 24, 2016 . ^ "Interview: Director Patty Jenkins on bringing Wonder Woman to cinema screens" . TheHollywoodNews.com. June 1, 2017 . Retrieved June 27, 2017 . ^ " Wonder Woman : Exclusive New Look At Robin Wright" . Empire . May 30, 2017 . Retrieved June 27, 2017 . ^ Hood, Cooper (June 7, 2017). " Wonder Woman 's Antiope Confirmed for Justice League " . Screen Rant . Retrieved June 27, 2017 . ^ "The Good Fight with Robin Wright" . Net-A-Porter . August 31, 2018 . Retrieved September 1, 2018 . External links Antiope (Post-Crisis) at the Comic Book DB (archived from the original ) .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Wonder Woman v t e William Moulton Marston Elizabeth Holloway Marston Olive Byrne H. G. Peter Other contributors William Moulton Marston Elizabeth Holloway Marston Olive Byrne H. G. Peter Other contributors Characters Wonder Women Diana Prince Orana Artemis of Bana-Mighdall Hippolyta Nubia Wonder Girls Cassie Sandsmark Donna Troy Yara Flor Supporting characters Antiope Etta Candy Fury Hephaestus Heracles/Hercules Hermes I Ching Julia and Vanessa Kapatelis Justice League Mala Nemesis (Thomas Tresser) The Olympian Paula von Gunther Philippus Poseidon Queen Desira Helena Sandsmark Sarge Steel Steve Trevor Wonder Man Zeus Zola Enemies Ares Baron Blitzkrieg Baroness Paula von Gunther Blue Snowman Veronica Cale Cheetah Circe Dark Angel Decay Doctor Cyber Doctor Poison Doctor Psycho Duke of Deception Egg Fu Eviless First Born Genocide Giganta Hades Hypnota Kung Mask Maxwell Lord Medusa Minister Blizzard Osira Queen Clea Silver Swan Superwoman Tezcatlipoca Zara Factions Amazons of Themyscira Amazons of Bana-Mighdall Children of Ares Godwatch Olympian Gods Titans of Myth Villainy Inc. Wonder Women Diana Prince Orana Artemis of Bana-Mighdall Hippolyta Nubia Wonder Girls Cassie Sandsmark Donna Troy Yara Flor Diana Prince Orana Artemis of Bana-Mighdall Hippolyta Nubia Wonder Girls Cassie Sandsmark Donna Troy Yara Flor Cassie Sandsmark Donna Troy Yara Flor Supporting characters Antiope Etta Candy Fury Hephaestus Heracles/Hercules Hermes I Ching Julia and Vanessa Kapatelis Justice League Mala Nemesis (Thomas Tresser) The Olympian Paula von Gunther Philippus Poseidon Queen Desira Helena Sandsmark Sarge Steel Steve Trevor Wonder Man Zeus Zola Antiope Etta Candy Fury Hephaestus Heracles/Hercules Hermes I Ching Julia and Vanessa Kapatelis Justice League Mala Nemesis (Thomas Tresser) The Olympian Paula von Gunther Philippus Poseidon Queen Desira Helena Sandsmark Sarge Steel Steve Trevor Wonder Man Zeus Zola Enemies Ares Baron Blitzkrieg Baroness Paula von Gunther Blue Snowman Veronica Cale Cheetah Circe Dark Angel Decay Doctor Cyber Doctor Poison Doctor Psycho Duke of Deception Egg Fu Eviless First Born Genocide Giganta Hades Hypnota Kung Mask Maxwell Lord Medusa Minister Blizzard Osira Queen Clea Silver Swan Superwoman Tezcatlipoca Zara Ares Baron Blitzkrieg Baroness Paula von Gunther Blue Snowman Veronica Cale Cheetah Circe Dark Angel Decay Doctor Cyber Doctor Poison Doctor Psycho Duke of Deception Egg Fu Eviless First Born Genocide Giganta Hades Hypnota Kung Mask Maxwell Lord Medusa Minister Blizzard Osira Queen Clea Silver Swan Superwoman Tezcatlipoca Zara Factions Amazons of Themyscira Amazons of Bana-Mighdall Children of Ares Godwatch Olympian Gods Titans of Myth Villainy Inc. Amazons of Themyscira Amazons of Bana-Mighdall Children of Ares Godwatch Olympian Gods Titans of Myth Villainy Inc. Locations Aeaea Themyscira (The Paradise Islands) Aeaea Themyscira (The Paradise Islands) Publications Absolute Wonder Woman All Star Comics Wonder Woman Amazonia Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Comic Cavalcade Crossover The Legend of Wonder Woman Sensation Comics Superman and Wonder Woman: The Hidden Killer Superman/Wonder Woman Wonder Woman '77 The Wonder Woman Chronicles Wonder Woman: Earth One Wonder Woman Historia: The Amazons The World's Greatest Superheroes Absolute Wonder Woman All Star Comics Wonder Woman Amazonia Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Comic Cavalcade Crossover The Legend of Wonder Woman Sensation Comics Superman and Wonder Woman: The Hidden Killer Superman/Wonder Woman Wonder Woman '77 The Wonder Woman Chronicles Wonder Woman: Earth One Wonder Woman Historia: The Amazons The World's Greatest Superheroes Storylines " Introducing Wonder Woman " (1941) Gods and Mortals (1987) Challenge of the Gods (1987–88) War of the Gods (1991) The Contest (1994) The Challenge of Artemis (1995) Paradise Island Lost (2001) Our Worlds at War (2001) The Hiketeia (2002) Down to Earth (2003–04) Who Is Wonder Woman? (2006–07) Amazons Attack! (2007) The Circle (2008) Ends of the Earth (2008) Rise of the Olympian (2009) Flashpoint (2011) The Lies (2016) Year One (2016) The Truth (2017) Godwatch (2017) Trial of the Amazons (2022) " Introducing Wonder Woman " (1941) Gods and Mortals (1987) Challenge of the Gods (1987–88) War of the Gods (1991) The Contest (1994) The Challenge of Artemis (1995) Paradise Island Lost (2001) Our Worlds at War (2001) The Hiketeia (2002) Down to Earth (2003–04) Who Is Wonder Woman? (2006–07) Amazons Attack! (2007) The Circle (2008) Ends of the Earth (2008) Rise of the Olympian (2009) Flashpoint (2011) The Lies (2016) Year One (2016) The Truth (2017) Godwatch (2017) Trial of the Amazons (2022) Technology Golden Girdle of Gaea Lasso of Truth Wonder Woman's bracelets Golden Girdle of Gaea Lasso of Truth Wonder Woman's bracelets In other media Film Wonder Woman (1974 film) Wonder Woman (2009 film) Wonder Woman: Bloodlines DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Wonder Woman (2017 film) soundtrack Justice League Zack Snyder's Justice League Wonder Woman 1984 soundtrack Peacemaker: It's Cow or Never Shazam! Fury of the Gods The Flash Television Wonder Woman episodes Wonder Woman (2011 TV pilot) Film Wonder Woman (1974 film) Wonder Woman (2009 film) Wonder Woman: Bloodlines DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Wonder Woman (2017 film) soundtrack Justice League Zack Snyder's Justice League Wonder Woman 1984 soundtrack Peacemaker: It's Cow or Never Shazam! Fury of the Gods The Flash Wonder Woman (1974 film) Wonder Woman (2009 film) Wonder Woman: Bloodlines DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Wonder Woman (2017 film) soundtrack Justice League Zack Snyder's Justice League Wonder Woman 1984 soundtrack Peacemaker: It's Cow or Never Shazam! Fury of the Gods The Flash Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Wonder Woman (2017 film) soundtrack soundtrack Justice League Zack Snyder's Justice League Zack Snyder's Justice League Wonder Woman 1984 soundtrack soundtrack Peacemaker: It's Cow or Never Shazam! Fury of the Gods The Flash Television Wonder Woman episodes Wonder Woman (2011 TV pilot) Wonder Woman episodes episodes Wonder Woman (2011 TV pilot) Miscellaneous Alternative versions Earth-Two Bizarra Superwoman Cultural impact Professor Marston and the Wonder Women Literature Wonder Women! The Untold Story of American Superheroines Alternative versions Earth-Two Bizarra Superwoman Earth-Two Bizarra Superwoman Cultural impact Professor Marston and the Wonder Women Literature Wonder Women! The Untold Story of American Superheroines Category Characters created by Don Heck Characters created by George Pérez Classical mythology in DC Comics Comics characters introduced in 1984 DC Comics Amazons DC Comics characters with accelerated healing DC Comics characters with superhuman durability or invulnerability DC Comics characters with superhuman senses DC Comics characters with superhuman strength DC Comics female superheroes Female characters in film Fictional female military personnel Fictional generals Fictional ancient Greeks Fictional queens Wonder Woman characters Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Short description is different from Wikidata Converting comics character infoboxes This page was last edited on 6 January 2026, at 04:59 (UTC) . 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Help | Advanced Search quick links Login Help Pages About Astrophysics > High Energy Astrophysical Phenomena Title: The Emergence of a Lanthanide-Rich Kilonova Following the Merger of Two Neutron Stars Abstract: We report the discovery and monitoring of the near-infrared counterpart (AT2017gfo) of a binary neutron-star merger event detected as a gravitational wave source by Advanced LIGO/Virgo (GW170817) and as a short gamma-ray burst by Fermi/GBM and Integral/SPI-ACS (GRB170817A). The evolution of the transient light is consistent with predictions for the behaviour of a "kilonova/macronova", powered by the radioactive decay of massive neutron-rich nuclides created via r-process nucleosynthesis in the neutron-star ejecta. In particular, evidence for this scenario is found from broad features seen in Hubble Space Telescope infrared spectroscopy, similar to those predicted for lanthanide dominated ejecta, and the much slower evolution in the near-infrared Ks-band compared to the optical. This indicates that the late-time light is dominated by high-opacity lanthanide-rich ejecta, suggesting nucleosynthesis to the 3rd r-process peak (atomic masses A~195). This discovery confirms that neutron-star mergers produce kilo-/macronovae and that they are at least a major - if not the dominant - site of rapid neutron capture nucleosynthesis in the universe. Subjects: High Energy Astrophysical Phenomena (astro-ph.HE) Cite as: arXiv:1710.05455 [astro-ph.HE] (or arXiv:1710.05455v1 [astro-ph.HE] for this version) Focus to learn more arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite Related DOI : Focus to learn more DOI(s) linking to related resources Submission history Access Paper: View PDF TeX Source References & Citations INSPIRE HEP NASA ADS Google Scholar Semantic Scholar BibTeX formatted citation Bookmark Bibliographic and Citation Tools Code, Data and Media Associated with this Article Demos Recommenders and Search Tools Author Venue Institution Topic arXivLabs: experimental projects with community collaborators arXivLabs is a framework that allows collaborators to develop and share new arXiv features directly on our website. Both individuals and organizations that work with arXivLabs have embraced and accepted our values of openness, community, excellence, and user data privacy. arXiv is committed to these values and only works with partners that adhere to them. Have an idea for a project that will add value for arXiv's community? Learn more about arXivLabs . About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status arXiv Operational Status
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Sources 2 Early life Toggle Early life subsection 2.1 In the East 2.2 In the West 2.1 In the East 2.2 In the West 3 Reign Toggle Reign subsection 3.1 Maxentius's rebellion 3.2 Maximian's rebellion 3.3 Civil wars 3.3.1 War against Maxentius 3.3.2 Milvian Bridge 3.3.3 In Rome 3.3.4 Wars against Licinius 3.4 Later rule 3.4.1 Foundation of Constantinople 3.4.2 Religion and religious policy 3.4.3 Administrative reforms 3.4.4 Monetary reforms 3.4.5 Executions of Crispus and Fausta 3.4.6 Later campaigns 3.4.7 Illness and death 3.1 Maxentius's rebellion 3.2 Maximian's rebellion 3.3 Civil wars 3.3.1 War against Maxentius 3.3.2 Milvian Bridge 3.3.3 In Rome 3.3.4 Wars against Licinius 3.3.1 War against Maxentius 3.3.2 Milvian Bridge 3.3.3 In Rome 3.3.4 Wars against Licinius 3.4 Later rule 3.4.1 Foundation of Constantinople 3.4.2 Religion and religious policy 3.4.3 Administrative reforms 3.4.4 Monetary reforms 3.4.5 Executions of Crispus and Fausta 3.4.6 Later campaigns 3.4.7 Illness and death 3.4.1 Foundation of Constantinople 3.4.2 Religion and religious policy 3.4.3 Administrative reforms 3.4.4 Monetary reforms 3.4.5 Executions of Crispus and Fausta 3.4.6 Later campaigns 3.4.7 Illness and death 4 Assessment and legacy Toggle Assessment and legacy subsection 4.1 Veneration as a saint 4.2 Historiography 4.3 Donation of Constantine 4.4 Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia 4.1 Veneration as a saint 4.2 Historiography 4.3 Donation of Constantine 4.4 Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia 5 Family tree 6 See also 7 Notes 8 Citations Toggle Citations subsection 8.1 Bibliography 8.1.1 Ancient sources 8.1.2 Modern sources 8.1 Bibliography 8.1.1 Ancient sources 8.1.2 Modern sources 8.1.1 Ancient sources 8.1.2 Modern sources 9 Further reading 10 External links Constantine the Great Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն অসমীয়া Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Limburgs Lingua Franca Nova Lombard Magyar Madhurâ Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी მარგალური مصرى Bahasa Melayu Mirandés Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی پښتو Piemontèis Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sakizaya संस्कृतम् Sardu Scots Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça తెలుగు ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt 文言 Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki Žemaitėška 中文 Betawi Batak Mandailing Yerwa Kanuri ရခိုင် Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Wikidata item Constantine I Head of the Colossus of Constantine , Capitoline Museums Roman emperor Reign 25 July 306 – 22 May 337 (alone from 19 September 324) Predecessor Constantius I (in the West) Successor .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Co-rulers .mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal} See list Galerius (306–311) [ a ] Severus II (306–307) [ b ] Maxentius (306–312) [ c ] Maximian (306–308, 310) [ c ] Licinius (308–324) [ d ] Maximinus II (310–313) [ a ] Valens (316–317) [ e ] Martinian (324) [ e ] Galerius (306–311) [ a ] Severus II (306–307) [ b ] Maxentius (306–312) [ c ] Maximian (306–308, 310) [ c ] Licinius (308–324) [ d ] Maximinus II (310–313) [ a ] Valens (316–317) [ e ] Martinian (324) [ e ] Born Flavius Constantinus 27 February 272 Naissus , Moesia Superior , Roman Empire Died 22 May 337 (aged 65) Achyron, Nicomedia , Bithynia , Roman Empire Burial Church of the Holy Apostles , Constantinople (remains now lost) Spouses Minervina [ f ] Fausta Minervina [ f ] Fausta Issue Detail Crispus Constantine II Constantius II Constantina Constans I Helena Crispus Constantine II Constantius II Constantina Constans I Helena Names Flavius Valerius Constantinus Regnal name Imperator Caesar Flavius Valerius Constantinus Augustus Names Flavius Valerius Constantinus Regnal name Imperator Caesar Flavius Valerius Constantinus Augustus Dynasty Constantinian Father Constantius Chlorus Mother Helena Religion Ancient Roman religion (until 312) Christianity (from 312) Ancient Roman religion (until 312) Christianity (from 312) Constantine I [ g ] (27 February 272 – 22 May 337), also known as Constantine the Great , or known mononymously as Constantine , was Roman emperor from AD 306 to 337 and the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity . [ h ] He played a pivotal role in elevating the status of Christianity in Rome, the Edict of Milan decriminalising Christian practice and ceasing Christian persecution . This was a turning point in the Christianisation of the Roman Empire . He founded the city of Constantinople (now Istanbul ) and made it the capital of the Empire, which it remained for over a millennium. Born in Naissus , a city located in the province of Moesia Superior (now Niš , Serbia), Constantine was the son of Flavius Constantius , a Roman army officer from Moesia Superior, who would become one of the four emperors of the Tetrarchy . His mother, Helena , was a woman of low birth, probably from Bithynia . Later canonised as a saint , she is credited for the conversion of her son in some traditions, though others believe that Constantine converted her. He served with distinction under emperors Diocletian and Galerius . He began his career by campaigning in the eastern provinces against the Persians , before being recalled to the west in AD 305 to fight with his father in the province of Britannia . After his father's death in 306, Constantine was proclaimed as augustus (emperor) by his army at Eboracum ( York , England). He eventually emerged victorious in Civil wars of the Tetrarchy against the emperors Maxentius and Licinius to become the sole ruler of the Roman Empire by 324. Upon his accession, Constantine enacted many reforms to strengthen the empire. He restructured the government, separating civil and military authorities. To combat inflation, he introduced the solidus , a new gold coin that became the standard for Byzantine and European currencies for more than a thousand years. The Roman army was reorganised to consist of mobile units ( comitatenses ), often around the emperor, to serve on campaigns against external enemies or Roman rebels, and frontier-garrison troops ( limitanei ) which were capable of countering barbarian raids, but less and less capable of countering full-scale barbarian invasions . Constantine pursued campaigns against the tribes on the Roman frontiers —such as the Franks , the Alemanni , the Goths , and the Sarmatians —and resettled territories abandoned by his predecessors during the Crisis of the Third Century with citizens of Roman society. Although Constantine lived much of his life as a pagan , he later became a catechumen , as he began to favour Christianity in 312, finally being baptised by Eusebius of Nicomedia , an Arian bishop. He played an influential role in the proclamation of the Edict of Milan in 313, which legalized Christianity in the Roman Empire. He convoked the First Council of Nicaea in 325, which produced the Christian statement of belief known as the Nicene Creed . On his orders, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was built at the site claimed to be the tomb of Jesus in Jerusalem and was deemed the holiest place in Christendom . He has historically been referred to as the "First Christian Emperor" but while he did favour the Christian Church, some modern scholars debate his beliefs and even his comprehension of Christianity. [ i ] He is venerated as a saint in Eastern Christianity , and he did much to push Christianity towards the mainstream of Roman culture. The age of Constantine marked a distinct epoch in the history of the Roman Empire and a pivotal moment in the evolution from classical antiquity to the Middle Ages . He built a new imperial residence in the city of Byzantium , which was officially renamed New Rome , while also taking on the name Constantinople in his honour. It subsequently served as the capital of the empire for more than a thousand years—with the Eastern Roman Empire for most of that period commonly referred to retrospectively as the Byzantine Empire in English. In leaving the empire to his sons and other members of the Constantinian dynasty , Constantine's immediate political legacy was the replacement of Diocletian's Tetrarchy with the principle of dynastic succession . His memory was held in high regard during the lifetime of his children and for centuries after his reign. The medieval church held him up as a paragon of virtue, while secular rulers invoked him as a symbol of imperial legitimacy. The rediscovery of anti-Constantinian sources in the early Renaissance engendered more critical appraisals of his reign, with modern and contemporary scholarship often seeking to balance the extremes of earlier accounts. Sources Constantine was a ruler of major importance and has always been a controversial figure. [ 4 ] The fluctuations in his reputation reflect the nature of the ancient sources for his reign. These are abundant and detailed, but they have been strongly influenced by the official propaganda of the period and are often one-sided. [ 5 ] No contemporaneous histories or biographies dealing with his life and rule have survived; the nearest alternative is Eusebius 's Vita Constantini , which offers a mixture of eulogy and hagiography [ 6 ] written between 335 and 339 [ 7 ] to extol Constantine's moral and religious virtues. [ 8 ] The Vita creates a contentiously positive image of Constantine, [ 9 ] and modern historians have frequently challenged its reliability. [ 10 ] The fullest secular life of Constantine is the anonymous Origo Constantini , a work of uncertain date which focuses on military and political events to the neglect of cultural and religious matters. [ 11 ] Lactantius ' De mortibus persecutorum , a political Christian pamphlet on the reigns of Diocletian and the Tetrarchy , provides valuable but tendentious detail on Constantine's predecessors and early life. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] The ecclesiastical histories of Socrates , Sozomen , and Theodoret describe the ecclesiastic disputes of Constantine's later reign. Written during the reign of Theodosius II (r. 402–450), a century after Constantine's reign, these ecclesiastical historians obscure the events and theologies of the Constantinian period through misdirection, misrepresentation, and deliberate obscurity. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] [ 14 ] The contemporary writings of the orthodox Christian Athanasius of Alexandria and the ecclesiastical history of the Arian Philostorgius also survive, though their biases are no less firm. [ 15 ] The epitomes of Aurelius Victor ( De Caesaribus ), Eutropius ( Breviarium ), Festus ( Breviarium ), and the anonymous author of the Epitome de Caesaribus offer compressed secular political and military histories of the period. Although not Christian, the epitomes paint a favourable image of Constantine but omit reference to Constantine's religious policies. [ 12 ] [ 16 ] The Panegyrici Latini , a collection of panegyrics from the late 3rd and early 4th centuries, provides valuable information on the politics and ideology of the tetrarchic period and the early life of Constantine. [ 12 ] [ 17 ] In addition, contemporary architecture—such as the Arch of Constantine in Rome and palaces in Gamzigrad and Córdoba [ 18 ] — epigraphic remains, and the coinage of the era complement the literary sources. [ 12 ] [ 17 ] Early life Constantine was born on 27 February 272. [ 19 ] While his official birthday is recorded in sources, his year of birth is not, and scholars have given several estimates between 271 and 280, with most leaning for 272 or 273. However, the evidence points to 272 being the correct year. [ 19 ] [ j ] He was born inside the city of Naissus, during a time when the unity of the Empire was threatened by the breakaway wars of the Palmyrene Empire . The city (modern Niš , Serbia) was located in Dardania within the province of Moesia Superior . [ 21 ] [ 22 ] His father was Flavius Constantius , [ k ] an Illyrian [ 26 ] [ 27 ] [ 23 ] [ l ] or, according to his nephew, Julian The Apostate , a Thracian . [ 29 ] His original full name, as well as that of his father, is not known. [ 30 ] [ 31 ] His praenomen is variously given as Lucius , Marcus and Gaius . [ 31 ] [ m ] Whatever the case, praenomina had already disappeared from most public records by this time. [ 33 ] He also adopted the name "Valerius", the nomen of emperor Diocletian , following his father's ascension as caesar . [ 31 ] [ 30 ] Constantine probably spent little time with his father [ 34 ] who was an officer in the Roman army, part of Emperor Aurelian 's imperial bodyguard. Being described as a tolerant and politically skilled man, [ 35 ] [ 36 ] Constantius advanced through the ranks, earning the governorship of Dalmatia from Emperor Diocletian, another of Aurelian's companions from Illyricum , in 284 or 285. [ 37 ] Constantine's mother was Helena , a woman of low social standing, possibly from Drepanum (later renamed Helenopolis ) of Bithynia , which would likely have made her a Greek -speaker. [ 38 ] [ 39 ] [ 40 ] It is uncertain whether she was legally married to Constantius or merely his concubine . [ 41 ] Constantine's own language was Latin , and during his public speeches in the church councils, which were held in Greek, he needed Greek translators. [ 42 ] In April 286 Diocletian declared Maximian , another colleague from Illyricum, his co-emperor. Each emperor would have his own court, his own military and administrative faculties, and each would rule with a separate praetorian prefect as chief lieutenant. [ 43 ] Maximian ruled in the West, from his capitals at Mediolanum ( Milan , Italy) or Augusta Treverorum ( Trier , Germany), while Diocletian ruled in the East, from Nicomedia ( İzmit , Turkey). The division was merely pragmatic: the empire was called "indivisible" in official panegyric, and both emperors could move freely throughout the empire. [ 44 ] In 288, Maximian appointed Constantius to serve as his praetorian prefect in Gaul . Constantius left Helena to marry Maximian's stepdaughter Theodora in 288 or 289. [ 45 ] Diocletian divided the empire again in 293, appointing two caesars to rule over further subdivisions of East and West. Each would be subordinate to his respective augustus but would act with supreme authority in his assigned lands. This system would later be called the Tetrarchy. Diocletian's first appointee for the office of Caesar was Constantius ; his second was Galerius , a native of Felix Romuliana . According to Lactantius , Galerius was a brutal, animalistic man. Although he shared the paganism of Rome's aristocracy, he seemed to them an alien figure, a semi-barbarian. [ 46 ] On 1 March, Constantius was promoted to the office of Caesar , and dispatched to Gaul to fight the rebels Carausius and Allectus . In spite of meritocratic overtones, the Tetrarchy retained vestiges of hereditary privilege, and Constantine became the prime candidate for future appointment as Caesar as soon as his father took the position. Constantine went to the court of Diocletian, where he lived as his father's heir presumptive . [ 47 ] In the East Constantine received a formal education at Diocletian's court, where he learned Latin literature, Greek, and philosophy. [ 48 ] The cultural environment in Nicomedia was open, fluid, and socially mobile; in it, Constantine could mix with intellectuals both pagan and Christian. He may have attended the lectures of Lactantius, a Christian scholar of Latin in the city. [ 49 ] Because Diocletian did not completely trust Constantius—none of the Tetrarchs fully trusted their colleagues—Constantine was held as something of a hostage, a tool to ensure Constantius' best behavior. Constantine was nonetheless a prominent member of the court: he fought for Diocletian and Galerius in Asia and served in a variety of tribunates ; he campaigned against barbarians on the Danube in 296 and fought the Persians under Diocletian in Syria in 297, as well as under Galerius in Mesopotamia in 298–299. [ 50 ] [ 51 ] By late 305, according to some, he had become a tribune of the first order, a tribunus ordinis primi . [ 51 ] [ 52 ] Constantine had returned to Nicomedia from the eastern front by the spring of 303, in time to witness the beginnings of Diocletian's " Great Persecution ", the most severe persecution of Christians in Roman history. [ 53 ] [ 54 ] In late 302, Diocletian and Galerius sent a messenger to the oracle of Apollo at Didyma with an inquiry about Christians. [ 55 ] [ 56 ] Constantine could recall his presence at the palace when the messenger returned and Diocletian accepted the imperial court's demands for universal persecution. [ 57 ] [ 58 ] On 23 February 303, Diocletian ordered the destruction of Nicomedia s new church, condemned its scriptures to the flames, and had its treasures seized. In the months that followed, churches and scriptures were destroyed, Christians were deprived of official ranks, and priests were imprisoned. [ 59 ] It is unlikely that Constantine played any role in the persecution. [ 60 ] In his later writings, he attempted to present himself as an opponent of Diocletian's "sanguinary edicts" against the "Worshippers of God", [ 61 ] [ 62 ] but nothing indicates that he opposed it effectively at the time. Although no contemporary Christian challenged Constantine for his inaction during the persecutions, it remained a political liability throughout his life. [ 63 ] On 1 May 305 Diocletian, as a result of a debilitating sickness taken in the winter of 304–305, announced his resignation. In a parallel ceremony in Milan , Maximian did the same. [ 64 ] Lactantius states that Galerius manipulated the weakened Diocletian into resigning and forced him to accept Galerius' allies in the imperial succession. According to Lactantius, the crowd listening to Diocletian's resignation speech believed, until the last moment, that Diocletian would choose Constantine and Maxentius (Maximian's son) as his successors. [ 65 ] [ 66 ] It was not to be: Constantius and Galerius were promoted to augusti , while Severus and Maximinus , Galerius' nephew, were appointed their caesars respectively. Constantine and Maxentius were ignored. [ 67 ] Some of the ancient sources detail plots that Galerius made on Constantine's life in the months following Diocletian's abdication. They assert that Galerius assigned Constantine to lead an advance unit in a cavalry charge through a swamp on the middle Danube, made him enter into single combat with a lion, and attempted to kill him in hunts and wars. Constantine always emerged victorious: the lion emerged from the contest in a poorer condition than Constantine; Constantine returned to Nicomedia from the Danube with a Sarmatian captive to drop at Galerius' feet. [ 68 ] [ 69 ] It is uncertain how much these tales can be trusted. [ 70 ] In the West Constantine recognised the implicit danger in remaining at Galerius' court, where he was held as a virtual hostage. His career depended on being rescued by his father in the West. Constantius was quick to intervene. In the late spring or early summer of 305, Constantius requested leave for his son to help him campaign in Britain. After a long evening of drinking, Galerius granted the request. Constantine's later propaganda describes how he fled the court in the night, before Galerius could change his mind. He rode from post-house to post-house at high speed, hamstringing every horse in his wake. By the time Galerius awoke the following morning, Constantine had fled too far to be caught. Constantine joined his father in Gaul , at Bononia ( Boulogne ) before the summer of 305. [ 71 ] From Bononia they crossed the English Channel to Britain and made their way to Eboracum ( York ), capital of the province of Britannia Secunda and home to a large military base. Constantine was able to spend a year in northern Britain at his father's side, campaigning against the Picts beyond Hadrian's Wall in the summer and autumn. [ 72 ] Constantius' campaign, like that of Septimius Severus before it, probably advanced far into the north without achieving great success. [ 73 ] Constantius had become severely sick over the course of his reign and died on 25 July 306 in Eboracum. Before dying, he declared his support for raising Constantine as emperor. The Alamannic king Chrocus , a barbarian taken into service under Constantius, then proclaimed Constantine as augustus. The troops loyal to Constantius' memory followed him in acclamation. Gaul and Britain quickly accepted his rule; [ 74 ] Hispania , which had been in his father's domain for less than a year, rejected it. [ 75 ] Constantine sent Galerius an official notice of Constantius' death and his own acclamation. Along with the notice, he included a portrait of himself in the robes of an Augustus. [ 74 ] The portrait was wreathed in bay . [ 76 ] He requested recognition as heir to his father's throne and passed off responsibility for his unlawful ascension on his army, claiming they had "forced it upon him". [ 77 ] Galerius was put into a fury by the message; he almost set the portrait and messenger on fire. [ 78 ] His advisers calmed him and argued that outright denial of Constantine's claims would mean certain war. [ 79 ] Galerius was compelled to compromise: he granted Constantine the title "caesar" rather than "augustus" (the latter office went to Severus instead). Wishing to make it clear that he alone gave Constantine legitimacy, Galerius personally sent Constantine the emperor's traditional purple robes . Constantine accepted the decision, knowing that it would remove doubts as to his legitimacy. [ 80 ] Reign Constantine's share of the empire consisted of Britain, Gaul, and Spain, and he commanded one of the largest Roman armies which was stationed along the important Rhine frontier. [ 81 ] He remained in Britain after his promotion to emperor, driving back the tribes of the Picts and securing his control in the northwestern dioceses. He completed the reconstruction of military bases begun under his father's rule, and he ordered the repair of the region's roadways. [ 82 ] He then left for Augusta Treverorum ( Trier ) in Gaul, the Tetrarchic capital of the northwestern Roman Empire. [ 83 ] The Franks learned of Constantine's acclamation and invaded Gaul across the lower Rhine over the winter of 306–307. [ 84 ] He drove them back beyond the Rhine and captured kings Ascaric and Merogais ; the kings and their soldiers were fed to the beasts of Trier Amphitheater in the adventus (arrival) celebrations which followed. [ 85 ] Constantine began a major expansion of Trier. He strengthened the circuit wall around the city with military towers and fortified gates, and he began building a palace complex in the northeastern part of the city. To the south of his palace, he ordered the construction of a large formal audience hall and a massive imperial bathhouse. He sponsored many building projects throughout Gaul during his tenure as emperor of the West, especially in Augustodunum ( Autun ) and Arelate ( Arles ). [ 88 ] According to Lactantius, Constantine followed a tolerant policy towards Christianity, although he was not yet a Christian. He probably judged it a more sensible policy than open persecution [ 89 ] and a way to distinguish himself from the "great persecutor" Galerius. [ 90 ] He decreed a formal end to persecution and returned to Christians all that they had lost under the first of the persecuting edicts. [ 91 ] Constantine was largely untried and had a hint of illegitimacy about him; he relied on his father's reputation in his early propaganda, which gave as much coverage to his father's deeds as to his. [ 92 ] His military skill and building projects, however, soon gave the panegyrist the opportunity to comment favourably on the similarities between father and son, and Eusebius remarked that Constantine was a "renewal, as it were, in his own person, of his father's life and reign". [ 93 ] Constantinian coinage, sculpture, and oratory also show a tendency for disdain towards the "barbarians" beyond the frontiers. He minted a coin issue after his victory over the Alemanni which depicts weeping and begging Alemannic tribesmen, "the Alemanni conquered" beneath the phrase "Romans' rejoicing". [ 94 ] There was little sympathy for these enemies; as his panegyrist declared, "It is a stupid clemency that spares the conquered foe." [ 95 ] Maxentius's rebellion Following Galerius's recognition of Constantine as caesar, Constantine's portrait was brought to Rome, as was customary. Maxentius mocked the portrait's subject as the son of a harlot and lamented his own powerlessness. [ 96 ] Maxentius, envious of Constantine's authority, [ 97 ] seized the title of emperor on 28 October 306. Galerius refused to recognise him but failed to unseat him. Severus was sent against Maxentius in April 307, [ 98 ] but during the campaign, Severus' armies, previously under command of Maxentius' father Maximian, defected, and Severus was seized and imprisoned. [ 99 ] Maximian, brought out of retirement by his son's rebellion, left for Gaul to confer with Constantine. He offered to marry his daughter Fausta to Constantine and elevate him to augustan rank. In return, Constantine would reaffirm the old family alliance between Maximian and Constantius and offer support to Maxentius' cause in Italy. Constantine accepted and married Fausta in Trier in summer 307. [ n ] Constantine gave Maxentius his meagre support, offering Maxentius political recognition. [ 103 ] Constantine remained aloof from the Italian conflict, however. Over the spring and summer of 307 he had left Gaul for Britain to avoid any involvement in the Italian turmoil; [ 104 ] now, instead of giving Maxentius military aid, he sent his troops against Germanic tribes along the Rhine. In 308, he raided the territory of the Bructeri and made a bridge across the Rhine at Colonia Agrippinensium ( Cologne ). In 310, he marched to the northern Rhine and fought the Franks. When not campaigning, he toured his lands advertising his benevolence and supporting the economy and the arts. His refusal to participate in the war increased his popularity among his people and strengthened his power base in the West. [ 105 ] Maximian returned to Rome in the winter of 307–308 but soon fell out with his son. In early 308, after a failed attempt to usurp Maxentius' title, Maximian returned to Constantine's court. [ 106 ] On 11 November 308 Galerius called a general council at the military city of Carnuntum ( Petronell-Carnuntum , Austria) to resolve the instability in the western provinces. In attendance were Diocletian, briefly returned from retirement, Galerius, and Maximian. Maximian was forced to abdicate again and Constantine was again demoted to caesar. Licinius , one of Galerius' old military companions, was appointed augustus in the western regions. The new system did not last long: Constantine refused to accept the demotion and continued to style himself as augustus on his coinage, even as other members of the Tetrarchy referred to him as a caesar on theirs. Maximinus was frustrated that he had been passed over for promotion while the newcomer Licinius had been raised to the office of augustus and demanded that Galerius promote him. Galerius offered to call both Maximinus and Constantine "sons of the augusti", [ 107 ] but neither accepted the new title. By the spring of 310, Galerius was referring to both men as augusti. [ 108 ] Maximian's rebellion In 310 a dispossessed Maximian rebelled against Constantine while Constantine was away campaigning against the Franks. Maximian had been sent south to Arles with a contingent of Constantine's army, in preparation for any attacks by Maxentius in southern Gaul. He announced that Constantine was dead and took up the imperial purple. In spite of a large donative pledge to any who would support him as emperor, most of Constantine's army remained loyal to their emperor, and Maximian was soon compelled to leave. When Constantine heard of the rebellion, he abandoned his campaign against the Franks and marched his army up the Rhine. [ 110 ] At Cabillunum ( Chalon-sur-Saône ), he moved his troops onto waiting boats to row down the slow waters of the Saône to the quicker waters of the Rhone . He disembarked at Lugdunum ( Lyon ). [ 111 ] Maximian fled to Massilia ( Marseille ), a town better able to withstand a long siege than Arles. It made little difference, however, as loyal citizens opened the rear gates to Constantine. Maximian was captured and reproved for his crimes. Constantine granted some clemency but strongly encouraged his suicide. In July 310, Maximian hanged himself . [ 110 ] In spite of the earlier rupture in their relations, Maxentius was eager to present himself as his father's devoted son after his death. [ 112 ] He began minting coins with his father's deified image, proclaiming his desire to avenge Maximian's death. [ 113 ] Constantine initially presented the suicide as an unfortunate family tragedy. By 311, however, he was spreading another version. According to this, after Constantine had pardoned him, Maximian planned to murder Constantine in his sleep. Fausta learned of the plot and warned Constantine, who put a eunuch in his own place in bed. Maximian was apprehended when he killed the eunuch and was offered suicide, which he accepted. [ 114 ] Along with using propaganda, Constantine instituted a damnatio memoriae on Maximian, destroying all inscriptions referring to him and eliminating any public work bearing his image. [ 115 ] The death of Maximian required a shift in Constantine's public image. He could no longer rely on his connection to the elder Emperor Maximian and needed a new source of legitimacy. [ 116 ] In a speech delivered in Gaul on 25 July 310, the anonymous orator reveals a previously unknown dynastic connection to Claudius II , a 3rd-century emperor famed for defeating the Goths and restoring order to the empire. Breaking away from tetrarchic models, the speech emphasises Constantine's ancestral prerogative to rule, rather than principles of imperial equality. The new ideology expressed in the speech made Galerius and Maximian irrelevant to Constantine's right to rule. [ 117 ] Indeed, the orator emphasises ancestry to the exclusion of all other factors: "No chance agreement of men, nor some unexpected consequence of favour, made you emperor," the orator declares to Constantine. [ 118 ] The oration also moves away from the religious ideology of the Tetrarchy, with its focus on twin dynasties of Jupiter and Hercules . Instead, the orator proclaims that Constantine experienced a divine vision of Apollo and Victory granting him laurel wreaths of health and a long reign. In the likeness of Apollo, Constantine recognised himself as the saving figure to whom would be granted "rule of the whole world", [ 119 ] as the poet Virgil had once foretold. [ 120 ] The oration's religious shift is paralleled by a similar shift in Constantine's coinage. In his early reign, the coinage of Constantine advertised Mars as his patron. From 310 on, Mars was replaced by Sol Invictus , a god conventionally identified with Apollo. [ 121 ] There is little reason to believe that either the dynastic connection or the divine vision are anything other than fiction, but their proclamation strengthened Constantine's claims to legitimacy and increased his popularity among the citizens of Gaul. [ 122 ] Civil wars War against Maxentius .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Battles of Constantine I v t e Civil wars of the Tetrarchy Segusio Turin Brescia Verona Milvian Bridge Cibalae Mardia Adrianople Hellespont Byzantium Chrysopolis German and Sarmatian campaigns Segusio Turin Brescia Verona Milvian Bridge Cibalae Mardia Adrianople Hellespont Byzantium Chrysopolis By the middle of 310 Galerius had become too ill to involve himself in imperial politics. [ 123 ] His final act survives: a letter to provincials posted in Nicomedia on 30 April 311, proclaiming an end to the persecutions, and the resumption of religious toleration. [ 124 ] Eusebius maintains "divine providence [...] took action against the perpetrator of these crimes" and gives a graphic account of Galerius' demise: "Without warning suppurative inflammation broke out round the middle of his genitals, then a deep-seated fistula ulcer; these ate their way incurably into his innermost bowels. From them came a teeming indescribable mass of worms, and a sickening smell was given off, for the whole of his hulking body, thanks to over eating, had been transformed even before his illness into a huge lump of flabby fat, which then decomposed and presented those who came near it with a revolting and horrifying sight." [ 125 ] Galerius died soon after the edict's proclamation, [ 126 ] destroying what little remained of the Tetrarchy. [ 127 ] Maximinus mobilised against Licinius and seized Asia Minor . A hasty peace was signed on a boat in the middle of the Bosphorus . [ 128 ] While Constantine toured Britain and Gaul, Maxentius prepared for war. [ 129 ] He fortified northern Italy and strengthened his support in the Christian community by allowing it to elect Eusebius as bishop of Rome . [ 130 ] Maxentius' rule was nevertheless insecure. His early support dissolved in the wake of heightened tax rates and depressed trade; riots broke out in Rome and Carthage ; [ 132 ] and Domitius Alexander was able to briefly usurp his authority in Africa. [ 133 ] By 312, he was a man barely tolerated, not one actively supported, [ 134 ] even among Christian Italians. [ 135 ] In the summer of 311, Maxentius mobilised against Constantine while Licinius was occupied with affairs in the East. He declared war on Constantine, vowing to avenge his father's "murder". [ 136 ] To prevent Maxentius from forming an alliance against him with Licinius, [ 137 ] Constantine forged his own alliance with Licinius over the winter of 311–312 and offered him his sister Constantia in marriage. Maximinus considered Constantine's arrangement with Licinius an affront to his authority. In response, he sent ambassadors to Rome, offering political recognition to Maxentius in exchange for a military support, which Maxentius accepted. [ 138 ] According to Eusebius, inter-regional travel became impossible, and there was military buildup everywhere. There was "not a place where people were not expecting the onset of hostilities every day". [ 139 ] Constantine's advisers and generals cautioned against preemptive attack on Maxentius; [ 140 ] even his soothsayers recommended against it, stating that the sacrifices had produced unfavourable omens. [ 141 ] Constantine, with a spirit that left a deep impression on his followers, inspiring some to believe that he had some form of supernatural guidance, [ 142 ] ignored all these cautions. [ 143 ] Early in the spring of 312, [ 144 ] Constantine crossed the Cottian Alps with a quarter of his army, a force numbering about 40,000. [ 145 ] The first town his army encountered was Segusium ( Susa , Italy), a heavily fortified town that shut its gates to him. Constantine ordered his men to set fire to its gates and scale its walls. He took the town quickly. Constantine ordered his troops not to loot the town and advanced into northern Italy. [ 144 ] At the approach to the west of the important city of Augusta Taurinorum ( Turin , Italy), Constantine met a large force of heavily armed Maxentian cavalry. [ 146 ] In the ensuing Battle of Turin Constantine's army encircled Maxentius' cavalry, flanked them with his own cavalry, and dismounted them with blows from his soldiers' iron-tipped clubs. Constantine's armies emerged victorious. [ 147 ] Turin refused to give refuge to Maxentius' retreating forces, opening its gates to Constantine instead. [ 148 ] Other cities of the north Italian plain sent Constantine embassies of congratulation for his victory. He moved on to Milan, where he was met with open gates and jubilant rejoicing. Constantine rested his army in Milan until mid-summer 312, when he moved on to Brixia ( Brescia ). [ 149 ] Brescia's army was easily dispersed, [ 150 ] and Constantine quickly advanced to Verona where a large Maxentian force was camped. [ 151 ] Ruricius Pompeianus , general of the Veronese forces and Maxentius' praetorian prefect, [ 152 ] was in a strong defensive position since the town was surrounded on three sides by the Adige . Constantine sent a small force north of the town in an attempt to cross the river unnoticed. Ruricius sent a large detachment to counter Constantine's expeditionary force but was defeated. Constantine's forces successfully surrounded the town and laid siege. [ 153 ] Ruricius gave Constantine the slip and returned with a larger force to oppose Constantine. Constantine refused to let up on the siege and sent only a small force to oppose him. In the desperately fought encounter that followed, Ruricius was killed and his army destroyed. [ 154 ] Verona surrendered soon afterwards, followed by Aquileia , [ 155 ] Mutina ( Modena ), [ 156 ] and Ravenna . [ 157 ] The road to Rome was now wide open to Constantine. [ 158 ] Maxentius prepared for the same type of war he had waged against Severus and Galerius: he occupied Rome and prepared for a siege. [ 159 ] He still controlled Rome's Praetorian Guard , was well-stocked with African grain, and was surrounded on all sides by the seemingly impregnable Aurelian Walls . He ordered all bridges across the Tiber cut, reportedly on the counsel of the gods, [ 160 ] and left the rest of central Italy undefended; Constantine secured that region's support without challenge. [ 161 ] Constantine progressed slowly [ 162 ] along the Via Flaminia , [ 163 ] allowing the weakness of Maxentius to draw his regime further into turmoil. [ 162 ] Maxentius' support continued to weaken: at chariot races on 27 October, the crowd openly taunted Maxentius, shouting that Constantine was invincible. [ 164 ] Maxentius, no longer certain that he would emerge from a siege victorious, built a temporary boat bridge across the Tiber in preparation for a field battle against Constantine. [ 165 ] On 28 October 312, the sixth anniversary of his reign, he approached the keepers of the Sibylline Books for guidance. The keepers prophesied that, on that very day, "the enemy of the Romans" would die. Maxentius advanced north to meet Constantine in battle. [ 166 ] Milvian Bridge Maxentius' forces were still twice the size of Constantine's, and he organised them in long lines facing the battle plain with their backs to the river. [ 167 ] Constantine's army arrived on the field bearing unfamiliar symbols on their standards and their shields. [ 168 ] According to Lactantius "Constantine was directed in a dream to cause the heavenly sign to be delineated on the shields of his soldiers, and so to proceed to battle. He did as he had been commanded, and he marked on their shields the letter Χ, with a perpendicular line drawn through it and turned round thus at the top, being the cipher of Christ. Having this sign (☧), his troops stood to arms." [ 169 ] Eusebius describes a vision that Constantine had while marching at midday in which "he saw with his own eyes the trophy of a cross of light in the heavens, above the sun, and bearing the inscription, In Hoc Signo Vinces " ("In this sign thou shalt conquer"). [ 170 ] In Eusebius' account, Constantine had a dream the following night in which Christ appeared with the same heavenly sign and told him to make an army standard in the form of the labarum . [ 171 ] Eusebius is vague about when and where these events took place, [ 172 ] but it enters his narrative before the war begins against Maxentius. [ 173 ] He describes the sign as Chi (Χ) traversed by Rho (Ρ) to form ☧, representing the first two letters of the Greek word ΧΡΙΣΤΟΣ (Christos). [ 174 ] [ 175 ] A medallion was issued at Ticinum in 315 which shows Constantine wearing a helmet emblazoned with the Chi Rho , [ 176 ] and coins issued at Siscia in 317/318 repeat the image. [ 177 ] The figure was otherwise rare and is uncommon in imperial iconography and propaganda before the 320s. [ 178 ] It was not completely unknown, however, being an abbreviation of the Greek word chrēston (good), having previously appeared on the coins of Ptolemy III Euergetes in the 3rd century BC. Following Constantine, centuries of Christians invoked the miraculous or the supernatural when justifying or describing their warfare. [ 179 ] Constantine deployed his own forces along the whole length of Maxentius' line. He ordered his cavalry to charge, and they broke Maxentius' cavalry. He then sent his infantry against Maxentius' infantry, pushing many into the Tiber where they were slaughtered and drowned. [ 167 ] The battle was brief, [ 180 ] and Maxentius' troops were broken before the first charge. [ 181 ] His horse guards and praetorians initially held their position, but they broke under the force of a Constantinian cavalry charge; they also broke ranks and fled to the river. Maxentius rode with them and attempted to cross the bridge of boats ( Ponte Milvio ), but he was pushed into the Tiber and drowned by the mass of his fleeing soldiers. [ 182 ] In Rome Constantine entered Rome on 29 October 312 [ 184 ] [ 185 ] and staged a grand adventus in the city which was met with jubilation. [ 186 ] Maxentius' body was fished out of the Tiber and decapitated, and his head was paraded through the streets for all to see. [ 187 ] After the ceremonies, the disembodied head was sent to Carthage, and Carthage offered no further resistance. [ 188 ] Unlike his predecessors, Constantine neglected to make the trip to the Capitoline Hill and perform customary sacrifices at the Temple of Jupiter . [ 189 ] However, he did visit the Senatorial Curia Julia , [ 190 ] and he promised to restore its ancestral privileges and give it a secure role in his reformed government; there would be no revenge against Maxentius' supporters. [ 191 ] In response, the Senate decreed him "title of the first name", which meant that his name would be listed first in all official documents, [ 192 ] and they acclaimed him as "the greatest augustus". [ 193 ] He issued decrees returning property that was lost under Maxentius, recalling political exiles, and releasing Maxentius' imprisoned opponents. [ 194 ] An extensive propaganda campaign followed, during which Maxentius' image was purged from all public places. He was written up as a "tyrant" and set against an idealised image of Constantine the "liberator". Eusebius is the best representative of this strand of Constantinian propaganda. [ 195 ] Maxentius' rescripts were declared invalid, and the honours that he had granted to leaders of the Senate were also invalidated. [ 196 ] Constantine also attempted to remove Maxentius' influence on Rome's urban landscape. All structures built by him were rededicated to Constantine, including the Temple of Romulus and the Basilica of Maxentius . [ 197 ] At the focal point of the basilica, a stone statue was erected of Constantine holding the Christian labarum in its hand. Its inscription bore the message which the statue illustrated: "By this sign, Constantine had freed Rome from the yoke of the tyrant." [ 198 ] Constantine also sought to upstage Maxentius' achievements. For example, the Circus Maximus was redeveloped so that its seating capacity was 25 times larger than that of Maxentius' racing complex on the Via Appia . [ 199 ] Maxentius' strongest military supporters were neutralised when Constantine disbanded the Praetorian Guard and Imperial Horse Guard . [ 200 ] The tombstones of the Imperial Horse Guard were ground up and used in a basilica on the Via Labicana , [ 201 ] and their former base was redeveloped into the Lateran Basilica on 9 November 312—barely two weeks after Constantine captured the city. [ 202 ] The Legio II Parthica was removed from Albano Laziale , [ 196 ] and the remainder of Maxentius' armies were sent to do frontier duty on the Rhine. [ 203 ] Wars against Licinius In the following years, Constantine gradually consolidated his military superiority over his rivals in the crumbling Tetrarchy. In 313, he met Licinius in Milan to secure their alliance by the marriage of Licinius and Constantine's half-sister Constantia. During this meeting, the emperors agreed on the so-called Edict of Milan , [ 204 ] officially granting full tolerance to Christianity and all religions in the empire. [ 205 ] The document had special benefits for Christians, legalising their religion and granting them restoration for all property seized during Diocletian's persecution. It repudiates past methods of religious coercion and used only general terms to refer to the divine sphere—"Divinity" and "Supreme Divinity", summa divinitas . [ 206 ] The conference was cut short, however, when news reached Licinius that his rival Maximinus had crossed the Bosporus and invaded European territory. Licinius departed and eventually defeated Maximinus, gaining control over the entire eastern half of the Roman Empire. Relations between the two remaining emperors deteriorated, as Constantine suffered an assassination attempt at the hands of a character that Licinius wanted elevated to the rank of Caesar; [ 207 ] Licinius, for his part, had Constantine's statues in Emona destroyed. [ 208 ] In either 314 or 316 the two augusti fought against one another at the Battle of Cibalae , with Constantine being victorious. They clashed again at the Battle of Mardia in 317 and agreed to a settlement in which Constantine's sons Crispus and Constantine II , and Licinius' son Licinius Junior were made caesars . [ 209 ] After this arrangement, Constantine ruled the dioceses of Pannonia and Macedonia and took residence at Sirmium , whence he could wage war on the Goths and Sarmatians in 322, and on the Goths in 323, defeating and killing their leader Rausimod . [ 207 ] In 320 Licinius allegedly reneged on the religious freedom promised by the Edict of Milan and began to oppress Christians anew, [ 210 ] generally without bloodshed, but resorting to confiscations and sacking of Christian office-holders. [ 211 ] Although this characterisation of Licinius as anti-Christian is somewhat doubtful, the fact is that he seems to have been far less open in his support of Christianity than Constantine. Therefore, Licinius was prone to see the Church as a force more loyal to Constantine than to the Imperial system in general, [ 212 ] as the explanation offered by the Church historian Sozomen . [ 213 ] This dubious arrangement eventually became a challenge to Constantine in the West, climaxing in the great civil war of 324. Constantine's Christian eulogists present the war as a battle between Christianity and paganism; Licinius, aided by Gothic mercenaries, represented the past and ancient paganism, while Constantine and his Franks marched under the standard of the labarum . [ citation needed ] Outnumbered but fired by their zeal, Constantine's army emerged victorious in the Battle of Adrianople . Licinius fled across the Bosphorus and appointed Martinian , his magister officiorum , as nominal augustus in the West, but Constantine next won the Battle of the Hellespont and finally the Battle of Chrysopolis on 18 September 324. [ 214 ] Licinius and Martinian surrendered to Constantine at Nicomedia on the promise their lives would be spared: they were sent to live as private citizens in Thessalonica and Cappadocia respectively, but in 325 Constantine accused Licinius of plotting against him and had them both arrested and hanged; Licinius' son (the son of Constantine's half-sister) was killed in 326. [ 215 ] Thus Constantine became the sole emperor of the Roman Empire. [ 216 ] Later rule Foundation of Constantinople Diocletian had chosen Nicomedia in the East as his capital during the Tetrarchy [ 218 ] —not far from Byzantium, well situated to defend Thrace, Asia, and Egypt, all of which had required his military attention. [ 219 ] Constantine had recognised the shift of the empire from the remote and depopulated [ why? ] West to the richer cities of the East, and the military strategic importance of protecting the Danube from barbarian excursions and Asia from a hostile Persia in choosing his new capital [ 220 ] as well as being able to monitor shipping traffic between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. [ 221 ] Licinius' defeat came to represent the defeat of a rival centre of pagan and Greek-speaking political activity in the East, as opposed to the Christian and Latin-speaking Rome, and it was proposed that a new Eastern capital should represent the integration of the East into the Roman Empire as a whole, as a centre of learning, prosperity, and cultural preservation for the whole of the Eastern Roman Empire. [ 222 ] Among the various locations proposed for this alternative capital, Constantine appears to have toyed earlier with Serdica (present-day Sofia ), as he was reported saying that " Serdica is my Rome ". [ 223 ] Sirmium and Thessalonica were also considered. [ 224 ] Eventually, however, Constantine decided to work on the Greek city of Byzantium , which offered the advantage of having already been extensively rebuilt on Roman patterns of urbanism during the preceding century by Septimius Severus and Caracalla , who had already acknowledged its strategic importance. [ 225 ] The city was thus founded in 324, [ 226 ] dedicated on 11 May 330 [ 226 ] and renamed Constantinopolis ("Constantine's City" or Constantinople in English). Special commemorative coins were issued in 330 to honour the event. The new city was later protected by the relics of the True Cross , the Rod of Moses and other holy relics, though a cameo now at the Hermitage Museum also represented Constantine crowned by the tyche of the new city. [ 227 ] The figures of old gods were either replaced or assimilated into a framework of Christian symbolism . Generations later there was the story that a divine vision led Constantine to this spot, and an angel no one else could see led him on a circuit of the new walls. [ 228 ] The capital would often be compared to the 'old' Rome as Nova Roma Constantinopolitana , the "New Rome of Constantinople". [ 216 ] [ 229 ] Religion and religious policy Saint Constantine the Great Mosaic in the Hagia Sophia , section: Maria as patroness of Constantinople, detail: donor portrait of Emperor Constantine I with a model of the city Emperor and Equal to the Apostles Resting place Constantinople Venerated in Eastern Orthodoxy Eastern Catholicism Oriental Orthodoxy Anglican Communion Lutheran Church Eastern Orthodoxy Eastern Catholicism Oriental Orthodoxy Anglican Communion Lutheran Church Major shrine Church of the Holy Apostles , Constantinople Feast 21 May Constantine was the first emperor to stop the persecution of Christians and to legalise Christianity, along with all other religions and cults in the Roman Empire. In February 313, he met with Licinius in Milan and developed the Edict of Milan, which stated that Christians should be allowed to follow their faith without oppression. [ 230 ] This removed penalties for professing Christianity, under which many had been martyred previously , and it returned confiscated Church property. The edict protected all religions from persecution, not only Christianity, allowing anyone to worship any deity that they chose. A similar edict had been issued in 311 by Galerius, senior emperor of the Tetrarchy, which granted Christians the right to practise their religion but did not restore any property to them. [ 231 ] The Edict of Milan included several clauses which stated that all confiscated churches would be returned, as well as other provisions for previously persecuted Christians. Some scholars think that Helena adopted Christianity as an adult, and according to Eusebius she was converted by Constantine, [ 232 ] but other historians debate whether Constantine adopted his mother Helena's Christianity in his youth or whether he adopted it gradually over the course of his life. [ 233 ] Constantine possibly retained the title of pontifex maximus which emperors bore as heads of the ancient Roman religion until Gratian renounced the title. [ 234 ] [ 235 ] According to Christian writers, Constantine was over 40 years old when he finally declared himself a Christian, making it clear that he owed his successes only to the protection of the Christian God. [ 236 ] Despite these declarations of being a Christian, he waited to be baptised until on his deathbed, believing that the baptism would release him of any sins he committed in the course of carrying out his policies while emperor. [ 237 ] He supported the Church financially, built basilicas, granted privileges to clergy (such as exemption from certain taxes), promoted Christians to high office, and returned property confiscated during the long period of persecution. [ 238 ] His most famous building projects include the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and Old St. Peter's Basilica . In constructing the Old St. Peter's Basilica, Constantine went to great lengths to erect the basilica on top of St. Peter 's resting place, so much so that it even affected the design of the basilica, including the challenge of erecting it on the hill where St. Peter rested, making its complete construction time over 30 years from the date Constantine ordered it to be built. Constantine might not have patronised Christianity alone. A triumphal arch was built in 315 to celebrate his victory in the Battle of the Milvian Bridge which was decorated with images of the goddess Victoria , and sacrifices were made to pagan gods at its dedication, including Apollo , Diana , and Hercules . Absent from the arch are any depictions of Christian symbolism. However, the arch was commissioned by the Senate, so the absence of Christian symbols may reflect the role of the Curia at the time as a pagan redoubt. [ 239 ] In 321, he legislated that the venerable Sunday should be a day of rest for all citizens. [ 240 ] In 323, he issued a decree banning Christians from participating in state sacrifices. [ 241 ] After the pagan gods had disappeared from his coinage, Christian symbols appeared as Constantine's attributes, the chi rho between his hands or on his labarum, [ 242 ] as well on the coinage. [ 243 ] The reign of Constantine established a precedent for the emperor to have great influence and authority in the early Christian councils, most notably the dispute over Arianism. Constantine disliked the risks to societal stability that religious disputes and controversies brought with them, preferring to establish an orthodoxy. [ 244 ] His influence over the Church councils was to enforce doctrine, root out heresy, and uphold ecclesiastical unity; the Church's role was to determine proper worship, doctrines, and dogma. [ 245 ] North African bishops struggled with Christian bishops who had been ordained by Donatus in opposition to Caecilian from 313 to 316. The African bishops could not come to terms, and the Donatists asked Constantine to act as a judge in the dispute. Three regional Church councils and another trial before Constantine all ruled against Donatus and the Donatism movement in North Africa. In 317, Constantine issued an edict to confiscate Donatist church property and to send Donatist clergy into exile. [ 246 ] More significantly, in 325 he summoned the First Council of Nicaea, most known for its dealing with Arianism and for instituting the Nicene Creed . [ 247 ] He enforced the council's prohibition against celebrating the Lord's Supper on the day before the Jewish Passover , which marked a definite break of Christianity from the Judaic tradition. From then on, the solar Julian calendar was given precedence over the lunisolar Hebrew calendar among the Christian churches of the Roman Empire. [ 248 ] Constantine made some new laws regarding the Jews; some of them were unfavourable towards Jews, although they were not harsher than those of his predecessors. [ 249 ] It was made illegal for Jews to seek converts or to attack other Jews who had converted to Christianity. [ 249 ] They were forbidden to own Christian slaves or to circumcise their slaves. [ 250 ] [ 251 ] On the other hand, Jewish clergy were given the same exemptions as Christian clergy. [ 249 ] [ 252 ] Administrative reforms Beginning in the mid-3rd century, the emperors began to favour members of the equestrian order over senators, who had a monopoly on the most important offices of the state. Senators were stripped of the command of legions and most provincial governorships, as it was felt that they lacked the specialised military upbringing needed in an age of acute defense needs; [ 253 ] such posts were given to equestrians by Diocletian and his colleagues, following a practice enforced piecemeal by their predecessors. The emperors, however, still needed the talents and the help of the very rich, who were relied on to maintain social order and cohesion by means of a web of powerful influence and contacts at all levels. Exclusion of the old senatorial aristocracy threatened this arrangement. In 326 Constantine reversed this pro-equestrian trend, raising many administrative positions to senatorial rank and thus opening these offices to the old aristocracy; at the same time, he elevated the rank of existing equestrian office-holders to senator, degrading the equestrian order in the process (at least as a bureaucratic rank). [ 254 ] The title of perfectissimus was granted only to mid- or low-level officials by the end of the 4th century. By the new Constantinian arrangement, one could become a senator by being elected praetor or by fulfilling a function of senatorial rank. [ 255 ] From then on, holding actual power and social status were melded together into a joint imperial hierarchy. Constantine gained the support of the old nobility with this, [ 256 ] as the Senate was allowed to elect praetors and quaestors in place of the usual practice of the emperors directly creating magistrates ( adlectio ). An inscription in honour of city prefect Ceionius Rufus Albinus states that Constantine had restored the Senate "the auctoritas it had lost at Caesar's time". [ 257 ] The Senate as a body remained devoid of any significant power; nevertheless, the senators had been marginalised as potential holders of imperial functions during the 3rd century but could dispute such positions alongside more upstart bureaucrats. [ 258 ] Some modern historians see in those administrative reforms an attempt by Constantine at reintegrating the senatorial order into the imperial administrative elite to counter the possibility of alienating pagan senators from a Christianised imperial rule; [ 259 ] however, such an interpretation remains conjectural, given the fact that we do not have the precise numbers about pre-Constantine conversions to Christianity in the old senatorial milieu. Some historians suggest that early conversions among the old aristocracy were more numerous than previously supposed. [ 260 ] Constantine's reforms had to do only with the civilian administration. The military chiefs had risen from the ranks since the Crisis of the Third Century [ 261 ] but remained outside the Senate, in which they were included only by Constantine's children. [ 262 ] Monetary reforms In the 3rd century the production of fiat money to pay for public expenses resulted in runaway inflation , and Diocletian tried unsuccessfully to re-establish trustworthy minting of silver coins, as well as silver-bronze " billon " coins (the term "billon" meaning an alloy of precious and base metals that is mostly base metal). Silver currency was overvalued in terms of its actual metal content and therefore could only circulate at much discounted rates. Constantine stopped minting the Diocletianic "pure" silver argenteus soon after 305, while the "billon" currency continued to be used until the 360s. From the early 300s on, Constantine forsook any attempts at restoring the silver currency, preferring instead to concentrate on minting large quantities of the gold solidus , 72 of which made a pound of gold. New and highly debased silver pieces continued to be issued during his later reign and after his death, in a continuous process of retariffing, until this "billon" minting ceased in 367, and the silver piece was continued by various denominations of bronze coins, the most important being the centenionalis . [ 263 ] These bronze pieces continued to be devalued, assuring the possibility of keeping fiduciary minting alongside a gold standard. The author of De Rebus Bellicis held that the rift widened between classes because of this monetary policy; the rich benefited from the stability in purchasing power of the gold piece, while the poor had to cope with ever-degrading bronze pieces. [ 264 ] Later emperors such as Julian the Apostate insisted on trustworthy mintings of the bronze currency. [ 265 ] Constantine's monetary policies were closely associated with his religious policies; increased minting was associated with the confiscation of all gold, silver, and bronze statues from pagan temples between 331 and 336 which were declared to be imperial property. Two imperial commissioners for each province had the task of getting the statues and melting them for immediate minting, with the exception of a number of bronze statues that were used as public monuments in Constantinople. [ 266 ] Executions of Crispus and Fausta Constantine had his eldest son Crispus seized and put to death by "cold poison" at Pola ( Pula , Croatia) sometime between 15 May and 17 June 326. [ 267 ] In July, he had his wife Empress Fausta (stepmother of Crispus) killed in an overheated bath. [ 268 ] Their names were wiped from the face of many inscriptions, references to their lives were eradicated from the literary record, and their memory was condemned. Eusebius, for example, edited out any praise of Crispus from later copies of Historia Ecclesiastica , and his Vita Constantini contains no mention of Fausta or Crispus. [ 269 ] Few ancient sources are willing to discuss possible motives for the events, and the few that do are of later provenance and are generally unreliable. [ 270 ] At the time of the executions it was commonly believed that Empress Fausta was either in an illicit relationship with Crispus or was spreading rumours to that effect. A popular myth arose, modified to allude to the Hippolytus – Phaedra legend, with the suggestion that Constantine killed Crispus and Fausta for their immoralities; [ 271 ] the largely fictional Passion of Artemius explicitly makes this connection. [ 272 ] The myth rests on slim evidence as an interpretation of the executions; only late and unreliable sources allude to the relationship between Crispus and Fausta, and there is no evidence for the modern suggestion that Constantine's "godly" edicts of 326 and the irregularities of Crispus are somehow connected. [ 271 ] Although Constantine created his apparent heirs "caesars", following a pattern established by Diocletian, he gave his creations a hereditary character, alien to the tetrarchic system: Constantine's caesars were to be kept in the hope of ascending to empire and entirely subordinated to their augustus, as long as he was alive. [ 273 ] Adrian Goldsworthy speculates an alternative explanation for the execution of Crispus was Constantine's desire to keep a firm grip on his prospective heirs, this—and Fausta's desire for having her sons inheriting instead of their half-brother—being reason enough for killing Crispus; the subsequent execution of Fausta, however, was probably meant as a reminder to her children that Constantine would not hesitate in "killing his own relatives when he felt this was necessary". [ 274 ] Later campaigns Constantine considered Constantinople his capital and permanent residence. He lived there for a good portion of his later life. In 328, construction was completed on Constantine's Bridge at Sucidava , (today Celei in Romania ) [ 275 ] in hopes of reconquering Dacia , a province that had been abandoned under Aurelian. In the late winter of 332, Constantine campaigned with the Sarmatians against the Goths . The weather and lack of food reportedly cost the Goths dearly before they submitted to Rome. In 334, after Sarmatian commoners had overthrown their leaders, Constantine led a campaign against the tribe. He won a victory in the war and extended his control over the region, as remains of camps and fortifications in the region indicate. [ 276 ] Constantine resettled some Sarmatian exiles as farmers in Illyrian and Roman districts and conscripted the rest into the army. Constantine reconquered the South of Dacia and the new frontier in Dacia was along the wall and ditch called Brazda lui Novac line supported by new castra . [ 277 ] Constantine took the title Dacicus maximus in 336. [ 278 ] In the last years of his life, Constantine made plans for a campaign against Persia . In a letter written to the king of Persia, Shapur , Constantine had asserted his patronage over Persia's Christian subjects and urged Shapur to treat them well. [ 279 ] The letter is undatable. In response to border raids, Constantine sent Constantius to guard the eastern frontier in 335. In 336, Prince Narseh invaded Armenia (a Christian kingdom since 301) and installed a Persian client on the throne. Constantine then resolved to campaign against Persia. He treated the war as a Christian crusade, calling for bishops to accompany the army and commissioning a tent in the shape of a church to follow him everywhere. Constantine planned to be baptised in the Jordan River before crossing into Persia. Persian diplomats came to Constantinople over the winter of 336–337, seeking peace, but Constantine turned them away. The campaign was called off, however, when Constantine became sick in the spring of 337. [ 280 ] Illness and death From his recent illness, Constantine knew death would soon come. Within the Church of the Holy Apostles , which he had built in Constantinople, Constantine had secretly prepared a final resting-place for himself. [ 281 ] It came sooner than he had expected. Soon after the Feast of Easter 337, Constantine fell seriously ill. [ 282 ] He left Constantinople for the hot baths near his mother's city of Helenopolis ( Altınova ), on the southern shores of the Gulf of Nicomedia (present-day Gulf of İzmit ). Once in Helenopolis, in a church he had built in honour of Lucian the Martyr , he began to pray and offer supplications for God. He soon felt that his life was ending and desired to seek purification of the sins he had committed through baptism. Making his way to the suburbs of Nicomedia, where he summoned the local bishops. [ 283 ] He then told them of his hope to be baptised in the Jordan River , where Christ was baptised, yet praises God, knowing that it is fitting for him to receive the blessing here instead. He then professed the desire to live the rest of his life united with the people of God and His Church. The bishops, Eusebius records, "the prelates performed the sacred ceremonies in the usual manner". [ 284 ] He chose the Arian bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia , bishop of the city where he lay dying, as his baptiser. [ 285 ] It has been thought that Constantine put off baptism as long as he did to be absolved from as much of his sin as possible. [ 286 ] Constantine died soon after at a suburban villa called Achyron, on the last day of the fifty-day festival of Pentecost directly following Pascha (or Easter ), on 22 May 337. [ 287 ] Although Constantine's death follows the conclusion of the Persian campaign in Eusebius's account, most other sources report his death as occurring in its middle. Emperor Julian (a nephew of Constantine), writing in the mid-350s, observes that the Sassanians escaped punishment for their ill-deeds, because Constantine died "in the middle of his preparations for war". [ 288 ] Similar accounts are given in the Origo Constantini , an anonymous document composed while Constantine was still living, which has Constantine dying in Nicomedia ; [ 289 ] the Historiae abbreviatae of Sextus Aurelius Victor , written in 361, which has Constantine dying at an estate near Nicomedia called Achyrona while marching against the Persians; [ 290 ] and the Breviarium of Eutropius , a handbook compiled in 369 for the Emperor Valens , which has Constantine dying in a nameless state villa in Nicomedia . [ 291 ] From these and other accounts, some have concluded that Eusebius's Vita was edited to defend Constantine's reputation against what Eusebius saw as a less congenial version of the campaign. [ 292 ] Following his death, his body was transferred to Constantinople and buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles, [ 293 ] in a porphyry sarcophagus that was described in the 10th century by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in the De Ceremoniis . [ 294 ] His body survived the plundering of the city during the Fourth Crusade in 1204 but was destroyed at some point afterwards. [ 295 ] A fragment of a sarcophagus that is believed to be Constantine's is currently on display at the Istanbul Archaeology Museums . Constantine was succeeded by his three sons born of Fausta, Constantine II, Constantius II and Constans . His sons, along with his nephew Dalmatius , had already received one division of the empire each to administer as caesars; Constantine may have intended his successors to resume a structure akin to Diocletian's Tetrarchy. [ 296 ] A number of relatives were killed by followers of Constantius, notably Constantine's nephews Dalmatius (who held the rank of caesar) and Hannibalianus , presumably to eliminate possible contenders to an already complicated succession. He also had two daughters, Constantina and Helena , wife of Emperor Julian. [ 297 ] Assessment and legacy Constantine reunited the empire under one emperor, and he won major victories over the Franks and Alamanni in 306–308, the Franks again in 313–314, the Goths in 332, and the Sarmatians in 334. By 336, he had reoccupied most of the long-lost province of Dacia which Aurelian had been forced to abandon in 271. At the time of his death, he was planning a great expedition to end raids on the eastern provinces from the Persian Empire. [ 298 ] In the cultural sphere, Constantine revived the clean-shaven face fashion of earlier emperors, originally introduced among the Romans by Scipio Africanus (236–183 BC) and changed into the wearing of the beard by Hadrian (r. 117–138). With some departures, such as Julian the Apostate (r. 360–363), this new Roman imperial fashion lasted until the reign of Phocas (r. 602–610) in the 7th century. [ 299 ] [ 300 ] [ better source needed ] The Holy Roman Empire reckoned Constantine among the venerable figures of its tradition. In the later Byzantine state, it became a great honour for an emperor to be hailed as a "new Constantine"; ten emperors carried the name, including the last emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire. [ 301 ] Charlemagne used monumental Constantinian forms in his court to suggest that he was Constantine's successor and equal. Charlemagne, Henry VIII , Philip II of Spain , Godfrey of Bouillon , the House of Capet , the House of Habsburg , the House of Stuart , the Macedonian dynasty and the Phokas family claimed descent from Constantine. [ 302 ] [ 303 ] [ 304 ] Geoffrey of Monmouth embroidered a tale that the legendary king of Britain, King Arthur , was also a descendant of Constantine. [ 305 ] Constantine acquired a mythic role as a hero and warrior against heathens. His reception as a saint seems to have spread within the Byzantine empire during wars against the Sasanian Persians and the Muslims in the late 6th and 7th century. [ 306 ] The motif of the Romanesque equestrian, the mounted figure in the posture of a triumphant Roman emperor, became a visual metaphor in statuary in praise of local benefactors. The name "Constantine" enjoyed renewed popularity in western France in the 11th and 12th centuries. [ 307 ] During the Fascist period in Italy in the 20th century , parallels between Constantine and Mussolini became especially popular after the signing of the Lateran Pacts by the Italian State and the Catholic Church in 1929. Mussolini's perceived role in bringing about the historic agreement was sometimes even explicitly compared to Constantine's Edict of Milan. For example, the archbishop of Milan, Cardinal Ildefonso Schuster , claimed that, after sixteen centuries, a second March on Rome had occurred and a second 'religious pact' had been established, linking Mussolini to the spiriti magni of both Constantine and Augustus . [ 308 ] The Niš Constantine the Great Airport is named in honour of him. A large cross was planned to be built on a hill overlooking Niš, but the project was cancelled. [ 309 ] In 2012, a memorial was erected in Niš in his honour. The Commemoration of the Edict of Milan was held in Niš in 2013. [ 310 ] Constantine is sometimes associated with the religiopolitical ideology known as Caesaropapism , which epitomises the unity of church and state. However, his association with this ideology has been debated. [ 311 ] Veneration as a saint Constantine is commemorated annually as a saint by most, if not all, Eastern Christian Churches . The Eastern Orthodox Churches and the Greek Catholic Churches venerate Saint Constantine (Άγιος Κωνσταντίνος) as isapostolos (ισαπόστολος Κωνσταντίνος)—an equal of the Apostles . [ 312 ] He and his mother, Saint Helena, are commemorated on 21 May, [ 313 ] with liturgical propers composed for the Horologion (e.g., Great Vespers ) [ 314 ] and Divine Liturgy . [ 315 ] Several Orthodox monasteries, shrines and churches claim to have first-class relics of Constantine. [ 316 ] The Coptic Orthodox Church commemorates Saint Constantine on 28 Parmouti . [ 317 ] The Armenian Apostolic Church commemorates Saint Constantine and Saint Helena on the Tuesday of the fourth week after Pentecost. [ 318 ] The Armenian Catholic Church commemorates both on 1 July. Constantine is not recognized officially as a saint in the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church , although he had been referred to as piissimi Imperatoris (most pious Emperor) in editions of the Martyrologium Romanum up until the 1956 edition. Historiography During Constantine's lifetime, Praxagoras of Athens and Libanius , pagan authors, showered Constantine with praise, presenting him as a paragon of virtue. His nephew and son-in-law Julian the Apostate, however, wrote the satire Symposium, or the Saturnalia in 361, after the last of his sons died; it denigrated Constantine, calling him inferior to the great pagan emperors, and given over to luxury and greed. [ 319 ] Following Julian, Eunapius began – and Zosimus continued – a historiographic tradition that blamed Constantine for weakening the empire through his indulgence to the Christians. [ 320 ] During the Middle Ages , European and Near-East Byzantine writers presented Constantine as an ideal ruler, the standard against which any king or emperor could be measured. [ 320 ] The Renaissance rediscovery of anti-Constantinian sources prompted a re-evaluation of his career. German humanist Johannes Leunclavius discovered Zosimus' writings and published a Latin translation in 1576. In its preface, he argues that Zosimus' picture of Constantine offered a more balanced view than that of Eusebius and the Church historians. [ 321 ] Cardinal Caesar Baronius criticised Zosimus, favouring Eusebius' account of the Constantinian era. Baronius' Life of Constantine (1588) presents Constantine as the model of a Christian prince. [ 322 ] Edward Gibbon aimed to unite the two extremes of Constantinian scholarship in his work The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776–1789) by contrasting the portraits presented by Eusebius and Zosimus. [ 323 ] He presents a noble war hero who transforms into an Oriental despot in his old age, "degenerating into a cruel and dissolute monarch". [ 324 ] Modern interpretations of Constantine's rule begin with Jacob Burckhardt 's The Age of Constantine the Great (1853, rev. 1880). Burckhardt's Constantine is a scheming secularist, a politician who manipulates all parties in a quest to secure his own power. [ 325 ] Henri Grégoire followed Burckhardt's evaluation of Constantine in the 1930s, suggesting that Constantine developed an interest in Christianity only after witnessing its political usefulness. Grégoire was skeptical of the authenticity of Eusebius's Vita , and postulated a pseudo-Eusebius to assume responsibility for the vision and conversion narratives of that work. [ 326 ] Otto Seeck 's Geschichte des Untergangs der antiken Welt (1920–1923) and André Piganiol 's L'empereur Constantin (1932) go against this historiographic tradition. Seeck presents Constantine as a sincere war hero whose ambiguities were the product of his own naïve inconsistency. [ 327 ] Piganiol's Constantine is a philosophical monotheist, a child of his era's religious syncretism. [ 328 ] Related histories by Arnold Hugh Martin Jones ( Constantine and the Conversion of Europe , 1949) and Ramsay MacMullen ( Constantine , 1969) give portraits of a less visionary and more impulsive Constantine. [ 329 ] These later accounts were more willing to present Constantine as a genuine convert to Christianity. Norman H. Baynes began a historiographic tradition with Constantine the Great and the Christian Church (1929) which presents Constantine as a committed Christian, reinforced by Andreas Alföldi 's The Conversion of Constantine and Pagan Rome (1948), and Timothy Barnes 's Constantine and Eusebius (1981) is the culmination of this trend. Barnes' Constantine experienced a radical conversion which drove him on a personal crusade to convert his empire. [ 330 ] Charles Matson Odahl's Constantine and the Christian Empire (2004) takes much the same tack. [ 331 ] In spite of Barnes' work, arguments continue over the strength and depth of Constantine's religious conversion. [ 332 ] Certain themes in this school reached new extremes in T. G. Elliott's The Christianity of Constantine the Great (1996), which presented Constantine as a committed Christian from early childhood. [ 333 ] Paul Veyne 's 2007 work Quand notre monde est devenu chrétien holds a similar view which does not speculate on the origin of Constantine's Christian motivation, but presents him as a religious revolutionary who fervently believed that he was meant "to play a providential role in the millenary economy of the salvation of humanity". [ 334 ] Peter Heather argues that it is most plausible that Constantine had been a Christian considerably before 312 – possibly even for his entire life – with the public timeline of events instead reflecting his "coming out" as Christian in stages as doing so became politically viable. As a parallel illustrating the cogency of this interpretation, Heather gestures to the later conversion of Constantine's nephew Julian from Christianity to Hellenism, after which he practiced in secret for a decade. [ 335 ] Donation of Constantine Latin Christians considered it inappropriate that Constantine was baptised only on his death bed by an unorthodox bishop, and a legend emerged by the early 4th century that Pope Sylvester I had cured the pagan emperor from leprosy. According to this legend, Constantine was baptised and began the construction of a church in the Lateran Basilica . [ 336 ] [ 337 ] The Donation of Constantine appeared in the 8th century, most likely during the pontificate of Pope Stephen II , in which the freshly converted Constantine gives "the city of Rome and all the provinces, districts, and cities of Italy and the Western regions" to Sylvester and his successors. [ 338 ] In the High Middle Ages , [ 339 ] [ 340 ] this document was used and accepted as the basis for the pope's temporal power , though it was denounced as a forgery by Emperor Otto III [ 341 ] and lamented as the root of papal worldliness by Dante Alighieri . [ 342 ] Philologist and Catholic priest Lorenzo Valla proved in 1440 that the document was indeed a forgery. [ 343 ] Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia During the medieval period, Britons regarded Constantine as a king of their own people, particularly associating him with Caernarfon in Gwynedd . While some of this is owed to his fame and his proclamation as emperor in Britain , there was also confusion of his family with Magnus Maximus 's supposed wife Elen and her son, another Constantine ( Welsh : Custennin ) . In the 12th century Henry of Huntingdon included a passage in his Historia Anglorum that the Emperor Constantine's mother was a Briton, making her the daughter of King Cole of Colchester . [ 344 ] Geoffrey of Monmouth expanded this story in his highly fictionalised Historia Regum Britanniae , an account of the supposed Kings of Britain from their Trojan origins to the Anglo-Saxon invasion . [ 345 ] According to Geoffrey, Cole was King of the Britons when Constantius, here a senator, came to Britain. Afraid of the Romans, Cole submits to Roman law so long as he retains his kingship. However, he dies only a month later, and Constantius takes the throne himself, marrying Cole's daughter Helena. They have their son Constantine, who succeeds his father as King of Britain before becoming Roman emperor. Historically, this series of events is extremely improbable. Constantius had already left Helena by the time he left for Britain. [ 45 ] Additionally, no earlier source mentions that Helena was born in Britain, let alone that she was a princess. Henry's source for the story is unknown, though it may have been a lost hagiography of Helena. [ 345 ] Family tree v t e CONSTANTINIAN DYNASTY detailed family tree v t e Afranius Hannibalianus Eutropia Maximian Western emperor Theodora Constantius I Chlorus Western emperor 250-305-306 Helena 250–330 Maxentius Western emperor Constantia 293–330 ∞ Licinius 250-308-324-325 Flavius Dalmatius censor 1. Galla Julius Constantius d. 337 ∞ 2.Basilina Anastasia Eutropia Fausta 289–326 Constantine I the Great 272-306-337 Minervina Dalmatius caesar Hannibalianus (1) Constantius Gallus (2) Julian 331-360-363 Helena d. 360 Constantina ∞ 1. Hannibalianus 2. Constantius Gallus Constantius II 317-337-361 ∞ Faustina Constantine II Western emperor 316-337-340 Constans I Western emperor 320-337-350 (daughter) ∞ Justus Crispus d. 326 Jovian 331-363-364 Marina Severa Valentinian I Western emperor VALENTINIANIC DYNASTY Justina Constantia 361–383 Gratian Western emperor 359-367-383 Galla Theodosius I Eastern emperor THEODOSIAN DYNASTY Afranius Hannibalianus Eutropia Maximian Western emperor Theodora Constantius I Chlorus Western emperor 250-305-306 Helena 250–330 Maxentius Western emperor Constantia 293–330 ∞ Licinius 250-308-324-325 Flavius Dalmatius censor 1. Galla Julius Constantius d. 337 ∞ 2.Basilina Anastasia Eutropia Fausta 289–326 Constantine I the Great 272-306-337 Minervina Dalmatius caesar Hannibalianus (1) Constantius Gallus (2) Julian 331-360-363 Helena d. 360 Constantina ∞ 1. Hannibalianus 2. Constantius Gallus Constantius II 317-337-361 ∞ Faustina Constantine II Western emperor 316-337-340 Constans I Western emperor 320-337-350 (daughter) ∞ Justus Crispus d. 326 Jovian 331-363-364 Marina Severa Valentinian I Western emperor VALENTINIANIC DYNASTY Justina Constantia 361–383 Gratian Western emperor 359-367-383 Galla Theodosius I Eastern emperor THEODOSIAN DYNASTY Family of Constantine the Great Emperors are shown with a rounded-corner border with their dates as Augusti , names with a thicker border appear in both sections 1: Constantine's parents and half-siblings Claudius Gothicus 268–270 fabricated ancestry Julia Helena Constantius I 305–306 Maximiana Theodora Constantine I 306–337 Flavius Dalmatius Hannibalianus Flavia Julia Constantia Licinius 308–324 Anastasia Bassianus Galla Julius Constantius Basilina Licinius II Eutropia Virius Nepotianus Hannibalianus Constantina Constantius Gallus Julian 360–363 Helena Nepotianus 2: Constantine's children Minervina Constantine I 306–337 Fausta Crispus Constantine II 337–340 Constans 337–350 Hannibalianus Constantina Constantius Gallus Faustina Constantius II 337–361 Helena Julian 360–363 Gratian 367–383 Constantia Emperors are shown with a rounded-corner border with their dates as Augusti , names with a thicker border appear in both sections 1: Constantine's parents and half-siblings Claudius Gothicus 268–270 fabricated ancestry Claudius Gothicus 268–270 fabricated ancestry Julia Helena Constantius I 305–306 Constantius I 305–306 Maximiana Theodora Constantine I 306–337 Constantine I 306–337 Flavius Dalmatius Hannibalianus Flavia Julia Constantia Licinius 308–324 Licinius 308–324 Anastasia Bassianus Galla Julius Constantius Basilina Licinius II Eutropia Virius Nepotianus Hannibalianus Constantina Constantius Gallus Julian 360–363 Julian 360–363 Helena Nepotianus 2: Constantine's children Minervina Constantine I 306–337 Constantine I 306–337 Fausta Crispus Constantine II 337–340 Constantine II 337–340 Constans 337–350 Constans 337–350 Hannibalianus Constantina Constantius Gallus Faustina Constantius II 337–361 Constantius II 337–361 Helena Julian 360–363 Julian 360–363 Gratian 367–383 Gratian 367–383 Constantia See also Byzantine Empire portal Saints portal Bronze colossus of Constantine Colossus of Constantine Fifty Bibles of Constantine German and Sarmatian campaigns of Constantine Life of Constantine List of Byzantine emperors List of people known as the great Notes ^ a b Emperor of the East ^ Emperor of the West ^ a b In the West; unrecognised outside Italy ^ Originally emperor of the West; became emperor of the East after 313. ^ a b In the East; nominal emperor of the West. ^ Minervina may have been his concubine . ^ / ˈ k ɒ n s t ən t aɪ n , - t iː n / KON -stən-tyne, -teen ; Latin : Flāvius Valerius Cōnstantīnus , .mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%} Classical Latin : [konstanˈtiːnus] ; Koine Greek : Κωνσταντῖνος , romanized: Kōnstantînos ^ With the possible exception of Philip the Arab ( r. 244–249 ). See Philip the Arab and Christianity . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] ^ Constantine was not baptised until just before his death. [ 3 ] ^ Constantine's age at the time of his death was 65 years and 3 months, as recorded by Eustathius . Socrates , Sozomen , Zonaras , Skoutariotes , Theophanes , Symeon and Kedrenos all record 65 years. Eutropius and Jerome ( c. 380) give 66 years, as Latin writers often used inclusive counting . Aurelius Victor gives 62, likely a corruption of .mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%} lxvi into lxii , and his epitomer further corrupts the number into 63 ( lxiii ), while also computing his regnal years wrong. [ 19 ] [ 20 ] ^ The claim that Constantius descended from Claudius Gothicus , and thus also from the Flavian dynasty , is most certainly a fabrication. [ 23 ] [ 24 ] His family probably adopted the name "Flavius" after being granted citizenship by one of the Flavian emperors, as it was common for "new Romans" to adopt the names of their benefactors. [ 25 ] ^ On the other hand, Timothy Barnes argues that when ancient writers used the words Illyricum and Thrace / Thracians to describe where Constantius came from, they were speaking of broad geographic terms rather than precise origins. [ 28 ] ^ Constantius' regnal name is attested as both "Gaius Flavius Constantius" and "Marcus Flavius Constantius". However, the latter is almost certainly the correct form, as it was also the praenomen of his adopted father Maximian. [ 32 ] ^ The event is the focus of the Panegyrici Latini VI. The exact chronology of events is uncertain. Constantine and Fausta's wedding is sometimes dated to 31 March, but this is probably a mistake. It probably took place in September 307. [ 100 ] [ 101 ] [ 102 ] Citations ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Shahîd, Irfan (1984). "The First Christian Roman Emperor: Philip or Constantine?" . Rome and the Arabs . Dumbarton Oaks . pp. 65– 93. ^ Pohlsander, Hans A. (1980). "Philip the Arab and Christianity" . Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte . 29 (4): 463– 473. ISSN 0018-2311 . JSTOR 4435734 . ^ Harris, Jonathan (2017). Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium (2nd ed.). Bloomsbury. p. 38. ISBN 978-1-4742-5467-0 . ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 272. ^ Lenski et al. , pp. 2–3, 14, 23–25; Southern 2001 , p. 169; Cameron 2005 , pp. 90–91. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 265–268. ^ Drake 1988 . ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.11; cited in Odahl 2001 , p. 3 ^ Lenski et al. , p. 5; Storch 1971 . ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 265–271; Cameron 2005 , pp. 90–92; Elliott 1996 , pp. 162–171. ^ Lieu & Montserrat 1996 , pp. 39–40; Odahl 2001 , p. 3; Lenski et al. , p. 26. ^ a b c d e Lenski et al. , pp. 14–32; Odahl 2001 , pp. 6–14. ^ a b Barnes 1981 , pp. 12–14; MacKay 1999 , p. 207. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 225. ^ Odahl 2001 , pp. 6, 10. ^ Lieu & Montserrat 1996 , pp. 2–6; Warmington 1999 , pp. 166–167. ^ a b Wienand 2012 , pp. 26–86. ^ Lenski et al. , pp. 20–21, 288–291; Odahl 2001 , pp. 8–11. ^ a b c Doležal 2022 , pp. 221–237. ^ Bernard 2019 , p. 543. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 3, 39–42; Elliott 1996 , p. 17; Odahl 2001 , pp. 15–16; Pohlsander 2004b ; Southern 2001 , p. 169, 341; Barnes 1982 , pp. 39–42; Jones 1978 , pp. 13–14; Lenski et al. , p. 59; Pohlsander 2004a , p. 14; Rodgers 1989 ; Wright 1987 . ^ Wilkes, John (2012). "Dardani" . In Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (eds.). The Oxford Classical Dictionary . Oxford University Press. p. 414. ISBN 978-0-19-954556-8 . ^ a b Kazhdan 1991 , pp. 524–525. ^ Jones, Martindale & Morris , p. 223. ^ Salway, Benet (1994). "What's in a Name? A Survey of Roman Onomastic Practice from c. 700 B.C. to A.D. 700" (PDF) . Journal of Roman Studies . 84 : 124– 145. doi : 10.2307/300873 . ISSN 0075-4358 . JSTOR 300873 . S2CID 162435434 . Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 April 2020. ^ Stanislav Doležal, The Reign of Constantine, 306–337. Continuity and Change in the Late Roman Empire . Palgrave Macmillan Cham, 2022; pp. 2–3: "In a sense, this book is dedicated to the " Illyrian Emperors ", i.e. those emperors who were born in the Western Balkans and saved, stabilised, and reformed the empire. This line begins with Claudius II (268— 270) and then moves on to Quintillus (270), Aurelian (270—275), and Probus (276—282).3 After a brief interruption by the reigns of Carus and his two sons (282—284), whose birthplace we do not know, the Illyr-ians continued their run with Diocletian (284—305) and three of his colleagues: Maximian (285—305), Constantius (293—306), and Galerius (293—311). A 4th-century historian said of them: "Illyricum was actually the native land of all of them: so although they were deficient in culture, they had nevertheless been sufficiently schooled by the hardships of the countryside and of military service to be the best men for the state". 4 This is not the end of the Illyrian Emperors: Severus (305—307), Maximinus Daia (305—313), Licinius (308—324), and Constantine himself (306—337) can also be counted among them." ^ Odahl 2001 , pp. 36-41 . ^ Barnes 2011 , p. 30 . ^ Tougher, Shaun (2007). Julian the Apostate . Edinburgh University Press. doi : 10.1515/9781474473286 . ISBN 9780748618873 . ^ a b Otto Seeck : " Constantius 1 " (in German) . In: Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft (RE). Vol. IV,1, Stuttgart, 1900, col. 1013–1026. ^ a b c Conrad Benjamin: " Constantinus 2 " (in German) . In: Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft (RE). Vol. IV,1, Stuttgart, 1900, col. 1013–1026. ^ Barnes 1982 , p. 5. ^ Wilson, Steven (2003). The Means Of Naming: A Social History . Routledge . p. 47. ISBN 978-1-135-36836-4 . ^ MacMullen 1969 , p. 21. ^ Panegyrici Latini 8(5), 9(4); Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 8.7; Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.13.3 ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 13, 290. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 3; Lenski et al. , pp. 59–60; Odahl 2001 , pp. 16–17. ^ Hillner, Julia (2023). Helena Augusta: Mother of the Empire . Oxford University Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-19-087529-9 . ^ Drijvers, Jan Willem (1991). Helena Augusta . BRILL. pp. 9– 17. ISBN 978-90-04-24676-8 . ^ Stanton, Andrea L. (2012). Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia . SAGE. p. 25. ISBN 978-1-4129-8176-7 . Constantine's mother, Helena, was a Greek from Asia Minor and also a devoted Christian who seemed to have influenced his choices. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 3, 39–42; Barnes 1982 , p. 39–40; Elliott 1996 , p. 17; Lenski et al. , pp. 59, 83; Odahl 2001 , p. 16; Pohlsander 2004a , p. 14. ^ Tejirian, Eleanor H.; Simon, Reeva Spector (2012). Conflict, conquest, and conversion: two thousand years of Christian missions in the Middle East . New York: Columbia University Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-231-51109-4 . ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 8–14; Lenski et al. , pp. 46–50; Treadgold 1997 , pp. 14–15. ^ Bowman 2005 , p. 70; Potter 2004 , p. 283. ^ a b Barnes 1981 , p. 3; Elliott 1996 , p. 20; Lenski et al. , pp. 59–60; Odahl 2001 , pp. 47, 299; Pohlsander 2004a , p. 14. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 7.1; cited in Barnes 1981 , pp. 13, 290 ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 3, 8–9; Lenski et al. , pp. 40–43, 54; Elliott 1996 , p. 20; Odahl 2001 , pp. 46–47, 56–57; Pohlsander 2004a , pp. 8–9, 14; Treadgold 1997 , p. 17. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 73–74; Lenski et al. , pp. 60; Odahl 2001 , pp. 72, 301. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 73–74; Fowden 1988 , pp. 175–176. ^ Constantine, Oratio ad Sanctorum Coetum , 16.2 ^ a b Elliott 1996 , pp. 29–30; Lenski et al. , p. 60; Odahl 2001 , pp. 72–74. ^ Pohlsander 2004a , p. 15. ^ Constantine, Oratio ad Sanctorum Coetum 25 ^ Elliott 1996 , p. 30; Odahl 2001 , p. 73. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 10.6–11 ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 21; Elliott 1996 , pp. 35–36; MacMullen 1969 , p. 24; Odahl 2001 , p. 67; Potter 2004 , p. 338. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 2.49–52 ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 21; Odahl 2001 , pp. 67, 73, 304; Potter 2004 , p. 338. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 22–25; MacMullen 1969 , pp. 24–30; Odahl 2001 , pp. 67–69; Potter 2004 , p. 337. ^ MacMullen 1969 , pp. 24–25. ^ Oratio ad Sanctorum Coetum 25 ^ Odahl 2001 , p. 73. ^ Elliott 1987 , pp. 425–426; Lenski et al. , p. 126. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 25–27; Lenski et al. , p. 60; Odahl 2001 , pp. 69–72; Pohlsander 2004a , p. 15; Potter 2004 , pp. 341–342. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 19.2–6 ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 26; Potter 2004 , p. 342. ^ Lenski et al. , pp. 60–61; Odahl 2001 , pp. 72–74; Pohlsander 2004a , p. 15. ^ Origo 4; Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 24.3–9; Praxagoras fr. 1.2; Aurelius Victor 40.2–3; Epitome de Caesaribus 41.2; Zosimus 2.8.3; Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.21 ^ Lenski et al. , p. 61; MacMullen 1969 , p. 32; Odahl 2001 , p. 73. ^ Lenski et al. , p. 61. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 27; Elliott 1987 , pp. 39–40; Lenski et al. , p. 61; Odahl 2001 , p. 75–77; Pohlsander 2004a , pp. 15–16; Potter 2004 , pp. 344–345; Southern 2001 , pp. 169–170, 341; MacMullen 1969 , p. 32. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 27, 298; Elliott 1996 , p. 39; Odahl 2001 , p. 77–78, 309; Pohlsander 2004a , pp. 15–16. ^ Alföldi 1948 , pp. 233–234; Southern 2001 , pp. 170, 341. ^ a b Barnes 1981 , pp. 27–29; Jones 1978 , p. 59; Lenski et al. , pp. 61–62; Odahl 2001 , pp. 78–80. ^ Jones 1978 , p. 59. ^ Jones 1978 , p. 59; MacMullen 1969 , p. 39. ^ Treadgold 1997 , p. 28. ^ Gibbon, Edward (2018). History of The Decline and Fall of The Roman Empire . [Otbebookpublishing]. ISBN 978-3-96272-518-1 . OCLC 1059411020 . ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 28–29; Rees 2002 , p. 160; Lenski et al. , p. 62; Odahl 2001 , pp. 78–80. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 29; Elliott 1996 , p. 41; Jones 1978 , p. 41; MacMullen 1969 , p. 39; Odahl 2001 , pp. 79–80. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 16–17. ^ Odahl, 80–81. ^ Odahl, 81. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 39; Odahl, 81–82. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 29; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 41; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 63; MacMullen, Constantine , 39–40; Odahl, 81–83. ^ Odahl, 82–83. ^ "Detail :: Last Statues of Antiquity" . laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk . ^ Odahl, 82–83. See also: William E. Gwatkin, Jr. Roman Trier ." The Classical Journal 29 (1933): 3–12. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 24.9; Barnes, "Lactantius and Constantine", 43–46; Odahl, 85, 310–311. ^ Odahl, 86. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 28. ^ Rodgers, 236. ^ Panegyrici Latini 7(6)3.4; Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.22, qtd. and tr. Odahl, 83; Rodgers, 238. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 40. ^ Qtd. in MacMullen, Constantine , 40. ^ Zosimus, 2.9.2; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62; MacMullen, Constantine , 39. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 29; Odahl, 86; Potter, 346. ^ Barnes, New Empire , 5. Galerius and Maximinus ceased to be recognized as consuls at this time. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 30–31; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 41–42; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62–63; Odahl, 86–87; Potter, 348–349. ^ Nixon, C. E. V.; Rodgers, Barbara S. (2023). In Praise of Later Roman Emperors: The Panegyrici Latini . University of California Press. pp. 180– 185. ISBN 978-0-520-34282-8 . The ceremony took place after 25 July, as there are coins that refer to Constantine as caesar while also commemorating his dies imperii . ^ Rees 2002 , p. 165 . ^ Sang, J. C. (1979). Panegyrici Latini, VI and VII: Translated with Introductions and Commentary . University of Cape Town. pp. 6– 14, favouring late April/early May instead. ISBN 978-0-19-924918-3 . ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 31; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 64; Odahl, 87–88; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 15–16. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 30; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62–63; Odahl, 86–87. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 34; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 63–65; Odahl, 89; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 15–16. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 32; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 64; Odahl, 89, 93. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 32–34; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 42–43; Jones, 61; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 65; Odahl, 90–91; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 17; Potter, 349–350; Treadgold, 29. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 33; Jones, 61. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 36–37. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 34–35; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 43; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 65–66; Odahl, 93; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 17; Potter, 352. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 34. ^ Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 43; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 20. ^ Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 45; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 30.1; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 40–41, 305. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68. ^ Potter, 352. ^ Panegyrici Latini 6(7); Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 35–37, 301; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 66; Odahl, 94–95, 314–315; Potter, 352–353. ^ Panegyrici Latini 6(7)1. Qtd. in Potter, 353. ^ Panegyrici Latini 6(7).21.5. ^ Virgil, Ecologues 4.10. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 36–37; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 67; Odahl, 95. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 36–37; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 50–53; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 66–67; Odahl, 94–95. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 31–35; Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 8.16; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 43; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; Odahl, 95–96, 316. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 34; Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 8.17; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 304; Jones, 66. ^ Eusebius (1965). The History of the Church . Penguin Classics. p. 278. ISBN 0-14-044535-8 . ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 39; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 43–44; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; Odahl, 95–96. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 45; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 69; Odahl, 96. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 39–40; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 44; Odahl, 96. ^ Odahl, 96. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 38; Odahl, 96. ^ Hillner, Julia (2017). "Constantia, half-sister of Constantine and wife of Licinius". Constantia . Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics. doi : 10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.8065 . ISBN 978-0-19-938113-5 . ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 37; Curran, 66; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; MacMullen, Constantine , 62. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 37. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 37–39. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 38–39; MacMullen, Constantine , 62. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 40; Curran, 66. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 44–45; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 69; Odahl, 96. ^ Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 8.15.1–2, qtd. and tr. in MacMullen, Constantine , 65. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; MacMullen, Constantine , 71. ^ Panegyrici Latini 12(9)2.5; Curran, 67. ^ Curran, 67. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 70–71. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Odahl, 101. ^ Panegyrici Latini 12(9)5.1–3; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 101. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Jones, 70; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 101–102. ^ Panegyrici Latini 12(9)5–6; 4(10)21–24; Jones, 70–71; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 102, 317–318. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Jones, 71; Odahl, 102. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41–42; Odahl, 103. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Jones, 71; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 103. ^ Jones, 71; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 103. ^ Jones, 71; Odahl, 103. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Jones, 71; Odahl, 103. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Jones, 71; Odahl, 103–104. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Jones, 71; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 69; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 104. ^ Jones, 71; MacMullen, Constantine , 71. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 71. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Curran, 67; Jones, 71. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Jones, 71; Odahl, 105. ^ Jones, 71. ^ Odahl, 104. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 72; Odahl, 107. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Curran, 67; Jones, 71–72; Odahl, 107–108. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42–43; MacMullen, Constantine , 78; Odahl, 108. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 44.8; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43; Curran, 67; Jones, 72; Odahl, 108. ^ a b Odahl, 108. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43; Digeser, 122; Jones, 72; Odahl, 106. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 44.4–6, tr. J. L. Creed, Lactantius: De Mortibus Persecutorum (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984), qtd. in Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 71. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.28, tr. Odahl, 105. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43; Drake, "Impact of Constantine on Christianity" (CC), 113; Odahl, 105. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.27–29; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43, 306; Odahl, 105–106, 319–320. ^ Drake, "Impact of Constantine on Christianity" (CC), 113. ^ Cameron and Hall, 208. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 306; MacMullen, Constantine , 73; Odahl, 319. ^ Cameron and Hall, 206–207; Drake, "Impact of Constantine on Christianity" (CC), 114; Nicholson, 311. ^ Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 71, citing Roman Imperial Coinage 7 Ticinum 36. ^ R. Ross Holloway, Constantine and Rome (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004), 3, citing Kraft, "Das Silbermedaillon Constantins des Grosses mit dem Christusmonogram auf dem Helm", Jahrbuch für Numismatik und Geldgeschichte 5–6 (1954/55): 151–178. ^ Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 71. ^ Rowley, Matthew; Hodgson, Natasha R., eds. (2022). Miracles, political authority and violence in medieval and early modern history . Themes in medieval and early modern history. London New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN 978-0-367-76728-0 . ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43; Curran, 68. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 78. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43; Curran, 68; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 70; MacMullen, Constantine , 78; Odahl, 108. ^ Head of the bronze colossus , Capitoline Museums ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 44 . ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 81; Odahl, 108. ^ Cameron, 93; Curran, 71–74; Odahl, 110. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 44; Curran, 72; Jones, 72; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 70; MacMullen, Constantine , 78; Odahl, 108. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 44–45. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 44; MacMullen, Constantine , 81; Odahl, 111. Cf. also Curran, 72–75. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 45; Curran, 72; MacMullen, Constantine , 81; Odahl, 109. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 45–46; Odahl, 109. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 46; Odahl, 109. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 46. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 44. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 45–47; Cameron, 93; Curran, 76–77; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 70. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 45. ^ Curran, 80–83. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 47. ^ Curran, 83–85. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 45; Curran, 76; Odahl, 109. ^ Curran, 101. ^ Krautheimer, Corpus Basilicarum Christianarum Romanorum , 5.90, cited in Curran, 93–96. ^ Odahl, 109. ^ The term is a misnomer as the act of Milan was not an edict, while the subsequent edicts by Licinius—of which the edicts to the provinces of Bythinia and Palestine are recorded by Lactantius and Eusebius, respectively—were not issued in Milan. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 25. ^ Drake, "Impact", 121–123. ^ a b Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain , 229. ^ Byfield, Ted, ed. The Christians: Their First Two Thousand Years . vol. III. p. 148. "The sign in the sky that changed history" . Archived from the original on 19 January 2016 . Retrieved 5 February 2016 . ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , pp. 38–39. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , pp. 41–42. ^ Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain , pp. 229–230. ^ Timothy E. Gregory, A History of Byzantium . Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 2010, ISBN 978-1-4051-8471-7 , p. 54. ^ Philip Schaff, ed., Nicene and Post-nicene Fathers: Second Series . New York: Cosimo, 2007, ISBN 978-1-60206-508-6 , p. 418, footnote 6. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 42–43. ^ Scarre, Chronicle of the Roman Emperors , 215. ^ a b MacMullen, Constantine . ^ The Early Reception and Appropriation of the Apostle Peter (60-800 CE): The Anchors of the Fisherman . BRILL. 17 March 2020. p. 36. ISBN 978-90-04-42568-2 . ^ Sherrard, ed. Krieger, Byzantium , Silver Burdett Company, Morristown, New Jersey, 1966 p. 15. ^ Sinnigen & Boak, A History of Rome to A.D. 565 , 6th ed., Macmillan, New York, 1977 pp. 409–310. ^ Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries , Penguin Books, Middlesex, 1988, p. 40. ^ Sherrard, ed. Krieger, Byzantium , Silver Burdett Company, Morristown, New Jersey, 1966 p. 18. ^ Gilbert Dagron, Naissance d'une Capitale , 24. ^ Petrus Patricius excerpta Vaticana , 190: Κωνσταντίνος εβουλεύσατο πρώτον εν Σαρδική μεταγαγείν τά δημόσια· φιλών τε τήν πόλιν εκείνην συνεχώς έλεγεν "η εμή Ρώμη Σαρδική εστι." ^ Ramsey MacMullen, Constantine , Routledge ed., 1987, 149. ^ Dagron, Naissance d'une Capitale , 15/19. ^ a b "Constantinople" in The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium , Oxford University Press , Oxford, 1991, p. 508. ISBN 0-19-504652-8 ^ Sardonyx cameo depicting constantine the great crowned by Constantinople, 4th century AD Archived 16 March 2006 at the Wayback Machine at "The Road to Byzantium: Luxury Arts of Antiquity". The Hermitage Rooms at Somerset House (30 March 2006 – 3 September 2006). ^ Philostorgius, Historia Ecclesiastica 2.9. ^ According to the Reallexikon für Antike und Christentum , vol. 164 (Stuttgart: A. Hiersemann, 2005), column 442, there is no evidence for the tradition that Constantine officially dubbed the city "New Rome" ( Nova Roma or Nea Rhome ). Commemorative coins that were issued during the 330s already refer to the city as Constantinopolis (Michael Grant, The Climax of Rome (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1968), 133). It is possible that the emperor called the city "Second Rome" ( Deutera Rhome ) by official decree, as reported by the 5th-century church historian Socrates of Constantinople. ^ Bowder, Diana (1987). The Age of Constantine and Julian . Barnes & Noble Books. p. 28. ISBN 978-0-06-490601-2 . ^ See Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 34–35. ^ Young 2006 , p. 6 and n. 24. ^ R. Gerberding and J. H. Moran Cruz, Medieval Worlds (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004) p. 55. ^ " Gratian " Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 3 February 2008. ^ Pontifex Maximus Archived 3 March 2013 at the Wayback Machine Livius article by Jona Lendering retrieved 21 August 2011. ^ Peter Brown , The Rise of Christendom 2nd edition (Oxford, Blackwell Publishing, 2003) p. 60. ^ Drake 2000 , p. 395. ^ R. Gerberding and J. H. Moran Cruz, Medieval Worlds (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004) pp. 55–56. ^ Robin Lane Fox, apud Jonathan Bardill, Constantine, Divine Emperor of the Christian Golden Age . Cambridge University Press, 2011, ISBN 978-0-521-76423-0 , p. 307, note 27. ^ Codex Justinianeus 3.12.2. ^ Codex Theodosianus 16.2.5. ^ Cf. Paul Veyne, Quand notre monde est devenu chrétien , 163. ^ R. MacMullen, "Christianizing The Roman Empire A.D. 100–400, Yale University Press, 1984, p. 44, ISBN 0-300-03642-6 ^ Richards, Jeffrey. The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476–752 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) 14–15; The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476–752 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) 15. ^ Richards, Jeffrey. The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476–752 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) pp. 15–16. ^ Frend, W. H. C., "The Donatist Church; A Movement of Protest in Roman North Africa," (1952 Oxford), pp. 156–162. ^ Norwich, John Julius (1996). Byzantium (First American ed.). New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 54– 57. ISBN 0-394-53778-5 . OCLC 18164817 . ^ "Church Fathers: Life of Constantine, Book III (Eusebius), chapter 18" . New Advent . ^ a b c Cf. Adrian Goldsworthy, How Rome Fell , 187. ^ Stemberger, Gunter (1999). Jews and Christians in the Holy Land . A&C Black. pp. 37– 38. ISBN 978-0-567-23050-8 . If a Jew has bought and circumcised a Christian slave or one belonging to any other religious community, he may under no circumstances keep the circumcised person in slavery; rather, whoever suffers such a thing shall obtain the privilege of freedom. ^ Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World . Routledge. p. 182. ISBN 978-1-134-40317-2 . Constantine forbade the circumcision of Christian slaves, and declared any slave circumcised despite this prohibition a free man ^ Cameron, 107. ^ Christol & Nony, Rome et son Empire , 241. ^ As equestrian order refers to people of equestrian census that had an actual position in the state bureaucracy, thousands of whom had no state function; cf. Claude Lepelley , "Fine delle' ordine equestre: le tappe delle'unificazione dela classe dirigente romana nel IV secolo", IN Giardina, ed., Società romana e impero tardoantico , Bari: Laterza, 1986, V. 1, quoted by Carrié & Rouselle, p. 660. ^ Christol & Nony, Rome et son Empire , 247; Carrié & Rousselle L'Empire Romain , 658. ^ Carrié & Rousselle L'Empire Romain , 658–659. ^ Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae , archived from the original on 20 July 2012 , retrieved 5 February 2016 ; Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain , p. 659 ^ Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain , 660. ^ Cf. Arnhein, The Senatorial Aristocracy in the Later Roman Empire , quoted by Perry Anderson, Passages from Antiquity to Feudalism , 101. ^ Carrié & Rousselle, p.657 citing T. D. Barnes, "Statistics and the Conversion of the Roman Aristocracy", Journal of Roman Studies , 85, 1995. ^ Cf. Paul Veyne, L'Empire Gréco-Romain , 49. ^ Christol & Nony, Rome et son Empire , 247. ^ Walter Scheidel, "The Monetary Systems of the Han and Roman Empires", 174/175. ^ De Rebus Bellicis , 2. ^ Sandro Mazzarino, according to Christol & Nony, Rome et son Empire , 246. ^ Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain , 245–246. ^ Guthrie, 325–326. ^ Guthrie, 326; Woods, "Death of the Empress", 70–72. ^ Guthrie, 326; Woods, "Death of the Empress", 72. ^ Encyclopedia of Roman Empire . MobileReference.com. 2008. ISBN 978-1-60501-314-5 . Retrieved 5 October 2014 . ^ a b Guthrie, 326–327. ^ Art. Pass 45; Woods, "Death of the Empress", 71–72. ^ Christol & Nony, Rome et son Empire , 237/238. ^ Cf. Adrian Goldsworthy, How Rome Fell , 189 & 191. ^ Madgearu, Alexandru (2008). Istoria Militară a Daciei Post Romane 275–376. Cetatea de Scaun. ISBN 978-973-8966-70-3 , pp. 64–126. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 250. ^ Madgearu, Alexandru(2008). Istoria Militară a Daciei Post Romane 275–376. Cetatea de Scaun. ISBN 978-973-8966-70-3 , pp. 64–126. ^ Odahl, 261. ^ Eusebius, VC 4.9ff, cited in Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 259. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 258–259. See also: Fowden, "Last Days", 146–148, and Wiemer, 515. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.58–60; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 259. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.61; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 259. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.62. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.62.4. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 75–76; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 82. ^ Amerise, Marilena (2005). Il battesimo di Costantino il Grande: storia di una scomoda eredità [ The baptism of Constantine the Great: The story of an uncomfortable legacy ]. Hermes: Bulletin for Classical Philology , supplements (in Italian). Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag. ISBN 978-3-515-08721-6 . ISSN 0341-0064 . OCLC 61029662 . ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.64; Fowden, "Last Days of Constantine", 147; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 82. ^ Julian, Orations 1.18.b. ^ Origo Constantini 35. ^ Sextus Aurelius Victor, Historiae abbreviatae XLI.16. ^ Eutropius, Breviarium X.8.2. ^ Fowden, "Last Days of Constantine", 148–149. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 75–76. ^ A. A. Vasiliev (1848). "Imperial Porphyry Sarcophagi in Constantinople" (PDF) . Dumbarton Oaks Papers . 4 : 1+3–26. doi : 10.2307/1291047 . JSTOR 1291047 . Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 December 2019. ^ Majeska, George P (1984). Russian Travelers to Constantinople in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries . Dumbarton Oaks. ISBN 978-0-88402-101-8 . Retrieved 15 April 2017 – via Google Knihy. ^ Edward J. Watts (2020). The Final Pagan Generation: Rome's Unexpected Path to Christianity . University of California Press. p. 83. 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"Viewing Rome in the Latin Literature of the Ventennio Fascista : Francesco Giammaria's Capitolium Novum " . Fascism . 8 (2). Brill: 172. doi : 10.1163/22116257-00802002 . hdl : 10852/76385 . ISSN 2211-6249 . ^ "Niš: Vinik osta pusto brdo" . NOVOSTI . ^ "Edict of Milan celebration to begin in Niš" . 17 January 2013. ^ Averil Cameron, "Introduction", in Constantine: History, Historiography, and Legend , ed. Samuel N. C. Lieu and Dominic Montserrat (New York: Routledge, 1998), 3; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 91 ^ Lieu, "Constantine in Legendary Literature" (CC), 305. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 92–93. ^ "Holy Great Rulers Constantine and Helen, Equal to the Apostles: Great Vespers" (PDF) . Liturgical Texts and Music: Part of the Royal Doors Family . Retrieved 9 August 2025 . ^ "Holy Great Rulers Constantine and Helen, Equal to the Apostles: Divine Liturgy" (PDF) . Liturgical Texts and Music: Part of the Royal Doors Family . Retrieved 9 August 2025 . ^ "530 - Λεἰψανα του Μεγάλου Κωνσταντίνου" . Η ΛΕΙΨΑΝΟΘΗΚΗ (in Greek) . Retrieved 9 August 2025 . ^ "Commemorations for Baramhat 28" . CopticChurch.Net . Retrieved 9 August 2025 . ^ Findikyan, Bishop Daniel. "Liturgical Year of the Armenian Apostolic Church" . Armenian Apostolic Church of Holy Resurrection . Retrieved 9 August 2025 . ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 272–223. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 273. ^ Johannes Leunclavius , Apologia pro Zosimo adversus Evagrii, Nicephori Callisti et aliorum acerbas criminationes ( Defence of Zosimus against the Unjustified Charges of Evagrius, Nicephorus Callistus, and Others ) (Basel, 1576), cited in Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 273, and Odahl, 282. ^ Caesar Baronius, Annales Ecclesiastici 3 (Antwerp, 1623), cited in Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 274, and Odahl, 282. ^ Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire Chapter 18, cited in Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 274, and Odahl, 282. See also Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 6–7. ^ Gibbon, Decline and Fall , 1.256; David P. Jordan, "Gibbon's 'Age of Constantine' and the Fall of Rome", History and Theory 8:1 (1969): 71–96. ^ Jacob Burckhardt, Die Zeit Constantins des Grossen (Basel, 1853; revised edition, Leipzig, 1880), cited in Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 274; Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 7. ^ Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 7. ^ Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 7–8. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 274. ^ Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 8. ^ Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 8–9; Odahl, 283. ^ Odahl, 283; Mark Humphries, "Constantine", review of Constantine and the Christian Empire , by Charles Odahl, Classical Quarterly 56:2 (2006), 449. ^ Averil Cameron, "Introduction", in Constantine: History, Historiography, and Legend , ed. Samuel N. C. Lieu and Dominic Montserrat (New York: Routledge, 1998), 3. ^ Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 10. ^ Quand notre monde est devenu chretien , Fabian E. Udoh, review, Theological Studies , June 2008. ^ Peter Heather, Christendom (London: Allen Lane, 2022), pp. 11–20. ^ Canella, Tessa. Gli Actus Silvestri fra Oriente e Occidente: Storia e diffusione di una leggenda Costantiniana . Academia. pp. 243– 244 . Retrieved 10 May 2021 . ^ Lieu, "Constantine in Legendary Literature" (CC), 298–301. ^ Constitutum Constantini 17, qtd. in Lieu, "Constantine in Legendary Literature" (CC), 301–303. ^ Gregory, A History of Byzantium , 49. ^ Van Dam, Remembering Constantine at the Milvian Bridge , 30. ^ Henry Charles Lea, "The 'Donation of Constantine'". The English Historical Review 10: 37 (1895), 86–87. ^ Inferno 19.115; Paradisio 20.55; cf. De Monarchia 3.10. ^ Fubini, 79–86; Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 6. ^ Henry of Huntingdon, Historia Anglorum , Book I, ch. 37. ^ a b Greenway, Diana (Ed.); Henry of Huntingdon (1996). Historia Anglorum: The History of the English People . Oxford University Press. p. civ. ISBN 978-0-19-822224-8 . 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ISBN 0-14-044535-8 McGiffert, Arthur Cushman, trans. Church History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 28 September 2009. Oratio de Laudibus Constantini ( Oration in Praise of Constantine , sometimes the Tricennial Oration ) 336. Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Oration in Praise of Constantine . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 16 August 2009. Vita Constantini ( The Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine ) c. 336 –339. Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Life of Constantine . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine . 2009. Reprint of Bagster edition [1845]. Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-93-0 . Cameron, Averil and Stuart Hall, trans. Life of Constantine . 1999. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814924-7 . Historia Ecclesiastica ( Church History ) first seven books c. 300 , eighth and ninth book c. 313 , tenth book c. 315 , epilogue c. 325 . Williamson, G. A., trans. Church History . London: Penguin, 1989. ISBN 0-14-044535-8 McGiffert, Arthur Cushman, trans. Church History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 28 September 2009. Williamson, G. A., trans. Church History . London: Penguin, 1989. ISBN 0-14-044535-8 McGiffert, Arthur Cushman, trans. Church History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 28 September 2009. Oratio de Laudibus Constantini ( Oration in Praise of Constantine , sometimes the Tricennial Oration ) 336. Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Oration in Praise of Constantine . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 16 August 2009. Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Oration in Praise of Constantine . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 16 August 2009. Vita Constantini ( The Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine ) c. 336 –339. Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Life of Constantine . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine . 2009. Reprint of Bagster edition [1845]. Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-93-0 . Cameron, Averil and Stuart Hall, trans. Life of Constantine . 1999. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814924-7 . Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Life of Constantine . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine . 2009. Reprint of Bagster edition [1845]. Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-93-0 . Cameron, Averil and Stuart Hall, trans. Life of Constantine . 1999. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814924-7 . Eutropius , Breviarium ab Urbe Condita ( Abbreviated History from the City's Founding ) c. 369 . Watson, John Henry, trans. Justin, Cornelius Nepos and Eutropius . London: George Bell & Sons, 1886. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 28 September 2009. Watson, John Henry, trans. Justin, Cornelius Nepos and Eutropius . London: George Bell & Sons, 1886. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 28 September 2009. Rufus Festus , Breviarium Festi ( The Abbreviated History of Festus ) c. 370 . Banchich, Thomas M., and Jennifer A. Meka, trans. Breviarium of the Accomplishments of the Roman People . Canisius College Translated Texts 2. Buffalo, New York: Canisius College, 2001. Online at De Imperatoribus Romanis . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Banchich, Thomas M., and Jennifer A. Meka, trans. Breviarium of the Accomplishments of the Roman People . Canisius College Translated Texts 2. Buffalo, New York: Canisius College, 2001. Online at De Imperatoribus Romanis . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Jerome , Chronicon ( Chronicle ) c. 380 . Pearse, Roger, et al. ., trans. The Chronicle of St. Jerome , in Early Church Fathers: Additional Texts . Tertullian, 2005. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 14 August 2009. Pearse, Roger, et al. ., trans. The Chronicle of St. Jerome , in Early Church Fathers: Additional Texts . Tertullian, 2005. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 14 August 2009. Jordanes , De origine actibusque Getarum [ Getica ] ( The Origin and Deeds of the Goths ) c. 551 . Mierow, Charles C. , trans. The Origins and Deeds of the Goths . Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1915. Online at the University of Calgary . Retrieved 28 September 2009. The Gothic History of Jordanes . 2006. Reprint of 1915 edition. Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-77-0 . The Christian Roman Empire series Mierow, Charles C. , trans. The Origins and Deeds of the Goths . Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1915. Online at the University of Calgary . Retrieved 28 September 2009. The Gothic History of Jordanes . 2006. Reprint of 1915 edition. Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-77-0 . The Christian Roman Empire series Online at the University of Calgary . Retrieved 28 September 2009. The Gothic History of Jordanes . 2006. Reprint of 1915 edition. Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-77-0 . The Christian Roman Empire series Lactantius , De mortibus persecutorum ( On the Deaths of the Persecutors ) c. 313–315 . Fletcher, William, trans. Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died . From Ante-Nicene Fathers , Vol. 7. Edited by Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1886. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Fletcher, William, trans. Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died . From Ante-Nicene Fathers , Vol. 7. Edited by Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1886. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Libanius , Orationes ( Orations ) c. 362 –365. Optatus , Libri VII de Schismate Donatistarum ( Seven Books on the Schism of the Donatists ) first edition c. 365 –367, second edition c. 385 . Vassall-Phillips, O. R., trans. The Work of St. Optatus Against the Donatists . London: Longmans, Green, & Co., 1917. Transcribed at The Tertullian Project by Roger Pearse, 2006. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Optatus (1997). Edwards, Mark (ed.). Optatus: Against the Donatists . Translated by Edwards, Mark. doi : 10.3828/978-0-85323-752-5 (inactive 1 July 2025). ISBN 978-0-85323-752-5 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 ( link ) Vassall-Phillips, O. R., trans. The Work of St. Optatus Against the Donatists . London: Longmans, Green, & Co., 1917. Transcribed at The Tertullian Project by Roger Pearse, 2006. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Optatus (1997). Edwards, Mark (ed.). Optatus: Against the Donatists . Translated by Edwards, Mark. doi : 10.3828/978-0-85323-752-5 (inactive 1 July 2025). ISBN 978-0-85323-752-5 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 ( link ) Origo Constantini Imperiatoris ( The Lineage of the Emperor Constantine ) c. 340 –390. Rolfe, J. C., trans. Excerpta Valesiana , in vol. 3 of Rolfe's translation of Ammianus Marcellinus' History . Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1952. Online at LacusCurtius . Retrieved 16 August 2009. Rolfe, J. C., trans. Excerpta Valesiana , in vol. 3 of Rolfe's translation of Ammianus Marcellinus' History . Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1952. Online at LacusCurtius . Retrieved 16 August 2009. Orosius , Historiarum Adversum Paganos Libri VII ( Seven Books of History Against the Pagans ) c. 417 . XII Panegyrici Latini ( Twelve Latin Panegyircs ) relevant panegyrics dated 289, 291, 297, 298, 307, 310, 311, 313 and 321. Philostorgius , Historia Ecclesiastica ( Church History ) c. 433 . Walford, Edward, trans. Epitome of the Ecclesiastical History of Philostorgius, Compiled by Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople . London: Henry G. Bohn, 1855. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Walford, Edward, trans. Epitome of the Ecclesiastical History of Philostorgius, Compiled by Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople . London: Henry G. Bohn, 1855. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Praxagoras of Athens , Historia ( History of Constantine the Great ) c. 337 . [Fragmentary] Socrates of Constantinople (Scholasticus), Historia Ecclesiastica ( Church History ) c. 443 . Zenos, A. C., trans. Ecclesiastical History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 2. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 14 August 2009. Zenos, A. C., trans. Ecclesiastical History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 2. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 14 August 2009. Sozomen , Historia Ecclesiastica ( Church History ) c. 445 . Hartranft, Chester D. Ecclesiastical History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 2. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Hartranft, Chester D. Ecclesiastical History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 2. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Theodoret , Historia Ecclesiastica ( Church History ) c. 448 . Jackson, Blomfield, trans. Ecclesiastical History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 3. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Jackson, Blomfield, trans. Ecclesiastical History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 3. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Zosimus , Historia Nova ( New History ) c. 500 . Unknown, trans. The History of Count Zosimus . London: Green and Champlin, 1814. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Unknown, trans. The History of Count Zosimus . London: Green and Champlin, 1814. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Modern sources Alföldi, Andreas (1948) [1948]. The conversion of Constantine and pagan Rome . Translated by Harold Mattingly. Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814356-7 . {{ cite book }} : ISBN / Date incompatibility ( help ) CS1 maint: ref duplicates default ( link ) Anderson, Perry (2013) [1974]. Passages from Antiquity to Feudalism . Verso Books. ISBN 978-1-78168-008-7 . Armstrong, Gregory T. (1964). "Church and State Relations: The Changes Wrought by Constantine". Journal of the American Academy of Religion . XXXII : 1– 7. doi : 10.1093/jaarel/XXXII.1.1 . Armstrong, Gregory T. (1974). "Constantine's Churches: Symbol and Structure". Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians . 33 (1): 5– 16. doi : 10.2307/988835 . JSTOR 988835 . Barnes, T. D. (1973). "Lactantius and Constantine". Journal of Roman Studies . 63 : 29– 46. doi : 10.2307/299163 . JSTOR 299163 . S2CID 163051414 . Barnes, Timothy D. (1981). Constantine and Eusebius . Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-16531-1 . Barnes, Timothy D. (1982). The New Empire of Diocletian and Constantine . doi : 10.4159/harvard.9780674280670 . ISBN 978-0-674-28067-0 . S2CID 162343436 . Barnes, T. D. (1985). "Constantine and the Christians of Persia". Journal of Roman Studies . 75 : 126– 136. doi : 10.2307/300656 . JSTOR 300656 . S2CID 162744718 . Barnes, Timothy (2011). Constantine: Dynasty, Religion and Power in the Later Roman Empire . Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-1727-2 . Bernard, Outtier; et al. (2019). Armenia between Byzantium and the Orient . BRILL. pp. 230– 580. ISBN 978-90-04-39774-3 . Bowman, Alan K. (2005). "Diocletian and the first tetrarchy, a.d. 284–305". The Cambridge Ancient History . pp. 67– 89. doi : 10.1017/CHOL9780521301992.004 . ISBN 978-1-139-05392-1 . Cameron, Averil (2005). "The Reign of Constantine, a.d. 306–337" . The Cambridge Ancient History . Vol. 12. pp. 90– 109. doi : 10.1017/CHOL9780521301992.005 . ISBN 978-1-139-05392-1 . Carrié, Jean-Michel; Rouselle, Aline (1999). L'Empire Romain en mutation- des Sévères à Constantin, 192–337 . Paris: Seuil. ISBN 2-02-025819-6 . Christol, Michel ; Nony, D. (2003). Rome et son Empire . Paris: Hachette. ISBN 2-02-025819-6 . Corcoran, Simon (1996). The Empire of the Tetrarchs: Imperial Pronouncements and Government, AD 284–324 . Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-815304-X . Curran, John (2000). Pagan City and Christian Capital (Hardcover ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-815278-7 . Paperback ISBN 0-19-925420-6 Dagron, Gilbert (1984). Naissance d'une Capitale: Constantinople et ses institutions de 330 a 451 . Paris: Presses Universitaires de France. ISBN 2-13-038902-3 . Digeser, Elizabeth DePalma (2000). The Making of A Christian Empire: Lactantius and Rome . London: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-3594-3 . Doležal, Stanislav (2022). The Reign of Constantine, 306–337: Continuity and Change in the Late Roman Empire . Springer Nature. ISBN 978-3-030-97464-0 . Downey, Glanville (1957). "Education in the Christian Roman Empire: Christian and Pagan Theories under Constantine and His Successors". Speculum . 32 (1): 48– 61. doi : 10.2307/2849245 . JSTOR 2849245 . S2CID 161904593 . Drake, H. A. (1988). "What Eusebius Knew: The Genesis of the "Vita Constantini" ". Classical Philology . 83 : 20– 38. doi : 10.1086/367077 . S2CID 162370910 . Drake, H. A. (1995). "Constantine and Consensus". Church History . 64 (1): 1– 15. doi : 10.2307/3168653 . JSTOR 3168653 . S2CID 163129848 . Drake, H. A. (1996). "Lambs into Lions: Explaining Early Christian Intolerance". Past & Present (153): 3– 36. doi : 10.1093/past/153.1.3 . Drake, H. A. (2000). Constantine and the Bishops: The Politics of Intolerance . Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-6218-3 . Elliott, T. G. (1987). "Constantine's Conversion: Do We Really Need It?". Phoenix . 41 (4): 420– 438. doi : 10.2307/1088714 . JSTOR 1088714 . Elliott, T. G. (1991). "Eusebian Frauds in the "Vita Constantini" ". Phoenix . 45 (2): 162– 171. doi : 10.2307/1088553 . JSTOR 1088553 . Elliott, T. G. (1996). The Christianity of Constantine the Great . Scranton, Pennsylvania: University of Scranton Press. ISBN 0-940866-59-5 . Fowden, Garth (1988). "Between Pagans and Christians". Journal of Roman Studies . 78 : 173– 182. doi : 10.2307/301456 . JSTOR 301456 . S2CID 163374397 . Fowden, Garth (1994). "The Last Days of Constantine: Oppositional Versions and their Influence". Journal of Roman Studies . 84 : 146– 170. doi : 10.2307/300874 . JSTOR 300874 . S2CID 161959828 . Fubini, Riccardo (1996). "Humanism and Truth: Valla Writes Against the Donation of Constantine". Journal of the History of Ideas . 57 : 79– 86. doi : 10.1353/jhi.1996.0004 . S2CID 170927536 . Gibbon, Edward (1952) [1789]. Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire . Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. in 2 volumes. Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). How Rome Fell . Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-13719-4 . Grant, Robert M. (1975). "Religion and Politics at the Council at Nicaea". The Journal of Religion . 55 : 1– 12. doi : 10.1086/486406 . S2CID 170410226 . Guthrie, Patrick (1966). "The Execution of Crispus". Phoenix . 20 (4): 325– 331. doi : 10.2307/1087057 . JSTOR 1087057 . Helgeland, John (1974). "Christians and the Roman Army A.D. 173–337". Church History . 43 (2): 149– 163. doi : 10.2307/3163949 . JSTOR 3163949 . S2CID 162376477 . Jones, A. H. M. ; J. R. Martindale & J. Morris (1971). Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire . Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-07233-6 . Jordan, David P. (1969). "Gibbon's "Age of Constantine" and the Fall of Rome". History and Theory . 8 (1): 71– 96. doi : 10.2307/2504190 . JSTOR 2504190 . Kazhdan, Alexander P. , ed. (1991). Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium . Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6 . Jones, A. H. M. (1978) [1948]. Constantine and the Conversion of Europe . Buffalo: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-6369-4 . Lenski, Noel; et al. (2006). The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine . New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-52157-4 . Lieu, Samuel N. C. ; Montserrat, Dominic (1996). From Constantine to Julian: Pagan and Byzantine Views; A Source History . New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-09335-4 . MacKay, Christopher S. (1999). "Lactantius and the Succession to Diocletian". Classical Philology . 94 (2): 198– 209. doi : 10.1086/449431 . S2CID 161141658 . MacMullen, Ramsay (1969). Constantine . New York: Dial Press. ISBN 0-7099-4685-6 . Mattingly, David . An Imperial Possession: Britain in the Roman Empire . London: Penguin, 2007. ISBN 978-0-14-014822-0 McLay, Denis (2015), "An Examination of the Role of Ossius, Bishop of Córdoba, in the Arian Controversy" , Dissertation – Durham University Nicholson, Oliver (2000). "Constantine's Vision of the Ecross". Vigiliae Christianae . 54 (3): 309– 323. doi : 10.1163/157007200X00189 . Odahl, Charles M. (2001). Constantine and the Christian Empire . London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-17485-5 . Pears, Edwin (1909). "The Campaign against Paganism A.D. 824". The English Historical Review . XXIV (XCIII): 1– 17. doi : 10.1093/ehr/XXIV.XCIII.1 . Vaudour, Catherine (1984). "La céramique normande". Études Normandes . 33 (2): 79– 106. doi : 10.3406/etnor.1984.2597 . Pohlsander, Hans (2004a). The Emperor Constantine . London & New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-31937-4 . Paperback ISBN 0-415-31938-2 Pohlsander, Hans (2004b). "Constantine I (306–337)" . De Imperatoribus Romanis . Archived from the original on 2 April 2022. Potter, David S. (2004). The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395 (Hardcover ed.). New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10057-7 . Paperback ISBN 0-415-10058-5 Rees, Roger (2002). Layers of Loyalty in Latin Panegyric . doi : 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199249183.001.0001 . ISBN 978-0-19-924918-3 . Rodgers, Barbara Saylor (1989). "The Metamorphosis of Constantine". The Classical Quarterly . 39 : 233– 246. doi : 10.1017/S0009838800040611 . S2CID 170720156 . Scheidel, Walter. "The Monetary Systems of the Han and Roman Empires". In Scheidel, ed., Rome and China: Comparative Perspectives on Ancient World Empires . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010, ISBN 978-0-19-975835-7 Seidel, Linda (1976). "Constantine 'and' Charlemagne". Gesta . 15 (1/2): 237– 239. doi : 10.2307/766771 . JSTOR 766771 . S2CID 193434433 . Southern, Pat. (2001). The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine . New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-23944-3 . Storch, Rudolph H. (1971). "The 'Eusebian Constantine' ". Church History . 40 (2): 145– 155. doi : 10.2307/3162367 . JSTOR 3162367 . S2CID 162937055 . Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society . Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-2630-6 . Udoh, Fabian E. "Quand notre monde est devenu chretien", review, Theological Studies , June 2008 Veyne, Paul . L'Empire Gréco-Romain , Paris: Seuil, 2005. ISBN 2-02-057798-4 Veyne, Paul . Quand notre monde est devenu chrétien , Paris: Albin Michel, 2007. ISBN 978-2-226-17609-7 Warmington, Brian (1999). "Some Constantinian References in Ammianus" . In Drijvers, J.W. (ed.). The Late Roman World and its Historian: Interpreting Ammianus Marcellinus . Routledge. pp. 166– 167. ISBN 0-415-20271-X . Weiss, Peter (2003). "The vision of Constantine". Journal of Roman Archaeology . 16 : 237– 259. doi : 10.1017/S1047759400013088 . S2CID 162396067 . Wiemer, Hans-Ulrich (1994). "Libanius on Constantine". The Classical Quarterly . 44 (2): 511– 524. doi : 10.1017/S0009838800043962 . S2CID 170876695 . Wienand, Johannes (2012). Der Kaiser als Sieger . doi : 10.1524/9783050059044 . ISBN 978-3-05-005904-4 . Wienand, Johannes (ed.). Contested Monarchy. Integrating the Roman Empire in the Fourth Century AD . Oxford: Oxford University Press 2015. Williams, Stephen (1997). Diocletian and the Roman Recovery . New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-91827-8 . Woods, David (1998). "On the Death of the Empress Fausta" . Greece and Rome . 45 : 70– 86. doi : 10.1093/gr/45.1.70 . Woods, D. (1997). "Where Did Constantine I Die?". The Journal of Theological Studies . 48 (2): 531– 535. doi : 10.1093/jts/48.2.531 . Wright, David H. (1987). "The True Face of Constantine the Great". Dumbarton Oaks Papers . 41 : 493– 507. doi : 10.2307/1291584 . JSTOR 1291584 . Young, Frances M. (2006). "Prelude: Jesus Christ, Foundation of Christianity". In Mitchell, Margaret M.; Young, Frances M. (eds.). Origins to Constantine . The Cambridge History of Christianity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1– 34. ISBN 978-1-107-42361-9 . Further reading Arjava, Antii. Women and Law in Late Antiquity . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. ISBN 0-19-815233-7 Barbero, Alessandro (2016). Costantino il vincitore [Constantine the victor]. Rome: Salerno, ISBN 978-88-6973-138-9 . Baynes, Norman H. (1930). Constantine the Great and the Christian Church . London: Milford. Burckhardt, Jacob (1949). The Age of Constantine the Great . London: Routledge. Cameron, Averil (1993). The later Roman empire: AD 284–430 . London: Fontana Press. ISBN 978-0-00-686172-0 . Cowan, Ross (2016). Milvian Bridge AD 312: Constantine's Battle for Empire and Faith . Oxford: Osprey Publishing. Demandt, Alexander ; Engemann, Josef (eds) (2006). Konstantin der Große. Geschichte – Archäologie – Rezeption [Constantine the Great. History – Archaeology – Reception]. Trier: Rheinisches Landesmuseum, ISBN 3-923319-67-3 . Doležal, Stanislav (2022). The Reign of Constantine, 306–337: Continuity and Change in the Late Roman Empire. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan. Eadie, John W., ed. (1971). The conversion of Constantine . New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. ISBN 978-0-03-083645-9 . Fourlas, Benjamin (2020). "St Constantine and the Army of Heroic Men Raised by Tiberius II Constantine in 574/575. Some Thoughts on the Historical Significance of the Early Byzantine Silver Hoard at Karlsruhe". Jahrbuch des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums 62, 2015 [published 2020], 341–375. doi : 10.11588/jrgzm.2015.1.77142 Girardet, Klaus Martin (2010). Der Kaiser und sein Gott. Das Christentum im Denken und in der Religionspolitik Konstantins des Großen [The Emperor and his God. Christianity in the Thought and Religious Policy of Constantine the Great]. Berlin/New York: De Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-022788-8 . Goltz, Andreas; Schlange-Schöningen, Heinrich (eds) (2008). Konstantin der Große. Das Bild des Kaisers im Wandel der Zeiten [Constantine the Great. The image of the emperor through the ages]. Köln: Böhlau, ISBN 978-3-412-20192-0 . Harries, Jill. Law and Empire in Late Antiquity . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004. Hardcover ISBN 0-521-41087-8 Paperback ISBN 0-521-42273-6 Hartley, Elizabeth. Constantine the Great: York's Roman Emperor . York: Lund Humphries, 2004. ISBN 978-0-85331-928-3 . Heather, Peter J. " Foedera and Foederati of the Fourth Century." In From Roman Provinces to Medieval Kingdoms , edited by Thomas F. X. Noble, 292–308. New York: Routledge, 2006. Hardcover ISBN 0-415-32741-5 Paperback ISBN 0-415-32742-3 Leithart, Peter J. Defending Constantine: The Twilight of an Empire and the Dawn of Christendom. Downers Grove: IL, InterVarsity Press 2010 MacMullen, Ramsay. Christianizing the Roman Empire A.D. 100–400 . New Haven, Connecticut; London: Yale University Press, 1984. ISBN 978-0-300-03642-8 MacMullen, Ramsay. Christianity and Paganism in the Fourth to Eighth Centuries . New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-300-07148-5 Pelikán, Jaroslav (1987). The excellent empire: the fall of Rome and the triumph of the church . San Francisco: Harper & Row. ISBN 978-0-06-254636-4 . Velikov, Yuliyan (2013). Imperator et Sacerdos . Veliko Turnovo University Press. ISBN 978-954-524-932-7 (in Bulgarian) External links Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Complete chronological list of Constantine's extant writings (archived 19 February 2013) Firth, John B. "Constantine the Great, the Reorganisation of the Empire and the Triumph of the Church" . Archived from the original on 15 March 2012 . Retrieved 19 February 2016 . Letters of Constantine: Book 1 , Book 2 , & Book 3 Encyclopædia Britannica, Constantine I Henry Stuart Jones (1911). " Constantine (emperors) ". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica . 6. (11th ed.), Cambridge University Press. pp. 988–992. Charles George Herbermann and Georg Grupp (1908). " Constantine the Great ". In Catholic Encyclopedia . 4. New York: Robert Appleton Company. BBC North Yorkshire's site on Constantine the Great Constantine's time in York on the 'History of York' Commemorations Roman Legionary AD 284–337: The Age of Diocletian and Constantine the Great Milvian Bridge AD 312: Constantine's Battle for Empire and Faith Constantine the Great Constantinian dynasty Born: 27 February 272 Died: 22 May 337 Regnal titles Preceded by Constantius Chlorus Roman emperor 306–337 With: Galerius , Severus II , Maxentius , Maximian , Licinius , Maximinus II , Valerius Valens & Martinian Succeeded by Constantine II Constantius II Constans Political offices Preceded by Constantius Chlorus Galerius Roman consul 307 with Maximian Succeeded by Diocletian Galerius Preceded by Galerius Maximinus Roman consul II–III 312–313 with Licinius Maximinus Succeeded by C. Ceionius Rufius Volusianus Petronius Annianus Preceded by C. 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Diadumenian ) Elagabalus Severus Alexander Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus (w. Diadumenian ) Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–284 Maximinus I Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip I (w. Philip II ) Decius (w. Herennius Etruscus ) Trebonianus Gallus (w. Hostilian & Volusianus ) Aemilianus Silbannacus (?) Valerian Gallienus (w. Saloninus ) Claudius II Quintillus Aurelian Tacitus Florianus Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Maximinus I Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip I (w. Philip II ) Decius (w. Herennius Etruscus ) Trebonianus Gallus (w. Hostilian & Volusianus ) Aemilianus Silbannacus (?) Valerian Gallienus (w. Saloninus ) Claudius II Quintillus Aurelian Tacitus Florianus Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Later Roman Empire 284–641 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus II Constantine I Maxentius Licinius Maximinus II Valerius Valens Martinian Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Nepotianus Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I Valens Procopius Gratian Theodosius I Valentinian II Magnus Maximus (w. Victor ) Eugenius Western Empire 395–476 Honorius Constantine III (w. Constans II ) Priscus Attalus Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Severus III Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern Empire 395–641 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus (w. Marcus ) Anastasius I Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice (w. Theodosius ) Phocas Heraclius Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus II Constantine I Maxentius Licinius Maximinus II Valerius Valens Martinian Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Nepotianus Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I Valens Procopius Gratian Theodosius I Valentinian II Magnus Maximus (w. Victor ) Eugenius Western Empire 395–476 Honorius Constantine III (w. Constans II ) Priscus Attalus Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Severus III Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Honorius Constantine III (w. Constans II ) Priscus Attalus Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Severus III Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern Empire 395–641 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus (w. Marcus ) Anastasius I Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice (w. Theodosius ) Phocas Heraclius Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus (w. Marcus ) Anastasius I Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice (w. Theodosius ) Phocas Heraclius Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 641–1453 Constantine III Heraclonas (w. Tiberius ) Constans II Constantine IV (w. Heraclius & Tiberius ) Justinian II Leontius Tiberius III Justinian II (w. Tiberius ) Philippicus Anastasius II Theodosius III Leo III Constantine V Artabasdos (w. Nikephoros ) Leo IV Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe (w. Theophylact & Staurakios ) Leo V (w. Constantine ) Michael II Theophilos (w. Constantine ) Michael III (w. Thekla ) Basil I (w. Constantine ) Leo VI Alexander Constantine VII Romanos I Lekapenos (w. Christopher , Romanos (?), Stephen & Constantine Lekapenos ) Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoe Romanos III Argyros Michael IV Michael V Constantine IX Monomachos Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Eudokia Makrembolitissa Romanos IV Diogenes (w. Leo & Nikephoros ) Michael VII Doukas (w. Andronikos , Konstantios & Constantine Doukas ) Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos (w. Constantine Doukas ) John II Komnenos (w. Alexios ) Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos (w. John ) Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Alexios V Doukas Theodore I Laskaris (w. Nicholas ) John III Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos (w. Irene ) Michael IX Palaiologos Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos (w. Anna ) John VI Kantakouzenos (w. Matthew ) Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos (w. Andronikos V ) Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Constantine III Heraclonas (w. Tiberius ) Constans II Constantine IV (w. Heraclius & Tiberius ) Justinian II Leontius Tiberius III Justinian II (w. Tiberius ) Philippicus Anastasius II Theodosius III Leo III Constantine V Artabasdos (w. Nikephoros ) Leo IV Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe (w. Theophylact & Staurakios ) Leo V (w. Constantine ) Michael II Theophilos (w. Constantine ) Michael III (w. Thekla ) Basil I (w. Constantine ) Leo VI Alexander Constantine VII Romanos I Lekapenos (w. Christopher , Romanos (?), Stephen & Constantine Lekapenos ) Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoe Romanos III Argyros Michael IV Michael V Constantine IX Monomachos Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Eudokia Makrembolitissa Romanos IV Diogenes (w. Leo & Nikephoros ) Michael VII Doukas (w. Andronikos , Konstantios & Constantine Doukas ) Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos (w. Constantine Doukas ) John II Komnenos (w. Alexios ) Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos (w. John ) Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Alexios V Doukas Theodore I Laskaris (w. Nicholas ) John III Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos (w. Irene ) Michael IX Palaiologos Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos (w. Anna ) John VI Kantakouzenos (w. Matthew ) Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos (w. Andronikos V ) Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos See also Gallic emperors (260–274) Palmyrene emperors (271–273) Britannic emperors (286–296) Trapezuntine emperors (1204–1461) Thessalonian emperors (1224–1242) Empresses Augustae Usurpers Classical Eastern Gallic emperors (260–274) Palmyrene emperors (271–273) Britannic emperors (286–296) Trapezuntine emperors (1204–1461) Thessalonian emperors (1224–1242) Empresses Augustae Usurpers Classical Eastern Classical Eastern Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, underlining indicates an emperor variously regarded as either legitimate or a usurper Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF 2 3 4 5 6 7 GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF 2 3 4 5 6 7 2 3 4 5 6 7 GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Japan Italy Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Croatia Greece Korea Sweden Poland Vatican Israel Finland Catalonia Belgium United States France BnF data Japan Italy Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Croatia Greece Korea Sweden Poland Vatican Israel Finland Catalonia Belgium Artists ULAN ULAN People Trove Deutsche Biographie DDB Trove Deutsche Biographie DDB Other IdRef Open Library SNAC Te Papa (New Zealand) RISM Yale LUX IdRef Open Library SNAC Te Papa (New Zealand) RISM Yale LUX Constantine the Great 272 births 337 deaths 3rd-century births 4th-century Christian saints 4th-century Roman consuls 4th-century Roman emperors Ancient Romans in Britain Angelic visionaries Burials at the Church of the Holy Apostles Byzantine royal saints City founders Constantinian dynasty Converts to Christianity from ancient Roman religions Deified Roman emperors Eastern Orthodox saints Filicides Flavii Gothicus Maximus Illyrian emperors Illyrian people Participants in the First Council of Nicaea People from Niš Sons of Roman emperors Tetrarchy Valerii Articles containing Latin-language text Pages with Classical Latin IPA Articles containing Koine Greek-language text Articles with German-language sources (de) Webarchive template wayback links CS1 Italian-language sources (it) CS1 Greek-language sources (el) Articles containing German-language text Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages Use British English from July 2022 All Wikipedia articles written in British English Use dmy dates from September 2025 Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2021 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from July 2024 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images All articles lacking reliable references Articles lacking reliable references from May 2025 Articles containing French-language text Articles containing Welsh-language text CS1 Latin-language sources (la) CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 CS1 errors: ISBN date CS1 maint: ref duplicates default Commons link is locally defined CS1: unfit URL This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 08:54 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Very short stubs Toggle Very short stubs subsection 1.1 Identities and explanations 1.1 Identities and explanations 2 Application 3 Disclaimer 4 See also Wikipedia : Beef up that first revision Português 中文 Project page Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item This is an essay . It contains the advice or opinions of one or more Wikipedia contributors. This page is not an encyclopedia article or a Wikipedia policy , as it has not been reviewed by the community and may reflect various opinions. .mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain{float:right;margin:0 0 0 1em;border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);background-color:var(--background-color-base,#fff);padding:0.3em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;text-align:center;font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxleft{float:left;margin:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutlist{display:inline-block;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);margin-bottom:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain ul{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutanchordiv{position:relative;top:-3em}.mw-parser-output li .module-shortcutanchordiv{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mbox-imageright .module-shortcutboxplain{padding:0.4em 1em;line-height:1.3;margin:0;float:initial} Shortcut .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} WP:BEEF WP:BEEF WP:BEEF WP:BEEF This page in a nutshell: New page patrollers judge the articles by their first mainspace revisions; they prefer these to already contain basic context, assertion of notability, and sources. New page patrollers are frequently confronted by articles that are only a few dozen words in length. What are we to make of them? It's almost impossible to determine the potential of such an article. Articles for deletion discussions frequently involve authors asking those in the discussion for time to improve the articles. We can agree or disagree upon whom the onus rests in this struggle, but hopefully this essay will illuminate one point of view a little more clearly. Very short stubs Consider the following exceptionally short article: “ The father of modern agriculture. His efforts have saved over a billion lives from starvation. ” Notability is asserted, but what about context? How are we to know anything further about this individual? If it were not an utter absurdity for an encyclopedia to lack even a short article on a world-famous scientist who fed a billion people, this would seem to be just the sort of article that {{ db-context }} was made for. How about this one? “ The female singer who is the most popular in Japan. ” This seems more a case for {{ db-nocontent }} . We know nothing about this person, except that she's a female Japanese singer. There are surely thousands of female Japanese singers that don't merit Wikipedia articles, even ones with uncited opinions of being "the most popular." Identities and explanations Do you know what articles these are? Both were eventually listed as featured articles . The first is Norman Borlaug . Just a dozen revisions, in a few months' time, after that exceedingly humble beginning, the article more than quadrupled in size, contained a brief personal biography, multiple references, and better organization per the Manual of Style. That revision was still nothing compared to what the article would eventually become, but it was incredibly more substantive, and its potential infinitely easier to judge. The second is Ayumi Hamasaki . The process was a little slower chronologically speaking in her case, but after eleven revisions, notability was asserted (though the article still lacked references), far more context was present, and so were suitable external links. Application Though there was no incidence in these cases of anyone proposing deletion or speedy deletion of these super-stubs, there very easily could have been. New page patrolling is a more widespread practice now, and there are users who check Special:NewPages frequently, looking to weed out articles unsuitable for inclusion in Wikipedia. The type of article that most catches the eye of new page patrollers as potentially unsuitable and needing to be checked is an exceedingly short stub. And it's with reason – often first revisions that are only a sentence or two in length are pure vandalism or self-promotion, two of the most obvious reasons for speedy deletion. Even if an article isn't suitable for speedy deletion and goes on to survive its extreme infancy, a lack of actual content can be frustrating to editors participating in an articles for deletion discussion (AFD). Articles that at least assert potential notability and provide a small amount of context, but are still of questionable actual notability, are taken to AFD, where editors frequently ask for more time to add content than an AFD discussion typically affords. This request is not in itself unreasonable, but it could so easily be avoided. If the editors who started these or any other articles with similar beginnings had simply written stronger, larger first revisions, all possible problems would have been avoided. There is no deadline , true, but the first interpretation of this statement is not invoked nearly as frequently as the second. Editors should take their time. This may be in the case of taking a little while typing into the once-blank box before publishing something written semi-extemporaneously. This may also be in revising and editing a draft in the userspace or draft space before putting that content into the mainspace. Many users have lists on their userpages of the articles they've created. It's natural to want to document one's achievements, but in practice, many of the users that have numerous hundreds of articles in these lists created extremely short stubs such as the examples above and then gave them little to no further attention. There is no need to "scoop" anyone, certainly not a fellow user, and one can take equal (or more) pride in providing strong revisions to an article as they would in having their name on the first revision, particularly if they were a driving force in bringing the article up to good article or featured article status. So beef up that first revision. There's really no reason not to, and doing so cures a lot of ills and potential ills. Disclaimer Even if you beef up that revision, that isn't necessarily a guarantee that the topic is notable . In fact, if you've been diligent about sweeping up all the usable sources, it may make it more clear that your topic is not notable, if other editors are paying attention: if all you have are passing mentions and some online listicles after beefing up the article, that's a warning sign. One of the examples formerly highlighted on this very page, ANAK Society , was expanded within a day from a sentence to an impressive form for the era, with a dozen references, seven section headers, copious wikilinks, and a picture. Safe from speedy deletion, for sure, and it was even made a featured article. Unfortunately, essentially all of the references were either primary sources, unreliable and non-public sources like student newspapers, or off-topic. The article was deleted at AFD in 2021. It was still good that it quickly "beefed up" in its first day of revisions! But it isn't everything, and effort does not equal notability . See also Wikipedia:The perfect article Wikipedia:The world will not end tomorrow Wikipedia:There is no deadline Wikipedia:Don't hope the house will build itself Wikipedia:Put a little effort into it meta:Immediatism Wikipedia:Abandoned stubs .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Wikipedia essays (?) v t e Essays on building, editing, and deleting content Philosophy Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Article construction 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles Writing article content Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Removing or deleting content Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Essays on building, editing, and deleting content Philosophy Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Article construction 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles Writing article content Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Removing or deleting content Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Philosophy Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Article construction 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles Writing article content Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Removing or deleting content Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Essays on civility The basics Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Philosophy A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent Dos Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Don'ts Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE WikiRelations WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace Essays on civility The basics Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Philosophy A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent Dos Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Don'ts Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE WikiRelations WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace The basics Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Philosophy A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent Dos Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Don'ts Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE WikiRelations WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace Essays on neutrality Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Essays on neutrality Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Essays on notability Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Essays on notability Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Humorous essays Adminitis Ain't no rules says a dog can't play basketball Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to edit warring ANI flu Anti-Wikipedian Anti-Wikipedianism Articlecountitis Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using the preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense Barnstaritis Before they were notable Be the fun police BOLD, revert, revert, revert cycle Boston Tea Party Butterfly effect CaPiTaLiZaTiOn MuCh? Case against LLM-generated articles Complete bollocks Counting forks Counting juntas Crap Delete the main page Diffusing conflict Don't stuff beans up your nose Don't-give-a-fuckism Don't abbreviate "Wikipedia" as "Wiki"! Don't delete the main page Editcountitis Edits Per Day Editsummarisis Editing under the influence Embrace Stop Signs Emerson Fart Five Fs of Wikipedia Seven Ages of Editor, by Will E. Spear-Shake Go ahead, vandalize How many Wikipedians does it take to change a lightbulb? How to get away with UPE How to put up a straight pole by pushing it at an angle How to vandalize correctly How to win a citation war Ignore all essays Ignore all user warnings Ignore every single rule Is that even an essay? Keep beating the horse List of really, really, really stupid article ideas that you really, really, really should not create Mess with the templates My local pond Newcomers are delicious, so go ahead and bite them Legal vandalism List of jokes about Wikipedia LTTAUTMAOK No climbing the Reichstag dressed as Spider-Man No episcopal threats No one cares about your garage band No one really cares No, really No self attacks Notability is not eternal Oops Defense Play the game Please be a giant dick, so we can ban you Please bite the newbies Please do not murder the newcomers Pledge of Tranquility Project S.C.R.A.M. R-e-s-p-e-c-t Requests for medication Requirements for adminship Rouge admin Rouge editor Sarcasm is really helpful Sausages for tasting Spaling Muich? Template madness The Night Before Wikimas The first rule of Wikipedia The Five Pillars of Untruth Things that should not be surprising The WikiBible Watchlistitis We are deletionist! Why is BFDI on Wikipedia? Why you shouldn't write articles with ChatGPT, according to ChatGPT Wikipedia is an MMORPG WTF? OMG! TMD TLA. ARG! Yes, falsely Yes legal threats Yes personal attacks You don't have to be mad to work here, but You should not write meaningless lists Humorous essays Adminitis Ain't no rules says a dog can't play basketball Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to edit warring ANI flu Anti-Wikipedian Anti-Wikipedianism Articlecountitis Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using the preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense Barnstaritis Before they were notable Be the fun police BOLD, revert, revert, revert cycle Boston Tea Party Butterfly effect CaPiTaLiZaTiOn MuCh? Case against LLM-generated articles Complete bollocks Counting forks Counting juntas Crap Delete the main page Diffusing conflict Don't stuff beans up your nose Don't-give-a-fuckism Don't abbreviate "Wikipedia" as "Wiki"! Don't delete the main page Editcountitis Edits Per Day Editsummarisis Editing under the influence Embrace Stop Signs Emerson Fart Five Fs of Wikipedia Seven Ages of Editor, by Will E. Spear-Shake Go ahead, vandalize How many Wikipedians does it take to change a lightbulb? How to get away with UPE How to put up a straight pole by pushing it at an angle How to vandalize correctly How to win a citation war Ignore all essays Ignore all user warnings Ignore every single rule Is that even an essay? Keep beating the horse List of really, really, really stupid article ideas that you really, really, really should not create Mess with the templates My local pond Newcomers are delicious, so go ahead and bite them Legal vandalism List of jokes about Wikipedia LTTAUTMAOK No climbing the Reichstag dressed as Spider-Man No episcopal threats No one cares about your garage band No one really cares No, really No self attacks Notability is not eternal Oops Defense Play the game Please be a giant dick, so we can ban you Please bite the newbies Please do not murder the newcomers Pledge of Tranquility Project S.C.R.A.M. R-e-s-p-e-c-t Requests for medication Requirements for adminship Rouge admin Rouge editor Sarcasm is really helpful Sausages for tasting Spaling Muich? Template madness The Night Before Wikimas The first rule of Wikipedia The Five Pillars of Untruth Things that should not be surprising The WikiBible Watchlistitis We are deletionist! Why is BFDI on Wikipedia? Why you shouldn't write articles with ChatGPT, according to ChatGPT Wikipedia is an MMORPG WTF? OMG! TMD TLA. ARG! Yes, falsely Yes legal threats Yes personal attacks You don't have to be mad to work here, but You should not write meaningless lists Adminitis Ain't no rules says a dog can't play basketball Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to edit warring ANI flu Anti-Wikipedian Anti-Wikipedianism Articlecountitis Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using the preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense Barnstaritis Before they were notable Be the fun police BOLD, revert, revert, revert cycle Boston Tea Party Butterfly effect CaPiTaLiZaTiOn MuCh? 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History Toggle History subsection 1.1 Spanish colonialization (1521–1898) 1.2 Philippine–American War (1898–1902) 1.3 American and Japanese colonization; World War II (1902–1946) 1.4 Marcos's dictatorship era (1965-1986) 1.4.1 Deforestation during Martial Law and the Sag-od Massacre 1.4.2 Construction of the San Juanico Bridge 1.4.3 The New People's Army conflict 1.5 Contemporary history (1986–present) 1.1 Spanish colonialization (1521–1898) 1.2 Philippine–American War (1898–1902) 1.3 American and Japanese colonization; World War II (1902–1946) 1.4 Marcos's dictatorship era (1965-1986) 1.4.1 Deforestation during Martial Law and the Sag-od Massacre 1.4.2 Construction of the San Juanico Bridge 1.4.3 The New People's Army conflict 1.4.1 Deforestation during Martial Law and the Sag-od Massacre 1.4.2 Construction of the San Juanico Bridge 1.4.3 The New People's Army conflict 1.5 Contemporary history (1986–present) 2 Geography Toggle Geography subsection 2.1 Flora and fauna 2.1 Flora and fauna 3 Demographics 4 Administrative divisions and politics 5 Economy Toggle Economy subsection 5.1 Tourism 5.1 Tourism 6 Infrastructure Toggle Infrastructure subsection 6.1 Transportation 6.2 Power and telecommunication 6.3 Education 6.4 Healthcare 6.1 Transportation 6.2 Power and telecommunication 6.3 Education 6.4 Healthcare 7 See also 8 References Toggle References subsection 8.1 Bibliography 8.1 Bibliography 9 External links Samar Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Bikol Central Български Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Ирон Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Кырык мары Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Malagasy مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikivoyage Wikidata item Location within the Philippines Geography Coordinates .mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap} 12°00′N 125°00′E / 12.000°N 125.000°E / 12.000; 125.000 Archipelago Visayas Adjacent to .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Leyte Gulf Philippine Sea Samar Sea San Bernardino Strait San Juanico Strait Leyte Gulf Philippine Sea Samar Sea San Bernardino Strait San Juanico Strait Area 13,428.8 km 2 (5,184.9 sq mi) [ 1 ] Area rank 63rd Coastline 800.6 km (497.47 mi) [ 2 ] Highest elevation 890 m (2920 ft) Highest point Mount Huraw Administration Philippines Region Eastern Visayas Provinces Eastern Samar Northern Samar (Western) Samar Eastern Samar Northern Samar (Western) Samar Largest settlement Calbayog (pop. 187,848) Demographics Population 1,924,651 (2024) [ 3 ] Pop. density 140/km 2 (360/sq mi) Ethnic groups Visayans ( Waray-Waray ) Samar ( / ˈ s ɑː m ɑːr / SAH -mar ) is the third largest island in the Philippines . It has a population of 1,924,651 as of the 2024 census. It is located in the Eastern Visayas region of the Visayas islands. Since 1965, the island is divided into three provinces : Western Samar , Northern Samar , and Eastern Samar . The capitals of these provinces are, respectively, Catarman , Catbalogan , and Borongan . In commemoration of the establishment of these provinces, June 19 is celebrated as an annual holiday. Its main language and ethnicity is Waray and its main religion is Roman Catholic . The island was first sighted by Ferdinand Magellan on March 16, 1521. Although he did not land, other expeditions were made. Many names, such as Samal , Ibabao , and Tandaya , were given to the island prior to the arrival of the Spaniards in 1596. During the early days of Spanish occupation , Samar was under the jurisdiction of Cebu . In the Philippine–American War , Eugenio Daza led a successful attack against the United States Army, later called the Balangiga massacre . This attack led to the Pacification of Samar and deaths of 2,000 people. During the American colonization of the Philippines, two uprisings occurred, including the Pulajan movement which caused massacres in the country. The Battle off Samar was held off the island during World War II. During martial law under Ferdinand Marcos , the Sag-od massacre happened in 1981. The New People's Army rebellion is ongoing. Samar is the easternmost island in the Visayas archipelago, lying to the northeast of Leyte and southeast of the Bicol Peninsula on Luzon . To the west is the Samar Sea , and to the north and east of Samar lies the Philippine Sea . The island has the Samar Island Natural Park and numerous biological discoveries and forests. The island has major copra and fishery industries and also produces rice, corn, vegetables, and abaca . The island also has a major tourism industry. The island has numerous major highways and has a portion of the Pan-Philippine Highway . The island has four major ports and three airports servicing flights to Cebu City and Metro Manila . The island has six Department of Education divisions and numerous universities with satellite campuses. History Spanish colonialization (1521–1898) Samar was the first island of the Philippines as a Spanish expedition led by Ferdinand Magellan revealed the island, originally transcribed Zamal in the journal of Antonio Pigafetta . He sighted it on March 16, 1521, traveling from the Mariana Islands . [ 4 ] [ 5 ] Having found an archipelago , Pigafetta named the islands San Lazaro ( transl. Saint Lazarus ) due to their sightings on Lazarus Saturday . Eventually, Filipinas was the perceived name for the archipelago. Although Samar was the first island of the Philippines seen by Magellan, he did not land there. He traversed south and laid anchor at Suluan Island, then landed on Homonhon Island on March 17, 1521. [ 6 ] Later in the 1700s, Samar was recorded to have about 103 Spanish Filipino families and 3,042 native families. [ 7 ] Other Spaniards eventually landed in the island. William Henry Scott, a historian, recognized that a "Samar datu by the name of Iberein was rowed out to a Spanish vessel anchored in his harbor in 1543 by oarsmen collared in gold; while wearing on his own person earrings and chains." He recounted a Samarnon saga, which was called siday , about Bingi of Lawan, a settlement in Samar. [ 8 ] Samar had names which are recorded in early Spanish sources, including Ibabao (or Cibabao ), Achan , Camlaya , and Taridola . The Spanish captain Miguel Lopez de Legaspi also called the island Tandaya , after mistaking the name of a lord with the name of the island. This was spelled by Miguel de Loarca as Candaya . [ 5 ] During the early years of the Spanish colonialization, the province was placed in the jurisdiction of Cebu but was eventually separated into its own province. A rebellion was sparked in 1649 which was centered in Palapag , causing an uprising in Visayas and parts of Mindanao . The uprising was not suppressed until the next year. This caused rebels to migrate to the mountains and create a new settlement. In 1735, the province and Leyte merged into a singular province; Carigara was declared as the capital. In 1768, Samar was separated from Leyte. In 1860, the government structure was reorganized and was maintained until the end of the regime. [ 4 ] Philippine–American War (1898–1902) On September 28, 1901, Eugenio Daza–Area Commander of Southeastern Samar–and Valeriano Abanador, the town's police chief, [ 9 ] attacked the U.S. Army Company 9th Infantry Regiment who were occupying Balangiga. This action, commonly known as the Balangiga massacre, was a rare Filipino win and a bad loss for American soldiers. [ 10 ] In 1989, "Balangiga Encounter Day" was made a provincial holiday in Eastern Samar in lieu of the victory. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] In retaliation for the massacre, General Jacob H. Smith ordered his men to "kill and burn", further stating that "the more you kill and burn, the better it will please me". [ 13 ] [ 14 ] This command led to the deaths of 2,000 Filipino insurgents and civilians while sparking outrage in the United States. [ 13 ] [ 15 ] In his historical account of the war, Brian McAllister Linn asserts "Samar cast a pall on the army's achievement and, for generations, has been associated in the public mind as typifying the Philippine War." [ 16 ] American and Japanese colonization; World War II (1902–1946) After the war, the archipelago was peaceful except the island of Samar, which was a "dark and bloody" isle according to James Henderson Blount . [ 17 ] In 1904, the Pulajans in Samar caused powerful massacres to the extent of Governor-General Luke Edward Wright 's concern. [ 18 ] Numerous civilians joined the uprising due to the feeling of "unprotection". [ 19 ] The rebellion was discussed by many American politicians and military officers and caused court cases just before the 1904 United States presidential election . [ 20 ] Four days after the election, Wright visited Samar, where troops increased to 2,000 from 700. [ 21 ] After battles and negotiations, the uprising eventually ended in 1906. [ 22 ] When the rebellion ended, the island, according to Blount, started becoming "peaceful". [ 23 ] More revolts were made by religious associations in the 1920s to 1930s. [ 24 ] In World War II , the ocean east of the island hosted the Battle off Samar in October 1944 wherein an unarmored force of United States Navy escorts defended attacks from the main force of the Imperial Japanese Navy , including the Japanese battleship Yamato . [ 25 ] When Japan colonized the Philippines, the Pulajan uprising became active again. Japan left the Philippines in 1945. [ 26 ] Marcos's dictatorship era (1965-1986) The beginning months of the 1970s [ 27 ] marked a period of turmoil and change in the Philippines as well as in Samar, as unprecedented number of foreign debt-funded public works projects during Ferdinand Marcos' 1969 reelection campaign led to the 1969 Philippine balance of payments crisis [ 28 ] [ 29 ] and resulting inflation triggered the First Quarter Storm protests. [ 30 ] [ 31 ] [ 32 ] [ 33 ] : "43" Three years later and with only a year left in his last constitutionally allowed term as president, Ferdinand Marcos placed the Philippines under Martial Law in September 1972 and thus retained the Presidency for fourteen more years. [ 34 ] This period in Philippine history is remembered for the Marcos administration's record of human rights abuses , [ 35 ] [ 36 ] particularly targeting political opponents, student activists, journalists, religious workers, farmers, and others who fought against the Marcos dictatorship. [ 37 ] Deforestation during Martial Law and the Sag-od Massacre The Marcos era was a time of significant deforestation in Samar and throughout the Philippines, with the forest cover of the Philippines shrinking until only 8% remained. [ 38 ] [ 39 ] [ 40 ] On the island of Samar, whose forest cover had been at 86% of the island in 1972, forest cover went down to 45% in 1978, and then a mere 10% by 1987. Twelve companies were given Timber License Agreements (TLAs) on the island, including Dolores Timber in the Province of Samar and San Jose Timber in the province of Northern Samar, which were both owned by Juan Ponce Enrile , [ 40 ] [ 41 ] the government official Ferdinand Marcos had put in place to approve Timber License Agreements during Martial Law. [ 40 ] One of the infamous incidents of the Marcos dictatorship era was the Sag-od massacre in Las Navas, Northern Samar , which took place on September 15, 1981. [ 42 ] Numerous security personnel of Juan Ponce Enrile 's San Jose Timber Corporation allied with a paramilitary group called "the Lost Command" and ordered residents of Barrio Sag-od out of their homes, then opened fire on them. Forty-five people were killed, leaving only 13 inhabitants of Barrio Sag-od alive. [ 42 ] Construction of the San Juanico Bridge This era also saw the construction of the San Juanico Bridge between Samar and Leyte, which began as one of the high-visibility foreign-loan funded projects of Ferdinand Marcos' 1969 reelection campaign , and finished four years later in time to be inaugurated on then- First Lady Imelda Marcos ' birthday on July 2, 1973. [ 43 ] The project was initially criticised as a white elephant by officials at the National Economic and Development Authority , noting that it was "useless and expensive to maintain", [ 44 ] because its average daily traffic was too low to justify the cost of its construction. [ 44 ] As a result, its construction has been associated with what has been called the Marcoses' " edifice complex " [ 45 ] [ 46 ] although economic activity in Samar and Leyte has since finally caught up with the bridge's intended function. [ 46 ] At the time, its name was used as a slang term for one of the torture methods used by the Marcos dictatorship , in which a person is being beaten while the victim's head and feet lay on separate beds and the body is suspended as though to form a bridge. [ 47 ] [ 48 ] The New People's Army conflict Although the Communist Party of the Philippines and its armed wing, the New People's Army, was newly-formed and relatively still very small throughout Marcos' second term, the Marcos administration hyped up its formation, [ 49 ] : "43" supposedly because this would help build up political and monetary support from the US, [ 49 ] : "43" [ 50 ] which was caught up in red scare paranoia at the time. [ 51 ] When Marcos declared Martial Law, however, the CPP grew rapidly. [ 49 ] On the island of Samar, Marcos' military forces were assigned to protect the logging concessions, and there were frequent encounters between the military and the New People's Army. As a result the towns of Taft , Dolores , Can-avid , and Oras in Eastern Samar were declared by the Military as "no-man's-land" areas from 1978 to 1982. [ 41 ] Since then, the island had numerous human rights cases due to the New People's Army rebellion. [ 52 ] [ failed verification ] In May 2024, the Department of the Interior and Local Government announced that the three provinces on the island of Samar were "free of NPA influence" with no single village in three Samar provinces is under the influence of NPA [that] year. [ 53 ] Contemporary history (1986–present) In 2013, the provinces of Samar, Eastern Samar, and the City of Tacloban were among the localities most severely impacted by Typhoon Haiyan . [ 54 ] In 2020, Samar was also heavily impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic in Eastern Visayas , with the first case in the region reported on March 23, 2020. [ 55 ] Geography Samar is the third-largest island in the Philippines by area, after the islands of Luzon and Mindanao . [ 56 ] Mount Huraw is Samar's highest point, with an elevation of 2,920 ft (890 m). [ 57 ] Samar is the easternmost island in the Visayas. It lies to the northeast of Leyte, separated from it by the San Juanico Strait . The island lies to the southeast of the Bicol Peninsula on Luzon , separated from it by the San Bernardino Strait . To the west is the Samar Sea, and to the north and east of Samar lies the Philippine Sea. The island is hilly yet has lower altitude than the mountainous terrain in the rest of the Visayas. Lowlands are mostly found near the coast and along rivers; the rivers themselves are small and flow in a radial pattern. [ 56 ] The island, along with the region of Eastern Visayas, is rainy most of the year, ranging from seven to ten months of rain. [ 58 ] Numerous typhoons are formed in the area. Eastern Samar, specifically, has a Type II climate without a dry season with an increase in rainfall. [ 56 ] A portion of the Philippine Trench rests near Samar, capable of generating a magnitude 8.1 earthquake. [ 59 ] The island, particularly parts of Paranas , contains many volcanic rocks, including karst bauxite , common throughout the island. [ 60 ] Flora and fauna The Samar Island Natural Park is a 300,000-hectare (740,000-acre) forest on the island, encompassing all three provinces. It contains the largest tract of intact lowland forest in the Philippines. The park has a population of Dipterocarpaceae species, six of them are endangered, and contains the rare Philippine eagle . The park contains six ecological forest types and has numerous waterfalls. Species in the island itself include the Philippine sailfin lizard , the Draco mindanensis , the Philippine hawk-eagle , the Giant golden-crowned flying fox , the Red-vented cockatoo , and the Philippine crocodile . [ 61 ] The municipality of Basey contains Karst forests with a total of 67 vascular plant species. In these forests, Dipterocarpaceae is the most prominent plant family. [ 62 ] Out of 2,400 flower species throughout the Philippines, 40 are only found in the island. In 2018, three new species of Begonia were found in the isle. [ 63 ] The province of Northern Samar was described by Tiffany Neri of SunStar as one of the Philippines' "best-kept secrets" with numerous rock formations and wildlife sanctuaries. [ 64 ] On June 9, 2025, the Biri Rock Formations in Northern Samar were declared to be a National Geological Monument according to the Department of Environment and Natural Resources . [ 65 ] Demographics Population of Samar Year Pop. ±% 1903 266,237 — 1918 379,575 +42.6% 1939 546,306 +43.9% 1948 757,212 +38.6% 1960 867,994 +14.6% 1970 1,019,358 +17.4% 1975 1,120,192 +9.9% 1980 1,200,592 +7.2% Year Pop. ±% 1903 266,237 — 1918 379,575 +42.6% 1939 546,306 +43.9% 1948 757,212 +38.6% 1960 867,994 +14.6% 1970 1,019,358 +17.4% 1975 1,120,192 +9.9% 1980 1,200,592 +7.2% Year Pop. ±% 1990 1,246,722 +3.8% 1995 1,405,892 +12.8% 2000 1,517,585 +7.9% 2007 1,650,022 +8.7% 2010 1,751,267 +6.1% 2015 1,880,020 +7.4% 2020 1,909,537 +1.6% 2024 1,924,651 +0.8% Year Pop. ±% 1990 1,246,722 +3.8% 1995 1,405,892 +12.8% 2000 1,517,585 +7.9% 2007 1,650,022 +8.7% 2010 1,751,267 +6.1% 2015 1,880,020 +7.4% 2020 1,909,537 +1.6% 2024 1,924,651 +0.8% Source: Philippine Statistics Authority [ 66 ] As of the 2024 census, the population of the island's three provinces was 1,924,651. [ 66 ] The main language in all three provinces of Samar Island is Waray . The second most popular language in Samar province is Bisaya, while the second most popular in Eastern Samar and Northern Samar is Cebuano . Samar province and Northern Samar both have a scale of 0.13 in the Linguistic diversity index while Eastern Samar has a scale of 0.02. [ 67 ] Many people in the island are part of the Waray people: in Eastern Samar, 97.78 percent of people were Waray while in Samar, 91.45 classified themselves as Waray. Other ethnic groups include Bisaya , Cebuano , and Tagalog . Males were more populated in both provinces than women. [ 68 ] [ 69 ] As of the 2020 census, 1790014 people in the island are Roman Catholic, 1573 are Islam , and 14643 are part of the Iglesia ni Cristo church. In all three provinces, more than 90% of the population are followers of the Roman Catholic Church. [ 70 ] [ 71 ] Administrative divisions and politics The island originally used to be a single province. On June 19, 1965, a law passed splitting the province into three: Western Samar, Eastern Samar, and Northern Samar. [ 72 ] Since there are three provinces, there are three provincial governments each with a governor. [ 73 ] For the House of Representatives , Eastern Samar has one congressional district while Western and Northern Samar has two each, causing the island to have five districts. [ 74 ] The Philippines's 9th senatorial district encompassed Samar and Leyte which had two senators representing in the Senate of the Philippines with 24 representatives. The system was abolished in the early 1940s when the country was the Commonwealth of the Philippines . [ 75 ] [ 76 ] Name Capital Area (ha) [ 77 ] (ha) [ 77 ] Population (2024) [ 66 ] (2024) [ 66 ] Western Samar Catbalogan 604,803 806,179 Eastern Samar Borongan 466,047 472,683 Northern Samar Catarman 369,293 645,789 Economy The island has a major copra industry: of the six provinces in Eastern Visayas, all three of the Samar provinces were placed in the top four based on copra production, just behind Leyte. [ 78 ] Western Samar's industry recorded a 6.1 percent increase from 2018 to 2023. The top three industries in the province are food service activities, transportation, and electricity, steam, water, and waste management. As of 2023, the gross domestic product of the province is PHP 61.35 billion. [ 79 ] The island has rice and root crops, including sweet potatoes and cassava . Abacá and dairy from native carabaos are found in the island. [ 56 ] [ 80 ] In Eastern Samar, two house bills were filed to establish two separate coconut oil refineries. [ 81 ] Palay and banana crops are also made in the province; agro-industries are actively promoted. Fishery is a major livelihood in Eastern Samar's coastal communities, but it is experiencing a decline. [ 82 ] Northern Samar, meanwhile, has rice, corn, vegetables, and abaca. Municipal fisheries and tuna operations are also present in the province. [ 83 ] A commercial complex owned by Metro Retail Stores Group was planned to be created in 2019 in Catbalogan from a contract and was opened on August 30, 2024. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] Samar is separated from the main island shipping routes. Iron ore , made from the southeast portion of the isle, is shipped from General MacArthur . There are also coal , phosphate , and chromite industries. Since Samar has many forests, logging and sawmill operations are also done in the eastern coastal towns. Catbalogan is a major commercial center in the island, serving as an important coastal port with fishing centers. [ 56 ] Tourism In 2015, the Samar Tourism Council encouraged tourists to visit attractions in Catbalogan as Governor Sharee Ann Tan held meetings with agency partners and the private sector to further boost tourism in Western Samar. [ 86 ] A One Town One Product (OTOP) center from the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) was launched in Calbayog on June 12, 2024. [ 87 ] During the "Benchmarking Tour" held by Eastern Samar officials in Cebu on February 9, 2023, the two provincial governments made a deal to organize a "tourism circuit" to increase tourism in the two provinces. [ 88 ] A DTI "Heritage Month Trade Fair" was held by the DTI provincial office of Northern Samar in Robinsons North Tacloban . [ 89 ] Infrastructure Transportation A segment of the Pan-Philippine Highway is present in Samar, stretching from Northern Samar to Leyte in the western coast of the isle. [ 90 ] [ 91 ] The N670 highway traverses through the northern and eastern coasts in the island, stretching through all three provinces, starting and ending from the Pan-Philippine Highway. Two other highways connect from the Pan-Philippine Highway to the N670 highway: the Catarman-Calbayog Road, which originates in Catarman and ends in Calbayog, and the Wright–Taft Road , stretching from Paranas to Taft . Another highway extends from the N670 highway to Guiuan . [ 91 ] Four major ports are in the island, namely the Port of Calbayog, the Port of Borongan, the Port of Guiuan, and the Port of San Isidro . [ 92 ] A flight route from Cebu to Catarman National Airport was launched on March 4, 2025, serviced by the Philippine Airlines . [ 93 ] Two weekly flight routes from Cebu to Borongan Airport were also launched in December 2022, also serviced by the Philippine Airlines. [ 94 ] Two airlines service at the Calbayog Airport , namely Philippine Airlines and Cebu Pacific ; the former flies to Manila three times a week while the latter flies to Cebu two times a week. [ 95 ] Power and telecommunication Eastern Samar's electric distribution utility is the Eastern Samar Electric Cooperative (ESAMELCO). [ 96 ] Two electric cooperatives serve Western Samar, namely: the Samar I and Samar II Electric Cooperative (SAMELCO). [ 97 ] Northern Samar's electric cooperative is the Northern Samar Electric Cooperative (NORSAMELCO). [ 98 ] The Philippines' first tidal plant is planned to be built in Catarman, Northern Samar by a private electricity firm, harnessing currents from the San Benardino Strait. [ 99 ] A Singaporean firm invested in a planned wind farm in the borders of the Western and Northern Samar provinces. [ 100 ] Solar power projects were planned in two towns in Western Samar. [ 101 ] In Taft, Eastern Samar, a hydropower plant is operated, with possibilities of it being a tourist site. [ 102 ] The main telecommunication companies serviced in the island are Smart Communications and Globe Telecom . New cell sites from both of the telecommunication operations were planned to be built in Northern Samar. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] Over 100 cell sites were planned to be built in Northern Samar following a deal with Governor Edwin Ongchuan and PhilTower Consortium, an infrastructure provider. [ 105 ] Education Six Department of Education divisions are present in the island: three for each of the provinces, and one each for Borongan, Calbayog, and Catbalogan. [ 106 ] Major universities in Eastern Samar include the Eastern Samar State University and four other satellite campuses. In Northern Samar, the University of Eastern Philippines and two other satellite campuses are in the province. For Western Samar, two major universities are placed: the Samar State University with three satellite campuses, and the Northwest Samar State University with one satellite campus. Other local colleges are also in the three provinces. [ 107 ] For the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority , three provincial training centers and five schools are placed in the island. [ 108 ] Healthcare Eastern Samar has 18 hospitals, most significantly the Eastern Samar Provincial Hospital, a hospital with two levels and 100 beds. Northern Samar has 11 hospitals including their provincial hospital with 100 beds too. Western Samar has 11 hospitals also, with the Samar Provincial Hospital and the Catbalogan Doctors Hospital both with 100 beds. [ 109 ] A Senate bill created by Juan Miguel Zubiri was introduced in the 18th Congress of the Philippines , establishing a teritiary level hospital to be known as the Samar Island Medical Center due to the lack of teritiary level hospitals in the island, the nearest being the Eastern Visayas Medical Center . [ 110 ] The law was signed on April 19, 2022, and construction started in 2024. [ 111 ] [ 112 ] See also Negros Bohol References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "2010 Philippine Yearbook" (PDF) . 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"PAL launches 3rd Cebu-Borongan weekly flight" . Philippine News Agency . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ Meniano, Sarwell (August 9, 2024). "Lapid to secure funds for Calbayog Airport's night rating" . Philippine News Agency . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ University of Illinois 2005 , p. 405. ^ Republic of the Philippines 1990 , p. 148. ^ "NORSAMELCO" . Department of Energy . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ Recuerdo, Elmer (February 18, 2024). "N. Samar unveils pioneer tidal power" . Daily Tribune . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ Meniano, Sarwell (November 8, 2024). "Singaporean firm bares P19-B expansion of energy investment in Samar" . Philippine News Agency . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ Amazona, Roel (October 21, 2024). "Solar power projects up for 2 Samar towns" . Philippine News Agency . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ Amazona, Roel; Abella, Lizbeth Ann (April 27, 2023). "E. Samar hydropower plant eyed as tourist site" . Philippine News Agency . 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(March 21, 2022). "An act establishing a tertiary hospital under the control, supervision, and management of the Department of Health in the City of Calbayog, Samar, to be known as the Samar Island Medical Center, appropriating funds therefor, and for other purposes" (PDF) . Senate of the Philippines . Retrieved December 4, 2025 . ^ Reyes, Ronald O. (April 19, 2022). "Duterte signs law establishing Samar Island Medical Center" . SunStar Publishing Inc . Retrieved December 4, 2025 . ^ Recuerdo, Elmer (March 17, 2024). "Samar tertiary hospital construction kicked off" . Daily Tribune . Retrieved December 4, 2025 . Bibliography Villamor, Ignacio; Buencamino, Felipe (1920). Census of the Philippine Islands Taken Under the Direction of the Philippine Legislature in the Year 1918 . University of California, Berkeley . Ocampo, Ambeth (2012). Looking Back: Volume 1 . Anvil Publishing, Inc. ISBN 978-971-27-3608-7 . Parr, Charles McKew; Crowell, Thomas Y. (1953). So Noble a Captain: The Life and Times of Ferdinand Magellan . Scott, William Henry (1985). Cracks in the parchment curtain and other essays in Philippine history . New Day Publishers. ISBN 978-971-10-0073-8 . Tucker, Spencer (2009). The Encyclopedia of the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars: A Political, Social, and Military History . Bloomsbury Academic . ISBN 978-1-85109-951-1 . Clodfelter, Micheal (2017). Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492–2015, 4th ed . McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-7470-7 . Linn, Brian McAllister (2000). The Philippine War 1899-1902 . Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 0-70061225-4 . Blount, James Henderson (1912). The American Occupation of the Philippines, 1898-1912 . G. P. Putnam's Sons. Borrinaga, George Emmanuel R. (April 2019). "Solidarity and Crisis-Derived Identities in Samar and Leyte, Philippines, 1565 to Present" (PDF) . University of Hull . {{ cite journal }} : CS1 maint: ref duplicates default ( link ) Villanueva, Elaine Loreen C.; Fernandez, Desamarie Antoinette P.; Tolentino, Paul John S.; Obeña, Ren Divien R.; Buot, Inocencio E. Jr. (December 31, 2021). "Checklist of the Flora and Fauna of the Karst Forests in Basey, Samar, Philippines" (PDF) . The Thailand Natural History Museum Journal . 15 (2) – via National Research Council of Thailand . United States Congressional Serial Set . U.S. Government Printing Office. 1918. Platts International Directory of Electric Power Producers and Distributors . McGraw Hill Companies . 2005. Provincial Profile: Samar . Republic of the Philippines . 1990. Arenque, L. A.; Gabo-Ratio, J. A.; Payot, B. D.; Guzman, J. T.; Yonezu, K. (2025). "Mineralogy and geochemistry of the Paranas karst bauxite deposit of Samar Island, Philippines" . IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science . 1517 (1) 012040. Bibcode : 2025E&ES.1517a2040A . doi : 10.1088/1755-1315/1517/1/012040 . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 General principles Toggle General principles subsection 1.1 Example 1.2 Units 1.3 Catalytic reaction mechanisms 1.4 Reaction energetics 1.5 Related concepts 1.6 Classification 1.1 Example 1.2 Units 1.3 Catalytic reaction mechanisms 1.4 Reaction energetics 1.5 Related concepts 1.6 Classification 2 Heterogeneous catalysis Toggle Heterogeneous catalysis subsection 2.1 Electrocatalysts 2.1 Electrocatalysts 3 Homogeneous catalysis Toggle Homogeneous catalysis subsection 3.1 Organocatalysis 3.2 Photocatalysts 3.3 Enzymes and biocatalysts 3.1 Organocatalysis 3.2 Photocatalysts 3.3 Enzymes and biocatalysts 4 Significance Toggle Significance subsection 4.1 Energy processing 4.2 Bulk chemicals 4.3 Fine chemicals 4.4 Food processing 4.5 Environment 4.1 Energy processing 4.2 Bulk chemicals 4.3 Fine chemicals 4.4 Food processing 4.5 Environment 5 History 6 Inhibitors, poisons, and promoters 7 Prebiotic catalysis in the origin of life 8 See also 9 References 10 External links Catalysis Afrikaans العربية Asturianu বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Bosanski Català Čeština ChiShona Cymraeg Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Hausa Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Македонски മലയാളം Bahasa Melayu Монгол Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Novial Occitan Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Patois Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் తెలుగు ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 粵語 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item Catalysis ( / k ə ˈ t æ l ɪ s ɪ s / , kə- TAL -iss-iss ) is the increase in rate of a chemical reaction due to an added substance known as a catalyst [ 1 ] [ 2 ] ( / ˈ k æ t əl ɪ s t / KAT -əl-ist ). Catalysts are not consumed by the reaction and remain unchanged after the reaction. [ 3 ] If the reaction is rapid and the catalyst is recycled quickly, a very small amount of catalyst often suffices; [ 4 ] mixing, surface area, and temperature are important factors in reaction rate. Catalysts generally react with one or more reactants to form intermediates that subsequently give the final reaction product, in the process of regenerating the catalyst. The rate increase occurs because the catalyst allows the reaction to occur by an alternative mechanism which may be much faster than the noncatalyzed mechanism. However the noncatalyzed mechanism does remain possible, so that the total rate (catalyzed plus noncatalyzed) can only increase in the presence of the catalyst and never decrease. [ 5 ] Catalysis may be classified as either homogeneous , whose components are dispersed in the same phase (usually gaseous or liquid) as the reactant, or heterogeneous , whose components are not in the same phase. Enzymes and other biocatalysts are often considered as a third category. Catalysis is ubiquitous in chemical industry of all kinds. [ 6 ] Estimates are that 90% of all commercially produced chemical products involve catalysts at some stage in the process of their manufacture. [ 7 ] The term "catalyst" is derived from Greek καταλύειν , kataluein , meaning "loosen" or "untie". The concept of catalysis was invented by chemist Elizabeth Fulhame , based on her novel work in oxidation-reduction experiments. [ 8 ] [ 9 ] General principles Example An illustrative example is the effect of catalysts to speed the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen : This reaction proceeds because the reaction products are more stable than the starting compound, but this decomposition is so slow that hydrogen peroxide solutions are commercially available. In the presence of a catalyst such as manganese dioxide , this reaction proceeds much more rapidly. This effect is readily seen by the effervescence of oxygen. [ 10 ] The catalyst is not consumed in the reaction, and may be recovered unchanged and re-used indefinitely. Accordingly, manganese dioxide is said to catalyze this reaction. In living organisms, this reaction is catalyzed by enzymes (proteins that serve as catalysts) such as catalase . Another example is the effect of catalysts on air pollution and reducing the amount of carbon monoxide. Development of active and selective catalysts for the conversion of carbon monoxide into desirable products is one of the most important roles of catalysts. Using catalysts for the hydrogenation of carbon monoxide helps remove this toxic gas and produce useful materials. [ 11 ] Units The SI derived unit for measuring the catalytic activity of a catalyst is the katal , which is quantified in moles per second. The productivity of a catalyst can be described by the turnover number (TON) and the catalytic activity by the turn over frequency (TOF), which is the TON per time unit. The biochemical equivalent is the enzyme unit . For more information on the efficiency of enzymatic catalysis, see the article on enzymes . Catalytic reaction mechanisms In general, chemical reactions occur faster in the presence of a catalyst because the catalyst provides an alternative reaction mechanism (reaction pathway) having a lower activation energy than the noncatalyzed mechanism. In catalyzed mechanisms, the catalyst is regenerated. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] [ 14 ] [ 15 ] As a simple example occurring in the gas phase, the reaction .mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su{display:inline-block;font-size:80%;line-height:1;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su>span{display:block;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output sub.template-chem2-sub{font-size:80%;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output sup.template-chem2-sup{font-size:80%;vertical-align:0.65em} 2 SO 2 + O 2 → 2 SO 3 can be catalyzed by adding nitric oxide . The reaction occurs in two steps: The NO catalyst is regenerated. The overall rate is the rate of the slow step [ 15 ] An example of heterogeneous catalysis is the reaction of oxygen and hydrogen on the surface of titanium dioxide (TiO 2 , or titania ) to produce water. Scanning tunneling microscopy showed that the molecules undergo adsorption and dissociation . The dissociated, surface-bound O and H atoms diffuse together. The intermediate reaction states are: HO 2 , H 2 O 2 , then H 3 O 2 and the reaction product ( water molecule dimers ), after which the water molecule desorbs from the catalyst surface. [ 16 ] [ 17 ] Reaction energetics Catalysts enable pathways that differ from those of uncatalyzed reactions. These pathways have lower activation energy . Consequently, more molecular collisions have the energy needed to reach the transition state . Hence, catalysts can enable reactions that would otherwise be blocked or slowed by a kinetic barrier. The catalyst may increase the reaction rate or selectivity, or enable the reaction at lower temperatures. This effect can be illustrated with an energy profile diagram. In the catalyzed elementary reaction , catalysts do not change the extent of a reaction: they have no effect on the chemical equilibrium of a reaction. The ratio of the forward and the reverse reaction rates is unaffected (see also thermodynamics ). The second law of thermodynamics describes why a catalyst does not change the chemical equilibrium of a reaction. Suppose there was such a catalyst that shifted an equilibrium. Introducing the catalyst to the system would result in a reaction to move to the new equilibrium, producing energy. Production of energy is a necessary result since reactions are spontaneous only if Gibbs free energy is produced, and if there is no energy barrier, there is no need for a catalyst. Then, removing the catalyst would also result in a reaction, producing energy; i.e. the addition and its reverse process, removal, would both produce energy. Thus, a catalyst that could change the equilibrium would be a perpetual motion machine , a contradiction to the laws of thermodynamics. [ 18 ] Thus, catalysts do not alter the equilibrium constant. (A catalyst can however change the equilibrium concentrations by reacting in a subsequent step. It is then consumed as the reaction proceeds, and thus it is also a reactant. Illustrative is the base-catalyzed hydrolysis of esters , where the produced carboxylic acid immediately reacts with the base catalyst and thus the reaction equilibrium is shifted towards hydrolysis.) The catalyst stabilizes the transition state more than it stabilizes the starting material. It decreases the kinetic barrier by decreasing the difference in energy between starting material and the transition state. It does not change the energy difference between starting materials and products (thermodynamic barrier), or the available energy (this is provided by the environment as heat or light). Related concepts Some so-called catalysts are really precatalysts , which convert to catalysts in the reaction. For example, Wilkinson's catalyst RhCl(PPh 3 ) 3 loses one triphenylphosphine ligand before entering the true catalytic cycle. Precatalysts are easier to store but are easily activated in situ . Because of this preactivation step, many catalytic reactions involve an induction period . In cooperative catalysis , chemical species that improve catalytic activity are called cocatalysts or promoters . In tandem catalysis two or more different catalysts are coupled in a one-pot reaction. In autocatalysis , the catalyst is a product of the overall reaction, in contrast to all other types of catalysis considered in this article. The simplest example of autocatalysis is a reaction of type A + B → 2 B, in one or in several steps. The overall reaction is just A → B, so that B is a product. But since B is also a reactant, it may be present in the rate equation and affect the reaction rate. As the reaction proceeds, the concentration of B increases and can accelerate the reaction as a catalyst. In effect, the reaction accelerates itself or is autocatalyzed. An example is the hydrolysis of an ester such as aspirin to a carboxylic acid and an alcohol . In the absence of added acid catalysts, the carboxylic acid product catalyzes the hydrolysis. Switchable catalysis refers to a type of catalysis where the catalyst can be toggled between different ground states possessing distinct reactivity, typically by applying an external stimulus. [ 19 ] This ability to reversibly switch the catalyst allows for spatiotemporal control over catalytic activity and selectivity. The external stimuli used to switch the catalyst can include changes in temperature, pH, light, [ 20 ] electric fields, or the addition of chemical agents. A true catalyst can work in tandem with a sacrificial catalyst . The true catalyst is consumed in the elementary reaction and turned into a deactivated form. The sacrificial catalyst regenerates the true catalyst for another cycle. The sacrificial catalyst is consumed in the reaction, and as such, it is not really a catalyst, but a reagent. For example, osmium tetroxide (OsO 4 ) is a good reagent for dihydroxylation, but it is highly toxic and expensive. In Upjohn dihydroxylation , the sacrificial catalyst N-methylmorpholine N-oxide (NMMO) regenerates OsO 4 , and only catalytic quantities of OsO 4 are needed. Classification Catalysis may be classified as either homogeneous or heterogeneous . A homogeneous catalysis is one whose components are dispersed in the same phase (usually gaseous or liquid) as the reactant 's molecules. A heterogeneous catalysis is one where the reaction components are not in the same phase. Enzymes and other biocatalysts are often considered as a third category. Similar mechanistic principles apply to heterogeneous, homogeneous, and biocatalysis. Heterogeneous catalysis Heterogeneous catalysts act in a different phase than the reactants . Most heterogeneous catalysts are solids that act on substrates in a liquid or gaseous reaction mixture . Important heterogeneous catalysts include zeolites , alumina , [ 21 ] higher-order oxides, graphitic carbon, transition metal oxides , metals such as Raney nickel for hydrogenation, and vanadium(V) oxide for oxidation of sulfur dioxide into sulfur trioxide by the contact process . [ 22 ] Diverse mechanisms for reactions on surfaces are known, depending on how the adsorption takes place ( Langmuir-Hinshelwood , Eley-Rideal , and Mars- van Krevelen ). [ 23 ] The total surface area of a solid has an important effect on the reaction rate. The smaller the catalyst particle size, the larger the surface area for a given mass of particles. A heterogeneous catalyst has active sites , which are the atoms or crystal faces where the substrate actually binds. Active sites are atoms but are often described as a facet (edge, surface, step, etc.) of a solid. Most of the volume but also most of the surface of a heterogeneous catalyst may be catalytically inactive. Finding out the nature of the active site is technically challenging. For example, the catalyst for the Haber process for the synthesis of ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen is often described as iron . But detailed studies and many optimizations have led to catalysts that are mixtures of iron-potassium-calcium-aluminum-oxide. [ 24 ] The reacting gases adsorb onto active sites on the iron particles. Once physically adsorbed, the reagents partially or wholly dissociate and form new bonds. In this way the particularly strong triple bond in nitrogen is broken, which would be extremely uncommon in the gas phase due to its high activation energy. Thus, the activation energy of the overall reaction is lowered, and the rate of reaction increases. [ 25 ] Another place where a heterogeneous catalyst is applied is in the oxidation of sulfur dioxide on vanadium(V) oxide for the production of sulfuric acid . [ 22 ] Many heterogeneous catalysts are in fact nanomaterials. Heterogeneous catalysts are typically " supported ", which means that the catalyst is dispersed on a second material that enhances the effectiveness or minimizes its cost. Supports prevent or minimize agglomeration and sintering of small catalyst particles, exposing more surface area, thus catalysts have a higher specific activity (per gram) on support. Sometimes the support is merely a surface on which the catalyst is spread to increase the surface area. More often, the support and the catalyst interact, affecting the catalytic reaction. Supports can also be used in nanoparticle synthesis by providing sites for individual molecules of catalyst to chemically bind. Supports are porous materials with a high surface area, most commonly alumina , zeolites , or various kinds of activated carbon . Specialized supports include silicon dioxide , titanium dioxide , calcium carbonate , and barium sulfate . [ 26 ] Electrocatalysts In the context of electrochemistry , specifically in fuel cell engineering, various metal-containing catalysts are used to enhance the rates of the half reactions that comprise the fuel cell. One common type of fuel cell electrocatalyst is based upon nanoparticles of platinum that are supported on slightly larger carbon particles. When in contact with one of the electrodes in a fuel cell, this platinum increases the rate of oxygen reduction either to water or to hydroxide or hydrogen peroxide . Homogeneous catalysis Homogeneous catalysts function in the same phase as the reactants. Typically homogeneous catalysts are dissolved in a solvent with the substrates. One example of homogeneous catalysis involves the influence of H + on the esterification of carboxylic acids, such as the formation of methyl acetate from acetic acid and methanol . [ 27 ] High-volume processes requiring a homogeneous catalyst include hydroformylation , hydrosilylation , hydrocyanation . For inorganic chemists, homogeneous catalysis is often synonymous with organometallic catalysts . [ 28 ] Many homogeneous catalysts are however not organometallic, illustrated by the use of cobalt salts that catalyze the oxidation of p-xylene to terephthalic acid . Organocatalysis Whereas transition metals sometimes attract most of the attention in the study of catalysis, small organic molecules without metals can also exhibit catalytic properties, as is apparent from the fact that many enzymes lack transition metals. Typically, organic catalysts require a higher loading (amount of catalyst per unit amount of reactant, expressed in mol% amount of substance ) than transition metal(-ion)-based catalysts, but these catalysts are usually commercially available in bulk, helping to lower costs. In the early 2000s, these organocatalysts were considered "new generation" and are competitive to traditional metal (-ion)-containing catalysts. Organocatalysts are supposed to operate akin to metal-free enzymes utilizing, e.g., noncovalent interactions such as hydrogen bonding . The discipline organocatalysis is divided into the application of covalent (e.g., proline , DMAP ) and noncovalent (e.g., thiourea organocatalysis ) organocatalysts referring to the preferred catalyst- substrate binding and interaction, respectively. The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2021 was awarded jointly to Benjamin List and David W.C. MacMillan "for the development of asymmetric organocatalysis." [ 29 ] Photocatalysts Photocatalysis is the phenomenon where the catalyst can receive light to generate an excited state that effect redox reactions. [ 30 ] Singlet oxygen is usually produced by photocatalysis. Photocatalysts are components of dye-sensitized solar cells . Enzymes and biocatalysts In biology, enzymes are protein-based catalysts in metabolism and catabolism . Most biocatalysts are enzymes, but other nonprotein-based classes of biomolecules also exhibit catalytic properties including ribozymes , and synthetic deoxyribozymes . [ 31 ] Biocatalysts can be thought of as an intermediate between homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts, although strictly speaking soluble enzymes are homogeneous catalysts and membrane -bound enzymes are heterogeneous. Several factors affect the activity of enzymes (and other catalysts) including temperature, pH, the concentration of enzymes, substrate, and products. A particularly important reagent in enzymatic reactions is water, which is the product of many bond-forming reactions and a reactant in many bond-breaking processes. In biocatalysis , enzymes are employed to prepare many commodity chemicals including high-fructose corn syrup and acrylamide . Some monoclonal antibodies whose binding target is a stable molecule that resembles the transition state of a chemical reaction can function as weak catalysts for that chemical reaction by lowering its activation energy. [ 32 ] Such catalytic antibodies are sometimes called " abzymes ". Significance Estimates are that 90% of all commercially produced chemical products involve catalysts at some stage in the process of their manufacture. In 2005, catalytic processes generated about $900 billion in products worldwide. [ 34 ] Catalysis is so pervasive that subareas are not readily classified. Some areas of particular concentration are surveyed below. Energy processing Petroleum refining makes intensive use of catalysis for alkylation , catalytic cracking (breaking long-chain hydrocarbons into smaller pieces), naphtha reforming and steam reforming (conversion of hydrocarbons into synthesis gas ). Even the exhaust from the burning of fossil fuels is treated via catalysis: Catalytic converters , typically composed of platinum and rhodium , break down some of the more harmful byproducts of automobile exhaust. With regard to synthetic fuels, an old but still important process is the Fischer–Tropsch synthesis of hydrocarbons from synthesis gas , which itself is processed via water-gas shift reactions , catalyzed by iron. The Sabatier reaction produces methane from carbon dioxide and hydrogen. Biodiesel and related biofuels require processing via both inorganic and biocatalysts. Fuel cells rely on catalysts for both the anodic and cathodic reactions. Catalytic heaters generate flameless heat from a supply of combustible fuel. Bulk chemicals Some of the largest-scale chemicals are produced via catalytic oxidation, often using oxygen . Examples include nitric acid (from ammonia), sulfuric acid (from sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide by the contact process ), terephthalic acid from p-xylene, acrylic acid from propylene or propane and acrylonitrile from propane and ammonia. [ 23 ] The production of ammonia is one of the largest-scale and most energy-intensive processes. In the Haber process nitrogen is combined with hydrogen over an iron oxide catalyst. [ 35 ] Methanol is prepared from carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide but using copper-zinc catalysts. Bulk polymers derived from ethylene and propylene are often prepared using Ziegler–Natta catalyst . Polyesters, polyamides, and isocyanates are derived via acid–base catalysis . Most carbonylation processes require metal catalysts, examples include the Monsanto acetic acid process and hydroformylation . Fine chemicals Many fine chemicals are prepared via catalysis; methods include those of heavy industry as well as more specialized processes that would be prohibitively expensive on a large scale. Examples include the Heck reaction , and Friedel–Crafts reactions . Because most bioactive compounds are chiral , many pharmaceuticals are produced by enantioselective catalysis (catalytic asymmetric synthesis ). (R)-1,2-Propandiol, the precursor to the antibacterial levofloxacin , can be synthesized efficiently from hydroxyacetone by using catalysts based on BINAP -ruthenium complexes, in Noyori asymmetric hydrogenation : [ 36 ] Food processing One of the most obvious applications of catalysis is the hydrogenation (reaction with hydrogen gas) of fats using nickel catalyst to produce margarine . [ 37 ] Many other foodstuffs are prepared via biocatalysis (see below). Environment Catalysis affects the environment by increasing the efficiency of industrial processes, but catalysis also plays a direct role in the environment. A notable example is the catalytic role of chlorine free radicals in the breakdown of ozone . These radicals are formed by the action of ultraviolet radiation on chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). History The term "catalyst", broadly defined as anything that increases the rate of a process, is derived from Greek καταλύειν , meaning "to annul", or "to untie", or "to pick up". The concept of catalysis was invented by chemist Elizabeth Fulhame and described in a 1794 book, based on her novel work in oxidation–reduction reactions. [ 8 ] [ 9 ] [ 38 ] The first chemical reaction in organic chemistry that knowingly used a catalyst was studied in 1811 by Gottlieb Kirchhoff , who discovered the acid-catalyzed conversion of starch to glucose. The term catalysis was later used by Jöns Jakob Berzelius in 1835 [ 39 ] to describe reactions that are accelerated by substances that remain unchanged after the reaction. Fulhame , who predated Berzelius, did work with water as opposed to metals in her reduction experiments. Other 18th century chemists who worked in catalysis were Eilhard Mitscherlich [ 40 ] who referred to it as contact processes, and Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner [ 41 ] [ 42 ] who spoke of contact action. He developed Döbereiner's lamp , a lighter based on hydrogen and a platinum sponge, which became a commercial success in the 1820s that lives on today. Humphry Davy discovered the use of platinum in catalysis. [ 43 ] In the 1880s, Wilhelm Ostwald at Leipzig University started a systematic investigation into reactions that were catalyzed by the presence of acids and bases, and found that chemical reactions occur at finite rates and that these rates can be used to determine the strengths of acids and bases. For this work, Ostwald was awarded the 1909 Nobel Prize in Chemistry . [ 44 ] Vladimir Ipatieff performed some of the earliest industrial scale reactions, including the discovery and commercialization of oligomerization and the development of catalysts for hydrogenation. [ 45 ] Inhibitors, poisons, and promoters An added substance that lowers the rate is called a reaction inhibitor if reversible and catalyst poisons if irreversible. [ 1 ] Promoters are substances that increase the catalytic activity, even though they are not catalysts by themselves. [ 46 ] Inhibitors are sometimes referred to as "negative catalysts" since they decrease the reaction rate. [ 47 ] However the term inhibitor is preferred since they do not work by introducing a reaction path with higher activation energy; this would not lower the rate since the reaction would continue to occur by the noncatalyzed path. Instead, they act either by deactivating catalysts or by removing reaction intermediates such as free radicals. [ 47 ] [ 12 ] In heterogeneous catalysis, coking inhibits the catalyst, which becomes covered by polymeric side products. The inhibitor may modify selectivity in addition to rate. For instance, in the hydrogenation of alkynes to alkenes , a palladium (Pd) catalyst partly "poisoned" with lead(II) acetate (Pb(CH 3 CO 2 ) 2 ) can be used ( Lindlar catalyst ). [ 48 ] Without the deactivation of the catalyst, the alkene produced would be further hydrogenated to alkane . [ 49 ] [ 50 ] The inhibitor can produce this effect by, e.g., selectively poisoning only certain types of active sites. Another mechanism is the modification of surface geometry. For instance, in hydrogenation operations, large planes of metal surface function as sites of hydrogenolysis catalysis while sites catalyzing hydrogenation of unsaturates are smaller. Thus, a poison that covers the surface randomly will tend to lower the number of uncontaminated large planes but leave proportionally smaller sites free, thus changing the hydrogenation vs. hydrogenolysis selectivity. Many other mechanisms are also possible. Promoters can cover up the surface to prevent the production of a mat of coke, or even actively remove such material (e.g., rhenium on platinum in platforming ). They can aid the dispersion of the catalytic material or bind to reagents. Prebiotic catalysis in the origin of life Life is based on an interplay between information processing and catalytic activity carried out by biological polymers. [ 51 ] A possible evolutionary pathway for the emergence of catalytic functions in prebiotic information coding polymers was proposed. [ 51 ] It has also been proposed that life emerged as an RNA - protein system in which the two components cross catalyzed the formation of each other. [ 52 ] See also Chemistry portal Biology portal Chemical reaction Substrate Reagent Enzyme Product Substrate Reagent Enzyme Product Abzyme Acid catalysis (includes Base catalysis) Autocatalysis BIG-NSE (Berlin Graduate School of Natural Sciences and Engineering) Catalysis Science & Technology (a chemistry journal) Catalytic resonance theory Electrocatalyst Environmental triggers Enzyme catalysis Industrial catalysts Kelvin probe force microscope Limiting reagent Murburn concept Pharmaceutic adjuvant Phase-boundary catalysis Phase transfer catalyst Photocatalysis Ribozyme (RNA biocatalyst) SUMO enzymes Temperature-programmed reduction Thermal desorption spectroscopy References ^ a b IUPAC , Compendium of Chemical Terminology , 5th ed. (the "Gold Book") (2025). Online version: (2006–) " catalyst ". .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} doi : 10.1351/goldbook.C00876 ^ Masel, Richard I (2001). Chemical Kinetics and Catalysis . New York: Wiley-Interscience. ISBN 0-471-24197-0 . ^ Steinfeld, Jeffrey I.; Francisco, Joseph S.; Hase, William L. (1999). Chemical Kinetics and Dynamics (2nd ed.). Prentice Hall. p. 147. ISBN 0-13-737123-3 . A catalyst is defined as a chemical substance which increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself being consumed in the reaction. ^ Lerner, Louise (2011). "7 things you may not know about catalysis" . Argonne National Laboratory . ^ Laidler, Keith J.; Meiser, John H. (1982). Physical Chemistry . Benjamin/Cummings. p. 425. ISBN 0-8053-5682-7 . Inhibitors do not work by introducing a higher reaction path; this would not reduce the rate, since the reaction would continue to occur by the alternative mechanism ^ Carroll, Gregory T.; Kirschman, David L. (January 23, 2023). "Catalytic Surgical Smoke Filtration Unit Reduces Formaldehyde Levels in a Simulated Operating Room Environment" . ACS Chemical Health & Safety . 30 (1): 21– 28. doi : 10.1021/acs.chas.2c00071 . ISSN 1871-5532 . S2CID 255047115 . ^ "Catalysis" . The Chemistry Department at the University of Oxford . Retrieved January 29, 2025 . ^ a b Laidler, Keith J.; Cornish-Bowden, Athel (1997). " "Elizabeth Fulhame and the discovery of catalysis: 100 years before Buchner" (PDF) . In Cornish-Bowden, Athel (ed.). New beer in an old bottle: Eduard Buchner and the growth of biochemical knowledge . Valencia: Universitat de Valencia. pp. 123– 126. ISBN 978-84-370-3328-0 . Archived from the original (PDF) on January 23, 2015 . Retrieved March 14, 2021 . ^ a b Rayner-Canham, Marelene; Rayner-Canham, Geoffrey William (2001). Women in Chemistry: Their Changing Roles from Alchemical Times to the Mid-Twentieth Century . American Chemical Society. ISBN 978-0-8412-3522-9 . ^ "Genie in a Bottle" . University of Minnesota . March 2, 2005. Archived from the original on April 5, 2008. ^ Torkashvand, Mostafa; Sarabadani Tafreshi, Saeedeh; de Leeuw, Nora H. (May 2023). "Density Functional Theory Study of the Hydrogenation of Carbon Monoxide over the Co (001) Surface: Implications for the Fischer–Tropsch Process" . Catalysts . 13 (5): 837. doi : 10.3390/catal13050837 . ISSN 2073-4344 . ^ a b Laidler, K.J. and Meiser, J.H. (1982) Physical Chemistry , Benjamin/Cummings, p. 425. ISBN 0-618-12341-5 . ^ Laidler, Keith J.; Meiser, John H. (1982). Physical Chemistry . Benjamin/Cummings. pp. 424– 425. ISBN 0-8053-5682-7 . ^ Atkins, Peter; de Paula, Julio (2006). Atkins' Physical Chemistry (8th ed.). W.H.Freeman. p. 839. ISBN 0-7167-8759-8 . The catalyst lowers the activation energy of the reaction by providing an alternative path that avoids the slow, rate-determining step of the uncatalyzed reaction ^ a b Steinfeld, Jeffrey I.; Francisco, Joseph S.; Hase, William L. (1999). Chemical Kinetics and Dynamics (2nd ed.). Prentice Hall. pp. 147– 150. ISBN 0-13-737123-3 . The catalyst concentration [C] appears in the rate expression, but not in the equilibrium ratio. ^ Jacoby, Mitch (February 16, 2009). "Making Water Step by Step" . Chemical & Engineering News . p. 10. ^ Matthiesen J, Wendt S, Hansen JØ, Madsen GK, Lira E, Galliker P, Vestergaard EK, Schaub R, Laegsgaard E, Hammer B, Besenbacher F (2009). "Observation of All the Intermediate Steps of a Chemical Reaction on an Oxide Surface by Scanning Tunneling Microscopy". ACS Nano . 3 (3): 517– 26. Bibcode : 2009ACSNa...3..517M . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.711.974 . doi : 10.1021/nn8008245 . ISSN 1520-605X . PMID 19309169 . ^ Robertson, A.J.B. (1970) Catalysis of Gas Reactions by Metals . Logos Press, London. ^ Vlatković, Matea; Collins, Beatrice S. L.; Feringa, Ben L. (2016). "Dynamic Responsive Systems for Catalytic Function" . Chemistry: A European Journal . 22 (48): 17080– 17111. Bibcode : 2016ChEuJ..2217080V . doi : 10.1002/chem.201602453 . PMID 27717167 . ^ Roelz M, Butschke B, Breit B (May 2024). "Azobenzene-Integrated NHC Ligands: A Versatile Platform for Visible-Light-Switchable Metal Catalysis" . Journal of the American Chemical Society . 146 (19): 13210– 13225. Bibcode : 2024JAChS.14613210R . doi : 10.1021/jacs.4c01138 . PMID 38709955 . ^ Shafiq, Iqrash; Shafique, Sumeer; Akhter, Parveen; Yang, Wenshu; Hussain, Murid (June 23, 2020). "Recent developments in alumina supported hydrodesulfurization catalysts for the production of sulfur-free refinery products: A technical review". Catalysis Reviews . 64 (1): 1– 86. doi : 10.1080/01614940.2020.1780824 . ISSN 0161-4940 . S2CID 225777024 . ^ a b Housecroft, Catherine E.; Sharpe, Alan G. (2005). Inorganic Chemistry (2nd ed.). Pearson Prentice-Hall. p. 805. ISBN 0130-39913-2 . ^ a b Knözinger, Helmut and Kochloefl, Karl (2002) "Heterogeneous Catalysis and Solid Catalysts" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry , Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. doi : 10.1002/14356007.a05_313 ^ Appl, Max (2006). "Ammonia". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry . doi : 10.1002/14356007.a02_143.pub2 . ISBN 3-527-30673-0 . ^ "Chemistry of Vanadium" . Chemistry LibreTexts . October 3, 2013 . Retrieved July 8, 2022 . ^ Chadha, Utkarsh; Selvaraj, Senthil Kumaran; Ashokan, Hridya; Hariharan, Sai P.; Mathew Paul, V.; Venkatarangan, Vishal; Paramasivam, Velmurugan (February 8, 2022). "Complex Nanomaterials in Catalysis for Chemically Significant Applications: From Synthesis and Hydrocarbon Processing to Renewable Energy Applications" . Advances in Materials Science and Engineering . 2022 e1552334. doi : 10.1155/2022/1552334 . ISSN 1687-8434 . ^ Behr, Arno (2002) "Organometallic Compounds and Homogeneous Catalysis" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry , Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. doi : 10.1002/14356007.a18_215 ^ Elschenbroich, C. (2006) Organometallics . Wiley-VCH: Weinheim. ISBN 978-3-527-29390-2 ^ "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2021" . NobelPrize.org . ^ Melchiorre, Paolo (2022). "Introduction: Photochemical Catalytic Processes" . Chemical Reviews . 122 (2): 1483– 1484. doi : 10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00993 . PMID 35078320 . S2CID 246287799 . ^ Nelson, D.L. and Cox, M.M. (2000) Lehninger, Principles of Biochemistry 3rd Ed. Worth Publishing: New York. ISBN 1-57259-153-6 . ^ Catalytic Antibodies Simply Explained . Documentroot.com (2010-03-06). Retrieved on 2015-11-11. ^ Solovev, Alexander A.; Sanchez, Samuel; Mei, Yongfeng; Schmidt, Oliver G. (2011). "Tunable catalytic tubular micro-pumps operating at low concentrations of hydrogen peroxide" (PDF) . Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics . 13 (21): 10131– 35. Bibcode : 2011PCCP...1310131S . doi : 10.1039/C1CP20542K . PMID 21505711 . Archived from the original (PDF) on March 28, 2019. ^ 1.4.3 Industrial Process Efficiency Archived 2008-05-17 at the Wayback Machine . climatetechnology.gov ^ Smil, Vaclav (2004). Enriching the Earth: Fritz Haber, Carl Bosch, and the Transformation of World Food Production (1st ed.). Cambridge, MA: MIT. ISBN 978-0-262-69313-4 . ^ Dub, Pavel A.; Gordon, John C. (2018). "The role of the metal-bound N–H functionality in Noyori-type molecular catalysts". Nature Reviews Chemistry . 2 (12): 396– 408. doi : 10.1038/s41570-018-0049-z . S2CID 106394152 . ^ Clark, Jim (October 2013). "Types of catalysis" . Chemguide. ^ Bård Lindström and Lars J. Petterson (2003) " A brief history of catalysis " Cattech , 7 (4) : 130–38. ^ Berzelius, J.J. (1835) Årsberättelsen om framsteg i fysik och kemi [Annual report on progress in physics and chemistry]. Stockholm, Sweden: Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. After reviewing Eilhard Mitscherlich's research on the formation of ether, Berzelius coins the word katalys (catalysis) on p. 245 : Original: Jag skall derföre, för att begagna en i kemien välkänd härledning, kalla den kroppars katalytiska kraft, sönderdelning genom denna kraft katalys, likasom vi med ordet analys beteckna åtskiljandet af kroppars beståndsdelar medelst den vanliga kemiska frändskapen. Translation : I shall, therefore, to employ a well-known derivation in chemistry, call [the catalytic] bodies [i.e., substances] the catalytic force and the decomposition of [other] bodies by this force catalysis , just as we signify by the word analysis the separation of the constituents of bodies by the usual chemical affinities. Original: Jag skall derföre, för att begagna en i kemien välkänd härledning, kalla den kroppars katalytiska kraft, sönderdelning genom denna kraft katalys, likasom vi med ordet analys beteckna åtskiljandet af kroppars beståndsdelar medelst den vanliga kemiska frändskapen. Original: Jag skall derföre, för att begagna en i kemien välkänd härledning, kalla den kroppars katalytiska kraft, sönderdelning genom denna kraft katalys, likasom vi med ordet analys beteckna åtskiljandet af kroppars beståndsdelar medelst den vanliga kemiska frändskapen. Translation : I shall, therefore, to employ a well-known derivation in chemistry, call [the catalytic] bodies [i.e., substances] the catalytic force and the decomposition of [other] bodies by this force catalysis , just as we signify by the word analysis the separation of the constituents of bodies by the usual chemical affinities. Translation : I shall, therefore, to employ a well-known derivation in chemistry, call [the catalytic] bodies [i.e., substances] the catalytic force and the decomposition of [other] bodies by this force catalysis , just as we signify by the word analysis the separation of the constituents of bodies by the usual chemical affinities. ^ Mitscherlich, E. (1834). "Ueber die Aetherbildung" [On the formation of ether]. Annalen der Physik und Chemie . 31 (18): 273– 82. Bibcode : 1834AnP...107..273M . doi : 10.1002/andp.18341071802 . ^ Döbereiner (1822). "Glühendes Verbrennen des Alkohols durch verschiedene erhitzte Metalle und Metalloxyde" [Incandescent burning of alcohol by various heated metals and metal oxides]. Journal für Chemie und Physik . 34 : 91– 92. ^ Döbereiner (1823). "Neu entdeckte merkwürdige Eigenschaften des Platinsuboxyds, des oxydirten Schwefel-Platins und des metallischen Platinstaubes" [Newly discovered remarkable properties of platinum suboxide, oxidized platinum sulfide and metallic platinum dust]. Journal für Chemie und Physik . 38 : 321– 26. ^ Davy, Humphry (1817). "Some new experiments and observations on the combustion of gaseous mixtures, with an account of a method of preserving a continued light in mixtures of inflammable gases and air without flame" . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London . 107 : 77– 85. doi : 10.1098/rstl.1817.0009 . S2CID 97988261 . ^ Roberts, M.W. (2000). "Birth of the catalytic concept (1800–1900)". Catalysis Letters . 67 (1): 1– 4. doi : 10.1023/A:1016622806065 . S2CID 91507819 . ^ Nicholas, Christopher P. (August 21, 2018). "Dehydration, Dienes, High Octane, and High Pressures: Contributions from Vladimir Nikolaevich Ipatieff, a Father of Catalysis" . ACS Catalysis . 8 (9): 8531– 39. doi : 10.1021/acscatal.8b02310 . ^ Dhara SS; Umare SS (2018). A Textbook of Engineering Chemistry . India: S. Chand Publishing. p. 66. ISBN 978-93-5283-068-8 . ^ a b Laidler, K.J. (1978) Physical Chemistry with Biological Applications , Benjamin/Cummings. pp. 415–17. ISBN 0-8053-5680-0 . ^ Lindlar H.; Dubuis R. (2016). "Palladium Catalyst for Partial Reduction of Acetylenes". Organic Syntheses . doi : 10.15227/orgsyn.046.0089 ; Collected Volumes , vol. 5, p. 880 . ^ Jencks, W.P. (1969) Catalysis in Chemistry and Enzymology McGraw-Hill, New York. ISBN 0-07-032305-4 ^ Bender, Myron L; Komiyama, Makoto and Bergeron, Raymond J (1984) The Bioorganic Chemistry of Enzymatic Catalysis Wiley-Interscience, Hoboken, U.S. ISBN 0-471-05991-9 ^ a b Tkachenko AV, Maslov S (March 2024). "Emergence of catalytic function in prebiotic information-coding polymers" . eLife . 12 RP91397. doi : 10.7554/eLife.91397 . PMC 10965222 . PMID 38530342 . ^ Agmon I (February 2024). "Three Biopolymers and Origin of Life Scenarios" . Life . 14 (2): 277. Bibcode : 2024Life...14..277A . doi : 10.3390/life14020277 . PMC 10890401 . PMID 38398786 . External links Science Aid: Catalysts Page for high school level science W.A. Herrmann Technische Universität presentation Archived October 28, 2005, at the Wayback Machine Alumite Catalyst, Kameyama-Sakurai Laboratory, Japan Inorganic Chemistry and Catalysis Group, Utrecht University, The Netherlands Centre for Surface Chemistry and Catalysis CarboCat Laboratory, University of Concepcion, Chile NSF CENTC, Center for Enabling New Technologies (through catalysis) "Bubbles turn on chemical catalysts" , Science News, April 6, 2009. .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar 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Timeline of chemistry of element discoveries " The central science " Chemical reaction Catalysis Chemical element Chemical compound Atom Molecule Ion Chemical substance Chemical bond Alchemy Quantum mechanics History of chemistry Nobel Prize in Chemistry Timeline of chemistry of element discoveries of element discoveries " The central science " Chemical reaction Catalysis Catalysis Chemical element Chemical compound Atom Molecule Ion Chemical substance Chemical bond Alchemy Quantum mechanics Category Commons Portal WikiProject Category Commons Portal WikiProject v t e Basic reaction mechanisms v t e Nucleophilic substitutions Unimolecular nucleophilic substitution (S N 1) Bimolecular nucleophilic substitution (S N 2) Nucleophilic internal substitution (S N i) Nucleophilic acyl substitution (S N Acyl) Unimolecular nucleophilic substitution (S N 1) Bimolecular nucleophilic substitution (S N 2) Nucleophilic internal substitution (S N i) Nucleophilic acyl substitution (S N Acyl) 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early life 2 1966 comeback 3 Later years 4 Montez today 5 Discography Toggle Discography subsection 5.1 Singles 5.2 Albums 5.2.1 Let's Dance album 5.1 Singles 5.2 Albums 5.2.1 Let's Dance album 5.2.1 Let's Dance album 6 References 7 External links Chris Montez تۆرکجه Deutsch Español فارسی Français 한국어 Italiano مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Português Svenska Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item Chris Montez Montez in March 1967 Background information Born Ezekiel Christopher Montañez ( 1943-01-17 ) January 17, 1943 (age 82) Los Angeles , California , US Genres .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} Rock standards middle of the road Rock standards middle of the road Occupations Singer-songwriter musician Singer-songwriter musician Instruments Guitar vocals Guitar vocals Years active 1962–present Labels A&M Monogram Columbia A&M Monogram Columbia Website Official website Chris Montez (born Ezekiel Christopher Montañez; January 17, 1943) [ 1 ] is an American guitarist and vocalist, whose stylistic approach has ranged from rock & roll to pop standards and Latin music . His rock sound is exemplified in songs such as his 1962 hit " Let's Dance ", which reached No. 4 on the Billboard Hot 100 . When his early music's popularity began to fade, he switched to a more traditional role as a popular singer of soft ballads, scoring hits with “ The More I See You ” and “ Call Me " in 1966. He has also recorded in Latin styles. Over the intervening years, he has continued to work in all three modes. Early life Born in Los Angeles , California , United States, [ 1 ] Montez grew up in Hawthorne, California , in a Mexican-American family and was influenced by the Latino-flavored music of his community and the success of his musical hero Ritchie Valens whom he met briefly at a show in 1958. He studied music composition at El Camino College . [ 2 ] In 1962, he recorded the single " Let's Dance " on Monogram Records (written and produced by Jim Lee). [ 3 ] It went to No.4 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in the US and to No.2 on the UK Singles Chart (spending four weeks there). The follow-up, "Some Kinda Fun", was a lesser hit in the US, but reached No. 10 in the UK in January 1963. Nonetheless, both records sold over one million copies, and were awarded gold discs . [ 4 ] Montez toured with Clyde McPhatter , Sam Cooke , The Platters , and Smokey Robinson and the Miracles . [ 5 ] The Beatles opened London, York , and Northampton concerts for him while Montez was performing with Tommy Roe . [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Montez commented "Who are these guys, The Beatles? I try to keep up with the British scene, but I don't know their work." [ 6 ] 1966 comeback Montez returned to the recording studio in 1965, this time at A&M Records . [ 1 ] He was searching for the same rock and roll formula that would replicate the success of "Let's Dance". During a recording session, A&M co-founder Herb Alpert , who co-produced Montez's first A&M album, suggested that Montez try a different approach: a middle of the road , soft ballad sound. Though reluctant at first, Montez agreed to go along with his mentor's suggestion. " Call Me " (a Tony Hatch composition first recorded by Petula Clark ) was the first single released from his 1966 A&M album, The More I See You . [ 1 ] The title single from the album, sung in a soft, very high tenor range and played on primarily adult-formatted radio stations, confused some disc jockeys who were unfamiliar with Montez's past work. The track became popular and has been used many times in movies, notably Frantic starring Harrison Ford . Released in November 1965, "Call Me" entered the Easy Listening Top 40 in Billboard that December, entering the Billboard Hot 100 in January 1966; that March "Call Me" peaked on the Easy Listening chart at No. 2 and on the Hot 100 at No. 22. [ 7 ] The More I See You album yielded two additional Top 40 singles for Montez: the title track , plus " There Will Never Be Another You ". [ 1 ] Later years Montez recorded three more albums for A&M: Time After Time , Foolin' Around , and Watch What Happens . [ 1 ] None of these albums mirrored the success of The More I See You . The title track " Time After Time ", did reach No. 36 on the Billboard Hot 100 , but no other singles made the top 40. Subsequent singles hit below the top 40, or only on the Billboard Easy Listening Top 40. Following the release of Watch What Happens in 1968, Montez left A&M Records. In November 1972, Montez charted a Latin hit in Brazil: "Loco Por Ti (Crazy About You)". [ citation needed ] Montez resurfaced in 1974 at CBS Records , with the release of The Best of Chris Montez , a mix of both old and new recordings. Montez recorded one more album for CBS: Raza: Ay No Digas , which did well internationally, but failed to make an impact in the US. His final album, with exclusively Spanish-language material, was Cartas de Amor , released in 1983. "Let's Dance" appeared on the soundtrack of John Landis 's Animal House . In 2013, the song was used as a jingle for a DSW Shoe Warehouse commercial. Montez today In July 2008, Frozen Pictures announced plans to produce a documentary musical film on Montez's life and career. The film, El Viaje Musical de Ezekiel Montanez: The Chris Montez Story, was previewed by Montez, director Burt Kearns and producer Brett Hudson at the Paso Robles Digital Film Festival in Paso Robles , California in November 2009, The Fest For Beatles Fans in March 2010 in Secaucus, New Jersey [ 8 ] and, in May 2010, at the Pacific Palisades Film Festival in Pacific Palisades , California. [ 9 ] [ 10 ] Montez has worked within the Mexican-American communities in the US, especially his native California, promoting education and healthy living. His work was recognized in San Antonio, Texas, on September 16, 2011, with the First Annual SOPA (Stop Obesity Promote Activity) Wellness Award. It was among four awards given to national celebrities. In 2012, Montez was named a distinguished alumnus of El Camino College . [ 11 ] Discography Singles Year Titles (A-side, B-side) Both sides from same album except where indicated Peak chart positions Album US US AC UK 1960 "I Lost My Baby" b/w "They Say" — — — Non-album tracks 1962 "All You Had To Do (Was Tell Me) " b/w "Love Me" (Non-album track) — — — Let's Dance and Have Some Kinda Fun!!! " Let's Dance " b/w "You're The One" 4 — 2 "Some Kinda Fun" b/w "Tell Me (It's Not Over)" 43 — 10 1963 "(Let's Do) The Limbo" b/w "Rockin' Blues" — — — "In An English Towne" b/w "My Baby Loves To Dance" — — — Non-album tracks "Monkey Fever" b/w "No, No, No" (from Let's Dance... ) — — — 1964 "All You Had To Do (Was Tell Me) " b/w "You're The One" Both tracks are duets with Kathy Young — — — "It Takes Two" b/w "Shoot That Curl" Both tracks are duets with Kathy Young — — — 1965 " Call Me " b/w "Go Head On" (Non-album track) 22 2 — The More I See You 1966 " The More I See You " b/w "You, I Love You" 16 2 3 " There Will Never Be Another You " b/w "You Can Hurt The One You Love" (Non-album track) 33 4 37 " Time After Time " b/w "Keep Talkin'" 36 12 — Time After Time 1967 " Because of You " b/w "Elena" (from Time After Time ) 71 25 — Foolin' Around "Foolin' Around" b/w "Dindi (Jin-jee)" — — — 1968 "The Face I Love" b/w "Once In Awhile" (from Foolin' Around ) — 15 — Watch What Happens " Love Is Here To Stay " b/w "Nothing To Hide" — 38 — "Watch What Happens" b/w "Where Are You Now" — — — 1971 "The End Of The Line" b/w "We Can Make The World A Whole Lot Brighter" — — — Non-album tracks 1972 "Loco Por Ti (Crazy For You) " b/w "The Part You Play Best Is Yourself" — — — Top 40 Netherlands: "Loco Por Ti" (1972) No. 7 NL "Ay No Digas" (1973) No. 3 NL Albums Year Album Peak positions Label US 200 [ 12 ] US CB [ 13 ] 1963 Let's Dance and Have Some Fun — — London Records 1966 The More I See You 33 20 A&M Records Time After Time 106 65 1967 Foolin' Around — — 1968 Watch What Happens — — 1972 Let's Dance — — CBS Records 1983 Cartas De Amor — — A&M Records Let's Dance album " Let's Dance " (Jim Lee) – 2:16 " Mona Lisa " ( Jay Livingston , Ray Evans ) – 2:50 " You're So Fine " (Lance Finney, Willie Schofield) – 2:07 "Yesterday I Heard the Rain" (Armando Manzanero, Gene Lees ) – 2:07 " Heart and Soul " ( Frank Loesser , Hoagy Carmichael ) – 2:01 "Dolores, Dolores" (Chris Montez, Billy Meshel) – 2:37 "Ay No Digas (Oh, Don't Tell Me)" (Chris Montez, Billy Meshel) – 2:40 " A Little Bit of Soap " ( Bert Russell ) – 2:12 "When Your Heart is Full of Love (Your Eyes Begin to Overflow)" (Chris Montez, Billy Meshel) – 3:28 "Somebody Loves You" (Chris Montez, Billy Mershel) – 2:52 " Come On, Let's Go ” ( Ritchie Valens ) – 2:10 Produced by: Billy Meshel Recorded at: Sound Ideas Studio, N.Y. Record Label: CBS Released: 1972 References ^ a b c d e f .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Colin Larkin , ed. (1992). The Guinness Encyclopedia of Popular Music (First ed.). Guinness Publishing . p. 1735. ISBN 0-85112-939-0 . ^ Erika Maldonado, "Just Call Him Zeke" El Camino College Union (October 21, 2010). ^ "home_fr" . Chrismontez.com. Archived from the original on July 8, 2011 . Retrieved March 29, 2012 . ^ Murrells, Joseph (1978). The Book of Golden Discs (2nd ed.). London: Barrie and Jenkins Ltd. p. 149 . ISBN 0-214-20512-6 . ^ a b [1] Archived February 5, 2008, at the Wayback Machine ^ a b Harry, Bill (2000). The Beatles Encyclopaedia (2000 paperback edition; first published 1992) . London: Virgin Publishing, London W6 9HA. pp. 9 and 776. ISBN 0-7535-0481-2 . ^ Whitburn, Joel (2002). Top Adult Contemporary: 1961–2001 . Record Research. p. 173. ^ thefest.com Archived 2010-02-14 at the Wayback Machine ^ palisadespost.com Archived 2011-07-16 at the Wayback Machine ^ "Exclusive video! Chris Montez's triumph at the Pacific Palisades Film Festival" . Tabloidbaby.blogspot.com. May 16, 2010 . Retrieved August 18, 2015 . ^ [2] [ permanent dead link ] ^ Whitburn, Joel (1973). Joel Whitburn's Top LP's, 1945-1972 . Menomonee Falls, Wisconsin: Record Research Inc. p. 104 . Retrieved November 5, 2023 . ^ Hoffmann, Frank W (1988). The Cash box album charts, 1955-1974 . Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press. p. 259. ISBN 0-8108-2005-6 . ^ Original album sleeve notes External links The official Chris Montez website "El Viaje Musical de Ezekiel Montanez: The Chris Montez Story" film page Chris Montez Interview at NAMM Oral History Collection (2020) Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Czech Republic Poland United States France BnF data Czech Republic Poland Artists MusicBrainz MusicBrainz People Deutsche Biographie Deutsche Biographie Other Yale LUX Yale LUX 1943 births Living people Jamie Records artists Era Records artists A&M Records artists American pop rock singers American tenors American male singers American musicians of Mexican descent Chicano rock musicians Musicians from Hawthorne, California Hispanic and Latino American musicians Webarchive template wayback links All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from November 2016 Articles with permanently dead external links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Official website different in Wikidata and Wikipedia Articles with hCards All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from June 2007 Use mdy dates from May 2015 This page was last edited on 27 October 2025, at 09:13 (UTC) . 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Hlavní strana Nápověda Potřebuji pomoc Nejlepší články Náhodný článek Poslední změny Komunitní portál Pod lípou Speciální stránky Podpořte Wikipedii Vytvoření účtu Přihlášení Podpořte Wikipedii Vytvoření účtu Přihlášení Obsah (úvod) 1 Životopis 2 Spolupráce s Dannym Elfmanem 3 Režijní filmografie 4 Literatura 5 Reference 6 Externí odkazy Tim Burton العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Basa Bali Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Corsu Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Kreyòl ayisyen Magyar Հայերեն Արեւմտահայերէն Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം Монгол Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk bokmål Occitan Kapampangan Polski Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Anarâškielâ Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Татарча / tatarça Українська Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 მარგალური ייִדיש Yorùbá 中文 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí 粵語 Článek Diskuse Číst Editovat Editovat zdroj Zobrazit historii Číst Editovat Editovat zdroj Zobrazit historii Odkazuje sem Související změny Načíst soubor Trvalý odkaz Informace o stránce Citovat stránku Získat zkrácené URL Stáhnout QR kód Vytvořit knihu Stáhnout jako PDF Verze k tisku Wikimedia Commons Wikicitáty Položka Wikidat Tim Burton Tim Burton (28. srpna 2024) Rodné jméno Timothy Walter Burton Narození 25. srpna 1958 (67 let) Burbank Bydliště Burbank Alma mater California Institute of the Arts (do 1981) Burbank High School Povolání filmový režisér , scenárista , filmový producent , spisovatel , designér, animátor , herec , básník a režisér Zaměstnavatel The Walt Disney Studios (1981–1984) Ocenění Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Children's Animated Program (1990) Cena Hugo (1991) Cena Hugo za nejlepší hrané představení (1991) Saturn Award for Best Animated Film (2005) Golden Lion for Lifetime Achievement (2007) … více na Wikidatech Choť Lena Gieseke (1989–1991) [ 1 ] [ 2 ] Partner(ka) Lisa Marie (1993–2001) Helena Bonham Carterová (2001–2014) Monica Bellucciová (2023–2025) [ 3 ] [ 4 ] Děti Billy Burton [ 5 ] Nell Burton [ 5 ] Rodiče Bill Burton [ 6 ] a Jean Rae Erickson [ 6 ] Funkce prezident poroty Filmového festivalu v Cannes (2010) Podpis Web www .timburton .com multimediální obsah na Commons Některá data mohou pocházet z datové položky . Timothy Walter Burton (* 25. srpna 1958 , Burbank , Kalifornie , USA ) je americký filmový režisér , scenárista , básník , spisovatel a filmový výtvarník známý svým nekonvenčním stylem. Do širokého povědomí se dostal zejména po natočení kasovního trháku Batman v roce 1989 , ke kterému později natočil i pokračování. Mezi jeho další úspěšné filmy patřil Střihoruký Edward , kde točil poprvé se svým oblíbeným hercem Johnny Deppem . Ten hrál i v dalších jeho úspěšných filmech jako Ed Wood , Sweeney Todd: Ďábelský holič z Fleet Street , Ospalá díra či Karlík a továrna na čokoládu . Depp taky namluvil hlavní postavu jeho animované Mrtvé nevěsty . Kromě Johnnyho Deppa patří k jeho častým spolupracovníkům i skladatel Danny Elfman . V roce 2006 vyšla v České republice také kniha Burtonových básní pod názvem Trudný konec Ústřičného chlapečka a jiné příběhy . Životopis „ Jestliže existuje nějaký film, o němž je možné říci, že je namalován jako štětcem, pak je to Ospalá díra. S jistotou náměsíčníka používá Burton filmové prostředky... Před našima očima se prostírá sugestivní snová krajina, až po pozadí oduševnělá jiskřivými vodami, ohnivě žlutými slunci, probleskujícími vatovým mračným příkrovem, nekonečnými poli a loukami, temnými lesy. Krajina dýchá melancholií a stejnou měrou vyzařuje energii a zemdlenost. “ — Helmut Merschmann , 2000 — Helmut Merschmann , 2000 Vyrůstal v Burbanku , kde se nacházejí ateliéry The Walt Disney Studios , Warner Bros. Pictures a Columbia Pictures . Studoval na California Institute of Arts a podařilo se mu získat místo v tamějším programu trikových filmů, což ho brzy přivedlo do Disneyova ateliéru, který nabíral nové pracovníky právě z tohoto ročníku studia. V roce 1979 tam pracoval jako Disneyův zaměstnanec, kreslíř na filmu Liška a pes ( 1981 ) . Zde musel kreslit především scény s malým lišákem, který se od té doby stal jeho osobním předmětem nenávisti. Pocta Vincentu Priceovi Vincent ( 1982 ) , černobílý kreslený a trikový loutkový film, přičemž vypravěčem mimo obraz byl tento elegantní hororový představitel, a kromě toho další na černobílý materiál natočený film Frankenweenie ( 1984 ) jsou jeho vlastní první filmy natočené pro studio Disney. Tyto filmy byly spíše obdivovány, než uznávány a bez okolků zmizely v archivu. Frankenweenie je příběh chlapce, který svého přejetého psa oživí ránou elektrického proudu. Laskavou parafrází na film Frankensteinova nevěsta ( 1935 ) produkoval Burton pro Disney dětský televizní kanál. Jako pedagogicky povážlivý, ale především ponurý byl považován tehdejšími odpovědnými činiteli tento půlhodinový film prominentně obsazený Danielem Sternem a Shelley Duvalovou . Pee-Weeho velké dobrodružství ( 1985 ) , v Německu vydán pouze na videu , se v USA stal překvapivým hitem . Komerční úspěch následující komedie Beetlejuice ( 1988 ) a především filmu Batman ( 1989 ) přispěl k tomu, že hollywoodská studia mu dala volný prostor, umožňující v následující letech realizaci filmů jako Střihoruký Edward ( 1990 ) , [ 7 ] Ed Wood ( 1994 ) , Mars útočí! ( 1996 ) , Planeta opic ( 2001 ) a dalších. Spolupráce s Dannym Elfmanem 29. května 1953 se narodil Danny Elfman v Los Angeles v USA . Pro svého bratra Richarda, s nímž vystupoval v 70. letech ve stejném uskupení, zkomponoval první soundtrack . Film Forbidden Zone ( 1980 ) propadl kvůli své podobnosti s The Rocky Horror Pictureshow ( 1974 ) zcela u kritiků v Německu. Líbila se pouze hudba k filmu, což ovšem nevedlo k tomu, že by Danny Elfman, který také ve Forbidden Zone vystupuje v roli Satana, pokračoval dál v komponování filmové hudby. V následující letech pracoval se skupinou Oingo-Boingo , která se stala legendou. Prostřednictvím Oingo-Boingo byl upozorněn na Elfmana a angažoval ho pro filmovou hudbu ke svému prvnímu hranému celovečernímu filmu Pee-Weeho velké dobrodružství (1985) . Od té doby jsou Elfmanovy skladby nedílnou součástí jeho filmů. Elfman skládal nejen hudbu k filmům Dobrý Will Hunting ( 1997 ) , ale i hudbu pro filmové série jako Muži v černém ( 1997 / 2003 ) , Terminátor 3: Vzpoura strojů ( 2003 ) nebo Spider-Man ( 2002 / 2007 ) . Režijní filmografie 1971 The Island of Doctor Agor 1979 Stalk of the Celery 1979 Doctor of Doom 1982 Vincent 1982 Hansel and Gretel 1982 Luau 1982 Aladdin and His Wonderful Lamp 1984 Frankenweenie 1985 Pee-Weeho velké dobrodružství 1985 Alfred Hitchcock uvádí 1988 Beetlejuice 1989 Batman 1990 Střihoruký Edward 1992 Batman se vrací 1993 Ukradené Vánoce (režie Henry Selick ) 1994 Ed Wood 1996 Mars útočí! 1999 Ospalá díra 2000 The World of Stainboy 2001 Planeta opic 2003 Velká ryba 2005 Mrtvá nevěsta Tima Burtona 2005 Karlík a továrna na čokoládu 2007 Sweeney Todd: Ďábelský holič z Fleet Street 2010 Alenka v říši divů 2011 Frankenweenie: Domácí mazlíček 2011 Temné stíny 2014 Big Eyes 2015 Pinocchio 2016 Sirotčinec slečny Peregrinové pro podivné děti 2019 Dumbo 2022 Wednesday Literatura Tim Burton, Můra noční, předvánoční , USA, 1993 Helmut Merchmann, Tim Burton , Berlín , 2002 Reference ↑ Dostupné online . ↑ Kindred Britain . ↑ Monica Bellucci i Tim Burton, parella sorpresa del món del cinema, de vacances a Madrid . 23. února 2023. Dostupné online . [cit. 2025-09-19]. ↑ Les stars Tim Burton et Monica Bellucci annoncent leur séparation . 19. září 2025. Dostupné online . [cit. 2025-09-19]. ↑ a b Darryl Roger Lundy: The Peerage . ↑ a b Leo van de Pas: Genealogics.org . 2003. ↑ JEŽEK, Michal. Seznamte se: Tim Burton vytvořil Střihorukého Edwarda z vlastního děsu. Archiv rozhlasu [online]. ČRo [cit. 13.6.2017]. Dostupné online . Externí odkazy Obrázky, zvuky či videa k tématu Tim Burton na Wikimedia Commons The Tim Burton on-line Tim Burton v Česko-Slovenské filmové databázi Tim Burton v Internet Movie Database (anglicky) Prezidenti poroty na Filmovém festivalu v Cannes 1946–1949 Georges Huisman (1946–1949) Georges Huisman (1946–1949) 1950–1959 André Maurois (1951) • Maurice Genevoix (1952) • Jean Cocteau (1953–1954) • Marcel Pagnol (1955) • Maurice Lehmann (1956) • André Maurois (1957) • Marcel Achard (1958–1959) André Maurois (1951) • Maurice Genevoix (1952) • Jean Cocteau (1953–1954) • Marcel Pagnol (1955) • Maurice Lehmann (1956) • André Maurois (1957) • Marcel Achard (1958–1959) 1960–1969 Georges Simenon (1960) • Jean Giono (1961) • Tetsurō Furukaki (1962) • Armand Salacrou (1963) • Fritz Lang (1964) • Olivia de Havilland (1965) • Sophia Lorenová (1966) • Alessandro Blasetti (1967) • André Chamson (1968) • Luchino Visconti (1969) Georges Simenon (1960) • Jean Giono (1961) • Tetsurō Furukaki (1962) • Armand Salacrou (1963) • Fritz Lang (1964) • Olivia de Havilland (1965) • Sophia Lorenová (1966) • Alessandro Blasetti (1967) • André Chamson (1968) • Luchino Visconti (1969) 1970–1979 Miguel Ángel Asturias (1970) • Michèle Morganová (1971) • Joseph Losey (1972) • Ingrid Bergmanová (1973) • René Clair (1974) • Jeanne Moreau (1975) • Tennessee Williams (1976) • Roberto Rossellini (1977) • Alan Pakula (1978) • Françoise Saganová (1979) Miguel Ángel Asturias (1970) • Michèle Morganová (1971) • Joseph Losey (1972) • Ingrid Bergmanová (1973) • René Clair (1974) • Jeanne Moreau (1975) • Tennessee Williams (1976) • Roberto Rossellini (1977) • Alan Pakula (1978) • Françoise Saganová (1979) 1980–1989 Kirk Douglas (1980) • Jacques Deray (1981) • Giorgio Strehler (1982) • William Styron (1983) • Dirk Bogarde (1984) • Miloš Forman (1985) • Sydney Pollack (1986) • Yves Montand (1987) • Ettore Scola (1988) • Wim Wenders (1989) Kirk Douglas (1980) • Jacques Deray (1981) • Giorgio Strehler (1982) • William Styron (1983) • Dirk Bogarde (1984) • Miloš Forman (1985) • Sydney Pollack (1986) • Yves Montand (1987) • Ettore Scola (1988) • Wim Wenders (1989) 1990–1999 Bernardo Bertolucci (1990) • Roman Polański (1991) • Gérard Depardieu (1992) • Louis Malle (1993) • Clint Eastwood (1994) • Jeanne Moreau (1995) • Francis Ford Coppola (1996) • Isabelle Adjaniová (1997) • Martin Scorsese (1998) • David Cronenberg (1999) Bernardo Bertolucci (1990) • Roman Polański (1991) • Gérard Depardieu (1992) • Louis Malle (1993) • Clint Eastwood (1994) • Jeanne Moreau (1995) • Francis Ford Coppola (1996) • Isabelle Adjaniová (1997) • Martin Scorsese (1998) • David Cronenberg (1999) 2000–2009 Luc Besson (2000) • Liv Ullmannová (2001) • David Lynch (2002) • Patrice Chéreau (2003) • Quentin Tarantino (2004) • Emir Kusturica (2005) • Wong Kar-wai (2006) • Stephen Frears (2007) • Sean Penn (2008) • Isabelle Huppertová (2009) Luc Besson (2000) • Liv Ullmannová (2001) • David Lynch (2002) • Patrice Chéreau (2003) • Quentin Tarantino (2004) • Emir Kusturica (2005) • Wong Kar-wai (2006) • Stephen Frears (2007) • Sean Penn (2008) • Isabelle Huppertová (2009) 2010–2019 Tim Burton (2010) • Robert De Niro (2011) • Nanni Moretti (2012) • Steven Spielberg (2013) • Jane Campion (2014) • bratři Coenové (2015) • George Miller (2016) • Pedro Almodóvar (2017) • Cate Blanchettová (2018) • Alejandro González Iñárritu (2019) Tim Burton (2010) • Robert De Niro (2011) • Nanni Moretti (2012) • Steven Spielberg (2013) • Jane Campion (2014) • bratři Coenové (2015) • George Miller (2016) • Pedro Almodóvar (2017) • Cate Blanchettová (2018) • Alejandro González Iñárritu (2019) od 2020 Spike Lee (2021) • Vincent Lindon (2022) • Ruben Östlund (2023) • Greta Gerwig (2024) • Juliette Binocheová (2024) Spike Lee (2021) • Vincent Lindon (2022) • Ruben Östlund (2023) • Greta Gerwig (2024) • Juliette Binocheová (2024) Autoritní data AbARTP : 101638 NKC : js20050822016 BIBSYS : 90813024 BNC : 000318753 BNE : XX838562 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History Toggle History subsection 1.1 Relationship with the "Sibylline Oracles" 1.1 Relationship with the "Sibylline Oracles" 2 Consultations of the Books cited in history 3 References 4 Bibliography 5 External links Sibylline Books አማርኛ Беларуская Български Català Čeština Deutsch Español Esperanto فارسی Français Frysk Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Italiano עברית Latina Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item Religion in ancient Rome Marcus Aurelius ( head covered ) sacrificing at the Temple of Jupiter Practices and beliefs libation votum temples festivals ludi funerary practices cult ( imperial ) mystery religions libation votum temples festivals ludi funerary practices cult ( imperial ) mystery religions Priesthoods Pontifices Augures Vestales Flamines Fetiales Epulones Fratres Arvales Pontifices Augures Vestales Flamines Fetiales Epulones Fratres Arvales Deities Dii Consentes Capitoline Triad Aventine Triad Indigitamenta underworld gods agricultural gods childhood gods divine emperors Dii Consentes Capitoline Triad Aventine Triad Indigitamenta underworld gods agricultural gods childhood gods divine emperors Related topics Glossary of ancient Roman religion Roman mythology Ancient Greek religion Etruscan religion Gallo-Roman religion Interpretatio Graeca Decline Glossary of ancient Roman religion Roman mythology Ancient Greek religion Etruscan religion Gallo-Roman religion Interpretatio Graeca Decline .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e The Sibylline Books ( Latin : Libri Sibyllini ) were a collection of oracular utterances, set out in Greek hexameter verses, that, according to tradition, were purchased from a sibyl by the last king of Rome , Lucius Tarquinius Superbus , and consulted at momentous crises through the history of the Roman Republic and the Empire . Only fragments have survived, the rest being lost or deliberately destroyed . The Sibylline Books are not the same as the Sibylline Oracles , which are fourteen books and eight fragments of prophecies thought to be of Judaeo-Christian origin. History According to the Roman tradition, the oldest collection of Sibylline books appears to have been made about the time of Solon and Cyrus at Gergis on Mount Ida in the Troad ; it was attributed to the Hellespontine Sibyl and was preserved in the temple of Apollo at Gergis. From Gergis the collection passed to Erythrae , where it became famous as the oracles of the Erythraean Sibyl . It would appear to have been this very collection that found its way to Cumae (see the Cumaean Sibyl ) and from Cumae to Rome. The story of the acquisition of the Sibylline Books by the seventh and last king of Rome, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus ("Tarquinius", ruled 534 to 509 B.C., d. 495 B.C.), is one of the famous legendary elements of Roman history. An old woman, possibly a Cumaean Sibyl , offered to Tarquinius nine books of these prophecies at an exorbitant price; when the king declined to purchase them, she burned three and offered the remaining six to Tarquinius at the same price, which he again refused. Thereupon, she burned three more and repeated her offer, maintaining the same price. Tarquinius then consulted the Augurs whose importance in Roman history is averred by Livy . The Augurs deplored the loss of the six books and urged purchase of the remaining three. Tarquinius then purchased the last three at the full original price, and had them preserved in a sacred vault beneath the Capitoline temple of Jupiter. The story is alluded to in Varro 's lost books quoted in Lactantius Institutiones Divinae (I: 6) and by Origen , and told by Aulus Gellius ( Noctes Atticae 1, 19). [ 1 ] The Roman Senate kept tight control over the Sibylline Books , [ 2 ] and entrusted them to the care of two patricians . In 367 BC, the number of custodians was increased to ten, five patricians and five plebeians , who were called the decemviri sacris faciundis . Subsequently, probably in the time of Sulla , their number was increased to fifteen, the quindecimviri sacris faciundis . They were usually ex-consuls or ex- praetors . They held office for life, and were exempt from all other public duties. They had the responsibility of keeping the books in safety and secrecy. The 15 individuals were custodians of the Sibylline Books that were kept on the Palatine. These officials, at the command of the Senate, consulted the Sibylline Books in order to discover not exact predictions of definite future events in the form of prophecy , but the religious observances necessary to avert extraordinary calamities and to expiate ominous prodigies (comets and earthquakes, showers of stones, plague, and the like). It was only the rites of expiation prescribed by the Sibylline Books , according to the interpretation of the oracle that were communicated to the public, and not the oracles themselves, which left ample opportunity for abuses. In particular, the keepers of the Sibylline Books had the superintendence of the worship of Apollo , of the "Great Mother" Cybele or Magna Mater, and of Ceres , which had been introduced upon recommendations as interpreted from the Sibylline Books . The Sibylline Books motivated the construction of eight temples in ancient Rome, aside from those cults that have been interpreted as mediated by the Sibylline Books simply by the Greek nature of the deity. [ 3 ] Thus, one important effect of the Sibylline Books was their influence on applying Greek cult practice and Greek conceptions of deities to indigenous Roman religion, which was already indirectly influenced through Etruscan religion. As the Sibylline Books had been collected in Anatolia , in the neighborhood of Troy , they recognized the gods and goddesses and the rites observed there and helped introduce them into Roman state worship, a syncretic amalgamation of national deities with the corresponding deities of Greece, and a general modification of the Roman religion. Since they were written in hexameter verse and in Greek, the college of curators was always assisted by two Greek interpreters. The books were kept in the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitol , and, when the temple burned in 83 BC, they were lost. The Roman Senate sent envoys in 76 BC to replace them with a collection of similar oracular sayings, in particular collected from Ilium , Erythrae, Samos , Sicily, and Africa. [ 4 ] This new Sibylline collection was deposited in the restored temple, together with similar sayings of native origin, e.g. those of the Sibyl at Tibur (the ' Tiburtine Sibyl ') of the brothers Marcius, and others, which had been circulating in private hands but which were called in, to be delivered to the Urban Praetor, private ownership of such works being declared illicit, and to be evaluated by the Quindecimviri, who then sorted them, retaining only those that appeared true to them. [ 5 ] From the Capitol they were transferred by Augustus as pontifex maximus in 12 BC, to the Temple of Apollo Palatinus , after they had been examined and copied; there they remained until about AD 405. According to the poet Rutilius Claudius Namatianus , the general Flavius Stilicho (died AD 408) burned them, as they were being used to attack his government. The last known consultation was in 363 CE. [ 6 ] Some supposedly genuine Sibylline verses are preserved in the Book of Marvels or Memorabilia of Phlegon of Tralles (2nd century AD). These represent an oracle, or a combination of two oracles, of seventy hexameters in all. They report the birth of an androgyne , and prescribe a long list of rituals and offerings to the gods. [ citation needed ] Their authenticity has been questioned. [ 7 ] Relationship with the "Sibylline Oracles" The Sibylline Oracles were quoted by the Roman-Jewish historian Josephus (late 1st century) as well as by numerous Christian writers of the second century, including Athenagoras of Athens who, in a letter addressed to Marcus Aurelius in ca. AD 176, quoted verbatim a section of the extant Oracles , in the midst of a lengthy series of other classical and pagan references such as Homer and Hesiod , stating several times that all these works should already be familiar to the Roman Emperor. Copies of the actual Sibylline Books (as reconstituted in 76 BC) were still in the Roman Temple at this time. The Oracles are nevertheless thought by modern scholars to be anonymous compilations that assumed their final form in the fifth century, after the Sibylline Books perished. They are a miscellaneous collection of Jewish and Christian portents of future disasters, that may illustrate the confusions about sibyls that were accumulating among Christians of late antiquity . [ 8 ] Consultations of the Books cited in history An incomplete list of consultations of the Sibylline Books recorded by historians: 461 BC: Strange signs, including a rain of meat, caused two officials to consult the books, which warned of a "concourse of alien men", but the tribunes believed it to be a deliberate invention to halt progress on legal reforms. ( Livy 3) 399 BC: The books were consulted following a pestilence, resulting in the institution of the lectisternium ceremony. ( Livy 5, 13) 348 BC: A plague struck Rome after a brief skirmish with the Gauls and Greeks. Another lectisternium was ordered. (Livy 7, 27) 345 BC: The books were consulted when a "shower of stones rained down and darkness filled the sky during daylight". Publius Valerius Publicola was appointed dictator to arrange a public holiday for religious observances. (Livy 7, 28) 295 BC: They were consulted again following a pestilence, and reports that large numbers of Appius Claudius ' army had been struck by lightning. A Temple was built to Venus near the Circus Maximus . (Livy 10, 31) 293 BC: After yet another plague, the books were consulted, with the prescription being 'that Aesculapius must be brought to Rome from Epidaurus '; however, the Senate, being preoccupied with the Samnite Wars , took no steps beyond performing one day of public prayers to Aesculapius. (Livy 10, 47) 240/238 BC: The Ludi Florales , or "Flower Games", were instituted after consulting the books. 216 BC: When Hannibal annihilated the Roman Legions at Cannae , the books were consulted, and on their recommendation, two Gauls and two Greeks were buried alive in the city's marketplace. [ 9 ] 205–204 BC: During the Second Punic War , upon consultation of the Sibylline Books , an image of Cybele was transferred from Pessinos (Pessinous or Pergamon ) to Rome. An embassy was sent to Attalus I of Pergamon to negotiate the transfer. Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica and Claudia Quinta were said to have received the image of Cybele at Ostia on her arrival in 204 BC. Cybele 's image was placed within the Temple of Victory on the Palatine . In honour of Cybele a lectisternium was performed and her games, the Megalesia , were held. [ 10 ] The image of Cybele was moved to the Temple of the Magna Mater in 191 BC when the temple was dedicated by Marcus Junius Brutus in the consulship of Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica. [ 11 ] A fragment of Valerius Antias from Livy 's Ab Urbe Condita 36.36.4 records that Megalesia were again held in 191 BC and that "[they] were the first to be held with dramatic performances". [ 12 ] 143 BC: Frontinus relates a story in which the Decemvirs consulted the books on another matter and found that a proposed project for the Aqua Marcia was improper, along with the Anio . After a debate in the Senate the project was resumed, presumably the necessity for water outweighed the oracle. Sextus Julius Frontinus, Aqueducts of Rome, Book I, Ch 7. 63 BC: Believing in a prediction of the books that 'three Cornelii' would dominate Rome, Publius Cornelius Lentulus Sura took part in the conspiracy of Catiline (Plutarch, Life of Cicero , XVII) 56 BC: As Romans deliberated sending a force to restore Ptolemy XII to the throne of Egypt, lightning struck the statue of Jupiter on the Alban Mount ; the oracles were consulted, and one was found to read "If the King of Egypt comes to you asking for assistance, refuse him not your friendship, yet do not grant him any army, or else you will have toil and danger". This considerably delayed Ptolemy's return. ( Dio Cassius History of Rome 39:15) 44 BC: According to Suetonius , a sibylline prediction that only a king could triumph over Parthia fueled rumors that Caesar , leader of the then republic, was aspiring to kingship. ( Caesar , 79) 15 AD: When the Tiber River flooded the lower parts of Rome, one of the priests suggested consulting the books, but Emperor Tiberius refused, preferring to keep the divine things secret. (Tacitus, Annales I, 76) 64 AD: The Emperor Nero consulted them following the Great Fire of Rome . (Tacitus, Annales XV, 44) 271 AD: The books were consulted following the Roman defeat at Placentia by the Alamanni . 312 AD: Maxentius consulted the Sibylline Books in preparation for combat with Constantine , who had just taken all of Maxentius' northern Italian cities and was marching on Rome. 363 AD: Julian the Apostate consulted the books in preparation for marching against the Sassanids . The response mailed from Rome "in plain terms warned him not to quit his own territories that year". ( Ammianus Marcellinus , History of Rome , XXIII 1, 7) 405 AD: Stilicho ordered the destruction of the Sibylline Books , possibly because Sibylline prophecies were being used to attack his government in the face of the attack of Alaric I . References ^ Dion. Hal. 6.62.1-6; (Oddly missing from Livy Book 1;) Plin. NH 13.27.88; Gell. I 19; App. From the Kings 9. [1] ^ Orlin 2002;97. ^ See Orlin 2002:97f. ^ "after the burning of the Capitol during the Social War... the verses of the Sibyl, or Sibyls, as the case may be, were collected from Samos, Ilium, and Erythrae, and even in Africa, Sicily, and the Graeco-Italian colonies; the priests being entrusted with the task of sifting out the genuine specimens, so far as should have been possible by human means. " ( Tacitus , Annals , VI.12 . ^ Tacitus, Annals , eo. loc . ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Warrior, Valerie. Roman Religion . Cambridge University Press. ^ Keskiaho, Jesse (January 2013). "Re-visiting the libri Sibyllini: Some remarks on their nature in Roman legend and experience" . Mika Kajava Ed., Studies in Ancient Oracles and Divination, Acta Instituti Romani Finlandiae 40 . ^ Terry, 1899 . ^ Beard, p. 158. ^ For attestations see: Cicero De Haruspicum Responsis 24–28; Varro Lingua Latina 6.15; Diodorus Siculus 34.33.1–6; Livy 29.10.4–11.8, 29.14.1–14; [Verrius Flaccus] Fasti Praenestini April 4; Strabo Geography 12.5.3; Ovid Fasti 4.180–372; Valerius Maximus 8.15.3; Pliny Natural History 7.120; Silius Italicus Punica 17.1–45; Appian The Hannibalic War 56; Festus De verborum significatu S. 51–52 M, P. 237 M; Dio Cassius 17.61; Herodian 1.11.1–5; Arnobius Adversus Nationes 7.49–50; Lactantius Divinae institutiones 2.7.12; Julian Hymn to the Mother of the Gods (Oration V) 159c–161b; Ammianus Marcellinus 22.9.5; Augustine De civitate Dei 2.5, 10.16. Other minor sources exist but these are the major attestations. ^ For attestations see: Livy 36.36.3; Tacitus Annales 4.65; Valerius Maximus 1.8.11. ^ Livy 36.36.3, trans. Sage, E. (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1935) Bibliography Mary Beard (1980). Religions of Rome: Volume 2, A Sourcebook Diels, Hermann Alexander (1890). Sibyllinische Blatter (in German). Jens Fischer (2020). Q. Fabius Pictor, das Orakel von Delphi und die sibyllinischen Bücher Roms – Zur Rolle von Orakeln in Rom und Griechenland, Gymnasium 127 (2020) 535–567 Jens Fischer (2022). Folia ventis turbata – Sibyllinische Orakel und der Gott Apollon zwischen später Republik und augusteischem Principat (Studien zur Alten Geschichte 33), Göttingen 2022 Eric M. Orlin (2002). Temples, Religion, and Politics in the Roman Republic ch. 3 "The Sibylline Books". [ ISBN missing ] "Sibylline Oracles" . Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 25 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 19. Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Sibylline Oracles" . Catholic Encyclopedia . New York: Robert Appleton Company. Singer, Isidore ; et al., eds. (1901–1906). "Sibyl" . The Jewish Encyclopedia . New York: Funk & Wagnalls. George, Alexandra L. "Oracles/Sibyls: 700 BC – AD 300", King's College: History Department, Nov. 2005. Oracles . External links Article in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities v t e Ancient Roman religion and mythology v t e Deities Agenoria Angerona Anna Perenna Apollo Aurora Bellona Bona Dea Carmenta Castor and Pollux Ceres Cloacina Cupid Dea Dia Diana Dies Dīs Pater Egeria Fauna Faunus Flora Fulgora Genius Hercules Janus Juno Jupiter Lares Lares Familiares Liber Libertas Luna Maia Mars Mercury Minerva Neptune Nox Ops Orcus Penates Pluto Pomona Priapus Proserpina Quirinus Salacia Saturn Silvanus Sol Summanus Venus Veritas Vesta Vertumnus Vulcan Abstract deities Abundantia Aequitas Aeternitas Africa Annona Averruncus Bonus Eventus Caelus Concordia Feronia Fides Fortuna Fontus Laverna Pax Pietas Roma Salus Securitas Spes Tranquillitas Terra Victoria Agenoria Angerona Anna Perenna Apollo Aurora Bellona Bona Dea Carmenta Castor and Pollux Ceres Cloacina Cupid Dea Dia Diana Dies Dīs Pater Egeria Fauna Faunus Flora Fulgora Genius Hercules Janus Juno Jupiter Lares Lares Familiares Liber Libertas Luna Maia Mars Mercury Minerva Neptune Nox Ops Orcus Penates Pluto Pomona Priapus Proserpina Quirinus Salacia Saturn Silvanus Sol Summanus Venus Veritas Vesta Vertumnus Vulcan Agenoria Angerona Anna Perenna Apollo Aurora Bellona Bona Dea Carmenta Castor and Pollux Ceres Cloacina Cupid Dea Dia Diana Dies Dīs Pater Egeria Fauna Faunus Flora Fulgora Genius Hercules Janus Juno Jupiter Lares Lares Familiares Lares Familiares Liber Libertas Luna Maia Mars Mercury Minerva Neptune Nox Ops Orcus Penates Pluto Pomona Priapus Proserpina Quirinus Salacia Saturn Silvanus Sol Summanus Venus Veritas Vesta Vertumnus Vulcan Abstract deities Abundantia Aequitas Aeternitas Africa Annona Averruncus Bonus Eventus Caelus Concordia Feronia Fides Fortuna Fontus Laverna Pax Pietas Roma Salus Securitas Spes Tranquillitas Terra Victoria Abundantia Aequitas Aeternitas Africa Annona Averruncus Bonus Eventus Caelus Concordia Feronia Fides Fortuna Fontus Laverna Pax Pietas Roma Salus Securitas Spes Tranquillitas Terra Victoria Legendary figures Aeneas Rhea Silvia Romulus and Remus Numa Pompilius Tullus Hostilius Servius Tullius Ancus Marcius Lucius Tarquinius Priscus Lucius Tarquinius Superbus Kings of Alba Longa Hersilia Aeneas Rhea Silvia Romulus and Remus Numa Pompilius Tullus Hostilius Servius Tullius Ancus Marcius Lucius Tarquinius Priscus Lucius Tarquinius Superbus Kings of Alba Longa Hersilia Legendary beings She-wolf Barnacle goose She-wolf Barnacle goose Texts Virgil Aeneid Ovid Fasti Metamorphoses Propertius Varro Res divinae Sibylline Books Apuleius The Golden Ass Virgil Aeneid Aeneid Ovid Fasti Metamorphoses Fasti Metamorphoses Propertius Varro Res divinae Res divinae Sibylline Books Apuleius The Golden Ass The Golden Ass Concepts and practices Festivals Genius loci Interpretatio graeca Imperial cult Charity Palladium Theology of victory Pomerium Temples Capitolium Cella Celtic Festivals Genius loci Interpretatio graeca Imperial cult Charity Palladium Theology of victory Pomerium Temples Capitolium Cella Celtic Capitolium Cella Celtic Philosophy Cynicism Epicureanism Neoplatonism Peripateticism Pythagoreanism Stoicism Cynicism Epicureanism Neoplatonism Peripateticism Pythagoreanism Stoicism Events Golden Bough Founding of Rome Natale di Roma Rape of the Sabine Women Battle of Lacus Curtius Golden Bough Founding of Rome Natale di Roma Natale di Roma Rape of the Sabine Women Battle of Lacus Curtius Objects Gubernaculum Parabiago Plate Pignora imperii Gubernaculum Parabiago Plate Pignora imperii Variations Gallo-Roman Mysteries Cybele Isis Mithraism Gallo-Roman Mysteries Cybele Isis Mithraism Cybele Isis Mithraism See also Classical mythology Decline Persecution Dii Consentes Etruscan religion Glossary Greek mythology Myth and ritual Classical mythology Decline Persecution Persecution Dii Consentes Etruscan religion Glossary Greek mythology Myth and ritual Ancient Roman religion Classical oracles Lost books Roman mythology Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from September 2017 CS1 German-language sources (de) Pages with missing ISBNs Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Articles incorporating a citation from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia without a Wikisource reference This page was last edited on 5 October 2025, at 14:34 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Dimensions and planes of existence Toggle Dimensions and planes of existence subsection 1.1 Matter/Object — Physical sciences 1.2 Life/Organism — Biological sciences 1.3 Mind/Animal — (Basic) psychological sciences 1.4 Culture/Person — Human social sciences 1.1 Matter/Object — Physical sciences 1.2 Life/Organism — Biological sciences 1.3 Mind/Animal — (Basic) psychological sciences 1.4 Culture/Person — Human social sciences 2 Theoretical joint points Toggle Theoretical joint points subsection 2.1 Quantum gravity 2.2 The modern synthesis 2.3 Behavioral investment theory 2.4 Justification systems theory 2.1 Quantum gravity 2.2 The modern synthesis 2.3 Behavioral investment theory 2.4 Justification systems theory 3 The "problem of psychology" Toggle The "problem of psychology" subsection 3.1 Solution 3.1 Solution 4 Consciousness and human behavior 5 Toward the integration of human knowledge 6 See also 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 External links Tree of knowledge system العربية Español فارسی Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page . ( Learn how and when to remove these messages ) A major contributor to this article appears to have a close connection with its subject. It may require cleanup to comply with Wikipedia's content policies, particularly neutral point of view . Please discuss further on the talk page . See our advice if the article is about you and read our scam warning in case someone asks for money to edit this article. ( October 2020 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines . Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references . ( September 2022 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) A major contributor to this article appears to have a close connection with its subject. It may require cleanup to comply with Wikipedia's content policies, particularly neutral point of view . Please discuss further on the talk page . See our advice if the article is about you and read our scam warning in case someone asks for money to edit this article. ( October 2020 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines . Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references . ( September 2022 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) The tree of knowledge ( ToK ) system is a new [ when? ] map of Big History that traces cosmic evolution across four different planes of existence, identified as Matter, Life, Mind and Culture that are mapped respectively by the physical, biological, psychological and social domains of science. The Tree of Knowledge (ToK) System was developed by Gregg Henriques , who is a professor and core faculty member in the Combined-Integrated Doctoral Program in Clinical and School Psychology at James Madison University . [ 1 ] The ToK System is part of a larger Unified Theory of Knowledge that Henriques describes as a consilient scientific humanistic philosophy for the 21st Century. The official Unified Theory of Knowledge website describes the ToK System as: [ 2 ] [A] theory of scientific knowledge that defines the human knower in relation to the known. It achieves this novel accomplishment by solving the problem of psychology and giving rise to a truly consilient view of the scientific landscape. It accomplishes this via dividing the evolution of behavioral complexity into four different planes of existence...The ToK also characterizes modern empirical natural science as a kind of justification system that functions to map complexity and change. [A] theory of scientific knowledge that defines the human knower in relation to the known. It achieves this novel accomplishment by solving the problem of psychology and giving rise to a truly consilient view of the scientific landscape. It accomplishes this via dividing the evolution of behavioral complexity into four different planes of existence...The ToK also characterizes modern empirical natural science as a kind of justification system that functions to map complexity and change. The outline of the ToK System was first published in 2003 in Review of General Psychology . [ 3 ] Two special issues of the Journal of Clinical Psychology in December 2004 [ 4 ] and January 2005 [ 5 ] were devoted to the elaboration and evaluation of the model. In 2008, a special issue of Theory & Psychology [ 6 ] was devoted to the ToK System. In 2011, Henriques published A New Unified Theory of Psychology . That same year he also launched the blog Theory of Knowledge: A Unified Approach to Psychology and Philosophy on Psychology Today , which remains active. There is also a Theory Of Knowledge Society and discussion listserve that is devoted to discussing Henriques' work and other big picture viewpoints. In some ways, the ToK System reflects a fairly common hierarchy of nature and of the sciences that has been represented in one way or another since the time of Auguste Comte , who in the 19th century used a hierarchical conception of nature to argue for the existence of sociology. It also has clear parallels with Aristotle's conception of the scales of nature and the first four levels of the Great Chain of Being . Despite some overlap with a number of traditional schemes, the ToK System is properly thought of as a new theory of both ontic reality and our scientific knowledge of that reality. One of the most important and salient features of the Tree of Knowledge is how it represents reality as consisting of four different planes of existence. The theory is that, following Matter, Life, Mind and Culture each represent complex adaptive landscapes that are organized and mediated by novel emergent information processing and communication systems. Specifically, DNA/RNA store information that is processed by cells which then engage in intercellular communication to create the plane of existence called Life. Similarly, the brain and nervous system store and process information in animals which then engage in communication networks on the complex adaptive plane called Mind. Finally, linguistic storage and processing and communication between human beings generates the emergence of the Culture-Person plane of existence. The separable planes of existence or dimension of complexity argument is one of the most crucial aspects of the system. Many have argued nature is hierarchically leveled; for example, a list of such levels might be subatomic particles , atoms , molecules , cells , organ structures, multi-celled organisms, consciousness , and society is common. The ToK System embraces a view of nature as levels, but adds the notion that there are also separable dimensions of complexity . The difference becomes particularly clear in the extension of the ToK System into the Periodic Table of Behavior . The Periodic Table of Behavior (PTB) shows that natural science can be arranged in terms of the four fundamental dimensions (i.e., matter, life, mind, and culture) and three fundamental levels of analysis (i.e., part, whole, group). The PTB also demonstrates that behavior is a central concept in science. Epistemologically, natural scientists view the world via a third person behavioral lens. Ontologically, science is about mapping different kinds of behaviors that take place in nature at various levels and dimensions of analysis. The second central insight of the ToK System is that it shows how natural science is a particular kind of justification system that emerges out of Culture based on novel methods and specific epistemological commitments and assumptions (i.e., an exterior view point, quantification and experimentation). This epistemology and methodology functions to justify scientific ontology, which in turn maps the ontic reality. Specifically, the domains of the physical, biological, (basic) psychological and social sciences map the ontic dimensions of matter, life, mind and culture. The Periodic Table of Behavior further shows how science is a justification system that is arranged to map behavioral frequencies at different dimensions of complexity and levels of analysis. Dimensions and planes of existence This section relies largely or entirely on a single source . Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page . Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources at this section. ( April 2024 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) Matter/Object — Physical sciences The dimension of matter refers to the set of material objects and their behaviors through time. In accordance with modern cosmology , matter is theorized to have emerged from a pure energy singularity at the Big Bang . Space and time were also born at such a point. Nonliving material objects range in complexity from subatomic particles to large organic molecules. The physical sciences (i.e., physics , chemistry , geology, astronomy ) describe the behavior of material objects. [ 3 ] Life/Organism — Biological sciences The dimension of life refers to organisms and their behaviors through time. Living objects are considered a unique subset of material objects. Just as quantum particles form the fundamental units of material complexity, genes are the fundamental units of living information. Although many questions about the emergence of life remain unanswered, in accordance with modern biology, the ToK posits that natural selection operating on genetic combinations through time is the unified theory of biology and forms the foundational understanding for the emergence of organic complexity. [ 3 ] Mind/Animal — (Basic) psychological sciences Mind/cognition in the ToK system refers to the set of mental behaviors. Mental behaviors are behaviors of animals mediated by the nervous system that produce a functional effect on the animal-environment relationship. As such, Mind/cognition is essentially synonymous with what behavioral psychologists have meant when they use the term behavior. Thus, a fly avoiding a fly swatter, a rat pushing a bar or a human getting a drink of water are all mental behaviors. Mind is not synonymous with sentience or the capacity for mental experience, although such processes are presumed to emerge in the mental/cognitive dimension. Cognition , in the broad sense of the term is meaning bodily-neuro-social information processing, as in EEEE Cognition: Embodied, Embedded, Enactive, Extended. While cognitive science stands for naturalist study of mind, psychology is an approach grounded in the tradition of humanities, especially philosophy. Thus, by defining mind as mental behavior, Henriques argues that the ToK System provides a way to bridge the epistemological differences between cognitive and behavioral science . [ 3 ] Henriques argues that comparative psychology , ethology, and (animal) cognitive behavioral neuroscience should all be thought of as parts of the discipline that maps the animal-mental domain. Culture/Person — Human social sciences Culture in the ToK system refers to the set of sociolinguistic behaviors, which range from large scale nation states to individual human justifications for particular actions. Just as genetic information processing is associated with the Life dimension and neuronal information processing associated with the Mind dimension, symbolic information processing emerges with the Cultural dimension. [ 3 ] Henriques argues that human cognitive science, human psychology and the social sciences (i.e., anthropology, sociology, political science, and economics) work to map this domain. Theoretical joint points Quantum gravity Quantum gravity refers to the imagined merger between the twin pillars of physical science which are quantum mechanics , the study of the microscopic (e.g., electrons), and general relativity , the science of the macroscopic (e.g., galaxies ). Currently, these two great domains of science cannot be effectively interwoven into a single, physical Theory of Everything , yet progress is being made, most notably through string theory , loop quantum gravity , black hole thermodynamics and the study of the early universe. Some of the difficulties combining these two pillars of physical science are philosophical in nature and it is possible that the macro view of knowledge offered by the ToK may eventually aid in the construction of a coherent theory of quantum gravity. The reason the ToK might help is that it locates scientific knowledge in relationship to the physical universe. The modern synthesis The modern synthesis refers to the merger of genetics with natural selection which occurred in the 1930s and 1940s and offers a reasonably complete framework for understanding the emergence of biological complexity. Although there remain significant gaps in biological knowledge surrounding questions such as the origin of life and the emergence of sexual reproduction, the modern synthesis represents the most complete and well-substantiated joint point. Behavioral investment theory Behavioral investment theory (BIT) is a metatheoretical formulation for the mind, brain and animal behavioral sciences. Henriques proposes that it enables the merger of the selection science of behaviorism with the information science of cognitive neuroscience that has conceptual parallels with the modern synthesis. BIT posits that the nervous system evolved as an increasingly flexible computational control system that coordinates the behavioral expenditure of energy of the animal as a whole. Expenditure of behavioral energy is theorized to be computed on an investment value system built evolutionarily through natural selection operating on genetic combinations and ontogenetically through behavioral selection operating on neural combinations. As such, the current behavioral investments of the animal are conceptualized as the joint product of the two vectors of phylogeny and ontogeny . A unique element of BIT is that it finds a core of agreement and builds bridges between five brain-behavior paradigms: (1) cognitive science ; (2) behavioral science ; (3) evolutionary theory and genetics; (4) neuroscience; and (5) cybernetics / systems theory . David C. Geary noted the similarities between his "motive-to-control" hypothesis and Henriques' Behavioral Investment Theory, which were developed independently of each other. Furthermore, Geary suggested that his model "seem[ed] to fill in many of the proximate mechanisms and evolutionary pressures that define the life-mind joint point, and provided a framework for further development of the mind-culture joint point." [ 7 ] Justification systems theory The justification systems theory (JUST; formerly known as the justification hypothesis) posits that the evolution of language reached a tipping point with emergence of propositional claims. Specifically, propositional claims can be questioned, which generates the "question-answer" dynamic. This creates the problem of justification, which Henriques argues drives both the design of the human self-consciousness system as a mental organ of justification and gives rise to the evolution of the Culture-Person plane of existence. JUST is a novel proposal that allows for both the understanding of the evolution of culture and for identifying what makes humans distinct animals. A basic initial claim of JUST is that the process of justification is a crucial component of human mental behavior at both the individual and societal level. Unlike all other animals, humans everywhere ask for and give explanations for their actions. Arguments, debates, moral dictates, rationalizations, and excuses all involve the process of explaining why one's claims, thoughts or actions are warranted. In virtually every form of social exchange, from warfare to politics to family struggles to science, humans are constantly justifying their behavioral investments to themselves and others. JUST consists of three key postulates: The first is that the evolution of propositional language must have created the problem of justification, which involves three interlocking problems of deciphering what is (1) analytically true and what is (2) good for the group and (3) good for the individual. The second postulate is that the structure and functional design of human consciousness can be understood as a solution to the problem of justification. Specifically, the three domains of human consciousness that Henriques identifies in the Updated Tripartite Model of the (1) experiential; (2) private narrator; and (3) public narrator are directly consistent with adaptive pressures that arise from the logic of the problem of justification. This analysis deepens when one considers the dynamic relationships and filtering that takes place between these three domains. The third postulate is that culture can be understood as large scale justification systems that coordinate the behavior of human populations. Cultural systems are seen to evolve much in the same way as organisms do in biological evolution: there is a process of variation, selection and retention of belief systems. The "problem of psychology" The ToK System emerged as a consequence of Henriques wrestling with what he calls "the problem of psychology". Henriques argues that the most difficult problem in psychology as a discipline is that while there is incredible diversity offered by different approaches to psychology, and there is no consensus model of what psychology actually is. [ 8 ] [ 9 ] Specifically, Henriques argues that the field lacks a clear definition, an agreed upon subject matter, and a coherent conceptual framework . The problem has been long standing, identified as the "crisis" by Lev Vygotsky in the mid 1920s. Henriques further argues that the patent tendency of psychology has been toward theoretical and substantial fragmentation and increasing insularity among the "specialties." In other words, the discipline has fragmented into different schools of thought and methodology, with no overall framework to interpret and integrate the research of different areas. At its best, the different approaches are a strength of psychology; different approaches lead to novel ideas, and prevent psychologists from clinging to a paradigm that fails to explain a phenomenon. At its worst, adherents of one particular school cling to their beliefs concerning the relative importance of their research and disregard or are ignorant of different approaches. In most cases, individual psychologists have to determine for themselves which elements of which perspective to apply, and how to integrate them into their overall understanding. Henriques argues that the problem of psychology is a central feature of modern knowledge systems. In A New Unified Theory of Psychology , he described it as follows: The problem of psychology is the joint observation that the field cannot be coherently defined and yet it connects more deeply than any other discipline to the three great branches of learning. Taken together, these observations suggest that the problem of psychology is a profound problem in academia at large. This conclusion is bolstered by the fact that as psychology has lumbered along acquiring findings but not foundational clarity, the fragmentation of human knowledge has grown exponentially. All of this suggests that the question, "What is psychology?" is profoundly important, one of the central questions in all of philosophy. Asking the right questions is often the most important step in getting the right answer. My interest in psychotherapy integration ultimately led me to ask the question, "What is psychology?”. Although I had no idea at the time, it turns out that this is the right question. And, as startling as it sounds, because psychology connects to so many different domains, the correct answer to it opens up a whole new vision for integrating human knowledge. The problem of psychology is the joint observation that the field cannot be coherently defined and yet it connects more deeply than any other discipline to the three great branches of learning. Taken together, these observations suggest that the problem of psychology is a profound problem in academia at large. This conclusion is bolstered by the fact that as psychology has lumbered along acquiring findings but not foundational clarity, the fragmentation of human knowledge has grown exponentially. All of this suggests that the question, "What is psychology?" is profoundly important, one of the central questions in all of philosophy. Asking the right questions is often the most important step in getting the right answer. My interest in psychotherapy integration ultimately led me to ask the question, "What is psychology?”. Although I had no idea at the time, it turns out that this is the right question. And, as startling as it sounds, because psychology connects to so many different domains, the correct answer to it opens up a whole new vision for integrating human knowledge. The reason for psychology's fragmentation, according to the ToK System, is that there has been no meta-theoretical frame that allows scholars to agree on the basic questions that need to be addressed. As such, the different schools of thought in psychology are like the blind men who each grab a part of the elephant and proclaim they have discovered its true nature. With its novel depiction of evolving dimensions of complexity, the ToK allows scholars finally to see the elephant. In his 2003 Review of General Psychology paper, [ 8 ] Henriques used the ToK System with the attempt to clarify and align the views of B.F. Skinner and Sigmund Freud . These luminaries were chosen because when one considers their influence and historical opposition, it can readily be argued that they represent two schools of thought that are the most difficult to integrate. Henriques used the meta-perspective offered by the ToK to argue how one can retain the key insights from each school of thought, identify errors and points of confusion, and integrate the insights into a coherent whole. Cultural and personality psychologist, Michael Katzko, [ 10 ] however critiques Henriques' position on "the problem of psychology": There is a very good reason for skepticism regarding the repeated claims that the one unique problem of psychology, applicable across the entire discipline, has been identified and that the ToK System solves it. The reason is given by the detail with which alternatives have been worked out, be they historical studies of institutional development or critical commentaries on the rhetorical structure of psychology's literature. [ 11 ] There is a very good reason for skepticism regarding the repeated claims that the one unique problem of psychology, applicable across the entire discipline, has been identified and that the ToK System solves it. The reason is given by the detail with which alternatives have been worked out, be they historical studies of institutional development or critical commentaries on the rhetorical structure of psychology's literature. [ 11 ] Solution The problem of psychology, according to the ToK, is its conceptual incoherence, which Henriques identifies by the following: When the various conceptions of psychology (e.g., behavioral, humanistic, cognitive) are viewed through the lens of the ToK System, psychology spans two different dimensions of complexity: the mental and the cultural. In other words, the discipline has historically spanned two fundamentally separate problems: If, as previously thought, nature simply consisted of levels of complexity, psychology would not be crisply defined in relationship to biology or the social sciences. And, indeed, it is frequently suggested that psychology exists in an amorphous space between biology and the social sciences. However, with its dimension of complexity depiction, the ToK System suggests that psychology can be crisply defined as the science of mind, which is the third dimension of complexity. Furthermore, because human behavior exists in the fourth dimension, psychology must be divided into two broad scientific domains of Psychological formalism is defined as the science of mind and corresponds to the behavior of animal objects. Human psychology is considered to be a unique subset of psychological formalism that deals with human behavior at the level of the individual. Because human behavior is immersed in the larger socio-cultural context (level four in the ToK System), human psychology is considered a hybrid discipline that merges the pure science of psychology with the social sciences. It is important to point out that there are other disciplines the ToK System would classify as “hybrids.” Molecular genetics, for example, is a hybrid between chemistry and biology and neuroscience is a hybrid between biology and psychology. As with Henriques' proposed conception of human psychology, both of these disciplines adopt an object level perspective (molecular and cellular, respectively) on phenomena that simultaneously exist as part of meta-level system processes (life and mind, respectively). [ 9 ] Though David A. F. Haaga "congratulate[d] Dr. Henriques' ambitious, scholarly, provocative paper", and "found the Tree of Knowledge taxonomy, the theoretical joint points, the evolutionary history, and the levels of emergent properties highly illuminating", he asks the rhetorical questions, If it is so difficult to define terms such as 'psychology' with such precision, why bother? Why not just agree that we all have at least a rough idea of what psychology is, and take the rest of the afternoon off? After all, if theoretical or empirical work improves our understanding of some aspect of the world or our fellow people, or improves our ability to help people enhance their physical or emotional well being, what difference does it make whether this work is considered a part of psychology, of cognitive science, of behavioral neuroscience, of public health, or what have you? This raises the question of what definitions in general are good for. [ 12 ] If it is so difficult to define terms such as 'psychology' with such precision, why bother? Why not just agree that we all have at least a rough idea of what psychology is, and take the rest of the afternoon off? After all, if theoretical or empirical work improves our understanding of some aspect of the world or our fellow people, or improves our ability to help people enhance their physical or emotional well being, what difference does it make whether this work is considered a part of psychology, of cognitive science, of behavioral neuroscience, of public health, or what have you? This raises the question of what definitions in general are good for. [ 12 ] In a similar vein, Scott O. Lilienfeld, who described Henriques' effort as "thoughtful", contended that psychology is "an inherently fuzzy concept that resists precise definition" and that "attempts to define psychology [would be] likely to hamper rather than foster consilience across disciplines". Lilienfield went on further to suggest that the scientist-practitioner gap in psychology lies not in definitional issues, but in different "epistemic attitudes" between these two groups. He stated that scientists have an epistemic attitude of empiricism , (where questions regarding human nature are settled by scientific evidence), and that practitioners have an epistemic attitude of romanticism , (where questions of human nature are settled by intuition). Lilienfeld suggested that the solution to the scientist-practitioner gulf isn't definitional, but in "train[ing] future clinical scientists to appreciate the proper places of romanticism and empiricism within science". [ 13 ] Consciousness and human behavior A frequent question and point of confusion in the ToK System is the definition and meaning of consciousness . As mentioned above, mind is not synonymous with consciousness. And, to understand consciousness from a ToK vantage point, it is crucial to recognize that the term is often ambiguous in its meaning. Two primary meanings are sentience , which is the capacity for mental experience and self-awareness , which is the capacity to be aware of one's awareness. Sentience is conceptualized as a "level 3" phenomenon, possessed by many animals other than humans and is defined as a "perceived" electro-neuro-chemical representation of animal-environment relations. The ingredient of neurological behavior that allows for the emergence of mental experience is considered the "hard" problem of consciousness and the ToK System does not address this question explicitly. In contrast, through the Justification Hypothesis (see below), the ToK System involves a very direct analysis of the other issue of consciousness, that of self-awareness . Another frequent question that is raised is "Where does individual human behavior fall on the ToK?" To analyze human behavior from the context of the ToK, one uses the ToK like a prism to separate the dimensions of behavior into physiochemical, biogenetic, neuropsychological and sociolinguistic. Thus if we imagine a conversation between a husband and wife as follows: Wife: “You are late again.” Husband: “Please, not now. It was a stressful day, traffic was bad, and you know that if work needs to be done, I can’t just leave it.” Wife: “You are late again.” Husband: “Please, not now. It was a stressful day, traffic was bad, and you know that if work needs to be done, I can’t just leave it.” The words represent the sociolinguistic dimension and are understood as a function of justification. Justification systems are seen both at the level of individual, micro-social and societal (i.e., the context of justification in which men work and women stay at home). The actions of the husband and wife in terms of facial expression , body movement, etc. are seen as the mental dimension and are understood as a function of behavioral investment. The physiological make up of the organ systems and cells of each body is seen as the biogenetic dimension. Finally, the position, temperature, molecular make up is seen as the physiochemical dimension. Each of the more basic dimensions represent conditions of possibility that allow for the emergence of the higher dimension of process. Thus, insufficient oxygen disrupts organic processes which in turn renders neuropsychological and sociolinguistic processes impossible. Toward the integration of human knowledge As stated above, the ToK System proposes a new epistemology with the goal of moving academic knowledge toward what E.O. Wilson termed consilience . Consilience is the interlocking of fact and theory into a coherent, holistic view of knowledge. Henriques argues that the ToK affords new perspectives on how knowledge is obtained because it depicts how science emerges from culture and that the four dimensions of complexity correspond to four broad classes of science: the physical, biological, psychological and social sciences. Henriques further argues that developing such a system for integrating knowledge is not just an academic enterprise. He suggests that in an increasingly complex world, the fragmented state of knowledge can be seen as one of the most pressing social problems of our time. Henriques also believes that history seems to attest that the absence of a collective worldview ostensibly condemns humanity to an endless series of conflicts that inevitably stem from incompatible, partially correct, locally situated justification systems. Thus, from Henriques' perspective, there are good reasons for believing that if there was a shared, general background of explanation, humanity might be able to achieve much greater levels of harmonious relations. In a 2008 article on the ToK, [ 14 ] Henriques cites Oliver Reiser 's 1958 call for unifying scientific knowledge that Henriques implies is similar in theme to the ToK: With its depiction of the dimensions of complexity and interlocking theoretical joint points, Henriques' believes that his ToK System offers new avenues that might allow scholars to meet Reiser’s call for academic synthesis. Henriques, like Reiser, believes that with a shared sense of purpose and a common background of explanation, people might yet be able to integrate bodies of knowledge into a unified interpretation of humanity, with humanity's place in nature and its potentialities for creating the good society. See also Tree of knowledge (philosophy) by René Descartes Tinbergen's four questions Behavioral repertoire Consilience Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge – 1998 book by E.O. Wilson Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge – 1998 book by E.O. Wilson Descriptive psychology General System Theory Psychological behaviorism Social meaning-making The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution – 1959 book by C. P. Snow Unified theory of cognition Unity of science Metasystem transition References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} " "About Me" section of the ToK System website" . Archived from the original on 5 December 2008 . Retrieved 3 January 2009 . ^ " "The Tree of Knowledge System" section of the 8 key ideas in the Unified Theory of Knowledge website" . Archived from the original on 2 July 2022 . Retrieved 2 July 2022 . ^ a b c d e Henriques, G.R. (2003). The Tree of Knowledge System and the Theoretical Unification of Psychology. Archived 25 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine Review of General Psychology, 7, 150–182. ^ "Defining Psychology: Articles and Commentaries on a New Unified Theory (Part 1): Journal of Clinical Psychology: Vol 60, No 12" . Archived from the original on 3 March 2011 . Retrieved 30 July 2021 – via Wiley Online Library. ^ "Defining Psychology: Articles and Commentaries on a New Unified Theory (Part 2): Journal of Clinical Psychology: Vol 61, No 1" . Archived from the original on 16 December 2012 . Retrieved 30 July 2021 – via Wiley Online Library. ^ "Theory & Psychology - Volume 18, Number 6, Dec 01, 2008" . Sage Journals . ^ Geary, D. C. (2005). The motivation to control and the origin of mind: Exploring the life-mind joint point in the tree of knowledge. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 21–46. ^ a b Henriques, G.R. (2003). The tree of knowledge system and the theoretical unification of psychology. Archived 25 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine Review of General Psychology, 7, 150–182. ^ a b Henriques, G.R. (2004). Psychology Defined Archived 10 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine . Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1207–1221. ^ Homepage of Michael Katzko ^ Katzko, M. W. (2008). Pruning the Tree of Knowledge. Theory & Psychology , 18, 817–828. Abstract ^ Haaga, D.A.F. (2004). Defining psychology: What can it do for us? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1227–1230. ^ Lilienfeld, S.O. (2004). Defining psychology: Is it worth the trouble? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1249–1253. ^ Henriques, G.R. (2008). The problem of psychology and the integration of human knowledge: Contrasting Wilson's Consilience with the Tree of Knowledge System. Theory & Psychology, 18, 731–755. Final draft ^ Reiser, O.L. (1958). The integration of human knowledge. Boston: Porter Sargent. Bibliography Anchin, J.C. (2008). The critical role of the dialectic in viable metatheory: A commentary on Henriques' Tree of Knowledge System for integrating human knowledge. Theory & Psychology, 18, 801–816. Full text Calhoun, L.G. (2004). The unification of psychology: A noble quest. Journal of Clinical Psychology , 60, 1283–1289. Abstract Geary, D. C. (2005). The motivation to control and the origin of mind: Exploring the life-mind joint point in the tree of knowledge. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 21–46. Full text Gilbert, P. (2004). A much needed macro level view: A commentary on Henriques’ psychology defined. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1223–1226. Full text Goertzen, J.R. (2008). On the possibility of unification: The reality and nature of the crisis in psychology. Theory & Psychology, 18, 829–852. Full text Haaga, D.A.F. (2004). Defining psychology: What can it do for us? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1227–1230. Full text Hayes, S.C. (2004). Taxonomy as a contextualist views it. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1231–1236. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2008). The problem of psychology and the integration of human knowledge: Contrasting Wilson's Consilience with the Tree of Knowledge System. Theory & Psychology, 18, 731–755. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2005). A new vision for the field: Introduction to the second special issue on the unified theory. Journal of Clinical Psychology , 61, 3–6. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2005). Toward a useful mass movement. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 121–139. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2004). Psychology Defined. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1207–1221. Full text Archived 10 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine Henriques, G.R. (2004). The development of the unified theory and the future of psychotherapy. Psychotherapy Bulletin, 39, 16–21. Final draft Henriques, G.R., & Cobb, H.C. (2004). Introduction to the special issues on the unified theory. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1203–1205. Full text Henriques, G.R., & Sternberg, R. J. (2004). Unified professional psychology: Implications for combined-integrated doctoral training programs. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1051–1063. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2003). The Tree of Knowledge System and the Theoretical Unification of Psychology. Review of General Psychology, 7, 150–182. Full text Archived 25 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine . Henriques, G.R. (2002). The harmful dysfunction analysis and the differentiation between mental disorder and disease. Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice , 1, 157–173. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2000). Depression: Disease or behavioral shutdown mechanism? Journal of Science and Health Policy, 1, 152–165. Full text Jones, R. (2005). From that dirty little science grows a Tree of Knowledge. The Madison, 1, 36–45. Full text Katzko, M.W. (2008). Pruning the Tree of Knowledge. Theory & Psychology, 18, 817–828. Full text Katzko, M.W. (2004). Psychology's dilemma: An institutional neurosis? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1237–1242. Full text Kihlstrom, J.F. (2004). Unity within psychology, and unity between science and practice. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1243–1247. Full text Lilienfeld, S.O. (2004). Defining psychology: Is it worth the trouble? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1249–1253. Full text Mayer, J.D. (2004). How does psychotherapy influence personality? A theoretical integration. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1291–1315. Full text Presbury, J. (2004). Rooting the tree of knowledge: A response to Henriques’ psychology defined. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1255–1258. Full text Quackenbush, S.W. (2008). Theoretical unification as a practical project: Kant and the Tree of Knowledge System. Theory & Psychology, 18, 757–777. Full text Quackenbush, S.W. (2005). Remythologizing culture: Narrativity, justification, and the politics of personalization. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 67–80. Full text Archived 16 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine Rand, K.L., & Ilardi, S.S. (2005). Toward a consilient science of psychology. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 7–20. Full text Shaffer, L.S. (2008). Religion as a large-scale justification system: Does the Justification Hypothesis explain animistic attribution? Theory & Psychology, 18, 779–799. Full text Shaffer, L.S. (2006). Durkheim's aphorism, the Justification Hypothesis, and the nature of social facts. Sociological Viewpoints, fall issue, 57–70. Full text Shaffer, L.S. (2005). From mirror self-recognition to the looking glass self: Exploring the justification hypothesis. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 47–65 . Full text Shealy, C.N. (2005). Justifying the justification hypothesis: Scientific-humanism, Equilintegration (EI) Theory, and the Beliefs, Events, and Values Inventory (BEVI). Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 81–106. Full text Slife, B. (2005). Testing the limits of Henriques' proposal: Wittgensteinian lessons and hermenuetic dialogue. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 107–120. Full text Stam, H.J. (2004). Unifying psychology: Epistemological act or disciplinary maneuver? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1259–1262. Full text Stanovich, K.E. (2004). Metarepresentation and the great cognitive divide: A commentary on Henriques' "Psychology Defined". Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1263–1266. Full text Stricker, G. (2004). The unification of psychology and psychological organizations. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1267–1269. Full text Vazire, S., & Robins, R.W. (2004). Beyond the Justification Hypothesis: A Broader Theory of the Evolution of Self-Consciousness. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1271–1273. Full text Viney, W. (2004). Pluralism in the sciences is not easily dismissed. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1275–1278. Full text Yanchar, S.C. (2004). Some discontents with theoretical unification. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1279–1281. Full text External links The Official Tree of Knowledge Website Archived 6 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine Tree of Knowledge System/Expert article by Gregg Henriques at the Psychology Wiki This page uses content from the English-language version of Psychology Wiki . The original article was at Tree of Knowledge System/Expert article by Gregg Henriques . The list of authors can be seen in the page history . The text of both The Psychology Wiki and Wikipedia is available under the GNU Free Documentation License . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Meteorological history 2 Preparations and background 3 Impact Toggle Impact subsection 3.1 Carolinas 3.2 Mid-Atlantic 3.3 New England 3.1 Carolinas 3.2 Mid-Atlantic 3.3 New England 4 Aftermath Toggle Aftermath subsection 4.1 Retirement 4.1 Retirement 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References Hurricane Diane Español Esperanto Français Português Simple English ไทย 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Weather map of Hurricane Diane on August 17 as it approaches landfall in North Carolina Meteorological history Formed August 7, 1955 Extratropical August 21, 1955 Dissipated August 23, 1955 Category 2 hurricane 1-minute sustained ( SSHWS / NWS ) Highest winds 105 mph (165 km/h) Lowest pressure 969 mbar ( hPa ); 28.61 inHg Overall effects Fatalities ≥184 Damage $832 million (1955 USD ) Areas affected North Carolina , Mid-Atlantic states , New England IBTrACS Part of the 1955 Atlantic hurricane season Hurricane Diane was the first Atlantic hurricane to cause more than an estimated $1 billion in damage ($12 billion in 2024) [ 1 ] , including direct costs and the loss of business and personal revenue. [ nb 1 ] It formed on August 7 from a tropical wave between the Lesser Antilles and Cape Verde . Diane initially moved west-northwestward with little change in its intensity, but began to strengthen rapidly after turning to the north-northeast. On August 12, the hurricane reached peak sustained winds of 105 mph (165 km/h), making it a Category 2 hurricane . Gradually weakening after veering back west, Diane made landfall near Wilmington, North Carolina , as a strong tropical storm on August 17, just five days after Hurricane Connie struck near the same area. Diane weakened further after moving inland, at which point the United States Weather Bureau noted a decreased threat of further destruction. The storm turned to the northeast, and warm waters from the Atlantic Ocean helped produce record rainfall across the northeastern United States. On August 19, Diane emerged into the Atlantic Ocean southeast of New York City, becoming extratropical two days later and completely dissipating by August 23. The first area affected by Diane was North Carolina, which suffered coastal flooding but little wind and rain damage. After the storm weakened in Virginia, it maintained an area of moisture that resulted in heavy rainfall after interacting with the Blue Ridge Mountains , a process known as orographic lift . Flooding affected roads and low-lying areas along the Potomac River . The northernmost portion of Delaware also saw freshwater flooding, although to a much lesser extent than adjacent states. Diane produced heavy rainfall in eastern Pennsylvania, causing the worst floods on record there, largely in the Poconos and along the Delaware River . Rushing waters demolished about 150 road and rail bridges and breached or destroyed 30 dams. The swollen Brodhead Creek virtually submerged a summer camp, killing 37 people. Throughout Pennsylvania, the disaster killed 101 people and caused an estimated $70 million in damage ($822 million in 2024). [ 1 ] Additional flooding spread through the northwest portion of neighboring New Jersey, forcing hundreds of people to evacuate and destroying several bridges, including one built in 1831. Storm damage was evident but less significant in southeastern New York. Damage from Diane was heaviest in Connecticut, where rainfall peaked at 16.86 in (428 mm) near Torrington . The storm produced the state's largest flood on record, which effectively split the state into two by destroying bridges and cutting communications. All major streams and valleys were flooded, and 30 stream gauges reported their highest levels on record. The Connecticut River at Hartford reached a water level of 30.6 ft (9.3 m), the third highest on record there. The flooding destroyed a large section of downtown Winsted , much of which was never rebuilt. Record-high tides and flooded rivers heavily damaged Woonsocket, Rhode Island . In Massachusetts, flood water levels surpassed those during the 1938 New England Hurricane , breaching multiple dams and inundating adjacent towns and roads. Throughout New England, 206 dams were damaged or destroyed, and about 7,000 people were injured. Nationwide, Diane killed at least 184 people and destroyed 813 houses, with another 14,000 homes heavily damaged. In the hurricane's wake, eight states were declared federal disaster areas, and the name Diane was retired . Meteorological history Hurricane Diane originated in a tropical wave first observed as a tropical depression on August 7 between the Lesser Antilles and Cape Verde . [ 2 ] The system moved generally to the west-northwest, intensifying into a tropical storm on August 9. [ 3 ] By the time the Weather Bureau first classified the storm on August 10, Diane was south of the Bermuda high , a semi-permanent ridge in the jet stream just east of Nova Scotia . Ships in the region of the storm reported winds of 45 mph (72 km/h). During the next day, the Hurricane Hunters reported no increase in strength, and Diane initially remained disorganized. [ 2 ] The storm interacted with Hurricane Connie to its northwest in a process known as the Fujiwhara effect , in which Diane turned toward the north. Quick intensification ensued, potentially due to interaction with a cold-core low that increased atmospheric instability . [ 2 ] On August 12, the storm rapidly intensified into a hurricane. [ 3 ] The intensification was so quick that a ship southeast of the center believed Diane was undergoing a loop due to a steady drop in barometric pressure , despite moving away from the hurricane. [ 2 ] At its peak, Diane developed a well-defined eye about 30 mi (48 km) in diameter, described by reconnaissance aircraft as taking the shape of an "inverted teacup". The strongest winds were located in the northeast quadrant, where there was a secondary pressure minimum located 62 mi (100 km) northeast of the eye. [ 2 ] After moving to the north for about a day, Diane resumed its westward motion on August 13, after Hurricane Connie to the northwest had weakened. That day, Diane reached its lowest pressure of 969 mbar (28.6 inHg), [ 2 ] and peak winds of 105 mph (170 km/h); originally the hurricane was analyzed to reach peak winds of 120 mph (195 km/h), although the large size and slow forward speed suggested the lower winds. It maintained its peak winds for about 12 hours, [ 4 ] after which it weakened due to cooler air in the region. By August 15, the eye had become poorly defined, and winds steadily weakened. As it approached land, its center deteriorated, with minimal precipitation near the center; the eye was observed on a radar installed in July 1955. On August 17, Diane made landfall on the coast of North Carolina near Wilmington . [ 2 ] Pressure at landfall was estimated at 986 millibars (29.1 inHg), accompanied by winds just under hurricane intensity. [ 5 ] Diane struck the state only five days after Hurricane Connie struck the same general area. [ 3 ] Diane quickly weakened as a tropical storm over the mountainous terrain of central North Carolina. [ 4 ] The associated area of precipitation expanded and spread away from the center to the north and northeast. [ 6 ] The weakening system turned to the north and recurved toward the northeast through Virginia after a ridge built in from the west. [ 7 ] It did not interact much with the non-tropical westerlies , and as a result it remained a distinct tropical cyclone over land. Convection redeveloped as the storm approached the Atlantic coast once again. [ 6 ] Diane passed through the Mid-Atlantic states , exiting New Jersey on August 19 into the Atlantic Ocean southeast of New York City. Paralleling the southern coast of New England , the storm later accelerated east-northeastward, becoming extratropical on August 21. Passing south and east of Newfoundland , the remnants of Diane accelerated and restrengthened slightly while moving to the northeast. Late on August 23, the storm dissipated between Greenland and Iceland. [ 4 ] Preparations and background Late on August 14, more than two days before Diane made landfall, the United States Weather Bureau issued a hurricane alert from Georgia through North Carolina. On August 15, the agency issued a hurricane warning from Brunswick, Georgia to Wilmington, North Carolina, although the warning was later extended to the south and north to Fernandina, Florida and Cape Hatteras, North Carolina , respectively. The agency also issued storm warnings southward to Saint Augustine, Florida and northward to Atlantic City, New Jersey , including the Chesapeake and Delaware bays. Throughout the warned region, small ships were advised to remain at port. [ 8 ] Before Diane made landfall, the North Carolina National Guard assisted in evacuating people near the Pamlico River , and 700 residents left their homes near New Bern ; thousands of tourists also evacuated. [ 9 ] The threat of the hurricane forced the planned retirement ceremony for Admiral Robert Carney to be transferred from an aircraft carrier in Norfolk, Virginia to an academy dormitory. [ 10 ] All aircraft at Marine Corps Air Station Cherry Point were flown to safer locations further inland. [ 11 ] All hurricane warnings were dropped after Diane moved inland. [ 8 ] Forecasters downplayed the threat of Diane after it weakened over Virginia; [ 12 ] the Weather Bureau agreed they did not foresee the extent of the rain that would occur, instead calling for just "some local flooding". [ 13 ] The agency later admitted they "goofed" in downplaying the storm's destructive potential after weakening, [ 14 ] noting their lack of experience with extreme rainfall events. [ 15 ] Once the storm moved ashore, the Weather Bureau transferred official forecasting duties to regional offices, and local newspapers also issued their own forecasts. [ 14 ] The Springfield Daily News in Massachusetts noted that "moderate rains [were] possible" in its daily weather forecast ahead of the storm. [ 16 ] Still, flood warnings were issued, with stream flooding forecasts of over 12 hours in advance. Along smaller rivers, including the Lehigh , Schuylkill , and Farmington , forecasts were issued every few hours. [ 8 ] In the summer of 1955, the eastern United States experienced generally hot and dry weather, leading to drought conditions and decreased water levels. [ 17 ] When Hurricane Connie struck, its rainfall moistened the soil and heightened creeks throughout the Mid-Atlantic and New England. [ 8 ] Hurricane Diane struck North Carolina just five days later and affected the same general area. [ 17 ] After floods in 1936, the United States federal government enacted plans to prevent future devastating floods, although they made no progress by the time Connie and Diane struck in 1955. [ 18 ] Along the Delaware River in the 1930s, state legislatures in New Jersey and Pennsylvania had established a commission that worked to clean up polluted water, but the legislators and commission blocked federal help, comparing it to European socialism ; this was in contrast to the federally funded Tennessee Valley Authority , which mitigated flooding along the Tennessee River . [ 19 ] Impact Hurricane Diane's path over the eastern United States brought heavy rainfall, fueled by unusually moist air resulting from abnormally high sea surface temperatures . [ 20 ] The worst flooding was in eastern Pennsylvania, northern New Jersey, southeastern New York, and southern New England. [ 8 ] Of the 287 stream gauges in the region, 129 reported record levels during the course of the event. Many streams reported discharge rates of more than double the previous records. [ 17 ] Most of the flooding occurred along small rivers that rose to flood stage within hours, largely impacting populated areas; [ 8 ] there were around 30 million people in the region affected by the floods. [ 17 ] Overall, 813 houses were destroyed, [ 21 ] with 14,000 heavily damaged. [ 22 ] The storms damage caused over 35,000 families to re locate. [ 23 ] The floods also severed infrastructure and affected several summer camps. [ 8 ] Damage to public utilities was estimated at $79 million. Flooding in rural areas resulted in landslides in the mountains, while destroyed crops cost an estimated $7 million. Hundreds of miles of roads and bridges were also destroyed, accounting for $82 million in damage. [ 21 ] Damage from Diane's winds were generally minor. [ 17 ] The hurricane caused $831.7 million in damage, [ 24 ] of which $600 million was in New England, [ 2 ] making it the costliest hurricane in American history at the time. [ 21 ] Taking into account indirect losses, such as loss of wages and business earnings, Diane was described as "the first billion dollar hurricane." [ 2 ] This contributed to 1955 being the costliest Atlantic hurricane season on record at the time. [ 2 ] Overall, there were at least 184 deaths, potentially as many as 200. [ 25 ] Carolinas The strongest sustained winds associated with Diane's landfall in North Carolina reached 50 mph (80 km/h) in Hatteras , with gusts to 74 mph (119 km/h) in Wilmington. Any hurricane-force gusts were likely very sporadic and isolated in nature. Tides ran 6 to 8 ft (1.8 to 2.4 m) above normal near Wilmington, and waves 12 ft (3.7 m) in height struck the coast. The resultant storm surge damaged beach houses, flooded coastal roads, and destroyed seawalls damaged by Hurricane Connie a few days prior. [ 2 ] [ 9 ] The center of the storm passed over Wilmington without much of a decrease in winds, suggesting the eye had largely dissipated in the weakening tropical cyclone. Little precipitation fell in and around the city, [ 2 ] though precipitation was more substantial elsewhere in the state, peaking at 7.04 in (179 mm) in New Bern. At Oakway in neighboring South Carolina, rainfall amounted to 2.39 in (61 mm). [ 26 ] Mid-Atlantic After Diane crossed into Virginia, it dropped heavy rainfall of over 10 in (250 mm) in 24 hours in the Blue Ridge Mountains , [ 8 ] peaking at 11.72 in (298 mm) in Big Meadows . [ 27 ] There, the rains were enhanced by moist air rising over the mountain peaks and condensing, a process known as orographic lift . [ 8 ] Rainfall of over 3 in (76 mm) occurred throughout Virginia, as well as into the Eastern Panhandle of West Virginia , [ 28 ] where 5.71 in (145 mm) was reported at Stony River Reservoir . Similar precipitation amounts fell through Delaware, including 3.27 in (83 mm) at the National Arboretum in Washington, D.C. [ 27 ] Rivers across the region rose above flood stage, including the James River which crested at 30.4 ft (9.3 m) in Columbia, Virginia , which was 14.6 ft (4.5 m) above flood stage. [ 8 ] High amounts of rainfall accrued in eastern Pennsylvania, peaking at 11.11 in (282 mm) in Pecks Pond in the northeast portion of the state. [ 27 ] [ 28 ] As with Virginia, the heaviest rainfall occurred due to orographic lift near a mountain. [ 8 ] In neighboring New Jersey, the highest precipitation was 8.10 in (206 mm) near Sussex . Rainfall in New York peaked at 9.05 in (230 mm) in Lake Mohonk . [ 27 ] In Virginia, severe flooding occurred near Richmond and along the Blue Ridge Mountains. Near the coast, Diane damaged large areas of farmlands due to slow-moving floods. In the state, 21 gauges reported their highest levels on record. [ 17 ] High levels along the Potomac River flooded low-lying portions of Virginia and Washington, D.C. [ 29 ] Wind gusts reached 62 mph (100 km/h) in Roanoke . [ 12 ] In the state, flooding covered several roads, prompting closures. [ 30 ] Due to the flat terrain, flooding in Delaware was described by the United States Geological Survey as "comparably mild". Flooding along the Brandywine Creek was at least the fifth highest in 45 years. [ 17 ] Flooding was worst in the northernmost portion of the state. [ 31 ] Flooding began in many streams in eastern Pennsylvania on August 18. The Delaware River crested at over 40 ft (12 m) in Easton , which was 4 ft (1.2 m) above the previous record set in 1903. In Allentown , the Lehigh River crested at 23.4 ft (7.1 m), surpassing the previous record of 21.7 ft (6.6 m) set in 1942. [ 8 ] The floods were the worst in record across eastern portions of the state, notably in the Poconos and along all tributaries of the Delaware River from Honesdale to Philadelphia. Lake Wallenpaupack and other reservoirs mitigated flooding. Floods destroyed 17 bridges and 55 mi (89 km) of track along the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad , which is the primary rail line in northeastern Pennsylvania. [ 17 ] Damage to the line totaled several million dollars, and overall railroad damage in the state totaled $16 million. [ 21 ] Hundreds of cars were damaged in the region. [ 17 ] Damage extended into Philadelphia due to flooding along the Schuylkill River, but the damage was minor. [ 21 ] In the small village of Upper Black Eddy , hundreds of people became homeless, and the post office was washed away. [ 32 ] Statewide, the floods destroyed or breached 30 dams, and destroyed about 150 road of rail bridges. [ 31 ] Flooding left home and factory damage in the Allentown area. [ 12 ] In the Poconos in Pennsylvania, the Brodhead Creek nearly destroyed a camp, [ 8 ] killing 37 people, mostly children. [ 17 ] Many people at the camp fled to a lodge that was ultimately destroyed. [ 12 ] The Brodhead Creek also washed out a bridge along U.S. Route 209 between Stroudsburg and East Stroudsburg , flooding both cities. [ 17 ] There were about 75 deaths in the area, [ 8 ] and another 10 deaths occurred in Greentown due to flooding along the Lackawaxen River . [ 21 ] Overall, there were 101 deaths in the state, [ 17 ] and damage totaled at least $70 million. [ 21 ] In New Jersey, flooding largely occurred north of Trenton and west of Perth Amboy ; [ 17 ] rainfall in the southern two–thirds of the state was less than 3 in (76 mm). [ 12 ] The three major rivers in the area - the Delaware, Passaic , and Raritan - had severe flooding, and damage was widespread. [ 17 ] When the Millstone River flooded, two teenagers drowned while canoeing, and a police officer drowned while attempting to rescue them. About 200 families were evacuated in Oakland along the Ramapo River . [ 12 ] Damage in the state was heaviest along the Delaware from Port Jervis, New York to Trenton, where flooding inundated adjacent towns. Between the two towns, all but two bridges were damaged, including four that were destroyed. [ 17 ] About 500 children had to be rescued from camps on three islands in the Delaware River; they were airlifted to a high school in Frenchtown . In that city, about 200 people were forced to evacuate their houses along the water. [ 32 ] In Trenton, workers used sandbags to prevent flooding from affecting government buildings. [ 12 ] Flooding destroyed the Portland–Columbia Pedestrian Bridge , first constructed in 1831, after most of it was submerged. The center of the Northampton Street Bridge between Easton, Pennsylvania and Phillipsburg, New Jersey collapsed. [ 17 ] A dam near Branchville collapsed, flooding the town and causing heavy damage. [ 12 ] [ 21 ] About 200 homes were damaged or destroyed in Lambertville . [ 12 ] Statewide, 93 homes were destroyed. Damage was estimated at $27.5 million. [ 21 ] Flash floods occurred in mountainous regions of southeastern New York, including Port Jervis along the Delaware River. Wappinger Creek flooded to cause heavy damage. Most streams in the Rondout Creek basin left damage due to fast-moving waters, [ 17 ] including heavy damage near Ellenville . Damage in New York was largely limited to an area between Port Jervis and Poughkeepsie . Several bridges were destroyed along the Bash Bish Brook , and portions of U.S. Route 209 were flooded. Damage totaled $16.2 million, and there was one death in the state. [ 21 ] New England Diane produced heavy rainfall after recurving inland, setting rainfall records in several areas. Windsor Locks, Connecticut reported 12.05 in (306 mm) in a 23‑hour period; [ 2 ] the station's total, located near Hartford , was 5.32 in (135 mm) higher than the 24‑hour rainfall record in Hartford. [ 8 ] Some locations along the Housatonic River experienced 0.75 in (19 mm) per hour over 24 hours. [ 31 ] The highest total in the state was 16.86 in (428 mm) at a station near Torrington . [ 33 ] This is the highest rainfall on record in the state. [ 34 ] The highest rainfall in the United States related to the storm was 19.75 in (502 mm) in Westfield, Massachusetts , [ 28 ] which was also the wettest known storm in the state's history as well as throughout New England. [ 34 ] Other statewide rainfall maxima in New England included 8.45 in (215 mm) in Greenville, Rhode Island , 4.34 in (110 mm) in Essex Junction, Vermont , 3.31 in (84 mm) in Fitzwilliam, New Hampshire , and 0.62 in (16 mm) at Long Falls Dam in Maine. [ 33 ] Throughout New England, 206 dams were damaged or destroyed, [ 17 ] mostly in the region south of Worcester, Massachusetts . [ 35 ] About 7,000 people were injured throughout New England, most of whom in Connecticut. [ 21 ] Damage was greatest in Connecticut, where floods affected about two-thirds of the state. [ 17 ] It was the largest flood on record in the state's history. [ 31 ] All major streams and valleys were flooded during the storm, including hundreds of tributaries, and 30 gauges in the state reported the highest level on record. [ 17 ] The Connecticut River at Hartford reached the third-highest level on record at the time, cresting at 30.6 ft (9.3 m), or 14.6 ft (4.5 m) above flood stage. [ 8 ] Although there was rural damage, the city of Hartford was spared from flooding due to previously constructed dykes. [ 21 ] The Naugatuck River had significant flooding that damaged or destroyed every bridge across it and did extensive damage in Ansonia. In Waterbury , the river washed buildings and railroad girders into a bridge. [ 17 ] In the city, 30 people were killed, including 26 in 13 houses that were washed away in one block. [ 36 ] The Quinebaug River flooded the city of Putnam at the same time that a major fire originated at a magnesium plant. [ 17 ] [ 37 ] Much of the commercial district of Winsted was destroyed by the Mad River, which reached 10 ft (3.0 m) deep; the floods destroyed most buildings on the south side of the town's Main Street, and carried away several cars from a car dealership. The local newspaper reported that 95% of businesses were destroyed or severely damaged in Winsted. [ 36 ] High rivers destroyed historical sites and buildings, [ 17 ] and statewide Diane destroyed 563 houses. [ 21 ] There were 77 deaths in the state and $350 million in damage. [ 35 ] Most of the damage in the state was industrial or commercial damage. [ 21 ] In Rhode Island, flooding was worst in the northern portion of the state, mostly along the Blackstone River , [ 17 ] which expanded to a width of about 1 mi (1.6 km). [ 12 ] The Horseshoe Dam was washed out, causing heavy damage in Woonsocket . [ 17 ] There, about 6,000 of its 50,000 residents were left unemployed. [ 37 ] Record high tides were also reported. In Rhode Island, damage was estimated at $21 million, mostly in Woonsocket, and there were three deaths. [ 31 ] Much of southern Massachusetts, from its border with New York toward Worcester and to the ocean, experienced flooding. Most streams in western Massachusetts overflowed their banks, and in southeastern Massachusetts, which is largely flat terrain, streams flooded large areas along their channels; these streams moved slowly, while other areas in New England sustained damage due to the fast-moving nature of the floods. Record flooding was reported along 24 stream gauges in the state, including ones that surpassed the peak set by the 1938 New England hurricane . [ 17 ] Both the Charles and Neponset rivers were among those that flooded. [ 38 ] About 40% of the city of Worcester was flooded during Diane, [ 12 ] and in Russell , the state police forced many residents to evacuate. [ 16 ] In Weymouth , the floods were considered at least a 1 in 50 year event. [ 38 ] The Little River in Buffumville, Massachusetts had a peak discharge of 8,340 ft³/s (236 m³/s), which was 6.2 times greater than the previous peak and 28.5 times the average annual flooding. Flooded rivers breached run-of-the-river dams and covered nearby roadways, although dams with reservoirs resulted in less flooding. Nearly all dams along the French River were severely damaged or destroyed. [ 17 ] One failed dam in West Auburn washed out a portion of U.S. Route 20 , and the same route was washed out near Charlton . An overflown brook also damaged the Massachusetts Turnpike . [ 21 ] A train on the Boston and Albany Railroad line plunged into a washed out portion along the Westfield River . [ 17 ] Along the same river, floods destroyed roads and tobacco farms. [ 21 ] In the state, 97 houses were destroyed. [ 21 ] Damage in Massachusetts was second worst of the affected states, [ 17 ] totaling $110 million; [ 21 ] the damage was largely due to flooded basements. [ 38 ] There were 12 deaths in the state. [ 21 ] Aftermath In Diane's immediate aftermath, one of the first priorities in response was to distribute adequate inoculations for typhoid amongst the widespread areas left without clean drinking water. The United States Army assisted in search and rescue operations using helicopters. [ 39 ] After the floods of Hurricane Diane, more than 100,000 people fled to shelter or away from their houses. The American Red Cross quickly provided aid to the affected residents, [ 12 ] using churches and public buildings to house homeless people. [ 40 ] In the two weeks after the storm, Americans donated about $10 million to the Red Cross. [ 41 ] The countries of Great Britain, Netherlands, Australia, Canada, France, Austria, and Venezuela offered aid to help the flood victims, sending emergency supplies. [ 42 ] Additional flooding affected New England in September and October 1955, although neither was as major as those caused by Hurricane Diane. [ 17 ] Following Diane, hundreds of companies affected by the flooding installed waterproof doors and windows to preempt similar disasters in the future. [ 43 ] President Dwight Eisenhower declared eight states as disaster areas, making them eligible for federal aid. [ 44 ] The Small Business Administration opened 18 temporary offices in the eastern United States for people to take out disaster loan applications. [ 45 ] In the months after the storm, both the United States federal government and the American Red Cross had difficulty raising enough funds for the storm victims; collectively, the Red Cross, the Small Business Administration, and Farmers Home Administration raised $37 million, which was less than 8% of Diane's damage total. Throughout 1955, the Red Cross assisted about 10,000 families in New England and the Mid-Atlantic states; some of the families received aid to move to a new house not in a flood zone. The Small Business Administration provided about 1,600 loans, totaling $25 million, for small businesses. [ 46 ] Senator Herbert H. Lehman proposed a $12 billion federal flood insurance program . [ 47 ] In 1956, the United States Congress passed the Federal Flood Insurance Act, but the program was not enacted due to lack of funding. [ 48 ] A nationwide flood program was not enacted until the passage of the National Flood Insurance Act of 1968 . [ 49 ] After the floods from Diane, the American federal government provided funding for the Army Corps of Engineers to construct dams and reservoirs throughout New England to mitigate future flooding. In about 14 years, the Corps built 29 dams in Connecticut alone at the cost of $70 million, including three along the Connecticut River. [ 40 ] The federal government restored plans from the 1930s to build dams along the Delaware River, one of which along Tocks Island . A controversy arose there due to the 40 mi (64 km) long reservoir the dam would have created, causing 600 families to be displaced. The project was canceled in 1975, and the acquired lands became the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area . [ 50 ] In Pennsylvania, washed-out rail lines prevented operation along the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad for several weeks, [ 17 ] and lines reopened after about two months. [ 21 ] The expense of reopening, and the loss of being closed, led to the railroad merging with the Erie Railroad to become the Erie Lackawanna Railway in 1960. [ 51 ] One stranded train along the line prompted a helicopter to rescue 235 people. Flooding along the Lehigh River destroyed 15 industrial plants, which left more than 15,000 people near Allentown, Pennsylvania without work temporarily. The mayor of Scranton declared a state of emergency due to the floods, ordering all businesses to close. United States Army soldiers provided water to residents after the town lost its water supply. Elsewhere, the Pennsylvania National Guard was on duty on streets in damaged towns, [ 12 ] including 50 to prevent looting in Upper Black Eddy, which was one of the hardest hit towns. [ 32 ] Helicopters assisted in discovering bodies at Camp Davis, where many deaths occurred during the storm. Statewide, thousands of people were left homeless. [ 30 ] In Stroudsburg, there was a food shortage, and officials enacted a curfew, after reports of looting. [ 52 ] In the same city, water was shipped in milk cartons to the flood victims, which later inspired a Federal Civil Defense Administration proposal to use water packaged in milk containers in the event of a nuclear attack. [ 53 ] The state government implemented a tax on cigarettes to help pay for storm damage, which lasted for about two years; [ 54 ] this was partially due to a lack of significant funding from the federal government. [ 55 ] Pennsylvania also enacted an increase in the gasoline tax that was later made permanent to pay for the Interstate Highway System . [ 56 ] The two taxes, each an increase of 1 penny , totaled $71 million, a part of which was set aside for future disasters. [ 57 ] The experience of the storm's aftermath provided the basis for the aftermath for Hurricane Agnes in 1972. [ 55 ] In New Jersey, Governor Robert B. Meyner declared the floods as at the time the state's worst natural disaster. [ 12 ] After the Naugatuck River flood in Connecticut cut off communications and bridges, the state was effectively cut in two. [ 17 ] The state's National Guard used helicopters to rescue people. Governor Abraham A. Ribicoff visited areas affected by the flooding, due to the damage, Connecticut was declared a federal disaster area on August 20. [ 40 ] [ 58 ] The declaration allocated $25 million in assistance to the state. Governor Ribicoff requested $34 million in funds to rebuild and produce future flood mitigation projects; the state's funding was paid by a combination of bonds and tax increases. [ 36 ] Including subsequent storms, the 1955 floods cumulatively killed 91 people and left 1,100 families homeless. Flooding occurred in 67 towns, resulting in damage to 20,000 families. About 86,000 people were left unemployed after the floods. [ 40 ] In Winsted, the buildings that were washed away along the south side of Main Street were never rebuilt. [ 36 ] Massachusetts Governor Christian Herter also issued a state of emergency, due to the widespread flooding damage. As a result, the state's National Guard and the Army Corps assisted in cleanup, and most roads took three weeks to clear. [ 16 ] Residents in areas affected by Diane's flooding were advised to boil water and not to use gas cooking equipment. [ 30 ] Diane's historic rainfall resulted in the wettest month on record in Boston with a total of 17 in (430 mm), a record that stands as of 2010; [ 59 ] Boston's 24‑hour total of 8.4 in (210 mm) remained the highest daily total as of 1996. [ 60 ] Following Diane's floods, cities in Massachusetts enlarged culverts and improved draining systems, as well as constructing weirs ; these systems helped mitigate against future flooding. [ 38 ] Using a monetary deflator in 2010 United States dollars, the damage from Diane would be about $7.4 billion, which would have been the 17th highest in the United States. Accounting for inflation, changes in personal wealth, and population changes, it is estimated Diane would have caused $18 billion in damage in 2010, or the 15th highest for a United States hurricane. [ 61 ] Spurred by the impacts of the several major hurricanes along the U.S. Atlantic seaboard in 1954 and 1955, including Diane, the U.S.Congress authorized funding for the United States Weather Bureau to establish the National Hurricane Research Project to conduct research into hurricanes and hurricane forecasting. Out of this grew the National Hurricane Center in 1956. [ 62 ] Retirement On account of the extensive damage and high death toll, the name Diane was retired by the U.S. Weather Bureau after the 1955 season. The name will never again be used for an Atlantic basin tropical cyclone. [ 63 ] See also List of wettest tropical cyclones in Massachusetts List of North Carolina hurricanes (1950–79) List of New England hurricanes Tropical Storm Doria (1971) Hurricane Agnes (1972) Hurricane Floyd (1999) Hurricane Irene (2011) Notes ^ All damage totals are in 1955 United States dollars unless otherwise noted. References ^ a b 1634–1699: .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} McCusker, J. 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ISBN 978-0982548578 Tropical cyclones portal Preceded by Carol (1954) Costliest Atlantic hurricanes on Record 1955 Succeeded by Donna .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Category 2 Atlantic hurricanes v t e 1852–1949 1850s Five (1852) Eight (1853) "Matagorda" (1854) One (1855) Two (1855) "S.S. Central America Disaster" (1857) Four (1857) Three (1858) Six (1858) One (1859) Two (1859) 1860s Two (1860) Four (1860) Six (1860) Seven (1860) One (1861) Three (1861) Two (1862) Three (1862) One (1863) Two (1863) Three (1863) Four (1863) "Sabine River-Lake Calcasieu" (1865) Seven (1865) One (1866) Two (1866) Four (1866) Two (1867) Three (1867) Six (1867) "Galveston" (1867) One 1868) Three (1868) Four (1868) One (1869) "Lower Texas Coast" (1869) Seven (1869) "Saxby" (1869) 1870s Two (1870) "Second Key West" (1870) Ten (1870) Five (1871) Two (1872) Seven (1874) Five (1875) Four (1876) Four (1878) Five (1878) Six (1878) Eleven (1878) Three (1879) Eight (1879) 1880s Four (1880) "Georgia" (1881) Six (1881) Four (1884) Two (1885) One (1886) Two (1886) Three (1886) Eight (1886) Nine (1886) Four (1887) Eight (1887) Nine (1887) Fifteen (1887) Seven (1888) Nine (1888) "San Martín" (1889) Six (1889) 1890s Four (1891) Five (1891) Six (1891) Three (1892) Five (1892) Seven (1892) Two (1893) Five (1893) Seven (1893) Eight (1893) Seven (1894) Two (1895) Five (1895) One (1896) Three (1896) "East Coast" (1896) Six (1896) One (1897) "Windward Islands" (1898) "Carrabelle" (1899) Four (1899) Nine (1899) 1900s Three (1900) Seven (1901) Three (1902) Four (1902) "New Jersey" (1903) Six (1903) Seven (1903) Two (1906) One (1908) Eight (1908) Nine (1908) Two (1909) "Greater Antilles" (1909) 1910s "San Zacarias" (1910) Four (1910) Three (1911) Four (1911) Six (1912) Four (1915) Three (1916) "San Hipólito" (1916) "Pensacola" (1916) Two (1918) Five (1918) Three (1919) 1920s One (1920) "Louisiana" (1920) Four (1922) Two (1923) Four (1924) Five (1926) Eight (1926) Four (1927) "Fort Pierce" (1928) 1930s Seven (1931) Fifteen (1932) "Trinidad" (1933) Thirteen (1933) "Central America" (1934) Seven (1934) Ten (1934) "Yankee" (1935) Five (1936) Ten (1936) Fifteen (1936) Four (1937) Eight (1937) 1940s "Louisiana" (1940) "South Carolina" (1940) "New England" (1940) "Nova Scotia" (1940) Seven (1940) Four (1942) "Belize" (1942) "Surprise" (1943) Six (1943) "San Calixto" (1943) Nine (1944) "Florida–Outer Banks" (1945) Eleven (1945) Four (1946) "Florida" (1946) Charlie (1947) King (1947) One (1949) "Texas" (1949) Other Four (1859) 1852–1949 1850s Five (1852) Eight (1853) "Matagorda" (1854) One (1855) Two (1855) "S.S. Central America Disaster" (1857) Four (1857) Three (1858) Six (1858) One (1859) Two (1859) 1860s Two (1860) Four (1860) Six (1860) Seven (1860) One (1861) Three (1861) Two (1862) Three (1862) One (1863) Two (1863) Three (1863) Four (1863) "Sabine River-Lake Calcasieu" (1865) Seven (1865) One (1866) Two (1866) Four (1866) Two (1867) Three (1867) Six (1867) "Galveston" (1867) One 1868) Three (1868) Four (1868) One (1869) "Lower Texas Coast" (1869) Seven (1869) "Saxby" (1869) 1870s Two (1870) "Second Key West" (1870) Ten (1870) Five (1871) Two (1872) Seven (1874) Five (1875) Four (1876) Four (1878) Five (1878) Six (1878) Eleven (1878) Three (1879) Eight (1879) 1880s Four (1880) "Georgia" (1881) Six (1881) Four (1884) Two (1885) One (1886) Two (1886) Three (1886) Eight (1886) Nine (1886) Four (1887) Eight (1887) Nine (1887) Fifteen (1887) Seven (1888) Nine (1888) "San Martín" (1889) Six (1889) 1890s Four (1891) Five (1891) Six (1891) Three (1892) Five (1892) Seven (1892) Two (1893) Five (1893) Seven (1893) Eight (1893) Seven (1894) Two (1895) Five (1895) One (1896) Three (1896) "East Coast" (1896) Six (1896) One (1897) "Windward Islands" (1898) "Carrabelle" (1899) Four (1899) Nine (1899) 1900s Three (1900) Seven (1901) Three (1902) Four (1902) "New Jersey" (1903) Six (1903) Seven (1903) Two (1906) One (1908) Eight (1908) Nine (1908) Two (1909) "Greater Antilles" (1909) 1910s "San Zacarias" (1910) Four (1910) Three (1911) Four (1911) Six (1912) Four (1915) Three (1916) "San Hipólito" (1916) "Pensacola" (1916) Two (1918) Five (1918) Three (1919) 1920s One (1920) "Louisiana" (1920) Four (1922) Two (1923) Four (1924) Five (1926) Eight (1926) Four (1927) "Fort Pierce" (1928) 1930s Seven (1931) Fifteen (1932) "Trinidad" (1933) Thirteen (1933) "Central America" (1934) Seven (1934) Ten (1934) "Yankee" (1935) Five (1936) Ten (1936) Fifteen (1936) Four (1937) Eight (1937) 1940s "Louisiana" (1940) "South Carolina" (1940) "New England" (1940) "Nova Scotia" (1940) Seven (1940) Four (1942) "Belize" (1942) "Surprise" (1943) Six (1943) "San Calixto" (1943) Nine (1944) "Florida–Outer Banks" (1945) Eleven (1945) Four (1946) "Florida" (1946) Charlie (1947) King (1947) One (1949) "Texas" (1949) Other Four (1859) 1850s Five (1852) Eight (1853) "Matagorda" (1854) One (1855) Two (1855) "S.S. Central America Disaster" (1857) Four (1857) Three (1858) Six (1858) One (1859) Two (1859) Five (1852) Eight (1853) "Matagorda" (1854) One (1855) Two (1855) "S.S. Central America Disaster" (1857) Four (1857) Three (1858) Six (1858) One (1859) Two (1859) 1860s Two (1860) Four (1860) Six (1860) Seven (1860) One (1861) Three (1861) Two (1862) Three (1862) One (1863) Two (1863) Three (1863) Four (1863) "Sabine River-Lake Calcasieu" (1865) Seven (1865) One (1866) Two (1866) Four (1866) Two (1867) Three (1867) Six (1867) "Galveston" (1867) One 1868) Three (1868) Four (1868) One (1869) "Lower Texas Coast" (1869) Seven (1869) "Saxby" (1869) Two (1860) Four (1860) Six (1860) Seven (1860) One (1861) Three (1861) Two (1862) Three (1862) One (1863) Two (1863) Three (1863) Four (1863) "Sabine River-Lake Calcasieu" (1865) Seven (1865) One (1866) Two (1866) Four (1866) Two (1867) Three (1867) Six (1867) "Galveston" (1867) One 1868) Three (1868) Four (1868) One (1869) "Lower Texas Coast" (1869) Seven (1869) "Saxby" (1869) 1870s Two (1870) "Second Key West" (1870) Ten (1870) Five (1871) Two (1872) Seven (1874) Five (1875) Four (1876) Four (1878) Five (1878) Six (1878) Eleven (1878) Three (1879) Eight (1879) Two (1870) "Second Key West" (1870) Ten (1870) Five (1871) Two (1872) Seven (1874) Five (1875) Four (1876) Four (1878) Five (1878) Six (1878) Eleven (1878) Three (1879) Eight (1879) 1880s Four (1880) "Georgia" (1881) Six (1881) Four (1884) Two (1885) One (1886) Two (1886) Three (1886) Eight (1886) Nine (1886) Four (1887) Eight (1887) Nine (1887) Fifteen (1887) Seven (1888) Nine (1888) "San Martín" (1889) Six (1889) Four (1880) "Georgia" (1881) Six (1881) Four (1884) Two (1885) One (1886) Two (1886) Three (1886) Eight (1886) Nine (1886) Four (1887) Eight (1887) Nine (1887) Fifteen (1887) Seven (1888) Nine (1888) "San Martín" (1889) Six (1889) 1890s Four (1891) Five (1891) Six (1891) Three (1892) Five (1892) Seven (1892) Two (1893) Five (1893) Seven (1893) Eight (1893) Seven (1894) Two (1895) Five (1895) One (1896) Three (1896) "East Coast" (1896) Six (1896) One (1897) "Windward Islands" (1898) "Carrabelle" (1899) Four (1899) Nine (1899) Four (1891) Five (1891) Six (1891) Three (1892) Five (1892) Seven (1892) Two (1893) Five (1893) Seven (1893) Eight (1893) Seven (1894) Two (1895) Five (1895) One (1896) Three (1896) "East Coast" (1896) Six (1896) One (1897) "Windward Islands" (1898) "Carrabelle" (1899) Four (1899) Nine (1899) 1900s Three (1900) Seven (1901) Three (1902) Four (1902) "New Jersey" (1903) Six (1903) Seven (1903) Two (1906) One (1908) Eight (1908) Nine (1908) Two (1909) "Greater Antilles" (1909) Three (1900) Seven (1901) Three (1902) Four (1902) "New Jersey" (1903) Six (1903) Seven (1903) Two (1906) One (1908) Eight (1908) Nine (1908) Two (1909) "Greater Antilles" (1909) 1910s "San Zacarias" (1910) Four (1910) Three (1911) Four (1911) Six (1912) Four (1915) Three (1916) "San Hipólito" (1916) "Pensacola" (1916) Two (1918) Five (1918) Three (1919) "San Zacarias" (1910) Four (1910) Three (1911) Four (1911) Six (1912) Four (1915) Three (1916) "San Hipólito" (1916) "Pensacola" (1916) Two (1918) Five (1918) Three (1919) 1920s One (1920) "Louisiana" (1920) Four (1922) Two (1923) Four (1924) Five (1926) Eight (1926) Four (1927) "Fort Pierce" (1928) One (1920) "Louisiana" (1920) Four (1922) Two (1923) Four (1924) Five (1926) Eight (1926) Four (1927) "Fort Pierce" (1928) 1930s Seven (1931) Fifteen (1932) "Trinidad" (1933) Thirteen (1933) "Central America" (1934) Seven (1934) Ten (1934) "Yankee" (1935) Five (1936) Ten (1936) Fifteen (1936) Four (1937) Eight (1937) Seven (1931) Fifteen (1932) "Trinidad" (1933) Thirteen (1933) "Central America" (1934) Seven (1934) Ten (1934) "Yankee" (1935) Five (1936) Ten (1936) Fifteen (1936) Four (1937) Eight (1937) 1940s "Louisiana" (1940) "South Carolina" (1940) "New England" (1940) "Nova Scotia" (1940) Seven (1940) Four (1942) "Belize" (1942) "Surprise" (1943) Six (1943) "San Calixto" (1943) Nine (1944) "Florida–Outer Banks" (1945) Eleven (1945) Four (1946) "Florida" (1946) Charlie (1947) King (1947) One (1949) "Texas" (1949) "Louisiana" (1940) "South Carolina" (1940) "New England" (1940) "Nova Scotia" (1940) Seven (1940) Four (1942) "Belize" (1942) "Surprise" (1943) Six (1943) "San Calixto" (1943) Nine (1944) "Florida–Outer Banks" (1945) Eleven (1945) Four (1946) "Florida" (1946) Charlie (1947) King (1947) One (1949) "Texas" (1949) Other Four (1859) Four (1859) 1950–present 1950s Baker (1950) Charlie (1950) George (1950) Item (1950) How (1951) Able (1952) Baker (1952) Easy (1952) Alice (1954) Unnamed (1954) Diane (1955) Edith (1955) Flora (1955) Katie (1955) Greta (1956) Ella (1958) Ilsa (1958) Janice (1958) 1960s Anna (1961) Daisy (1962) Ella (1962) Edith (1963) Ginny (1963) Ethel (1964) Anna (1965) Elena (1965) Chloe (1967) Francelia (1969) Kara (1969) Laurie (1969) 1970s Eighteen (1970) Ginger (1971) Betty (1972) Fifi (1974) Doris (1975) Faye (1975) Emmy (1976) Gloria (1976) Flossie (1978) Gloria (1979) 1980s Bonnie (1980) Ivan (1980) Jeanne (1980) Gert (1981) Josephine (1984) Earl (1986) Dean (1989) Erin (1989) 1990s Diana (1990) Isidore (1990 Grace (1991) Bonnie (1992) Charley (1992) Gert (1993) Florence (1994) Erin (1995) Humberto (1995) Iris (1995) Danielle (1998) Earl (1998) Jeanne (1998) Karl (1998) Dennis (1999) Irene (1999) Jose (1999) 2000s Michael (2000) Humberto (2001) Gustav (2002) Juan (2003) Danielle (2004) Irene (2005) Dolly (2008) Ida (2009) 2010s Alex (2010) Paula (2010) Richard (2010) Tomas (2010) Ernesto (2012) Gordon (2012) Kirk (2012) Arthur (2014) Gert (2017) Katia (2017) Chris (2018) Helene (2018) Oscar (2018) Jerry (2019) 2020s Paulette (2020) Sally (2020) Earl (2022) Nigel (2023) Tammy (2023) Ernesto (2024) Francine (2024) Isaac (2024) Leslie (2024) Imelda (2025) 1950–present 1950s Baker (1950) Charlie (1950) George (1950) Item (1950) How (1951) Able (1952) Baker (1952) Easy (1952) Alice (1954) Unnamed (1954) Diane (1955) Edith (1955) Flora (1955) Katie (1955) Greta (1956) Ella (1958) Ilsa (1958) Janice (1958) 1960s Anna (1961) Daisy (1962) Ella (1962) Edith (1963) Ginny (1963) Ethel (1964) Anna (1965) Elena (1965) Chloe (1967) Francelia (1969) Kara (1969) Laurie (1969) 1970s Eighteen (1970) Ginger (1971) Betty (1972) Fifi (1974) Doris (1975) Faye (1975) Emmy (1976) Gloria (1976) Flossie (1978) Gloria (1979) 1980s Bonnie (1980) Ivan (1980) Jeanne (1980) Gert (1981) Josephine (1984) Earl (1986) Dean (1989) Erin (1989) 1990s Diana (1990) Isidore (1990 Grace (1991) Bonnie (1992) Charley (1992) Gert (1993) Florence (1994) Erin (1995) Humberto (1995) Iris (1995) Danielle (1998) Earl (1998) Jeanne (1998) Karl (1998) Dennis (1999) Irene (1999) Jose (1999) 2000s Michael (2000) Humberto (2001) Gustav (2002) Juan (2003) Danielle (2004) Irene (2005) Dolly (2008) Ida (2009) 2010s Alex (2010) Paula (2010) Richard (2010) Tomas (2010) Ernesto (2012) Gordon (2012) Kirk (2012) Arthur (2014) Gert (2017) Katia (2017) Chris (2018) Helene (2018) Oscar (2018) Jerry (2019) 2020s Paulette (2020) Sally (2020) Earl (2022) Nigel (2023) Tammy (2023) Ernesto (2024) Francine (2024) Isaac (2024) Leslie (2024) Imelda (2025) 1950s Baker (1950) Charlie (1950) George (1950) Item (1950) How (1951) Able (1952) Baker (1952) Easy (1952) Alice (1954) Unnamed (1954) Diane (1955) Edith (1955) Flora (1955) Katie (1955) Greta (1956) Ella (1958) Ilsa (1958) Janice (1958) Baker (1950) Charlie (1950) George (1950) Item (1950) How (1951) Able (1952) Baker (1952) Easy (1952) Alice (1954) Unnamed (1954) Diane (1955) Edith (1955) Flora (1955) Katie (1955) Greta (1956) Ella (1958) Ilsa (1958) Janice (1958) 1960s Anna (1961) Daisy (1962) Ella (1962) Edith (1963) Ginny (1963) Ethel (1964) Anna (1965) Elena (1965) Chloe (1967) Francelia (1969) Kara (1969) Laurie (1969) Anna (1961) Daisy (1962) Ella (1962) Edith (1963) Ginny (1963) Ethel (1964) Anna (1965) Elena (1965) Chloe (1967) Francelia (1969) Kara (1969) Laurie (1969) 1970s Eighteen (1970) Ginger (1971) Betty (1972) Fifi (1974) Doris (1975) Faye (1975) Emmy (1976) Gloria (1976) Flossie (1978) Gloria (1979) Eighteen (1970) Ginger (1971) Betty (1972) Fifi (1974) Doris (1975) Faye (1975) Emmy (1976) Gloria (1976) Flossie (1978) Gloria (1979) 1980s Bonnie (1980) Ivan (1980) Jeanne (1980) Gert (1981) Josephine (1984) Earl (1986) Dean (1989) Erin (1989) Bonnie (1980) Ivan (1980) Jeanne (1980) Gert (1981) Josephine (1984) Earl (1986) Dean (1989) Erin (1989) 1990s Diana (1990) Isidore (1990 Grace (1991) Bonnie (1992) Charley (1992) Gert (1993) Florence (1994) Erin (1995) Humberto (1995) Iris (1995) Danielle (1998) Earl (1998) Jeanne (1998) Karl (1998) Dennis (1999) Irene (1999) Jose (1999) Diana (1990) Isidore (1990 Grace (1991) Bonnie (1992) Charley (1992) Gert (1993) Florence (1994) Erin (1995) Humberto (1995) Iris (1995) Danielle (1998) Earl (1998) Jeanne (1998) Karl (1998) Dennis (1999) Irene (1999) Jose (1999) 2000s Michael (2000) Humberto (2001) Gustav (2002) Juan (2003) Danielle (2004) Irene (2005) Dolly (2008) Ida (2009) Michael (2000) Humberto (2001) Gustav (2002) Juan (2003) Danielle (2004) Irene (2005) Dolly (2008) Ida (2009) 2010s Alex (2010) Paula (2010) Richard (2010) Tomas (2010) Ernesto (2012) Gordon (2012) Kirk (2012) Arthur (2014) Gert (2017) Katia (2017) Chris (2018) Helene (2018) Oscar (2018) Jerry (2019) Alex (2010) Paula (2010) Richard (2010) Tomas (2010) Ernesto (2012) Gordon (2012) Kirk (2012) Arthur (2014) Gert (2017) Katia (2017) Chris (2018) Helene (2018) Oscar (2018) Jerry (2019) 2020s Paulette (2020) Sally (2020) Earl (2022) Nigel (2023) Tammy (2023) Ernesto (2024) Francine (2024) Isaac (2024) Leslie (2024) Imelda (2025) Paulette (2020) Sally (2020) Earl (2022) Nigel (2023) Tammy (2023) Ernesto (2024) Francine (2024) Isaac (2024) Leslie (2024) Imelda (2025) Category Tropical cyclones portal Category Tropical cyclones portal v t e Retired Atlantic hurricane names v t e 1950s Carol (1954) Edna (1954) Hazel (1954) Connie (1955) Diane (1955) Ione (1955) Janet (1955) Audrey (1957) Carol (1954) Edna (1954) Hazel (1954) Connie (1955) Diane (1955) Ione (1955) Janet (1955) Audrey (1957) 1960s Donna (1960) Carla (1961) Hattie (1961) Flora (1963) Cleo (1964) Dora (1964) Hilda (1964) Betsy (1965) Inez (1966) Beulah (1967) Camille (1969) Donna (1960) Carla (1961) Hattie (1961) Flora (1963) Cleo (1964) Dora (1964) Hilda (1964) Betsy (1965) Inez (1966) Beulah (1967) Camille (1969) 1970s Celia (1970) Agnes (1972) Carmen (1974) Fifi (1974) Eloise (1975) Anita (1977) Greta (1978) David (1979) Frederic (1979) Celia (1970) Agnes (1972) Carmen (1974) Fifi (1974) Eloise (1975) Anita (1977) Greta (1978) David (1979) Frederic (1979) 1980s Allen (1980) Alicia (1983) Elena (1985) Gloria (1985) Gilbert (1988) Joan (1988) Hugo (1989) Allen (1980) Alicia (1983) Elena (1985) Gloria (1985) Gilbert (1988) Joan (1988) Hugo (1989) 1990s Diana (1990) Klaus (1990) Bob (1991) Andrew (1992) Luis (1995) Marilyn (1995) Opal (1995) Roxanne (1995) Cesar (1996) Fran (1996) Hortense (1996) Georges (1998) Mitch (1998) Floyd (1999) Lenny (1999) Diana (1990) Klaus (1990) Bob (1991) Andrew (1992) Luis (1995) Marilyn (1995) Opal (1995) Roxanne (1995) Cesar (1996) Fran (1996) Hortense (1996) Georges (1998) Mitch (1998) Floyd (1999) Lenny (1999) 2000s Keith (2000) Allison (2001) Iris (2001) Michelle (2001) Isidore (2002) Lili (2002) Fabian (2003) Isabel (2003) Juan (2003) Charley (2004) Frances (2004) Ivan (2004) Jeanne (2004) Dennis (2005) Katrina (2005) Rita (2005) Stan (2005) Wilma (2005) Dean (2007) Felix (2007) Noel (2007) Gustav (2008) Ike (2008) Paloma (2008) Keith (2000) Allison (2001) Iris (2001) Michelle (2001) Isidore (2002) Lili (2002) Fabian (2003) Isabel (2003) Juan (2003) Charley (2004) Frances (2004) Ivan (2004) Jeanne (2004) Dennis (2005) Katrina (2005) Rita (2005) Stan (2005) Wilma (2005) Dean (2007) Felix (2007) Noel (2007) Gustav (2008) Ike (2008) Paloma (2008) 2010s Igor (2010) Tomas (2010) Irene (2011) Sandy (2012) Ingrid (2013) Erika (2015) Joaquin (2015) Matthew (2016) Otto (2016) Harvey (2017) Irma (2017) Maria (2017) Nate (2017) Florence (2018) Michael (2018) Dorian (2019) Igor (2010) Tomas (2010) Irene (2011) Sandy (2012) Ingrid (2013) Erika (2015) Joaquin (2015) Matthew (2016) Otto (2016) Harvey (2017) Irma (2017) Maria (2017) Nate (2017) Florence (2018) Michael (2018) Dorian (2019) 2020s Laura (2020) Eta (2020) Iota (2020) Ida (2021) Fiona (2022) Ian (2022) Beryl (2024) Helene (2024) Milton (2024) Laura (2020) Eta (2020) Iota (2020) Ida (2021) Fiona (2022) Ian (2022) Beryl (2024) Helene (2024) Milton (2024) Category Portal Category Portal v t e Tropical cyclones of the 1955 Atlantic hurricane season v t e 1 Alice TS Brenda 4 Connie 2 Diane 2 Edith TS Five 2 Flora 1 Gladys 4 Ione 3 Hilda 5 Janet TS Eleven TS Twelve 2 Katie Category Category Authority control databases National United States Israel United States Israel Other Yale LUX Yale LUX 1955 Atlantic hurricane season 1955 natural disasters in the United States Cape Verde hurricanes Category 2 Atlantic hurricanes Retired Atlantic hurricanes Hurricanes in North Carolina Hurricanes in Virginia Hurricanes in Delaware Hurricanes in Pennsylvania Hurricanes in New Jersey Hurricanes in New York (state) Hurricanes in New England August 1955 in North America Hurricanes in West Virginia Subscription required using via Pages containing links to subscription-only content CS1 maint: location missing publisher Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Featured articles Use mdy dates from July 2019 Use American English from August 2023 All Wikipedia articles written in American English Pages using obsolete storm path colors Commons category link from Wikidata This page was last edited on 18 September 2025, at 05:15 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Start and end dates 2 Background Toggle Background subsection 2.1 Aftermath of World War I 2.2 Germany and Italy 2.3 European treaties 2.4 Asia 2.1 Aftermath of World War I 2.2 Germany and Italy 2.3 European treaties 2.4 Asia 3 Pre-war events Toggle Pre-war events subsection 3.1 Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) 3.2 Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) 3.3 Japanese invasion of China (1937) 3.4 Soviet–Japanese border conflicts 3.5 European occupations and agreements 3.1 Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) 3.2 Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) 3.3 Japanese invasion of China (1937) 3.4 Soviet–Japanese border conflicts 3.5 European occupations and agreements 4 Course of the war Toggle Course of the war subsection 4.1 War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) 4.2 Western Europe (1940–1941) 4.3 Mediterranean (1940–1941) 4.4 Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) 4.5 War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) 4.6 Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) 4.7 Pacific (1942–1943) 4.8 Eastern Front (1942–1943) 4.9 Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) 4.10 Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) 4.11 Allies Offensives (1944) 4.12 Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) 4.1 War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) 4.2 Western Europe (1940–1941) 4.3 Mediterranean (1940–1941) 4.4 Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) 4.5 War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) 4.6 Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) 4.7 Pacific (1942–1943) 4.8 Eastern Front (1942–1943) 4.9 Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) 4.10 Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) 4.11 Allies Offensives (1944) 4.12 Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) 5 Aftermath 6 Impact Toggle Impact subsection 6.1 Casualties and war crimes 6.2 Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour 6.3 Occupation 6.4 Home fronts and production 6.5 Advances in technology and its application 6.1 Casualties and war crimes 6.2 Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour 6.3 Occupation 6.4 Home fronts and production 6.5 Advances in technology and its application 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References Toggle References subsection 9.1 Sources 9.1 Sources 10 Further reading 11 External links World War II Адыгэбзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ Ænglisc العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Bislama Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Chavacano de Zamboanga Chi-Chewa ChiShona Corsu Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deitsch Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Diné bizaad Dolnoserbski डोटेली Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gàidhlig Galego 贛語 گیلکی ગુજરાતી 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Hausa Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Ido Igbo Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Коми Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Ladin Ladino Лакку ລາວ Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingua Franca Nova Livvinkarjala La .lojban. Lombard Magyar Madhurâ मैथिली Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Malti Māori मराठी მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu Minangkabau 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Mirandés Мокшень Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाली नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano ߒߞߏ Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Pälzisch پنجابی ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ Papiamentu پښتو Patois ភាសាខ្មែរ Picard Piemontèis Plattdüütsch Polski Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Ripoarisch Română Rumantsch Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sakizaya Gagana Samoa संस्कृतम् ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Sardu Scots Seeltersk Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ Ślůnski Soomaaliga کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Taclḥit Taqbaylit Tarandíne Татарча / tatarça తెలుగు ไทย Thuɔŋjäŋ Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Türkmençe Tyap Тыва дыл Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vahcuengh Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon 文言 West-Vlams Winaray Wolof 吴语 ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 Batak Mandailing Jaku Iban Yerwa Kanuri Tolışi Toki pona Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikinews Wikiquote Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wikidata item This article contains one or more duplicated citations . 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( January 2026 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) (refs: 141, 198) World War II .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti 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("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} German Stuka dive bombers on the Eastern Front , 1943 British Matilda II tanks during the North African campaign , 1941 US atomic bombing of Nagasaki in Japan, 1945 Soviet troops at the Battle of Stalingrad , 1943 Soviet soldier raising a flag over the Reichstag after the Battle of Berlin , 1945 US warships in Lingayen Gulf in the Philippines , 1945 German Stuka dive bombers on the Eastern Front , 1943 British Matilda II tanks during the North African campaign , 1941 US atomic bombing of Nagasaki in Japan, 1945 Soviet troops at the Battle of Stalingrad , 1943 Soviet soldier raising a flag over the Reichstag after the Battle of Berlin , 1945 US warships in Lingayen Gulf in the Philippines , 1945 Date 1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945 [ a ] (6 years, 1 day) Location Global Result .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Allied victory Date 1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945 [ a ] (6 years, 1 day) Location Global Result .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Allied victory Allied victory Participants Allies Axis Commanders and leaders Main Allied leaders : Joseph Stalin Franklin D. Roosevelt Winston Churchill Chiang Kai-shek Joseph Stalin Franklin D. Roosevelt Winston Churchill Chiang Kai-shek Main Axis leaders : Adolf Hitler Hirohito Benito Mussolini Adolf Hitler Hirohito Benito Mussolini Casualties and losses 60 million to over 75 million deaths (military and civilian) .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Theatres of World War II v t e Europe Poland Soviet invasion Phoney War Saar Offensive Finland Winter War Karelia Lapland Weserübung Denmark Norway Western Front Luxembourg Netherlands Belgium France Alps 1944–1945 Britain Eastern Front Barbarossa Leningrad Crimea Rzhev Case Blue Stalingrad Kursk Dnieper–Carpaths Bagration Romania Hungary Vistula–Oder Berlin Liberation of France Overlord Dragoon Siegfried Line Market Garden Bulge Western Germany Asia-Pacific China Marco Polo Bridge Shanghai Taiyuan Nanjing Xuzhou and Taierzhuang Wuhan Winter Offensive Hundred Regiments Offensive Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Ichi-Go 1945 Hunan Burma 1941–1942 1942–1943 1944 1944–1945 South-East Asia Indochina Franco-Thai War Thailand Hong Kong Malaya and Singapore South West Pacific Philippines 1941–1942 1944–1945 Dutch East Indies Borneo 1945 Coral Sea Solomon Islands Guadalcanal New Georgia Bougainville New Guinea Kokoda Track Salamaua–Lae Markham, Ramu and Finisterre Huon Peninsula New Britain Admiralty Islands Western New Guinea Pacific Ocean Midway Gilberts and Marshalls Mariana and Palau Volcano and Ryukyu Soviet-Japanese War(Mainland) Manchuria and Northern Korea pre-war border conflicts Japan Volcano and Ryukyu South Sakhalin Kurils Mediterranean and Middle East Balkans Greco-Italian War Greece Crete Albania Yugoslavia Mediterranean Sea Adriatic Malta Dodecanese East Africa Guerrilla war Middle East Iraq Syria–Lebanon Iran North Africa Libya-Egypt Morocco-Algeria Tunisia Italy Sicily Mainland Italy Winter Line Gothic Line Spring Offensive Other campaigns Air warfare Strategic bombing Americas Aleuts Antarctica Atlantic Australia Arctic French West Africa Indian Ocean 1940–1945 Madagascar Coups Uruguay Norway Baltic Nations Yugoslavia Romania 1941 Iraq Italy Argentina Germany Croatia Romania 1944 Bulgaria Hungary French Indochina Japan Matsue Slovak National Uprising Resistance movements Albanian resistance Baltic states Belgian Resistance Czechoslovak Resistance Danish resistance Dutch resistance Ethiopian resistance French Resistance Greek resistance Italian Resistance Malayan resistance Norwegian resistance Filipino resistance Polish resistance Romanian resistance Slovak partisans Soviet partisans Free Thai Movement Yugoslav Partisans Poland Soviet invasion Soviet invasion Phoney War Saar Offensive Saar Offensive Finland Winter War Karelia Lapland Winter War Karelia Lapland Weserübung Denmark Norway Denmark Norway Western Front Luxembourg Netherlands Belgium France Luxembourg Netherlands Belgium France Alps 1944–1945 1944–1945 Britain Eastern Front Barbarossa Leningrad Crimea Rzhev Case Blue Stalingrad Kursk Dnieper–Carpaths Bagration Romania Hungary Vistula–Oder Berlin Barbarossa Leningrad Crimea Rzhev Case Blue Stalingrad Kursk Dnieper–Carpaths Bagration Romania Hungary Vistula–Oder Berlin Liberation of France Overlord Dragoon Siegfried Line Market Garden Bulge Western Germany Overlord Dragoon Siegfried Line Market Garden Bulge Western Germany China Marco Polo Bridge Shanghai Taiyuan Nanjing Xuzhou and Taierzhuang Wuhan Winter Offensive Hundred Regiments Offensive Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Ichi-Go 1945 Hunan Marco Polo Bridge Shanghai Taiyuan Nanjing Xuzhou and Taierzhuang Wuhan Winter Offensive Hundred Regiments Offensive Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Ichi-Go 1945 Hunan Burma 1941–1942 1942–1943 1944 1944–1945 1941–1942 1942–1943 1944 1944–1945 South-East Asia Indochina Franco-Thai War Thailand Hong Kong Malaya and Singapore Indochina Franco-Thai War Thailand Hong Kong Malaya and Singapore South West Pacific Philippines 1941–1942 1944–1945 1944–1945 Dutch East Indies Borneo 1945 Borneo 1945 Coral Sea Solomon Islands Guadalcanal New Georgia Bougainville Guadalcanal New Georgia Bougainville New Guinea Kokoda Track Salamaua–Lae Markham, Ramu and Finisterre Huon Peninsula New Britain Admiralty Islands Western New Guinea Kokoda Track Salamaua–Lae Markham, Ramu and Finisterre Huon Peninsula New Britain Admiralty Islands Western New Guinea Pacific Ocean Midway Gilberts and Marshalls Mariana and Palau Volcano and Ryukyu Midway Gilberts and Marshalls Mariana and Palau Volcano and Ryukyu Soviet-Japanese War(Mainland) Manchuria and Northern Korea pre-war border conflicts Manchuria and Northern Korea pre-war border conflicts Japan Volcano and Ryukyu South Sakhalin Kurils Volcano and Ryukyu South Sakhalin Kurils Balkans Greco-Italian War Greece Crete Albania Yugoslavia Greco-Italian War Greece Crete Crete Albania Yugoslavia Mediterranean Sea Adriatic Malta Dodecanese Adriatic Malta Dodecanese East Africa Guerrilla war Guerrilla war Middle East Iraq Syria–Lebanon Iran Iraq Syria–Lebanon Iran North Africa Libya-Egypt Morocco-Algeria Tunisia Libya-Egypt Morocco-Algeria Tunisia Italy Sicily Mainland Italy Winter Line Gothic Line Spring Offensive Sicily Mainland Italy Winter Line Gothic Line Spring Offensive Air warfare Strategic bombing Strategic bombing Americas Aleuts Aleuts Antarctica Atlantic Australia Arctic French West Africa Indian Ocean 1940–1945 Madagascar Madagascar Uruguay Norway Baltic Nations Yugoslavia Romania 1941 Iraq Italy Argentina Germany Croatia Romania 1944 Bulgaria Hungary French Indochina Japan Matsue Slovak National Uprising Albanian resistance Baltic states Belgian Resistance Czechoslovak Resistance Danish resistance Dutch resistance Ethiopian resistance French Resistance Greek resistance Italian Resistance Malayan resistance Norwegian resistance Filipino resistance Polish resistance Romanian resistance Slovak partisans Soviet partisans Free Thai Movement Yugoslav Partisans World War II Navigation Campaigns Countries Equipment Timeline Outline Lists Historiography Category Bibliography Campaigns Countries Equipment Campaigns Countries Equipment Timeline Outline Lists Historiography Timeline Outline Lists Historiography Category Bibliography Category Bibliography v t e v t e World War II [ b ] or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a global conflict between two coalitions : the Allies and the Axis powers . Nearly all of the world's countries participated, with many nations mobilising their resources in pursuit of total war . Tanks and aircraft played major roles , enabling the strategic bombing of cities and delivery of the first and only nuclear weapons ever used in war. World War II is the deadliest conflict in history, causing the death of over 60 million people. Millions died in genocides , including the Holocaust , and by massacres, starvation, and disease. After the Allied victory, Germany , Austria , Japan , and Korea were occupied, and German and Japanese leaders were put on trial for war crimes . The causes of World War II included unresolved tensions in the aftermath of World War I , the rise of fascism in Europe and militarism in Japan . Key events preceding the war included Japan's invasion of Manchuria in 1931, the Spanish Civil War , the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, and Germany's annexations of Austria and the Sudetenland . World War II is generally considered to have begun on 1 September 1939, when Nazi Germany , under Adolf Hitler , invaded Poland , after which the United Kingdom and France declared war on Germany. Poland was also invaded by the Soviet Union in mid-September, and was partitioned between Germany and the Soviet Union under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact . In 1940, the Soviet Union annexed the Baltic states and parts of Finland and Romania , while Germany conquered Norway , Belgium , Luxembourg and the Netherlands . After the fall of France in June 1940, the war continued mainly between Germany, now assisted by Fascist Italy , and the British Empire / British Commonwealth , with fighting in the Balkans , Mediterranean, and Middle East , East Africa , the aerial Battle of Britain and the Blitz , and the naval Battle of the Atlantic . By mid-1941 Yugoslavia and Greece had also been defeated by Axis countries. In June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union , opening the Eastern Front and initially making large territorial gains along with Axis allies. In December 1941, Japan attacked American and British territories in Asia and the Pacific , including Pearl Harbor in Hawaii , leading the United States to enter the war against the Axis. Japan conquered much of coastal China and Southeast Asia , but its advances in the Pacific were halted in June 1942 at the Battle of Midway . In early 1943, Axis forces were defeated in North Africa and at Stalingrad in the Soviet Union. An Allied invasion of Italy in July resulted in the fall of its fascist regime , and Allied offensives in the Pacific and the Soviet Union forced the Axis to retreat on all fronts. In 1944, the Western Allies invaded France at Normandy , and the Soviet Union advanced into Central Europe. During the same period, Japan suffered major setbacks, including the crippling of its navy by the United States, the loss of key Western Pacific islands, and defeats in South-Central China and Burma . The war in Europe concluded with the liberation of German-occupied territories and the invasion of Germany by the Allies which culminated in the fall of Berlin to Soviet troops, and Germany's unconditional surrender on 8 May 1945 . On 6 and 9 August, the US dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan. Faced with an imminent Allied invasion , the prospect of further atomic bombings, and a Soviet declaration of war and invasion of Manchuria , Japan announced its unconditional surrender on 15 August, and signed a surrender document on 2 September 1945 . World War II transformed the political, economic, and social structures of the world, and established the foundation of international relations for the rest of the 20th century and into the 21st century. The United Nations was created to foster international cooperation and prevent future conflicts, with the victorious great powers—China, France, the Soviet Union, the UK, and the US—becoming the permanent members of its security council . The Soviet Union and the US emerged as rival superpowers , setting the stage for the half-century Cold War . In the wake of Europe's devastation, the influence of its great powers waned, triggering the decolonisation of Africa and of Asia . Many countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery and expansion . Start and end dates Timelines of World War II Chronological Prelude Events ( in Asia in Europe ) Aftermath Events ( in Asia in Europe ) Aftermath 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Aftermath 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Aftermath By topic Causes ( Diplomacy ) Declarations of war Battles Operations Causes ( Diplomacy ) Causes ( Diplomacy ) Declarations of war Battles Operations Battles Operations By theatre Battle of Europe air operations Eastern Front Manhattan Project United Kingdom home front Surrender of the Axis armies Battle of Europe air operations Eastern Front Manhattan Project Eastern Front Manhattan Project United Kingdom home front Surrender of the Axis armies v t e v t e Most historians agree that World War II began with the German invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939 [ 1 ] [ 2 ] and the United Kingdom and France 's declaration of war on Germany two days later. Dates for the beginning of the Pacific War include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, [ 3 ] [ 4 ] or the earlier Japanese invasion of Manchuria , on 18 September 1931. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Other proposed starting dates for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. [ 7 ] The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939. [ 8 ] Others view the Spanish Civil War as the start or prelude to World War II. [ 9 ] [ 10 ] The exact date of the war's end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 15 August 1945 ( V-J Day ), rather than with the formal surrender of Japan on 2 September 1945, which officially ended the war in Asia . A peace treaty between Japan and the Allies was signed in 1951. [ 11 ] A 1990 treaty regarding Germany's future allowed the reunification of East and West Germany to take place. [ 12 ] No formal peace treaty between Japan and the Soviet Union was ever signed, [ 13 ] although the state of war between the two countries was terminated by the Soviet–Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956 , which also restored full diplomatic relations between them. [ 14 ] Background Aftermath of World War I World War I had radically altered the political European map with the defeat of the Central Powers —including Austria-Hungary, Germany, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire —and the 1917 Bolshevik seizure of power in Russia , which led to the founding of the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, the victorious Allies of World War I , such as France, Belgium, Italy, Romania, and Greece, gained territory, and new nation-states were created out of the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian , Ottoman , and Russian Empires . [ 15 ] [ failed verification ] To prevent a future world war, the League of Nations was established in 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference . The organisation's primary goals were to prevent armed conflict through collective security, military, and naval disarmament , as well as settling international disputes through peaceful negotiations and arbitration. [ 16 ] Despite strong pacifist sentiment after World War I , [ 17 ] irredentist and revanchist nationalism had emerged in several European states. These sentiments were especially pronounced in Germany due to the significant territorial, colonial, and financial losses imposed by the Treaty of Versailles . Under the treaty, Germany lost around 13 percent of its home territory and all its overseas possessions , while German annexation of other states was prohibited, reparations were imposed, and limits were placed on the size and capability of the country's armed forces . [ 18 ] Germany and Italy The German Empire was dissolved in the German revolution of 1918–1919 , and a democratic government, later known as the Weimar Republic , was created. The interwar period saw strife between supporters of the new republic and hardline opponents on both the political right and left. Italy, as an Entente ally, had made some post-war territorial gains; however, Italian nationalists were angered that the promises made by the United Kingdom and France to secure Italian entrance into the war were not fulfilled in the peace settlement. From 1922 to 1925, the fascist movement led by Benito Mussolini seized power in Italy with a nationalist, totalitarian , and class collaborationist agenda that abolished representative democracy , repressed socialist, left-wing, and liberal forces, and pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy aimed at making Italy a world power, promising the creation of a "New Roman Empire". [ 19 ] Adolf Hitler , after an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German government in 1923, eventually became the chancellor of Germany in 1933 when President Paul von Hindenburg and the Reichstag appointed him. Following Hindenburg's death in 1934, Hitler proclaimed himself Führer of Germany and abolished democracy, espousing a radical, racially motivated revision of the world order , and soon began a massive rearmament campaign . [ 20 ] France, seeking to secure its alliance with Italy, allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia , which Italy desired as a colonial possession. The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when the Territory of the Saar Basin was legally reunited with Germany, and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of Versailles, accelerated his rearmament programme, and introduced conscription. [ 21 ] European treaties The United Kingdom, France and Italy formed the Stresa Front in April 1935 in order to contain Germany, a key step towards military globalisation ; however, that June, the United Kingdom made an independent naval agreement with Germany, easing prior restrictions. The Soviet Union, concerned by Germany's goals of capturing vast areas of Eastern Europe , drafted a treaty of mutual assistance with France. Before taking effect, though, the Franco-Soviet pact was required to go through the bureaucracy of the League of Nations, which rendered it essentially toothless. [ 22 ] The United States, concerned with events in Europe and Asia, passed the Neutrality Act in August of the same year. [ 23 ] Hitler defied the Versailles and Locarno Treaties by remilitarising the Rhineland in March 1936, encountering little opposition due to the policy of appeasement . [ 24 ] In October 1936, Germany and Italy formed the Rome–Berlin Axis . A month later, Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact , which Italy joined the following year. [ 25 ] Asia The Kuomintang party in China launched a unification campaign against regional warlords and nominally unified China in the mid-1920s, but was soon embroiled in a civil war against its former Chinese Communist Party (CCP) allies [ 26 ] and new regional warlords . In 1931, an increasingly militaristic Empire of Japan , which had long sought influence in China [ 27 ] as the first step of what its government saw as the country's right to rule Asia , staged the Mukden incident as a pretext to invade Manchuria and establish the puppet state of Manchukuo . [ 28 ] China appealed to the League of Nations to stop the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations after being condemned for its incursion into Manchuria. The two nations then fought several battles, in Shanghai , Rehe , and Hebei , until the Tanggu Truce was signed in 1933. Thereafter, Chinese volunteer forces continued the resistance to Japanese aggression in Manchuria , and Chahar and Suiyuan . [ 29 ] After the 1936 Xi'an Incident , the Kuomintang and CCP forces agreed on a ceasefire to present a united front to oppose Japan. [ 30 ] Pre-war events Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) The Second Italo-Ethiopian War was a colonial war that began in October 1935 and ended in May 1936. The war began with the invasion of the Ethiopian Empire (also known as Abyssinia ) by the armed forces of the Kingdom of Italy ( Regno d'Italia ), which was launched from Italian Somaliland and Eritrea . [ 31 ] The war resulted in the military occupation of Ethiopia and its annexation into the newly created colony of Italian East Africa ( Africa Orientale Italiana ); in addition it exposed the weakness of the League of Nations as a force to preserve peace. Both Italy and Ethiopia were member nations, but the League did little when the former clearly violated Article X of the League's Covenant . [ 32 ] The United Kingdom and France supported imposing sanctions on Italy for the invasion, but the sanctions were not fully enforced and failed to end the Italian invasion. [ 33 ] Italy subsequently dropped its objections to Germany's goal of absorbing Austria . [ 34 ] Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) When civil war broke out in Spain, Hitler and Mussolini lent military support to the Nationalist rebels , led by General Francisco Franco . Italy supported the Nationalists to a greater extent than the Nazis: Mussolini sent more than 70,000 ground troops, 6,000 aviation personnel, and 720 aircraft to Spain. [ 35 ] The Soviet Union supported the existing government of the Spanish Republic . More than 30,000 foreign volunteers, known as the International Brigades , also fought against the Nationalists. Both Germany and the Soviet Union used this proxy war as an opportunity to test in combat their most advanced weapons and tactics. The Nationalists won the civil war in April 1939; Franco, now dictator, remained officially neutral during World War II but generally favoured the Axis . [ 36 ] His greatest collaboration with Germany was the sending of volunteers to fight on the Eastern Front . [ 37 ] Japanese invasion of China (1937) In July 1937, Japan captured the former Chinese imperial capital of Peking after instigating the Marco Polo Bridge incident , which culminated in the Japanese campaign to invade all of China following years of tension and low-level conflicts . [ 38 ] The Soviets quickly signed a non-aggression pact with China to lend materiel support, effectively ending China's prior cooperation with Germany . [ 39 ] From September to November, the Japanese attacked Taiyuan , engaged the Kuomintang Army around Xinkou , [ 40 ] fought Communist forces in Pingxingguan [ 41 ] [ 42 ] , and wrestled control over China's northern railway network. [ 43 ] Nationalist Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek deployed his best army to defend Shanghai , but after three months of heavy fighting, Shanghai fell. The Japanese continued to push Chinese forces back, capturing the capital Nanking in December 1937. [ 44 ] [ 45 ] [ 46 ] In March 1938, Nationalist Chinese forces won their first major victory at Taierzhuang , but ultimately lost control of the city of Xuzhou in May. [ 47 ] In June 1938, Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance by flooding the Yellow River ; buying time for the Chinese to prepare their defences at Wuhan at heavy cost to the local civilian population, but the city was taken by October after heavy fighting along the Yangtze River. [ 48 ] Japanese military victories did not destroy Chinese resistance; instead, the Chinese government relocated inland to Chongqing and continued the war. [ 49 ] [ 50 ] Aiming to break Chinese morale, Japanese aircraft began striking cities in the Sichuan basin in a bombing campaign, killing tens of thousands of civilians. [ 51 ] [ 52 ] Soviet–Japanese border conflicts In the mid-to-late 1930s, Japanese forces in Manchukuo had sporadic border clashes with the Soviet Union and Mongolia . The Japanese doctrine of Hokushin-ron , which emphasised Japan's expansion northward, was favoured by the Imperial Army during this time. This policy would prove difficult to maintain in light of the Japanese defeat at Khalkin Gol in 1939, the ongoing Second Sino-Japanese War [ 53 ] and ally Nazi Germany pursuing neutrality with the Soviets. Japan and the Soviet Union eventually signed a Neutrality Pact in April 1941, and Japan adopted the doctrine of Nanshin-ron , promoted by the Navy, which took its focus southward and eventually led to war with the United States and the Western Allies. [ 54 ] [ 55 ] European occupations and agreements In Europe, Germany and Italy were becoming more aggressive. In March 1938, Germany annexed Austria , again provoking little response from other European powers. [ 56 ] Encouraged, Hitler began pressing German claims on the Sudetenland , an area of Czechoslovakia with a predominantly ethnic German population. Soon the United Kingdom and France followed the appeasement policy of British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and conceded this territory to Germany in the Munich Agreement , which was made against the wishes of the Czechoslovak government, in exchange for a promise of no further territorial demands. [ 57 ] Soon afterwards, Germany and Italy forced Czechoslovakia to cede additional territory to Hungary, and Poland annexed the Trans-Olza region of Czechoslovakia. [ 58 ] Although all of Germany's stated demands had been satisfied by the agreement, privately Hitler was furious that British interference had prevented him from seizing all of Czechoslovakia in one operation. In subsequent speeches Hitler attacked British and Jewish "war-mongers" and in January 1939 secretly ordered a major build-up of the German navy to challenge British naval supremacy. In March 1939, Germany invaded the remainder of Czechoslovakia and subsequently split it into the German Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and a pro-German client state , the Slovak Republic . [ 59 ] Hitler also delivered an ultimatum to Lithuania on 20 March 1939, forcing the concession of the Klaipėda Region , formerly the German Memelland . [ 60 ] Greatly alarmed and with Hitler making further demands on the Free City of Danzig , the United Kingdom and France guaranteed their support for Polish independence ; when Italy conquered Albania in April 1939, the same guarantee was extended to the Kingdoms of Romania and Greece . [ 61 ] Shortly after the Franco - British pledge to Poland, Germany and Italy formalised their own alliance with the Pact of Steel . [ 62 ] Hitler accused the United Kingdom and Poland of trying to "encircle" Germany and renounced the Anglo-German Naval Agreement and the German–Polish declaration of non-aggression . [ 63 ] The situation became a crisis in late August as German troops continued to mobilise against the Polish border. On 23 August the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact with Germany, [ 64 ] after tripartite negotiations for a military alliance between France, the United Kingdom, and Soviet Union had stalled. [ 65 ] This pact had a secret protocol that defined German and Soviet "spheres of influence" (western Poland and Lithuania for Germany; eastern Poland , Finland, Estonia , Latvia and Bessarabia for the Soviet Union), and raised the question of continuing Polish independence. [ 66 ] The pact neutralised the possibility of Soviet opposition to a campaign against Poland and assured that Germany would not have to face the prospect of a two-front war, as it had in World War I . Immediately afterwards, Hitler ordered the attack to proceed on 26 August, but upon hearing that the United Kingdom had concluded a formal mutual assistance pact with Poland and that Italy would maintain neutrality, he decided to delay it. [ 67 ] In response to British requests for direct negotiations to avoid war, Germany made demands on Poland, which served as a pretext to worsen relations. [ 68 ] On 29 August, Hitler demanded that a Polish plenipotentiary immediately travel to Berlin to negotiate the handover of Danzig , and to allow a plebiscite in the Polish Corridor in which the German minority would vote on secession. [ 68 ] The Poles refused to comply with the German demands, and on the night of 30–31 August in a confrontational meeting with the British ambassador Nevile Henderson , Ribbentrop declared that Germany considered its claims rejected. [ 69 ] Course of the war War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland after having staged several false flag border incidents as a pretext to initiate the invasion. [ 71 ] The first German attack of the war came against the Polish defences at Westerplatte . [ 72 ] The United Kingdom responded with an ultimatum for Germany to cease military operations, and on 3 September, after the ultimatum was ignored, Britain and France declared war on Germany. [ c ] During the Phoney War period, the alliance provided no direct military support to Poland, outside of a cautious French probe into the Saarland . [ 73 ] The Western Allies also began a naval blockade of Germany , which aimed to damage the country's economy and war effort. [ 74 ] Germany responded by ordering U-boat warfare against Allied merchant and warships, which would later escalate into the Battle of the Atlantic . [ 75 ] On 8 September, German troops reached the suburbs of Warsaw . The Polish counter-offensive to the west halted the German advance for several days, but it was outflanked and encircled by the Wehrmacht . Remnants of the Polish army broke through to besieged Warsaw . On 17 September 1939, two days after signing a cease-fire with Japan , the Soviet Union invaded Poland [ 76 ] under the supposed pretext that the Polish state had ceased to exist. [ 77 ] On 27 September, the Warsaw garrison surrendered to the Germans, and the last large operational unit of the Polish Army surrendered on 6 October . Despite the military defeat, Poland never surrendered; instead, it formed the Polish government-in-exile and a clandestine state apparatus remained in occupied Poland. [ 78 ] A significant part of Polish military personnel evacuated to Romania and Latvia; many of them later fought against the Axis in other theatres of the war. [ 79 ] Germany annexed western Poland and occupied central Poland ; the Soviet Union annexed eastern Poland . Small shares of Polish territory were transferred to Lithuania and Slovakia . On 6 October, Hitler made a public peace overture to the United Kingdom and France but said that the future of Poland was to be determined exclusively by Germany and the Soviet Union. The proposal was rejected [ 69 ] and Hitler ordered an immediate offensive against France, [ 80 ] which was postponed until the spring of 1940 due to bad weather. [ 81 ] [ 82 ] [ 83 ] After the outbreak of war in Poland, Stalin threatened Estonia , Latvia , and Lithuania with military invasion, forcing the three Baltic countries to sign pacts allowing the creation of Soviet military bases in these countries; in October 1939, significant Soviet military contingents were moved there. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] [ 86 ] Finland refused to sign a similar pact and rejected ceding part of its territory to the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union invaded Finland in November 1939, [ 87 ] and was subsequently expelled from the League of Nations for this crime of aggression. [ 88 ] Despite overwhelming numerical superiority, Soviet military success during the Winter War was modest, and the Finno–Soviet war ended in March 1940 with some Finnish concessions of territory . [ 89 ] In June 1940, the Soviet Union occupied the entire territories of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, [ 85 ] as well as the Romanian regions of Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and the Hertsa region . In August 1940, Hitler imposed the Second Vienna Award on Romania which led to the transfer of Northern Transylvania to Hungary. [ 90 ] In September 1940, Bulgaria demanded Southern Dobruja from Romania with German and Italian support, leading to the Treaty of Craiova . [ 91 ] The loss of one-third of Romania's 1939 territory caused a coup against King Carol II , turning Romania into a fascist dictatorship under Marshal Ion Antonescu , with a course set towards the Axis in the hopes of a German guarantee. [ 92 ] Meanwhile, German–Soviet political relations and economic co-operation [ 93 ] [ 94 ] gradually stalled, [ 95 ] [ 96 ] and both states began preparations for war. [ 97 ] Western Europe (1940–1941) In April 1940, Germany invaded Denmark and Norway to protect shipments of iron ore from Sweden , which the Allies were attempting to cut off . [ 98 ] Denmark capitulated after six hours , and despite Allied support , Norway was conquered within two months. [ 99 ] British discontent over the Norwegian campaign led to the resignation of Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain , who was replaced by Winston Churchill on 10 May 1940. [ 100 ] On the same day, Germany launched an offensive against France . To circumvent the strong Maginot Line fortifications on the Franco-German border, Germany directed its attack at the neutral nations of Belgium , the Netherlands , and Luxembourg . [ 101 ] The Germans carried out a flanking manoeuvre through the Ardennes region, [ 102 ] which was mistakenly perceived by the Allies as an impenetrable natural barrier against armoured vehicles. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] By successfully implementing new Blitzkrieg tactics, the Wehrmacht rapidly advanced to the Channel and cut off the Allied forces in Belgium, trapping the bulk of the Allied armies in a cauldron on the Franco-Belgian border near Lille. The United Kingdom was able to evacuate a significant number of Allied troops from the continent by early June, although they had to abandon almost all their equipment. [ 105 ] On 10 June, Italy invaded France , declaring war on both France and the United Kingdom. [ 106 ] The Germans turned south against the weakened French army, and Paris fell to them on 14 June. Eight days later France signed an armistice with Germany ; it was divided into German and Italian occupation zones , [ 107 ] and an unoccupied rump state under the Vichy Regime , which, though officially neutral, was generally aligned with Germany. France kept its fleet, which the United Kingdom attacked on 3 July in an attempt to prevent its seizure by Germany. [ 108 ] The air Battle of Britain [ 109 ] began in early July with Luftwaffe attacks on shipping and harbours . [ 110 ] The German campaign for air superiority started in August but its failure to defeat RAF Fighter Command forced the indefinite postponement of the proposed German invasion of Britain . The German strategic bombing offensive intensified with night attacks on London and other cities in the Blitz , but largely ended in May 1941 [ 111 ] after failing to significantly disrupt the British war effort. [ 110 ] Using newly captured French ports, the German Navy enjoyed success against an over-extended Royal Navy , using U-boats against British shipping in the Atlantic . [ 112 ] The British Home Fleet scored a significant victory on 27 May 1941 by sinking the German battleship Bismarck . [ 113 ] In November 1939, the United States was assisting China and the Western Allies, and had amended the Neutrality Act to allow " cash and carry " purchases by the Allies. [ 114 ] In 1940, following the German capture of Paris, the size of the United States Navy was significantly increased . In September the United States further agreed to a trade of American destroyers for British bases . [ 115 ] Still, a large majority of the American public continued to oppose any direct military intervention in the conflict well into 1941. [ 116 ] In December 1940, President Franklin D. Roosevelt accused Hitler of planning world conquest and ruled out any negotiations as useless, calling for the United States to become an " arsenal of democracy " and promoting Lend-Lease programmes of military and humanitarian aid to support the British war effort; Lend-Lease was later extended to the other Allies, including the Soviet Union after it was invaded by Germany. [ 117 ] The United States started strategic planning to prepare for a full-scale offensive against Germany. [ 118 ] At the end of September 1940, the Tripartite Pact formally united Japan, Italy, and Germany as the Axis powers . The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any country—with the exception of the Soviet Union—that attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three. [ 119 ] The Axis expanded in November 1940 when Hungary , Slovakia , and Romania joined. [ 120 ] Romania and Hungary later made major contributions to the Axis war against the Soviet Union, in Romania's case partially to recapture territory ceded to the Soviet Union . [ 121 ] Mediterranean (1940–1941) In early June 1940, the Italian Regia Aeronautica attacked and besieged Malta , a British possession. From late summer to early autumn, Italy conquered British Somaliland and made an incursion into British-held Egypt . In October, Italy attacked Greece , but the attack was repulsed with heavy Italian casualties; the campaign ended within months with minor territorial changes. [ 122 ] To assist Italy and prevent Britain from gaining a foothold, Germany prepared to invade the Balkans, which would threaten Romanian oil fields and strike against British dominance of the Mediterranean. [ 123 ] In December 1940, British Empire forces began counter-offensives against Italian forces in Egypt and Italian East Africa . [ 124 ] The offensives were successful; by early February 1941, Italy had lost control of eastern Libya, and large numbers of Italian troops had been taken prisoner. The Italian Navy also suffered significant defeats, with the Royal Navy putting three Italian battleships out of commission after a carrier attack at Taranto , and neutralising several more warships at the Battle of Cape Matapan . [ 125 ] Italian defeats prompted Germany to deploy an expeditionary force to North Africa; at the end of March 1941, Rommel 's Afrika Korps launched an offensive which drove back Commonwealth forces. [ 126 ] In less than a month, Axis forces advanced to western Egypt and besieged the port of Tobruk . [ 127 ] By late March 1941, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia signed the Tripartite Pact ; however, the Yugoslav government was overthrown two days later by pro-British nationalists. Germany and Italy responded with simultaneous invasions of both Yugoslavia and Greece , commencing on 6 April 1941 with a massive bombing of Belgrade ; both nations were forced to surrender within the month. [ 128 ] The airborne invasion of the Greek island of Crete at the end of May completed the German conquest of the Balkans. [ 129 ] Partisan warfare subsequently broke out against the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia , which continued until the end of the war. [ 130 ] In the Middle East in May, Commonwealth forces quashed an uprising in Iraq which had been supported by German aircraft from bases within Vichy-controlled Syria . [ 131 ] Between June and July, British-led forces invaded and occupied the French possessions of Syria and Lebanon , assisted by the Free French . [ 132 ] Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) With the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable, Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union made preparations for war. With the Soviets wary of mounting tensions with Germany, and the Japanese planning to take advantage of the European War by seizing resource-rich European possessions in Southeast Asia , the two powers signed the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact in April 1941. [ 133 ] By contrast, the Germans were steadily making preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union, massing forces on the Soviet border. [ 134 ] Hitler believed that the United Kingdom's refusal to end the war was based on the hope that the United States and the Soviet Union would enter the war against Germany. [ 135 ] On 31 July 1940, Hitler decided that the Soviet Union should be eliminated and aimed for the conquest of Ukraine , the Baltic states and Byelorussia . [ 136 ] However, other senior German officials like Ribbentrop saw an opportunity to create a Euro-Asian bloc against the British Empire by inviting the Soviet Union into the Tripartite Pact. [ 137 ] In November 1940, negotiations took place to determine if the Soviet Union would join the pact. The Soviets showed some interest but asked for concessions from Finland, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Japan that Germany considered unacceptable. On 18 December 1940, Hitler issued the directive to prepare for an invasion of the Soviet Union. [ 138 ] On 22 June 1941, Germany, supported by Italy and Romania, invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa , with Germany accusing the Soviets of plotting against them ; they were joined shortly by Finland and Hungary. [ 139 ] The primary targets of this surprise offensive [ 140 ] were the Baltic region , Moscow and Ukraine, with the ultimate goal of ending the 1941 campaign near the Arkhangelsk–Astrakhan line —from the Caspian to the White Seas . Hitler's objectives were to eliminate the Soviet Union as a military power, exterminate communism , generate Lebensraum ("living space") [ 141 ] by dispossessing the native population , [ 142 ] and guarantee access to the strategic resources needed to defeat Germany's remaining rivals. [ 143 ] Although the Red Army was preparing for strategic counter-offensives before the war, [ 144 ] Operation Barbarossa forced the Soviet supreme command to adopt strategic defence . During the summer, the Axis made significant gains into Soviet territory, inflicting immense losses in both personnel and materiel, mainly in massive encirclements around Minsk , Smolensk , and Uman .. Nazi policy entailed that Wehrmacht subject Soviet POWs to murderous treatment, executing all Jewish and Communist POWs immediately per the Commissar Order , and subjecting the remainder to forced marches to open-air concentration camps, where they were to be deliberately starved to death . By the end of the winter of 1941, 2.8 million Soviet POWs had died in German captivity. Some 3.3 million Soviet POWs would die in German captivity by the war's end in total, a nearly 60% mortality rate. [ 145 ] By mid-August, however, the German Army High Command decided to suspend the offensive of a considerably depleted Army Group Centre , and to divert the 2nd Panzer Group to reinforce troops advancing towards central Ukraine and Leningrad. [ 146 ] The Kiev offensive was overwhelmingly successful, resulting in encirclement and elimination of four Soviet armies, and made possible further advance into Crimea and industrially-developed eastern Ukraine (the First Battle of Kharkov ). [ 147 ] The diversion of three-quarters of the Axis troops and the majority of their air forces from France and the central Mediterranean to the Eastern Front [ 148 ] prompted the United Kingdom to reconsider its grand strategy . [ 149 ] In July, the UK and the Soviet Union formed a military alliance against Germany [ 150 ] and in August, the United Kingdom and the United States jointly issued the Atlantic Charter , which outlined British and American goals for the post-war world. [ 151 ] In late August the British and Soviets invaded neutral Iran to secure the Persian Corridor , Iran's oil fields , and preempt any Axis advances through Iran toward the Baku oil fields or India. [ 152 ] By October, Axis powers had achieved operational objectives in Ukraine and the Baltic region, with only the sieges of Leningrad [ 153 ] and Sevastopol continuing. [ 154 ] A major offensive against Moscow was renewed; after two months of fierce battles in increasingly harsh weather, the German army almost reached the outer suburbs of Moscow, where the exhausted troops [ 155 ] were forced to suspend the offensive. [ 156 ] Large territorial gains were made by Axis forces, but their campaign had failed to achieve its main objectives: two key cities remained in Soviet hands, the Soviet capability to resist was not broken, and the Soviet Union retained a considerable part of its military potential. The blitzkrieg phase of the war in Europe had ended. [ 157 ] By early December, freshly mobilised reserves [ 158 ] allowed the Soviets to achieve numerical parity with Axis troops. [ 159 ] This, as well as intelligence data which established that a minimal number of Soviet troops in the East would be sufficient to deter any attack by the Japanese Kwantung Army , [ 160 ] allowed the Soviets to begin a massive counter-offensive that started on 5 December all along the front and pushed German troops 100–250 kilometres (62–155 mi) west. [ 161 ] War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) Following the Japanese false flag Mukden incident in 1931, the Japanese shelling of the American gunboat USS Panay in 1937, and the 1937–1938 Nanjing Massacre , Japanese-American relations deteriorated . In 1939, the United States notified Japan that it would not be extending its trade treaty and American public opinion opposing Japanese expansionism led to a series of economic sanctions—the Export Control Acts —which banned US exports of chemicals, minerals and military parts to Japan, and increased economic pressure on the Japanese regime. [ 117 ] [ 162 ] [ 163 ] During 1939 Japan launched its first attack against Changsha , but was repulsed by late September. [ 164 ] Despite several offensives by both sides, by 1940 the war between China and Japan was at a stalemate. To increase pressure on China by blocking supply routes, and to better position Japanese forces in the event of a war with the Western powers, Japan invaded and occupied northern Indochina in September 1940. [ 165 ] Chinese nationalist forces launched a large-scale counter-offensive in early 1940. In August, Chinese communists launched an offensive in Central China ; [ 166 ] in retaliation, Japanese armies in North China implemented the Three Alls Policy , a massive scorched earth initiative to depopulate regions deemed hostile to Japanese occupation.. [ 167 ] [ 168 ] Continued antipathy between Chinese communist and nationalist forces culminated in armed clashes in January 1941 , effectively ending their co-operation. [ 169 ] In March, the Japanese 11th army attacked the headquarters of the nationalist Chinese 19th army but was repulsed during the Battle of Shanggao . [ 170 ] In September, Japan attempted to take the city of Changsha again and clashed with Chinese nationalist forces. [ 171 ] German successes in Europe prompted Japan to increase pressure on European governments in Southeast Asia . The Dutch government agreed to provide Japan with oil supplies from the Dutch East Indies , but negotiations for additional access to their resources ended in failure in June 1941. [ 172 ] In July 1941 Japan sent troops to southern Indochina, threatening British and Dutch possessions in the Far East. The United States, the United Kingdom, and other Western governments reacted to this move with a freeze on Japanese assets and a total oil embargo . [ 173 ] [ 174 ] At the same time, Japan was planning an invasion of the Soviet Far East , intending to take advantage of the German invasion in the west, but abandoned the operation after the sanctions. [ 175 ] Since early 1941, the United States and Japan had been engaged in negotiations in an attempt to improve their strained relations and end the war in China. Japan advanced a number of proposals which were dismissed by the Americans as inadequate. [ 176 ] At the same time the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands engaged in secret discussions for the joint defence of their territories, in the event of a Japanese attack against any of them. [ 177 ] Roosevelt reinforced the Philippines (an American protectorate scheduled for independence in 1946) and warned Japan that the United States would react to Japanese attacks against any "neighboring countries". [ 177 ] Frustrated at the lack of progress and pressured by American–British–Dutch sanctions, especially in oil, Japan prepared for war. Emperor Hirohito , after initial hesitation about Japan's chances of victory, [ 178 ] began to favour Japan's entry into the war. [ 179 ] As a result, Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe resigned. [ 180 ] [ 181 ] Hirohito refused the recommendation to appoint Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni in his place, choosing War Minister Hideki Tojo instead. [ 182 ] On 3 November, Nagano explained in detail the plan of the attack on Pearl Harbor to the Emperor. [ 183 ] On 5 November, Hirohito approved in imperial conference the operations plan for the war. [ 184 ] On 20 November, the new government presented an interim proposal as its final offer. It called for the end of American aid to China and for lifting the embargo on the supply of oil and other resources to Japan. In exchange, Japan promised not to launch any attacks in Southeast Asia and to withdraw its forces from southern Indochina. [ 176 ] The American counter-proposal of 26 November required that Japan evacuate all of China without conditions and conclude non-aggression pacts with all Pacific powers. [ 185 ] That meant Japan was essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions in China, or seizing the natural resources it needed in the Dutch East Indies by force; [ 186 ] [ 187 ] the Japanese military did not consider the former an option, and many officers considered the oil embargo an unspoken declaration of war. [ 188 ] Japan planned to seize European colonies in Asia to create a large defensive perimeter stretching into the Central Pacific. The Japanese would then be free to exploit the resources of Southeast Asia while exhausting the over-stretched Allies by fighting a defensive war. [ 189 ] To prevent American intervention while securing the perimeter, it was further planned to neutralise the United States Pacific Fleet and the American military presence in the Philippines from the outset. [ 190 ] On 7 December 1941 (8 December in Asian time zones), Japan attacked British and American holdings with near-simultaneous offensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific . [ 191 ] These included an attack on the American fleets at Pearl Harbor and the Philippines , as well as invasions of Guam , Wake Island , Malaya , [ 191 ] Thailand , and Hong Kong . [ 192 ] These attacks led the United States , United Kingdom , China, Australia, and several other states to formally declare war on Japan, whereas the Soviet Union, being heavily involved in large-scale hostilities with European Axis countries, maintained its neutrality agreement with Japan. [ 193 ] Germany, followed by the other Axis states, declared war on the United States [ 194 ] in solidarity with Japan, citing as justification the American attacks on German war vessels that had been ordered by Roosevelt. [ 139 ] [ 195 ] Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) On 1 January 1942, the Allied Big Four [ 196 ] —the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, and the United States—and 22 smaller or exiled governments issued the Declaration by United Nations , thereby affirming the Atlantic Charter [ 197 ] and agreeing not to sign a separate peace with the Axis powers. [ 198 ] During 1942, Allied officials debated on the appropriate grand strategy to pursue. All agreed that defeating Germany was the primary objective. The Americans favoured a straightforward, large-scale attack on Germany through France. The Soviets demanded a second front. The British argued that military operations should target peripheral areas to wear out German strength, leading to increasing demoralisation, and bolstering resistance forces ; Germany itself would be subject to a heavy bombing campaign. An offensive against Germany would then be launched primarily by Allied armour, without using large-scale armies. [ 199 ] Eventually, the British persuaded the Americans that a landing in France was infeasible in 1942 and they should instead focus on driving the Axis out of North Africa. [ 200 ] At the Casablanca Conference in early 1943, the Allies reiterated the statements issued in the 1942 Declaration and demanded the unconditional surrender of their enemies. The British and Americans agreed to continue to press the initiative in the Mediterranean by invading Sicily to fully secure the Mediterranean supply routes. [ 201 ] Although the British argued for further operations in the Balkans to bring Turkey into the war, in May 1943, the Americans extracted a British commitment to limit Allied operations in the Mediterranean to an invasion of the Italian mainland, and to invade France in 1944. [ 202 ] Pacific (1942–1943) By the end of April 1942, Japan and its ally Thailand had almost conquered Burma , Malaya , the Dutch East Indies , Singapore , and Rabaul , inflicting severe losses on Allied troops and taking a large number of prisoners. Japanese advances were accompanied by numerous atrocities, including the Sook Ching Massacre in Singapore. [ 203 ] Despite stubborn resistance by Filipino and US forces , the Philippine Commonwealth was eventually captured in May 1942, forcing its government into exile. Following the capture of Bataan, Japanese armies forced some 75,000 Filipino and American prisoners on a 42km death march , resulting in thousands of deaths. [ 204 ] On 16 April, in Burma, 7,000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during the Battle of Yenangyaung and rescued by the Chinese 38th Division. [ 205 ] Japanese forces achieved naval victories in the South China Sea , Java Sea , and Indian Ocean , [ 206 ] and bombed the Allied naval base at Darwin , Australia. In January 1942, the only Allied success against Japan was a Chinese victory at Changsha . [ 207 ] These easy victories over the unprepared US and European opponents left Japan overconfident, and overextended. [ 208 ] In early May 1942, Japan initiated operations to capture Port Moresby by amphibious assault and thus sever communications and supply lines between the United States and Australia. The planned invasion was thwarted when an Allied task force, centred on two American fleet carriers, fought Japanese naval forces to a draw in the Battle of the Coral Sea . [ 209 ] Japan's next plan, motivated by the earlier Doolittle Raid , was to seize Midway Atoll and lure American carriers into battle to be eliminated; as a diversion, Japan would also send forces to occupy the Aleutian Islands in Alaska. [ 210 ] In mid-May, Japan started the Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign in China, with the goal of inflicting retribution on the Chinese who aided the surviving American airmen in the Doolittle Raid by destroying Chinese air bases and fighting against the Chinese 23rd and 32nd Army Groups. [ 211 ] [ 212 ] In early June, Japan put its operations into action, but the Americans had broken Japanese naval codes in late May and were fully aware of the plans and order of battle, and used this knowledge to achieve a decisive victory at Midway over the Imperial Japanese Navy . [ 213 ] With its capacity for aggressive action greatly diminished as a result of the Midway battle, Japan attempted to capture Port Moresby by an overland campaign in the Territory of Papua . [ 214 ] The Americans planned a counterattack against Japanese positions in the southern Solomon Islands , primarily Guadalcanal , as a first step towards capturing Rabaul , the main Japanese base in Southeast Asia. [ 215 ] Both plans started in July, but by mid-September, the Battle for Guadalcanal took priority for the Japanese, and troops in New Guinea were ordered to withdraw from the Port Moresby area to the northern part of the island , where they faced Australian and United States troops in the Battle of Buna–Gona . [ 216 ] Guadalcanal soon became a focal point for both sides with heavy commitments of troops and ships in the battle for Guadalcanal, with Japanese forces suffering massive losses in the attrition, especially amongst their elite pilots. [ 217 ] By the start of 1943, the Japanese were defeated on the island and withdrew their troops . [ 218 ] In Burma, Commonwealth forces mounted two operations. The first was a disastrous offensive into the Arakan region in late 1942 that forced a retreat back to India by May 1943. [ 219 ] The second was the insertion of irregular forces behind Japanese frontlines in February which, by the end of April, had achieved mixed results. [ 220 ] Eastern Front (1942–1943) Despite considerable losses, in early 1942 Germany and its allies stopped a major Soviet offensive in central and southern Russia , keeping most territorial gains they had achieved during the previous year. [ 221 ] In May, the Germans defeated Soviet offensives in the Kerch Peninsula and at Kharkov . [ 222 ] The fortress city of Sevastopol, which the Red Army had held out against Axis siege for nearly 250 days, was finally seized with the use of massive artillery bombardments and poison gas. [ 223 ] In June 1942 launched their main summer offensive against southern Russia, to seize the oil fields of the Caucasus and occupy the Kuban steppe , while maintaining positions on the northern and central areas of the front. The Germans split Army Group South into two groups: Army Group A advanced to the lower Don River and struck south-east to the Caucasus, while Army Group B headed towards the Volga River . The Soviets decided to make their stand at Stalingrad on the Volga. [ 224 ] By mid-November, the Germans had nearly taken Stalingrad in bitter street fighting . The Soviets began their second winter counter-offensive, starting with an encirclement of the German Sixth Army at Stalingrad , [ 225 ] and an assault on the Rzhev salient near Moscow , though the latter failed. [ 226 ] By early February 1943, the German army had taken tremendous losses; German troops at Stalingrad had been defeated, [ 227 ] and the front-line had been pushed back beyond its position before the summer offensive. In mid-February, after the Soviet push had tapered off, the Germans launched another attack on Kharkov , creating a salient in their front line around the Soviet city of Kursk . [ 228 ] Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) Exploiting poor American naval command decisions, the German navy ravaged Allied shipping off the American Atlantic coast . [ 229 ] By November 1941, Commonwealth forces had launched a counter-offensive in North Africa, Operation Crusader , and reclaimed all the gains the Germans and Italians had made. [ 230 ] The Germans also launched a North African offensive in January, pushing the British back to positions at the Gazala line by early February, [ 231 ] followed by a temporary lull in combat which Germany used to prepare for their upcoming offensives. [ 232 ] Concerns that the Japanese might use bases in Vichy-held Madagascar caused the British to invade the island in early May 1942. [ 233 ] An Axis offensive in Libya forced an Allied retreat deep inside Egypt until Axis forces were stopped at El Alamein . [ 234 ] On the Continent, raids of Allied commandos on strategic targets, culminating in the failed Dieppe Raid , [ 235 ] demonstrated the Western Allies' inability to launch an invasion of continental Europe without much better preparation, equipment, and operational security. [ 236 ] In August 1942, the Allies succeeded in repelling a second attack against El Alamein [ 237 ] and, at a high cost, managed to deliver desperately needed supplies to the besieged Malta . [ 238 ] A few months later, the Allies commenced an attack of their own in Egypt, dislodging the Axis forces and beginning a drive west across Libya. [ 239 ] This attack was followed up shortly after by Anglo-American landings in French North Africa , which resulted in the region joining the Allies. [ 240 ] Hitler responded to the French colony's defection by ordering the occupation of Vichy France ; [ 240 ] although Vichy forces did not resist this violation of the armistice, they managed to scuttle their fleet to prevent its capture by German forces. [ 240 ] [ 241 ] Axis forces in Africa withdrew into Tunisia , which was conquered by the Allies in May 1943. [ 240 ] [ 242 ] In June 1943, the British and Americans began a strategic bombing campaign against Germany with a goal to disrupt the war economy, reduce morale, and " de-house " the civilian population. [ 243 ] The firebombing of Hamburg was among the first attacks in this campaign, inflicting significant casualties and considerable losses on infrastructure of this important industrial centre. [ 244 ] Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) After the Guadalcanal campaign, the Allies initiated several operations against Japan in the Pacific. In May 1943, Canadian and US forces were sent to eliminate Japanese forces from the Aleutians . [ 245 ] Soon after, the United States, with support from Australia, New Zealand and Pacific Islander forces, began major ground, sea and air operations to isolate Rabaul by capturing surrounding islands , and breach the Japanese Central Pacific perimeter at the Gilbert and Marshall Islands . [ 246 ] By the end of March 1944, the Allies had completed both of these objectives and had also neutralised the major Japanese base at Truk in the Caroline Islands . In April, the Allies launched an operation to retake Western New Guinea . [ 247 ] In the Soviet Union, both the Germans and the Soviets spent the spring and early summer of 1943 preparing for large offensives in central Russia . On 5 July 1943, Germany attacked Soviet forces around the Kursk Bulge . Within a week, German forces had exhausted themselves against the Soviets' well-constructed defences, [ 248 ] and for the first time in the war, Hitler cancelled an operation before it had achieved tactical or operational success. [ 249 ] This decision was partially affected by the Western Allies' invasion of Sicily launched on 9 July, which, combined with previous Italian failures, resulted in the ousting and arrest of Mussolini later that month. [ 250 ] On 12 July 1943, the Soviets launched their own counter-offensives , thereby nearly completely dispelling any chance of German victory or even stalemate in the east. The Soviet victory at Kursk marked the end of German superiority, [ 251 ] giving the Soviet Union the initiative on the Eastern Front. [ 252 ] [ 253 ] The Germans tried to stabilise their eastern front along the hastily fortified Panther–Wotan line , but the Soviets broke through it at Smolensk and the Lower Dnieper Offensive . [ 254 ] On 3 September 1943, the Western Allies invaded the Italian mainland , following Italy's armistice with the Allies and the ensuing German occupation of Italy. [ 255 ] Germany, with the help of the fascists, responded to the armistice by disarming Italian forces that were in many places without superior orders, seizing military control of Italian areas, [ 256 ] and creating a series of defensive lines. [ 257 ] German special forces then rescued Mussolini , who then soon established a new client state in German-occupied Italy named the Italian Social Republic , [ 258 ] causing an Italian civil war . The Western Allies fought through several lines until reaching the main German defensive line in mid-November. [ 259 ] German operations in the Atlantic also suffered. By May 1943, as Allied counter-measures became increasingly effective , the resulting sizeable German submarine losses forced a temporary halt of the German Atlantic naval campaign. [ 260 ] In November 1943, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill met with Chiang Kai-shek in Cairo and then with Joseph Stalin in Tehran . [ 261 ] The former conference determined the post-war return of Japanese territory [ 262 ] and the military planning for the Burma campaign , [ 263 ] while the latter included agreement that the Western Allies would invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months of Germany's defeat. [ 264 ] From November 1943, during the seven-week Battle of Changde , the Chinese awaited Allied relief as they forced Japan to fight a costly war of attrition. [ 265 ] [ 266 ] [ 267 ] In January 1944, the Allies launched a series of attacks in Italy against the line at Monte Cassino and tried to outflank it with landings at Anzio . [ 268 ] On 27 January 1944, Soviet troops launched a major offensive that expelled German forces from the Leningrad region , thereby ending the most lethal siege in history . [ 269 ] The following Soviet offensive was halted on the pre-war Estonian border by the German Army Group North aided by Estonians hoping to re-establish national independence . This delay slowed subsequent Soviet operations in the Baltic Sea region. [ 270 ] By late May 1944, the Soviets had liberated Crimea , largely expelled Axis forces from Ukraine , and made incursions into Romania , which were repulsed by the Axis troops. [ 271 ] The Allied offensives in Italy had succeeded and, at the cost of allowing several German divisions to retreat, Rome was captured on 4 June. [ 272 ] The Allies had mixed success in mainland Asia. In March 1944, the Japanese launched the first of two invasions, an operation against Allied positions in Assam, India , [ 273 ] and soon besieged Commonwealth positions at Imphal and Kohima . [ 274 ] In May 1944, British and Indian forces mounted a counter-offensive that drove Japanese troops back to Burma by July, [ 274 ] and Chinese forces that had invaded northern Burma in late 1943 besieged Japanese troops in Myitkyina . [ 275 ] The second Japanese invasion of China aimed to destroy China's main fighting forces, secure railways between Japanese-held territory and capture Allied airfields. [ 276 ] By June, the Japanese had conquered the province of Henan and begun a new attack on Changsha . [ 277 ] Allies Offensives (1944) On 6 June 1944 (commonly known as D-Day ), after three years of Soviet pressure, [ 278 ] the Western Allies invaded northern France . After reassigning several Allied divisions from Italy, they also attacked southern France . [ 279 ] These landings were successful and led to the defeat of the German Army units in France . Paris was liberated on 25 August by the local resistance assisted by the Free French Forces , both led by General Charles de Gaulle , [ 280 ] and the Western Allies continued to push back German forces in western Europe during the latter part of the year. An attempt to advance into northern Germany spearheaded by a major airborne operation in the Netherlands failed. [ 281 ] After that, the Western Allies slowly pushed into Germany, but failed to cross the Roer river . In Italy, the Allied advance slowed due to the last major German defensive line . [ 282 ] On 22 June, the Soviets launched a strategic offensive in Belarus that nearly destroyed the German Army Group Centre . [ 283 ] Soon after that, another Soviet strategic offensive forced German troops from Western Ukraine and Eastern Poland. The Soviet Red Army however halted in the Praga district on the other side of the Vistula as the Germans quelled the Warsaw Uprising initiated by the Home Army (the main faction of the Polish resistance , loyal to the non-communist government-in exile), killing over 150,000 Poles. [ 284 ] [ 285 ] The national uprising in Slovakia was also quelled by the Germans. [ 286 ] The Soviet Red Army 's strategic offensive in eastern Romania cut off and destroyed the considerable German troops there and triggered a successful coup d'état in Romania and in Bulgaria , followed by those countries' shift to the Allied side. [ 287 ] In September 1944, Soviet troops advanced into Yugoslavia and forced the rapid withdrawal of German Army Groups E and F in Greece , Albania , and Yugoslavia to rescue them from being cut off. [ 288 ] By this point, the communist-led Partisans under Marshal Josip Broz Tito , who had led an increasingly successful guerrilla campaign against the occupation since 1941, controlled much of the territory of Yugoslavia and engaged in delaying efforts against German forces further south. In northern Serbia , the Soviet Red Army , with limited support from Bulgarian forces, assisted the Partisans in a joint liberation of the capital city of Belgrade on 20 October. A few days later, the Soviets launched a massive assault against German-occupied Hungary that lasted until the fall of Budapest in February 1945. [ 289 ] Unlike rapid Soviet victories in the Balkans, bitter Finnish resistance to the Soviet offensive in the Karelian Isthmus denied the Soviets occupation of Finland and led to a Soviet-Finnish armistice on relatively mild conditions, [ 290 ] although Finland was obligated to fight their German former allies . [ 291 ] By the start of July 1944, Commonwealth forces in Southeast Asia had repelled the Japanese sieges in Assam , pushing the Japanese back to the Chindwin River [ 292 ] while the Chinese captured Myitkyina. In September 1944, Chinese forces captured Mount Song and reopened the Burma Road . [ 293 ] In China, the Japanese had more successes, having finally captured Changsha in mid-June and the city of Hengyang by early August. [ 294 ] Soon after, they invaded the province of Guangxi , winning major engagements against Chinese forces at Guilin and Liuzhou by the end of November [ 295 ] and successfully linking up their forces in China and Indochina by mid-December. [ 296 ] In the Pacific, US forces continued to push back the Japanese perimeter. In mid-June 1944, they began their offensive against the Mariana and Palau islands and decisively defeated Japanese forces in the Battle of the Philippine Sea . These defeats led to the resignation of the Japanese Prime Minister, Hideki Tojo , and provided the United States with air bases to launch intensive heavy bomber attacks on the Japanese home islands. In late October, American forces invaded the Filipino island of Leyte ; soon after, Allied naval forces scored another large victory in the Battle of Leyte Gulf , one of the largest naval battles in history. [ 297 ] Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) On 16 December 1944, Germany made a last attempt to split the Allies on the Western Front by using most of its remaining reserves to launch a massive counter-offensive in the Ardennes and along the French-German border , hoping to encircle large portions of Western Allied troops and prompt a political settlement after capturing their primary supply port at Antwerp . By 16 January 1945, this offensive had been repulsed with no strategic objectives fulfilled. [ 298 ] In Italy, the Western Allies remained stalemated at the German defensive line. In mid-January 1945, the Red Army attacked in Poland, pushing from the Vistula to the Oder river in Germany, and overran East Prussia . [ 299 ] On 4 February Soviet, British, and US leaders met for the Yalta Conference . They agreed on the occupation of post-war Germany, and on when the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan. [ 300 ] In February, the Soviets entered Silesia and Pomerania , while the Western Allies entered western Germany and closed to the Rhine river. By March, the Western Allies crossed the Rhine north and south of the Ruhr , encircling the German Army Group B . [ 301 ] In early March, in an attempt to protect its last oil reserves in Hungary and retake Budapest, Germany launched its last major offensive against Soviet troops near Lake Balaton . Within two weeks, the offensive had been repulsed, the Soviets advanced to Vienna , and captured the city. In early April, Soviet troops captured Königsberg , while the Western Allies finally pushed forward in Italy and swept across western Germany capturing Hamburg and Nuremberg . American and Soviet forces met at the Elbe river on 25 April, leaving unoccupied pockets in southern Germany and around Berlin. Soviet troops stormed and captured Berlin in late April. [ 302 ] In Italy, German forces surrendered on 29 April, while the Italian Social Republic capitulated two days later. On 30 April, the Reichstag was captured, signalling the military defeat of Nazi Germany. [ 303 ] Major changes in leadership occurred on both sides during this period. On 12 April, President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by his vice president, Harry S. Truman . [ 304 ] Benito Mussolini was killed by Italian partisans on 28 April. [ 305 ] On 30 April, Hitler committed suicide in his headquarters , and was succeeded by Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz (as President of the Reich ) and Joseph Goebbels (as Chancellor of the Reich ). Goebbels also committed suicide on the following day and was replaced by Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk , in what would later be known as the Flensburg Government . Total and unconditional surrender in Europe was signed on 7 and 8 May , to be effective by the end of 8 May . [ 306 ] German Army Group Centre resisted in Prague until 11 May. [ 307 ] On 23 May all remaining members of the German government were arrested by Allied forces in Flensburg . On 5 June all German political and military institutions were placed under Allied control through the Berlin Declaration . [ 308 ] In the Pacific theatre, American forces accompanied by the forces of the Philippine Commonwealth advanced in the Philippines , clearing Leyte by the end of April 1945. They landed on Luzon in January 1945 and recaptured Manila in March, during which Japanese forces killed 100,000 Filipino civilians in the city. Fighting continued on Luzon, Mindanao , and other islands of the Philippines until the end of the war . [ 309 ] Meanwhile, the United States Army Air Forces launched a massive firebombing campaign of strategic cities in Japan in an effort to destroy Japanese war industry and civilian morale. A devastating bombing raid on Tokyo of 9–10 March was the deadliest conventional bombing raid in history. [ 310 ] In May 1945, Australian troops landed in Borneo , overrunning the oilfields there. British, American, and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northern Burma in March, and the British pushed on to reach Rangoon by 3 May. [ 311 ] Chinese forces started a counterattack in the Battle of West Hunan that occurred between 6 April and 7 June 1945. American naval and amphibious forces also moved towards Japan, taking Iwo Jima by March, and Okinawa by the end of June. [ 312 ] At the same time, a naval blockade by submarines was strangling Japan's economy and drastically reducing its ability to supply overseas forces. [ 313 ] [ 314 ] On 11 July, Allied leaders met in Potsdam, Germany . They confirmed earlier agreements about Germany, [ 315 ] and the American, British and Chinese governments reiterated the demand for unconditional surrender of Japan, specifically stating that " the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction ". [ 316 ] During this conference, the United Kingdom held its general election , and Clement Attlee replaced Churchill as Prime Minister. [ 317 ] The call for unconditional surrender was rejected by the Japanese government, which believed it would be capable of negotiating for more favourable surrender terms. [ 318 ] In early August, the United States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . Between the two bombings, the Soviets, pursuant to the Yalta agreement, declared war on Japan , invaded Japanese-held Manchuria and quickly defeated the Kwantung Army , which was the largest Japanese fighting force. [ 319 ] These two events persuaded previously adamant Imperial Army leaders to accept surrender terms. [ 320 ] The Red Army also captured the southern part of Sakhalin Island and the Kuril Islands . On the night of 9–10 August 1945, Emperor Hirohito announced his decision to accept the terms demanded by the Allies in the Potsdam Declaration . [ 321 ] On 15 August, the Emperor communicated this decision to the Japanese people through a speech broadcast on the radio ( Gyokuon-hōsō , literally "broadcast in the Emperor's voice"). [ 322 ] On 15 August 1945, Japan surrendered , with the surrender documents finally signed at Tokyo Bay on the deck of the American battleship USS Missouri on 2 September 1945, ending the war. [ 323 ] Aftermath The Allies established occupation administrations in Austria and Germany , both initially divided between western and eastern occupation zones controlled by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union, respectively. However, their paths soon diverged. In Germany, the western and eastern occupation zones officially ended in 1949, with the respective zones becoming separate countries, West Germany and East Germany . [ 324 ] In Austria, however, occupation continued until 1955, when a joint settlement between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union permitted the reunification of Austria as a democratic state officially non-aligned with any political bloc (although in practice having better relations with the Western Allies). A denazification program in Germany led to the prosecution of Nazi war criminals in the Nuremberg trials and the removal of ex-Nazis from power, although this policy moved towards amnesty and re-integration of ex-Nazis into West German society. [ 325 ] Germany lost a quarter of its pre-war (1937) territory. Among the eastern territories, Silesia , Neumark and most of Pomerania were taken over by Poland, [ 326 ] and East Prussia was divided between Poland and the Soviet Union, followed by the expulsion to Germany of the nine million Germans from these provinces, [ 327 ] [ 328 ] as well as three million Germans from the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia. By the 1950s, one-fifth of West Germans were refugees from the east. The Soviet Union also took over the Polish provinces east of the Curzon Line , [ 329 ] from which two million Poles were expelled . [ 328 ] [ 330 ] North-east Romania, [ 331 ] [ 332 ] parts of eastern Finland, [ 333 ] and the Baltic states were annexed into the Soviet Union . [ 334 ] [ 335 ] Italy lost its monarchy , colonial empire , and some European territories . [ 336 ] In an effort to maintain world peace , [ 337 ] the Allies formed the United Nations , [ 338 ] which officially came into existence on 24 October 1945, [ 339 ] and adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 as a common standard for all member nations . [ 340 ] The great powers that were the victors of the war—France, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and the United States—became the permanent members of the UN's Security Council . [ 341 ] The five permanent members remain so to the present, although there have been two seat changes, between the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China in 1971, and between the Soviet Union and its successor state , the Russian Federation , following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. The alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had begun to deteriorate even before the war was over. [ 342 ] Besides Germany, the rest of Europe was also divided into Western and Soviet spheres of influence . [ 343 ] Most eastern and central European countries fell into the Soviet sphere , which led to the establishment of Communist-led regimes, with full or partial support of the Soviet occupation authorities. As a result, East Germany , [ 344 ] Poland , Hungary , Romania , Bulgaria , Czechoslovakia , and Albania [ 345 ] became Soviet satellite states . Communist Yugoslavia conducted a fully independent policy , causing tension with the Soviet Union . [ 346 ] A communist uprising in Greece was put down with Anglo-American support and the country remained aligned with the West. [ 347 ] Post-war division of the world was formalised by two international military alliances, the United States-led NATO and the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact . [ 348 ] The long period of political tensions and military competition between them—the Cold War —would be accompanied by an unprecedented arms race and number of proxy wars throughout the world. [ 349 ] In Asia, the United States led the occupation of Japan and administered Japan's former islands in the Western Pacific, while the Soviets annexed South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands . [ 350 ] Korea , formerly under Japanese colonial rule , was divided and occupied by the Soviet Union in the North and the United States in the South between 1945 and 1948. Separate republics emerged on both sides of the 38th parallel in 1948, each claiming to be the legitimate government for all of Korea, which led ultimately to the Korean War . [ 351 ] In China, nationalist and communist forces resumed the civil war in June 1946. Communist forces prevailed and established the People's Republic of China on the mainland, while nationalist forces retreated to Taiwan in 1949. [ 352 ] In the Middle East, the Arab rejection of the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine and the creation of Israel marked the escalation of the Arab–Israeli conflict . While European powers attempted to retain some or all of their colonial empires , their losses of prestige and resources during the war rendered this unsuccessful, leading to decolonisation . [ 353 ] [ 354 ] The global economy suffered heavily from the war, although participating nations were affected differently. The United States emerged much richer than any other nation, leading to a baby boom , and by 1950 its gross domestic product per person was much greater than that of any of the other powers, and it dominated the world economy. [ 355 ] The Allied occupational authorities pursued a policy of industrial disarmament in Western Germany from 1945 to 1948. [ 356 ] Due to international trade interdependencies, this policy led to an economic stagnation in Europe and delayed European recovery from the war for several years. [ 357 ] [ 358 ] At the Bretton Woods Conference in July 1944, the Allied nations drew up an economic framework for the post-war world. The agreement created the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), which later became part of the World Bank Group . The Bretton Woods system lasted until 1973. [ 359 ] Recovery began with the mid-1948 currency reform in West Germany , and was sped up by the liberalisation of European economic policy that the US Marshall Plan economic aid (1948–1951) both directly and indirectly caused. [ 360 ] [ 361 ] The post-1948 West German recovery has been called the German economic miracle . [ 362 ] Italy also experienced an economic boom [ 363 ] and the French economy rebounded . [ 364 ] By contrast, the United Kingdom was in a state of economic ruin, [ 365 ] and although receiving a quarter of the total Marshall Plan assistance, more than any other European country, [ 366 ] it continued in relative economic decline for decades. [ 367 ] The Soviet Union, despite enormous human and material losses, also experienced rapid increases in production in the immediate post-war era, [ 368 ] having seized and transferred most of Germany's industrial plants and exacted war reparations from its satellite states. [ d ] [ 369 ] Japan recovered much later. [ 370 ] China returned to its pre-war industrial production by 1952. [ 371 ] Impact Casualties and war crimes An estimated 60 million to more than 75 million people died in the war including at least 20 million who died from deprivation, famine and disease. [ 372 ] [ 373 ] [ 374 ] [ 375 ] The majority of these deaths were on the Eastern Front and the Chinese Theatre . [ 376 ] The Soviet Union lost around 27 million people [ 377 ] including 8.7 million military and 19 million civilian deaths. [ 378 ] A quarter of the Soviet population were wounded or killed. [ 379 ] Germany sustained 5.3 million military losses, mostly on the Eastern Front and during the final battles in Germany. [ 380 ] An estimated 11 [ 381 ] to 17 million [ 382 ] civilians died as a direct or as an indirect result of Hitler's racist policies , including mass killing of around 6 million Jews , along with Roma , homosexuals , at least 1.9 million ethnic Poles [ 383 ] [ 384 ] and millions of other Slavs (including Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians), and other ethnic and minority groups . [ 385 ] [ 382 ] Between 1941 and 1945, more than 1,200,000 Yugoslavians died. [ 386 ] 200,000 were ethnic Serbs , along with Roma and Jews, were persecuted and killed by the Axis-aligned Croatian Ustaše in Yugoslavia . [ 387 ] Concurrently, Muslims and Croats were persecuted and killed by Serb nationalist Chetniks , [ 388 ] with an estimated 50,000–68,000 victims (of which 41,000 were civilians). [ 389 ] Also, more than 100,000 Poles were massacred by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army in the Volhynia massacres , between 1943 and 1945. [ 390 ] At the same time, about 10,000–15,000 Ukrainians were killed by the Polish Home Army and other units in reprisal attacks. [ 391 ] The number of deaths resulting from the war in Asia and the Pacific is contested. Estimates of Chinese deaths range from 8 million to over 20 million. [ e ] Arne Westad estimates 14 million Chinese died directly from war, of which 2 million were soldiers and the rest civilians. [ 394 ] Rana Mitter considers Westad's figures conservative. [ 398 ] An estimated 500,000 died as a result of Nationalist forces flooding the Yellow River . [ 399 ] In the Nanking Massacre , between 100,000 and 200,000 Chinese civilians and POWs were killed by Japanese forces, while another 20,000 were raped. [ 44 ] Another 2.7 million Chinese civilians were killed by Japanese forces during the Three Alls policy . [ 400 ] Japanese forces killed between 5 million and 10 million civilians in Southeast Asia. [ 401 ] [ 402 ] At least a million civilians died in Indochina , while as many as 4 million died in the Dutch East Indies, 3 million of which died on Java from famine. Between 500,000 and 1,000,000 Filipino civilians died during the Japanese occupation and American liberation. [ 403 ] [ 404 ] Estimates of the number of people killed by Japanese forces in all theatres are as high as 30 million. [ 405 ] Axis forces employed biological and chemical weapons . The Imperial Japanese Army used a variety of such weapons during its invasion and occupation of China ( see Unit 731 ) [ 406 ] [ 407 ] and in early conflicts against the Soviets . [ 408 ] Both the Germans and the Japanese tested such weapons against civilians, [ 409 ] and sometimes on prisoners of war . [ 410 ] The Soviet Union was responsible for the Katyn massacre of 22,000 Polish officers, [ 411 ] and the imprisonment or execution of hundreds of thousands of political prisoners by the NKVD secret police, along with mass civilian deportations to Siberia , in the Baltic states and eastern Poland annexed by the Red Army. [ 412 ] Soviet soldiers committed mass rapes in occupied territories, especially in Germany . [ 413 ] [ 414 ] The exact number of German women and girls raped by Soviet troops during the war and occupation is uncertain, but historians estimate their numbers are likely in the hundreds of thousands, and possibly as many as two million, [ 415 ] while figures for women raped by German soldiers in the Soviet Union go as far as ten million. [ 416 ] [ 417 ] The mass bombing of cities in Europe and Asia has often been called a war crime, although no positive or specific customary international humanitarian law with respect to aerial warfare existed before or during World War II. [ 418 ] The USAAF bombed a total of 67 Japanese cities , killing 393,000 civilians, including the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki , and destroying 65% of built-up areas. [ 419 ] Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour Nazi Germany , under the dictatorship of Adolf Hitler, was responsible for killing about 6 million Jews in what is now known as the Holocaust . They also killed an additional 4 million others who were deemed " unworthy of life " (including the disabled and mentally ill , Soviet prisoners of war , Romani , homosexuals , Freemasons , and Jehovah's Witnesses ) as part of a program of deliberate extermination, in effect becoming a " genocidal state". [ 420 ] Soviet POWs were kept in especially unbearable conditions , and 3.6 million Soviet POWs out of 5.7 million died in Nazi camps during the war. [ 421 ] [ 422 ] In addition to concentration camps , death camps were created in Nazi Germany to exterminate people on an industrial scale. Nazi Germany extensively used forced labourers ; about 12 million Europeans from German-occupied countries were abducted and used as a slave work force in German industry, agriculture and war economy. [ 423 ] The Soviet Gulag became a de facto system of deadly camps during 1942–1943, when wartime privation and hunger caused numerous deaths of inmates, [ 425 ] including foreign citizens of Poland and other countries occupied in 1939–1940 by the Soviet Union, as well as Axis POWs . [ 426 ] By the end of the war, most Soviet POWs liberated from Nazi camps and many repatriated civilians were detained in special filtration camps where they were subjected to NKVD evaluation, and 226,127 were sent to the Gulag as real or perceived Nazi collaborators. [ 427 ] Japanese prisoner-of-war camps , many of which were used as labour camps, also had high death rates. The International Military Tribunal for the Far East found the death rate of Western prisoners was 27 percent (for American POWs, 37 percent), [ 428 ] seven times that of POWs under the Germans and Italians. [ 429 ] While 37,583 prisoners from the UK, 28,500 from the Netherlands, and 14,473 from the United States were released after the surrender of Japan , the number of Chinese released was only 56. [ 430 ] At least five million Chinese civilians from northern China and Manchukuo were enslaved between 1935 and 1941 by the East Asia Development Board , or Kōain , for work in mines and war industries. After 1942, the number reached 10 million. [ 431 ] In Java , between 4 and 10 million rōmusha (Japanese: "manual labourers"), were forced to work by the Japanese military. About 270,000 of these Javanese labourers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in Southeast Asia, and only 52,000 were repatriated to Java. [ 432 ] Occupation In Europe, occupation came under two forms. In Western, Northern, and Central Europe (France, Norway, Denmark, the Low Countries, and the annexed portions of Czechoslovakia ) Germany established economic policies through which it collected roughly 69.5 billion reichsmarks (27.8 billion US dollars) by the end of the war; this figure does not include the plunder of industrial products, military equipment, raw materials and other goods. [ 433 ] Thus, the income from occupied nations was over 40 percent of the income Germany collected from taxation, a figure which increased to nearly 40 percent of total German income as the war went on. [ 434 ] In the East, the intended gains of Lebensraum were never attained as fluctuating front-lines and Soviet scorched earth policies denied resources to the German invaders. [ 435 ] Unlike in the West, the Nazi racial policy encouraged extreme brutality against what it considered to be the " inferior people " of Slavic descent; most German advances were thus followed by mass atrocities and war crimes . [ 436 ] The Nazis killed an estimated 2.8 million ethnic Poles in addition to Polish-Jewish victims of the Holocaust . [ 437 ] Although by 1942 resistance groups formed in most occupied territories, [ 438 ] the assessments of the effectiveness of Soviet partisans [ 439 ] and French Resistance [ 440 ] suggests that they did not significantly hamper German operations until late 1943. In Asia, Japan termed nations under its occupation as being part of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere , essentially a Japanese hegemony which it claimed was for purposes of liberating colonised peoples. [ 441 ] Although Japanese forces were sometimes welcomed as liberators from European domination, Japanese war crimes frequently turned local public opinion against them. [ 442 ] During Japan's initial conquest, it captured 4,000,000 barrels (640,000 m 3 ) of oil (~550,000 tonnes) left behind by retreating Allied forces; and by 1943, was able to get production in the Dutch East Indies up to 50 million barrels (7,900,000 m 3 ) of oil (~6.8 million tonnes), 76 percent of its 1940 output rate. [ 442 ] Home fronts and production In the 1930s, Britain and the United States together controlled almost 75% of world mineral output—essential for projecting military power. [ 443 ] In Europe, before the outbreak of the war, the Allies had significant advantages in both population and economics. In 1938, the Western Allies (United Kingdom, France, Poland and the British Dominions) had a 30 percent larger population and a 30 percent higher gross domestic product than the European Axis powers (Germany and Italy); including colonies, the Allies had more than a 5:1 advantage in population and a nearly 2:1 advantage in GDP. [ 444 ] In Asia at the same time, China had roughly six times the population of Japan but only an 89 percent higher GDP; this reduces to three times the population and only a 38 percent higher GDP if Japanese colonies are included. [ 444 ] The United States produced about two-thirds of all munitions used by the Allies in World War II, including warships, transports, warplanes, artillery, tanks, trucks, and ammunition. [ 445 ] Although the Allies' economic and population advantages were largely mitigated during the initial rapid blitzkrieg attacks of Germany and Japan, they became the decisive factor by 1942, after the United States and Soviet Union joined the Allies and the war evolved into one of attrition . [ 446 ] While the Allies' ability to out-produce the Axis was partly due to more access to natural resources, other factors, such as Germany and Japan's reluctance to employ women in the labour force , [ 447 ] Allied strategic bombing , [ 448 ] and Germany's late shift to a war economy [ 449 ] contributed significantly. Additionally, neither Germany nor Japan planned to fight a protracted war, and had not equipped themselves to do so. [ 450 ] To improve their production, Germany and Japan used millions of slave labourers ; [ 451 ] Germany enslaved about 12 million people, mostly from Eastern Europe, [ 423 ] while Japan used more than 18 million people in Far East Asia. [ 431 ] [ 432 ] Advances in technology and its application Aircraft were used for reconnaissance , as fighters , bombers , and ground-support , and each role developed considerably. Innovations included airlift (the capability to quickly move limited high-priority supplies, equipment, and personnel); [ 452 ] and strategic bombing (the bombing of enemy industrial and population centres to destroy the enemy's ability to wage war). [ 453 ] Anti-aircraft weaponry also advanced, including defences such as radar and surface-to-air artillery, in particular the introduction of the proximity fuze . The use of the jet aircraft was pioneered and led to jets becoming standard in air forces worldwide. [ 454 ] Advances were made in nearly every aspect of naval warfare , most notably with aircraft carriers and submarines . Although aeronautical warfare had relatively little success at the start of the war, actions at Taranto , Pearl Harbor , and the Coral Sea established the carrier as the dominant capital ship (in place of the battleship). [ 455 ] [ 456 ] [ 457 ] In the Atlantic, escort carriers became a vital part of Allied convoys, increasing the effective protection radius and helping to close the Mid-Atlantic gap . [ 458 ] Carriers were also more economical than battleships due to the relatively low cost of aircraft [ 459 ] and because they are not required to be as heavily armoured. [ 460 ] Submarines, which had proved to be an effective weapon during the First World War , [ 461 ] were expected by all combatants to be important in the second. The British focused development on anti-submarine weaponry and tactics, such as sonar and convoys, while Germany focused on improving its offensive capability, with designs such as the Type VII submarine and wolfpack tactics. [ 462 ] Gradually, improving Allied technologies such as the Leigh Light , Hedgehog , Squid , and homing torpedoes proved effective against German submarines. [ 463 ] Land warfare changed from the static frontlines of trench warfare of World War I, which had relied on improved artillery that outmatched the speed of both infantry and cavalry , to increased mobility and combined arms . The tank , which had been used predominantly for infantry support in the First World War, had evolved into the primary weapon. [ 464 ] In the late 1930s, tank design was considerably more advanced than it had been during World War I, [ 465 ] and advances continued throughout the war with increases in speed, armour and firepower. [ 466 ] [ 467 ] At the start of the war, most commanders thought enemy tanks should be met by tanks with superior specifications. [ 468 ] This idea was challenged by the poor performance of the relatively light early tank guns against armour, and German doctrine of avoiding tank-versus-tank combat. This, along with Germany's use of combined arms, were among the key elements of their highly successful blitzkrieg tactics across Poland and France. [ 464 ] Many means of destroying tanks , including indirect artillery , anti-tank guns (both towed and self-propelled ), mines , short-ranged infantry antitank weapons, and other tanks were used. [ 468 ] Even with large-scale mechanisation, infantry remained the backbone of all forces, [ 469 ] and throughout the war, most infantry were equipped similarly to World War I. [ 470 ] The portable machine gun spread, a notable example being the German MG 34 , and various submachine guns which were suited to close combat in urban and jungle settings. [ 470 ] The assault rifle , a late war development incorporating many features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the standard post-war infantry weapon for most armed forces. [ 471 ] Most major belligerents attempted to solve the problems of complexity and security involved in using large codebooks for cryptography by designing ciphering machines, the most well-known being the German Enigma machine . [ 472 ] Development of SIGINT ( sig nals int elligence) and cryptanalysis enabled the countering process of decryption. Notable examples were the Allied decryption of Japanese naval codes [ 473 ] and British Ultra , a pioneering method for decoding Enigma that benefited from information given to the United Kingdom by the Polish Cipher Bureau , which had been decoding early versions of Enigma before the war. [ 474 ] Another component of military intelligence was deception , which the Allies used to great effect in operations such as Mincemeat and Bodyguard . [ 473 ] [ 475 ] Other technological and engineering feats achieved during, or as a result of, the war include the world's first programmable computers ( Z3 , Colossus , and ENIAC ), guided missiles and modern rockets , the Manhattan Project 's development of nuclear weapons , operations research , the development of artificial harbours , and oil pipelines under the English Channel . [ 476 ] [ 477 ] Although penicillin was discovered before the war, the development ] of industrial production technology as well as the mass production and use began during the war. [ 478 ] See also Greatest Generation – Cohort born from 1901 to 1927 Opposition to World War II World War III – Hypothetical future global conflict Notes ^ While various other dates have been proposed as the date on which World War II began or ended, this is the period most frequently cited. ^ Often abbreviated as WWII or WW2 ^ The UK declared war on Germany at 11 am. France followed 6 hours later at 5 pm. ^ Reparations were exacted from East Germany , Hungary , Romania , and Bulgaria using Soviet-dominated joint enterprises. The Soviet Union also instituted trading arrangements deliberately designed to favour the country. Moscow controlled the Communist parties that ruled the satellite states, and they followed orders from the Kremlin. Historian Mark Kramer concludes: "The net outflow of resources from eastern Europe to the Soviet Union was approximately $15 billion to $20 billion in the first decade after World War II, an amount roughly equal to the total aid provided by the United States to western Europe under the Marshall Plan ." ^ Multiple sources: [ 392 ] [ 393 ] [ 394 ] [ 395 ] [ 396 ] [ 397 ] References ^ Weinberg 2005 , p. 6. ^ Wells, Anne Sharp (2014) Historical Dictionary of World War II: The War against Germany and Italy . Rowman & Littlefield . p. 7. ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Ferris, John; Mawdsley, Evan (2015). 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Wiest, Andrew; Barbier, M. K. (2002). Strategy and Tactics: Infantry Warfare . St Paul, Minnesota: MBI Publishing Company . ISBN 978-0-7603-1401-2 . Williams, Andrew (2006). Liberalism and War: The Victors and the Vanquished . Abingdon & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-35980-1 . Wilt, Alan F. (1981). "Hitler's Late Summer Pause in 1941". Military Affairs . 45 (4): 187– 191. doi : 10.2307/1987464 . JSTOR 1987464 . Wohlstetter, Roberta (1962). Pearl Harbor: Warning and Decision . Palo Alto, California: Stanford University Press . Wolf, Holger C. (1993). "The Lucky Miracle: Germany 1945–1951". In Rudiger Dornbusch; Wilhelm Nölling; Richard Layard (eds.). Postwar Economic Reconstruction and Lessons for the East Today . Cambridge: MIT Press . pp. 29– 56. ISBN 978-0-262-04136-2 . Wood, James B. (2007). Japanese Military Strategy in the Pacific War: Was Defeat Inevitable? . Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield . ISBN 978-0-7425-5339-2 . Yoder, Amos (1997). 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Past & Present (258): 246– 281. doi : 10.1093/pastj/gtab042 . ISSN 0031-2746 . also see online review Archived 4 May 2024 at the Wayback Machine Gerlach, Christian (2024). Conditions of Violence . Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. ISBN 978-3-1115-6873-7 . External links Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Travel information from Wikivoyage West Point Maps of the European War . Archived 23 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine . West Point Maps of the Asian-Pacific War . Archived 23 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine . Atlas of the World Battle Fronts (July 1943 – August 1945) v t e World War II v t e Outline Battles Operations Leaders Allied Axis Commanders Casualties Conferences Outline Battles Operations Operations Leaders Allied Axis Commanders Allied Axis Commanders Casualties Conferences General Topics Air warfare of World War II In Europe Blitzkrieg Comparative military ranks Cryptography Declarations of war Diplomacy Governments in exile Home front Australian United Kingdom United States Lend-Lease Manhattan Project British contribution Military awards Military equipment Military production Naval history Nazi plunder Opposition Technology Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Total war Strategic bombing Puppet states Women Art and World War II Music in World War II Weather events during World War II Theaters Asia and Pacific China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean Europe Western Front Eastern Front Mediterranean and Middle East North Africa East Africa Italy West Africa Atlantic timeline Americas Aftermath Chinese Civil War Cold War Decolonization Division of Korea First Indochina War Expulsion of Germans Greek Civil War Indonesian National Revolution Keelhaul Marshall Plan Occupation of Germany Occupation of Japan Osoaviakhim Paperclip Soviet occupations Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Territorial changes of Germany Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany United Nations War crimes Allied war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes German war crimes forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials Italian war crimes Japanese war crimes Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Croatian war crimes Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Romanian war crimes Sexual violence German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate Topics Air warfare of World War II In Europe Blitzkrieg Comparative military ranks Cryptography Declarations of war Diplomacy Governments in exile Home front Australian United Kingdom United States Lend-Lease Manhattan Project British contribution Military awards Military equipment Military production Naval history Nazi plunder Opposition Technology Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Total war Strategic bombing Puppet states Women Art and World War II Music in World War II Weather events during World War II Air warfare of World War II In Europe In Europe Blitzkrieg Comparative military ranks Cryptography Declarations of war Diplomacy Governments in exile Home front Australian United Kingdom United States Australian United Kingdom United States Lend-Lease Manhattan Project British contribution British contribution Military awards Military equipment Military production Naval history Nazi plunder Opposition Technology Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Total war Strategic bombing Puppet states Women Art and World War II Music in World War II Weather events during World War II Theaters Asia and Pacific China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean Europe Western Front Eastern Front Mediterranean and Middle East North Africa East Africa Italy West Africa Atlantic timeline Americas Asia and Pacific China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean Europe Western Front Eastern Front Western Front Eastern Front Mediterranean and Middle East North Africa East Africa Italy North Africa East Africa Italy West Africa Atlantic timeline timeline Americas Aftermath Chinese Civil War Cold War Decolonization Division of Korea First Indochina War Expulsion of Germans Greek Civil War Indonesian National Revolution Keelhaul Marshall Plan Occupation of Germany Occupation of Japan Osoaviakhim Paperclip Soviet occupations Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Territorial changes of Germany Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany United Nations Chinese Civil War Cold War Decolonization Division of Korea First Indochina War Expulsion of Germans Greek Civil War Indonesian National Revolution Keelhaul Marshall Plan Occupation of Germany Occupation of Japan Osoaviakhim Paperclip Soviet occupations Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Territorial changes of Germany Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany United Nations War crimes Allied war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes German war crimes forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials Italian war crimes Japanese war crimes Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Croatian war crimes Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Romanian war crimes Sexual violence German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate Allied war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes German war crimes forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials Italian war crimes Japanese war crimes Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Croatian war crimes Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Romanian war crimes Sexual violence German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate Participants Allies Algeria Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria ( from September 1944 ) Canada China Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Ethiopia Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) Finland ( from September 1944 ) France Free France Greece India ( Indian Army ) Italy ( from September 1943 ) Liberia Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Newfoundland New Zealand Norway Philippines Poland Romania ( from August 1944 ) Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Soviet Union Tuva United Kingdom British Empire United States Puerto Rico Yugoslavia Axis Albania protectorate Bulgaria (until September 1944) State of Burma Republic of China (Wang Jingwei) Independent State of Croatia Finland (until September 1944) German Reich Hungary Azad Hind Iraq Italy (until September 1943) Italian Social Republic Empire of Japan Manchukuo Mengjiang Philippines Romania (until August 1944) Slovak Republic Thailand Vichy France Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Collaboration Neutral Afghanistan Andorra Bhutan Ireland Liechtenstein Monaco Portugal San Marino Saudi Arabia Spain Sweden Switzerland Tibet Turkey Vatican City Yemen Resistance Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech lands Denmark Dutch East Indies Estonia Ethiopia France Germany Greece Hong Kong Italy Japan Jews Korea Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malaya Netherlands Northeast China Norway Philippines Poland Romania Thailand Soviet Union Slovakia Western Ukraine Vietnam Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Yugoslavia POWs Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union German prisoners Soviet Union Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union Japanese prisoners Soviet Union German atrocities against Polish POWs Soviet prisoners Finland atrocities by Germans Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union Allies Algeria Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria ( from September 1944 ) Canada China Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Ethiopia Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) Finland ( from September 1944 ) France Free France Greece India ( Indian Army ) Italy ( from September 1943 ) Liberia Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Newfoundland New Zealand Norway Philippines Poland Romania ( from August 1944 ) Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Soviet Union Tuva United Kingdom British Empire United States Puerto Rico Yugoslavia Algeria Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria ( from September 1944 ) Canada China Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Ethiopia Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) Finland ( from September 1944 ) France Free France Greece India ( Indian Army ) Italy ( from September 1943 ) Liberia Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Newfoundland New Zealand Norway Philippines Poland Romania ( from August 1944 ) Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Soviet Union Tuva United Kingdom British Empire British Empire United States Puerto Rico Puerto Rico Yugoslavia Axis Albania protectorate Bulgaria (until September 1944) State of Burma Republic of China (Wang Jingwei) Independent State of Croatia Finland (until September 1944) German Reich Hungary Azad Hind Iraq Italy (until September 1943) Italian Social Republic Empire of Japan Manchukuo Mengjiang Philippines Romania (until August 1944) Slovak Republic Thailand Vichy France Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Collaboration Albania protectorate Bulgaria (until September 1944) State of Burma Republic of China (Wang Jingwei) Independent State of Croatia Finland (until September 1944) German Reich Hungary Azad Hind Iraq Italy (until September 1943) Italian Social Republic Italian Social Republic Empire of Japan Manchukuo Mengjiang Philippines Romania (until August 1944) Slovak Republic Thailand Vichy France Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Collaboration Neutral Afghanistan Andorra Bhutan Ireland Liechtenstein Monaco Portugal San Marino Saudi Arabia Spain Sweden Switzerland Tibet Turkey Vatican City Yemen Afghanistan Andorra Bhutan Ireland Liechtenstein Monaco Portugal San Marino Saudi Arabia Spain Sweden Switzerland Tibet Turkey Vatican City Yemen Resistance Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech lands Denmark Dutch East Indies Estonia Ethiopia France Germany Greece Hong Kong Italy Japan Jews Korea Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malaya Netherlands Northeast China Norway Philippines Poland Romania Thailand Soviet Union Slovakia Western Ukraine Vietnam Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Yugoslavia Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech lands Denmark Dutch East Indies Estonia Ethiopia France Germany Greece Hong Kong Italy Japan Jews Korea Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malaya Netherlands Northeast China Norway Philippines Poland Romania Thailand Soviet Union Slovakia Western Ukraine Vietnam Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Yugoslavia POWs Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union German prisoners Soviet Union Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union Japanese prisoners Soviet Union German atrocities against Polish POWs Soviet prisoners Finland atrocities by Germans Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union German prisoners Soviet Union Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Soviet Union Azerbaijan Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union Japanese prisoners Soviet Union Soviet Union German atrocities against Polish POWs Soviet prisoners Finland atrocities by Germans Finland atrocities by Germans Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union Timeline Prelude Africa Second Italo-Ethiopian War Asia Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Europe Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania 1939 Invasion of Poland Battle of the Atlantic Phoney War First Battle of Changsha Battle of South Guangxi Winter War 1939–1940 Winter Offensive 1940 Norwegian campaign German invasion of Denmark Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang German invasion of Luxembourg German invasion of the Netherlands German invasion of Belgium Battle of France Dunkirk evacuation Battle of Britain Battle of the Mediterranean North Africa West Africa British Somaliland Hundred Regiments Offensive Baltic states Eastern Romania Japanese invasion of French Indochina Italian invasion of Greece Compass 1941 Battle of South Henan Battle of Shanggao Invasion of Yugoslavia German invasion of Greece Battle of Crete Anglo-Iraqi War Battle of South Shanxi Syria–Lebanon campaign East African campaign Invasion of the Soviet Union Summer War Finland ( Silver Fox ) Lithuania Battle of Kiev Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran Second Battle of Changsha Siege of Leningrad Battle of Moscow Bombing of Gorky Siege of Sevastopol Attack on Pearl Harbor Niʻihau incident Japanese invasion of Thailand Fall of Hong Kong Fall of the Philippines Battle of Guam Battle of Wake Island Malayan campaign Battle of Borneo Japanese invasion of Burma Third Battle of Changsha Greek famine of 1941–1944 1942 Fall of Singapore Battle of the Java Sea St Nazaire Raid Battle of Christmas Island Battle of the Coral Sea Battle of Madagascar Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign Battle of Gazala Battle of Dutch Harbor Battle of Midway Aleutian Islands campaign Kiska Attu Blue First Battle of El Alamein Battle of Stalingrad Kokoda Track campaign Rzhev Jubilee Second Battle of El Alamein Guadalcanal campaign Torch Chinese famine of 1942–1943 1943 Black May Tunisian campaign Battle of West Hubei Battle of Attu Bombing of Gorky Battle of Kursk Allied invasion of Sicily Smolensk Solomon Islands campaign Cottage Battle of the Dnieper Allied invasion of Italy Armistice of Cassibile Burma Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Changde Second Battle of Kiev Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign Tarawa Makin Bengal famine of 1943 1944 Tempest Monte Cassino / Anzio Korsun–Cherkassy Narva U-Go Imphal Ichi-Go Kohima Overlord Neptune Mariana and Palau Bagration Western Ukraine Second Battle of Guam Tannenberg Line Warsaw Uprising Eastern Romania Liberation of Paris Dragoon Gothic Line Belgrade offensive Battle of San Marino Lapland Market Garden Estonia Crossbow Pointblank Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945 Philippines (1944–1945) Leyte Syrmian Front Hungary Budapest Burma (1944–1945) Ardennes Bodenplatte Dutch famine of 1944–1945 1945 Vistula–Oder Battle of Manila Battle of Iwo Jima Indochina Vienna offensive Project Hula Western invasion of Germany Bratislava–Brno offensive Battle of Okinawa Second Guangxi campaign West Hunan Italy (Spring 1945) Battle of Berlin Prague offensive Surrender of Germany document Borneo Taipei Naval bombardment of Japan Manchuria Atomic bombings Debate South Sakhalin Kuril Islands Shumshu Surrender of Japan Potsdam Declaration document End of World War II in Asia Prelude Africa Second Italo-Ethiopian War Asia Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Europe Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania Africa Second Italo-Ethiopian War Second Italo-Ethiopian War Asia Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Europe Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania 1939 Invasion of Poland Battle of the Atlantic Phoney War First Battle of Changsha Battle of South Guangxi Winter War 1939–1940 Winter Offensive Invasion of Poland Battle of the Atlantic Phoney War First Battle of Changsha Battle of South Guangxi Winter War 1939–1940 Winter Offensive 1940 Norwegian campaign German invasion of Denmark Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang German invasion of Luxembourg German invasion of the Netherlands German invasion of Belgium Battle of France Dunkirk evacuation Battle of Britain Battle of the Mediterranean North Africa West Africa British Somaliland Hundred Regiments Offensive Baltic states Eastern Romania Japanese invasion of French Indochina Italian invasion of Greece Compass Norwegian campaign German invasion of Denmark Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang German invasion of Luxembourg German invasion of the Netherlands German invasion of Belgium Battle of France Dunkirk evacuation Battle of Britain Battle of the Mediterranean North Africa West Africa British Somaliland Hundred Regiments Offensive Baltic states Eastern Romania Japanese invasion of French Indochina Italian invasion of Greece Compass 1941 Battle of South Henan Battle of Shanggao Invasion of Yugoslavia German invasion of Greece Battle of Crete Anglo-Iraqi War Battle of South Shanxi Syria–Lebanon campaign East African campaign Invasion of the Soviet Union Summer War Finland ( Silver Fox ) Lithuania Battle of Kiev Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran Second Battle of Changsha Siege of Leningrad Battle of Moscow Bombing of Gorky Siege of Sevastopol Attack on Pearl Harbor Niʻihau incident Japanese invasion of Thailand Fall of Hong Kong Fall of the Philippines Battle of Guam Battle of Wake Island Malayan 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Individual medallists 2 All medallists 3 See also 4 Notes 5 References List of Australian Olympic medallists in swimming Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item Australia has competed in swimming at the Summer Olympics since the 1900 Summer Olympics in Paris, after only sending a runner, Edwin Flack , to the 1896 Summer Olympics . Frederick Lane was Australia's sole swimming representative at the 1900 Games, winning two individual gold medals. Women's events were added at the 1912 Summer Olympics in Stockholm ; Fanny Durack and Mina Wylie , Australia's first female representatives, won gold and silver in the 100-metre freestyle, which was the first women's event on the program. At the 1908 Summer Olympics and the 1912 Summer Olympics , Australia competed as Australasia , sending a combined team with New Zealand. The table includes Malcolm Champion , a New Zealander who was part of the 4×200-metre freestyle relay team that captured gold in 1912. [ 1 ] Australia has won a total of 78 gold medals in the sport, second only to the United States , who have won 257. East Germany is in third place with 38 golds, although this is widely attributed to state-sponsored systematic doping programs. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] Swimming is Australia's most prolific Olympic sport, having been responsible for 78 of Australia's 185 Olympic gold medals. In addition, a list of the top 100 Australian Olympians of all time, compiled by the Australian Olympic Committee , named 35 swimmers in the top 100, more than any other sport. Swimmers have been given the honour of carrying the Australian flag six times in twelve at the closing ceremony, which is traditionally reserved for the most successful athlete of the delegation. [ 4 ] [ 5 ] Australia's strongest-ever performance in swimming was at the 1956 Olympics on home soil in Melbourne . Australia claimed eight of the thirteen gold medals available, including both relays and a clean sweep of the medals in the 100-metre freestyle, considered the blue-riband event for both men and women. This is the only time that Australia has topped the medal tally in swimming, and the tally of gold medals was not surpassed until Australia won 9 at the Tokyo 2020 Summer Olympics , when the swimming program had expanded to its current 35 events. [ 1 ] Australia has been most successful in the freestyle discipline, with 51 of the 78 golds coming in the stroke. Eight of the gold have come from the men's 1500-metre freestyle, the most victories in the event by any country, which has resulted in the event being dubbed "Australia's race" by Australian commentators. Australia's first medal outside of freestyle did not come until 1932 when Clare Dennis and Bonnie Mealing won gold and silver in the 200-metre breaststroke and 100-metre backstroke respectively. It was not until John Davies ' victory in the 200-metre breaststroke in 1952 that a male swimmer had won a medal outside of freestyle. Backstroke is Australia's weakest discipline, with David Theile 's two consecutive golds in the 100-metre backstroke being the only victories in the discipline until Kaylee McKeown 's double golds in Tokyo 2020 Summer Olympics . [ 1 ] [ 6 ] Individual medallists The following table includes only medals won by Australian swimmers in individual events. Shane Gould won three gold, one silver, and one bronze, all in individual events at her only Olympics, aged 15. In doing so, she became the first woman to win three individual gold medals at one Olympics all in world record time. She is the only Australian to win five individual medals and three individual gold medals at one Olympics. [ 7 ] Kaylee McKeown has the most gold medals, with 4 total. Ariarne Titmus has the most total medals, with 6. Dawn Fraser won three consecutive gold medals in 1956, 1960, and 1964 in the 100-metre freestyle, becoming the first swimmer to win any event three times. [ 8 ] the following swimmers have won consecutive gold medals in a single event: Murray Rose (men's 400 m freestyle), Ian Thorpe (men's 400 m freestyle), Kieren Perkins (men's 1500 m freestyle), Grant Hackett (men's 1500 m freestyle), David Theile (men's 100 m backstroke), Ariarne Titmus (women's 400 m freestyle) and Kaylee McKeown (women's 100 & 200 m backstroke). Note: Years in bold indicate when a swimmer won a medal. Athlete Gold Silver Bronze Total Years competed Kaylee McKeown [ 9 ] 4 0 1 5 2020 , 2024 Ariarne Titmus [ 10 ] 3 3 0 6 2020 , 2024 Shane Gould [ 7 ] 3 1 1 5 1972 Ian Thorpe 3 1 1 5 2000 , 2004 Dawn Fraser [ 8 ] 3 1 0 4 1956 , 1960 , 1964 Murray Rose [ 11 ] 3 1 0 4 1956 , 1960 Grant Hackett [ 6 ] 2 2 0 4 2000 , 2004 , 2008 Kieren Perkins [ 12 ] 2 2 0 4 1992 , 1996 , 2000 Susie O'Neill [ 13 ] 2 1 1 4 1992 , 1996 , 2000 Emma McKeon [ 14 ] 2 0 2 4 2016 , 2020 , 2024 Frederick Lane [ 15 ] 2 0 0 2 1900 Stephanie Rice [ 16 ] 2 0 0 2 2008 , 2012 David Theile [ 17 ] 2 0 0 2 1956 , 1960 Michael Wenden [ 18 ] 2 0 0 2 1968 , 1972 Leisel Jones [ 19 ] 1 3 1 5 2000 , 2004 , 2008 , 2012 Petria Thomas [ 20 ] 1 2 1 4 1996 , 2000 , 2004 Boy Charlton [ 21 ] 1 2 0 3 1924 , 1928 , 1932 Kyle Chalmers [ 22 ] 1 2 0 3 2016 , 2020 , 2024 Libby Trickett [ 23 ] 1 1 1 3 2004 , 2008 , 2012 Duncan Armstrong [ 24 ] 1 1 0 2 1988 , 1992 Lorraine Crapp [ 25 ] 1 1 0 2 1956 , 1960 John Devitt [ 26 ] 1 1 0 2 1956 , 1960 Zac Stubblety-Cook [ 27 ] 1 1 0 2 2020 , 2024 Michelle Ford [ 28 ] 1 0 1 2 1976 , 1980 John Konrads [ 29 ] 1 0 1 2 1956 , 1960 , 1964 Beverley Whitfield [ 30 ] 1 0 1 2 1972 Kevin Berry [ 31 ] 1 0 0 1 1960 , 1964 Brad Cooper [ 32 ] 1 0 0 1 1972 John Davies [ 33 ] 1 0 0 1 1948 , 1952 Clare Dennis [ 34 ] 1 0 0 1 1932 Fanny Durack [ 35 ] 1 0 0 1 1912 Jon Henricks [ 36 ] 1 0 0 1 1956 , 1960 Jodie Henry [ 37 ] 1 0 0 1 2004 Mack Horton [ 38 ] 1 0 0 1 2016 , 2020 Lyn McClements [ 39 ] 1 0 0 1 1968 Cameron McEvoy [ 40 ] 1 0 0 1 2012 , 2016 , 2020 , 2024 Gail Neall [ 41 ] 1 0 0 1 1972 Ian O'Brien [ 42 ] 1 0 0 1 1964 , 1968 Mollie O'Callaghan [ 43 ] 1 0 0 1 2020 , 2024 Jon Sieben [ 44 ] 1 0 0 1 1984 , 1988 , 1992 Bob Windle [ 45 ] 1 0 0 1 1964 , 1968 Frank Beaurepaire [ 46 ] 0 1 3 4 1908 , 1920 , 1924 Daniel Kowalski [ 47 ] 0 1 2 3 1996 , 2000 Emily Seebohm [ 48 ] 0 1 1 2 2008 , 2012 , 2016 , 2020 Alicia Coutts [ 49 ] 0 1 1 2 2008 , 2012 , 2016 Hayley Lewis [ 50 ] 0 1 1 2 1992 , 1996 , 2000 John Marshall [ 51 ] 0 1 1 2 1948 , 1952 , 1956 Matt Welsh [ 52 ] 0 1 1 2 2000 , 2004 Glenn Beringen [ 53 ] 0 1 0 1 1984 Madeline Groves [ 54 ] 0 1 0 1 2016 Brooke Hanson [ 55 ] 0 1 0 1 2004 Meg Harris [ 56 ] 0 1 0 1 2020 , 2024 Neville Hayes [ 57 ] 0 1 0 1 1960 Cecil Healy [ 58 ] 0 1 0 1 1912 Glen Housman [ 59 ] 0 1 0 1 1992 , 1996 Moesha Johnson 0 1 0 1 2024 Michael Klim [ 60 ] 0 1 0 1 1996 , 2000 , 2004 Suzie Landells [ 61 ] 0 1 0 1 1984 Mitch Larkin [ 62 ] 0 1 0 1 2012 , 2016 Nancy Lyons [ 63 ] 0 1 0 1 1948 , 1952 James Magnussen [ 64 ] 0 1 0 1 2012 , 2016 Jack McLoughlin [ 65 ] 0 1 0 1 2016 , 2020 Bonnie Mealing [ 66 ] 0 1 0 1 1928 , 1932 Scott Miller [ 67 ] 0 1 0 1 1996 John Monckton [ 68 ] 0 1 0 1 1956 , 1960 Karen Phillips [ 69 ] 0 1 0 1 1984 Brenton Rickard [ 70 ] 0 1 0 1 2008 , 2012 Christian Sprenger [ 71 ] 0 1 0 1 2008 , 2012 Mark Stockwell [ 72 ] 0 1 0 1 1984 Eamon Sullivan [ 73 ] 0 1 0 1 2004 , 2008 , 2012 Graham Windeatt [ 74 ] 0 1 0 1 1972 , 1976 Elijah Winnington [ 75 ] 0 1 0 1 2020 , 2024 Mina Wylie [ 76 ] 0 1 0 1 1912 Peter Evans [ 77 ] 0 0 2 2 1980 , 1984 Harold Hardwick [ 78 ] 0 0 2 2 1912 Samantha Riley [ 79 ] 0 0 2 2 1992 , 1996 Jessicah Schipper [ 80 ] 0 0 2 2 2004 , 2008 , 2012 Allan Wood [ 81 ] 0 0 2 2 1960 , 1964 Cate Campbell [ 82 ] 0 0 2 2 2008 , 2012 , 2016 , 2020 Jan Andrew [ 83 ] 0 0 1 1 1960 Bronte Barratt [ 84 ] 0 0 1 1 2008 , 2012 , 2016 Graeme Brewer [ 85 ] 0 0 1 1 1980 , 1984 Greg Brough [ 86 ] 0 0 1 1 1968 Glenn Buchanan [ 87 ] 0 0 1 1 1984 Gary Chapman [ 88 ] 0 0 1 1 1956 Judy-Joy Davies [ 89 ] 0 0 1 1 1948 , 1952 Scott Goodman [ 90 ] 0 0 1 1 1996 Stephen Holland [ 91 ] 0 0 1 1 1976 Geoff Huegill [ 92 ] 0 0 1 1 2000 , 2004 Mark Kerry [ 93 ] 0 0 1 1 1976 , 1980 , 1984 Andrew Lauterstein [ 94 ] 0 0 1 1 2008 Kareena Lee [ 95 ] 0 0 1 1 2020 Faith Leech [ 96 ] 0 0 1 1 1956 Justin Lemberg [ 96 ] 0 0 1 1 1984 Julie McDonald [ 97 ] 0 0 1 1 1988 , 1992 Max Metzker [ 98 ] 0 0 1 1 1976 , 1980 Karen Moras [ 99 ] 0 0 1 1 1968 , 1972 Justin Norris [ 100 ] 0 0 1 1 2000 , 2004 Michele Pearson [ 101 ] 0 0 1 1 1980 , 1984 Phil Rogers [ 102 ] 0 0 1 1 1992 , 1996 , 2000 Brendon Smith [ 103 ] 0 0 1 1 2020 , 2024 Nicole Stevenson [ 104 ] 0 0 1 1 1988 , 1992 , 1996 Hayden Stoeckel [ 105 ] 0 0 1 1 2008 , 2012 Rob Woodhouse [ 106 ] 0 0 1 1 1984 , 1988 All medallists The following table includes all those who have won medals, including as part of relay teams. Since 1984 , swimmers who participated in the preliminary heats but not in the final were awarded medals if the final team went on to claim a medal, whereas those prior to 1984 did not. Those who swam in the heats only are marked with an asterisk, multiple times if multiple medals were awarded for swimming in heats only. Malcolm Champion , a member of the 4×200-metre freestyle relay team in 1912, was a New Zealander, competing as part of the combined Australasia team. His teammates in the combined relay team were Cecil Healy , Les Boardman , and Harold Hardwick . [ 1 ] Emma McKeon is the most decorated Australian Olympian of all time, with six gold medals. Emma McKeon's seven medals, four gold and three bronze, at the 2020 Summer Olympics are the largest total in a single Olympics by an Australian. McKeon's career total of fourteen medals is the most by any Australian Olympian. [ 14 ] Dawn Fraser and Murray Rose jointly held the previous records for gold medals, and Fraser the record of eight medals in total, prior to Thorpe. [ 107 ] Sandra Morgan , a member of the Australian women's 4×100-metre freestyle relay team in 1956, is the youngest Australian gold medallist of all time, aged 14 years and 6 months. [ 107 ] Note: Years in bold indicate when a swimmer won a medal. Athlete Gold Silver Bronze Total Years competed Emma McKeon [ 14 ] 6 3 5 14 2016 , 2020 , 2024 Ian Thorpe 5 3 1 9 2000 , 2004 Kaylee McKeown [ 9 ] 5 1 3 9 2020 , 2024 Mollie O'Callaghan [ 108 ] 5 1 2 8 2020 , 2024 Dawn Fraser [ 8 ] 4 4 0 8 1956 , 1960 , 1964 Ariarne Titmus [ 10 ] 4 3 1 8 2020 , 2024 Cate Campbell [ 82 ] 4 1 3 8 2008 , 2012 , 2016 , 2020 Libby Trickett [ 23 ] 4 1 2 7 2004 , 2008 , 2012 Murray Rose [ 11 ] 4 1 1 6 1956 , 1960 Leisel Jones [ 19 ] 3 5 1 9 2000 , 2004 , 2008 , 2012 Petria Thomas [ 20 ] 3 4 1 8 1996 , 2000 , 2004 Grant Hackett [ 6 ] [ 109 ] 3 3 1 7 2000 , 2004 , 2008 Emily Seebohm [ 110 ] 3 3 1 7 2008 , 2012 , 2016 , 2020 Shane Gould [ 7 ] 3 1 1 5 1972 Bronte Campbell [ 111 ] 3 0 1 4 2012 , 2016 , 2020 , 2024 Jodie Henry [ 37 ] 3 0 0 3 2004 Stephanie Rice [ 16 ] 3 0 0 3 2008 , 2012 Susie O'Neill [ 13 ] 2 4 2 8 1992 , 1996 , 2000 Michael Klim [ 60 ] 2 3 1 6 1996 , 2000 , 2004 Brittany Elmslie [ 112 ] 2 3 0 5 2012 , 2016 Melanie Schlanger [ 113 ] [ 114 ] 2 2 1 5 2008 , 2012 Meg Harris [ 115 ] 2 2 1 5 2020 , 2024 Lorraine Crapp [ 25 ] 2 2 0 4 1956 , 1960 Kieren Perkins [ 12 ] 2 2 0 4 1992 , 1996 , 2000 John Devitt [ 26 ] 2 1 1 4 1956 , 1960 Michael Wenden [ 18 ] 2 1 1 4 1968 , 1972 Madison Wilson [ 116 ] 2 1 1 4 2016 , 2020 Todd Pearson [ 117 ] [ 118 ] 2 1 0 3 2000 , 2004 David Theile [ 17 ] 2 1 0 3 1956 , 1960 Jessicah Schipper [ 80 ] [ 119 ] 2 0 2 4 2004 , 2008 , 2012 Brianna Throssell [ 120 ] 2 0 2 4 2016 , 2020 , 2024 Alice Mills [ 121 ] [ 122 ] 2 0 1 3 2004 , 2008 Felicity Galvez [ 123 ] [ 124 ] 2 0 0 2 2004 , 2008 Jon Henricks [ 36 ] 2 0 0 2 1956 , 1960 Shayna Jack [ 125 ] 2 0 0 2 2024 Freddy Lane [ 15 ] 2 0 0 2 1900 Kyle Chalmers [ 22 ] 1 3 5 9 2016 , 2020 , 2024 Alicia Coutts [ 126 ] 1 3 1 5 2008 , 2012 , 2016 Boy Charlton [ 21 ] 1 3 0 4 1924 , 1928 , 1932 Bronte Barratt [ 127 ] 1 2 1 4 2008 , 2012 , 2016 Adam Pine [ 128 ] [ 129 ] 1 2 0 3 2000 , 2004 , 2008 Giaan Rooney [ 130 ] [ 131 ] 1 2 0 3 2000 , 2004 Sarah Ryan [ 132 ] [ 133 ] 1 2 0 3 1996 , 2000 , 2004 Daniel Kowalski [ 47 ] [ 109 ] 1 1 2 5 1996 , 2000 Zac Stubblety-Cook [ 27 ] 1 1 2 4 2020 , 2024 Bob Windle [ 45 ] 1 1 2 4 1964 , 1968 Neil Brooks [ 134 ] [ 135 ] 1 1 1 3 1980 , 1984 Duncan Armstrong [ 24 ] 1 1 0 2 1988 , 1992 Angie Bainbridge [ 114 ] [ 136 ] 1 1 0 2 2008 , 2012 Brooke Hanson [ 55 ] [ 137 ] 1 1 0 2 2004 Cecil Healy [ 58 ] 1 1 0 2 1912 Lyn McClements [ 39 ] 1 1 0 2 1968 Kylie Palmer [ 138 ] 1 1 0 2 2008 , 2012 Tarnee White [ 139 ] [ 140 ] 1 1 0 2 2000 , 2008 Peter Evans [ 77 ] 1 0 3 4 1980 , 1984 Cameron McEvoy [ 40 ] 1 0 3 4 2012 , 2016 , 2020 , 2024 Harold Hardwick [ 78 ] 1 0 2 3 1912 John Konrads [ 29 ] 1 0 2 3 1956 , 1960 , 1964 Mark Kerry [ 93 ] 1 0 2 3 1980 , 1984 Kevin Berry [ 31 ] 1 0 1 2 1960 , 1964 Ashley Callus [ 141 ] 1 0 1 2 2000 , 2004 , 2008 Michelle Ford [ 28 ] 1 0 1 2 1976 , 1980 Mack Horton [ 142 ] 1 0 1 2 2016 , 2020 Faith Leech [ 96 ] 1 0 1 2 1956 Ian O'Brien [ 42 ] 1 0 1 2 1964 , 1968 Shayne Reese [ 143 ] [ 144 ] 1 0 1 2 2004 , 2008 Jon Sieben [ 44 ] [ 145 ] 1 0 1 2 1984 , 1988 , 1992 Beverley Whitfield [ 30 ] 1 0 1 2 1972 Leslie Boardman [ 146 ] 1 0 0 1 1912 Malcolm Champion [ 147 ] 1 0 0 1 1912 Brad Cooper [ 32 ] 1 0 0 1 1972 Lara Davenport [ 114 ] [ 148 ] 1 0 0 1 2008 John Davies [ 33 ] 1 0 0 1 1948 , 1952 Clare Dennis [ 34 ] 1 0 0 1 1932 Fanny Durack [ 35 ] 1 0 0 1 1912 Chris Fydler [ 149 ] 1 0 0 1 1992 , 1996 , 2000 Chelsea Hodges [ 150 ] 1 0 0 1 2020 Bill Kirby [ 151 ] 1 0 0 1 2000 Yolane Kukla [ 152 ] 1 0 0 1 2012 Linda Mackenzie [ 153 ] 1 0 0 1 2004 , 2008 Sandra Morgan [ 154 ] 1 0 0 1 1956 , 1960 Gail Neall [ 41 ] 1 0 0 1 1972 Kevin O'Halloran [ 155 ] 1 0 0 1 1956 Lani Pallister [ 156 ] 1 0 0 1 2024 Jamie Perkins [ 157 ] 1 0 0 1 2024 Mark Tonelli [ 158 ] 1 0 0 1 1976 , 1980 Olivia Wunsch [ 159 ] 1 0 0 1 2024 Frank Beaurepaire [ 46 ] 0 3 3 6 1908 , 1920 , 1924 Brenton Rickard [ 70 ] 0 2 1 3 2008 , 2012 Christian Sprenger [ 160 ] [ 161 ] 0 2 1 3 2008 , 2012 Mark Stockwell [ 72 ] 0 2 1 3 1984 Eamon Sullivan [ 73 ] 0 2 1 3 2004 , 2008 , 2012 Matt Welsh [ 52 ] 0 2 1 3 2000 , 2004 Madeline Groves [ 54 ] 0 2 0 2 2016 Neville Hayes [ 57 ] 0 2 0 2 1960 Andrew Lauterstein [ 94 ] 0 1 2 3 2008 James Magnussen [ 64 ] 0 1 2 3 2012 , 2016 Samantha Riley [ 79 ] 0 1 2 3 1992 , 1996 Nicole Stevenson [ 104 ] 0 1 2 3 1988 , 1992 , 1996 Hayden Stoeckel [ 105 ] 0 1 2 3 2008 , 2012 Matt Targett [ 162 ] [ 163 ] 0 1 2 3 2008 , 2012 Elijah Winnington [ 164 ] 0 1 2 3 2020 , 2024 Iona Anderson [ 165 ] 0 1 1 2 2024 Jan Andrew [ 83 ] 0 1 1 2 1960 Tamsin Cook [ 166 ] 0 1 1 2 2016 , 2020 Geoff Huegill [ 92 ] 0 1 1 2 2000 , 2004 Mitch Larkin [ 62 ] 0 1 1 2 2012 , 2016 , 2020 Hayley Lewis [ 50 ] 0 1 1 2 1992 , 1996 , 2000 John Marshall [ 51 ] 0 1 1 2 1948 , 1952 , 1956 Scott Miller [ 67 ] 0 1 1 2 1996 Leah Neale [ 167 ] 0 1 1 2 2016 , 2020 Greg Rogers [ 168 ] 0 1 1 2 1968 , 1972 Flynn Southam 0 1 1 2 2024 Kai Taylor 0 1 1 2 2024 Jessica Ashwood [ 169 ] 0 1 0 1 2012 , 2016 Lyn Bell [ 170 ] 0 1 0 1 1964 , 1968 Glenn Beringen [ 53 ] 0 1 0 1 1984 Dyana Calub [ 171 ] 0 1 0 1 2000 Jack Cartwright 0 1 0 1 2024 Moss Christie [ 172 ] 0 1 0 1 1924 Alva Colquhoun [ 173 ] 0 1 0 1 1960 Ashley Delaney [ 174 ] [ 175 ] 0 1 0 1 2008 Michael Delany [ 176 ] 0 1 0 1 1984 Helen Denman [ 177 ] [ 178 ] 0 1 0 1 1996 Blair Evans [ 179 ] 0 1 0 1 2012 , 2016 Greg Fasala [ 180 ] 0 1 0 1 1984 Terry Gathercole [ 181 ] 0 1 0 1 1956 , 1960 Elka Graham [ 182 ] [ 183 ] 0 1 0 1 2000 , 2004 Regan Harrison [ 184 ] 0 1 0 1 2000 , 2004 Henry Hay [ 185 ] 0 1 0 1 1920 Ernest Henry [ 186 ] 0 1 0 1 1924 William Herald [ 187 ] 0 1 0 1 1920 Glen Housman [ 59 ] 0 1 0 1 1992 , 1996 Moesha Johnson 0 1 0 1 2024 Angela Kennedy [ 188 ] [ 189 ] 0 1 0 1 1996 Ilsa Konrads [ 29 ] 0 1 0 1 1960 Suzie Landells [ 61 ] 0 1 0 1 1984 Rosemary Lassig [ 190 ] 0 1 0 1 1960 Nancy Lyons [ 63 ] 0 1 0 1 1948 , 1952 Antony Matkovich [ 191 ] [ 192 ] 0 1 0 1 2004 Bonnie Mealing [ 66 ] 0 1 0 1 1928 , 1932 Taylor McKeown [ 193 ] 0 1 0 1 2016 Jack McLoughlin [ 65 ] 0 1 0 1 2016 , 2020 Ryan Mitchell [ 194 ] [ 195 ] 0 1 0 1 1996 , 2000 John Monckton [ 68 ] 0 1 0 1 1956 , 1960 Janice Murphy [ 196 ] 0 1 0 1 1964 Jade Neilsen [ 197 ] 0 1 0 1 2012 Alexandria Perkins [ 198 ] 0 1 0 1 2024 Karen Phillips [ 69 ] 0 1 0 1 1984 Judy Playfair [ 199 ] 0 1 0 1 1968 Ella Ramsay [ 200 ] 0 1 0 1 2024 Geoff Shipton [ 201 ] 0 1 0 1 1960 Nicholas Sprenger [ 202 ] 0 1 0 1 2004 , 2008 Ivan Stedman [ 203 ] 0 1 0 1 1920 , 1924 Janet Steinbeck [ 204 ] 0 1 0 1 1968 Jenna Strauch [ 205 ] 0 1 0 1 2020 , 2024 Craig Stevens [ 206 ] [ 192 ] 0 1 0 1 2004 , 2008 Kirsten Thomson [ 207 ] 0 1 0 1 2000 Robyn Thorn [ 208 ] 0 1 0 1 1964 Jacinta van Lint [ 183 ] [ 209 ] 0 1 0 1 2000 Josh Watson [ 210 ] [ 211 ] 0 1 0 1 2000 , 2004 Lynne Watson [ 212 ] 0 1 0 1 1968 Marilyn Wilson [ 213 ] 0 1 0 1 1960 Graham Windeatt [ 74 ] 0 1 0 1 1972 , 1976 Mina Wylie [ 76 ] 0 1 0 1 1912 William Yang 0 1 0 1 2024 David Dickson [ 214 ] 0 0 3 3 1960 , 1964 Zac Incerti [ 215 ] 0 0 3 3 2020 , 2024 Matthew Temple [ 216 ] 0 0 3 3 2020 , 2024 Leith Brodie [ 217 ] [ 218 ] 0 0 2 2 2008 Glenn Buchanan [ 87 ] 0 0 2 2 1980 , 1984 Alexander Graham [ 219 ] 0 0 2 2 2020 Patrick Murphy [ 220 ] [ 221 ] 0 0 2 2 2004 , 2008 Thomas Neill [ 222 ] 0 0 2 2 2020 , 2024 Phil Rogers [ 102 ] 0 0 2 2 1992 , 1996 , 2000 Allan Wood [ 81 ] 0 0 2 2 1960 , 1964 Matthew Abood [ 223 ] 0 0 1 1 2016 Graeme Brewer [ 85 ] 0 0 1 1 1980 , 1984 Grant Brits [ 224 ] 0 0 1 1 2008 Greg Brough [ 86 ] 0 0 1 1 1968 Gary Chapman [ 88 ] 0 0 1 1 1956 Isaac Cooper [ 225 ] 0 0 1 1 2020 , 2024 Robert Cusack [ 226 ] 0 0 1 1 1968 Judy-Joy Davies [ 89 ] 0 0 1 1 1948 , 1952 Steven Dewick [ 227 ] 0 0 1 1 1996 Peter Doak [ 228 ] 0 0 1 1 1964 Nick Ffrost [ 229 ] 0 0 1 1 2008 Scott Goodman [ 90 ] 0 0 1 1 1996 Julia Greville [ 230 ] 0 0 1 1 1996 Maximillian Giuliani 0 0 1 1 2024 Toby Haenen [ 231 ] [ 232 ] 0 0 1 1 1992 , 1996 Stephen Holland [ 91 ] 0 0 1 1 1976 Emma Johnson [ 233 ] 0 0 1 1 1996 Justin Lemberg [ 96 ] 0 0 1 1 1984 Kareena Lee [ 95 ] 0 0 1 1 2020 Lise Mackie [ 234 ] [ 235 ] 0 0 1 1 1992 , 1996 Julie McDonald [ 97 ] 0 0 1 1 1988 , 1992 Max Metzker [ 98 ] 0 0 1 1 1976 , 1980 Karen Moras [ 99 ] 0 0 1 1 1968 , 1972 David Morgan [ 236 ] 0 0 1 1 2016 , 2020 Justin Norris [ 100 ] 0 0 1 1 2000 , 2004 Jake Packard [ 237 ] 0 0 1 1 2016 Kirk Palmer [ 114 ] [ 238 ] 0 0 1 1 2008 Michele Pearson [ 101 ] 0 0 1 1 1980 , 1984 Peter Reynolds [ 239 ] 0 0 1 1 1964 James Roberts [ 240 ] 0 0 1 1 2012 , 2016 John Ryan [ 241 ] 0 0 1 1 1964 Brendon Smith [ 103 ] 0 0 1 1 2020 , 2024 Graham White [ 242 ] 0 0 1 1 1968 , 1972 Rob Woodhouse [ 106 ] 0 0 1 1 1984 , 1988 Joshua Yong 0 0 1 1 2024 See also Australia portal Olympics portal Australia at the Olympics Australian Olympic Committee List of Olympic medalists in swimming (men) List of Olympic medalists in swimming (women) Swimming at the Summer Olympics Swimming Australia Australian Swim Team Notes ^ a b c d Andrews, pp. 412–423. ^ .mw-parser-output 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(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Swimming's big splash" . BBC Sport. 5 July 2004. Archived from the original on 2 May 2019 . Retrieved 8 November 2006 . ^ "Phelps causes biggest splash" . BBC Sport. 21 August 2004. Archived from the original on 2 May 2019 . Retrieved 19 November 2006 . ^ "100 of our Finest" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 18 January 2009 . Retrieved 31 January 2009 . ^ "Games at a Glance" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 28 September 2011 . Retrieved 20 November 2006 . ^ a b c "Grant Hackett" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 4 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ a b c Andrews, pp. 180–182. ^ a b c Andrews, pp. 165–168. ^ a b "Kaylee McKeown" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 15 August 2021 . Retrieved 30 August 2021 . ^ a b "Ariarne Titmus" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 30 August 2021 . Retrieved 30 August 2021 . ^ a b Andrews, pp. 371–373. ^ a b "Kieren Perkins" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 4 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ a b "Susie O'Neill" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 4 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ a b c "Emma McKeon" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 25 July 2021 . Retrieved 21 August 2021 . ^ a b Andrews, pp. 245–247. ^ a b "Stephanie Rice" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 7 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ a b Andrews, pp. 432–433. ^ a b Andrews, pp. 459–460. ^ a b "Leisel Jones" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 4 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ a b "Petria Thomas" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 4 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ a b Andrews, pp. 85–88. ^ a b "Kyle Chalmers" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 19 July 2018 . 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Archived from the original on 4 September 2021 . Retrieved 28 August 2024 . ^ a b Andrews, pp. 314–315. ^ a b Andrews, pp. 325–326. ^ "Mollie O'Callaghan" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 29 November 2022 . Retrieved 2 September 2021 . ^ a b Andrews, p. 397. ^ a b Andrews, pp. 465–466. ^ a b Andrews, pp. 43–44. ^ a b "Daniel Kowalski" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ "Emily Seebohm" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 8 April 2011 . Retrieved 19 July 2018 . ^ "Alicia Coutts" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 March 2015 . Retrieved 19 July 2018 . ^ a b "Hayley Lewis" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ a b Andrews, pp. 280–281. ^ a b "Matthew Welsh" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ a b "Glenn Beringen" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ a b "Madeline Groves" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 19 July 2018 . Retrieved 19 July 2018 . ^ a b "Brooke Hanson" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ "Meg Harris" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 2 September 2021 . Retrieved 22 August 2024 . ^ a b Andrews, p. 197. ^ a b Andrews, pp. 198–200. ^ a b Andrews, p. 214. ^ a b "Michael Klim" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ a b Andrews, p. 243. ^ a b "Mitch Larkin" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 19 July 2018 . Retrieved 19 July 2018 . ^ a b Andrews, p. 263. ^ a b "James Magnussen" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 11 March 2014 . Retrieved 19 July 2018 . ^ a b "Jack McLoughlin" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 28 July 2021 . Retrieved 3 September 2021 . ^ a b Andrews, pp. 286–287. ^ a b "Scott Miller" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ a b Andrews, p. 303. ^ a b Andrews, p. 351. ^ a b "Brenton Rickard" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ "Christian Sprenger" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 19 July 2018 . ^ a b Andrews, p. 409. ^ a b "Eamon Sullivan" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ a b Andrews, pp. 464–465. ^ "Elijah Winnington" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 23 August 2021 . Retrieved 4 September 2024 . ^ a b Andrews, pp. 480–481. ^ a b Andrews, p. 148. ^ a b Andrews, pp. 194–195. ^ a b "Samantha Riley" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 6 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ a b "Jessicah Schipper" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 8 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ a b Andrews, pp. 469–470. ^ a b "Cate Campbell" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ a b Andrews, p. 8. ^ "Bronte Barratt" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 19 July 2018 . ^ a b Andrews, pp. 62–63. ^ a b Andrews, p. 64. ^ a b Andrews, p. 68. ^ a b Andrews, pp. 82–83. ^ a b Andrews, p. 125. ^ a b "Scott Goodman" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ a b Andrews, pp. 212–213. ^ a b "Geoffrey Huegill" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ a b Andrews, pp. 231–232. ^ a b "Andrew Lauterstein" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ a b "Kareena Lee" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 27 May 2022 . Retrieved 11 September 2021 . ^ a b c d Andrews, p. 249. ^ a b Andrews, pp. 266–267. ^ a b Andrews, p. 295. ^ a b Andrews, p. 306. ^ a b "Justin Norris" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ a b Andrews, p. 346. ^ a b "Philip Rogers" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ a b "Brendon Smith" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 26 July 2021 . Retrieved 3 September 2021 . ^ a b "Nicole Livingstone" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ a b "Hayden Stoeckel" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 8 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ a b Andrews, p. 475. ^ a b Andrews, pp. 358–359. ^ "Mollie O'Callaghan" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 29 November 2022 . Retrieved 2 September 2021 . ^ a b Won gold in the 4 × 200 m freestyle relay in 2000 as a heat swimmer. ^ "Emily Seebohm" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 8 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ "Bronte Campbell" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 8 October 2014 . Retrieved 22 August 2024 . ^ "Brittany Elmslie" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 28 March 2015 . Retrieved 13 October 2014 . ^ "Melanie Schlanger" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ a b c d Won gold in the 4 × 200 m freestyle relay in 2008 as a heat swimmer. ^ "Meg Harris" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 2 September 2021 . Retrieved 22 August 2024 . ^ "Madison Wilson" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 2 September 2021 . Retrieved 2 September 2021 . ^ "Todd Pearson" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ Won gold in the 4 × 100 m freestyle relay in 2000 as a heat swimmer and silver in the 4 × 200 m freestyle relay in 2004 as a heat swimmer. ^ Won gold in the 4 × 100 m medley relay in 2004 as a heat swimmer, swimming the butterfly leg. ^ "Brianna Throssell" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 2 September 2021 . Retrieved 22 August 2024 . ^ "Alice Mills" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 9 May 2012 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ Won gold in the 4 × 100 m medley relay in 2004 as a heat swimmer, swimming the freestyle leg. ^ "Felicity Galvez" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ Won gold in the 4 × 200 m freestyle and 4 × 100 m medley relays in 2008 as a heat swimmer, swimming the butterfly leg in the latter. ^ "Shayna Jack" . Australian Olympic Committee . 4 August 2024 . Retrieved 23 August 2024 . ^ "Alicia Coutts" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 March 2015 . Retrieved 13 October 2014 . ^ "Bronte Barratt" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ "Adam Pine" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ Won gold in the 4 × 100 m freestyle relay in 2000 as a heat swimmer. Won silver in the 4 × 100 m medley relay in 2000 and 2008 as a heat swimmer, swimming the butterfly leg. ^ "Giaan Rooney" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 9 May 2012 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ Won silver in the 4 × 100 m medley relay in 2000 as a heat swimmer, swimming the backstroke leg. ^ "Sarah Ryan" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ Won gold in the 4 × 100 m freestyle relay in 2004 as a heat swimmer. Won silver in the 4 × 100 m medley relay in 2000 as a heat swimmer, swimming the freestyle leg. ^ Andrews, pp. 63–64. ^ Won bronze in the 4 × 100 m medley relay in 1984 as a heat swimmer, swimming the freestyle leg. ^ "Angie Bainbridge" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ Won gold in the 4 × 100 m medley relay in 2004 as a heat swimmer, swimming the breaststroke leg. ^ "Kylie Palmer" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ "Tarnee White" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ Won gold and silver in the 4 × 100 m medley relay in 2008 and 2000 respectively as a heat swimmer, swimming the breaststroke leg. ^ "Ashley Callus" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ "Mack Horton" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 5 September 2021 . Retrieved 2 September 2021 . ^ "Shayne Reese" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ Won gold and bronze in the 4 × 100 m medley and freestyle relay respectively in 2008 as a heat swimmer, swimming freestyle. ^ Won bronze in the 4 × 100 m medley relay in 1984 as a heat swimmer, swimming the butterfly leg. ^ Andrews, pp. 51–52. ^ Andrews, pp. 81–82. ^ "Lara Davenport" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ "Christopher Fydler" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ "Chelsea Hodges" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 25 July 2021 . Retrieved 2 September 2021 . ^ "William Kirby" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 17 October 2014 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ "Yolane Kukla" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 9 October 2015 . Retrieved 13 October 2014 . ^ "Linda Mackenzie" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ Andrews, pp. 307–308. ^ Andrews, pp. 328–329. ^ "Lani Pallister" . Australian Olympic Committee . 4 August 2024 . Retrieved 25 August 2024 . ^ "Jamie Perkins" . Australian Olympic Committee . 4 August 2024 . Retrieved 25 August 2024 . ^ Andrews, pp. 440–441. ^ "Olivia Wunsch" . Australian Olympic Committee . 4 August 2024 . Retrieved 25 August 2024 . ^ "Christian Sprenger" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ Won silver in the 4 × 100 m medley relay in 2008 as a heat swimmer in the breaststroke leg. ^ "Matthew Targett" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ Won silver in the 4 × 100 m medley relay in 2008 as a heat swimmer in the freestyle leg. ^ "Elijah Winnington" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 23 August 2021 . Retrieved 4 September 2024 . ^ "Iona Anderson" . Australian Olympic Committee . 4 August 2024 . Retrieved 25 August 2024 . ^ "Tamsin Cook" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 2 September 2021 . Retrieved 2 September 2021 . ^ "Leah Neale" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 6 March 2020 . Retrieved 2 September 2021 . ^ Andrews, pp. 366–367. ^ "Jessica Ashwood" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 4 October 2021 . Retrieved 2 September 2021 . ^ Andrews, pp. 44–45. ^ "Dyana Calub" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ Andrews, p. 89. ^ Andrews, pp. 97–98. ^ "Ashley Delaney" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ Won silver in the 4 × 100 m medley relay in 2008 as a heat swimmer in the backstroke leg. ^ Andrews, p. 127. ^ "Helen Denman" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ Won silver in the 4 × 100 m medley relay in 1996 as a heat swimmer, swimming the breaststroke leg. ^ "Blair Evans" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 September 2015 . Retrieved 13 October 2014 . ^ Andrews, p. 153. ^ Andrews, pp. 174–175. ^ "Elka Graham" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 9 May 2012 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ a b Won silver in the 4 × 200 m freestyle relay in 2000 as a heat swimmer. ^ "Regan Harrison" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ Andrews, pp. 196–197. ^ Andrews, pp. 203–204. ^ Andrews, p. 204. ^ "Angela Kennedy" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ Won silver in the 4 × 100 m medley relay in 1996 as a heat swimmer in the butterfly leg. ^ Andrews, p. 247. ^ "Antony Matkovich" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ a b Won silver in the 4 × 200 m freestyle relay in 2004 as a heat swimmer. ^ "Taylor McKeown" . FINA . Archived from the original on 20 October 2021 . Retrieved 20 October 2021 . ^ "Ryan Mitchell" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ Won silver in the 4 × 100 m medley relay in 2000 as a heat swimmer in the breaststroke leg. ^ Andrews, p. 312. ^ "Jade Neilsen" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 3 October 2015 . Retrieved 13 October 2014 . ^ "Alexandria Perkins" . Australian Olympic Committee . 4 August 2024 . Retrieved 25 August 2024 . ^ Andrews, p. 352. ^ "Ella Ramsay" . Australian Olympic Committee . 4 August 2024 . Retrieved 25 August 2024 . ^ Andrews, p. 395. ^ "Nicholas Sprenger" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ Andrews, p. 404. ^ Andrews, p. 406. ^ "Jenna Strauch" . Australian Olympic Committee . 4 August 2024 . Retrieved 25 August 2024 . ^ "Craig Stevens" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ "Kirsten Thomson" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ Andrews, p. 434. ^ "Jacinta van Lint" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ "Josh Watson" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ Won silver in the 4 × 100 m medley relay in 2000 as a heat swimmer in the backstroke leg. ^ Andrews, p. 453. ^ Andrews, p. 464. ^ Andrews, p. 132. ^ "Zac Incerti" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 26 August 2022 . Retrieved 2 September 2024 . ^ "Matthew Temple" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 28 August 2021 . Retrieved 2 September 2024 . ^ "Leith Brodie" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ Won bronze in the 4 × 100 m and 4 × 200 m freestyle relays in 2008 as a heat swimmer. ^ "Alexander Graham" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 4 September 2021 . Retrieved 4 September 2021 . ^ "Patrick Murphy" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ Won bronze in the 4 × 100 m freestyle relay in 2008 as a heat swimmer. ^ "Thomas Neill" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 28 August 2021 . Retrieved 2 September 2024 . ^ "Matthew Abood" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 10 July 2020 . Retrieved 23 October 2021 . ^ "Grant Brits" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ "Isaac Cooper" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 26 August 2022 . Retrieved 2 September 2021 . ^ Andrews, p. 112. ^ "Steven Dewick" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ Andrews, p. 135. ^ "Nicholas Ffrost" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ "Julia Greville" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ "Toby Haenen" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ Won bronze in the 4 × 100 m medley relay in 1996 as a heat swimmer in the freestyle. ^ "Emma Johnson" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ "Lise Mackie" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ Won bronze in the 4 × 200 m freestyle relay in 1996 as a heat swimmer. ^ "David Morgan" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 23 October 2021 . Retrieved 23 October 2021 . ^ "Jake Packard" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 26 October 2021 . Retrieved 23 October 2021 . ^ "Kirk Palmer" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 12 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 November 2006 . ^ Andrews, p. 360. ^ "James Roberts" . Australian Olympic Committee . Archived from the original on 5 March 2021 . Retrieved 21 October 2021 . ^ Andrews, p. 383. ^ Andrews, p. 460. References Andrews, Malcolm (2000). Australia at the Olympics . Sydney, New South Wales: ABC Books . ISBN 0-7333-0884-8 . Olympic swimmers for Australia Olympic medalists for Australia Lists of Olympic competitors for Australia Australia at the Summer Olympics Swimming in Australia Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from April 2018 Use Australian English from April 2018 All Wikipedia articles written in Australian English Featured lists This page was last edited on 20 December 2025, at 19:55 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Publication history Toggle Publication history subsection 1.1 Creation and early history 1.2 Golden, Silver and Bronze Ages 1.3 Modern Age and reboots 1.1 Creation and early history 1.2 Golden, Silver and Bronze Ages 1.3 Modern Age and reboots 2 Characterization Toggle Characterization subsection 2.1 Bruce Wayne 2.1.1 Personality 2.2 Others 2.1 Bruce Wayne 2.1.1 Personality 2.1.1 Personality 2.2 Others 3 Supporting characters Toggle Supporting characters subsection 3.1 Enemies 3.2 Allies 3.3 Sidekicks 3.4 Romantic interests 3.1 Enemies 3.2 Allies 3.3 Sidekicks 3.4 Romantic interests 4 Abilities Toggle Abilities subsection 4.1 Skills and training 4.2 Technology 4.1 Skills and training 4.2 Technology 5 Fictional character biography Toggle Fictional character biography subsection 5.1 20th century 5.1.1 Origin 5.1.2 Golden Age 5.1.3 Silver Age 5.1.4 Bronze Age 5.1.5 Modern Age 5.2 21st century 5.2.1 2000s 5.2.2 2010s 5.3 The New 52 5.4 DC Rebirth 5.1 20th century 5.1.1 Origin 5.1.2 Golden Age 5.1.3 Silver Age 5.1.4 Bronze Age 5.1.5 Modern Age 5.1.1 Origin 5.1.2 Golden Age 5.1.3 Silver Age 5.1.4 Bronze Age 5.1.5 Modern Age 5.2 21st century 5.2.1 2000s 5.2.2 2010s 5.2.1 2000s 5.2.2 2010s 5.3 The New 52 5.4 DC Rebirth 6 Other versions 7 In popular culture Toggle In popular culture subsection 7.1 Media appearances 7.1.1 Criticism 7.2 Different interpretations 7.1 Media appearances 7.1.1 Criticism 7.1.1 Criticism 7.2 Different interpretations 8 Notes 9 References 10 Sources 11 Further reading 12 External links Batman Afrikaans Ænglisc العربية Arpetan Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Беларуская Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Chi-Chewa Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego ગુજરાતી 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Қазақша Kernowek Kreyòl ayisyen Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands नेपाली 日本語 Нохчийн Norsk bokmål Occitan Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Piemontèis Polski Português Română Русский Sardu Scots Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Võro Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש 粵語 中文 Betawi Ghanaian Pidgin Kʋsaal Toki pona ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item This article may incorporate text from a large language model . 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The reason given is: This 2024 "split" that appears to also introduce AI summaries, with usual WP:AISIGNS of promotional tone, vocab distribution, etc. See talk page for more info ( January 2026 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) Batman Cover of the DC Comics Absolute Edition of Batman: Hush (2011) Art by Jim Lee Publication information Publisher DC Comics First appearance Detective Comics #27 ( cover-dated May 1939; published March 30, 1939) [ 1 ] Created by .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Bob Kane Bill Finger [ a ] Bob Kane Bill Finger [ a ] In-story information Alter ego Bruce Wayne Place of origin Gotham City Team affiliations Justice League Bat-Family Outsiders Wayne Enterprises Justice League Bat-Family Outsiders Wayne Enterprises Partnerships Robin (various) Batgirl (various) Alfred Pennyworth James Gordon Superman Wonder Woman Catwoman Robin (various) Batgirl (various) Alfred Pennyworth James Gordon Superman Wonder Woman Catwoman Notable aliases Dark Knight Caped Crusader Matches Malone World's Greatest Detective Dark Knight Caped Crusader Matches Malone World's Greatest Detective Abilities Genius -level intellect Expert detective Master martial artist and hand-to-hand combatant Master tactician, strategist and field commander Proficient in using high-tech equipment and weapons Genius -level intellect Expert detective Master martial artist and hand-to-hand combatant Master tactician, strategist and field commander Proficient in using high-tech equipment and weapons Batman [ b ] is a superhero who appears in American comic books published by DC Comics . Batman was created by writer Bill Finger and artist Bob Kane , and debuted in the 27th issue of the comic book Detective Comics on March 30, 1939. In the DC Universe , Batman is the alias of Bruce Wayne , a wealthy American playboy , philanthropist , and industrialist who resides in the fictional Gotham City . His origin story features him swearing vengeance against criminals after witnessing the murder of his parents, Thomas and Martha , as a child, a vendetta tempered by the ideal of justice . He trains himself physically and intellectually, crafts a bat-inspired persona , and monitors the Gotham streets at night. Kane, Finger, and other creators accompanied Batman with supporting characters , including his sidekicks Robin and Batgirl ; allies Alfred Pennyworth and James Gordon ; love interest and occasional adversary Catwoman ; as well as foes such as the Penguin , the Riddler , Two-Face , and his archenemy , the Joker . Kane conceived Batman in early 1939 to capitalize on the popularity of Superman ; although Kane frequently claimed sole creation credit, Finger substantially developed the concept from a generic superhero into something more bat -like. They drew inspiration from pulp fiction characters like the Shadow , Sherlock Holmes , and the Green Hornet . Batman received a spin-off publication, Batman , in 1940. Kane and Finger introduced Batman as a ruthless vigilante who frequently killed or maimed criminals, but he evolved into a just, tempered superhero with a stringent moral code that prohibits killing during the 1940s. Unlike most superheroes, Batman does not possess any superpowers , instead relying on his intellect, fighting skills, and wealth. The 1960s Batman television series used a camp aesthetic, which continued to be associated with Batman for years after it ended. Various creators worked to return Batman to his darker roots in the 1970s and 1980s, culminating with the 1986 miniseries The Dark Knight Returns by Frank Miller . DC has featured Batman in many comic books , including comics published under its imprints such as Vertigo and Black Label ; he has been considered DC's flagship character [ 4 ] [ 5 ] since the 1990s. The longest-running Batman comic, Detective Comics , is the longest-running comic book in the United States. Batman is frequently depicted alongside other DC superheroes, such as Superman and Wonder Woman , as a member of organizations such as the Justice League and the Outsiders . In addition to Bruce Wayne, other characters used the Batman persona, such as Jean-Paul Valley / Azrael in the 1993–1994 " Knightfall " story arc; Dick Grayson , the first Robin, from 2009 to 2011; and Jace Fox , the son of Wayne's ally Lucius , since 2021. [ 6 ] DC has also published comics featuring alternate versions of Batman, including the incarnation seen in The Dark Knight Returns and its successors, the incarnation from the Flashpoint (2011) event, and numerous interpretations in comics published under the Elseworlds label. Batman is one of the most iconic characters in popular culture and has been listed among the greatest comic book superheroes and characters ever created. He is one of the most commercially successful superheroes, the second best-selling comic book series in history with 460 million copies sold worldwide, [ 7 ] and his likeness has been licensed and featured in various media and merchandise sold around the world; this includes toy lines such as Lego Batman and video games such as the Batman: Arkham series. Batman has been adapted in many live-action and animated television series and films. Adam West portrayed him in the 1960s Batman television series, and he has been portrayed in films by Michael Keaton , Val Kilmer , George Clooney , Christian Bale , Ben Affleck , and Robert Pattinson . Many actors, most prolifically Kevin Conroy , have provided Batman's voice in animation and video games. In September 2024, Batman was given a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame , being the first superhero to receive the honor. Publication history Creation and early history In early 1939, following the success of Superman , DC Comics ' editors requested more superheroes. [ 8 ] Bob Kane created Batman, initially drawing a character with red tights, bat wings, and a domino mask. Bill Finger , a collaborator, made significant contributions by suggesting a cowl, cape, gloves, and a darker costume. [ 9 ] The character's alter ego, Bruce Wayne, was inspired by historical figures Robert the Bruce and Mad Anthony Wayne . [ 10 ] Batman's early adventures drew inspiration from contemporary pulp fiction and characters like Zorro and the Shadow, establishing Batman as a master detective with a dark, brooding persona driven by the murder of his parents. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] Golden, Silver and Bronze Ages Batman debuted in Detective Comics #27 in 1939. Early stories were dark, featuring a Batman who did not shy away from killing. The character quickly became popular, leading to his own solo title in 1940. Robin, Batman's sidekick, was introduced in 1940, lightening the tone and boosting sales. Over the next few years, Batman's rogues' gallery expanded with iconic villains like the Joker and Catwoman. The 1950s saw Batman in lighter, science fiction-influenced stories. However, declining sales led to a 1964 revamp by editor Julius Schwartz, who returned Batman to his detective roots and updated his appearance. The 1966 Batman TV series introduced a campy, humorous tone, which was reflected in the comics until its cancellation in 1968. In the 1970s, writers Dennis O'Neil and Neal Adams restored Batman's dark, gritty nature, a trend that continued despite fluctuating sales. Modern Age and reboots In the Modern Age of Comic Books Batman comics have undergone significant transformations, reflecting changing storytelling trends and audience interests. Beginning with seminal works like The Dark Knight Returns in the 1980s, [ 13 ] which reintroduced Batman in a grittier, more mature context, the character's narrative evolved to explore deeper themes and darker tones. [ 14 ] This period also saw the exploration of Batman's origins and psyche through works like Batman: Year One , [ 14 ] [ 15 ] and Batman: The Killing Joke , which delved into the complexities of heroism and villainy. [ 16 ] In the 1990s, storylines such as " Knightfall " introduced new adversaries like Bane, who physically and mentally challenged Batman, leading to a temporary replacement by Jean-Paul Valley. The aftermath of an earthquake in "No Man's Land" depicted Gotham City in chaos, further pushing Batman to new limits of heroism and survival. [ 17 ] Entering the 21st century, Grant Morrison 's influential run introduced Damian Wayne as Batman's son and heir, bringing familial dynamics and a new generation of challenges to the forefront. Morrison's storytelling also delved into surreal and existential themes, such as in Batman R.I.P. and Final Crisis , which tested Batman's resolve and sanity against cosmic threats and personal demons. [ 18 ] [ 19 ] The New 52 reboot in 2011 refreshed Batman's continuity while preserving core elements of his character. This era introduced modern interpretations of classic storylines, like Night of the Owls , where Batman confronts the Court of Owls, a clandestine society controlling Gotham for centuries. The chilling return of the Joker in "Death of the Family" explored the intricate relationships within Batman's extended family of allies and adversaries. More recent developments under DC Rebirth and Infinite Frontier have continued to evolve Batman's universe, exploring new characters like Gotham and Gotham Girl , and tackling contemporary issues within the context of Gotham City's ever-evolving landscape of crime and heroism. [ 20 ] Characterization Bruce Wayne Batman's secret identity is Bruce Wayne, a wealthy American industrialist. As a child, Bruce witnessed the murder of his parents, Dr. Thomas Wayne and Martha Wayne , which ultimately led him to craft the Batman persona and seek justice against criminals. He resides on the outskirts of Gotham City in his personal residence, Wayne Manor . Wayne averts suspicion by acting the part of a superficial playboy idly living off his family's fortune and the profits of Wayne Enterprises , his inherited conglomerate. [ 21 ] [ 22 ] He supports philanthropic causes through his nonprofit Wayne Foundation, which in part addresses social issues encouraging crime as well as assisting victims of it, but is more widely known as a celebrity socialite. [ 23 ] In public, he frequently appears in the company of high-status women, which encourages tabloid gossip. He feigns near-drunkenness by consuming large quantities of disguised ginger ale , though he is a teetotalor to maintain his physical and mental prowess. [ 24 ] Although Bruce Wayne leads an active romantic life, his vigilante activities as Batman account for most of his time. [ 25 ] While Bruce Wayne is never depicted as being especially religious, he is ethnically Jewish on his mother's side; [ 26 ] [ 27 ] his maternal cousin Batwoman (Kate Kane) is practising. His father, Thomas , raised Bruce as a Christian, but as an adult he doesn't follow any religion. [ 26 ] [ 28 ] Various modern stories have portrayed the extravagant, playboy image of Bruce Wayne as a facade. [ 29 ] This is in contrast to the Post- Crisis Superman, whose Clark Kent persona is the true identity, while the Superman persona is the facade. [ 30 ] [ 31 ] In Batman Unmasked , a television documentary about the psychology of the character, behavioral scientist Benjamin Karney notes that Batman's personality is driven by Bruce Wayne's inherent humanity; that "Batman, for all its benefits and for all of the time Bruce Wayne devotes to it, is ultimately a tool for Bruce Wayne's efforts to make the world better". Bruce Wayne's principles include the desire to prevent future harm and a vow not to kill. Bruce Wayne believes that our actions define us, we fail for a reason, and anything is possible. [ 32 ] Writers of Batman and Superman stories have often compared and contrasted the two. Interpretations vary depending on the writer, the story, and the timing. Grant Morrison [ 33 ] notes that both heroes "believe in the same kind of things" despite the day/night contrast their heroic roles display. Morrison notes an equally stark contrast in their real identities. Bruce Wayne and Clark Kent belong to different social classes: "Bruce has a butler, Clark has a boss." T. James Musler's book Unleashing the Superhero in Us All explores the extent to which Bruce Wayne's vast personal wealth is important in his life story, and the crucial role it plays in his efforts as Batman. [ 34 ] Will Brooker notes in his book Batman Unmasked that "the confirmation of the Batman's identity lies with the young audience ...he doesn't have to be Bruce Wayne; he just needs the suit and gadgets, the abilities, and most importantly the morality, the humanity. There's just a sense about him: 'they trust him ...and they're never wrong." [ 35 ] Personality Batman's primary character traits can be summarized as "wealth; physical prowess; deductive abilities and obsession" . [ 36 ] The details and tone of Batman comic books have varied over the years with different creative teams. Dennis O'Neil noted that character consistency was not a major concern during early editorial regimes: " Julie Schwartz did a Batman in Batman and Detective and Murray Boltinoff did a Batman in the Brave and the Bold and apart from the costume they bore very little resemblance to each other. Julie and Murray did not want to coordinate their efforts, nor were they asked to do so. Continuity was not important in those days." [ 37 ] The driving force behind Bruce Wayne's character is his parents' murder and their absence. Bob Kane and Bill Finger discussed Batman's background and decided that "there's nothing more traumatic than having your parents murdered before your eyes". [ 38 ] Despite his trauma, he sets his mind on studying to become a scientist [ 39 ] [ 40 ] and to train his body into physical perfection [ 39 ] [ 40 ] to fight crime in Gotham City as Batman, an inspired idea from Wayne's insight into the criminal mind. [ 39 ] [ 40 ] He also speaks over 40 languages. [ 41 ] Another of Batman's characterizations is that of a vigilante; in order to stop evil that started with the death of his parents, he must sometimes break the law himself. Although manifested differently by being re-told by different artists, it is nevertheless that the details and the prime components of Batman's origin have never varied at all in the comic books, the "reiteration of the basic origin events holds together otherwise divergent expressions". [ 42 ] The origin is the source of the character's traits and attributes, which play out in many of the character's adventures. [ 36 ] Batman is often treated as a vigilante by other characters in his stories. Frank Miller views the character as "a dionysian figure, a force for anarchy that imposes an individual order". [ 43 ] Dressed as a bat, Batman deliberately cultivates a frightening persona in order to aid him in crime-fighting, [ 44 ] a fear that originates from the criminals' own guilty conscience . [ 45 ] Miller is often credited with reintroducing anti-heroic traits into Batman's characterization, [ 46 ] such as his brooding personality, willingness to use violence and torture, and increasingly alienated behavior. Batman, shortly a year after his debut and the introduction of Robin, was changed in 1940 after DC editor Whitney Ellsworth felt the character would be tainted by his lethal methods and DC established their own ethical code, subsequently he was retconned to have a stringent moral code, [ 47 ] [ 48 ] which has stayed with the character of Batman ever since. Miller's Batman was closer to the original pre-Robin version, who was willing to kill criminals if necessary. [ 49 ] Others On several occasions former Robin Dick Grayson has served as Batman; most notably in 2009 while Wayne was believed dead, and served as a second Batman even after Wayne returned in 2010. [ 50 ] As part of DC's 2011 continuity relaunch , Grayson returned to being Nightwing following the Flashpoint crossover event. In an interview with IGN , Morrison detailed that having Dick Grayson as Batman and Damian Wayne as Robin represented a "reverse" of the normal dynamic between Batman and Robin, with, "a more light-hearted and spontaneous Batman and a scowling, badass Robin". Morrison explained their intentions for the new characterization of Batman: "Dick Grayson is kind of this consummate superhero. The guy has been Batman's partner since he was a kid, he's led the Teen Titans , and he's trained with everybody in the DC Universe. So he's a very different kind of Batman. He's a lot easier; He's a lot looser and more relaxed." [ 51 ] Over the years, there have been numerous others to assume the name of Batman, or to officially take over for Bruce during his leaves of absence. Jean-Paul Valley, also known as Azrael , assumed the cowl after the events of the Knightfall saga. [ 50 ] Jim Gordon donned a mecha-suit after the events of Batman: Endgame , and served as Batman in 2015 and 2016. In 2021, as part of the Fear State crossover event, Lucius Fox 's son Jace Fox succeeds Bruce as Batman in a 2021 storyline, depicted in the series I Am Batman , after Batman was declared dead. Additionally, members of the group Batman Incorporated , Bruce Wayne's experiment at franchising his brand of vigilantism, have at times stood in as the official Batman in cities around the world. [ 50 ] Various others have also taken up the role of Batman in stories set in alternative universes and possible futures, including, among them, various former proteges of Bruce Wayne. Supporting characters Batman's interactions with both villains and cohorts have, over time, developed a strong supporting cast of characters. [ 36 ] Enemies Batman faces a variety of foes ranging from common criminals to outlandish supervillains. Many of them mirror aspects of the Batman's character and development, often having tragic origin stories that lead them to a life of crime. [ 52 ] These foes are commonly referred to as Batman's rogues gallery . Batman's "most implacable foe" is the Joker , a homicidal maniac with a clown-like appearance. The Joker is considered by critics to be his perfect adversary, since he is the antithesis of Batman in personality and appearance; the Joker has a maniacal demeanor with a colorful appearance, while Batman has a serious and resolute demeanor with a dark appearance. As a "personification of the irrational", the Joker represents "everything Batman [opposes]". [ 53 ] Other long-time recurring foes that are part of Batman's rogues gallery include Catwoman (a cat burglar anti-heroine who is variously an ally and romantic interest), the Penguin , Ra's al Ghul , Two-Face (Harvey Dent), the Riddler , the Scarecrow , Mr. Freeze , Poison Ivy , Harley Quinn , Bane , Clayface , and Killer Croc , among others. Many of Batman's adversaries are often psychiatric patients at Arkham Asylum . Allies Alfred Pennyworth , Batman's loyal butler and father figure, first appeared in Batman #16 (1943). After Bruce Wayne's parents were killed, Alfred raised Bruce and became one of the few people to know his secret identity. He is often portrayed as a steadying presence in Bruce's life, offering both emotional support and practical assistance in Batman's crime-fighting endeavors. More than just a caretaker, Alfred is a trusted ally and sometimes sidekick, sharing Wayne Manor with Bruce and contributing to Batman's mission. [ 52 ] One of Batman's most crucial allies is Commissioner James Gordon . Their relationship is built on mutual respect and a shared commitment to justice in Gotham City. In Batman: Year One , Gordon and Batman learn to trust each other, which transforms their efforts against crime into a more effective partnership. Gordon's perspective as a police officer complements Batman's vigilantism, allowing them to tackle Gotham's challenges together. Another important ally is the Justice League , which further emphasizes the importance of collaboration. Batman's relationship with Superman showcases how their contrasting ideologies can complement each other. In stories like World's Finest , their friendship highlights how Batman's methods benefit from Superman's optimism and strength. [ 54 ] Sidekicks Robin, Batman's vigilante partner, has been a widely recognized supporting character for many years; each iteration of the Robin character, of which there have been five in the mainstream continuity, function as members of the Batman family, but additionally, as Batman's "central" sidekick in various media. [ 55 ] Bill Finger stated that he wanted to include Robin because "Batman didn't have anyone to talk to, and it got a little tiresome always having him thinking." [ 56 ] The first Robin, Dick Grayson , was introduced in 1940. In the 1970s he finally grew up, went off to college and became the hero Nightwing . A second Robin, Jason Todd was introduced in the 1980s, following Dick Grayson's departure from the role. Initially impulsive and rebellious, Jason's tenure as Robin was controversial among fans. In 1988, DC held a fan vote to determine his fate in the iconic A Death in the Family storyline, where the Joker brutally beat Jason with a crowbar and left him to die in an explosion. The fans voted for his death. However, Jason was later resurrected and returned as the antihero Red Hood . [ 57 ] The third Robin in the mainstream comics is Tim Drake , who first appeared in 1989. He went on to star in his own comic series, and goes by the name Red Robin , a variation on the traditional Robin persona. In the first decade of the new millennium, Stephanie Brown served as the fourth in-universe Robin between stints as her self-made vigilante identity the Spoiler, and later as Batgirl . [ 58 ] After Brown's apparent death, Drake resumed the role of Robin for a time. The role eventually passed to Damian Wayne , the 10-year-old son of Bruce Wayne and Talia al Ghul , in the late 2000s. [ 59 ] Damian's tenure as du jour Robin ended when the character was killed off in the pages of Batman Incorporated in 2013. [ 60 ] Batman's next young sidekick is Harper Row , a streetwise young woman who avoids the name Robin but followed the ornithological theme nonetheless; she debuted the codename and identity of the Bluebird in 2014. Unlike the Robins, the Bluebird is willing and permitted to use a gun, albeit non-lethal ; her weapon of choice is a modified rifle that fires taser rounds. [ 61 ] In 2015, a new series began titled We Are...Robin , focused on a group of teenagers using the Robin persona to fight crime in Gotham City. The most prominent of these, Duke Thomas , later becomes Batman's crimefighting partner as The Signal. [ 62 ] Romantic interests Batman's first love interest was Julie Madison , an actress introduced in Detective Comics #31 (1939), they ultimately got engaged, and later she left him due to his playboy persona. [ 63 ] Following The New 52 DC relaunch, the character was reintroduced as an artist whose father was a gunrunner involved in the death of Bruce's parents. [ 63 ] Catwoman/Selina Kyle debuting in Batman #1 (1940), during the Golden Age of Comics . [ 63 ] She was created in the pre– Comics Code era and portrayed as a "flirtatious and sensual" character to add a layer of sex appeal to Batman. [ 64 ] The two ultimately got engaged during the DC Rebirth relaunch. [ 63 ] Another love interest is intrepid reporter Vicki Vale , who debuted in Batman #49 (1948), and was inspired by Superman ’s love interest, reporter Lois Lane . Vicki frequently tried to prove that Bruce Wayne was Batman, but never succeeded. [ 63 ] This was followed by Linda Page , who debuted in Batman #5 (1941) as a rich socialite turned nurse. [ 63 ] Kathy Kane/Batwoman debuted in Detective Comics #233 (1956) alongside her sister Bette Kane . Kathy was introduced as a love interest for Batman, following allegations of homosexuality between Batman and Robin. [ 63 ] The character was written out in the 1960s and returned in the 1970s to be killed by the League of Assassins . Writer Grant Morrison later brought Kathy back into DC's continuity in Batman, Inc. , as part of his attempts to canonize every Batman story, but she was ultimately killed off again. [ 63 ] Talia al Ghul , introduced in Detective Comics #411 (1971) as the daughter of Batman's enemy Ra's al Ghul . Their love story resulted in the birth of Damian Wayne , who would later become Robin . [ 63 ] [ 65 ] Natalia Knight/Nocturna , debuted in Detective Comics #529 (1983) as the leader of a criminal organization. She became Batman's love interest and later the adopted mother of Jason Todd . Nocturna was later killed by her former lover, Night-Slayer , but returned in subsequent continuity. [ 63 ] Abilities Skills and training Batman has no inherent superhuman powers; he relies on "his own scientific knowledge, detective skills, and athletic prowess". [ 66 ] Batman's inexhaustible wealth gives him access to advanced technologies, and as a proficient scientist , he is able to use and modify these technologies to his advantage. In the stories, Batman is regarded as one of the world's greatest detectives, if not the world's greatest crime solver. [ 67 ] Batman has been repeatedly described as having a genius-level intellect, being one of the greatest martial artists in the DC Universe, and having peak human physical and mental conditioning. [ 68 ] As a polymath , his knowledge and expertise in countless disciplines is nearly unparalleled by any other character in the DC Universe. He has shown prowess in assorted fields such as mathematics, biology, physics, chemistry, and several levels of engineering. [ 69 ] He has traveled the world acquiring the skills needed to aid him in his endeavors as Batman. In the Superman: Doomed story arc, Superman considers Batman to be one of the most brilliant minds on the planet. [ 70 ] Batman has trained extensively in various fighting styles, making him one of the best hand-to-hand fighters in the DC Universe. He possesses a photographic memory , [ 71 ] and has fully utilized his photographic memory to master a total of 127 forms of martial arts. [ 72 ] In terms of his physical condition, Batman is described as peak human and far beyond an Olympic-athlete-level condition, able to perform feats such as easily running across rooftops in a Parkour -esque fashion, pressing thousands of pounds regularly, and even bench pressing six hundred pounds of soil and coffin in a poisoned and starved state. Superman describes Batman as "the most dangerous man on Earth", able to defeat an entire team of superpowered extraterrestrials by himself in order to rescue his imprisoned teammates in Grant Morrison's first storyline in JLA . Batman is strongly disciplined, and he has the ability to function under great physical pain and resist most forms of telepathy and mind control . He is a master of disguise , multilingual, and an expert in espionage , often gathering information under the identity of a notorious gangster named Matches Malone. Batman is highly skilled in stealth movement and escapology , which allows him to appear and disappear at will and to break free of nearly inescapable deathtraps with little to no harm. He is also a master strategist, considered DC's greatest tactician, with numerous plans in preparation for almost any eventuality. Batman is an expert in interrogation techniques and his intimidating and frightening appearance alone is often all that is needed in getting information from suspects. Despite having the potential to harm his enemies, Batman's most defining characteristic is his strong commitment to justice and his reluctance to take a life. This unyielding moral rectitude has earned him the respect of several heroes in the DC Universe, most notably that of Superman and Wonder Woman . Among physical and other crime fighting related training, he is also proficient at other types of skills. Some of these include being a licensed pilot (in order to operate the Batplane ), as well as being able to operate other types of machinery. In some publications, he even underwent some magician training. Technology Batman utilizes a vast arsenal of specialized, high-tech vehicles and gadgets in his war against crime, the designs of which usually share a bat motif. Batman historian Les Daniels credits Gardner Fox with creating the concept of Batman's arsenal with the introduction of the utility belt in Detective Comics #29 (July 1939) and the first bat-themed weapons the batarang and the "Batgyro" in Detective Comics #31 and 32 (Sept. and October 1939). [ 73 ] Batman's batsuit aids in his combat against enemies, having the properties of both Kevlar and Nomex . It protects him from gunfire and other significant impacts, and incorporates the imagery of a bat in order to frighten criminals. [ 74 ] The details of the Batman costume change repeatedly through various decades, stories, media and artists' interpretations, but the most distinctive elements remain consistent: a scallop-hem cape; a cowl covering most of the face; a pair of bat-like ears; a stylized bat emblem on the chest; and the ever-present utility belt. His gloves typically feature three scallops that protrude from long, gauntlet-like cuffs, although in his earliest appearances he wore short, plain gloves without the scallops. [ 75 ] The overall look of the character, particularly the length of the cowl's ears and of the cape, varies greatly depending on the artist. Dennis O'Neil said, "We now say that Batman has two hundred suits hanging in the Batcave so they don't have to look the same ...Everybody loves to draw Batman, and everybody wants to put their own spin on it." [ 76 ] Finger and Kane originally conceptualized Batman as having a black cape and cowl and grey suit, but conventions in coloring called for black to be highlighted with blue. [ 74 ] Hence, the costume's colors have appeared in the comics as dark blue and grey; [ 74 ] as well as black and grey. In the Tim Burton 's Batman and Batman Returns films, Batman has been depicted as completely black with a bat in the middle surrounded by a yellow background. Christopher Nolan 's The Dark Knight Trilogy depicted Batman wearing high-tech gear painted completely black with a black bat in the middle. Ben Affleck 's Batman in the DC Extended Universe films wears a suit grey in color with a black cowl, cape, and bat symbol. Seemingly following the suit of the DC Extended Universe outfit, Robert Pattinson 's uniform in The Batman restores the more traditional gray bodysuit and black appendage design, notably different from prior iterations by mostly utilizing real world armor and apparel pieces from modern military and motorcycle gear. Batman's primary vehicle is the Batmobile , which is usually depicted as an imposing black car, often with tailfins that suggest a bat's wings. Batman also has an aircraft called the Batplane (originally a relatively traditionally, but bat-motifed plane, later seen as the much more unique "Batwing" starting in the 1989 film ), along with various other means of transportation. In proper practice, the "bat" prefix (as in Batmobile or batarang) is rarely used by Batman himself when referring to his equipment, particularly after some portrayals (primarily the 1960s Batman live-action television show and the Super Friends animated series) stretched the practice to campy proportions. For example, the 1960s television show depicted a Batboat, Bat-Sub , and Batcycle, among other bat-themed vehicles. The 1960s television series Batman has an arsenal that includes such "bat-" names as the Bat-computer, Bat-scanner, bat-radar, bat-cuffs, bat-pontoons, bat-drinking water dispenser, bat-camera with polarized bat-filter, bat- shark repellent bat-spray, and Bat-rope. The storyline "A Death in the Family" suggests that given Batman's grim nature, he is unlikely to have adopted the "bat" prefix on his own. In The Dark Knight Returns , Batman tells Carrie Kelley that the original Robin came up with the name "Batmobile" when he was young, since that is what a kid would call Batman's vehicle. The Batmobile, which was before frequently depicted to resemble a sports car , was redesigned in 2011 when DC Comics relaunched its entire line of comic books, with the Batmobile being given heavier armor and new aesthetics. Batman keeps most of his field equipment in his utility belt . Over the years it has shown to contain an assortment of crime-fighting tools, weapons, and investigative and technological instruments. Different versions of the belt have these items stored in compartments, often as pouches or hard cylinders attached evenly around it. Since the 1989 film , Batman is often depicted as carrying a projectile which shoots a retractable grappling hook attached to a cable (before this, a he employed a traditionally thrown grappling hook.) This allows him to attach to distant objects, be propelled into the air, and thus swing from the rooftops of Gotham City. An exception to the range of Batman's equipment are hand guns , which he refuses to use on principle, since a gun was used in his parents' murder. In modern stories in terms of his vehicles, Batman compromises on that principle to install weapon systems on them for the purpose of non-lethally disabling other vehicles, forcing entry into locations and attacking dangerous targets too large to defeat by other means. When Batman is needed, the Gotham City police activate a searchlight with a bat-shaped insignia over the lens called the Bat-Signal, which shines into the night sky, creating a bat-symbol on a passing cloud which can be seen from any point in Gotham. The origin of the signal varies, depending on the continuity and medium. In various incarnations, most notably the 1960s Batman TV series , Commissioner Gordon also has a dedicated phone line, dubbed the Bat-Phone, connected to a bright red telephone (in the TV series) which sits on a wooden base and has a transparent top. The line connects directly to Batman's residence, Wayne Manor , specifically both to a similar phone sitting on the desk in Bruce Wayne's study and the extension phone in the Batcave. The Batcave is Batman's secret headquarters, consisting of a series of caves beneath his mansion, Wayne Manor . As his command center, the Batcave serves multiple purposes; supercomputer, surveillance, redundant power-generators, forensics lab, medical infirmary, private study, training dojo, fabrication workshop, arsenal, hangar and garage. It houses the vehicles and equipment Batman uses in his campaign to fight crime. It is also a trophy room and storage facility for Batman's unique memorabilia collected over the years from various cases he has worked on. In both the comic book Batman: Shadow of the Bat #45 and the 2005 film Batman Begins , the cave is said to have been part of the Underground Railroad . Fictional character biography Batman's history has undergone many retroactive continuity revisions, both minor and major. Elements of the character's history have varied greatly. Scholars William Uricchio and Roberta E. Pearson noted in the early 1990s, "Unlike some fictional characters, the Batman has no primary urtext set in a specific period, but has rather existed in a plethora of equally valid texts constantly appearing over more than five decades." [ 77 ] 20th century Origin The central fixed event in the Batman stories is the character's origin story . [ 36 ] As a young boy, Bruce Wayne was horrified and traumatized when he watched his parents, the physician Dr. Thomas Wayne and his wife Martha , murdered with a gun by a mugger named Joe Chill . Batman refuses to utilize any sort of gun on the principle that a gun was used to murder his parents. This event drove him to train his body to its peak condition and fight crime in Gotham City as Batman. Pearson and Uricchio also noted beyond the origin story and such events as the introduction of Robin, "Until recently, the fixed and accruing and hence, canonized, events have been few in number", [ 36 ] a situation altered by an increased effort by later Batman editors such as Dennis O'Neil to ensure consistency and continuity between stories. [ 78 ] Golden Age In Batman's first appearance in Detective Comics #27, he is already operating as a crime-fighter. [ 79 ] Batman's origin is first presented in Detective Comics #33 (November 1939) and is later expanded upon in Batman #47. As these comics state, Bruce Wayne is born to Dr. Thomas Wayne and his wife Martha, two very wealthy and charitable Gotham City socialites. Bruce is brought up in Wayne Manor , and leads a happy and privileged existence until the age of 8, when his parents are killed by a small-time criminal named Joe Chill while on their way home from a movie theater. That night, Bruce Wayne swears an oath to spend his life fighting crime. He engages in intense intellectual and physical training; however, he realizes that these skills alone would not be enough. "Criminals are a superstitious cowardly lot", Wayne remarks, "so my disguise must be able to strike terror into their hearts. I must be a creature of the night, black, terrible ..." As if responding to his desires, a bat suddenly flies through the window, inspiring Bruce to craft the Batman persona. [ 80 ] In early strips, Batman's career as a vigilante earns him the ire of the police. During this period, Bruce Wayne has a fiancé named Julie Madison . [ 81 ] In Detective Comics #38, Wayne takes in an orphaned circus acrobat, Dick Grayson , who becomes his vigilante partner, Robin . Batman also becomes a founding member of the Justice Society of America , [ 82 ] although he, like Superman, is an honorary member, [ 83 ] and thus only participates occasionally. Batman's relationship with the law thaws quickly, and he is made an honorary member of Gotham City's police department . [ 84 ] During this time, Alfred Pennyworth arrives at Wayne Manor, and after deducing the Dynamic Duo's secret identities, joins their service as their butler. [ 85 ] Silver Age The Silver Age of Comic Books in DC Comics is sometimes held to have begun in 1956 when the publisher introduced Barry Allen as a new, updated version of the Flash . Batman is not significantly changed by the late 1950s for the continuity which would be later referred to as Earth-One . The lighter tone Batman had taken in the period between the Golden and Silver Ages led to the stories of the late 1950s and early 1960s that often feature many science-fiction elements, and Batman is not significantly updated in the manner of other characters until Detective Comics #327 (May 1964), in which Batman reverts to his detective roots, with most science-fiction elements jettisoned from the series. After the introduction of DC Comics' Multiverse in the 1960s, DC established that stories from the Golden Age star the Earth-Two Batman , a character from a parallel world. This version of Batman partners with and marries the reformed Earth-Two Catwoman (Selina Kyle). The two have a daughter, Helena Wayne , who becomes the Huntress. She assumes the position as Gotham's protector along with Dick Grayson, the Earth-Two Robin , once Bruce Wayne retires to become police commissioner. Wayne holds the position of police commissioner until he is killed during one final adventure as Batman. Batman titles, however, often ignored that a distinction had been made between the pre-revamp and post-revamp Batmen (since unlike the Flash or Green Lantern , Batman comics had been published without interruption through the 1950s) and would occasionally make reference to stories from the Golden Age. [ 86 ] Nevertheless, details of Batman's history were altered or expanded upon through the decades. Additions include meetings with a future Superman during his youth, his upbringing by his uncle Philip Wayne (introduced in Batman #208 (February 1969)) after his parents' death, and appearances of his father and himself as prototypical versions of Batman and Robin, respectively. [ 87 ] [ 88 ] In 1980, then-editor Paul Levitz commissioned the Untold Legend of the Batman miniseries to thoroughly chronicle Batman's origin and history. Batman meets and regularly works with other heroes during the Silver Age, most notably Superman, whom he began regularly working alongside in a series of team-ups in World's Finest Comics , starting in 1954 and continuing through the series' cancellation in 1986. Batman and Superman are usually depicted as close friends. As a founding member of the Justice League of America, Batman appears in its first story, in 1960's The Brave and the Bold #28. In the 1970s and 1980s, The Brave and the Bold became a Batman title, in which Batman teams up with a different DC Universe superhero each month. Bronze Age In 1969, Dick Grayson attends college as part of DC Comics' effort to revise the Batman comics. Additionally, Batman also moves from his mansion, Wayne Manor into a penthouse apartment atop the Wayne Foundation building in downtown Gotham City, in order to be closer to Gotham City's crime. In 1974's "Night of the Stalker" storyline, a diploma on the wall reveals Bruce Wayne as a graduate of Yale Law School . [ 89 ] Batman spends the 1970s and early 1980s mainly working solo, with occasional team-ups with Robin or Batgirl. Batman's adventures also become somewhat darker and more grim during this period, depicting increasingly violent crimes, including the first appearance (since the early Golden Age) of the Joker as a homicidal psychopath , and the arrival of Ra's al Ghul , a centuries-old terrorist who knows Batman's secret identity. In the 1980s, Dick Grayson becomes Nightwing . [ 90 ] In the final issue of The Brave and the Bold in 1983, Batman quits the Justice League and forms a new group called the Outsiders . He serves as the team's leader until Batman and the Outsiders #32 (1986) and the comic subsequently changed its title. Modern Age After the 12-issue miniseries Crisis on Infinite Earths , DC Comics retconned the histories of some major characters in an attempt at updating them for contemporary audiences. Frank Miller retold Batman's origin in the storyline " Year One " from Batman #404–407, which emphasizes a grittier tone in the character. [ 91 ] Though the Earth-Two Batman is erased from history, many stories of Batman's Silver Age/Earth-One career (along with an amount of Golden Age ones) remain canonical in the post- Crisis universe, with his origins remaining the same in essence, despite alteration. For example, Gotham's police are mostly corrupt, setting up further need for Batman's existence. The guardian Phillip Wayne is removed, leaving young Bruce to be raised by Alfred Pennyworth. Additionally, Batman is no longer a founding member of the Justice League of America, although he becomes leader for a short time of a new incarnation of the team launched in 1987. To help fill in the revised backstory for Batman following Crisis , DC launched a new Batman title called Legends of the Dark Knight in 1989 and has published various miniseries and one-shot stories since then that largely take place during the "Year One" period. [ 92 ] Subsequently, Batman begins exhibiting an excessive, reckless approach to his crimefighting, a result of the pain of losing Jason Todd . Batman works solo until the decade's close, when Tim Drake becomes the new Robin. [ 93 ] Many of the major Batman storylines since the 1990s have been intertitle crossovers that run for a number of issues. In 1993, DC published " Knightfall ". During the storyline's first phase, the new villain Bane paralyzes Batman, leading Wayne to ask Azrael to take on the role. After the end of "Knightfall", the storylines split in two directions, following both the Azrael-Batman's adventures, and Bruce Wayne's quest to become Batman once more. The story arcs realign in "KnightsEnd", as Azrael becomes increasingly violent and is defeated by a healed Bruce Wayne. Wayne hands the Batman mantle to Dick Grayson (then Nightwing) for an interim period, while Wayne trains for a return to the role. [ 94 ] The 1994 company-wide crossover storyline Zero Hour: Crisis in Time! changes aspects of DC continuity again, including those of Batman. Noteworthy among these changes is that the general populace and the criminal element now consider Batman an urban legend rather than a known force. Batman once again becomes a member of the Justice League during Grant Morrison's 1996 relaunch of the series, titled JLA . During this time, Gotham City faces catastrophe in the decade's closing crossover arc. In 1998's " Cataclysm " storyline, Gotham City is devastated by an earthquake and ultimately cut off from the United States. Deprived of many of his technological resources, Batman fights to reclaim the city from legions of gangs during 1999's " No Man's Land ". Meanwhile, Batman's relationship with the Gotham City Police Department changed for the worse with the events of "Batman: Officer Down" and "Batman: War Games/War Crimes"; Batman's long-time law enforcement allies Commissioner Gordon and Harvey Bullock are forced out of the police department in "Officer Down", while "War Games" and "War Crimes" saw Batman become a wanted fugitive after a contingency plan of his to neutralize Gotham City's criminal underworld is accidentally triggered, resulting in a massive gang war that ends with Black Mask becoming the undisputed ruler of the city's criminal gangs. Lex Luthor arranges for the murder of Batman's on-again, off-again love interest Vesper Fairchild (introduced in the mid-1990s) during the "Bruce Wayne: Murderer?" and " Bruce Wayne: Fugitive " story arcs. Though Batman is able to clear his name, he loses another ally in the form of his new bodyguard Sasha Bordeaux , who is recruited into the organization Checkmate while stuck in prison due to her refusal to turn state's evidence against her employer. While he was unable to prove that Luthor was behind the murder of Vesper, Batman does get his revenge with help from Talia al Ghul in Superman/Batman #1–6. 21st century 2000s DC Comics' 2005 miniseries Identity Crisis reveals that JLA member Zatanna had edited Batman's memories to prevent him from stopping the Justice League from lobotomizing Dr. Light after he raped Sue Dibny . Batman later creates the satellite surveillance system Brother Eye to watch over and, if necessary, kill the other heroes after he remembered. The revelation of Batman's creation and his tacit responsibility for Blue Beetle 's death becomes a driving force in the lead-up to the Infinite Crisis miniseries, which again restructures DC continuity. Batman and a team of superheroes destroy Brother Eye and the OMACs , though, at the very end, Batman reaches his apparent breaking point when Alexander Luthor Jr. seriously wounds Nightwing. Picking up a gun, Batman nearly shoots Luthor in order to avenge his former sidekick, until Wonder Woman convinces him to not pull the trigger. Following Infinite Crisis , Bruce Wayne, Dick Grayson (having recovered from his wounds), and Tim Drake retrace the steps Bruce had taken when he originally left Gotham City, to "rebuild Batman". [ 95 ] In the Face the Face storyline, Batman and Robin return to Gotham City after their year-long absence. Part of this absence is captured during Week 30 of the 52 series, which shows Batman fighting his inner demons. [ 96 ] Later on in 52 , Batman is shown undergoing an intense meditation ritual in Nanda Parbat . This becomes an important part of the regular Batman title, which reveals that Batman is reborn as a more effective crime fighter while undergoing this ritual, having "hunted down and ate" the last traces of fear in his mind. [ 97 ] [ 98 ] At the end of the "Face the Face" story arc, Bruce officially adopts Tim (who had lost both of his parents at various points in the character's history) as his son. [ 99 ] The follow-up story arc in Batman , Batman and Son , introduces Damian Wayne , who is Batman's son with Talia al Ghul . Although originally, in Batman: Son of the Demon , Bruce's coupling with Talia was implied to be consensual, this arc retconned it into Talia forcing herself on Bruce. [ 100 ] Batman, along with Superman and Wonder Woman, reforms the Justice League in the new Justice League of America series, [ 101 ] and is leading the newest incarnation of the Outsiders . [ 102 ] Grant Morrison 's 2008 storyline, " Batman R.I.P. " featured Batman being physically and mentally broken by the enigmatic villain Doctor Hurt and attracted news coverage in advance of its highly promoted conclusion, which would speculated to feature the death of Bruce Wayne. [ 103 ] However, though Batman is shown to possibly perish at the end of the arc, the two-issue arc "Last Rites", which leads into the crossover storyline " Final Crisis ", shows that Batman survives his helicopter crash into the Gotham City River and returns to the Batcave, only to be summoned to the Hall of Justice by the JLA to help investigate the New God Orion 's death. The story ends with Batman retrieving the god-killing bullet used to kill Orion, setting up its use in "Final Crisis". [ 104 ] In the pages of Final Crisis Batman is reduced to a charred skeleton. [ 105 ] In Final Crisis #7, Wayne is shown witnessing the death of the first man, Anthro . [ 106 ] [ 107 ] Wayne's "death" sets up the three-issue Battle for the Cowl miniseries in which Wayne's ex-proteges compete for the "right" to assume the role of Batman, which concludes with Grayson becoming Batman, [ 108 ] while Tim Drake takes on the identity of the Red Robin . [ 109 ] Dick and Damian continue as Batman and Robin, and in the crossover storyline " Blackest Night ", what appears to be Wayne's corpse is reanimated as a Black Lantern zombie , [ 110 ] but is later shown that the corpse is one of Darkseid's failed Batman clones. Dick and Batman's other friends conclude that Bruce is alive. [ 111 ] [ 112 ] 2010s Bruce subsequently returned in Morrison's miniseries Batman: The Return of Bruce Wayne , which depicted his travels through time from prehistory to present-day Gotham. [ 113 ] [ 114 ] [ 115 ] Bruce's return set up Batman Incorporated , an ongoing series which focused on Wayne franchising the Batman identity across the globe, allowing Dick and Damian to continue as Gotham's Dynamic Duo. Bruce publicly announced that Wayne Enterprises will aid Batman on his mission, known as "Batman, Incorporated". However, due to rebooted continuity that occurred as part of DC Comics' 2011 relaunch of all of its comic books, The New 52 , Dick Grayson was restored as Nightwing with Wayne serving as the sole Batman once again. The relaunch also interrupted the publication of Batman, Incorporated , which resumed its story in 2012–2013 with changes to suit the new status quo. The New 52 During The New 52 , all of DC's continuity was reset and the timeline was changed, making Batman the first superhero to emerge. This emergence took place during Zero Year , where Bruce Wayne returns to Gotham and becomes Batman, fighting the original Red Hood [ 116 ] and the Riddler. [ 117 ] In the present day, Batman discovers the Court of Owls , a secret organization operating in Gotham for decades. [ 118 ] Batman somewhat defeats the Court by defeating Owlman, [ 119 ] although the Court continues to operate on a smaller scale. [ 120 ] The Joker returns after losing the skin on his face (as shown in the opening issue of the second volume of Detective Comics ) and attempts to kill the Batman's allies, though he is stopped by Batman. [ 121 ] After some time, Joker returns again, and both he and Batman die while fighting each other. Jim Gordon temporarily becomes Batman, using a high-tech suit, while it is revealed that an amnesiac Bruce Wayne is still alive. [ citation needed ] Gordon attempts to fight a new villain called Mr. Bloom , while Wayne, regains his memories with the help of Alfred Pennyworth and Julie Madison . Once with his memories, Wayne becomes Batman again and defeats Bloom with the help of Gordon. [ citation needed ] DC Rebirth The timeline was reset again during Rebirth , although no significant changes were made to the Batman mythos. [ citation needed ] Batman meets two new superheroes operating in Gotham named Gotham and Gotham Girl. Psycho-Pirate gets into Gotham's head and turns against Batman, and is finally defeated when he is killed. This event is very traumatic for Gotham Girl and she begins to lose her sanity. [ 122 ] Batman forms his own Suicide Squad , including Catwoman, and attempts to take down Bane . The mission is successful, and Batman breaks Bane's back. [ 123 ] Batman proposes to Catwoman. After healing from his wounds, an angry Bane travels to Gotham, where he fights Batman and loses. [ 124 ] Batman then tells Catwoman about the War of Jokes and Riddles, and she agrees to marry him. [ 125 ] Bane takes control of Arkham Asylum and manipulates Catwoman into leaving Wayne before the wedding. [ 126 ] This causes Wayne to become very angry, and, as Batman, lashes out against criminals, nearly killing Mr. Freeze. [ 127 ] Batman learns of Bane's control over Arkham and teams up with the Penguin to stop him. [ 128 ] Bane captures Batman, and Scarecrow causes him to hallucinate, although he eventually breaks free. [ 129 ] Batman escapes and reunites with Catwoman, while Bane captures and kills Alfred Pennyworth. Batman returns and defeats Bane, although too late to save Alfred. Gotham Girl prompts him to marry Catwoman. [ 130 ] It is revealed that the Joker who was working for Bane was Clayface in disguise. The real Joker has been plotting a master plan to take over Gotham. This plan comes to fruition during The Joker War , in which Joker takes over the city. Batman defeats the Joker who vanishes after an explosion. [ 131 ] Ghost-Maker , an enemy from Batman's past, appears in Gotham, and, after a battle, becomes a sort of ally to Batman. [ 132 ] A new group called the Magistrate rises up in Gotham, led by Simon Saint, whose goal is to outlaw vigilantes such as Batman. At the same time, Scarecrow returns, [ 133 ] fighting Batman. During Fear State , Batman battles and defeats both Scarecrow and the Magistrate's Peacekeepers. Other versions The character of Batman has been portrayed in numerous alternative versions across various media since his debut in 1939. These adaptations explore different facets and interpretations of the character. In Smallville , Bruce Wayne adopts the Batman persona in 2001, later teaming up with Superman and other superheroes. [ 134 ] Frank Miller 's influential series, " The Dark Knight Returns ", reimagines Batman as an older, more hardened vigilante, coming out of retirement to fight crime in a dystopian future. [ 135 ] In the Injustice: Gods Among Us universe, Batman leads a resistance against a tyrannical Superman who has taken control of Earth. The DC Bombshells series sets Batman in a World War II -era context, with Bruce Wayne taking inspiration from Batwoman to become the masked hero. The "Dark Multiverse" introduces various twisted versions of Batman, such as The Batman Who Laughs , a hybrid of Batman and the Joker, and Red Death, a fusion of Batman and the Flash. Other notable reimaginings include JLA/Avengers , where Batman appears in a crossover with Marvel's Avengers ; Stan Lee 's Just Imagine , which offers a completely different origin for Batman; and "Kingdom Come", where an older Batman operates in a dystopian future alongside other aged superheroes. In "Superman: American Alien", Bruce Wayne's journey is retold with significant differences, and "Batman: White Knight" explores a reality where the Joker is cured of his insanity and seeks to expose Batman as the true villain of Gotham. These various adaptations and reinterpretations highlight the versatility and enduring appeal of Batman as a character, allowing for a rich exploration of his mythology across different narratives and settings. In popular culture Batman has ascended to the status of a global pop culture phenomenon, transcending his origins in comic books. His influence expanded notably with the release of the 1989 film, which propelled him to the forefront of public consciousness through widespread merchandising. The Guardian describes Batman as emblematic of the constant reinvention characteristic of modern mass culture, embodying both iconic status and commercial appeal, making him a quintessential cultural artifact of the 21st century. [ 136 ] Media appearances Apart from comics, Batman's presence spans various mediums, including newspapers, radio dramas, television, stage, and film. From the 1940s serials to contemporary TV shows like Gotham and Titans , Batman's legacy endures. Celebrating the character's 75th anniversary, Warner Bros released Batman: Strange Days , showcasing his timeless appeal. [ 137 ] In September 2024, Batman become the first superhero to be given a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame . It was the 2,790th star. [ 138 ] Criticism Batman has been criticized by fans for the extreme changes in tone and style between different iterations of the character in the franchise. [ 139 ] Different interpretations Gay interpretations of Batman have been studied academically since psychologist Fredric Wertham 's claims in 1954. [ 140 ] Andy Medhurst and Will Brooker have explored Batman's appeal to gay audiences and the validity of a queer reading. [ 141 ] Meanwhile, in psychological interpretations, Dr. Travis Langley sees Batman as representing the "shadow archetype", confronting inner darkness to fight evil, according to Carl Jung and Joseph Campbell's theories. Langley's analysis adds depth to Batman's psychological complexity. [ 142 ] Notes ^ Finger was not credited in official materials until 2015. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] ^ Sometimes referred to as "the Batman" and originally stylized as The Bat-Man References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Zalben, Alex (March 28, 2014). 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"Batman becomes first superhero with star on Hollywood Walk of Fame" . INQUIRER.net USA . Retrieved October 6, 2024 . ^ Glazebrook, Lewis (October 10, 2023). "Why Batman's Most Consistent Movie Complaint Is Actually Great For The DCU's Reboot" . ScreenRant . Retrieved March 25, 2025 . ^ Wertham, Fredric. Seduction of the Innocent . Rinehart and Company, Inc., 1954. pp. 189–90. For discussion of Wertham's impact see Brooker (2001). ^ Medhurst, Andy. "Batman, Deviance, and Camp." The Many Lives of the Batman: Critical Approaches to a Superhero and His Media . Routledge: London, 1991. ISBN 978-0-85170-276-6 , p. 150. ^ Langley, Travis. Batman and Psychology: A Dark and Stormy Knight . John Wiley & Sons; 1st edition, 2012, ISBN 1-118-16765-1 Sources Beatty, Scott (2005). The Batman Handbook: The Ultimate Training Manual . Quirk Books. ISBN 978-1-59474-023-7 . Boichel, Bill (1991). "Batman: Commodity as Myth". The Many Lives of the Batman: Critical Approaches to a Superhero and His Media . London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-85170-276-6 . Daniels, Les (1999). Batman: The Complete History . Chronicle Books. ISBN 978-0-8118-2470-5 . Daniels, Les (1995). DC Comics: Sixty Years of the World's Favorite Comic Book Heroes . Bulfinch. ISBN 978-0-8212-2076-4 . Daniels, Les (2003). DC Comics: A Celebration of the World's Favorite Comic Book Heroes . Billboard Books/Watson-Guptill Publications. ISBN 978-0-8230-7919-3 . Daniels, Les (April 2004). Batman: The Complete History: The Life and Times of the Dark Knight . Chronicle Books. ISBN 978-0-8118-4232-7 . Retrieved November 8, 2020 . Pearson, Roberta E.; Uricchio, William, eds. (1991). The Many Lives of the Batman: Critical Approaches to a Superhero and His Media . London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-85170-276-6 . Wright, Bradford W. (2001). Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture in America . The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-6514-5 . Further reading Jones, Gerard (1995). Men of Tomorrow: Geeks, Gangsters, and the Birth of the Comic Book . Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-03657-8 . 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Labs Teen Titans Robin Starfire Beast Boy Cyborg Raven Young Justice Amazonians Atlanteans Avengers Birds of Prey Doom Patrol Gotham City Police Department Justice League Dark John Constantine Deadman Detective Chimp Etrigan the Demon Swamp Thing Zatanna John Constantine Deadman Detective Chimp Etrigan the Demon Swamp Thing Zatanna Justice Society of America Lantern Corps Guardians of the Universe Zamarons Blue Lantern Corps Green Lantern Corps Indigo Tribe White Lantern Corps Guardians of the Universe Zamarons Blue Lantern Corps Green Lantern Corps Indigo Tribe White Lantern Corps Legion of Super-Heroes Marvel/Shazam Family New Gods Outsiders S.T.A.R. Labs Teen Titans Robin Starfire Beast Boy Cyborg Raven Robin Starfire Beast Boy Cyborg Raven Young Justice Neutral characters Amanda Waller Black Adam Captain Cold Manchester Black Frankenstein Jonah Hex Killer Frost Larfleeze Lobo Harley Quinn Poison Ivy Star Sapphire Suicide Squad Amanda Waller Black Adam Captain Cold Manchester Black Frankenstein Jonah Hex Killer Frost Larfleeze Lobo Harley Quinn Poison Ivy Star Sapphire Suicide Squad Enemies Central rogues Amazo Anti-Monitor Black Adam Black Manta Brainiac Captain Cold Cheetah Darkseid Deathstroke Despero Doctor Destiny Doctor Light Doomsday Eclipso Felix Faust Gorilla Grodd Joker Kanjar Ro Lex Luthor Libra Mongul Nekron Neron Ocean Master Professor Ivo Prometheus Queen Bee Queen of Fables Sinestro Starro Steppenwolf T. O. Morrow Ultra-Humanite Vandal Savage Other supervillains Amos Fortune Black Hand Blockbuster Brain Storm Circe Count Vertigo David Graves Deadshot Doctor Polaris Doctor Sivana Epoch Funky Flashman Gamemnae General Wade Eiling Gentleman Ghost Gog Hyathis Imperiex Key King Kull Ma'alefa'ak Magog Manchester Black Manga Khan Manhunter Matter Master Maxwell Lord Merlyn Morgaine le Fey Nebula Man OMAC Paragon Per Degaton Ra's al Ghul Rainbow Raider Rama Khan Red King Shaggy Man Siren Solaris Solomon Grundy Sonar Starbreaker Weapons Master Weather Wizard Wizard Organizations Aryan Brigade Axis Amerika Black Lantern Corps Brotherhood of Evil Cadre Court of Owls Crime Syndicate of America Darkseid's Elite Demolition Team Dominators Fearsome Five Female Furies H.I.V.E. Injustice League Injustice Society Intergang Kobra League of Assassins Legion of Doom Manhunters Parademons Phantom Zone Villains Rogues Royal Flush Gang Secret Six Secret Society of Super Villains Sinestro Corps White Martians Central rogues Amazo Anti-Monitor Black Adam Black Manta Brainiac Captain Cold Cheetah Darkseid Deathstroke Despero Doctor Destiny Doctor Light Doomsday Eclipso Felix Faust Gorilla Grodd Joker Kanjar Ro Lex Luthor Libra Mongul Nekron Neron Ocean Master Professor Ivo Prometheus Queen Bee Queen of Fables Sinestro Starro Steppenwolf T. O. Morrow Ultra-Humanite Vandal Savage Amazo Anti-Monitor Black Adam Black Manta Brainiac Captain Cold Cheetah Darkseid Deathstroke Despero Doctor Destiny Doctor Light Doomsday Eclipso Felix Faust Gorilla Grodd Joker Kanjar Ro Lex Luthor Libra Mongul Nekron Neron Ocean Master Professor Ivo Prometheus Queen Bee Queen of Fables Sinestro Starro Steppenwolf T. O. Morrow Ultra-Humanite Vandal Savage Other supervillains Amos Fortune Black Hand Blockbuster Brain Storm Circe Count Vertigo David Graves Deadshot Doctor Polaris Doctor Sivana Epoch Funky Flashman Gamemnae General Wade Eiling Gentleman Ghost Gog Hyathis Imperiex Key King Kull Ma'alefa'ak Magog Manchester Black Manga Khan Manhunter Matter Master Maxwell Lord Merlyn Morgaine le Fey Nebula Man OMAC Paragon Per Degaton Ra's al Ghul Rainbow Raider Rama Khan Red King Shaggy Man Siren Solaris Solomon Grundy Sonar Starbreaker Weapons Master Weather Wizard Wizard Amos Fortune Black Hand Blockbuster Brain Storm Circe Count Vertigo David Graves Deadshot Doctor Polaris Doctor Sivana Epoch Funky Flashman Gamemnae General Wade Eiling Gentleman Ghost Gog Hyathis Imperiex Key King Kull Ma'alefa'ak Magog Manchester Black Manga Khan Manhunter Matter Master Maxwell Lord Merlyn Morgaine le Fey Nebula Man OMAC Paragon Per Degaton Ra's al Ghul Rainbow Raider Rama Khan Red King Shaggy Man Siren Solaris Solomon Grundy Sonar Starbreaker Weapons Master Weather Wizard Wizard Organizations Aryan Brigade Axis Amerika Black Lantern Corps Brotherhood of Evil Cadre Court of Owls Crime Syndicate of America Darkseid's Elite Demolition Team Dominators Fearsome Five Female Furies H.I.V.E. Injustice League Injustice Society Intergang Kobra League of Assassins Legion of Doom Manhunters Parademons Phantom Zone Villains Rogues Royal Flush Gang Secret Six Secret Society of Super Villains Sinestro Corps White Martians Aryan Brigade Axis Amerika Black Lantern Corps Brotherhood of Evil Cadre Court of Owls Crime Syndicate of America Darkseid's Elite Demolition Team Dominators Fearsome Five Female Furies H.I.V.E. Injustice League Injustice Society Intergang Kobra League of Assassins Legion of Doom Manhunters Parademons Phantom Zone Villains Rogues Royal Flush Gang Secret Six Secret Society of Super Villains Sinestro Corps White Martians Alternative versions Alternate versions of the Justice League Extreme Justice Just'a Lotta Animals Justice Guild of America Justice League 3000 Justice League Dark Justice League Elite Justice League Europe Justice League International Justice League Queer Justice League Task Force Justice League United Justice Legion Alpha Justice Lords Super Buddies Super Jrs. Young Justice Others Superman Wonder Woman Alternate versions of the Justice League Extreme Justice Just'a Lotta Animals Justice Guild of America Justice League 3000 Justice League Dark Justice League Elite Justice League Europe Justice League International Justice League Queer Justice League Task Force Justice League United Justice Legion Alpha Justice Lords Super Buddies Super Jrs. Young Justice Extreme Justice Just'a Lotta Animals Justice Guild of America Justice League 3000 Justice League Dark Justice League Elite Justice League Europe Justice League International Justice League Queer Justice League Task Force Justice League United Justice Legion Alpha Justice Lords Super Buddies Super Jrs. Young Justice Others Superman Wonder Woman Superman Wonder Woman In other media DC Extended Universe Superman Batman Wonder Woman Flash Aquaman DC Extended Universe Superman Batman Wonder Woman Flash Aquaman Superman Batman Wonder Woman Flash Aquaman Category Category Articles and topics related to Batman v t e Batman characters Batman family By codename Batman Batwoman Batgirl Robin Catman Catwoman Owlman Huntress Nightwing Flamebird Red Robin Red Hood Batwing Azrael Phantasm Wrath By public identity Dick Grayson Kathy Kane Bette Kane Barbara Gordon Jason Todd Helena Wayne Helena Bertinelli Tim Drake Stephanie Brown Cassandra Cain Kate Kane Damian Wayne Harper Row Duke Thomas Jace Fox Luke Fox Michael Washington Lane Jean-Paul Valley Andrea Beaumont Pets Ace the Bat-Hound Supporting characters Main supporting Alfred Pennyworth Jim Gordon Julie Madison Holly Robinson Lucius Fox Martha Wayne Thomas Wayne Vicki Vale Gotham City Police Department contacts Jim Gordon Harvey Bullock Sarah Essen Maggie Sawyer Renee Montoya Crispus Allen Jason Bard Slam Bradley Superhero allies Superman Wonder Woman The Flash Barry Allen Wally West Green Lantern Hal Jordan John Stewart Aquaman Black Canary Cyborg Deadman Etrigan Green Arrow Hawkgirl Hawkman John Constantine Martian Manhunter Metamorpho Nightrunner Plastic Man Question Shazam Spectre Vixen Zatanna Superhero groups Batman Incorporated Batmen of All Nations Birds of Prey Justice League Justice Society of America Outsiders World's Finest Team Other characters Bat-Mite Bronze Tiger Creeper Duela Dent Gilda Dent Knight Legs Leslie Thompkins Misfit Mother Panic Nora Fries Orpheus Ragman Sasha Bordeaux Silver St. Cloud Simon Dark Squire Victoria October Antagonists Central rogues gallery Bane Black Mask Catwoman Clayface Deadshot Deathstroke Firefly Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Hush Joker Killer Croc Killer Moth Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Ventriloquist Victor Zsasz Joker's gang Joker Harley Quinn Punchline Bud and Lou League of Assassins Ra's al Ghul Talia al Ghul Nyssa Raatko Sensei Lady Shiva David Cain Merlyn Mobsters Joe Chill Lew Moxon Falcone family Carmine Falcone Alberto Falcone Mario Falcone Sofia Falcone Sal Maroni Squid Rupert Thorne Tobias Whale Johnny Witts Tony Zucco Hamilton Hill Gillian B. Loeb Other enemies Amygdala Anarky Black Spider Blockbuster Calculator Calendar Man Catman Cavalier Clock King Cluemaster Copperhead Cornelius Stirk Crazy Quilt Crime Doctor Deacon Blackfire Doctor Death Doctor Double X Doctor Phosphorus Dollmaker Electrocutioner Enigma Firebug Flamingo Gearhead Great White Shark Humpty Dumpty Jane Doe Key KGBeast King Snake Kite Man Lex Luthor Maxie Zeus Magpie Mirror Man Mr. Bloom Music Meister Nightslayer Nocturna Orca Outsider Owlman Phantasm Phosphorus Rex Planet Master Polka-Dot Man Professor Milo Professor Pyg Rag Doll Ratcatcher Reaper Signalman Simon Hurt Snowman Solomon Grundy Spellbinder Swagman Tally Man Ten-Eyed Man The Batman Who Laughs Tiger Shark Tweedledum and Tweedledee Wrath Zebra-Man Supervillain groups Circus of Strange Court of Owls Kobra Leviathan LexCorp Mutants Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Terrible Trio Alternative versions Batman Earth-Two Batman of Zur-En-Arrh Owlman The Batman Who Laughs Thomas Wayne ( Flashpoint version) Robin Earth-Two Carrie Kelley Helena Wayne Other media 1966 Batman TV series Bookworm Egghead King Tut 1989–1997 film series Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman DC Animated Universe Renee Montoya Harley Quinn Bud and Lou Andrea Beaumont Batman (Terry McGinnis) The Dark Knight Trilogy Bruce Wayne Rachel Dawes Joker DC Extended Universe Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn Joker Gotham Bruce Wayne James Gordon Selina Kyle Fish Mooney Oswald Cobblepot Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Titans Dick Grayson Arrowverse Kate Kane Category v t e Batman publications and storylines Current series Absolute Batman Batgirl Batman Batman/Superman: World's Finest Batman and Robin Birds of Prey Detective Comics ( #27 ) Catwoman Harley Quinn Nightwing Poison Ivy Completed ongoing series Azrael Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Batman (comic strip) Batman '66 Batman '89 Batman and the Outsiders Batman: Arkham Unhinged Batman: The Brave and the Bold Batman: The Dark Knight Batman: Gotham Knights Batman: Legends of the Dark Knight Batman: Shadow of the Bat Batman: Streets of Gotham The Batman Adventures The Batman Chronicles Batman Beyond Batman Confidential Batman Family Batman Incorporated The Batman Strikes! Batman/Superman Batwing Batwoman The Brave and the Bold Gotham by Midnight Gotham Central Gotham City Sirens Gotham Girls Grayson The Huntress The Joker Man-Bat Mother Panic The Penguin Red Hood/Arsenal Red Hood and the Outlaws Red Robin Robin Robin: Son of Batman Superman/Batman Tim Drake: Robin We Are Robin World's Finest Comics Completed miniseries Anarky Batman: Anarky Batman & Dracula trilogy Batman: Arkham City Batman: Battle for the Cowl Batman Black and White Batman: Cacophony Batman: Creature of the Night Batman: The Cult Batman: Damned Batman: The Dark Prince Charming Batman: The Doom That Came to Gotham Batman: Earth One Batman: Gates of Gotham Batman: GCPD Batman: Gotham County Line Batman: Gotham Knights – Gilded City Batman: The Imposter Batman: The Knight Batman: Orpheus Rising Batman: The Return of Bruce Wayne Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Batman: Three Jokers Batman: Thrillkiller Batman: Turning Points The Batman Who Laughs Batman: Year 100 Bat-Mite Dark Knights of Steel First Wave Flashpoint Beyond Flashpoint: Deadman and the Flying Graysons Gotham Underground Harley Quinn and Poison Ivy Man-Bat Penguin: Pain and Prejudice Poison Ivy: Cycle of Life and Death Red Hood: The Lost Days Section 8 Superman & Batman: Generations Trinity The Untold Legend of the Batman Batman Eternal Batman Eternal Batman and Robin Eternal Dark Moon Rising Batman and the Monster Men Batman and the Mad Monk The Long Halloween Batman: The Long Halloween Batman: Dark Victory Catwoman: When in Rome Millerverse The Dark Knight Returns The Dark Knight Strikes Again The Dark Knight III: The Master Race Murphyverse Batman: White Knight Curse of the White Knight White Knight Presents: Red Hood Beyond the White Knight Year One Batgirl: Year One The Riddler: Year One Two-Face: Year One Robin: Year One One-shots Arkham Asylum: A Serious House on Serious Earth Castle of the Bat Dark Knight Dynasty Dark Night: A True Batman Story Death of Innocents Digital Justice Gotham Noir Holy Terror Batman/Houdini: The Devil's Workshop In Darkest Knight The Killing Joke KnightGallery Leatherwing The Man Who Laughs Nine Lives Noël Elseworld's Finest: Supergirl & Batgirl The Joker: Devil's Advocate Batman/Poison Ivy: Cast Shadows Son of the Demon The 12 Cent Adventure Two Faces War on Crime The Batman Adventures: Mad Love The Berlin Batman Gotham by Gaslight Joker Poison Ivy: Thorns Red Hood vs. Anarky Superman and Batman: World's Funnest Storylines 1930-40s " The Case of the Chemical Syndicate " "Robin the Boy Wonder" "The Murders of Clayface" "The Crimes of Two-Face" "The Man Who Led a Double Life" "The End of Two-Face" "The Riddler" 1950s " The Man Behind the Red Hood! " " The Joker's Millions " "The Rainbow Batman" "The Superman of Planet X" "... Meets Bat-Mite" 1960s "Robin Dies at Dawn" "Beware of -- Poison Ivy" "The Million Dollar Debut of Batgirl" "One Bullet Too Many" 1970s "Challenge of the Man-Bat" "Tales of the Demon" "The Joker's Five-Way Revenge" "There is No Hope in Crime Alley" "The Deadshot Ricochet" "The Laughing Fish" 1980s " Batman: Year One " " Year Two " " Batman: A Death in the Family " " Year Three " " The Man Who Falls " " Anarky in Gotham City " 1990s " Gothic " "The Eye of the Beholder" " The Return of the Joker " " Prey " " The Last Arkham " " Knightfall " " Contagion " " Legacy " " Cataclysm " " No Man's Land " 2000s " Joker: Last Laugh " " Bruce Wayne: Fugitive " " Hush " " Broken City " " War Games " " City of Crime " " Under the Hood " " War Crimes " " Face the Face " " Batman and Son " " The Resurrection of Ra's al Ghul " " Batman R.I.P. " " Whatever Happened to the Caped Crusader? " " Batwoman: Elegy " 2010s " Bruce Wayne: The Road Home " " The Black Mirror " " Night of the Owls " " Death of the Family " " Zero Year " " Endgame " " Robin War " " The Button " " Dark Nights: Metal " 2020s " The Joker War " " Dark Nights: Death Metal " " Fear State " " Shadows of the Bat " " Shadow War " " Gotham War " Intercompany crossovers Batman/Aliens Batman/Hellboy/Starman Batman/Judge Dredd: Judgment on Gotham Batman/Spawn: War Devil Batman/Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Batman/Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Adventures Batman/The Spirit Batman Versus Predator Batman vs. Bigby! A Wolf in Gotham Daredevil/Batman: Eye for an Eye Ghost/Batgirl: The Resurrection Machine Harley & Ivy Meet Betty & Veronica Spawn/Batman Superman and Batman versus Aliens and Predator Deadpool/Batman and Batman/Deadpool Incomplete All Star Batman & Robin, the Boy Wonder Batman: The Widening Gyre Related topics Batman: Child of Dreams Batman: Haunted Knight Batman Legends DC Comics – The Legend of Batman Elseworlds The Further Adventures of The Joker Category Publications are listed alphabetically by published titles. Storylines are listed in publication order. Compiled without respect for canon or "current" continuity. v t e Batman franchise media Live-action television Batman (1966) Batman episodes Return to the Batcave: The Misadventures of Adam and Burt Gotham (franchise) Gotham episodes season 1 2 3 4 5 characters Pennyworth Arrowverse Batwoman episodes characters " Crisis on Infinite Earths " The Penguin The Penguin " After Hours " " Inside Man " " Bliss " " Cent'Anni " " Homecoming " " Gold Summit " " Top Hat " " A Great or Little Thing " Other Batman OnStar commercials Birds of Prey Gotham Knights Live-action films Early films Batman (1943) Batman and Robin Batman (1966) 1989–1997 film series Batman (1989) Batman Returns ( special effects ) Batman Forever Batman & Robin The Dark Knight Trilogy Batman Begins The Dark Knight The Dark Knight Rises DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Batgirl (unreleased) The Batman Epic Crime Saga The Batman production Animated television The Batman/Superman Hour The Adventures of Batman The New Adventures of Batman The Batman/Tarzan Adventure Hour The Animated Series episodes The New Batman Adventures Batman Beyond characters episodes The Batman characters episodes The Brave and the Bold episodes Beware the Batman Batwheels Caped Crusader Bat-Fam Animated films Mask of the Phantasm SubZero Return of the Joker Mystery of the Batwoman The Batman vs. Dracula Gotham Knight Public Enemies Under the Red Hood Apocalypse Year One The Dark Knight Returns DC Super Heroes Unite Son of Batman Assault on Arkham Animal Instincts Batman vs. Robin Monster Mayhem Bad Blood The Killing Joke Mechs vs. Mutants Return of the Caped Crusaders The Lego Batman Movie Batman and Harley Quinn Batman vs. Two-Face Scooby-Doo! & Batman: The Brave and the Bold Gotham by Gaslight Batman Ninja Batman vs. Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Hush Family Matters Soul of the Dragon The Long Halloween Battle of the Super Sons The Doom That Came to Gotham Merry Little Batman Batman Ninja vs. Yakuza League Aztec Batman: Clash of Empires Animated shorts Chase Me Strange Days Death in the Family Novels The Ultimate Evil Enemies & Allies Wayne of Gotham Batman: Resurrection Batman: Revolution Podcasts Batman: The Audio Adventures Batman Unburied DC High Volume: Batman Enemies in other media Bane Joker Mr. Freeze Penguin Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Supporting characters in other media Barbara Gordon Catwoman Robin Related topics Batman & Bill Bruce Wayne (unproduced series) Batkid Begins Batman action figures Lego Batman Batman Total Justice Batman Unlimited Bat phone Bat-Manga!: The Secret History of Batman in Japan List of Batman films cast members List of Batman television series cast members List of Batman video games List of Batman children's books Batman music Batman Live Holy Musical B@man! Batman '89 (comic book) The Riddler: Year One v t e Batman music Soundtracks Films Batman score soundtrack Batman Returns Batman Forever soundtrack score Batman & Robin Batman Begins The Dark Knight The Dark Knight Rises Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice The Lego Batman Movie Joker The Batman Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack Video games Batman: Arkham City Batman: Arkham Origins Batman: Arkham Knight Songs Batman (1960s TV series) " Batman Theme " " Batusi " Batman (1989 film) " Batdance " " Partyman " " The Arms of Orion " " Scandalous! " " The Future " Batman Returns " Face to Face " Batman Forever " Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me " " Kiss from a Rose " " The Riddler " Batman & Robin " The End Is the Beginning Is the End " " Look into My Eyes " " Gotham City " " Foolish Games " " Moaner " " Lazy Eye " v t e Batman video games Lego series Lego Batman: The Videogame Lego Batman 2: DC Super Heroes Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham Lego Batman: Legacy of the Dark Knight Arkham series Arkham Asylum Arkham City Lockdown Arkham Origins Mobile Blackgate Arkham Knight Arkham VR Suicide Squad: Kill the Justice League Arkham Shadow Telltale series The Telltale Series The Enemy Within Film -based Batman (Ocean, 1989) Batman: The Video Game (NES, 1989) Batman: The Video Game (Game Boy, 1990) Batman (Mega Drive/Genesis, 1990) Batman (PC Engine, 1990) Batman (arcade, 1991) Batman Returns (Sega systems, 1992) Batman Returns (Atari Lynx, 1992) Batman Returns (NES, 1993) Batman Returns (SNES, 1993) Batman Forever Batman Forever: The Arcade Game Batman & Robin Batman Begins The Dark Knight (canceled) Animation-based The Animated Series The Adventures of Batman & Robin Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker Chaos in Gotham Gotham City Racer Vengeance Rise of Sin Tzu The Brave and the Bold – The Videogame Other games Batman (1986) The Caped Crusader Return of the Joker Dark Tomorrow DC Universe Online Gotham City Impostors Batman (2013) Gotham Knights MultiVersus Category v t e Batman in amusement parks Of Batman Batman Adventure – The Ride Batman: The Dark Knight Batman The Escape Batman: Knight Flight Batman: The Ride Batman: The Ride (S&S Free Spin) Batman & Robin: The Chiller The Dark Knight Coaster Of derivative characters Harley Quinn Crazy Train The Joker (S&S Worldwide) The Joker (Six Flags Discovery Kingdom) The Joker (Six Flags México) The Joker Funhouse Coaster The Joker's Jinx The Riddler Mindbender Mr Freeze: Reverse Blast The Penguin The Riddler Revenge (Six Flags New England) The Riddler's Revenge Of derivative elements Arkham Asylum – Shock Therapy Batwing Spaceshot Batwing Gotham City Gotham City Gauntlet: Escape from Arkham Asylum Shadows of Arkham v t e Batman in film Serials Batman (1943 serial) Batman and Robin (1949 serial) Adam West films Batman (1966) Return of the Caped Crusaders (2016) Batman vs. Two-Face (2017) 1989–1997 series Films Batman (1989) score soundtrack home computer game NES game Game Boy game Sega Genesis game PC Engine game arcade game Batman Returns (1992) soundtrack special effects Sega games Atari Lynx game NES game SNES game Batman Forever (1995) score soundtrack video game arcade game pinball game Batman & Robin (1997) soundtrack video game Characters Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman The Dark Knight trilogy Films Batman Begins (2005) soundtrack video game The Dark Knight (2008) soundtrack canceled video game The Dark Knight Rises (2012) soundtrack Characters Bruce Wayne Joker Rachel Dawes DC Extended Universe Films Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016) soundtrack Suicide Squad (2016) soundtrack Justice League (2017) soundtrack Zack Snyder's Justice League (2021) soundtrack The Flash (2023) soundtrack Batgirl (unreleased) Characters Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn The Batman series The Batman (2022) production accolades soundtrack Theatrical animated films Mask of the Phantasm (1993) soundtrack The Killing Joke (2016) The Lego Batman Movie (2017) soundtrack Spin-off films Catwoman (2004) video game Joker (2019) accolades soundtrack Birds of Prey (2020) soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux (2024) score soundtrack Unofficial and fan films Features Batman Dracula Alyas Batman at Robin James Batman Batman Fights Dracula Fight Batman Fight! Alyas Batman en Robin Batman XXX Shorts Dead End Grayson World's Finest City of Scars Dying Is Easy Batman Beyond: Year One Jokers Wild See also Batman franchise List of Batman films cast members Batman OnStar commercials v t e Batman and Superman Comic books Ongoing series World's Finest Comics Superman/Batman Limited series Superman & Batman: Generations Superman and Batman: World's Funnest Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Superman and Batman versus Aliens and Predator Television The Batman/Superman Hour The Superman/Batman Adventures DC Animated Universe The New Batman/Superman Adventures Books Enemies & Allies Film Live action films Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice soundtrack Animated films Superman/Batman: Public Enemies Superman/Batman: Apocalypse Batman: The Dark Knight Returns Superman: Red Son Injustice Batman and Superman: Battle of the Super Sons Justice League: Warworld Fan works How It Should Have Ended Related Composite Superman Toyman World's Finest Team Categories: Batman Superman v t e Justice League International Keith Giffen J. M. DeMatteis Initial members Pre-Flashpoint Batman Black Canary Blue Beetle/Ted Kord Booster Gold Captain Marvel Doctor Fate Kent Nelson Linda Strauss Doctor Light/Kimiyo Hoshi Green Lantern/Guy Gardner Martian Manhunter Mister Miracle The New 52 August General in Iron Booster Gold Fire Godiva Green Lantern/Guy Gardner Ice Rocket Red/Gavril Ivanovich Vixen Supporting characters L-Ron Catherine Cobert Maxwell Lord Oberon Superman Enemies Antagonists Anti-Monitor Black Hand Darkseid Despero Doomsday Kite Man Lobo Magog Major Disaster Manga Khan Maxwell Lord Neron Queen Bee Signal Men Sinestro Starbreaker Weapons Master Weather Wizard Wizard Organizations Cadre Extremists Injustice League Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Publications and storylines Legends Formerly Known as the Justice League Justice League: Generation Lost Spinoff teams Extreme Justice Justice League America Justice League Europe Justice League Task Force v t e Catwoman Bob Kane Bill Finger Incarnations Selina Kyle Holly Robinson Eiko Hasigawa Supporting characters Batgirl Batman Slam Bradley Gotham City Sirens Dick Grayson Huntress Justice League Outsiders Alfred Pennyworth Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Madame Zodiac Leslie Thompkins Wildcat Antagonists Angle Man Bane Black Mask Clayface Film Freak Hush Joker Penguin Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Riddler Scarecrow Snowflame Hugo Strange Two-Face Zeiss Publications Catwoman Catwoman: When in Rome Gotham City Sirens Nine Lives In other media Catwoman (film) Chase Me DC Showcase: Catwoman Catwoman (video game) Selina Kyle ( Gotham character) "Selina Kyle" ( Gotham episode) Selina Kyle ( Batman Returns ) " The Cat and the Fiddle " " The Cat and the Claw " Catwoman: Soulstealer Catwoman: Hunted Category v t e Batgirl Bill Finger Sheldon Moldoff Gardner Fox Carmine Infantino Incarnations Bette Kane Barbara Gordon Helena Bertinelli Cassandra Cain Stephanie Brown Supporting characters Batman Birds of Prey Black Canary Catwoman James Gordon Dick Grayson Lucius Fox Justice League Misfit Alfred Pennyworth Proxy Harley Quinn Robin Supergirl Leslie Thompkins Alysia Yeoh Antagonists Black Mask Brutale Calculator David Cain Doctor Death Joker Joker's Daughter Killer Moth Knightfall Lady Shiva Livewire Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Madame Zodiac Riddler Ravager Scarecrow Trigger Twins Related identities Flamebird Oracle Huntress Publications Batgirl Batgirl: Year One Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Elseworld's Finest: Supergirl & Batgirl Ghost/Batgirl: The Resurrection Machine Related articles " Enter Batgirl, Exit Penguin " Barbara Gordon in other media Big Game Batgirl (unreleased) Batwoman Category v t e Robin Bill Finger Jerry Robinson Bob Kane Robins Dick Grayson Jason Todd Tim Drake Stephanie Brown Damian Wayne Supporting characters Batgirl Barbara Gordon Batman Catwoman Jack Drake Flying Graysons Lucius Fox Tamara Fox James Gordon Justice League Alfred Pennyworth Nightstar Nocturna Outsiders Starfire Talia al Ghul Teen Titans Leslie Thompkins Warlock's Daughter Antagonists Anarky Bane Blockbuster Brutale Clock King Cluemaster Deathstroke Firefly The General Joker Joker's Daughter Killer Croc Killer Moth King Snake Lady Shiva Lady Vic Lynx Mad Hatter Mr. Freeze Nite-Wing Penguin Prankster Harley Quinn Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Shrike Tarantula Torque Trigger Twins Two-Face Tony Zucco Related identities Nightwing Red Robin Red Hood Squire Red X In other media Batman and Robin (serial) " Robin's Reckoning " Dick Grayson (film character) Batman & Robin (film) soundtrack video game Son of Batman Batman vs. Robin Publications Robin: Year One Robin War All Star Batman & Robin, the Boy Wonder Batman and Robin We Are... Robin Red Robin Batman and Robin Eternal Batman and Son Alternative versions Carrie Kelley Earth-Two Helena Wayne Related Robin Hood Redbird Alyas Batman en Robin Alyas Batman at Robin Batman & Robin: The Chiller Batman and Robin Have an Altercation "Holy..." Batman and Robin (disambiguation) Category v t e The Joker Bill Finger Bob Kane Jerry Robinson Supporting characters Bane Cheetah Clayface Deadshot Deathstroke Duela Dent Firefly Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Hush Killer Croc Legion of Doom Lex Luthor Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Punchline Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Victor Zsasz Antagonists Batgirl Barbara Gordon Batman Batwoman Kate Kane Catwoman Commissioner Gordon Gotham City Police Department Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Huntress Helena Bertinelli) Justice League Nightwing Dick Grayson Penguin Red Hood Jason Todd Red Robin Tim Drake Riddler Robin Damian Wayne Superman The Batman Who Laughs Two-Face Publications and stories The Joker " The Joker's Double Jeopardy " Batman: The Killing Joke Devil's Advocate Batman: The Man Who Laughs The Further Adventures of The Joker Joker (graphic novel) " The Joker's Millions " Last Laugh " The Man Behind the Red Hood! " " The Return of the Joker " Batman: Three Jokers Joker War Alternative versions Red Hood The Batman Who Laughs In other media Incarnations Jack Napier Joker (DC Animated Universe) Joker ( The Dark Knight ) Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Joker (DC Extended Universe) Arthur Fleck Other media Joker accolades soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker video game Batman: The Killing Joke " The Joker's Hard Times " " The Joker Is Wild " " The Joker Goes to School " Batman: Return of the Joker " Joker's Favor " " Christmas with the Joker " Mortal Kombat 11 Harley Quinn and The Joker: Sound Mind Jokers Wild Rides The Joker's Jinx The Joker (S&S Worldwide) The Joker (Six Flags Discovery Kingdom) The Joker Funhouse Coaster The Joker (Six Flags México) Related Ace Chemicals Arkham Asylum Barack Obama "Joker" poster Blackgate Penitentiary Georgia Joker Jokermobile Joker Stairs Jokerz The People's Joker Category v t e Harley Quinn Paul Dini Bruce Timm Karl Kesel Terry Dodson Amanda Conner Jimmy Palmiotti Supporting characters Bruce Wayne / Batman Barbara Gordon / Batgirl Birds of Prey Bud and Lou Selina Kyle/Catwoman Joker Justice League Dick Grayson/Nightwing Pamela Isley/Poison Ivy Karen Starr/Power Girl Robin Cyrus Gold/Solomon Grundy Teams Gotham City Sirens Justice League of Anarchy Secret Six The Society Suicide Squad Antagonists Amanda Waller Bruce Wayne / Batman Barbara Gordon / Batgirl Roman Sionis/Black Mask Jason Woodrue/Floronic Man Hugo Strange Joker Joker's Daughter/Duela Dent Mercy Graves Oswald Cobblepot/Penguin Alexis Kaye/Punchline Edward Nygma/Riddler Dick Grayson / Robin Jonathan Crane/Scarecrow Harvey Dent/Two-Face Publications The Batman Adventures: Mad Love Harley Quinn Batman: White Knight Presents: Harley Quinn Harley and Ivy Meet Betty and Veronica Harley Quinn and Poison Ivy In other media " Joker's Favor " Harley Quinn (TV series) episodes Batman and Harley Quinn Harley Quinn (DCEU character) Birds of Prey soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack Harley Quinn and The Joker: Sound Mind Related articles Harley Quinn Crazy Train Homosexuality in the Batman franchise Harlequin (album) Category v t e The Outsiders Mike W. Barr Jim Aparo Members Founders Batman Black Lightning Geo-Force Halo Katana Metamorpho Others Arsenal Atomic Knight Batgirl Batwing Batwoman Captain Boomerang Captain Marvel Jr. Creeper Duke Thomas Eradicator Francine Langstrom Grace Choi Green Arrow Huntress (Helena Bertinelli) Indigo Jade Lady Shiva Looker Nightwing Olympian Owlman (Roy Raymond Jr.) Red Robin ReMAC Sebastian Faust Starfire Technocrat Thunder Supporting characters Alfred Pennyworth Checkmate Helga Jace Roy Raymond Sapphire Stagg Simon Stagg Enemies Baron Bedlam Brother Blood Doctor Sivana Fearsome Five Doctor Light Gizmo Mammoth Psimon Shimmer Felix Faust Gorilla Grodd Joker Kobra Masters of Disaster Mr. Freeze Nuclear Family Sabbac Tobias Whale Locations Batcave Other media Batman: The Brave and the Bold Young Justice v t e Birds of Prey Creators : Chuck Dixon Jordan B. Gorfinkel Gail Simone Titles Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Main characters Barbara Gordon Black Canary Huntress (Helena Bertinelli) Notable members Big Barda Black Alice Cassandra Cain Gypsy Harley Quinn Hawk and Dove Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders) Jade Canary Judomaster (Sonia Sato) Katana Lady Blackhawk Manhunter (Kate Spencer) Misfit Poison Ivy Power Girl Vixen Zealot Supporting characters Batman Blue Beetle (Ted Kord) Booster Gold James Gordon Creote Catwoman Cyborg Green Arrow Kurt Lance Lois Lane Metamorpho Nightwing Richard Dragon Robin Savant Sin Superman Wildcat Antagonists Atomic Skull Bane Black Mask Blockbuster Brainiac Brutale Calculator Captain Nazi Catwoman Chemo Cheshire Clayface Copperhead Crime Doctor Deathstroke Electrocutioner Gorilla Grodd Harley Quinn Hector Hammond Hellgrammite H.I.V.E. Joker Killer Moth Kobra Lady Shiva Lady Spellbinder Lady Vic Lashina Mad Hatter Mammoth Penguin Poison Ivy Prometheus Psimon Secret Six Secret Society Shadow Thief Shrapnel Spy Smasher Talia al Ghul Victor Zsasz In other media TV series Film soundtrack Category v t e Superman characters Superman family By codename Superman Superboy Supergirl Superwoman Nightwing Flamebird Steel Power Girl By public identity Clark Kent Conner Kent Jon Kent Sodam Yat Mon-El Kara Zor-El Matrix Linda Danvers Laurel Gand Lois Lane Lucy Lane Lana Lang Luma Lynai Donna Troy Kristin Wells Chris Kent/Lor-Zod Thara Ak-Var David Connor John Henry Irons Natasha Irons Kong Kenan Kara Zor-L Pets Krypto the Superdog Streaky the Supercat Beppo the Super-Monkey Comet the Super-Horse Supporting characters Lois Lane Jimmy Olsen Jor-El Lara Jonathan and Martha Kent Perry White Lana Lang Batman Lucy Lane Lori Lemaris Gangbuster Zor-El Alura Dubbilex Sam Lane Lyla Lerrol Pete Ross Professor Potter Lena Luthor Maxima Morgan Edge Dan Turpin Steve Lombard Cat Grant Professor Hamilton Maggie Sawyer Bibbo Bibbowski Ron Troupe Strange Visitor Rampage Vartox Atlas Manchester Black Alexander Luthor Jr. Associated characters Auron The Authority Apollo Enchantress Lightray Manchester Black Midnighter OMAC Steel Guardian Justice League Atom Aquaman Batman Black Canary Blue Beetle Cyborg Flash Green Arrow Green Lantern John Stewart Martian Manhunter Robin/Nightwing Orion Captain Marvel Wonder Woman Justice Society of America Legion of Substitute Heroes Legion of Super-Heroes Cosmic Boy Saturn Girl Lightning Lad Chameleon Boy Colossal Boy Invisible Kid Star Boy Phantom Girl Triplicate Girl Shrinking Violet Bouncing Boy Sun Boy Brainiac 5 Ultra Boy Element Lad Matter-Eater Lad Lightning Lass Dream Girl Timber Wolf Princess Projectra Ferro Lad Karate Kid White Witch Shadow Lass Chemical King Wildfire Tyroc Dawnstar Laurel Gand Legion of Super-Pets Legion of Super-Villains Lobo Maxima Newsboy Legion Project Cadmus Silent Knight Super-Chief Supermen of America World's Finest Team Enemies Central rogues Atomic Skull Bizarro Bloodsport Brainiac Bruno Mannheim Cyborg Superman Hank Henshaw Darkseid Doomsday General Zod Lex Luthor Livewire Mercy Graves Metallo Mister Mxyzptlk Mongul Parasite Silver Banshee Toyman Ultra-Humanite Recurring adversaries Anti-Monitor Atlas Blaze and Satanus Brainiac 2 Chemo Composite Superman Conduit Dev-Em Equus Faora Funky Flashman Gog Hellgramite Imperiex Jax-Ur Joker Kobra Lord Satanis Magpie Mala Mammoth Manchester Black Morgan Edge Neutron Nick O'Teen Non Ol-Vir Prankster Quarmer Quex-Ul Rampage Riot Ruin Scorch Solaris Solomon Grundy Terra-Man Titano Ultraman Ursa Volcana Organizations Black Zero Fearsome Five Intergang Masters of Disaster Royal Flush Gang Secret Society of Super Villains Suicide Squad Superman Revenge Squad Alternative versions Superman Earth-One Earth-Two Ultraman Superboy-Prime Kingdom Come Supergirl Power Girl In other media 1978–1987 film series Superman Lois Lane Lex Luthor Eve Teschmacher General Zod DC Extended Universe Clark Kent / Superman Lois Lane Lex Luthor Zod Smallville Clark Kent Lois Lane Lana Lang Justice League Lex Luthor Lionel Luthor Chloe Sullivan Arrowverse Kara Danvers Alex Danvers Lex Luthor Nia Nal Superman & Lois Clark Kent Lois Lane Related Superman and Lois Lane Daily Planet Alien races Kryptonians Category v t e Wonder Woman William Moulton Marston Elizabeth Holloway Marston Olive Byrne H. G. Peter Other contributors Characters Wonder Women Diana Prince Orana Artemis of Bana-Mighdall Hippolyta Nubia Wonder Girls Cassie Sandsmark Donna Troy Yara Flor Supporting characters Antiope Etta Candy Fury Hephaestus Heracles/Hercules Hermes I Ching Julia and Vanessa Kapatelis Justice League Mala Nemesis (Thomas Tresser) The Olympian Paula von Gunther Philippus Poseidon Queen Desira Helena Sandsmark Sarge Steel Steve Trevor Wonder Man Zeus Zola Enemies Ares Baron Blitzkrieg Baroness Paula von Gunther Blue Snowman Veronica Cale Cheetah Circe Dark Angel Decay Doctor Cyber Doctor Poison Doctor Psycho Duke of Deception Egg Fu Eviless First Born Genocide Giganta Hades Hypnota Kung Mask Maxwell Lord Medusa Minister Blizzard Osira Queen Clea Silver Swan Superwoman Tezcatlipoca Zara Factions Amazons of Themyscira Amazons of Bana-Mighdall Children of Ares Godwatch Olympian Gods Titans of Myth Villainy Inc. Locations Aeaea Themyscira (The Paradise Islands) Publications Absolute Wonder Woman All Star Comics Wonder Woman Amazonia Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Comic Cavalcade Crossover The Legend of Wonder Woman Sensation Comics Superman and Wonder Woman: The Hidden Killer Superman/Wonder Woman Wonder Woman '77 The Wonder Woman Chronicles Wonder Woman: Earth One Wonder Woman Historia: The Amazons The World's Greatest Superheroes Storylines " Introducing Wonder Woman " (1941) Gods and Mortals (1987) Challenge of the Gods (1987–88) War of the Gods (1991) The Contest (1994) The Challenge of Artemis (1995) Paradise Island Lost (2001) Our Worlds at War (2001) The Hiketeia (2002) Down to Earth (2003–04) Who Is Wonder Woman? (2006–07) Amazons Attack! (2007) The Circle (2008) Ends of the Earth (2008) Rise of the Olympian (2009) Flashpoint (2011) The Lies (2016) Year One (2016) The Truth (2017) Godwatch (2017) Trial of the Amazons (2022) Technology Golden Girdle of Gaea Lasso of Truth Wonder Woman's bracelets In other media Film Wonder Woman (1974 film) Wonder Woman (2009 film) Wonder Woman: Bloodlines DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Wonder Woman (2017 film) soundtrack Justice League Zack Snyder's Justice League Wonder Woman 1984 soundtrack Peacemaker: It's Cow or Never Shazam! Fury of the Gods The Flash Television Wonder Woman episodes Wonder Woman (2011 TV pilot) Miscellaneous Alternative versions Earth-Two Bizarra Superwoman Cultural impact Professor Marston and the Wonder Women Literature Wonder Women! The Untold Story of American Superheroines Category v t e Golden Age of Comic Books Ace Comics Captain Courageous Doctor Nemesis The Flag Lash Lightning The Raven Unknown Soldier Vulcan All-American Publications The Atom Al Pratt Black Canary Doctor Mid-Nite Charles McNider Doiby Dickles The Flash Jay Garrick Gay Ghost Green Lantern Alan Scott Hawkgirl Shiera Sanders Hall Hawkman Carter Hall Hop Harrigan Johnny Thunder Justice Society of America The King Mister Terrific Terry Sloane Neptune Perkins Red Tornado Sargon the Sorcerer Terrific Whatzit Thunderbolt Ultra-Man The Whip Wildcat Ted Grant Wonder Woman Centaur Comics Airman Amazing-Man The Arrow The Clock The Eye Fantom of the Fair Magician from Mars The Masked Marvel Minimidget Charlton Comics Atomic Mouse Captain Atom Nightshade Mr. Muscles Nature Boy Space Adventures Yellowjacket Dell Comics Doctor Hormone Flash Gordon The Owl Phantasmo Supermind's Son Zorro Fawcett Comics Bulletgirl Bulletman Captain Marvel Captain Marvel Jr. Captain Midnight Dan Dare Golden Arrow Hoppy the Marvel Bunny Ibis the Invincible Lieutenant Marvels Marvel Family Mary Marvel Master Man Minute-Man Mr. Scarlet Nyoka the Jungle Girl Phantom Eagle Pinky the Whiz Kid Scoop Smith Spy Smasher Squadron of Justice Uncle Marvel Fox Comics Blue Beetle Dan Garret The Bouncer Bronze Man Dynamo The Flame Green Mask The Moth Samson Stardust the Super Wizard U.S. Jones Wonder Man Harvey Comics Black Cat Captain 3-D Captain Freedom Green Hornet Invisible Scarlet O'Neil Kato Shock Gibson Spirit of '76 Lev Gleason Publications Captain Battle Claw Crimebuster Daredevil Little Wise Guys Silver Streak MLJ Comics The Black Hood Bob Phantom Captain Flag The Comet The Firefly The Fox The Hangman Rang-a-Tang the Wonder Dog The Shield Super Duck The Web The Wizard National Allied Publications Ace the Bat-Hound Air Wave Aquaman Batman Batwoman Black Pirate Boy Commandos Captain Comet Chris KL-99 Congo Bill Crimson Avenger Lee Travis Dan the Dyna-Mite Dark Ranger Detective Chimp Doctor Fate Kent Nelson Doctor Occult Genius Jones Gimmick Girl Green Arrow Guardian Hourman Rex Tyler Johnny Chambers King Faraday The Knight Krypto Liberty Belle Manhunter Paul Kirk Martian Manhunter Miss X Mr. America Newsboy Legion Phantom Stranger Rex the Wonder Dog Robin Dick Grayson Robotman Rose Psychic Sandman Wesley Dodds Sandy the Golden Boy Seven Soldiers of Victory Shining Knight Sir Justin Slam Bradley The Spectre Jim Corrigan Speedy Roy Harper Squire Star-Spangled Kid Sylvester Pemberton Starman Ted Knight Stripesy Stuff the Chinatown Kid Superboy Kal-El Superman Superwoman Lois Lane Tarantula TNT Tommy Tomorrow Vigilante Greg Saunders Wonder Woman Zatara Nedor Comics American Crusader American Eagle Black Terror Captain Future Doc Strange Fighting Yank The Ghost Grim Reaper Judy of the Jungle Kara the Jungle Princess Lance Lewis, Space Detective Liberator The Magnet Miss Masque Princess Pantha Pyroman The Scarab The Woman in Red Novelty Press Blue Bolt Dick Cole The Target The Targeteers The Twister Prize Publications Atomic-Man Black Owl Fighting American Green Lama Yank & Doodle Quality Comics Archie O'Toole #711 Black Condor Blackhawk Blue Tracer Bozo the Iron Man Captain Triumph Doll Girl Doll Man Firebrand Human Bomb Invisible Hood The Jester Kid Eternity Lady Luck Madame Fatal Magno Manhunter Merlin the Magician Midnight Miss America Miss Fear Mouthpiece Neon the Unknown Phantom Lady Plastic Man Quicksilver The Ray Red Bee Red Torpedo The Spider Spider Widow Uncle Sam Wildfire Wonder Boy Woozy Winks Timely Comics All-Winners Squad American Ace The Angel Black Marvel Black Widow Claire Voyant Blazing Skull Blonde Phantom Blue Blade Blue Diamond Breeze Barton Bucky Bucky Barnes Captain America Captain Wonder The Challenger Citizen V The Destroyer Dynamic Man Father Time Ferret Fiery Mask The Fin Golden Girl Human Torch Jack Frost Laughing Mask Marvel Boy Mercury Miss America Miss Fury Mister E Namor Namora The Patriot Phantom Reporter Red Raven Rockman Silver Scorpion Sun Girl Super Rabbit Thin Man Thunderer Tim Mulrooney Toro Venus Vision Whizzer Robert Frank Witness Young Allies Misc. American Comics Group Superkatt Anglo-American Publishing Commander Steel Atlas Publications Captain Atom Bell Features The Brain Johnny Canuck Nelvana of the Northern Lights Cardal Publishing Streamline Columbia Comics The Face Skyman David McKay Publications Mandrake the Magician The Phantom DC Thomson The Amazing Mr X Jack Flash Dynamic Publications Dynamic Man Yankee Girl Eastern Color Printing Buck Rogers Hydroman Phantom Magician EC Comics Moon Girl Superduperman Elliot Publishing Company Kismet, Man of Fate Fiction House Fantomah Hillman Periodicals Airboy The Heap Holyoke Publishing Cat-Man Kitten Miss Victory L. Miller & Son, Ltd. Kid Marvelman Marvelman Young Marvelman Magazine Enterprises Funnyman Maple Leaf Publishing Brok Windsor Iron Man Rural Home Publications Green Turtle Street & Smith The Avenger Doc Savage The Shadow Supersnipe v t e Batman characters v t e Batman family By codename Batman Batwoman Batgirl Robin Catman Catwoman Owlman Huntress Nightwing Flamebird Red Robin Red Hood Batwing Azrael Phantasm Wrath By public identity Dick Grayson Kathy Kane Bette Kane Barbara Gordon Jason Todd Helena Wayne Helena Bertinelli Tim Drake Stephanie Brown Cassandra Cain Kate Kane Damian Wayne Harper Row Duke Thomas Jace Fox Luke Fox Michael Washington Lane Jean-Paul Valley Andrea Beaumont Pets Ace the Bat-Hound Batman family By codename Batman Batwoman Batgirl Robin Catman Catwoman Owlman Huntress Nightwing Flamebird Red Robin Red Hood Batwing Azrael Phantasm Wrath By public identity Dick Grayson Kathy Kane Bette Kane Barbara Gordon Jason Todd Helena Wayne Helena Bertinelli Tim Drake Stephanie Brown Cassandra Cain Kate Kane Damian Wayne Harper Row Duke Thomas Jace Fox Luke Fox Michael Washington Lane Jean-Paul Valley Andrea Beaumont Pets Ace the Bat-Hound By codename Batman Batwoman Batgirl Robin Catman Catwoman Owlman Huntress Nightwing Flamebird Red Robin Red Hood Batwing Azrael Phantasm Wrath Batman Batwoman Batgirl Robin Catman Catwoman Owlman Huntress Nightwing Flamebird Red Robin Red Hood Batwing Azrael Phantasm Wrath By public identity Dick Grayson Kathy Kane Bette Kane Barbara Gordon Jason Todd Helena Wayne Helena Bertinelli Tim Drake Stephanie Brown Cassandra Cain Kate Kane Damian Wayne Harper Row Duke Thomas Jace Fox Luke Fox Michael Washington Lane Jean-Paul Valley Andrea Beaumont Dick Grayson Kathy Kane Bette Kane Barbara Gordon Jason Todd Helena Wayne Helena Bertinelli Tim Drake Stephanie Brown Cassandra Cain Kate Kane Damian Wayne Harper Row Duke Thomas Jace Fox Luke Fox Michael Washington Lane Jean-Paul Valley Andrea Beaumont Pets Ace the Bat-Hound Ace the Bat-Hound Supporting characters Main supporting Alfred Pennyworth Jim Gordon Julie Madison Holly Robinson Lucius Fox Martha Wayne Thomas Wayne Vicki Vale Gotham City Police Department contacts Jim Gordon Harvey Bullock Sarah Essen Maggie Sawyer Renee Montoya Crispus Allen Jason Bard Slam Bradley Superhero allies Superman Wonder Woman The Flash Barry Allen Wally West Green Lantern Hal Jordan John Stewart Aquaman Black Canary Cyborg Deadman Etrigan Green Arrow Hawkgirl Hawkman John Constantine Martian Manhunter Metamorpho Nightrunner Plastic Man Question Shazam Spectre Vixen Zatanna Superhero groups Batman Incorporated Batmen of All Nations Birds of Prey Justice League Justice Society of America Outsiders World's Finest Team Other characters Bat-Mite Bronze Tiger Creeper Duela Dent Gilda Dent Knight Legs Leslie Thompkins Misfit Mother Panic Nora Fries Orpheus Ragman Sasha Bordeaux Silver St. Cloud Simon Dark Squire Victoria October Supporting characters Main supporting Alfred Pennyworth Jim Gordon Julie Madison Holly Robinson Lucius Fox Martha Wayne Thomas Wayne Vicki Vale Gotham City Police Department contacts Jim Gordon Harvey Bullock Sarah Essen Maggie Sawyer Renee Montoya Crispus Allen Jason Bard Slam Bradley Superhero allies Superman Wonder Woman The Flash Barry Allen Wally West Green Lantern Hal Jordan John Stewart Aquaman Black Canary Cyborg Deadman Etrigan Green Arrow Hawkgirl Hawkman John Constantine Martian Manhunter Metamorpho Nightrunner Plastic Man Question Shazam Spectre Vixen Zatanna Superhero groups Batman Incorporated Batmen of All Nations Birds of Prey Justice League Justice Society of America Outsiders World's Finest Team Other characters Bat-Mite Bronze Tiger Creeper Duela Dent Gilda Dent Knight Legs Leslie Thompkins Misfit Mother Panic Nora Fries Orpheus Ragman Sasha Bordeaux Silver St. Cloud Simon Dark Squire Victoria October Main supporting Alfred Pennyworth Jim Gordon Julie Madison Holly Robinson Lucius Fox Martha Wayne Thomas Wayne Vicki Vale Alfred Pennyworth Jim Gordon Julie Madison Holly Robinson Lucius Fox Martha Wayne Thomas Wayne Vicki Vale Gotham City Police Department contacts Jim Gordon Harvey Bullock Sarah Essen Maggie Sawyer Renee Montoya Crispus Allen Jason Bard Slam Bradley Jim Gordon Harvey Bullock Sarah Essen Maggie Sawyer Renee Montoya Crispus Allen Jason Bard Slam Bradley Superhero allies Superman Wonder Woman The Flash Barry Allen Wally West Green Lantern Hal Jordan John Stewart Aquaman Black Canary Cyborg Deadman Etrigan Green Arrow Hawkgirl Hawkman John Constantine Martian Manhunter Metamorpho Nightrunner Plastic Man Question Shazam Spectre Vixen Zatanna Superman Wonder Woman The Flash Barry Allen Wally West Barry Allen Wally West Green Lantern Hal Jordan John Stewart Hal Jordan John Stewart Aquaman Black Canary Cyborg Deadman Etrigan Green Arrow Hawkgirl Hawkman John Constantine Martian Manhunter Metamorpho Nightrunner Plastic Man Question Shazam Spectre Vixen Zatanna Superhero groups Batman Incorporated Batmen of All Nations Birds of Prey Justice League Justice Society of America Outsiders World's Finest Team Batman Incorporated Batmen of All Nations Birds of Prey Justice League Justice Society of America Outsiders World's Finest Team Other characters Bat-Mite Bronze Tiger Creeper Duela Dent Gilda Dent Knight Legs Leslie Thompkins Misfit Mother Panic Nora Fries Orpheus Ragman Sasha Bordeaux Silver St. Cloud Simon Dark Squire Victoria October Bat-Mite Bronze Tiger Creeper Duela Dent Gilda Dent Knight Legs Leslie Thompkins Misfit Mother Panic Nora Fries Orpheus Ragman Sasha Bordeaux Silver St. Cloud Simon Dark Squire Victoria October Antagonists Central rogues gallery Bane Black Mask Catwoman Clayface Deadshot Deathstroke Firefly Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Hush Joker Killer Croc Killer Moth Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Ventriloquist Victor Zsasz Joker's gang Joker Harley Quinn Punchline Bud and Lou League of Assassins Ra's al Ghul Talia al Ghul Nyssa Raatko Sensei Lady Shiva David Cain Merlyn Mobsters Joe Chill Lew Moxon Falcone family Carmine Falcone Alberto Falcone Mario Falcone Sofia Falcone Sal Maroni Squid Rupert Thorne Tobias Whale Johnny Witts Tony Zucco Hamilton Hill Gillian B. Loeb Other enemies Amygdala Anarky Black Spider Blockbuster Calculator Calendar Man Catman Cavalier Clock King Cluemaster Copperhead Cornelius Stirk Crazy Quilt Crime Doctor Deacon Blackfire Doctor Death Doctor Double X Doctor Phosphorus Dollmaker Electrocutioner Enigma Firebug Flamingo Gearhead Great White Shark Humpty Dumpty Jane Doe Key KGBeast King Snake Kite Man Lex Luthor Maxie Zeus Magpie Mirror Man Mr. Bloom Music Meister Nightslayer Nocturna Orca Outsider Owlman Phantasm Phosphorus Rex Planet Master Polka-Dot Man Professor Milo Professor Pyg Rag Doll Ratcatcher Reaper Signalman Simon Hurt Snowman Solomon Grundy Spellbinder Swagman Tally Man Ten-Eyed Man The Batman Who Laughs Tiger Shark Tweedledum and Tweedledee Wrath Zebra-Man Supervillain groups Circus of Strange Court of Owls Kobra Leviathan LexCorp Mutants Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Terrible Trio Antagonists Central rogues gallery Bane Black Mask Catwoman Clayface Deadshot Deathstroke Firefly Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Hush Joker Killer Croc Killer Moth Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Ventriloquist Victor Zsasz Joker's gang Joker Harley Quinn Punchline Bud and Lou League of Assassins Ra's al Ghul Talia al Ghul Nyssa Raatko Sensei Lady Shiva David Cain Merlyn Mobsters Joe Chill Lew Moxon Falcone family Carmine Falcone Alberto Falcone Mario Falcone Sofia Falcone Sal Maroni Squid Rupert Thorne Tobias Whale Johnny Witts Tony Zucco Hamilton Hill Gillian B. Loeb Other enemies Amygdala Anarky Black Spider Blockbuster Calculator Calendar Man Catman Cavalier Clock King Cluemaster Copperhead Cornelius Stirk Crazy Quilt Crime Doctor Deacon Blackfire Doctor Death Doctor Double X Doctor Phosphorus Dollmaker Electrocutioner Enigma Firebug Flamingo Gearhead Great White Shark Humpty Dumpty Jane Doe Key KGBeast King Snake Kite Man Lex Luthor Maxie Zeus Magpie Mirror Man Mr. Bloom Music Meister Nightslayer Nocturna Orca Outsider Owlman Phantasm Phosphorus Rex Planet Master Polka-Dot Man Professor Milo Professor Pyg Rag Doll Ratcatcher Reaper Signalman Simon Hurt Snowman Solomon Grundy Spellbinder Swagman Tally Man Ten-Eyed Man The Batman Who Laughs Tiger Shark Tweedledum and Tweedledee Wrath Zebra-Man Supervillain groups Circus of Strange Court of Owls Kobra Leviathan LexCorp Mutants Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Terrible Trio Central rogues gallery Bane Black Mask Catwoman Clayface Deadshot Deathstroke Firefly Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Hush Joker Killer Croc Killer Moth Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Ventriloquist Victor Zsasz Bane Black Mask Catwoman Clayface Deadshot Deathstroke Firefly Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Hush Joker Killer Croc Killer Moth Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Ventriloquist Victor Zsasz Joker's gang Joker Harley Quinn Punchline Bud and Lou Joker Harley Quinn Punchline Bud and Lou League of Assassins Ra's al Ghul Talia al Ghul Nyssa Raatko Sensei Lady Shiva David Cain Merlyn Ra's al Ghul Talia al Ghul Nyssa Raatko Sensei Lady Shiva David Cain Merlyn Mobsters Joe Chill Lew Moxon Falcone family Carmine Falcone Alberto Falcone Mario Falcone Sofia Falcone Sal Maroni Squid Rupert Thorne Tobias Whale Johnny Witts Tony Zucco Hamilton Hill Gillian B. Loeb Joe Chill Lew Moxon Falcone family Carmine Falcone Alberto Falcone Mario Falcone Sofia Falcone Carmine Falcone Alberto Falcone Mario Falcone Sofia Falcone Sal Maroni Squid Rupert Thorne Tobias Whale Johnny Witts Tony Zucco Hamilton Hill Gillian B. Loeb Other enemies Amygdala Anarky Black Spider Blockbuster Calculator Calendar Man Catman Cavalier Clock King Cluemaster Copperhead Cornelius Stirk Crazy Quilt Crime Doctor Deacon Blackfire Doctor Death Doctor Double X Doctor Phosphorus Dollmaker Electrocutioner Enigma Firebug Flamingo Gearhead Great White Shark Humpty Dumpty Jane Doe Key KGBeast King Snake Kite Man Lex Luthor Maxie Zeus Magpie Mirror Man Mr. Bloom Music Meister Nightslayer Nocturna Orca Outsider Owlman Phantasm Phosphorus Rex Planet Master Polka-Dot Man Professor Milo Professor Pyg Rag Doll Ratcatcher Reaper Signalman Simon Hurt Snowman Solomon Grundy Spellbinder Swagman Tally Man Ten-Eyed Man The Batman Who Laughs Tiger Shark Tweedledum and Tweedledee Wrath Zebra-Man Amygdala Anarky Black Spider Blockbuster Calculator Calendar Man Catman Cavalier Clock King Cluemaster Copperhead Cornelius Stirk Crazy Quilt Crime Doctor Deacon Blackfire Doctor Death Doctor Double X Doctor Phosphorus Dollmaker Electrocutioner Enigma Firebug Flamingo Gearhead Great White Shark Humpty Dumpty Jane Doe Key KGBeast King Snake Kite Man Lex Luthor Maxie Zeus Magpie Mirror Man Mr. Bloom Music Meister Nightslayer Nocturna Orca Outsider Owlman Phantasm Phosphorus Rex Planet Master Polka-Dot Man Professor Milo Professor Pyg Rag Doll Ratcatcher Reaper Signalman Simon Hurt Snowman Solomon Grundy Spellbinder Swagman Tally Man Ten-Eyed Man The Batman Who Laughs Tiger Shark Tweedledum and Tweedledee Wrath Zebra-Man Supervillain groups Circus of Strange Court of Owls Kobra Leviathan LexCorp Mutants Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Terrible Trio Circus of Strange Court of Owls Kobra Leviathan LexCorp Mutants Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Terrible Trio Alternative versions Batman Earth-Two Batman of Zur-En-Arrh Owlman The Batman Who Laughs Thomas Wayne ( Flashpoint version) Robin Earth-Two Carrie Kelley Helena Wayne Alternative versions Batman Earth-Two Batman of Zur-En-Arrh Owlman The Batman Who Laughs Thomas Wayne ( Flashpoint version) Robin Earth-Two Carrie Kelley Helena Wayne Batman Earth-Two Batman of Zur-En-Arrh Owlman The Batman Who Laughs Thomas Wayne ( Flashpoint version) Earth-Two Batman of Zur-En-Arrh Owlman The Batman Who Laughs Thomas Wayne ( Flashpoint version) Robin Earth-Two Carrie Kelley Helena Wayne Earth-Two Carrie Kelley Helena Wayne Other media 1966 Batman TV series Bookworm Egghead King Tut 1989–1997 film series Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman DC Animated Universe Renee Montoya Harley Quinn Bud and Lou Andrea Beaumont Batman (Terry McGinnis) The Dark Knight Trilogy Bruce Wayne Rachel Dawes Joker DC Extended Universe Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn Joker Gotham Bruce Wayne James Gordon Selina Kyle Fish Mooney Oswald Cobblepot Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Titans Dick Grayson Arrowverse Kate Kane Other media 1966 Batman TV series Bookworm Egghead King Tut 1989–1997 film series Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman DC Animated Universe Renee Montoya Harley Quinn Bud and Lou Andrea Beaumont Batman (Terry McGinnis) The Dark Knight Trilogy Bruce Wayne Rachel Dawes Joker DC Extended Universe Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn Joker Gotham Bruce Wayne James Gordon Selina Kyle Fish Mooney Oswald Cobblepot Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Titans Dick Grayson Arrowverse Kate Kane 1966 Batman TV series Bookworm Egghead King Tut Bookworm Egghead King Tut 1989–1997 film series Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman DC Animated Universe Renee Montoya Harley Quinn Bud and Lou Andrea Beaumont Batman (Terry McGinnis) Renee Montoya Harley Quinn Bud and Lou Andrea Beaumont Batman (Terry McGinnis) The Dark Knight Trilogy Bruce Wayne Rachel Dawes Joker Bruce Wayne Rachel Dawes Joker DC Extended Universe Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn Joker Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn Joker Gotham Bruce Wayne James Gordon Selina Kyle Fish Mooney Oswald Cobblepot Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Bruce Wayne James Gordon Selina Kyle Fish Mooney Oswald Cobblepot Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Titans Dick Grayson Dick Grayson Arrowverse Kate Kane Kate Kane Category Category v t e Batman publications and storylines v t e Current series Absolute Batman Batgirl Batman Batman/Superman: World's Finest Batman and Robin Birds of Prey Detective Comics ( #27 ) Catwoman Harley Quinn Nightwing Poison Ivy Absolute Batman Batgirl Batman Batman/Superman: World's Finest Batman and Robin Birds of Prey Detective Comics ( #27 ) Catwoman Harley Quinn Nightwing Poison Ivy Completed ongoing series Azrael Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Batman (comic strip) Batman '66 Batman '89 Batman and the Outsiders Batman: Arkham Unhinged Batman: The Brave and the Bold Batman: The Dark Knight Batman: Gotham Knights Batman: Legends of the Dark Knight Batman: Shadow of the Bat Batman: Streets of Gotham The Batman Adventures The Batman Chronicles Batman Beyond Batman Confidential Batman Family Batman Incorporated The Batman Strikes! Batman/Superman Batwing Batwoman The Brave and the Bold Gotham by Midnight Gotham Central Gotham City Sirens Gotham Girls Grayson The Huntress The Joker Man-Bat Mother Panic The Penguin Red Hood/Arsenal Red Hood and the Outlaws Red Robin Robin Robin: Son of Batman Superman/Batman Tim Drake: Robin We Are Robin World's Finest Comics Azrael Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Batman (comic strip) Batman '66 Batman '89 Batman and the Outsiders Batman: Arkham Unhinged Batman: The Brave and the Bold Batman: The Dark Knight Batman: Gotham Knights Batman: Legends of the Dark Knight Batman: Shadow of the Bat Batman: Streets of Gotham The Batman Adventures The Batman Chronicles Batman Beyond Batman Confidential Batman Family Batman Incorporated The Batman Strikes! Batman/Superman Batwing Batwoman The Brave and the Bold Gotham by Midnight Gotham Central Gotham City Sirens Gotham Girls Grayson The Huntress The Joker Man-Bat Mother Panic The Penguin Red Hood/Arsenal Red Hood and the Outlaws Red Robin Robin Robin: Son of Batman Superman/Batman Tim Drake: Robin We Are Robin World's Finest Comics Completed miniseries Anarky Batman: Anarky Batman & Dracula trilogy Batman: Arkham City Batman: Battle for the Cowl Batman Black and White Batman: Cacophony Batman: Creature of the Night Batman: The Cult Batman: Damned Batman: The Dark Prince Charming Batman: The Doom That Came to Gotham Batman: Earth One Batman: Gates of Gotham Batman: GCPD Batman: Gotham County Line Batman: Gotham Knights – Gilded City Batman: The Imposter Batman: The Knight Batman: Orpheus Rising Batman: The Return of Bruce Wayne Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Batman: Three Jokers Batman: Thrillkiller Batman: Turning Points The Batman Who Laughs Batman: Year 100 Bat-Mite Dark Knights of Steel First Wave Flashpoint Beyond Flashpoint: Deadman and the Flying Graysons Gotham Underground Harley Quinn and Poison Ivy Man-Bat Penguin: Pain and Prejudice Poison Ivy: Cycle of Life and Death Red Hood: The Lost Days Section 8 Superman & Batman: Generations Trinity The Untold Legend of the Batman Batman Eternal Batman Eternal Batman and Robin Eternal Dark Moon Rising Batman and the Monster Men Batman and the Mad Monk The Long Halloween Batman: The Long Halloween Batman: Dark Victory Catwoman: When in Rome Millerverse The Dark Knight Returns The Dark Knight Strikes Again The Dark Knight III: The Master Race Murphyverse Batman: White Knight Curse of the White Knight White Knight Presents: Red Hood Beyond the White Knight Year One Batgirl: Year One The Riddler: Year One Two-Face: Year One Robin: Year One Anarky Batman: Anarky Batman: Anarky Batman & Dracula trilogy Batman: Arkham City Batman: Battle for the Cowl Batman Black and White Batman: Cacophony Batman: Creature of the Night Batman: The Cult Batman: Damned Batman: The Dark Prince Charming Batman: The Doom That Came to Gotham Batman: Earth One Batman: Gates of Gotham Batman: GCPD Batman: Gotham County Line Batman: Gotham Knights – Gilded City Batman: The Imposter Batman: The Knight Batman: Orpheus Rising Batman: The Return of Bruce Wayne Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Batman: Three Jokers Batman: Thrillkiller Batman: Turning Points The Batman Who Laughs Batman: Year 100 Bat-Mite Dark Knights of Steel First Wave Flashpoint Beyond Flashpoint: Deadman and the Flying Graysons Gotham Underground Harley Quinn and Poison Ivy Man-Bat Penguin: Pain and Prejudice Poison Ivy: Cycle of Life and Death Red Hood: The Lost Days Section 8 Superman & Batman: Generations Trinity The Untold Legend of the Batman Batman Eternal Batman Eternal Batman and Robin Eternal Batman Eternal Batman and Robin Eternal Dark Moon Rising Batman and the Monster Men Batman and the Mad Monk Batman and the Monster Men Batman and the Mad Monk The Long Halloween Batman: The Long Halloween Batman: Dark Victory Catwoman: When in Rome Batman: The Long Halloween Batman: Dark Victory Catwoman: When in Rome Millerverse The Dark Knight Returns The Dark Knight Strikes Again The Dark Knight III: The Master Race The Dark Knight Returns The Dark Knight Strikes Again The Dark Knight III: The Master Race Murphyverse Batman: White Knight Curse of the White Knight White Knight Presents: Red Hood Beyond the White Knight Batman: White Knight Curse of the White Knight White Knight Presents: Red Hood Beyond the White Knight Year One Batgirl: Year One The Riddler: Year One Two-Face: Year One Robin: Year One Batgirl: Year One The Riddler: Year One Two-Face: Year One Robin: Year One One-shots Arkham Asylum: A Serious House on Serious Earth Castle of the Bat Dark Knight Dynasty Dark Night: A True Batman Story Death of Innocents Digital Justice Gotham Noir Holy Terror Batman/Houdini: The Devil's Workshop In Darkest Knight The Killing Joke KnightGallery Leatherwing The Man Who Laughs Nine Lives Noël Elseworld's Finest: Supergirl & Batgirl The Joker: Devil's Advocate Batman/Poison Ivy: Cast Shadows Son of the Demon The 12 Cent Adventure Two Faces War on Crime The Batman Adventures: Mad Love The Berlin Batman Gotham by Gaslight Joker Poison Ivy: Thorns Red Hood vs. Anarky Superman and Batman: World's Funnest Arkham Asylum: A Serious House on Serious Earth Castle of the Bat Dark Knight Dynasty Dark Night: A True Batman Story Death of Innocents Digital Justice Gotham Noir Holy Terror Batman/Houdini: The Devil's Workshop In Darkest Knight The Killing Joke KnightGallery Leatherwing The Man Who Laughs Nine Lives Noël Elseworld's Finest: Supergirl & Batgirl The Joker: Devil's Advocate Batman/Poison Ivy: Cast Shadows Son of the Demon The 12 Cent Adventure Two Faces War on Crime The Batman Adventures: Mad Love The Berlin Batman Gotham by Gaslight Joker Poison Ivy: Thorns Red Hood vs. Anarky Superman and Batman: World's Funnest Storylines 1930-40s " The Case of the Chemical Syndicate " "Robin the Boy Wonder" "The Murders of Clayface" "The Crimes of Two-Face" "The Man Who Led a Double Life" "The End of Two-Face" "The Riddler" 1950s " The Man Behind the Red Hood! " " The Joker's Millions " "The Rainbow Batman" "The Superman of Planet X" "... Meets Bat-Mite" 1960s "Robin Dies at Dawn" "Beware of -- Poison Ivy" "The Million Dollar Debut of Batgirl" "One Bullet Too Many" 1970s "Challenge of the Man-Bat" "Tales of the Demon" "The Joker's Five-Way Revenge" "There is No Hope in Crime Alley" "The Deadshot Ricochet" "The Laughing Fish" 1980s " Batman: Year One " " Year Two " " Batman: A Death in the Family " " Year Three " " The Man Who Falls " " Anarky in Gotham City " 1990s " Gothic " "The Eye of the Beholder" " The Return of the Joker " " Prey " " The Last Arkham " " Knightfall " " Contagion " " Legacy " " Cataclysm " " No Man's Land " 2000s " Joker: Last Laugh " " Bruce Wayne: Fugitive " " Hush " " Broken City " " War Games " " City of Crime " " Under the Hood " " War Crimes " " Face the Face " " Batman and Son " " The Resurrection of Ra's al Ghul " " Batman R.I.P. " " Whatever Happened to the Caped Crusader? " " Batwoman: Elegy " 2010s " Bruce Wayne: The Road Home " " The Black Mirror " " Night of the Owls " " Death of the Family " " Zero Year " " Endgame " " Robin War " " The Button " " Dark Nights: Metal " 2020s " The Joker War " " Dark Nights: Death Metal " " Fear State " " Shadows of the Bat " " Shadow War " " Gotham War " 1930-40s " The Case of the Chemical Syndicate " "Robin the Boy Wonder" "The Murders of Clayface" "The Crimes of Two-Face" "The Man Who Led a Double Life" "The End of Two-Face" "The Riddler" " The Case of the Chemical Syndicate " "Robin the Boy Wonder" "The Murders of Clayface" "The Crimes of Two-Face" "The Man Who Led a Double Life" "The End of Two-Face" "The Riddler" 1950s " The Man Behind the Red Hood! " " The Joker's Millions " "The Rainbow Batman" "The Superman of Planet X" "... Meets Bat-Mite" " The Man Behind the Red Hood! " " The Joker's Millions " "The Rainbow Batman" "The Superman of Planet X" "... Meets Bat-Mite" 1960s "Robin Dies at Dawn" "Beware of -- Poison Ivy" "The Million Dollar Debut of Batgirl" "One Bullet Too Many" "Robin Dies at Dawn" "Beware of -- Poison Ivy" "The Million Dollar Debut of Batgirl" "One Bullet Too Many" 1970s "Challenge of the Man-Bat" "Tales of the Demon" "The Joker's Five-Way Revenge" "There is No Hope in Crime Alley" "The Deadshot Ricochet" "The Laughing Fish" "Challenge of the Man-Bat" "Tales of the Demon" "The Joker's Five-Way Revenge" "There is No Hope in Crime Alley" "The Deadshot Ricochet" "The Laughing Fish" 1980s " Batman: Year One " " Year Two " " Batman: A Death in the Family " " Year Three " " The Man Who Falls " " Anarky in Gotham City " " Batman: Year One " " Year Two " " Batman: A Death in the Family " " Year Three " " The Man Who Falls " " Anarky in Gotham City " 1990s " Gothic " "The Eye of the Beholder" " The Return of the Joker " " Prey " " The Last Arkham " " Knightfall " " Contagion " " Legacy " " Cataclysm " " No Man's Land " " Gothic " "The Eye of the Beholder" " The Return of the Joker " " Prey " " The Last Arkham " " Knightfall " " Contagion " " Legacy " " Cataclysm " " No Man's Land " 2000s " Joker: Last Laugh " " Bruce Wayne: Fugitive " " Hush " " Broken City " " War Games " " City of Crime " " Under the Hood " " War Crimes " " Face the Face " " Batman and Son " " The Resurrection of Ra's al Ghul " " Batman R.I.P. " " Whatever Happened to the Caped Crusader? " " Batwoman: Elegy " " Joker: Last Laugh " " Bruce Wayne: Fugitive " " Hush " " Broken City " " War Games " " City of Crime " " Under the Hood " " War Crimes " " Face the Face " " Batman and Son " " The Resurrection of Ra's al Ghul " " Batman R.I.P. " " Whatever Happened to the Caped Crusader? " " Batwoman: Elegy " 2010s " Bruce Wayne: The Road Home " " The Black Mirror " " Night of the Owls " " Death of the Family " " Zero Year " " Endgame " " Robin War " " The Button " " Dark Nights: Metal " " Bruce Wayne: The Road Home " " The Black Mirror " " Night of the Owls " " Death of the Family " " Zero Year " " Endgame " " Robin War " " The Button " " Dark Nights: Metal " 2020s " The Joker War " " Dark Nights: Death Metal " " Fear State " " Shadows of the Bat " " Shadow War " " Gotham War " " The Joker War " " Dark Nights: Death Metal " " Fear State " " Shadows of the Bat " " Shadow War " " Gotham War " Intercompany crossovers Batman/Aliens Batman/Hellboy/Starman Batman/Judge Dredd: Judgment on Gotham Batman/Spawn: War Devil Batman/Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Batman/Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Adventures Batman/The Spirit Batman Versus Predator Batman vs. Bigby! A Wolf in Gotham Daredevil/Batman: Eye for an Eye Ghost/Batgirl: The Resurrection Machine Harley & Ivy Meet Betty & Veronica Spawn/Batman Superman and Batman versus Aliens and Predator Deadpool/Batman and Batman/Deadpool Batman/Aliens Batman/Hellboy/Starman Batman/Judge Dredd: Judgment on Gotham Batman/Spawn: War Devil Batman/Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Batman/Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Adventures Batman/The Spirit Batman Versus Predator Batman vs. Bigby! A Wolf in Gotham Daredevil/Batman: Eye for an Eye Ghost/Batgirl: The Resurrection Machine Harley & Ivy Meet Betty & Veronica Spawn/Batman Superman and Batman versus Aliens and Predator Deadpool/Batman and Batman/Deadpool Incomplete All Star Batman & Robin, the Boy Wonder Batman: The Widening Gyre All Star Batman & Robin, the Boy Wonder Batman: The Widening Gyre Related topics Batman: Child of Dreams Batman: Haunted Knight Batman Legends DC Comics – The Legend of Batman Elseworlds The Further Adventures of The Joker Batman: Child of Dreams Batman: Haunted Knight Batman Legends DC Comics – The Legend of Batman Elseworlds The Further Adventures of The Joker Category Publications are listed alphabetically by published titles. Storylines are listed in publication order. Compiled without respect for canon or "current" continuity. v t e Batman franchise media v t e Live-action television Batman (1966) Batman episodes Return to the Batcave: The Misadventures of Adam and Burt Gotham (franchise) Gotham episodes season 1 2 3 4 5 characters Pennyworth Arrowverse Batwoman episodes characters " Crisis on Infinite Earths " The Penguin The Penguin " After Hours " " Inside Man " " Bliss " " Cent'Anni " " Homecoming " " Gold Summit " " Top Hat " " A Great or Little Thing " Other Batman OnStar commercials Birds of Prey Gotham Knights Batman (1966) Batman episodes Return to the Batcave: The Misadventures of Adam and Burt Batman episodes episodes Return to the Batcave: The Misadventures of Adam and Burt Gotham (franchise) Gotham episodes season 1 2 3 4 5 characters Pennyworth Gotham episodes season 1 2 3 4 5 characters episodes season 1 2 3 4 5 season 1 2 3 4 5 characters Pennyworth Arrowverse Batwoman episodes characters " Crisis on Infinite Earths " Batwoman episodes characters episodes characters " Crisis on Infinite Earths " The Penguin The Penguin " After Hours " " Inside Man " " Bliss " " Cent'Anni " " Homecoming " " Gold Summit " " Top Hat " " A Great or Little Thing " The Penguin " After Hours " " Inside Man " " Bliss " " Cent'Anni " " Homecoming " " Gold Summit " " Top Hat " " A Great or Little Thing " " After Hours " " Inside Man " " Bliss " " Cent'Anni " " Homecoming " " Gold Summit " " Top Hat " " A Great or Little Thing " Other Batman OnStar commercials Birds of Prey Gotham Knights Batman OnStar commercials Birds of Prey Gotham Knights Live-action films Early films Batman (1943) Batman and Robin Batman (1966) 1989–1997 film series Batman (1989) Batman Returns ( special effects ) Batman Forever Batman & Robin The Dark Knight Trilogy Batman Begins The Dark Knight The Dark Knight Rises DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Batgirl (unreleased) The Batman Epic Crime Saga The Batman production Early films Batman (1943) Batman and Robin Batman (1966) Batman (1943) Batman and Robin Batman (1966) 1989–1997 film series Batman (1989) Batman Returns ( special effects ) Batman Forever Batman & Robin Batman (1989) Batman Returns ( special effects ) Batman Forever Batman & Robin The Dark Knight Trilogy Batman Begins The Dark Knight The Dark Knight Rises Batman Begins The Dark Knight The Dark Knight Rises DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Batgirl (unreleased) Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Batgirl (unreleased) The Batman Epic Crime Saga The Batman production The Batman production production Animated television The Batman/Superman Hour The Adventures of Batman The New Adventures of Batman The Batman/Tarzan Adventure Hour The Animated Series episodes The New Batman Adventures Batman Beyond characters episodes The Batman characters episodes The Brave and the Bold episodes Beware the Batman Batwheels Caped Crusader Bat-Fam The Batman/Superman Hour The Adventures of Batman The New Adventures of Batman The Batman/Tarzan Adventure Hour The Animated Series episodes episodes The New Batman Adventures Batman Beyond characters episodes characters episodes The Batman characters episodes characters episodes The Brave and the Bold episodes episodes Beware the Batman Batwheels Caped Crusader Bat-Fam Animated films Mask of the Phantasm SubZero Return of the Joker Mystery of the Batwoman The Batman vs. Dracula Gotham Knight Public Enemies Under the Red Hood Apocalypse Year One The Dark Knight Returns DC Super Heroes Unite Son of Batman Assault on Arkham Animal Instincts Batman vs. Robin Monster Mayhem Bad Blood The Killing Joke Mechs vs. Mutants Return of the Caped Crusaders The Lego Batman Movie Batman and Harley Quinn Batman vs. Two-Face Scooby-Doo! & Batman: The Brave and the Bold Gotham by Gaslight Batman Ninja Batman vs. Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Hush Family Matters Soul of the Dragon The Long Halloween Battle of the Super Sons The Doom That Came to Gotham Merry Little Batman Batman Ninja vs. Yakuza League Aztec Batman: Clash of Empires Mask of the Phantasm SubZero Return of the Joker Mystery of the Batwoman The Batman vs. Dracula Gotham Knight Public Enemies Under the Red Hood Apocalypse Year One The Dark Knight Returns DC Super Heroes Unite Son of Batman Assault on Arkham Animal Instincts Batman vs. Robin Monster Mayhem Bad Blood The Killing Joke Mechs vs. Mutants Return of the Caped Crusaders The Lego Batman Movie Batman and Harley Quinn Batman vs. Two-Face Scooby-Doo! & Batman: The Brave and the Bold Gotham by Gaslight Batman Ninja Batman vs. Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Hush Family Matters Soul of the Dragon The Long Halloween Battle of the Super Sons The Doom That Came to Gotham Merry Little Batman Batman Ninja vs. Yakuza League Aztec Batman: Clash of Empires Animated shorts Chase Me Strange Days Death in the Family Chase Me Strange Days Death in the Family Novels The Ultimate Evil Enemies & Allies Wayne of Gotham Batman: Resurrection Batman: Revolution The Ultimate Evil Enemies & Allies Wayne of Gotham Batman: Resurrection Batman: Revolution Podcasts Batman: The Audio Adventures Batman Unburied DC High Volume: Batman Batman: The Audio Adventures Batman Unburied DC High Volume: Batman Enemies in other media Bane Joker Mr. Freeze Penguin Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Bane Joker Mr. Freeze Penguin Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Supporting characters in other media Barbara Gordon Catwoman Robin Barbara Gordon Catwoman Robin Related topics Batman & Bill Bruce Wayne (unproduced series) Batkid Begins Batman action figures Lego Batman Batman Total Justice Batman Unlimited Bat phone Bat-Manga!: The Secret History of Batman in Japan List of Batman films cast members List of Batman television series cast members List of Batman video games List of Batman children's books Batman music Batman Live Holy Musical B@man! Batman '89 (comic book) The Riddler: Year One Batman & Bill Bruce Wayne (unproduced series) Batkid Begins Batman action figures Lego Batman Batman Total Justice Batman Unlimited Lego Batman Batman Total Justice Batman Unlimited Bat phone Bat-Manga!: The Secret History of Batman in Japan List of Batman films cast members List of Batman television series cast members List of Batman video games List of Batman children's books Batman music Batman Live Holy Musical B@man! Batman '89 (comic book) The Riddler: Year One v t e Batman music v t e Soundtracks Films Batman score soundtrack Batman Returns Batman Forever soundtrack score Batman & Robin Batman Begins The Dark Knight The Dark Knight Rises Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice The Lego Batman Movie Joker The Batman Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack Video games Batman: Arkham City Batman: Arkham Origins Batman: Arkham Knight Films Batman score soundtrack Batman Returns Batman Forever soundtrack score Batman & Robin Batman Begins The Dark Knight The Dark Knight Rises Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice The Lego Batman Movie Joker The Batman Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack Batman score soundtrack score soundtrack Batman Returns Batman Forever soundtrack score soundtrack score Batman & Robin Batman Begins The Dark Knight The Dark Knight Rises Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice The Lego Batman Movie Joker The Batman Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack score soundtrack Video games Batman: Arkham City Batman: Arkham Origins Batman: Arkham Knight Batman: Arkham City Batman: Arkham Origins Batman: Arkham Knight Songs Batman (1960s TV series) " Batman Theme " " Batusi " Batman (1989 film) " Batdance " " Partyman " " The Arms of Orion " " Scandalous! " " The Future " Batman Returns " Face to Face " Batman Forever " Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me " " Kiss from a Rose " " The Riddler " Batman & Robin " The End Is the Beginning Is the End " " Look into My Eyes " " Gotham City " " Foolish Games " " Moaner " " Lazy Eye " Batman (1960s TV series) " Batman Theme " " Batusi " " Batman Theme " " Batusi " Batman (1989 film) " Batdance " " Partyman " " The Arms of Orion " " Scandalous! " " The Future " " Batdance " " Partyman " " The Arms of Orion " " Scandalous! " " The Future " Batman Returns " Face to Face " " Face to Face " Batman Forever " Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me " " Kiss from a Rose " " The Riddler " " Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me " " Kiss from a Rose " " The Riddler " Batman & Robin " The End Is the Beginning Is the End " " Look into My Eyes " " Gotham City " " Foolish Games " " Moaner " " Lazy Eye " " The End Is the Beginning Is the End " " Look into My Eyes " " Gotham City " " Foolish Games " " Moaner " " Lazy Eye " v t e Batman video games v t e Lego series Lego Batman: The Videogame Lego Batman 2: DC Super Heroes Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham Lego Batman: Legacy of the Dark Knight Lego Batman: The Videogame Lego Batman 2: DC Super Heroes Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham Lego Batman: Legacy of the Dark Knight Arkham series Arkham Asylum Arkham City Lockdown Arkham Origins Mobile Blackgate Arkham Knight Arkham VR Suicide Squad: Kill the Justice League Arkham Shadow Arkham Asylum Arkham City Lockdown Lockdown Arkham Origins Mobile Blackgate Mobile Blackgate Arkham Knight Arkham VR Suicide Squad: Kill the Justice League Arkham Shadow Telltale series The Telltale Series The Enemy Within The Telltale Series The Enemy Within Film -based Batman (Ocean, 1989) Batman: The Video Game (NES, 1989) Batman: The Video Game (Game Boy, 1990) Batman (Mega Drive/Genesis, 1990) Batman (PC Engine, 1990) Batman (arcade, 1991) Batman Returns (Sega systems, 1992) Batman Returns (Atari Lynx, 1992) Batman Returns (NES, 1993) Batman Returns (SNES, 1993) Batman Forever Batman Forever: The Arcade Game Batman & Robin Batman Begins The Dark Knight (canceled) Batman (Ocean, 1989) Batman: The Video Game (NES, 1989) Batman: The Video Game (Game Boy, 1990) Batman (Mega Drive/Genesis, 1990) Batman (PC Engine, 1990) Batman (arcade, 1991) Batman Returns (Sega systems, 1992) Batman Returns (Atari Lynx, 1992) Batman Returns (NES, 1993) Batman Returns (SNES, 1993) Batman Forever Batman Forever: The Arcade Game Batman & Robin Batman Begins The Dark Knight (canceled) Animation-based The Animated Series The Adventures of Batman & Robin Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker Chaos in Gotham Gotham City Racer Vengeance Rise of Sin Tzu The Brave and the Bold – The Videogame The Animated Series The Adventures of Batman & Robin Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker Chaos in Gotham Gotham City Racer Vengeance Rise of Sin Tzu The Brave and the Bold – The Videogame Other games Batman (1986) The Caped Crusader Return of the Joker Dark Tomorrow DC Universe Online Gotham City Impostors Batman (2013) Gotham Knights MultiVersus Batman (1986) The Caped Crusader Return of the Joker Dark Tomorrow DC Universe Online Gotham City Impostors Batman (2013) Gotham Knights MultiVersus Category Category v t e Batman in amusement parks v t e Of Batman Batman Adventure – The Ride Batman: The Dark Knight Batman The Escape Batman: Knight Flight Batman: The Ride Batman: The Ride (S&S Free Spin) Batman & Robin: The Chiller The Dark Knight Coaster Batman Adventure – The Ride Batman: The Dark Knight Batman The Escape Batman: Knight Flight Batman: The Ride Batman: The Ride (S&S Free Spin) Batman & Robin: The Chiller The Dark Knight Coaster Of derivative characters Harley Quinn Crazy Train The Joker (S&S Worldwide) The Joker (Six Flags Discovery Kingdom) The Joker (Six Flags México) The Joker Funhouse Coaster The Joker's Jinx The Riddler Mindbender Mr Freeze: Reverse Blast The Penguin The Riddler Revenge (Six Flags New England) The Riddler's Revenge Harley Quinn Crazy Train The Joker (S&S Worldwide) The Joker (Six Flags Discovery Kingdom) The Joker (Six Flags México) The Joker Funhouse Coaster The Joker's Jinx The Riddler Mindbender Mr Freeze: Reverse Blast The Penguin The Riddler Revenge (Six Flags New England) The Riddler's Revenge Of derivative elements Arkham Asylum – Shock Therapy Batwing Spaceshot Batwing Gotham City Gotham City Gauntlet: Escape from Arkham Asylum Shadows of Arkham Arkham Asylum – Shock Therapy Batwing Spaceshot Batwing Gotham City Gotham City Gauntlet: Escape from Arkham Asylum Shadows of Arkham v t e Batman in film v t e Serials Batman (1943 serial) Batman and Robin (1949 serial) Batman (1943 serial) Batman and Robin (1949 serial) Adam West films Batman (1966) Return of the Caped Crusaders (2016) Batman vs. Two-Face (2017) Batman (1966) Return of the Caped Crusaders (2016) Batman vs. Two-Face (2017) 1989–1997 series Films Batman (1989) score soundtrack home computer game NES game Game Boy game Sega Genesis game PC Engine game arcade game Batman Returns (1992) soundtrack special effects Sega games Atari Lynx game NES game SNES game Batman Forever (1995) score soundtrack video game arcade game pinball game Batman & Robin (1997) soundtrack video game Characters Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman Films Batman (1989) score soundtrack home computer game NES game Game Boy game Sega Genesis game PC Engine game arcade game Batman Returns (1992) soundtrack special effects Sega games Atari Lynx game NES game SNES game Batman Forever (1995) score soundtrack video game arcade game pinball game Batman & Robin (1997) soundtrack video game Batman (1989) score soundtrack home computer game NES game Game Boy game Sega Genesis game PC Engine game arcade game score soundtrack home computer game NES game Game Boy game Sega Genesis game PC Engine game arcade game Batman Returns (1992) soundtrack special effects Sega games Atari Lynx game NES game SNES game soundtrack special effects Sega games Atari Lynx game NES game SNES game Batman Forever (1995) score soundtrack video game arcade game pinball game score soundtrack video game arcade game pinball game Batman & Robin (1997) soundtrack video game soundtrack video game Characters Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman The Dark Knight trilogy Films Batman Begins (2005) soundtrack video game The Dark Knight (2008) soundtrack canceled video game The Dark Knight Rises (2012) soundtrack Characters Bruce Wayne Joker Rachel Dawes Films Batman Begins (2005) soundtrack video game The Dark Knight (2008) soundtrack canceled video game The Dark Knight Rises (2012) soundtrack Batman Begins (2005) soundtrack video game soundtrack video game The Dark Knight (2008) soundtrack canceled video game soundtrack canceled video game The Dark Knight Rises (2012) soundtrack soundtrack Characters Bruce Wayne Joker Rachel Dawes Bruce Wayne Joker Rachel Dawes DC Extended Universe Films Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016) soundtrack Suicide Squad (2016) soundtrack Justice League (2017) soundtrack Zack Snyder's Justice League (2021) soundtrack The Flash (2023) soundtrack Batgirl (unreleased) Characters Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn Films Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016) soundtrack Suicide Squad (2016) soundtrack Justice League (2017) soundtrack Zack Snyder's Justice League (2021) soundtrack The Flash (2023) soundtrack Batgirl (unreleased) Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016) soundtrack soundtrack Suicide Squad (2016) soundtrack soundtrack Justice League (2017) soundtrack soundtrack Zack Snyder's Justice League (2021) soundtrack soundtrack The Flash (2023) soundtrack soundtrack Batgirl (unreleased) Characters Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn The Batman series The Batman (2022) production accolades soundtrack The Batman (2022) production accolades soundtrack production accolades soundtrack Theatrical animated films Mask of the Phantasm (1993) soundtrack The Killing Joke (2016) The Lego Batman Movie (2017) soundtrack Mask of the Phantasm (1993) soundtrack soundtrack The Killing Joke (2016) The Lego Batman Movie (2017) soundtrack soundtrack Spin-off films Catwoman (2004) video game Joker (2019) accolades soundtrack Birds of Prey (2020) soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux (2024) score soundtrack Catwoman (2004) video game video game Joker (2019) accolades soundtrack accolades soundtrack Birds of Prey (2020) soundtrack soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux (2024) score soundtrack score soundtrack Unofficial and fan films Features Batman Dracula Alyas Batman at Robin James Batman Batman Fights Dracula Fight Batman Fight! Alyas Batman en Robin Batman XXX Shorts Dead End Grayson World's Finest City of Scars Dying Is Easy Batman Beyond: Year One Jokers Wild Features Batman Dracula Alyas Batman at Robin James Batman Batman Fights Dracula Fight Batman Fight! Alyas Batman en Robin Batman XXX Batman Dracula Alyas Batman at Robin James Batman Batman Fights Dracula Fight Batman Fight! Alyas Batman en Robin Batman XXX Shorts Dead End Grayson World's Finest City of Scars Dying Is Easy Batman Beyond: Year One Jokers Wild Dead End Grayson World's Finest City of Scars Dying Is Easy Batman Beyond: Year One Jokers Wild See also Batman franchise List of Batman films cast members Batman OnStar commercials Batman franchise List of Batman films cast members Batman OnStar commercials v t e Batman and Superman v t e Comic books Ongoing series World's Finest Comics Superman/Batman Limited series Superman & Batman: Generations Superman and Batman: World's Funnest Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Superman and Batman versus Aliens and Predator Ongoing series World's Finest Comics Superman/Batman World's Finest Comics Superman/Batman Limited series Superman & Batman: Generations Superman and Batman: World's Funnest Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Superman and Batman versus Aliens and Predator Superman & Batman: Generations Superman and Batman: World's Funnest Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Superman and Batman versus Aliens and Predator Television The Batman/Superman Hour The Superman/Batman Adventures DC Animated Universe The New Batman/Superman Adventures The Batman/Superman Hour The Superman/Batman Adventures DC Animated Universe The New Batman/Superman Adventures The New Batman/Superman Adventures Books Enemies & Allies Enemies & Allies Film Live action films Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice soundtrack Animated films Superman/Batman: Public Enemies Superman/Batman: Apocalypse Batman: The Dark Knight Returns Superman: Red Son Injustice Batman and Superman: Battle of the Super Sons Justice League: Warworld Live action films Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice soundtrack Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice soundtrack soundtrack Animated films Superman/Batman: Public Enemies Superman/Batman: Apocalypse Batman: The Dark Knight Returns Superman: Red Son Injustice Batman and Superman: Battle of the Super Sons Justice League: Warworld Superman/Batman: Public Enemies Superman/Batman: Apocalypse Batman: The Dark Knight Returns Superman: Red Son Injustice Batman and Superman: Battle of the Super Sons Justice League: Warworld Fan works How It Should Have Ended How It Should Have Ended Related Composite Superman Toyman World's Finest Team Composite Superman Toyman World's Finest Team Categories: Batman Superman Categories: Batman Superman v t e Justice League International v t e Keith Giffen J. M. DeMatteis Keith Giffen J. M. DeMatteis Initial members Pre-Flashpoint Batman Black Canary Blue Beetle/Ted Kord Booster Gold Captain Marvel Doctor Fate Kent Nelson Linda Strauss Doctor Light/Kimiyo Hoshi Green Lantern/Guy Gardner Martian Manhunter Mister Miracle The New 52 August General in Iron Booster Gold Fire Godiva Green Lantern/Guy Gardner Ice Rocket Red/Gavril Ivanovich Vixen Pre-Flashpoint Batman Black Canary Blue Beetle/Ted Kord Booster Gold Captain Marvel Doctor Fate Kent Nelson Linda Strauss Doctor Light/Kimiyo Hoshi Green Lantern/Guy Gardner Martian Manhunter Mister Miracle Batman Black Canary Blue Beetle/Ted Kord Booster Gold Captain Marvel Doctor Fate Kent Nelson Linda Strauss Kent Nelson Linda Strauss Doctor Light/Kimiyo Hoshi Green Lantern/Guy Gardner Martian Manhunter Mister Miracle The New 52 August General in Iron Booster Gold Fire Godiva Green Lantern/Guy Gardner Ice Rocket Red/Gavril Ivanovich Vixen August General in Iron Booster Gold Fire Godiva Green Lantern/Guy Gardner Ice Rocket Red/Gavril Ivanovich Vixen Supporting characters L-Ron Catherine Cobert Maxwell Lord Oberon Superman L-Ron Catherine Cobert Maxwell Lord Oberon Superman Enemies Antagonists Anti-Monitor Black Hand Darkseid Despero Doomsday Kite Man Lobo Magog Major Disaster Manga Khan Maxwell Lord Neron Queen Bee Signal Men Sinestro Starbreaker Weapons Master Weather Wizard Wizard Organizations Cadre Extremists Injustice League Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Antagonists Anti-Monitor Black Hand Darkseid Despero Doomsday Kite Man Lobo Magog Major Disaster Manga Khan Maxwell Lord Neron Queen Bee Signal Men Sinestro Starbreaker Weapons Master Weather Wizard Wizard Anti-Monitor Black Hand Darkseid Despero Doomsday Kite Man Lobo Magog Major Disaster Manga Khan Maxwell Lord Neron Queen Bee Signal Men Sinestro Starbreaker Weapons Master Weather Wizard Wizard Organizations Cadre Extremists Injustice League Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Cadre Extremists Injustice League Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Publications and storylines Legends Formerly Known as the Justice League Justice League: Generation Lost Legends Formerly Known as the Justice League Justice League: Generation Lost Spinoff teams Extreme Justice Justice League America Justice League Europe Justice League Task Force Extreme Justice Justice League America Justice League Europe Justice League Task Force v t e Catwoman v t e Bob Kane Bill Finger Bob Kane Bill Finger Incarnations Selina Kyle Holly Robinson Eiko Hasigawa Selina Kyle Holly Robinson Eiko Hasigawa Supporting characters Batgirl Batman Slam Bradley Gotham City Sirens Dick Grayson Huntress Justice League Outsiders Alfred Pennyworth Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Madame Zodiac Leslie Thompkins Wildcat Batgirl Batman Slam Bradley Gotham City Sirens Dick Grayson Huntress Justice League Outsiders Alfred Pennyworth Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Madame Zodiac Leslie Thompkins Wildcat Antagonists Angle Man Bane Black Mask Clayface Film Freak Hush Joker Penguin Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Riddler Scarecrow Snowflame Hugo Strange Two-Face Zeiss Angle Man Bane Black Mask Clayface Film Freak Hush Joker Penguin Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Riddler Scarecrow Snowflame Hugo Strange Two-Face Zeiss Publications Catwoman Catwoman: When in Rome Gotham City Sirens Nine Lives Catwoman Catwoman: When in Rome Gotham City Sirens Nine Lives In other media Catwoman (film) Chase Me DC Showcase: Catwoman Catwoman (video game) Selina Kyle ( Gotham character) "Selina Kyle" ( Gotham episode) Selina Kyle ( Batman Returns ) " The Cat and the Fiddle " " The Cat and the Claw " Catwoman: Soulstealer Catwoman: Hunted Catwoman (film) Chase Me DC Showcase: Catwoman Catwoman (video game) Selina Kyle ( Gotham character) "Selina Kyle" ( Gotham episode) Selina Kyle ( Batman Returns ) " The Cat and the Fiddle " " The Cat and the Claw " Catwoman: Soulstealer Catwoman: Hunted Category Category v t e Batgirl v t e Bill Finger Sheldon Moldoff Gardner Fox Carmine Infantino Bill Finger Sheldon Moldoff Gardner Fox Carmine Infantino Incarnations Bette Kane Barbara Gordon Helena Bertinelli Cassandra Cain Stephanie Brown Bette Kane Barbara Gordon Helena Bertinelli Cassandra Cain Stephanie Brown Supporting characters Batman Birds of Prey Black Canary Catwoman James Gordon Dick Grayson Lucius Fox Justice League Misfit Alfred Pennyworth Proxy Harley Quinn Robin Supergirl Leslie Thompkins Alysia Yeoh Batman Birds of Prey Black Canary Catwoman James Gordon Dick Grayson Lucius Fox Justice League Misfit Alfred Pennyworth Proxy Harley Quinn Robin Supergirl Leslie Thompkins Alysia Yeoh Antagonists Black Mask Brutale Calculator David Cain Doctor Death Joker Joker's Daughter Killer Moth Knightfall Lady Shiva Livewire Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Madame Zodiac Riddler Ravager Scarecrow Trigger Twins Black Mask Brutale Calculator David Cain Doctor Death Joker Joker's Daughter Killer Moth Knightfall Lady Shiva Livewire Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Madame Zodiac Riddler Ravager Scarecrow Trigger Twins Related identities Flamebird Oracle Huntress Flamebird Oracle Huntress Publications Batgirl Batgirl: Year One Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Elseworld's Finest: Supergirl & Batgirl Ghost/Batgirl: The Resurrection Machine Batgirl Batgirl: Year One Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Elseworld's Finest: Supergirl & Batgirl Ghost/Batgirl: The Resurrection Machine Related articles " Enter Batgirl, Exit Penguin " Barbara Gordon in other media Big Game Batgirl (unreleased) Batwoman " Enter Batgirl, Exit Penguin " Barbara Gordon in other media Big Game Batgirl (unreleased) Batwoman Category Category v t e Robin v t e Bill Finger Jerry Robinson Bob Kane Bill Finger Jerry Robinson Bob Kane Robins Dick Grayson Jason Todd Tim Drake Stephanie Brown Damian Wayne Dick Grayson Jason Todd Tim Drake Stephanie Brown Damian Wayne Supporting characters Batgirl Barbara Gordon Batman Catwoman Jack Drake Flying Graysons Lucius Fox Tamara Fox James Gordon Justice League Alfred Pennyworth Nightstar Nocturna Outsiders Starfire Talia al Ghul Teen Titans Leslie Thompkins Warlock's Daughter Batgirl Barbara Gordon Barbara Gordon Batman Catwoman Jack Drake Flying Graysons Lucius Fox Tamara Fox James Gordon Justice League Alfred Pennyworth Nightstar Nocturna Outsiders Starfire Talia al Ghul Teen Titans Leslie Thompkins Warlock's Daughter Antagonists Anarky Bane Blockbuster Brutale Clock King Cluemaster Deathstroke Firefly The General Joker Joker's Daughter Killer Croc Killer Moth King Snake Lady Shiva Lady Vic Lynx Mad Hatter Mr. Freeze Nite-Wing Penguin Prankster Harley Quinn Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Shrike Tarantula Torque Trigger Twins Two-Face Tony Zucco Anarky Bane Blockbuster Brutale Clock King Cluemaster Deathstroke Firefly The General Joker Joker's Daughter Killer Croc Killer Moth King Snake Lady Shiva Lady Vic Lynx Mad Hatter Mr. Freeze Nite-Wing Penguin Prankster Harley Quinn Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Shrike Tarantula Torque Trigger Twins Two-Face Tony Zucco Related identities Nightwing Red Robin Red Hood Squire Red X Nightwing Red Robin Red Hood Squire Red X In other media Batman and Robin (serial) " Robin's Reckoning " Dick Grayson (film character) Batman & Robin (film) soundtrack video game Son of Batman Batman vs. Robin Batman and Robin (serial) " Robin's Reckoning " Dick Grayson (film character) Batman & Robin (film) soundtrack video game soundtrack video game Son of Batman Batman vs. Robin Publications Robin: Year One Robin War All Star Batman & Robin, the Boy Wonder Batman and Robin We Are... Robin Red Robin Batman and Robin Eternal Batman and Son Robin: Year One Robin War All Star Batman & Robin, the Boy Wonder Batman and Robin We Are... Robin Red Robin Batman and Robin Eternal Batman and Son Alternative versions Carrie Kelley Earth-Two Helena Wayne Carrie Kelley Earth-Two Helena Wayne Related Robin Hood Redbird Alyas Batman en Robin Alyas Batman at Robin Batman & Robin: The Chiller Batman and Robin Have an Altercation "Holy..." Batman and Robin (disambiguation) Robin Hood Redbird Alyas Batman en Robin Alyas Batman at Robin Batman & Robin: The Chiller Batman and Robin Have an Altercation "Holy..." Batman and Robin (disambiguation) Category Category v t e The Joker v t e Bill Finger Bob Kane Jerry Robinson Bill Finger Bob Kane Jerry Robinson Supporting characters Bane Cheetah Clayface Deadshot Deathstroke Duela Dent Firefly Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Hush Killer Croc Legion of Doom Lex Luthor Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Punchline Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Victor Zsasz Bane Cheetah Clayface Deadshot Deathstroke Duela Dent Firefly Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Hush Killer Croc Legion of Doom Lex Luthor Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Punchline Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Victor Zsasz Antagonists Batgirl Barbara Gordon Batman Batwoman Kate Kane Catwoman Commissioner Gordon Gotham City Police Department Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Huntress Helena Bertinelli) Justice League Nightwing Dick Grayson Penguin Red Hood Jason Todd Red Robin Tim Drake Riddler Robin Damian Wayne Superman The Batman Who Laughs Two-Face Batgirl Barbara Gordon Barbara Gordon Batman Batwoman Kate Kane Kate Kane Catwoman Commissioner Gordon Gotham City Police Department Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Huntress Helena Bertinelli) Helena Bertinelli) Justice League Nightwing Dick Grayson Dick Grayson Penguin Red Hood Jason Todd Jason Todd Red Robin Tim Drake Tim Drake Riddler Robin Damian Wayne Damian Wayne Superman The Batman Who Laughs Two-Face Publications and stories The Joker " The Joker's Double Jeopardy " Batman: The Killing Joke Devil's Advocate Batman: The Man Who Laughs The Further Adventures of The Joker Joker (graphic novel) " The Joker's Millions " Last Laugh " The Man Behind the Red Hood! " " The Return of the Joker " Batman: Three Jokers Joker War The Joker " The Joker's Double Jeopardy " " The Joker's Double Jeopardy " Batman: The Killing Joke Devil's Advocate Batman: The Man Who Laughs The Further Adventures of The Joker Joker (graphic novel) " The Joker's Millions " Last Laugh " The Man Behind the Red Hood! " " The Return of the Joker " Batman: Three Jokers Joker War Alternative versions Red Hood The Batman Who Laughs Red Hood The Batman Who Laughs In other media Incarnations Jack Napier Joker (DC Animated Universe) Joker ( The Dark Knight ) Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Joker (DC Extended Universe) Arthur Fleck Other media Joker accolades soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker video game Batman: The Killing Joke " The Joker's Hard Times " " The Joker Is Wild " " The Joker Goes to School " Batman: Return of the Joker " Joker's Favor " " Christmas with the Joker " Mortal Kombat 11 Harley Quinn and The Joker: Sound Mind Jokers Wild Incarnations Jack Napier Joker (DC Animated Universe) Joker ( The Dark Knight ) Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Joker (DC Extended Universe) Arthur Fleck Jack Napier Joker (DC Animated Universe) Joker ( The Dark Knight ) Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Joker (DC Extended Universe) Arthur Fleck Other media Joker accolades soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker video game Batman: The Killing Joke " The Joker's Hard Times " " The Joker Is Wild " " The Joker Goes to School " Batman: Return of the Joker " Joker's Favor " " Christmas with the Joker " Mortal Kombat 11 Harley Quinn and The Joker: Sound Mind Jokers Wild Joker accolades soundtrack accolades soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack score soundtrack Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker video game video game Batman: The Killing Joke " The Joker's Hard Times " " The Joker Is Wild " " The Joker Goes to School " Batman: Return of the Joker " Joker's Favor " " Christmas with the Joker " Mortal Kombat 11 Harley Quinn and The Joker: Sound Mind Jokers Wild Rides The Joker's Jinx The Joker (S&S Worldwide) The Joker (Six Flags Discovery Kingdom) The Joker Funhouse Coaster The Joker (Six Flags México) The Joker's Jinx The Joker (S&S Worldwide) The Joker (Six Flags Discovery Kingdom) The Joker Funhouse Coaster The Joker (Six Flags México) Related Ace Chemicals Arkham Asylum Barack Obama "Joker" poster Blackgate Penitentiary Georgia Joker Jokermobile Joker Stairs Jokerz The People's Joker Ace Chemicals Arkham Asylum Barack Obama "Joker" poster Blackgate Penitentiary Georgia Joker Jokermobile Joker Stairs Jokerz The People's Joker Category Category v t e Harley Quinn v t e Paul Dini Bruce Timm Karl Kesel Terry Dodson Amanda Conner Jimmy Palmiotti Paul Dini Bruce Timm Karl Kesel Terry Dodson Amanda Conner Jimmy Palmiotti Supporting characters Bruce Wayne / Batman Barbara Gordon / Batgirl Birds of Prey Bud and Lou Selina Kyle/Catwoman Joker Justice League Dick Grayson/Nightwing Pamela Isley/Poison Ivy Karen Starr/Power Girl Robin Cyrus Gold/Solomon Grundy Bruce Wayne / Batman Barbara Gordon / Batgirl Birds of Prey Bud and Lou Selina Kyle/Catwoman Joker Justice League Dick Grayson/Nightwing Pamela Isley/Poison Ivy Karen Starr/Power Girl Robin Cyrus Gold/Solomon Grundy Teams Gotham City Sirens Justice League of Anarchy Secret Six The Society Suicide Squad Gotham City Sirens Justice League of Anarchy Secret Six The Society Suicide Squad Antagonists Amanda Waller Bruce Wayne / Batman Barbara Gordon / Batgirl Roman Sionis/Black Mask Jason Woodrue/Floronic Man Hugo Strange Joker Joker's Daughter/Duela Dent Mercy Graves Oswald Cobblepot/Penguin Alexis Kaye/Punchline Edward Nygma/Riddler Dick Grayson / Robin Jonathan Crane/Scarecrow Harvey Dent/Two-Face Amanda Waller Bruce Wayne / Batman Barbara Gordon / Batgirl Roman Sionis/Black Mask Jason Woodrue/Floronic Man Hugo Strange Joker Joker's Daughter/Duela Dent Mercy Graves Oswald Cobblepot/Penguin Alexis Kaye/Punchline Edward Nygma/Riddler Dick Grayson / Robin Jonathan Crane/Scarecrow Harvey Dent/Two-Face Publications The Batman Adventures: Mad Love Harley Quinn Batman: White Knight Presents: Harley Quinn Harley and Ivy Meet Betty and Veronica Harley Quinn and Poison Ivy The Batman Adventures: Mad Love Harley Quinn Batman: White Knight Presents: Harley Quinn Harley and Ivy Meet Betty and Veronica Harley Quinn and Poison Ivy In other media " Joker's Favor " Harley Quinn (TV series) episodes Batman and Harley Quinn Harley Quinn (DCEU character) Birds of Prey soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack Harley Quinn and The Joker: Sound Mind " Joker's Favor " Harley Quinn (TV series) episodes episodes Batman and Harley Quinn Harley Quinn (DCEU character) Birds of Prey soundtrack soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack score soundtrack Harley Quinn and The Joker: Sound Mind Related articles Harley Quinn Crazy Train Homosexuality in the Batman franchise Harlequin (album) Harley Quinn Crazy Train Homosexuality in the Batman franchise Harlequin (album) Category Category v t e The Outsiders v t e Mike W. Barr Jim Aparo Mike W. Barr Jim Aparo Members Founders Batman Black Lightning Geo-Force Halo Katana Metamorpho Others Arsenal Atomic Knight Batgirl Batwing Batwoman Captain Boomerang Captain Marvel Jr. Creeper Duke Thomas Eradicator Francine Langstrom Grace Choi Green Arrow Huntress (Helena Bertinelli) Indigo Jade Lady Shiva Looker Nightwing Olympian Owlman (Roy Raymond Jr.) Red Robin ReMAC Sebastian Faust Starfire Technocrat Thunder Founders Batman Black Lightning Geo-Force Halo Katana Metamorpho Batman Black Lightning Geo-Force Halo Katana Metamorpho Others Arsenal Atomic Knight Batgirl Batwing Batwoman Captain Boomerang Captain Marvel Jr. Creeper Duke Thomas Eradicator Francine Langstrom Grace Choi Green Arrow Huntress (Helena Bertinelli) Indigo Jade Lady Shiva Looker Nightwing Olympian Owlman (Roy Raymond Jr.) Red Robin ReMAC Sebastian Faust Starfire Technocrat Thunder Arsenal Atomic Knight Batgirl Batwing Batwoman Captain Boomerang Captain Marvel Jr. Creeper Duke Thomas Eradicator Francine Langstrom Grace Choi Green Arrow Huntress (Helena Bertinelli) Indigo Jade Lady Shiva Looker Nightwing Olympian Owlman (Roy Raymond Jr.) Red Robin ReMAC Sebastian Faust Starfire Technocrat Thunder Supporting characters Alfred Pennyworth Checkmate Helga Jace Roy Raymond Sapphire Stagg Simon Stagg Alfred Pennyworth Checkmate Helga Jace Roy Raymond Sapphire Stagg Simon Stagg Enemies Baron Bedlam Brother Blood Doctor Sivana Fearsome Five Doctor Light Gizmo Mammoth Psimon Shimmer Felix Faust Gorilla Grodd Joker Kobra Masters of Disaster Mr. Freeze Nuclear Family Sabbac Tobias Whale Baron Bedlam Brother Blood Doctor Sivana Fearsome Five Doctor Light Gizmo Mammoth Psimon Shimmer Doctor Light Gizmo Mammoth Psimon Shimmer Felix Faust Gorilla Grodd Joker Kobra Masters of Disaster Mr. Freeze Nuclear Family Sabbac Tobias Whale Locations Batcave Batcave Other media Batman: The Brave and the Bold Young Justice Batman: The Brave and the Bold Young Justice v t e Birds of Prey v t e Creators : Chuck Dixon Jordan B. Gorfinkel Gail Simone Creators : Chuck Dixon Jordan B. Gorfinkel Gail Simone Titles Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Main characters Barbara Gordon Black Canary Huntress (Helena Bertinelli) Barbara Gordon Black Canary Huntress (Helena Bertinelli) Notable members Big Barda Black Alice Cassandra Cain Gypsy Harley Quinn Hawk and Dove Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders) Jade Canary Judomaster (Sonia Sato) Katana Lady Blackhawk Manhunter (Kate Spencer) Misfit Poison Ivy Power Girl Vixen Zealot Big Barda Black Alice Cassandra Cain Gypsy Harley Quinn Hawk and Dove Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders) Jade Canary Judomaster (Sonia Sato) Katana Lady Blackhawk Manhunter (Kate Spencer) Misfit Poison Ivy Power Girl Vixen Zealot Supporting characters Batman Blue Beetle (Ted Kord) Booster Gold James Gordon Creote Catwoman Cyborg Green Arrow Kurt Lance Lois Lane Metamorpho Nightwing Richard Dragon Robin Savant Sin Superman Wildcat Batman Blue Beetle (Ted Kord) Booster Gold James Gordon Creote Catwoman Cyborg Green Arrow Kurt Lance Lois Lane Metamorpho Nightwing Richard Dragon Robin Savant Sin Superman Wildcat Antagonists Atomic Skull Bane Black Mask Blockbuster Brainiac Brutale Calculator Captain Nazi Catwoman Chemo Cheshire Clayface Copperhead Crime Doctor Deathstroke Electrocutioner Gorilla Grodd Harley Quinn Hector Hammond Hellgrammite H.I.V.E. Joker Killer Moth Kobra Lady Shiva Lady Spellbinder Lady Vic Lashina Mad Hatter Mammoth Penguin Poison Ivy Prometheus Psimon Secret Six Secret Society Shadow Thief Shrapnel Spy Smasher Talia al Ghul Victor Zsasz Atomic Skull Bane Black Mask Blockbuster Brainiac Brutale Calculator Captain Nazi Catwoman Chemo Cheshire Clayface Copperhead Crime Doctor Deathstroke Electrocutioner Gorilla Grodd Harley Quinn Hector Hammond Hellgrammite H.I.V.E. Joker Killer Moth Kobra Lady Shiva Lady Spellbinder Lady Vic Lashina Mad Hatter Mammoth Penguin Poison Ivy Prometheus Psimon Secret Six Secret Society Shadow Thief Shrapnel Spy Smasher Talia al Ghul Victor Zsasz In other media TV series Film soundtrack TV series Film soundtrack soundtrack Category Category v t e Superman characters v t e Superman family By codename Superman Superboy Supergirl Superwoman Nightwing Flamebird Steel Power Girl By public identity Clark Kent Conner Kent Jon Kent Sodam Yat Mon-El Kara Zor-El Matrix Linda Danvers Laurel Gand Lois Lane Lucy Lane Lana Lang Luma Lynai Donna Troy Kristin Wells Chris Kent/Lor-Zod Thara Ak-Var David Connor John Henry Irons Natasha Irons Kong Kenan Kara Zor-L Pets Krypto the Superdog Streaky the Supercat Beppo the Super-Monkey Comet the Super-Horse By codename Superman Superboy Supergirl Superwoman Nightwing Flamebird Steel Power Girl Superman Superboy Supergirl Superwoman Nightwing Flamebird Steel Power Girl By public identity Clark Kent Conner Kent Jon Kent Sodam Yat Mon-El Kara Zor-El Matrix Linda Danvers Laurel Gand Lois Lane Lucy Lane Lana Lang Luma Lynai Donna Troy Kristin Wells Chris Kent/Lor-Zod Thara Ak-Var David Connor John Henry Irons Natasha Irons Kong Kenan Kara Zor-L Clark Kent Conner Kent Jon Kent Sodam Yat Mon-El Kara Zor-El Matrix Linda Danvers Laurel Gand Lois Lane Lucy Lane Lana Lang Luma Lynai Donna Troy Kristin Wells Chris Kent/Lor-Zod Thara Ak-Var David Connor John Henry Irons Natasha Irons Kong Kenan Kara Zor-L Pets Krypto the Superdog Streaky the Supercat Beppo the Super-Monkey Comet the Super-Horse Krypto the Superdog Streaky the Supercat Beppo the Super-Monkey Comet the Super-Horse Supporting characters Lois Lane Jimmy Olsen Jor-El Lara Jonathan and Martha Kent Perry White Lana Lang Batman Lucy Lane Lori Lemaris Gangbuster Zor-El Alura Dubbilex Sam Lane Lyla Lerrol Pete Ross Professor Potter Lena Luthor Maxima Morgan Edge Dan Turpin Steve Lombard Cat Grant Professor Hamilton Maggie Sawyer Bibbo Bibbowski Ron Troupe Strange Visitor Rampage Vartox Atlas Manchester Black Alexander Luthor Jr. Lois Lane Jimmy Olsen Jor-El Lara Jonathan and Martha Kent Perry White Lana Lang Batman Lucy Lane Lori Lemaris Gangbuster Zor-El Alura Dubbilex Sam Lane Lyla Lerrol Pete Ross Professor Potter Lena Luthor Maxima Morgan Edge Dan Turpin Steve Lombard Cat Grant Professor Hamilton Maggie Sawyer Bibbo Bibbowski Ron Troupe Strange Visitor Rampage Vartox Atlas Manchester Black Alexander Luthor Jr. Associated characters Auron The Authority Apollo Enchantress Lightray Manchester Black Midnighter OMAC Steel Guardian Justice League Atom Aquaman Batman Black Canary Blue Beetle Cyborg Flash Green Arrow Green Lantern John Stewart Martian Manhunter Robin/Nightwing Orion Captain Marvel Wonder Woman Justice Society of America Legion of Substitute Heroes Legion of Super-Heroes Cosmic Boy Saturn Girl Lightning Lad Chameleon Boy Colossal Boy Invisible Kid Star Boy Phantom Girl Triplicate Girl Shrinking Violet Bouncing Boy Sun Boy Brainiac 5 Ultra Boy Element Lad Matter-Eater Lad Lightning Lass Dream Girl Timber Wolf Princess Projectra Ferro Lad Karate Kid White Witch Shadow Lass Chemical King Wildfire Tyroc Dawnstar Laurel Gand Legion of Super-Pets Legion of Super-Villains Lobo Maxima Newsboy Legion Project Cadmus Silent Knight Super-Chief Supermen of America World's Finest Team Auron The Authority Apollo Enchantress Lightray Manchester Black Midnighter OMAC Steel Apollo Enchantress Lightray Manchester Black Midnighter OMAC Steel Guardian Justice League Atom Aquaman Batman Black Canary Blue Beetle Cyborg Flash Green Arrow Green Lantern John Stewart Martian Manhunter Robin/Nightwing Orion Captain Marvel Wonder Woman Atom Aquaman Batman Black Canary Blue Beetle Cyborg Flash Green Arrow Green Lantern John Stewart Martian Manhunter Robin/Nightwing Orion Captain Marvel Wonder Woman Justice Society of America Legion of Substitute Heroes Legion of Super-Heroes Cosmic Boy Saturn Girl Lightning Lad Chameleon Boy Colossal Boy Invisible Kid Star Boy Phantom Girl Triplicate Girl Shrinking Violet Bouncing Boy Sun Boy Brainiac 5 Ultra Boy Element Lad Matter-Eater Lad Lightning Lass Dream Girl Timber Wolf Princess Projectra Ferro Lad Karate Kid White Witch Shadow Lass Chemical King Wildfire Tyroc Dawnstar Laurel Gand Cosmic Boy Saturn Girl Lightning Lad Chameleon Boy Colossal Boy Invisible Kid Star Boy Phantom Girl Triplicate Girl Shrinking Violet Bouncing Boy Sun Boy Brainiac 5 Ultra Boy Element Lad Matter-Eater Lad Lightning Lass Dream Girl Timber Wolf Princess Projectra Ferro Lad Karate Kid White Witch Shadow Lass Chemical King Wildfire Tyroc Dawnstar Laurel Gand Legion of Super-Pets Legion of Super-Villains Lobo Maxima Newsboy Legion Project Cadmus Silent Knight Super-Chief Supermen of America World's Finest Team Enemies Central rogues Atomic Skull Bizarro Bloodsport Brainiac Bruno Mannheim Cyborg Superman Hank Henshaw Darkseid Doomsday General Zod Lex Luthor Livewire Mercy Graves Metallo Mister Mxyzptlk Mongul Parasite Silver Banshee Toyman Ultra-Humanite Recurring adversaries Anti-Monitor Atlas Blaze and Satanus Brainiac 2 Chemo Composite Superman Conduit Dev-Em Equus Faora Funky Flashman Gog Hellgramite Imperiex Jax-Ur Joker Kobra Lord Satanis Magpie Mala Mammoth Manchester Black Morgan Edge Neutron Nick O'Teen Non Ol-Vir Prankster Quarmer Quex-Ul Rampage Riot Ruin Scorch Solaris Solomon Grundy Terra-Man Titano Ultraman Ursa Volcana Organizations Black Zero Fearsome Five Intergang Masters of Disaster Royal Flush Gang Secret Society of Super Villains Suicide Squad Superman Revenge Squad Central rogues Atomic Skull Bizarro Bloodsport Brainiac Bruno Mannheim Cyborg Superman Hank Henshaw Darkseid Doomsday General Zod Lex Luthor Livewire Mercy Graves Metallo Mister Mxyzptlk Mongul Parasite Silver Banshee Toyman Ultra-Humanite Atomic Skull Bizarro Bloodsport Brainiac Bruno Mannheim Cyborg Superman Hank Henshaw Hank Henshaw Darkseid Doomsday General Zod Lex Luthor Livewire Mercy Graves Metallo Mister Mxyzptlk Mongul Parasite Silver Banshee Toyman Ultra-Humanite Recurring adversaries Anti-Monitor Atlas Blaze and Satanus Brainiac 2 Chemo Composite Superman Conduit Dev-Em Equus Faora Funky Flashman Gog Hellgramite Imperiex Jax-Ur Joker Kobra Lord Satanis Magpie Mala Mammoth Manchester Black Morgan Edge Neutron Nick O'Teen Non Ol-Vir Prankster Quarmer Quex-Ul Rampage Riot Ruin Scorch Solaris Solomon Grundy Terra-Man Titano Ultraman Ursa Volcana Anti-Monitor Atlas Blaze and Satanus Brainiac 2 Chemo Composite Superman Conduit Dev-Em Equus Faora Funky Flashman Gog Hellgramite Imperiex Jax-Ur Joker Kobra Lord Satanis Magpie Mala Mammoth Manchester Black Morgan Edge Neutron Nick O'Teen Non Ol-Vir Prankster Quarmer Quex-Ul Rampage Riot Ruin Scorch Solaris Solomon Grundy Terra-Man Titano Ultraman Ursa Volcana Organizations Black Zero Fearsome Five Intergang Masters of Disaster Royal Flush Gang Secret Society of Super Villains Suicide Squad Superman Revenge Squad Black Zero Fearsome Five Intergang Masters of Disaster Royal Flush Gang Secret Society of Super Villains Suicide Squad Superman Revenge Squad Alternative versions Superman Earth-One Earth-Two Ultraman Superboy-Prime Kingdom Come Supergirl Power Girl Superman Earth-One Earth-Two Ultraman Superboy-Prime Kingdom Come Earth-One Earth-Two Ultraman Superboy-Prime Kingdom Come Supergirl Power Girl Power Girl In other media 1978–1987 film series Superman Lois Lane Lex Luthor Eve Teschmacher General Zod DC Extended Universe Clark Kent / Superman Lois Lane Lex Luthor Zod Smallville Clark Kent Lois Lane Lana Lang Justice League Lex Luthor Lionel Luthor Chloe Sullivan Arrowverse Kara Danvers Alex Danvers Lex Luthor Nia Nal Superman & Lois Clark Kent Lois Lane 1978–1987 film series Superman Lois Lane Lex Luthor Eve Teschmacher General Zod Superman Lois Lane Lex Luthor Eve Teschmacher General Zod DC Extended Universe Clark Kent / Superman Lois Lane Lex Luthor Zod Clark Kent / Superman Lois Lane Lex Luthor Zod Smallville Clark Kent Lois Lane Lana Lang Justice League Lex Luthor Lionel Luthor Chloe Sullivan Clark Kent Lois Lane Lana Lang Justice League Lex Luthor Lionel Luthor Chloe Sullivan Arrowverse Kara Danvers Alex Danvers Lex Luthor Nia Nal Kara Danvers Alex Danvers Lex Luthor Nia Nal Superman & Lois Clark Kent Lois Lane Clark Kent Lois Lane Related Superman and Lois Lane Daily Planet Alien races Kryptonians Superman and Lois Lane Daily Planet Alien races Kryptonians Category Category v t e Wonder Woman v t e William Moulton Marston Elizabeth Holloway Marston Olive Byrne H. G. Peter Other contributors William Moulton Marston Elizabeth Holloway Marston Olive Byrne H. G. Peter Other contributors Characters Wonder Women Diana Prince Orana Artemis of Bana-Mighdall Hippolyta Nubia Wonder Girls Cassie Sandsmark Donna Troy Yara Flor Supporting characters Antiope Etta Candy Fury Hephaestus Heracles/Hercules Hermes I Ching Julia and Vanessa Kapatelis Justice League Mala Nemesis (Thomas Tresser) The Olympian Paula von Gunther Philippus Poseidon Queen Desira Helena Sandsmark Sarge Steel Steve Trevor Wonder Man Zeus Zola Enemies Ares Baron Blitzkrieg Baroness Paula von Gunther Blue Snowman Veronica Cale Cheetah Circe Dark Angel Decay Doctor Cyber Doctor Poison Doctor Psycho Duke of Deception Egg Fu Eviless First Born Genocide Giganta Hades Hypnota Kung Mask Maxwell Lord Medusa Minister Blizzard Osira Queen Clea Silver Swan Superwoman Tezcatlipoca Zara Factions Amazons of Themyscira Amazons of Bana-Mighdall Children of Ares Godwatch Olympian Gods Titans of Myth Villainy Inc. Wonder Women Diana Prince Orana Artemis of Bana-Mighdall Hippolyta Nubia Wonder Girls Cassie Sandsmark Donna Troy Yara Flor Diana Prince Orana Artemis of Bana-Mighdall Hippolyta Nubia Wonder Girls Cassie Sandsmark Donna Troy Yara Flor Cassie Sandsmark Donna Troy Yara Flor Supporting characters Antiope Etta Candy Fury Hephaestus Heracles/Hercules Hermes I Ching Julia and Vanessa Kapatelis Justice League Mala Nemesis (Thomas Tresser) The Olympian Paula von Gunther Philippus Poseidon Queen Desira Helena Sandsmark Sarge Steel Steve Trevor Wonder Man Zeus Zola Antiope Etta Candy Fury Hephaestus Heracles/Hercules Hermes I Ching Julia and Vanessa Kapatelis Justice League Mala Nemesis (Thomas Tresser) The Olympian Paula von Gunther Philippus Poseidon Queen Desira Helena Sandsmark Sarge Steel Steve Trevor Wonder Man Zeus Zola Enemies Ares Baron Blitzkrieg Baroness Paula von Gunther Blue Snowman Veronica Cale Cheetah Circe Dark Angel Decay Doctor Cyber Doctor Poison Doctor Psycho Duke of Deception Egg Fu Eviless First Born Genocide Giganta Hades Hypnota Kung Mask Maxwell Lord Medusa Minister Blizzard Osira Queen Clea Silver Swan Superwoman Tezcatlipoca Zara Ares Baron Blitzkrieg Baroness Paula von Gunther Blue Snowman Veronica Cale Cheetah Circe Dark Angel Decay Doctor Cyber Doctor Poison Doctor Psycho Duke of Deception Egg Fu Eviless First Born Genocide Giganta Hades Hypnota Kung Mask Maxwell Lord Medusa Minister Blizzard Osira Queen Clea Silver Swan Superwoman Tezcatlipoca Zara Factions Amazons of Themyscira Amazons of Bana-Mighdall Children of Ares Godwatch Olympian Gods Titans of Myth Villainy Inc. Amazons of Themyscira Amazons of Bana-Mighdall Children of Ares Godwatch Olympian Gods Titans of Myth Villainy Inc. Locations Aeaea Themyscira (The Paradise Islands) Aeaea Themyscira (The Paradise Islands) Publications Absolute Wonder Woman All Star Comics Wonder Woman Amazonia Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Comic Cavalcade Crossover The Legend of Wonder Woman Sensation Comics Superman and Wonder Woman: The Hidden Killer Superman/Wonder Woman Wonder Woman '77 The Wonder Woman Chronicles Wonder Woman: Earth One Wonder Woman Historia: The Amazons The World's Greatest Superheroes Absolute Wonder Woman All Star Comics Wonder Woman Amazonia Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Comic Cavalcade Crossover The Legend of Wonder Woman Sensation Comics Superman and Wonder Woman: The Hidden Killer Superman/Wonder Woman Wonder Woman '77 The Wonder Woman Chronicles Wonder Woman: Earth One Wonder Woman Historia: The Amazons The World's Greatest Superheroes Storylines " Introducing Wonder Woman " (1941) Gods and Mortals (1987) Challenge of the Gods (1987–88) War of the Gods (1991) The Contest (1994) The Challenge of Artemis (1995) Paradise Island Lost (2001) Our Worlds at War (2001) The Hiketeia (2002) Down to Earth (2003–04) Who Is Wonder Woman? (2006–07) Amazons Attack! (2007) The Circle (2008) Ends of the Earth (2008) Rise of the Olympian (2009) Flashpoint (2011) The Lies (2016) Year One (2016) The Truth (2017) Godwatch (2017) Trial of the Amazons (2022) " Introducing Wonder Woman " (1941) Gods and Mortals (1987) Challenge of the Gods (1987–88) War of the Gods (1991) The Contest (1994) The Challenge of Artemis (1995) Paradise Island Lost (2001) Our Worlds at War (2001) The Hiketeia (2002) Down to Earth (2003–04) Who Is Wonder Woman? (2006–07) Amazons Attack! (2007) The Circle (2008) Ends of the Earth (2008) Rise of the Olympian (2009) Flashpoint (2011) The Lies (2016) Year One (2016) The Truth (2017) Godwatch (2017) Trial of the Amazons (2022) Technology Golden Girdle of Gaea Lasso of Truth Wonder Woman's bracelets Golden Girdle of Gaea Lasso of Truth Wonder Woman's bracelets In other media Film Wonder Woman (1974 film) Wonder Woman (2009 film) Wonder Woman: Bloodlines DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Wonder Woman (2017 film) soundtrack Justice League Zack Snyder's Justice League Wonder Woman 1984 soundtrack Peacemaker: It's Cow or Never Shazam! Fury of the Gods The Flash Television Wonder Woman episodes Wonder Woman (2011 TV pilot) Film Wonder Woman (1974 film) Wonder Woman (2009 film) Wonder Woman: Bloodlines DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Wonder Woman (2017 film) soundtrack Justice League Zack Snyder's Justice League Wonder Woman 1984 soundtrack Peacemaker: It's Cow or Never Shazam! Fury of the Gods The Flash Wonder Woman (1974 film) Wonder Woman (2009 film) Wonder Woman: Bloodlines DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Wonder Woman (2017 film) soundtrack Justice League Zack Snyder's Justice League Wonder Woman 1984 soundtrack Peacemaker: It's Cow or Never Shazam! Fury of the Gods The Flash Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Wonder Woman (2017 film) soundtrack soundtrack Justice League Zack Snyder's Justice League Zack Snyder's Justice League Wonder Woman 1984 soundtrack soundtrack Peacemaker: It's Cow or Never Shazam! Fury of the Gods The Flash Television Wonder Woman episodes Wonder Woman (2011 TV pilot) Wonder Woman episodes episodes Wonder Woman (2011 TV pilot) Miscellaneous Alternative versions Earth-Two Bizarra Superwoman Cultural impact Professor Marston and the Wonder Women Literature Wonder Women! The Untold Story of American Superheroines Alternative versions Earth-Two Bizarra Superwoman Earth-Two Bizarra Superwoman Cultural impact Professor Marston and the Wonder Women Literature Wonder Women! The Untold Story of American Superheroines Category v t e Golden Age of Comic Books v t e Ace Comics Captain Courageous Doctor Nemesis The Flag Lash Lightning The Raven Unknown Soldier Vulcan Captain Courageous Doctor Nemesis The Flag Lash Lightning The Raven Unknown Soldier Vulcan All-American Publications The Atom Al Pratt Black Canary Doctor Mid-Nite Charles McNider Doiby Dickles The Flash Jay Garrick Gay Ghost Green Lantern Alan Scott Hawkgirl Shiera Sanders Hall Hawkman Carter Hall Hop Harrigan Johnny Thunder Justice Society of America The King Mister Terrific Terry Sloane Neptune Perkins Red Tornado Sargon the Sorcerer Terrific Whatzit Thunderbolt Ultra-Man The Whip Wildcat Ted Grant Wonder Woman The Atom Al Pratt Al Pratt Black Canary Doctor Mid-Nite Charles McNider Charles McNider Doiby Dickles The Flash Jay Garrick Jay Garrick Gay Ghost Green Lantern Alan Scott Alan Scott Hawkgirl Shiera Sanders Hall Shiera Sanders Hall Hawkman Carter Hall Carter Hall Hop Harrigan Johnny 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Start and end dates 2 Background Toggle Background subsection 2.1 Aftermath of World War I 2.2 Germany and Italy 2.3 European treaties 2.4 Asia 2.1 Aftermath of World War I 2.2 Germany and Italy 2.3 European treaties 2.4 Asia 3 Pre-war events Toggle Pre-war events subsection 3.1 Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) 3.2 Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) 3.3 Japanese invasion of China (1937) 3.4 Soviet–Japanese border conflicts 3.5 European occupations and agreements 3.1 Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) 3.2 Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) 3.3 Japanese invasion of China (1937) 3.4 Soviet–Japanese border conflicts 3.5 European occupations and agreements 4 Course of the war Toggle Course of the war subsection 4.1 War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) 4.2 Western Europe (1940–1941) 4.3 Mediterranean (1940–1941) 4.4 Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) 4.5 War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) 4.6 Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) 4.7 Pacific (1942–1943) 4.8 Eastern Front (1942–1943) 4.9 Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) 4.10 Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) 4.11 Allies Offensives (1944) 4.12 Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) 4.1 War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) 4.2 Western Europe (1940–1941) 4.3 Mediterranean (1940–1941) 4.4 Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) 4.5 War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) 4.6 Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) 4.7 Pacific (1942–1943) 4.8 Eastern Front (1942–1943) 4.9 Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) 4.10 Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) 4.11 Allies Offensives (1944) 4.12 Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) 5 Aftermath 6 Impact Toggle Impact subsection 6.1 Casualties and war crimes 6.2 Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour 6.3 Occupation 6.4 Home fronts and production 6.5 Advances in technology and its application 6.1 Casualties and war crimes 6.2 Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour 6.3 Occupation 6.4 Home fronts and production 6.5 Advances in technology and its application 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References Toggle References subsection 9.1 Sources 9.1 Sources 10 Further reading 11 External links World War II Адыгэбзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ Ænglisc العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Bislama Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Chavacano de Zamboanga Chi-Chewa ChiShona Corsu Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deitsch Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Diné bizaad Dolnoserbski डोटेली Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gàidhlig Galego 贛語 گیلکی ગુજરાતી 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Hausa Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Ido Igbo Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Коми Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Ladin Ladino Лакку ລາວ Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingua Franca Nova Livvinkarjala La .lojban. Lombard Magyar Madhurâ मैथिली Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Malti Māori मराठी მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu Minangkabau 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Mirandés Мокшень Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाली नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano ߒߞߏ Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Pälzisch پنجابی ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ Papiamentu پښتو Patois ភាសាខ្មែរ Picard Piemontèis Plattdüütsch Polski Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Ripoarisch Română Rumantsch Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sakizaya Gagana Samoa संस्कृतम् ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Sardu Scots Seeltersk Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ Ślůnski Soomaaliga کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Taclḥit Taqbaylit Tarandíne Татарча / tatarça తెలుగు ไทย Thuɔŋjäŋ Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Türkmençe Tyap Тыва дыл Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vahcuengh Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon 文言 West-Vlams Winaray Wolof 吴语 ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 Batak Mandailing Jaku Iban Yerwa Kanuri Tolışi Toki pona Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikinews Wikiquote Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wikidata item This article contains one or more duplicated citations . 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( January 2026 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) (refs: 141, 198) World War II .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti 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("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} German Stuka dive bombers on the Eastern Front , 1943 British Matilda II tanks during the North African campaign , 1941 US atomic bombing of Nagasaki in Japan, 1945 Soviet troops at the Battle of Stalingrad , 1943 Soviet soldier raising a flag over the Reichstag after the Battle of Berlin , 1945 US warships in Lingayen Gulf in the Philippines , 1945 German Stuka dive bombers on the Eastern Front , 1943 British Matilda II tanks during the North African campaign , 1941 US atomic bombing of Nagasaki in Japan, 1945 Soviet troops at the Battle of Stalingrad , 1943 Soviet soldier raising a flag over the Reichstag after the Battle of Berlin , 1945 US warships in Lingayen Gulf in the Philippines , 1945 Date 1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945 [ a ] (6 years, 1 day) Location Global Result .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Allied victory Date 1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945 [ a ] (6 years, 1 day) Location Global Result .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Allied victory Allied victory Participants Allies Axis Commanders and leaders Main Allied leaders : Joseph Stalin Franklin D. Roosevelt Winston Churchill Chiang Kai-shek Joseph Stalin Franklin D. Roosevelt Winston Churchill Chiang Kai-shek Main Axis leaders : Adolf Hitler Hirohito Benito Mussolini Adolf Hitler Hirohito Benito Mussolini Casualties and losses 60 million to over 75 million deaths (military and civilian) .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Theatres of World War II v t e Europe Poland Soviet invasion Phoney War Saar Offensive Finland Winter War Karelia Lapland Weserübung Denmark Norway Western Front Luxembourg Netherlands Belgium France Alps 1944–1945 Britain Eastern Front Barbarossa Leningrad Crimea Rzhev Case Blue Stalingrad Kursk Dnieper–Carpaths Bagration Romania Hungary Vistula–Oder Berlin Liberation of France Overlord Dragoon Siegfried Line Market Garden Bulge Western Germany Asia-Pacific China Marco Polo Bridge Shanghai Taiyuan Nanjing Xuzhou and Taierzhuang Wuhan Winter Offensive Hundred Regiments Offensive Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Ichi-Go 1945 Hunan Burma 1941–1942 1942–1943 1944 1944–1945 South-East Asia Indochina Franco-Thai War Thailand Hong Kong Malaya and Singapore South West Pacific Philippines 1941–1942 1944–1945 Dutch East Indies Borneo 1945 Coral Sea Solomon Islands Guadalcanal New Georgia Bougainville New Guinea Kokoda Track Salamaua–Lae Markham, Ramu and Finisterre Huon Peninsula New Britain Admiralty Islands Western New Guinea Pacific Ocean Midway Gilberts and Marshalls Mariana and Palau Volcano and Ryukyu Soviet-Japanese War(Mainland) Manchuria and Northern Korea pre-war border conflicts Japan Volcano and Ryukyu South Sakhalin Kurils Mediterranean and Middle East Balkans Greco-Italian War Greece Crete Albania Yugoslavia Mediterranean Sea Adriatic Malta Dodecanese East Africa Guerrilla war Middle East Iraq Syria–Lebanon Iran North Africa Libya-Egypt Morocco-Algeria Tunisia Italy Sicily Mainland Italy Winter Line Gothic Line Spring Offensive Other campaigns Air warfare Strategic bombing Americas Aleuts Antarctica Atlantic Australia Arctic French West Africa Indian Ocean 1940–1945 Madagascar Coups Uruguay Norway Baltic Nations Yugoslavia Romania 1941 Iraq Italy Argentina Germany Croatia Romania 1944 Bulgaria Hungary French Indochina Japan Matsue Slovak National Uprising Resistance movements Albanian resistance Baltic states Belgian Resistance Czechoslovak Resistance Danish resistance Dutch resistance Ethiopian resistance French Resistance Greek resistance Italian Resistance Malayan resistance Norwegian resistance Filipino resistance Polish resistance Romanian resistance Slovak partisans Soviet partisans Free Thai Movement Yugoslav Partisans Poland Soviet invasion Soviet invasion Phoney War Saar Offensive Saar Offensive Finland Winter War Karelia Lapland Winter War Karelia Lapland Weserübung Denmark Norway Denmark Norway Western Front Luxembourg Netherlands Belgium France Luxembourg Netherlands Belgium France Alps 1944–1945 1944–1945 Britain Eastern Front Barbarossa Leningrad Crimea Rzhev Case Blue Stalingrad Kursk Dnieper–Carpaths Bagration Romania Hungary Vistula–Oder Berlin Barbarossa Leningrad Crimea Rzhev Case Blue Stalingrad Kursk Dnieper–Carpaths Bagration Romania Hungary Vistula–Oder Berlin Liberation of France Overlord Dragoon Siegfried Line Market Garden Bulge Western Germany Overlord Dragoon Siegfried Line Market Garden Bulge Western Germany China Marco Polo Bridge Shanghai Taiyuan Nanjing Xuzhou and Taierzhuang Wuhan Winter Offensive Hundred Regiments Offensive Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Ichi-Go 1945 Hunan Marco Polo Bridge Shanghai Taiyuan Nanjing Xuzhou and Taierzhuang Wuhan Winter Offensive Hundred Regiments Offensive Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Ichi-Go 1945 Hunan Burma 1941–1942 1942–1943 1944 1944–1945 1941–1942 1942–1943 1944 1944–1945 South-East Asia Indochina Franco-Thai War Thailand Hong Kong Malaya and Singapore Indochina Franco-Thai War Thailand Hong Kong Malaya and Singapore South West Pacific Philippines 1941–1942 1944–1945 1944–1945 Dutch 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Countries Equipment Timeline Outline Lists Historiography Category Bibliography Campaigns Countries Equipment Campaigns Countries Equipment Timeline Outline Lists Historiography Timeline Outline Lists Historiography Category Bibliography Category Bibliography v t e v t e World War II [ b ] or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a global conflict between two coalitions : the Allies and the Axis powers . Nearly all of the world's countries participated, with many nations mobilising their resources in pursuit of total war . Tanks and aircraft played major roles , enabling the strategic bombing of cities and delivery of the first and only nuclear weapons ever used in war. World War II is the deadliest conflict in history, causing the death of over 60 million people. Millions died in genocides , including the Holocaust , and by massacres, starvation, and disease. After the Allied victory, Germany , Austria , Japan , and Korea were occupied, and German and Japanese leaders were put on trial for war crimes . The causes of World War II included unresolved tensions in the aftermath of World War I , the rise of fascism in Europe and militarism in Japan . Key events preceding the war included Japan's invasion of Manchuria in 1931, the Spanish Civil War , the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, and Germany's annexations of Austria and the Sudetenland . World War II is generally considered to have begun on 1 September 1939, when Nazi Germany , under Adolf Hitler , invaded Poland , after which the United Kingdom and France declared war on Germany. Poland was also invaded by the Soviet Union in mid-September, and was partitioned between Germany and the Soviet Union under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact . In 1940, the Soviet Union annexed the Baltic states and parts of Finland and Romania , while Germany conquered Norway , Belgium , Luxembourg and the Netherlands . After the fall of France in June 1940, the war continued mainly between Germany, now assisted by Fascist Italy , and the British Empire / British Commonwealth , with fighting in the Balkans , Mediterranean, and Middle East , East Africa , the aerial Battle of Britain and the Blitz , and the naval Battle of the Atlantic . By mid-1941 Yugoslavia and Greece had also been defeated by Axis countries. In June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union , opening the Eastern Front and initially making large territorial gains along with Axis allies. In December 1941, Japan attacked American and British territories in Asia and the Pacific , including Pearl Harbor in Hawaii , leading the United States to enter the war against the Axis. Japan conquered much of coastal China and Southeast Asia , but its advances in the Pacific were halted in June 1942 at the Battle of Midway . In early 1943, Axis forces were defeated in North Africa and at Stalingrad in the Soviet Union. An Allied invasion of Italy in July resulted in the fall of its fascist regime , and Allied offensives in the Pacific and the Soviet Union forced the Axis to retreat on all fronts. In 1944, the Western Allies invaded France at Normandy , and the Soviet Union advanced into Central Europe. During the same period, Japan suffered major setbacks, including the crippling of its navy by the United States, the loss of key Western Pacific islands, and defeats in South-Central China and Burma . The war in Europe concluded with the liberation of German-occupied territories and the invasion of Germany by the Allies which culminated in the fall of Berlin to Soviet troops, and Germany's unconditional surrender on 8 May 1945 . On 6 and 9 August, the US dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan. Faced with an imminent Allied invasion , the prospect of further atomic bombings, and a Soviet declaration of war and invasion of Manchuria , Japan announced its unconditional surrender on 15 August, and signed a surrender document on 2 September 1945 . World War II transformed the political, economic, and social structures of the world, and established the foundation of international relations for the rest of the 20th century and into the 21st century. The United Nations was created to foster international cooperation and prevent future conflicts, with the victorious great powers—China, France, the Soviet Union, the UK, and the US—becoming the permanent members of its security council . The Soviet Union and the US emerged as rival superpowers , setting the stage for the half-century Cold War . In the wake of Europe's devastation, the influence of its great powers waned, triggering the decolonisation of Africa and of Asia . Many countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery and expansion . Start and end dates Timelines of World War II Chronological Prelude Events ( in Asia in Europe ) Aftermath Events ( in Asia in Europe ) Aftermath 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Aftermath 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Aftermath By topic Causes ( Diplomacy ) Declarations of war Battles Operations Causes ( Diplomacy ) Causes ( Diplomacy ) Declarations of war Battles Operations Battles Operations By theatre Battle of Europe air operations Eastern Front Manhattan Project United Kingdom home front Surrender of the Axis armies Battle of Europe air operations Eastern Front Manhattan Project Eastern Front Manhattan Project United Kingdom home front Surrender of the Axis armies v t e v t e Most historians agree that World War II began with the German invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939 [ 1 ] [ 2 ] and the United Kingdom and France 's declaration of war on Germany two days later. Dates for the beginning of the Pacific War include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, [ 3 ] [ 4 ] or the earlier Japanese invasion of Manchuria , on 18 September 1931. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Other proposed starting dates for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. [ 7 ] The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939. [ 8 ] Others view the Spanish Civil War as the start or prelude to World War II. [ 9 ] [ 10 ] The exact date of the war's end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 15 August 1945 ( V-J Day ), rather than with the formal surrender of Japan on 2 September 1945, which officially ended the war in Asia . A peace treaty between Japan and the Allies was signed in 1951. [ 11 ] A 1990 treaty regarding Germany's future allowed the reunification of East and West Germany to take place. [ 12 ] No formal peace treaty between Japan and the Soviet Union was ever signed, [ 13 ] although the state of war between the two countries was terminated by the Soviet–Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956 , which also restored full diplomatic relations between them. [ 14 ] Background Aftermath of World War I World War I had radically altered the political European map with the defeat of the Central Powers —including Austria-Hungary, Germany, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire —and the 1917 Bolshevik seizure of power in Russia , which led to the founding of the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, the victorious Allies of World War I , such as France, Belgium, Italy, Romania, and Greece, gained territory, and new nation-states were created out of the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian , Ottoman , and Russian Empires . [ 15 ] [ failed verification ] To prevent a future world war, the League of Nations was established in 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference . The organisation's primary goals were to prevent armed conflict through collective security, military, and naval disarmament , as well as settling international disputes through peaceful negotiations and arbitration. [ 16 ] Despite strong pacifist sentiment after World War I , [ 17 ] irredentist and revanchist nationalism had emerged in several European states. These sentiments were especially pronounced in Germany due to the significant territorial, colonial, and financial losses imposed by the Treaty of Versailles . Under the treaty, Germany lost around 13 percent of its home territory and all its overseas possessions , while German annexation of other states was prohibited, reparations were imposed, and limits were placed on the size and capability of the country's armed forces . [ 18 ] Germany and Italy The German Empire was dissolved in the German revolution of 1918–1919 , and a democratic government, later known as the Weimar Republic , was created. The interwar period saw strife between supporters of the new republic and hardline opponents on both the political right and left. Italy, as an Entente ally, had made some post-war territorial gains; however, Italian nationalists were angered that the promises made by the United Kingdom and France to secure Italian entrance into the war were not fulfilled in the peace settlement. From 1922 to 1925, the fascist movement led by Benito Mussolini seized power in Italy with a nationalist, totalitarian , and class collaborationist agenda that abolished representative democracy , repressed socialist, left-wing, and liberal forces, and pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy aimed at making Italy a world power, promising the creation of a "New Roman Empire". [ 19 ] Adolf Hitler , after an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German government in 1923, eventually became the chancellor of Germany in 1933 when President Paul von Hindenburg and the Reichstag appointed him. Following Hindenburg's death in 1934, Hitler proclaimed himself Führer of Germany and abolished democracy, espousing a radical, racially motivated revision of the world order , and soon began a massive rearmament campaign . [ 20 ] France, seeking to secure its alliance with Italy, allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia , which Italy desired as a colonial possession. The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when the Territory of the Saar Basin was legally reunited with Germany, and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of Versailles, accelerated his rearmament programme, and introduced conscription. [ 21 ] European treaties The United Kingdom, France and Italy formed the Stresa Front in April 1935 in order to contain Germany, a key step towards military globalisation ; however, that June, the United Kingdom made an independent naval agreement with Germany, easing prior restrictions. The Soviet Union, concerned by Germany's goals of capturing vast areas of Eastern Europe , drafted a treaty of mutual assistance with France. Before taking effect, though, the Franco-Soviet pact was required to go through the bureaucracy of the League of Nations, which rendered it essentially toothless. [ 22 ] The United States, concerned with events in Europe and Asia, passed the Neutrality Act in August of the same year. [ 23 ] Hitler defied the Versailles and Locarno Treaties by remilitarising the Rhineland in March 1936, encountering little opposition due to the policy of appeasement . [ 24 ] In October 1936, Germany and Italy formed the Rome–Berlin Axis . A month later, Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact , which Italy joined the following year. [ 25 ] Asia The Kuomintang party in China launched a unification campaign against regional warlords and nominally unified China in the mid-1920s, but was soon embroiled in a civil war against its former Chinese Communist Party (CCP) allies [ 26 ] and new regional warlords . In 1931, an increasingly militaristic Empire of Japan , which had long sought influence in China [ 27 ] as the first step of what its government saw as the country's right to rule Asia , staged the Mukden incident as a pretext to invade Manchuria and establish the puppet state of Manchukuo . [ 28 ] China appealed to the League of Nations to stop the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations after being condemned for its incursion into Manchuria. The two nations then fought several battles, in Shanghai , Rehe , and Hebei , until the Tanggu Truce was signed in 1933. Thereafter, Chinese volunteer forces continued the resistance to Japanese aggression in Manchuria , and Chahar and Suiyuan . [ 29 ] After the 1936 Xi'an Incident , the Kuomintang and CCP forces agreed on a ceasefire to present a united front to oppose Japan. [ 30 ] Pre-war events Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) The Second Italo-Ethiopian War was a colonial war that began in October 1935 and ended in May 1936. The war began with the invasion of the Ethiopian Empire (also known as Abyssinia ) by the armed forces of the Kingdom of Italy ( Regno d'Italia ), which was launched from Italian Somaliland and Eritrea . [ 31 ] The war resulted in the military occupation of Ethiopia and its annexation into the newly created colony of Italian East Africa ( Africa Orientale Italiana ); in addition it exposed the weakness of the League of Nations as a force to preserve peace. Both Italy and Ethiopia were member nations, but the League did little when the former clearly violated Article X of the League's Covenant . [ 32 ] The United Kingdom and France supported imposing sanctions on Italy for the invasion, but the sanctions were not fully enforced and failed to end the Italian invasion. [ 33 ] Italy subsequently dropped its objections to Germany's goal of absorbing Austria . [ 34 ] Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) When civil war broke out in Spain, Hitler and Mussolini lent military support to the Nationalist rebels , led by General Francisco Franco . Italy supported the Nationalists to a greater extent than the Nazis: Mussolini sent more than 70,000 ground troops, 6,000 aviation personnel, and 720 aircraft to Spain. [ 35 ] The Soviet Union supported the existing government of the Spanish Republic . More than 30,000 foreign volunteers, known as the International Brigades , also fought against the Nationalists. Both Germany and the Soviet Union used this proxy war as an opportunity to test in combat their most advanced weapons and tactics. The Nationalists won the civil war in April 1939; Franco, now dictator, remained officially neutral during World War II but generally favoured the Axis . [ 36 ] His greatest collaboration with Germany was the sending of volunteers to fight on the Eastern Front . [ 37 ] Japanese invasion of China (1937) In July 1937, Japan captured the former Chinese imperial capital of Peking after instigating the Marco Polo Bridge incident , which culminated in the Japanese campaign to invade all of China following years of tension and low-level conflicts . [ 38 ] The Soviets quickly signed a non-aggression pact with China to lend materiel support, effectively ending China's prior cooperation with Germany . [ 39 ] From September to November, the Japanese attacked Taiyuan , engaged the Kuomintang Army around Xinkou , [ 40 ] fought Communist forces in Pingxingguan [ 41 ] [ 42 ] , and wrestled control over China's northern railway network. [ 43 ] Nationalist Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek deployed his best army to defend Shanghai , but after three months of heavy fighting, Shanghai fell. The Japanese continued to push Chinese forces back, capturing the capital Nanking in December 1937. [ 44 ] [ 45 ] [ 46 ] In March 1938, Nationalist Chinese forces won their first major victory at Taierzhuang , but ultimately lost control of the city of Xuzhou in May. [ 47 ] In June 1938, Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance by flooding the Yellow River ; buying time for the Chinese to prepare their defences at Wuhan at heavy cost to the local civilian population, but the city was taken by October after heavy fighting along the Yangtze River. [ 48 ] Japanese military victories did not destroy Chinese resistance; instead, the Chinese government relocated inland to Chongqing and continued the war. [ 49 ] [ 50 ] Aiming to break Chinese morale, Japanese aircraft began striking cities in the Sichuan basin in a bombing campaign, killing tens of thousands of civilians. [ 51 ] [ 52 ] Soviet–Japanese border conflicts In the mid-to-late 1930s, Japanese forces in Manchukuo had sporadic border clashes with the Soviet Union and Mongolia . The Japanese doctrine of Hokushin-ron , which emphasised Japan's expansion northward, was favoured by the Imperial Army during this time. This policy would prove difficult to maintain in light of the Japanese defeat at Khalkin Gol in 1939, the ongoing Second Sino-Japanese War [ 53 ] and ally Nazi Germany pursuing neutrality with the Soviets. Japan and the Soviet Union eventually signed a Neutrality Pact in April 1941, and Japan adopted the doctrine of Nanshin-ron , promoted by the Navy, which took its focus southward and eventually led to war with the United States and the Western Allies. [ 54 ] [ 55 ] European occupations and agreements In Europe, Germany and Italy were becoming more aggressive. In March 1938, Germany annexed Austria , again provoking little response from other European powers. [ 56 ] Encouraged, Hitler began pressing German claims on the Sudetenland , an area of Czechoslovakia with a predominantly ethnic German population. Soon the United Kingdom and France followed the appeasement policy of British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and conceded this territory to Germany in the Munich Agreement , which was made against the wishes of the Czechoslovak government, in exchange for a promise of no further territorial demands. [ 57 ] Soon afterwards, Germany and Italy forced Czechoslovakia to cede additional territory to Hungary, and Poland annexed the Trans-Olza region of Czechoslovakia. [ 58 ] Although all of Germany's stated demands had been satisfied by the agreement, privately Hitler was furious that British interference had prevented him from seizing all of Czechoslovakia in one operation. In subsequent speeches Hitler attacked British and Jewish "war-mongers" and in January 1939 secretly ordered a major build-up of the German navy to challenge British naval supremacy. In March 1939, Germany invaded the remainder of Czechoslovakia and subsequently split it into the German Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and a pro-German client state , the Slovak Republic . [ 59 ] Hitler also delivered an ultimatum to Lithuania on 20 March 1939, forcing the concession of the Klaipėda Region , formerly the German Memelland . [ 60 ] Greatly alarmed and with Hitler making further demands on the Free City of Danzig , the United Kingdom and France guaranteed their support for Polish independence ; when Italy conquered Albania in April 1939, the same guarantee was extended to the Kingdoms of Romania and Greece . [ 61 ] Shortly after the Franco - British pledge to Poland, Germany and Italy formalised their own alliance with the Pact of Steel . [ 62 ] Hitler accused the United Kingdom and Poland of trying to "encircle" Germany and renounced the Anglo-German Naval Agreement and the German–Polish declaration of non-aggression . [ 63 ] The situation became a crisis in late August as German troops continued to mobilise against the Polish border. On 23 August the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact with Germany, [ 64 ] after tripartite negotiations for a military alliance between France, the United Kingdom, and Soviet Union had stalled. [ 65 ] This pact had a secret protocol that defined German and Soviet "spheres of influence" (western Poland and Lithuania for Germany; eastern Poland , Finland, Estonia , Latvia and Bessarabia for the Soviet Union), and raised the question of continuing Polish independence. [ 66 ] The pact neutralised the possibility of Soviet opposition to a campaign against Poland and assured that Germany would not have to face the prospect of a two-front war, as it had in World War I . Immediately afterwards, Hitler ordered the attack to proceed on 26 August, but upon hearing that the United Kingdom had concluded a formal mutual assistance pact with Poland and that Italy would maintain neutrality, he decided to delay it. [ 67 ] In response to British requests for direct negotiations to avoid war, Germany made demands on Poland, which served as a pretext to worsen relations. [ 68 ] On 29 August, Hitler demanded that a Polish plenipotentiary immediately travel to Berlin to negotiate the handover of Danzig , and to allow a plebiscite in the Polish Corridor in which the German minority would vote on secession. [ 68 ] The Poles refused to comply with the German demands, and on the night of 30–31 August in a confrontational meeting with the British ambassador Nevile Henderson , Ribbentrop declared that Germany considered its claims rejected. [ 69 ] Course of the war War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland after having staged several false flag border incidents as a pretext to initiate the invasion. [ 71 ] The first German attack of the war came against the Polish defences at Westerplatte . [ 72 ] The United Kingdom responded with an ultimatum for Germany to cease military operations, and on 3 September, after the ultimatum was ignored, Britain and France declared war on Germany. [ c ] During the Phoney War period, the alliance provided no direct military support to Poland, outside of a cautious French probe into the Saarland . [ 73 ] The Western Allies also began a naval blockade of Germany , which aimed to damage the country's economy and war effort. [ 74 ] Germany responded by ordering U-boat warfare against Allied merchant and warships, which would later escalate into the Battle of the Atlantic . [ 75 ] On 8 September, German troops reached the suburbs of Warsaw . The Polish counter-offensive to the west halted the German advance for several days, but it was outflanked and encircled by the Wehrmacht . Remnants of the Polish army broke through to besieged Warsaw . On 17 September 1939, two days after signing a cease-fire with Japan , the Soviet Union invaded Poland [ 76 ] under the supposed pretext that the Polish state had ceased to exist. [ 77 ] On 27 September, the Warsaw garrison surrendered to the Germans, and the last large operational unit of the Polish Army surrendered on 6 October . Despite the military defeat, Poland never surrendered; instead, it formed the Polish government-in-exile and a clandestine state apparatus remained in occupied Poland. [ 78 ] A significant part of Polish military personnel evacuated to Romania and Latvia; many of them later fought against the Axis in other theatres of the war. [ 79 ] Germany annexed western Poland and occupied central Poland ; the Soviet Union annexed eastern Poland . Small shares of Polish territory were transferred to Lithuania and Slovakia . On 6 October, Hitler made a public peace overture to the United Kingdom and France but said that the future of Poland was to be determined exclusively by Germany and the Soviet Union. The proposal was rejected [ 69 ] and Hitler ordered an immediate offensive against France, [ 80 ] which was postponed until the spring of 1940 due to bad weather. [ 81 ] [ 82 ] [ 83 ] After the outbreak of war in Poland, Stalin threatened Estonia , Latvia , and Lithuania with military invasion, forcing the three Baltic countries to sign pacts allowing the creation of Soviet military bases in these countries; in October 1939, significant Soviet military contingents were moved there. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] [ 86 ] Finland refused to sign a similar pact and rejected ceding part of its territory to the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union invaded Finland in November 1939, [ 87 ] and was subsequently expelled from the League of Nations for this crime of aggression. [ 88 ] Despite overwhelming numerical superiority, Soviet military success during the Winter War was modest, and the Finno–Soviet war ended in March 1940 with some Finnish concessions of territory . [ 89 ] In June 1940, the Soviet Union occupied the entire territories of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, [ 85 ] as well as the Romanian regions of Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and the Hertsa region . In August 1940, Hitler imposed the Second Vienna Award on Romania which led to the transfer of Northern Transylvania to Hungary. [ 90 ] In September 1940, Bulgaria demanded Southern Dobruja from Romania with German and Italian support, leading to the Treaty of Craiova . [ 91 ] The loss of one-third of Romania's 1939 territory caused a coup against King Carol II , turning Romania into a fascist dictatorship under Marshal Ion Antonescu , with a course set towards the Axis in the hopes of a German guarantee. [ 92 ] Meanwhile, German–Soviet political relations and economic co-operation [ 93 ] [ 94 ] gradually stalled, [ 95 ] [ 96 ] and both states began preparations for war. [ 97 ] Western Europe (1940–1941) In April 1940, Germany invaded Denmark and Norway to protect shipments of iron ore from Sweden , which the Allies were attempting to cut off . [ 98 ] Denmark capitulated after six hours , and despite Allied support , Norway was conquered within two months. [ 99 ] British discontent over the Norwegian campaign led to the resignation of Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain , who was replaced by Winston Churchill on 10 May 1940. [ 100 ] On the same day, Germany launched an offensive against France . To circumvent the strong Maginot Line fortifications on the Franco-German border, Germany directed its attack at the neutral nations of Belgium , the Netherlands , and Luxembourg . [ 101 ] The Germans carried out a flanking manoeuvre through the Ardennes region, [ 102 ] which was mistakenly perceived by the Allies as an impenetrable natural barrier against armoured vehicles. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] By successfully implementing new Blitzkrieg tactics, the Wehrmacht rapidly advanced to the Channel and cut off the Allied forces in Belgium, trapping the bulk of the Allied armies in a cauldron on the Franco-Belgian border near Lille. The United Kingdom was able to evacuate a significant number of Allied troops from the continent by early June, although they had to abandon almost all their equipment. [ 105 ] On 10 June, Italy invaded France , declaring war on both France and the United Kingdom. [ 106 ] The Germans turned south against the weakened French army, and Paris fell to them on 14 June. Eight days later France signed an armistice with Germany ; it was divided into German and Italian occupation zones , [ 107 ] and an unoccupied rump state under the Vichy Regime , which, though officially neutral, was generally aligned with Germany. France kept its fleet, which the United Kingdom attacked on 3 July in an attempt to prevent its seizure by Germany. [ 108 ] The air Battle of Britain [ 109 ] began in early July with Luftwaffe attacks on shipping and harbours . [ 110 ] The German campaign for air superiority started in August but its failure to defeat RAF Fighter Command forced the indefinite postponement of the proposed German invasion of Britain . The German strategic bombing offensive intensified with night attacks on London and other cities in the Blitz , but largely ended in May 1941 [ 111 ] after failing to significantly disrupt the British war effort. [ 110 ] Using newly captured French ports, the German Navy enjoyed success against an over-extended Royal Navy , using U-boats against British shipping in the Atlantic . [ 112 ] The British Home Fleet scored a significant victory on 27 May 1941 by sinking the German battleship Bismarck . [ 113 ] In November 1939, the United States was assisting China and the Western Allies, and had amended the Neutrality Act to allow " cash and carry " purchases by the Allies. [ 114 ] In 1940, following the German capture of Paris, the size of the United States Navy was significantly increased . In September the United States further agreed to a trade of American destroyers for British bases . [ 115 ] Still, a large majority of the American public continued to oppose any direct military intervention in the conflict well into 1941. [ 116 ] In December 1940, President Franklin D. Roosevelt accused Hitler of planning world conquest and ruled out any negotiations as useless, calling for the United States to become an " arsenal of democracy " and promoting Lend-Lease programmes of military and humanitarian aid to support the British war effort; Lend-Lease was later extended to the other Allies, including the Soviet Union after it was invaded by Germany. [ 117 ] The United States started strategic planning to prepare for a full-scale offensive against Germany. [ 118 ] At the end of September 1940, the Tripartite Pact formally united Japan, Italy, and Germany as the Axis powers . The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any country—with the exception of the Soviet Union—that attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three. [ 119 ] The Axis expanded in November 1940 when Hungary , Slovakia , and Romania joined. [ 120 ] Romania and Hungary later made major contributions to the Axis war against the Soviet Union, in Romania's case partially to recapture territory ceded to the Soviet Union . [ 121 ] Mediterranean (1940–1941) In early June 1940, the Italian Regia Aeronautica attacked and besieged Malta , a British possession. From late summer to early autumn, Italy conquered British Somaliland and made an incursion into British-held Egypt . In October, Italy attacked Greece , but the attack was repulsed with heavy Italian casualties; the campaign ended within months with minor territorial changes. [ 122 ] To assist Italy and prevent Britain from gaining a foothold, Germany prepared to invade the Balkans, which would threaten Romanian oil fields and strike against British dominance of the Mediterranean. [ 123 ] In December 1940, British Empire forces began counter-offensives against Italian forces in Egypt and Italian East Africa . [ 124 ] The offensives were successful; by early February 1941, Italy had lost control of eastern Libya, and large numbers of Italian troops had been taken prisoner. The Italian Navy also suffered significant defeats, with the Royal Navy putting three Italian battleships out of commission after a carrier attack at Taranto , and neutralising several more warships at the Battle of Cape Matapan . [ 125 ] Italian defeats prompted Germany to deploy an expeditionary force to North Africa; at the end of March 1941, Rommel 's Afrika Korps launched an offensive which drove back Commonwealth forces. [ 126 ] In less than a month, Axis forces advanced to western Egypt and besieged the port of Tobruk . [ 127 ] By late March 1941, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia signed the Tripartite Pact ; however, the Yugoslav government was overthrown two days later by pro-British nationalists. Germany and Italy responded with simultaneous invasions of both Yugoslavia and Greece , commencing on 6 April 1941 with a massive bombing of Belgrade ; both nations were forced to surrender within the month. [ 128 ] The airborne invasion of the Greek island of Crete at the end of May completed the German conquest of the Balkans. [ 129 ] Partisan warfare subsequently broke out against the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia , which continued until the end of the war. [ 130 ] In the Middle East in May, Commonwealth forces quashed an uprising in Iraq which had been supported by German aircraft from bases within Vichy-controlled Syria . [ 131 ] Between June and July, British-led forces invaded and occupied the French possessions of Syria and Lebanon , assisted by the Free French . [ 132 ] Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) With the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable, Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union made preparations for war. With the Soviets wary of mounting tensions with Germany, and the Japanese planning to take advantage of the European War by seizing resource-rich European possessions in Southeast Asia , the two powers signed the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact in April 1941. [ 133 ] By contrast, the Germans were steadily making preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union, massing forces on the Soviet border. [ 134 ] Hitler believed that the United Kingdom's refusal to end the war was based on the hope that the United States and the Soviet Union would enter the war against Germany. [ 135 ] On 31 July 1940, Hitler decided that the Soviet Union should be eliminated and aimed for the conquest of Ukraine , the Baltic states and Byelorussia . [ 136 ] However, other senior German officials like Ribbentrop saw an opportunity to create a Euro-Asian bloc against the British Empire by inviting the Soviet Union into the Tripartite Pact. [ 137 ] In November 1940, negotiations took place to determine if the Soviet Union would join the pact. The Soviets showed some interest but asked for concessions from Finland, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Japan that Germany considered unacceptable. On 18 December 1940, Hitler issued the directive to prepare for an invasion of the Soviet Union. [ 138 ] On 22 June 1941, Germany, supported by Italy and Romania, invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa , with Germany accusing the Soviets of plotting against them ; they were joined shortly by Finland and Hungary. [ 139 ] The primary targets of this surprise offensive [ 140 ] were the Baltic region , Moscow and Ukraine, with the ultimate goal of ending the 1941 campaign near the Arkhangelsk–Astrakhan line —from the Caspian to the White Seas . Hitler's objectives were to eliminate the Soviet Union as a military power, exterminate communism , generate Lebensraum ("living space") [ 141 ] by dispossessing the native population , [ 142 ] and guarantee access to the strategic resources needed to defeat Germany's remaining rivals. [ 143 ] Although the Red Army was preparing for strategic counter-offensives before the war, [ 144 ] Operation Barbarossa forced the Soviet supreme command to adopt strategic defence . During the summer, the Axis made significant gains into Soviet territory, inflicting immense losses in both personnel and materiel, mainly in massive encirclements around Minsk , Smolensk , and Uman .. Nazi policy entailed that Wehrmacht subject Soviet POWs to murderous treatment, executing all Jewish and Communist POWs immediately per the Commissar Order , and subjecting the remainder to forced marches to open-air concentration camps, where they were to be deliberately starved to death . By the end of the winter of 1941, 2.8 million Soviet POWs had died in German captivity. Some 3.3 million Soviet POWs would die in German captivity by the war's end in total, a nearly 60% mortality rate. [ 145 ] By mid-August, however, the German Army High Command decided to suspend the offensive of a considerably depleted Army Group Centre , and to divert the 2nd Panzer Group to reinforce troops advancing towards central Ukraine and Leningrad. [ 146 ] The Kiev offensive was overwhelmingly successful, resulting in encirclement and elimination of four Soviet armies, and made possible further advance into Crimea and industrially-developed eastern Ukraine (the First Battle of Kharkov ). [ 147 ] The diversion of three-quarters of the Axis troops and the majority of their air forces from France and the central Mediterranean to the Eastern Front [ 148 ] prompted the United Kingdom to reconsider its grand strategy . [ 149 ] In July, the UK and the Soviet Union formed a military alliance against Germany [ 150 ] and in August, the United Kingdom and the United States jointly issued the Atlantic Charter , which outlined British and American goals for the post-war world. [ 151 ] In late August the British and Soviets invaded neutral Iran to secure the Persian Corridor , Iran's oil fields , and preempt any Axis advances through Iran toward the Baku oil fields or India. [ 152 ] By October, Axis powers had achieved operational objectives in Ukraine and the Baltic region, with only the sieges of Leningrad [ 153 ] and Sevastopol continuing. [ 154 ] A major offensive against Moscow was renewed; after two months of fierce battles in increasingly harsh weather, the German army almost reached the outer suburbs of Moscow, where the exhausted troops [ 155 ] were forced to suspend the offensive. [ 156 ] Large territorial gains were made by Axis forces, but their campaign had failed to achieve its main objectives: two key cities remained in Soviet hands, the Soviet capability to resist was not broken, and the Soviet Union retained a considerable part of its military potential. The blitzkrieg phase of the war in Europe had ended. [ 157 ] By early December, freshly mobilised reserves [ 158 ] allowed the Soviets to achieve numerical parity with Axis troops. [ 159 ] This, as well as intelligence data which established that a minimal number of Soviet troops in the East would be sufficient to deter any attack by the Japanese Kwantung Army , [ 160 ] allowed the Soviets to begin a massive counter-offensive that started on 5 December all along the front and pushed German troops 100–250 kilometres (62–155 mi) west. [ 161 ] War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) Following the Japanese false flag Mukden incident in 1931, the Japanese shelling of the American gunboat USS Panay in 1937, and the 1937–1938 Nanjing Massacre , Japanese-American relations deteriorated . In 1939, the United States notified Japan that it would not be extending its trade treaty and American public opinion opposing Japanese expansionism led to a series of economic sanctions—the Export Control Acts —which banned US exports of chemicals, minerals and military parts to Japan, and increased economic pressure on the Japanese regime. [ 117 ] [ 162 ] [ 163 ] During 1939 Japan launched its first attack against Changsha , but was repulsed by late September. [ 164 ] Despite several offensives by both sides, by 1940 the war between China and Japan was at a stalemate. To increase pressure on China by blocking supply routes, and to better position Japanese forces in the event of a war with the Western powers, Japan invaded and occupied northern Indochina in September 1940. [ 165 ] Chinese nationalist forces launched a large-scale counter-offensive in early 1940. In August, Chinese communists launched an offensive in Central China ; [ 166 ] in retaliation, Japanese armies in North China implemented the Three Alls Policy , a massive scorched earth initiative to depopulate regions deemed hostile to Japanese occupation.. [ 167 ] [ 168 ] Continued antipathy between Chinese communist and nationalist forces culminated in armed clashes in January 1941 , effectively ending their co-operation. [ 169 ] In March, the Japanese 11th army attacked the headquarters of the nationalist Chinese 19th army but was repulsed during the Battle of Shanggao . [ 170 ] In September, Japan attempted to take the city of Changsha again and clashed with Chinese nationalist forces. [ 171 ] German successes in Europe prompted Japan to increase pressure on European governments in Southeast Asia . The Dutch government agreed to provide Japan with oil supplies from the Dutch East Indies , but negotiations for additional access to their resources ended in failure in June 1941. [ 172 ] In July 1941 Japan sent troops to southern Indochina, threatening British and Dutch possessions in the Far East. The United States, the United Kingdom, and other Western governments reacted to this move with a freeze on Japanese assets and a total oil embargo . [ 173 ] [ 174 ] At the same time, Japan was planning an invasion of the Soviet Far East , intending to take advantage of the German invasion in the west, but abandoned the operation after the sanctions. [ 175 ] Since early 1941, the United States and Japan had been engaged in negotiations in an attempt to improve their strained relations and end the war in China. Japan advanced a number of proposals which were dismissed by the Americans as inadequate. [ 176 ] At the same time the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands engaged in secret discussions for the joint defence of their territories, in the event of a Japanese attack against any of them. [ 177 ] Roosevelt reinforced the Philippines (an American protectorate scheduled for independence in 1946) and warned Japan that the United States would react to Japanese attacks against any "neighboring countries". [ 177 ] Frustrated at the lack of progress and pressured by American–British–Dutch sanctions, especially in oil, Japan prepared for war. Emperor Hirohito , after initial hesitation about Japan's chances of victory, [ 178 ] began to favour Japan's entry into the war. [ 179 ] As a result, Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe resigned. [ 180 ] [ 181 ] Hirohito refused the recommendation to appoint Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni in his place, choosing War Minister Hideki Tojo instead. [ 182 ] On 3 November, Nagano explained in detail the plan of the attack on Pearl Harbor to the Emperor. [ 183 ] On 5 November, Hirohito approved in imperial conference the operations plan for the war. [ 184 ] On 20 November, the new government presented an interim proposal as its final offer. It called for the end of American aid to China and for lifting the embargo on the supply of oil and other resources to Japan. In exchange, Japan promised not to launch any attacks in Southeast Asia and to withdraw its forces from southern Indochina. [ 176 ] The American counter-proposal of 26 November required that Japan evacuate all of China without conditions and conclude non-aggression pacts with all Pacific powers. [ 185 ] That meant Japan was essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions in China, or seizing the natural resources it needed in the Dutch East Indies by force; [ 186 ] [ 187 ] the Japanese military did not consider the former an option, and many officers considered the oil embargo an unspoken declaration of war. [ 188 ] Japan planned to seize European colonies in Asia to create a large defensive perimeter stretching into the Central Pacific. The Japanese would then be free to exploit the resources of Southeast Asia while exhausting the over-stretched Allies by fighting a defensive war. [ 189 ] To prevent American intervention while securing the perimeter, it was further planned to neutralise the United States Pacific Fleet and the American military presence in the Philippines from the outset. [ 190 ] On 7 December 1941 (8 December in Asian time zones), Japan attacked British and American holdings with near-simultaneous offensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific . [ 191 ] These included an attack on the American fleets at Pearl Harbor and the Philippines , as well as invasions of Guam , Wake Island , Malaya , [ 191 ] Thailand , and Hong Kong . [ 192 ] These attacks led the United States , United Kingdom , China, Australia, and several other states to formally declare war on Japan, whereas the Soviet Union, being heavily involved in large-scale hostilities with European Axis countries, maintained its neutrality agreement with Japan. [ 193 ] Germany, followed by the other Axis states, declared war on the United States [ 194 ] in solidarity with Japan, citing as justification the American attacks on German war vessels that had been ordered by Roosevelt. [ 139 ] [ 195 ] Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) On 1 January 1942, the Allied Big Four [ 196 ] —the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, and the United States—and 22 smaller or exiled governments issued the Declaration by United Nations , thereby affirming the Atlantic Charter [ 197 ] and agreeing not to sign a separate peace with the Axis powers. [ 198 ] During 1942, Allied officials debated on the appropriate grand strategy to pursue. All agreed that defeating Germany was the primary objective. The Americans favoured a straightforward, large-scale attack on Germany through France. The Soviets demanded a second front. The British argued that military operations should target peripheral areas to wear out German strength, leading to increasing demoralisation, and bolstering resistance forces ; Germany itself would be subject to a heavy bombing campaign. An offensive against Germany would then be launched primarily by Allied armour, without using large-scale armies. [ 199 ] Eventually, the British persuaded the Americans that a landing in France was infeasible in 1942 and they should instead focus on driving the Axis out of North Africa. [ 200 ] At the Casablanca Conference in early 1943, the Allies reiterated the statements issued in the 1942 Declaration and demanded the unconditional surrender of their enemies. The British and Americans agreed to continue to press the initiative in the Mediterranean by invading Sicily to fully secure the Mediterranean supply routes. [ 201 ] Although the British argued for further operations in the Balkans to bring Turkey into the war, in May 1943, the Americans extracted a British commitment to limit Allied operations in the Mediterranean to an invasion of the Italian mainland, and to invade France in 1944. [ 202 ] Pacific (1942–1943) By the end of April 1942, Japan and its ally Thailand had almost conquered Burma , Malaya , the Dutch East Indies , Singapore , and Rabaul , inflicting severe losses on Allied troops and taking a large number of prisoners. Japanese advances were accompanied by numerous atrocities, including the Sook Ching Massacre in Singapore. [ 203 ] Despite stubborn resistance by Filipino and US forces , the Philippine Commonwealth was eventually captured in May 1942, forcing its government into exile. Following the capture of Bataan, Japanese armies forced some 75,000 Filipino and American prisoners on a 42km death march , resulting in thousands of deaths. [ 204 ] On 16 April, in Burma, 7,000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during the Battle of Yenangyaung and rescued by the Chinese 38th Division. [ 205 ] Japanese forces achieved naval victories in the South China Sea , Java Sea , and Indian Ocean , [ 206 ] and bombed the Allied naval base at Darwin , Australia. In January 1942, the only Allied success against Japan was a Chinese victory at Changsha . [ 207 ] These easy victories over the unprepared US and European opponents left Japan overconfident, and overextended. [ 208 ] In early May 1942, Japan initiated operations to capture Port Moresby by amphibious assault and thus sever communications and supply lines between the United States and Australia. The planned invasion was thwarted when an Allied task force, centred on two American fleet carriers, fought Japanese naval forces to a draw in the Battle of the Coral Sea . [ 209 ] Japan's next plan, motivated by the earlier Doolittle Raid , was to seize Midway Atoll and lure American carriers into battle to be eliminated; as a diversion, Japan would also send forces to occupy the Aleutian Islands in Alaska. [ 210 ] In mid-May, Japan started the Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign in China, with the goal of inflicting retribution on the Chinese who aided the surviving American airmen in the Doolittle Raid by destroying Chinese air bases and fighting against the Chinese 23rd and 32nd Army Groups. [ 211 ] [ 212 ] In early June, Japan put its operations into action, but the Americans had broken Japanese naval codes in late May and were fully aware of the plans and order of battle, and used this knowledge to achieve a decisive victory at Midway over the Imperial Japanese Navy . [ 213 ] With its capacity for aggressive action greatly diminished as a result of the Midway battle, Japan attempted to capture Port Moresby by an overland campaign in the Territory of Papua . [ 214 ] The Americans planned a counterattack against Japanese positions in the southern Solomon Islands , primarily Guadalcanal , as a first step towards capturing Rabaul , the main Japanese base in Southeast Asia. [ 215 ] Both plans started in July, but by mid-September, the Battle for Guadalcanal took priority for the Japanese, and troops in New Guinea were ordered to withdraw from the Port Moresby area to the northern part of the island , where they faced Australian and United States troops in the Battle of Buna–Gona . [ 216 ] Guadalcanal soon became a focal point for both sides with heavy commitments of troops and ships in the battle for Guadalcanal, with Japanese forces suffering massive losses in the attrition, especially amongst their elite pilots. [ 217 ] By the start of 1943, the Japanese were defeated on the island and withdrew their troops . [ 218 ] In Burma, Commonwealth forces mounted two operations. The first was a disastrous offensive into the Arakan region in late 1942 that forced a retreat back to India by May 1943. [ 219 ] The second was the insertion of irregular forces behind Japanese frontlines in February which, by the end of April, had achieved mixed results. [ 220 ] Eastern Front (1942–1943) Despite considerable losses, in early 1942 Germany and its allies stopped a major Soviet offensive in central and southern Russia , keeping most territorial gains they had achieved during the previous year. [ 221 ] In May, the Germans defeated Soviet offensives in the Kerch Peninsula and at Kharkov . [ 222 ] The fortress city of Sevastopol, which the Red Army had held out against Axis siege for nearly 250 days, was finally seized with the use of massive artillery bombardments and poison gas. [ 223 ] In June 1942 launched their main summer offensive against southern Russia, to seize the oil fields of the Caucasus and occupy the Kuban steppe , while maintaining positions on the northern and central areas of the front. The Germans split Army Group South into two groups: Army Group A advanced to the lower Don River and struck south-east to the Caucasus, while Army Group B headed towards the Volga River . The Soviets decided to make their stand at Stalingrad on the Volga. [ 224 ] By mid-November, the Germans had nearly taken Stalingrad in bitter street fighting . The Soviets began their second winter counter-offensive, starting with an encirclement of the German Sixth Army at Stalingrad , [ 225 ] and an assault on the Rzhev salient near Moscow , though the latter failed. [ 226 ] By early February 1943, the German army had taken tremendous losses; German troops at Stalingrad had been defeated, [ 227 ] and the front-line had been pushed back beyond its position before the summer offensive. In mid-February, after the Soviet push had tapered off, the Germans launched another attack on Kharkov , creating a salient in their front line around the Soviet city of Kursk . [ 228 ] Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) Exploiting poor American naval command decisions, the German navy ravaged Allied shipping off the American Atlantic coast . [ 229 ] By November 1941, Commonwealth forces had launched a counter-offensive in North Africa, Operation Crusader , and reclaimed all the gains the Germans and Italians had made. [ 230 ] The Germans also launched a North African offensive in January, pushing the British back to positions at the Gazala line by early February, [ 231 ] followed by a temporary lull in combat which Germany used to prepare for their upcoming offensives. [ 232 ] Concerns that the Japanese might use bases in Vichy-held Madagascar caused the British to invade the island in early May 1942. [ 233 ] An Axis offensive in Libya forced an Allied retreat deep inside Egypt until Axis forces were stopped at El Alamein . [ 234 ] On the Continent, raids of Allied commandos on strategic targets, culminating in the failed Dieppe Raid , [ 235 ] demonstrated the Western Allies' inability to launch an invasion of continental Europe without much better preparation, equipment, and operational security. [ 236 ] In August 1942, the Allies succeeded in repelling a second attack against El Alamein [ 237 ] and, at a high cost, managed to deliver desperately needed supplies to the besieged Malta . [ 238 ] A few months later, the Allies commenced an attack of their own in Egypt, dislodging the Axis forces and beginning a drive west across Libya. [ 239 ] This attack was followed up shortly after by Anglo-American landings in French North Africa , which resulted in the region joining the Allies. [ 240 ] Hitler responded to the French colony's defection by ordering the occupation of Vichy France ; [ 240 ] although Vichy forces did not resist this violation of the armistice, they managed to scuttle their fleet to prevent its capture by German forces. [ 240 ] [ 241 ] Axis forces in Africa withdrew into Tunisia , which was conquered by the Allies in May 1943. [ 240 ] [ 242 ] In June 1943, the British and Americans began a strategic bombing campaign against Germany with a goal to disrupt the war economy, reduce morale, and " de-house " the civilian population. [ 243 ] The firebombing of Hamburg was among the first attacks in this campaign, inflicting significant casualties and considerable losses on infrastructure of this important industrial centre. [ 244 ] Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) After the Guadalcanal campaign, the Allies initiated several operations against Japan in the Pacific. In May 1943, Canadian and US forces were sent to eliminate Japanese forces from the Aleutians . [ 245 ] Soon after, the United States, with support from Australia, New Zealand and Pacific Islander forces, began major ground, sea and air operations to isolate Rabaul by capturing surrounding islands , and breach the Japanese Central Pacific perimeter at the Gilbert and Marshall Islands . [ 246 ] By the end of March 1944, the Allies had completed both of these objectives and had also neutralised the major Japanese base at Truk in the Caroline Islands . In April, the Allies launched an operation to retake Western New Guinea . [ 247 ] In the Soviet Union, both the Germans and the Soviets spent the spring and early summer of 1943 preparing for large offensives in central Russia . On 5 July 1943, Germany attacked Soviet forces around the Kursk Bulge . Within a week, German forces had exhausted themselves against the Soviets' well-constructed defences, [ 248 ] and for the first time in the war, Hitler cancelled an operation before it had achieved tactical or operational success. [ 249 ] This decision was partially affected by the Western Allies' invasion of Sicily launched on 9 July, which, combined with previous Italian failures, resulted in the ousting and arrest of Mussolini later that month. [ 250 ] On 12 July 1943, the Soviets launched their own counter-offensives , thereby nearly completely dispelling any chance of German victory or even stalemate in the east. The Soviet victory at Kursk marked the end of German superiority, [ 251 ] giving the Soviet Union the initiative on the Eastern Front. [ 252 ] [ 253 ] The Germans tried to stabilise their eastern front along the hastily fortified Panther–Wotan line , but the Soviets broke through it at Smolensk and the Lower Dnieper Offensive . [ 254 ] On 3 September 1943, the Western Allies invaded the Italian mainland , following Italy's armistice with the Allies and the ensuing German occupation of Italy. [ 255 ] Germany, with the help of the fascists, responded to the armistice by disarming Italian forces that were in many places without superior orders, seizing military control of Italian areas, [ 256 ] and creating a series of defensive lines. [ 257 ] German special forces then rescued Mussolini , who then soon established a new client state in German-occupied Italy named the Italian Social Republic , [ 258 ] causing an Italian civil war . The Western Allies fought through several lines until reaching the main German defensive line in mid-November. [ 259 ] German operations in the Atlantic also suffered. By May 1943, as Allied counter-measures became increasingly effective , the resulting sizeable German submarine losses forced a temporary halt of the German Atlantic naval campaign. [ 260 ] In November 1943, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill met with Chiang Kai-shek in Cairo and then with Joseph Stalin in Tehran . [ 261 ] The former conference determined the post-war return of Japanese territory [ 262 ] and the military planning for the Burma campaign , [ 263 ] while the latter included agreement that the Western Allies would invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months of Germany's defeat. [ 264 ] From November 1943, during the seven-week Battle of Changde , the Chinese awaited Allied relief as they forced Japan to fight a costly war of attrition. [ 265 ] [ 266 ] [ 267 ] In January 1944, the Allies launched a series of attacks in Italy against the line at Monte Cassino and tried to outflank it with landings at Anzio . [ 268 ] On 27 January 1944, Soviet troops launched a major offensive that expelled German forces from the Leningrad region , thereby ending the most lethal siege in history . [ 269 ] The following Soviet offensive was halted on the pre-war Estonian border by the German Army Group North aided by Estonians hoping to re-establish national independence . This delay slowed subsequent Soviet operations in the Baltic Sea region. [ 270 ] By late May 1944, the Soviets had liberated Crimea , largely expelled Axis forces from Ukraine , and made incursions into Romania , which were repulsed by the Axis troops. [ 271 ] The Allied offensives in Italy had succeeded and, at the cost of allowing several German divisions to retreat, Rome was captured on 4 June. [ 272 ] The Allies had mixed success in mainland Asia. In March 1944, the Japanese launched the first of two invasions, an operation against Allied positions in Assam, India , [ 273 ] and soon besieged Commonwealth positions at Imphal and Kohima . [ 274 ] In May 1944, British and Indian forces mounted a counter-offensive that drove Japanese troops back to Burma by July, [ 274 ] and Chinese forces that had invaded northern Burma in late 1943 besieged Japanese troops in Myitkyina . [ 275 ] The second Japanese invasion of China aimed to destroy China's main fighting forces, secure railways between Japanese-held territory and capture Allied airfields. [ 276 ] By June, the Japanese had conquered the province of Henan and begun a new attack on Changsha . [ 277 ] Allies Offensives (1944) On 6 June 1944 (commonly known as D-Day ), after three years of Soviet pressure, [ 278 ] the Western Allies invaded northern France . After reassigning several Allied divisions from Italy, they also attacked southern France . [ 279 ] These landings were successful and led to the defeat of the German Army units in France . Paris was liberated on 25 August by the local resistance assisted by the Free French Forces , both led by General Charles de Gaulle , [ 280 ] and the Western Allies continued to push back German forces in western Europe during the latter part of the year. An attempt to advance into northern Germany spearheaded by a major airborne operation in the Netherlands failed. [ 281 ] After that, the Western Allies slowly pushed into Germany, but failed to cross the Roer river . In Italy, the Allied advance slowed due to the last major German defensive line . [ 282 ] On 22 June, the Soviets launched a strategic offensive in Belarus that nearly destroyed the German Army Group Centre . [ 283 ] Soon after that, another Soviet strategic offensive forced German troops from Western Ukraine and Eastern Poland. The Soviet Red Army however halted in the Praga district on the other side of the Vistula as the Germans quelled the Warsaw Uprising initiated by the Home Army (the main faction of the Polish resistance , loyal to the non-communist government-in exile), killing over 150,000 Poles. [ 284 ] [ 285 ] The national uprising in Slovakia was also quelled by the Germans. [ 286 ] The Soviet Red Army 's strategic offensive in eastern Romania cut off and destroyed the considerable German troops there and triggered a successful coup d'état in Romania and in Bulgaria , followed by those countries' shift to the Allied side. [ 287 ] In September 1944, Soviet troops advanced into Yugoslavia and forced the rapid withdrawal of German Army Groups E and F in Greece , Albania , and Yugoslavia to rescue them from being cut off. [ 288 ] By this point, the communist-led Partisans under Marshal Josip Broz Tito , who had led an increasingly successful guerrilla campaign against the occupation since 1941, controlled much of the territory of Yugoslavia and engaged in delaying efforts against German forces further south. In northern Serbia , the Soviet Red Army , with limited support from Bulgarian forces, assisted the Partisans in a joint liberation of the capital city of Belgrade on 20 October. A few days later, the Soviets launched a massive assault against German-occupied Hungary that lasted until the fall of Budapest in February 1945. [ 289 ] Unlike rapid Soviet victories in the Balkans, bitter Finnish resistance to the Soviet offensive in the Karelian Isthmus denied the Soviets occupation of Finland and led to a Soviet-Finnish armistice on relatively mild conditions, [ 290 ] although Finland was obligated to fight their German former allies . [ 291 ] By the start of July 1944, Commonwealth forces in Southeast Asia had repelled the Japanese sieges in Assam , pushing the Japanese back to the Chindwin River [ 292 ] while the Chinese captured Myitkyina. In September 1944, Chinese forces captured Mount Song and reopened the Burma Road . [ 293 ] In China, the Japanese had more successes, having finally captured Changsha in mid-June and the city of Hengyang by early August. [ 294 ] Soon after, they invaded the province of Guangxi , winning major engagements against Chinese forces at Guilin and Liuzhou by the end of November [ 295 ] and successfully linking up their forces in China and Indochina by mid-December. [ 296 ] In the Pacific, US forces continued to push back the Japanese perimeter. In mid-June 1944, they began their offensive against the Mariana and Palau islands and decisively defeated Japanese forces in the Battle of the Philippine Sea . These defeats led to the resignation of the Japanese Prime Minister, Hideki Tojo , and provided the United States with air bases to launch intensive heavy bomber attacks on the Japanese home islands. In late October, American forces invaded the Filipino island of Leyte ; soon after, Allied naval forces scored another large victory in the Battle of Leyte Gulf , one of the largest naval battles in history. [ 297 ] Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) On 16 December 1944, Germany made a last attempt to split the Allies on the Western Front by using most of its remaining reserves to launch a massive counter-offensive in the Ardennes and along the French-German border , hoping to encircle large portions of Western Allied troops and prompt a political settlement after capturing their primary supply port at Antwerp . By 16 January 1945, this offensive had been repulsed with no strategic objectives fulfilled. [ 298 ] In Italy, the Western Allies remained stalemated at the German defensive line. In mid-January 1945, the Red Army attacked in Poland, pushing from the Vistula to the Oder river in Germany, and overran East Prussia . [ 299 ] On 4 February Soviet, British, and US leaders met for the Yalta Conference . They agreed on the occupation of post-war Germany, and on when the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan. [ 300 ] In February, the Soviets entered Silesia and Pomerania , while the Western Allies entered western Germany and closed to the Rhine river. By March, the Western Allies crossed the Rhine north and south of the Ruhr , encircling the German Army Group B . [ 301 ] In early March, in an attempt to protect its last oil reserves in Hungary and retake Budapest, Germany launched its last major offensive against Soviet troops near Lake Balaton . Within two weeks, the offensive had been repulsed, the Soviets advanced to Vienna , and captured the city. In early April, Soviet troops captured Königsberg , while the Western Allies finally pushed forward in Italy and swept across western Germany capturing Hamburg and Nuremberg . American and Soviet forces met at the Elbe river on 25 April, leaving unoccupied pockets in southern Germany and around Berlin. Soviet troops stormed and captured Berlin in late April. [ 302 ] In Italy, German forces surrendered on 29 April, while the Italian Social Republic capitulated two days later. On 30 April, the Reichstag was captured, signalling the military defeat of Nazi Germany. [ 303 ] Major changes in leadership occurred on both sides during this period. On 12 April, President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by his vice president, Harry S. Truman . [ 304 ] Benito Mussolini was killed by Italian partisans on 28 April. [ 305 ] On 30 April, Hitler committed suicide in his headquarters , and was succeeded by Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz (as President of the Reich ) and Joseph Goebbels (as Chancellor of the Reich ). Goebbels also committed suicide on the following day and was replaced by Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk , in what would later be known as the Flensburg Government . Total and unconditional surrender in Europe was signed on 7 and 8 May , to be effective by the end of 8 May . [ 306 ] German Army Group Centre resisted in Prague until 11 May. [ 307 ] On 23 May all remaining members of the German government were arrested by Allied forces in Flensburg . On 5 June all German political and military institutions were placed under Allied control through the Berlin Declaration . [ 308 ] In the Pacific theatre, American forces accompanied by the forces of the Philippine Commonwealth advanced in the Philippines , clearing Leyte by the end of April 1945. They landed on Luzon in January 1945 and recaptured Manila in March, during which Japanese forces killed 100,000 Filipino civilians in the city. Fighting continued on Luzon, Mindanao , and other islands of the Philippines until the end of the war . [ 309 ] Meanwhile, the United States Army Air Forces launched a massive firebombing campaign of strategic cities in Japan in an effort to destroy Japanese war industry and civilian morale. A devastating bombing raid on Tokyo of 9–10 March was the deadliest conventional bombing raid in history. [ 310 ] In May 1945, Australian troops landed in Borneo , overrunning the oilfields there. British, American, and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northern Burma in March, and the British pushed on to reach Rangoon by 3 May. [ 311 ] Chinese forces started a counterattack in the Battle of West Hunan that occurred between 6 April and 7 June 1945. American naval and amphibious forces also moved towards Japan, taking Iwo Jima by March, and Okinawa by the end of June. [ 312 ] At the same time, a naval blockade by submarines was strangling Japan's economy and drastically reducing its ability to supply overseas forces. [ 313 ] [ 314 ] On 11 July, Allied leaders met in Potsdam, Germany . They confirmed earlier agreements about Germany, [ 315 ] and the American, British and Chinese governments reiterated the demand for unconditional surrender of Japan, specifically stating that " the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction ". [ 316 ] During this conference, the United Kingdom held its general election , and Clement Attlee replaced Churchill as Prime Minister. [ 317 ] The call for unconditional surrender was rejected by the Japanese government, which believed it would be capable of negotiating for more favourable surrender terms. [ 318 ] In early August, the United States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . Between the two bombings, the Soviets, pursuant to the Yalta agreement, declared war on Japan , invaded Japanese-held Manchuria and quickly defeated the Kwantung Army , which was the largest Japanese fighting force. [ 319 ] These two events persuaded previously adamant Imperial Army leaders to accept surrender terms. [ 320 ] The Red Army also captured the southern part of Sakhalin Island and the Kuril Islands . On the night of 9–10 August 1945, Emperor Hirohito announced his decision to accept the terms demanded by the Allies in the Potsdam Declaration . [ 321 ] On 15 August, the Emperor communicated this decision to the Japanese people through a speech broadcast on the radio ( Gyokuon-hōsō , literally "broadcast in the Emperor's voice"). [ 322 ] On 15 August 1945, Japan surrendered , with the surrender documents finally signed at Tokyo Bay on the deck of the American battleship USS Missouri on 2 September 1945, ending the war. [ 323 ] Aftermath The Allies established occupation administrations in Austria and Germany , both initially divided between western and eastern occupation zones controlled by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union, respectively. However, their paths soon diverged. In Germany, the western and eastern occupation zones officially ended in 1949, with the respective zones becoming separate countries, West Germany and East Germany . [ 324 ] In Austria, however, occupation continued until 1955, when a joint settlement between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union permitted the reunification of Austria as a democratic state officially non-aligned with any political bloc (although in practice having better relations with the Western Allies). A denazification program in Germany led to the prosecution of Nazi war criminals in the Nuremberg trials and the removal of ex-Nazis from power, although this policy moved towards amnesty and re-integration of ex-Nazis into West German society. [ 325 ] Germany lost a quarter of its pre-war (1937) territory. Among the eastern territories, Silesia , Neumark and most of Pomerania were taken over by Poland, [ 326 ] and East Prussia was divided between Poland and the Soviet Union, followed by the expulsion to Germany of the nine million Germans from these provinces, [ 327 ] [ 328 ] as well as three million Germans from the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia. By the 1950s, one-fifth of West Germans were refugees from the east. The Soviet Union also took over the Polish provinces east of the Curzon Line , [ 329 ] from which two million Poles were expelled . [ 328 ] [ 330 ] North-east Romania, [ 331 ] [ 332 ] parts of eastern Finland, [ 333 ] and the Baltic states were annexed into the Soviet Union . [ 334 ] [ 335 ] Italy lost its monarchy , colonial empire , and some European territories . [ 336 ] In an effort to maintain world peace , [ 337 ] the Allies formed the United Nations , [ 338 ] which officially came into existence on 24 October 1945, [ 339 ] and adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 as a common standard for all member nations . [ 340 ] The great powers that were the victors of the war—France, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and the United States—became the permanent members of the UN's Security Council . [ 341 ] The five permanent members remain so to the present, although there have been two seat changes, between the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China in 1971, and between the Soviet Union and its successor state , the Russian Federation , following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. The alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had begun to deteriorate even before the war was over. [ 342 ] Besides Germany, the rest of Europe was also divided into Western and Soviet spheres of influence . [ 343 ] Most eastern and central European countries fell into the Soviet sphere , which led to the establishment of Communist-led regimes, with full or partial support of the Soviet occupation authorities. As a result, East Germany , [ 344 ] Poland , Hungary , Romania , Bulgaria , Czechoslovakia , and Albania [ 345 ] became Soviet satellite states . Communist Yugoslavia conducted a fully independent policy , causing tension with the Soviet Union . [ 346 ] A communist uprising in Greece was put down with Anglo-American support and the country remained aligned with the West. [ 347 ] Post-war division of the world was formalised by two international military alliances, the United States-led NATO and the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact . [ 348 ] The long period of political tensions and military competition between them—the Cold War —would be accompanied by an unprecedented arms race and number of proxy wars throughout the world. [ 349 ] In Asia, the United States led the occupation of Japan and administered Japan's former islands in the Western Pacific, while the Soviets annexed South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands . [ 350 ] Korea , formerly under Japanese colonial rule , was divided and occupied by the Soviet Union in the North and the United States in the South between 1945 and 1948. Separate republics emerged on both sides of the 38th parallel in 1948, each claiming to be the legitimate government for all of Korea, which led ultimately to the Korean War . [ 351 ] In China, nationalist and communist forces resumed the civil war in June 1946. Communist forces prevailed and established the People's Republic of China on the mainland, while nationalist forces retreated to Taiwan in 1949. [ 352 ] In the Middle East, the Arab rejection of the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine and the creation of Israel marked the escalation of the Arab–Israeli conflict . While European powers attempted to retain some or all of their colonial empires , their losses of prestige and resources during the war rendered this unsuccessful, leading to decolonisation . [ 353 ] [ 354 ] The global economy suffered heavily from the war, although participating nations were affected differently. The United States emerged much richer than any other nation, leading to a baby boom , and by 1950 its gross domestic product per person was much greater than that of any of the other powers, and it dominated the world economy. [ 355 ] The Allied occupational authorities pursued a policy of industrial disarmament in Western Germany from 1945 to 1948. [ 356 ] Due to international trade interdependencies, this policy led to an economic stagnation in Europe and delayed European recovery from the war for several years. [ 357 ] [ 358 ] At the Bretton Woods Conference in July 1944, the Allied nations drew up an economic framework for the post-war world. The agreement created the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), which later became part of the World Bank Group . The Bretton Woods system lasted until 1973. [ 359 ] Recovery began with the mid-1948 currency reform in West Germany , and was sped up by the liberalisation of European economic policy that the US Marshall Plan economic aid (1948–1951) both directly and indirectly caused. [ 360 ] [ 361 ] The post-1948 West German recovery has been called the German economic miracle . [ 362 ] Italy also experienced an economic boom [ 363 ] and the French economy rebounded . [ 364 ] By contrast, the United Kingdom was in a state of economic ruin, [ 365 ] and although receiving a quarter of the total Marshall Plan assistance, more than any other European country, [ 366 ] it continued in relative economic decline for decades. [ 367 ] The Soviet Union, despite enormous human and material losses, also experienced rapid increases in production in the immediate post-war era, [ 368 ] having seized and transferred most of Germany's industrial plants and exacted war reparations from its satellite states. [ d ] [ 369 ] Japan recovered much later. [ 370 ] China returned to its pre-war industrial production by 1952. [ 371 ] Impact Casualties and war crimes An estimated 60 million to more than 75 million people died in the war including at least 20 million who died from deprivation, famine and disease. [ 372 ] [ 373 ] [ 374 ] [ 375 ] The majority of these deaths were on the Eastern Front and the Chinese Theatre . [ 376 ] The Soviet Union lost around 27 million people [ 377 ] including 8.7 million military and 19 million civilian deaths. [ 378 ] A quarter of the Soviet population were wounded or killed. [ 379 ] Germany sustained 5.3 million military losses, mostly on the Eastern Front and during the final battles in Germany. [ 380 ] An estimated 11 [ 381 ] to 17 million [ 382 ] civilians died as a direct or as an indirect result of Hitler's racist policies , including mass killing of around 6 million Jews , along with Roma , homosexuals , at least 1.9 million ethnic Poles [ 383 ] [ 384 ] and millions of other Slavs (including Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians), and other ethnic and minority groups . [ 385 ] [ 382 ] Between 1941 and 1945, more than 1,200,000 Yugoslavians died. [ 386 ] 200,000 were ethnic Serbs , along with Roma and Jews, were persecuted and killed by the Axis-aligned Croatian Ustaše in Yugoslavia . [ 387 ] Concurrently, Muslims and Croats were persecuted and killed by Serb nationalist Chetniks , [ 388 ] with an estimated 50,000–68,000 victims (of which 41,000 were civilians). [ 389 ] Also, more than 100,000 Poles were massacred by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army in the Volhynia massacres , between 1943 and 1945. [ 390 ] At the same time, about 10,000–15,000 Ukrainians were killed by the Polish Home Army and other units in reprisal attacks. [ 391 ] The number of deaths resulting from the war in Asia and the Pacific is contested. Estimates of Chinese deaths range from 8 million to over 20 million. [ e ] Arne Westad estimates 14 million Chinese died directly from war, of which 2 million were soldiers and the rest civilians. [ 394 ] Rana Mitter considers Westad's figures conservative. [ 398 ] An estimated 500,000 died as a result of Nationalist forces flooding the Yellow River . [ 399 ] In the Nanking Massacre , between 100,000 and 200,000 Chinese civilians and POWs were killed by Japanese forces, while another 20,000 were raped. [ 44 ] Another 2.7 million Chinese civilians were killed by Japanese forces during the Three Alls policy . [ 400 ] Japanese forces killed between 5 million and 10 million civilians in Southeast Asia. [ 401 ] [ 402 ] At least a million civilians died in Indochina , while as many as 4 million died in the Dutch East Indies, 3 million of which died on Java from famine. Between 500,000 and 1,000,000 Filipino civilians died during the Japanese occupation and American liberation. [ 403 ] [ 404 ] Estimates of the number of people killed by Japanese forces in all theatres are as high as 30 million. [ 405 ] Axis forces employed biological and chemical weapons . The Imperial Japanese Army used a variety of such weapons during its invasion and occupation of China ( see Unit 731 ) [ 406 ] [ 407 ] and in early conflicts against the Soviets . [ 408 ] Both the Germans and the Japanese tested such weapons against civilians, [ 409 ] and sometimes on prisoners of war . [ 410 ] The Soviet Union was responsible for the Katyn massacre of 22,000 Polish officers, [ 411 ] and the imprisonment or execution of hundreds of thousands of political prisoners by the NKVD secret police, along with mass civilian deportations to Siberia , in the Baltic states and eastern Poland annexed by the Red Army. [ 412 ] Soviet soldiers committed mass rapes in occupied territories, especially in Germany . [ 413 ] [ 414 ] The exact number of German women and girls raped by Soviet troops during the war and occupation is uncertain, but historians estimate their numbers are likely in the hundreds of thousands, and possibly as many as two million, [ 415 ] while figures for women raped by German soldiers in the Soviet Union go as far as ten million. [ 416 ] [ 417 ] The mass bombing of cities in Europe and Asia has often been called a war crime, although no positive or specific customary international humanitarian law with respect to aerial warfare existed before or during World War II. [ 418 ] The USAAF bombed a total of 67 Japanese cities , killing 393,000 civilians, including the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki , and destroying 65% of built-up areas. [ 419 ] Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour Nazi Germany , under the dictatorship of Adolf Hitler, was responsible for killing about 6 million Jews in what is now known as the Holocaust . They also killed an additional 4 million others who were deemed " unworthy of life " (including the disabled and mentally ill , Soviet prisoners of war , Romani , homosexuals , Freemasons , and Jehovah's Witnesses ) as part of a program of deliberate extermination, in effect becoming a " genocidal state". [ 420 ] Soviet POWs were kept in especially unbearable conditions , and 3.6 million Soviet POWs out of 5.7 million died in Nazi camps during the war. [ 421 ] [ 422 ] In addition to concentration camps , death camps were created in Nazi Germany to exterminate people on an industrial scale. Nazi Germany extensively used forced labourers ; about 12 million Europeans from German-occupied countries were abducted and used as a slave work force in German industry, agriculture and war economy. [ 423 ] The Soviet Gulag became a de facto system of deadly camps during 1942–1943, when wartime privation and hunger caused numerous deaths of inmates, [ 425 ] including foreign citizens of Poland and other countries occupied in 1939–1940 by the Soviet Union, as well as Axis POWs . [ 426 ] By the end of the war, most Soviet POWs liberated from Nazi camps and many repatriated civilians were detained in special filtration camps where they were subjected to NKVD evaluation, and 226,127 were sent to the Gulag as real or perceived Nazi collaborators. [ 427 ] Japanese prisoner-of-war camps , many of which were used as labour camps, also had high death rates. The International Military Tribunal for the Far East found the death rate of Western prisoners was 27 percent (for American POWs, 37 percent), [ 428 ] seven times that of POWs under the Germans and Italians. [ 429 ] While 37,583 prisoners from the UK, 28,500 from the Netherlands, and 14,473 from the United States were released after the surrender of Japan , the number of Chinese released was only 56. [ 430 ] At least five million Chinese civilians from northern China and Manchukuo were enslaved between 1935 and 1941 by the East Asia Development Board , or Kōain , for work in mines and war industries. After 1942, the number reached 10 million. [ 431 ] In Java , between 4 and 10 million rōmusha (Japanese: "manual labourers"), were forced to work by the Japanese military. About 270,000 of these Javanese labourers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in Southeast Asia, and only 52,000 were repatriated to Java. [ 432 ] Occupation In Europe, occupation came under two forms. In Western, Northern, and Central Europe (France, Norway, Denmark, the Low Countries, and the annexed portions of Czechoslovakia ) Germany established economic policies through which it collected roughly 69.5 billion reichsmarks (27.8 billion US dollars) by the end of the war; this figure does not include the plunder of industrial products, military equipment, raw materials and other goods. [ 433 ] Thus, the income from occupied nations was over 40 percent of the income Germany collected from taxation, a figure which increased to nearly 40 percent of total German income as the war went on. [ 434 ] In the East, the intended gains of Lebensraum were never attained as fluctuating front-lines and Soviet scorched earth policies denied resources to the German invaders. [ 435 ] Unlike in the West, the Nazi racial policy encouraged extreme brutality against what it considered to be the " inferior people " of Slavic descent; most German advances were thus followed by mass atrocities and war crimes . [ 436 ] The Nazis killed an estimated 2.8 million ethnic Poles in addition to Polish-Jewish victims of the Holocaust . [ 437 ] Although by 1942 resistance groups formed in most occupied territories, [ 438 ] the assessments of the effectiveness of Soviet partisans [ 439 ] and French Resistance [ 440 ] suggests that they did not significantly hamper German operations until late 1943. In Asia, Japan termed nations under its occupation as being part of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere , essentially a Japanese hegemony which it claimed was for purposes of liberating colonised peoples. [ 441 ] Although Japanese forces were sometimes welcomed as liberators from European domination, Japanese war crimes frequently turned local public opinion against them. [ 442 ] During Japan's initial conquest, it captured 4,000,000 barrels (640,000 m 3 ) of oil (~550,000 tonnes) left behind by retreating Allied forces; and by 1943, was able to get production in the Dutch East Indies up to 50 million barrels (7,900,000 m 3 ) of oil (~6.8 million tonnes), 76 percent of its 1940 output rate. [ 442 ] Home fronts and production In the 1930s, Britain and the United States together controlled almost 75% of world mineral output—essential for projecting military power. [ 443 ] In Europe, before the outbreak of the war, the Allies had significant advantages in both population and economics. In 1938, the Western Allies (United Kingdom, France, Poland and the British Dominions) had a 30 percent larger population and a 30 percent higher gross domestic product than the European Axis powers (Germany and Italy); including colonies, the Allies had more than a 5:1 advantage in population and a nearly 2:1 advantage in GDP. [ 444 ] In Asia at the same time, China had roughly six times the population of Japan but only an 89 percent higher GDP; this reduces to three times the population and only a 38 percent higher GDP if Japanese colonies are included. [ 444 ] The United States produced about two-thirds of all munitions used by the Allies in World War II, including warships, transports, warplanes, artillery, tanks, trucks, and ammunition. [ 445 ] Although the Allies' economic and population advantages were largely mitigated during the initial rapid blitzkrieg attacks of Germany and Japan, they became the decisive factor by 1942, after the United States and Soviet Union joined the Allies and the war evolved into one of attrition . [ 446 ] While the Allies' ability to out-produce the Axis was partly due to more access to natural resources, other factors, such as Germany and Japan's reluctance to employ women in the labour force , [ 447 ] Allied strategic bombing , [ 448 ] and Germany's late shift to a war economy [ 449 ] contributed significantly. Additionally, neither Germany nor Japan planned to fight a protracted war, and had not equipped themselves to do so. [ 450 ] To improve their production, Germany and Japan used millions of slave labourers ; [ 451 ] Germany enslaved about 12 million people, mostly from Eastern Europe, [ 423 ] while Japan used more than 18 million people in Far East Asia. [ 431 ] [ 432 ] Advances in technology and its application Aircraft were used for reconnaissance , as fighters , bombers , and ground-support , and each role developed considerably. Innovations included airlift (the capability to quickly move limited high-priority supplies, equipment, and personnel); [ 452 ] and strategic bombing (the bombing of enemy industrial and population centres to destroy the enemy's ability to wage war). [ 453 ] Anti-aircraft weaponry also advanced, including defences such as radar and surface-to-air artillery, in particular the introduction of the proximity fuze . The use of the jet aircraft was pioneered and led to jets becoming standard in air forces worldwide. [ 454 ] Advances were made in nearly every aspect of naval warfare , most notably with aircraft carriers and submarines . Although aeronautical warfare had relatively little success at the start of the war, actions at Taranto , Pearl Harbor , and the Coral Sea established the carrier as the dominant capital ship (in place of the battleship). [ 455 ] [ 456 ] [ 457 ] In the Atlantic, escort carriers became a vital part of Allied convoys, increasing the effective protection radius and helping to close the Mid-Atlantic gap . [ 458 ] Carriers were also more economical than battleships due to the relatively low cost of aircraft [ 459 ] and because they are not required to be as heavily armoured. [ 460 ] Submarines, which had proved to be an effective weapon during the First World War , [ 461 ] were expected by all combatants to be important in the second. The British focused development on anti-submarine weaponry and tactics, such as sonar and convoys, while Germany focused on improving its offensive capability, with designs such as the Type VII submarine and wolfpack tactics. [ 462 ] Gradually, improving Allied technologies such as the Leigh Light , Hedgehog , Squid , and homing torpedoes proved effective against German submarines. [ 463 ] Land warfare changed from the static frontlines of trench warfare of World War I, which had relied on improved artillery that outmatched the speed of both infantry and cavalry , to increased mobility and combined arms . The tank , which had been used predominantly for infantry support in the First World War, had evolved into the primary weapon. [ 464 ] In the late 1930s, tank design was considerably more advanced than it had been during World War I, [ 465 ] and advances continued throughout the war with increases in speed, armour and firepower. [ 466 ] [ 467 ] At the start of the war, most commanders thought enemy tanks should be met by tanks with superior specifications. [ 468 ] This idea was challenged by the poor performance of the relatively light early tank guns against armour, and German doctrine of avoiding tank-versus-tank combat. This, along with Germany's use of combined arms, were among the key elements of their highly successful blitzkrieg tactics across Poland and France. [ 464 ] Many means of destroying tanks , including indirect artillery , anti-tank guns (both towed and self-propelled ), mines , short-ranged infantry antitank weapons, and other tanks were used. [ 468 ] Even with large-scale mechanisation, infantry remained the backbone of all forces, [ 469 ] and throughout the war, most infantry were equipped similarly to World War I. [ 470 ] The portable machine gun spread, a notable example being the German MG 34 , and various submachine guns which were suited to close combat in urban and jungle settings. [ 470 ] The assault rifle , a late war development incorporating many features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the standard post-war infantry weapon for most armed forces. [ 471 ] Most major belligerents attempted to solve the problems of complexity and security involved in using large codebooks for cryptography by designing ciphering machines, the most well-known being the German Enigma machine . [ 472 ] Development of SIGINT ( sig nals int elligence) and cryptanalysis enabled the countering process of decryption. Notable examples were the Allied decryption of Japanese naval codes [ 473 ] and British Ultra , a pioneering method for decoding Enigma that benefited from information given to the United Kingdom by the Polish Cipher Bureau , which had been decoding early versions of Enigma before the war. [ 474 ] Another component of military intelligence was deception , which the Allies used to great effect in operations such as Mincemeat and Bodyguard . [ 473 ] [ 475 ] Other technological and engineering feats achieved during, or as a result of, the war include the world's first programmable computers ( Z3 , Colossus , and ENIAC ), guided missiles and modern rockets , the Manhattan Project 's development of nuclear weapons , operations research , the development of artificial harbours , and oil pipelines under the English Channel . [ 476 ] [ 477 ] Although penicillin was discovered before the war, the development ] of industrial production technology as well as the mass production and use began during the war. [ 478 ] See also Greatest Generation – Cohort born from 1901 to 1927 Opposition to World War II World War III – Hypothetical future global conflict Notes ^ While various other dates have been proposed as the date on which World War II began or ended, this is the period most frequently cited. ^ Often abbreviated as WWII or WW2 ^ The UK declared war on Germany at 11 am. France followed 6 hours later at 5 pm. ^ Reparations were exacted from East Germany , Hungary , Romania , and Bulgaria using Soviet-dominated joint enterprises. The Soviet Union also instituted trading arrangements deliberately designed to favour the country. Moscow controlled the Communist parties that ruled the satellite states, and they followed orders from the Kremlin. Historian Mark Kramer concludes: "The net outflow of resources from eastern Europe to the Soviet Union was approximately $15 billion to $20 billion in the first decade after World War II, an amount roughly equal to the total aid provided by the United States to western Europe under the Marshall Plan ." ^ Multiple sources: [ 392 ] [ 393 ] [ 394 ] [ 395 ] [ 396 ] [ 397 ] References ^ Weinberg 2005 , p. 6. ^ Wells, Anne Sharp (2014) Historical Dictionary of World War II: The War against Germany and Italy . Rowman & Littlefield . p. 7. ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Ferris, John; Mawdsley, Evan (2015). 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Retrieved 26 January 2024 . [...] mineral raw materials [...] are the basis of industrial power, and this in turn is the basis of military power. [...] England and the United States of America alone control economic proportions of nearly three-fourths of the world's production of minerals. Not less important, they control the seas over which the products must pass. ^ a b Harrison 1998 , p. 3. ^ Compare: Wilson, Mark R. (2016). Destructive Creation: American Business and the Winning of World War II . American Business, Politics, and Society (reprint ed.). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-8122-9354-8 . Archived from the original on 7 March 2023 . Retrieved 19 December 2019 . By producing nearly two thirds of the munitions used by Allied forces – including huge numbers of aircraft, ships, tanks, trucks, rifles, artillery shells, and bombs – American industry became what President Franklin D. 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Past & Present (258): 246– 281. doi : 10.1093/pastj/gtab042 . ISSN 0031-2746 . also see online review Archived 4 May 2024 at the Wayback Machine Gerlach, Christian (2024). Conditions of Violence . Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. ISBN 978-3-1115-6873-7 . External links Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Travel information from Wikivoyage West Point Maps of the European War . Archived 23 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine . West Point Maps of the Asian-Pacific War . Archived 23 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine . Atlas of the World Battle Fronts (July 1943 – August 1945) v t e World War II v t e Outline Battles Operations Leaders Allied Axis Commanders Casualties Conferences Outline Battles Operations Operations Leaders Allied Axis Commanders Allied Axis Commanders Casualties Conferences General Topics Air warfare of World War II In Europe Blitzkrieg Comparative military ranks Cryptography Declarations of war Diplomacy Governments in exile Home front Australian United Kingdom United States Lend-Lease Manhattan Project British contribution Military awards Military equipment Military production Naval history Nazi plunder Opposition Technology Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Total war Strategic bombing Puppet states Women Art and World War II Music in World War II Weather events during World War II Theaters Asia and Pacific China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean Europe Western Front Eastern Front Mediterranean and Middle East North Africa East Africa Italy West Africa Atlantic timeline Americas Aftermath Chinese Civil War Cold War Decolonization Division of Korea First Indochina War Expulsion of Germans Greek Civil War Indonesian National Revolution Keelhaul Marshall Plan Occupation of Germany Occupation of Japan Osoaviakhim Paperclip Soviet occupations Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Territorial changes of Germany Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany United Nations War crimes Allied war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes German war crimes forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials Italian war crimes Japanese war crimes Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Croatian war crimes Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Romanian war crimes Sexual violence German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate Topics Air warfare of World War II In Europe Blitzkrieg Comparative military ranks Cryptography Declarations of war Diplomacy Governments in exile Home front Australian United Kingdom United States Lend-Lease Manhattan Project British contribution Military awards Military equipment Military production Naval history Nazi plunder Opposition Technology Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Total war Strategic bombing Puppet states Women Art and World War II Music in World War II Weather events during World War II Air warfare of World War II In Europe In Europe Blitzkrieg Comparative military ranks Cryptography Declarations of war Diplomacy Governments in exile Home front Australian United Kingdom United States Australian United Kingdom United States Lend-Lease Manhattan Project British contribution British contribution Military awards Military equipment Military production Naval history Nazi plunder Opposition Technology Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Total war Strategic bombing Puppet states Women Art and World War II Music in World War II Weather events during World War II Theaters Asia and Pacific China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean Europe Western Front Eastern Front Mediterranean and Middle East North Africa East Africa Italy West Africa Atlantic timeline Americas Asia and Pacific China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean Europe Western Front Eastern Front Western Front Eastern Front Mediterranean and Middle East North Africa East Africa Italy North Africa East Africa Italy West Africa Atlantic timeline timeline Americas Aftermath Chinese Civil War Cold War Decolonization Division of Korea First Indochina War Expulsion of Germans Greek Civil War Indonesian National Revolution Keelhaul Marshall Plan Occupation of Germany Occupation of Japan Osoaviakhim Paperclip Soviet occupations Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Territorial changes of Germany Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany United Nations Chinese Civil War Cold War Decolonization Division of Korea First Indochina War Expulsion of Germans Greek Civil War Indonesian National Revolution Keelhaul Marshall Plan Occupation of Germany Occupation of Japan Osoaviakhim Paperclip Soviet occupations Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Territorial changes of Germany Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany United Nations War crimes Allied war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes German war crimes forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials Italian war crimes Japanese war crimes Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Croatian war crimes Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Romanian war crimes Sexual violence German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate Allied war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes German war crimes forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials Italian war crimes Japanese war crimes Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Croatian war crimes Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Romanian war crimes Sexual violence German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate Participants Allies Algeria Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria ( from September 1944 ) Canada China Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Ethiopia Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) Finland ( from September 1944 ) France Free France Greece India ( Indian Army ) Italy ( from September 1943 ) Liberia Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Newfoundland New Zealand Norway Philippines Poland Romania ( from August 1944 ) Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Soviet Union Tuva United Kingdom British Empire United States Puerto Rico Yugoslavia Axis Albania protectorate Bulgaria (until September 1944) State of Burma Republic of China (Wang Jingwei) Independent State of Croatia Finland (until September 1944) German Reich Hungary Azad Hind Iraq Italy (until September 1943) Italian Social Republic Empire of Japan Manchukuo Mengjiang Philippines Romania (until August 1944) Slovak Republic Thailand Vichy France Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Collaboration Neutral Afghanistan Andorra Bhutan Ireland Liechtenstein Monaco Portugal San Marino Saudi Arabia Spain Sweden Switzerland Tibet Turkey Vatican City Yemen Resistance Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech lands Denmark Dutch East Indies Estonia Ethiopia France Germany Greece Hong Kong Italy Japan Jews Korea Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malaya Netherlands Northeast China Norway Philippines Poland Romania Thailand Soviet Union Slovakia Western Ukraine Vietnam Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Yugoslavia POWs Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union German prisoners Soviet Union Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union Japanese prisoners Soviet Union German atrocities against Polish POWs Soviet prisoners Finland atrocities by Germans Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union Allies Algeria Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria ( from September 1944 ) Canada China Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Ethiopia Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) Finland ( from September 1944 ) France Free France Greece India ( Indian Army ) Italy ( from September 1943 ) Liberia Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Newfoundland New Zealand Norway Philippines Poland Romania ( from August 1944 ) Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Soviet Union Tuva United Kingdom British Empire United States Puerto Rico Yugoslavia Algeria Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria ( from September 1944 ) Canada China Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Ethiopia Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) Finland ( from September 1944 ) France Free France Greece India ( Indian Army ) Italy ( from September 1943 ) Liberia Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Newfoundland New Zealand Norway Philippines Poland Romania ( from August 1944 ) Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Soviet Union Tuva United Kingdom British Empire British Empire United States Puerto Rico Puerto Rico Yugoslavia Axis Albania protectorate Bulgaria (until September 1944) State of Burma Republic of China (Wang Jingwei) Independent State of Croatia Finland (until September 1944) German Reich Hungary Azad Hind Iraq Italy (until September 1943) Italian Social Republic Empire of Japan Manchukuo Mengjiang Philippines Romania (until August 1944) Slovak Republic Thailand Vichy France Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Collaboration Albania protectorate Bulgaria (until September 1944) State of Burma Republic of China (Wang Jingwei) Independent State of Croatia Finland (until September 1944) German Reich Hungary Azad Hind Iraq Italy (until September 1943) Italian Social Republic Italian Social Republic Empire of Japan Manchukuo Mengjiang Philippines Romania (until August 1944) Slovak Republic Thailand Vichy France Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Collaboration Neutral Afghanistan Andorra Bhutan Ireland Liechtenstein Monaco Portugal San Marino Saudi Arabia Spain Sweden Switzerland Tibet Turkey Vatican City Yemen Afghanistan Andorra Bhutan Ireland Liechtenstein Monaco Portugal San Marino Saudi Arabia Spain Sweden Switzerland Tibet Turkey Vatican City Yemen Resistance Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech lands Denmark Dutch East Indies Estonia Ethiopia France Germany Greece Hong Kong Italy Japan Jews Korea Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malaya Netherlands Northeast China Norway Philippines Poland Romania Thailand Soviet Union Slovakia Western Ukraine Vietnam Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Yugoslavia Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech lands Denmark Dutch East Indies Estonia Ethiopia France Germany Greece Hong Kong Italy Japan Jews Korea Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malaya Netherlands Northeast China Norway Philippines Poland Romania Thailand Soviet Union Slovakia Western Ukraine Vietnam Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Yugoslavia POWs Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union German prisoners Soviet Union Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union Japanese prisoners Soviet Union German atrocities against Polish POWs Soviet prisoners Finland atrocities by Germans Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union German prisoners Soviet Union Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Soviet Union Azerbaijan Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union Japanese prisoners Soviet Union Soviet Union German atrocities against Polish POWs Soviet prisoners Finland atrocities by Germans Finland atrocities by Germans Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union Timeline Prelude Africa Second Italo-Ethiopian War Asia Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Europe Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania 1939 Invasion of Poland Battle of the Atlantic Phoney War First Battle of Changsha Battle of South Guangxi Winter War 1939–1940 Winter Offensive 1940 Norwegian campaign German invasion of Denmark Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang German invasion of Luxembourg German invasion of the Netherlands German invasion of Belgium Battle of France Dunkirk evacuation Battle of Britain Battle of the Mediterranean North Africa West Africa British Somaliland Hundred Regiments Offensive Baltic states Eastern Romania Japanese invasion of French Indochina Italian invasion of Greece Compass 1941 Battle of South Henan Battle of Shanggao Invasion of Yugoslavia German invasion of Greece Battle of Crete Anglo-Iraqi War Battle of South Shanxi Syria–Lebanon campaign East African campaign Invasion of the Soviet Union Summer War Finland ( Silver Fox ) Lithuania Battle of Kiev Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran Second Battle of Changsha Siege of Leningrad Battle of Moscow Bombing of Gorky Siege of Sevastopol Attack on Pearl Harbor Niʻihau incident Japanese invasion of Thailand Fall of Hong Kong Fall of the Philippines Battle of Guam Battle of Wake Island Malayan campaign Battle of Borneo Japanese invasion of Burma Third Battle of Changsha Greek famine of 1941–1944 1942 Fall of Singapore Battle of the Java Sea St Nazaire Raid Battle of Christmas Island Battle of the Coral Sea Battle of Madagascar Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign Battle of Gazala Battle of Dutch Harbor Battle of Midway Aleutian Islands campaign Kiska Attu Blue First Battle of El Alamein Battle of Stalingrad Kokoda Track campaign Rzhev Jubilee Second Battle of El Alamein Guadalcanal campaign Torch Chinese famine of 1942–1943 1943 Black May Tunisian campaign Battle of West Hubei Battle of Attu Bombing of Gorky Battle of Kursk Allied invasion of Sicily Smolensk Solomon Islands campaign Cottage Battle of the Dnieper Allied invasion of Italy Armistice of Cassibile Burma Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Changde Second Battle of Kiev Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign Tarawa Makin Bengal famine of 1943 1944 Tempest Monte Cassino / Anzio Korsun–Cherkassy Narva U-Go Imphal Ichi-Go Kohima Overlord Neptune Mariana and Palau Bagration Western Ukraine Second Battle of Guam Tannenberg Line Warsaw Uprising Eastern Romania Liberation of Paris Dragoon Gothic Line Belgrade offensive Battle of San Marino Lapland Market Garden Estonia Crossbow Pointblank Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945 Philippines (1944–1945) Leyte Syrmian Front Hungary Budapest Burma (1944–1945) Ardennes Bodenplatte Dutch famine of 1944–1945 1945 Vistula–Oder Battle of Manila Battle of Iwo Jima Indochina Vienna offensive Project Hula Western invasion of Germany Bratislava–Brno offensive Battle of Okinawa Second Guangxi campaign West Hunan Italy (Spring 1945) Battle of Berlin Prague offensive Surrender of Germany document Borneo Taipei Naval bombardment of Japan Manchuria Atomic bombings Debate South Sakhalin Kuril Islands Shumshu Surrender of Japan Potsdam Declaration document End of World War II in Asia Prelude Africa Second Italo-Ethiopian War Asia Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Europe Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania Africa Second Italo-Ethiopian War Second Italo-Ethiopian War Asia Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Europe Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania 1939 Invasion of Poland Battle of the Atlantic Phoney War First Battle of Changsha Battle of South Guangxi Winter War 1939–1940 Winter Offensive Invasion of Poland Battle of the Atlantic Phoney War First Battle of Changsha Battle of South Guangxi Winter War 1939–1940 Winter Offensive 1940 Norwegian campaign German invasion of Denmark Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang German invasion of Luxembourg German invasion of the Netherlands German invasion of Belgium Battle of France Dunkirk evacuation Battle of Britain Battle of the Mediterranean North Africa West Africa British Somaliland Hundred Regiments Offensive Baltic states Eastern Romania Japanese invasion of French Indochina Italian invasion of Greece Compass Norwegian campaign German invasion of Denmark Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang German invasion of Luxembourg German invasion of the Netherlands German invasion of Belgium Battle of France Dunkirk evacuation Battle of Britain Battle of the Mediterranean North Africa West Africa British Somaliland Hundred Regiments Offensive Baltic states Eastern Romania Japanese invasion of French Indochina Italian invasion of Greece Compass 1941 Battle of South Henan Battle of Shanggao Invasion of Yugoslavia German invasion of Greece Battle of Crete Anglo-Iraqi War Battle of South Shanxi Syria–Lebanon campaign East African campaign Invasion of the Soviet Union Summer War Finland ( Silver Fox ) Lithuania Battle of Kiev Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran Second Battle of Changsha Siege of Leningrad Battle of Moscow Bombing of Gorky Siege of Sevastopol Attack on Pearl Harbor Niʻihau incident Japanese invasion of Thailand Fall of Hong Kong Fall of the Philippines Battle of Guam Battle of Wake Island Malayan campaign Battle of Borneo Japanese invasion of Burma Third Battle of Changsha Greek famine of 1941–1944 Battle of South Henan Battle of Shanggao Invasion of Yugoslavia German invasion of Greece Battle of Crete Battle of Crete Anglo-Iraqi War Battle of South Shanxi Syria–Lebanon campaign East African campaign Invasion of the Soviet Union Summer War Summer War Finland ( Silver Fox ) Lithuania Battle of Kiev Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran Second Battle of Changsha Siege of Leningrad Battle of Moscow Bombing of Gorky Siege of Sevastopol Attack on Pearl Harbor Niʻihau incident Niʻihau incident Japanese invasion of Thailand Fall of Hong Kong Fall of the Philippines Battle of Guam Battle of Wake Island Malayan campaign Battle of Borneo Japanese invasion of Burma Third Battle of Changsha Greek famine of 1941–1944 1942 Fall of Singapore Battle of the Java Sea St Nazaire Raid Battle of Christmas Island Battle of the Coral Sea Battle of Madagascar Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign Battle of Gazala Battle of Dutch Harbor Battle of Midway Aleutian Islands campaign Kiska Attu Blue First Battle of El Alamein Battle of Stalingrad Kokoda Track campaign Rzhev Jubilee Second Battle of El Alamein Guadalcanal campaign Torch Chinese famine of 1942–1943 Fall of Singapore Battle of the Java Sea St Nazaire Raid Battle of Christmas Island Battle of the Coral Sea Battle of Madagascar Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign Battle of Gazala Battle of Dutch Harbor Battle of Midway Aleutian Islands campaign Kiska Attu Kiska Attu Blue First Battle of El Alamein Battle of Stalingrad Kokoda Track campaign Rzhev Jubilee Second Battle of El Alamein Guadalcanal campaign Torch Chinese famine of 1942–1943 1943 Black May Tunisian campaign Battle of West Hubei Battle of Attu Bombing of Gorky Battle of Kursk Allied invasion of Sicily Smolensk Solomon Islands campaign Cottage Battle of the Dnieper Allied invasion of Italy Armistice of Cassibile Burma Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Changde Second Battle of Kiev Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign Tarawa Makin Bengal famine of 1943 Black May Tunisian campaign Battle of West Hubei Battle of Attu Bombing of Gorky Battle of Kursk Allied invasion of Sicily Smolensk Solomon Islands campaign Cottage Battle of the Dnieper Allied invasion of Italy Armistice of Cassibile Armistice of Cassibile Burma Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Changde Second Battle of Kiev Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign Tarawa Makin Tarawa Makin Bengal famine of 1943 1944 Tempest Monte Cassino / Anzio Korsun–Cherkassy Narva U-Go Imphal Ichi-Go Kohima Overlord Neptune Mariana and Palau Bagration Western Ukraine Second Battle of Guam Tannenberg Line Warsaw Uprising Eastern Romania Liberation of Paris Dragoon Gothic Line Belgrade offensive Battle of San Marino Lapland Market Garden Estonia Crossbow Pointblank Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945 Philippines (1944–1945) Leyte Syrmian Front Hungary Budapest Burma (1944–1945) Ardennes Bodenplatte Dutch famine of 1944–1945 Tempest Monte Cassino / Anzio Korsun–Cherkassy Narva U-Go Imphal Ichi-Go Kohima Overlord Neptune Mariana and Palau Bagration Western Ukraine Second Battle of Guam Tannenberg Line Warsaw Uprising Eastern Romania Liberation of Paris Dragoon Gothic Line Belgrade offensive Battle of San Marino Lapland Market Garden Estonia Crossbow Pointblank Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945 Philippines (1944–1945) Leyte Syrmian Front Hungary Budapest Budapest Burma (1944–1945) Ardennes Bodenplatte Bodenplatte Dutch famine of 1944–1945 1945 Vistula–Oder Battle of Manila Battle of Iwo Jima Indochina Vienna offensive Project Hula Western invasion of Germany Bratislava–Brno offensive Battle of Okinawa Second Guangxi campaign West Hunan Italy (Spring 1945) Battle of Berlin Prague offensive Surrender of Germany document Borneo Taipei Naval bombardment of Japan Manchuria Atomic bombings Debate South Sakhalin Kuril Islands Shumshu Surrender of Japan Potsdam Declaration document End of World War II in Asia Vistula–Oder Battle of Manila Battle of Iwo Jima Indochina Vienna offensive Project Hula Western invasion of Germany Bratislava–Brno offensive Battle of Okinawa Second Guangxi campaign West Hunan Italy (Spring 1945) Battle of Berlin Prague offensive Surrender of Germany document document Borneo Taipei Naval bombardment of Japan Manchuria Atomic bombings Debate Debate South Sakhalin Kuril Islands Shumshu Shumshu Surrender of Japan Potsdam Declaration document End of World War II in Asia Potsdam Declaration document End of World War II in Asia World portal Bibliography Category World portal Bibliography Category v t e History of World War II by region and country v t e Africa Belgian Congo British Somaliland Egypt Ethiopia French Somaliland French West Africa The Gambia Gold Coast Kenya Liberia Madagascar North Africa Tunisia Morocco Nyasaland Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Uganda Belgian Congo British Somaliland Egypt Ethiopia French Somaliland French West Africa The Gambia Gold Coast Kenya Liberia 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJowett20019%E2%80%9310_127-0
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Principles Toggle Principles subsection 1.1 General points on linking style 1.2 Overlinking and underlinking 1.2.1 What generally should be linked 1.2.2 What generally should not be linked 1.2.3 Duplicate and repeat links 1.2.4 Lead section 1.2.5 An example article 1.3 Link clarity 1.4 Link specificity 1.4.1 Section links 1.4.2 Avoiding broken section links 1.1 General points on linking style 1.2 Overlinking and underlinking 1.2.1 What generally should be linked 1.2.2 What generally should not be linked 1.2.3 Duplicate and repeat links 1.2.4 Lead section 1.2.5 An example article 1.2.1 What generally should be linked 1.2.2 What generally should not be linked 1.2.3 Duplicate and repeat links 1.2.4 Lead section 1.2.5 An example article 1.3 Link clarity 1.4 Link specificity 1.4.1 Section links 1.4.2 Avoiding broken section links 1.4.1 Section links 1.4.2 Avoiding broken section links 2 Techniques Toggle Techniques subsection 2.1 Redirects 2.2 Piped links 2.2.1 Style 2.2.2 Intuitiveness 2.2.3 More words into a link 2.2.4 Names in names 2.2.5 Piping and redirects 2.2.6 Piped links and redirects to sections of articles 2.2.6.1 Piped links to sections 2.2.6.2 Redirects to sections which may become articles 2.2.7 Links to non-English language pages 2.3 Links to Wikipedia's categories 2.4 Red links 2.4.1 Colored links 2.5 Checking links as they are created 2.1 Redirects 2.2 Piped links 2.2.1 Style 2.2.2 Intuitiveness 2.2.3 More words into a link 2.2.4 Names in names 2.2.5 Piping and redirects 2.2.6 Piped links and redirects to sections of articles 2.2.6.1 Piped links to sections 2.2.6.2 Redirects to sections which may become articles 2.2.7 Links to non-English language pages 2.2.1 Style 2.2.2 Intuitiveness 2.2.3 More words into a link 2.2.4 Names in names 2.2.5 Piping and redirects 2.2.6 Piped links and redirects to sections of articles 2.2.6.1 Piped links to sections 2.2.6.2 Redirects to sections which may become articles 2.2.6.1 Piped links to sections 2.2.6.2 Redirects to sections which may become articles 2.2.7 Links to non-English language pages 2.3 Links to Wikipedia's categories 2.4 Red links 2.4.1 Colored links 2.4.1 Colored links 2.5 Checking links as they are created 3 Specific cases Toggle Specific cases subsection 3.1 Linking month-and-day or year 3.2 Units of measurement that are not obscure 3.1 Linking month-and-day or year 3.2 Units of measurement that are not obscure 4 External links section Toggle External links section subsection 4.1 Syntax 4.2 Link titles 4.3 URLs as embedded (numbered) links 4.4 Position in article 4.5 Non-English-language sites 4.6 File type and size 4.1 Syntax 4.2 Link titles 4.3 URLs as embedded (numbered) links 4.4 Position in article 4.5 Non-English-language sites 4.6 File type and size 5 Interwiki links Toggle Interwiki links subsection 5.1 Linking 5.2 Floating boxes 5.1 Linking 5.2 Floating boxes 6 Link maintenance 7 Buttons 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 External links Wikipedia : Manual of Style/Linking Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca বাংলা Башҡортса Беларуская Български Català Deutsch فارسی Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Lietuvių مصرى Bahasa Melayu Монгол Nederlands 日本語 ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Português Русский Саха тыла සිංහල سنڌي Slovenščina کوردی Suomi తెలుగు ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Project page Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikivoyage Wikidata item This guideline is a part of the English Wikipedia's Manual of Style . Editors should generally follow it, though exceptions may apply. Substantive edits to this page should reflect consensus . .mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain{float:right;margin:0 0 0 1em;border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);background-color:var(--background-color-base,#fff);padding:0.3em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;text-align:center;font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxleft{float:left;margin:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutlist{display:inline-block;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);margin-bottom:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain ul{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutanchordiv{position:relative;top:-3em}.mw-parser-output li .module-shortcutanchordiv{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mbox-imageright .module-shortcutboxplain{padding:0.4em 1em;line-height:1.3;margin:0;float:initial} Shortcuts .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} MOS:LINK MOS:LINK WP:LINK WP:LINK MOS:L MOS:L MOS:LINK MOS:LINK WP:LINK WP:LINK MOS:L MOS:L Manual of Style Content Accessibility Biography Disambiguation pages Organizing by subject Gender identity Hidden text Infoboxes Linking Self-references Words to watch Accessibility Biography Disambiguation pages Organizing by subject Organizing by subject Gender identity Hidden text Infoboxes Linking Self-references Words to watch Formatting Abbreviations Capitalization Dates and numbers Pronunciation Spelling Superscripts and subscripts Text formatting Titles of works Abbreviations Capitalization Dates and numbers Pronunciation Spelling Superscripts and subscripts Text formatting Titles of works Images Captions Image placement Icons Images Captions Image placement Icons Images Layout Layout Lead section Tables Trivia sections Layout Lead section Tables Trivia sections Lists Lists Lists of works Road junctions Stand-alone lists Lists Lists of works Road junctions Stand-alone lists By topic area Arts Anime and manga Comics Film Music Music samples Record charts Stringed instruments Novels Television Video games Visual arts Writing about fiction See also: WikiProject style advice Regional Canada China (and Chinese) France (and French) Hawaii India Indonesia Ireland Japan Korea Malaysia Pakistan Philippines Poland Singapore See also: Naming conventions (geographic names) WikiProject style advice Science and technology Chemistry Compound classes Chemicals References and external links Safety Structure drawing Computer science Mathematics Medicine Taxonomy See also: WikiProject style advice Other Blazons Cue sports ( Snooker ) Islam Latter Day Saints Legal Military history Trademarks See also: WikiProject style advice history legal and cultural religion and education sports and games Arts Anime and manga Comics Film Music Music samples Record charts Stringed instruments Novels Television Video games Visual arts Writing about fiction See also: WikiProject style advice Anime and manga Comics Film Music Music samples Record charts Stringed instruments Music samples Record charts Stringed instruments Novels Television Video games Visual arts Writing about fiction See also: WikiProject style advice Regional Canada China (and Chinese) France (and French) Hawaii India Indonesia Ireland Japan Korea Malaysia Pakistan Philippines Poland Singapore See also: Naming conventions (geographic names) WikiProject style advice Canada China (and Chinese) France (and French) Hawaii India Indonesia Ireland Japan Korea Malaysia Pakistan Philippines Poland Singapore See also: Naming conventions (geographic names) WikiProject style advice Science and technology Chemistry Compound classes Chemicals References and external links Safety Structure drawing Computer science Mathematics Medicine Taxonomy See also: WikiProject style advice Chemistry Compound classes Chemicals References and external links Safety Structure drawing Compound classes Chemicals References and external links Safety Structure drawing Computer science Mathematics Medicine Taxonomy See also: WikiProject style advice Other Blazons Cue sports ( Snooker ) Islam Latter Day Saints Legal Military history Trademarks See also: WikiProject style advice history legal and cultural religion and education sports and games Blazons Cue sports ( Snooker ) Islam Latter Day Saints Legal Military history Trademarks See also: WikiProject style advice history legal and cultural religion and education sports and games history legal and cultural religion and education sports and games Related guidelines Article size Article titles Categories, lists, and navigation templates Categorization Hatnotes Subpages Understandability Article size Article titles Categories, lists, and navigation templates Categorization Hatnotes Subpages Understandability Simplified Contents Tips Simplified Contents Tips .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e Linking and page manipulation Linking and diffs URLs Links Orphans Interlanguage links Interwiki linking Shortcuts External links External link icons Plainlinks Link color Colon trick Pipe trick Self links What links here Linksearch Manual of Style on linking Navigation templates Hatnotes Template index for links Diffs Simplest diff guide Simple diff and link guide Complete diff and link guide URLs Links Orphans Interlanguage links Interwiki linking Shortcuts External links External link icons Plainlinks External link icons Plainlinks Link color Colon trick Pipe trick Self links What links here Linksearch Manual of Style on linking Navigation templates Hatnotes Template index for links Diffs Simplest diff guide Simple diff and link guide Complete diff and link guide Simplest diff guide Simple diff and link guide Complete diff and link guide Categorization Category Categorization guideline Classification Container category FAQ for categorization FAQ for categories Categories, lists, and navigation templates Categorizing articles about people By year Redirect categories User categories Overcategorization User categories Template index for categories Category Categorization guideline Classification Container category FAQ for categorization FAQ for categories Categories, lists, and navigation templates Categorizing articles about people By year By year Redirect categories User categories Overcategorization User categories User categories Template index for categories Moving and redirecting How to move a page for beginners Redirects Moving a page Requested moves How to fix cut-and-paste moves Moving files to Commons Userfication Non-admin and admin-only moves Template index for moving Template index for redirects How to move a page for beginners Redirects Moving a page Requested moves How to fix cut-and-paste moves Moving files to Commons Userfication Non-admin and admin-only moves Template index for moving Template index for redirects Merging Merging Proposed article mergers Requests for history merge Merge and delete? Merge what? Delete or merge? Template index for merging WikiProject Merge Merging Proposed article mergers Requests for history merge Merge and delete? Merge what? Delete or merge? Template index for merging WikiProject Merge Splitting Splitting Template index for splitting Splitting Template index for splitting Importing and copying Requests for page importation Import Export Copying within Wikipedia Requests for page importation Import Export Copying within Wikipedia Protecting Protection Protection policy High-risk templates Requests for page protection Rough guide to semi-protection Protection Protection policy High-risk templates Requests for page protection Rough guide to semi-protection Additional How to create a page Your first article Editing Deletion process How to create a page Your first article Editing Deletion process v t e v t e Linking through hyperlinks is an important feature of Wikipedia. Internal links bind the project together into an interconnected whole . Interwikimedia links bind the project to sister projects such as Wikisource , Wiktionary and Wikipedia in other languages, and external links bind Wikipedia to the World Wide Web . Appropriate links provide instant pathways to locations within and outside the project that can increase readers' understanding of the topic at hand. Whenever writing or editing an article, consider not only what to put in the article, but also what links to include to help the reader find related information, and also which other pages should have links to the article. Avoid both underlinking and overlinking, as described below. This page provides guidelines as to when links should and should not be used, and how to format links. For information about the syntax used to create links, see Help:Link . For links on disambiguation pages, see Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Disambiguation pages . Principles MOS:BTW MOS:BTW MOS:BUILD MOS:BUILD Wikipedia is based on hypertext , and aims to "build the web" to enable readers to access relevant information on other Wikipedia pages easily. The page from which the hyperlink is activated is called the origin ; the page the link points to is called the target . In adding or removing links, consider an article's place in the knowledge tree . Internal links can add to the cohesion and utility of Wikipedia, allowing readers to deepen their understanding of a topic by conveniently accessing other articles. Ask yourself, "How likely is it that the reader will also want to read that other article?" Consider including links where readers might want to use them; for example, in article leads , at the openings of new sections, in the cells of tables , and in file captions . But as a rule of thumb, link only the first occurrence of a term in both the lead and body of the article. General points on linking style MOS:LINKSTYLE MOS:LINKSTYLE Section headings should not themselves contain links; instead, a {{ main }} or {{ see also }} template should be placed immediately after the heading. MOS:NOFORCELINK MOS:NOFORCELINK MOS:FORCELINK MOS:FORCELINK Use a link when appropriate, but as far as possible do not force a reader to use that link to understand the sentence. The text needs to make sense to readers who cannot follow links. Users may print articles or read offline, and Wikipedia content may be encountered in republished form , often without links. Articles on highly technical subjects might demand a higher density of links than general-interest articles, because they are likely to contain terminology unfamiliar to the average reader. However, do not use links as a substitute for explanation; if a technical term can be simply explained in a few words, do so ( .mw-parser-output div.crossreference{padding-left:0} See also Wikipedia:Manual of Style § Technical language ). MOS:NOLINKQUOTE MOS:NOLINKQUOTE Be conservative when linking within quotations ; link only to targets that correspond to the meaning clearly intended by the quote's author. Where possible, link from text outside of the quotation instead – either before it or soon after. [ a ] MOS:SEAOFBLUE MOS:SEAOFBLUE MOS:SOB MOS:SOB When possible, do not place links next to each other that appear to be a single link, as in chess tournament ( [[ chess ]] [[ tournament ]] ). Instead, consider using a single, more specific link such as chess tournament ( [[ chess tournament ]] ). If this is not possible, consider omitting one of the links ( chess tournament) or rephrasing the sentence ( tournament of chess ). MOS:DRAFTNOLINK MOS:DRAFTNOLINK In articles, do not link to pages outside the article namespace , including draft articles , except in articles about Wikipedia itself (and even in that case with care – see Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Self-references to avoid ). MOS:GEOLINK MOS:GEOLINK For a geographical location expressed as a consecutive comma-separated sequence of two or more territorial units, link only the first unit. For example, avoid: N Paris , France ( [[ Paris ]] , [[ France ]] ) N Quothquan , South Lanarkshire , Scotland ( [[ Quothquan ]] , [[ South Lanarkshire ]] , [[ Scotland ]] ) N Buffalo , New York , United States ( [[ Buffalo, New York | Buffalo ]] , [[ New York (state) | New York ]] , [[ United States ]] ) Instead, use: Y Paris , France ( [[ Paris ]] , France ) Y Quothquan , South Lanarkshire, Scotland ( [[ Quothquan ]] , South Lanarkshire, Scotland ) Y Buffalo, New York , United States ( [[ Buffalo, New York ]] , United States ) If the smallest unit is an extant place, but the largest is not, it is preferable to space the links out when feasible, e.g. @media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .inline-quote-talk{color:#00B785}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .inline-quote-talk{color:#00B785}}.mw-parser-output .inline-quote-talk{font-family:Georgia,"DejaVu Serif",serif;color:#008560;quotes:none}.mw-parser-output .inline-quote-talk-italic{font-family:inherit;font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output .inline-quote-talk-marks{quotes:"\"""\""} Kumrovec , then part of Austria-Hungary ( [[ Kumrovec ]] , then part of [[ Austria-Hungary ]] ). MOS:LINK#OTHER MOS:LINK#OTHER Other points: Many, but not all, articles repeat the article title in boldface in the first line. This boldface text should not contain links . [ b ] Links should not contain leading or trailing spaces within the square brackets, e.g. use [[ North America ]] , not [[ North America ]] . Refrain from implementing colored links that may impede user ability to distinguish links from regular text, or color links for purely aesthetic reasons. Beware of linking to an article without first confirming that the target article covers the appropriate topic. For example, an article mentioning the physics unit "barn" should link to barn (unit) , not barn . As explained in more detail at Help:Link § Wikilinks , linking can be direct ( [[ Riverside, California ]] , which results in Riverside, California ), or piped ( [[ Riverside, California | Riverside ]] , which results in Riverside in the text, but still links to the article " Riverside, California "—although the pipe trick is an easier way to create this particular link). Overlinking and underlinking WP:CONTEXT WP:CONTEXT What generally should be linked MOS:UL MOS:UL MOS:UNDERLINK MOS:UNDERLINK An article is said to be underlinked if unlinked words are needed to aid understanding of the article. In general, links should be created for: Relevant connections to the subject of another article that help readers understand the article more fully (see the example below). This can include people, events, and topics that already have an article or that clearly deserve one, as long as the link is relevant to the article in question. Articles with relevant information, for example: " see Fourier series for relevant background " Articles explaining words of technical terms, jargon or slang expressions or phrases—but you could also give a concise definition instead of or in addition to a link. If there is no appropriate Wikipedia article, an interwikimedia link to Wiktionary could be used. Proper names that are likely to be unfamiliar to readers If you feel that a link is relevant to the topic of the article but does not belong in the body of an article, consider moving it to a "See also" section . Links may be created to potential articles that do not yet exist (see § Red links ). If an article exists on a non-English language Wikipedia but not yet in English, consider a red link that also links to the non-English language article (see Help:Interlanguage links § Inline links ). What generally should not be linked MOS:OL MOS:OL MOS:OVERLINK MOS:OVERLINK MOS:DABLINK MOS:DABLINK An article is said to be overlinked if it contains an excessive number of links, making it difficult to identify those likely to aid a reader's understanding. [ 1 ] [ c ] A good question to ask yourself is whether reading the article you're about to link to would help someone understand the article you are linking from. Unless particularly relevant to the context in the article, words and terms understood by most readers in context are usually not linked. Be conscious of your own demographic biases when determining whether certain terms have this level of recognizability – what is well known in your age group, line of work, or country may be less so for others. Examples of overlinking include: Everyday words (e.g., education, violence, aircraft, river, animation) Common occupations (e.g., accountant, politician, actor) Common units of measurement , often those relating to time, temperature, length, area, or volume. If both non-metric and metric equivalents are given, as in 5 centimetres (2 in) , usually neither unit needs to be linked, because almost all readers understand at least one of the units. Dates (see § Chronological items , below) Disambiguation pages should not be linked from articles unless the link is purposeful , such as in a hatnote. Instead, use a piped link to the appropriate article. For example, use Y [[Moana (character)|Moana]] for the Disney character, which appears as Moana and leads to the intended page—instead of N [[Moana]] , which appears identical but leads to this disambiguation page . In addition, major examples of the following categories should generally not be linked: Countries (e.g., Brazil/Brazilian, Canada/Canadian, China/Chinese) Geographic features (e.g., the Himalayas, Pacific Ocean, South America) Settlements or municipalities (e.g., New Delhi; New York City, or just New York if the city context is already clear; London, if the context rules out London, Ontario ) Languages (e.g., English, Arabic, Korean, Spanish) Nationalities, ethnicities or identities (e.g., British, Japanese, Turkish, African American, Nigerian) Religions (e.g., Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism) Links may be excessive even if they are informative. For example, because inline links present relatively small tap targets on touchscreen devices, placing several separate inline links close together within a section of text can make navigation more difficult for readers, especially if they have limited dexterity or coordination. Balance readability, information, and accessibility when adding multiple links in one section of text. As of 2024 [update] , most stub articles average two links per sentence, or about 10 to 20 links total. Most longer articles average somewhere around one link per 20 words. The lead of an article usually has a greater density of links than later parts of the article. MOS:CIRCULAR MOS:CIRCULAR MOS:CIRC MOS:CIRC Do not link to pages that redirect back to the page the link is on (unless the link is to a redirect with possibilities that links to an appropriate section of the current article). The purpose of linking is to clarify and to provide reasonable navigation opportunities, not to emphasize a particular word. Do not link to draw attention to certain words or ideas, or as a mark of respect. External links normally should not be placed in the body of an article (see Wikipedia:External links ). Duplicate and repeat links MOS:DUPLINK MOS:DUPLINK MOS:REPEATLINK MOS:REPEATLINK MOS:LINKONCE MOS:LINKONCE MOS:DL MOS:DL Link a term at most once per major section, [ d ] at first occurrence. Do not re-link in other sections if not contextually important there. Other mentions may be linked if helpful, such as in infoboxes , tables , image captions , footnotes , and hatnotes . Citations stand alone in their usage, so there is no problem with repeating the same link in many citations within an article; e.g. |work= [[ The Guardian ]] . In glossaries , which are primarily referred to for encyclopedic entries on specific terms rather than read from top to bottom like a regular article, it is usually desirable to repeat links (including to other terms in the glossary) that were not already linked in the same entry (see Template:Glossary link ) . Duplicate linking in stand-alone and embedded lists is permissible if it significantly aids the reader. This is most often the case when the list is presenting information that could just as aptly be formatted in a table, and is expected to be parsed for particular bits of data, not read from top to bottom. If the list is normal article prose that happens to be formatted as a list, treat it as normal article prose. Duplicate links in an article can be found using the duplinks-alt sidebar tool. Lead section MOS:LEADLINK MOS:LEADLINK Too many links can make the lead hard to read. In technical articles that use uncommon terms, a higher-than-usual link density in the lead section may be necessary. In such cases, try to provide an informal explanation in the lead, avoiding using too many technical terms until later in the article. (See Wikipedia:Make technical articles understandable and Wikipedia is not a scientific journal .) Most Featured Articles contain about 12 to 25 links in the lead, with an average of about 1.5 links per sentence, or one link for every 16 words. [ 2 ] An example article MOS:COMMONWORDS MOS:COMMONWORDS MOS:LINKEXAMPLES MOS:LINKEXAMPLES For example, in the article on supply and demand : Almost certainly link " microeconomics " and " general equilibrium theory ", as these are technical terms that many readers are unlikely to understand at first sight. Almost certainly link " Tirukkural ", as a text many readers may not have heard of, and " Ibn Taymiyyah " and " David Ricardo ", people who many readers may not have heard of, for similar reasons. Consider linking " price " and " goods " only if these common words have technical dimensions that are specifically relevant to the topic. Do not link to the "United States", because that is an article on a very broad topic with no direct connection to supply and demand. Definitely do not link "wheat", because it is a common term with no particular relationship to the article on supply and demand, beyond its arbitrary use as an example of traded goods in that article. Make sure that the links are directed to the correct articles: in this example, you should link goods , not good , which goes to a page on the philosophical concept. Many common dictionary words are ambiguous terms in Wikipedia and linking to them is often unhelpful to readers; "Good" is a surname and the name of albums, companies, etc., and the article title Good (disambiguation) is used to index those. Link clarity MOS:LINKCLARITY MOS:LINKCLARITY The article linked to should correspond as closely as possible to the term showing as the link, given the context. For example, a link to the article Requiem (Mozart) should be clear that it is Mozart's Requiem in particular, rather than requiems in general. The link target and the link label do not have to match exactly, but the link must be as intuitive as possible (see § Intuitiveness ). Article text Wikitext Note Y When Mozart wrote his Requiem When Mozart wrote [[ Requiem (Mozart) | his Requiem ]] Includes the word "his" to specify N When Mozart wrote his Requiem When Mozart wrote his [[ Requiem (Mozart) | Requiem ]] Only word "Requiem" Y Previn conducted Mozart's Requiem Previn conducted [[ Requiem (Mozart) | Mozart's Requiem ]] or Previn conducted [[ Mozart's Requiem ]] Specifying that it is "Mozart's" N Previn conducted Mozart's Requiem Previn conducted Mozart's [[ Requiem (Mozart) | Requiem ]] Only word "Requiem" Link specificity MOS:SPECIFICLINK MOS:SPECIFICLINK Always link to the article on the most specific topic appropriate to the context from which you link: it generally contains more focused information, as well as links to more general topics. What you type How it appears Specificity [[ Icelandic orthography ]] Icelandic orthography Specific (preferred) [[ Icelandic language | Icelandic ]] orthography Icelandic orthography Related but less specific Icelandic [[ orthography ]] Icelandic orthography Unspecific the [[ flag of Tokelau ]] the flag of Tokelau Specific (preferred) the [[ flag ]] of [[ Tokelau ]] the flag of Tokelau Unspecific [[ Requiem (Mozart) | Requiem ]] Requiem Specific (preferred) [[ Requiem ]] Requiem Unspecific If there is no article about the most specific topic, do one of the following things: Consider creating the article yourself. If an article on the specific topic does not yet exist, create a redirect page to the article about a more general topic, as described in section § Redirects . For example, if no article yet exists on the song "Sad Statue" from the album Mezmerize , create a new article called Sad Statue that is a redirect to the article Mezmerize . If there is no article on a more general topic either, then create a red link , but first, read § Red links below. When neither a redirect nor a red link appears appropriate, consider linking to a more general article instead. For example, instead of N Baroque hairstyles (an article which hasn't been created as of September 2025 [update] ), write Y Baroque hairstyles (which provides a link to the Baroque era), Y Baroque hairstyles (which provides a link to the article on hairstyle), Y Baroque hairstyles (which provides no link at all, and which may be preferable depending on context), or Y hairstyles of the Baroque (which provides separate links to both topics); however, do not create N Baroque hairstyles as two adjacent links because they may be misinterpreted as linking to a single article on that topic. Section links MOS:SECTIONLINKS MOS:SECTIONLINKS MOS:SECLINK MOS:SECLINK MOS:SL MOS:SL If an existing article has a section specifically about a topic, linking to that section takes the reader directly to the relevant information. Section-linking options are piped links , redirects , and the {{ Section link }} template, which also generates the § character. Avoid displaying the hash ( # ) character in section links. Avoiding broken section links MOS:RENAMESECTION MOS:RENAMESECTION MOS:BROKENSECTIONLINKS MOS:BROKENSECTIONLINKS A problem can arise if the title of the section is changed for any reason, because this action breaks any incoming section links or excerpts . (If this occurs, incoming links default to the top of the linked article.) The recommended way to prevent this breakage is to place the section's prior name inside a {{ subst:Anchor }} template, between the opening equal signs ( == ) and the current section title. MOS:HIDDENLINKADVICE MOS:HIDDENLINKADVICE An alternative, supplementary method has been to add a hidden comment to the target section such as <!-- "Quark" links here --> [ e ] so that someone changing the title of that section can fix the incoming links. This method is weaker, since it puts the workload on the editor seeking to change the section title. There are some bots aimed to fix broken anchors: cewbot , Dexbot , and FrescoBot . Techniques Redirects MOS:RDR MOS:RDR MOS:REDIR MOS:REDIR Suppose you need to link poodle , and there is no such article yet. You might want to create a redirect from "poodle" to "dog" as follows: Link as usual: She owned a [[ poodle ]] . When you save or preview this, you see: She owned a poodle . Follow the red link, and you are invited to create a new page for poodle ; enter (perhaps) #REDIRECT [[ Dog ]] , so that readers clicking on poodle are taken, for now, to the dog article. The redirect is better in a case like this than a direct link like [[ dog | poodle ]] , because when an actual poodle article is eventually created (replacing the redirect), readers following the poodle link are taken there automatically without anyone needing to review all the links to dog to see which ones should actually go to poodle . To link to a redirect page without following the underlying redirect, use e.g. {{ No redirect | poodle }} . Avoid linking redirects that are self links ( WP:SELFRED ). Piped links MOS:PIPE MOS:PIPE MOS:PIPEDLINK MOS:PIPEDLINK Though a wikilink defaults to displaying the title of the target article, it is possible to choose more specific or more appropriate display text for the intended context. This can be done with the use of the pipe character ( | ). For example, [[ Henry II of England | Henry II ]] displays as Henry II . Style MOS:PIPESTYLE MOS:PIPESTYLE Plurals and other derived names. [[ apple ]] s displays as apples , and this is simpler and clearer than [[ apple | apples ]] . [ f ] Similarly: [[ appeal ]] ing , [[ hyperlink ]] ed , etc. Punctuation and non-printing characters are not joined to links; see details . Case sensitivity. Links are not sensitive to initial capitalization, so there is no need to use the pipe character where the case of the initial letter is the only difference between the link text and the target page. (Wikipedia article titles almost always begin with a capital, whereas the linked words in context often do not.) However, links are case-sensitive for all characters after the initial one. Intuitiveness MOS:EGG MOS:EGG MOS:EASTEREGG MOS:EASTEREGG MOS:SUBMARINE MOS:SUBMARINE Keep piped links as intuitive as possible. Per the principle of least astonishment , make sure that the reader knows what to expect when following a link. You should plan your page structure and links so that everything appears reasonable and makes sense. A link's visible label does not need to match the exact title of the article being linked, such as in [[surgical suture|suture]] or [[Passing (sports)|passed the ball]] . However, avoid " Easter egg " or "submarine" links, which are links that unexpectedly hide relevant information underneath the link's label. For example, do not write: Here readers would see the link displayed as particle physics , not the hidden reference to the page Parton (particle physics) , unless they followed the link or inspected the target title e.g. by mousing over it. If a physical copy of the article were printed, or the article saved as an audio file, the reference to the parton model would be lost. Instead, refer to the separate article with an explicit see also X , or by rephrasing the sentence, as in: More words into a link MOS:MORELINK MOS:MORELINK MOS:MORELINKWORDS MOS:MORELINKWORDS Sometimes moving other words into the bluelinked text avoids surprise. For example, in an article on the history of Texas: appears as: which looks the same as a link to the generic topic of annexation would. However: appears as: and is clear that the 1845 annexation of Texas is linked. Names in names MOS:LINKINNAME MOS:LINKINNAME MOS:PARTIALNAMELINK MOS:PARTIALNAMELINK Do not place a link to a name within another name. For example: Write: [[ Columbus Avenue (Boston) | Columbus Avenue ]] → Columbus Avenue Do not write: [[ Christopher Columbus | Columbus ]] Avenue → Columbus Avenue Write: [[ Feynman diagram ]] → Feynman diagram Do not write: [[ Richard Feynman | Feynman ]] diagram → Feynman diagram The above applies regardless of whether linking to the full name creates a red link ; for example, even if there is no article titled Lafayette Avenue (Brooklyn) : Do not write: [[ Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette | Lafayette ]] Avenue → Lafayette Avenue Piping and redirects MOS:NOPIPE MOS:NOPIPE MOS:DYKPIPE MOS:DYKPIPE Per WP:NOTBROKEN and § Link specificity above, do not use a piped link where it is possible to use a redirected term that fits well within the scope of the text. For example, the page Papageno is a redirect to the article about Mozart's opera The Magic Flute (since Papageno is a character in The Magic Flute ). While editing some other article, you might want to link the term Papageno ; here, you might be tempted to avoid the redirect by using a pipe within the link, as in [[ The Magic Flute | Papageno ]] . Instead, write simply [[ Papageno ]] and let the system handle the rest. This has two advantages: first, if an article is written later about the more specific subject (in this case, "Papageno", the character), fewer links need to be changed to accommodate the new article; second, it indicates that the article is wanted . An exception to this rule is when linking to articles in Did you know (DYK) " hooks " on the Main Page , where piping links to prevent readers from seeing a redirect notice is preferable, and the hook is live only for a short time. (See also WP:Piped link § When not to use .) Piped links and redirects to sections of articles MOS:SECTLINK MOS:SECTLINK As explained above , links to sections can take the reader directly to relevant information. Piped links to sections Using piped links to sections avoids the unsightly Article#Section name in the display text. The format for a piped link is [[Article#Section|name of link]] . For example, to link to the "Culture" subsection of the article Oman , type: which displays as culture of Oman . The section name is case-sensitive , unlike article titles, where the first letter is case-insensitive. Finally, consider adding a hidden comment to the target section so that future editors who edit the title of that section know they must search for and fix all incoming links , for example: A list of incoming wikilinks can be generated using the " What links here " feature. As a general rule, it is preferable, particularly in cases where a section has a large number of backlinks, to use {{ subst:Anchor }} in the HTML element of the header. To link to a section within the same article, one can simply prefix the name of the section header with the pound sign (" # ") nested in square brackets, for example: If the label of the wikilink that targets a section is the same as the section name, prefix it with the section symbol (" § ") using the {{ Section link }} template. For example, {{ Section link | #Early life and education }} results in § Early life and education Redirects to sections which may become articles Many topics useful for linking may currently appear only as sections of other Wikipedia articles, but are potentially notable enough to become articles on their own. For example, the article Eastern Anyshire might have a small "History" section, but this does not prevent the article History of Eastern Anyshire being written eventually. A redirect page from such a sub-topic to a general topic may exist already; if not, a redirect can be created when the occasion arises. It is bad practice to create links in article text using the format [[ Article # Section ]] ; navigation then becomes difficult if the section is expanded into a new article. Instead, link using a redirect to the main topic; it costs little and makes improvements easier. Thus: In a redirect page named " History of Topic ", use #REDIRECT [[ Topic #History]] . In another article, use [[history of Topic ]] . Avoid: [[ Topic #History|history of Topic ]] . Links to non-English language pages See Help:Interlanguage links § Inline links . Links to Wikipedia's categories Wikipedia has categories of articles; for example, "Phrases". Adding the wikitext [[ Category : Phrases ]] to an article will add that article to the category "Phrases". (This will not create any visible addition to the body text of the article.) If you instead want to create a visible link to a category, add a colon in front of the word "Category". For example, [[ :Category : Phrases ]] creates the link Category:Phrases . As with other links, piping can be used: Phrases . The {{ See also cat }} template can be used instead: {{ See also cat | Phrases }} creates: Red links MOS:REDLINK MOS:REDLINK MOS:RL MOS:RL Overlinking in general is a style issue partly because of the undesirable effect on readability. But if too many blue links are distracting, a red link is even more so. The unassuming coloration of the text (probably black) is the most productive. In prose, if it seems that the level of red linking is overlinking, remember that red links have been found to be a driving force that encourages contributions, [ g ] and then use that fact to balance the perceived stylistic issues of "overlinking" the red links. (Legitimate red links are titles to unfulfilled coverage of topics that do not violate " What Wikipedia is not " policy.) Given a certain number of red links needed, if marking all of them could be overlinking, then just how many should be marked could be a style issue, and just which ones are priority is a helpful contribution. In lists , overlinking red links can occur when every item on a list is a red link. If the list is uniform, where each item clearly qualifies for an article, a single red link (or blue link) could indicate that. If the list is not uniform, the research effort to mark all possible red links is a risky investment: while red means "approved" status, "black" remains ambiguous, even though it meant "disapproved" after research . Valid requests for the future creation of each title in a list, or in prose, may also be a risky investment when the number of red links could be perceived by other editors as overlinking, and then removed before the investment was fruitful. The removal of massive numbers of red links from an overlinked list is best handled by an editor skilled in the automation of text processing . Red links can also be removed if they violate policy or the guideline for red links , but otherwise red links do not have an expiration date. If you remain convinced there is overlinking of red links, consider turning some of them blue. The methods to do so are by creating a simple stub , a redirect , or a disambiguation page. All of these require the certainty that the red link was legitimate in the first place, such as the conventions on article titles . Colored links Refrain from implementing colored links that may impede user ability to distinguish links from regular text, or coloring links for purely aesthetic reasons. See also the Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Accessibility § Contrast . Checking links as they are created WP:TESTLINK WP:TESTLINK It's easy to create an erroneous link without realizing it. When adding a new link, it's a good idea to use the "Show preview" button and then (from the preview) open the link in a new browser tab to check that it goes where you intend. By following naming conventions , an internal link is much more likely to lead to an existing article. When there is not yet an article about the subject, a good link makes it easier to create a correctly named article later. Specific cases Linking month-and-day or year WP:DATELINK WP:DATELINK WP:YEARLINK WP:YEARLINK WP:LINKYEAR WP:LINKYEAR Month-and-day articles (e.g. February 24 and 10 July ) and year articles (e.g. 1795 , 1955 , 2007 ) should not be linked unless the linked date or year has a significant connection to the subject of the linking article, beyond that of the date itself, so that the linking enhances the reader's understanding of the subject. For example: The date (or year) should not be linked in a sentence such as (from Sydney Opera House ): " The Sydney Opera House was made a UNESCO World Heritage Site on 28 June 2007 ", because little if any content of either June 28 or 2007 pertains to either UNESCO, World Heritage Sites, or the Sydney Opera House. The years of birth and death of architect Philip Johnson should not be linked, because little if any content of 1906 or 2005 enhances the reader's understanding of Johnson or his work. [[ Timeline of World War II (1942) | 1942 ]] might be linked from another article about WWII. [[ 1787 in science | 1787 ]] might be linked from a passage discussing a particular development in the metric system which occurred in that year. However, in intrinsically chronological articles ( 1789 , January , and 1940s ), links to specific month-and-day, month-and year, or year articles are not discouraged. Commemorative days (e.g. Saint Patrick's Day ) are not considered month-and-day items for the purposes of the above. Units of measurement that are not obscure Generally, a unit should be linked only if it is likely to be obscure to many readers or is itself being discussed. For example, the troy ounce , bushel , hand , candela , knot , mho , or millibarn might be considered obscure even if they are well-known within their field of use . Other units may be obscure in some countries even if well known in others. External links section Wikipedia is not a link collection, and an article comprising only links is contrary to what the "what Wikipedia is not" policy dictates. Syntax The syntax for referencing a web address is simple. Just enclose it in single brackets with a space between the URL and the text that is displayed when the page is previewed or saved: The text appears as: The URL must begin with either http:// or https:// (preferring https:// , where available), or another common protocol, such as ftp:// or news:// . If no protocol is used, the square brackets display normally – [like this] – and can be used in the standard way. In addition, putting URLs in plain text with no markup automatically produces a link, for example → . However, this feature may disappear in a future release. Therefore, in cases where you wish to display the URL because it is intrinsically valuable information, it is better to use the short form of the URL (domain name) as the optional text: [ example.org ] produces example.org . Citations templates such as {{ cite web }} should not be used in the ==External links== section. External link templates such as {{ official website }} are used instead of citation templates. Link titles Embedded HTML links within an article are a now-deprecated way to supply a bare URL as a source within an article, by simply enclosing the URL in square brackets, like this: [ ] → [1] . However, you should add a descriptive title when an external link is offered in the References , Further reading , or External links sections. This is done by supplying descriptive text after the URL, separated by a space and enclosing it all in square brackets. For example, to add a title to a bare URL such as (this is rendered as ), use the following syntax: [ an open-content encyclopedia ] (this is rendered as " an open-content encyclopedia "). MOS:URL MOS:URL MOS:DOMAINNAME MOS:DOMAINNAME Generally, URLs and domain names are ugly and uninformative; it is better for a meaningful title or description to be displayed rather than the URL or domain itself. For example, European Space Agency website is much more reader-friendly than . There may be exceptions where the domain name is well known or is also the company or publication name. When a URL or domain name is given, putting both a plain-English title or description and the URL is often more informative: for example, European Space Agency website, www.esa.int . If the URL or domain name is displayed, make it as simple as possible; for example, if the index.html is superfluous, remove it (but be sure to check in preview mode first). Many but not all sites can be trimmed of a leading "www."; test it to be sure. Use camel case to make a displayed domain more readable, e.g. WashingtonPost.com versus washingtonpost.com . The "printable version" of a Wikipedia article displays all URLs in full, including those given a title, so no information is lost. URLs as embedded (numbered) links Without the optional text, external references appear as automatically numbered links: For example, is displayed like this: Numbered links of this type used to be used after the punctuation, like this, [3] with a full citation given in the References section. This style of referencing is now deprecated, because such links are susceptible to link rot . See Wikipedia:Citing sources and Wikipedia:Verifiability for more information. Position in article Embedded links that support information in an article are positioned in the same manner as any other reference in the article, following the usual standards about citation formatting and placement in relation to punctuation . Links that are not used as sources can be listed in the External links section, like this: As with other top-level headings, two equal signs should be used to mark up the external links heading (see Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Layout § Headings ). External links should always be the last section in an article. It precedes categories and some kinds of navigation templates . If there is a dispute on the position of an embedded link, consider organizing alphabetically. Non-English-language sites Webpages in English are highly preferred. Linking to non-English pages may still be useful for readers in the following cases: When the website is the subject of the article When linking to pages with maps, diagrams, photos, tables (explain the key terms with the link, so that people who do not know the language can interpret them) When the webpage contains information found on no English-language site of comparable quality, and is used as a citation (or when translations on English-language sites are not authoritative). If the language is one that most readers could not be expected to recognize, or is for some other reason unclear from the name of the publication or the book or article or page title, consider indicating what language the site is in. Example: Koha Jonë , an Albanian-language newspaper from Tirana Example: El País , a Spanish-language newspaper from Madrid You can also indicate the language by putting a language template after the link. This is done using Template:In lang by typing {{ In lang |< language code >}} . For example, {{ In lang |es}} displays as: (in Spanish) . See list of ISO 639 codes . When using one of the Citation Style 1 or Citation Style 2 templates, instead of the {{In lang}} template, use the |language= parameter. This parameter accepts language names or language codes; see this list of supported names and codes . (Use of language codes is to be preferred because cs1|2 automatically renders language names in the language of the local Wikipedia.) File type and size If the link is not to an HTML or PDF file (the latter is identified automatically by the software with an icon like this: [4] ), identify the file type. Useful templates are available: {{ DOClink }} , {{ RTFlink }} . If a browser plugin is required to view the file, mention that as well. If a link is to a PDF file but doesn't end with .pdf , you can put a #.pdf at the end to flag it as a PDF. If the link is to a very large page (considering all its elements, including images), a note about that is useful since someone with a slow or expensive connection may decide not to visit it. Interwiki links MOS:IWL MOS:IWL MOS:INTERWIKI MOS:INTERWIKI MOS:INTERLINK MOS:INTERLINK Linking Using links to wiktionary as an example, interwiki links can take the form of: The pipe symbol suppresses the prefix: Adding text after the pipe allows either the same or a different text (with no prefix): To avoid reader confusion, inline interlanguage, or interwiki, linking within an article's body text is generally discouraged. Exceptions: Wiktionary and Wikisource entries may be linked inline (e.g. to an unusual word or the text of a document being discussed), and {{ Interlanguage link }} template may be helpful to show a red link accompanied by an interlanguage link if no article exists in English Wikipedia. Floating boxes Floating boxes for links to articles in other Wikimedia Foundation projects such as Wiktionary and Wikiquote can be added using interwiki link sidebar templates , for example {{ Wikiquote | Jimmy Wales }} . These display as a shaded box with a logo. (There is a related set of templates for some free content resources that are not run by the Wikimedia Foundation. Rather than creating a sidebar link, they create text suitable for using as a bulleted entry in an "External links" section. A list of such templates can be found at Wikipedia:List of templates linking to other free content projects .) Link maintenance Linking and continual change are both central features of Wikipedia. However, continual change makes linking vulnerable to acquired technical faults, and to the later provision of different information from that which was originally intended. This is true of both "outgoing" links ( from an article) and "incoming" links ( to an article). Outgoing links: These should be checked from time to time for unintended changes that are undesirable. If the opportunity arises to improve their formatting, appropriateness, and focus, this should be done. Incoming links: Creating an article turns blue any existing red links to its title. Proper redlinks are created only in the hope that an article will eventually be written. Therefore, when creating an article, it is wise to check "What links here" to identify such redlinks, if any, and that they are appropriate. Buttons MOS:BUTTONS MOS:BUTTONS Buttons should not be used in articles. If the desire is to "navigate" a reader to a new page, taking them away from the current page, a link is preferred. Buttons are used within Wikipedia to trigger an "action", such as Show preview , Create account , or Reply . [ 3 ] [ 4 ] See also Wikipedia:Linking dos and don'ts (information page summarizing the key points of this guideline) Help:Interwikimedia links Help:Menu/Links Template:Dead end Template:Dead link Template:Underlinked Wikipedia:Dead-end pages , pages without internal links Wikipedia:Integrate Wikipedia:Links to (disambiguation) pages Wikipedia:Orphan , pages without incoming links Wikipedia:Red link Wikipedia:Walled garden Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not § Wikipedia is not an indiscriminate collection of information Wikipedia:Wikipedia doesn't use Allwiki , the idea that every single word should be a link Wikipedia:WikiProject Orphanage , editors dedicated to clearing up the immense backlog of orphaned articles User:Tony1/Build your linking skills , a tutorial on high-quality linking with practice questions User:Evad37/duplinks-alt , a script to highlight links occuring more than once in an article Notes ^ When a quotation from an online source also contains a link to a particularly relevant Wikipedia page, a note such as [link in original] may be used along with a Wikilink to that page. Generally do not use [link added] ; if such clarification is needed badly enough to justify disrupting the flow of text, the link itself is probably out of place. ^ Linking to the name of the page itself also produces boldface; this practice is discouraged since later page moves often result in a circular self-redirect . Linking part of the bolded text is also discouraged because it changes the visual effect of bolding; some readers can miss the visual cue which is the purpose of using boldface in the first place. ^ A 2015 study of log data found that "in the English Wikipedia, of all the 800,000 links added ... in February 2015, the majority (66%) were not clicked even a single time in March 2015, and among the rest most links were clicked only very rarely", and that "simply adding more links does not increase the overall number of clicks taken from a page. Instead, links compete with each other for user attention." This was reported in: .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Paranjape, Ashwin; West, Bob; Leskovec, Jure; Zia, Leila (February 22–25, 2016). "Improving Website Hyperlink Structure Using Server Logs". WSDM'16: Proceedings of the Ninth ACM International Conference on Web Search and Data Mining (PDF) . San Francisco: Association for Computing Machinery . doi : 10.1145/2835776.2835832 . ISBN 9781450337168 . ^ Major sections are generally detailed sections with a level-2 heading, but consensus at an article may determine a lower-level subsection is major, especially when a preceding subsection is especially long, when an article's structure puts most content under level-3 headings with level-2 ones primarily used for thematic grouping, or when a subsection is a link target at which many readers arrive directly. ^ The hidden message ( <!-- "Article" links here --> ) must be added to the target section with a break between the header and the hidden message, or problems arise. Note the two lines: ==Target section== <!-- "Article" links here --> See MOS:HEADINGS for further information about valid and invalid placement of heading comments. See MOS:HEADINGS for further information about valid and invalid placement of heading comments. ^ The simpler form is also preferred even if there is a redirect from the plural. For example, use [[ apple ]] s rather than the redirect [[ apples ]] . However, if the article title itself is plural or otherwise derived, it's fine to link it as such, e.g. [[ Aztecs ]] . ^ Academic research has suggested that red links may be a driving force in Wikipedia growth; see: Spinellis, Diomidis ; Louridas, Panagiotis (2008). "The collaborative organization of knowledge". Communications of the ACM . 51 (8). Association for Computing Machinery : 68– 73. doi : 10.1145/1378704.1378720 . S2CID 77400 . Most new articles are created shortly after a corresponding reference to them is entered into the system See also Wikipedia:Inflationary hypothesis of Wikipedia growth . References ^ Dvorak, John C. (April 16, 2002). "Missing Links" . PC Magazine . Archived from the original on August 6, 2011 . Retrieved August 16, 2021 . ^ "User:WhatamIdoing/Sandbox 3" . Wikipedia (English ed.). January 30, 2023 . Retrieved August 31, 2023 . ^ "Codex: Wikimedia Design System" . Doc.Wikimedia.org . Wikimedia Foundation . 2024. "Components: Button" section. Avoid using Button when: The action is to navigate the user to a new resource, which would take them away from the current context. In such cases, consider Link instead. ^ "Using links and buttons" . Wikimedia Open Source . Retrieved October 16, 2025 . Making the difference between Links and Buttons is important to help inform the user of an expected interaction, especially for keyboard and screen reader users. A Button should not be styled as a Link and a Link should not be styled as a Button. External links The Wikimedia Design Style Guide (Links) Silvers, V. L.; Kreiner, D. S. (1997). "The Effects of Pre-existing Inappropriate Highlighting on Reading Comprehension". Reading Research and Instruction . 36 (3): 217– 223. doi : 10.1080/19388079709558240 . MASID 3889799 . Internal link analyzer for automatic detection of redundant links in Wikipedia v t e Manual of Style v t e Overview Contents Tips Overview Contents Tips Content Accessibility Biography Disambiguation pages Organizing by subject area Gender identity Hidden text Infoboxes Linking Self-references Words to watch Accessibility Biography Disambiguation pages Organizing by subject area Organizing by subject area Gender identity Hidden text Infoboxes Linking Self-references Words to watch Formatting Abbreviations Capitalization Dates and numbers Pronunciation Spelling Superscripts and subscripts Text formatting Titles of works Abbreviations Capitalization Dates and numbers Pronunciation Spelling Superscripts and subscripts Text formatting Titles of works Images Captions Image placement Icons Images Captions Image placement Icons Images Layout Layout Lead section Tables Trivia sections Layout Lead section Tables Trivia sections Lists Lists Lists of works Road junctions Stand-alone lists Lists Lists of works Road junctions Stand-alone lists By topic area Arts Anime and manga Comics Film Lyrics and poetry Novels Television Video games Visual arts Writing about fiction See also: WikiProject style advice Music Music Music samples Record charts Stringed instruments See also: WikiProject style advice History Blazons Military history See also: WikiProject style advice Legal and cultural Legal Trademarks See also: WikiProject style advice Regional Specific naming conventions Canada China (and Chinese) France (and French) Hawaii India Indonesia Ireland Japan Korea Malaysia Pakistan Philippines Poland Singapore See also: WikiProject style advice Religion and education Islam Latter Day Saints See also: WikiProject style advice Science and technology Mathematics Medicine Chemistry Compound classes Chemicals References and external links Safety Structure drawing Computer science Taxonomy See also: WikiProject style advice Sports Cue sports Snooker See also: WikiProject style advice Arts Anime and manga Comics Film Lyrics and poetry Novels Television Video games Visual arts Writing about fiction See also: WikiProject style advice Music Music Music samples Record charts Stringed instruments See also: WikiProject style advice Anime and manga Comics Film Lyrics and poetry Novels Television Video games Visual arts Writing about fiction See also: WikiProject style advice Music Music Music samples Record charts Stringed instruments See also: WikiProject style advice Music Music samples Record charts Stringed instruments See also: WikiProject style advice History Blazons Military history See also: WikiProject style advice Blazons Military history See also: WikiProject style advice Legal and cultural Legal Trademarks See also: WikiProject style advice Legal Trademarks See also: WikiProject style advice Regional Specific naming conventions Canada China (and Chinese) France (and French) Hawaii India Indonesia Ireland Japan Korea Malaysia Pakistan Philippines Poland Singapore See also: WikiProject style advice Specific naming conventions Canada China (and Chinese) France (and French) Hawaii India Indonesia Ireland Japan Korea Malaysia Pakistan Philippines Poland Singapore See also: WikiProject style advice Religion and education Islam Latter Day Saints See also: WikiProject style advice Islam Latter Day Saints See also: WikiProject style advice Science and technology Mathematics Medicine Chemistry Compound classes Chemicals References and external links Safety Structure drawing Computer science Taxonomy See also: WikiProject style advice Mathematics Medicine Chemistry Compound classes Chemicals References and external links Safety Structure drawing Compound classes Chemicals References and external links Safety Structure drawing Computer science Taxonomy See also: WikiProject style advice Sports Cue sports Snooker See also: WikiProject style advice Cue sports Snooker Snooker See also: WikiProject style advice Related guidelines Article size Article titles Categories, lists, and navigation templates Categorization Hatnotes Subpages Understandability Article size Article titles Categories, lists, and navigation templates Categorization Hatnotes Subpages Understandability Search Category Category Wikipedia link help Wikipedia Manual of Style (content) Wikipedia move-protected project pages Wikipedia semi-protected project pages Pages using sidebar with the child parameter This page was last edited on 10 January 2026, at 07:51 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Current classes 2 History 3 Composition Toggle Composition subsection 3.1 Sovereign and Grand Master 3.2 Officers 3.1 Sovereign and Grand Master 3.2 Officers 4 Commonwealth awards 5 Honorary awards 6 Gallantry awards 7 Insignia Toggle Insignia subsection 7.1 Badge 7.2 Riband 7.3 Star 7.4 Mantles and collars 7.1 Badge 7.2 Riband 7.3 Star 7.4 Mantles and collars 8 Chapel 9 Precedence and privileges 10 Current Knights and Dames Grand Cross Toggle Current Knights and Dames Grand Cross subsection 10.1 Sovereign and Grand Master 10.2 Knights and Dames Grand Cross 10.3 Honorary Knights and Dames Grand Cross 10.1 Sovereign and Grand Master 10.2 Knights and Dames Grand Cross 10.3 Honorary Knights and Dames Grand Cross 11 Forfeiture 12 People who declined Order of the British Empire honours 13 See also 14 Notes 15 References 16 Further reading 17 External links Order of the British Empire Afrikaans العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Беларуская Български Boarisch Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 한국어 Hausa हिन्दी Hrvatski Igbo Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Македонски മലയാളം मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 粵語 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Most Excellent Order of the British Empire CBE neck decoration (in civil division) Awarded by the Monarch of the Commonwealth Realms Type Order of chivalry Established 1917 Motto "For God and the Empire" Eligibility British nationals , citizens of the Commonwealth realms , or anyone who has made a significant achievement for the United Kingdom Awarded for Prominent national or regional achievements [ 1 ] Status Currently constituted Sovereign Charles III Grand Master Queen Camilla Grades .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Knight/Dame Grand Cross (GBE) Knight/Dame Commander (KBE/DBE) Commander (CBE) Officer (OBE) Member (MBE) Knight/Dame Grand Cross (GBE) Knight/Dame Commander (KBE/DBE) Commander (CBE) Officer (OBE) Member (MBE) Former grades Medal of the Order for Gallantry Precedence Next (higher) Royal Victorian Order Next (lower) Varies, depending on rank Military ribbon Civil ribbon The Most Excellent Order of the British Empire is a British order of chivalry , rewarding valuable service in a wide range of useful activities. [ 2 ] It comprises five classes of awards across both civil and military divisions, the most senior two of which make the recipient either a knight if male or a dame if female. [ 3 ] There is also the related British Empire Medal , whose recipients are affiliated with the order, but are not members of it. The order was established on 4 June 1917 by King George V , who created the order to recognise "such persons, male or female, as may have rendered or shall hereafter render important services to Our Empire ". [ 3 ] Equal recognition was to be given for services rendered in the UK and overseas. [ 4 ] The order was retained after the decline of the British Empire in the second half of the 20th century. Today, the majority of recipients are UK citizens, though a number of Commonwealth realms outside the UK continue to make appointments to the order. [ 5 ] Honorary awards may be made to citizens of other nations of which the order's sovereign is not the head of state. Current classes The five classes of appointment to the order are, from highest grade to lowest grade: Knight Grand Cross or Dame Grand Cross of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (GBE); [ a ] Knight Commander or Dame Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (KBE or DBE); Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (CBE); Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (OBE); and Member of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (MBE). The senior two ranks of Knight or Dame Grand Cross and Knight or Dame Commander entitle their members to use the titles Sir for men and Dame for women before their forenames, except with honorary awards. [ 6 ] History King George V founded the order to fill gaps in the British honours system : [ 6 ] The Orders of the Garter , the Thistle and St Patrick honoured royals, peers, statesmen and eminent military commanders; The Order of the Bath honoured senior military officers and civil servants; The Order of St Michael and St George honoured diplomats and colonial officials; The Order of the Star of India and the Order of the Indian Empire honoured Indian rulers and British and Indian officials of the British Indian Empire ; and The Royal Victorian Order , in the personal gift of the monarch, honoured those who had personally served the royal family. In particular, George V wished to create an order to honour the many thousands of individuals from across the Empire who had served in a variety of non-combat roles during the First World War . [ 2 ] From its foundation the order consisted of five classes (GBE, KBE/DBE, CBE, OBE and MBE) and was open to both women and men; provision was also made for conferring honorary awards on foreign recipients. [ 3 ] At the same time, alongside the order, the Medal of the Order of the British Empire was instituted, to serve as a lower award granting recipients affiliation but not membership. The first investiture took place at Ibrox Stadium , as part of a royal visit to the Glasgow shipyards, with the appointment of Alexander Ure, 1st Baron Strathclyde as a GBE (in recognition of his role as chairman of the Scottish War Savings Committee) and the award of medal of the order to Lizzie Robinson, a munitions worker. [ 7 ] The order had been established primarily as a civilian award; in August 1918, however, not long after its foundation, a number of awards were made to serving naval and military personnel. Four months later, a 'Military Division' was added to the order, to which serving personnel would in future be appointed. [ 8 ] The classes were the same as for the Civil Division (as it was now termed), but military awards were distinguished by the addition of a central vertical red stripe to the purple riband of the civil awards. In 1920 appointment as an MBE 'for an act of gallantry' was granted for the first time, to Sydney Frank Blanck Esq, who had rescued an injured man from a burning building containing explosives. [ 7 ] In December 1922 the statutes of the order were amended; there having been a large number of awards for war work prior to this date, these amended statutes placed the order on more of a peacetime footing. [ 4 ] For the first time numbers of appointments were limited, with the stipulation that senior awards in the Civil Division were to outnumber those in the Military Division by a proportion of six to one. [ 9 ] Furthermore appointments in the civil division were to be divided equally between UK and overseas awards. With regard to the Medal of the Order (but not the order itself), a distinction was made in 1922 between awards 'for gallantry' and awards 'for meritorious service' (each being appropriately inscribed, and the former having laurel leaves decorating the clasp, the latter oak leaves). [ 9 ] In 1933 holders of the medal 'for gallantry', which had come to be known as the Empire Gallantry Medal , were given permission to use the postnominal letters EGM (and at the same time to add a laurel branch emblem to the ribbon of the medal); however, in 1940, awards of the EGM ceased and all holders of the medal were instructed to exchange it for a new and more prestigious gallantry award: the George Cross . [ 10 ] In 1941, the medal of the order 'for meritorious service' was renamed the British Empire Medal , and the following year its recipients were granted the right to use the postnominal letters BEM. [ 4 ] During the war, the BEM came to be used to recognise acts of bravery which did not merit the award of a George Cross or George Medal , [ 10 ] a use which continued until the introduction of the Queen's Gallantry Medal in 1974. The designs of insignia of the order and medal were altered in 1937, prior to the coronation of King George VI , 'in commemoration of the reign of King George V and Queen Mary, during which the Order was founded'. [ 4 ] The figure of Britannia at the centre of the badge of the order was replaced with an image of the crowned heads of the late King and Queen Mary, and the words 'Instituted by King George V' were added to the reverse of the medal. The colour of the riband was also changed: twenty years earlier, prior to the order's establishment, Queen Mary had made it known that pink would be her preferred colour for the riband of the proposed new order, but, in the event, purple was chosen. [ 11 ] Following her appointment as Grand Master of the order in 1936 a change was duly made and since 9 March 1937 the riband of the order has been 'rose pink edged with pearl grey' (with the addition of a vertical pearl grey stripe in the centre for awards in the military division). [ 4 ] [ b ] From time to time the order was expanded: there was an increase in the maximum permitted number of recipients in 1933, and a further increase in 1937. During the Second World War, as had been the case during and after World War I, the number of military awards was greatly increased; between 1939 and 1946 there were more than 33,000 appointments to the Military Division of the order from the UK and across the Empire. [ 10 ] Recommendations for all appointments to the Order of the British Empire were originally made on the nomination of the King's United Kingdom ministers (recommendations for overseas awards were made by the Foreign Office , the Colonial Office , the India Office and the Dominions Office ); but in the early 1940s the system was changed to enable the governments of overseas dominions to make their own nominations; Canada and South Africa began doing so in 1942, followed by Australia, New Zealand and other Commonwealth realms. [ 10 ] In May 1957, forty years after the foundation of the order, it was announced that St Paul's Cathedral was to serve as the church of the order, and in 1960 a chapel was dedicated for its use within the crypt of the cathedral. [ 10 ] That year, Commonwealth awards made up 40% of all OBEs and MBEs awarded (and 35% of all living recipients of the higher awards). [ 12 ] Gradually that proportion reduced as independent states within the Commonwealth established their own systems of honours . The last Canadian recommendation for the Order of the British Empire was an MBE for gallantry gazetted in 1966, a year before the creation of the Order of Canada . On the other hand, the Australian Honours System unilaterally created in 1975 did not achieve bi-partisan support until 1992, which was when Australian federal and state governments agreed to cease Australian recommendations for British honours; the last Australian recommended Order of the British Empire appointments were in the 1989 Queen's Birthday Honours . New Zealand continued to use the order alongside its own honours until the establishment of the New Zealand Order of Merit in 1996. [ 13 ] Other Commonwealth realms have continued to use the Order of the British Empire alongside their own honours. [ 5 ] In 1993 the Prime Minister, John Major , instituted a reform of the honours system with the aim 'that exceptional service or achievement will be more widely recognised; that greater importance will be given to voluntary service; that automatic honours will end; that the distinction between ranks in military operational gallantry awards will cease'. [ 14 ] The reforms affected the order at various levels: for example the automatic award each year of a GBE to the Lord Mayor of London ceased; the OBE replaced the Imperial Service Order as an award for civil servants and the number of MBEs awarded each year was significantly increased. As part of these reforms the British Empire Medal stopped being awarded by the United Kingdom; [ c ] those who would formerly have met the criteria for the medal were instead made eligible for the MBE. [ 15 ] In 2004, a report entitled A Matter of Honour: Reforming Our Honours System by a Commons select committee recommended phasing out the Order of the British Empire, as its title was "now considered to be unacceptable, being thought to embody values that are no longer shared by many of the country's population". [ 16 ] The committee further suggested changing the name of the award to the Order of British Excellence, and changing the rank of Commander to Companion (as the former was said to have a "militaristic ring"), as well as advocating for the abolition of knighthoods and damehoods; [ 17 ] [ 18 ] the government, however, was not of the opinion that a case for change had been made, and the aforementioned suggestions and recommendations were not, therefore, pursued. [ 15 ] In the 21st century quotas were introduced to ensure consistent representation among recipients across nine categories of eligibility: Arts and media Community, voluntary and local Economy Education Health Parliamentary and political Science and technology Sport State with the largest proportion of awards being reserved for community, voluntary and local service. [ 15 ] Non-military awards of the British Empire Medal resumed in 2012, starting with 293 BEMs awarded for Queen Elizabeth II's Diamond Jubilee . [ 19 ] In 2017, the centenary of the order was celebrated with a service at St Paul's Cathedral. [ 15 ] Composition The order is limited to 300 Knights and Dames Grand Cross, 845 Knights and Dames Commander, and 8,960 Commanders. There are no limits applied to the total number of members of the fourth and fifth classes, but no more than 858 officers and 1,464 members may be appointed per year. Foreign appointees, as honorary members, do not contribute to the numbers restricted to the order as full members do. Although the Order of the British Empire has by far the highest number of members of the British orders of chivalry, with more than 100,000 living members worldwide, there are fewer appointments to knighthoods than in other orders. [ 2 ] [ d ] From time to time, individuals may be promoted to a higher grade within the Order, thereby ceasing usage of the junior post-nominal letters. Sovereign and Grand Master The British sovereign is the sovereign of the order and appoints all other officers of the order (by convention, on the advice of the governments of the United Kingdom and some Commonwealth realms ). The second-most senior officer is the Grand Master (a 'Prince of the Blood Royal, or other exalted personage' appointed by the sovereign, who, by virtue of their appointment, becomes 'the First or Principal Knight Grand Cross of the same Order'). [ 3 ] No. Portrait Grand Master (Born–died) Term of office Took office Left office 1 Edward, Prince of Wales (1894–1972) 4 June 1917 20 January 1936 2 Queen Mary (1867–1953) 27 March 1936 24 March 1953 3 Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh (1921–2021) 1 June 1953 ( 1953-06-01 ) 9 April 2021 ( 2021-04-09 ) 4 Queen Camilla (1947–present) 23 April 2024 ( 2024-04-23 ) present Officers In addition to the sovereign and the grand master , the order has six officers: [ 20 ] Prelate: Bishop of London , The Rt Hon. & Rt Rev. Dame Sarah Mullally DBE [ 21 ] Dean: Dean of St Paul's ( ex officio ), The Very Rev. Andrew Tremlett Secretary: Secretary of the Central Chancery of the Orders of Knighthood , Lieutenant Colonel Stephen Segrave Registrar: Secretary of the Cabinet and Head of the Civil Service , Sir Chris Wormald KCB King of Arms : Lieutenant General Sir Simon Mayall KBE CB [ 22 ] Lady Usher of the Purple Rod : Dame Amelia Fawcett DBE CVO At its foundation the order was served by three officers: the King of Arms, the Registrar & Secretary and the Gentleman Usher of the Purple Rod. In 1922 the Prelate was added, and the office of Registrar was separated from that of Secretary: the former was to be responsible for recording all proceedings connected with the order, issuing warrants under the seal of the order and making arrangements for investitures, while the latter (at that time the Permanent Secretary to the Treasury ) was responsible for collecting and tabulating the names of those who were to receive an award. [ 9 ] The office of Dean was added in 1957. [ 10 ] The King of Arms is not a member of the College of Arms , as are many other heraldic officers; and the Lady Usher of the Purple Rod does not – unlike the Order of the Garter equivalent, the Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod – perform any duties related to the House of Lords . Commonwealth awards Since the Second World War, several Commonwealth realms have established their own national system of honours and awards and have created their own unique orders, decorations and medals. A number, though, continue to make recommendations for appointments to the Order of the British Empire. In 2024 appointments to the order were made by the governments of: [ 23 ] Antigua and Barbuda The Bahamas Belize Cook Islands Grenada Papua New Guinea Saint Christopher and Nevis Saint Lucia Solomon Islands Honorary awards This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( December 2025 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) Most members of the order are citizens of the United Kingdom or other Commonwealth realms that use the UK system of honours and awards. In addition, honorary awards may be made to citizens of nations where the monarch is not head of state ; these permit use of post-nominal letters, but not the title of Sir or Dame . Honorary appointees who later become a citizen of a Commonwealth realm can convert their appointment from honorary to substantive, and they then enjoy all privileges of membership of the order, including use of the title of Sir and Dame for the senior two ranks of the Order. Gallantry awards Although initially intended to recognise meritorious service, the order began to also be awarded for gallantry. There were an increased number of cases in the Second World War for service personnel and civilians including the merchant navy, police, emergency services and civil defence, mostly MBEs but with a small number of OBEs and CBEs. Such awards were for gallantry that did not reach the standard of the George Medal (even though, as appointments to an order of chivalry, they were listed before it on the Order of Wear . In contrast to awards for meritorious service, which usually appear without a citation, there were often citations for gallantry awards, some detailed and graphic. [ 24 ] From 14 January 1958, these awards were designated Commander, Officer or Member of the Order of the British Empire for Gallantry. [ 25 ] Any individual made a member of the order for gallantry after 14 January 1958 wears an emblem of two crossed silver oak leaves on the same ribbon as the badge, with a miniature version on the ribbon bar when worn alone. When the ribbon only is worn the emblem is worn in miniature. [ 25 ] It could not be awarded posthumously , and was replaced in 1974 with the Queen's Gallantry Medal (QGM). If recipients of the Order of the British Empire for Gallantry received promotion within the order, whether for gallantry or otherwise, they continued to wear also the insignia of the lower grade with the oak leaves; [ 26 ] however, they used only the post-nominal letters of the higher grade. Insignia Badges and ribands of the Order of the British Empire (1937–present) Obverse (left) and reverse of the MBE badge and riband (civil division) MBE badge as awarded to a female recipient (civil division) OBE badge and riband (military division) CBE badge and riband (military division) When the order was founded in 1917, badges, ribands and stars were appointed for wear by recipients. In 1929 mantles, hats and collars were added for recipients of the highest class of the order (GBE). The designs of all these items underwent major changes in 1937. [ 11 ] Badge The badge is worn by all members of the order; the size, colour and design depends on the class of award. The badge for all classes is in the form of a cross patonce (having the arms growing broader and floriated toward the end) with a medallion in the centre, the obverse of which bears a crowned image of George V and Queen Mary within a circlet bearing the motto of the Order; the reverse bears George V's Royal and Imperial Cypher. (Prior to 1937 Britannia was shown within the circlet.) The size of the badges varies according to rank: the higher classes have slightly larger badges. The badges of Knights and Dames Grand Cross, Knights and Dames Commander, and Commanders are enamelled, with pale blue crosses, crimson circlets and a gold central medallion. Officers' badges are plain silver-gilt, while those of Members are plain silver. Riband From 1917 until 1937, the badge of the order was suspended on a purple ribbon, with a red central stripe being added for the military division in 1918. Since 1937, the ribbon has been rose-pink with pearl-grey edges (with the addition of a pearl-grey central stripe for the military division). Knights and Dames Grand Cross wear it on a broad riband or sash, passing from the right shoulder to the left hip. Knights Commander and male Commanders wear the badge from a ribbon around the neck; male Officers and Members wear the badge from a ribbon on the left chest; female recipients other than Dames Grand Cross (unless in military uniform) normally wear it from a bow on the left shoulder. Star An oval eight-pointed star is worn, pinned to the left breast, by Knights and Dames Grand Cross; Knights and Dames Commander wear a smaller star composed of 'four equal points and four lesser'. [ 3 ] The star is not worn by the more junior classes. Prior to 1937 each star had in the centre a gold medallion with a figure of Britannia, surrounded by a crimson circlet inscribed with the motto of the order ('For God and the Empire'); since 1937 the effigies of King George V and Queen Mary have been shown within the circlet. Badges and ribands of the Order of the British Empire (1917–1937) MBE badge as awarded to a female recipient (civil division) MBE badge and riband (military division) OBE badge and riband (military division) KBE badge, riband and star (military division) Mantles and collars In 1929, to bring the order into line with the other orders of chivalry, members of the first class of the order (GBE) were provided with mantles, hats and collars. [ 4 ] The mantle is a cloak-like garment of rose-pink satin lined with pearl-grey silk (prior to 1937 it was of purple satin). On the left side is a representation of the star of the order (as pictured below). Initially a purple plumed hat was also provided to be worn with the mantle; in 1937 the colour of the hat was changed to black. [ 11 ] The collar is made of gold. It consists of six medallions depicting the Royal Arms, alternating with six medallions depicting the Royal and Imperial Cypher of George V ( GRI , which stands for " Georgius Rex Imperator "). The medallions are linked with gold cables depicting ' sea-lions ' and crowns. When collars are worn the badge is suspended from the collar. Only Knights/Dames Grand Cross wear these elaborate vestments; the hat is now rarely, if ever, worn. Use of the mantle is limited to important occasions (such as quadrennial services and coronations ). The mantle is always worn with the collar. Although the mantle was introduced in 1929, very few mantles would have been produced prior to the 1937 design changes, as there were few occasions for wearing them in the intervening years. [ 11 ] On certain days designated by the sovereign, known as " collar days ", members attending formal events may wear the order's collar over their military uniform, formal day dress, evening wear or robes of office. Collars are returned upon the death of their owners, but other insignia may be retained. The six office-holders of the order wear pearl-grey silk mantles lined with rose-pink satin, having on the right side a purple shield charged with the roundel from the badge. [ 27 ] Each of these office-holders wears a unique badge of office, suspended from a gold chain worn around the neck. Knight and Dame Grand Cross insignia Mantle worn by Knights and Dames Grand Cross (GBE) Close-up of the Star on the mantle Collar, badge and Star of a Knight or Dame Grand Cross of the Order Broad riband and badge of a Knight Grand Cross of the Order The British Empire Medal is made of silver. On the obverse is an image of Britannia surrounded by the motto, with the words "For Meritorious Service" at the bottom; on the reverse is George V's Imperial and Royal Cypher, with the words "Instituted by King George V" at the bottom. The name of the recipient is engraved on the rim. It comes in both full-sized and miniature versions – the latter for formal white-tie and semi-formal black-tie occasions. A lapel pin for everyday wear was first announced at the end of December 2006, and is available to recipients of all levels of the order, as well as to holders of the British Empire Medal . The pin design is not unique to any level. The pin features the badge of the order, enclosed in a circle of ribbon of its colours of pink and grey. Lapel pins must be purchased separately by a member of the order. [ 28 ] The creation of such a pin was recommended in Sir Hayden Phillips ' review of the honours system in 2004. [ 29 ] Civil Military 1917–1935 Since 1936 Chapel The Chapel of the Order of the British Empire is in St Paul's Cathedral . It occupies the far eastern end of the cathedral crypt and was dedicated in 1960. The only heraldic banners normally on display in the chapel are those of the Sovereign of the Order of the British Empire and of the Grand Master of the Order of the British Empire . Rather than using this chapel, the Order now holds its great services upstairs in the nave of the cathedral. In addition to the Chapel of the Order of the British Empire, St Paul's Cathedral also houses the Chapel of the Order of St Michael and St George . Religious services for the whole Order are held every four years; new Knights and Dames Grand Cross are installed at these services. Precedence and privileges Knights Grand Cross and Knights Commander prefix Sir , and Dames Grand Cross and Dames Commander prefix Dame , to their forenames. [ e ] Wives of Knights may prefix Lady to their surnames, but no equivalent privilege exists for husbands of Knights or spouses of Dames. Such forms are not used by peers and princes, except when the names of the former are written out in their fullest forms. Male clergy of the Church of England or the Church of Scotland do not use the title Sir (unless they were knighted before being ordained) as they do not receive the accolade (they are not dubbed "knight" with a sword), although they do append the post-nominal letters ; dames do not receive the accolade, and therefore female clergy are free to use the title Dame . Knights and Dames Grand Cross use the post-nominal GBE; Knights Commander, KBE; Dames Commander, DBE; Commanders, CBE; Officers, OBE; and Members, MBE. The post-nominal for the British Empire Medal is BEM. Members of all classes of the order are assigned positions in the order of precedence . Wives of male members of all classes also feature on the order of precedence, as do sons, daughters and daughters-in-law of Knights Grand Cross and Knights Commander; relatives of Ladies of the Order, however, are not assigned any special precedence. As a general rule, only wives and children of male recipients are afforded privileges. Knights and Dames Grand Cross are also entitled to be granted heraldic supporters . They may, furthermore, encircle their arms with a depiction of the circlet (a circle bearing the motto) and the collar; the former is shown either outside or on top of the latter. Knights and Dames Commander and Commanders may display the circlet, but not the collar, surrounding their arms. The badge is depicted suspended from the collar or circlet. [ 30 ] Current Knights and Dames Grand Cross Sovereign and Grand Master Name Year of appointment Present age Charles III ( ex officio ) Sovereign since 2022 77 Queen Camilla LG , LT , ONZ , GCVO , GBE , CSM , CD , PC 2024 78 Knights and Dames Grand Cross Military rank (if any) Name Known for Year of appointment Present age Sir Christopher Leaver GBE , KStJ , JP Lord Mayor of London 1981 88 Sir Anthony Jolliffe GBE , KStJ , DL 1982 87 Sir Alexander Graham GBE 1990 87 Air Chief Marshal Sir Patrick Hine GCB , GBE Joint Commander British Forces Gulf War 1991 93 Air Chief Marshal Sir Bill Wratten GBE , CB , AFC Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief RAF Strike Command 1998 86 Sir Stephen Brown GBE , PC President of the Family Division 1999 101 Air Chief Marshal Sir Anthony Bagnall GBE , KCB , FRAeS Vice-Chief of the Defence Staff 2002 80 Sir Michael Perry GBE , FRSA Chairman of the Senior Salaries Review Body 91 Sir Ronnie Flanagan GBE , QPM Chief Constable of the Police Service of Northern Ireland 76 Elizabeth Butler-Sloss, Baroness Butler-Sloss GBE , PC President of the Family Division 2005 92 General Sir Timothy Granville-Chapman GBE , KCB Vice-Chief of the Defence Staff 2011 79 Mervyn King, Baron King of Lothbury KG , GBE , DL , FBA Governor of the Bank of England 77 Sir John Parker GBE , FREng President of the Royal Academy of Engineering 2012 83 Helene Hayman, Baroness Hayman GBE , PC Lord Speaker 76 Sir Keith Mills GBE , DL Deputy Chairman of the London Organising Committee of the Olympic and Paralympic Games 2013 75 Sir John Bell GBE , CH , FRS , FMedSci President of the Office for Strategic Coordination of Health Research 2015 73 Air Chief Marshal Stuart Peach, Baron Peach KG , GBE , KCB , DL Chief of the Defence Staff and Chair of the NATO Military Committee 2016 69 Sir Ian Wood KT , GBE Businessman and philanthropist 83 Sir Cyril Chantler GBE , FRCP , FRCPCH , FMedSci Paediatric nephrologist 2017 86 Sir Keith Peters GBE FRS FMedSci FRCP FRCPE FRCPath FLSW Regius Professor of Physic at the University of Cambridge 2018 87 Sir Craig Reedie GBE President of the World Anti-Doping Agency and Chairman of the British Olympic Association 84 Sir Christopher Greenwood GBE , CMG , KC Judge of the International Court of Justice 70 Rosalyn Higgins, Baroness Higgins GBE , KC President of the International Court of Justice 88 Sir Michael Burton GBE , KC President of the Investigatory Powers Tribunal 2019 79 Frederick Curzon, 7th Earl Howe GBE , PC Deputy Leader of the House of Lords and Minister of State for Defence 2021 74 Dame Sue Ion GBE , FRS , FREng , FIMMM Engineer and Member of the National Academy of Engineering 2022 70 Sir Partha Dasgupta GBE , FRS , FBA Economist and Frank Ramsey Professor Emeritus of Economics at the University of Cambridge 2023 83 Dame Hermione Lee GBE , FBA , FRSL Biographer and President of Wolfson College, Oxford 77 Margaret Beckett , Baroness Beckett GBE , PC Politician and Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs 2024 82 Dame Carol Black GBE , FRCP Rheumatologist and Chair of the British Library 86 Sir William Beaumont GBE , DL Chairman of World Rugby 73 Sir James McDonald GBE , FRSE , FREng , FInstP , FIET Engineer and Principal and Vice-Chancellor of the University of Strathclyde 68 Sir Ridley Scott GBE Filmmaker and director 88 Dame Jenny Abramsky GBE Journalist, Chancellor of the University of East Anglia and Director of Audio and Music at the British Broadcast Corporation 79 Dame Jacqueline Wilson GBE , FRSL Novelist 2025 80 Sir Leszek Borysiewicz GBE , DL , FRS , FRCP , FMedSci , FLSW Immunologist and academic administrator 74 Sir Simon Wessely GBE , FRS , FMedSci Psychiatrist 69 Admiral Sir Tony Radakin GBE , KCB Chief of the Defence Staff 2026 60 Honorary Knights and Dames Grand Cross See List of current honorary knights and dames of the Order of the British Empire Country Name Office when appointed Year of appointment Present age Jordan Taher Masri GBE 28th Prime Minister of Jordan 1988 83 Hungary Zsigmond Járai GBE 7th Minister of Finance of Hungary 1999 74 United States George Mitchell GBE 8th Chancellor of the Queen's University, Belfast 92 Italy Nicola Mancino GBE 8th Acting President of Italy 2000 94 Luciano Violante GBE 10th President of the Chamber of Deputies 2000 84 Forfeiture Only the monarch can annul an honour, based on recommendations from the Honours Forfeiture Committee , which considers cases such as criminal convictions or actions that bring the honours system into disrepute. An individual can symbolically renounce their honour by returning the insignia to Buckingham Palace and ceasing to reference their title. However, the honour remains officially held unless formally annulled by the monarch. [ 31 ] For instance, John Lennon returned his MBE insignia in 1969 as a form of protest, but the honour was not formally annulled and remained officially in place. [ 32 ] [ 33 ] People who declined Order of the British Empire honours In 2003, The Sunday Times published a list of the people who had rejected the Order of the British Empire, including David Bowie , John Cleese , Nigella Lawson , Elgar Howarth , L. S. Lowry , George Melly , and J. G. Ballard . [ 34 ] In addition, Ballard voiced his opposition to the honours system, calling it "a preposterous charade". [ 34 ] The order has attracted some criticism for its naming having a connection with the idea of the now-extinct British Empire . [ 35 ] Benjamin Zephaniah , a British poet of Jamaican and Barbadian descent, publicly rejected appointment as an Officer in 2003 because, he asserted, it reminded him of "thousands of years of brutality". [ f ] He also said that "it reminds me of how my foremothers were raped and my forefathers brutalised". [ 36 ] The author, C. S. Lewis (1898–1963), was named on the last list of honours by George VI in December 1951. Despite being a monarchist , he declined to avoid association with any political issues. [ 37 ] [ 38 ] In 2019, comedian John Oliver turned down an offer of appointment as an OBE, which would have been part of the Queen's New Year's Honours list. [ 39 ] [ 40 ] The Beatles were appointed Members in 1965: John Lennon justified his investiture by comparing military membership in the Order: "Lots of people who complained about us receiving the MBE [status] received theirs for heroism in the war – for killing people ... We received ours for entertaining other people. I'd say we deserve ours more". Lennon later returned his MBE insignia on 25 November 1969, as part of his ongoing peace protests. [ 41 ] Other criticism centres on the view that many recipients of the Order are being rewarded with honours for simply doing their jobs; critics say that the Civil Service and Judiciary receive far more orders and honours than leaders of other professions. [ 35 ] Chin Peng , a veteran guerrilla fighter of the Malayan Peoples' Anti-Japanese Army , was appointed as an Officer for his role in fighting against the Japanese occupation of Malaya during World War II , in close co-operation with the British commando Force 136 . Several years after the war, his OBE membership was withdrawn by the British government (and became undesirable to Chin Peng himself) when the Communist leader headed his party's guerrilla insurgency against the British Empire during the Malayan Emergency . [ 42 ] See also Orders, decorations, and medals of the United Kingdom – the British honours system List of knights grand cross of the Order of the British Empire List of dames grand cross of the Order of the British Empire List of honorary British knights and dames United Kingdom order of precedence Honours Committee Roger Willoughby, For God and the Empire. The Medal of the Order of the British Empire, 1917–1922 (Savannah Publications, London, 2012) .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} ISBN 1-902366-53-0 Notes ^ It is commonly written without "of the Most Excellent Order" and other words not implied by the post-nominals. ^ Queen Mary, however, stipulated that the riband of a military Dame Grand Cross should not have a central grey stripe; the last appointment of a Dame Grand Cross in the military division was that of Dame Sidney Browne in 1919. ^ Use of the BEM continued elsewhere in the Commonwealth; in the UK the BEM (civil) was restored to use 2012. ^ Whereas DBE is the lowest rank of damehood, KBE is the second-lowest rank of knighthood (above Knights Bachelor ). Because of this, women are usually appointed DBE in circumstances when a man would be created a Knight Bachelor (for example, by convention, female judges of the High Court are created Dames Commander on appointment, while male judges become Knights Bachelor). ^ Never surnames – thus Sir Antony Sher may be shortened to Sir Antony, but not to Sir Sher. ^ Quote is "thousands of years", though initial attempts at starting an overseas British Empire only date back to British Empire#Origins (1497–1583) References ^ "Guide to the Honours" . BBC News . 10 June 2015 . Retrieved 25 May 2016 . ^ a b c "Order of the British Empire" . The Official Website of the British Monarchy . The Royal Household. Archived from the original on 27 March 2010 . Retrieved 24 August 2009 . ^ a b c d e "No. 30250" . The London Gazette (2nd supplement). 24 August 1917. pp. 8791– 8999. ^ a b c d e f Malloch, Russell. "The Order of the British Empire (part two): 1922 to 1937" . The Gazette . Retrieved 6 August 2024 . ^ a b "Commonwealth New Year and Birthday Honours lists (1981–2024)" . The Gazette . His Majesty's Stationery Office . Retrieved 7 August 2024 . ^ a b "What is the difference between a CBE, OBE, MBE and a knighthood?" . The Gazette . 2 January 2024. ^ a b Malloch, Russell. "The Order of the British Empire (part one): 1917 to 1922" . The Gazette . Retrieved 6 August 2024 . ^ "No. 31084" . The London Gazette . 27 December 1918. p. 15135. ^ a b c "No. 32781" . The London Gazette . 29 December 1922. p. 9155. ^ a b c d e f Malloch, Russell. "The Order of the British Empire (part three): 1937–1957" . The Gazette . Retrieved 6 August 2024 . ^ a b c d Galloway, Peter (1996). The Order of the British Empire . Central Chancery of the Orders of Knighthood. p. 12. ^ Malloch, Russell. "The Order of the British Empire (part four): 1957–1993" . The Gazette . Retrieved 8 August 2024 . ^ "Overview of the New Zealand Royal Honours system" . Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet . New Zealand Government. 7 May 2024 . Retrieved 8 August 2024 . ^ "Mr Major's Commons Statement on the Honours System – 4 March 1993" . The Rt. Hon. Sir John Major KG CH . 4 March 1993 . Retrieved 8 August 2024 . ^ a b c d Malloch, Russell. "The Order of the British Empire (part five): 1993–2017" . The Gazette . Retrieved 6 August 2024 . ^ "A Matter of Honour: Reforming Our Honours System" (PDF) . House of Commons Public Administration Select Committee . Parliament.uk. 13 July 2004 . Retrieved 15 January 2016 . ^ "Select Committee on Public Administration Fifth Report" . ^ "Honours system outdated, say MPs" , BBC News, 13 July 2004, Retrieved 28 February 2007 ^ "Birthday Honours: 'Working class' British Empire Medal revived" . BBC News . BBC . 16 June 2012 . Retrieved 20 June 2012 . ^ "The Most Excellent Order of the British Empire : Newsletter" (PDF) . The Central Chancery of the Orders of Knighthood . December 2015. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 July 2019 . Retrieved 23 April 2019 . ^ HM Government (7 December 2018). "Central Chancery of the Orders of Knighthood" . The London Gazette . Archived from the original on 10 April 2023 . Retrieved 22 December 2018 . ^ "No. 64397" . The London Gazette . 15 May 2024. p. 9430. ^ "Commonwealth New Year and Birthday Honours lists (1981–2024)" . London Gazette . Retrieved 25 May 2024 . ^ Abbott, PE; Tamplin, J. M. A. (1981). British Gallantry Awards . London : Nimrod Dix & Co. Chapters 35–38. ISBN 978-0-902633-74-2 . ^ a b "No. 41285" . The London Gazette (Supplement). 14 January 1958. p. 365. ^ "No. 56878" . The London Gazette (Supplement). 17 March 2003. p. 3353. ^ "Queen marks 100 years of Order of the British Empire" . City Matters . 2 June 2017. Archived from the original on 1 October 2020 . Retrieved 7 August 2024 . ^ "Emblem for honours (Archived 4 April 2012)" . The National Archives . DirectGov (UK). Archived from the original on 4 April 2012 . Retrieved 26 July 2014 . ^ "BEM Recipients Entitled to New Emblem" . The Berwickshire News. 12 November 2008. Archived from the original on 29 July 2014 . Retrieved 26 July 2014 . ^ Statutes 1995, article 34. ^ "Having honours taken away (forfeiture)" . GOV.UK . 30 September 2021 . Retrieved 24 January 2024 . ^ Norman, Philip (2008). John Lennon: The Life . HarperCollins. p. 574. ISBN 978-0060754013 . ^ Hardy, Jack (26 November 2019). "John Lennon's letter returning MBE found years later" . The Telegraph . Retrieved 13 January 2025 . ^ a b McGavin, Henry (22 December 2003). "Honoured? No thanks, say elite of arts and TV" . Independent.co.uk . Archived from the original on 24 May 2022 . Retrieved 4 March 2018 . ^ a b A reformed Honours system , Select Committee on Public Administration, 7 July 2004, Retrieved 13 May 2012 ^ Mills, Merope (27 November 2003). "Rasta poet publicly rejects his OBE" . The Guardian . Retrieved 31 July 2015 . ^ "Chronology of the Life of C. S. Lewis" . Archived from the original on 6 February 2012. ^ Lewis, C. S. (1994). W. H. Lewis, Walter Hooper (ed.). Letters of C. S. Lewis . New York: Mariner Books. p. 528. ISBN 978-0-15-650871-1 . ^ Conan O'Brien (21 October 2019). "Conan O'Brien Needs a Friend – John Oliver Episode 42" . TeamCoco.com (Podcast). Team Coco. Event occurs at 52:35 . Retrieved 5 October 2022 . ^ Nunn, Christina (21 January 2021). "John Oliver Rejected Queen Elizabeth's Royal Award — 'Why on Earth Would I Want That?' " . Showbiz Cheat Sheet . Retrieved 5 October 2022 . ^ Roylance, Brian; Harrison, George; Lennon, John; McCartney, Paul; Starr, Ringo (2000). The Beatles Anthology . Chronicle Books. pp. 183 . ISBN 978-0-8118-2684-6 . ^ Dead or Alive (subscription required) Archived 21 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine Time , 12 May 1952 Further reading Galloway, Peter (1996). The Order of the British Empire . Central Chancery of the Orders of Knighthood. ISBN 978-0-907605-65-2 . Hood, Frederic (1967). The Chapel of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire . With a foreword by Prince Philip . Weatherly, Cecil (1911). "Knighthood and Chivalry" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 15 (11th ed.). London: Cambridge University Press. pp. 851– 867. Statutes of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (PDF) . London: The Central Chancery of the Orders of Knighthood. 1995. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 March 2023. The Order of the British Empire centenary – historical overview by the Gazette "The Most Excellent Order of the British Empire" (2002) – Cambridge University Heraldic and Genealogical Society "Order of Precedence in England and Wales", Velde, F. R. (2003) – Heraldica.org External links Order of the British Empire – Central Chancery of the Orders of Knighthood The Order of the British Empire – UK Cabinet Office The King and Honours – Royal Household website The British honours system – UK Government .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Orders, decorations, and medals of the United Kingdom v t e Orders Current Garter Thistle Bath Merit St Michael and St George Royal Victorian Distinguished Service British Empire Imperial Service Companions of Honour St John Royal family orders George VI Elizabeth II Charles III Dormant St Patrick Crown of India Star of India Indian Empire Indian Merit British India Burma Defunct Royal Guelphic Royal family orders George IV Victoria & Albert Edward VII George V Other Royal Victorian Chain Hereditary peerage Life peerage Privy counsellor Baronet Knight Bachelor Aide-de-camp Current Garter Thistle Bath Merit St Michael and St George Royal Victorian Distinguished Service British Empire Imperial Service Companions of Honour St John Royal family orders George VI Elizabeth II Charles III Garter Thistle Bath Merit St Michael and St George Royal Victorian Distinguished Service British Empire Imperial Service Companions of Honour St John Royal family orders George VI Elizabeth II Charles III George VI Elizabeth II Charles III Dormant St Patrick Crown of India Star of India Indian Empire Indian Merit British India Burma St Patrick Crown of India Star of India Indian Empire Indian Merit British India Burma Defunct Royal Guelphic Royal family orders George IV Victoria & Albert Edward VII George V Royal Guelphic Royal family orders George IV Victoria & Albert Edward VII George V George IV Victoria & Albert Edward VII George V Other Royal Victorian Chain Hereditary peerage Life peerage Privy counsellor Baronet Knight Bachelor Aide-de-camp Royal Victorian Chain Hereditary peerage Life peerage Privy counsellor Baronet Knight Bachelor Aide-de-camp Current decorations and medals Level 1 Victoria Cross George Cross Level 2A Distinguished Service Order Conspicuous Gallantry Cross Royal Red Cross (class I) Level 2B George Medal King's Police Medal, for Gallantry King's Fire Service Medal, for Gallantry Level 3A Distinguished Service Cross Military Cross Distinguished Flying Cross Air Force Cross Royal Red Cross (class II) Level 3B Sea Gallantry Medal King's Gallantry Medal Royal Victorian Medal British Empire Medal King’s Police Medal, for Distinguished Service King's Fire Service Medal, for Distinguished Service King's Ambulance Service Medal King's Volunteer Reserves Medal Polar Medal Imperial Service Medal Overseas Territories Police Medal Merchant Navy Medal for Meritorious Service Level 4 Mentioned in Despatches King's Commendation for Bravery King's Commendation for Bravery in the Air King's Commendation for Valuable Service Other Badge of Honour Elizabeth Cross Elizabeth Emblem Level 1 Victoria Cross George Cross Victoria Cross George Cross Level 2A Distinguished Service Order Conspicuous Gallantry Cross Royal Red Cross (class I) Distinguished Service Order Conspicuous Gallantry Cross Royal Red Cross (class I) Level 2B George Medal King's Police Medal, for Gallantry King's Fire Service Medal, for Gallantry George Medal King's Police Medal, for Gallantry King's Fire Service Medal, for Gallantry Level 3A Distinguished Service Cross Military Cross Distinguished Flying Cross Air Force Cross Royal Red Cross (class II) Distinguished Service Cross Military Cross Distinguished Flying Cross Air Force Cross Royal Red Cross (class II) Level 3B Sea Gallantry Medal King's Gallantry Medal Royal Victorian Medal British Empire Medal King’s Police Medal, for Distinguished Service King's Fire Service Medal, for Distinguished Service King's Ambulance Service Medal King's Volunteer Reserves Medal Polar Medal Imperial Service Medal Overseas Territories Police Medal Merchant Navy Medal for Meritorious Service Sea Gallantry Medal King's Gallantry Medal Royal Victorian Medal British Empire Medal King’s Police Medal, for Distinguished Service King's Fire Service Medal, for Distinguished Service King's Ambulance Service Medal King's Volunteer Reserves Medal Polar Medal Imperial Service Medal Overseas Territories Police Medal Merchant Navy Medal for Meritorious Service Level 4 Mentioned in Despatches King's Commendation for Bravery King's Commendation for Bravery in the Air King's Commendation for Valuable Service Mentioned in Despatches King's Commendation for Bravery King's Commendation for Bravery in the Air King's Commendation for Valuable Service Other Badge of Honour Elizabeth Cross Elizabeth Emblem Badge of Honour Elizabeth Cross Elizabeth Emblem Obsolete decorations and medals Level 1 Indian Order of Merit (1st class) Albert Medal (1st class) Edward Medal (1st class) Empire Gallantry Medal Level 2A Indian Order of Merit (2nd class) Distinguished Conduct Medal Conspicuous Gallantry Medal Conspicuous Gallantry Medal (Flying) Level 2B Albert Medal (2nd class) Edward Medal (2nd class) Union of South Africa King's Medal for Bravery, Gold Level 3A Order of British India (1st class) Order of British India (2nd class) Indian Order of Merit (3rd class) Title Badge (India) (1st class) Title Badge (India) (2nd class) Title Badge (India) (3rd class) Royal West African Frontier Force Distinguished Conduct Medal King's African Rifles Distinguished Conduct Medal Indian Distinguished Service Medal Distinguished Service Medal Military Medal Distinguished Flying Medal Air Force Medal Burma Gallantry Medal Level 3B Constabulary Medal (Ireland) Union of South Africa King's Medal for Bravery, Silver Kaisar-i-Hind Medal (Gold, Silver, Bronze) Indian Police Medal, for Gallantry Ceylon Police Medal, for Gallantry Sierra Leone Police Medal, for Gallantry Sierra Leone Fire Brigades Medal, for Gallantry Mauritius Police Medal for Meritorious Service Colonial Police Medal, for Gallantry Canada Medal Queen's Medal for Chiefs Indian Police Medal, for Meritorious Service Ceylon Police Medal, for Merit Sierra Leone Police Medal, for Meritorious Service Sierra Leone Fire Brigades Medal, for Meritorious Service Level 4 Queen's Commendation for Brave Conduct Queen's Commendation for Valuable Service in the Air Level 1 Indian Order of Merit (1st class) Albert Medal (1st class) Edward Medal (1st class) Empire Gallantry Medal Indian Order of Merit (1st class) Albert Medal (1st class) Edward Medal (1st class) Empire Gallantry Medal Level 2A Indian Order of Merit (2nd class) Distinguished Conduct Medal Conspicuous Gallantry Medal Conspicuous Gallantry Medal (Flying) Indian Order of Merit (2nd class) Distinguished Conduct Medal Conspicuous Gallantry Medal Conspicuous Gallantry Medal (Flying) Level 2B Albert Medal (2nd class) Edward Medal (2nd class) Union of South Africa King's Medal for Bravery, Gold Albert Medal (2nd class) Edward Medal (2nd class) Union of South Africa King's Medal for Bravery, Gold Level 3A Order of British India (1st class) Order of British India (2nd class) Indian Order of Merit (3rd class) Title Badge (India) (1st class) Title Badge (India) (2nd class) Title Badge (India) (3rd class) Royal West African Frontier Force Distinguished Conduct Medal King's African Rifles Distinguished Conduct Medal Indian Distinguished Service Medal Distinguished Service Medal Military Medal Distinguished Flying Medal Air Force Medal Burma Gallantry Medal Order of British India (1st class) Order of British India (2nd class) Indian Order of Merit (3rd class) Title Badge (India) (1st class) Title Badge (India) (2nd class) Title Badge (India) (3rd class) Royal West African Frontier Force Distinguished Conduct Medal King's African Rifles Distinguished Conduct Medal Indian Distinguished Service Medal Distinguished Service Medal Military Medal Distinguished Flying Medal Air Force Medal Burma Gallantry Medal Level 3B Constabulary Medal (Ireland) Union of South Africa King's Medal for Bravery, Silver Kaisar-i-Hind Medal (Gold, Silver, Bronze) Indian Police Medal, for Gallantry Ceylon Police Medal, for Gallantry Sierra Leone Police Medal, for Gallantry Sierra Leone Fire Brigades Medal, for Gallantry Mauritius Police Medal for Meritorious Service Colonial Police Medal, for Gallantry Canada Medal Queen's Medal for Chiefs Indian Police Medal, for Meritorious Service Ceylon Police Medal, for Merit Sierra Leone Police Medal, for Meritorious Service Sierra Leone Fire Brigades Medal, for Meritorious Service Constabulary Medal (Ireland) Union of South Africa King's Medal for Bravery, Silver Kaisar-i-Hind Medal (Gold, Silver, Bronze) Indian Police Medal, for Gallantry Ceylon Police Medal, for Gallantry Sierra Leone Police Medal, for Gallantry Sierra Leone Fire Brigades Medal, for Gallantry Mauritius Police Medal for Meritorious Service Colonial Police Medal, for Gallantry Canada Medal Queen's Medal for Chiefs Indian Police Medal, for Meritorious Service Ceylon Police Medal, for Merit Sierra Leone Police Medal, for Meritorious Service Sierra Leone Fire Brigades Medal, for Meritorious Service Level 4 Queen's Commendation for Brave Conduct Queen's Commendation for Valuable Service in the Air Queen's Commendation for Brave Conduct Queen's Commendation for Valuable Service in the Air See also Order of Wear British campaign medals Degradation (knighthood) Revocations v t e Former decorations of Australia v t e Australian Honours Order of Precedence prior to 6 October 1992 Orders of chivalry Most Honourable Order of the Bath Knight/Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (GCB) Knight/Dame Commander of the Order of the Bath (KCB/DCB) Companion of the Order of the Bath (CB) Most Distinguished Order of St Michael and St George Knight/Dame Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George (GCMG) Knight/Dame Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George (KCMG/DCMG) Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George (CMG) Most Excellent Order of the British Empire / Knight/Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire (GBE) / Knight/Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE/DBE) / Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) / Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) / Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) Imperial Service Order Companion of the Imperial Service Order (ISO) Order of the Companions of Honour Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour (CH) Miscellaneous Hereditary peer Life peer Baronet Knight Bachelor Most Honourable Order of the Bath Knight/Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (GCB) Knight/Dame Commander of the Order of the Bath (KCB/DCB) Companion of the Order of the Bath (CB) Knight/Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (GCB) Knight/Dame Commander of the Order of the Bath (KCB/DCB) Companion of the Order of the Bath (CB) Most Distinguished Order of St Michael and St George Knight/Dame Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George (GCMG) Knight/Dame Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George (KCMG/DCMG) Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George (CMG) Knight/Dame Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George (GCMG) Knight/Dame Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George (KCMG/DCMG) Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George (CMG) Most Excellent Order of the British Empire / Knight/Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire (GBE) / Knight/Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE/DBE) / Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) / Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) / Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) / Knight/Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire (GBE) / Knight/Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE/DBE) / Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) / Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) / Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) Imperial Service Order Companion of the Imperial Service Order (ISO) Companion of the Imperial Service Order (ISO) Order of the Companions of Honour Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour (CH) Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour (CH) Miscellaneous Hereditary peer Life peer Baronet Knight Bachelor Hereditary peer Life peer Baronet Knight Bachelor Military gallantry/bravery decorations In the face of the enemy Victoria Cross (VC) Distinguished Service Cross (DSC) Military Cross (MC) Distinguished Flying Cross (DFC) Conspicuous Gallantry Medal (CGM) Distinguished Conduct Medal (DCM) Conspicuous Gallantry Medal (Flying) (CGM) Distinguished Service Medal (DSM) Military Medal (MM) Distinguished Flying Medal (DFM) Mentioned in despatches Not the face of the enemy Air Force Cross (AFC) Air Force Medal (AFM) Queen's Commendation for Brave Conduct In the face of the enemy Victoria Cross (VC) Distinguished Service Cross (DSC) Military Cross (MC) Distinguished Flying Cross (DFC) Conspicuous Gallantry Medal (CGM) Distinguished Conduct Medal (DCM) Conspicuous Gallantry Medal (Flying) (CGM) Distinguished Service Medal (DSM) Military Medal (MM) Distinguished Flying Medal (DFM) Mentioned in despatches Victoria Cross (VC) Distinguished Service Cross (DSC) Military Cross (MC) Distinguished Flying Cross (DFC) Conspicuous Gallantry Medal (CGM) Distinguished Conduct Medal (DCM) Conspicuous Gallantry Medal (Flying) (CGM) Distinguished Service Medal (DSM) Military Medal (MM) Distinguished Flying Medal (DFM) Mentioned in despatches Not the face of the enemy Air Force Cross (AFC) Air Force Medal (AFM) Queen's Commendation for Brave Conduct Air Force Cross (AFC) Air Force Medal (AFM) Queen's Commendation for Brave Conduct Distinguished service decorations In the face of the enemy Distinguished Service Order (DSO) Not the face of the enemy King's Police Medal for Distinguished Service (KPM) King's Fire Service Medal for Distinguished Service (KFSM) In the face of the enemy Distinguished Service Order (DSO) Distinguished Service Order (DSO) Not the face of the enemy King's Police Medal for Distinguished Service (KPM) King's Fire Service Medal for Distinguished Service (KFSM) King's Police Medal for Distinguished Service (KPM) King's Fire Service Medal for Distinguished Service (KFSM) Civil bravery decorations George Cross (GC) Albert Medal, First Class (AM) Albert Medal, First Class (Sea) (AM) Albert Medal, Second Class (AM) Albert Medal, Second Class (Sea) (AM) George Medal (GM) King's Police Medal for Gallantry (KPM) King's Fire Service Medal for Gallantry (KFSM) Sea Gallantry Medal (SGM) Queen's Gallantry Medal (QGM) Edward Medal (EM) Queen's Commendation for Brave Conduct George Cross (GC) Albert Medal, First Class (AM) Albert Medal, First Class (Sea) (AM) Albert Medal, Second Class (AM) Albert Medal, Second Class (Sea) (AM) George Medal (GM) King's Police Medal for Gallantry (KPM) King's Fire Service Medal for Gallantry (KFSM) Sea Gallantry Medal (SGM) Queen's Gallantry Medal (QGM) Edward Medal (EM) Queen's Commendation for Brave Conduct Nursing service Member of the Royal Red Cross (RRC) Associate of the Royal Red Cross (ARRC) Member of the Royal Red Cross (RRC) Associate of the Royal Red Cross (ARRC) Meritorious service / British Empire Medal (BEM) King's Commendation for Valuable Service / British Empire Medal (BEM) King's Commendation for Valuable Service Authority control databases International VIAF GND VIAF GND National United States United States People Trove Trove Other MusicBrainz series Yale LUX MusicBrainz series Yale LUX Order of the British Empire Orders of chivalry of the United Kingdom 1917 establishments in the United Kingdom Awards established in 1917 British honours system Orders of chivalry awarded to heads of state, consorts and sovereign family members George V Pages containing London Gazette template with parameter supp set to y Pages containing links to subscription-only content Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use British English from February 2017 All Wikipedia articles written in British English Use dmy dates from October 2023 Articles containing Latin-language text Articles needing additional references from December 2025 All articles needing additional references Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference This page was last edited on 7 January 2026, at 15:35 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Lead section Toggle Lead section subsection 1.1 Introductory sentences 1.1.1 Name order 1.2 Infoboxes 1.1 Introductory sentences 1.1.1 Name order 1.1.1 Name order 1.2 Infoboxes 2 Chinese-language text Toggle Chinese-language text subsection 2.1 Characters 2.2 Romanisation 2.2.1 Titles of works 2.3 Tones 2.1 Characters 2.2 Romanisation 2.2.1 Titles of works 2.2.1 Titles of works 2.3 Tones 3 Accessibility Toggle Accessibility subsection 3.1 Linking to Wiktionary 3.2 Ruby characters 3.1 Linking to Wiktionary 3.2 Ruby characters 4 Appropriate nomenclature Toggle Appropriate nomenclature subsection 4.1 Modern polities 4.2 Language 4.3 Ethnicity 4.4 Maps 4.1 Modern polities 4.2 Language 4.3 Ethnicity 4.4 Maps 5 Citation style 6 Notes Wikipedia : Manual of Style/China- and Chinese-related articles Русский ไทย 中文 Project page Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item This guideline is a part of the English Wikipedia's Manual of Style . Editors should generally follow it, though exceptions may apply. Substantive edits to this page should reflect consensus . .mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain{float:right;margin:0 0 0 1em;border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);background-color:var(--background-color-base,#fff);padding:0.3em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;text-align:center;font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxleft{float:left;margin:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutlist{display:inline-block;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);margin-bottom:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain ul{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutanchordiv{position:relative;top:-3em}.mw-parser-output li .module-shortcutanchordiv{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mbox-imageright .module-shortcutboxplain{padding:0.4em 1em;line-height:1.3;margin:0;float:initial} Shortcuts .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} MOS:CHINESE MOS:CHINESE MOS:ZH MOS:ZH MOS:CHINA MOS:CHINA MOS:CHINESE MOS:CHINESE MOS:ZH MOS:ZH MOS:CHINA MOS:CHINA These conventions should be followed when making edits involving Chinese-language text, or when editing articles concerning China , Taiwan , Hong Kong , Macau , and other Chinese-speaking areas. Manual of Style Content Accessibility Biography Disambiguation pages Organizing by subject Gender identity Hidden text Infoboxes Linking Self-references Words to watch Accessibility Biography Disambiguation pages Organizing by subject Organizing by subject Gender identity Hidden text Infoboxes Linking Self-references Words to watch Formatting Abbreviations Capitalization Dates and numbers Pronunciation Spelling Superscripts and subscripts Text formatting Titles of works Abbreviations Capitalization Dates and numbers Pronunciation Spelling Superscripts and subscripts Text formatting Titles of works Images Captions Image placement Icons Images Captions Image placement Icons Images Layout Layout Lead section Tables Trivia sections Layout Lead section Tables Trivia sections Lists Lists Lists of works Road junctions Stand-alone lists Lists Lists of works Road junctions Stand-alone lists By topic area Arts Anime and manga Comics Film Music Music samples Record charts Stringed instruments Novels Television Video games Visual arts Writing about fiction See also: WikiProject style advice Regional Canada China (and Chinese) France (and French) Hawaii India Indonesia Ireland Japan Korea Malaysia Pakistan Philippines Poland Singapore See also: Naming conventions (geographic names) WikiProject style advice Science and technology Chemistry Compound classes Chemicals References and external links Safety Structure drawing Computer science Mathematics Medicine Taxonomy See also: WikiProject style advice Other Blazons Cue sports ( Snooker ) Islam Latter Day Saints Legal Military history Trademarks See also: WikiProject style advice history legal and cultural religion and education sports and games Arts Anime and manga Comics Film Music Music samples Record charts Stringed instruments Novels Television Video games Visual arts Writing about fiction See also: WikiProject style advice Anime and manga Comics Film Music Music samples Record charts Stringed instruments Music samples Record charts Stringed instruments Novels Television Video games Visual arts Writing about fiction See also: WikiProject style advice Regional Canada China (and Chinese) France (and French) Hawaii India Indonesia Ireland Japan Korea Malaysia Pakistan Philippines Poland Singapore See also: Naming conventions (geographic names) WikiProject style advice Canada China (and Chinese) France (and French) Hawaii India Indonesia Ireland Japan Korea Malaysia Pakistan Philippines Poland Singapore See also: Naming conventions (geographic names) WikiProject style advice Science and technology Chemistry Compound classes Chemicals References and external links Safety Structure drawing Computer science Mathematics Medicine Taxonomy See also: WikiProject style advice Chemistry Compound classes Chemicals References and external links Safety Structure drawing Compound classes Chemicals References and external links Safety Structure drawing Computer science Mathematics Medicine Taxonomy See also: WikiProject style advice Other Blazons Cue sports ( Snooker ) Islam Latter Day Saints Legal Military history Trademarks See also: WikiProject style advice history legal and cultural religion and education sports and games Blazons Cue sports ( Snooker ) Islam Latter Day Saints Legal Military history Trademarks See also: WikiProject style advice history legal and cultural religion and education sports and games history legal and cultural religion and education sports and games Related guidelines Article size Article titles Categories, lists, and navigation templates Categorization Hatnotes Subpages Understandability Article size Article titles Categories, lists, and navigation templates Categorization Hatnotes Subpages Understandability Simplified Contents Tips Simplified Contents Tips .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e Lead section The lead section should include the article's title in Chinese characters and Hanyu Pinyin , especially if the title is originally from Chinese (such as kung fu or Chongqing ). Characters and pinyin can be put either in the first sentence or in an infobox. Introductory sentences The {{ zh }} template may be used to add Chinese to articles' introductory sentences in a consistent manner. The template automatically converts ordinary tone numbers to superscripted ones for the Wade-Giles and Sidney Lau romanisations . For example: Markup Renders as '''Zeng Guofan''' ({{zh|s=曾国藩|t=曾國藩|first=t|p=Zēng Guófān|w=Tseng1 Kuo2-fan1}}) Zeng Guofan ( traditional Chinese : 曾國藩 ; simplified Chinese : 曾国藩 ; pinyin : Zēng Guófān ; Wade–Giles : Tseng 1 Kuo 2 -fan 1 ) Zeng Guofan ( traditional Chinese : 曾國藩 ; simplified Chinese : 曾国藩 ; pinyin : Zēng Guófān ; Wade–Giles : Tseng 1 Kuo 2 -fan 1 ) If there are different simplified and traditional forms, consider including both. Simplified characters should be listed first in articles with strong ties to modern mainland China and Singapore; traditional characters should be listed first in articles with strong ties to modern Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macau. The {{ zh }} template puts simplified characters first by default: use |first=t to specify that traditional characters should appear first. Name order If the title is a Chinese personal name , it may not be obvious which part is the family name and which is the given name . Editors can add either a hatnote or a footnote identifying the family name (see Template:Family name explanation § Footnotes vs. hatnotes ). To add a footnote, use the {{ family name footnote }} after the first bolded instance of a person's name: Markup Renders as '''Mao Zedong'''{{Family name footnote|[[Mao (surname)|Mao]]|lang=Chinese}} (December 26, 1893{{spaced ndash}}September 9, 1976) was a Chinese communist revolutionary... Mao Zedong [ a ] (December 26, 1893 – September 9, 1976) was a Chinese communist revolutionary... .mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}body.skin-vector-2022 .mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:27em}body.skin-vector-2022 .mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:22.5em}.mw-parser-output .references[data-mw-group=upper-alpha]{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .references[data-mw-group=upper-roman]{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .references[data-mw-group=lower-alpha]{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .references[data-mw-group=lower-greek]{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .references[data-mw-group=lower-roman]{list-style-type:lower-roman}.mw-parser-output div.reflist-liststyle-upper-alpha .references{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output div.reflist-liststyle-upper-roman .references{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output div.reflist-liststyle-lower-alpha .references{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output div.reflist-liststyle-lower-greek .references{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output div.reflist-liststyle-lower-roman .references{list-style-type:lower-roman} ^ In this Chinese name , the family name is Mao . Mao Zedong [ a ] (December 26, 1893 – September 9, 1976) was a Chinese communist revolutionary... ^ In this Chinese name , the family name is Mao . To add a hatnote, place the {{ family name hatnote }} at the top of the article: Markup Renders as {{family name hatnote|[[Mao (surname)|Mao]]|lang=Chinese}} '''Mao Zedong''' (December 26, 1893{{spaced ndash}}September 9, 1976) was a Chinese communist revolutionary... In this Chinese name , the family name is Mao . Mao Zedong (December 26, 1893 – September 9, 1976) was a Chinese communist revolutionary... Mao Zedong (December 26, 1893 – September 9, 1976) was a Chinese communist revolutionary... Infoboxes Wang Wei (example) Chinese 王维 Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Wáng Wéi Wade–Giles Wang 2 Wei 2 IPA [wǎŋ wěɪ] Yue: Cantonese Yale Romanization Wòhng Wàih Jyutping Wong4 Wai4 IPA [wɔŋ˩ wɐj˩] Southern Min Tâi-lô Ông Uî Middle Chinese Middle Chinese ɦuang jwi Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Wáng Wéi Wade–Giles Wang 2 Wei 2 IPA [wǎŋ wěɪ] Yue: Cantonese Yale Romanization Wòhng Wàih Jyutping Wong4 Wai4 IPA [wɔŋ˩ wɐj˩] Southern Min Tâi-lô Ông Uî Middle Chinese Middle Chinese ɦuang jwi Where there is more than one parameter in use in a given article, an {{ Infobox Chinese }} template can be used instead of {{ zh }} . This removes the characters, romanization and pronunciations from the opening sentence, thus making it more readable while keeping it accessible to readers; see {{ Infobox Chinese/doc }} for how to use it. In general, both simplified and traditional characters should be displayed in {{ Infobox Chinese }} ; however, case-by-case consensus can determine exceptions to the rule. Chinese can be used in other infoboxes. Some such as {{ Infobox settlement }} have |native_name= and |native_name_lang= which can be used for Chinese. In others Chinese text can be added to the |name= field, separated from the English by a <br /> to put it on a new line. In this way English-language infoboxes can be used for Chinese topics; for instance, {{ Infobox royalty }} should be used for Chinese emperors. [ discuss ] Chinese-language text Characters WP:SINOGRAMS WP:SINOGRAMS WP:CHINESECHARACTERS WP:CHINESECHARACTERS WP:NOCHINESEITALICS WP:NOCHINESEITALICS WP:HANZI WP:HANZI Avoid displaying Chinese characters in italics or bold , as they are already distinctive enough, and the formatting makes them less legible: 国 国 国 国 . The templates {{ nobold }} , {{ noitalic }} , and {{ normal }} can be used to remove this formatting in places where it is the default, such as within infoboxes. It is often helpful to include the original characters for Chinese-language names, terms, or phrases upon their initial mention in an article. There are many distinct Chinese words and names with similar or identical romanisations, and translations of Chinese terms into English may be inexact or easily conflated without additional context. Including the characters is often helpful for disambiguation in these cases. Appropriate romanisations should be usually be given for any characters that are included. Nonetheless, non-English text should interrupt the flow of reading as little as possible. Put characters and romanisations in parentheses, as if they were interjections detached from the sentence. As an exercise, read the sentence out loud while skipping everything inside the parentheses. If the sentence can be successfully read without confusion or interruption while remaining grammatical, then it is likely to be formatted acceptably. When tagging Chinese-language text using the {{ zh }} template, use |labels=no to prevent labels from being shown, or use the shorter {{ zhi }} alias. For example: WP:NOCHARACTERS WP:NOCHARACTERS WP:NOHANZI WP:NOHANZI For ease of reading and to reduce redundancy, characters should generally not be included for names or terms that have their own articles. Readers who wish to see the native representation should be able to find it on the linked article. However, as articles should stand on their own, characters for terms should be included if their native representation is itself key to the subject of the article or their absence leaves other statements in the article unexplained: Romanisation MOS:PINYIN MOS:PINYIN MOS:NONPINYIN MOS:NONPINYIN English Wikipedia uses Hanyu Pinyin without tone marks as the default method of romanising Chinese characters. Romanisations should be italicised to differentiate them from English-language text, unless the term has been assimilated into English. Pinyin should be spaced according to words, not characters . Where a source uses a romanisation that must be converted to pinyin, consider also providing the spelling used in the source to make verification easier for other users. Exceptions arise where non-pinyin spellings are used by a clear majority of reliable sources . For example, the name of the longest river in China is most commonly rendered as Yangtze in English, though a minority of sources render it as Yangzi . This often occurs in personal names: Other examples would be places or things relating to non-Mandarin-speaking regions of China including, but not limited to, articles on Hong Kong and Xinjiang subjects. Hanyu Pinyin–derived romanizations in Taiwan rarely use the syllable-dividing apostrophe ( 隔音符號 ): e.g. Daan District, Taipei , not Da'an District . Tongyong Pinyin is used for some Taiwanese place names, e.g. Cijin District , Kaohsiung. Where a non-pinyin romanisation has been used, other romanisations within the article should still use pinyin by default. For example, Tsingtao Brewery is a trademark using a non-pinyin romanisation, but Tsingtao Brewery uses the pinyin spelling when mentioning the city of Qingdao itself: Full-width forms of Roman letters (Ａ-Ｚ, ａ-ｚ), Arabic numerals (０-９) and certain punctuation (＂＃＄％＆＇＋／＠＼＾＿｀￠￥￦＝｜￤) and spaces ( ) should not be used; ASCII equivalents should be used instead, even when mixed with CJK characters. Quote marks can be changed to 「」 in Chinese text if needed for visual clarity. [ discuss ] Titles of works When the best available sources are consistent in capitalizing the pinyin romanisation, Wikipedia should also render such titles of works in title case . When reliable sources are inconsistent or most often lowercase, the romanised title should be rendered in sentence case. [ a ] For example, write Xinxiu bencao , not Xinxiu Bencao . Tones The Chinese language has tones that are transcribed in different ways depending on the romanisation system. Tone marks should only appear within templates, parentheticals, or infoboxes ; for example, the introductory sentence for Gu Yanwu could read: Romanised terms used in running text should omit tone marks: In pinyin, tones are indicated with diacritics placed above vowels for each syllable. If a syllable contains more than one vowel, the diacritic is added to the vowel that comes first in the sequence a o e i u ü . The only exception is the vowel pair ⟨iu⟩ which takes the tone mark on ⟨u⟩ . Diacritical characters can be input using the clickable characters under the edit box. Additionally, the {{ pinyin }} template can convert tone numbers to diacritics. Tone Diacritic Letters [ b ] 1 Macron ā ē ī ō ū ǖ Ā Ē Ō 2 Acute accent á é í ó ú ǘ Á É Ó 3 Caron [ c ] ǎ ě ǐ ǒ ǔ ǚ Ǎ Ě Ǒ 4 Grave accent à è ì ò ù ǜ À È Ò Neutral none [ d ] a e i o u ü A E O Accessibility For accessibility and other reasons , Chinese-language text must be tagged. If another template is not already handling the tagging, {{ lang }} and {{ transliteration }} may be used to do it. Markup Renders as Ink and wash painting ({{lang|zh-Latn-pinyin|shuǐmòhuà}}) Ink and wash painting ( shuǐmòhuà ) Ink and wash painting ( shuǐmòhuà ) Linking to Wiktionary The {{ Linktext }} template can be used to link directly to Wiktionary. For example, {{zh|c={{linktext|中国}}}} produces Chinese : 中国 . Separate characters with a pipe | to link them individually. Ruby characters Ruby annotations place pinyin above the corresponding characters. Modern browsers fully support it: see the compatibility table at the MDN Web Docs . However, ruby is not used for body text on Wikipedia, as it would display at too small a size. It may be used in other situations: .mw-parser-output .templateruby>rt{font-variant-east-asian:ruby;font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .templateruby.large{font-size:250%}.mw-parser-output .templateruby.large>rt{font-size:50%} .mw-parser-output .ruby-zh-p>rt{font-family:"Arial Unicode MS","Bitstream Cyberbit","TITUS Cyberbit Basic","Lucida Sans Unicode",inherit} 北方 ( Běifāng ) 有 ( yǒu ) 佳人 ( jiārén ) ， 絕世 ( juéshì ) 而 ( ér ) 獨立 ( dúlì ) 。 一 ( Yī ) 顧 ( gù ) 傾 ( qīng ) 人 ( rén ) 城 ( chéng ) ， 再 ( zài ) 顧 ( gù ) 傾 ( qīng ) 人 ( rén ) 國 ( guó ) 。 寧 ( Nìng ) 不 ( bù ) 知 ( zhī ) 傾 ( qīng ) 城 ( chéng ) 與 ( yǔ ) 傾 ( qīng ) 國 ( guó ) 。 佳人 ( Jiārén ) 難 ( nán ) 再 ( zài ) 得 ( dé ) 。 In the North there is a lady, stunning and singular. One look confounds a city; a touch dooms an empire. Rather not wishing to know, the ruination that may follow, rare beauty is here and now. .mw-parser-output .templateruby>rt{font-variant-east-asian:ruby;font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .templateruby.large{font-size:250%}.mw-parser-output .templateruby.large>rt{font-size:50%} .mw-parser-output .ruby-zh-p>rt{font-family:"Arial Unicode MS","Bitstream Cyberbit","TITUS Cyberbit Basic","Lucida Sans Unicode",inherit} 北方 ( Běifāng ) 有 ( yǒu ) 佳人 ( jiārén ) ， 絕世 ( juéshì ) 而 ( ér ) 獨立 ( dúlì ) 。 一 ( Yī ) 顧 ( gù ) 傾 ( qīng ) 人 ( rén ) 城 ( chéng ) ， 再 ( zài ) 顧 ( gù ) 傾 ( qīng ) 人 ( rén ) 國 ( guó ) 。 寧 ( Nìng ) 不 ( bù ) 知 ( zhī ) 傾 ( qīng ) 城 ( chéng ) 與 ( yǔ ) 傾 ( qīng ) 國 ( guó ) 。 佳人 ( Jiārén ) 難 ( nán ) 再 ( zài ) 得 ( dé ) 。 In the North there is a lady, stunning and singular. One look confounds a city; a touch dooms an empire. Rather not wishing to know, the ruination that may follow, rare beauty is here and now. The markup is as follows: Markup Renders as {{ruby-zh-p|梦|mèng}} 梦 ( mèng ) 梦 ( mèng ) Appropriate nomenclature Modern polities MOS:NC-CN MOS:NC-CN WP:NC-CN WP:NC-CN While perfect consistency across articles is not required on Wikipedia, it is important to be aware of site policies and existing consensus. Where "China" or the "People's Republic of China" is used, it should not be changed arbitrarily. In many contexts, the terms are interchangeable: if China and People's Republic of China both seem appropriate, editors should use their own discretion. [ discuss ] According to longstanding consensus, Taiwan is the common name for the contemporary state officially called the Republic of China. To avoid confusion with the People's Republic of China, Taiwan should generally only be referred to as the Republic of China when discussing the state as it existed prior to 1949, or in the context of specific proper names, such as the Constitution of the Republic of China . Taiwanese is usually acceptable as a demonym for people from Taiwan. Non-neutral terms such as Free China and Red China should not be used in Wikipedia's own voice. China People's Republic of China mainland China In many cases "China" can be used to refer to the modern state officially known as the "People's Republic of China". Generally, places and things located in territory controlled by the People's Republic of China should be stated to be in "China": for example, Zhongguancun has become a major centre of electronics in China , or ... a novelist from Chengdu, China . In many cases "China" can be used to refer to the modern state officially known as the "People's Republic of China". Generally, places and things located in territory controlled by the People's Republic of China should be stated to be in "China": for example, Zhongguancun has become a major centre of electronics in China , or ... a novelist from Chengdu, China . When discussing history or politics, it may be necessary to write "People's Republic of China"—either in full or subsequently abbreviated as "PRC"—to avoid possibly conflating it with the Republic of China (ROC). For example: the PRC replaced the Republic of China as China's UN representative in in 1971 , or The PRC was established in 1949 , or The People's Republic of China objected to the Vatican inviting ROC diplomats to represent 'China' at the pope's funeral. When mentioning official documents, institutions, or positions, it may be appropriate to write "People's Republic of China" in full: for example, The Constitution of the People's Republic of China..." . However, subsequent mentions may use the demonym "Chinese", e.g. Chinese premier Wen Jiabao . In other situations where there may plausibly be ambiguity, use the more specific "People's Republic of China". When discussing history or politics, it may be necessary to write "People's Republic of China"—either in full or subsequently abbreviated as "PRC"—to avoid possibly conflating it with the Republic of China (ROC). For example: the PRC replaced the Republic of China as China's UN representative in in 1971 , or The PRC was established in 1949 , or The People's Republic of China objected to the Vatican inviting ROC diplomats to represent 'China' at the pope's funeral. When mentioning official documents, institutions, or positions, it may be appropriate to write "People's Republic of China" in full: for example, The Constitution of the People's Republic of China..." . However, subsequent mentions may use the demonym "Chinese", e.g. Chinese premier Wen Jiabao . In other situations where there may plausibly be ambiguity, use the more specific "People's Republic of China". The term "mainland China" refers to the People's Republic of China, usually excluding Hong Kong and Macau. Due to potential ambiguity, it should only be used when a distinction with Hong Kong, Macau, or Taiwan is required, and a construction such as "China, except Hong Kong" is unworkable. For example: Lo Wu is the most heavily trafficked border crossing between Hong Kong and mainland China , or Due to the relocation of many industries to mainland China, the unemployment rate in Taiwan reached its highest level since the 1973 oil crisis. The term "mainland China" refers to the People's Republic of China, usually excluding Hong Kong and Macau. Due to potential ambiguity, it should only be used when a distinction with Hong Kong, Macau, or Taiwan is required, and a construction such as "China, except Hong Kong" is unworkable. For example: Lo Wu is the most heavily trafficked border crossing between Hong Kong and mainland China , or Due to the relocation of many industries to mainland China, the unemployment rate in Taiwan reached its highest level since the 1973 oil crisis. Language The Chinese language comprises hundreds of mutually unintelligible varieties , or "lects". It is often viewed both as a single language with many dialects, and as a large language family , depending on context. When used informally, or when describing a specific, mutually-intelligible spoken language, the term "Chinese language" typically refers to Standard Chinese , or Modern Standard Chinese (MSC), a standardized variety originally based on the dialect of Mandarin Chinese spoken in Beijing. When used to describe a written language, "Chinese" usually refers to the form of written vernacular Chinese corresponding to spoken Standard Chinese, as contrasted with forms such as written Cantonese . Often, "Chinese" is adequate: it is unnecessary, and often confusing, to call Standard Chinese "Mandarin", as Mandarin is a large language family in itself. The standardized form should be referred to as "Standard Chinese" when being contrasted with other Chinese varieties, such as Shanghainese or Cantonese . Ethnicity When identifying people by their ethnicity in China-related articles, refer to Han Chinese people specifically as such, rather than as just "Chinese", especially when contrasting Han Chinese to other ethnic groups in China . In English, "Chinese" also describes the Chinese nationality, so care is warranted to avoid conflating the two concepts, including accidentally implying that ethnic minorities are not true Chinese nationals. Unless the nationality of the groups in question clearly differ, use parallel terms within phrases to clarify their meaning: for example, use Han Chinese when you use Zhuang Chinese , Han people when you use Zhuang people , or simply Han when you use Zhuang . This avoids the confusion that may arise when a phrase uses Han Chinese alongside Zhuang people , for example. Some find an explicit or implicit dichotomy between "Chinese" and "Taiwanese" people to be objectionable. A dichotomy between mainland Chinese and Taiwanese people is more politically neutral, depending on context. The term mainlander poses issues: it is often ambiguous whether it refers to a resident of mainland China, or to a resident of Taiwan who had originally arrived from the mainland along with the KMT in 1949. When referring to the latter group, mainlander is mildly objectionable in English, but its literal translation is highly offensive in Chinese. To unambiguously refer to these two groups, prefer mainland Chinese for the former, and waishengren ( 外省人 ) for the latter. Maps On most maps, Taiwan should not be indicated as being part of the People's Republic of China. ( discussion ) On maps specifically about the PRC, Taiwan may be included if a distinction with the mainland is made reflecting its status . For the convention on colouring Taiwan and other disputed areas, see Wikipedia:WikiProject Maps/Conventions/Orthographic maps . Citation style In accordance with the English Wikipedia Manual of Style, a list of works cited in the article should be included in an article's "References" section. Editors are strongly encouraged to use the appropriate Citation Style 1 or Citation Style 2 template when listing works. The following examples use Citation Style 1: Markup Renders as {{Cite book |last=Doe |first=John |date=1950 |title=A Book About Sinology |location=New York |publisher=National University Press}} .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Doe, John (1950). A Book About Sinology . New York: National University Press. .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Doe, John (1950). A Book About Sinology . New York: National University Press. If an author is Chinese, their name should use the common form used in English-language publications; if no common name exists, the name should be rendered in pinyin without tone marks. Access to the characters for Chinese or Japanese names is helpful. As elsewhere, it is preferable to link to the author's article (which can be done with the |author-link= parameter) and omit characters from the citation: Markup Renders as {{Cite book |last=Lu |first=Xun |author-link=Lu Xun |translator-last=Leung |translator-first=George |date=1926 |title=The True Story of Ah Q |location=Shanghai |publisher=Commercial Press}} Lu, Xun (1926). The True Story of Ah Q . Translated by Leung, George. Shanghai: Commercial Press. Lu, Xun (1926). The True Story of Ah Q . Translated by Leung, George. Shanghai: Commercial Press. If the author has no article, characters for their name can be included using the |author-mask= parameter: Markup Renders as {{Cite book |last=Li |first=Si |author1-mask=Li Si (李四) |date=1990 |title=Yet Another Book About Sinology |location=London |publisher=British Publishing}} Li Si (李四) (1990). Yet Another Book About Sinology . London: British Publishing. Li Si (李四) (1990). Yet Another Book About Sinology . London: British Publishing. For Chinese-language works, the language should be indicated with the |language=zh parameter. The characters of the title can be included using the |script-title= parameter, which should begin with zh followed by a colon, and then the characters of the title—e.g., |script-title=zh:汉语方言槪要 . English translations of titles should be placed in brackets or parentheses after the native title, which can be done using the |trans-title= parameter. For publishing houses without a common name in English, their names are transliterated without tone marks, but not translated. An English translation of the title can be included with |trans-title= . For example: Markup Renders as {{Cite book |last=Yuan |first=Jiahua |author-link=Yuan Jiahua |title=Hànyǔ fāngyán gàiyào |script-title=zh:汉语方言槪要 |trans-title=Outline of Chinese Dialects |location=Beijing |publisher=Wenzi gaige chubanshe |date=1983 |language=zh}} Yuan, Jiahua (1983). Hànyǔ fāngyán gàiyào 汉语方言槪要 [ Outline of Chinese Dialects ] (in Chinese). Beijing: Wenzi gaige chubanshe. Yuan, Jiahua (1983). Hànyǔ fāngyán gàiyào 汉语方言槪要 [ Outline of Chinese Dialects ] (in Chinese). Beijing: Wenzi gaige chubanshe. Notes ^ See this December 2022 discussion for the most recent consensus rendered on this matter. ^ Words in pinyin may not start with ⟨I⟩ , ⟨U⟩ , or ⟨Ü⟩ . ^ Not a breve . ^ Do not use numerals ( ma5 ) or interpuncts ( ·ma ). v t e Manual of Style v t e Overview Contents Tips Overview Contents Tips Content Accessibility Biography Disambiguation pages Organizing by subject area Gender identity Hidden text Infoboxes Linking Self-references Words to watch Accessibility Biography Disambiguation pages Organizing by subject area Organizing by subject area Gender identity Hidden text Infoboxes Linking Self-references Words to watch Formatting Abbreviations Capitalization Dates and numbers Pronunciation Spelling Superscripts and subscripts Text formatting Titles of works Abbreviations Capitalization Dates and numbers Pronunciation Spelling Superscripts and subscripts Text formatting Titles of works Images Captions Image placement Icons Images Captions Image placement Icons Images Layout Layout Lead section Tables Trivia sections Layout Lead section Tables Trivia sections Lists Lists Lists of works Road junctions Stand-alone lists Lists Lists of works Road junctions Stand-alone lists By topic area Arts Anime and manga Comics Film Lyrics and poetry Novels Television Video games Visual arts Writing about fiction See also: WikiProject style advice Music Music Music samples Record charts Stringed instruments See also: WikiProject style advice History Blazons Military history See also: WikiProject style advice Legal and cultural Legal Trademarks See also: WikiProject style advice Regional Specific naming conventions Canada China (and Chinese) France (and French) Hawaii India Indonesia Ireland Japan Korea Malaysia Pakistan Philippines Poland Singapore See also: WikiProject style advice Religion and education Islam Latter Day Saints See also: WikiProject style advice Science and technology Mathematics Medicine Chemistry Compound classes Chemicals References and external links Safety Structure drawing Computer science Taxonomy See also: WikiProject style advice Sports Cue sports Snooker See also: WikiProject style advice Arts Anime and manga Comics Film Lyrics and poetry Novels Television Video games Visual arts Writing about fiction See also: WikiProject style advice Music Music Music samples Record charts Stringed instruments See also: WikiProject style advice Anime and manga Comics Film Lyrics and poetry Novels Television Video games Visual arts Writing about fiction See also: WikiProject style advice Music Music Music samples Record charts Stringed instruments See also: WikiProject style advice Music Music samples Record charts Stringed instruments See also: WikiProject style advice History Blazons Military history See also: WikiProject style advice Blazons Military history See also: WikiProject style advice Legal and cultural Legal Trademarks See also: WikiProject style advice Legal Trademarks See also: WikiProject style advice Regional Specific naming conventions Canada China (and Chinese) France (and French) Hawaii India Indonesia Ireland Japan Korea Malaysia Pakistan Philippines Poland Singapore See also: WikiProject style advice Specific naming conventions Canada China (and Chinese) France (and French) Hawaii India Indonesia Ireland Japan Korea Malaysia Pakistan Philippines Poland Singapore See also: WikiProject style advice Religion and education Islam Latter Day Saints See also: WikiProject style advice Islam Latter Day Saints See also: WikiProject style advice Science and technology Mathematics Medicine Chemistry Compound classes Chemicals References and external links Safety Structure drawing Computer science Taxonomy See also: WikiProject style advice Mathematics Medicine Chemistry Compound classes Chemicals References and external links Safety Structure drawing Compound classes Chemicals References and external links Safety Structure drawing Computer science Taxonomy See also: WikiProject style advice Sports Cue sports Snooker See also: WikiProject style advice Cue sports Snooker Snooker See also: WikiProject style advice Related guidelines Article size Article titles Categories, lists, and navigation templates Categorization Hatnotes Subpages Understandability Article size Article titles Categories, lists, and navigation templates Categorization Hatnotes Subpages Understandability Search Category Category Wikipedia romanization systems Wikipedia Manual of Style (regional) China Wikipedia administration Pages using sidebar with the child parameter CS1 uses Chinese-language script (zh) CS1 Chinese-language sources (zh) This page was last edited on 18 November 2025, at 07:17 (UTC) . 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Tluka-Nkulu Ntsindza wa muganga Ku cinca ka sweswi-nyana Tluka rin'wana na rin'wana Mpfuno Matluka yo hlawuleka Nyikela mali Create account Log in Nyikela mali Create account Log in Tlukankulu Main Page Mbulavuriswano Hlaya View source Languta matimu Hlaya View source Languta matimu Leswi khwekelaka laha Kuncica loku yelanaka Khandziyisa fayili Xithlavinyeti xa nkarhi hinkwawo Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Switch to legacy parser Create a book Download as PDF Vona Ngangliso Wikimedia Commons Wikimedia Foundation MediaWiki Meta-Wiki Wikimedia Outreach Multilingual Wikisource Wikispecies Wikidata Wikifunctions Wikimania Wiktionary Wikidata item Ha ku hoyozela eka Wikipediya , Ensayitlopediya yo tshunxeka leyi lulamisiwaka hi mani na mani . Ku na 14 wa vatirhisi lava hitekaka, na 950 wa matsalwa hi Xitsonga Nkomiso · Ku lulamisa · Swivutiso · Mpfuno Leswi nga ndzeni · Mitlawa · Swinavetiso · Xikombandlela A–Z Vutsonga i Vukosi. Thimbya-rimbya! Ku veleka vukosi! . Tsalwa ra siku... Nkanyi Nkanyi , ( Sclerocarya birrea ) i nsinya lowu kumekaka ekhwatini ra Miombo e dzongeni ra Afrika, evupela-dyambu bya Afrika, nale Madagascar . Nsinya lowu wu kula wu anamisa marhavi ya wona. Mihandzu ya wona yi tirhisiwa ku endla byala bya xitsonga lebyi vuriwaka Vukanyi na bya xilungu lebyi vuriwaka Amarula. Nsinya lowu wu rhandziwa ngopfu hi vanhu lava a va ake e tinzhawini ta le kusuhi ni mati. Hlaya leswi engetelekeke... Xana awu switiva?... Kwangala tilo i mivala leyivoniwaka exibhakabhakeni loko ku heta kuna mpfula. Vanhu ava hleketa leswaku mikwangalatilo a yi endleki navusiku. Rivoningo ra n'wetiraswikota ku endla kwangalatilo navusiku, kambe swilaveko swa kona swi tele. Hlaya leswi engetelekeke... Xifaniso xa siku Vuvatli na vuhori bya Xitsonga. Xifaniso lexi xi tekiwe eka buku ya Henri Junod leyinge "Life of a south african tribe" Vol 2 leyi kandziyisiweke hi lembe ra 1922. Vona swifaniso swin'wana leswi hlawuriweke... Matluka lama hlawuriweke Matsalwa la ma hlawuriweke Nghunghunyana - Vuqambhi - Timfanelo ta ximunhu - Vatsonga - Misava - Vutomi - Vanhu - Matimu ya misava Vukhongeri Xikwembu - Vukreste - Swikwembu - Vukhongeri - Bibele Vatsari va tibuku ta Xitsonga T.H. Khosa - F.A Thuketana - B.K.M Mtombeni - C.T.D. Marivate - D.C Marivate - E.P. Ndhambi - Henri Junod Swivongo swa Vatsonga Baloyi - Bila - Cuma - Hlatshwayo - Mabunda - Makamu - Maswanganyi - Maluleke - Xillenge - Xivambu Byala bya Xitsonga Muqombhoti - Nyota - Thothotho - Xifenukani - Badama - Ncayoni - Mukhubi - Ximpharamele - Xikhalavatlana - Byalwa-Vucema - Nghwevu - Vukanyi - Dzova - Mpahlwa Swimilana na Misinya Nkanyi - Nkuhlu - Nkwakwa - Milala - Pfilu - Nkuwa - Nsala - Ximuwu - Nkonono - Nhlampfurha - Mondzo - Mhangana - Nhlangula (Nsinya) - Ntoma - Nthunduluka - Ndzhenga - Muringa - Mupayi - Muvhangazi - Mpopowa - Mpopowanhova - Mkhanyakude - Mbhandzu - Mbvuva Tindlu ta Vatsonga Xiluvelo - Yindlu ya Nsati lonkulu - Nhanga - Lawu - Xivala - Nturuka - Dulu - Xitendze - Xivava - Xihahlu - Xitanga - Ndhumbha - Gandzelo Mitsengo yo hlawuleka Hinga tsakela mpfuno wawena swonghasi!! Hipfune kufikelela Mintsengo yamatluka yohlawuleka lamalandzelaka: 10 · 100 · 1000 · Matluka ya nkoka Ti Wikipediya leti ntsongo hi tindzimi ta laha Afrika Afrikaans · Akan · አማርኛ · Bamanankan · Chi-Chewa · chiShona · chiTumbuka · Ɛʋɛ · Fulfude · Gĩkũyũ · هَوُسَ · Ìgbo · isiXhosa · Kinyarwanda · Kirundi · Kiswahili · Kongo · Lingala · Luganda · Malagasy · Oromoo · Sängö · seSotho · sePedi · Setswana · SiSwati · Isindebele · Soomaaliga · ትግርኛ · Tshivenda · Twi · Wolof · Yorùbá · Zulu · (Leswaku uvona ti Wikipediya leti kulu, langutisa nxaxamelo lowunge ximatsini) Ti Wikipediya leti ngana matluka ya 100 nakutlula Bân-lâm-gú (Southern Min) · Bahasa Jawa (Javanese) · Basa Sunda (Sundanese) · Bosanski (Bosnian) · Gaeilge (Irish) · ह ि न ् द ी (Hindi) · Иронау (Ossetic) · Kasz ë bsczi (Kashubian) · Kernewek (Cornish) · Kiswahili · Kurd î (Kurdish) · L ë tzebuergesch (Luxembourgish) · Latvie š u (Latvian) · M ā ori · Occitan · Plattd ü ü tsch (Low Saxon) · स ं स ् क ृ त (Sanskrit) · த ம ி ழ ் (Tamil) · Tatar ç a (Tatar) · ا ر د و (Urdu) · Ti ế ng Vi ệ t (Vietnamese) · Wikipediya i ensayiklopediya leyi rhurheriweke hi nhlangano yo ka yinga bindzuli ya Wikimedia Foundation , leyi khomeke ti phurojeki ta Tindzimi to tala na Vuxokoxoko bya mahala: Wikixinari Dikixinari na thesorasi Wikibuku Tibuku to mahala na buku-ntirho Wiki-Ntshaho nxaxamelo wa mintshaho Wiki-Xihlovo Xihlovo xa Matsalwa xa mahala Wiki-Swihari Nxaxamelo wa swi vumbiwa Wiki-Mahungu Xihlovo xa mahungu ya mahala Tifayili Tifayili to nhlanganeriwa Meta-Wiki Nkongomiso wa ti phurojeki ta Wikimidiya Nkomiso · Ku lulamisa · Swivutiso · Mpfuno Leswi nga ndzeni · Mitlawa · Swinavetiso · Xikombandlela A–Z Leswi nga ndzeni · Mitlawa · Swinavetiso · Xikombandlela A–Z Vutsonga i Vukosi. Thimbya-rimbya! Ku veleka vukosi! . Tsalwa ra siku... Nkanyi Nkanyi , ( Sclerocarya birrea ) i nsinya lowu kumekaka ekhwatini ra Miombo e dzongeni ra Afrika, evupela-dyambu bya Afrika, nale Madagascar . Nsinya lowu wu kula wu anamisa marhavi ya wona. Mihandzu ya wona yi tirhisiwa ku endla byala bya xitsonga lebyi vuriwaka Vukanyi na bya xilungu lebyi vuriwaka Amarula. Nsinya lowu wu rhandziwa ngopfu hi vanhu lava a va ake e tinzhawini ta le kusuhi ni mati. Hlaya leswi engetelekeke... Xana awu switiva?... Kwangala tilo i mivala leyivoniwaka exibhakabhakeni loko ku heta kuna mpfula. Vanhu ava hleketa leswaku mikwangalatilo a yi endleki navusiku. Rivoningo ra n'wetiraswikota ku endla kwangalatilo navusiku, kambe swilaveko swa kona swi tele. Hlaya leswi engetelekeke... Xifaniso xa siku Vuvatli na vuhori bya Xitsonga. Xifaniso lexi xi tekiwe eka buku ya Henri Junod leyinge "Life of a south african tribe" Vol 2 leyi kandziyisiweke hi lembe ra 1922. Vona swifaniso swin'wana leswi hlawuriweke... Tsalwa ra siku... Tsalwa ra siku... Tsalwa ra siku... Nkanyi Nkanyi , ( Sclerocarya birrea ) i nsinya lowu kumekaka ekhwatini ra Miombo e dzongeni ra Afrika, evupela-dyambu bya Afrika, nale Madagascar . Nsinya lowu wu kula wu anamisa marhavi ya wona. Mihandzu ya wona yi tirhisiwa ku endla byala bya xitsonga lebyi vuriwaka Vukanyi na bya xilungu lebyi vuriwaka Amarula. Nsinya lowu wu rhandziwa ngopfu hi vanhu lava a va ake e tinzhawini ta le kusuhi ni mati. Hlaya leswi engetelekeke... Nkanyi , ( Sclerocarya birrea ) i nsinya lowu kumekaka ekhwatini ra Miombo e dzongeni ra Afrika, evupela-dyambu bya Afrika, nale Madagascar . Nsinya lowu wu kula wu anamisa marhavi ya wona. Mihandzu ya wona yi tirhisiwa ku endla byala bya xitsonga lebyi vuriwaka Vukanyi na bya xilungu lebyi vuriwaka Amarula. Nsinya lowu wu rhandziwa ngopfu hi vanhu lava a va ake e tinzhawini ta le kusuhi ni mati. Xana awu switiva?... Xana awu switiva?... Xana awu switiva?... Kwangala tilo i mivala leyivoniwaka exibhakabhakeni loko ku heta kuna mpfula. Vanhu ava hleketa leswaku mikwangalatilo a yi endleki navusiku. Rivoningo ra n'wetiraswikota ku endla kwangalatilo navusiku, kambe swilaveko swa kona swi tele. Hlaya leswi engetelekeke... Kwangala tilo i mivala leyivoniwaka exibhakabhakeni loko ku heta kuna mpfula. Vanhu ava hleketa leswaku mikwangalatilo a yi endleki navusiku. Rivoningo ra n'wetiraswikota ku endla kwangalatilo navusiku, kambe swilaveko swa kona swi tele. Xifaniso xa siku Xifaniso xa siku Xifaniso xa siku Vuvatli na vuhori bya Xitsonga. Xifaniso lexi xi tekiwe eka buku ya Henri Junod leyinge "Life of a south african tribe" Vol 2 leyi kandziyisiweke hi lembe ra 1922. Vona swifaniso swin'wana leswi hlawuriweke... Matluka lama hlawuriweke Matsalwa la ma hlawuriweke Nghunghunyana - Vuqambhi - Timfanelo ta ximunhu - Vatsonga - Misava - Vutomi - Vanhu - Matimu ya misava Vukhongeri Xikwembu - Vukreste - Swikwembu - Vukhongeri - Bibele Vatsari va tibuku ta Xitsonga T.H. Khosa - F.A Thuketana - B.K.M Mtombeni - C.T.D. Marivate - D.C Marivate - E.P. Ndhambi - Henri Junod Swivongo swa Vatsonga Baloyi - Bila - Cuma - Hlatshwayo - Mabunda - Makamu - Maswanganyi - Maluleke - Xillenge - Xivambu Byala bya Xitsonga Muqombhoti - Nyota - Thothotho - Xifenukani - Badama - Ncayoni - Mukhubi - Ximpharamele - Xikhalavatlana - Byalwa-Vucema - Nghwevu - Vukanyi - Dzova - Mpahlwa Swimilana na Misinya Nkanyi - Nkuhlu - Nkwakwa - Milala - Pfilu - Nkuwa - Nsala - Ximuwu - Nkonono - Nhlampfurha - Mondzo - Mhangana - Nhlangula (Nsinya) - Ntoma - Nthunduluka - Ndzhenga - Muringa - Mupayi - Muvhangazi - Mpopowa - Mpopowanhova - Mkhanyakude - Mbhandzu - Mbvuva Tindlu ta Vatsonga Xiluvelo - Yindlu ya Nsati lonkulu - Nhanga - Lawu - Xivala - Nturuka - Dulu - Xitendze - Xivava - Xihahlu - Xitanga - Ndhumbha - Gandzelo Mitsengo yo hlawuleka Hinga tsakela mpfuno wawena swonghasi!! Hipfune kufikelela Mintsengo yamatluka yohlawuleka lamalandzelaka: 10 · 100 · 1000 · Matluka ya nkoka Matluka lama hlawuriweke Matluka lama hlawuriweke Matluka lama hlawuriweke Matsalwa la ma hlawuriweke Nghunghunyana - Vuqambhi - Timfanelo ta ximunhu - Vatsonga - Misava - Vutomi - Vanhu - Matimu ya misava Vukhongeri Xikwembu - Vukreste - Swikwembu - Vukhongeri - Bibele Vatsari va tibuku ta Xitsonga T.H. Khosa - F.A Thuketana - B.K.M Mtombeni - C.T.D. Marivate - D.C Marivate - E.P. Ndhambi - Henri Junod Swivongo swa Vatsonga Baloyi - Bila - Cuma - Hlatshwayo - Mabunda - Makamu - Maswanganyi - Maluleke - Xillenge - Xivambu Byala bya Xitsonga Muqombhoti - Nyota - Thothotho - Xifenukani - Badama - Ncayoni - Mukhubi - Ximpharamele - Xikhalavatlana - Byalwa-Vucema - Nghwevu - Vukanyi - Dzova - Mpahlwa Swimilana na Misinya Nkanyi - Nkuhlu - Nkwakwa - Milala - Pfilu - Nkuwa - Nsala - Ximuwu - Nkonono - Nhlampfurha - Mondzo - Mhangana - Nhlangula (Nsinya) - Ntoma - Nthunduluka - Ndzhenga - Muringa - Mupayi - Muvhangazi - Mpopowa - Mpopowanhova - Mkhanyakude - Mbhandzu - Mbvuva Tindlu ta Vatsonga Xiluvelo - Yindlu ya Nsati lonkulu - Nhanga - Lawu - Xivala - Nturuka - Dulu - Xitendze - Xivava - Xihahlu - Xitanga - Ndhumbha - Gandzelo Mitsengo yo hlawuleka Hinga tsakela mpfuno wawena swonghasi!! Hipfune kufikelela Mintsengo yamatluka yohlawuleka lamalandzelaka: 10 · 100 · 1000 · Matluka ya nkoka Matsalwa la ma hlawuriweke Nghunghunyana - Vuqambhi - Timfanelo ta ximunhu - Vatsonga - Misava - Vutomi - Vanhu - Matimu ya misava Vukhongeri Xikwembu - Vukreste - Swikwembu - Vukhongeri - Bibele Vatsari va tibuku ta Xitsonga T.H. Khosa - F.A Thuketana - B.K.M Mtombeni - C.T.D. Marivate - D.C Marivate - E.P. Ndhambi - Henri Junod Swivongo swa Vatsonga Baloyi - Bila - Cuma - Hlatshwayo - Mabunda - Makamu - Maswanganyi - Maluleke - Xillenge - Xivambu Byala bya Xitsonga Muqombhoti - Nyota - Thothotho - Xifenukani - Badama - Ncayoni - Mukhubi - Ximpharamele - Xikhalavatlana - Byalwa-Vucema - Nghwevu - Vukanyi - Dzova - Mpahlwa Swimilana na Misinya Nkanyi - Nkuhlu - Nkwakwa - Milala - Pfilu - Nkuwa - Nsala - Ximuwu - Nkonono - Nhlampfurha - Mondzo - Mhangana - Nhlangula (Nsinya) - Ntoma - Nthunduluka - Ndzhenga - Muringa - Mupayi - Muvhangazi - Mpopowa - Mpopowanhova - Mkhanyakude - Mbhandzu - Mbvuva Tindlu ta Vatsonga Xiluvelo - Yindlu ya Nsati lonkulu - Nhanga - Lawu - Xivala - Nturuka - Dulu - Xitendze - Xivava - Xihahlu - Xitanga - Ndhumbha - Gandzelo Matsalwa la ma hlawuriweke Nghunghunyana - Vuqambhi - Timfanelo ta ximunhu - Vatsonga - Misava - Vutomi - Vanhu - Matimu ya misava Nghunghunyana - Vuqambhi - Timfanelo ta ximunhu - Vatsonga - Misava - Vutomi - Vanhu - Matimu ya misava Vukhongeri Xikwembu - Vukreste - Swikwembu - Vukhongeri - Bibele Xikwembu - Vukreste - Swikwembu - Vukhongeri - Bibele Vatsari va tibuku ta Xitsonga T.H. Khosa - F.A Thuketana - B.K.M Mtombeni - C.T.D. Marivate - D.C Marivate - E.P. Ndhambi - Henri Junod T.H. Khosa - F.A Thuketana - B.K.M Mtombeni - C.T.D. Marivate - D.C Marivate - E.P. Ndhambi - Henri Junod Swivongo swa Vatsonga Baloyi - Bila - Cuma - Hlatshwayo - Mabunda - Makamu - Maswanganyi - Maluleke - Xillenge - Xivambu Baloyi - Bila - Cuma - Hlatshwayo - Mabunda - Makamu - Maswanganyi - Maluleke - Xillenge - Xivambu Byala bya Xitsonga Muqombhoti - Nyota - Thothotho - Xifenukani - Badama - Ncayoni - Mukhubi - Ximpharamele - Xikhalavatlana - Byalwa-Vucema - Nghwevu - Vukanyi - Dzova - Mpahlwa Muqombhoti - Nyota - Thothotho - Xifenukani - Badama - Ncayoni - Mukhubi - Ximpharamele - Xikhalavatlana - Byalwa-Vucema - Nghwevu - Vukanyi - Dzova - Mpahlwa Swimilana na Misinya Nkanyi - Nkuhlu - Nkwakwa - Milala - Pfilu - Nkuwa - Nsala - Ximuwu - Nkonono - Nhlampfurha - Mondzo - Mhangana - Nhlangula (Nsinya) - Ntoma - Nthunduluka - Ndzhenga - Muringa - Mupayi - Muvhangazi - Mpopowa - Mpopowanhova - Mkhanyakude - Mbhandzu - Mbvuva Nkanyi - Nkuhlu - Nkwakwa - Milala - Pfilu - Nkuwa - Nsala - Ximuwu - Nkonono - Nhlampfurha - Mondzo - Mhangana - Nhlangula (Nsinya) - Ntoma - Nthunduluka - Ndzhenga - Muringa - Mupayi - Muvhangazi - Mpopowa - Mpopowanhova - Mkhanyakude - Mbhandzu - Mbvuva Tindlu ta Vatsonga Xiluvelo - Yindlu ya Nsati lonkulu - Nhanga - Lawu - Xivala - Nturuka - Dulu - Xitendze - Xivava - Xihahlu - Xitanga - Ndhumbha - Gandzelo Xiluvelo - Yindlu ya Nsati lonkulu - Nhanga - Lawu - Xivala - Nturuka - Dulu - Xitendze - Xivava - Xihahlu - Xitanga - Ndhumbha - Gandzelo Mitsengo yo hlawuleka Mitsengo yo hlawuleka Mitsengo yo hlawuleka Hinga tsakela mpfuno wawena swonghasi!! 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early life 2 Journalism and non-fiction 3 Fiction Toggle Fiction subsection 3.1 Romantic novels series 3.2 The Rutshire Chronicles 3.3 Little Mabel series 3.1 Romantic novels series 3.2 The Rutshire Chronicles 3.3 Little Mabel series 4 Personal life 5 Death and tributes 6 Honours, awards and recognition 7 Film and television productions Toggle Film and television productions subsection 7.1 Screenwriting and appearances 7.2 Adaptations 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 7.1 Screenwriting and appearances 7.2 Adaptations 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 8 Analysis 9 List of works Toggle List of works subsection 9.1 Fiction 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.2 Non-fiction 9.1 Fiction 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.2 Non-fiction 10 References 11 External links Jilly Cooper العربية Български Cymraeg Deutsch Español فارسی Français کٲشُر مصرى Polski Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska Türkçe Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item Dame Jilly Cooper DBE Cooper in 1974 Born Jill Sallitt ( 1937-02-21 ) 21 February 1937 Hornchurch , Essex, England Died 5 October 2025 (2025-10-05) (aged 88) Gloucester , England Occupation Author Genre Erotic , romance Notable works Rutshire Chronicles Spouse .mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-inline{display:inline} Leo Cooper ( m. 1961; died 2013) Children 2 Website jillycooper .co .uk Dame Jilly Cooper (born Jill Sallitt ; 21 February 1937 – 5 October 2025) was an English author and journalist, best known for her long-running Rutshire Chronicles series. She began her career in journalism and published several works of non-fiction, including books on class, animals and marriage, before turning to fiction. Her first book was How to Stay Married , which was published in 1969. She published several collections of journalism, alongside other non-fiction volumes throughout much of her career. Cooper's first novel to be published was the romance , Emily , which appeared in 1975 and was followed by five more, as well as a volume of short stories. Cooper was also an anthologist and wrote the Little Mabel series of children's books. Cooper went on to become a prominent figure in British popular literature, noted for her witty social commentary and depictions of upper-middle-class life. Her best-known works are the Rutshire Chronicles of which the 1985 novel Riders was the first; it was followed by ten more volumes with the latest installment Tackle! published in 2023. The series is known for its humour, sexuality and depictions of upper-class life; several of the volumes feature the character Rupert Campbell-Black as a key protagonist. Whilst Riders alone sold over one million copies, and her romance novels compared to those of Nancy Mitford and Barbara Cartland , not all reviews were positive. Private Eye lampooned Cooper and gave her the nickname 'Super Cooper', which she later used as a title for one of her own books. Nevertheless Cooper is recognised as one of the key writers of the bonkbuster novel, along with Jackie Collins , Shirley Conran and Judith Krantz . Whilst few academics have analysed her work, those that have, recognise her ability to portray large cast of characters and her focus on pleasure as a literary theme. Academic Ian Patterson compared her to Anthony Trollope and Charles Dickens . In 2025, the Jilly Cooper Prize was established as part of the Comedy Women in Print Awards to honour her contribution to comic fiction. After Cooper's death in the same year, Queen Camilla described her as a "wonderfully witty and compassionate friend". Cooper had received several honours during her lifetime, including that of Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2024 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity. Several of her works were adapted for television and radio, including the second Rutshire Chronicles volume, Rivals , which was adapted by Disney+ and released in 2024. It starred David Tennant and Aidan Turner . Early life Jill Sallitt was born in Hornchurch , Essex, on 21 February 1937 to Mary Elaine ( née Whincup) and Brigadier W. B. Sallitt. [ 1 ] She grew up in Ilkley , Yorkshire, and in Surrey . Cooper was educated at Moorfield School in Ilkley and Godolphin School in Salisbury , Wiltshire. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] She subsequently learnt to type in Oxford. [ 3 ] Journalism and non-fiction Aged 20, Cooper became a junior reporter for The Middlesex Independent , based in Brentford . [ 3 ] She worked for the paper from 1957 to 1959. Subsequently, she worked as an account executive, copywriter , publisher's reader and receptionist . [ 4 ] Her break came with a chance meeting at a dinner party with Godfrey Smith , the editor of The Sunday Times Magazine , who asked her to write a feature about her experiences as a young married woman. [ 4 ] This led to a column in which Cooper wrote about marriage , sex and housework . [ 3 ] That column ran from 1969 to 1982, when she moved to The Mail on Sunday , where she worked as a columnist for a further five years. [ 3 ] In parallel to her journalism, Cooper wrote several humorous and satirical books: her earliest columns led to the publication of her first book, the satirical How to Stay Married , in 1969, which was quickly followed by another satirical guide to working life, How to Survive from Nine to Five , in 1970. [ 5 ] Further satirical works were Men and Super Men , published in 1972, [ 6 ] and Women and Super Women , published in 1974. [ 7 ] The former has mixed reviews, with the Liverpool Daily Post describing the puns as bad, but that Cooper's writing had a "knowing adolescence". [ 6 ] In contrast the Evening Dispatch instructed all its readers to immediately buy it, as a guide to "men and sex". [ 8 ] Women and Super Women was reviewed positively by Clive James in The Observer , [ 9 ] whereas other reviews described the book as cruel (if funny) in its discussions of a wide range of women. [ 7 ] Cooper's journalism was first collected into a single volume, Jolly Super , in 1971. [ 5 ] That collection took its title from the nickname given to Cooper by Private Eye . [ 10 ] A further collection Jolly Super Too was published in 1973. [ 11 ] The Birmingham Evening Mail compared Cooper to Mick McManus as someone the public loved to hate, and stated that the book would deliver "a snigger a minute" to readers. [ 12 ] Jolly Superlative was published in 1975 and largely included pieces from The Sunday Times , but also Vogue , and was praised by The Daily Telegraph for its "limitless comic invention". [ 13 ] In 1977 another collection of journalism, Super Jilly, was reviewed by Clive James in the The Observer as "another breathless year-book by the Sunday Times' head-girl". [ 14 ] The same year How to Stay Married and How to Survive from Nine to Five were republished together in a single volume in 1977 under the revised title How To Survive Work and Wedlock. [ 15 ] The combined volume had mixed reviews from "saucy, but relevant" according to the Sydney Morning Herald , [ 16 ] to the Evening Standard describing how "Women's Lib must hate her insouciant approach to the woman's world". [ 17 ] The theme of class dominated much of her writing and her non-fiction with her work written from an explicitly upper-middle-class British perspective, with emphasis on the relationships between men and women and matters of social class in contemporary Britain. [ 2 ] Upon the publication of 1979's book Class , Ralf Dahrendorf reviewed it for the London Review of Books , describing the work as one where "the characters are fun, the observations acute". [ 18 ] Published in 2000 David Cannadine 's Class in Britain assessed Cooper's book, pointing out that Cooper herself had felt that it did not fully describe the intricacies of the British class system. [ 19 ] Another republication during this period was 1980's Super Cooper , which was a volume of excerpts from her earlier books Men and Super Men and Women and Super Women. [ 20 ] This was described the Sydney Morning Herald as a "brilliant guide to the sexes" and by the Liverpool as a volume "that never disappoints the reader". [ 20 ] [ 21 ] Jolly Marsupial another volume of journalism, this time focussing on Cooper's 1980 tour of Australia to promote the book Class , was published in 1982. [ 22 ] In 1981 Cooper published Intelligent and Loyal , which is a book about mongrels . [ 23 ] In it Cooper created her own humorous typology for mongrels. [ 24 ] To gather stories about mongrels for the book, Cooper put an advert in newspapers asking people to share stories about their pets for the book. [ 23 ] [ 25 ] As a result of the book's success Cooper and her dogs subsequently made public appearances, including on The Animals Roadshow in 1989. [ 26 ] In 1983 she published Animals in War , a book that recorded the contributions a variety of species made to the military. [ 27 ] Public response to the book led to a campaign, supported by Cooper, to establish the Animals in War Memorial . [ 28 ] [ 29 ] Cooper edited an anthology of prose and poetry entitled The British in Love . [ 30 ] With Tom Hartman she also co-edited a dictionary of quotations purely sourced from women entitled Violets and Vinegar . [ 31 ] In 2020, some of her writings on sex and marriage from the 1970s were republished as Between the Covers and praised for their honesty . [ 32 ] Fiction Cooper has been described as "the queen of the bonkbuster ", [ 33 ] however her first novels were romances. [ 34 ] [ 35 ] These were followed by the Rutshire Chronicles series, where dogs and horses featured heavily. [ 36 ] Cooper described the research she undertook for each novel as "like studying for an A-level". [ 37 ] Quoted in the Evening Standard in 1994, Cooper stated that she thought that product placement in literary works was acceptable and discussed how she had received thank you gifts as a result of unsolicited mentions in her novels. [ 38 ] Romantic novels series Cooper was encouraged to write romantic fiction by the editor Desmond Elliott , who had read the short stories she had written previously for teenage magazines. [ 34 ] At the time she was working in publicity for HarperCollins ; Elliott commissioned her with a six-book contract and the paperback rights were subsequently sold to Corgi Books . [ 34 ] The series sold in the 100,000s. [ 34 ] The contract was for Cooper to publish a novel every six months. [ 39 ] The first novel in the series was Emily , which was published in 1975. [ 40 ] Set on a remote Scottish island, its storyline follows Emily who moves to the island after a short courtship and marriage to a volatile artist. [ 41 ] Reviews were complimentary, [ 42 ] [ 43 ] although Auberon Waugh noted similarity between Emily and Devil's Cub by Georgette Heyer . [ 44 ] The work was compared to that of Nancy Mitford and Barbara Cartland . [ 39 ] Emily was followed by Harriet and then Bella , both published in 1976. [ 45 ] [ 46 ] In Harriet , the titular character becomes pregnant whilst at university and subsequently works as a nanny for an irascible screenwriter so she can take the baby with her. [ 47 ] In review, Barbara Cartland disliked the novel. [ 48 ] The novel Bella ' s storyline revolves around an actress whose fiancé is super-wealthy, but his family do not approve of Bella. [ 49 ] The novel mixes romance and mystery, as Bella is kidnapped. [ 49 ] Auberon Waugh praised the emotional engagement of the novel, but The Guardian described disappointment since good jokes were lost in the prose. [ 44 ] [ 50 ] In October 1993, seven years after Private Eye had pointed out the similarities, Cooper admitted that sections of Emily and Bella were plagiarised from The Dud Avocado (1958) by Elaine Dundy , but said that it was not deliberate. [ 51 ] The next novel in the series was Octavia , which was published in 1977, set in Britain during the 1970s. [ 52 ] Reviews were less positive than the previous novels, but Cooper's word-play continued to be praised. [ 53 ] In a review Auberon Waugh expressed frustration with the novel as he felt Cooper could write much better than the text. [ 54 ] Octavia was followed by the novel Prudence , which was set in the Lake District in England during a house party. [ 55 ] [ 56 ] The novel had a mixed reception upon publication, including from one reviewer who hoped it was the last in the series. [ 57 ] In response, Cooper's publisher, Desmond Elliott, wrote to the paper announcing that the next novel, Imogen , was due that same year and it too was likely to be enjoyed by hundreds of thousands of readers. [ 57 ] The final novel in the series is Imogen , which was published in 1978. [ 58 ] At the time of publication, the preceding five novels had sold 340,000 copies. [ 59 ] Set between Yorkshire and the south of France, it follows Imogen as she is seduced by a tennis player, who takes her on holiday, but ultimately falls in love with his best friend. [ 58 ] The novel was mostly received favourably, [ 60 ] although the character of Imogen was described in one review as "spineless". [ 61 ] It is cited as an example in academic texts on a variety of themes, including the allure of the French Riviera for Anglo-American culture, [ 62 ] and a cultural analysis of cohabitation in the 1970s. [ 63 ] Also grouped in the romance series is the short story collection Lisa & Co ; each story is based on some of Cooper's earliest writings for women's magazines in the 1960s. [ 64 ] [ 65 ] In 2017 in her book The Gender Games , transgender writer Juno Dawson described how her obsession with the "ultra-glam" covers of these romances as a child gave her a sense that she was not "very good at being a boy". [ 66 ] The Rutshire Chronicles The best-known of Cooper's works, each book of the Rutshire Chronicles is set in a glamorous and wealthy milieu , such as the worlds of show jumping or classical music . [ 67 ] [ 68 ] These books were noted for the luxurious lifestyles portrayed, the proliferation of animals and their wit. [ 69 ] The first in the series was Riders (1985), an international bestseller, which sold over one million copies. [ 70 ] The first version of Riders was written by 1970, but shortly after Cooper had finished it, she took it with her into the West End of London , but left the manuscript on a bus. The London Evening Standard put out an appeal, but it was never found. She was, she says, "devastated" and it took her more than a decade to start it again. [ 71 ] Set in the world of show-jumping, the novel is the first appearance of Cooper's ongoing central character Rupert Campbell-Black . [ 72 ] The novel centres on his rivalry with fellow show-jumper Jake Lovell and the novel's denouement is set in the Los Angeles Olympics . [ 73 ] The follow-up novel to Riders was Rivals , set in the world of commercial television. [ 74 ] Still featuring Campbell-Black, he joins forces with television presenter Declan O'Hara and other characters to take over the local television station. [ 75 ] [ 76 ] Despite some initial scepticism from her publisher about the setting, [ 77 ] the novel debuted at #2 on the Sunday Times bestseller list for hardback fiction on June 12, 1988. [ 78 ] The next novel in the series was Polo , published in 1991, and was a return to the horse-focussed settings that Cooper became known for. [ 79 ] Cooper researched the book by travelling to Palm Beach and to Argentina, meeting polo players there. [ 80 ] [ 81 ] The novel went to number 1 in the UK hardback bestseller list, on its first entry. [ 82 ] Based on a rivalry between British polo player Ricky France-Lynch and an American millionaire Bart Alderton, the novel follows the teams associated with the two figures as they compete around the world. [ 83 ] It also features Rupert Campbell-Black's illegitimate daughter Perdita as a key protagonist. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] [ 86 ] Following Polo , the next novel in the series was The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous , which followed the life of Lysander Hawkley, a man who rich women employed to encourage their unfaithful husbands to return to their marriages. [ 87 ] It was the first novel to feature Roberto Rannaldini, a conductor and sworn enemy of Rupert Campbell-Black. [ 88 ] The novel received a range of reviews, but was praised for its "plain" heroine and a sub-plot relating to miscarriage. [ 89 ] [ 90 ] The next in the series was Appassionata , which was based in the world of classical music and followed the career of soloist, then conductor, Abigail Rosen. [ 91 ] Cooper spent three years researching the novel and travelled on tour to Spain, twice, with the Royal Scottish National Orchestra (RSNO). [ 91 ] The novel was a bestseller, and a soundtrack to the novel was released in parallel to the book. [ 92 ] [ 93 ] Reviews were mixed, with praise for Cooper's research [ 93 ] balanced by suggestions that the cast of characters was too large and contrived plots. [ 94 ] [ 95 ] Cooper remained largely in the world of classical music for her next novel, Score! , but this time focussing on a production of the opera Don Carlos . [ 86 ] In it Rannaldini is directing a film of the production, but is murdered on set, leading to a police investigation. [ 96 ] The novel was a Number 1 bestseller upon its release. The book received mixed reviews, [ 97 ] [ 86 ] as well as the accusation that at some moments the book seemed to suggest "that the death of a dog is rather more grief-worthy than the death of a human". [ 98 ] Her following novel Pandora was set in the art world, [ 99 ] and followed the Belvedon family of dealers and artists, based in the neighbouring county of Larkshire. [ 100 ] Reviewing the novel in The Observer , Robert Macfarlane described how it depicted and lampooned Britart , conceptual art and the Turner Prize . [ 99 ] This theme was continued by the New Statesman , where a reviewer described one scene where a woman who is raped is also menstruating as "very Jake and Dinos Chapman ". [ 101 ] The next volume in the series was Wicked! which was published in 2006 and was set in a boarding school, going to No. 1 in the fiction charts on its release. [ 102 ] [ 103 ] The novel had mixed reviews with some writers sharing unease at the depictions of teenage sex and romance. [ 104 ] [ 86 ] The Guardian stated that running at over 800 pages, the book needed a thorough edit since it was "as long as Anna Karenina and that, surely, is a mistake". [ 105 ] Returning to the world of horses, the ninth novel Jump! was released in 2010. [ 106 ] It features characters from the Rutshire Chronicles in the world of National Hunt steeplechase racing and tells the transformation of a mutilated horse (Mrs Wilkinson) into a successful racehorse. [ 106 ] After publication, it was revealed that Cooper had named a goat in the book (Chisolm) in order to hit back at the critic Anne Chisholm. [ 107 ] The tenth novel in the series Jump! was set in the world of flat racing . [ 108 ] Whilst Cooper's descriptions of the Cotswolds and her descriptions of racing were praised, some reviewers criticised the characterisation and "depraved and ridiculous" sex scenes. [ 109 ] [ 110 ] [ 111 ] The eleventh book in the series was Tackle! , published in 2023 it was set in the world of football. [ 112 ] It was named by The Week as one of the best novels of 2023. [ 113 ] The novel features Rupert Campbell-Black becoming the director of a local football club, based on Cooper's local side Forest Green Rovers . [ 114 ] [ 115 ] The sexual content of the novel received mixed reviews, with praise for the oral sex featured, but dismay that other scenes felt "lacklustre". [ 116 ] Little Mabel series Cooper also wrote a series of four children's books based on the misadventures of a young mongrel puppy called Mabel. [ 117 ] The Little Mabel series comprised Little Mabel, Little Mabel's Great Escape, Little Mabel Wins and Little Mabel Saves the Day. [ 117 ] When interviewed in 2013 to discuss the inclusion of a new class for mongrels at Crufts , Cooper described her book Little Mabel Wins as "prophetic" since it featured a protest against mongrel discrimination at that dog show. [ 118 ] Two of the books featured in the British children's television series Jackanory , read by Victoria Wood and Liza Goddard . [ 119 ] [ 120 ] Personal life In 1961, she married Leo Cooper , a publisher of military history books. [ 121 ] The couple had met when she was aged eight and Cooper aged 10, although they did not marry until she was 24 and he was 27. [ 122 ] [ 3 ] The couple adopted two children and had five grandchildren. [ 123 ] [ 124 ] In 1982, the couple left Putney , south-west London, for an old manor house near Stroud , Gloucestershire. [ 121 ] [ 125 ] As she told The Field in 2002, "I loved London, but I used to cry because I missed the countryside. We did the usual married run: Earl’s Court ; Fulham ; Putney ; Move To The Country." [ 126 ] The Coopers' marriage was greatly disrupted in 1990 when publisher Sarah Johnson revealed that she and Leo had had an affair for several years. [ 127 ] [ 128 ] Leo was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease in 2002. He died on 29 November 2013, at the age of 80. [ 121 ] In 2010, Cooper [ which? ] suffered a minor stroke. [ 129 ] Cooper was a passenger in one of the derailed carriages in the Ladbroke Grove rail crash of 1999, in which 31 people died, [ 123 ] and crawled through a window to escape. She later spoke of feeling that her "number was up". [ 3 ] Cooper was a supporter of the Conservative Party , [ 130 ] and was also in favour of the Iraq War (2003 to 2011). [ 131 ] In a 2007 interview with The Guardian she said, "I loved Mrs Thatcher , I adored her, she was very very nice to me". [ 132 ] By 2012, however, she had grown disillusioned with the Conservatives, telling The Spectator that she was "disappointed with this government" and that the party was "full of terrible people now". [ 133 ] In 2018 Cooper said that because of the #MeToo movement , young men and women no longer feel free to flirt with one another and that she enjoyed being the subject of wolf whistles . [ 134 ] Cooper stated that she was a football fan and supported Leeds United when she lived in Yorkshire. [ 135 ] She was also a Manchester City fan. [ 136 ] Cooper campaigned for the preservation of limestone grasslands in Gloucestershire with the Trust for Nature Conservation. [ 137 ] Death and tributes On 4 October 2025, Cooper was attended to by paramedics after suffering a fall at her home in Bisley , Gloucestershire, which caused a fatal head injury. She was transported to Gloucestershire Royal Hospital , where her condition deteriorated. She died there on 5 October, aged 88, surrounded by family. [ 138 ] Queen Camilla , a long-term friend, led the tributes to Cooper, describing her as a legend and a "wonderfully witty and compassionate friend to me and so many", adding: "May her hereafter be filled with impossibly handsome men and devoted dogs." [ 139 ] The official spokesman of the prime minister, Keir Starmer , said: "Dame Jilly Cooper was a literary force whose wit, warmth and wisdom shaped British culture for over half a century and brought joy to millions." Famously a fan of Cooper's novels, former prime minister Rishi Sunak wrote on X : "Sad to hear of the passing of Dame Jilly Cooper, a storyteller whose wit and love of character brought joy to millions. My thoughts are with her family and fellow readers." [ 140 ] Others paying tribute to Cooper included comedian Helen Lederer , who wrote on X: "Trail blazer, wit, optimist and the giver of the greatest summer parties – you made it look simple." Broadcaster Gyles Brandreth wrote that she was "simply adorable". [ 141 ] Television presenter Kirstie Allsopp said Cooper was "a British institution, funny, enthusiastic and self deprecating, we don't see enough of it these days". [ 142 ] Piers Morgan posted: "Such a fabulously fun, mischievous, warm-hearted lady. If she was in a room, everyone would feel instantly cheerier." [ 142 ] Fellow broadcaster Russell Grant wrote on X: "Jilly was one of the most kind, courteous, generous, warm-hearted and smiley people I ever met when I worked on breakfast and morning TV." [ 143 ] Actress Dame Joanna Lumley , who starred in Cooper's early 1970s sitcom It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling , told BBC News: "She was entirely generous, hugely talented, prolific, enthusiastic, meticulous and wholly loveable: a darling friend and a brilliant person." [ 144 ] A number of authors have also recognised her and her legacy, including Jill Mansell who credited Cooper for inspiring her to be a writer. The Australian-British author Kathy Lette said: "A twinkle has gone out of the world." [ 144 ] Author and former doctor Adam Kay recalled being Cooper's "perhaps unlikely penpal", adding: "We have lost one of the greats." [ 139 ] Honours, awards and recognition Cooper was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2004 Birthday Honours for services to literature, Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2018 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity and Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2024 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity. [ 145 ] On 13 November 2009, Cooper was awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Letters by the University of Gloucestershire at a ceremony in Gloucester Cathedral . [ 146 ] In 2011, She was also awarded an Honorary Doctor of Letters at Anglia Ruskin University . [ 147 ] In 2024 she was named Harper's Bazaar ' s Author of the Year. [ 148 ] In 1997 local councillors in Ilkley , West Yorkshire, rejected a housing developers' proposal to name a street after Cooper. [ 149 ] Located on the site of the tennis courts of Ilkley Hall, where Cooper spent some of her childhood, the street was ultimately named after Thomas Maufe , who was awarded a Victoria Cross . Cooper stated that "[Maufe] is much more deserving than me." [ 149 ] A racehorse was named after Cooper, but it had to be euthanised in 2024 after a racing accident. [ 150 ] [ 151 ] In 2025, the Jilly Cooper Prize was established as part of the Comedy Women in Print Awards to honour her contribution to comic fiction. [ 152 ] The prize recognises works of fiction by women and non-binary authors that demonstrate a distinctive sense of humour, irreverence, and comic narrative voice. The award was introduced following Cooper’s death in 2024, with the intention of acknowledging her influence on contemporary comic fiction and her long-standing reputation for comedic prose, romantic satire, and portrayals of British high society. [ 153 ] The inaugural winner of the prize was Sara Pascoe , who received the award in 2025 for her novel Weirdo . [ 154 ] Film and television productions Screenwriting and appearances In 1971 Cooper wrote the comedy series It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling with Christopher Bond , about four posh young women sharing a flat in London, featuring Joanna Lumley and airing on BBC1 . [ 155 ] [ 156 ] In the 1980s she was a regular guest on the BBC television programme What's My Line? [ 157 ] According to a 2016 interview with Cooper, she was also the subject of a Spitting Image puppet, whose only line was "Sex sex sex sex sex sex". [ 5 ] Adaptations Romance series Emily was adapted by Eleanor Bron for Thames Television in 1976 as part of a six-part romance series. [ 158 ] [ 159 ] Directed by Alastair Reid , [ 160 ] it was broadcast on 6 April 1977. [ 161 ] Prudence was adapted for radio in 1979 by Capital Radio , starring Felicity Kendal as Prudence, [ 162 ] alongside Nigel Davenport and Gerald Harper . [ 163 ] In 2007 a television adaptation of four of the romance novels was proposed. [ 164 ] This was suggested as one of a four-part series focusing on Harriet , Bella , Octavia and one unspecified; the only episode to be filmed was Octavia . [ 164 ] The screenplay was written by Jonathan Harvey . [ 165 ] As of 2009 there was no date for its screening. [ 166 ] In 2013 The Telegraph reported that Harriet was being adapted into a musical by Eva Rice, novelist and daughter of Tim Rice . [ 167 ] Rutshire Chronicles Television adaptations of Cooper's novels were produced for ITV and Disney+. Other productions include the television mini-series The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous , starring Hugh Bonneville , produced by Sarah Lawson ; Riders ; [ 168 ] and, in 2024, Rivals , starring David Tennant , Aidan Turner and Alex Hassell , produced by Eliza Mellor. [ 169 ] The latter was renewed for a second series, which is expected to be released in 2026. [ 170 ] Analysis Cooper has been identified as one of the key writers of the bonkbuster novel, along with Jackie Collins , Shirley Conran and Judith Krantz . [ 70 ] Riders in particular is seen as a key text for the genre, embodying its themes of sex (sometimes coercive) and romance (sometimes unfulfilled). [ 70 ] Indeed, academic Emma Parker has described how the novel "exemplified" the genre. [ 171 ] Ian Patterson , writing for the London Review of Books is one of the few academics to seriously consider Cooper's literary oeuvre. [ 172 ] In his critique of her work, Patterson described how Cooper had a "propensity for subplots worthy of Trollope or Dickens". [ 97 ] Moreover, that her books are "worth thinking about" because they cover "pleasure, that most ticklish of subjects". [ 97 ] Patterson goes on to describe the themes of pleasure that Cooper deals with: "pleasure delayed and deferred, guilty pleasure, the pleasure of repetition and the problems of it", as well as "good pleasures, in various degrees, wrong but permissible pleasures, and unequivocally bad pleasures". [ 97 ] He praised Cooper's use of language, in particular "puns and other forms of verbal humour", which give the reader the impression that Cooper, as writer, is never far away. [ 97 ] On the Romance series, Patterson described the novels as "tightly structured, agreeably predictable wish-fulfilment narratives named for their heroines". [ 97 ] Beyond Cooper's novels, Patterson praised her portrait of Margaret Thatcher, and her Sunday Times columns. [ 97 ] Patterson compared Cooper to Ali Smith since in their writing they share a "fondness for both wordplay and wise children". [ 97 ] Cooper's use of humour as part of erotic writing has been discussed by Tim Miles, who described how there was "is little or no separation" of the two, especially in Riders. [ 173 ] In his analysis of the career of Mary Ward , academic Alan Deyermond describes how she was described as "the Jilly Cooper of her day", which became part of her professional denigration. [ 174 ] Cooper's use of horses as a repeated trope across many of her novels has been considered by academic Gail Cunningham, who described how Riders and Polo provided "women readers with an adult version of the pony book ". [ 175 ] List of works Fiction The Rutshire Chronicles Riders (1985) [ 176 ] Rivals (1988; also known as Players ) [ 177 ] Polo (1991) [ 178 ] The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous (1993) [ 179 ] Appassionata (1996) [ 180 ] Score! (1999) [ 181 ] Pandora (2002) [ 182 ] Wicked! (2006) [ 183 ] Jump! (2010) [ 184 ] Mount! (2016) [ 185 ] Tackle! (2023) [ 186 ] Romances Emily (1975) [ 187 ] Bella (1976) [ 188 ] Harriet (1976) [ 189 ] Octavia (1977) [ 190 ] Prudence (1978) [ 191 ] Imogen (1978) [ 192 ] Lisa & Co . (1981) [ 193 ] "Little Mabel" series Little Mabel (1980) [ 194 ] Little Mabel's Great Escape (1981) [ 195 ] Little Mabel Wins (1982) [ 196 ] Little Mabel Saves the Day (1985) [ 197 ] Other Araminta's Wedding (1993) [ 198 ] Non-fiction How to Stay Married (1969) [ 199 ] How To Survive from Nine To Five (1970) [ 200 ] Jolly Super (1971) [ 201 ] Men and Super Men (1972) [ 202 ] Jolly Super Too (1973) [ 203 ] Women and Super Women (1974) [ 204 ] Jolly Superlative (1975) [ 205 ] Supermen and Superwomen (1976) [ 206 ] How to Survive Work and Wedlock (1977); republication of earlier works [ 207 ] Superjilly (1977) [ 208 ] The British in Love (1979) [ 209 ] Class: A View from Middle England (1979) [ 210 ] Supercooper (1980) [ 211 ] Violets and Vinegar: An Anthology of Women's Writings and Sayings (1980) [ 212 ] Intelligent and Loyal (1981) [ 213 ] Jolly Marsupial (1982) [ 214 ] Animals in War (1983) [ 215 ] The Common Years (1984) [ 216 ] On Rugby (1984; with Leo Cooper ) [ 217 ] On Cricket (1985; with Leo Cooper) [ 218 ] Hotfoot to Zabriskie Point (1985; with Patrick Lichfield ) [ 219 ] Horse Mania! (1986; with Leo Cooper) [ 220 ] How To Survive Christmas (1986) [ 221 ] Turn Right at the Spotted Dog (1987) [ 222 ] Angels Rush In (1990) [ 223 ] Between the Covers (2020) [ 32 ] References ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Biography with magazine quotations" . 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"Between the Covers by Jilly Cooper review – as fresh as ever" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 14 December 2025 . ^ Moses, Claire (17 October 2024). "Jilly Cooper on Adapting Her Naughty Romance, 'Rivals,' for Disney+" . The New York Times . Retrieved 22 January 2025 . ^ a b c d "Desmond Elliott" . The Daily Telegraph . 30 August 2003. p. 29 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Harrison, Bernice (25 May 2013). "Jilly the filly buster" . The Irish Times . ^ "Jilly Cooper loved Hay so much she wants to base her next novel in Wales" . Hay Festival. 31 May 2018. ^ Matthews, Rachel (15 February 2020). "Mount! author Jilly Cooper: 'When I was younger, I ricocheted from one unsuitable man to another' " . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 15 February 2020 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ Fendley, Alison (9 March 1994). "And, after the break, Chapter Four..." Evening Standard . p. 191 . Retrieved 7 July 2025 . ^ a b King, Francis (16 November 1975). "Jungle warfare in the block" . Sunday Telegraph . p. 14 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Salutes to her". Evening Standard . 30 December 1975. p. 15. ^ "Emily by Jilly Cooper" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Archived from the original on 21 May 2025 . Retrieved 12 August 2025 . ^ Berridge, Elizabeth (6 November 1975). "Recent Fiction" . The Daily Telegraph . p. 13. Archived from the original on 22 June 2025 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Butler, Tony (12 November 1976). "Cooking ... for the love of it!" . Evening Herald . p. 13 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ a b Waugh, Auberon (6 July 1976). "Bella won't let you down!" . Evening Standard . p. 18 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper: Harriet" . The Bookseller . 10 July 1976. p. 7. ^ Monks, John (23 July 1976). "Jolly hockey sticks, it's Jilly" . Western Daily Press . p. 8. Archived from the original on 21 June 2025 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ "Harriet by Jilly Cooper" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . 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Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ "High drama at sea" . Burton Observer and Chronicle . 1 December 1978. p. 9 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ a b Elliott, Desmond (28 March 1978). "Just a rumour" . Liverpool Daily Post (Merseyside ed.) . p. 2. Archived from the original on 21 June 2025 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ a b Cooper, Jilly (1978). Imogen . Corgi Books. pp. frontispiece. ^ "New in paperback". The Bookseller . 7 July 1979. p. 84. ^ "Novels in brief" . The Observer . 31 December 1978. p. 25 . Retrieved 8 June 2025 . ^ "Books of the Times" . Wokingham Times . 18 October 1979. p. 33. Archived from the original on 7 June 2025 . Retrieved 7 June 2025 . ^ Dark Allure of the Côte d'Azur: Beauty, Leisure and Violence on the French Riviera since the Eighteenth Century . Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. 27 January 2025. ISBN 978-3-11-145132-9 . Archived from the original on 17 July 2025 . Retrieved 12 August 2025 . ^ Probert, Rebecca (6 September 2012). The Changing Legal Regulation of Cohabitation: From Fornicators to Family, 1600–2010 . Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-02084-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). "Introduction". Lisa & Co (PDF) . Corgi. p. 13. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 May 2024 . Retrieved 2 August 2025 . ^ "Frothy romance" . Manchester Evening News . 5 November 1981. p. 14 . Retrieved 30 June 2025 . ^ Dawson, Juno (1 June 2017). The Gender Games: The Problem With Men and Women, From Someone Who Has Been Both . John Murray Press. ISBN 978-1-4736-4861-6 . ^ "BBC Radio 4 - Radio 4 in Four - Why we all adore Jilly Cooper" . BBC . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ Loughrey, Clarisse (30 January 2019). "Jilly Cooper says #MeToo movement has 'diminished' men" . The Independent . Retrieved 4 May 2023 . ^ Risbridger, Ella (28 October 2025). "Could there ever be another Jilly?" . The Bookseller . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ a b c Burge, Amy; McAlister, Jodi; Ireland, Charlotte (31 August 2023). " "Prince Charming with an Erection": The Sensational Pleasures of the Bonkbuster" . Contemporary Women's Writing . 17 (2): 137– 155. doi : 10.1093/cww/vpae002 . ISSN 1754-1484 . ^ Day, Elizabeth (24 April 2011). "Jilly Cooper: 'I'm a reasonable writer but I'm much too colloquial' " . The Guardian . Retrieved 4 May 2023 . ^ Saltzer, Bernice (1 May 1993). "Riders' Rivalry Reaches Boiling Point ." Hartlepool Mail . p. 11. ^ Laing, Olivia (10 November 2023). " 'Sex, puns and labradors': How Olivia Laing fell for Jilly Cooper's bonkbusters" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 14 November 2025 . ^ "Why you should read Rivals as literary fiction" . Varsity Online . Retrieved 15 May 2025 . ^ "Aidan Turner based Rivals character on his dad" . Yahoo News . 15 October 2024 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Venn, Lydia (18 October 2024). "What a Gen Z writer thought reading Jilly Cooper's Rivals for the first time" . Cosmopolitan . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Turner, Graham (27 March 1994). "How to Write a Best-Seller" . Sunday Telegraph . p. 37 . Retrieved 28 May 2025 . ^ "Hardbacks." Books. Sunday Times , June 12, 1988, 15[S5]. The Sunday Times Historical Archive. ^ Lewis, Tim (29 September 2024). " 'Are you good in bed?' Jilly Cooper on horses, lefties and which fictional character she would like to sleep with" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Bell, Jane (13 May 1992). "Jilly Makes a Mint". Aberdeen Evening Express . p. 6. ^ "Judging a Book by its Bonk" . Avidly . 19 February 2013 . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ Flood, Alison (10 September 2016). "Jilly Cooper: 'People were always coming up to us at parties and asking us to bed' " . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 7 April 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1992). Polo: A Legend of Fair Women and Brave Men . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-13552-8 . ^ Vlietstra, Amanda (13 September 2016). "5 (slightly naughty) reasons we're overexcited about Jilly Cooper's new book" . Horse & Hound . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ "A love letter to Jilly Cooper" . Red Online . 7 August 2018. Archived from the original on 31 January 2025 . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ a b c d Flood, Alison (9 August 2010). "Jilly Cooper: Queen of the bonkbuster" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ Walter, Natascha (22 May 1993). "The art of coarse litrutshire" . The Independent . Archived from the original on 7 July 2022 . Retrieved 27 May 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). The Man who Made Husbands Jealous . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15639-4 . ^ Oates, Quentin (30 April 1993). "Jilly goes solo – super". The Bookseller . p. 46. ^ Agg, Jennie (9 February 2023). Life, Almost: Miscarriage, Misconceptions and a Search for Answers from the Brink of Motherhood . Random House. ISBN 978-1-5291-9294-0 . ^ a b "Classical Music: Sex, Chopin and subterfuge - Music, Arts & Entertainment - The Independent" . Independent.co.uk . 26 December 2010. Archived from the original on 26 December 2010 . Retrieved 13 April 2025 . ^ Rasmussen, Sonja. "24 May 1996". Aberdeen Evening Express . p. 25. ^ a b Morley, Christopher (11 April 1996). "A wild tale of sex and drugs and barcarolles". Birmingham Daily Post . p. 14. ^ Campbell-Alexander, Melanie (25 April 1996). "Appassionata". Country Life . p. 85. ^ Ryan, Liz (19 April 1996). "Pointless orchestra tale is the pits". Evening Herald . p. 22. ^ Roberts, Gabriel (14 May 1999). "Jolly Jilly scores with new bonkbuster". Gloucester Citizen . p. 11. ^ a b c d e f g h Patterson, Ian (17 May 2017). "Miss Dior, Prodigally Applied" . London Review of Books . Vol. 39, no. 10. ISSN 0260-9592 . Retrieved 14 October 2025 . ^ Barker, Christine (15 May 1999). "True blue Jilly scores another winner". Birmingham Daily Post . p. 60. ^ a b MacFarlane, Robert (5 May 2002). "Laughing all the way to the bonk" . The Observer . ISSN 0029-7712 . Retrieved 15 April 2025 . ^ Letts, Quentin (11 April 2012). "Fumbling for right touch in Larkshire" . The Standard . Archived from the original on 22 April 2025 . Retrieved 15 April 2025 . ^ Holden, Wendy (13 May 2002). "Foreskin Saga". New Statesman . Vol. 131, no. 4587. ISSN 1364-7431 . ^ Elliott, Giles. "Da Vinci doubles up: Dan Brown's novel takes the top two spots in the chart with sales of his books set to pass 10 million in the UK this week." The Bookseller , no. 5230, 19 May 2006, p. 17. ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 April 2006). "Jilly Cooper goes back to school" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 7 July 2016 . Retrieved 16 April 2025 . ^ Martin, Tim (20 May 2006). "Wicked! by Jilly Cooper" . The Independent . Retrieved 16 April 2025 . ^ Briscoe, Joanna (13 May 2006). "Larks with toffs and oiks!" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 16 April 2025 . ^ a b Laing, Olivia (12 September 2010). "Jump! by Jilly Cooper" . The Observer . Retrieved 26 April 2021 . ^ "Jilly Cooper takes revenge on critic by naming goat after her" . The Daily Telegraph . London. 11 October 2010. Archived from the original on 2 December 2023 . Retrieved 3 April 2018 . ^ "Jilly Cooper - Meet the Author - Suffolk Libraries" . www.suffolklibraries.co.uk . Archived from the original on 25 November 2024 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ Radloff, Lili. "Book review: Mount by Jilly Cooper" . Life . Archived from the original on 22 April 2025 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper's ninth 'bonkbuster' falls short" . www.stuff.co.nz . Archived from the original on 15 July 2023 . Retrieved 25 May 2025 . ^ Bird, Orlando (8 September 2016). "Mount! by Jilly Cooper, review – 'back to basics' " . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 24 May 2024 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ Williams, Zoe (8 November 2023). "Bonk hard and start a business! 10 life lessons I learned from Jilly Cooper" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ "The best novels of 2023" . The Week . 10 February 2023 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Thorp, Clare. "From Riders to Tackle! – how Britain loves Jilly Cooper's raunchy novels" . www.bbc.com . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Silver, Madeleine (20 April 2024). " 'Bonkbuster' queen Jilly Cooper to swap horses for football" . Horse & Hound . Archived from the original on 20 April 2024 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Cooke, Rachel (12 November 2023). "Tackle! review – Jilly Cooper takes on the beautiful game" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ a b "Jilly's age of anxiety" . The Gloucestershire Echo . 13 December 1993. p. 9 . Retrieved 23 August 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Williamson, Charlotte (3 March 2013). "Why our mongrels are a dying breed" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 23 March 2021 . Retrieved 23 August 2025 . ^ "Leafing through the history of Jackanory on World Book Day" . BBC . Archived from the original on 18 August 2025 . Retrieved 18 August 2025 . ^ St Claire, Lynne (23 January 1987). "24 hour TV" . Evening Post . p. 2 . Retrieved 23 August 2025 . ^ a b c Obituary: Leo Cooper , The Daily Telegraph , 2 December 2013. ^ "About Jilly" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ a b Cooper, Jilly (17 September 2010). "Jilly Cooper interview" . The Daily Telegraph . Interviewed by Grice, Elizabeth. Archived from the original on 29 March 2019 . Retrieved 15 January 2026 . ^ Barber, Richard (7 April 2017). "Jilly Cooper: 'My books are my babies' " . The Guardian . Retrieved 29 March 2019 . ^ Horwell, Veronica (6 October 2025). "Dame Jilly Cooper obituary" . The Guardian . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "A Sporting Life – Dame Jilly Cooper" . The Field . 14 October 2024 . Retrieved 8 October 2025 . ^ Barber, Michael (3 December 2013). "Leo Cooper obituary: Publisher of military history books and husband of Jilly Cooper" . The Guardian . Retrieved 7 May 2020 . ^ Davies, Karin (2 September 1990). "Fiction into fact" . UPI . ^ Kennedy, Philippa (26 September 2010). "Jilly Cooper is still riding high" . The National . ^ "Women and gender in the Conservative party archive" . 24 November 2015. ^ Cooper, Jilly (16 February 2003). "Cover story: The voices for and against war" . The Sunday Times . Archived from the original on 5 March 2016 . Retrieved 29 February 2016 . ^ Pool, Hannah; Pool, Hannah Azieb (26 April 2007). "Question time" . The Guardian . ^ "The end is neigh: even Jilly Cooper has dumped Dave" . 3 December 2012. ^ Butterworth, Benjamin (29 July 2018). "Jilly Cooper says she loves being wolf-whistled as she criticises #MeToo movement" . The i Paper . Retrieved 28 February 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper: why I will write just one more novel" . Yorkshire Post . 25 October 2016 [8 October 2016]. Archived from the original on 4 May 2023 . Retrieved 4 May 2023 . ^ Glancy, Josh (28 July 2024). "Jilly Cooper: 'Upper classes are unbelievable, they just love sex' " . The Times . Archived from the original on 28 July 2024 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Clegg, Harry (24 June 1991). "Novelist is riding to rescue of wildlife heritage" . The Citizen . p. 8 . Retrieved 8 July 2025 . ^ De la Mare, Tess (11 November 2025). "Jilly Cooper died from head injury, says coroner" . BBC News . Retrieved 11 November 2025 . ^ a b "Jilly Cooper: Best-selling author of Rivals and Riders dies at 88" . BBC News . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "Camilla's tribute to 'legend' Dame Jilly Cooper after author's death aged 88" . The Independent . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "Author Jilly Cooper has passed away at 88" . Euro Weekly News . 6 October 2025. ^ a b "Queen pays tribute to 'legend' Jilly Cooper after author dies aged 88 – live updates" . BBC News . ^ Grant, Russell (6 October 2025). "Jilly was one of the most kind, courteous, generous, warm-hearted and smiley people I ever met when I worked on breakfast and morning TV" . X . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ a b "Tributes pour in from Rivals cast in honour of Dame Jilly Cooper" . The Independent . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "No. 64269" . The London Gazette (Supplement). 30 December 2023. p. N9. ^ University Announces Honorary Awards Archived 19 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine University of Gloucestershire ^ "Dame Jilly Cooper (1937-2025) - ARU" . www.aru.ac.uk . Retrieved 11 November 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper is our author of the year" . Harper's BAZAAR . 5 December 2024 . Retrieved 6 June 2025 . ^ a b Oldham, Nick (17 January 1997). "Jilly's Street? It's not such a novel idea" . Telegraph and Argus . p. 3 . Retrieved 7 June 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper (IRE) | Race Record & Form" . Racing Post . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper (IRE) | Horse Profile" . Sky Sports . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Kerridge, Jake (12 July 2019). "Jilly Cooper on the Comedy Women in Print Prize: 'Men are funnier than women? Rubbish!' " . The Telegraph . ISSN 0307-1235 . Retrieved 11 November 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper honoured with Comedy Women In Print prize" . Irish Independent . 10 July 2019 . Retrieved 9 November 2025 . ^ Loffhagen, Emma (4 November 2025). "Sara Pascoe's novel wins inaugural Jilly Cooper award" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 9 November 2025 . ^ "It's Awfully Bad For Your Eyes, Darling (Production)" . www.phill.co.uk . Archived from the original on 8 October 2025 . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ Storah, Peter (18 November 1971). "Jilly gets her own laugh show". Lancashire Telegraph . No. 23646. p. 2. ^ "You're a glamorous lot, says author Jilly ..." Western Daily Press . 22 February 1985. p. 7. Archived from the original on 8 July 2025 . Retrieved 8 July 2025 . ^ Macdonald, Keith (6 April 1977). "Eleanor misses out on Romance" . Manchester Evening News . p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Mitchell, Linton (17 February 1977). "Return to romance" . Reading Evening Post . p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Things go so wrong for Emily" . Evening Sentinel . 6 April 1977. p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Television and radio" . Scunthorpe Evening Telegraph . 6 April 1977. p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Drama for the 80s" . The Observer . 2 September 1979. p. 35 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ Howard, Geoffrey (31 August 1979). "Highlights on radio" . Ealing and Acton Gazette . p. 15 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ a b Richardson, Anna (27 July 2007). "Jilly romps to ITV" . The Bookseller . p. 34. ^ Coming Up Archived 28 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine thecustard.tv ^ Dowell, Ben (12 February 2009). "ITV delays single dramas in downturn" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 28 April 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper sets the stage for her West End debut" . The Daily Telegraph . 19 October 2018. Archived from the original on 19 October 2018 . Retrieved 17 May 2025 . ^ "Riders (1993)" . Archived from the original on 21 September 2019 . Retrieved 21 September 2019 . ^ Cormack, Morgan. "David Tennant, Aidan Turner to star in Jilly Cooper adaptation Rivals | Radio Times" . www.radiotimes.com . Retrieved 25 October 2025 . ^ Garden, House & (8 October 2024). "Rivals season 2: Hayley Atwell and Rupert Everett join the cast of the Disney+ adaptation of Jilly Cooper's novel" . House & Garden . Retrieved 25 October 2025 . ^ Parker, Emma (1 December 2006). "Sex Changes: The Politics of Pleasure in the Novels of Michèle Roberts" . Lit: Literature Interpretation Theory . 17 ( 3– 4): 325– 351. doi : 10.1080/10436920601000336 . ISSN 1043-6928 . ^ "Jilly Cooper compared to Charles Dickens and Anthony Trollope by Cambridge academic" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 13 May 2017 . Retrieved 14 October 2025 . ^ Miles, Tim (2011). "Sex, pies and Jilly Cooper: An online, cooperative analysis of humour and the erotic" . Comedy Studies . 2 (1): 63– 71. doi : 10.1386/cost.2.1.63_1 . ISSN 2040-610X . ^ Deyermond, Alan (2004). "Mary Ward, or the Incremental Denigration of a Hispanist" . Hispanic Research Journal . 5 (2): 177– 179. doi : 10.1179/hrj.2004.5.2.177 . ISSN 1468-2737 . ^ Cunningham G. 'Seizing the reins: women, girls and horses' in: Sceats, S. and Cunnigham, G. 2014. Image and Power : Women in Fiction in the Twentieth Century [Online]. Taylor & Francis. ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Riders . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15617-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Rivals . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15637-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (11 March 2025). Polo . Grand Central Publishing. ISBN 978-1-5387-7355-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). The Man who Made Husbands Jealous . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15639-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Appassionata. Jilly Cooper . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15638-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2000). Score! . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14579-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Pandora . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15640-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Wicked! . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15156-6 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2010). Jump! . Bantam Press. ISBN 978-0-593-06153-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (25 October 2016). Mount! . National Geographic Books. ISBN 978-0-593-07291-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2001). Tackle! . Ulverscroft, Charnwood. ISBN 978-1-4448-5217-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Emily . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15249-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Bella: A Deliciously Upbeat and Laugh-out-loud Romance from the Inimitable Multimillion-copy Bestselling Jilly Cooper . Transworld Publishers Limited. ISBN 978-0-552-15250-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Harriet . Transworld Publishers Limited. ISBN 978-0-552-15251-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Octavia: A light-hearted and hilarious romcom from the Sunday Times bestselling author of Rivals . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3218-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Prudence: The feel-good romance from the Sunday Times bestselling author of Rivals . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3228-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1979). Imogen . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11149-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1982). Lisa & Co . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-12041-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1980). Little Mabel . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11158-6 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Little Mabel's Great Escape . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11160-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1982). Little Mabel Wins . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11159-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1985). Little Mabel Saves the Day . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-12291-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (30 June 2012). Araminta's Wedding . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-5252-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 September 2011). How To Stay Married . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4464-9798-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 February 2012). How To Survive From Nine To Five . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0772-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Jolly Super . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11751-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 October 2011). Men and Supermen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0813-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1973). Jolly Super Too . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-30530-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 January 2012). Women And Superwomen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-3505-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Jolly Superlative . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11801-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Super Men and Super Women, by Jilly Cooper . ISBN 978-0-417-05370-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Work and Wedlock . London: Magnum Books. ISBN 978-0417018201 . Retrieved 9 October 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Superjilly . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-38620-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). The British in Love . Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-005650-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1999). Class: A View from Middle England . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14662-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Supercooper . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11832-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Hartman, Tom (1982). Violets and Vinegar: An Anthology of Women's Writings and Sayings . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11869-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Intelligent and Loyal: A Celebration of the Mongrel . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-48000-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 February 2012). Jolly Marsupial . Transworld. ISBN 978-1-4481-0902-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Animals In War . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3190-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1999). The Common Years . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14663-0 . ^ Cooper, Leo; Cooper, Jilly (1984). Leo & Jilly Cooper on Rugby . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2411-6 . ^ Cooper, Leo (1985). Leo & Jilly Cooper on Cricket . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2537-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Lichfield, Patrick (1985). Hotfoot to Zabriskie Point . Constable. ISBN 978-0-09-466760-0 . ^ Cooper, Leo; Cooper, Jilly (1986). Horse Mania! . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2665-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1986). How to Survive Christmas: An Xmasochist's Guide to the Darkest Days of the Year . Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-59780-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1988). Turn Right at the Spotted Dog: And Other Diversions . Chivers. ISBN 978-0-7451-0744-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (24 April 2012). Angels Rush In . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0810-7 . External links Official website Jilly Cooper at IMDb Jilly Cooper at the British Film Institute Portraits of Jilly Cooper at the National Portrait Gallery, London "The queen of chick lit" article , The Guardian , 15 June 2004 An interview with Cooper recorded in 2000 by meettheauthor.co.uk .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Jilly Cooper v t e Fiction Rutshire Chronicles Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Romance series Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Short stories Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Children's stories Little Mabel (series) Rutshire Chronicles Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Romance series Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Short stories Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Children's stories Little Mabel (series) Little Mabel (series) Non-fiction How to Stay Married How To Survive From Nine To Five Jolly Super Jolly Super Too Jolly Superlative Class Violets and Vinegar Intelligent and Loyal Jolly Marsupial Animals in War The Common Years How To Survive Christmas Turn Right at the Spotted Dog Angels Rush In Between the Covers How to Stay Married How To Survive From Nine To Five Jolly Super Jolly Super Too Jolly Superlative Class Violets and Vinegar Intelligent and Loyal Jolly Marsupial Animals in War The Common Years How To Survive Christmas Turn Right at the Spotted Dog Angels Rush In Between the Covers Adaptations It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling Riders The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Rivals It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling Riders The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Rivals Fictional characters Rupert Campbell-Black Rupert Campbell-Black Related Leo Cooper Leo Cooper Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Greece Poland Israel United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Greece Poland Israel Academics CiNii CiNii Artists MusicBrainz MusicBrainz People Trove Trove Other IdRef Open Library Yale LUX IdRef Open Library Yale LUX 1937 births 2025 deaths 20th-century English non-fiction writers 20th-century English novelists 20th-century English women writers 21st-century English non-fiction writers 21st-century English novelists 21st-century English women writers Accidental deaths from falls in the United Kingdom Accidental deaths in England British Book Award winners British women romantic fiction writers British women columnists Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire English romantic fiction writers English women journalists English women non-fiction writers English women novelists People educated at Godolphin School People from Hornchurch Survivors of railway accidents or incidents 21st-century British women novelists 20th-century British women novelists British children's writers British women children's writers Deaths from head injury CS1 maint: publisher location Pages containing London Gazette template with parameter supp set to y Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Use British English from October 2016 All Wikipedia articles written in British English Use dmy dates from October 2025 All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from January 2026 Commons category link from Wikidata National Portrait Gallery (London) person ID same as Wikidata This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 06:20 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Biography Toggle Biography subsection 1.1 Later career 1.2 First bout of cancer 1.3 Final illness and death 1.1 Later career 1.2 First bout of cancer 1.3 Final illness and death 2 Scientific career Toggle Scientific career subsection 2.1 Punctuated equilibrium 2.2 Evolutionary developmental biology 2.3 Selectionism and sociobiology 2.3.1 Against Sociobiology 2.3.2 Spandrels and the Panglossian paradigm 2.4 Evolutionary progress 2.5 Cultural evolution 2.6 Cladistics 2.7 Technical work on land snails 2.8 Influence 2.9 The Structure of Evolutionary Theory 2.10 As a public figure 2.1 Punctuated equilibrium 2.2 Evolutionary developmental biology 2.3 Selectionism and sociobiology 2.3.1 Against Sociobiology 2.3.2 Spandrels and the Panglossian paradigm 2.3.1 Against Sociobiology 2.3.2 Spandrels and the Panglossian paradigm 2.4 Evolutionary progress 2.5 Cultural evolution 2.6 Cladistics 2.7 Technical work on land snails 2.8 Influence 2.9 The Structure of Evolutionary Theory 2.10 As a public figure 3 The "Darwin Wars" Toggle The "Darwin Wars" subsection 3.1 Cambrian fauna 3.2 Opposition to sociobiology and evolutionary psychology 3.3 The Mismeasure of Man (1981) 3.1 Cambrian fauna 3.2 Opposition to sociobiology and evolutionary psychology 3.3 The Mismeasure of Man (1981) 4 Non-overlapping magisteria 5 Personal life 6 Publications Toggle Publications subsection 6.1 Articles 6.2 Books 6.1 Articles 6.2 Books 7 Notes and references 8 External links Stephen Jay Gould العربية تۆرکجه বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Latina Latviešu Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan پښتو Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська اردو West-Vlams ייִדיש 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikispecies Wikiquote Wikidata item Stephen Jay Gould Born ( 1941-09-10 ) September 10, 1941 New York City , New York , U.S. Died May 20, 2002 (2002-05-20) (aged 60) New York City, New York, U.S. Education .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Antioch College ( BA ) University of Leeds Columbia University ( PhD ) Antioch College ( BA ) University of Leeds Columbia University ( PhD ) Known for Punctuated equilibrium Non-overlapping magisteria Spandrel Exaptation Punctuated equilibrium Non-overlapping magisteria Spandrel Exaptation Spouses Deborah Lee (m. 1965; div. 1995; 2 children) Rhonda Roland Shearer (m. 1995; 2 stepchildren) Deborah Lee (m. 1965; div. 1995; 2 children) Rhonda Roland Shearer (m. 1995; 2 stepchildren) Awards Linnean Society of London 's Darwin–Wallace Medal (2008) Paleontological Society Medal (2002) St. Louis Literary Award (1994) Sue Tyler Friedman Medal (1989) American Academy of Achievement 's Golden Plate Award (1982) Charles Schuchert Award (1975) Phi Beta Kappa Award in Science (1983, 1990) MacArthur Fellowship National Book Award National Book Critics Circle Award GSA Public Service Award (1999) Linnean Society of London 's Darwin–Wallace Medal (2008) Paleontological Society Medal (2002) St. Louis Literary Award (1994) Sue Tyler Friedman Medal (1989) American Academy of Achievement 's Golden Plate Award (1982) Charles Schuchert Award (1975) Phi Beta Kappa Award in Science (1983, 1990) MacArthur Fellowship National Book Award National Book Critics Circle Award GSA Public Service Award (1999) Scientific career Fields Paleontology , evolutionary biology , history of science Institutions Harvard University American Museum of Natural History New York University Harvard University American Museum of Natural History New York University Thesis Pleistocene and Recent History of the Subgenus Poecilozonites ( Poecilozonites ) (Gastropoda: Pulmonata) in Bermuda: An Evolutionary Microcosm (1967) Doctoral advisors R. L. Batten J. Imbrie Norman D. Newell R. L. Batten J. Imbrie Norman D. Newell Doctoral students Daniel Fisher Linda Ivany Jack Sepkoski Kurt Wise Daniel Fisher Linda Ivany Jack Sepkoski Kurt Wise Signature Stephen Jay Gould ( / ɡ uː l d / GOOLD ; September 10, 1941 – May 20, 2002) was an American paleontologist , evolutionary biologist , and historian of science . He was one of the most influential and widely read authors of popular science of his generation. [ 1 ] Gould spent most of his career teaching at Harvard University and working at the American Museum of Natural History in New York. In 1996, Gould was hired as the Vincent Astor Visiting Research Professor of Biology at New York University , after which he divided his time teaching between there and Harvard. Gould's most significant contribution to evolutionary biology was the theory of punctuated equilibrium [ 2 ] developed with Niles Eldredge in 1972. [ 3 ] The theory proposes that most evolution is characterized by long periods of evolutionary stability, infrequently punctuated by swift periods of branching speciation . The theory was contrasted against phyletic gradualism , the popular idea that evolutionary change is marked by a pattern of smooth and continuous change in the fossil record. [ 4 ] Most of Gould's empirical research was based on the land snail genera Poecilozonites and Cerion . He also made important contributions to evolutionary developmental biology , receiving broad professional recognition for his book Ontogeny and Phylogeny . [ 5 ] In evolutionary theory he opposed strict selectionism, sociobiology as applied to humans, and evolutionary psychology . He campaigned against creationism and proposed that science and religion should be considered two distinct fields (or " non-overlapping magisteria ") whose authorities do not overlap. [ 6 ] Gould was known by the general public mainly for his 300 popular essays in Natural History magazine, [ 7 ] and his numerous books written for both the specialist and non-specialist. In April 2000, the US Library of Congress named him a " Living Legend ". [ 8 ] [ 9 ] Biography Stephen Jay Gould was born in Queens , New York , on September 10, 1941. His father Leonard was a court stenographer and a World War II veteran of the United States Navy . His mother Eleanor was an artist, whose parents were Jewish immigrants living and working in the city's Garment District . [ 10 ] Gould and his younger brother Peter were raised in Bayside , a middle-class neighborhood in the northeastern section of Queens. [ 11 ] He attended P.S. 26 elementary school and graduated from Jamaica High School . [ 12 ] When Gould was five years old his father took him to the Hall of Dinosaurs in the American Museum of Natural History , where he first encountered Tyrannosaurus rex . "I had no idea there were such things—I was awestruck," Gould once recalled. [ 13 ] It was in that moment that he decided to become a paleontologist. [ 14 ] Raised in a secular Jewish home, Gould did not formally practice religion and preferred to be called an agnostic . [ 15 ] When asked directly if he was an agnostic in Skeptic magazine, he responded: If you absolutely forced me to bet on the existence of a conventional anthropomorphic deity, of course I'd bet no. But, basically, Huxley was right when he said that agnosticism is the only honorable position because we really cannot know. And that's right. I'd be real surprised if there turned out to be a conventional God. If you absolutely forced me to bet on the existence of a conventional anthropomorphic deity, of course I'd bet no. But, basically, Huxley was right when he said that agnosticism is the only honorable position because we really cannot know. And that's right. I'd be real surprised if there turned out to be a conventional God. Though he "had been brought up by a Marxist father" [ 16 ] he stated that his father's politics were "very different" from his own. [ 17 ] In describing his own political views, he has said they "tend to the left of center". [ 18 ] According to Gould the most influential political books he read were C. Wright Mills ' The Power Elite and the political writings of Noam Chomsky . [ 18 ] While attending Antioch College in Yellow Springs, Ohio , in the early 1960s, Gould was active in the civil rights movement and often campaigned for social justice . [ 19 ] When he attended the University of Leeds as a visiting undergraduate, he organized weekly demonstrations outside a Bradford dance hall which refused to admit black people . Gould continued these demonstrations until the policy was revoked. [ 20 ] Throughout his career and writings, he spoke out against cultural oppression in all its forms, especially what he saw as the pseudoscience used in the service of racism and sexism . [ 21 ] Interspersed throughout his scientific essays for Natural History magazine, Gould frequently referred to his non-scientific interests and pastimes. As a boy he collected baseball cards and remained an avid New York Yankees fan throughout his life. [ 22 ] As an adult he was fond of science fiction movies but often lamented their poor storytelling and presentation of science. [ 23 ] His other interests included singing baritone in the Boston Cecilia , and he was a great aficionado of Gilbert and Sullivan operas. [ 24 ] He collected rare antiquarian books , possessed an enthusiasm for architecture , and delighted in city walks. He often traveled to Europe and spoke French , German , Russian , and Italian . He sometimes alluded ruefully to his tendency to put on weight. [ 25 ] Later career In 1998, Gould co-founded the Art Science Research Laboratory (ASRL) with artist and sculptor Rhonda Roland Shearer , whom he had married in 1995. [ 26 ] Based in New York City, the non-profit organization supports interdisciplinary work in art, science, and media studies. Its stated goal is to apply critical methods across different fields, including academic research and journalism. [ 27 ] Gould developed an interest in Marcel Duchamp , particularly the French-American artist's use of optics and perception in his readymades . With artist and journalist Rhonda Roland Shearer , Gould examined the idea that Duchamp’s artistic experiments were relevant to scientific approaches to vision and representation. [ 28 ] Contemporary accounts of Gould’s career described him as a scientist whose work often extended into broader cultural and intellectual domains. [ 29 ] First bout of cancer In July 1982 Gould was diagnosed with peritoneal mesothelioma , a deadly form of cancer affecting the abdominal lining (the peritoneum ). This cancer is frequently found in people who have ingested or inhaled asbestos fibers, a mineral which was used in the construction of Harvard's Museum of Comparative Zoology. [ 30 ] [ 31 ] After a difficult two-year recovery, Gould published a column for Discover magazine in 1985 titled "The Median Isn't the Message", which discusses his reaction to reading that "mesothelioma is incurable, with a median mortality of only eight months after discovery." [ 32 ] In his essay, he describes the actual significance behind this fact, and his relief upon recognizing that statistical averages are useful abstractions, and by themselves do not encompass "our actual world of variation, shadings, and continua". [ 32 ] Gould was also an advocate of medical cannabis . When undergoing his cancer treatments he smoked marijuana to help alleviate the long periods of intense and uncontrollable nausea. According to Gould, the drug had a "most important effect" on his eventual recovery. He later complained that he could not understand how "any humane person would withhold such a beneficial substance from people in such great need simply because others use it for different purposes". [ 33 ] On August 5, 1998, Gould's testimony assisted in the successful lawsuit of HIV activist Jim Wakeford , who sued the Government of Canada for the right to cultivate, possess, and use marijuana for medical purposes. [ 34 ] Final illness and death In February 2002, a 3-centimeter (1.2 in) lesion was found on Gould's chest radiograph , and oncologists diagnosed him with stage IV cancer. Gould died 10 weeks later on May 20, 2002, from a metastatic adenocarcinoma of the lung , an aggressive form of cancer which had already spread to his brain, liver, and spleen. [ 35 ] This cancer was unrelated to his previous bout of abdominal cancer in 1982, [ 36 ] though it is also associated with asbestos exposure. He died in his home "in a bed set up in the library of his SoHo loft, surrounded by his wife Rhonda, his mother Eleanor, and the many books he loved". [ 37 ] Scientific career Gould began his higher education at Antioch College , graduating with a double major in geology and philosophy in 1963. [ 38 ] During this time, he also studied at the University of Leeds in the United Kingdom. [ 39 ] After completing graduate work at Columbia University in 1967 under the guidance of Norman Newell , [ 40 ] he was immediately hired by Harvard University , where he worked until the end of his life (1967–2002). In 1973, Harvard promoted him to professor of geology and curator of invertebrate paleontology at the institution's Museum of Comparative Zoology . [ 1 ] In 1982, Harvard awarded him the title of Alexander Agassiz Professor of Zoology. That same year, he received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement . [ 41 ] In 1983, he was awarded a fellowship at the American Association for the Advancement of Science , where he later served as president (1999–2001). The AAAS news release cited his "numerous contributions to both scientific progress and the public understanding of science". [ 42 ] He also served as president of the Paleontological Society (1985–1986) and of the Society for the Study of Evolution (1990–1991). [ 1 ] In 1989, Gould was elected into the body of the National Academy of Sciences . Through 1996–2002 Gould was Vincent Astor Visiting research professor of biology at New York University . In 2001, the American Humanist Association named him the Humanist of the Year for his lifetime of work. [ 1 ] In 2008, he was posthumously awarded the Darwin–Wallace Medal , along with 12 other recipients. (Until 2008, this medal had been awarded every 50 years by the Linnean Society of London . [ 43 ] ) Punctuated equilibrium Early in his career, Gould and his colleague Niles Eldredge developed the theory of punctuated equilibrium , which describes the rate of speciation in the fossil record as occurring relatively rapidly, which then alternates to a longer period of evolutionary stability. [ 3 ] It was Gould who coined the term "punctuated equilibria" though the theory was originally presented by Eldredge in his doctoral dissertation on Devonian trilobites and his article published the previous year on allopatric speciation . [ 44 ] According to Gould, punctuated equilibrium revised a key pillar "in the central logic of Darwinian theory ". [ 17 ] Some evolutionary biologists have argued that while punctuated equilibrium was "of great interest to biology generally," [ 45 ] it merely modified neo-Darwinism in a manner that was fully compatible with what had been known before. [ 46 ] Other biologists emphasize the theoretical novelty of punctuated equilibrium, and argued that evolutionary stasis had been "unexpected by most evolutionary biologists" and "had a major impact on paleontology and evolutionary biology". [ 47 ] Comparisons were made to George Gaylord Simpson 's work in Tempo and Mode in Evolution (1941), in which he also illustrated relatively sudden changes along evolutionary lines. Simpson describes the paleontological record as being characterized by predominantly gradual change (which he termed horotely), although he also documented examples of slow (bradytely), and rapid (tachytely) rates of evolution. Punctuated equilibrium and phyletic gradualism are not mutually exclusive (as Simpson's work demonstrates), and examples of each have been documented in different lineages. The debate between these two models is often misunderstood by non-scientists, and according to Richard Dawkins has been oversold by the media. [ 48 ] Some critics jokingly referred to the theory of punctuated equilibrium as "evolution by jerks", [ 49 ] which prompted Gould to describe phyletic gradualism as "evolution by creeps". [ 50 ] Evolutionary developmental biology Gould made significant contributions to evolutionary developmental biology , [ 51 ] especially in his work Ontogeny and Phylogeny . [ 38 ] In this book he emphasized the process of heterochrony , which encompasses two distinct processes: neoteny and terminal additions. Neoteny is the process where ontogeny is slowed down and the organism does not reach the end of its development. Terminal addition is the process by which an organism adds to its development by speeding and shortening earlier stages in the developmental process. Gould's influence in the field of evolutionary developmental biology continues to be seen today in areas such as the evolution of feathers . [ 52 ] Selectionism and sociobiology Gould was a champion of biological constraints , internal limitations upon developmental pathways, as well as other non-selectionist forces in evolution. Rather than direct adaptations , he considered many higher functions of the human brain to be the unintended side consequence of natural selection . [ 53 ] To describe such co-opted features, he coined the term exaptation with paleontologist Elisabeth Vrba . [ 54 ] Gould believed this feature of human mentality undermines an essential premise of human sociobiology and evolutionary psychology . [ 55 ] [ 56 ] Against Sociobiology In 1975, Gould's Harvard colleague E. O. Wilson introduced his analysis of animal behavior (including human behavior) based on a sociobiological framework that suggested that many social behaviors have a strong evolutionary basis. [ 57 ] In response, Gould, Richard Lewontin , and others from the Boston area wrote the subsequently well-referenced letter to The New York Review of Books entitled, "Against 'Sociobiology'". This open letter criticized Wilson's notion of a "deterministic view of human society and human action". [ 58 ] But Gould did not rule out sociobiological explanations for many aspects of animal behavior, and later wrote: "Sociobiologists have broadened their range of selective stories by invoking concepts of inclusive fitness and kin selection to solve (successfully I think) the vexatious problem of altruism —previously the greatest stumbling block to a Darwinian theory of social behavior... Here sociobiology has had and will continue to have success. And here I wish it well. For it represents an extension of basic Darwinism to a realm where it should apply." [ 59 ] Spandrels and the Panglossian paradigm With Richard Lewontin, Gould wrote an influential 1979 paper entitled, " The Spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian Paradigm ", [ 53 ] which introduced the architectural term " spandrel " into evolutionary biology. In architecture, a spandrel is a triangular space which exists over the haunches of an arch. [ 60 ] [ 61 ] Spandrels—more often called pendentives in this context—are found particularly in classical architecture, especially Byzantine and Renaissance churches. When visiting Venice in 1978, Gould noted that the spandrels of the San Marco cathedral, while quite beautiful, were not spaces planned by the architect. Rather the spaces arise as "necessary architectural byproducts of mounting a dome on rounded arches." Gould and Lewontin thus defined " spandrels " in the evolutionary biology context to mean any biological feature of an organism that arises as a necessary side consequence of other features, which is not directly selected for by natural selection. Proposed examples include the "masculinized genitalia in female hyenas , exaptive use of an umbilicus as a brooding chamber by snails, the shoulder hump of the giant Irish deer , and several key features of human mentality". [ 62 ] In Voltaire 's Candide , Dr. Pangloss is portrayed as a clueless scholar who, despite the evidence, insists that "all is for the best in this best of all possible worlds". Gould and Lewontin asserted that it is Panglossian for evolutionary biologists to view all traits as atomized things that had been naturally selected for, and criticised biologists for not granting theoretical space to other causes, such as phyletic and developmental constraints . The relative frequency of spandrels, so defined, versus adaptive features in nature, remains a controversial topic in evolutionary biology . [ 63 ] [ 64 ] [ 65 ] An illustrative example of Gould's approach can be found in Elisabeth Lloyd 's case study suggesting that the female orgasm is a by-product of shared developmental pathways. [ 66 ] Gould also wrote on this topic in his essay "Male Nipples and Clitoral Ripples," prompted by Lloyd's earlier work. [ 67 ] Gould was criticized by philosopher Daniel Dennett for using the term spandrel instead of pendentive, [ 68 ] a spandrel that curves across a right angle to support a dome. Robert Mark, a professor of civil engineering at Princeton, offered his expertise in the pages of American Scientist , noting that these definitions are often misunderstood in architectural theory . Mark concluded, "Gould and Lewontin's misapplication of the term spandrel for pendentive perhaps implies a wider latitude of design choice than they intended for their analogy. But Dennett's critique of the architectural basis of the analogy goes even further astray because he slights the technical rationale of the architectural elements in question." [ 61 ] Evolutionary progress Gould favored the argument that evolution has no inherent drive towards long-term " progress ". Uncritical commentaries often portray evolution as a ladder of progress , leading towards bigger, faster, and smarter organisms, the assumption being that evolution is somehow driving organisms to get more complex and ultimately more like humankind. Gould argued that evolution's drive was not towards complexity , but towards diversification . Because life is constrained to begin with a simple starting point (like bacteria), any diversity resulting from this start, by random walk, will have a skewed distribution and therefore be perceived to move in the direction of higher complexity. But life, Gould argued, can also easily adapt towards simplification, as is often the case with parasites . [ 69 ] In a review of Full House , Richard Dawkins approved of Gould's general argument, but suggested that he saw evidence of a "tendency for lineages to improve cumulatively their adaptive fit to their particular way of life, by increasing the numbers of features which combine together in adaptive complexes. ... By this definition, adaptive evolution is not just incidentally progressive, it is deeply, dyed-in-the-wool, indispensably progressive." [ 70 ] Cultural evolution Gould's arguments against progress in evolutionary biology did not extend towards a notion of progress in general or notions of cultural evolution . In Full House , Gould compares two notions of progress against one another. While the first concept of progress, evolutionary progress, is argued to be invalid for a number of biological considerations, Gould permits that evolution may operate in human cultural evolution through a Lamarckian mechanism. Gould goes on to argue that the disappearance of the 0.400 batting average in baseball is paradoxically due to the inclusion of better players in the league, rather than players becoming worse over time. In his view such a process is likely reflective in a number of cultural phenomena including sports, the visual arts, and music where, unlike in biological systems, the realm of aesthetic possibilities is constrained by a "right wall" of human limits and aesthetic preferences. [ 71 ] Gould later goes on to state that his arguments for biological evolution should not be applied to cultural change lest they be employed by, "so-called 'political correctness' as a doctrine that celebrates all indigenous practice, and therefore permits no distinctions, judgements, or analyses." [ 69 ] Cladistics Gould never embraced cladistics as a method of investigating evolutionary lineages and process, possibly because he was concerned that such investigations would lead to neglect of the details in historical biology, which he considered all-important. In the early 1990s this led him into a debate with Derek Briggs , who had begun to apply quantitative cladistic techniques to the Burgess Shale fossils, about the methods to be used in interpreting these fossils. [ 72 ] Around this time cladistics rapidly became the dominant method of classification in evolutionary biology. Inexpensive but increasingly powerful personal computers made it possible to process large quantities of data about organisms and their characteristics. Around the same time the development of effective polymerase chain reaction techniques made it possible to apply cladistic methods of analysis to biochemical and genetic features as well. [ 73 ] Technical work on land snails Most of Gould's empirical research pertained to land snails . He focused his early work on the Bermudian genus Poecilozonites , while his later work concentrated on the West Indian genus Cerion . According to Gould " Cerion is the land snail of maximal diversity in form throughout the entire world. There are 600 described species of this single genus. In fact, they're not really species, they all interbreed, but the names exist to express a real phenomenon which is this incredible morphological diversity. Some are shaped like golf balls, some are shaped like pencils. ... Now my main subject is the evolution of form, and the problem of how it is that you can get this diversity amid so little genetic difference, so far as we can tell, is a very interesting one. And if we could solve this we'd learn something general about the evolution of form." [ 74 ] Given Cerion 's extensive geographic diversity, Gould later lamented that if Christopher Columbus had only catalogued a single Cerion it would have ended the scholarly debate about which island Columbus had first set foot on in America. [ 75 ] Influence Gould is one of the most frequently cited scientists in the field of evolutionary theory. His 1979 "spandrels" paper has been cited more than 5,000 times. [ 76 ] In Paleobiology —the flagship journal of his own speciality—only Charles Darwin and George Gaylord Simpson have been cited more often. [ 77 ] Gould was also a considerably respected historian of science. Historian Ronald Numbers has been quoted as saying: "I can't say much about Gould's strengths as a scientist, but for a long time I've regarded him as the second most influential historian of science (next to Thomas Kuhn )." [ 78 ] Gould's undergraduate course, Science B-16: History of the Earth and Life, was taught in a Harvard Science Center lecture hall with a 250-seat capacity. Science B-16 was so oversubscribed that an annual lottery was held to see which students would be allowed to enroll in the course. If a student was denied course enrollment three times, then their fourth entry into the lottery provided them with a guaranteed seat in the class. [ 79 ] The Structure of Evolutionary Theory Shortly before his death, Gould published The Structure of Evolutionary Theory (2002), a long treatise recapitulating his version of modern evolutionary theory. In an interview for the Dutch TV series Of Beauty and Consolation Gould remarked, "In a couple of years I will be able to gather in one volume my view of how evolution works. It is to me a great consolation because it represents the putting together of a lifetime of thinking into one source. That book will never be particularly widely read. It's going to be far too long, and it's only for a few thousand professionals—very different from my popular science writings—but it is of greater consolation to me because it is a chance to put into one place a whole way of thinking about evolution that I've struggled with all my life." [ 80 ] As a public figure Gould became widely known through his popular essays on evolution in the Natural History magazine. His essays were published in a series entitled This View of Life (a phrase from the concluding paragraph of Charles Darwin 's Origin of Species ) from January 1974 to January 2001, amounting to a continuous publication of 300 essays. [ 7 ] Many of his essays were reprinted in collected volumes that became bestselling books such as Ever Since Darwin and The Panda's Thumb , Hen's Teeth and Horse's Toes , and The Flamingo's Smile . A passionate advocate of evolutionary theory, Gould wrote prolifically on the subject, trying to communicate his understanding of contemporary evolutionary biology to a wide audience. A recurring theme in his writings is the history and development of pre-evolutionary and evolutionary thought . He was also an enthusiastic baseball fan and sabermetrician (analyst of baseball statistics), and made frequent reference to the sport in his essays. Many of his baseball essays were anthologized in his posthumously published book Triumph and Tragedy in Mudville (2003). [ 22 ] Although a self-described Darwinist, Gould's emphasis was less gradualist and reductionist than most neo-Darwinists . He fiercely opposed many aspects of sociobiology and its intellectual descendant evolutionary psychology . He devoted considerable time to fighting against creationism , creation science , and intelligent design . Most notably, Gould provided expert testimony against the equal-time creationism law in McLean v. Arkansas . Gould later developed the term "non-overlapping magisteria" (NOMA) to describe how, in his view, science and religion should not comment on each other's realm. Gould went on to develop this idea in some detail, particularly in the books Rocks of Ages (1999) and The Hedgehog, the Fox, and the Magister's Pox (2003). In a 1982 essay for Natural History Gould wrote: Our failure to discern a universal good does not record any lack of insight or ingenuity, but merely demonstrates that nature contains no moral messages framed in human terms. Morality is a subject for philosophers, theologians, students of the humanities, indeed for all thinking people. The answers will not be read passively from nature; they do not, and cannot, arise from the data of science. The factual state of the world does not teach us how we, with our powers for good and evil, should alter or preserve it in the most ethical manner. [ 81 ] Our failure to discern a universal good does not record any lack of insight or ingenuity, but merely demonstrates that nature contains no moral messages framed in human terms. Morality is a subject for philosophers, theologians, students of the humanities, indeed for all thinking people. The answers will not be read passively from nature; they do not, and cannot, arise from the data of science. The factual state of the world does not teach us how we, with our powers for good and evil, should alter or preserve it in the most ethical manner. [ 81 ] Gould also spoke out against creationist misuse of his work and theory, especially with respect to how his theory of punctuated equilibrium relates to the presence of transitional fossils or forms: It is infuriating to be quoted again and again by creationists—whether through design or stupidity, I do not know—as admitting that the fossil record includes no transitional forms. Transitional forms are generally lacking at the species level but are abundant between larger groups. The evolution from reptiles to mammals . . . is well documented. [ 82 ] It is infuriating to be quoted again and again by creationists—whether through design or stupidity, I do not know—as admitting that the fossil record includes no transitional forms. Transitional forms are generally lacking at the species level but are abundant between larger groups. The evolution from reptiles to mammals . . . is well documented. [ 82 ] An anti-evolution petition drafted by the Discovery Institute inspired the National Center for Science Education to create a pro-evolution counterpart called " Project Steve ," which is named in Gould's honor. [ 83 ] In 2011 the executive council of the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSI) selected Gould for inclusion in CSI's "Pantheon of Skeptics" created to remember the legacy of deceased CSI fellows and their contributions to the cause of scientific skepticism. [ 84 ] Gould also became a noted public face of science, often appearing on television. In 1984 Gould received his own NOVA special on PBS . [ 85 ] Other appearances included interviews on CNN 's Crossfire and Talkback Live , [ 86 ] NBC 's The Today Show , and regular appearances on PBS's Charlie Rose show. Gould was also a guest in all seven episodes of the Dutch talk series A Glorious Accident , in which he appeared with his close friend Oliver Sacks . [ 87 ] In 1999, Gould became the first recipient of the GSA Public Service Award . [ 88 ] Gould was featured prominently as a guest in Ken Burns 's PBS documentary Baseball , as well as PBS's Evolution series. Gould was also on the Board of Advisers to the influential Children's Television Workshop television show 3-2-1 Contact , where he made frequent guest appearances. [ 89 ] Since 2013, Gould has been listed on the Advisory Council of the National Center for Science Education . [ 90 ] In 1997, he voiced a cartoon version of himself on the television series The Simpsons . In the episode " Lisa the Skeptic ", Lisa finds a skeleton that many people believe is an apocalyptic angel. Lisa contacts Gould and asks him to test the skeleton's DNA . The fossil is discovered to be a marketing gimmick for a new mall. [ 91 ] During production, the only phrase Gould objected to was a line in the script that introduced him as the "world's most brilliant paleontologist". [ 92 ] In 2002, the show paid tribute to Gould after his death, dedicating the season 13 finale to his memory. Gould had died two days before the episode aired. The "Darwin Wars" Gould received many accolades for his scholarly work and popular expositions of natural history, [ 93 ] but a number of biologists felt his public presentations were out of step with mainstream evolutionary thinking. [ 94 ] The public debates between Gould's supporters and detractors have been so quarrelsome that they have been dubbed "The Darwin Wars" by several commentators. [ 95 ] [ 96 ] John Maynard Smith , the eminent British evolutionary biologist, was among Gould's strongest critics. Maynard Smith thought that Gould misjudged the vital role of adaptation in biology, and was critical of Gould's acceptance of species selection as a major component of biological evolution. [ 97 ] In a review of Daniel Dennett 's 1995 book Darwin's Dangerous Idea , Maynard Smith wrote that Gould "is giving non-biologists a largely false picture of the state of evolutionary theory". [ 98 ] But Maynard Smith was not consistently negative, writing in a review of The Panda's Thumb that "Stephen Gould is the best writer of popular science now active... Often he infuriates me, but I hope he will go right on writing essays like these." [ 99 ] Maynard Smith was also among those who welcomed Gould's reinvigoration of evolutionary paleontology. [ 46 ] One reason for criticism was that Gould appeared to be presenting his ideas as a revolutionary way of understanding evolution, and argued for the importance of mechanisms other than natural selection , mechanisms which he believed had been ignored by many professional evolutionists. As a result, many non-specialists sometimes inferred from his early writings that Darwinian explanations had been proven to be unscientific (which Gould never tried to imply). Along with many other researchers in the field, Gould's works were sometimes deliberately taken out of context by creationists as "proof" that scientists no longer understood how organisms evolved. [ 100 ] Gould himself corrected some of these misinterpretations and distortions of his writings in later works. [ 82 ] The conflicts between Richard Dawkins and Gould were popularized by philosopher Kim Sterelny in his 2001 book Dawkins vs. Gould . Sterelny documents their disagreements over theoretical issues, including the prominence of gene selection in evolution. Dawkins argues that natural selection is best understood as competition among genes (or replicators), while Gould advocated multi-level selection , which includes selection amongst genes , nucleic acid sequences , cell lineages , organisms , demes , species , and clades . [ 96 ] Dawkins accused Gould of deliberately underplaying the differences between rapid gradualism and macromutation in his published accounts of punctuated equilibrium . [ 101 ] He also devoted entire chapters to critiquing Gould's account of evolution in his books The Blind Watchmaker and Unweaving the Rainbow , as did Daniel Dennett in his 1995 book Darwin's Dangerous Idea . Other biologists contemporary to Gould went further, as in the case of Robert Trivers who classified it as "intellectual fraud". [ 102 ] Cambrian fauna In his book Wonderful Life (1989), Gould famously described the Cambrian fauna of the Burgess Shale , emphasizing their bizarre anatomical designs, their sudden appearance, and the role chance played in determining which members survived. He used the Cambrian fauna as an example of the role contingency has in shaping the broader pattern of evolution. His view of contingency was criticized by Simon Conway Morris in his 1998 book The Crucible of Creation . [ 103 ] Conway Morris stressed members of the Cambrian fauna that resemble modern taxa. He also argued that convergent evolution has a tendency to produce "similarities of organization" and that the forms of life are restricted and channelled. In his book Life's Solution (2003), Conway Morris argued that the appearance of human-like animals is also likely. [ 104 ] Paleontologist Richard Fortey noted that prior to the release of Wonderful Life , Conway Morris shared a similar thesis to Gould's, but after Wonderful Life Conway Morris revised his interpretation and adopted a more deterministic position on the history of life. [ 105 ] Paleontologists Derek Briggs and Richard Fortey have also argued that much of the Cambrian fauna may be regarded as stem groups of living taxa, [ 106 ] though this is still a subject of intense research and debate, and the relationship of many Cambrian taxa to modern phyla has not been established in the eyes of many palaeontologists. [ 107 ] Richard Dawkins disagrees with the view that new phyla suddenly appeared in the Cambrian, arguing that for a new phylum "to spring into existence, what actually has to happen on the ground is that a child is born which suddenly, out of the blue, is as different from its parents as a snail is from an earthworm. No zoologist who thinks through the implications, not even the most ardent saltationist, has ever supported any such notion." [ 108 ] In the Structure of Evolutionary Theory Gould stresses the difference between phyletic splitting and large anatomical transitions, noting that the two events may be separated by millions of years. Gould argues that no paleontologist regards the Cambrian explosion "as a genealogical event—that is as the actual time of initial splitting", but rather it "marks an anatomical transition in the overt phenotypes of bilaterian organisms". [ 109 ] Opposition to sociobiology and evolutionary psychology Gould also had a long-running public feud with E. O. Wilson and other evolutionary biologists concerning the disciplines of human sociobiology and evolutionary psychology , both of which Gould and Lewontin opposed, but which Richard Dawkins , Daniel Dennett , and Steven Pinker advocated. [ 110 ] These debates reached their climax in the 1970s, and included strong opposition from groups such as the Sociobiology Study Group and Science for the People . [ 111 ] Pinker accuses Gould, Lewontin, and other opponents of evolutionary psychology of being "radical scientists", whose stance on human nature is influenced by politics rather than science. [ 112 ] Gould stated that he made "no attribution of motive in Wilson's or anyone else's case" but cautioned that all human beings are influenced, especially unconsciously, by our personal expectations and biases. He wrote: I grew up in a family with a tradition of participation in campaigns for social justice , and I was active, as a student, in the civil rights movement at a time of great excitement and success in the early 1960s. Scholars are often wary of citing such commitments. … [but] it is dangerous for a scholar even to imagine that he might attain complete neutrality, for then one stops being vigilant about personal preferences and their influences—and then one truly falls victim to the dictates of prejudice. Objectivity must be operationally defined as fair treatment of data, not absence of preference. [ 113 ] I grew up in a family with a tradition of participation in campaigns for social justice , and I was active, as a student, in the civil rights movement at a time of great excitement and success in the early 1960s. Scholars are often wary of citing such commitments. … [but] it is dangerous for a scholar even to imagine that he might attain complete neutrality, for then one stops being vigilant about personal preferences and their influences—and then one truly falls victim to the dictates of prejudice. Objectivity must be operationally defined as fair treatment of data, not absence of preference. [ 113 ] Gould's primary criticism held that human sociobiological explanations lacked evidential support, and argued that adaptive behaviors are frequently assumed to be genetic for no other reason than their supposed universality, or their adaptive nature. Gould emphasized that adaptive behaviors can be passed on through culture as well, and either hypothesis is equally plausible. [ 114 ] Gould did not deny the relevance of biology to human nature, but reframed the debate as "biological potentiality vs. biological determinism". Gould stated that the human brain allows for a wide range of behaviors. Its flexibility "permits us to be aggressive or peaceful, dominant or submissive, spiteful or generous… Violence, sexism, and general nastiness are biological since they represent one subset of a possible range of behaviors. But peacefulness, equality, and kindness are just as biological—and we may see their influence increase if we can create social structures that permit them to flourish." [ 114 ] The Mismeasure of Man (1981) Gould was the author of The Mismeasure of Man (1981), a history and inquiry of psychometrics and intelligence testing , generating perhaps the greatest controversy of all his books and receiving both widespread praise [ 115 ] and extensive criticism. [ 116 ] [ 117 ] [ 118 ] Gould investigated the methods of nineteenth century craniometry , as well as the history of psychological testing . Gould wrote that both theories developed from an unfounded belief in biological determinism , the view that "social and economic differences between human groups—primarily races , classes, and sexes—arise from inherited, inborn distinctions and that society, in this sense, is an accurate reflection of biology." [ 119 ] The book was reprinted in 1996 with the addition of a new foreword and a critical review of The Bell Curve . In 2011, a study conducted by six anthropologists criticized Gould's claim that Samuel Morton unconsciously manipulated his skull measurements, arguing that his analysis of Morton was influenced by his opposition to racism. [ 120 ] [ 121 ] [ 122 ] The group's paper was reviewed in an editorial in the journal Nature , which pointed out that the paper's authors might have been influenced by their own motivations, recommending a degree of caution, stating "the critique leaves the majority of Gould's work unscathed," and noted that "because they couldn't measure all the skulls, they do not know whether the average cranial capacities that Morton reported represent his sample accurately." [ 123 ] The journal stated that Gould's opposition to racism may have biased his interpretation of Morton's data, but also noted that "Lewis and his colleagues have their own motivations. Several in the group have an association with the University of Pennsylvania , to whom Morton donated his collection of skulls, and have an interest in seeing the valuable but understudied skull collection freed from the stigma of bias and did not accept Gould's theory "that the scientific method is inevitably tainted by bias". [ 123 ] In 2014, the group's paper was critically reviewed in the journal Evolution & Development by University of Pennsylvania philosopher professor Michael Weisberg , who tended to support Gould's original accusations, concluding that "there is prima facie evidence of a racial bias in Morton's measurements". Weisberg concludes that although Gould did make several errors and overstated his case in a number of places, Morton's work "remains a cautionary example of racial bias in the science of human differences". [ 124 ] In 2015, biologists and philosophers Jonathan Kaplan, Massimo Pigliucci , and Joshua Banta published an article arguing that no meaningful conclusions could be drawn from Morton's data. They agreed with Gould, and disagreed with the 2011 study, insofar as Morton's study was seriously flawed, but they agreed with the 2011 study insofar as Gould's analysis was in many ways not better than Morton's. [ 125 ] University of Pennsylvania anthropology doctoral student Paul Wolff Mitchell published an analysis of Morton's original, unpublished data, which neither Gould nor subsequent commentators had directly addressed. Mitchell concluded that Gould's specific argument about Morton's unconscious bias in measurement is not supported, but that it was true, as Gould had claimed, that Morton's racial biases influenced how he reported and interpreted his measurements, arguing that Morton's interpretation of his data was arbitrary and tendentious: Morton investigated averages and ignored variations in skull size so large that there was significant overlap. [ 126 ] A contemporary of Morton, Friedrich Tiedemann , had collected almost identical skull data and drawn conclusions opposite to Morton's on the basis of this overlap, arguing strongly against any conception of a racial hierarchy. [ 127 ] [ 128 ] Non-overlapping magisteria In his book Rocks of Ages (1999), Gould put forward what he described as "a blessedly simple and entirely conventional resolution to ... the supposed conflict between science and religion". [ 129 ] He defines the term magisterium as "a domain where one form of teaching holds the appropriate tools for meaningful discourse and resolution". [ 129 ] The non-overlapping magisteria (NOMA) principle therefore divides the magisterium of science to cover "the empirical realm: what the Universe is made of (fact) and why does it work in this way (theory). The magisterium of religion extends over questions of ultimate meaning and moral value. These two magisteria do not overlap, nor do they encompass all inquiry." [ 129 ] He suggests that "NOMA enjoys strong and fully explicit support, even from the primary cultural stereotypes of hard-line traditionalism" and that NOMA is "a sound position of general consensus, established by long struggle among people of goodwill in both magisteria". [ 129 ] This view has not been without criticism, however. In his book The God Delusion , Richard Dawkins argues that the division between religion and science is not so simple as Gould claims, as few religions exist without claiming the existence of miracles , which "by definition violate the principles of science". [ 130 ] Dawkins also opposes the idea that religion has anything meaningful to say about ethics and values, and therefore has no authority to claim a magisterium of its own. [ 130 ] He goes on to say that he believes Gould is "bending over backwards to be nice to an unworthy but powerful opponent". [ 131 ] Similarly, humanist philosopher Paul Kurtz argues that Gould was wrong to posit that science has nothing to say about questions of ethics. In fact, Kurtz claims that science is a much better method than religion for determining moral principles. [ 132 ] Personal life Gould married artist Deborah Lee on October 3, 1965. [ 12 ] Gould met Lee while they were students together at Antioch College . [ 13 ] They had two sons, Jesse and Ethan, and were married for 30 years. [ 133 ] His second marriage in 1995 was to artist and sculptor Rhonda Roland Shearer , to whom he was married until his death. [ 134 ] [ 135 ] Publications Articles Gould's publications were numerous. One review of his publications between 1965 and 2000 noted 479 peer-reviewed papers, 22 books, 300 essays, [ 10 ] and 101 "major" book reviews. [ 1 ] Books The following is a list of books either written or edited by Stephen Jay Gould, including those published after his death in 2002. While some books have been republished at later dates, by multiple publishers, the list below comprises the original publisher and publishing date. 1977. .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Ontogeny and Phylogeny , Cambridge MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1977, ISBN 978-0-674-63940-9 online preview 1977. Ever Since Darwin , New York: W. W. Norton, 1977, ISBN 978-0-393-06425-4 1980. The Panda's Thumb , New York: W. W. Norton, 1980, ISBN 978-0-393-01380-1 1980. Gould, Stephen Jay (December 1980). The Evolution of Gryphaea . New York: Arno Press. ISBN 978-0-405-12751-9 . 1981. The Mismeasure of Man , New York: W. W. Norton, 1996, ISBN 978-0-393-31425-0 1983. Hen's Teeth and Horse's Toes , New York: W. W. Norton, 1983, ISBN 978-0-393-01716-8 1985. The Flamingo's Smile , New York: W. W. Norton, 1985, ISBN 978-0-393-02228-5 1987. Time's Arrow, Time's Cycle , Cambridge MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1987, ISBN 978-0-674-89198-2 online preview 1987. An Urchin in the Storm: Essays about Books and Ideas , New York: W. W. Norton, 1987, ISBN 978-0-393-02492-0 1987. (with Rosamond Wolff Purcell ) Illuminations: A Bestiary , New York: W. W. Norton, January 10, 1987, ISBN 978-0-393-30436-7 1989. Wonderful Life: The Burgess Shale and the Nature of History , New York: W. W. Norton, 1989, Bibcode : 1989wlbs.book.....G , ISBN 978-0-393-02705-1 . 347 pp. 1991. Bully for Brontosaurus , New York: W. W. Norton, 1991, ISBN 978-0-393-02961-1 . 540 pp. 1992. (with Rosamond Wolff Purcell) Finders, Keepers: Eight Collectors , New York: W. W. Norton, 1992, ISBN 978-0-393-03054-9 1993. Eight Little Piggies , New York: W. W. Norton, 1993, ISBN 978-0-393-03416-5 1993. The Book of Life . Preface, pp. 6–21. New York: W. W. Norton (S. J. Gould general editor, 10 contributors). ISBN 0-393-05003-3 review citing original publishing date 1977. .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Ontogeny and Phylogeny , Cambridge MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1977, ISBN 978-0-674-63940-9 online preview 1977. Ever Since Darwin , New York: W. W. Norton, 1977, ISBN 978-0-393-06425-4 1980. The Panda's Thumb , New York: W. W. Norton, 1980, ISBN 978-0-393-01380-1 1980. Gould, Stephen Jay (December 1980). The Evolution of Gryphaea . New York: Arno Press. ISBN 978-0-405-12751-9 . 1981. The Mismeasure of Man , New York: W. W. Norton, 1996, ISBN 978-0-393-31425-0 1983. Hen's Teeth and Horse's Toes , New York: W. W. Norton, 1983, ISBN 978-0-393-01716-8 1985. The Flamingo's Smile , New York: W. W. Norton, 1985, ISBN 978-0-393-02228-5 1987. Time's Arrow, Time's Cycle , Cambridge MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1987, ISBN 978-0-674-89198-2 online preview 1987. An Urchin in the Storm: Essays about Books and Ideas , New York: W. W. Norton, 1987, ISBN 978-0-393-02492-0 1987. (with Rosamond Wolff Purcell ) Illuminations: A Bestiary , New York: W. W. Norton, January 10, 1987, ISBN 978-0-393-30436-7 1989. Wonderful Life: The Burgess Shale and the Nature of History , New York: W. W. Norton, 1989, Bibcode : 1989wlbs.book.....G , ISBN 978-0-393-02705-1 . 347 pp. 1991. Bully for Brontosaurus , New York: W. W. Norton, 1991, ISBN 978-0-393-02961-1 . 540 pp. 1992. (with Rosamond Wolff Purcell) Finders, Keepers: Eight Collectors , New York: W. W. Norton, 1992, ISBN 978-0-393-03054-9 1993. Eight Little Piggies , New York: W. W. Norton, 1993, ISBN 978-0-393-03416-5 1993. The Book of Life . Preface, pp. 6–21. New York: W. W. Norton (S. J. Gould general editor, 10 contributors). ISBN 0-393-05003-3 review citing original publishing date 1995. Dinosaur in a Haystack , New York: Harmony Books, 1995, ISBN 978-0-517-70393-9 1996. Full House: The Spread of Excellence From Plato to Darwin , New York: Harmony Books, 1996, Bibcode : 1996fhse.book.....G , ISBN 978-0-517-70394-6 1997. Questioning the Millennium: A Rationalist's Guide to a Precisely Arbitrary Countdown , New York: Harmony Books, 1999, ISBN 978-0-609-60541-7 1998. Leonardo's Mountain of Clams and the Diet of Worms , New York: Harmony Books, 1998, ISBN 978-0-609-60141-9 1999. Rocks of Ages: Science and Religion in the Fullness of Life , New York: Ballantine Books, January 1, 1999, ISBN 978-0-345-43009-0 2000. The Lying Stones of Marrakech , New York: Harmony Books, 2000, ISBN 978-0-609-60142-6 2000. Crossing Over: Where Art and Science Meet , New York: Three Rivers Press, 2000, ISBN 978-0-609-80586-2 2002. The Structure of Evolutionary Theory , Cambridge MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, March 21, 2002, ISBN 978-0-674-00613-3 online preview 2002. I Have Landed: The End of a Beginning in Natural History , New York: Harmony Books, 2002, ISBN 978-0-609-60143-3 2003. Triumph and Tragedy in Mudville: A Lifelong Passion for Baseball , New York: W. W. Norton, 2003, ISBN 978-0-393-05755-3 2003. The Hedgehog, the Fox, and the Magister's Pox , New York: Harmony Books, 2003, ISBN 978-0-609-60140-2 2006. The Richness of Life: the Essential Stephen Jay Gould , London: Jonathan Cape, 2007, ISBN 978-0-09-948867-5 This is an anthology of Gould's writings edited by Paul McGarr and Steven Rose , introduced by Steven Rose. 2007. Punctuated Equilibrium , Cambridge MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2007, ISBN 978-0-674-02444-1 Book review 1995. Dinosaur in a Haystack , New York: Harmony Books, 1995, ISBN 978-0-517-70393-9 1996. Full House: The Spread of Excellence From Plato to Darwin , New York: Harmony Books, 1996, Bibcode : 1996fhse.book.....G , ISBN 978-0-517-70394-6 1997. Questioning the Millennium: A Rationalist's Guide to a Precisely Arbitrary Countdown , New York: Harmony Books, 1999, ISBN 978-0-609-60541-7 1998. Leonardo's Mountain of Clams and the Diet of Worms , New York: Harmony Books, 1998, ISBN 978-0-609-60141-9 1999. Rocks of Ages: Science and Religion in the Fullness of Life , New York: Ballantine Books, January 1, 1999, ISBN 978-0-345-43009-0 2000. The Lying Stones of Marrakech , New York: Harmony Books, 2000, ISBN 978-0-609-60142-6 2000. Crossing Over: Where Art and Science Meet , New York: Three Rivers Press, 2000, ISBN 978-0-609-80586-2 2002. The Structure of Evolutionary Theory , Cambridge MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, March 21, 2002, ISBN 978-0-674-00613-3 online preview 2002. I Have Landed: The End of a Beginning in Natural History , New York: Harmony Books, 2002, ISBN 978-0-609-60143-3 2003. Triumph and Tragedy in Mudville: A Lifelong Passion for Baseball , New York: W. W. Norton, 2003, ISBN 978-0-393-05755-3 2003. The Hedgehog, the Fox, and the Magister's Pox , New York: Harmony Books, 2003, ISBN 978-0-609-60140-2 2006. The Richness of Life: the Essential Stephen Jay Gould , London: Jonathan Cape, 2007, ISBN 978-0-09-948867-5 This is an anthology of Gould's writings edited by Paul McGarr and Steven Rose , introduced by Steven Rose. 2007. Punctuated Equilibrium , Cambridge MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2007, ISBN 978-0-674-02444-1 Book review Notes and references ^ a b c d e Shermer, Michael (2002), "This View of Science" (PDF) , Social Studies of Science , 32 (4): 489– 525, doi : 10.1177/0306312702032004001 , PMID 12503565 , S2CID 220879229 . ^ "Stephen Jay Gould, Ph.D. Biography and Interview" . achievement.org . American Academy of Achievement . ^ a b Eldredge, Niles, and S. J. Gould (1972). "Punctuated equilibria: an alternative to phyletic gradualism." In T.J.M. Schopf, ed., Models in Paleobiology . San Francisco: Freeman, Cooper and Company, pp. 82–115. ^ Sepkoski, David (2012). Rereading the Fossil Record: The Growth of Paleobiology as an Evolutionary Discipline . University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226748580 . ^ Müller, Gerd B. (2013). "Beyond Spandrels: Stephen J. Gould, EvoDevo, and the Extended Synthesis". In Danieli, G.; Minelli, A.; Pievani, T. (eds.). Stephen J. Gould: The Scientific Legacy . pp. 85– 99. doi : 10.1007/978-88-470-5424-0_6 . ISBN 978-88-470-5423-3 . ^ Gould, S. J. (1997). "Nonoverlapping magisteria." Archived June 15, 2021, at the Wayback Machine Natural History 106 (March): 16–22. ^ a b Tattersall, Ian. "Remembering Stephen Jay Gould" . naturalhistorymag.com . Retrieved January 19, 2024 . ^ Library of Congress. "Living Legend: Stephen Jay Gould" . Library of Congress . Retrieved June 7, 2013 . ^ Fahy, Declan (2015). The New Celebrity Scientists: Out of the Lab and into the Limelight . Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ^ a b Gould, S. J. (2001). "I have landed" . Natural History . 109 (10): 46– 59 . Retrieved June 1, 2018 . ^ "Peter D. Gould, 50, Broadway Designer" . The New York Times . October 18, 1994. ^ a b Yoon, Carol Kaesuk (May 21, 2002). "Stephen Jay Gould, 60, Is Dead; Enlivened Evolutionary Theory" . The New York Times . ^ a b Green, Michelle (1986). "Stephen Jay Gould: driven by a hunger to learn and to write". People 25 (June 2): 109–114. ^ Milner, Richard (1990). The Encyclopedia of Evolution . NY: Facts on File, p. 198. ^ In a January 25, 2001 interview for BBC Radio 4 Gould stated, "Atheists can be highly moral people, I trust. I am myself." (27m:37s); Biologist Jerry Coyne —who had Gould on his thesis committee—described him as a "diehard atheist if there ever was one." (Sam Harris 2015. "Faith vs. Fact: An Interview with Jerry Coyne." Archived October 6, 2015, at the Wayback Machine May 19. [12m:22s] samharris.org.) Gould's close friend Oliver Sacks labeled Gould a "Jewish atheist". (Oliver Sacks 2006. "Introduction." The Richness of Life . W. W. Norton, p. 8. ) ^ Gould, S. J. (1995). "The Pattern of Life's History." Archived April 30, 2019, at the Wayback Machine In John Brockman (ed.) The Third Culture Archived April 30, 2019, at the Wayback Machine . New York: Simon & Schuster, p. 60. ^ a b Gould, S. J. (2002). The Structure of Evolutionary Theory . Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press , p. 1018. ISBN 0-674-00613-5 ^ a b Gould, S. J. (1981). "Official Transcript for Gould’s deposition in McLean v. Arkansas." (Nov. 27). Under oath Gould stated: "My political views tend to the left of center. Q. Could you be more specific about your political views? A. I don't know how to be. I am not a joiner, so I am not a member of any organization. So I have always resisted labeling. But if you read my other book, The Mismeasure of Man , which is not included because it is not about evolution, you will get a sense of my political views." p. 153. ^ Perez, Myrna (2013). "Evolutionary Activism: Stephen Jay Gould, the New Left and Sociobiology" (PDF) . Endeavour . 37 (2): 104– 11. doi : 10.1016/j.endeavour.2012.10.002 . PMID 23643447 . ^ Gasper, Phil (2002). "Stephen Jay Gould: Archived November 24, 2015, at the Wayback Machine Dialectical Biologist ". International Socialist Review 24 (July–August). ^ Lewontin, Richard and Richard Levins (2002). "Stephen Jay Gould—what does it mean to be a radical?" Archived March 17, 2011, at the Wayback Machine Monthly Review 54 (Nov. 1). ^ a b Gould, S. J. (2003). Triumph and Tragedy in Mudville . New York: W. W. Norton & Co. See his essays: "The Streak of Streaks." ^ Gould, S. J. (1993). "Dinomania". New York Review of Books 40 (August 12): 51–56. ^ Gould, S. J. (2000). "The True Embodiment of Everything That's Excellent: The Strange Adventure of Gilbert and Sullivan" . The American Scholar . 69 (20): 35– 49. Archived from the original on April 30, 2019 . Retrieved August 11, 2016 . ^ Gould, S. J. (1983). Hen's Teeth and Horse's Toes . New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-31103-1 . ^ "Guide to the Stephen Jay Gould Papers M1437" . Online Archive of California . Retrieved September 27, 2025 . ^ "Art Science Research Laboratory" . asrlab.org . Retrieved September 27, 2025 . ^ "Stephen Jay Gould and Marcel Duchamp" . NPR . May 30, 2002 . Retrieved September 27, 2025 . ^ Keller, Monastersky R. (November 12, 1999). "Profile: Stephen Jay Gould". Science . 286 (5442): 1093– 1095. doi : 10.1126/science.286.5442.1093 . ^ Rose, Steve (2002). Obituary: Stephen Jay Gould. The Guardian May 22. ^ Titus, Janet (1983). "Safety Precautions for Asbestos Taken at MCZ." The Harvard Crimson January 24. ^ a b Gould, S. J. (1985). "The Median Isn't the Message". Discover 6 (June): 40–42. ^ Bakalar, James and Lester Grinspoon (1997). Marihuana, the Forbidden Medicine. New Haven: Yale University Press, pp. 39–41. Archived November 26, 2015, at the Wayback Machine ^ Chwialkowska, Luiza (1995). "Marijuana Helped to Save My Life, Prominent Harvard Scholar Says" Ottawa Citizen . ^ Harvard News Office (2002). "Paleontologist, author Gould dies at 60". The Harvard Gazette . (May 20). Retrieved on June 4, 2009. ^ Associated Press (2005). "Family of Stephen Jay Gould sues doctors, hospital." ^ Krementz, Jill (2002). "Jill Krementz Photo Journal". New York Social Diary . Retrieved on June 4, 2009. ^ a b Allen, Warren (2008). "The Structure of Gould". In Warren Allen et al. Stephen Jay Gould: Reflections on His View of Life . Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 24, 59. ^ Jones, Steve (2002). "Stephen Jay Gould." The Guardian (May 22). ^ International Palaeontological Union (I.P.U.) (1968). Westermann, G.E.G. (ed.). Directory of Palaeontologists of the World (excl. Soviet Union & continental China) (2 ed.). Hamilton, Ontario: McMaster University. p. 41 . Retrieved January 3, 2017 – via Internet Archive. ^ "Golden Plate Awardees of the American Academy of Achievement" . achievement.org . American Academy of Achievement . ^ Cooper, E. and D. Amber (1997). "Stephen Jay Gould Voted President-Elect of AAAS." AAAS News . ^ Linnean Society of London (2008). "The Darwin–Wallace Medal". Retrieved on June 4, 2009. ^ Eldredge, Niles (1971). "The Allopatric Model and Phylogeny in Paleozoic Invertebrates." Archived June 30, 2016, at the Wayback Machine Evolution Vol. 25, No. 1 (Mar. 1971), pp. 156–167. ^ Dawkins, Richard (1999). The Extended Phenotype , Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press, p. 101. Archived August 8, 2020, at the Wayback Machine , ISBN 0-19-288051-9 . ^ a b Maynard Smith, John (1984), "Paleontology at the high table" , Nature , 309 (5967): 401– 402, Bibcode : 1984Natur.309..401S , doi : 10.1038/309401a0 , S2CID 31031206 . ^ Mayr, Ernst (1992). "Speciational Evolution or Punctuated Equilibria". In Steven Peterson and Albert Somit. The Dynamics of Evolution . Ithaca: Cornell University Press, pp. 21–48. ISBN 0-8014-9763-9 . ^ Dawkins, Richard (1986) The Blind Watchmaker . New York: W. W. Norton & Company, p. 225. ^ Turner, John (1984). "Why we need evolution by jerks." [ permanent dead link ] New Scientist 101 (Feb. 9): 34–35. ^ Gould, S. J. and Steven Rose, ed. (2007). The Richness of Life: The Essential Stephen Jay Gould . New York: W. W. Norton & Co., p. 6. ^ Thomas, R.D.K. (2009). "Gould, Stephen Jay (1941–2002)". in M. Ruse and J. Travis (eds). Evolution: The First Four Billion Years . Cambridge MA: Belknap Press. pp. 611–615. ^ Prum, R.O.; Brush, A.H. (2003). "Which Came First, the Feather or the Bird?" . Scientific American . 288 (3): 84– 93. Bibcode : 2003SciAm.288c..84P . doi : 10.1038/scientificamerican0303-84 (inactive July 1, 2025). PMID 12616863 . {{ cite journal }} : CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 ( link ) ^ a b Gould, S. J.; Lewontin, Richard (1979). "The spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian paradigm: a critique of the adaptationist programme". Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci . 205 (1161): 581– 98. Bibcode : 1979RSPSB.205..581G . doi : 10.1098/rspb.1979.0086 . PMID 42062 . S2CID 2129408 . for background see Gould's "The Pattern of Life's History" Archived April 14, 2015, at the Wayback Machine in John Brockman The Third Culture Archived January 30, 2016, at the Wayback Machine . New York: Simon & Schuster. 1996, pp. 52–64. ISBN 0-684-82344-6 . ^ Gould, S. J.; Vrba, E. (1982), "Exaptation—a missing term in the science of form" (PDF) , Paleobiology , 8 (1): 4– 15, Bibcode : 1982Pbio....8....4G , doi : 10.1017/S0094837300004310 , S2CID 86436132 . ^ " "The Spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian Paradigm: A Critique of the Adaptationist Programme" (1979), by Stephen J. Gould and Richard C. Lewontin | Embryo Project Encyclopedia" . ^ "Exaptation: How Evolution Uses What's Available" . Live Science . September 16, 2013. ^ Wilson, E. O. (1975). Sociobiology: The New Synthesis . Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press. ^ Allen, Elizabeth, et al. (1975). "Against 'Sociobiology'". [letter] New York Review of Books 22 (Nov. 13): 182, 184–186. ^ Gould, S. J. (1980). "Sociobiology and the Theory of Natural Selection". In G. W. Barlow and J. Silverberg, eds., Sociobiology: Beyond Nature/Nurture? Boulder CO: Westview Press, pp. 257–269. ^ ITC (1908) International Library of Technology 38 (3): 22. ^ a b Mark, Robert (1996). "Architecture and Evolution" American Scientist (July–August): 383-389. ^ Gould, S. J. (1997). "The exaptive excellence of spandrels as a term and prototype" . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . 94 (20): 10750– 10755. Bibcode : 1997PNAS...9410750G . doi : 10.1073/pnas.94.20.10750 . PMC 23474 . PMID 11038582 . ^ Maynard Smith, John (November 30, 1995). "Genes, Memes, & Minds" . The New York Review of Books . pp. 46– 48. By and large, I think their [Spandrels] paper had a healthy effect. ... Their critique forced us to clean up our act and to provide evidence for our stories. But adaptationism remains the core of biological thinking. ^ Mayr, Ernst (March 1983). "How to Carry Out the Adaptationist Program?" (PDF) . The American Naturalist . 121 (3): 324– 334. Bibcode : 1983ANat..121..324M . doi : 10.1086/284064 . S2CID 3937726 . ^ Williams, George C. (1992). Natural Selection: Domains, Levels, and Challenges . New York City: Oxford University Press . ISBN 978-0195069334 . ^ Lloyd, Elisabeth Anne (2005). The Case of The Female Orgasm: Bias in the science of evolution . Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. p. [ page needed ] . ISBN 978-0-674-04030-4 . OCLC 432675780 – via Internet Archive. ^ Gould, S.J. (1992). "Male Nipples and Clitoral Ripples". Archived September 22, 2019, at the Wayback Machine In Bully for Brontosaurus : Further Reflections in Natural History . New York: W. W. Norton. pp. 124–138. ^ Dennett, Daniel (1995) Darwin's Dangerous Idea . New York: Penguin Books, p. 272. ^ a b Gould, S. J. (1996). Full House: The Spread of Excellence From Plato to Darwin . New York: Harmony Books. ^ Dawkins, Richard (1997), "Human chauvinism" , Evolution , 51 (3): 1015– 1020, doi : 10.2307/2411179 , JSTOR 2411179 , S2CID 87940833 , archived from the original on June 1, 2008. ^ Gould, Jay (January 1997). "Stephen Jay Gould". Mother Jones (Interview). Interviewed by Michael Krasny . San Francisco: Mother Jones Magazine. ^ Gould, S. J. (1991). "The disparity of the Burgess Shale arthropod fauna and the limits of cladistic analysis". Archived January 27, 2018, at the Wayback Machine Paleobiology 17 (October): 411–423. ^ Baron, Christian and J. T. Høeg (2005). "Gould, Scharm and the Paleontologocal Perspective in Evolutionary Biology". In S. Koenemann and R.A. Jenner, Crustacea and Arthropod Relationships . CRC Press. pp. 3–14. ISBN 0-8493-3498-5 . ^ Wolpert, Lewis and Alison Richards (1998). A Passion For Science . Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 139–152. Archived September 24, 2015, at the Wayback Machine ISBN 0-19-854212-7 . ^ Gould, S. J. (1996). "A Cerion for Christopher". Natural History 105 (Oct.): 22–29, 78—79. ^ Google Scholar. . Retrieved on June 12, 2011. ^ Prothero, Donald . "Skeptic Festschrift lecture for Stephen Jay Gould" . Skeptic.com . Skeptic Society. Archived from the original on July 7, 2015 . Retrieved July 6, 2015 . ^ Shermer, Michael (2002), "This View of Science" (PDF) , Social Studies of Science , 32 (4): 518, doi : 10.1177/0306312702032004001 , PMID 12503565 , S2CID 220879229 . ^ "Gould Suggests Darwin Revisions | Sports | The Harvard Crimson" . The Crimson . Retrieved September 21, 2023 . ^ de Mythe, Johannes (2000). Van de Schoonheid en de Troost . Episode 13. Hilversum, Netherlands. ^ Gould, S. J. (1982). "Nonmoral Nature". Archived November 17, 2015, at the Wayback Machine Natural History 91 (Feb.): 19–26. ^ a b Gould, S. J. (1981). "Evolution as fact and theory". Discover 2 (May): 34–37. ^ National Center for Science Education (2003). "Project Steve." www.ncse.com. Retrieved August 25, 2015. ^ "The Pantheon of Skeptics" . CSI . Committee for Skeptical Inquiry . Archived from the original on January 31, 2017 . Retrieved April 30, 2017 . ^ PBS (1984). "Stephen Jay Gould: This View of Life". NOVA. December 18. ^ CNN. Talkback Live August 9, 1996; Crossfire August 17, 1999. ^ Kayzer, Wim (1993) Een schitterend ongeluk . . Netherlands: VPRO. See also Oliver Sacks (2007). Forward. In Steven Rose, ed. The Richness of Life . New York: W. W. Norton & Company, p. xi. ^ "The 1999 GSA Annual Meeting" (PDF) . GSA Today . 10 (1). Geological Society of America, Boulder, Colo., 200X-..: 24: 25. 2000. ISSN 1052-5173 . OCLC 819174734 . ^ PBS (1987). 3-2-1 Contact. "Dinosaur Detectives" October 27. "Mammals: Rats and Bats" November 2. ^ "Advisory Council" . ncse.com . National Center for Science Education . July 15, 2008. Archived from the original on August 10, 2013 . Retrieved October 30, 2018 . ^ Fox . The Simpsons . " Lisa the Skeptic ", November 23, 1997. Audio clip. ^ Scully, Mike (2006). The Simpsons . Season 9 DVD Commentary for "Lisa the Skeptic". DVD. 20th Century Fox. ^ Shermer, Michael (2002). "This View of Science" . Social Studies of Science 32 (4): 518. "Awards include a National Book Award for The Panda's Thumb , a National Book Critics Circle Award for The Mismeasure of Man , the Phi Beta Kappa Book Award for Hen's Teeth and Horse's Toes , and a Pulitzer Prize Finalist for Wonderful Life , on which Gould commented "close but, as they say, no cigar." Forty-four honorary degrees and 66 major fellowships, medals, and awards bear witness to the depth and scope of his accomplishments in both the sciences and humanities: Member of the National Academy of Sciences, President and Fellow of AAAS, MacArthur Foundation 'genius' Fellowship (in the first group of awardees), Humanist Laureate from the Academy of Humanism, Fellow of the Linnean Society of London, Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Fellow of the European Union of Geosciences, Associate of the Muséum National D'Histoire Naturelle Paris, the Schuchert Award for excellence in paleontological research, Scientist of the Year from Discover magazine, the Silver Medal from the Zoological Society of London, the Gold Medal for Service to Zoology from the Linnean Society of London, the Edinburgh Medal from the City of Edinburgh, the Britannica Award and Gold Medal for dissemination of public knowledge, Public Service Award from the Geological Society of America, Anthropology in Media Award from the American Anthropological Association, Distinguished Service Award from the National Association of Biology Teachers, Distinguished Scientist Award from UCLA, the Randi Award for Skeptic of the Year from the Skeptics Society, and a Festschrift in his honour at Caltech." ^ These are the first two paragraphs, with notes, from an unpublished "Letter to the Editor of The New York Review of Books " by Leda Cosmides and John Tooby (July 7, 1997). They wrote in comment on two NYRB articles by Gould (June 12 and 26). John Maynard Smith, one of the world's leading evolutionary biologists, recently summarized in the NYRB the sharply conflicting assessments of Stephen Jay Gould: "Because of the excellence of his essays, he has come to be seen by non-biologists as the pre-eminent evolutionary theorist. In contrast, the evolutionary biologists with whom I have discussed his work tend to see him as a man whose ideas are so confused as to be hardly worth bothering with, but as one who should not be publicly criticized because he is at least on our side against the creationists." (NYRB, November 30, 1995, p. 46). No one can take any pleasure in the evident pain Gould is experiencing now that his actual standing within the community of professional evolutionary biologists is finally becoming more widely known. If what was a stake was solely one man's self-regard, common decency would preclude comment. But as Maynard Smith points out, more is at stake. Gould "is giving non-biologists a largely false picture of the state of evolutionary theory"—or as Ernst Mayr says of Gould and his small group of allies—they "quite conspicuously misrepresent the views of [biology's] leading spokesmen". [1] Indeed, although Gould characterizes his critics as "anonymous" and "a tiny coterie," nearly every major evolutionary biologist of our era has weighed in a vain attempt to correct the tangle of confusions that the higher profile Gould has inundated the intellectual world with. [2] The point is not that Gould is the object of some criticism—so properly are we all—it is that his reputation as a credible and balanced authority about evolutionary biology is non-existent among those who are in a professional position to know. 1. .mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)} ^ Mayr, Ernst (1988) Toward a new philosophy of biology . Harvard University Press, pp. 534-535. 2. ^ These include Ernst Mayr , John Maynard Smith , George Williams , Bill Hamilton , Richard Dawkins , E.O. Wilson , Tim Clutton-Brock , Paul Harvey , Brian Charlesworth , Jerry Coyne , Robert Trivers , John Alcock , Randy Thornhill , and many others. Note: Where Tooby and Cosmides quote Ernst Mayr, Mayr does not mention Gould by name, but is speaking generally of the critics of the Neo-Darwinian Synthesis. Also, the list of major biologists provided by Tooby and Cosmides may not be fairly represented. E.g., Mayr, Williams, Dawkins, and Coyne have expressed public admiration for Gould as a scientist. In the first of his two articles that provoked Tooby and Cosmides, Gould had commented on the November 1995 review of his work by Maynard Smith: Gould, "Darwinian Fundamentalism" , New York Review of Books 44 (June 12, 1997): 34–37. A false fact can be refuted, a false argument exposed; but how can one respond to a purely ad hominem attack? This harder, and altogether more discouraging, task may best be achieved by exposing internal inconsistency and unfairness of rhetoric. [quotation of Smith's criticism of Gould, November 1995 NYRB] It seems futile to reply to an attack so empty of content, and based only on comments by anonymous critics; [...] Instead of responding to Maynard Smith's attack against my integrity and scholarship, citing people unknown and with arguments unmentioned, let me, instead, merely remind him of the blatant inconsistency between his admirable past and lamentable present. Some sixteen years ago he wrote a highly critical but wonderfully supportive review of my early book of essays, The Panda's Thumb , stating: "I hope it will be obvious that my wish to argue with Gould is a compliment, not a criticism." He then attended my series of Tanner Lectures at Cambridge in 1984 and wrote in a report for Nature , and under the remarkable title " Paleontology at the High Table ," the kindest and most supportive critical commentary I have ever received. He argued that the work of a small group of American paleobiologists had brought the entire subject back to theoretical centrality within the evolutionary sciences. [...] So we face the enigma of a man who has written numerous articles, amounting to tens of thousands of words, about my work—always strongly and incisively critical, always richly informed (and always, I might add, enormously appreciated by me). But now Maynard Smith needs to canvass unnamed colleagues to find out that my ideas are "hardly worth bothering with". He really ought to be asking himself why he has been bothering about my work so intensely, and for so many years. ^ Brown, Andrew (1999). The Darwin Wars: The Scientific Battle for the Soul of Man . London: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-8050-7137-7 ^ a b Sterelny, Kim (2007), Dawkins vs. Gould: Survival of the Fittest , Cambridge, UK: Icon Books, ISBN 978-1-84046-780-2 Also ISBN 978-1-84046-780-2 ^ Maynard Smith, John (1981). "Did Darwin get it right?" The London Review of Books 3 (11): 10–11; Also reprinted in Did Darwin Get it Right? New York: Chapman and Hall, 1989, pp. 148–156. ^ Maynard Smith, John (1995). "Genes, Memes, & Minds". The New York Review of Books 42 (Nov. 30): 46–48. ^ Maynard Smith, John (1981). "Review of The Panda's Thumb " The London Review of Books pp. 17–30; Reprinted as "Tinkering" in his Did Darwin Get It Right? New York: Chapman and Hall. 1989, pp. 94, 97. ^ Wright, Robert (1999). "The Accidental Creationist: Why Stephen J. Gould is bad for evolution". Archived November 5, 2009, at the Wayback Machine The New Yorker 75 (Dec. 13): 56–65. ^ Dawkins, Richard (1998). Unweaving the Rainbow . Boston: Houghton Mifflin, pp. 196–197 . "It is when we ask what happens during the sudden bursts of species formation that the confusion... arises... Gould is aware of the difference between rapid gradualism and macromutation, but he treats the matter as though it were a minor detail, to be cleared up after we have taken on board the overarching question of whether evolution is episodic rather than gradual." ^ "Fraud in the Imputation of Fraud | Psychology Today" . psychologytoday.com . Retrieved January 24, 2022 . ^ Conway Morris, S.; Gould, S. J. (1998). "Showdown on the Burgess Shale" . Natural History . 107 : 48– 55. Archived from the original on December 10, 2010 . Retrieved January 4, 2006 . ^ Conway Morris, Simon (2003). Life's Solution: Inevitable Humans in a Lonely Universe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ^ Fortey, Richard (1998). "Shock Lobsters". Archived August 23, 2009, at the Wayback Machine London Review of Books 20 (Oct. 1). ^ Briggs, Derek ; Fortey, Richard (2005). "Wonderful Strife: systematics, stem groups, and the phylogenetic signal of the Cambrian radiation" (PDF) . Paleobiology . 31 (2): 94– 112. doi : 10.1666/0094-8373(2005)031[0094:WSSSGA]2.0.CO;2 . S2CID 44066226 . Archived from the original (PDF) on August 12, 2016 . Retrieved June 17, 2016 . Abstract ^ Kemp, Thomas (2016). Origin of Higher Taxa . Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 88. ^ Dawkins, Richard (1998). Unweaving the Rainbow , p. 202. ^ Gould, S. J. (2002). The Structure of Evolutionary Theory . Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press , p. 1156. ISBN 0-674-00613-5 ^ Gould, S. J. (1997). "Evolution: The pleasures of pluralism". Archived November 10, 2016, at the Wayback Machine The New York Review of Books 44 (June 26): 47–52. ^ Wilson, E. O. (2006). Naturalist New York: Island Press, p. 337 ISBN 1-59726-088-6 . ^ Pinker, Steven (2002), The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature , New York: Penguin Books, ISBN 978-0-14-200334-3 ^ Gould S. J. (1996). The Mismeasure of Man: Revised and Expanded Edition . Archived November 29, 2015, at the Wayback Machine New York: W. W. Norton & Co., p. 36. ISBN 0-14-025824-8 ^ a b Gould, S. J. (1992). "Biological potentiality vs. biological determinism". Archived October 16, 2021, at the Wayback Machine In Ever Since Darwin . New York: W. W. Norton & Co., pp. 251–259. ^ In 1981 The Mismeasure of Man won the National Book Critics Circle Award for non-fiction. It was voted as the 17th-greatest science book of all time by Discover magazine vol. 27 (December 8, 2006); 9th-best skeptic book by The Skeptics Society (Frank Diller, "Scientists' Nightstand" American Scientist ); and ranked 24th place for the best non-fiction book by the Modern Library . ^ Korb, Kevin B. (August 1994). "Stephen Jay Gould on intelligence" . Cognition . 52 (2): 111– 123. doi : 10.1016/0010-0277(94)90064-7 . PMID 7924200 . S2CID 10514854 . Retrieved December 30, 2022 . ^ Humphreys, Lloyd (Autumn 1983). "The Mismeasure of Man" . American Journal of Psychology . 96 (3): 407– 416. doi : 10.2307/1422323 . JSTOR 1422323 . Retrieved December 30, 2022 . ^ Blinkhorn, Steve (1982). "What Skulduggery?" Archived November 23, 2015, at the Wayback Machine Nature 296 (April 8): 506. ^ Gould, S. J. (1981). The Mismeasure of Man . New York: W.W. Norton & Co. p. 20. ^ Gould, S. J. (1978). "Morton's Ranking of Races by Cranial Capacity." Archived November 17, 2015, at the Wayback Machine Science 200 (May 5): 503–509. ^ Lewis, J.; DeGusta, D.; Meyer, M.R.; Monge, J.M.; Mann, A.E.; Holloway, R.L. (2011). "The Mismeasure of Science: Stephen Jay Gould versus Samuel George Morton on Skulls and Bias" . PLOS Biology . 9 (6) e1001071. doi : 10.1371/journal.pbio.1001071 . PMC 3110184 . PMID 21666803 . ^ Wade, Nicholas (2011). "Scientists Measure the Accuracy of a Racism Claim." The New York Times (June 14): D4. ^ a b Editorial (2011). "Mismeasure for mismeasure." Nature 474 (23 June): 419. ^ Weisberg, M. (2014), Remeasuring man. Evolution & Development, 16: 166–178. doi: 10.1111/ede.12077 ^ Kaplan; Michael, Jonathan; Pigliucci, Massimo; Alexander Banta, Joshua (2015). "Gould on Morton, Redux: What can the debate reveal about the limits of data?" (PDF) . Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences . 30 : 1– 10. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 10, 2015 . Retrieved April 28, 2015 . ^ Mitchell, P.W. (2018). "The fault in his seeds: Lost notes to the case of bias in Samuel George Morton's cranial race science." Public Library of Science Biology 16 (10): e2007008. ^ Ars Technica "There’s new evidence confirming bias of the “father of scientific racism” ^ Mitchell, P.W. and Michael, J.S. (2019). "Bias, Brains, and Skulls Tracing the Legacy of Scientific Racism in the Nineteenth-Century Works of Samuel George Morton and Friedrich Tiedemann" In Jackson, Christina, and Thomas, Jamie (eds.). Embodied Difference: Divergent Bodies in Public Discourse. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littefield. pp. 77–98. ISBN 978-1-4985-6386-4 . Retrieved 2019-07-26. ^ a b c d Gould, S. J. (2002). Rocks of Ages: Science and Religion in the Fullness of Life . New York: Ballantine Books. ^ a b Dawkins, Richard (2006). The God Delusion . New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, p. 83. ^ Dawkins, Richard (2006). The God Delusion . New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, p. 81. ^ Grothe, D. J. (December 11, 2005). "Paul Kurtz – Science and Religion: Are They Compatible?" . Point of Inquiry Podcast . Center for Inquiry . Archived from the original on February 1, 2014 . Retrieved January 18, 2014 . ^ Golden, Frederic (1996) "A Kinder, Gentler Stephen Jay Gould" Los Angeles Times Oct 8. ^ "A CONVERSATION WITH: STEPHEN JAY GOULD; Primordial Beasts, Creationists and the Mighty Yankees (Published 1999)" . December 21, 1999 . Retrieved October 16, 2025 . ^ "Stephen Jay Gould, 60, Is Dead; Enlivened Evolutionary Theory (Published 2002)" . May 21, 2002 . Retrieved October 16, 2025 . External links Archive.org entry for former website www.stephenjaygould.org (Dated September 9, 2014) Stephen Jay Gould, Ph.D., Biography and Interview with American Academy of Achievement Stephen J. Gould Rare Books Collection – Stanford University Stephen Jay Gould on Charlie Rose Appearances on C-SPAN Stephen Jay Gould papers at Stanford University Libraries Stephen Jay Gould at IMDb .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Presidents of the American Association for the Advancement of Science v t e 1848–1875 William Charles Redfield (1848) Joseph Henry (1849) Alexander Dallas Bache (1850) Louis Agassiz (1851) Benjamin Peirce (1852) James D. Dana (1854) John Torrey (1855) James Hall (1856) Alexis Caswell (1857) Jacob Whitman Bailey (1857) Jeffries Wyman (1858) Stephen Alexander (1859) Isaac Lea (1860) Frederick A. P. Barnard (1866) John Strong Newberry (1867) Benjamin Apthorp Gould (1868) John Wells Foster (1869) Thomas Sterry Hunt (1870) William Chauvenet (1870) Asa Gray (1871) J. Lawrence Smith (1872) Joseph Lovering (1873) John Lawrence LeConte (1874) Julius Erasmus Hilgard (1875) William Charles Redfield (1848) Joseph Henry (1849) Alexander Dallas Bache (1850) Louis Agassiz (1851) Benjamin Peirce (1852) James D. Dana (1854) John Torrey (1855) James Hall (1856) Alexis Caswell (1857) Jacob Whitman Bailey (1857) Jeffries Wyman (1858) Stephen Alexander (1859) Isaac Lea (1860) Frederick A. P. Barnard (1866) John Strong Newberry (1867) Benjamin Apthorp Gould (1868) John Wells Foster (1869) Thomas Sterry Hunt (1870) William Chauvenet (1870) Asa Gray (1871) J. Lawrence Smith (1872) Joseph Lovering (1873) John Lawrence LeConte (1874) Julius Erasmus Hilgard (1875) 1876–1900 William Barton Rogers (1876) Simon Newcomb (1877) Othniel Charles Marsh (1878) George Frederick Barker (1879) Lewis H. Morgan (1880) George Jarvis Brush (1881) John William Dawson (1882) Charles Augustus Young (1883) Peter Lesley (1884) Hubert A. Newton (1885) Edward S. Morse (1886) Samuel Langley (1887) John Wesley Powell (1888) Thomas Corwin Mendenhall (1889) George Lincoln Goodale (1890) Albert Benjamin Prescott (1891) Joseph LeConte (1892) William Harkness (1893) Daniel Garrison Brinton (1894) Edward W. Morley (1895) Theodore Gill (1896) Edward Drinker Cope (1896) Oliver Wolcott Gibbs (1897) William John McGee (1897) Frederic Ward Putnam (1898) Grove Karl Gilbert (1899) Marcus Benjamin (1899) Edward Orton Sr. (1899) Robert Simpson Woodward (1900) William Barton Rogers (1876) Simon Newcomb (1877) Othniel Charles Marsh (1878) George Frederick Barker (1879) Lewis H. Morgan (1880) George Jarvis Brush (1881) John William Dawson (1882) Charles Augustus Young (1883) Peter Lesley (1884) Hubert A. Newton (1885) Edward S. Morse (1886) Samuel Langley (1887) John Wesley Powell (1888) Thomas Corwin Mendenhall (1889) George Lincoln Goodale (1890) Albert Benjamin Prescott (1891) Joseph LeConte (1892) William Harkness (1893) Daniel Garrison Brinton (1894) Edward W. Morley (1895) Theodore Gill (1896) Edward Drinker Cope (1896) Oliver Wolcott Gibbs (1897) William John McGee (1897) Frederic Ward Putnam (1898) Grove Karl Gilbert (1899) Marcus Benjamin (1899) Edward Orton Sr. (1899) Robert Simpson Woodward (1900) 1901–1925 Charles Sedgwick Minot (1901) Ira Remsen (1902) Asaph Hall (1902) Carroll D. Wright (1903) William Gilson Farlow (1904) Calvin M. Woodward (1905) William H. Welch (1906) Edward Leamington Nichols (1907) Thomas Chrowder Chamberlin (1908) David Starr Jordan (1909) Albert A. Michelson (1910) Charles Edwin Bessey (1911) Edward Charles Pickering (1912) Edmund Beecher Wilson (1913) Charles William Eliot (1914) William Wallace Campbell (1915) Charles R. Van Hise (1916) Theodore William Richards (1917) John Merle Coulter (1918) Simon Flexner (1919) Leland Ossian Howard (1920) E. H. Moore (1921) J. Playfair McMurrich (1922) Charles Doolittle Walcott (1923) James McKeen Cattell (1924) Mihajlo Pupin (1925) Charles Sedgwick Minot (1901) Ira Remsen (1902) Asaph Hall (1902) Carroll D. Wright (1903) William Gilson Farlow (1904) Calvin M. Woodward (1905) William H. Welch (1906) Edward Leamington Nichols (1907) Thomas Chrowder Chamberlin (1908) David Starr Jordan (1909) Albert A. Michelson (1910) Charles Edwin Bessey (1911) Edward Charles Pickering (1912) Edmund Beecher Wilson (1913) Charles William Eliot (1914) William Wallace Campbell (1915) Charles R. Van Hise (1916) Theodore William Richards (1917) John Merle Coulter (1918) Simon Flexner (1919) Leland Ossian Howard (1920) E. H. Moore (1921) J. Playfair McMurrich (1922) Charles Doolittle Walcott (1923) James McKeen Cattell (1924) Mihajlo Pupin (1925) 1926–1950 Liberty Hyde Bailey (1926) Arthur Amos Noyes (1927) Henry Fairfield Osborn (1928) Robert Andrews Millikan (1929) Thomas Hunt Morgan (1930) Franz Boas (1931) John Jacob Abel (1932) Henry Norris Russell (1933) Edward Thorndike (1934) Karl Taylor Compton (1935) Edwin Conklin (1936) George David Birkhoff (1937) Wesley Clair Mitchell (1938) Walter Bradford Cannon (1939) Albert Francis Blakeslee (1940) Irving Langmuir (1941) Arthur Compton (1942) Isaiah Bowman (1943) Anton Julius Carlson (1944) James B. Conant (1945) Charles F. Kettering (1946) Harlow Shapley (1947) Edmund Ware Sinnott (1948) Elvin Stakman (1949) Roger Adams (1950) Liberty Hyde Bailey (1926) Arthur Amos Noyes (1927) Henry Fairfield Osborn (1928) Robert Andrews Millikan (1929) Thomas Hunt Morgan (1930) Franz Boas (1931) John Jacob Abel (1932) Henry Norris Russell (1933) Edward Thorndike (1934) Karl Taylor Compton (1935) Edwin Conklin (1936) George David Birkhoff (1937) Wesley Clair Mitchell (1938) Walter Bradford Cannon (1939) Albert Francis Blakeslee (1940) Irving Langmuir (1941) Arthur Compton (1942) Isaiah Bowman (1943) Anton Julius Carlson (1944) James B. Conant (1945) Charles F. Kettering (1946) Harlow Shapley (1947) Edmund Ware Sinnott (1948) Elvin Stakman (1949) Roger Adams (1950) 1951–1975 Kirtley F. Mather (1951) Detlev Bronk (1952) Edward Condon (1953) Warren Weaver (1954) George Beadle (1955) Paul Sears (1956) Laurence H. Snyder (1957) Wallace R. Brode (1958) Paul E. Klopsteg (1959) Chauncey D. Leake (1960) Thomas Park (1961) Paul Magnus Gross (1962) Alan Tower Waterman (1963) Laurence McKinley Gould (1964) Henry Eyring (1965) Alfred Romer (1966) Don K. Price (1967) Walter Orr Roberts (1968) H. Bentley Glass (1969) Athelstan Spilhaus (1970) Mina Rees (1971) Glenn T. Seaborg (1972) Leonard M. Rieser (1973) Roger Revelle (1974) Margaret Mead (1975) Kirtley F. Mather (1951) Detlev Bronk (1952) Edward Condon (1953) Warren Weaver (1954) George Beadle (1955) Paul Sears (1956) Laurence H. Snyder (1957) Wallace R. Brode (1958) Paul E. Klopsteg (1959) Chauncey D. Leake (1960) Thomas Park (1961) Paul Magnus Gross (1962) Alan Tower Waterman (1963) Laurence McKinley Gould (1964) Henry Eyring (1965) Alfred Romer (1966) Don K. Price (1967) Walter Orr Roberts (1968) H. Bentley Glass (1969) Athelstan Spilhaus (1970) Mina Rees (1971) Glenn T. Seaborg (1972) Leonard M. Rieser (1973) Roger Revelle (1974) Margaret Mead (1975) 1976–2000 William D. McElroy (1976) Emilio Daddario (1977–1978) Edward E. David Jr. (1979) Kenneth E. Boulding (1980) Frederick Mosteller (1981) D. Allan Bromley (1982) Margaret Burbidge (1983) Anna J. Harrison (1984) David A. Hamburg (1985) Gerard Piel (1986) Lawrence Bogorad (1987) Sheila Widnall (1988) Walter E. Massey (1989) Richard C. Atkinson (1990) Donald N. Langenberg (1991) Leon M. Lederman (1992) F. Sherwood Rowland (1993) Eloise E. Clark (1994) Francisco J. Ayala (1995) Rita R. Colwell (1996) Jane Lubchenco (1997) Mildred Dresselhaus (1998) M. R. C. Greenwood (1999) Stephen Jay Gould (2000) William D. McElroy (1976) Emilio Daddario (1977–1978) Edward E. David Jr. (1979) Kenneth E. Boulding (1980) Frederick Mosteller (1981) D. Allan Bromley (1982) Margaret Burbidge (1983) Anna J. Harrison (1984) David A. Hamburg (1985) Gerard Piel (1986) Lawrence Bogorad (1987) Sheila Widnall (1988) Walter E. Massey (1989) Richard C. Atkinson (1990) Donald N. Langenberg (1991) Leon M. Lederman (1992) F. Sherwood Rowland (1993) Eloise E. Clark (1994) Francisco J. Ayala (1995) Rita R. Colwell (1996) Jane Lubchenco (1997) Mildred Dresselhaus (1998) M. R. C. Greenwood (1999) Stephen Jay Gould (2000) 2001–present Mary L. Good (2001) Peter H. Raven (2002) Floyd E. Bloom (2003) Mary Ellen Avery (2004) Shirley Ann Jackson (2005) Gil Omenn (2006) John Holdren (2007) David Baltimore (2008) James McCarthy (2009) Peter Agre (2010) Alice S. Huang (2011) Nina Fedoroff (2012) William H. Press (2013) Phillip Allen Sharp (2014) Gerald Fink (2015) Geraldine L. Richmond (2016) Barbara A. Schaal (2017) Susan Hockfield (2018) Margaret Hamburg (2019) Steven Chu (2020) Claire M. Fraser (2021) Gilda Barabino (2022) Keith Yamamoto (2023) Willie E. May (2024) Theresa A. Maldonado (2025) Mary L. Good (2001) Peter H. Raven (2002) Floyd E. Bloom (2003) Mary Ellen Avery (2004) Shirley Ann Jackson (2005) Gil Omenn (2006) John Holdren (2007) David Baltimore (2008) James McCarthy (2009) Peter Agre (2010) Alice S. Huang (2011) Nina Fedoroff (2012) William H. Press (2013) Phillip Allen Sharp (2014) Gerald Fink (2015) Geraldine L. Richmond (2016) Barbara A. Schaal (2017) Susan Hockfield (2018) Margaret Hamburg (2019) Steven Chu (2020) Claire M. Fraser (2021) Gilda Barabino (2022) Keith Yamamoto (2023) Willie E. May (2024) Theresa A. Maldonado (2025) v t e Stephen Jay Gould v t e General books An Urchin in the Storm The Mismeasure of Man Time's Arrow, Time's Cycle Wonderful Life Full House Questioning the Millennium Rocks of Ages The Hedgehog, the Fox, and the Magister's Pox An Urchin in the Storm The Mismeasure of Man Time's Arrow, Time's Cycle Wonderful Life Full House Questioning the Millennium Rocks of Ages The Hedgehog, the Fox, and the Magister's Pox Essay collections Ever Since Darwin The Panda's Thumb Hen's Teeth and Horse's Toes The Flamingo's Smile Bully for Brontosaurus Eight Little Piggies Dinosaur in a Haystack Leonardo's Mountain of Clams and the Diet of Worms The Lying Stones of Marrakech I Have Landed Ever Since Darwin The Panda's Thumb Hen's Teeth and Horse's Toes The Flamingo's Smile Bully for Brontosaurus Eight Little Piggies Dinosaur in a Haystack Leonardo's Mountain of Clams and the Diet of Worms The Lying Stones of Marrakech I Have Landed Technical books Ontogeny and Phylogeny The Structure of Evolutionary Theory Ontogeny and Phylogeny The Structure of Evolutionary Theory Concepts Exaptation Non-overlapping magisteria Punctuated equilibrium Exaptation Non-overlapping magisteria Punctuated equilibrium Related Dawkins vs. Gould Rhonda Roland Shearer (wife) Dawkins vs. Gould Rhonda Roland Shearer (wife) Biography Evolutionary biology History of science Paleontology Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Japan Italy Czech Republic Spain Portugal Netherlands Norway Latvia Croatia Greece Korea Sweden Poland Vatican Israel Catalonia Belgium United States France BnF data Japan Italy Czech Republic Spain Portugal Netherlands Norway Latvia Croatia Greece Korea Sweden Poland Vatican Israel Catalonia Belgium Academics CiNii International Plant Names Index CiNii International Plant Names Index People Trove Archaeology Data Service Deutsche Biographie DDB Trove Archaeology Data Service Deutsche Biographie DDB Other IdRef Open Library SNAC Yale LUX IdRef Open Library SNAC Yale LUX Stephen Jay Gould MacArthur Fellows Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences National Book Award winners Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences Fellows of the American Association for the Advancement of Science Presidents of the American Association for the Advancement of Science Discover (magazine) people Harvard University faculty New York University faculty American historians of science Human evolution theorists American developmental biologists American evolutionary biologists People associated with the American Museum of Natural History American socialists Antioch College alumni Columbia University alumni American paleontologists 20th-century American science writers Jewish agnostics Jewish American scientists Jewish American non-fiction writers 1941 births People from SoHo, Manhattan People from Bayside, Queens 2002 deaths Deaths from lung cancer in New York (state) People involved in race and intelligence controversies American skeptics American agnostics American critics of creationism Punctuated equilibrium 20th-century American essayists Scientists from New York (state) American male non-fiction writers Alumni of the University of Leeds 21st-century American science writers Webarchive template wayback links All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from August 2024 Articles with permanently dead external links CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from June 2022 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use mdy dates from September 2019 Biography with signature Articles with hCards People appearing on C-SPAN Good articles This page was last edited on 16 October 2025, at 23:18 (UTC) . 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Hlavní strana Nápověda Potřebuji pomoc Nejlepší články Náhodný článek Poslední změny Komunitní portál Pod lípou Speciální stránky Podpořte Wikipedii Vytvoření účtu Přihlášení Podpořte Wikipedii Vytvoření účtu Přihlášení Obsah (úvod) 1 Příčiny a předehra k válce 2 Průběh války Přepnout podsekci Průběh války 2.1 Vzestup Osy 2.1.1 Přepadení Polska 2.1.2 Zimní válka 2.1.3 Obsazení Dánska a Norska 2.1.4 Německý útok na západ 2.1.5 Obsazení rumunských území a pobaltských republik Sovětským svazem 2.1.6 Bitva o Británii 2.1.7 Řecko a Jugoslávie 2.1.8 Válka v Africe a na Středním východě 2.1.9 Přepadení Sovětského svazu 2.2 Vyrovnání sil 2.2.1 Japonský útok na Pearl Harbor, vstup USA do války 2.2.2 Tažení do Egypta 2.2.3 Bitva o Atlantik 2.2.4 Bitva u Stalingradu 2.2.5 Vítězství Spojenců v Africe 2.2.6 Odpor proti okupaci 2.2.7 Sicílie a Itálie 2.2.8 Kursk a osvobození Ukrajiny 2.2.9 Ofenzíva Spojenců v Tichomoří 2.3 Vítězství Spojenců 2.3.1 Strategické bombardování 2.3.2 Vylodění v západní Evropě 2.3.3 Východní Evropa a Balkán 2.3.4 Ardeny a Rýn 2.3.5 Konec války v Evropě 2.3.6 Bitva o Berlín 2.3.7 Osvobození Československa 2.3.8 Kapitulace Japonska 2.1 Vzestup Osy 2.1.1 Přepadení Polska 2.1.2 Zimní válka 2.1.3 Obsazení Dánska a Norska 2.1.4 Německý útok na západ 2.1.5 Obsazení rumunských území a pobaltských republik Sovětským svazem 2.1.6 Bitva o Británii 2.1.7 Řecko a Jugoslávie 2.1.8 Válka v Africe a na Středním východě 2.1.9 Přepadení Sovětského svazu 2.1.1 Přepadení Polska 2.1.2 Zimní válka 2.1.3 Obsazení Dánska a Norska 2.1.4 Německý útok na západ 2.1.5 Obsazení rumunských území a pobaltských republik Sovětským svazem 2.1.6 Bitva o Británii 2.1.7 Řecko a Jugoslávie 2.1.8 Válka v Africe a na Středním východě 2.1.9 Přepadení Sovětského svazu 2.2 Vyrovnání sil 2.2.1 Japonský útok na Pearl Harbor, vstup USA do války 2.2.2 Tažení do Egypta 2.2.3 Bitva o Atlantik 2.2.4 Bitva u Stalingradu 2.2.5 Vítězství Spojenců v Africe 2.2.6 Odpor proti okupaci 2.2.7 Sicílie a Itálie 2.2.8 Kursk a osvobození Ukrajiny 2.2.9 Ofenzíva Spojenců v Tichomoří 2.2.1 Japonský útok na Pearl Harbor, vstup USA do války 2.2.2 Tažení do Egypta 2.2.3 Bitva o Atlantik 2.2.4 Bitva u Stalingradu 2.2.5 Vítězství Spojenců v Africe 2.2.6 Odpor proti okupaci 2.2.7 Sicílie a Itálie 2.2.8 Kursk a osvobození Ukrajiny 2.2.9 Ofenzíva Spojenců v Tichomoří 2.3 Vítězství Spojenců 2.3.1 Strategické bombardování 2.3.2 Vylodění v západní Evropě 2.3.3 Východní Evropa a Balkán 2.3.4 Ardeny a Rýn 2.3.5 Konec války v Evropě 2.3.6 Bitva o Berlín 2.3.7 Osvobození Československa 2.3.8 Kapitulace Japonska 2.3.1 Strategické bombardování 2.3.2 Vylodění v západní Evropě 2.3.3 Východní Evropa a Balkán 2.3.4 Ardeny a Rýn 2.3.5 Konec války v Evropě 2.3.6 Bitva o Berlín 2.3.7 Osvobození Československa 2.3.8 Kapitulace Japonska 3 Dopady války Přepnout podsekci Dopady války 3.1 Počty obětí 3.2 Koncentrační tábory a válečné zločiny 3.3 Technologický pokrok 3.4 Zrušení válečného stavu s Německou spolkovou republikou 3.5 Poválečný vývoj 3.6 Veteráni 3.1 Počty obětí 3.2 Koncentrační tábory a válečné zločiny 3.3 Technologický pokrok 3.4 Zrušení válečného stavu s Německou spolkovou republikou 3.5 Poválečný vývoj 3.6 Veteráni 4 Odkazy Přepnout podsekci Odkazy 4.1 Poznámky 4.2 Reference 4.3 Literatura 4.4 Související články 4.5 Externí odkazy 4.5.1 České 4.5.2 Cizojazyčné 4.1 Poznámky 4.2 Reference 4.3 Literatura 4.4 Související články 4.5 Externí odkazy 4.5.1 České 4.5.2 Cizojazyčné 4.5.1 České 4.5.2 Cizojazyčné Druhá světová válka Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Aragonés Ænglisc العربية الدارجة مصرى অসমীয়া Asturianu Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Башҡортса Basa Bali Boarisch Žemaitėška Bikol Central Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български भोजपुरी Bislama ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ বাংলা བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Batak Mandailing Буряад Català Chavacano de Zamboanga 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Нохчийн Cebuano کوردی Corsu Qırımtatarca Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ Чӑвашла Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Thuɔŋjäŋ Zazaki Dolnoserbski डोटेली ދިވެހިބަސް Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Võro Føroyskt Français Arpetan Nordfriisk Furlan Frysk Gaeilge 贛語 Kriyòl gwiyannen Gàidhlig Galego گیلکی Avañe'ẽ ગુજરાતી Gaelg Hausa 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Hornjoserbsce Kreyòl ayisyen Magyar Հայերեն Արեւմտահայերէն Interlingua Jaku Iban Bahasa Indonesia Interlingue Igbo Ilokano Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Patois La .lojban. Jawa ქართული Qaraqalpaqsha Taqbaylit Адыгэбзэ Kabɩyɛ Tyap Қазақша ភាសាខ្មែរ ಕನ್ನಡ Yerwa Kanuri 한국어 Къарачай-малкъар کٲشُر Ripoarisch Kurdî Коми Kernowek Кыргызча Latina Ladino Lëtzebuergesch Лакку Лезги Lingua Franca Nova Limburgs Ligure Ladin Lombard ລາວ Lietuvių Latviešu Madhurâ मैथिली Basa Banyumasan Мокшень Malagasy Олык марий Māori Minangkabau Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Malti Mirandés မြန်မာဘာသာ مازِرونی Napulitano Plattdüütsch Nedersaksies नेपाली नेपाल भाषा Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål ߒߞߏ Diné bizaad Chi-Chewa Occitan Livvinkarjala ଓଡ଼ିଆ Ирон ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Papiamentu Picard Deitsch Pälzisch Polski Piemontèis پنجابی پښتو Português Runa Simi Rumantsch Română Tarandíne Русский Русиньскый संस्कृतम् Саха тыла ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Sardu Sicilianu Scots سنڌي Davvisámegiella Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Taclḥit සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Gagana Samoa Anarâškielâ ChiShona Soomaaliga Shqip Српски / srpski Seeltersk Sunda Svenska Kiswahili Ślůnski Sakizaya தமிழ் తెలుగు Тоҷикӣ ไทย Türkmençe Tagalog Tolışi Toki pona Türkçe Татарча / tatarça Тыва дыл ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt West-Vlams Volapük Walon Winaray Wolof 吴语 მარგალური ייִדיש Yorùbá Vahcuengh Zeêuws 中文 文言 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí 粵語 Článek Diskuse Číst Editovat Editovat zdroj Zobrazit historii Číst Editovat Editovat zdroj Zobrazit historii Odkazuje sem Související změny Načíst soubor Trvalý odkaz Informace o stránce Citovat stránku Získat zkrácené URL Stáhnout QR kód Vytvořit knihu Stáhnout jako PDF Verze k tisku Wikimedia Commons Wikicitáty Položka Wikidat Druhá světová válka Animace vývoje války v Evropě Trvání 1. září 1939 – 2. září 1945 (6 let a 1 den) Místo Evropa , Středomoří , Afrika , Tichomoří , jihovýchodní Asie , Čína , Střední východ Výsledek Vítězství Spojenců : Pád a rozdělení nacistického Německa . Vytvoření Organizace spojených národů . Ustanovení Spojených států a Sovětského svazu jako supervelmocí . Počátek studené války . Pád a rozdělení nacistického Německa . Vytvoření Organizace spojených národů . Ustanovení Spojených států a Sovětského svazu jako supervelmocí . Počátek studené války . Strany Spojenci : Spojené království Spojené království Francie Sovětský svaz (od 1941) Spojené státy americké (od 1941) Čína Kuomintang i KS Číny Okupované státy s exilovými vládami: Svobodná Francie Svobodná Francie [ pozn. 1 ] Československo Polsko Norsko Norsko Nizozemsko Nizozemsko Belgie Belgie Lucembursko Lucembursko Jugoslávská exilová vláda Řecko Etiopie Ostatní Spojenci: Kanada Austrálie Austrálie Nový Zéland Nový Zéland Jihoafrická unie Egypt Nepál Panama Panama Dominikánská republika Dominikánská republika Filipíny Guatemala Guatemala Haiti Haiti Honduras Honduras Kostarika Kostarika Nikaragua Nikaragua Salvador Salvador Mongolsko Kuba Mexiko Mexiko Brazílie Brazílie Chile Chile Bolívie Bolívie Kolumbie Kolumbie Libérie Libérie San Marino San Marino Ekvádor Ekvádor Paraguay Paraguay Peru Peru Uruguay Uruguay Venezuela Venezuela Turecko Turecko Saúdská Arábie Saúdská Arábie Argentina Argentina Okupován Spojenci: Island Island Íránské císařství Bývalí členové a spojenci Osy: Itálie (od 1943) Rumunsko (od 1944) Bulharsko (od 1944) Finsko Finsko (od 1944) Kolonie a závislá území Spojeného království : Indie Indie Palestina Transjordánsko Newfoundland Jižní Rhodesie Britské Malajsko Kolonie a závislá území Francie : Západní Afrika Rovníková Afrika Maroko Tunisko Sýrie Libanon Indočína Osa : Německo Itálie (do 1943) Japonsko Maďarsko Rumunsko (do 1944) Bulharsko (do 1944) Kooperace s Osou: Sovětský svaz (do 1941) Finsko Finsko (do 1944) Vichistická Francie [ pozn. 2 ] Thajsko Thajsko Svobodná Indie Irácké království (1941) Podpora: Španělsko [ pozn. 3 ] Loutkové státy a kolonie Osy: Loutkové a klientelistické státy Německa : Protektorát Čechy a Morava Slovenská Republika Chorvatsko Srbsko (1941–1944) Černá Hora (1943–1944) Albánie (1943–1944) Italská sociální republika (1943–1945) Maďarský stát (1944–1945) Loutkové státy a kolonie Itálie : Italská Libye Východní Afrika Albánie (1939–1943) Chorvatsko (1941–1943) Černá Hora (1941–1943) Loutkové a klientelistické státy Japonska : Nankinská republika Mandžukuo Mandžukuo Mengkukuo Mengkukuo Barma Vietnam Laos Kambodža Indonésie Filipíny Kolonie Vichistické Francie : Západní Afrika Maroko Tunisko Sýrie Libanon Indočína Spojenci : Spojené království Spojené království Francie Sovětský svaz (od 1941) Spojené státy americké (od 1941) Čína Kuomintang i KS Číny Okupované státy s exilovými vládami: Svobodná Francie Svobodná Francie [ pozn. 1 ] Československo Polsko Norsko Norsko Nizozemsko Nizozemsko Belgie Belgie Lucembursko Lucembursko Jugoslávská exilová vláda Řecko Etiopie Ostatní Spojenci: Kanada Austrálie Austrálie Nový Zéland Nový Zéland Jihoafrická unie Egypt Nepál Panama Panama Dominikánská republika Dominikánská republika Filipíny Guatemala Guatemala Haiti Haiti Honduras Honduras Kostarika Kostarika Nikaragua Nikaragua Salvador Salvador Mongolsko Kuba Mexiko Mexiko Brazílie Brazílie Chile Chile Bolívie Bolívie Kolumbie Kolumbie Libérie Libérie San Marino San Marino Ekvádor Ekvádor Paraguay Paraguay Peru Peru Uruguay Uruguay Venezuela Venezuela Turecko Turecko Saúdská Arábie Saúdská Arábie Argentina Argentina Okupován Spojenci: Island Island Íránské císařství Bývalí členové a spojenci Osy: Itálie (od 1943) Rumunsko (od 1944) Bulharsko (od 1944) Finsko Finsko (od 1944) Kolonie a závislá území Spojeného království : Indie Indie Palestina Transjordánsko Newfoundland Jižní Rhodesie Britské Malajsko Kolonie a závislá území Francie : Západní Afrika Rovníková Afrika Maroko Tunisko Sýrie Libanon Indočína Spojené království Spojené království Francie Sovětský svaz (od 1941) Spojené státy americké (od 1941) Čína Kuomintang i KS Číny Okupované státy s exilovými vládami: Svobodná Francie Svobodná Francie [ pozn. 1 ] Československo Polsko Norsko Norsko Nizozemsko Nizozemsko Belgie Belgie Lucembursko Lucembursko Jugoslávská exilová vláda Řecko Etiopie Ostatní Spojenci: Kanada Austrálie Austrálie Nový Zéland Nový Zéland Jihoafrická unie Egypt Nepál Panama Panama Dominikánská republika Dominikánská republika Filipíny Guatemala Guatemala Haiti Haiti Honduras Honduras Kostarika Kostarika Nikaragua Nikaragua Salvador Salvador Mongolsko Kuba Mexiko Mexiko Brazílie Brazílie Chile Chile Bolívie Bolívie Kolumbie Kolumbie Libérie Libérie San Marino San Marino Ekvádor Ekvádor Paraguay Paraguay Peru Peru Uruguay Uruguay Venezuela Venezuela Turecko Turecko Saúdská Arábie Saúdská Arábie Argentina Argentina Okupován Spojenci: Island Island Íránské císařství Bývalí členové a spojenci Osy: Itálie (od 1943) Rumunsko (od 1944) Bulharsko (od 1944) Finsko Finsko (od 1944) Kolonie a závislá území Spojeného království : Indie Indie Palestina Transjordánsko Newfoundland Jižní Rhodesie Britské Malajsko Kolonie a závislá území Francie : Západní Afrika Rovníková Afrika Maroko Tunisko Sýrie Libanon Indočína Osa : Německo Itálie (do 1943) Japonsko Maďarsko Rumunsko (do 1944) Bulharsko (do 1944) Kooperace s Osou: Sovětský svaz (do 1941) Finsko Finsko (do 1944) Vichistická Francie [ pozn. 2 ] Thajsko Thajsko Svobodná Indie Irácké království (1941) Podpora: Španělsko [ pozn. 3 ] Loutkové státy a kolonie Osy: Loutkové a klientelistické státy Německa : Protektorát Čechy a Morava Slovenská Republika Chorvatsko Srbsko (1941–1944) Černá Hora (1943–1944) Albánie (1943–1944) Italská sociální republika (1943–1945) Maďarský stát (1944–1945) Loutkové státy a kolonie Itálie : Italská Libye Východní Afrika Albánie (1939–1943) Chorvatsko (1941–1943) Černá Hora (1941–1943) Loutkové a klientelistické státy Japonska : Nankinská republika Mandžukuo Mandžukuo Mengkukuo Mengkukuo Barma Vietnam Laos Kambodža Indonésie Filipíny Kolonie Vichistické Francie : Západní Afrika Maroko Tunisko Sýrie Libanon Indočína Německo Itálie (do 1943) Japonsko Maďarsko Rumunsko (do 1944) Bulharsko (do 1944) Kooperace s Osou: Sovětský svaz (do 1941) Finsko Finsko (do 1944) Vichistická Francie [ pozn. 2 ] Thajsko Thajsko Svobodná Indie Irácké království (1941) Podpora: Španělsko [ pozn. 3 ] Loutkové státy a kolonie Osy: Loutkové a klientelistické státy Německa : Protektorát Čechy a Morava Slovenská Republika Chorvatsko Srbsko (1941–1944) Černá Hora (1943–1944) Albánie (1943–1944) Italská sociální republika (1943–1945) Maďarský stát (1944–1945) Loutkové státy a kolonie Itálie : Italská Libye Východní Afrika Albánie (1939–1943) Chorvatsko (1941–1943) Černá Hora (1941–1943) Loutkové a klientelistické státy Japonska : Nankinská republika Mandžukuo Mandžukuo Mengkukuo Mengkukuo Barma Vietnam Laos Kambodža Indonésie Filipíny Kolonie Vichistické Francie : Západní Afrika Maroko Tunisko Sýrie Libanon Indočína Velitelé Winston Churchill Clement Attlee Josif Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Harry S. Truman Čankajšek Mao Ce-tung Charles de Gaulle Adolf Hitler Karl Dönitz Viktor Emanuel III. Benito Mussolini Hirohito Hideki Tódžó Winston Churchill Clement Attlee Josif Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Harry S. Truman Čankajšek Mao Ce-tung Charles de Gaulle Adolf Hitler Karl Dönitz Viktor Emanuel III. Benito Mussolini Hirohito Hideki Tódžó Ztráty Přes 14 milionů vojáků Přes 36 milionů civilistů Celkové ztráty: Přes 50 milionů Přes 8 milionů vojáků Přes 4 miliony civilistů Celkové ztráty: Přes 12 milionů Přes 14 milionů vojáků Přes 36 milionů civilistů Celkové ztráty: Přes 50 milionů Přes 8 milionů vojáků Přes 4 miliony civilistů Celkové ztráty: Přes 12 milionů Některá data mohou pocházet z datové položky . Druhá světová válka byl globální vojenský konflikt v letech 1939 – 1945 , jehož se zúčastnila většina států světa. Tento konflikt se stal s více než 62 miliony obětí na životech dosud největším a nejvíce zničujícím válečným střetnutím v dějinách lidstva . Brzy po okupaci zbytku Československa 15. března 1939 vypukla válka v Evropě . Začala dne 1. září 1939 , když nacistické Německo přepadlo Polsko . Krátce poté vyhlásily Francie , Spojené království a státy Commonwealthu Německu válku. 17. září napadl Polsko i Sovětský svaz (SSSR). Německé invazi do Polska předcházela jeho smlouva o neútočení se SSSR, takzvaný pakt Ribbentrop–Molotov , podepsaná 23. srpna 1939. V tajném protokolu k tomuto paktu si tyto dva státy dočasně rozdělily sféry vlivu, tzv. demarkační Curzonovou linií . Byla vytyčena v roce 1919 mezi druhou polskou republikou a Sovětským svazem, dvěma novými státy, které vznikly po první světové válce. Curzonova linie vznikla jako diplomatický podklad pro budoucí dohodu o hranicích. Vytyčila ji Rada Dohody podle usnesení z 8. prosince 1919. V důsledku toho byl de facto uvolněn prostor pro vojenskou expanzi obou stran. Ze strany Německa byl na části území Polska až k demarkační linii vytvořen Generalgouvernement – jako správní jednotka utvořená 26. 10. 1939 na základě Hitlerova dekretu, která zahrnovala část okupovaného území původního meziválečného Polska, které nebylo začleněno do Třetí říše (vojvodství Kielecké, Krakovské, Lublinské, část Lodžského a Varšavského). Sídlem správy byl Krakov. V čele Generálního gouvernementu stál válečný zločinec Hans Frank , pod jehož vedením docházelo k brutálnímu útisku a cílenému vyhlazování nejen polského, ale i židovského obyvatelstva v Polsku. Blesková válka na západě Evropy začala dne 10. května 1940, kdy německý Wehrmacht na rozkaz Adolfa Hitlera překročil hranice Belgie , Nizozemska a Lucemburska , a poté obešel obrannou Maginotovu linii . Po rychlé porážce francouzské armády vstoupila německá vojska 14. června do Paříže . Francie kapitulovala 22. června 1940 a do listopadu 1942 německá armáda postupně obsadila celou zemi. Sovětský svaz se stal jedním ze Spojenců druhé světové války proti Ose Berlín–Řím–Tokio poté, co nacistické Německo zahájilo dne 22. června 1941 proti němu rozsáhlou a ničivou operaci Barbarossa . Zprvu musela Rudá armáda ustupovat až k Moskvě . Po urputných bojích, např. v bitvě u Stalingradu (podzim 1942 – zima 1943), o Kurský oblouk , či obležení Leningradu (dnešní Petrohrad) atd., začala sovětská vojska zatlačovat Wehrmacht západním směrem a dne 2. května 1945 dobyla Berlín . Dne 7. července 1937 se udál incident na mostě Marca Pola v Pekingu . Tímto relativně malým vojenským střetnutím de facto vznikla druhá čínsko-japonská válka , zprvu bez formálního válečného stavu mezi Japonským císařstvím a Čínskou republikou . Japonsko poté pokračovalo ve své rozsáhlé expanzi proti čínským územím, pak přepadlo a dobylo řadu zemí v jihovýchodní Asii . Dne 7. prosince 1941 zaútočila letadla z japonských letadlových lodí na americkou námořní základnu Pearl Harbor na Havajských ostrovech . Den poté vstoupily Spojené státy americké do války proti Japonsku. Teprve 9. prosince 1941 vyhlásila čínská vláda oficiálně Japonsku válku. [ 1 ] 11. prosince 1941 vyhlásily nacistické Německo a Itálie válku Spojeným státům, čímž byl utvrzen stav globálního konfliktu. Konec války v Evropě nastal 8. května 1945 bezpodmínečnou kapitulací Německa. Po americkém svržení atomových bomb ve dnech 6. a 9. srpna 1945 na města Hirošima a Nagasaki kapitulovalo Japonsko 2. září 1945 . Příčiny války bývají hledány v důsledcích ideologií a politických směrů, jako jsou nacionalismus a imperialismus . Podle některých historiků byla jednou z hlavních příčin nespokojenost vládnoucích kruhů Německa s dopady Versailleské smlouvy , která měla prohloubit pocit ponížení po prohrané první světové válce , a v následcích velké hospodářské krize na přelomu dvacátých a třicátých let. Tyto vlivy zásadním způsobem oslabily mnoho evropských států, čímž umožnily vzestup nacismu a italského fašismu . Druhou světovou válku provázely v dosud nevídané míře válečné zločiny , zločiny proti lidskosti a nehumánní zacházení s válečnými zajatci , zvláště se sovětskými vojáky ze strany Německa. Průběhem bojů bylo podstatně zasaženo rovněž civilní obyvatelstvo, jež utrpělo obrovské ztráty. Nejhorším příkladem genocidy se stal holokaust (šoa), kterému na základě nacistické rasové ideologie padlo za oběť šest milionů Židů v koncentračních táborech a na jiných místech v mnoha zemích Evropy. Masakr čínského obyvatelstva, který spáchali Japonci v Nankingu v prosinci 1937, byl jedním z největších zločinů. V rámci operace Intelligenzaktion v roce 1939 zavraždili němečtí nacisté 60 000 až 100 000 příslušníků polské inteligence, důstojníků a představitelů měst i státu. V roce 1940 provedla sovětská NKVD tzv. katyňský masakr , při kterém bylo povražděno přibližně 22 000 polských důstojníků a příslušníků inteligence . Milionové oběti utrpělo slovanské civilní obyvatelstvo – Rusové , Ukrajinci , Bělorusové , Poláci a jiní – na územích východní fronty , kde ztratilo životy osm milionů lidí. Ti podléhali nemocem a hladu vyvolaným válečnými operacemi a masakrům páchaným na územích obsazených Wehrmachtem a jednotkami Waffen-SS . Válečné úsilí pohlcovalo téměř veškerý lidský, ekonomický, průmyslový a vědecký potenciál všech zúčastněných národů. Mnoho států utrpělo nepředstavitelné materiální ztráty a devastaci svého kulturního dědictví. Lze proto hovořit o tom, že se jednalo o totální válku . Téměř všechny zúčastněné strany se v menší či větší míře odchylovaly od požadavku vést válku „civilizovanými metodami“ . I když Spojené království v roce 1940 odmítalo plošné nálety na nepřátelská města, posléze se k nim spolu se Spojenými státy samo uchýlilo. V samotném závěru světové války byla ustavena Organizace spojených národů , jejímž ústředním cílem byla a je i v současnosti prevence vzniku dalších válečných konfliktů. Po skončení války upevnily vítězné mocnosti USA a SSSR své postavení dvou světových supervelmocí . Jejich stále větší vzájemný antagonismus vedl k bipolárnímu rozdělení světa a k počátku studené války . První generální tajemník Komunistické strany Sovětského svazu Josif Stalin spustil napříč evropským kontinentem takzvanou železnou oponu , která od sebe oddělila západní svět a státy ve Východní Evropě , především z obavy vojenského obsazení zemí Východní Evropy. Vedlejším efektem války byl také vzrůst požadavků na právo na sebeurčení mezi národy ovládanými koloniálními mocnostmi, což vedlo k akceleraci dekolonizačních hnutí v Asii a v Africe . Jednalo se o nejrozsáhlejší válku v dějinách, které se přímo účastnilo více než 100 milionů lidí z více než 30 zemí. Ve stavu totální války vrhli hlavní účastníci do válečného úsilí veškeré své hospodářské, průmyslové a vědecké kapacity, čímž se smazaly rozdíly mezi civilním a vojenským obyvatelstvem. Příčiny a předehra k válce Příčiny druhého celosvětového konfliktu po pouhých dvaceti letech tkvěly podle názoru mnoha historiků v nespokojenosti některých států (a jejich obyvatelstva) s výsledky první světové války , ale také v jejich přetrvávajících imperiálních ambicích. Tyto motivy k obnoveným agresím se zahnízdily především v Německu, Itálii a Japonsku. Poražené Německé císařství (respektive následnická Výmarská republika ) bylo podle Versailleské smlouvy přinuceno vzdát se významné části svého předválečného území ve prospěch vítězné Francie a obnoveného Polska . Německo smělo nadále udržovat jenom omezené vojenské síly a muselo se zavázat k platbám vysokých válečných reparací . Italské království , sice jeden ze států stojících na straně vítězů první světové války, si vydobylo některá území (např. Jižní Tyrolsko ), která však považovalo za nedostatečnou kompenzaci za předchozí ztráty na lidských životech a materiální ztráty. Současně se cítilo neuspokojeno ve svých velmocenských ambicích. Taktéž ve válce vítězné Japonské císařství neuspělo ve snaze posílit svoji kontrolu Číny a krom toho se domnívalo, že pro svůj další hospodářský rozvoj potřebuje naprostou kontrolu zdrojů surovin, které nemohlo získávat na svém prostorově omezeném ostrovním území (mj. ropu ). V průběhu dvacátých let se demokratické mocnosti pokusily zabezpečit trvalost versailleského uspořádání Evropy diplomatickými kroky k zajištění stabilního míru. V roce 1920 byla proto vytvořena Společnost národů se sídlem v Ženevě (ve francouzsky mluvící části Švýcarska ), jež měla fungovat jako fórum, na němž by národy mírovým způsobem urovnávaly svoje spory. O pět let později byly v rovněž švýcarském Locarnu sjednány dohody , jimiž byla poskytnuta záruka trvalosti německo-francouzské hranice. Také případné územní spory mezi Německem a jeho východními sousedy měly být řešeny rozhodčím řízením (arbitráží). V roce 1928 byl nadto uzavřen Briandův–Kelloggův pakt , který všem účastnickým státům zakazoval vedení útočné války . Mírové snahy však dostaly povážlivé trhliny jednak obnoveným izolacionismem Spojených států amerických , především však rozmachem různých totalitních režimů. K tomu výraznou měrou přispěla velká hospodářská krize, jež měla po roce 1929 devastující vliv na světové hospodářství. Již předtím vedla Ruská občanská válka k vytvoření RSFSR a později Sovětského svazu , v němž se po Leninově smrti v roce 1924 chopil moci Josif Stalin . Po pochodu na Řím v roce 1922 převzal vládu v Itálii Benito Mussolini , jenž zde vytvořil první fašistickou diktaturu světa. Rostoucí vliv armády na císařskou vládu v Japonsku vedl k nastolení výbojného militaristického režimu. Po mukdenském incidentu obsadilo Japonsko v roce 1931 Mandžusko , které přeměnilo ve svůj loutkový stát Mandžukuo . Ekonomický rozvrat země na počátku třicátých let a již se projevující expanzionistické tendence v Německu měly za následek vzestup Adolfa Hitlera , vůdce nacionálních socialistů ( NSDAP ), který sliboval německému národu zrušení Versailleské smlouvy a postupně také zajištění „životního prostoru“ na Východě ( Lebensraum ). 30. ledna 1933 byl Hitler jmenován říšským kancléřem , načež během několika málo měsíců realizoval skutečnou nacistickou revoluci. V roce 1935 byla v Německu obnovena branná povinnost, čímž bylo urychleno obnovení německé armády (Wehrmacht ), a rovněž bylo připojeno Sársko . V témže roce napadla fašistická Itálie pod vedením Benita Mussoliniho za blahovolného přihlížení Společnosti národů Habeš , tj. dnešní Etiopii, kterou po svém vítězství v italsko-etiopské válce okupovala. V naprostém rozporu se smlouvami z Versailles a Locarna provedl Hitler v březnu 1936 remilitarizaci Porýní . Francie a Spojené království se však zdržely jakýchkoli protiakcí. V červenci roku 1936 vypukla španělská občanská válka . Nacionalistické síly fašistického generála Francisca Franca se postavily proti španělské vládě vedené levicovými republikány , která byla podporována Sovětským svazem a tzv. mezinárodními brigádami . Franco v tomto krvavém střetu, při kterém byly páchány zločiny proti civilistům, jako bylo bombardování Guerniky frankisty nebo naopak vraždění kněží republikány , zvítězil po třech letech válčení za pomoci Hitlerova Německa a Itálie. V říjnu 1936 vytvořily Německo a Itálie tzv. Osu Berlín–Řím . O měsíc později sjednaly Německo a Japonsko protisovětské spojenectví, nazvané pakt proti Kominterně , čímž vznikla Osa Berlín–Řím–Tokio . V červenci 1937 napadlo Japonsko Čínu , čímž započala druhá čínsko-japonská válka . Čínští nacionalisté a komunisté , válčící proti sobě, uzavřeli mír, aby společně čelili cizím útočníkům. Přesto Japonci brzy dobyli Šanghaj a Nanking , kde byl spáchán obrovský masakr na civilním obyvatelstvu, a průmyslové oblasti na severovýchodě země. Hitlerův expanzionismus v Evropě vedl 12. března 1938 k tzv. anšlusu Rakouska , tedy připojení tohoto malého státu k Německé říši, proti čemuž Spojené království a Francie, přes své znepokojení německým postupem a jeho stále se stupňujícím zbrojením, nijak nezasáhly. 12. září 1938 pohrozil Hitler Československu válkou, pokud by Německu nebylo vydáno československé pohraniční území obývané sudetskými Němci . Toto vyvolalo v českém pohraničí puč organizovaný Sudetoněmeckou stranou . Československá armáda sice tento puč potlačila, ale od 19. září začaly proti Československu útočit jednotky Sudetoněmeckého Freikorpsu vyzbrojovaného Německem. Datum začátku této teroristické kampaně bylo pozdější československou exilovou vládou v Londýně určeno jako datum, kdy Československo vstoupilo do válečného stavu s Německem. [ 2 ] Britský premiér Neville Chamberlain mezitím inicioval rozhovory, jež vyvrcholily 29. září 1938 přijetím Mnichovské dohody . Ačkoliv byly Francie a Spojené království formálně spojenci Československa, obětovaly svým souhlasem s touto dohodou (u níž asistoval Mussolini jako představitel Itálie) jeho teritoriální celistvost a bezpečnost. [ 3 ] Sovětský svaz, s kterým ČSR měla rovněž uzavřenou Dohodu o vzájemné vojenské pomoci nezískal souhlas Polské republiky a povolení k transportu vojáků a přeletu letadel přes území Polska. Polsko dokonce vyhlásilo, že pokud se Sovětský svaz pokusí dopravit vojáky přes území Polska leteckým mostem, budou polští vojáci po letadlech střílet. Mnichovskou dohodou, která byla de facto diktátem Československu, byla země donucena bez boje odstoupit nacistickému Německu postupně několik pásem Sudet s německým a také českým obyvatelstvem. Rovněž Maďarsko a v menší míře i Polsko zabraly části československého území. Okleštěné a jakékoliv další obrany neschopné Československo obdrželo pouze Hitlerovu „záruku“, že nezabere žádné jeho další území. Bezprostředně poté došlo k nucenému odchodu Čechů , Židů a německých odpůrců Adolfa Hitlera do zbytku Československa. Chamberlain věřil, že dosáhl „míru pro naši dobu“. Neuplynulo ani šest měsíců a 15. března 1939 Hitler porušil svůj příslib. Německý Wehrmacht obsadil zbytek českých zemí, které byly přeměněny v Protektorát Čechy a Morava . Rovněž okleštěné Slovensko, pod vedením Jozefa Tisa , vyhlásilo již 14. března svoji nezávislost jako tzv. Slovenský stát , ale stalo se německým satelitem. V březnu 1939 obsadili nacisté také litevský přístav Klaipėda . Pobouřeni agresí proti druhé Československé republice a Hitlerovými výhrůžkami vůči Polsku kvůli Gdaňsku , se Britové a Francouzi zaručili za polskou nezávislost a bezpečnost. Fašistická Itálie v dubnu 1939 obsadila Albánii . Sovětský ministr zahraničí Maxim Litvinov se snažil ve 30. letech orientovat sovětskou zahraniční politiku na spojenectví se západními mocnostmi a vystupoval proti Německu, ale po Mnichovské dohodě se Stalin této politiky zřekl. [ 4 ] Vzájemná nedůvěra mezi Stalinem a západními demokraciemi nakonec přispěla ke sjednání paktu Ribbentrop–Molotov , v němž se Německo a SSSR 24. srpna 1939 zavázaly k oboustranné neutralitě . V tajném dodatku k této smlouvě se tyto dvě velmoci dohodly, že západní a střední část Polska obsadí Německo a část východního Polska obsadí Sovětský svaz ve smyslu tzv. demarkační Curzonovy linie. Byla pro budoucí jednání vytyčena a odsouhlasena Radou dohody, v roce 1919. Jak se později ukázalo, jen na krátkou dobu. Už v noci z 25. na 26. srpna došlo k prvnímu ozbrojenému střetu mezi Německem a Polskem. Byl jím takzvaný Jablunkovský incident , přestřelka v Mostech u Jablunkova . [ 5 ] Průběh války Vzestup Osy Přepadení Polska Druhá světová válka začala 1. září 1939 německým a slovenským útokem proti Polsku . [ 6 ] Již v předchozích dnech provedli Němci několik fingovaných provokací, jako bylo přepadení vysílačky v Gliwicích příslušníky Sicherheitsdienstu (SD) v polských uniformách, které měly ospravedlnit jejich invazi. Třebaže polská armáda nebyla početně o mnoho slabší než Wehrmacht, svojí úrovní výzbroje a výstroje nepředstavovala pro útočníka rovnocenného soupeře. Polská vláda spoléhala na podporu Francie a Velké Británie , které v souladu s dřívějšími zárukami vyhlásily po marném vypršení ultimáta 3. září Německu válku. [ 7 ] Vlastní invaze do Polska byla zahájena bombardováním města Wieluń . Německá Luftwaffe ihned poté zaútočila proti polským vojenským a komunikačním cílům. Sotva po čtyřech dnech bojů prolomila dvě velká německá vojenská uskupení, útočící z Pomořanska a ze Slezska , polskou obrannou linii. Rychle se pohybující německé pancéřové a motorizované divize vyrazily vstříc Varšavě a Brestu , v čemž jim těžkopádná polská pěchota nedokázala zabránit. Západní novináři použili k popisu tohoto nového způsobu vedení boje termínu Blitzkrieg („blesková válka“). Mezi 8. až 10. září se Němci přiblížili ze severu a jihu k Varšavě , avšak polské divize sevřené v Poznani , západně od Varšavy, podnikly rozhodný protiútok. Po vyhlášení války Německu ze strany Velké Británie, Francie a vlády Polska z Londýna, kam se uchýlila, dne 17. září překročila Rudá armáda polské východní hranice [ 8 ] a v tentýž den byla Varšava zcela obklíčena Němci. Po dalších jedenácti dnech bojů a intenzivního dělostřeleckého a leteckého bombardování se obležené polské hlavní město vzdalo. V té době byla prakticky celá země v rukou Němců a Sovětů (po tzv. demarkační Curzonovu linii, vytyčenou Radou dohody v roce 1919), zůstávaly pouze izolované oblasti Polska, které vytrvávaly v odporu, jenž trval do 6. října. Střední Polsko bylo přeměněno v Generální gouvernement okupovaný Němci. Na dobytém území byly zahájeny rozsáhlé represálie proti civilnímu obyvatelstvu . Probíhaly deportace na nucené práce , popravy Židů a likvidace polské inteligence, důstojníků (popraveno bylo na 60–100 tis.) v rámci tzv. operace Tannenberg . Na tomto teroru se podílely především Himmlerovy Einsatzgruppen a jednotky SS-Totenkopfverbände . Stejně nemilosrdné metody uplatňovali Sověti ve východní části Polska. 22 000 polských důstojníků a členů polské inteligence zajatých Rudou armádou bylo na Stalinův příkaz popraveno NKVD v tzv. katyňském masakru . Zimní válka Poté, co Finsko po více než dvou měsících diplomatického nátlaku odmítlo sovětské požadavky na odstoupení území, bylo 30. listopadu 1939 napadeno Rudou armádou . [ 9 ] Vzhledem k drtivé sovětské převaze očekával Stalin rychlé a snadné vítězství, avšak Sověti Finy hrubě podcenili. Díky obratné taktice dokázala finská armáda vedená maršálem Mannerheimem zadržovat Sověty až do března 1940. Rudá armáda, jejíž velení bylo zdecimováno stalinskými čistkami , přišla o 200 000 mužů, zatímco finské ztráty činily 25 000 mužů. Britové a Francouzi zvažovali vojenskou operaci na podporu Finska, ovšem dříve než mohla být uskutečněna, byla 13. března 1940 podepsána mírová smlouva, podle níž muselo Finsko odstoupit Sovětům část Karélie . Německé poznatky z tohoto konfliktu přivedly Hitlera k přesvědčení, že Rudá armáda nemůže být pro Wehrmacht vážnou překážkou. V důsledku tohoto sovětského útoku se Finové v roce 1941 zapojili do německého tažení proti SSSR, aby se v tzv. pokračovací válce pokusili dobýt zpět ztracená území. I když byli Finové spojenci Německa, zachránili si svoje židovské spoluobčany před holokaustem. O židovské otázce se finská vláda odmítla s Němci vůbec bavit. Obsazení Dánska a Norska Velitel německého válečného námořnictva ( Kriegsmarine ) vyzýval od podzimu 1939 Hitlera k okupaci Norska , jehož přístavy představovaly optimální základny pro německé ponorky . V polovině prosince Hitler projevil souhlas, načež byl vypracován plán Unternehmen Weserübung , podle něhož mělo být Norsko obsazeno po souběžném vylodění německých pozemních sil v osmi největších přístavech. Plán zahrnoval také okupaci Dánska , které mělo poskytnout letecké základny. Svoji roli v Hitlerově rozhodnutí sehrála rovněž důležitost nezamrzajícího norského přístavu Narvik , jenž sloužil jako překladiště při dovozu švédské železné rudy do Německa během zimních měsíců. [ 10 ] Této skutečnosti si byli dobře vědomi i Britové, kteří chystali vlastní výsadek v Narviku, odkud hodlali obsadit švédské rudné doly u Kiruny a Gällivare . S vypuknutím Zimní války se k tomu přidal i britsko-francouzský plán na podporu Finů v jejich boji proti Sovětům. [ 11 ] Po skončení Zimní války se ale spojenecké plánování opět omezilo pouze na zastavení dodávek švédské rudy do Německa. Ráno 8. dubna položili Britové v rámci operace Wilfred minové pole v norských výsostných vodách Vestfjordenu (přístup k Narviku). [ 12 ] Bylo už ale pozdě, neboť již 3. března Hitler rozhodl upřednostnit Weserübung před Fall Gelb a 2. dubna bylo rozhodnuto, že k útoku na Dánsko a Norsko dojde 9. dubna 1940. [ 13 ] Dánsko se vzdalo po krátkém odporu během jediného dne, ale dánská vláda a ozbrojené síly si zachovaly relativní nezávislost (za cenu kolaborace s Německem) až do 28. srpna 1943, kdy v rámci operace Safari Němci převzali plnou kontrolu. [ 14 ] Dánsko bylo jedinou okupovanou zemí, kde se většina židovské populace zachránila před nacistickým holokaustem. Většina z asi sedmi tisíc židů přešla před hlavním německým zátahem na dánské židy (1./2. října 1943) do neutrálního Švédska. [ 15 ] V Norsku narazili Němci na houževnatý odpor. Většina vylodění proběhla úspěšně s výjimkou Osla , které bylo dobyto teprve německými výsadkáři. V Narviku se Němcům podařilo obsadit město i přístav, záhy však byli obklíčeni takřka pětinásobnou přesilou Britů, Francouzů a Norů, podporovaných Královským námořnictvem ( Royal Navy ). V následné bitvě o Narvik byli Němci koncem května nuceni město vyklidit a ustoupit směrem k hranicím Švédska, ovšem vývoj situace ve Francii přiměl Spojence počátkem června ke stažení jejich oddílů z Norska. Němci zde později instalovali loutkovou vládu pod vedením norského zrádce Vidkuna Quislinga . Německý útok na západ Dva dny po vyhlášení války Německu podnikli Francouzi omezenou a spíše symbolickou ofenzívu do Sárska . Následovalo klidné období na západní frontě , označované jako Sitzkrieg („válka vsedě“, případně „podivná válka“), které kvůli nepříznivému podzimnímu počasí a neočekávaně vysokým německým ztrátám v Polsku pokračovalo až do jara následujícího roku. Důvody francouzské pasivity spočívaly v defenzivní mentalitě, v jejímž duchu se francouzská armáda spoléhala na silně opevněnou pohraniční Maginotovu linii . Ta však nebyla vybudována podél hranic s Belgií . Na počátku října pověřil Hitler Vrchní velení armády ( Oberkommando des Heeres ) vypracováním plánu pro tažení proti Francii, nazvaném Fall Gelb . Na jaře 1940 byl německý plán útoku proti Francii a státům Beneluxu hotov. Podle původního záměru měla být invaze na západ provedena podobně jako v první světové válce. Nicméně generál Erich von Manstein a jeho spolupracovníci přesvědčili Hitlera, aby jádro obrněných sil soustředil k rychlému postupu přes Ardenský les a řeku Mázu , přičemž následný průlom měl vést k rozštěpení spojeneckých armád ve dví. Ardeny představovaly kopcovitý, hustě zalesněný terén naprosto nevhodný pro operace tanků, avšak Manstein tvrdil, že nepřítel zde nebude očekávat masivní útok, čímž bude dosaženo momentu překvapení. Obě válčící strany disponovaly stejně početnými armádami. Spojenci měli převahu v tancích, naproti tomu německá Luftwaffe měla nad svými protivníky navrch ve vzduchu, což se spolu s pružnější organizací německých pancéřových sil ukázalo jako rozhodující faktor. Vlastní útok započal 10. května 1940, kdy Wehrmacht překročil hranice Belgie , Nizozemska a Lucemburska . [ 16 ] Němečtí výsadkáři obsadili důležitá letiště, mosty a strategicky významnou belgickou pevnost Eben-Emael . V reakci na německý vpád do Beneluxu postoupil britský expediční sbor a část francouzských armád do Belgie na linii řeky Dyle , kde hodlaly zastavit německý postup. Tím však šly na ruku Mansteinovu plánu, neboť v téže době se sedm z deseti německých pancéřových divizí valilo nikým nezpozorováno ardenskými průsmyky. Po třech dnech, kdy se setkaly jen se slabým odporem, dorazily německé tanky vedené generálem Guderianem u Sedanu k řece Máze, kterou 14. května po urputném boji zdolaly. V tentýž den podnikla Luftwaffe ničivý nálet na Rotterdam , načež Holandsko kapitulovalo. O tři dny později padl také Brusel . Po překročení Mázy se německé tankové divize ocitly v nížině severní Francie a 20. května dosáhly ústí řeky Sommy do kanálu La Manche , čímž byl završen Mansteinův „sek srpem“ ( Sichelschnitt ). Britové se pokusili zasáhnout bok německých divizí u Arrasu , avšak poté, co byli odraženi, se ocitli v obklíčení. Do 27. května vedl neustálý německý postup k sevření britských a francouzských jednotek u Dunkerque . Na záchranu obklíčených vojsk byla proto zahájena operace Dynamo , v níž se i přes nepřetržité německé nálety britským vojenským i civilním plavidlům podařilo do 4. června evakuovat z Dunkerque takřka 340 000 spojeneckých vojáků. Evakuován byl téměř celý expediční sbor a rovněž 110 000 příslušníků francouzské armády. K této záchraně Spojenců přispěl i Hitlerův rozkaz z 24. května, ve kterém, na doporučení některých generálů, zakázal tankům pokračovat v postupu , aby šetřil své cenné pancéřové divize. Němci obnovili 5. června ofenzívou na řekách Sommě a Aisně útok do nitra Francie a již po čtyřech dnech překročili řeku Seinu . 10. června se zapojila do války po boku Německa i Mussoliniho Itálie . Útok Italů v Alpách skončil ale navzdory italské převaze pohromou. 14. června vstoupil triumfující Wehrmacht do Paříže , která byla ještě předtím prohlášena otevřeným městem. [ 17 ] V téže době byla prolomena Maginotova linie. Za těchto kritických okolností byl francouzským předsedou vlády jmenován Philippe Pétain , hrdina z první světové války. Ten zahájil okamžitě vyjednávání o příměří, které bylo uzavřeno 22. června v Compiègne v tomtéž železničním vagóně, v němž Němci podepsali příměří v roce 1918. 17. června Sovětský svaz poblahopřál Německu k brilantnímu vítězství. [ 18 ] Blitzkrieg na západě tak skončil po pouhých šesti týdnech. Podle podmínek příměří byla Francie rozdělena na dvě části. Sever a západ země, kde se nacházely důležité letecké základny pro válku s Brity a přístavy v Atlantském oceánu , byly okupovány Wehrmachtem. Jižní a východní část Francie setrvala pod kontrolou Pétainovy vlády, která se usadila ve městě Vichy . Pétain zde nastolil kolaborantský , loutkový vichistický režim zcela loajální vůči Německu. Mezitím se v Londýně do čela exilového hnutí Svobodných francouzských sil ( Forces françaises libres ) postavil služebně nejmladší generál Charles de Gaulle . Francouzská flota zakotvená u alžírského Oranu byla však 3. července napadena [ 19 ] britským námořnictvem, aby nepadla do rukou Němců. Obsazení rumunských území a pobaltských republik Sovětským svazem Sovětský svaz v červnu 1940 obsadil a anektoval části tehdejšího Rumunska . Okupoval a anektoval také nezávislé republiky Litva , Lotyšsko a Estonsko . [ 20 ] Bitva o Británii Po vítězství nad Francií ovládal Adolf Hitler v létě 1940 přímo nebo prostřednictvím spojenců téměř celou Evropu. Jeho jediným zbývajícím nepřítelem zůstávala osamocená Velká Británie , jejíž nový ministerský předseda Winston Churchill sliboval Britům ve svých burcujících projevech pouze „krev, pot a slzy“. Nicméně britská armáda se po katastrofě ve Francii nacházela v troskách. Jedinou překážkou, která bránila Hitlerovým armádám v podrobení Britských ostrovů a jež mohla zmařit chystanou invazi ( operace Seelöwe ), bylo nyní britské letectvo ( Royal Air Force ) v čele s leteckým maršálem Hughem Dowdingem . Zlomit sílu RAF se v nadcházející bitvě pokusila německá Luftwaffe , jejímž velitelem byl Hermann Göring . Němci rovněž doufali, že Británii izolují a vyhladoví s pomocí svých ponorek, operujících z Francie a Norska. Samotná letecká bitva začala krátce po dobytí Francie. V první fázi se Luftwaffe zaměřila na britské konvoje, které během tzv. bitvy o kanál ( Kanalkampf ) vytlačila z Lamanšského průlivu. Hlavní útok byl zahájen 13. srpna, v tzv. „den orla“ ( Adlertag ). Němci nejprve částečně neutralizovali britský radarový systém a zaútočili proti přístavům a vojenským a leteckým zařízením na pobřeží. V průběhu této fáze boje utrpěly obě strany nejvyšší ztráty za celou bitvu. Později se Luftwaffe zaměřila proti letištím RAF ve vnitrozemí a leteckým továrnám. V závěrečné etapě boje, na počátku září, podnikli Němci denní útoky na Londýn a jiná velká britská města, jako bylo třeba Coventry , s cílem zlomit morálku jejich obyvatel. Konečně 15. září Britové přesvědčivě odrazili rozsáhlý německý útok, načež Hitler nařídil odložit vylodění na neurčito. Luftwaffe i nadále pokračovala v bombardování měst ( Blitz ). Kvůli velkému množství zničených letadel se však od října omezovala pouze na noční útoky, které si i přesto do jara následujícího roku vyžádaly přes 40 000 životů. V bitvě o Británii usilovali Němci o zničení nepřátelských stíhaček , avšak podcenili význam radaru pro obranu Britů. Navíc britský průmysl dokázal vždy plně nahrazovat ztráty vlastních strojů. Značný podíl na tomto vítězství „nemnohých“ náležel kromě britských pilotů také Polákům , Kanaďanům , Novozélanďanům , Čechoslovákům , Belgičanům a zástupcům mnoha jiných národů. Řecko a Jugoslávie Již od třicátých let směřoval Benito Mussolini své velmocenské ambice na Balkánský poloostrov . V dubnu 1939 okupovala italská vojska Albánii , z níž 28. října 1940 zahájila překvapivý útok proti Řecku . [ 21 ] Ovšem ofenzíva špatně vybavených a nedostatečně motivovaných italských vojáků selhala sotva po několika dnech. Řekové přiměli italské agresory k přechodu do defenzívy a vzápětí je zatlačili zpět do Albánie. Vzhledem k nebezpečí porážky svého spojence a z obav z britského zásahu, jenž by mohl ohrozit německou kontrolu rumunských ropných polí, vydal v prosinci Hitler pokyn k vypracování plánů tažení na Balkán ( operace Marita ). Zároveň byla zahájena diplomatická ofenzíva, v jejímž rámci se na stranu mocností Osy přidaly Rumunsko, Maďarsko a Bulharsko . Na konci března 1941 se k Ose připojila i Jugoslávie , avšak protiněmecké demonstrace a puč jugoslávských leteckých důstojníků měl za následek vystoupení Jugoslávie z aliance. 6. dubna 1941 překročily německé divize z Rakouska , Rumunska a Bulharska hranice s Jugoslávií, souběžně Luftwaffe podnikla ničivý nálet na Bělehrad . Jugoslávská obrana byla brzy prolomena a už 10. dubna 1941 stanuly jednotky Wehrmachtu v chorvatském Záhřebu , kde byly uvítány jásajícími davy. Bělehrad dobyly německé pancéřové divize dva dny nato a 17. dubna přijalo jugoslávské velení svou bezpodmínečnou kapitulaci. Poražená Jugoslávie byla rozdělena mezi vítězné státy a na jejích troskách byl vyhlášen tzv. Nezávislý stát Chorvatsko pod vedením Ustašovců . Řekové posílení britskými jednotkami, přesunutými ze severní Afriky , kladli Němcům houževnatější odpor. Německý postup do vnitrozemí ztěžoval také nepříznivý hornatý terén. Po překonání Metaxasovy linie padlo 9. dubna 1941 do rukou Němců město Soluň , takže téměř polovina řecké armády byla uvězněna ve východní Makedonii . Během dvou týdnů byli Řekové obklíčeni rovněž v Epiru . Britové se pokusili zadržet Němce u Thermopyl , avšak poté, co byla jejich obrana zdolána, zahájili obojživelnou evakuační operaci. 27. dubna 1941 vstoupily oddíly Wehrmachtu do Athén a na Peloponés , čímž bylo balkánské tažení ukončeno. O necelý měsíc později, 20. května 1941, provedly německé vzdušné síly leteckou invazi na Krétu . Při tomto útoku však němečtí výsadkáři utrpěli těžké ztráty a také zprvu nedokázali dobýt žádné letiště potřebné k zajištění příchodu posil a k plynulému zásobování. Kvůli špatné koordinaci a komunikaci mezi jednotkami britského Commonwealthu a intenzivním útokům Luftwaffe se však Němcům nakonec podařilo konsolidovat svoje pozice a vytlačit Spojence z ostrova. Hitler nicméně do budoucna zakázal provádění jakýchkoli dalších výsadkových operací. Válka v Africe a na Středním východě Severoafrické tažení začalo v září 1940, kdy 160 000 italských vojáků proniklo z Libye do Egypta , jenž byl protektorátem Britů. Italský postup se však zastavil po pouhých sto kilometrech, načež začátkem prosince zahájilo 36 000 britských , australských , indických , novozélandských a jihoafrických vojáků protiútok, při němž byli Italové vytlačeni do Libye. V pokračujících bojích byli Italové nuceni ustoupit na Kyrenaiku , kde byla většina italské armády posléze polapena a zničena britským útokem napříč poloostrovem. Po tomto katastrofálním vývoji nezbylo Mussolinimu než požádat o pomoc Hitlera, který vyslal do severní Afriky dvě divize pod velením generála Rommela . Ihned po svém příchodu koncem března 1941 se Rommel vrhl do ofenzívy. Po překonání britské obrany, oslabené stažením části sil do Řecka, dobyl jeho Afrikakorps zpět Kyrenaiku a přístav Benghází . V dubnu dorazily Rommelovy tanky k libyjskému přístavu a pevnosti Tobruk , bráněnému australskými vojáky. Jelikož Tobruk představoval překážku postupu do Egypta, pokusili se ho Němci třikrát dobýt, avšak jejich úsilí skončilo neúspěchem. Podobně dopadly také britské snahy o vyproštění, načež se Rommel uchýlil k obléhání pevnosti, jež se protáhlo na osm měsíců. Zatím v květnu 1941 přemohlo vojsko Commonwealthu proněmeckou vládu v Iráku , která byla podporována německými vzdušnými silami z letišť ve vichistickou vládou kontrolované Sýrii . Během června a července proto Britové spolu se Svobodnými Francouzi obsadili Sýrii a Libanon . Už v lednu pronikly smíšené britské a koloniální oddíly do Etiopie a do konce května 1941 porazily zde umístěné italské vojsko, čímž Italská východní Afrika vzala za své. Přepadení Sovětského svazu Boj proti bolševismu náležel společně se získáním „životního prostoru“ na východě mezi hlavní motivy Hitlerovy politické kariéry. Vlastní tažení proti Sovětskému svazu, jež mělo být podle nacistické rasové ideologie vedeno jako vyhlazovací válka, bylo připravováno již od vítězství nad Francií v létě 1940. Operace Barbarossa, jak byl výsledný plán pojmenován, předpokládala rozdělení německých vojenských sil do třech skupin armád . Na severu měly být obsazeny pobaltské státy a Leningrad . Skupina armád Střed , na níž spočívala hlavní tíže tažení, měla postoupit přes Bělorusko a dobýt Moskvu . Jižní uskupení německých vojsk spolu s Rumuny, Italy a Maďary mělo okupovat Ukrajinu . Za operační cíl, jehož mělo být dosaženo, byla stanovena linie spojující města Archangelsk a Astrachaň . Sovětský svaz byl napaden 22. června 1941, kdy 3 miliony německých vojáků s 3600 tanky překročily sovětské hranice. [ 22 ] Ačkoli přesuny německých armád byly dobře patrné celé měsíce před začátkem tažení, Stalin , jehož důvěra v sovětské vojenské kapacity byla otřesena zimní válkou, odmítal vykonat jakákoli protiopatření, jež by mohla vyprovokovat Němce. Rudá armáda byla tudíž útokem naprosto zaskočena, třebaže měla nad Němci převahu v tancích i v letadlech. Obzvláště sovětské letectvo bylo značně poničeno německými nálety první den útoku. Německé pancéřové kleště, následované pěchotou, už v prvním týdnu obklíčily a zničily ohromné seskupení sovětských vojsk v prostoru Białystok-Minsk . Přitom urazily více než 600 kilometrů. Na počátku července překročila skupina armád Střed Dněpr a přiblížila se ke Smolensku , kde se poté odehrála rozhořčená obkličovací bitva , jež byla skončena v srpnu. V obou těchto střetnutích padly do zajetí stovky tisíc sovětských vojáků. Mezitím skupina armád Jih obsadila západní Ukrajinu, zatímco Rumuni obklíčili Oděsu . Postup v tomto sektoru fronty se však rozvíjel pomaleji. Na severu Němci rychle překonali řeku Dvinu a po obsazení Litvy , Lotyšska a Estonska směřovali k Leningradu. Stejně jako v Polsku postupovaly za jednotkami Wehrmachtu Einsatzgruppen SS , které nemilosrdně likvidovaly veškeré židovské obyvatelstvo a politické komisaře Rudé armády. Na těchto zvěrstvech se leckdy podílel i Wehrmacht . S obdobnou krutostí a brutalitou bylo nakládáno rovněž se zajatými rudoarmějci všech hodností, s partyzány a také s civilisty. Po dobytí Smolenska se němečtí generálové zasazovali za okamžitý útok na Moskvu, která byla pro jejich vojska nyní vzdálená jen 400 kilometrů. Nicméně Hitler považoval za důležité ovládnout ukrajinské zemědělské a průmyslové zdroje, ačkoli krátce po začátku tažení nařídilo sovětské vrchní velení ( Stavka ) evakuaci sovětského průmyslu na východ, především demontování veškerého těžkého průmyslu a jeho evakuaci ze západních regionů do oblastí za Ural . Hitler proto skupině armád Střed nařídil zastavit postup na sovětské hlavní město a obrátit se na jih. 8. září 1941 Němci spolu s Finy oblehli Leningrad a toto město postupně téměř zcela odřízli od veškerého nutného zásobování. Obležení Leningradu trvalo více než dva roky a vyžádalo si životy až jednoho milionu civilistů. [ 23 ] Do konce září bylo pak v gigantické obkličovací bitvě u Kyjeva zajato dalších 650 000 sovětských vojáků. [ 24 ] Po šestitýdenní pauze obnovila skupina armád Střed 2. října svůj útok na Moskvu (tzv. operace Tajfun ). Německý postup však záhy zpomalily podzimní deště, jež proměnily ruské cesty v bláto. O měsíc později udeřily první mrazy. V listopadu pronikli Němci do Rostova na Donu a na Krym . 15. listopadu zahájili svoji finální ofenzívu proti Moskvě, jež měla být provedena obrovitým obchvatem města. Na konci měsíce stály předsunuté jednotky Wehrmachtu sotva 30 kilometrů od Kremlu , vyčerpaní němečtí vojáci se ale ocitli na pokraji svých sil. Do 5. prosince 1941 byl celý německý postup zastaven. Následujícího dne zahájily čerstvé sibiřské divize maršála Žukova , které byly vybaveny moderními tanky T-34 , sovětský protiútok, který do začátku ledna 1942 zatlačil příliš roztažené německé linie o 200 kilometrů zpět. Německá blesková válka v Sovětském svazu již tehdy prakticky ztroskotala. Vyrovnání sil Japonský útok na Pearl Harbor, vstup USA do války Japonská agrese v Číně od roku 1937 měla za následek ochlazení ve vztazích s USA . Po pádu metropolitní Francie vstoupily japonské jednotky koncem září 1940 do Francouzské Indočíny a krátce nato Japonsko formálně stvrdilo své spojenectví s Německem a Itálií. Přítomnost císařské armády v Indočíně a stupňující se japonské požadavky vůči Nizozemské východní Indii přiměly USA k uvalení ropného embarga na Japonsko, čímž bylo vážně poškozeno jeho hospodářství. Podle militantního křídla japonské vlády, v jehož čele stál generál Hideki Tódžó , si Japonsko muselo k zachování svých výbojů ve východní Asii zajistit dodávky ropy a ostatních surovin silou. Císařský generální štáb proto vypracoval plán obranného perimetru v Asii a v Tichém oceánu , umožňujícího Japonsku nerušené využívání tamních přírodních zdrojů k vedení defenzivní války. Nezbytným předpokladem úspěchu tohoto záměru byla neutralizace americké tichomořské floty . 7. prosince 1941 se z japonských letadlových lodí , jež nepozorovaně připluly do blízkosti Havajských ostrovů , vznesly stovky japonských letadel, které krátce před osmou hodinou podnikly ničivý nálet na americkou námořní základnu v Pearl Harboru . [ 25 ] Během dvouhodinového útoku byla potopena nebo vážně poškozena řada amerických bitevních lodí a jiných plavidel. Po tomto zákeřném napadení vyhlásily USA Japonsku válku. Na stranu Japonska se o čtyři dny později přidaly také Německo a Itálie. Už před vstupem do konfliktu USA pozvolna opouštěly svoji izolacionistickou politiku a zastávaly jen formálně neutrální postoj k válčícím stranám. V březnu 1941 prezident Roosevelt podpořil Spojence, když prosadil Zákon o půjčce a pronájmu umožňující Britům, Číňanům a Sovětům odebírat americké zbrojní a jiné dodávky bez nutnosti okamžitého zaplacení. Konečně po japonském přepadení Pearl Harboru se ohromné americké průmyslové kapacity plně zapojily do boje proti Ose. 11. prosince 1941 vyhlásilo nacistické Německo válku Spojeným státům americkým a Adolf Hitler osobně schválil přípravu na provedení sabotážních a teroristických útoků na území USA (např. Operace Pastorius v roce 1942). Ochromení pacifické floty poskytlo Japoncům volnou ruku k jejich expanzi. Před koncem prosince obsadili Japonci britský Hongkong a Gilbertovy ostrovy , stejně jako Guam a ostrov Wake , jež byly v držení Američanů. Rovněž vpadli do britského Malajska . Přes neutrální Thajsko napadli Barmu a vylodili se na Američanech kontrolovaných Filipínách . Singapur , považovaný za nedobytnou pevnost, padl 15. února 1942. Kolem 130 000 Indů, Australanů a Britů bylo vzato do zajetí, pád Singapuru se stal tudíž nejvíce pokořující kapitulací britských dějin. Po vítězství v bitvě v Jávském moři okupovali Japonci v březnu Nizozemskou východní Indii a přistáli na Nové Guineji . Americké a filipínské oddíly kapitulovaly na filipínském Luzonu v dubnu a obránci Corregidoru vydrželi až do května. Na počátku téhož měsíce zahájili Japonci obojživelnou operaci k obsazení Port Moresby na Nové Guineji, čímž by narušili komunikační spoje mezi USA a Austrálií . Ovšem v následné bitvě v Korálovém moři Spojenci odrazili japonské invazní síly. Po symbolickém Doolittlově náletu na Tokio [ 26 ] japonské velení rozhodlo o obsazení atolu Midway . Současně měly být dobyty Aleutské ostrovy . Na konci května vyplula japonská flota pod velením admirála Jamamota vstříc Midwayi. Japonci usilovali o další překvapivý úder, avšak Američané krátce předtím prolomili japonský kód a byli tak zpraveni o jejich úmyslu. 4. června 1942 se Američanům podařilo v bitvě u Midway rozdrtit japonské letadlové lodě, jež tvořily jádro japonských námořních sil, načež Jamamoto nařídil ústup. Po pouhých šesti měsících skončilo období japonských úspěchů, neboť císařské námořnictvo se z této porážky, která ho připravila o klíčové letadlové lodě a vycvičený personál, nikdy zcela nevzpamatovalo. Tažení do Egypta V listopadu 1941 zahájila posílená britská 8. armáda operaci Crusader , během níž osvobodila Tobruk . Jelikož německé námořní a zásobovací linie byly narušovány útoky britských námořních a leteckých sil operujících z Malty , byl Rommel přinucen k ústupu na svoji výchozí pozici. Jakmile britský tlak na nepřátelské komunikační linie na počátku roku 1942 polevil, síly Osy byly rychle doplněny, pročež v lednu obnovily svoji ofenzívu. Rommel poté snadno vytlačil Brity zpět na Kyrenaiku, kde koncem května přemohl jejich obranu u Gazaly . Nato Afrikakorps zdolal veškeré britské obranné pozice a po dvoudenním boji obsadil na konci června 1942 Tobruk. Vítězství Osy bylo korunováno zajetím více než 25 000 spojeneckých vojáků. Rommel pak navzdory rozkazům pronásledoval poraženou 8. armádu do Egypta a v červenci se s ní střetl v první bitvě u El Alamejnu . Nicméně Rommelův pokus obsadit Alexandrii vzdálenou pouhých 100 kilometrů neuspěl. Boje pokračovaly po celý červenec, než byly obě strany příliš vyčerpány. Bitva o Atlantik Německé ponorkové loďstvo mělo obdobně jako v první světové válce vyhladovět a izolovat Britské ostrovy ničením obchodních lodí. Za vlastní počátek bitvy o Atlantik lze považovat 14. říjen 1939, kdy jedna německá ponorka vnikla do zálivu Scapa Flow , hlavního opěrného bodu britské domácí floty ( Home Fleet ), přičemž potopila jednu ze zde zakotvených bitevních lodí. Přes tento úspěch se však do poloviny roku 1940 německé útoky v Atlantském oceánu omezovaly pouze na ojedinělé akce osamocených ponorek. Teprve po dobytí Francie, jež umožnilo zřízení ponorkových základen v přístavech v Brestu , Lorientu , Saint-Nazaire a La Rochelle , zajišťujících rychlejší dosažení operačních prostorů, došlo k zefektivnění německých ponorkových operací. Německé ponorky plně rozvinuly taktiku vlčích smeček , proti nimž byly spojenecké konvoje , slabě chráněné doprovodnými torpédoborci , bezmocné. V roce 1940 přišli Spojenci o 4,5 milionů tun lodního prostoru a v roce 1941 o zhruba stejné množství. Vítězství německých ponorek obratně využívala nacistická propaganda, jež mnohé z úspěšných kapitánů stylizovala do role národních hrdinů. K podpoře vedení ponorkové války vyplula v květnu 1941 z Baltského moře do Atlantiku německá eskadra. Ta sestávala z právě do služby uvedené bitevní lodě Bismarck , těžkého křižníku Prinz Eugen a několika torpédoborců. V průběhu plavby v Dánském průlivu mezi Grónskem a Islandem poslal Bismarck ke dnu britský bitevní křižník HMS Hood . Přesto dříve, než doplul do Francie, byl dostižen a zničen britským loďstvem. Po vstupu Spojených států do války se těžiště německých akcí přesunulo blíže k americkému pobřeží. Zpočátku špatně organizovaná americká pobřežní obrana nedokázala zamezit útokům na obchodní lodě. Operační pásmo ponorek se později v důsledku intenzivnější obrany rozšířilo až do Karibiku a jižního Atlantiku. Původní počet asi 50 ponorek na počátku války vzrostl ve druhé polovině roku 1942 na více než 300. Tento rok byl proto nejúspěšnějším rokem německých ponorek, které zničily přes 8 milionů tun lodního prostoru, čímž se nejvíce přiblížily kritické hranici ohrožující britské hospodářství. V červnu 1942 také proběhla neúspěšná Operace Pastorius , kdy došlo k prvnímu pokusu o vylodění německých sabotérů na území USA, kteří měli za úkol poškodit válečný průmysl USA a vyvolat bombovými útoky paniku mezi civilním obyvatelstvem. Koncem roku 1942 však Spojenci prolomili německé šifrovací zařízení Enigma , používané ponorkami. Díky tomu a zvýšené spojenecké produkci modernějších letadel a torpédoborců bylo v květnu 1943 potopeno 43 německých ponorek, což si vynutilo dočasné přerušení ponorkových operací. Na tomto zvratu, jenž se projevil poklesem potopené tonáže na 3,5 milionů, nic nezměnilo ani využití šnorchlu , získaného porážkou Holandska. Po osvobození Francie v létě 1944 musely být opuštěny ponorkové základny na pobřeží Atlantiku. Ponorky byly pak zatlačeny zpět do Severního a Baltského moře. Po německé kapitulaci v květnu 1945 byly ponorky buď poslány ke dnu, nebo se jejich posádky vzdaly ve spojeneckých přístavech. Bitva u Stalingradu Poté, co byly sovětské průlomy na východní frontě eliminovány, převzal Wehrmacht na jaře 1942 opět iniciativu. Nová Hitlerova ofenzíva ( Fall Blau ) si kladla za cíl dobytí jižního Ruska a po dosažení Volhy proniknutí za Kavkaz , kde mělo být obsazeno Baku a místní ropná pole. Jakmile půda po jarním tání dostatečně ztvrdla, byl v květnu zahájen útok proti Sovětům na Krymu , jenž byl završen dobytím obleženého Sevastopolu na začátku července. 28. června vyrazili Němci východně od Charkova směrem na Voroněž a za méně než čtyři týdny stanuli na březích Donu . Navzdory rychlosti útoku byly počty zajatých sovětských vojáků nesrovnatelně nižší než v předchozím roce. Stalin a jeho generálové věřili, že Němci chystají druhý, mnohem mocnější úder na Moskvu a shromáždili zde veškeré dostupné zálohy, zatímco na jihu se Rudá armáda měla vyvarovat obklíčení. Koncem července se Hitler vlivem relativní snadnosti německého postupu rozhodl pozměnit původní plán a nařídil polovině armád blížících se ke Stalingradu zamířit na Kavkaz. 23. července byl znovu dobyt Rostov a na začátku srpna se německé tanky přehnaly přes Kubáň , načež dorazily k severnímu Kavkazu, kde byly spatřeny první vrtné věže. 21. srpna vztyčili bavorští horští myslivci vlajku se svastikou na hoře Elbrus . Kvůli velkým vzdálenostem a nedostačující železniční síti se však vážně zhoršilo zásobování vojenských operací, což zpomalilo další útoky. Souběžně s ofenzívou na Kavkaze pokračoval rovněž postup německé 6. armády vstříc Stalingradu. Vlastní bitva u Stalingradu začala 23. srpna potom, co asi 1000 letadel Luftwaffe zasypalo Stalingrad zápalnými bombami, které proměnily většinu města v hromadu sutin. Krátce nato dosáhly německé jednotky Volhy severně od města. V samotném Stalingradu Stavka zorganizovala improvizovanou obranu, s níž se Němci střetli v rozhořčeném boji o každý dům a ulici. Zapletli se tak do náročné a vyčerpávající bitvy v rozvalinách města, v níž utrpěli vysoké ztráty. Během německé ofenzívy, pokračující až do poloviny října, přišla 6. armáda o polovinu svých bojových stavů, zatímco sovětské 62. armádě neustále proudily přes Volhu čerstvé posily. Kvůli přílišnému roztažení fronty byla německá křídla tvořena méně kvalitními rumunskými, maďarskými a italskými divizemi. Této slabosti využili Sověti, když v rámci operace Uran provedli 19. listopadu dva mohutné údery severozápadně a jihovýchodně od města. O čtyři dny později se útočící sovětské fronty setkaly západně od Stalingradu, čímž byla 6. armáda uvržena do obklíčení. Ujištěn Göringovým tvrzením, že Luftwaffe dokáže zásobit obleženou 6. armádu letecky, rozkázal Hitler jejímu veliteli, generálu Paulusovi , vytrvat na místě. 12. prosince byl zahájen pokus o vyproštění. Nicméně trvající sovětský nápor a Hitlerův kategorický nesouhlas s vyklizením Stalingradu měly za následek, že němečtí vojáci ve městě se ocitli v pasti. V polovině prosince byla spuštěna operace Saturn , při níž Rudá armáda vytlačila Němce z Kavkazu. Zatím ve Stalingradu Paulus odmítl sovětskou výzvu ke kapitulaci, pročež Sověti obnovili útok na město, než konečně 31. ledna Paulus a většina vyhladovělých vojáků 6. armády v beznadějné situaci kapitulovala. Zbytky německých sil ve Stalingradu se vzdaly 2. února 1943, ačkoli omezené střety především v městských stokách pokračovaly ještě v dalších měsících. Z téměř 300 000 příslušníků 6. armády padlo do sovětského zajetí 90 000 mužů, z nichž se po válce vrátilo do Německa pouze 6000. Sovětské vítězství u Stalingradu definitivně zlomilo mýtus o neporazitelnosti Wehrmachtu a stalo se symbolem obratu ve vývoji války. Vítězství Spojenců v Africe Armády Spojenců a Osy v severní Africe se v srpnu 1942 zotavovaly z předchozích náročných bojů. V témže měsíci navštívil Winston Churchill Egypt, načež byl novým velitelem 8. armády jmenován generál Bernard Montgomery , jenž dodal britským silám v Africe novou energii. Koncem srpna se Rommel pokusil znovu prorazit do údolí Nilu , avšak byl odražen rozhodnou britskou obranou v bitvě u Alam Halfy . Rommel se poté vydal ze zdravotních důvodů do Německa, čehož Britové využili k posílení svých vojsk a k přípravě vlastní ofenzívy. 23. října zahájil Montgomery druhou bitvu u El Alameinu , v níž po dvanácti dnech intenzivních bojů síly Commonwealthu přinutily Afrikakorps ke stažení z Egypta. Na počátku listopadu se americké a britské jednotky vylodily v Casablance , Oranu a Alžíru ve francouzské severní Africe ( operace Torch ). Nicméně Hitler a Mussolini nečekaně rychle zareagovali přesunutím vojska do Tuniska . Tam ustupoval rovněž Rommelův Afrikakorps, obezřetně stíhaný Montgomeryho 8. armádou. Po překročení Libye se Rommel opevnil na tuniských hranicích. V únoru se pokusil vymanit z nepřátelského sevření a zaútočil na západ proti americkým divizím v průsmyku Kaserín . Ostřílení němečtí veteráni zde přivodili Američanům vážnou porážku, ti se ale z tohoto nezdaru rychle poučili. Koncem března se Britům podařilo vymanévrovat Rommela u Mareth , pročež se postavení Osy v Africe začalo pozvolna hroutit. Poté, co Spojenci vstoupili do Tunisu , síly Osy 13. května 1943 kapitulovaly. Do zajetí padlo 275 000 italských a německých vojáků. Odpor proti okupaci Po příchodu německé armády byly v různých evropských státech zavedeny rozdílné metody zacházení s podrobeným obyvatelstvem, které vycházely z nacistických politických, rasových a ekonomických idejí a záměrů. K jejich naplnění využívali okupanti všech možných prostředků represe , jež obnášely především vojenský a policejní útlak, reprezentovaný systémem koncentračních táborů a hrozbou odvlečení na nucené práce , jimiž byly postiženy miliony lidí. Represe a vykořisťování však brzy narazily na odpor poražených a okupovaných národů. V Nizozemsku proběhla stávka policie a železničářů. Ve Francii docházelo k ozbrojeným útokům, na nichž se podílely odbojové skupiny Résistance a Maquis . V Polsku působila podzemní Zemská armáda ( Armija Krajowa ), která v srpnu 1944 zorganizovala varšavské povstání . V Protektorátu proběhl v květnu 1942 úspěšný atentát na Reinharda Heydricha , jednoho z nejvýše postavených nacistů. [ 27 ] Nejsilnější odpor převládal v balkánských státech a ve východní Evropě. Jugoslávští partyzáni vedení Titem dokázali osvobodit rozlehlá území Bosny a Hercegoviny a Černé Hory , přičemž na sebe vázali několik divizí Osy. Obdobně řečtí komunističtí ( ELAS ) a monarchističtí partyzáni ( EDES ) kontrolovali hornaté řecké vnitrozemí. Taktéž na dobytém území Sovětského svazu operovaly četné odbojové skupiny, které prováděly sabotáže na komunikačních uzlech. Partyzánský způsob boje byl plánován Rudou armádou už před vypuknutím války, takže po obsazení západních částí země zahájily odříznuté jednotky útoky proti okupačním silám v týlu fronty. Boj proti partyzánům vedli Němci odlišně ve východní a západní Evropě. Ve Francii nebo Itálii , kde vzniklo silné komunistické hnutí odporu po okupaci země Němci, docházelo k spíše ojedinělým případům masakrů civilního obyvatelstva. Naproti tomu válka proti partyzánům v Řecku , Jugoslávii , Albánii nebo SSSR nabývala podoby nemilosrdného a systematického vyhlazovacího boje. Dokladem toho je skutečnost, že jenom v Bělorusku zahynula v průběhu války takřka čtvrtina veškeré populace. Asijské národy okupované císařskou armádou byly Japonci zahrnuty do Velké východoasijské sféry vzájemné prosperity . Ačkoli japonští vojáci byli nejprve vítáni jako osvoboditelé z nadvlády Evropanů, jejich brutalita vůči Asiatům zvedla proti nim brzy všeobecnou nenávist a odpor. Sicílie a Itálie V lednu 1943 se konala Casablanská konference , na níž Churchill přesvědčil Roosevelta k upřednostnění invaze na Sicílii a do Itálie před přímým útokem na západní Evropu . Realizace tohoto záměru započala 9. července 1943, kdy se kombinované britsko-kanadsko-americké síly zachytily na Sicílii . Navzdory houževnatému odporu německých divizí nebyla vojska Osy schopná zabránit Spojencům v dobytí ostrova. Přesto ještě před pádem Sicílie v polovině srpna stihla Osa evakuovat většinu svých jednotek na pevninu. Mezitím, co probíhaly boje na Sicílii, byl Mussolini v Itálii zbaven moci a uvězněn. Na začátku září byl však osvobozen německým komandem a na Němci okupovaném území později vyhlásil loutkovou Italskou socialistickou republiku . Italská vláda zahájila vyjednávání se Spojenci, které vyústilo v podepsání kapitulace 3. září 1943. [ 28 ] V tentýž den překročili Britové Messinský průliv . 9. září, den po zveřejnění italské kapitulace, se Američané vylodili u Salerna nedaleko Neapole . Zde ale museli čelit prudkému německému protiútoku. Ovšem ještě před začátkem zimy se Němci stáhli na Gustavovu linii na jih od Říma, kde hodlali využít přirozeného defenzivního terénu Apeninského poloostrova k co největšímu zpomalení spojeneckého postupu na sever. Američané se v lednu 1944 neúspěšně pokusili prolomit německou obranu vyloděním u Anzia v týlu Gustavovy linie. V téže době začala namáhavá a zdlouhavá bitva o Monte Cassino . Spojenci podnikli celkem čtyři útoky, avšak teprve v květnu se Polákům podařilo v tomto boji dobýt vítězství. 4. června vstoupili spojenečtí vojáci do Říma . [ 29 ] Němci zatím v pořádku ustoupili na Gótskou linii , protínající italský poloostrov mezi Pisou a Rimini . Churchill věřil, že rychlý postup přes severní Itálii by Spojencům umožnil proniknout k Vídni . Nicméně do začátku zimy 1944 spojenecké armády nedokázaly zdolat německý odpor. Kursk a osvobození Ukrajiny V průběhu operace Saturn přišel Wehrmacht do poloviny února 1943 o kontrolu nad Rostovem a Charkovem. Při následném německém protiútoku, jemuž čelili v bitvě u Sokolova i vojáci 1. československého praporu , však Němci opět obsadili Charkov, čímž vznikla výduť u města Kursk . Ještě než jarní deště přerušily v březnu 1943 boje na východní frontě, vrhl se Hitler do plánování nové letní ofenzívy, jejímž cílem mělo být obklíčení a zničení sovětských vojsk ve výběžku u města Kursk. Ve srovnání s dřívějšími letními kampaněmi se jednalo o mnohem skromnější operační cíl. "Stavka" – vedení RA, byla prostřednictvím sovětské rozvědky dostatečně informována o německých úmyslech a nechala proto kurský oblouk značně opevnit vytvořením hustých minových polích a protitankových pastí, rozmístěním velkého počtu protitankových děl a zřízením do hloubky vedených linií zákopů. Bitva u Kurska začala 5. července 1943 německým úderem severně a jižně od města, přičemž jádro německých sil představovaly pancéřové divize tvořené také novými typy tanků včetně Tigrů . Toto střetnutí se stalo největší tankovou bitvou celé války. Navzdory ohromné koncentraci tankových sil se německým pancéřovým kleštím nepodařilo spojit, načež Hitler po několika dnech nařídil zastavení ofenzívy. V tomto marném boji byly promrhány německé tankové zálohy, takže iniciativa na východní frontě přešla definitivně na stranu Rudé armády. Sověti zahájili vlastní protiútok již v polovině července a do konce srpna dobyli těžce zkoušený Charkov . V srpnu začala druhá bitva o Smolensk , jenž byl Sověty osvobozen na konci září. Hitler se pokusil zadržet stupňující se nápor Rudé armády vybudováním Východního valu . Tato obranná linie byla ale záhy proražena poté, co v bitvě o Dněpr vytvořili Sověti řadu předmostí na pravém břehu tohoto toku a v listopadu dobyli za účasti československých vojáků Kyjev . Postup Rudé armády neustával a v lednu 1944 byla v rámci leningradsko-novgorodské operace prolomena blokáda Leningradu . Na jihu zatím pokračovalo osvobozování Pravobřežní Ukrajiny , na němž se v rámci žytomyrsko-berdyčevské a korsuň-ševčenkovské operace podíleli i příslušníci 1. československé brigády. Na přelomu března a dubna se části německých vojsk podařilo vyváznout z hrozícího obklíčení v bitvě u Kamence Podolského . Pokračující sovětské ofenzívy zatlačily Němce do konce dubna k řece Prut na rumunských hranicích. Sovětské tanky se dále na západě probily až do blízkosti Lvova , když předtím dosáhly sovětsko-polské hranice z roku 1939. Část německých a rumunských divizí byla odříznuta na Krymu , kde byla dílem zlikvidována při krymské operaci , dílem se je podařilo evakuovat. Ofenzíva Spojenců v Tichomoří Po zastavení japonské expanze v Tichomoří rozhodlo americké vrchní velení v červenci 1942 o vyslání námořních a pozemních sil na Šalomounovy ostrovy a Novou Guineu , kde měla být eliminována klíčová japonská vojenská základna v Rabaulu . První krok k jejímu obsazení představovalo dobytí ostrova Guadalcanal , na němž byl v následujícím měsíci zahájen výsadek americké námořní pěchoty . Počáteční snadné přistání na ostrově zkomplikoval příchod japonských posil („ tokijský expres “). V pobřežních vodách svedly obě strany šest námořních bitev, zatímco na souši zuřila vyčerpávající materiálová bitva. Enormní ztráty lodí a letadel přinutily Japonce ke stažení loďstva koncem listopadu. Vlastní bitva o Guadalcanal skončila pak 9. února 1943 americkým vítězstvím. V závěru roku 1942 se Britové pokusili proniknout z Indie barmskou džunglí do údolí řeky Iravádí , avšak tato operace skončila katastrofálním ústupem v květnu 1943. V téže době získali Američané zpět Aleutské ostrovy, ovšem hlavní operace probíhaly v jihozápadním Pacifiku. V září vypudili Australané a Američané pod velením generála MacArthura Japonce z východního pobřeží Nové Guineje. Americký a novozélandský postup na Šalomounových ostrovech byl fakticky završen vyloděním na Bougainville v listopadu. Na konci roku 1943 zaútočili Američané na Gilbertovy ostrovy v centrálním Pacifiku, obzvláště tvrdé boje se odehrávaly v bitvě o silně opevněný atol Tarawa . V únoru 1944 pokračovali Američané na Marshallovy ostrovy , kde se setkali s podobně tuhým odporem na Kwajaleinu a Eniwetoku . Významný podíl na japonských nezdarech náležel americkým ponorkám, které potápěly japonské obchodní lodě. [ 30 ] Kvůli následnému nedostatku surovin kolabovala japonská válečná výroba a nedostávalo se rovněž pohonných hmot. Zásobování odloučených postů se hroutilo, evakuace a přesuny jednotek musely provádět válečné lodě, kterých ale nebylo dostatečné množství. V březnu 1944 bylo po dobytí okolních ostrovů Spojenci izolováno asi 100 000 japonských vojáků v Rabaulu. Ve stejném měsíci byla spuštěna operace U-Go , japonská invaze do indického Ásámu , jehož dobytím by Japonci znemožnili přísun zásob Čankajškovým čínským nacionalistům . Japonské záměry byly však zmařeny odhodlanou obranou pohraničních indických měst Kóhímy a Imphálu silami Commonwealthu. Takřka současně probíhala v Číně japonská ofenzíva Iči-Go , která vyústila v téměř úplný kolaps čínských vojsk. V červnu se Američané vylodili na Marianech a utkali se s Japonci v namáhavé bitvě o Saipan . Japonci usilovali o zvrat ve vývoji války v Tichomoří, ovšem jejich námořnictvo a letectvo byly v témže měsíci poraženy v bitvě ve Filipínském moři . Z Marian mohly od tohoto okamžiku vzlétat americké bombardéry, čímž byla započata destrukce japonských průmyslových center. Ve druhé polovině října byl zahájen americký výsadek na Filipínách . Krátce nato vyplulo japonské císařské námořnictvo do svého posledního velkého střetnutí v této válce. V tři dny trvající bitvě u Leyte na konci října 1944 byla japonská flota navzdory sebevražedným útokům kamikaze zcela rozdrcena. Vítězství Spojenců Strategické bombardování Počátky koncepce strategického bombardování lze vypozorovat již na konci první světové války. V meziválečném období byla myšlenka leteckého bombardování nepřátelského týlu rozvíjena především britskými a americkými leteckými teoretiky. Nicméně byli to Němci, kteří jako první aplikovali tuto doktrínu, když ve španělské občanské válce Legie Condor bombardovala Guerniku . Rovněž Japonci napadali v Číně velká města, jako byla Šanghaj , Wu-chan , Nanking nebo Kanton . V září 1939 uskutečnila Luftwaffe ničivé nálety proti civilním i vojenským cílům v Polsku, zvlášť těžce byla poničena Varšava . Podobně bylo postiženo také centrum Rotterdamu při útoku Luftwaffe 14. května 1940. Bombardování Britských ostrovů začalo už během bitvy o Británii , po jejímž neúspěchu přešla Luftwaffe na podzim 1940 k nočním náletům na britská města ( Blitz ). 8. listopadu vybombardovali Němci Coventry . V reakci na to Bombardovací velitelství RAF zintenzívnilo odvetné útoky proti průmyslovým cílům v Německu. Hitler původně trval na tom, že bombardování budou vystavena pouze letiště a jiné vojenské cíle. Od těchto omezení bylo ale postupně upuštěno. Vzhledem k blížícímu se tažení proti SSSR omezila Luftwaffe v květnu 1941 další bombardování Británie. [ 31 ] Po napadení Jugoslávie byl v dubnu téhož roku srovnán se zemí Bělehrad . Luftwaffe sehrála velkou roli taktéž při operacích na východní frontě, ačkoli ani u Moskvy ani u Stalingradu nepřivodila rozhodnutí. Pozdější německá snaha zbrzdit postup Rudé armády strategickým bombardováním sovětských továren byla limitována neexistencí vhodného typu letounu dlouhého doletu. Od poloviny roku 1942 působilo v Evropě americké letectvo ( USAAF ). V téže době se začala projevovat rostoucí účinnost bombardování v důsledku zvyšování počtu bombardérů , vylepšování technických prostředků a posilování eskort doprovodných stíhaček . Z důvodu kriticky nízké efektivity útoků na německé továrny přešli Britové na počátku roku 1942 k plošným náletům na německá města. (Zpočátku se bombardovalo v noci, od druhé poloviny roku 1944 – po oslabení Luftwaffe – se přešlo k bombardování i ve dne). V březnu provedla RAF nálet na Lübeck , jenž se stal prvním německým městem obráceným v trosky. V květnu a červnu podniklo tisíc britských bombardérů nálety nejprve na Kolín a později na Essen a Brémy . Spojenci brzy zjistili, že než ničit města výbušninami, je mnohem efektivnější je zapálit. Proto svrhávali na veliké ploše velké množství lehkých zápalných bomb. Požár město osvětlil, a další vlna bombardérů měla těžké bomby, které svrhávala do ulic. Přerušila dopravu, aby se hasiči nedostali k požárům, současně tím přerušila rozvod vody a plynu. (Po válce prováděné statistiky zjistily, že sklepní kryty chránily obyvatelstvo dost účinně – přímým zásahem bomby zemřelo jen 5% obětí, ale cca 80% obětí způsobilo ve sklepích udušení kouřem z požárů – oproti bunkru, který má vlastní klimatizaci). Na jaře a v létě 1943 byla spálena na prach města v Porúří . Spojenecké bombardování Hamburku v červenci způsobilo ohňovou bouři , jíž padlo za oběť 30 000 lidí. (Hamburk hořel 14 dní a nocí a jeho zář byla v noci vidět na 200 kilometrů). Od září 1943 byl náletům vystaven také Berlín . V první polovině roku 1944 se spojenecké útoky zaměřily více na komunikační uzly ve Francii, avšak německá města byla vytrvale bombardována až do konce války. Na tuto zkázu se nacisté pokusili v červnu 1944 odpovědět tajnými zbraněmi, raketami V-1 a V-2 , které byly příliš nepřesné k útokům na vojenské cíle. Z toho důvodu byly uplatňovány proti civilnímu obyvatelstvu Londýna , Antverp a jiných západoevropských měst. V samém závěru války provedli Spojenci mezi 13. a 15. únorem 1945 bombardování Drážďan , při němž zahynulo mezi 25 000 až 40 000 lidí. Z důvodu vzdušných útoků zemřelo v Německu kolem 600 000 civilistů, [ 32 ] přesto ochromení německé průmyslové produkce následkem rozvratu morálky, jež bylo hlavním cílem strategického bombardování, nenastalo dříve než na jaře 1945. Spojenci také bombardovali Prahu, České Velenice, Zlín, Plzeň , Kralupy , Neratovice, Nové Zámky, Pardubice a další. Také východní letecké svazy bombardovaly i při bojích dne 9. května roku 1945 a ničily živou sílu i techniku nepřítele v oblasti Mladá Boleslav, Litoměřice, Těchlovice, Zámostí, Vrchovany, Dubá a Mělník. V souvislosti s postupem Američanů v Pacifiku bylo v roce 1944 zahájeno bombardování Japonska, do něhož se zapojovaly rovněž americké letouny z Číny. V posledních sedmi měsících vyústila letecká kampaň proti Japonsku ve zničení takřka šedesáti měst. Nejničivěji byly zasaženy velké konurbace jako Nagoja , Ósaka , Kóbe a Jokohama . Po náletech na Tokio z přelomu února a března 1945, jež si vyžádaly 100 000 obětí, se v sutiny proměnily celé městské části. Vylodění v západní Evropě Na konci listopadu 1943 se Roosevelt, Churchill a Stalin setkali na konferenci v Teheránu , aby zde projednali společný postup, přičemž bylo dohodnuto, že spojenecká invaze do Francie bude uskutečněna v nadcházejícím roce. Hitler hodlal tomuto nebezpečí předejít budováním silně opevněného systému pobřežních pevností zvaných Atlantický val . Operace Overlord , jak zněl krycí název vylodění v Normandii , začala 6. června 1944 ( den D ), kdy zhruba 6500 spojeneckých plavidel vysadilo na plážích Normandie dvě americké, dvě britské a jednu kanadskou divizi. [ 33 ] Ty byly podporovány třemi výsadkovými divizemi, zajišťujícími v německém týlu křídla vyloďujících se jednotek, a téměř 12 000 letadly. Navzdory houževnaté obraně se Němcům nepodařilo zatlačit útočníky do moře a Spojenci, jejichž vrchním velitelem byl generál Eisenhower , dokázali postupně rozšířit svoje předmostí. Do konce června dopravili Spojenci do Normandie kolem 850 000 vojáků a vyčistili poloostrov Cotentin s přístavem Cherbourg . Zároveň podnikali útoky na Caen , které bylo po tuhých bojích dobyto Brity a Kanaďany v průběhu července. Koncem téhož měsíce zahájili Američané operaci Cobra , jež vedla k prolomení německé linie na počátku srpna. Hitler se pokusil provést protiútok, jímž by odřízl divize generála Pattona pronikající do Bretaně a k Loiře . Jeho tanky však byly snadno odraženy. Kolem německých pancéřových sil na západě se navíc začala u Falaise nebezpečně stahovat smyčka hrozící jejich obklíčením. Westheer jen stěží vyvázl z této pohromy a v značně pošramoceném stavu se stáhl za Seinu . Vítězní Spojenci poté za úzké součinnosti s francouzským hnutím odporu osvobodili 25. srpna Paříž . Už o deset dnů dříve uskutečnili Američané a svobodní Francouzi operaci Dragoon , když se vylodili v jižní Francii, odkud rychle postoupili údolím řeky Rhôny na sever. Do poloviny září se setkali u Dijonu se spojeneckými jednotkami razícími si cestu z Normandie. Skupina německých generálů, vědoma si bezvýchodnosti německého postavení, provedla 20. července atentát na Hitlera . Akce skončila neúspěchem, načež byli spiklenci popraveni. Po překročení Seiny pronikli Spojenci do Belgie a k německým hranicím. Britové vstoupili v prvním zářijovém týdnu do Bruselu a osvobodili také Antverpy . Ústí Šeldy , bez něhož byl zdejší přístav bezcenný, setrvalo v rukou Němců až do listopadu. Řadu jiných přístavů na pobřeží Lamanšského průlivu a Atlantiku držely v souladu s Hitlerovými rozkazy německé posádky, které tím výrazně narušily již tak komplikované zásobování Spojenců. Mezi tyto přístavy patřil i Dunkerque , na jehož obléhání se výrazně podílela i Československá samostatná obrněná brigáda . Němci mezitím konsolidovali svoje pozice na Západním valu , pročež Montgomery získal podporu pro operaci Market Garden , v rámci níž měli Spojenci rychle překonat Rýn a vpadnout do Německa. 17. září byli britští a američtí parašutisté vysazeni u mostů přes Rýn v Nizozemsku . Souběžně vyrazily z Belgie britské tanky, jež měly výsadkáře vyprostit. Posledního z těchto mostů, jenž se nacházel v Arnhemu , se ale Spojenci zmocnit nedokázali. Úspěšnou obranou Nizozemska si Němci zajistili čas k rekonstrukci svých poničených divizí, neboť kvůli přetrvávajícím zásobovacím obtížím Spojenců se situace na západní frontě na podzim 1944 stabilizovala. Východní Evropa a Balkán 22. června 1944, v den třetího výročí napadení SSSR, zahájily Žukovovy, Koněvovy a Vasilevského fronty operaci Bagration , jež směřovala proti skupině armád Střed v Bělorusku . [ 34 ] Němečtí generálové, kteří soustředili hlavní síly na Ukrajině , nepočítali s útokem Rudé armády ve vesměs bažinatém terénu Běloruska. V nastalé bitvě si Sověti vytvořili místní trojnásobnou převahu v pěchotě a disponovali rovněž absolutní převahou ve vzduchu. Ačkoli Hitler zakázal ústup, německá linie se začala záhy po zahájení útoku hroutit. 3. července se útočící sovětské tanky setkaly v Minsku , čímž obklíčily a zničily jádro skupiny armád Střed. Hitler nechal přemístit do Běloruska posily z Ukrajiny, což bylo strategickým záměrem sovětského velení, které zahájilo na Ukrajině 13. července Lvovsko-sandoměřskou operaci . Na východní frontě čelil nyní Wehrmacht průlomu katastrofálních rozměrů. [ 35 ] Do konce července dobyli Sověti Lvov , východní Polsko a Vilno na severu, čímž ohrozili německé pozice v Pobaltí a přiblížili se k Východnímu Prusku . Sovětské údery uvrhly Ostheer na pokraj kolapsu a teprve na počátku srpna se Rudá armáda zastavila na Visle v bezprostřední blízkosti Varšavy . V reakci na to vypuklo 1. srpna varšavské povstání vedené Zemskou armádou , jež však nacisté po dvou měsících bojů brutálně potlačili, přičemž zemřelo 200 000 Poláků. Ve druhé polovině srpna spustila Rudá armáda jasko-kišiněvskou operaci proti Rumunsku . Nato v Bukurešti došlo ke svržení proněmeckého diktátora Antonesca . Poté, co Rudá armáda vstoupila do rumunského hlavního města uzavřeli Rumuni se Sověty příměří a vyhlásili válku Německu. V téže době se rozhořelo národní povstání na Slovensku , Sověti společně s československými jednotkami proto v září zahájili karpatsko-dukelskou operaci . Nicméně dříve než mohlo být s povstalci navázáno spojení, Němci v říjnu slovenskou vzpouru rozdrtili. V září během baltické operace zlomili Sověti v Pobaltí odpor Němců a jejich místních spojenců. Zbytky několika německých divizí byly sevřeny v kuronské kapse, kde pokračovaly v boji až do května následujícího roku. V důsledku toho kapitulovalo 19. září Finsko . Již o několik dní dříve pronikla Rudá armáda do Bulharska , jež poté změnilo strany stejně jako dříve Rumunsko. 20. října osvobodili Sověti a jugoslávští partyzáni Bělehrad , což vedlo k německému vyklizení Řecka . Krátce předtím se maďarský regent Miklós Horthy pokusil sjednat příměří se Sověty, avšak byl svržen maďarskými fašisty podporovanými Němci, kteří okupovali Maďarsko v březnu. Ovšem i přes úpornou obranu německých a maďarských jednotek se Rudé armádě podařilo do konce prosince 1944 dokončit obklíčení Budapešti . Ardeny a Rýn Podzimního zklidnění na západní frontě využil Hitler ke shromáždění nových tankových záloh. S nimi hodlal udeřit proti americkým divizím v Ardenách , čímž by si otevřel cestu do belgických nížin a k Antverpám. Dobytím tohoto přístavu by pak vrazil klín mezi americké a britské armády. Bitva v Ardenách , poslední Hitlerův pokus o zvrat vývoje války na západě, začala 16. prosince 1944, kdy tři německé armády zcela zaskočily své protivníky. Špatné klimatické podmínky zpočátku znemožnily Spojencům uplatnit jejich vzdušnou převahu. Po několika počátečních německých úspěších však energická protiopatření Spojenců a nedostatek pohonných hmot přinutily Němce k zastavení ofenzívy dříve, než stihli překonat řeku Mázu . Jakmile nastalo zlepšení počasí, obnovilo spojenecké letectvo útoky na německé pancéřové divize, které tudíž přešly do obrany. Vzniklý výběžek Spojenci eliminovali do poloviny ledna 1945, když zatlačili Wehrmacht do jeho původních pozic. Přesto ještě 1. ledna podnikli Němci menší ofenzívu v Alsasku . V průběhu února Spojenci vyčistili Porýní , načež 24. března překročili na široké frontě samotný Rýn a pronikli do nitra Německa. V dubnu se rozhořela bitva v Porúří , kde bylo obklíčeno a zajato přes 300 000 německých vojáků. Mezitím Britové překonali 5. dubna řeku Vezeru a o šest dnů později dosáhli Američané Labe u Magdeburku . Berlín se nacházel pouhých 120 kilometrů na východ, nicméně Eisenhower rozhodl přenechat dobytí německého hlavního města Rudé armádě. 25. dubna se američtí vojáci setkali se Sověty v Torgau na Labi. Americká 3. armáda pokračovala na jih do Bavorska a začátkem 18. dubna překročila západní hranice prvorepublikového Československa . Současně Britové a Kanaďané dorazili k Baltu . Konec války v Evropě V lednu 1945 se Němci pokusili vyprostit obleženou Budapešť , avšak jejich protiútoky dosáhly jen omezených úspěchů, zbývající němečtí a maďarští obránci města kapitulovali v polovině února. 12. ledna spustili Sověti viselsko-oderskou operaci , jež vedla už po několika dnech k prolomení německé obranné linie. Sověti následně osvobodili zcela zničenou Varšavu a města v západním a jižním Polsku, jako např. Krakov, Vratislav atd. Dále pronikli do Slezska a do začátku února stanuli na Odře ve vzdálenosti pouhých 60 kilometrů od Berlína. Při svém postupu vojska maršála Ivana Koněva, dne 27. ledna 1945, osvobodila nacistický vyhlazovací tábor Osvětim (Auschwitz – Birkenau), v němž bylo zavražděno (dle části nalezených a zachovalých dokumentů) více než 1 milion Židů . Dle velitele koncentračního a vyhlazovacího tábora Auschwitz – Birkenau, Rudolfa Franze Ferdinanda Hösse (Höß), bylo zavražděno až na 2,5mil osob. O dalším osudu Polska a východoevropských států bylo rozhodnuto v únoru na jaltské konferenci , na níž představitelé Roosevelt, Churchill a Stalin jednali o poválečném uspořádání Německa a Evropy. Stalin se navíc zavázal zasáhnout proti Japonsku. Od února vedla pěchota 1. československého armádního sboru tuhé dvouměsíční boje o Liptovský Mikuláš . Na začátku března dosáhla Rudá armáda pobřeží Baltského moře v Pomořansku . V témže měsíci byly zahájeny i ostravsko-opavská a bratislavsko-brněnská operace . Ve Východním Prusku odříznuté německé síly byly neutralizovány v dubnu v rámci východopruské operace . Po překonání Maďarska vstoupili Sověti koncem března do Rakouska a 13. dubna dobyli Vídeň . Zatímco na východní frontě se schylovalo k závěrečnému střetnutí, v Itálii zahájili Spojenci začátkem dubna ofenzívu, během níž překročili řeku Pád a dobyli severoitalská města. Nedlouho nato dopadli italští partyzáni prchajícího Mussoliniho , jenž byl 28. dubna zastřelen. V Itálii válka oficiálně skončila kapitulací zdejších německých sil 2. května. Bitva o Berlín Finální bitva o Berlín začala 16. dubna útokem Žukovových a Koněvových divizí na Odře a Nise . Po více než týdnu rozhořčených bojů Sověti dokončili obklíčení Berlína, čímž boj o město vstoupil do své konečné fáze. 30. dubna pronikli sovětští vojáci do centra města, načež Adolf Hitler spáchal v podzemním bunkru pod Říšským kancléřstvím sebevraždu. Zbývající obránci Berlína se 2. května vzdali Sovětům. Osvobození Československa Součástí osvobození Československa byla Pražská operace vedená Sovětským svazem z východní fronty, dále osvobození západních Čech americkou armádou a květnové povstání českého lidu . Kromě území Slovenska postupovali Sověti od 10. března 1945 na české území z Ostravska a od Bratislavy (zde společně s rumunskou armádou ). Nejtěžší boje probíhaly v Karpatech , ve slovenských horách a u Ostravy . Již počátkem května vypuklo v českých zemích květnové povstání českého lidu, které se z Přerova rozšířilo do dalších měst i na venkov. 5. května začalo pražské povstání , které 8. května skončilo kapitulací a ústupem Wehrmachtu . K vítězství pražského povstání zásadní měrou připěla pomoc Vlasovců . 5. května zahájili Američané postup do Čech na osu Karlovy Vary – Plzeň – České Budějovice . 9. května vstoupily do Prahy v rámci Pražské operace sovětské jednotky, jež západně od města sváděly s Němci boje až do 11. května. Posledním bojem československých jednotek byla bitva o Břest , která se uskutečnila 7. května. Válka v Evropě skončila 8. května 1945, kdy vstoupila v platnost bezpodmínečná kapitulace německých ozbrojených sil . [ 36 ] 7. září 1945 se v Berlíně konala přehlídka všech armád, které se podílely na vítězném ukončení 2. světové války. [ 37 ] Kapitulace Japonska Americké námořní a pozemní síly se v lednu 1945 vylodily na klíčovém filipínském ostrově Luzon a v březnu následoval výsadek na Mindanao . Britové s podporou čínských nacionalistů zahájili na podzim 1944 ofenzívu proti Japoncům v Barmě , jíž završili obsazením Rangúnu v květnu dalšího roku. V Pacifiku zatím Američané svedli náročnou bitvu o Iwodžimu , jež byla s těžkými ztrátami dobyta v březnu. Zdejší letiště posléze využilo americké letectvo k zintenzivnění už tak ničivých náletů na Japonsko. 1. dubna začala bitva o Okinawu , která byla vzdálena jen 500 kilometrů od Kjúšú , nejjižnějšího z japonských ostrovů. Dobře opevněni v horách na jihu Okinawy vedli Japonci tvrdošíjný a fanatický odpor až do poloviny června, přičemž drtivá většina z nich padla nebo spáchala sebevraždu. Američané utrpěli v tomto boji podobně jako předtím na Iwodžimě nesmírné ztráty. 11. července se vůdčí představitelé Spojenců sešli na konferenci v Postupimi . Byla potvrzena předchozí ujednání týkající se Německa a zároveň byla Japonsku adresována výzva k bezpodmínečné kapitulaci. Ta však byla japonskou vládou odmítnuta, a proto americký prezident Truman , jenž nastoupil do tohoto úřadu po smrti Roosevelta, rozhodl o použití jaderných zbraní . Nato americké letectvo svrhlo 6. srpna jadernou bombu na japonské město Hirošimu a o tři dny později další na Nagasaki . Při tomto dosud jediném atomovém úderu přišlo o život více než 100 000 lidí. 8. srpna vyhlásil válku Japonsku i Sovětský svaz a následující den zahájil operaci Srpnová bouře . Během několika dní přemohl kwantungskou armádu v Japonskem ovládaném Mandžusku . [ 38 ] V důsledku těchto katastrof japonský císař Hirohito oznámil 15. srpna kapitulaci Japonska, která byla oficiálně podepsána 2. září 1945. [ 39 ] Dopady války Počty obětí Odhadovaný celkový počet lidských obětí ve druhé světové válce se značně liší, avšak většina současných historiků se kloní k číslu 60 milionů mrtvých, z čehož 20 milionů připadá na vojáky a 40 milionů na civilisty. [ 40 ] [ 41 ] Celkové množství ztrát zůstává ovšem nejisté, neboť počet mrtvých nelze zcela přesně určit. Nejvážnější ztráty utrpěl Sovětský svaz , který v průběhu války přišel o 27 milionů lidí. [ 42 ] [ 43 ] Procentuálně nejvyššími ztrátami bylo stiženo Polsko , jež pozbylo takřka pětinu své předválečné populace. Polovinu jeho mrtvých představovali polští Židé. Ze souhrnného počtu obětí tvořili přibližně 83 % příslušníci spojeneckých států a 17 % obyvatelé zemí účastnících se konfliktu na straně Osy. Většina civilních obětí podlehla nemocem , hladu , masakrům nebo genocidě . Odhaduje se, že v nacistických koncentračních táborech zahynulo asi 12 milionů civilistů. [ 44 ] Dalších 1,5 milionů zemřelo v důsledku bombardování a kolem 14,5 milionů z jiných příčin. Spousta lidí po válce zažívalo tzv. PTSD (nebo PTSP) tzv. Posttraumatickou stresovou poruchu. Smrt mnoha lidí byla důsledkem genocidy a válečných zločinů prováděných německými a japonskými silami na okupovaných územích. Nejodpornější německý zločin představuje holokaust , systematické a promyšlené vyvražďování Židů na nacisty a jejich spojenci ovládaném teritoriu, jež si vyžádalo životy 6 milionů lidí. Nacistická brutalita se zaměřovala i proti dalším skupinám obyvatelstva. V Bělorusku i na Ukrajině, byly vyvražděny stovky vesnic v odvetě za útoky partyzánů a celkem zahynula asi čtvrtina tehdejší běloruské populace. [ 45 ] Patrně nejotřesnějším japonským zločinem byl nankingský masakr , při němž byly zavražděny či znásilněny stovky tisíc čínských civilistů. V průběhu konfliktu pak japonská císařská armáda přivodila smrt 3 až 10 milionů civilistů, převážně Číňanů. [ 46 ] Milionům dalších obětí v Evropě se podařilo předejít dodávkami potravin (a válečného materiálu) do Velké Británie, Sovětského svazu a dalších zemí na základě amerického Zákona o půjčce a pronájmu . Koncentrační tábory a válečné zločiny V lednu 1942 se nacistické špičky sešly na konferenci ve Wannsee , kde rozhodly o konečném řešení židovské otázky ( holokaust ). K uskutečnění tohoto zvráceného záměru posloužil nacistům systém koncentračních a vyhlazovacích táborů , v nichž bylo zavražděno zhruba 6 milionů Židů. Stejný osud stihl také 2 miliony Poláků a další asi 4 miliony „podlidí“ ( Untermenschen ), včetně Romů , Slovanů , mentálně postižených , homosexuálů , Svědků Jehovových a jiných skupin osob. Součástí programu úmyslného vyhlazování, jenž byl plánován a realizován v nacistickém Německu, byl Generalplan Ost , podle něhož měla být provedena likvidace a etnická čistka Slovanů, čímž měl být pro německý národ zajištěn Lebensraum („životní prostor“) na východě. Miliony osob, převážně z Východní Evropy , byly proti své vůli totálně nasazeny na práci v německé válečné ekonomice. [ 47 ] Podobně jako v nacistických koncentračních táborech zahynulo mnoho lidí i v sovětských gulazích a pracovních táborech , v nichž byli uvězněni občané okupovaných zemí, jako bylo Polsko , Litva , Lotyšsko , Estonsko , stejně jako němečtí váleční zajatci a sovětští občané podezřelí ze spolupráce s nacisty. [ 48 ] Z přibližně 5,7 milionů Sovětů, kteří upadli do německého zajetí, zemřelo během války téměř 60 %. [ 49 ] V prvním roce po napadení Sovětského svazu bylo zabito nebo zemřelo hlady a na nemoci asi 3 miliony sovětských válečných zajatců. [ 50 ] Po svém návratu do vlasti byli navíc pokládáni za zrádce, [ 51 ] pročež byli mnozí posláni do gulagů. Vysokou mírou úmrtnosti se vyznačovaly také japonské zajatecké tábory, které sloužily jako pracovní tábory. Japonská armáda dále odvedla ze svých domovů více než 10 milionů čínských civilistů, jichž pak využívala k otrockým pracím v Mandžukuu a v severní Číně. Je taktéž prokázáno omezené použití biologických a chemických zbraní státy Osy. Italové nasadili yperit při tažení v Etiopii (tehdy Habeš ), zatímco japonští vojáci uplatnili různé druhy těchto smrtících prostředků při invazi a okupaci Číny. Němci i Japonci testovali účinky zbraní hromadného ničení na civilistech a v některých případech i na zajatcích. [ 52 ] K otrocké práci byli nuceni i zajatí či po válce internovaní Němci. S miliony z nich bylo takto nakládáno především v Sovětském svazu a v Polsku, ačkoli obdobnému zacházení byli vystaveni i na Západě. Ve Spojených státech byly internovány tisíce japonských , italských a německých Američanů, přičemž stejnou praxi uplatnila i kanadská vláda. Po skončení druhé světové války byly německé zločiny proti lidskosti , vedení útočné války , zločiny proti míru a válečné zločiny potrestány v hlavním norimberském procesu , v němž byli odsouzeni čelní představitelé nacistického režimu. Podobně byli souzeni strůjci japonských válečných zločinů v tokijském procesu . Rozhodnutí obou těchto mezinárodních soudních tribunálů jsou považována za základy moderního mezinárodního trestního práva. Závěr norimberského tribunálu zní: „Každý, kdo vykoná zločinný rozkaz, je vinen“. Nebylo možné se nadále vymlouvat „Já jsem jenom splnil rozkaz“. (Např. posádka německé ponorky U 852 postřílela bezbranné trosečníky řeckého parníku Peleus kulometem . Po válce byli aktéři nalezeni a byli potrestáni: velitel ponorky za vydání zločinného rozkazu, první důstojník a námořník-kulometčík za jeho splnění a lodní lékař za aktivní účast). [ 53 ] Pro úplnost nutno dodat, že německým vojákům bylo stále zdůrazňováno, že daný rozkaz musí okamžitě splnit, a že za ten rozkaz je zodpovědný nadřízený, který jim ho dal. Po válce však pravidla určují vítězové. Oproti zločinům, jichž se dopustili příslušníci států Osy, činy způsobené na straně Spojenců nebyly nikdy souzeny. Někteří historici však pokládají za válečné zločiny přesuny obyvatelstva v Sovětském svazu, internace občanů japonského , německého a italského původu ve Spojených státech a Kanadě, sovětský masakr polských důstojníků v Katyni a kontroverzní plošné nálety amerického a britského letectva na civilní cíle, především bombardování Hamburku , Drážďan a jiných německých měst, či atomové útoky USA na Hirošimu a Nagasaki . Technologický pokrok Dokonalejší typy letadel plnily obdobně jako za první světové války průzkumné, stíhací a bombardovací úkoly, jimiž podporovaly pozemní síly. Vedle toho začala letadla sloužit k vzdušné přepravě zásob, vybavení či posil, třebaže jen v omezeném měřítku. V rámci strategického bombardování se navíc zaměřovala na útoky proti zalidněným oblastem, jejichž cílem bylo narušení nepřátelské průmyslové výroby a morálky obyvatelstva. Značný pokrok zaznamenal systém protivzdušné obrany , který využíval radaru a vylepšeného protiletadlového dělostřelectva . (Po válce prováděné statistiky však překvapivě ukázaly, že když se vzalo v úvahu množství nasazené techniky a vojáků, byl efekt sestřelených letadel velmi nízký- nejvíce letadel sestřelily stíhačky. Jednalo se spíše o morální efekt: lidé běželi do krytu a dunění děl znamenalo, že se s letadly bojuje. Větší efekt byl v tom, že nepřátelská letadla byla přinucena létat ve větší výšce, a tím měla ztížené přesné zaměřování). Svého prvního omezeného nasazení se za druhé světové války dočkala proudové letouny . Kvůli svému pozdnímu zavedení a nepříliš velkému počtu sice neměla vážnější vliv na vývoj války, přesto předznamenala poválečné masové rozšíření tohoto typu letadel. V námořním válečnictví bylo rovněž dosaženo všestranného rozvoje, zvláště je však třeba vyzdvihnout rozmach letadlových lodí a ponorek . Ačkoli na počátku války se námořní letectvo mohlo pochlubit jen skromnými úspěchy, útoky na Tarent , Pearl Harbor a bitvy v Korálovém moři a u Midway brzy povýšily letadlové lodě na klíčovou námořní zbraň na úkor bitevních lodí. V bitvě o Atlantik se doprovodné lodě ukázaly být životně důležitou součástí spojeneckých konvojů výrazně zvyšující jejich obranyschopnost. Vedle vyšší efektivity byly letadlové lodě ekonomicky méně náročné než bitevní lodě , jelikož nemusely být podobně silně pancéřovány. Ponorky, které prokázaly svoji ničivou účinnost za první světové války, byly nasazovány všemi válčícími stranami. Hlavně Britové se soustředili na vývoj protiponorkových zbraní a taktiky, jako byl sonar , hlubinné pumy a konvoje , zatímco Němci usilovali o zvýšení svých útočných kapacit vynalezením schnorchelu a uplatňování taktiky vlčích smeček . Pozemní vojenství se zásadně proměnilo od statických frontových linií první světové války k dynamičtějšímu a mobilnějšímu vedení války. Výraznou inovací byl koncept koordinované podpory jednotlivých druhů zbraní. Tank , jenž byl v první světové válce uplatňován převážně k podpoře pěchoty, se vyvinul v primární pozemní zbraň. Na konci 30. let byly sestrojeny po všech stránkách pokročilejší typy tankových konstrukcí a tento trend pokračoval i po celou dobu války. To se projevilo zvyšováním rychlosti, zesílením pancíře a vyšší palebnou silou. Nejprogresivnější doktrínu použití tanků rozvinuli na počátku války Němci, kteří se snažili vyvarovat přímému střetu vlastních tanků s nepřátelskými, což se za podpory ostatních složek ozbrojených sil, především ze strany letectva, osvědčilo v podobě taktiky Blitzkriegu , vysoce úspěšné v Polsku a ve Francii. Velkého významu postupně nabývaly různé protitankové zbraně, jako byly stíhače tanků, nepřímá střelba , protitanková děla , protitankové miny a pěchotní protitankové zbraně krátkého dostřelu. I přes zvyšující se úroveň mechanizace armád, zůstávala méně pohyblivá pěchota jádrem každého vojska. Většina pěchotních zbraní a vybavení se přitom příliš nelišila od těch, jež byly využívány v předchozí válce. Největších pokroků bylo dosaženo rozšířením rychle přenosných kulometů a různých typů samopalů , které byly obzvláště vhodné pro boj zblízka v městské zástavbě anebo v džungli. Přednosti pušky a samopalu v sobě spojovala útočná puška , jež se po válce stala standardní pěchotní zbraní takřka všech armád. V oblasti komunikace se válčící strany pokusily vyřešit problém zabezpečení používáním rozsáhlých seznamů kódů pro šifrování využívaných různými šifrovacími stroji, z nichž nejznámější byla německá Enigma . Proti tomu působily systémy rozluštění kódů, mezi něž náležela například britská Ultra či americký systém, jenž dokázal prolomit japonský námořní kód. Vojenské rozvědky se dále zaměřovaly na provádění mystifikačních operací, kterých několikrát použili s velkým úspěchem Spojenci, čímž odvrátili pozornost německého velení od příprav invazí na Sicílii či do Normandie. Mezi jiné významné technologické a technické počiny dosažené během druhé světové války patří první programovatelné počítače , řízené střely a balistické rakety ( V-1 a V-2 ), a v projektu Manhattan vyvinuté jaderné zbraně . Ve strojírenství skončily mnohaleté diskuze, zda je lepší nýtování, nebo svařování. Svařování je rychlejší, úspornější, a hlavně proto bylo zaváděno. Svařené díly jsou až o 30% lehčí (nýtované spoje musí být přeplátované), proto byly ruské tanky lehčí a materiálově úspornější. Mimo to je nýtování fyzicky velmi namáhavé, pro ženy je na hranici jejich fyzické síly, a museli je vykonávat muži. [ chybí zdroj ] Kdežto sváření zvládly ve zbrojovkách i ženy, a muži mohli jít na frontu. Zrušení válečného stavu s Německou spolkovou republikou Válečný stav spojenci zrušili až v roce 1951: Velká Británie 9. července, Francie 13. července a USA 24. října 1951. Poválečný vývoj Poražené Německo a Rakousko byly rozděleny do čtyř okupačních zón , přičemž historické německé země na východě byly podřízeny polské a sovětské správě. Souběžně s tím proběhlo vysídlení německého obyvatelstva z východní Evropy , zvláště z Polska a Československa , což bylo stvrzeno na postupimské konferenci . [ 54 ] Své domovy bylo nuceno opustit více než 12 milionů Němců. Polsko získalo nové západní hranice, čímž mu byla kompenzována ztráta Sověty zabraného polského východního území, v rámci naplnění demarkační linie z r. 1919, schválené Radou Dohody. [ 55 ] Z tohoto území odešlo kolem 3,5 milionů lidí. Sovětský svaz si vedle někdejšího východního Polska podržel přímou kontrolu nad pobaltskými státy Litvou , Lotyšskem a Estonskem a nad dříve rumunskou Besarábií , k čemuž získal československou Podkarpatskou Rus . [ 56 ] V Asii okupovaly Spojené státy Japonsko a své správě vystavily někdejší japonské ostrovy v západním Tichomoří , zatímco Sověti anektovali jižní Sachalin a Kurilské ostrovy . Dříve Japonci kontrolovaná Korea byla rozdělena mezi obě velmoci. Ve snaze o zachování mezinárodního míru vytvořili Spojenci Organizaci spojených národů , která byla založena 24. října 1945 na základě podpisu Charty OSN sepsané v průběhu konference v San Francisku mezi 25. dubnem a 26. červnem 1945. [ 57 ] Navzdory tomuto počinu se v alianci mezi Západem a Sovětským svazem začaly brzy po skončení konfliktu objevovat vážné trhliny. Evropa byla proto již několik let po válce rozdělena tzv. železnou oponou , která byla spuštěna od Štětína na Baltu k Terstu na Jadranu a jež od sebe oddělovala demokratické západní státy a komunistické země řízené Sověty, z obavy vojenského obsazení Východní Evropy. Vzrůstající napětí mezi USA a SSSR přerostlo ve studenou válku a vedlo ke vzniku Američany vedené Severoatlantické aliance (NATO) a následně sovětské Varšavské smlouvy . V mnoha částech světa se nedlouho po konci druhé světové války rozhořely nové válečné konflikty. V Číně se nacionalisté a komunisté utkali v občanské válce . Komunistické síly v ní se sovětskou podporou zvítězily, pročež byla v říjnu 1949 Mao Ce-tungem založena Čínská lidová republika . Poražení nacionalisté se stáhli na ostrov Tchaj-wan . V Řecku vypukla občanská válka mezi královským vojskem, za nímž stáli Britové a Američané, a místními komunisty, kteří v tomto boji nakonec podlehli. Nejvážnější konflikt se rozhořel v roce 1950 na Korejském poloostrově , kde komunistická Severní Korea podporovaná Sověty a Čínou, napadla Jižní Koreu , která obdržela vojenskou a materiální pomoc od západních mocností. Korejská válka skončila po třech letech příměřím. Ihned po válce nastalo v zámořských državách evropských států období dekolonizace . Příčiny tohoto jevu tkvěly ve změně nahlížení Evropanů na kolonialismus , především však v ekonomickém vyčerpání evropských koloniálních mocností způsobeném válkou a v rostoucích požadavcích ovládaných národů na právo na sebeurčení . Dekolonizační proces probíhal z větší části mírovou cestou, přesto se vyskytly četné výjimky v zemích jako Indočína , Madagaskar , Indonésie a Alžírsko . Řada zemí byla po odchodu Evropanů rozdělena podle etnického nebo náboženského hlediska, což mělo za následek rozdělení území Mandátní Palestiny na Izrael a Palestinu a vytvoření nezávislých států Indie a Pákistánu na území někdejší Britské Indie . Rychlost poválečné ekonomické obnovy se lišila v různých částech světa, třebaže všeobecně probíhala vcelku rychle. V Evropě se Západní Německo díky Marshallovu plánu snadno zotavilo a již v 50. letech dosáhlo dvojnásobné hospodářské výkonnosti oproti předválečnému stavu (Už v roce 1955 se v ulicích objevily plakáty „Wir sind wieder Wer“ – My jsme zase Někdo!). V roce 1956 uvítali v Německu první vlak zahraničních dělníků, znáborovaných v Itálii. Německo prožívalo obrovský hospodářský rozmach a vyhlásilo, že bude potřebovat miliony dalších dělníků. Itálie vzešla z války zcela zruinována, nicméně během 50. let vykazovala stabilní a vysoký ekonomický růst. Vyčerpané Spojené království se po skončení války ocitlo na pokraji hospodářského kolapsu, přičemž jeho relativní hospodářský pokles pokračoval i v dalších desetiletích. Francie navzdory počátečním obtížím brzy dosáhla ekonomického růstu, jenž napomohl rychlé modernizaci země. Rovněž Sovětský svaz se dokázal poměrně pružně vyrovnat s utrpěnými škodami, které postihly převážně západní území státu. V Asii dosáhlo Japonsko rapidního hospodářského vzestupu, díky němuž se tato země stala v 80. letech jednou z největších světových ekonomik. Čína se po skončení občanské války nacházela v troskách. Obstojně se vyvíjející hospodářství, které už v roce 1953 dosáhlo úrovně před druhou světovou válkou, bylo však tvrdě zasaženo Velkým skokem , ekonomickým experimentem s katastrofálními důsledky. Spojené státy obstarávaly v samém závěru války téměř polovinu veškeré průmyslové výroby, na čemž se mnoho nezměnilo až do 70. let. Veteráni Váleční veteráni Wehrmachtu a Waffen-SS i jejich vdovy mají v Německu nárok na vojenské penze. [ 58 ] V roce 1998 Německo změnilo své zákony o důchodech, aby se zabránilo jejich vyplácení válečným zločincům . Změna se vztahuje pouze na žádosti o dávky poskytnuté po 13. listopadu 1997. [ 59 ] V osmi spolkových zemích Německa v roce 1998 pobíralo 23 501 bývalých příslušníků jednotek SS zvláštní penzi pro takzvané „válečné oběti“, kterou od roku 1950 vyplácí západní Německo. [ 60 ] Váleční veteráni v Lotyšsku slaví 16. března lotyšský den legionářů. Jeho součástí je i tradiční pochod na oslavu lotyšských veteránů z jednotek Waffen-SS, včetně lotyšské divize SS . [ 61 ] Odkazy Poznámky ↑ Složky francouzské armády, které odmítly příměří z roku 1940 a pokračovaly v boji. ↑ Vichistická Francie byla oficiálně neutrální. ↑ Španělsko bylo oficiálně neutrální, ale španělští dobrovolníci bojovali v řadách Wehrmachtu jako příslušníci tzv. modré divize . Reference V tomto článku byly použity překlady textů z článků World War II na anglické Wikipedii a Zweiter Weltkrieg na německé Wikipedii. ↑ China's Declaration of War Against Japan, Also Against Germany and Italy. Contemporary China 1 (15), [1] , 15. prosince 1941. Archivováno podle originálu 25. března 2018 (anglicky). ↑ BENEŠ, Jaroslav. Stráž obrany státu : 1936-1939 . Dvůr Králové nad Labem: Fortprint, 2007. 367 s. ISBN 978-80-86011-34-9 . S. 241. ↑ LÖWENSTEIN, Stephan: Verbündete hatte Prag nur auf dem Papier (Spojence měla Praha jen na papíře). Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung , 16. března 2020, s. 8 (německy). ↑ Maksim Litvinov [online]. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Dostupné online . Je zde použita šablona {{ Cite web }} označená jako k „pouze dočasnému použití“. ↑ Mečislav Borák v Nástinu dějin Těšínska (1992), str. 107. ↑ Kronika druhé světové války . Překlad Jan Gebhart. 1. vyd. Praha: Fortuna Print, 2000. 520 s. ISBN 80-86144-61-5 . S. 14. ↑ Kronika druhé světové války . Překlad Jan Gebhart. 1. vyd. Praha: Fortuna Print, 2000. 520 s. ISBN 80-86144-61-5 . S. 18. ↑ Kronika druhé světové války . Překlad Jan Gebhart. 1. vyd. Praha: Fortuna Print, 2000. 520 s. ISBN 80-86144-61-5 . S. 19. ↑ Archivovaná kopie. www.army.cz [online]. [cit. 2007-06-15]. Dostupné v archivu pořízeném dne 2007-11-19. ↑ GROOSS, Poul. The Naval War In The Baltic 1939–1945 . Barnslay: Seaforth Publishing, 2017. ISBN 978-1-5267-0000-1 . S. 76 a 77. (anglicky) ↑ GILBERT, Martin. Winston S. Churchill: Finest Hour, 1939–1941 . [s.l.]: Rosetta Books, 2015. Dostupné online . ISBN 9780795344633 . Kapitola 10. Scandinavia: The Failure to Decide. (anglicky) ; ZIEMKE, F. The German Northern Theater of Operations 1940-1945 . [s.l.]: Brill Archive, 1959. Dostupné online . S. 23. (anglicky) ; Grooss, str. 85 a Rudá armáda se přeskupuje k útoku na Finsko – Druhá světová válka – 020 – 12. ledna 1940 na YouTube ↑ RICKARD, J. Operation Wilfred - Mining the Norwegian Leads, 8 April 1940 [online]. historyofwar.org, 2007-11-26 [cit. 2020-05-02]. Dostupné online . (anglicky) a Grooss, str. 85 ↑ Grooss, str. 87 ↑ Grooss, str. 88 až 94, 103 až 106, 165 a 166 a 196 až 200 ↑ Grooss, str. 200 ↑ Kronika druhé světové války . Překlad Jan Gebhart. 1. vyd. Praha: Fortuna Print, 2000. 520 s. ISBN 80-86144-61-5 . S. 45. ↑ Kronika druhé světové války . Překlad Jan Gebhart. 1. vyd. Praha: Fortuna Print, 2000. 520 s. ISBN 80-86144-61-5 . S. 56. ↑ Lekce z historie: Před 77 lety Stalin pogratuloval Hitlerovi k porážce Francie. tapolitika.cz . Dostupné online [cit. 2017-07-14]. ↑ ↑ Návrh usnesení k 80. výročí začátku druhé světové války a významu evropské paměti pro budoucnost Evropy. Evropský parlament , [2] . ↑ Kronika druhé světové války . Překlad Jan Gebhart. 1. vyd. Praha: Fortuna Print, 2000. 520 s. ISBN 80-86144-61-5 . S. 78. ↑ Kronika druhé světové války . Překlad Jan Gebhart. 1. vyd. Praha: Fortuna Print, 2000. 520 s. ISBN 80-86144-61-5 . S. 106. ↑ „ Vzpomínky pamětnice leningradské blokády: Bomby, hlad, kanibalismus a mráz “. Česká televize. 26. února 2013 ↑ Kronika druhé světové války . Překlad Jan Gebhart. 1. vyd. Praha: Fortuna Print, 2000. 520 s. ISBN 80-86144-61-5 . S. 124. ↑ Kronika druhé světové války . Překlad Jan Gebhart. 1. vyd. Praha: Fortuna Print, 2000. 520 s. ISBN 80-86144-61-5 . S. 136-137. ↑ ↑ Kronika druhé světové války . Překlad Jan Gebhart. 1. vyd. Praha: Fortuna Print, 2000. 520 s. ISBN 80-86144-61-5 . S. 168. ↑ Archivovaná kopie. www.dejiny.nln.cz [online]. [cit. 2007-06-15]. Dostupné v archivu pořízeném dne 2007-10-02. ↑ Kronika druhé světové války . Překlad Jan Gebhart. 1. vyd. Praha: Fortuna Print, 2000. 520 s. ISBN 80-86144-61-5 . S. 336. ↑ Results of the German and American submarine campaigns of World War II. www.navy.mil [online]. [cit. 23-08-2008]. Dostupné v archivu pořízeném dne 09-04-2008. ↑ ↑ ↑ Kronika druhé světové války . Překlad Jan Gebhart. 1. vyd. Praha: Fortuna Print, 2000. 520 s. ISBN 80-86144-61-5 . S. 340-341. ↑ Kronika druhé světové války . Překlad Jan Gebhart. 1. vyd. Praha: Fortuna Print, 2000. 520 s. ISBN 80-86144-61-5 . S. 346. ↑ ↑ Kronika druhé světové války . Překlad Jan Gebhart. 1. vyd. Praha: Fortuna Print, 2000. 520 s. ISBN 80-86144-61-5 . S. 432. ↑ Přehlídka armád v Berlíně (7/9/1945) ↑ ↑ Kronika druhé světové války . Překlad Jan Gebhart. 1. vyd. Praha: Fortuna Print, 2000. 520 s. ISBN 80-86144-61-5 . S. 448-449. ↑ WWII: The Casualties. web.jjay.cuny.edu [online]. [cit. 23-08-2008]. Dostupné v archivu pořízeném dne 25-12-2010. ↑ Kronika druhé světové války . Překlad Jan Gebhart. 1. vyd. Praha: Fortuna Print, 2000. 520 s. ISBN 80-86144-61-5 . S. 450. ↑ Podíl Ruska na válečném úsilí a obětech. Reflex [online]. 11. května 2015. Dostupné online . ↑ ↑ ↑ „ V běloruské Chatyni upálili nacisté zaživa 149 obyvatel, včetně 75 dětí “. Česká televize. 22. března, 2013 ↑ ↑ ↑ Archivovaná kopie. www.heritage.org [online]. 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[V tiráži uvedeno 1. vyd.] BETHELL, Nicholas. Útok na SSSR: druhá světová válka . Praha: Svojtka & Co., 2000. ISBN 80-7237-279-3 . BOYLE, David. Druhá světová válka ve fotografiích . Čestlice: Rebo, 2007. ISBN 978-80-7234-780-3 . CAWTHORNE, Nigel. Bitvy druhé světové války . Frýdek-Místek: Alpress, 2007. ISBN 978-80-7362-446-0 . CÍLEK, Roman . Holocaust: zřetězení zla . Praha: P3K, 2007. ISBN 978-80-903584-8-5 . DAVIES, Norman . Evropa ve válce 1939–1945: žádné jednoduché vítězství . Praha: BB/art, 2007. 542 s. ISBN 978-80-7381-203-4 . . DEIGHTON, Len. Krev, slzy a pošetilost: v nejtemnější hodině druhé světové války. Přeložil Jaroslav Hrbek . 1. vyd. Praha: Argo, 1996. 652 s., [16] s. il. ISBN 80-85794-95-0 . FRIEDRICH, Jörg. Der Brand: Deutschland Im Bombenkrieg 1940–1945. 13. Auflage. Berlin: List 2004. 589 s. ISBN 9783548604329 . GILBERT, Martin . Druhá světová válka: úplná historie . Praha: BB/art, 2006. ISBN 80-7341-933-5 . HRBEK, Ivan a HRBEK, Jaroslav . Krvavé oceány: od plánu „Barbarossa“ k bitvě u Midway. Praha: Naše vojsko, 2002. 289 s., [32] s. obr. příl., [mapky Miloslav Mutínský]. ISBN 80-206-0642-4 . [1. vyd. 1994.] [První svazek historické série o námořních operacích druhé světové války.] HRBEK, Jaroslav a HRBEK, Ivan. Námořní válka vrcholí: od obléhání Malty k boji u Severního mysu. 1. vyd. Praha: Naše vojsko, 1995. 344 s., [8] s. obr. příl. ISBN 80-206-0443-X . [1. vyd. 1993. ISBN 80-206-0319-0 .] [Druhý svazek historické série o námořních operacích druhé světové války.] HRBEK, Ivan a HRBEK, Jaroslav . Salvy nad vlnami: od výstřelu na Westerplatte po zkázu Bismarcku. 2. vyd. Praha: Naše vojsko, 1997. 331 s. ISBN 80-206-0536-3 . [1. vyd. 1993.] [Třetí svazek historické série o námořních operacích druhé světové války.] HRBEK, Jaroslav a HRBEK, Ivan . Vítězství přichází z moře: od vylodění u Anzia po kapitulaci v Tokijském zálivu. 1. vyd. Praha: Naše vojsko, 1999. 507 s., [8] s. barev. obr. příl. ISBN 80-206-0566-5 . [Čtvrtý a závěrečný svazek historické série o námořních operacích druhé světové války.] HRBEK, Jaroslav . Arnhem 1944. 1. vyd. Praha: Naše vojsko, 1992. 268 s., [24] s. obr. příl. ISBN 80-206-0073-6 . HRBEK, Jaroslav . Loďstva států účastnících se druhé světové války. 1. vyd. Praha: Naše vojsko, 1994. 231 s. ISBN 80-206-0245-3 . HRBEK, Jaroslav . Monte Cassino. 1. vyd. Praha: Naše vojsko, 1995. 251 s., [24] s. fot. Malé dějiny válek, sv. 7. ISBN 80-206-0291-7 . HRBEK, Jaroslav . Tobrúk 1941. 1. vyd. Praha: Argo, 1997. 327 s., [32] s. il., portréty. ISBN 80-7203-139-2 . CHURCHILL, Winston . Druhá světová válka I–VI . Přeložil Zdeněk Hron. Praha: NLN, Nakladatelství Lidové noviny, 2005. ISBN 80-7106-739-3 . JORDAN, David a WIEST, Andrew. Atlas druhé světové války: fakta o bojových střetnutích na všech frontách . Praha: Ottovo nakladatelství, 2006. ISBN 80-7360-273-3 . KEEGAN, John. Druhá světová válka . Praha: Beta-Dobrovský; Plzeň: Ševčík, 2003. ISBN 80-7306-063-9 . KOKOŠKA, Stanislav et al. Nultá hodina?: Československo na jaře 1945 ve strategických souvislostech. 1. vyd. Praha: Pro Nadační fond angažovaných nestraníků vydalo nakl. Euroslavica, 2011. 255 s. Prostopravdy, sv. 2. ISBN 978-80-85494-92-1 . Kronika druhé světové války. Úvodní studie a odborná revize textu Jaroslav Hrbek , přeložili a doplnili Jan Gebhart et al. 1. [i. e. 2. vyd.] české vyd. Praha: Fortuna Print, [2003], ©2000. 520 s., faksimile , mapy, portréty. ISBN 80-7321-072-X . LIDDELL HART, Basil. Dějiny druhé světové války . Brno: Jota, 2000. ISBN 80-7217-117-8 . LUCAS, James. Hitlerovy horské jednotky. Přeložil Jaroslav Hrbek . 2. vyd. Praha: Naše vojsko, 2001. 233 s., [32] s. obr. příl. ISBN 80-206-0601-7 . NÁLEVKA, Vladimír. Druhá světová válka . Praha: Triton, 2003. ISBN 80-7254-390-3 . NEČAS, Ctibor Nad osudem českých a slovenských Cikánů v letech 1939–1945. 1. vyd. V Brně: Univerzita Jana Evangelisty Purkyně v Brně, 1981. 180 s. Spisy Pedagogické fakulty Univerzity J. E. Purkyně, sv. 19. OVERY, Richard. Proč spojenci zvítězili . Praha: Beta-Dobrovský; Plzeň: Ševčík, 2008. ISBN 978-80-7306-338-2 . PIEKALKIEWICZ, Janusz. Druhá světová válka . [Praha]: Svojtka & Co., [2007]. ISBN 978-80-7352-764-8 . SALMAGGI, Cesare a PALLAVISINI, Alfredo. 2194 dnů: ilustrovaná chronologie druhé světové války . Praha: Olympia, 2007. ISBN 978-80-7376-005-2 . SHAW, Antony. Druhá světová válka den po dni. Přeloži Jan Krist. 1. vyd., dotisk [i.e. 2. vyd.]. Praha: Naše vojsko, 2009. 192 s. ISBN 978-80-206-0915-1 . VAT, Dan van der. Ponorky ve válce. Přeložil Jaroslav Hrbek . 1. vyd. Praha: Argo, 1997. 406 s., 16 nečísl. s. obr. příloh, lit. na s. 381–384. ISBN 80-7203-142-2 . VAT, Dan van der. Válka v Pacifiku: americko-japonská námořní válka 1941–1945. Přeložil Jaroslav Hrbek . 1. vyd. Praha: Argo, 2001. 433 s., [24] s. obr. příl. ISBN 80-7203-322-0 . WILLMOTT, Hedley Paul et al. Druhá světová válka. Přeložil Karel Kopička. V Praze: Knižní klub, 2005. 319 s. ISBN 80-242-1403-2 . Související články Česká národní rada (odboj) Československé pozemní jednotky na Západě 1939–1945 Československý odboj (1939–1945) Druhá světová válka v literatuře Druhá třicetiletá válka Jugoslávští partyzáni Moderní dějiny Německý odboj během druhé světové války Odboj během druhé světové války Polský odboj během druhé světové války Polský podzemní stát Prozatímní státní zřízení Seznam českých filmů odehrávajících se během druhé světové války Seznam filmů s tematikou druhé světové války z východní fronty Slezský odboj Vojenská produkce během druhé světové války Zemská armáda Židovský protinacistický odboj Externí odkazy Galerie druhá světová válka na Wikimedia Commons Obrázky, zvuky či videa k tématu druhá světová válka na Wikimedia Commons Téma Druhá světová válka ve Wikicitátech České Seznam děl v Souborném katalogu ČR , jejichž tématem je Druhá světová válka Druhá světová válka (fronta.cz) Druhá světová válka a Reenacting na jednom místě(militaryzone.cz) II. světová válka (stránky Českého rozhlasu) Archivováno 3. 11. 2006 na Wayback Machine . 2. světová válka: Válku vidět – slyšet II. světová válka – příčiny, průběh, výsledek, důsledky (PDF) [ nedostupný zdroj ] Druhá světová válka (druha.svetova.cz) Panzernet, německá a sovětská obrněná technika druhé světové války Barevné fotografie z druhé světové války Cizojazyčné World War II Database (anglicky) World War II Encyclopedia by the History Channel (anglicky) Deutsche Welle special section on World War II (anglicky) Der Zweite Weltkrieg (shoa.de) (německy) World War II Propaganda Leaflet Archive Archivováno 26. 3. 2014 na Wayback Machine . (anglicky) World War 2 Pictures In Colour (anglicky) Multimedia map, from the invasion of the Soviet Union to the fall of Berlin (anglicky) World War II Military Situation Maps (anglicky) World War II in Europe: Every Day (anglicky) Naval & Military Campaign Summaries of World War 2 (anglicky) Velké kampaně a střetnutí druhé světové války Druhá čínsko-japonská válka • Invaze do Polska (1939) • Druhá bitva o Atlantik • Zimní válka • Obsazení Norska • Bitva o Francii • Bitva o Středozemní moře • Bitva o Británii • Balkánské tažení • Druhá světová válka v Africe • Východní fronta • Pokračovací válka • Válka v Tichomoří • Druhá světová válka v jihovýchodní Asii • Druhá světová válka na Blízkém východě • Italské tažení • Západní fronta • Sovětsko-japonská válka Druhá čínsko-japonská válka • Invaze do Polska (1939) • Druhá bitva o Atlantik • Zimní válka • Obsazení Norska • Bitva o Francii • Bitva o Středozemní moře • Bitva o Británii • Balkánské tažení • Druhá světová válka v Africe • Východní fronta • Pokračovací válka • Válka v Tichomoří • Druhá světová válka v jihovýchodní Asii • Druhá světová válka na Blízkém východě • Italské tažení • Západní fronta • Sovětsko-japonská válka Druhá světová válka Chronologie Události vedoucí k 2. světové válce Mukdenský incident (1931) Převzetí moci nacisty (1933) Noc dlouhých nožů (červenec 1934) Sárský plebiscit (13. 1. 1935) Remilitarizace Porýní (7. 3. 1936) Druhá italsko-etiopská válka (3. 10. 1935 – 9. 5. 1936) Druhá čínsko-japonská válka (7. 7. 1937 – 2. 9. 1945): Incident na mostě Marca Pola (7. 7. 1937) Bitva o Nanking (1937) , Nankingský masakr (1937) Španělská občanská válka (17. 7. 1936 – 1. 4. 1939) Anšlus (12. 3. 1938) Sovětsko-japonské pohraniční konflikty (1938) Konference v Évianu (1938) Runcimanova mise (1938) Sudetoněmecké povstání (1938) Československá mobilizace v září 1938 (23. 9. 1938) Mnichovská dohoda (30. 9. 1938) První vídeňská arbitráž (2. 11. 1938) Křišťálová noc (9./10. 11. 1938) Německá okupace Čech, Moravy a Slezska (14.–16. 3. 1939) Maďarská invaze na Podkarpatskou Rus (14.–23. 3. 1939) Italská invaze do Albánie (7.–12. 4. 1939) Přepadení vysílačky v Gliwicích (31. 8. 1939) 1939 Invaze do Polska (1. 9. – 6. 10.): Bitva o Westerplatte (1.–7. 9.), Sovětská invaze do Polska (17. 9. – 6. 10.) Druhá bitva o Atlantik (1939 – 1945): Bitva u Río de la Plata (13. 12.) Zimní válka (30. 11. 1939 – 13. 3. 1940) 1940 Zimní válka (30. 11. 1939 – 13. 3. 1940): Mainilský incident (26. 11. 1939), Moskevský mír (12. 3.) Německá invaze do Dánska (9. 4.) Německá invaze do Norska (8. 4. – 10. 6.): Bitva o Narvik (9. 4. – 8. 6.) Bitva o Nizozemsko (10.–19. 5.) Bitva o Belgii (10.–25. 5.) Bitva o Francii (10. 5. – 25. 6.): Bitva u Sedanu (12.–15. 5.), Bitva u Dunkerque (24. 5. – 4. 6.) Okupace Pobaltí Sovětským svazem (17. 6.) Bitva o Británii (10. 7. – 30. 10.) Druhá vídeňská arbitráž (30. 8.) Bitva o Dakar (23.–25. 9.) Italsko-řecká válka (28. 10. 1940 – 23. 4. 1941) 1941 Holokaust (1941–1945) Italsko-řecká válka (28. 10. 1940 – 23. 4. 1941) Německá invaze do Jugoslávie (6.–18. 4.) Bitva o Řecko (6.–30. 4.) Obléhání Tobruku (11. 4. – 10. 12.) Invaze na Krétu (20. 5. – 1. 6.) Operace Barbarossa (od 22. 6.): Bitva u Bělostoku a Minsku (22. 6. – 3. 7.), Bitva u Smolenska (6. 7. – 5. 8.), Bitva o Kyjevský kotel (23. 8. – 26. 9.), Obležení Leningradu (8. 9. 1941 – 27. 1. 1944), Bitva před Moskvou (1. 10. 1941 – 7. 11. 1942) Druhá světová válka v Tichomoří : Útok na Pearl Harbor (7. 12.), Bitva o Malajsii (8. 12. 1941 – 30. 1. 1942), Bitva o Singapur (8. 12. 1941 – 15. 2. 1942), Boj o Filipíny (8. 12. 1941 – 9. 6. 1942), Invaze do Indonésie (8. 12. 1941 – 9. 3. 1942) 1942 Atentát na Heydricha (27. 5.), Vyhlazení Lidic (9. 6.) Obležení Leningradu (8. 9. 1941 – 27. 1. 1944) Operace Blau (28. 6. – 24. 11.): Bitva u Voroněže (28. 6. – 24. 7.), Bitva u Stalingradu (21. 8. 1942 – 2. 2. 1943) Druhá světová válka v Africe : Bitva o Madagaskar (5. 5. – 5. 11.), První bitva u El Alameinu (1.–27. 7.), Druhá bitva u El Alameinu (23. 10. – 5. 11.), Operace Torch (8.–16. 11.), Tuniské tažení (17. 11. 1942 – 13. 5. 1943) Druhá světová válka v Tichomoří : Bitva o Malajsii (8. 12. 1941 – 30. 1. 1942), Bitva o Singapur (8. 12 1941 – 15. 2. 1942), Boj o Filipíny (8. 12. 1941 – 9. 6. 1942), Invaze do Indonésie (8. 12. 1941 – 9. 3. 1942), Bitva v Korálovém moři (4.–8. 5.), Bitva u Midwaye (3.–7. 6.), Bitva o Guadalcanal (7. 8. 1942 – 9. 2. 1943) 1943 Východní fronta : Obležení Leningradu (8. 9. 1941 – 27. 1. 1944), Bitva u Stalingradu (21. 8. 1942 – 2. 2. 1943), Třetí bitva o Charkov (19. 2. – 15. 3.), Bitva v Kurském oblouku (5. 7. – 23. 8.), Operace Suvorov (7. 8. – 2. 10.), Bitva o Dněpr (24. 8. – 23. 12.) Druhá světová válka ve Středomoří : Tuniské tažení (17. 11. 1942 – 13. 5. 1943), Invaze na Sicílii (9. 7. – 17. 8.), Vylodění v Itálii (3.–16. 9.) Druhá světová válka v Tichomoří : Bitva o Guadalcanal (7. 8. 1942 – 9. 2. 1943) 1944 Východní fronta : Obležení Leningradu (8. 9. 1941 – 27. 1. 1944), Bitva u Kamence Podolského (4. 3. – 17. 4.), Operace Bagration (22. 6. – 29. 8.), Varšavské povstání (1. 8. – 2. 10.), Slovenské národní povstání (29. 8. – 28. 10.) Západní fronta : Vylodění v Normandii (6. 6.), Operace Market Garden (17.–25. 9.), Bitva v ústí Šeldy (2. 10. – 8. 11.), Bitva v Ardenách (16. 12. 1944 – 25. 1. 1945) Druhá světová válka ve Středomoří : Bitva o Monte Cassino (17. 1. – 18. 5.), Vylodění u Anzia (22. 1. – 5. 6.) Druhá světová válka v Tichomoří : Bitva o Guam (21. 7. – 10. 8), Bitva o Filipíny (20. 10. 1944 – 2. 9. 1945) 1945 Bitva v Ardenách (16. 12. 1944 – 25. 1. 1945) Viselsko-oderská operace (12. 1. – 3. 2.) Bitva o Berlín (16. 4. – 2. 5.) Osvobození Československa (10. 3. – 11. 5.): Ostravská operace (10. 3. – 5. 5.), Plzeňské povstání (5.– 6. 5.), Pražské povstání (5. 5. – 9. 5.) Druhá světová válka v Tichomoří : Bitva o Filipíny (20. 10. 1944 – 2. 9. 1945), Bitva o Iwodžimu (16. 2. – 26. 3.), Bitva o Okinawu (1. 4. – 21. 6.), Atomové bombardování Hirošimy a Nagasaki (6. 8. a 9. 8.), Sovětsko-japonská válka (9. 8. – 3. 9.) Události vedoucí k 2. světové válce Mukdenský incident (1931) Převzetí moci nacisty (1933) Noc dlouhých nožů (červenec 1934) Sárský plebiscit (13. 1. 1935) Remilitarizace Porýní (7. 3. 1936) Druhá italsko-etiopská válka (3. 10. 1935 – 9. 5. 1936) Druhá čínsko-japonská válka (7. 7. 1937 – 2. 9. 1945): Incident na mostě Marca Pola (7. 7. 1937) Bitva o Nanking (1937) , Nankingský masakr (1937) Španělská občanská válka (17. 7. 1936 – 1. 4. 1939) Anšlus (12. 3. 1938) Sovětsko-japonské pohraniční konflikty (1938) Konference v Évianu (1938) Runcimanova mise (1938) Sudetoněmecké povstání (1938) Československá mobilizace v září 1938 (23. 9. 1938) Mnichovská dohoda (30. 9. 1938) První vídeňská arbitráž (2. 11. 1938) Křišťálová noc (9./10. 11. 1938) Německá okupace Čech, Moravy a Slezska (14.–16. 3. 1939) Maďarská invaze na Podkarpatskou Rus (14.–23. 3. 1939) Italská invaze do Albánie (7.–12. 4. 1939) Přepadení vysílačky v Gliwicích (31. 8. 1939) Mukdenský incident (1931) Převzetí moci nacisty (1933) Noc dlouhých nožů (červenec 1934) Sárský plebiscit (13. 1. 1935) Remilitarizace Porýní (7. 3. 1936) Druhá italsko-etiopská válka (3. 10. 1935 – 9. 5. 1936) Druhá čínsko-japonská válka (7. 7. 1937 – 2. 9. 1945): Incident na mostě Marca Pola (7. 7. 1937) Bitva o Nanking (1937) , Nankingský masakr (1937) Španělská občanská válka (17. 7. 1936 – 1. 4. 1939) Anšlus (12. 3. 1938) Sovětsko-japonské pohraniční konflikty (1938) Konference v Évianu (1938) Runcimanova mise (1938) Sudetoněmecké povstání (1938) Československá mobilizace v září 1938 (23. 9. 1938) Mnichovská dohoda (30. 9. 1938) První vídeňská arbitráž (2. 11. 1938) Křišťálová noc (9./10. 11. 1938) Německá okupace Čech, Moravy a Slezska (14.–16. 3. 1939) Maďarská invaze na Podkarpatskou Rus (14.–23. 3. 1939) Italská invaze do Albánie (7.–12. 4. 1939) Přepadení vysílačky v Gliwicích (31. 8. 1939) 1939 Invaze do Polska (1. 9. – 6. 10.): Bitva o Westerplatte (1.–7. 9.), Sovětská invaze do Polska (17. 9. – 6. 10.) Druhá bitva o Atlantik (1939 – 1945): Bitva u Río de la Plata (13. 12.) Zimní válka (30. 11. 1939 – 13. 3. 1940) Invaze do Polska (1. 9. – 6. 10.): Bitva o Westerplatte (1.–7. 9.), Sovětská invaze do Polska (17. 9. – 6. 10.) Druhá bitva o Atlantik (1939 – 1945): Bitva u Río de la Plata (13. 12.) Zimní válka (30. 11. 1939 – 13. 3. 1940) 1940 Zimní válka (30. 11. 1939 – 13. 3. 1940): Mainilský incident (26. 11. 1939), Moskevský mír (12. 3.) Německá invaze do Dánska (9. 4.) Německá invaze do Norska (8. 4. – 10. 6.): Bitva o Narvik (9. 4. – 8. 6.) Bitva o Nizozemsko (10.–19. 5.) Bitva o Belgii (10.–25. 5.) Bitva o Francii (10. 5. – 25. 6.): Bitva u Sedanu (12.–15. 5.), Bitva u Dunkerque (24. 5. – 4. 6.) Okupace Pobaltí Sovětským svazem (17. 6.) Bitva o Británii (10. 7. – 30. 10.) Druhá vídeňská arbitráž (30. 8.) Bitva o Dakar (23.–25. 9.) Italsko-řecká válka (28. 10. 1940 – 23. 4. 1941) Zimní válka (30. 11. 1939 – 13. 3. 1940): Mainilský incident (26. 11. 1939), Moskevský mír (12. 3.) Německá invaze do Dánska (9. 4.) Německá invaze do Norska (8. 4. – 10. 6.): Bitva o Narvik (9. 4. – 8. 6.) Bitva o Nizozemsko (10.–19. 5.) Bitva o Belgii (10.–25. 5.) Bitva o Francii (10. 5. – 25. 6.): Bitva u Sedanu (12.–15. 5.), Bitva u Dunkerque (24. 5. – 4. 6.) Okupace Pobaltí Sovětským svazem (17. 6.) Bitva o Británii (10. 7. – 30. 10.) Druhá vídeňská arbitráž (30. 8.) Bitva o Dakar (23.–25. 9.) Italsko-řecká válka (28. 10. 1940 – 23. 4. 1941) 1941 Holokaust (1941–1945) Italsko-řecká válka (28. 10. 1940 – 23. 4. 1941) Německá invaze do Jugoslávie (6.–18. 4.) Bitva o Řecko (6.–30. 4.) Obléhání Tobruku (11. 4. – 10. 12.) Invaze na Krétu (20. 5. – 1. 6.) Operace Barbarossa (od 22. 6.): Bitva u Bělostoku a Minsku (22. 6. – 3. 7.), Bitva u Smolenska (6. 7. – 5. 8.), Bitva o Kyjevský kotel (23. 8. – 26. 9.), Obležení Leningradu (8. 9. 1941 – 27. 1. 1944), Bitva před Moskvou (1. 10. 1941 – 7. 11. 1942) Druhá světová válka v Tichomoří : Útok na Pearl Harbor (7. 12.), Bitva o Malajsii (8. 12. 1941 – 30. 1. 1942), Bitva o Singapur (8. 12. 1941 – 15. 2. 1942), Boj o Filipíny (8. 12. 1941 – 9. 6. 1942), Invaze do Indonésie (8. 12. 1941 – 9. 3. 1942) Holokaust (1941–1945) Italsko-řecká válka (28. 10. 1940 – 23. 4. 1941) Německá invaze do Jugoslávie (6.–18. 4.) Bitva o Řecko (6.–30. 4.) Obléhání Tobruku (11. 4. – 10. 12.) Invaze na Krétu (20. 5. – 1. 6.) Operace Barbarossa (od 22. 6.): Bitva u Bělostoku a Minsku (22. 6. – 3. 7.), Bitva u Smolenska (6. 7. – 5. 8.), Bitva o Kyjevský kotel (23. 8. – 26. 9.), Obležení Leningradu (8. 9. 1941 – 27. 1. 1944), Bitva před Moskvou (1. 10. 1941 – 7. 11. 1942) Druhá světová válka v Tichomoří : Útok na Pearl Harbor (7. 12.), Bitva o Malajsii (8. 12. 1941 – 30. 1. 1942), Bitva o Singapur (8. 12. 1941 – 15. 2. 1942), Boj o Filipíny (8. 12. 1941 – 9. 6. 1942), Invaze do Indonésie (8. 12. 1941 – 9. 3. 1942) 1942 Atentát na Heydricha (27. 5.), Vyhlazení Lidic (9. 6.) Obležení Leningradu (8. 9. 1941 – 27. 1. 1944) Operace Blau (28. 6. – 24. 11.): Bitva u Voroněže (28. 6. – 24. 7.), Bitva u Stalingradu (21. 8. 1942 – 2. 2. 1943) Druhá světová válka v Africe : Bitva o Madagaskar (5. 5. – 5. 11.), První bitva u El Alameinu (1.–27. 7.), Druhá bitva u El Alameinu (23. 10. – 5. 11.), Operace Torch (8.–16. 11.), Tuniské tažení (17. 11. 1942 – 13. 5. 1943) Druhá světová válka v Tichomoří : Bitva o Malajsii (8. 12. 1941 – 30. 1. 1942), Bitva o Singapur (8. 12 1941 – 15. 2. 1942), Boj o Filipíny (8. 12. 1941 – 9. 6. 1942), Invaze do Indonésie (8. 12. 1941 – 9. 3. 1942), Bitva v Korálovém moři (4.–8. 5.), Bitva u Midwaye (3.–7. 6.), Bitva o Guadalcanal (7. 8. 1942 – 9. 2. 1943) Atentát na Heydricha (27. 5.), Vyhlazení Lidic (9. 6.) Obležení Leningradu (8. 9. 1941 – 27. 1. 1944) Operace Blau (28. 6. – 24. 11.): Bitva u Voroněže (28. 6. – 24. 7.), Bitva u Stalingradu (21. 8. 1942 – 2. 2. 1943) Druhá světová válka v Africe : Bitva o Madagaskar (5. 5. – 5. 11.), První bitva u El Alameinu (1.–27. 7.), Druhá bitva u El Alameinu (23. 10. – 5. 11.), Operace Torch (8.–16. 11.), Tuniské tažení (17. 11. 1942 – 13. 5. 1943) Druhá světová válka v Tichomoří : Bitva o Malajsii (8. 12. 1941 – 30. 1. 1942), Bitva o Singapur (8. 12 1941 – 15. 2. 1942), Boj o Filipíny (8. 12. 1941 – 9. 6. 1942), Invaze do Indonésie (8. 12. 1941 – 9. 3. 1942), Bitva v Korálovém moři (4.–8. 5.), Bitva u Midwaye (3.–7. 6.), Bitva o Guadalcanal (7. 8. 1942 – 9. 2. 1943) 1943 Východní fronta : Obležení Leningradu (8. 9. 1941 – 27. 1. 1944), Bitva u Stalingradu (21. 8. 1942 – 2. 2. 1943), Třetí bitva o Charkov (19. 2. – 15. 3.), Bitva v Kurském oblouku (5. 7. – 23. 8.), Operace Suvorov (7. 8. – 2. 10.), Bitva o Dněpr (24. 8. – 23. 12.) Druhá světová válka ve Středomoří : Tuniské tažení (17. 11. 1942 – 13. 5. 1943), Invaze na Sicílii (9. 7. – 17. 8.), Vylodění v Itálii (3.–16. 9.) Druhá světová válka v Tichomoří : Bitva o Guadalcanal (7. 8. 1942 – 9. 2. 1943) Východní fronta : Obležení Leningradu (8. 9. 1941 – 27. 1. 1944), Bitva u Stalingradu (21. 8. 1942 – 2. 2. 1943), Třetí bitva o Charkov (19. 2. – 15. 3.), Bitva v Kurském oblouku (5. 7. – 23. 8.), Operace Suvorov (7. 8. – 2. 10.), Bitva o Dněpr (24. 8. – 23. 12.) Druhá světová válka ve Středomoří : Tuniské tažení (17. 11. 1942 – 13. 5. 1943), Invaze na Sicílii (9. 7. – 17. 8.), Vylodění v Itálii (3.–16. 9.) Druhá světová válka v Tichomoří : Bitva o Guadalcanal (7. 8. 1942 – 9. 2. 1943) 1944 Východní fronta : Obležení Leningradu (8. 9. 1941 – 27. 1. 1944), Bitva u Kamence Podolského (4. 3. – 17. 4.), Operace Bagration (22. 6. – 29. 8.), Varšavské povstání (1. 8. – 2. 10.), Slovenské národní povstání (29. 8. – 28. 10.) Západní fronta : Vylodění v Normandii (6. 6.), Operace Market Garden (17.–25. 9.), Bitva v ústí Šeldy (2. 10. – 8. 11.), Bitva v Ardenách (16. 12. 1944 – 25. 1. 1945) Druhá světová válka ve Středomoří : Bitva o Monte Cassino (17. 1. – 18. 5.), Vylodění u Anzia (22. 1. – 5. 6.) Druhá světová válka v Tichomoří : Bitva o Guam (21. 7. – 10. 8), Bitva o Filipíny (20. 10. 1944 – 2. 9. 1945) Východní fronta : Obležení Leningradu (8. 9. 1941 – 27. 1. 1944), Bitva u Kamence Podolského (4. 3. – 17. 4.), Operace Bagration (22. 6. – 29. 8.), Varšavské povstání (1. 8. – 2. 10.), Slovenské národní povstání (29. 8. – 28. 10.) Západní fronta : Vylodění v Normandii (6. 6.), Operace Market Garden (17.–25. 9.), Bitva v ústí Šeldy (2. 10. – 8. 11.), Bitva v Ardenách (16. 12. 1944 – 25. 1. 1945) Druhá světová válka ve Středomoří : Bitva o Monte Cassino (17. 1. – 18. 5.), Vylodění u Anzia (22. 1. – 5. 6.) Druhá světová válka v Tichomoří : Bitva o Guam (21. 7. – 10. 8), Bitva o Filipíny (20. 10. 1944 – 2. 9. 1945) 1945 Bitva v Ardenách (16. 12. 1944 – 25. 1. 1945) Viselsko-oderská operace (12. 1. – 3. 2.) Bitva o Berlín (16. 4. – 2. 5.) Osvobození Československa (10. 3. – 11. 5.): Ostravská operace (10. 3. – 5. 5.), Plzeňské povstání (5.– 6. 5.), Pražské povstání (5. 5. – 9. 5.) Druhá světová válka v Tichomoří : Bitva o Filipíny (20. 10. 1944 – 2. 9. 1945), Bitva o Iwodžimu (16. 2. – 26. 3.), Bitva o Okinawu (1. 4. – 21. 6.), Atomové bombardování Hirošimy a Nagasaki (6. 8. a 9. 8.), Sovětsko-japonská válka (9. 8. – 3. 9.) Bitva v Ardenách (16. 12. 1944 – 25. 1. 1945) Viselsko-oderská operace (12. 1. – 3. 2.) Bitva o Berlín (16. 4. – 2. 5.) Osvobození Československa (10. 3. – 11. 5.): Ostravská operace (10. 3. – 5. 5.), Plzeňské povstání (5.– 6. 5.), Pražské povstání (5. 5. – 9. 5.) Druhá světová válka v Tichomoří : Bitva o Filipíny (20. 10. 1944 – 2. 9. 1945), Bitva o Iwodžimu (16. 2. – 26. 3.), Bitva o Okinawu (1. 4. – 21. 6.), Atomové bombardování Hirošimy a Nagasaki (6. 8. a 9. 8.), Sovětsko-japonská válka (9. 8. – 3. 9.) Fašismus a nacismus Ideje Aktualismus • Národní anarchismus • Třídní spolupráce • Korporativismus • Nacismus • Národní syndikalismus • Nacionální bolševismus • Rašismus • Státní kapitalismus • Třetí pozice • Totalitarismus Aktualismus • Národní anarchismus • Třídní spolupráce • Korporativismus • Nacismus • Národní syndikalismus • Nacionální bolševismus • Rašismus • Státní kapitalismus • Třetí pozice • Totalitarismus Lidé Benito Mussolini • Adolf Hitler • José Antonio Primo de Rivera • Corneliu Zelea Codreanu • Ante Pavelić • Léon Degrelle • Alexandr Dugin • Ivan Iljin • Francisco Franco • Vidkun Quisling • Ferenc Szálasi • Engelbert Dollfuss Benito Mussolini • Adolf Hitler • José Antonio Primo de Rivera • Corneliu Zelea Codreanu • Ante Pavelić • Léon Degrelle • Alexandr Dugin • Ivan Iljin • Francisco Franco • Vidkun Quisling • Ferenc Szálasi • Engelbert Dollfuss Hnutí Italský fašismus • Austrofašismus • Nacismus • Národní obec fašistická • Falanga Española • Frankismus • Ustašovci • 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Druhá světová válka • Italská sociální republika • Holokaust • Národně socialistická německá dělnická strana (NDSAP) Pochod na Řím • Mnichovský pivní puč • Německé federální volby 1932 • Zmocňovací zákon • Židenický puč • Druhá italsko-etiopská válka • Španělská občanská válka • Pakt proti Kominterně • Druhá světová válka • Italská sociální republika • Holokaust • Národně socialistická německá dělnická strana (NDSAP) Související Antifašismus • Islamofašismus • Klerofašismus • Kryptofašismus • Neofašismus • Neonacismus • Ku-klux-klan • Post-fašismus Antifašismus • Islamofašismus • Klerofašismus • Kryptofašismus • Neofašismus • Neonacismus • Ku-klux-klan • Post-fašismus Autoritní data NKC : ph117270 BNE : XX526764 BNF : cb11996115g (data) GND : 4079167-1 HDS : 008927 IEU : S\E\SecondWorldWar KulturNav : 18426a29-888f-4c93-a1cd-1bb92706cc96 LCCN : sh85148273 LIR : 1129 NARA : 10644634 NDL : 00570524 NLI : 987007566075005171 NLK : KSH1998001372 PLWABN : 9810648182205606 SELIBR : 139432 TDVİA : ikinci-dunya-savasi WorldCat Entities : E39Qhp4vBbhpRH9XvjbDFXtxhb NKC : ph117270 BNE : XX526764 BNF : cb11996115g (data) GND : 4079167-1 HDS : 008927 IEU : S\E\SecondWorldWar KulturNav : 18426a29-888f-4c93-a1cd-1bb92706cc96 LCCN : sh85148273 LIR : 1129 NARA : 10644634 NDL : 00570524 NLI : 987007566075005171 NLK : KSH1998001372 PLWABN : 9810648182205606 SELIBR : 139432 TDVİA : ikinci-dunya-savasi WorldCat Entities : E39Qhp4vBbhpRH9XvjbDFXtxhb Druhá světová válka Války Argentiny Války Belgie Války Bolívie Války Brazílie Války Bulharska Války Československa Války Číny Války Egypta Války Ekvádoru Války Etiopie Války Finska Války Francie Války Hondurasu Války Chile Války Indie Války Iráku Války Itálie Války Íránu Války Japonska Války Jugoslávie Války Kanady Války Koreje Války Libanonu Války Maďarska Války Mexika Války Nepálu Války Německa Války Nizozemska Války Norska Války Peru Války Rumunska Války Salvadoru Války Saúdské Arábie Války Sovětského svazu Války Spojeného království Války Sýrie Války Turecka Války USA Války Austrálie Války Chorvatska Války Nového Zélandu Války 20. století Údržba:Články s dočasně použitou šablonou Údržba:Fakta k ověření Monitoring:Články přeložené z enwiki Monitoring:Články přeložené z dewiki Monitoring:Články s odkazem na autoritní záznam Údržba:Články obsahující odkazy na nedostupné zdroje Monitoring:Články s identifikátorem NKC Monitoring:Články s identifikátorem BNE Monitoring:Články s identifikátorem BNF Monitoring:Články s identifikátorem GND Monitoring:Články s identifikátorem HDS Monitoring:Články s identifikátorem IEU Monitoring:Články s identifikátorem KulturNav Monitoring:Články s identifikátorem LCCN Monitoring:Články s identifikátorem LIR Monitoring:Články s identifikátorem NARA Monitoring:Články s identifikátorem NDL Monitoring:Články s identifikátorem NLI Monitoring:Články s identifikátorem NLK Monitoring:Články s identifikátorem PLWABN Monitoring:Články s identifikátorem SELIBR Monitoring:Články s identifikátorem TDVİA Monitoring:Články s identifikátorem WorldCat Entities Portál Druhá světová válka/Zapojené články Monitoring:1000 nejdůležitějších článků/dlouhé Monitoring:Stránky používající kouzelné odkazy ISBN Stránka byla naposledy editována 12. 1. 2026 v 10:50. 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 January Toggle January subsection 1.1 17 1.2 16 1.3 15 1.4 14 1.5 13 1.6 12 1.7 11 1.8 10 1.9 9 1.10 8 1.11 7 1.12 6 1.13 5 1.14 4 1.15 3 1.16 2 1.17 1 1.1 17 1.2 16 1.3 15 1.4 14 1.5 13 1.6 12 1.7 11 1.8 10 1.9 9 1.10 8 1.11 7 1.12 6 1.13 5 1.14 4 1.15 3 1.16 2 1.17 1 2 References 3 External links Deaths in 2026 العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Italiano کٲشُر Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو 中文 Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item The following notable deaths occurred in 2026. Names are reported under the date of death, in alphabetical order. A typical entry reports information in the following sequence: Name, age, country of citizenship at birth, subsequent nationality (if applicable), what subject was noted for, cause of death (if known), and a reference. January 17 16 Olena Grechanina , 90, Ukrainian scientist. [ 1 ] Ratbek hadji Nysanbayev , 85, Kazakh religious figure, supreme mufti of Kazakhstan (1990–2000). [ 2 ] (death announced on this date) 15 Abdullahi Abubakar , 90, Nigerian Islamic cleric and humanitarian. [ 3 ] Ante Grgurević , 50, Croatian basketball player ( Split , Lugano Tigers ) and coach (Split). [ 4 ] Rafael Gvaladze , 78, Azerbaijani jurist, judge of the Constitutional Court (1998–2025). [ 5 ] Princess Irene of Greece and Denmark , 83, Greek-Spanish royal. [ 6 ] Kim Sin-yong , 80, South Korean writer. [ 7 ] Mutumwa Mawere , 66, Zimbabwean-South African mining industry executive. [ 8 ] Kenny Morris , 68, English drummer ( Siouxsie and the Banshees ). [ 9 ] (death announced on this date) Edgar Salvé , 79, Belgian Olympic middle-distance runner ( 1968 , 1972 ). [ 10 ] Ajay Varma , 62, Indian cricketer ( Bengal ). [ 11 ] Gagik Yeganyan , 69, Armenian politician. [ 12 ] 14 Layonel Adams , 31, Russian footballer ( Banants , Cerceda , Isloch Minsk Raion ), fall. [ 13 ] Dmitri Akimov , 45, Russian footballer ( Metallurg Lipetsk , Sibir Novosibirsk , Rostov ). [ 14 ] Aroha Awarau , 49, New Zealand playwright and journalist. [ 15 ] Namirembe Bitamazire , 84, Ugandan academic and politician, MP (2001–2011). [ 16 ] Alfonso Castellanos , 91, Colombian radio broadcaster and journalist. [ 17 ] Jean-Hugues Colonna , 91, French politician, deputy (1981–1988). [ 18 ] (death announced on this date) Valeria Fedeli , 76, Italian politician, minister of education (2016–2018) and senator (2013–2022). [ 19 ] Oleksandr Kabanov , 52, Ukrainian politician, deputy (since 2019). [ 20 ] Kim Min-jae , 53, South Korean baseball player ( Lotte Giants , Hanwha Eagles ) and coach ( Doosan Bears ), cancer. [ 21 ] Rick Link , 66, American professional wrestler, trainer and promoter. [ 22 ] Nie Weiping , 73, Chinese Go player. [ 23 ] Melania Pérez [ es ] , 76, Argentine singer. [ 24 ] Ricard Pérez Casado , 80, Spanish politician, mayor of Valencia (1979–1988) and deputy (2000–2004). [ 25 ] Seppo Reijonen , 81, Finnish Olympic ski jumper ( 1968 ). [ 26 ] Jean Rossier , 81, Belgian biologist and academic. [ 27 ] (death announced on this date) Ernestine Russell , 87, Canadian Olympic gymnast ( 1956 , 1960 ). [ 28 ] Ado Schlier , 90, German radio personality ( Radio Salzburg , Bayerischer Rundfunk ). [ 29 ] Vera Valdez , 89, Brazilian model. [ 30 ] Quemil Yambay , 87, Paraguayan musician and composer. [ 31 ] Igor Zolotovitskiy , 64, Russian actor ( Taxi Blues , Luna Park , Composition for Victory Day ), academic and television director, cancer. [ 32 ] 13 Scott Adams , 68, American cartoonist ( Dilbert ), prostate cancer. [ 33 ] Iqbal Athas , 81, Sri Lankan journalist ( The Sunday Times , Jane's Defence Weekly ). [ 34 ] Lina Bernardi [ it ] , 87, Italian actress ( The Story of Piera , The Last Kiss , The Embalmer ). [ 35 ] Alfred Blumstein , 95, American scientist. [ 36 ] Mark Brnovich , 59, American politician and attorney, Arizona attorney general (2015–2023), heart attack. [ 37 ] Paola Cardia [ it ] , 73, Italian footballer ( national team ). [ 38 ] David Collier , 70, English sports administrator, chief executive of the England and Wales Cricket Board (2004–2014). [ 39 ] Claudette Colvin , 86, American civil rights activist ( Browder v. Gayle ). [ 40 ] Indira Devi Dhanrajgir , 95, Indian poet and socialite. [ 41 ] Catherine Duprat , 89, French historian. [ 42 ] Barbara Eustachiewicz , 87, Polish Olympic gymnast ( 1960 , 1964 ). [ 43 ] Jesse Flis , 92, Canadian politician, MP (1979–1984, 1988–1997). [ 44 ] Bir Bhadra Hagjer , 75, Indian politician, Assam MLA (2016–2021). [ 45 ] Ali Hassan , 61, Mozambican footballer ( Sporting , Vitória de Setúbal , national team ), cancer. [ 46 ] Hun Yuan , 81, Taiwanese religious leader, founder of Weixinism . [ 47 ] Heiki Kranich , 64, Estonian politician, twice MP , minister of finance (1994) and environment (1999–2003). [ 48 ] Jason Lafreniere , 59, Canadian ice hockey player ( Quebec Nordiques , Tampa Bay Lightning , New York Rangers ). [ 49 ] (death announced on this date) Blanche Marvin , 100, American-born British theatre critic, producer and writer. [ 50 ] Doug McConnell , 80, American television journalist. [ 51 ] Bruce McLeod , 96, Canadian clergyman, moderator of the United Church of Canada (1972–1974). [ 52 ] Rolando Nannicini , 79, Italian politician, deputy (2001–2013). [ 53 ] Seán Ó Sé , 89, Irish tenor singer. [ 54 ] Ivan Onufriyev , 58, Russian footballer ( Geolog Tyumen , MTsOP-Metallurg Verkhnyaya Pyshma , Dynamo Stavropol ). [ 55 ] Annemarie Prins , 93, Dutch actress ( Accused , Memory Lane ), director and writer. [ 56 ] Renzo Ragonesi [ it ] , 82, Italian footballer ( Venezia , Reggiana , Modena ). [ 57 ] Jean-Loup Trassard , 92, French photographer. [ 58 ] (death announced on this date) Rudolf Urc [ sk ] , 88, Slovak director of documentary and animated films and academic. [ 59 ] George Vassiliou , 94, Cypriot politician, president (1988–1993) and MP (1996–2001), respiratory infection. [ 60 ] David Webb , 60, British-born Hong Kong activist investor, prostate cancer. [ 61 ] Hans Wiktorsson [ sv ] , 75, Swedish actor ( The Painter , Kurt Olssons julkalender ), complications from a brain injury. [ 62 ] Brian Wilshire , 81, Australian radio broadcaster ( 2GB ). [ 63 ] Razmik Zohrabyan , 75, Armenian politician, MP (2007–2017). [ 64 ] 12 Oba C. D. Akran , 89, Nigerian politician and traditional ruler. [ 65 ] Mahmoud Al-Astal , Palestinian police chief, shot. [ 66 ] Sheila Bernette , 94, English singer ( The Good Old Days , The Black and White Minstrel Show ) and actress ( The Magnificent Seven Deadly Sins ). [ 67 ] Paul Clauson , 76, Australian politician, Queensland MP (1985–1989), attorney-general (1986–1989). [ 68 ] Rolland Courbis , 72, French football player ( Monaco ) and manager ( Bordeaux , Marseille ). [ 69 ] Bill Courtney , 55, American college basketball coach ( Cornell Big Red , Miami Hurricanes , Temple Owls ). [ 70 ] Mochammad Djamhari , 82, Indonesian military officer and politician, Regent of Bekasi Regency (1993–1998). [ 71 ] John Forté , 50, American rapper ( Refugee Camp All-Stars ) and producer ( The Score ). [ 72 ] Rick Garcia , 69, American LGBTQ activist. [ 73 ] Mohammad Ilyas , 79, Pakistani cricketer ( Lahore , Pakistan International Airlines , national team ), cancer. [ 74 ] Asda Jayanama , 84, Thai diplomat. [ 75 ] Robert Jensen , 52, Dutch television personality ( Jensen! ), cardiac arrest. [ 76 ] Jayashree Kabir , 73, Indian actress ( Pratidwandi , Simana Periye , Rupali Saikate ). [ 77 ] Robert V. Kohn , 72, American mathematician, cancer. [ 78 ] Matt Kwasniewski-Kelvin , 26, British guitarist ( Black Midi ). [ 79 ] (death announced on this date) Jan Mårtenson , 92, Swedish author and diplomat, ambassador to Switzerland and Liechtenstein (1993–1995). [ 80 ] Eddie McCreadie , 85, Scottish football player ( Chelsea , national team ) and manager (Chelsea). [ 81 ] Luigi Nicolais , 83, Italian engineer and politician, minister for public administration (2006–2008), deputy (2008–2012), and president of the National Research Council (2012–2016). [ 82 ] Alain Orsoni , 71, French politician, Corsican independence militant ( FLNC ) and football executive ( AC Ajaccio ), shot. [ 83 ] Mario Rigutti , 99, Italian astronomer. [ 84 ] Roland Riz , 98, Italian politician, deputy (1958–1963, 1968–1987), senator (1987–1996). [ 85 ] Catherine Samie , 92, French actress ( Lovers of Paris , The Old Maid , They Came Back ). [ 86 ] Michel Tombereau , 80, French painter, complications from influenza. [ 87 ] Karen Vold , 86, American Hall of Fame trick rider. [ 88 ] Martin Willich , 80, German politician, member of the Hamburg Parliament (1974–1995). [ 89 ] Isaac Witz , 91, Austrian-born Israeli immunologist. [ 90 ] Benjaminas Zelkevičius , 81, Lithuanian football player ( Žalgiris Vilnius , Shakhtar Donetsk ) and manager ( national team ). [ 91 ] 11 Pavel Akishev , 42, Russian baseball player ( national team ). [ 92 ] (death announced on this date) Gabriel Barkay , 81, Israeli archaeologist. [ 93 ] Alberto Benzoni , 90, Italian journalist and politician. [ 94 ] Louis E. Brus , 82, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (2023). [ 95 ] Thomas Causey , 76, American sound engineer ( Dick Tracy , Star Trek Generations , Escape from New York ). [ 96 ] Giancarlo Cauteruccio , 69, Italian theatre actor and director. [ 97 ] Richard Codey , 79, American politician, governor of New Jersey (2004–2006), member of the New Jersey Senate (1982–2024). [ 98 ] Marcus Gilbert , 67, British actor ( Army of Darkness , The Masks of Death , Rambo III ), throat cancer. [ 99 ] Dave Giusti , 86, American baseball player ( Houston Astros , Pittsburgh Pirates ), World Series champion ( 1971 ). [ 100 ] Robert Hopkins , 64, English footballer ( Birmingham City , West Bromwich Albion , Shrewsbury Town ). [ 101 ] Bennie Carlton Keel , 91, American archaeologist. [ 102 ] Ueli Kestenholz , 50, Swiss snowboarder, Olympic bronze medallist ( 1998 ), avalanche. [ 103 ] Mukharby Kirzhinov , 77, Russian weightlifter, Olympic champion ( 1972 ). [ 104 ] Kōtarō Kodama , 91, Japanese politician, mayor of Akitakata (1980–2008). [ 105 ] Nelson Manrique , 78, Peruvian historian and sociologist. [ 106 ] Titina Medeiros , 48, Brazilian actress ( Cheias de Charme , A Lei do Amor , Now Generation ), pancreatic cancer. [ 107 ] Ahmad Melli , 76–77, Syrian actor. [ 108 ] Miquel Naudí , 77, Andorran politician, member of the General Council (1981–1983). [ 109 ] Takashi Ono , 97, Japanese-born American mathematician. [ 110 ] Park Soon-yong , 81, South Korean lawyer, prosecutor general (1999–2001). [ 111 ] Miroslava Pešíková , 79, Czech dancer and ballet master. [ 112 ] Clarence Pierce , 97, American politician, member of the Mississippi House of Representatives (1952–1984). [ 113 ] Eugen Pojoni , 84, Romanian footballer ( Viitorul București , Crișul Oradea , UTA Arad ). [ 114 ] Laumatiamanu Ringo Purcell , Samoan politician, MLA (2021–2025). [ 115 ] Samir Putatundu , 73, Indian politician. [ 116 ] Nasser bin Radan Al Rashid Al Wadaei , Saudi longevity claimant. [ 117 ] Grete Salomonsen , 74, Norwegian film director ( Kamilla and the Thief , Yohan: The Child Wanderer ). [ 118 ] Robert G. Shulman , 101, American biophysicist. [ 119 ] Aniceto Sobrepeña , 77, Filipino banker and public servant. [ 120 ] Prashant Tamang , 43, Indian singer ( Indian Idol ) and actor ( Paatal Lok ), cardiac arrest. [ 121 ] Sergio Tarquinio , 100, Italian painter. [ 122 ] Trevor A. Toussaint , 65, British actor ( Hollyoaks ). [ 123 ] John Wallace , 76, Scottish trumpeter, composer and arts educator. [ 124 ] Herman Wouters , 85, Belgian politician, mayor of Grobbendonk (1989–1997). [ 125 ] 10 Sturla Böðvarsson , 80, Icelandic politician, minister of communications and transportation (1999–2007), president of the Althing (2007–2009). [ 126 ] Manoel Carlos , 92, Brazilian television writer ( Por Amor , Laços de Família , Mulheres Apaixonadas ). [ 127 ] Daniel Colson , 82, French sociologist and academic. [ 128 ] Yolande Viviane Compaoré , Burkinabe politician, governor of Nord Region . [ 129 ] Erich von Däniken , 90, Swiss author and ufologist ( Chariots of the Gods? ). [ 130 ] Distorted Humor , 32, American Thoroughbred racehorse and sire, euthanized. [ 131 ] Sergey Galkov , 60, Russian Olympic sprint canoeist ( 1988 ). [ 132 ] Richard Hynes , 81, British biologist. [ 133 ] (death announced on this date) Jim Hartung , 65, American gymnast, Olympic champion ( 1984 ), and coach. [ 134 ] Mario Jacquet [ es ] , 79, Paraguayan footballer ( Cerro Porteño , Real Oviedo , Real Valladolid ). [ 135 ] Włodzimierz Jakubowski , 86, Polish football player ( Lech Poznań ) and manager ( Mieszko Gniezno , Bałtyk Gdynia ). [ 136 ] Kathy Javner , 52, American politician, member of the Maine House of Representatives (since 2018), breast cancer. [ 137 ] Yeison Jiménez , 34, Colombian singer, plane crash . [ 138 ] Václav Klučka , 72, Czech politician, deputy (1992–1996, 2006–2017). [ 139 ] Robert Kostelka , 92, American politician, member of the Louisiana State Senate (2003–2016). [ 140 ] Derek Martin , 92, British actor ( Law & Order , Eldorado , EastEnders ). [ 141 ] Marco Proaño Maya , 80, Ecuadorian politician, three-time deputy . [ 142 ] Davinder Singh , 73, Indian field hockey player, Olympic champion ( 1980 ). [ 143 ] Ivan Štampach , 79, Czech religionist and theologian. [ 144 ] Thierry Steimetz , 42, French footballer ( Amnéville , Metz , Homburg ), cancer. [ 145 ] Orazio Svelto , 89, Italian physicist. [ 146 ] Isabel Veloso , 19, Brazilian social media influencer, complications from bone marrow transplant. [ 147 ] Manolo Villaverde , 91, Cuban-American actor ( ¿Qué Pasa, USA? , Taina , Wiseguy ). [ 148 ] Prawase Wasi , 93, Thai hematologist. [ 149 ] Bob Weir , 78, American Hall of Fame musician ( Grateful Dead ) and songwriter (" Sugar Magnolia ", " One More Saturday Night "), complications from cancer. [ 150 ] Robert Wolgemuth , 77, American author, chairman of the Evangelical Christian Publishers Association . [ 151 ] 9 Ai , 49, Japanese Western chimpanzee , subject of cognition studies, multiple organ failure. [ 152 ] Zeno Bianu , 75, French writer. [ 153 ] Andrés Caniulef , 48, Chilean journalist, heart attack. [ 154 ] T. K. Carter , 69, American actor ( The Thing , Punky Brewster , Runaway Train ). [ 155 ] Robert Croft , 91, American freediver. [ 156 ] Jean-Louis Duplat , 88, Belgian magistrate. [ 157 ] Beatriz González , 93, Colombian painter, sculptor and art historian. [ 158 ] Ulf Granberg , 80, Swedish comics creator and editor ( The Phantom ). [ 159 ] Jitka Gruntová , 80, Czech politician, deputy (2002–2006). [ 160 ] Hans Herrmann , 97, German racing driver ( Formula One ). [ 161 ] Sandra Hester , 68, American socio-political activist. [ 162 ] Pirkko Ikonen , 98, Finnish politician, MP (1983–1991). [ 163 ] Heber Jentzsch , 90, American Scientology executive ( Church of Scientology International ), actor and journalist ( Los Angeles Free Press ). [ 164 ] (death announced on this date) Manfred Kuhmichel , 82, German politician, member of the Landtag of North Rhine-Westphalia (1990–2012). [ 165 ] Lê Văn Dũng , 80, Vietnamese military officer and politician, chief of the general staff (1998–2001). [ 166 ] Khawlhring Lalremruata , 38, Indian cricketer ( Mizoram ), heart attack. [ 167 ] Diane Munday , 94, British political activist, co-founder of the British Pregnancy Advisory Service . [ 168 ] Valery Noskov [ ru ] , 59, Russian biathlete. [ 169 ] Tina Packer , 87, British actress ( David Copperfield , Doctor Who ) and stage director, co-founder of Shakespeare & Company . [ 170 ] Zelico Petrovic [ it ] , 77, Yugoslav-born Italian footballer ( Taranto , Rimini , Catania ). [ 171 ] Larry Snook , 84, American politician. [ 172 ] Terry Sullivan , 87, British drummer ( Renaissance ). [ 173 ] Josep Maria Triginer , 82, Spanish politician. [ 174 ] Eleni Varikas , 76, Greek-born French political philosopher and academic, lung cancer. [ 175 ] Yao Chiang-lin [ zh ] , 75, Taiwanese politician. [ 176 ] Vincenzo Zarri , 96, Italian Roman Catholic prelate, auxiliary bishop of Bologna (1976–1988) and bishop of Forlì-Bertinoro (1988–2005). [ 177 ] 8 Dolores Ashcroft-Nowicki , 96, British occult writer. [ 178 ] Musa Gibril Bala Gaye , 79, Gambian economist and politician, minister of finance (2003–2009) and foreign affairs (2005). [ 179 ] Murat Bisembin , 53, Kazakh actor, cancer. [ 180 ] Loraine Braham , 87, Australian politician, member (1994–2008) and speaker (1997–1999, 2001–2005) of the Northern Territory Legislative Assembly . [ 181 ] Günther Brendel , 95, German painter, graphic artist and academic. [ 182 ] Heloísa de Carvalho , 56, Brazilian writer and political activist. [ 183 ] Václav Cigler , 96, Czech sculptor and visual artist. [ 184 ] Conrado Corsalette , 47, Brazilian journalist. [ 185 ] Mieczysław Czerniawski , 77, Polish politician, MP (1989–1991, 1993–2005). [ 186 ] Nelly Chatué Diop , 41, Cameroonian computer scientist. [ 187 ] Jean-Luc Domenach , 80, French historian, sinologist and political scientist. [ 188 ] Jim Furlong , 85, Canadian football player ( Calgary Stampeders ). [ 189 ] Sergio Goizauskas , 69, Argentine-born French cartoonist. [ 190 ] Vijay Singh Gond , 68, Indian politician, Uttar Pradesh MLA (1980–2007, since 2024), kidney failure. [ 191 ] Dave Hitchcock , 76, English record producer ( In the Land of Grey and Pink , Foxtrot , The Snow Goose ) and accountant. [ 192 ] Jian Shuisheng [ zh ] , 96, Chinese academic. [ 193 ] Philippe Junot , 85, French venture capitalist and property developer. [ 194 ] Madalitso Kazombo , 46, Malawian politician, first deputy speaker of the National Assembly (2019–2025), asthma attack. [ 195 ] Dieudonné Larose , 80, Haitian singer. [ 196 ] Rhoda Levine , 93, American opera director and choreographer. [ 197 ] (death announced on this date) Elisa Lisboa [ pt ] , 81, Portuguese actress ( Sabor da Paixão , Morangos com Açúcar , A Impostora ). [ 198 ] Evgeny Lyubivyi , 51, Russian politician. [ 199 ] Antonino Mangano [ it ] , 75, Italian marathon and middle-distance runner. [ 200 ] Guy Moon , 63, American composer ( The Fairly OddParents , Big Time Rush , Danny Phantom ), traffic collision. [ 201 ] Jafar Nainggolan , 79, Indonesian politician, MP (2009–2014). [ 202 ] Hiroshi Nakamura , 93, Japanese surrealist painter, pancreatic cancer. [ 203 ] Álvaro Peña-Rojas , 82, Chilean-German singer and songwriter. [ 204 ] Howard Riley , 87, English footballer ( Leicester City , Walsall , Barrow ). [ 205 ] Astrid Roemer , 78, Surinamese-Dutch writer and teacher. [ 206 ] Kjersti Scheen , 82, Norwegian journalist and writer. [ 207 ] Uljana Semjonova , 73, Latvian basketball player, Olympic champion ( 1976 , 1980 ). [ 208 ] Sir Tim Shadbolt , 78, New Zealand politician, mayor of Waitemata City (1983–1989) and Invercargill (1993–1995, 1998–2022). [ 209 ] Meinam Bhorot Singh , 75, Indian politician, Manipur MLA (2002–2007). [ 210 ] Mojtaba Tarshiz , 47, Iranian footballer ( Shahr Khodro F.C. , Sanat Mes Kerman F.C. , Gostaresh Foulad F.C. ), shot . [ 211 ] Matthew Taylor , 57–58, American musician ( Bellini ) and artist, heart attack. [ 212 ] Wim Van Belleghem , 62, Belgian Olympic rower ( 1988 , 1992 ), world champion ( 1987 ). [ 213 ] Paul Calvin Visser , 89, American politician, mayor of Flint, Michigan (1973–1975). [ 214 ] Terry Yorath , 75, Welsh football player ( Leeds United , national team ) and manager (national team). [ 215 ] 7 Ali Ardestani , Iranian convicted spy, execution by hanging. [ 216 ] Madjoulba Batocfetou , Togolese agronomic engineer. [ 217 ] James Bernard , American music journalist and magazine editor ( The Source , XXL ). [ 218 ] (death announced on this date) Ihor Blazhkov , 89, Ukrainian conductor. [ 219 ] Albert Bourgi , 90, French jurist. [ 220 ] Raffaella Bragazzi , 66, Italian television presenter and radio host. [ 221 ] Frank S. Cerveny , 92, American Episcopalian clergyman, bishop of Florida (1974–1992). [ 222 ] Camilo Isaac Chavarría , 27, Panamanian model ( Mister Panamá ) and reality show contestant ( Calle 7 ), heart attack. [ 223 ] Martin Chivers , 80, English footballer ( Southampton , Tottenham Hotspur , national team ). [ 224 ] Ángel Coerezza , 92, Argentine football referee ( AFA ). [ 225 ] John W. Derr , 84, American politician, member of the Maryland Senate (1983–1999), cancer. [ 226 ] Hiroya Ebina , 67, Japanese politician, mayor of Kushiro (2008–2024), member of the Hokkaido Legislative Assembly (1999–2008), cardiac arrest. [ 227 ] Tony Field , 79, English footballer ( Blackburn Rovers , Southport , Memphis Rogues ). [ 228 ] Vera Frances , 95, English actress ( Back-Room Boy , King Arthur Was a Gentleman , It's That Man Again ). [ 229 ] Madhav Gadgil , 83, Indian ecologist. [ 230 ] Renee Good , 37, American poet and writer, shot . [ 231 ] Domenico Graziani , 81, Italian Roman Catholic prelate, bishop of Cassano all'Jonio (1999–2006) and archbishop of Crotone-Santa Severina (2006–2019). [ 232 ] Glenn Hall , 94, Canadian Hall of Fame ice hockey player ( Chicago Black Hawks , Detroit Red Wings , St. Louis Blues ), Stanley Cup champion ( 1952 , 1961 ). [ 233 ] Sidney de Jong , 46, Dutch Olympic baseball player ( 2004 , 2008 ). [ 234 ] Rebecca Kilgore , 76, American jazz vocalist. [ 235 ] Jon Lindsay , 90, American politician, member of the Texas Senate (1997–2007). [ 236 ] Uri Lupolianski , 74, Israeli politician, mayor of Jerusalem (2003–2008) and founder of Yad Sarah . [ 237 ] Ian McCrae , 84, Scottish rugby union player ( Gordonians , national team ). [ 238 ] Randy McMillan , 67, American football player ( Baltimore/Indianapolis Colts ). [ 239 ] Roberto Mondragón , 85, American politician, lieutenant governor of New Mexico (1971–1975, 1979–1983). [ 240 ] Kabindra Purkayastha , 94, Indian politician, MP (1991–2014). [ 241 ] Howard Sanderford , 90, American politician, member of the Alabama House of Representatives (1989–2022). [ 242 ] Dietrich Stratmann , 88, German politician, member of the Landtag of Lower Saxony (1982–2003). [ 243 ] Seydou Madani Sy , 92, Senegalese jurist and politician, minister of justice (1986–1990). [ 244 ] Kim Thorson , 93, Canadian politician, Saskatchewan MLA (1956–1960, 1971–1975). [ 245 ] Billy Truax , 82, American football player ( Los Angeles Rams , Dallas Cowboys ). [ 246 ] Chiara Valentini , 84, Italian journalist and writer. [ 247 ] Murad Wahba , 99, Egyptian writer, philosopher and academic. [ 248 ] Athol Webb , 90, Australian footballer ( Melbourne ). [ 249 ] 6 Ang Ziming [ zh ] , 65, Chinese academic. [ 250 ] Joe Arlooktoo , 86, Canadian visual artist and politician, Northwest Territories MLA (1979–1991). [ 251 ] (death announced on this date) Odette Bergoffen , 101, French resistance fighter. [ 252 ] Andrzej Bogusławski , 94, Polish philologist and semanticist. [ 253 ] Ron Boswell , 85, Australian politician, senator (1983–2014). [ 254 ] John Cunningham , 93, American actor ( Titanic , Company , Mystic Pizza ). [ 255 ] Dick Dull , 80, American athletic director ( Maryland Terrapins ). [ 256 ] V. K. Ebrahimkunju , 73, Indian politician, Kerala MLA (2011–2021). [ 257 ] Anna Eder [ de ] , 75, German politician, mayor of Deggendorf (2000–2012). [ 258 ] Johannes Fabian , 88, German anthropologist. [ 259 ] Alex Felipe , 32, Brazilian futsal player ( Sporting CP , Norilsk Nickel , national team ). [ 260 ] Angella D. Ferguson , 100, American pediatrician. [ 261 ] Edith M. Flanigen , 96, American chemist. [ 262 ] Robert Goebbels , 81, Luxembourgish politician, minister for the economy (1989–1999) and energy (1994–1999), signatory of the Schengen Agreement . [ 263 ] Suresh Kalmadi , 81, Indian politician and sports administrator, MP (1982–2014) and president of the IOA (1996–2011). [ 264 ] Doug LaMalfa , 65, American politician, member of the U.S. House of Representatives (since 2013), heart attack. [ 265 ] József Láyer , 70, Hungarian politician, MP (1998–2006). [ 266 ] Jim McBride , 78, American country music songwriter (" Chasing That Neon Rainbow ", " (Who Says) You Can't Have It All ", " Chattahoochee "). [ 267 ] Jack McGregor , 91, American politician and sports team owner, member of the Pennsylvania State Senate (1963–1970) and founder of the Pittsburgh Penguins . [ 268 ] Kathleen Muxel , 54, German politician, member of the Landtag of Brandenburg (since 2019). [ 269 ] Raffaele Nogaro , 92, Italian Roman Catholic prelate, bishop of Sessa Aurunca (1982–1990) and of Caserta (1990–2009). [ 270 ] James E. O'Grady , 96, American law enforcement officer, Cook County sheriff (1986–1990). [ 271 ] Saeid Pirdoost , 85, Iranian actor ( Snake Fang , Son of Adam, Daughter of Eve , Great Award ), cancer. [ 272 ] Claude Pivi , 66, Guinean military officer, complications from diabetes. [ 273 ] Jaap Pop , 84, Dutch politician, mayor of Haarlem (1995–2006). [ 274 ] David Quail , 88, South African politician and educator, member of the Gauteng Provincial Legislature (1999–2009). [ 275 ] Nihal Seneviratne , 91, Sri Lankan civil servant, secretary general of the Parliament of Sri Lanka (1981–1994). [ 276 ] Baghir Suleimanov , 66, Azerbaijani petroleum scientist. [ 277 ] Béla Tarr , 70, Hungarian film director ( Sátántangó , Werckmeister Harmonies , The Turin Horse ). [ 278 ] Jerry Thomas , 90, American baseball player ( Minnesota Golden Gophers ). [ 279 ] Gianpaolo Tosel [ it ] , 85, Italian magistrate. [ 280 ] Robert Vicot , 94, French football player ( SC Toulon ) and manager ( Paris Saint-Germain FC , Gabon national team ). [ 281 ] Anatoly Yevtushenko , 91, Russian handball coach, Olympic champion ( 1976 , 1988 ). [ 282 ] Zhang Shaokang [ zh ] , 90, Chinese scholar. [ 283 ] Zhou Liwei [ zh ] , 94, Chinese electro-optics professor. [ 284 ] 5 Ahn Sung-ki , 74, South Korean actor ( Silmido , Two Cops , Radio Star ), blood cancer. [ 285 ] Aldrich Ames , 84, American counterintelligence officer ( CIA ) and convicted Soviet-era spy. [ 286 ] Bonifacio Ávila , 75, Colombian Olympic boxer ( 1972 ). [ 287 ] Herbert Beck , 84, German art historian. [ 288 ] Andrew Bodnar , 71, English bass guitarist ( The Rumour ) and songwriter (" I Love the Sound of Breaking Glass "). [ 289 ] (death announced on this date) Andrew Carter , 86, English composer ( Benedicite ) and conductor. [ 290 ] Tom Cherones , 86, American television director ( Seinfeld , NewsRadio , Ellen ), complications from Alzheimer's disease. [ 291 ] Beatriz de Lenclós [ es ] , 102, Spanish dancer. [ 292 ] Jim Dennison , 87, American football coach ( Akron Zips , Walsh Cavaliers ). [ 293 ] Marian Diamond , 89, English actress ( Subterfuge , Goodbye Gemini , The Lord of the Rings ). [ 294 ] Miklós Dudás , 34, Hungarian Olympic sprint canoeist ( 2012 ), world champion ( 2014 ). [ 295 ] Mike Embro , 63, Canadian drummer ( Razor ). [ 296 ] (death announced on this date) Aoi Fujino , 27, Japanese gravure idol , rhabdomyosarcoma . [ 297 ] Paolo Gillet , 96, Italian Roman Catholic prelate, auxiliary bishop of Albano (1993–2005). [ 298 ] Pier Francesco Guarguaglini , 88, Italian defense industry executive, chairman of Finmeccanica (2002–2011). [ 299 ] Bruce Hammock , 78, American entomologist. [ 300 ] Ad van Kempen , 81, Dutch actor ( 1-900 , 'n Beetje Verliefd , Winter in Wartime ), prostate cancer. [ 301 ] Wiktor Kinecki , 96, Polish politician, MP (1976–1980). [ 302 ] José Mingorance , 87, Spanish football player ( Espanyol , national team ) and manager ( Granada ). [ 303 ] Reza Moradi Abdolvand , 18, Iranian protester, shot. [ 304 ] Jawann Oldham , 68, American basketball player ( Chicago Bulls , Houston Rockets , New York Knicks ). [ 305 ] Induratana Paribatra , 103, Thai royal. [ 306 ] Molly Parkin , 93, Welsh painter, novelist and journalist. [ 307 ] Christos Politis [ el ] , 83, Greek actor ( Lampsi ). [ 308 ] Bob Pulford , 89, Canadian Hall of Fame ice hockey player ( Toronto Maple Leafs , Los Angeles Kings ), coach ( Chicago Blackhawks ), and executive, NHLPA president (1967–1972), four-time Stanley Cup champion. [ 309 ] Cosimo Scaglioso , 89, Italian politician, senator (1994–1996). [ 310 ] Elle Simone , 49, American chef ( America's Test Kitchen ) and food stylist. [ 311 ] Miroslav Stárek [ cs ] , 77, Czech footballer ( Sparta Prague , Slavia Prague , Mladá Boleslav ). [ 312 ] Elsje de Wijn , 82, Dutch actress ( De stille Oceaan , For a Lost Soldier , Het 14e kippetje ) and singer. [ 313 ] Ken Wilcock , 91, British sprinter. [ 314 ] (death announced on this date) Mike Wilson , 66, British kart racer, six-time world champion . [ 315 ] Jiří Witzany [ cs ] , 84, Czech academic and rector of ČVUT (2000–2006). [ 316 ] Wu Lintao [ zh ] , 105, Chinese politician. [ 317 ] 4 Forest Able , 93, American basketball player ( Syracuse Nationals ). [ 318 ] Ali Abu al-Ragheb , 79, Jordanian politician, prime minister (2000–2003). [ 319 ] Fazl-ur-Raheem Ashrafi , 81, Pakistani Islamic scholar, patron of Wifaq-ul-Madaris al-Arabia . [ 320 ] Céline Bellot , 55, Canadian criminologist and academic, breast cancer. [ 321 ] Mario Blasone [ it ] , 85, Italian basketball player. [ 322 ] Bob Boyer , 93, Canadian professional wrestler. [ 323 ] David Branch , 77, Canadian ice hockey administrator, commissioner of the OHL (1979–2024) and president of the CHL (1996–2019). [ 324 ] Calbo , 52, French rapper ( Ärsenik ). [ 325 ] Germaine Cousin-Zermatten , 100, Swiss herbalist. [ 326 ] Kamiel Dierckx [ nl ] , 84, Belgian basketball player ( Belgian Lions ). [ 327 ] Frank Dunlop , 98, British theatre director. [ 328 ] Manuel Fernández Ilarraza , 85, Spanish gynaecologist and politician, president of the Parliament of La Rioja (1987–1988). [ 329 ] Miloslav Fiala , 97, Czech Roman Catholic priest. [ 330 ] Andy Friendly , 74, American television producer ( Entertainment Tonight ). [ 331 ] L. Ganesan , 91, Indian politician, MP (1980–1986, 2004–2009). [ 332 ] Anne-Claire Goulon , 51, French businesswoman, breast cancer. [ 333 ] Vicki L. Gregory , 75, American academic and librarian. [ 334 ] Michel Griffon , 77, French agronomist. [ 335 ] Roger Guesnerie , 82–83, French economist and academic. [ 336 ] Denise Harlow , 55, American politician, member of the Maine House of Representatives (2010–2018), cancer. [ 337 ] Bobby Holmes , 93, Scottish footballer ( St Mirren ). [ 338 ] (death announced on this date) Nora Ikstena , 56, Latvian writer and cultural manager. [ 339 ] Klaus Keitel , 86, German politician, member (1990–2002) and president (1990–1998) of the Landtag of Saxony-Anhalt . [ 340 ] Kim Young-in [ ko ] , 85, South Korean actor ( Dachimawa Lee , No Blood No Tears , Arahan ). [ 341 ] Milorad Kosanović , 75, Serbian football player ( Proleter Zrenjanin , Vojvodina ) and manager ( Malta national team ). [ 342 ] Bernard Lemoux , 83, French businessman, president of Stade Rennais FC (1973–1977). [ 343 ] George C. Lodge , 98, American politician. [ 344 ] Oscar Lofton , 87, American football player ( Boston Patriots ) and coach ( Southeastern Louisiana Lions ). [ 345 ] Naser Toure Mahama , 60, Ghanaian politician, MP (since 2012). [ 346 ] Miloslav Masopust , 101, Czech general. [ 347 ] Giorgos Papadakis [ el ] , 74, Greek journalist and television presenter, heart attack. [ 348 ] Daniel Pelletti , 77, Belgian painter. [ 349 ] Jules Radich , 71, New Zealand politician, mayor of Dunedin (2022–2025), heart attack. [ 350 ] Michael Reagan , 80, American political commentator. [ 351 ] Marissa Sanchez , 69, Filipino tennis player. [ 352 ] Jacqueline Schaeffer , 91, French psychoanalyst. [ 353 ] Steve Sheetz , 77, American convenience store operator, CEO and president of Sheetz, Inc. (1984–1995). [ 354 ] Jitamitra Prasad Singh Deo , 79, Indian historian and archaeologist. [ 355 ] Ralph L. Thomas , 86, Brazilian-born Canadian film director ( The Terry Fox Story , Apprentice to Murder , Ticket to Heaven ) and screenwriter, complications from heart disease. [ 356 ] Horacio Usandizaga , 85, Argentine politician, senator (1995–2003) and mayor of Rosario (1983–1989), complications from multiple strokes. [ 357 ] Mary White , 81, Irish businesswoman and politician, senator (2002–2016). [ 358 ] Xiao Zhuang , 92–93, Chinese photographer. [ 359 ] Teresa Zalewska , 83, Polish politician, MP (1989–1991). [ 360 ] 3 Hushang Ansary , 98, Iranian-American diplomat and politician, minister of finance (1974–1977) and information (1971–1974), ambassador to the United States (1967–1969), cardiac arrest. [ 361 ] Joan Costa Armengol [ es ] , 91, Spanish journalist. [ 362 ] Jamil Azar , 89, Jordanian journalist and broadcaster, founder of Al Jazeera . [ 363 ] Dietmar Bachmann , 91, Austrian politician, member of the Landtag of Tyrol (1965–1994). [ 364 ] Claude-Inga Barbey , 64, Swiss comedian, writer, and actress ( The Death of Mario Ricci ). [ 365 ] Stephen E. Braude , 80, American philosopher. [ 366 ] Natale Carlotto , 94, Italian politician, senator (1987–1994) and deputy (1976–1987). [ 367 ] Francesco Paolo Casavola , 94, Italian jurist, president of the Constitutional Court (1992–1995). [ 368 ] Frédéric Cerdal , 81, French actor and stage director. [ 369 ] Maria Eugènia Cuenca , 78, Spanish politician, member of the Catalan parliament (1999–2006) and the Congress of Deputies (1986–1992). [ 370 ] Tony Dennis , 63, Canadian football player ( Saskatchewan Roughriders ), multiple organ failure. [ 371 ] Dong Xiaoping [ zh ] , 75, Chinese folklorist. [ 372 ] Gerry Gable , 88, British political activist and magazine editor ( Searchlight ). [ 373 ] Bret Hanna-Shuford , 46, American actor ( Paramour , Amazing Grace , The Wolf of Wall Street ), cancer. [ 374 ] Franz Herre , 99, German journalist and biographer. [ 375 ] Marvalene Hughes , 88, American educator and academic administrator. [ 376 ] Mesut İktu , 78, Turkish operatic baritone. [ 377 ] Hernán Giraldo Jaramillo , 89, Colombian Roman Catholic prelate, auxiliary bishop of Pereira (1984–1987), bishop of Málaga–Soatá (1987–2001) and of Buga (2001–2012). [ 378 ] Nalani Kanakaʻole , 79, American kumu hula . [ 379 ] Latif Karimi , Iranian protester, Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps brigadier general, shot . [ 380 ] Michael Kemner , 72, German bass guitarist ( Fehlfarben ), cancer. [ 381 ] David M. Maddox , 87, American army general. [ 382 ] Guðmundur Oddur Magnússon , 70, Icelandic artist and academic. [ 383 ] Sir Graham McCamley , 93, Australian beef producer. [ 384 ] John Meredith , 85, English footballer ( Doncaster Rovers , Chesterfield , Gillingham ). [ 385 ] Errol Moorcroft , 85, South African politician, member of the House of Assembly (1981–1987, 1989–1994) and National Assembly (1999–2004). [ 386 ] Dastagir Hossain Nira , 60, Bangladeshi footballer ( Dhaka Abahani , Mohammedan , national team ), cardiac arrest. [ 387 ] Pa O'Dwyer , 40, Irish strongman. [ 388 ] Sverre Anker Ousdal , 81, Norwegian actor ( Insomnia , Flight of the Eagle , The Last Place on Earth ). [ 389 ] Andrzej Paczkowski , 87, Polish historian. [ 390 ] Dimitar Penev , 80, Bulgarian football player ( CSKA Sofia , national team ) and manager (national team). [ 391 ] Jenny Plocki , 100, French women's rights activist. [ 392 ] Rolf Riehm , 88, German composer ( Sirenen ), oboist and academic ( Musikhochschule Frankfurt ). [ 393 ] Randy Riley , 63, American librarian. [ 394 ] Eva Schloss , 96, Austrian-British Holocaust survivor and memoirist. [ 395 ] Robert K. Tanenbaum , 83, American trial attorney and novelist, mayor of Beverly Hills, California (1988–1989, 1992–1993), cancer. [ 396 ] Nam Singh Thapa , 79, Nepali Olympic boxer ( 1964 ), cancer. [ 397 ] Samuel O. Thier , 88, American doctor and academic, president of Brandeis University (1991–1994). [ 398 ] Ivan Varshavsky , 87, Russian engineer and railway track foreman. [ 399 ] Wang Zheng , 64, Chinese vice admiral. [ 400 ] Terry Wharton , 83, English footballer ( Wolverhampton Wanderers , Bolton Wanderers , Crystal Palace ). [ 401 ] William H. Yohn Jr. , 90, American jurist and politician, judge of the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania (since 1991), member of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives (1968–1980). [ 402 ] Amal Fathullah Zarkasyi , 76, Indonesian Muslim scholar. [ 403 ] Mirosław Zdanowicz [ pl ] , 88, Polish social activist. [ 404 ] Zhang Kerang [ zh ] , 78, Chinese Peking opera actor. [ 405 ] 2 Ritva Auvinen , 93, Finnish opera singer. [ 406 ] Ian Balding , 87, British horse trainer. [ 407 ] Sukumar Barua , 87, Bangladeshi poet. [ 408 ] Shyam Bihari Lal , 60, Indian politician, Uttar Pradesh MLA (since 2017), heart attack. [ 409 ] Carmen Arnold Biucchi , Swiss numismatist and archaeologist. [ 410 ] Dominique Bucchini , 82, French politician, MEP (1979–1984) and mayor of Sartène (1977–2001). [ 411 ] Tony Carr , 98, Maltese session drummer and percussionist ( CCS , Hot Chocolate ). [ 412 ] Jean-Max Causse , 85, French actor ( I Stand Alone ). [ 413 ] Bohdan Chufus , 75, Ukrainian journalist, actor and singer. [ 414 ] Jenny Collins , 83, English radio presenter ( BBC Radio Merseyside ). [ 415 ] (death announced on this date) Miquel Contestí , 92, Spanish football executive, president of RCD Mallorca (1978–1992). [ 416 ] Sir Patrick Duffy , 105, British politician, MP (1963–1966, 1970–1992) and president of the NATO Assembly (1988–1990). [ 417 ] Toshio Fujii , 83, Japanese politician, member of the House of Councillors (1998–2004), heart failure. [ 418 ] Francis Grant , 101, British marine and World War II veteran. [ 419 ] Stephen E. Haggerty , 87, American geophysicist. [ 420 ] Evan Hammond , 45, Canadian radio host and sports broadcaster ( CJAV-FM ), stroke. [ 421 ] Sidney Kibrick , 97, American actor ( Our Gang ). [ 422 ] Kristi Kiick , 58, American academic. [ 423 ] Elbert Kimbrough , 87, American football player ( San Francisco 49ers , Los Angeles Rams , New Orleans Saints ). [ 424 ] Anna Kurek , 96, Polish nurse and Warsaw Uprising participant. [ 425 ] Paul C. Lambert , 97, American diplomat, ambassador to Ecuador (1990–1992). [ 426 ] Johnny Legend , 77, American rockabilly musician, film producer and wrestling manager, stroke and heart failure. [ 427 ] Vladimir Lukić , 92, Bosnian Serb politician, prime minister of Republika Srpska (1993–1994). [ 428 ] Ashok Gajanan Modak , 85, Indian politician and academic, Maharashtra MLC (1994–2006). [ 429 ] Con Pederson , 91, American visual effects artist ( 2001: A Space Odyssey , Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back , Garfield: The Movie ). [ 430 ] Valery Fyodorovich Plotnikov , 82, Russian photographer. [ 431 ] Tim Robertson , 81, English-born Australian actor ( Chances , Australia You're Standing In It , Stingers ). [ 432 ] (death announced on this date) Lajos Rovátkay , 92, Hungarian-born German harpsichordist and musicologist. [ 433 ] Saleh Rusheidat , 80, Jordanian politician, member of the House of Representatives (1993–1997) and Senate (since 2009). [ 434 ] Edith Renfrow Smith , 111, American supercentenarian. [ 435 ] Phoenix Spicer , 23, Australian footballer ( North Melbourne ). [ 436 ] Ivanne Trebbi , 97, Italian partisan and politician, deputy (1979–1987). [ 437 ] Jim Willis , 98, American baseball player ( Chicago Cubs ). [ 438 ] Robert Wolski , 43, Polish Olympic high jumper ( 2004 ), traffic collision. [ 439 ] Nellie Wong , 91, American poet. [ 440 ] 1 Marat Amankulov , 55, Kyrgyz politician, MP (2015–2021). [ 441 ] Yvan Aumont , 87, French engineer and journalist ( Lys rouge ). [ 442 ] Alan Baker , 81, English footballer ( Aston Villa ). [ 443 ] Allyn Bromley , 97, American visual artist and art educator. [ 444 ] Xesús Cañedo [ es ] , 67, Spanish politician, co-founder of the Partíu Asturianista . [ 445 ] Lana Chornohorska , 26, Ukrainian soldier. [ 446 ] Diane Crump , 77, American jockey and horse trainer, glioblastoma. [ 447 ] Nexhat Daci , 81, Kosovan politician, acting president (2006) and chairman of the Assembly (2001–2006). [ 448 ] Brian Doyle , 90, Canadian writer. [ 449 ] Yehezkel Dror , 97, Austrian-born Israeli political scientist. [ 450 ] Imants Freibergs , 91, Latvian computer scientist, first gentleman (1999–2007). [ 451 ] James Grauerholz , 72, American writer, pneumonia. [ 452 ] Mohamed Harbi , 92, Algerian historian. [ 453 ] Huang Dongbi , 86, Chinese diplomat. [ 454 ] Jeon Jun-ho [ ko ] , 50, South Korean baseball player ( Hyundai Unicorns , Woori Heroes , SK Wyverns ), lung cancer. [ 455 ] Victoria Jones , 34, American actress. [ 456 ] Morris Kahn , 95, South African-born Israeli telecommunications industry executive, founder of Golden Pages , Amdocs and the Aurec Group . [ 457 ] Andrey Khoroshev [ ru ] , 66, Russian actor and screenwriter ( Engineering Red , 8 ½ $ , Admiral ). [ 458 ] Harvey C. Krautschun , 76, American politician, member of the South Dakota House of Representatives (1985–1996). [ 459 ] Hiroshi Kume , 81, Japanese television host, lung cancer. [ 460 ] John Langdon , 79, American typographer and graphic designer. [ 461 ] Arno Liiver , 71, Estonian actor ( Spring , Summer , Autumn ). [ 462 ] Lin Chaoqiang , 92, Chinese aerodynamicist. [ 463 ] Arnold Long , 85, British cricketer ( Sussex , MCC , Surrey ), cancer. [ 464 ] Volodymyr Marchenko , 103, Ukrainian mathematician ( Marchenko equation , Marchenko–Pastur distribution ). [ 465 ] Hélio Mauro , 83, Brazilian politician, deputy (1975–1978), mayor of Goiânia (1978–1979), cardiac arrest. [ 466 ] Paul McCullagh Jr. , 25, Northern Irish boxer, bone cancer. [ 467 ] Colin McDonald , 95, English footballer ( Burnley , Headington United , national team ). [ 468 ] Enric Mestre , 89, Spanish sculptor. [ 469 ] Mukhsin Mukhamadiev , 59, Tajik-Russian football player ( Tajikistan national team , Russia national team ) and manager (Tajikistan national team). [ 470 ] Sir James Munby , 77, English judge, president of the Family Division (2013–2018). [ 471 ] Hubertus von Pilgrim , 94, German sculptor. [ 472 ] Gregory de Polnay , 82, English actor ( Dixon of Dock Green , Doctor Who , Howards' Way ). [ 473 ] Dame Karen Poutasi , 76, New Zealand public health official, director general of health (1995–2006). [ 474 ] Candy Raymond , 75, Australian actress ( Don's Party , Number 96 , Prisoner ). [ 475 ] (death announced on this date) Amit Saar , 47, Israeli intelligence officer, head of the Military Intelligence Research Department (2020–2024), brain cancer. [ 476 ] Roland Schäfer , 76, German politician, mayor of Bergkamen (1998–2020). [ 477 ] Serafim Shyngo-Ya-Hombo , 80, Angolan Roman Catholic prelate, auxiliary bishop of Luanda (1990–1992) and bishop of Mbanza Congo (1992–2008). [ 478 ] Margaret Anne Staggers , 79, American politician, member of the West Virginia House of Delegates (2007–2014). [ 479 ] Hessy Levinsons Taft , 91, German chemist and child model. [ 480 ] Ruben Yesayan , 79, Russian-Armenian test pilot. [ 481 ] Yuen Cheung-yan , 68, Hong Kong actor ( The Miracle Fighters , Drunken Tai Chi , Flying Dagger ), director, and martial arts choreographer. [ 482 ] Valentin Zakharov , 92, Russian figure skater. [ 483 ] References ^ На 91-му році життя померла фахівчиня у галузі медичної генетики Олена Гречаніна ^ First mufti of Kazakhstan passes away ^ Plateau Imam who shielded 262 Christians during attack is dead ^ Preminuo je Ante Grgurević (51), jedan od najomiljenijih splitskih košarkaša i trenera! Bio je sinonim za borbenost (in Croatian) ^ Rafael Qvaladze vəfat etdi (in Azerbaijani) ^ Muere Irene de Grecia, hermana y fiel escudera de la reina Sofía (in Spanish) ^ '한국의 장 주네' 김신용 시인 별세…향년 81세 (in Korean) ^ Zimbabwean Tycoon Mutumwa Mawere Dies in SA Days After 66th Birthday ^ Siouxsie And the Banshees Drummer Kenny Morris Has Died ^ Athlétisme : décès d’Edgar Salvé, ex-champion d’Europe indoor du 1.500 m (in French) ^ বাংলার প্রাক্তন ক্রিকেটার অজয় ভার্মা প্রয়াত, শোকের ছায়া ময়দানে (in Bengali) ^ Մահացել է Գագիկ Եգանյանը (in Armenian) ^ Воспитанник ЦСКА найден мертвым в Подмосковье (in Russian) ^ Умер Дмитрий Акимов (in Russian) ^ Queer Māori Playwright Aroha Awarau Passes Away Peacefully in Ponsonby ^ Uganda mourns loss of education pioneer Namirembe Bitamazire ^ Murió el periodista colombiano Alfonso Castellanos (in Spanish) ^ Ancien député et père d'Yvan Colonna, Jean-Hugues Colonna est mort (in French) ^ È morta Valeria Fedeli, ex ministra dell’Istruzione (in Italian) ^ Помер народний депутат від "Слуги народу" Олександр Кабанов: перші подробиці (in Ukrainian) ^ Former Lotte Coach Kim Min-jae, National Team Shortstop, Dies ^ Rick Link Passes Away ^ Chinese Go legend Nie Weiping passes away ^ Adiós a Melania Pérez, voz emblema de la música argentina y del Festival de Cosquín (in Spanish) ^ Fallece el exalcalde de València Ricard Pérez Casado a los 80 años (in Spanish) ^ Jyväskylässä vaikuttanut olympiaurheilija Seppo Reijonen on kuollut (in Finnish) ^ Décès de Jean Rossier, président de Parole et Musique (in French) ^ Ernestine Russell Weaver, two-time Canadian Olympian and legendary U.S. coach, passes away at age 87 ^ Radio-Legende Ado Schlier mit 90 Jahren in Würzburg gestorben (in German) ^ Morre a atriz e modelo Vera Barreto Leite Valdez aos 89 anos (in Portuguese) ^ Fallece el músico Quemil Yambay, ícono del folclore paraguayo (in Spanish) ^ Умер Игорь Золотовицкий (in Russian) ^ Scott Adams, Creator of the ‘Dilbert’ Comic Strip, Dies at 68 ^ Veteran journalist Iqbal Athas passes away ^ Addio a Lina Bernardi, l’attrice di Latina aveva lavorato con i più grandi registi (in Italian) ^ Alfred Blumstein ^ Former Arizona Attorney General Mark Brnovich dies at age 59 ^ Capoterra, addio alla calciatrice Paola Cardia, 74 anni, nota Paoletta: il centrocampo era il suo mondo (in Italian) ^ Former ECB chief executive David Collier dies aged 70 ^ Claudette Colvin, US civil rights pioneer, dies at 86 ^ Regal Nizam-era Socialite Indira Devi Passes Away ^ Mort de Catherine Duprat, historienne de la Révolution française (in French) ^ Nie żyje Barbara Eustachiewicz-Kowal, wybitna polska gimnastyczka sportowa (in Polish) ^ Odszedł Jesse Philip Flis (1933–2026) – rozmowa z 2018 r. (in Polish) ^ Assam: Retired IAS officer Bir Bhadra Hagjer passes away at 75 ^ Mozambique: Footballer Ali Hassan passes away at 61 ^ 混元禪師圓寂！曾腎臟萎縮病危、長期糖尿病 醫示警6徵兆快就醫 (in Chinese) ^ Suri endine poliitik Heiki Kranich (in Estonian) ^ 97 Play Off Champion Jason Lafreniere Passes Away, aged 59 ^ Theatre world pays tribute to Blanche Marvin, who has died aged 100 ^ Doug McConnell, longtime host of OpenRoad with Doug McConnell and Friends, dies ^ Bruce McLeod, 25th Moderator of The United Church of Canada, Dies at Age 97 ^ Addio a Rolando Nannicini, il cordoglio del mondo politico (in Italian) ^ Renowned Cork singer Seán Ó Sé dies aged 89 ^ Ушёл из жизни бывший футболист тюменского «Геолога» Иван Онуфриев (in Russian) ^ Voor theatermaker Annemarie Prins was maatschappijkritiek en engagement tweede natuur (in Dutch) ^ Lutto nel calcio, si è spento l'ex calciatore della Spal: vinse un campionato di Serie C (in Italian) ^ « Écrivain de l’agriculture » et photographe, le Mayennais Jean-Loup Trassard est décédé (in French) ^ Zomrel režisér, dramaturg a publicista Rudolf Urc, významná osobnosť slovenskej kinematografie (in Slovak) ^ Former Cyprus President George Vassiliou, who put the country on the path to EU membership, has died ^ Hong Kong corporate governance activist David Webb dies at 60 ^ ”Arne” i Kurt Olsson död (in Swedish) ^ Veteran 2GB radio announcer Bruce Wilshire has died aged 81 ^ Մահացել է հայ քաղաքական գործիչ, ՀՀԿ առանցքային ներկայացուցիչ Ռազմիկ Զոհրաբյանը (in Armenian) ^ Oba Babatunde Akran of Badagry dies at 89 ^ Israeli-backed group kills a senior Hamas police officer in Gaza, threatens more attacks ^ BBC's Good Old Days and Coronation Street star and singer Sheila Bernette dies aged 94 ^ Clauson, Paul John ^ Entraîneur français emblématique, Rolland Courbis est mort (in French) ^ George Mason Athletics Mourns The Loss of Longtime Assistant Bill Courtney ^ Mantan Bupati Bekasi Mochammad Djamhari Tutup Usia di Bandung (in Indonesian) ^ John Forté, celebrated recording artist, dies suddenly at 50 ^ Rick Garcia, activist and leader in Chicago's LGBTQ+ civil rights movement, dies at 69 ^ Ex-cricketer Mohammad Ilyas passes away in Lahore ^ สิ้น “อัษฎา ชัยนาม” อดีตเอกอัครราชทูตและผู้แทนถาวรไทยประจำUN ถึงแก่อนิจกรรม (in Thai) ^ Presentator Robert Jensen (52) overleden aan hartstilstand (in Dutch) ^ Renowned actress Jayasree Kabir passes away in London ^ Professor Emeritus Robert Kohn (1953-2026) ^ Black Midi Co-Founder Matt Kwasniewski-Kelvin Dies at 26 ^ Author Jan Mårtenson dies at 92 ^ Eddie McCreadie – 1940-2026 ^ Morto Luigi Nicolais, è stato presidente della fondazione Reggia di Carditello (in Italian) ^ Alain Orsoni, ancien dirigeant nationaliste, abattu lors des obsèques de sa mère en Corse (in French) ^ Mario Rigutti (in Italian) ^ Südtirol trauert um Roland Riz (in German) ^ Décès de Catherine Samie, pilier de la Comédie-Française (in French) ^ e peintre nîmois Michel Tombereau est mort (in French) ^ Hall of Fame Trick Rider and Wife of Hall of Fame Stock Contractor Passes Away ^ „Einer der besten Debattenredner": Martin Willich ist tot (in German) ^ הפקולטה למדעי החיים מרכינה ראשה בצער על פטירתו של פרופ' יצחק (איציק) ויץ ז"ל (in Hebrew) ^ Mirė legendinis Lietuvos futbolo treneris Benjaminas Zelkevičius (in Lithuanian) ^ Умер бывший бейсболист сборной России Павел Акишев (in Russian) ^ The Passing of Dr. Gabriel Barkay ^ Addio Alberto Benzoni. Socialista di valore dallo sguardo acuto (in Italian) ^ Brus, Rice alumnus and Nobel laureate, passes away at 82 ^ Thomas Causey, Sound Mixer on ‘Dick Tracy,’ ‘Broadcast News’ and ‘Defending Your Life,’ Dies at 76 ^ [1] (in Italian) ^ Richard Codey, former governor of New Jersey, dies at 79 ^ Marcus Gilbert 1958 - 2026 RIP ^ Pirates World Series champion Dave Giusti dies at age 86 ^ Clubs pay tribute to former player Hopkins ^ Bernie Carlton Keel ^ Ueli Kestenholz, snowboarder e sportivo estremo svizzero, è morto travolto da una valanga (in Italian) ^ Ушел из жизни олимпийский чемпион по тяжелой атлетике (in Russian) ^ 児玉更太郎さん（こだま・こうたろう＝元安芸高田市長) (in Japanese) (subscription required) ^ Falleció el huancaíno Nelson Manrique, referente de las ciencias sociales del Perú (in Spanish) ^ Morre a atriz Titina Medeiros, aos 48 anos (in Portuguese) ^ Veteran Syrian Actor Ahmad Melli dies at 80 ^ Mor als 77 anys Miquel Naudí, qui va ser conseller general entre 1981 i 1983 i conseller comunal de Canillo (in Catalan) ^ Takashi Ono, 1928–2026 ^ 박순용(전 검찰총장)씨 별세 (in Korean) ^ Zemřela Miroslava Pešíková, osobnost našeho baletu a sólistka Národního divadla (in Czech) ^ Clarence Pierce ^ Doliu la UTA Arad » Eugen Pojoni, dublu campion al României, a murit la 84 de ani (in Romanian) ^ Laumatiamanu Ringo Purcell passes away ^ Veteran Left leader Samir Putatundu dies following prolonged illness ^ Saudi Arabia’s oldest man dies at 142, leaves 134 children and grandchildren ^ Filmskaper Grete Salomonsen Hynnekleiv er død (in Norwegian) ^ Robert G. Shulman, Yale biophysicist and pioneer of spectroscopy ^ Aniceto “Chito” Sobrepeña, veteran public servant and corporate leader, dies at 77 ^ Singer-actor Prashant Tamang passes away at 43 in Delhi ^ Addio a Sergio Tarquinio, una vita lunga un secolo tra fumetto e arte (in Italian) ^ ‘Enigmatic’ Hollyoaks star Trevor A Toussaint dies aged 65 ^ Tributes paid to 'extraordinary musician' John Wallace ^ Oud-burgemeester van Grobbendonk Herman Wouters overleden in ziekenhuis (in Dutch) ^ Andlát: Sturla Böðvarsson (in Icelandic) ^ Manoel Carlos, autor de grandes novelas da TV brasileira, morre aos 92 anos no Rio (in Portuguese) ^ Daniel Colson (1943-2026) ^ Former Burkinabe minister Viviane Compaoré found murdered ^ Schweizer Autor und Publizist Erich von Däniken ist gestorben (in German) ^ Leading Sire Distorted Humor Dies at 33 ^ Умер призер чемпионатов мира по гребле на байдарках Сергей Галков (in Russian) ^ In Memoriam: Richard Hynes ^ Husker Legend Jim Hartung Passes Away ^ Fallece el exblanquivioleta Mario Jacquet a los 79 años (in Spanish) ^ Zmarł Włodzimierz Jakubowski (in Polish) ^ Sitting Maine representative Kathy Javner dies of cancer ^ Atención: en accidente de avioneta esta tarde en Paipa (Boyacá) muere el cantante Yeison Jiménez y sus músicos (in Spanish) ^ Zemřel opavský politik, bývalý poslanec Václav Klučka (in Czech) ^ Former Louisiana State Senator Robert Kostelka dies at 92 ^ EastEnders actor Derek Martin dies aged 92 ^ Fallece Marco Proaño Maya, exvicepresidente del Congreso Nacional (in Spanish) ^ Hockey Olympian Davinder Singh Garcha passes away ^ Zemřel religionista Ivan Štampach. Spojoval křesťanství s otevřeností a dialogem (in Czech) ^ Monsieur Thierry STEINMETZ footballeur professionnel (in French) ^ Addio a Orazio Svelto, pioniere della ricerca sui laser in Italia (in Italian) ^ Isabel Veloso Dead: Influencer Dies at Age 19 After Battling Hodgkin’s Lymphoma ^ Fallece el actor cubano Manolo Villaverde, el querido Pepe en "¿Qué pasa USA? (in Spanish) ^ Honoured health reformer Prawase dies aged 93 ^ Bob Weir, co-founder of rock group the Grateful Dead, dies at age 78 ^ Robert Wolgemuth, Best-Selling Christian Author and Husband of Nancy DeMoss, Dies at 77 ^ Genius Chimpanzee Ai Dies at Age 49, Primate Known for Enthusiastic Role in Research on Learning, Memory ^ Zéno Bianu (1950-2025) (in French) ^ Muere el periodista Andrés Caniulef a los 48 años de edad - Chilevisión (in Spanish) ^ 'The Thing' Actor T.K. Carter Dead at 69 ^ Father of American Freediving Bob Croft Dies Aged 91 ^ Décès de Jean-Louis Duplat, ancien président de la Commission bancaire (in French) ^ Murió la maestra Beatriz González, ícono del arte colombiano (in Spanish) ^ Serieskaparen Ulf Granberg död (in Swedish) ^ Zemřela PaedDr. Jitka Gruntová (in Czech) ^ Porsche mourns the loss of Hans Herrmann ^ Longtime New Orleans activist Sandra Wheeler Hester dies ^ Entinen keskisuomalainen kansanedustaja Pirkko Ikonen on kuollut (in Finnish) ^ Heber Jentzsch Dead at 90: Scientology's Longtime 'President' Dies Years After Being Transferred to a Nursing Home ^ CDU Essen trauert um Manfred Kuhmichel (in German) ^ Đại tướng, Anh hùng LLVT nhân dân Lê Văn Dũng – Một cuộc đời trọn vẹn với non sông (in Vietnamese) ^ Former Ranji Trophy Cricketer from Mizoram Dies After Collapsing During Match ^ Humanists UK mourns Diane Munday, leading campaigner for the Abortion Act (1931-2026) ^ Ушел из жизни Валерий Носков (in Russian) ^ Shakespeare and Company Founding Artistic Director Tina Packer dies ^ Ci lascia Zelico Petrovic, stagioni meravigliose a Taranto (in Italian) ^ Larry Snook ^ Renaissance drummer Terry Sullivan has died ^ Muere Josep Maria Triginer, fundador del PSC y firmante de los Pactos de la Moncloa (in Spanish) ^ Eleni Varikas: the years with the FI in Greece ^ 前中常委「姚董」姚江臨辭世 國民黨工感念：他永遠走在第一線 (in Chinese) ^ Bishop Vincenzo Zarri † ^ Farewell to a great lady ^ Celebrating the Life and Legacy of Musa Gibril Bala Gaye ^ Танымал қазақстандық актер Мұрат Бисенбин өмірден өтті (in Kazakh) ^ Loraine Braham, trailblazing Northern Territory politician dies, aged 87 ^ Maler Günther Brendel gestorben (in German) ^ Filha de Olavo de Carvalho é encontrada morta (in Portuguese) ^ Zemřel sochař Václav Cigler, bylo mu 96 let. Poprvé v historii použil optické sklo k tvorbě uměleckého díla (in Czech) ^ Jornalista Conrado Corsalette morre em São Paulo aos 47 anos (in Portuguese) ^ Nie żyje były poseł i prezydent Łomży. Mieczysław Czerniawski miał 77 lat (in Polish) ^ Nelly Chatue-Diop, pionnière de la crypto pour tous en Afrique, est morte (in French) ^ La disparition de Jean-Luc Domenach (in French) ^ Former all-star linebacker, Grey Cup champion with Stamps, Jim Furlong, dead at 85 ^ Serguei, dessinateur au « Monde » depuis quarante-cinq ans, est mort (in French) ^ Veteran SP Leader, Eight-Time MLA Vijay Singh Gond Passes Away at 68 ^ Foxtrot producer David Hitchcock has passed away ^ 痛别！简水生院士逝世 (in Chinese) ^ Mort de l’ex-mari de Caroline de Monaco, le déchirant message de sa fille Victoria Junot : "À mon papa légendaire…" (in French) ^ Malawi Mourns Former Deputy Speaker Madalitso Kazombo ^ Larose, whose signature voice helped shape Haitian music, dies at 80 ^ Obituary: Opera Director Rhoda Levine Dies at 93 ^ Atriz Elisa Lisboa morreu aos 81 anos (in Portuguese) ^ В Кургане погиб экс-глава Калининграда Евгений Любивый (in Russian) ^ Padova piange Antonino Mangano, il maestro dell’atletica veneta (in Italian) ^ Guy Moon Dies: Emmy-Nominated ‘Fairly OddParents’ Composer Was 63 ^ Politikus Demokrat dan Mantan Ketua Komisi IV DPR RI, Kolonel (Purn) Jafar Nainggolan Wafat (in Indonesian) ^ 画家・中村宏さん死去 砂川闘争描いた「ルポルタージュ絵画」：朝日新聞 (in Japanese) ^ El Punk está de luto: falleció el gran músico Álvaro Peña Rojas (1943-2026) (in Spanish) ^ Howard Riley: 1938–2026 ^ Schrijfster Astrid Roemer overleden (in Dutch) ^ Kjersti Scheen (in Norwegian) ^ Sēru vēsts: mūžībā devusies Latvijas un pasaules basketbola leģenda Uļjana Semjonova (in Latvian) ^ Sir Tim Shadbolt has died at age 78 ^ Manipur BJP leader Meinam Bhorot Singh dies after prolonged illness in Imphal ^ جمهوری اسلامی مجتبی ترشیز، بازیکن پیشین تراکتور و همسرش را به قتل رساند (in Persian) ^ Matthew Taylor RIP ^ Le sport belge en deuil : le rameur Wim Van Belleghem, le seul Belge champion du monde en aviron, est décédé (in French) ^ Paul Visser ^ Terry Yorath obituary ^ Iran executes a man convicted of spying for Israel's Mossad ^ Madjoulba Batocfetou, patron de l'ICAT s'est éteint (in French) ^ James Bernard, founding editor of ‘The Source’ and co-founder of ‘XXL,’ dies ^ Помер український композитор Блажков, Гордон, 8.1.2026, автор - Ельчін Садаєв (in Ukrainian) ^ Mort d'Albert Bourgi, professeur de droit et figure du socialisme en Afrique (in French) ^ È morta Raffaella Bragazzi, storica voce di «Ok, il prezzo è giusto», aveva 66 anni (in Italian) ^ Frank Stanley Cerveny ^ Muere "El Chiri", excompetidor de Calle y beisbolista chiricano (in Spanish) ^ Obituary | Martin Chivers ^ Falleció Ángel Coerezza, uno de los mejores árbitros argentinos y ejemplo de persona (in Spanish) ^ John Witt Derr ^ 北海道・前釧路市長の蝦名大也さん（67）死去 議員秘書や北海道議などを経て4期16年釧路市長 防災インフラの整備に尽力 関係者からも悼む声 (in Japanese) ^ Former Memphis Rogues soccer star Tony Field dies at 79 ^ Vera Frances dead: Child star dies surrounded by family as tributes pour in ^ Madhav Gadgil (1942-2026) ^ Woman killed by ICE in Minneapolis identified ^ Morto monsignor Domenico Graziani, fu vescovo di Cassano e arcivescovo di Crotone (in Italian) ^ Hall, ironman goaltender with record 502 consecutive starts, dies at 94 ^ Sidney de Jong ^ Rebecca, Becky, Roo: Missing Miss Kilgore ^ Jon Lindsay, the longest-serving Harris County judge, dies at 90 ^ Former Jerusalem mayor Uri Lupolianski dies at 74 ^ Obituary: Ian McCrae ^ Former Colts RB Randy McMillan dies at 67 ^ New Mexico remembers former lieutenant governor, musician ^ Kabindra Purkayastha, the Patriarch of Assam BJP Passes Away at 94 ^ Former State Rep. Howard Sanderford dies at 90 ^ Dietrich Stratmann (in German) ^ Death of Seydou Madani Sy, former Minister of Justice and first Senegalese rector of UCAD ^ Kim Thorson ^ Hall of Fame tight end Billy Truax dies at 82 ^ Muore a 84 anni la giornalista parmigiana Chiara Valentini, è stata la biografa di Berlinguer (in Italian) ^ وفاة المفكر والفيلسوف المصري مراد وهبة عن 100 عام (in Arabic) ^ Vale Athol Webb | Melbourne mourns premiership hero ^ 云南省民间文艺家协会第六届副主席昂自明逝世 (in Chinese) ^ Former MLA and mayor Joe Arlooktoo passes away at 86 ^ Elle avait risqué sa vie pour en sauver d'autres : Odette Bergoffen, Juste parmi les Nations, est morte à 101 ans (in French) ^ Odszedł Profesor Andrzej Bogusławski (in Polish) ^ Former Queensland senator Ron 'Bozzie' Boswell dies aged 85 ^ John Cunningham, Veteran Broadway Actor, Dies at 93 ^ Former Maryland AD Dick Dull Passes Away ^ V.K. Ebrahim Kunju, IUML leader and former Kerala Minister, passes away ^ Deggendorfs frühere Oberbürgermeisterin Anna Eder ist gestorben (in German) ^ Johannes Fabian (in Dutch) ^ В Ухте скончался 32-летний нападающий МФК «Норильский никель» Алекс Фелипе (in Russian) ^ Angella Ferguson ^ Edith Flanigen ^ Schengen signatory Robert Goebbels passes away at 81 ^ Former Union minister Suresh Kalmadi passes away at 81 after prolonged illness ^ Doug LaMalfa, California Republican congressman, dies aged 65 ^ Elhunyt Láyer József volt országgyűlési képviselő (in Hungarian) ^ Alabama Music Hall of Famer, Huntsville native Jim McBride, dies at 78 ^ Jack McGregor, original founder of Pittsburgh Penguins, dies at 91 ^ AfD-Landtagsabgeordnete Muxel gestorben (in German) ^ Bishop Raffaele Nogaro † ^ James E. O'Grady ^ Veteran Iranian actor Saeid Pirdoost passes away ^ Guinea ex-security chief convicted over crimes against humanity dies ^ Oud-burgemeester Jaap Pop overleden (in Dutch) ^ DA Gauteng mourns passing of former MPL David Quail ^ Obituary: Nihal Seneviratne ^ Bağır Süleymanov vəfat etdi (in Azerbaijani) ^ Meghalt Tarr Béla (in Hungarian) ^ Jerry Thomas, MVP of 1956 College World Series with Gophers, dies at 90 ^ Morto Gianpaolo Tosel, è stato per anni giudice sportivo della Serie A: aveva 85 anni (in Italian) ^ Le PSG en deuil, une figure historique du club s'est éteinte (in French) ^ Не стало Анатолия Евтушенко (in Russian) ^ 著名文艺理论家、北大中文系教授张少康逝世 (in Chinese) ^ 周立伟院士逝世：他“创立了自己的科学学派” (in Chinese) ^ South Korean Film Legend Ahn Sung-ki Dies at 75 ^ Aldrich Ames, CIA officer convicted of spying for Russia, dies at age 84 ^ Luto en el boxeo colombiano por la muerte del legendario 'Bony' Ávila (in Spanish) ^ Mustergültiger Aufklärer (in German) ^ Bassist Andrew Bodnar (o.a. Graham Parker & The Rumour) overleden (in Dutch) ^ Andrew Carter - In Memoriam ^ Tom Cherones, Emmy-Winning ‘Seinfeld’ Director and Producer, Dies at 86 ^ Fallece Beatriz de Lenclós, la gran vedette vitoriana que marcó época (in Spanish) ^ Jim Dennison, winningest football coach at Akron and Walsh, dies ^ Marian Diamond: Miriam Margolyes pays tribute to 'dear friend' after Jackanory star's death aged 89 ^ Meghalt Dudás Miki (in Hungarian) ^ Razor – Former Drummer Mike Embro Dead At 63 ^ 元グラドル藤乃あおいさんが死去、27歳 親族が発表 23年に希少がんを公表 闘病続けていた (in Japanese) ^ Bishop Paolo Gillet † ^ Morto Pier Francesco Guarguaglini, Crosetto: uomo di intelligenza e visione (in Italian) ^ Bruce Hammock: 1947-2026 ^ Acteur Ad van Kempen overleden op 81-jarige leeftijd (in Dutch) ^ Odszedł na Wieczną Wartę Druh harcmistrz Wiktor Kinecki (in Polish) ^ Fallece José Mingorance, leyenda de la época dorada del Córdoba CF en Primera División (in Spanish) ^ گزارش ههنگاو از جانباختن رضا مرادی عبدالوند ششمین جانباخته اعتراضات شهر ازنا (in Persian) ^ Jawann Oldham, a basketball star at Cleveland High, Seattle U, dies at 68 ^ “พระองค์หญิงอินทุรัตนา บริพัตร” (พระวรวงศ์เธอ พระองค์เจ้าอินทุรัตนา) สิ้นพระชนม์ สิริพระชันษา ๑๐๓ ปี (in Thai) ^ Artist and fashion writer Molly Parkin dies ^ Χρήστος Πολίτης: Πέθανε τη Δευτέρα και τον βρήκε ο αδελφός του νεκρό μια μέρα αργότερα (in Greek) ^ Pulford, 4-time Stanley Cup champion with Maple Leafs, dies at 89 ^ La città piange Cosimo Scaglioso. Fu docente emerito e senatore (in Italian) ^ Chef and food stylist Elle Simone Scott dies at 49 ^ Zemřel specialista na pokutové kopy. Brankář si zachytal za Slavii i Spartu (in Czech) ^ Karel-zangeres Elsje de Wijn overleden op 82-jarige leeftijd (in Dutch) ^ Tribute to Sutton Harrier Ken Wilcock, who has died aged 91 ^ Mike Wilson (1959-2026): The King of Karting takes his final bow ^ Po těžké nemoci zemřel bývalý rektor ČVUT Jiří Witzany, bylo mu 84 let (in Czech) ^ 105岁东北妇运工作开拓者之一、黑龙江省妇联原主任吴琳涛逝世 (in Chinese) ^ WKU Athletics Hall of Famer Forest "Frosty" Able Passes Away ^ رئيس الوزراء الأسبق علي ابو الراغب في ذمة الله (in Arabic) ^ Jamia Ashrafia head Maulana Ashrafi passes away ^ Pionnière du travail social sur l’itinérance et le profilage, la chercheuse Céline Bellot s’éteint (in French) ^ Ci ha lasciati coach Mario Blasone. Le condoglianze del presidente Petrucci. Disposto minuto di silenzio (in Italian) ^ Robert Gerald Boyer ^ OHL, CHL Mourn the Loss of David Branch, Transformative Commissioner and Hockey Visionary ^ Le rappeur Calbo, membre du duo emblématique Ärsenik, est mort à l’âge de 52 ans (in French) ^ Gardienne des remèdes d'antan, la Valaisanne Germaine Cousin-Zermatten s'est éteinte à 100 ans (in French) ^ Le magicien de bal Kamiel Dierckx est décédé à l’âge de 84 ans (in French) ^ Edinburgh's last star director has died, at 97 ^ Muere Manuel Fernández Ilarraza, expresidente del Parlamento (in Spanish) ^ Zemřel kněz Miloslav Fiala (in Czech) ^ Andy Friendly Dies: First ‘Entertainment Tonight’ Producer, Son Of Legendary CBS Newsman Fred Friendly Was 74 ^ Veteran Dravidian ideologue L. Ganesan no more ^ Anne-Claire Goulon, ex-dirigeante du groupe Livio, s'est éteinte à 51 ans (in French) ^ Vicki Gregory ^ Hommage à Michel Griffon (in French) ^ Hommage à Roger Guesnerie (in French) ^ Former Portland lawmaker Denise Harlow dies at 55 ^ Bobby Holmes ^ Mūžībā devusies rakstniece Nora Ikstena (in Latvian) ^ Erster Landtagspräsident von Sachsen-Anhalt ist verstorben (in German) ^ '원조 스턴트맨'…60년간 배우 활동한 김영인씨 별세 (in Korean) ^ Na svoj rođendan preminuo Milorad Kosanović (in Serbian) ^ Stade Rennais : l'ancien président du club Bernard Lemoux est décédé (in French) ^ George Lodge ^ Oscar Warren Lofton ^ Ayawaso East MP Mahama Naser Toure dies after short illness ^ Zemřel válečný veterán Miloslav Masopust (in Czech) ^ Έφυγε από τη ζωή ο Γιώργος Παπαδάκης ύστερα από έμφραγμα (in Greek) ^ La Louvière perd l'un de ses artistes emblématiques : Daniel Pelletti a tiré sa révérence à l'âge de 77 ans (in French) ^ Former mayor of Dunedin Jules Radich dies ^ Michael Reagan, Eldest Son Of Ronald Reagan, Has Died ^ ‘70s PHL tennis star Marissa Sanchez dies at 69 ^ Décès de Jacqueline Schaeffer (1934-2026) (in French) ^ Former Sheetz president and CEO Steve Sheetz dies at age 77 ^ Khadial King Jitamitra Prasad Singh Deo Passes Away at 80 ^ Ralph L. Thomas, ‘The Terry Fox Story’ Director and Journalist, Dies at 86 ^ Murió Horacio Usandizaga, histórico dirigente de la UCR y primer intendente de Rosario tras el regreso de la democracia (in Spanish) ^ ‘She was a force of nature’ – Mary White, former senator and founder of Lir Chocolates, dies aged 81 ^ 著名摄影家、新中国第一批女摄影记者晓庄逝世，享年94岁 (in Chinese) ^ Zmarła Pani Teresa Zalewska (in Polish) ^ Hushang Ansary (98) overleden (in Dutch) ^ S’ha mort el periodista Joan Armengol a 91 anys (in Catalan) ^ وفاة الإعلامي الأردني جميل عازر أحد مؤسسي قناة “الجزيرة” القطرية (in Arabic) ^ Langjähriger Tiroler ÖVP-Mandatar Bachmann 91-jährig verstorben (in German) ^ La comédienne genevoise Claude-Inga Barbey s'en est allée (in French) ^ Stephen Edward Braude ^ Morto a 94 anni l'ex senatore Natale Carlotto (in Italian) ^ Morto Francesco Paolo Casavola, il diritto come missione (in Italian) ^ Il prêtait sa voix à une légende du cinéma : le comédien français Frédéric Cerdal nous a quittés à l'âge de 81 ans (in French) ^ Mor Maria Eugènia Cuenca, la primera dona que va ser consellera de la Generalitat (in Catalan) ^ Obit: Former Windsor CFL receiver Tony Dennis dies after multiple organ failure ^ 著名民俗学家、教育家、北京师大教授董晓萍逝世，享年75岁 (in Chinese) ^ Gerry Gable (1937–2026) ^ Broadway Alum Bret Hanna-Shuford Passes Away at 46 ^ Franz Herre (in German) ^ Marvalene Hughes ^ Opera sanatçısı Prof. Dr. Mesut İktu vefat etti (in Turkish) ^ Bishop Hernán Giraldo Jaramillo † ^ Nālani Kanakaʻole, revered Kumu Hula and cultural matriarch, passes at 79 ^ گزارش ههنگاو از جانباختن لطیف کریمی با شلیک مستقیم نیروهای حکومتی/ تلاش حکومت برای مصادره و وارونهسازی واقعیت (in Persian) ^ Zum Tod des Fehlfarben-Bassisten Michael Kemner: Ohne Atempause Rockgeschichte gemacht (in German) ^ E-News — January 2026 ^ Goddur er látinn (in Icelandic) ^ Tributes flow for founding father of Australian beef industry, Sir Graham McCamley ^ John Meredith (1940 – 2026) ^ Former DA Federal Chairperson Errol Moorcroft Has Passed Away ^ Former Bangladesh footballer Golam Dostogir no more ^ Strongman turned hilarious Instagram star dies aged 40 ^ Sverre Anker Ousdal er død (in Norwegian) ^ Zmarł prof. Andrzej Paczkowski, jeden z najwybitniejszych polskich historyków (in Polish) ^ The great coach and football player Dimitar Penev has passed away ^ Jenny Plocki, rescapée de la rafle du Vél' d'Hiv et témoin du siècle, est morte à 100 ans (in French) ^ Komponist Rolf Riehm ist gestorben: Immer mit Einspruch (in German) ^ Randy Joseph Riley ^ In memoriam – Eva Schloss-Geiringer ^ Former Deputy Chief Counsel for the House Select Committee on Assassinations, Robert K. Tanenbaum, has died at the age of 83 ^ Nam Singh Thapa, Nepal's first Olympian, dies ^ Remembering Samuel O. Thier, IOM President (1985-1991) ^ В Тынде умер легендарный строитель БАМа Иван Варшавский (in Russian) ^ 海军原副政委王征中将逝世，享年64岁 (in Chinese) ^ Terry Wharton | 1942-2026 ^ Yohn, William Hendricks, Jr. ^ Pimpinan PMDG Gontor KH Amal Fathullah Zarkasyi wafat (in Indonesian) ^ Zmarł Mirosław Zdanowicz - przedsiębiorca i legenda sportu (in Polish) ^ 著名京剧表演艺术家、马连良先生入室弟子张克让逝世 (in Chinese) ^ Ihana ja ihmeellinen karjalainen, muistelee Sinikka Sokka tätiään Ritva Auvista (in Finnish) ^ Ian Balding, legendary trainer of Mill Reef, dies aged 87 ^ Rhymester Sukumar Barua passes away ^ Shyam Bihari Lal, BJP MLA, dies in Bareilly a day after celebrating his 60th birthday, CM Yogi expresses grief ^ In memoriam: Carmen Arnold-Biucchi, respected numismatist and educator ^ Ancien président de l'Assemblée de Corse et maire de Sartène, Dominique Bucchini est décédé (in French) ^ Tony Carr, Maltese jazz drummer to the stars, dies aged 98 ^ Jean-Max Causse, exploitant de cinémas et grand nom de la cinéphilie parisienne, est mort (in French) ^ Odesa reports the death of artist Bohdan Chufus ^ BBC Radio Merseyside founding member dies as tributes paid ^ Mor Miquel Contestí, històric expresident del RCE Mallorca (in Catalan) ^ Sir Patrick Duffy, Britain’s oldest living former MP, passes away at the age of 105 ^ 藤井俊男さん死去 元民主党参院議員 (in Japanese) ^ D-Day veteran who escorted allied troops landing in Normandy dies aged 101 ^ Diamond legend Steve Haggerty has died ^ 'He was awesome': Fans grieve death of beloved Island radio host ^ Sidney Kibrick, Last of the 'Our Gang' Kids, Dies at 97 ^ Kristi L. Kiick ^ Elbert Leon Kimbrough ^ Anna Kurek, medic of the 1944 Warsaw Uprising, has died ^ Paul Lambert ’46, Former Trustee, Dies at 97 ^ Daily Update: NJPW Wrestle Kingdom 20, CMLL Sin Salida, Johnny Legend ^ Преминуо проф. Владимир Лукић (in Serbian) ^ Former MLC Ashok Modak passes away at 85 ^ Con Pederson, ‘2001: A Space Odyssey’ Special Effects Supervisor, Dies at 91 ^ В Петербурге умер снимавший Высоцкого фотограф Валерий Плотников (in Russian) ^ Vale: Tim Robertson ^ Rovátkay Lajostól búcsúzunk (in Hungarian) ^ PM Mourns Former Deputy Prime Minister, Minister Saleh Irshaidat ^ Edith Renfrow Smith, a 'memory keeper' and living link to history, dies at 111 ^ Former AFL player Phoenix Spicer dies as heartbroken family and football figures pay tribute ^ Ivonne Trebbi è morta, addio alla partigiana Bruna. Aveva 97 anni (in Italian) ^ James Gladden Willis ^ Tragiczna śmierć polskiego olimpijczyka. Robert Wolski nie żyje (in Polish) ^ Remembering Nellie Wong ^ Former Speaker of Bishkek City Council Marat Amankulov passes away ^ Communiqué d'Action française – Un camelot du roi exemplaire (in French) ^ Walsall confirm death of former Saddlers and Aston Villa creative favourite Alan Baker ^ Allyn Bromley-Baron ^ Fallece Xesús Cañedo, referente del asturianismo político y cultural (in Spanish) ^ "Це велика втрата": на фронті загинула операторка дронів і мисткиня Лана Чорногорська (in Ukrainian) ^ Diane Crump, the first female jockey to race in the Kentucky Derby, dies at 77 ^ Figura e shquar e politikës dhe shkencës - liderët politikë shprehin dhimbjen dhe mirënjohjen për Nexhat Dacin (in Albanian) ^ Brian Doyle, celebrated Ottawa author, dies at age 90 ^ פרופסור יחזקאל דרור, חתן פרס ישראל, מת בגיל 98 (in Hebrew) ^ Ex-president Vīķe-Freiberga's husband Imants Freibergs dies ^ Obituary #8: James Grauerholz ^ وفاة مؤرخ الثورة الجزائرية محمد حربي (in Arabic) ^ 中国驻瓦努阿图原大使、驻美国芝加哥原总领事黄东璧逝世 (in Chinese) ^ Hyundai Dynasty's 2006 Win Rate King Jeon Joon-ho Dies ^ Victoria Jones, daughter of Tommy Lee Jones, found dead in San Francisco ^ Billionaire philanthropist Morris Kahn dies at 95 ^ Умер известный телеведущий Андрей Хорошев (in Russian) ^ Harvey C. Krautschun ^ Famed TV presenter Hiroshi Kume passes away at 81 ^ Remembering John Langdon ^ Suri Arno Talit kehastanud näitleja Arno Liiver (in Estonian) ^ 我国空气动力学界先驱、西北工业大学资深教授林超强逝世 (in Chinese) ^ Arnold Long (1940-2026) - Obituary ^ З глибоким сумом сповіщаємо, що 1 січня ц.р. на 104-му році пішов із життя видатний український математик та організатор науки академік НАН України Володимир Олександрович Марченко (in Ukrainian) ^ Ex-prefeito de Goiânia na década de 1970, Hélio Mauro Umbelino Lobo morre em Anápolis (in Portuguese) ^ Paul McCullagh Jr: Boxer dies age 25 as father confirms heartbreaking cause of death ^ Burnley pay tribute to their former great and England goalkeeper Colin McDonald ^ Fallece a los 89 años Enric Mestre, referente mundial de la cerámica (in Spanish) ^ Умер бывший футболист "Спартака" Мухсин Мухамадиев (in Russian) ^ Death of Sir James Munby ^ Skulpteur der Erinnerung (in German) ^ Monsieur Gregory, Peter de Polnay ^ Dame Karen Poutasi, first female director-general of health, dies aged 76 ^ Tributes paid to Australian actor Candy Raymond who has died aged 75 ^ Amit Saar, top IDF intelligence officer on Oct. 7, dies of cancer at 47 ^ 31 Jahre für Bergkamen: Früherer Bürgermeister Roland Schäfer gestorben (in German) ^ Bishop Serafim Shyngo-Ya-Hombo, O.F.M. Cap. † ^ Former Fayette County delegate and physician Dr. Margaret Staggers has passed away ^ Jewish woman whose baby photo was chosen by Goebbels as Aryan exemplar dies at 91 ^ Умер заслуженный летчик-испытатель Рубен Есаян, критиковавший «Сухой суперджет» (in Russian) ^ 港星病逝！享壽69歲 妻證實噩耗 (in Chinese) ^ Ушел из жизни первый советский фигурист – участник чемпионатов Европы и мира Захаров Валентин Дмитриевич (in Russian) External links The Guardian (UK) obituaries The Telegraph (UK) obituaries The Irish Times obituaries Obituaries, Irish Examiner Obituaries, Chicago Tribune Obituaries, Los Angeles Times The New York Times , obituaries The Washington Post obituaries The Sydney Morning Herald (Australia) obituaries .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e 2020s deaths by month v t e 2026 Jan 2025 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2024 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2023 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2022 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2021 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2020 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2026 Jan 2025 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2024 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2023 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2022 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2021 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2020 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2026 Jan Jan 2025 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2024 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2023 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2022 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2021 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2020 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2000s ← 2010s ← Lists of deaths by year 2026 deaths Lists of deaths in 2026 Articles with Croatian-language sources (hr) Articles with Azerbaijani-language sources (az) Articles with Spanish-language sources (es) Articles with Korean-language sources (ko) Articles with French-language sources (fr) Articles with Bengali-language sources (bn) Articles with Armenian-language sources (hy) Articles with Russian-language sources (ru) Articles with Italian-language sources (it) Articles with Ukrainian-language sources (uk) Articles with Finnish-language sources (fi) Articles with German-language sources (de) Articles with Portuguese-language sources (pt) Articles with Polish-language sources (pl) Articles with Chinese-language sources (zh) Articles with Estonian-language sources (et) 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Uses Toggle Uses subsection 1.1 Traditional medicine 1.1.1 Coca leaves 1.1.1.1 Coca tea 1.1.1.2 Ypadu 1.2 Medical 1.2.1 Topical 1.2.1.1 Topical anesthetic 1.2.1.2 Ophthalmological use 1.3 Recreational 1.3.1 Insufflation 1.3.1.1 Cocaine spoon 1.3.2 Injection 1.3.3 Inhalation 1.3.3.1 Cocaine paste 1.3.3.2 Crack cocaine 1.1 Traditional medicine 1.1.1 Coca leaves 1.1.1.1 Coca tea 1.1.1.2 Ypadu 1.1.1 Coca leaves 1.1.1.1 Coca tea 1.1.1.2 Ypadu 1.1.1.1 Coca tea 1.1.1.2 Ypadu 1.2 Medical 1.2.1 Topical 1.2.1.1 Topical anesthetic 1.2.1.2 Ophthalmological use 1.2.1 Topical 1.2.1.1 Topical anesthetic 1.2.1.2 Ophthalmological use 1.2.1.1 Topical anesthetic 1.2.1.2 Ophthalmological use 1.3 Recreational 1.3.1 Insufflation 1.3.1.1 Cocaine spoon 1.3.2 Injection 1.3.3 Inhalation 1.3.3.1 Cocaine paste 1.3.3.2 Crack cocaine 1.3.1 Insufflation 1.3.1.1 Cocaine spoon 1.3.1.1 Cocaine spoon 1.3.2 Injection 1.3.3 Inhalation 1.3.3.1 Cocaine paste 1.3.3.2 Crack cocaine 1.3.3.1 Cocaine paste 1.3.3.2 Crack cocaine 2 Contraindications Toggle Contraindications subsection 2.1 Pregnancy 2.2 Breastfeeding 2.1 Pregnancy 2.2 Breastfeeding 3 Adverse effects Toggle Adverse effects subsection 3.1 Cardiac complications 3.2 Levamisole syndromes 3.2.1 Levamisole-induced necrosis syndrome 3.2.2 Cocaine/levamisole-associated syndromes 3.2.2.1 Cocaine- and levamisole-induced vasculitis 3.2.2.1.1 Cocaine/levamisole-associated autoimmune syndrome 3.3 Mortality 3.4 Neurotoxicity 3.5 Psychiatric symptoms 3.5.1 Psychosis 3.6 Short-term effects 3.7 Long-term effects 3.7.1 Addiction 3.7.2 Dependence and withdrawal 3.7.2.1 Treatment 3.7.3 Cocaine nose 3.7.3.1 Cocaine-induced midline destructive lesions 3.7.3.2 Causes 3.7.3.3 Treatment 3.1 Cardiac complications 3.2 Levamisole syndromes 3.2.1 Levamisole-induced necrosis syndrome 3.2.2 Cocaine/levamisole-associated syndromes 3.2.2.1 Cocaine- and levamisole-induced vasculitis 3.2.2.1.1 Cocaine/levamisole-associated autoimmune syndrome 3.2.1 Levamisole-induced necrosis syndrome 3.2.2 Cocaine/levamisole-associated syndromes 3.2.2.1 Cocaine- and levamisole-induced vasculitis 3.2.2.1.1 Cocaine/levamisole-associated autoimmune syndrome 3.2.2.1 Cocaine- and levamisole-induced vasculitis 3.2.2.1.1 Cocaine/levamisole-associated autoimmune syndrome 3.2.2.1.1 Cocaine/levamisole-associated autoimmune syndrome 3.3 Mortality 3.4 Neurotoxicity 3.5 Psychiatric symptoms 3.5.1 Psychosis 3.5.1 Psychosis 3.6 Short-term effects 3.7 Long-term effects 3.7.1 Addiction 3.7.2 Dependence and withdrawal 3.7.2.1 Treatment 3.7.3 Cocaine nose 3.7.3.1 Cocaine-induced midline destructive lesions 3.7.3.2 Causes 3.7.3.3 Treatment 3.7.1 Addiction 3.7.2 Dependence and withdrawal 3.7.2.1 Treatment 3.7.2.1 Treatment 3.7.3 Cocaine nose 3.7.3.1 Cocaine-induced midline destructive lesions 3.7.3.2 Causes 3.7.3.3 Treatment 3.7.3.1 Cocaine-induced midline destructive lesions 3.7.3.2 Causes 3.7.3.3 Treatment 4 Overdose 5 Interactions Toggle Interactions subsection 5.1 Alcohol 5.2 MAOIs 5.3 Opioids 5.1 Alcohol 5.2 MAOIs 5.3 Opioids 6 Pharmacology Toggle Pharmacology subsection 6.1 Pharmacokinetics 6.2 Detection in the body 6.2.1 Body fluids 6.2.2 Hair 6.3 Pharmacodynamics 6.1 Pharmacokinetics 6.2 Detection in the body 6.2.1 Body fluids 6.2.2 Hair 6.2.1 Body fluids 6.2.2 Hair 6.3 Pharmacodynamics 7 Chemistry Toggle Chemistry subsection 7.1 Forms 7.2 Synthesis 7.2.1 Total synthesis 7.2.2 Biosynthesis 7.2.3 GMO synthesis 7.3 Field analysis 7.1 Forms 7.2 Synthesis 7.2.1 Total synthesis 7.2.2 Biosynthesis 7.2.3 GMO synthesis 7.2.1 Total synthesis 7.2.2 Biosynthesis 7.2.3 GMO synthesis 7.3 Field analysis 8 Society and culture Toggle Society and culture subsection 8.1 Street names 8.2 Legal status 8.2.1 Australia 8.2.2 United States 8.3 Prevalence and trends 8.4 Impact 8.4.1 Impact of illicit cocaine 8.4.1.1 Impact on impoverished communities 8.4.1.2 Environmental impact 8.4.1.3 Impact of illicit cocaine trade 8.4.1.3.1 Latin America 8.4.1.3.2 West Africa 8.4.2 Impact of enforcement 8.4.2.1 Impact of coca eradication 8.4.2.2 Impact of interdiction 8.1 Street names 8.2 Legal status 8.2.1 Australia 8.2.2 United States 8.2.1 Australia 8.2.2 United States 8.3 Prevalence and trends 8.4 Impact 8.4.1 Impact of illicit cocaine 8.4.1.1 Impact on impoverished communities 8.4.1.2 Environmental impact 8.4.1.3 Impact of illicit cocaine trade 8.4.1.3.1 Latin America 8.4.1.3.2 West Africa 8.4.2 Impact of enforcement 8.4.2.1 Impact of coca eradication 8.4.2.2 Impact of interdiction 8.4.1 Impact of illicit cocaine 8.4.1.1 Impact on impoverished communities 8.4.1.2 Environmental impact 8.4.1.3 Impact of illicit cocaine trade 8.4.1.3.1 Latin America 8.4.1.3.2 West Africa 8.4.1.1 Impact on impoverished communities 8.4.1.2 Environmental impact 8.4.1.3 Impact of illicit cocaine trade 8.4.1.3.1 Latin America 8.4.1.3.2 West Africa 8.4.1.3.1 Latin America 8.4.1.3.2 West Africa 8.4.2 Impact of enforcement 8.4.2.1 Impact of coca eradication 8.4.2.2 Impact of interdiction 8.4.2.1 Impact of coca eradication 8.4.2.2 Impact of interdiction 9 Research Toggle Research subsection 9.1 Cocaine vaccines 9.1.1 Calixcoca 9.1.2 TA-CD 9.1 Cocaine vaccines 9.1.1 Calixcoca 9.1.2 TA-CD 9.1.1 Calixcoca 9.1.2 TA-CD 10 History 11 Etymology 12 See also 13 References 14 Further reading 15 External links Cocaine Afrikaans العربية অসমীয়া Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Bikol Central Български Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული کٲشُر Қазақша Kiswahili Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Limburgs Luganda Lombard Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پښتو Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska தமிழ் తెలుగు ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 文言 Winaray 吴语 粵語 中文 Ghanaian Pidgin Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikinews Wikiquote Wikidata item Clinical data Pronunciation kə(ʊ)ˈkeɪn Trade names Neurocaine, [ 1 ] Goprelto, [ 2 ] Numbrino, [ 3 ] others Other names Benzoylmethylecgonine AHFS / Drugs.com Micromedex Detailed Consumer Information License data .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} US DailyMed : Cocaine US DailyMed : Cocaine Dependence liability Physical : Low Psychological : High [ 4 ] Addiction liability High [ 5 ] Routes of administration Topical , by mouth , insufflation , intravenous , inhalation Drug class Local anesthetic ; SNDRI ; [ 6 ] [ 7 ] Stimulant Local anesthetic ; SNDRI ; [ 6 ] [ 7 ] Stimulant ATC code N01BC01 ( WHO ) R02AD03 ( WHO ), S01HA01 ( WHO ), S02DA02 ( WHO ) N01BC01 ( WHO ) R02AD03 ( WHO ), S01HA01 ( WHO ), S02DA02 ( WHO ) Legal status Legal status AU : S8 (Controlled drug) BR : Class F1 (Prohibited narcotics) CA : Schedule I DE : Anlage III (Special prescription form required) NZ : Class A UK : Class A US : Schedule II [ 8 ] UN : Narcotic Schedules I and III AU : S8 (Controlled drug) BR : Class F1 (Prohibited narcotics) CA : Schedule I DE : Anlage III (Special prescription form required) NZ : Class A UK : Class A US : Schedule II [ 8 ] UN : Narcotic Schedules I and III Pharmacokinetic data Bioavailability By mouth : 33% [ 9 ] Insufflation : 60 [ 10 ] –80% [ 11 ] Nasal spray : 25 [ 12 ] –43% [ 9 ] By mouth : 33% [ 9 ] Insufflation : 60 [ 10 ] –80% [ 11 ] Nasal spray : 25 [ 12 ] –43% [ 9 ] Metabolism Liver , CYP3A4 Metabolites Norcocaine , benzoylecgonine , cocaethylene (when consumed with alcohol ) Onset of action Seconds to minutes [ 13 ] Duration of action 20 to 90 minutes [ 13 ] Excretion Kidney Identifiers IUPAC name Methyl (1 R ,2 R ,3 S ,5 S )-3-(benzoyloxy)-8-methyl-8-azabicyclo[3.2.1]octane-2-carboxylate Methyl (1 R ,2 R ,3 S ,5 S )-3-(benzoyloxy)-8-methyl-8-azabicyclo[3.2.1]octane-2-carboxylate CAS Number 50-36-2 50-36-2 PubChem CID 446220 446220 IUPHAR/BPS 2286 2286 DrugBank DB00907 DB00907 ChemSpider 10194104 10194104 UNII I5Y540LHVR I5Y540LHVR KEGG D00110 D00110 ChEBI CHEBI:27958 CHEBI:27958 ChEMBL ChEMBL370805 ChEMBL370805 PDB ligand COC ( PDBe , RCSB PDB ) COC ( PDBe , RCSB PDB ) CompTox Dashboard ( EPA ) DTXSID2038443 DTXSID2038443 ECHA InfoCard 100.000.030 Chemical and physical data Formula C 17 H 21 N O 4 Molar mass 303.358 g·mol −1 3D model ( JSmol ) Interactive image Interactive image Melting point 98 °C (208 °F) Boiling point 187 °C (369 °F) Solubility in water 1.8g/L (22 °C) SMILES CN1[C@H]2CC[C@@H]1[C@@H](C(OC)=O)[C@@H](OC(C3=CC=CC=C3)=O)C2 CN1[C@H]2CC[C@@H]1[C@@H](C(OC)=O)[C@@H](OC(C3=CC=CC=C3)=O)C2 InChI InChI=1S/C17H21NO4/c1-18-12-8-9-13(18)15(17(20)21-2)14(10-12)22-16(19)11-6-4-3-5-7-11/h3-7,12-15H,8-10H2,1-2H3/t12-,13+,14-,15+/m0/s1 Key:ZPUCINDJVBIVPJ-LJISPDSOSA-N InChI=1S/C17H21NO4/c1-18-12-8-9-13(18)15(17(20)21-2)14(10-12)22-16(19)11-6-4-3-5-7-11/h3-7,12-15H,8-10H2,1-2H3/t12-,13+,14-,15+/m0/s1 Key:ZPUCINDJVBIVPJ-LJISPDSOSA-N Data page Cocaine (data page) Cocaine is a tropane alkaloid and stimulant of the central nervous system , derived primarily from the leaves of two coca species native to South America: Erythroxylum coca and E. novogranatense . [ 14 ] [ 15 ] [ 16 ] [ 17 ] [ 18 ] The leaves are processed into cocaine paste , a crude mixture of coca alkaloids , from which cocaine base is isolated and then converted to cocaine hydrochloride . [ 18 ] Although total synthesis is possible, it is complex and not used for production. [ 19 ] Historically, cocaine was a standard topical medication used as a local anesthetic with intrinsic vasoconstrictor properties. However, its high abuse potential, adverse effects, and cost have limited its medical use and led to its replacement by alternative medicines. [ 20 ] [ 21 ] [ 22 ] Street cocaine is commonly snorted , injected , or smoked as crack cocaine ; its effects last up to 90 minutes depending on the route of administration. [ 13 ] [ 23 ] Pharmacologically, cocaine acts as a serotonin–norepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitor (SNDRI), [ 7 ] [ 24 ] [ 17 ] producing reinforcing effects such as euphoria , increased alertness , concentration , libido , and reduced fatigue and appetite . [ 25 ] Cocaine has numerous adverse effects . Acute use can cause vasoconstriction , tachycardia , hypertension , hyperthermia , or seizures, while overdose may lead to stroke , heart attack , or sudden cardiac death . [ 17 ] [ 13 ] [ 26 ] It also produces a spectrum of psychiatric symptoms , including agitation, paranoia , anxiety, irritability, psychosis , hallucinations, delusions, violence, and suicidal or homicidal thinking. [ 27 ] [ 17 ] Prenatal exposure poses risks to fetal development. [ 28 ] [ 29 ] [ 30 ] [ 31 ] Chronic use may result in cocaine dependence , withdrawal symptoms, neurotoxicity , and nasal damage , including cocaine-induced midline destructive lesions . [ 32 ] [ 33 ] [ 34 ] [ 35 ] [ 36 ] [ 37 ] Coca cultivation and initial processing occur primarily in Latin America , especially in the Andes regions of Bolivia, Peru, and Colombia. Cultivation is expanding into Central America , including Honduras, Guatemala, and Belize. [ 18 ] [ 38 ] [ 39 ] [ 40 ] [ 41 ] Violence linked to the cocaine trade continues to affect Latin America and the Caribbean and is expanding into Western Europe , Asia , and Africa as transnational organized crime groups compete globally. [ 42 ] [ 43 ] Cocaine remains the world's fastest-growing illicit drug market . [ 44 ] [ 45 ] Coca chewing dates back at least 8,000 years in South America. [ 46 ] Large-scale cultivation occurred in Taiwan and Java prior to World War II . [ 47 ] [ 48 ] The cocaine boom —a sharp rise in illegal production and trade—began in the late 1970s and peaked in the 1980s. [ 49 ] Cocaine is regulated under international drug control conventions , though its legal status varies nationally : several countries have decriminalized possession of small quantities. [ 50 ] [ 51 ] [ 52 ] [ 53 ] Uses Coca leaves have been used by Andean civilizations since ancient times . [ 54 ] In ancient Wari culture , [ 55 ] Inca culture, and through modern successor indigenous cultures of the Andes Mountains , coca leaves are chewed, taken orally in the form of a tea , or alternatively, prepared in a sachet wrapped around alkaline burnt ashes, and held in the mouth against the inner cheek ; it has traditionally been used as an anorectic and to combat the effects of cold and altitude sickness , [ 56 ] [ 57 ] although its actual effectiveness has never been systematically studied. [ 58 ] Globally, in 2019, cocaine was used by an estimated 20 million people (0.4% of adults aged 15 to 64 years). The highest prevalence of cocaine use was in Australia and New Zealand (2.1%), followed by North America (2.1%), Western and Central Europe (1.4%), and South and Central America (1.0%). [ 59 ] Since 1961, the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs has required countries to make recreational use of cocaine a crime . [ 60 ] In the United States, cocaine is regulated as a Schedule II drug under the Controlled Substances Act , meaning that it has a high potential for abuse but has an accepted medical use. [ 61 ] While rarely used medically anymore, its accepted uses include serving as a topical local anesthetic for the upper respiratory tract and as an antihemorrhagic agent to stop bleeding in the mouth, throat, and nasal cavities. [ 62 ] Traditional medicine Coca leaves It is legal to use coca leaves in the Andean Community , such as Peru and Bolivia , and Argentina, where they are chewed, consumed as tea, or sometimes incorporated into food products. [ 63 ] Coca leaves are typically mixed with an alkaline substance (such as slaked lime ) and chewed into a wad that is retained in the buccal pouch (mouth between gum and cheek, much the same as chewing tobacco is chewed) and sucked of its juices. The juices are absorbed slowly by the mucous membrane of the inner cheek and by the gastrointestinal tract when swallowed. Coca tea Coca herbal infusion (also referred to as coca tea ) is used in coca-leaf producing countries much as any herbal medicinal infusion would elsewhere in the world. The free and legal commercialization of dried coca leaves under the form of filtration bags to be used as "coca tea" has been actively promoted by the governments of Peru and Bolivia for many years as a drink having medicinal powers . In Peru, the National Coca Company , a state-run corporation, sells cocaine-infused teas and other medicinal products and also exports leaves to the U.S. for medicinal use. [ 64 ] The effects of drinking coca tea are mild stimulation and mood lift. [ 65 ] In 1986 an article in the Journal of the American Medical Association revealed that U.S. health food stores were selling dried coca leaves to be prepared as an infusion as "Health Inca Tea". While the packaging claimed it had been "decocainized", no such process had actually taken place. The article stated that drinking two cups of the tea per day gave a mild stimulation , increased heart rate , and mood elevation, and the tea was essentially harmless. [ 66 ] Ypadu Ypadú or ypadu (also known as mambé) is an unrefined, unconcentrated powder made from toasted coca leaves and the ash of various other plants. It is traditionally prepared and consumed by indigenous tribes in the Northwest Amazon. [ 67 ] Like coca teas consumed in Peru to adapt to sickness induced by high elevation, it has a long ethnobotanical history and cultural associations. Medical Karl Koller 's groundbreaking discovery of cocaine as a local anesthetic is regarded as the second most significant advance in the history of anesthesia. Although cocaine was once widely preferred for topical anesthesia, the search for replacement agents intensified due to rising costs, strict regulations, and its habit-forming potential. [ 22 ] Cocaine is not included on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines ; the list formally excludes "cocaine and its combinations" as therapeutic alternatives to ophthalmological preparations . [ 68 ] The US Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) classifies cocaine as a Schedule II drug , recognizing its high potential for abuse but still permitting its limited use for medical purposes. However, current pharmacoepidemiological trends suggest that cocaine may soon reach the point where, in practical terms, it is no longer used medically in health care as a Schedule II substance. This report may prompt some states (such as North Dakota) and institutions to reconsider whether further efforts to identify alternative agents are needed. As physician boards—but not pharmacy boards—continue to assess knowledge of licit cocaine, attention may shift toward drugs with more contemporary medical use. [ 22 ] Cocaine is rarely prescribed in modern medicine due to its high potential for abuse and significant risk of adverse effects; its use is almost exclusively limited to health facilities for specific diagnostic procedures or surgeries. Topical Cocaine is used in medical practice as a topical medication . [ 22 ] Because it is not absorbed into the bloodstream in significant amounts when used this way, topical application does not produce the psychoactive effects associated with recreational cocaine use. Topical anesthetic Cocaine is sometimes used in otorhinolaryngology as a topical anesthetic and vasoconstrictor to help control pain and bleeding during surgery of the nose, mouth, throat, or lacrimal duct . It is also used for topical airway anaesthesia for procedures such as awake fibreoptic bronchoscopy or intubation . Although some absorption and systemic effects may occur, the use of cocaine as a topical anesthetic and vasoconstrictor is generally safe, rarely causing cardiovascular toxicity, glaucoma , and pupil dilation . [ 69 ] [ 20 ] Occasionally, cocaine is mixed with adrenaline and sodium bicarbonate and used topically for surgery, a formulation called Moffett's solution . [ 70 ] It is occasionally used in surgeries involving the pharynx or nasopharynx to reduce pain, bleeding, and vocal cord spasm . [ 71 ] Nasal solution cocaine hydrochloride ( Goprelto ), an ester used for intranasal application, was approved for medical use in the United States in December 2017, and is indicated for the introduction of topical anesthesia of the mucous membranes for diagnostic procedures and surgeries on or through the nasal cavities of adults. [ 72 ] [ 2 ] Cocaine hydrochloride ( Numbrino ) was approved for medical use in the United States in January 2020. [ 73 ] [ 3 ] Headache and epistaxis are the most frequently reported adverse reactions with Goprelto, [ 2 ] while hypertension and tachycardia-including sinus tachycardia -are most common with Numbrino. [ 3 ] Ophthalmological use Cocaine eye drops have traditionally been used by neurologists when examining people suspected of having Horner syndrome . In Horner syndrome, sympathetic innervation to the eye is blocked. In a healthy eye, cocaine stimulates the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) by inhibiting norepinephrine reuptake, causing the pupil to dilate. In patients with Horner syndrome, sympathetic innervation to the eye is disrupted, so the affected pupil does not dilate in response to cocaine and remains constricted, or dilates to a lesser extent than the unaffected eye, which also receives the eye drop test. If both eyes dilate equally, the patient does not have Horner syndrome. [ 74 ] However, apraclonidine has largely replaced cocaine as the first-line pharmacologic agent for the diagnosis of Horner syndrome in routine clinical practice. [ 75 ] [ 76 ] [ 21 ] Recreational Recreational cocaine is typically not taken by mouth due to its poor bioavailability, instead it is usually snorted or injected . Cocaine hydrochloride can also be chemically converted into its free base form, crack cocaine , which can be vaporized. [ citation needed ] Cocaine is a central nervous system stimulant . [ 77 ] Its effects can last from 15 minutes to an hour. The duration of cocaine's effects depends on the amount taken and the route of administration. [ 78 ] Cocaine can be in the form of fine white powder and has a bitter taste. Crack cocaine is a smokeable form of cocaine made into small "rocks" by processing cocaine with sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) and water. [ 13 ] [ 26 ] Cocaine use leads to increases in alertness, feelings of well-being and euphoria , increased energy and motor activity, and increased feelings of competence and sexuality . [ 79 ] Analysis of the correlation between the use of 18 various psychoactive substances shows that cocaine use correlates with the use of other " party drugs " (e.g., MDMA , amphetamine ), as well as with heroin and benzodiazepines use, and can be considered as a bridge between the use of different groups of drugs. [ 80 ] Insufflation Nasal insufflation (known colloquially as "snorting", "sniffing", or "blowing") is a common method of ingestion of recreational powdered cocaine. [ 82 ] The drug coats and is absorbed through the mucous membranes lining the nasal passages . Cocaine's desired euphoric effects are delayed when snorted through the nose by about five minutes. This occurs because cocaine's absorption is slowed by its constricting effect on the blood vessels of the nose. [ 13 ] Insufflation of cocaine also leads to the longest duration of its effects (60–90 minutes). [ 13 ] When insufflating cocaine, absorption through the nasal membranes is approximately 30–60% [ 83 ] Most banknotes have traces of cocaine on them; this has been confirmed by studies done in several countries. [ 84 ] In 1994, the US 9th Circuit Court of Appeals cited findings that in Los Angeles, three out of four banknotes were tainted by cocaine or another illicit drug. [ 85 ] [ 86 ] Snuff spoons , hollowed-out pens , cut straws , pointed ends of keys, [ 87 ] long fingernails or artificial nails , and tampon applicators are also used to insufflate cocaine. The cocaine typically is poured onto a flat, hard surface and divided into "bumps", "lines", or "rails", and then insufflated. [ 88 ] A 2001 study reported that the sharing of straws used to "snort" cocaine can spread blood diseases such as hepatitis C . [ 89 ] Cocaine spoon Historically, snuff spoons were used for cocaine in the 20th century, hence the names "cocaine spoon" and "coke spoon". Some local statutes in the US treat spoons that are too small and thus "unsuited for the typical, lawful uses of a spoon" as drug paraphernalia . [ 90 ] [ 91 ] [ 92 ] Injection Subjective effects not commonly shared with other methods of administration include a ringing in the ears moments after injection (usually when over 120 milligrams) lasting 2 to 5 minutes including tinnitus and audio distortion. This is colloquially referred to as a "bell ringer". In a study of cocaine users, the average time taken to reach peak subjective effects was 3.1 minutes. [ 93 ] The euphoria passes quickly. Aside from the toxic effects of cocaine, there is also the danger of circulatory emboli from the insoluble substances that may be used to cut the drug. As with all injected illicit substances , there is a risk of the user contracting blood-borne infections if sterile injecting equipment is not available or used. Inhalation Cocaine paste Coca paste (paco, basuco, oxi, pasta) is a crude extract of the coca leaf which contains 40% to 91% cocaine freebase along with companion coca alkaloids and varying quantities of benzoic acid , methanol , and kerosene . The caustic reactions associated with the local application of coca paste prevents its use by oral, intranasal, mucosal, intramuscular, intravenous or subcutaneous routes. Coca paste can only be smoked when combined with a combustible material such as tobacco or cannabis. [ 94 ] Crude cocaine preparation intermediates are marketed as cheaper alternatives to pure cocaine to local markets while the more expensive end product is exported to United States and European markets. Freebase cocaine paste preparations can be smoked. The psychological and physiological effects of the paco are quite severe. [ 95 ] [ 96 ] Media usually report that it is extremely toxic and addictive. [ 97 ] [ 98 ] [ 99 ] According to a study by Intercambios, media appear to exaggerate the effects of paco . These stereotypes create a sense that nothing can be done to help a paco addict and thus stand in the way of rehabilitation programs. [ 100 ] Crack cocaine Powder cocaine (cocaine hydrochloride) must be heated to a high temperature to be smoked (about 197 °C), and considerable decomposition/burning occurs at these high temperatures. This effectively destroys some of the cocaine and yields a sharp, acrid, and foul-tasting smoke. Cocaine base/crack can be smoked because it vaporizes with little or no decomposition at 98 °C (208 °F), [ 101 ] which is below the boiling point of water. Contraindications Cocaine should not be used in individuals with a known allergy or hypersensitivity to the drug or any components of its topical formulation. It is also contraindicated in elderly patients and those with a history of hypertension or cardiovascular disease . [ 102 ] Pregnancy Prenatal cocaine exposure (PCE) may occur when a pregnant woman uses cocaine. [ 28 ] [ 29 ] [ 30 ] [ 31 ] Under the former FDA pregnancy category system, cocaine was classified as a Category C drug. Its potential to cause harm to the fetus is not fully known, so it should only be administered to pregnant women if clearly necessary. [ 102 ] Cocaine can act as a teratogen , having various effects on the developing fetus. [ 103 ] Some common teratogenic defects caused by cocaine include hydronephrosis , cleft palate , polydactyly , and down syndrome . [ 103 ] Cocaine as a drug has a low molecular weight and high water and lipid solubility which enables it to cross the placenta and fetal blood-brain barrier. [ 104 ] Because cocaine is able to pass through the placenta and enter the fetus, the fetus' circulation can be negatively affected. With restriction of fetal circulation, the development of organs in the fetus can be impacted, even resulting in intestines developing outside of the fetus' body. [ 103 ] Cocaine use during pregnancy can also result in obstetric labor complications such as, placental abruption , [ 105 ] preterm birth or delivery, uterine rupture , miscarriage , and stillbirth . [ 103 ] [ 106 ] Prenatal cocaine exposure may cause subtle cognitive deficits and lower the chance of above-average IQ by age 4, but supportive caregiving can significantly improve outcomes. [ 107 ] Breastfeeding Mothers utilizing recreational drugs, such as cocaine, methamphetamines, PCP, and heroin, should not breastfeed . [ 108 ] [ 109 ] : 13 The March of Dimes said "it is likely that cocaine will reach the baby through breast milk," and advises the following regarding cocaine use during pregnancy: Cocaine use during pregnancy can affect a pregnant woman and her unborn baby in many ways. During the early months of pregnancy, it may increase the risk of miscarriage . Later in pregnancy, it can trigger preterm labor (labor that occurs before 37 weeks of pregnancy) or cause the baby to grow poorly. As a result, cocaine-exposed babies are more likely than unexposed babies to be born with low birth weight (less than 5.5 lb or 2.5 kg). Low-birthweight babies are 20 times more likely to die in their first month of life than normal-weight babies, and face an increased risk of lifelong disabilities such as mental retardation and cerebral palsy . Cocaine-exposed babies also tend to have smaller heads, which generally reflect smaller brains. Some studies suggest that cocaine-exposed babies are at increased risk of birth defects, including urinary tract defects and, possibly, heart defects. Cocaine also may cause an unborn baby to have a stroke , irreversible brain injury , or a myocardial infarction . [ 110 ] Cocaine use during pregnancy can affect a pregnant woman and her unborn baby in many ways. During the early months of pregnancy, it may increase the risk of miscarriage . Later in pregnancy, it can trigger preterm labor (labor that occurs before 37 weeks of pregnancy) or cause the baby to grow poorly. As a result, cocaine-exposed babies are more likely than unexposed babies to be born with low birth weight (less than 5.5 lb or 2.5 kg). Low-birthweight babies are 20 times more likely to die in their first month of life than normal-weight babies, and face an increased risk of lifelong disabilities such as mental retardation and cerebral palsy . Cocaine-exposed babies also tend to have smaller heads, which generally reflect smaller brains. Some studies suggest that cocaine-exposed babies are at increased risk of birth defects, including urinary tract defects and, possibly, heart defects. Cocaine also may cause an unborn baby to have a stroke , irreversible brain injury , or a myocardial infarction . [ 110 ] Adverse effects A 2010 study ranking various illegal and legal drugs based on statements by drug-harm experts in the UK. Crack cocaine and cocaine were found to be the third and fifth overall most dangerous drugs respectively. [ 111 ] 2007 delphic analysis regarding 20 popular recreational drugs based on expert opinion in the UK. Cocaine was ranked the 2nd in dependence and physical harm and 3rd in social harm. [ 112 ] Cardiac complications Cocaine use can cause serious heart problems like sudden death, heart inflammation, arrhythmias , and heart attacks. It triggers coronary artery spasms, increases blood clot risk, and accelerates atherosclerosis , especially with long-term use. The severity of heart disease often relates to how long and how often cocaine is used. [ 113 ] It can also become a serious risk at high doses due to cocaine's blocking effect on cardiac sodium channels. [ 114 ] Levamisole syndromes Levamisole is one of the most common adulterants found in illicit cocaine, with studies showing that between 2009 and 2016, 50–70% of all cocaine specimens worldwide contained levamisole, reflecting similar high rates of contamination across North America and Europe. [ 115 ] Before trafficking to the United States, the cocaine is frequently adulterated with levamisole. [ 116 ] By October 2017, this figure had risen further, with the US Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) reporting that 87% of seized and analyzed cocaine bricks in the United States contained levamisole, making it the most common adulterant in cocaine at that time. [ 117 ] In the body, levamisole is converted into aminorex , a substance with amphetamine -like stimulant effects and a long duration of action. [ 118 ] Levamisole-adulterated cocaine is associated with cocaine- and levamisole-induced vasculitis (CLIV) and cocaine/levamisole-associated autoimmune syndrome (CLAAS). [ 119 ] [ 120 ] Reagent testing kits can be used to detect the presence of cocaine and levamisole. [ 121 ] Levamisole-induced necrosis syndrome Levamisole-induced necrosis syndrome (LINES) is a complication characterized by necrosis resulting from exposure to levamisole , a medication with immunomodulatory properties. While LINES can occur with levamisole use alone, most reported cases are associated with the use of cocaine adulterated with levamisole as a cutting agent. This syndrome is marked by skin necrosis, often affecting areas such as the ears, face, and extremities, and is thought to result from levamisole's effects on blood vessels and the immune system. [ 122 ] Cocaine/levamisole-associated syndromes The skin necrosis associated with levamisole toxicity ranges from leukocytoclastic vasculitis to occlusive vasculopathy . Several cases of severe agranulocytosis associated with cocaine use have been reported since 2006. With the recently recognized dermal disease, the face and ears are commonly affected, especially the bilateral helices and cheeks. However, there have also been case reports of involvement of the abdomen, chest, lower buttocks and legs. [ 123 ] [ 124 ] During the mid-2010s, levamisole was found in most cocaine products available in both the United States and Europe. [ 125 ] Levamisole is known to cause an acute condition involving a severe and dangerous lowered white blood cell count, known as agranulocytosis , in cocaine users, and may also accentuate cocaine's effects. [ 126 ] [ 127 ] Clinical studies have shown that taking levamisole at doses of 50–200 mg per day can lead to agranulocytosis in approximately 0.08–5% of patients. [ 128 ] Cocaine- and levamisole-induced vasculitis Cocaine- and levamisole-induced vasculitis (CLIV) is often used as an umbrella term for the vasculitic and necrotic complications seen with levamisole-adulterated cocaine, including both LINES and CLAAS. [ 119 ] Cocaine and levamisole-adulterated cocaine (LAC) can cause cocaine-induced vasculitis (CIV) that mimics primary anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (ANCA) -associated vasculitis (AAV), presenting as cocaine-induced midline destructive lesions , LAC vasculopathy, or CIV. These conditions involve immune activation through NETosis and ANCA formation, leading to tissue damage . Diagnosis is challenging due to symptom overlap and undisclosed drug use, making clinical suspicion and drug history essential for proper management. [ 129 ] Cocaine/levamisole-associated autoimmune syndrome The broader cocaine/levamisole-associated autoimmune syndrome (CLAAS) includes LINES as a subset and is also common, but LINES is more specifically and frequently cited in the context of street cocaine adulteration. [ 120 ] Levamisole has become a common additive to illicit cocaine. It is thought to intensify the "high" by releasing dopamine in the brain, acts as a bulking agent, and is a difficult adulterant to recognize. Potential risks of levamisole-laced cocaine include autoimmune disease , neutropenia , arthralgias , retiform purpura , skin necrosis , and fever . [ 130 ] Mortality Persons with regular or problematic use of cocaine have a significantly higher mortality rate , and are specifically at higher risk of traumatic deaths and deaths attributable to infectious disease. [ 131 ] In 2025, the Liberty House Clinic in the United Kingdom noted that chronic cocaine usage in fact had a higher risk of death than alcoholism . [ 132 ] Neurotoxicity Cocaine is considered neurotoxic due to its damaging effects on the brain and nervous system. [ 133 ] [ 134 ] [ 34 ] [ 135 ] [ 136 ] [ 137 ] Research has shown that both acute and chronic cocaine use can lead to significant reductions in cerebral blood flow, disrupt neurovascular interactions, and impair brain function. These changes are associated with nerve injury , cognitive deficits, and an increased risk of cerebrovascular accidents such as strokes. Brain imaging studies consistently report that individuals who misuse cocaine exhibit structural and functional abnormalities compared to non-users, supporting the classification of cocaine as a neurotoxic substance. [ 34 ] Cocaine use damages gray matter in brain regions critical for memory, attention, and emotion, leading to cognitive and behavioral impairments. It also disrupts dopamine levels and blood flow, accelerating brain aging and causing long-term neurological harm. [ 138 ] Psychiatric symptoms Cocaine produces a spectrum of psychiatric symptoms including agitation, paranoia, anxiety, irritability, psychosis , hallucinations, delusions, violence, as well as suicidal and homicidal thinking. [ 27 ] [ 17 ] A considerable proportion of cocaine addicts exhibit hypomanic personality traits that are ego-syntonic with their pattern of cocaine abuse. [ 139 ] Cocaine intoxication mirrors core traits of narcissism —both involve a dopamine-driven, compulsive drive for reward. Just as cocaine produces a brief high that temporarily enhances the sense of worth, narcissists rely on external admiration to feed an addiction to their self-esteem , resulting in a self-reinforcing feedback cycle. [ 140 ] The misuse of cocaine has a high correlation with suicide . [ 141 ] [ 142 ] In those who use cocaine, the risk is greatest during the withdrawal phase . [ 143 ] Cocaine use has been linked to homicide, with up to 31% of homicide victims testing positive for the drug. [ 27 ] In 1989 Fulton County, 40% of homicide victims had cocaine metabolites, especially Black and firearm victims. [ 144 ] A 2020 study found that men with cocaine use disorder have greater difficulty identifying emotional expression in female faces, affecting relationships and suggesting a target for intervention. [ 145 ] A 2021 study found that cocaine use disorder impairs emotion recognition, especially for happiness and fear, with improvement after long-term abstinence. [ 146 ] Depression is modestly linked to current drug use in cocaine users but does not clearly predict treatment participation or future use. [ 147 ] For people who use cocaine, stress and craving can make each other worse. This may help explain why stress can lead to relapse in people trying to stop using cocaine. [ 148 ] Psychosis Cocaine has a similar potential to induce temporary psychosis [ 149 ] with more than half of cocaine abusers reporting at least some psychotic symptoms at some point. [ 150 ] Typical symptoms include paranoid delusions that they are being followed and that their drug use is being watched, accompanied by hallucinations that support the delusional beliefs. [ 150 ] Delusional parasitosis with formication ('cocaine bugs') is also a fairly common symptom. [ 151 ] Cocaine-induced psychosis shows sensitization toward the psychotic effects of the drug. This means that psychosis becomes more severe with repeated intermittent use. [ 150 ] [ 152 ] Short-term effects Insufflating (snorting) cocaine commonly causes increased mucus production due to irritation and inflammation of the nasal passages. This irritation leads to symptoms such as a runny nose , nasal congestion , and excessive or thickened mucus. Acute exposure to cocaine has many effects on humans, including euphoria, increases in heart rate and blood pressure, and increases in cortisol secretion from the adrenal gland. [ 153 ] In humans with acute exposure followed by continuous exposure to cocaine at a constant blood concentration, the acute tolerance to the chronotropic cardiac effects of cocaine begins after about 10 minutes, while acute tolerance to the euphoric effects of cocaine begins after about one hour. [ 154 ] [ 155 ] [ 156 ] [ 157 ] With excessive or prolonged use, the drug can cause itching , fast heart rate , and paranoid delusions or sensations of insects crawling on the skin . [ 158 ] Cocaine can induce psychosis characterized by paranoia , impaired reality testing , hallucinations , irritability, and physical aggression. Cocaine intoxication can cause hyperawareness, hypervigilance , psychomotor agitation , and delirium . Consumption of large doses of cocaine can cause violent outbursts, especially by those with preexisting psychosis. [ 159 ] Acute exposure may induce arrhythmia , including atrial fibrillation , supraventricular tachycardia , ventricular tachycardia , and ventricular fibrillation . Acute exposure may also lead to angina , heart attack , and congestive heart failure . [ 160 ] Cocaine overdose may cause seizures , abnormally high body temperature and a marked elevation of blood pressure, which can be life-threatening, [ 158 ] abnormal heart rhythms , [ 114 ] and death. [ 114 ] Anxiety, paranoia, and restlessness can also occur, especially during the comedown . With excessive dosage, tremors , convulsions , and increased body temperature are observed. [ 77 ] Long-term effects Cocaine is highly addictive and has poor bioavailability when taken orally. Individuals often engage in repeated use by either insufflating it intranasally or converting it to crack cocaine for vaporization. Cocaine's effects last longest when insufflated (60–90 minutes), [ 13 ] but the drug itself has a short biological half-life of about 0.7–1.5 hours. [ 161 ] Repeated use raises the risk of developing " cocaine nose ," referring to severe nasal tissue damage from intranasal use, as well as " crack lung ," a condition involving lung tissue damage caused by inhaling crack cocaine. Cocaine use leads to an increased risk of hemorrhagic and ischemic strokes . [ 26 ] Cocaine use also increases the risk of having a heart attack . [ 162 ] Cocaine use also promotes the formation of blood clots . [ 13 ] This increase in blood clot formation is attributed to cocaine-associated increases in the activity of plasminogen activator inhibitor , and an increase in the number, activation, and aggregation of platelets . [ 13 ] Cocaine constricts blood vessels , dilates pupils , and increases body temperature, heart rate, and blood pressure. It can also cause headaches and gastrointestinal complications such as abdominal pain and nausea. Chronic users may lose their appetite and experience severe malnutrition , leading to being underweight . A 2014 study found that increased cocaine use is linked to greater cognitive impairment , particularly in working memory, while reduced or ceased use can lead to partial or full recovery of cognitive function. These findings suggest that some cocaine-related cognitive deficits are reversible, especially if use begins later in life. [ 163 ] A 2018 review found little evidence that chronic cocaine use causes widespread cognitive impairment. [ 164 ] Exposure to cocaine may lead to the breakdown of the blood–brain barrier . [ 165 ] [ 166 ] Cocaine use is frequently associated with involuntary tooth grinding, known as bruxism , which can cause dental attrition and gingivitis . [ 167 ] [ 168 ] Additionally, stimulants like cocaine, methamphetamine , and even caffeine cause dehydration and dry mouth . Addiction Cocaine can induce tolerance after a single dose, and repeated use frequently leads to the development of addiction and prolonged craving . [ 154 ] [ 169 ] [ 170 ] Assessment tools like the Obsessive Compulsive Cocaine Use Scale (OCCUS) may be employed to quantify obsessive and compulsive thoughts related to cocaine consumption. [ 171 ] [ 172 ] Withdrawal symptoms include disrupted sleep, irritability , depression , and reduced ability to experience pleasure ( anhedonia ). [ 173 ] [ 17 ] Chronic nasal use may cause destructive damage to the nasal septum, including cocaine-induced midline destructive lesions (CIMDL). Illicit cocaine is frequently adulterated with substances such as fentanyl , levamisole , or local anesthetics , increasing its toxicity. [ 54 ] [ 174 ] Concurrent use with alcohol produces cocaethylene , a metabolite that significantly increases the risk of sudden death. According to the Global Burden of Disease Study , cocaine use is responsible for approximately 7,300 deaths annually. [ 175 ] Cocaine abuse can trigger addiction-related structural neuroplasticity in the human brain, although the permanence of such changes remains uncertain. [ 176 ] Family history is a known risk factor, as relatives of cocaine users have an increased likelihood of developing cocaine addiction . [ 177 ] A key mechanism involves the overexpression of ΔFosB in the nucleus accumbens , altering transcriptional regulation and reinforcing drug-seeking behavior. [ 178 ] Each dose of cocaine raises ΔFosB levels without a known saturation point. This elevation leads to increased brain-derived neurotrophic factor ( BDNF ) levels, which in turn enhance dendritic branching and spine density in neurons of the nucleus accumbens and prefrontal cortex , potentially persisting for weeks after drug cessation. [ citation needed ] In transgenic mice engineered to express ΔFosB in the nucleus accumbens and dorsal striatum , heightened behavioral sensitization to cocaine has been observed. [ 179 ] These mice self-administer cocaine at lower doses and display a greater propensity for relapse after withdrawal [ 180 ] [ 181 ] ΔFosB also enhances sensitivity to reward by upregulating the AMPA receptor subunit GluR2 [ 179 ] and downregulating the expression of dynorphin . [ 181 ] Cocaine use has also been shown to increase DNA damage in the brains of rodents. [ 182 ] [ 183 ] During subsequent DNA repair , enduring alterations in chromatin structure may arise, such as DNA methylation and methylation or acetylation of histones at the repair loci. [ 184 ] These modifications may result in lasting epigenetic "scars" , which are believed to contribute to the persistent epigenetic changes observed in cocaine addiction. Dependence and withdrawal Cocaine dependence develops after even brief periods of regular cocaine use. [ 32 ] About 25% of adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) use cocaine, and 10% develop a cocaine use disorder during their lifetime. Because cocaine use can worsen health outcomes, adults with ADHD should be screened for cocaine use disorder and referred for treatment if needed. [ 185 ] Cocaine-dependent patients with high neuroticism scores are more likely to experience cocaine-induced psychotic symptoms, regardless of other drug use factors, making personality assessment important for risk identification and patient warning. [ 186 ] Cocaine withdrawal symptoms group into two types: depressive (e.g., depression , craving, insomnia) and somatic (e.g., increased appetite, fatigue). Depressive symptoms are linked to worse outcomes like longer depression, treatment, and risky behaviors. [ 33 ] Treatment Because there are no medications with an approved indication for cocaine use disorder, psychosocial treatments are the current standard. Effective approaches include group and individual counseling, cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), and motivational interviewing (MI). Contingency management (CM)—which rewards patients with vouchers for meeting treatment goals—has proven especially effective, particularly for helping patients achieve initial abstinence from cocaine. [ 187 ] Cocaine Anonymous (CA) is a twelve-step program formed in 18 November 1982 for people who seek recovery from drug addiction . It is patterned very closely after Alcoholics Anonymous (AA), although the two groups are unaffiliated. While many CA members have been addicted to cocaine, crack, speed or similar substances, CA accepts all who desire freedom from "cocaine and all other mind-altering substances" as members. [ 188 ] Numerous medications have been investigated for use in cocaine dependence, but as of 2015 [update] , none of them were considered to be effective. [ 189 ] Drugs which help to re-stabilize the glutamate system such as N -acetylcysteine have been proposed for the treatment of addiction to cocaine, nicotine , and alcohol . [ 190 ] However, none have sufficient evidence or regulatory approval for routine clinical use, so psychosocial interventions remain the mainstay of treatment. [ 187 ] Cocaine nose "Cocaine nose" or "coke nose" are informal terms that refer to nose disorders resulting from repeated or chronic cocaine use. [ 35 ] [ 191 ] [ 192 ] [ 193 ] About 30% of people who had snorted cocaine at least 25 times but less than daily, and 47% of daily users, reported experiencing nasal irritation, crusting or scabbing, and frequent nosebleeds. Cocaine use should be considered as a potential cause of persistent or unexplained rhinitis , including in adolescent patients. [ 194 ] Because the nose is a prominent facial feature, such visible damage often leads to embarrassment, stigma, and negative reactions from others. As a result, individuals with cocaine-induced nasal damage frequently withdraw from social activities and relationships, leading to social isolation . In many cases, this isolation is not just likely but almost inevitable, as affected individuals may feel unable to face the outside world due to the noticeable and sometimes severe changes to their appearance. [ 195 ] [ 196 ] Nose disorders associated with cocaine nose include: Cocaine-induced midline destructive lesions (CIMDL) [ 37 ] Nasal septum perforation [ 37 ] Palate perforation [ 197 ] [ 198 ] Saddle nose [ 199 ] Cocaine-induced midline destructive lesions Cocaine-induced midline destructive lesions (CIMDL) [ 36 ] is the progressive destruction of nasal architecture with the erosion of the palate , nasal conchae , and ethmoid sinuses associated with prolonged insufflation , colloquially 'snorting', of cocaine. [ 37 ] Chronic intranasal usage can degrade the cartilage separating the nostrils (the septum nasi ), leading eventually to its complete disappearance. [ 200 ] Causes The cause of "cocaine nose" can be traced to the chemical process that occurs when cocaine hydrochloride is insufflated (snorted). As cocaine is absorbed through the nasal mucosa , the remaining hydrochloride component forms a dilute hydrochloric acid . [ 200 ] The short half-life of cocaine, [ 161 ] combined with binge use, may expose the nasal tissues to this acidic environment more frequently, increasing the risk of irritation and damage. Treatment For people with cocaine abuse, mild symptoms may resolve completely with total abstinence from cocaine, making early involvement of addiction services essential. [ 201 ] Repair may involve rhinoplasty , which includes creating a new internal lining with nasolabial flaps and restoring support with costal cartilage grafts. [ 202 ] In 2024, Belgian doctors report a rise in patients needing nose reconstruction due to cocaine use, which damages nasal tissue and cartilage; however, few undergo surgery because it requires at least six months of abstinence from cocaine for proper healing. [ 203 ] Some individuals seek plastic surgery to repair or reconstruct nasal damage caused by cocaine use, although surgical outcomes can be complicated by ongoing tissue loss and poor healing. When nasal damage is too severe for reconstruction, a nose prosthesis may be used to restore appearance and quality of life . [ 195 ] [ 196 ] Overdose According to the European Union Drugs Agency , the estimated minimum lethal dose is 1.2 grams. However, sensitive individuals have died from as little as 30 milligrams applied to mucous membranes-an amount that is 40 times less than the minimum lethal dose. In contrast, addicts may tolerate doses as high as 5 grams per day. [ 14 ] Use of cocaine causes abnormally fast heart rhythms and a marked elevation of blood pressure ( hypertension ), which can be life-threatening. This can lead to death from acute myocardial infarction , acute respiratory failure (i.e., hypoxemia , with or without hypercapnia ), stroke , cerebral hemorrhage , and sudden cardiac arrest . [ 205 ] Overdose can also cause acute hepatotoxicity —typically due to toxic metabolites—though most cases resolve quickly; however, fatal outcomes from multiple organ dysfunction syndrome are possible, and there is no specific antidote. [ 206 ] Cocaine overdose may result in hyperthermia as stimulation and increased muscular activity cause greater heat production. Heat loss is also inhibited by the cocaine-induced vasoconstriction . [ citation needed ] In 2024, drug-related deaths in England and Wales reached their highest level in three decades, with a notable increase in fatalities involving cocaine and experts urging urgent government intervention to address the crisis. Martin Powell, from the charity Transform, which campaigns for the legal regulation of drugs , suggested that the recent rise in cocaine-related deaths in the UK may be due to the increased purity of cocaine, leading users to consume it more frequently and alongside other substances. [ 207 ] Interactions Alcohol Alcohol interacts with cocaine in vivo to produce cocaethylene , another psychoactive substance which may be substantially more cardiotoxic than either cocaine or alcohol by themselves. [ 208 ] [ 209 ] In 2024, a systematic review of human studies concluded that, despite some inconsistencies in the findings, the co-use of cocaine and alcohol poses a significantly greater risk of cardiovascular fatalities compared to cocaine use alone. This elevated risk is largely attributed to the formation of cocaethylene, a unique and toxic metabolite produced only when both substances are consumed together. Cocaethylene is associated with an 18- to 25-fold increased risk of sudden death, as well as a higher incidence of myocardial injury and cardiac arrest, underscoring the serious health risks of simultaneous cocaine and alcohol use. [ 210 ] MAOIs Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) should not be combined with other psychoactive substances (antidepressants, painkillers, stimulants, including prescribed, OTC and illegally acquired drugs, etc.) except under expert care. [ citation needed ] Opioids The opioid epidemic now involves more overdose deaths with both opioids and cocaine, especially among non-Hispanic Blacks who are twice as likely to die from combined opioid-stimulant overdoses compared to non-Hispanic whites. Cocaine-related deaths in Blacks are similar to opioid deaths in whites. Risk factors include young age, education, urban living, mental disorders, and stress. It remains unclear if co-use is intentional. Recent studies expand focus beyond heroin to all opioids, reflecting changing overdose patterns. [ 211 ] Pharmacology Pharmacokinetics The extent of absorption of cocaine into the circulatory system after nasal insufflation is similar to that after oral ingestion. The rate of absorption after nasal insufflation is limited by cocaine-induced vasoconstriction of capillaries in the nasal mucosa. Onset of absorption after oral ingestion is delayed because cocaine is a weak base with a pKa of 8.6, and is thus in an ionized form that is poorly absorbed from the gastric acid and easily absorbed from the alkaline duodenum . [ 12 ] The rate and extent of absorption from inhalation of cocaine is similar or greater than with intravenous injection, as inhalation provides access directly to the capillary bed. The delay in absorption after oral ingestion may account for the popular belief that cocaine bioavailability from the stomach is lower than after insufflation. Compared with ingestion, the faster absorption of insufflated cocaine results in quicker attainment of maximum drug effects. Snorting cocaine produces maximum physiological effects within 40 minutes and maximum psychotropic effects within 20 minutes. Physiological and psychotropic effects from nasally insufflated cocaine are sustained for approximately 40–60 minutes after the peak effects are attained. [ 212 ] Cocaine crosses the blood–brain barrier via both a proton-coupled organic cation antiporter [ 213 ] [ 214 ] and (to a lesser extent) via passive diffusion across cell membranes . [ 215 ] As of September 2022, the gene or genes encoding the human proton-organic cation antiporter had not been identified. [ 216 ] Cocaine has a short elimination half-life of 0.7–1.5 hours and is extensively metabolized by plasma esterases and also by liver cholinesterases , with only about 1% excreted unchanged in the urine. [ 13 ] The metabolism is dominated by hydrolytic ester cleavage, so the eliminated metabolites consist mostly of benzoylecgonine (BE), the major metabolite , and other metabolites in lesser amounts such as ecgonine methyl ester (EME) and ecgonine . [ 217 ] [ 13 ] Further minor metabolites of cocaine include norcocaine , p-hydroxycocaine, m-hydroxycocaine, p-hydroxybenzoylecgonine (pOHBE), and m-hydroxybenzoylecgonine. [ 218 ] Depending on liver and kidney functions, cocaine metabolites are detectable in urine between three and eight days. Generally speaking benzoylecgonine is eliminated from someone's urine between three and five days. In urine from heavy cocaine users, benzoylecgonine can be detected within four hours after intake and in concentrations greater than 150 ng/mL for up to eight days later. [ 219 ] Detection in the body Body fluids Cocaine and its major metabolites may be quantified in blood, plasma, or urine to monitor for use, confirm a diagnosis of poisoning, or assist in the forensic investigation of a traffic or other criminal violation or sudden death. Most commercial cocaine immunoassay screening tests cross-react appreciably with the major cocaine metabolites, but chromatographic techniques can easily distinguish and separately measure each of these substances. When interpreting the results of a test, it is important to consider the cocaine usage history of the individual, since a chronic user can develop tolerance to doses that would incapacitate a cocaine-naive individual, and the chronic user often has high baseline values of the metabolites in his system. Cautious interpretation of testing results may allow a distinction between passive or active usage, and between smoking versus other routes of administration. [ 220 ] Hair Hair analysis can detect cocaine metabolites in regular users until after the sections of hair grown during the period of cocaine use are cut or fall out. [ 221 ] Pharmacodynamics Cocaine acts as a serotonin–norepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitor (SNDRI). [ 7 ] [ 24 ] Cocaine increases levels of serotonin , norepinephrine , and dopamine in the synaptic cleft, leading to heightened post-synaptic activation, with dopamine contributing to euphoria and arousal, and the other monoamines enhancing additional effects. [ 7 ] [ 222 ] [ 223 ] [ 224 ] The pharmacodynamics of cocaine involve the complex relationships of neurotransmitters (inhibiting monoamine uptake in rats with ratios of about: serotonin :dopamine = 2:3, serotonin: norepinephrine = 2:5). [ 225 ] [ 17 ] The most extensively studied effect of cocaine on the central nervous system is the blockade of the dopamine transporter protein. Dopamine neurotransmitter released during neural signaling is normally recycled via the transporter; i.e., the transporter binds the transmitter and pumps it out of the synaptic cleft back into the presynaptic neuron , where it is taken up into storage vesicles . Cocaine binds tightly at the dopamine transporter forming a complex that blocks the transporter's function. The dopamine transporter can no longer perform its reuptake function, and thus dopamine accumulates in the synaptic cleft . The increased concentration of dopamine in the synapse activates post-synaptic dopamine receptors, which makes the drug rewarding and promotes the compulsive use of cocaine. [ 226 ] Cocaine affects certain serotonin (5-HT) receptors; in particular, it has been shown to antagonize the 5-HT 3 receptor , which is a ligand-gated ion channel . An overabundance of 5-HT 3 receptors is reported in cocaine-conditioned rats, though 5-HT 3 's role is unclear. [ 227 ] The 5-HT 2 receptor (particularly the subtypes 5-HT 2A , 5-HT 2B and 5-HT 2C ) are involved in the locomotor-activating effects of cocaine. [ 228 ] Cocaine has been demonstrated to bind as to directly stabilize the DAT transporter on the open outward-facing conformation. Further, cocaine binds in such a way as to inhibit a hydrogen bond innate to DAT. Cocaine's binding properties are such that it attaches so this hydrogen bond will not form and is blocked from formation due to the tightly locked orientation of the cocaine molecule. Research studies have suggested that the affinity for the transporter is not what is involved in the habituation of the substance so much as the conformation and binding properties to where and how on the transporter the molecule binds. [ 229 ] Conflicting findings have challenged the widely accepted view that cocaine functions solely as a reuptake inhibitor. To induce euphoria an intravenous dose of 0.3-0.6 mg/kg of cocaine is required, which blocks 66-70% of DAT in the brain. [ 230 ] Re-administering cocaine beyond this threshold does not significantly increase DAT occupancy but still results in an increase of euphoria which cannot be explained by reuptake inhibition alone. This discrepancy is not shared with other dopamine reuptake inhibitors like bupropion , sibutramine , mazindol or tesofensine , which have similar or higher potencies than cocaine as dopamine reuptake inhibitors. Furthermore, a similar response-occupancy discrepancy has been observed with methylphenidate , which also stabilizes the dopamine transporter in an open outward-facing conformation. [ 231 ] [ 232 ] [ 233 ] These findings have evoked a hypothesis that cocaine may also function as a so-called "DAT inverse agonist" or "negative allosteric modifier of DAT" resulting in dopamine transporter reversal , and subsequent dopamine release into the synaptic cleft from the axon terminal in a manner similar to but distinct from amphetamines . [ 231 ] Sigma receptors are affected by cocaine, as cocaine functions as a sigma ligand agonist. [ 234 ] Further specific receptors it has been demonstrated to function on are NMDA and the D 1 dopamine receptor. [ 235 ] Cocaine also blocks sodium channels , thereby interfering with the propagation of action potentials ; [ 236 ] [ 114 ] thus, like lignocaine and novocaine , it acts as a local anesthetic. It also functions on the binding sites to the dopamine and serotonin sodium dependent transport area as targets as separate mechanisms from its reuptake of those transporters; unique to its local anesthetic value which makes it in a class of functionality different from both its own derived phenyltropanes analogues which have that removed. In addition to this, cocaine has some target binding to the site of the κ-opioid receptor . [ 237 ] [ unreliable medical source? ] Cocaine also causes vasoconstriction , thus reducing bleeding during minor surgical procedures. Recent research points to an important role of circadian mechanisms [ 238 ] and clock genes [ 239 ] in behavioral actions of cocaine. Cocaine is known to suppress hunger and appetite by increasing co-localization of sigma σ 1 R receptors and ghrelin GHS-R1a cell surface receptors , thereby increasing ghrelin-mediated signaling of satiety [ 240 ] and possibly via other effects on appetitive hormones. [ 241 ] Cocaine effects, further, are shown to be potentiated for the user when used in conjunction with new surroundings and stimuli, and otherwise novel environs. [ 242 ] Chemistry Forms In its purest form, cocaine is a white, pearly powder. As a tropane alkaloid , cocaine is a weak base and readily forms salts when combined with acids. The most commonly encountered form is the hydrochloride (HCl) salt, although other salts such as the sulfate (SO 4 2− ) and nitrate (NO 3 − ) are occasionally observed. The solubility of these salts varies depending on their polarity; the hydrochloride salt is polar and highly soluble in water. [ 243 ] Synthesis Total synthesis The first structure elucidation and total synthesis of the cocaine molecule was accomplished by Richard Willstätter in 1898. [ 244 ] Willstätter's synthesis involved constructing the cocaine structure from simpler precursors, notably via the intermediate tropinone . Subsequent significant contributions to understanding the synthetic pathway and stereochemistry were made by Robert Robinson and Edward Leete. Cocaine contains four chiral centers (1 R , 2 R , 3 S , and 5 S ), two of which are configurationally dependent, resulting in eight possible stereoisomers . The formation of inactive stereoisomers, along with various synthetic by-products, limits both the yield and purity of the final product. [ 245 ] [ 246 ] Although the chemical synthesis of cocaine is technically feasible, it is generally considered impractical due to its high cost, low efficiency, and challenges in stereoselective synthesis compared to extraction from natural plant sources. While domestic clandestine laboratories could theoretically reduce reliance on offshore production and international smuggling—as seen with illicit methamphetamine —manufacture and synthetic production of cocaine remains rare. Large-scale commercial synthesis has not been explored. [ 247 ] Biosynthesis The biosynthesis of cocaine is the natural metabolic process by which the coca plant ( Erythroxylum species) produces cocaine, a tropane alkaloid , through a multi-step enzymatically catalyzed pathway beginning with ornithine or arginine and culminating in the formation of the cocaine metabolite benzoylecgonine . Large-scale biosynthesis of cocaine is unexplored. [ 247 ] The biosynthesis of cocaine has long attracted the attention of biochemists and organic chemists. This interest is partly motivated by the strong physiological effects of cocaine, but a further incentive was the unusual bicyclic structure of the molecule. The biosynthesis can be viewed as occurring in two phases, one phase leading to the N-methylpyrrolinium ring, which is preserved in the final product. The second phase incorporates a C4 unit with formation of the bicyclic tropane core. [ 248 ] GMO synthesis In 2022, a GMO produced N. benthamiana were discovered that were able to produce 25% of the amount of cocaine found in a coca plant. [ 249 ] However, since N. benthamiana also naturally contains nicotine , separating the cocaine from nicotine and related alkaloids would be challenging. Field analysis Personal cards-including ID cards and driver's licenses-are frequently swabbed by inspectors to detect drug residue, as these items are commonly used to prepare lines of cocaine. Swabbing can reveal traces of cocaine or other illicit substances, providing evidence of recent drug handling or use. This practice may be employed during security checks at border crossings. A Newsbeat investigation found that "cocaine torches" used by UK police to detect cocaine use are ineffective on typical street cocaine, as independent lab tests showed they fail to make the drug fluoresce . Experts and drug charities criticized the devices, warning they can give false positives and waste resources, while police forces defended their use as a deterrent. The manufacturer says the torches only work on much purer forms of cocaine than are found on the street. [ 250 ] [ 251 ] Cocaine may be detected by law enforcement using the Scott reagent . The test can easily generate false positives for common substances and must be confirmed with a laboratory test. [ 252 ] [ 253 ] Approximate cocaine purity can be determined using 1 mL 2% cupric sulfate pentahydrate in dilute HCl, 1 mL 2% potassium thiocyanate and 2 mL of chloroform . The shade of brown shown by the chloroform is proportional to the cocaine content. This test is not cross sensitive to heroin, methamphetamine, benzocaine , procaine and a number of other drugs but other chemicals could cause false positives. [ 254 ] Society and culture Both the pharmaceutical supply chain and the illicit supply chain obtain cocaine from coca cultivated in Latin America, but they operate under very different controls and oversight. In Peru, for example, legal coca cultivation is monopolized by the state company National Coca Company (ENACO), yet approximately 90% of coca leaves produced in the country are diverted to illegal actors for cocaine manufacturing. [ 255 ] As a result, these illicit coca crops are a primary target of ongoing government-led coca eradication efforts. [ 256 ] Cocaine is prohibited in competition for athletes by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), which lists it as a stimulant on its International Standard for the Prohibited List . [ 257 ] : 6 Street names Cocaine is sometimes referred to on the street as cocaina, coca, coke, crank, flake, snow, or soda cot. Slang terms for free base cocaine include crack or rock. [ 258 ] Fishscale cocaine , from fish + scale , is named for its shiny, yellowish flakes that resemble fish scales—distinct from the dull white appearance of standard cocaine powder. It is also sometimes called fishy coke. Legal status The production, distribution, and sale of cocaine products is restricted (and illegal in most contexts) in most countries as regulated by the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs , and the United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances . In the United States the manufacture, importation, possession, and distribution of cocaine are additionally regulated by the 1970 Controlled Substances Act . Some countries, such as Bolivia, Colombia, and Peru, permit the cultivation of coca leaf for traditional consumption by the local indigenous population , but nevertheless, prohibit the production, sale, and consumption of cocaine. [ 259 ] The provisions as to how much a coca farmer can yield annually is protected by laws such as the Bolivian Cato accord. [ 260 ] In addition, some parts of Europe, the United States, and Australia allow processed cocaine for medicinal uses only. Australia Cocaine is a Schedule 8 controlled drug in Australia under the Poisons Standard . [ 261 ] It is the second most popular illicit recreational drug in Australia behind cannabis . [ 262 ] In Western Australia under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1981, 4.0g of cocaine is the amount of prohibited drugs determining a court of trial, 2.0g is the amount of cocaine required for the presumption of intention to sell or supply, and 28.0g is the amount of cocaine required for purposes of drug trafficking. [ 263 ] United States The US federal government instituted a national drug labelling requirement for cocaine and cocaine-containing products through the Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906. [ 264 ] : 37 The next important federal regulation was the Harrison Narcotics Tax Act of 1914. While this act is often seen as the start of prohibition, the act itself was not actually a prohibition on cocaine, but instead it set up a regulatory and licensing regime. [ 265 ] The Harrison Act did not recognize addiction as a treatable condition and therefore the therapeutic use of cocaine, heroin, or morphine to such individuals was outlawed – leading a 1915 editorial in the journal American Medicine to remark that the addict "is denied the medical care he urgently needs, open, above-board sources from which he formerly obtained his drug supply are closed to him, and he is driven to the underworld where he can get his drug, but of course, surreptitiously and in violation of the law." [ 266 ] The Harrison Act left manufacturers of cocaine untouched so long as they met certain purity and labeling standards. [ 264 ] : 40 Despite that cocaine was typically illegal to sell and legal outlets were rarer, the quantities of legal cocaine produced declined very little. [ 264 ] : 40 Legal cocaine quantities did not decrease until the Jones–Miller Act of 1922 put serious restrictions on cocaine manufactures. [ 264 ] : 40 Before the early 1900s, newspapers primarily portrayed addiction (rather than violence or crime) as the main problem caused by cocaine use, and depicted cocaine users as upper or middle class White people . In 1914, The New York Times published an article titled "Negro Cocaine 'Fiends' Are a New Southern Menace," portraying Black people who used cocaine as dangerous and able to withstand wounds that would normally be fatal. [ 267 ] The Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986 mandated the same prison sentences for distributing 500 grams of powdered cocaine and just 5 grams of crack cocaine. [ 268 ] In the National Survey on Drug Use and Health , white respondents reported a higher rate of powdered cocaine use, and Black respondents reported a higher rate of crack cocaine use. [ 269 ] Prevalence and trends Cocaine production, seizures, and use all reached record levels in 2023, making it the world's fastest-growing illicit drug market. Seizures rose by 68% from 2019 to 2023, while the number of users increased from 17 million in 2013 to 25 million in 2023, according to the UNODC World Drug Report 2025. [ 44 ] The report further states that Western Europe's cocaine market is rapidly expanding, resulting in increased violence driven by traffickers, including organized criminal groups from the Western Balkans. Concurrently, record levels of cocaine production have enabled traffickers to enter new markets across Asia and Africa, reflecting the expanding global reach of cocaine trafficking. [ 42 ] The U.S. is the world's largest consumer of cocaine, [ 270 ] while South America, as a continent, ranks third in terms of consumer market size. [ 18 ] Europe ranks cocaine as the second most commonly used illicit drug. [ 271 ] Cocaine is among the most widely consumed recreational stimulants worldwide. [ 25 ] Impact Impact of illicit cocaine Impact on impoverished communities In countries where cocaine is illicitly produced, an intermediate product known as cocaine paste—often referred to as "poor man's cocaine"—is frequently smoked in impoverished communities. This substance is favored in these areas primarily because it is inexpensive and more accessible than refined cocaine. However, the use of cocaine paste poses severe health risks. During its production, various toxic chemicals are used to extract coca alkaloids from the coca leaves. Many of these hazardous substances, such as solvents and acids, remain in the paste after processing. When the paste is smoked, individuals are exposed not only to the addictive effects of the drug itself but also to the dangerous residual chemicals, which can cause significant harm to the lungs, nervous system, and overall health. This combination of affordability, accessibility, and toxicity makes cocaine paste particularly damaging to vulnerable populations in cocaine-producing regions. [ 23 ] [ 94 ] [ 95 ] [ 96 ] Environmental impact Most of the world's cocaine is produced in South America, particularly in the Andean region . [ 272 ] The environmental destruction caused by the production of cocaine has been well documented, with reports made the UN and other government bodies. [ 273 ] Due to the illegal nature of coca production , farmers make little effort in soil conservation and sustainability practices as seen in the high mobility and short life of coca plots in Colombia. [ 272 ] One of the major implications of cocaine production is deforestation as large areas of forest are cleared for coca cultivation. The UNODC approximated that 97,622 hectares of primary forest were cleared for coca cultivation during 2001–2004 in the Andean region. [ 272 ] This further causes habitat destruction , especially in biodiversity hotspots , areas rich in a variety of species. Such areas are chosen for coca cultivation due to their remote locations, minimising chances of detection. [ 274 ] Deforestation impacts soil erosion which further inhibits the survival of native species. [ 272 ] The use of pesticides can also severely affect the environment. Farmers are able to use unregulated and highly toxic pesticides due to the clandestine nature of drug production. [ 274 ] The use of such pesticides can have both direct and indirect effects on the ecosystem. Where lethal levels of exposure directly cause the death of fauna, which is further carried up the food chain where secondary feeders who consume the poisoned animals are also impacted. Furthermore, non-lethal levels of exposure can also cause weaker immune system development and neurological issues, further increasing mortality rates. [ 274 ] Impact of illicit cocaine trade Cocaine is extremely expensive on the black market, with prices rising sharply at each distribution level—often more than its weight in gold. [ 275 ] Latin America Drug war policies in Latin America and the Caribbean have led to more violence, higher incarceration rates, health crises, and deeper poverty, while undermining trust in institutions and worsening inequality. There is increasing support for shifting toward drug policies that focus on sustainable development and human rights instead of punitive measures. [ 43 ] West Africa Cocaine trafficking in West Africa has become closely linked with the activities of several terrorist organizations . [ 276 ] [ 277 ] [ 278 ] Impact of enforcement Impact of coca eradication In December 2000, Dutch journalist Marjon van Royen found that "because the chemical is sprayed in Colombia from planes on inhabited areas, there have been consistent health complaints [in humans]. Burning eyes, dizziness and respiratory problems being most frequently reported." In some areas, 80 percent of the children of the indigenous community fell sick with skin rashes, fever, diarrhoea and eye infections. [ 279 ] Because the glyphosate is sprayed from the air, there is a much higher chance of human error when spraying suspected illegal coca plantations. In many cases the wrong fields are sprayed, resulting in not only a total loss of the farmer's crop- but the loss of that field altogether as nothing will grow where the herbicide has been sprayed. [ 280 ] Though official documentation of the health effects of glyphosate spraying in Colombia are virtually non-existent, neighbouring Ecuador has conducted studies to determine the cause of mysterious illnesses amongst people living along the border of Colombia and has since demanded that no aerial sprayings occur within 10 km of the border because of the damages caused to the people, animals and environment in that area. [ 280 ] In 2015, Colombia announced a ban on using glyphosate in these programs due to concerns about human toxicity of the chemical. [ 281 ] Impact of interdiction The Consolidated Counterdrug Database (CCDB) is a U.S. government dataset created in the 1990s that compiles vetted data on cocaine trafficking and seizures in the Western Hemisphere "transit zone," involving 26 U.S. agencies and 20 foreign partners. It provides a highly reliable, conservative record of cocaine movements and interdiction efforts, revealing that despite large seizures, interdiction captures only a small fraction of trafficking events and has minimal impact on U.S. cocaine prices. The CCDB challenges optimistic views of drug interdiction effectiveness and underscores the need for new policy approaches, yet remains underutilized in research despite being unclassified. [ 282 ] Research Cocaine haptens are chemically modified derivatives of cocaine that retain key immunogenic features, allowing them to be attached to carrier proteins such as keyhole limpet hemocyanin or bovine serum albumin . This enables the immune system to recognize cocaine and produce anti-cocaine antibodies, which can bind cocaine in the bloodstream and prevent it from reaching the brain, thereby blocking its psychoactive effects. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] [ 285 ] The cocaine esterase enzyme and redesigned versions of it have been studied as a potential treatment for cocaine addiction in humans. [ 286 ] Coca tea has been explored as a supportive treatment for cocaine dependence. A study in Lima , Peru, found that using coca leaf infusion along with counseling reduced relapse rates and significantly increased the duration of abstinence among addicted individuals, suggesting that this approach may help prevent relapse during treatment. [ 287 ] Recent research has also examined the use of prescription psychostimulants for cocaine dependence, following the Self-Medication Hypothesis . This hypothesis suggests that some individuals use cocaine to address underlying neurochemical or psychological issues. While some studies indicate that psychostimulant therapy may reduce cocaine use and cravings, the evidence is mixed and further research is needed. [ 288 ] In animal studies, nicotine exposure in mice increases the likelihood of later cocaine use, with clear molecular changes in the brain. [ 289 ] These findings mirror human epidemiological data showing a link between nicotine use and increased risk of later cannabis and cocaine use, as well as other substances. [ 290 ] [ 291 ] Similarly, in rats, alcohol consumption raises the probability of later cocaine addiction and is associated with changes in the brain's reward system. [ 292 ] [ 293 ] Human studies also show that alcohol use increases the risk of transitioning from cocaine use to addiction. [ 294 ] [ 295 ] Experimentally, cocaine injections can be delivered to animals such as fruit flies to study the mechanisms of cocaine addiction. [ 296 ] Cocaine vaccines Calixcoca Calixcoca is an experimental vaccine to treat cocaine and crack cocaine addiction. It has been in development since 2015 by the Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG) in Brazil. [ 297 ] TA-CD TA-CD is a vaccine developed by the Xenova Group and designed to negate the effects of cocaine, making it suitable for use in treatment of addiction. It is created by combining norcocaine with inactivated cholera toxin. [ 298 ] History Coca leaves have been used by indigenous South Americans for thousands of years, both as a stimulant and for medicinal purposes. [ 299 ] When the Spanish arrived in South America , they initially banned coca but soon legalized and taxed it after seeing its importance to local labor. [ 300 ] The active ingredient, cocaine, was first isolated in 1855 by Friedrich Gaedcke and later refined by Albert Niemann , who named it "cocaine." [ 301 ] [ 302 ] [ 303 ] In the late 1800s, cocaine became popular in Western medicine as a local anesthetic and was widely used in various products, including drinks and remedies. [ 304 ] and James Leonard Corning demonstrated peridural anesthesia. [ 305 ] However, due to its toxic effects and potential for abuse, safer alternatives eventually replaced it in medical practice. [ 20 ] Large-scale coca cultivation and cocaine production occurred in Taiwan Asia, in Taiwan (then known as Formosa) and Java (today part of Indonesia) before World War II . [ 47 ] [ 48 ] Since the 1980s, the cocaine trade was dominated by centralized, hierarchical drug cartels such as Medellín and Cali , along with their successors and early FARC factions. By the early 2000s, this model fragmented into a diverse network of global trafficking links, allowing South American cocaine production to easily supply markets in Europe, Africa, Asia, and Oceania through various routes. [ 306 ] Etymology The word cocaine derives from French Cocaïne , from Spanish coca , ultimately from Quechua kúka . 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"Bacterial cocaine esterase: a protein-based therapy for cocaine overdose and addiction" . Future Medicinal Chemistry . 4 (2): 137– 50. doi : 10.4155/fmc.11.194 . PMC 3290992 . PMID 22300094 . ^ Teobaldo L (1994). "The Standard Low Dose of Oral Cocaine: Used for Treatment of Cocaine Dependence" (PDF) . Substance Abuse . 15 (4): 215– 220. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 June 2014. ^ Mariani JJ, Khantzian EJ, Levin FR (March 2014). "The self-medication hypothesis and psychostimulant treatment of cocaine dependence: an update" . The American Journal on Addictions . 23 (2): 189– 193. doi : 10.1111/j.1521-0391.2013.12086.x . PMC 4227391 . PMID 25187055 . ^ Kandel ER , Kandel DB (September 2014). "Shattuck Lecture. A molecular basis for nicotine as a gateway drug" . The New England Journal of Medicine . 371 (10): 932– 943. doi : 10.1056/NEJMsa1405092 . PMC 4353486 . PMID 25184865 . ^ Keyes KM, Hamilton A, Kandel DB (June 2016). "Birth Cohorts Analysis of Adolescent Cigarette Smoking and Subsequent Marijuana and Cocaine Use" . American Journal of Public Health . 106 (6): 1143– 1149. doi : 10.2105/AJPH.2016.303128 . PMC 4880234 . PMID 27077359 . ^ Ren M, Lotfipour S (August 2019). "Nicotine Gateway Effects on Adolescent Substance Use" . The Western Journal of Emergency Medicine . 20 (5): 696– 709. doi : 10.5811/westjem.2019.7.41661 . PMC 6754186 . PMID 31539325 . ^ Griffin EA, Melas PA, Zhou R, Li Y, Mercado P, Kempadoo KA, et al. (November 2017). "Prior alcohol use enhances vulnerability to compulsive cocaine self-administration by promoting degradation of HDAC4 and HDAC5" . Science Advances . 3 (11) e1701682. Bibcode : 2017SciA....3E1682G . doi : 10.1126/sciadv.1701682 . PMC 5665598 . PMID 29109977 . ^ Anderson EM, Penrod RD, Barry SM, Hughes BW, Taniguchi M, Cowan CW (August 2019). "It is a complex issue: emerging connections between epigenetic regulators in drug addiction". The European Journal of Neuroscience . 50 (3): 2477– 2491. doi : 10.1111/ejn.14170 . PMID 30251397 . S2CID 52816486 . ^ Lopez-Quintero C, Pérez de los Cobos J, Hasin DS, Okuda M, Wang S, Grant BF, et al. (May 2011). "Probability and predictors of transition from first use to dependence on nicotine, alcohol, cannabis, and cocaine: results of the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC)" . Drug and Alcohol Dependence . 115 ( 1– 2): 120– 130. doi : 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.11.004 . PMC 3069146 . PMID 21145178 . ^ Bickel WK, Snider SE, Quisenberry AJ, Stein JS, Hanlon CA (2016). "Competing neurobehavioral decision systems theory of cocaine addiction". Competing neurobehavioral decision systems theory of cocaine addiction: From mechanisms to therapeutic opportunities . Progress in Brain Research. Vol. 223. pp. 269– 293. doi : 10.1016/bs.pbr.2015.07.009 . ISBN 978-0-444-63545-7 . PMC 5495192 . PMID 26806781 . ^ Dimitrijevic N, Dzitoyeva S, Manev H (August 2004). "An automated assay of the behavioral effects of cocaine injections in adult Drosophila". Journal of Neuroscience Methods . 137 (2): 181– 184. doi : 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2004.02.023 . PMID 15262059 . S2CID 19882594 . ^ Corrêa F (30 May 2023). "Brasileiros desenvolvem vacina contra crack e cocaína" . Folha de S.Paulo (in Brazilian Portuguese). Archived from the original on 14 June 2023 . Retrieved 14 June 2023 . ^ Martell BA, Mitchell E, Poling J, Gonsai K, Kosten TR (July 2005). "Vaccine pharmacotherapy for the treatment of cocaine dependence". Biol. Psychiatry . 58 (2): 158– 64. doi : 10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.04.032 . PMID 16038686 . S2CID 22415520 . ^ Hesse M (2002). Alkaloids: Nature's Curse or Blessing? . Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. p. 304. ISBN 978-3-906390-24-6 . ^ "Drug that spans the ages: The history of cocaine" . London: The Independent (UK). 2006. Archived from the original on 28 February 2010 . Retrieved 30 April 2010 . ^ Luch A (3 April 2009). Molecular, Clinical and Environmental Toxicology . Basel Boston: Springer Science & Business Media. p. 20. ISBN 978-3-7643-8336-7 . ^ Niemann A (1860). "Ueber eine neue organische Base in den Cocablättern" . Archiv der Pharmazie . 153 (2 and 3): 129– 155, 291– 308. doi : 10.1002/ardp.18601530202 . S2CID 98195820 . Archived from the original on 28 July 2020 . Retrieved 30 June 2019 . ^ Harper D. "Cocaine" . Online Etymology Dictionary . ^ Halsted W (1885). "Practical comments on the use and abuse of cocaine". New York Medical Journal . 42 : 294– 295. ^ Corning JL (1885). "An experimental study". New York Medical Journal . 42 : 483. ^ Lien N, Feltran G (11 March 2025). "(I)llicit Chains: Some New Hypotheses Regarding a Changing Global Cocaine Market" . Journal of Illicit Economies and Development . 7 (1): 20– 34. doi : 10.31389/jied.274 . ISSN 2516-7227 . ^ "Cocaine" . American Heritage Dictionary . Archived from the original on 3 January 2023 . Retrieved 3 January 2023 . Further reading Spillane JF, ed. (2000). Cocaine: From Medical Marvel to Modern Menace in the United States, 1884–1920 . Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-6230-4 . Feiling T (2009). The Candy Machine: How Cocaine Took Over the World . London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-103446-1 . Gewin V (2 November 2011). "Smoking stokes cocaine cravings: Molecular mechanism found for controversial 'gateway drug' hypothesis" . Nature News . doi : 10.1038/news.2011.627 . "Global Report on Cocaine 2023" (PDF) . United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) . 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Narcotic Drugs 1971 Psychotropic Substances 1988 Drug Trafficking 1961 Narcotic Drugs 1971 Psychotropic Substances 1988 Drug Trafficking Other treaties addressing drugs Law of the Sea Convention Convention Against Doping Council of the European Union decisions on designer drugs Law of the Sea Convention Convention Against Doping Council of the European Union decisions on designer drugs State level Drug policy Decriminalization Legalization Prohibition Regulation Supply reduction Policy reform Demand reduction Drug Policy Alliance Harm reduction Law Enforcement Action Partnership Liberalization Latin America Students for Sensible Drug Policy Drug policy Decriminalization Legalization Prohibition Regulation Supply reduction Decriminalization Legalization Prohibition Regulation Supply reduction Policy reform Demand reduction Drug Policy Alliance Harm reduction Law Enforcement Action Partnership Liberalization Latin America Students for Sensible Drug Policy Demand reduction Drug Policy 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Liquor license Drug production Coca production in Colombia Drug precursors Opium production in Afghanistan Rolling meth lab Coca production in Colombia Drug precursors Opium production in Afghanistan Rolling meth lab Drug trade Illegal drug trade Afghanistan Aruba Australia Bangladesh Belize Benin Bhutan Bolivia Brazil Burma Cambodia Chile China Colombia Costa Rica Cuba Cyprus Dominican Republic El Salvador Estonia Finland Germany Haiti Honduras India Indian Ocean region Iran Italy Japan Kenya Kosovo Kyrgyzstan Laos Latin America Latvia Malaysia Mauritius Moldova Nigeria Norway Oman Panama Papua New Guinea Paraguay Philippines Poland Portugal Puerto Rico Russia Saint Kitts and Nevis Seychelles Slovakia South Africa South Korea Spain Suriname Switzerland Taiwan Thailand Turkey Turks and Caicos Islands United Arab Emirates United States Venezuela Darknet market Online illicit drug vendor Pharmaceutical distribution Beer shop Cannabis shop Liquor store Liquor license Illegal drug trade Afghanistan Aruba Australia Bangladesh Belize Benin Bhutan Bolivia Brazil Burma Cambodia Chile China Colombia Costa Rica Cuba Cyprus Dominican Republic El Salvador Estonia Finland Germany Haiti Honduras India Indian Ocean region Iran Italy Japan Kenya Kosovo Kyrgyzstan Laos Latin America Latvia Malaysia Mauritius Moldova Nigeria Norway Oman Panama Papua New Guinea Paraguay Philippines Poland Portugal Puerto Rico Russia Saint Kitts and Nevis Seychelles Slovakia South Africa South Korea Spain Suriname Switzerland Taiwan Thailand Turkey Turks and Caicos Islands United Arab Emirates United States Venezuela Afghanistan Aruba Australia Bangladesh Belize Benin Bhutan Bolivia Brazil Burma Cambodia Chile China Colombia Costa Rica Cuba Cyprus Dominican Republic El Salvador Estonia Finland Germany Haiti Honduras India Indian Ocean region Iran Italy Japan Kenya Kosovo Kyrgyzstan Laos Latin America Latvia Malaysia Mauritius Moldova Nigeria Norway Oman Panama Papua New Guinea Paraguay Philippines Poland Portugal Puerto Rico Russia Saint Kitts and Nevis Seychelles Slovakia South Africa South Korea Spain Suriname Switzerland Taiwan Thailand Turkey Turks and Caicos Islands United Arab Emirates United States Venezuela Darknet market Online illicit drug vendor Pharmaceutical distribution Beer shop Cannabis shop Liquor store Liquor license Beer shop Cannabis shop Liquor store Liquor license Issues with drug use Abuse Addiction Date rape drug Dependence Driving impaired Drug harmfulness Effects of cannabis Drug-related crime Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder Long-term effects of cannabis Neurotoxicity Overdose Passive smoking of tobacco or other substances Abuse Addiction Date rape drug Dependence Driving impaired Drug harmfulness Effects of cannabis Effects of cannabis Drug-related crime Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder Long-term effects of cannabis Neurotoxicity Overdose Passive smoking of tobacco or other substances of tobacco or other substances Harm reduction Drug checking Drug legalization Drug rehabilitation Needle and syringe programmes Opioid replacement therapy Pharmacovigilance Reagent testing Regulation of therapeutic goods Responsible drug use Substance abuse prevention Supervised injection site Trip killer Drug checking Drug legalization Drug rehabilitation Needle and syringe programmes Opioid replacement therapy Pharmacovigilance Reagent testing Regulation of therapeutic goods Responsible drug use Substance abuse prevention Supervised injection site Trip killer Countries by drug use Alcohol consumption Cocaine use Cannabis Annual use Lifetime use Opiates use Tobacco consumption Alcohol consumption Cocaine use Cannabis Annual use Lifetime use Annual use Lifetime use Opiates use Tobacco consumption Other Psilocybin therapy Psilocybin therapy v t e Euphoriants v t e μ-Opioid receptor agonists ( opioids ) (e.g., morphine , heroin , hydrocodone , oxycodone , opium , kratom ) α 2 δ subunit -containing voltage-dependent calcium channels blockers ( gabapentinoids ) (e.g., gabapentin , pregabalin ) AMPA receptor antagonists (e.g., perampanel ) CB 1 receptor agonists ( cannabinoids ) (e.g., THC , cannabis ) Dopamine releasing agents (e.g., amphetamine , methamphetamine , MDMA , mephedrone ) Dopamine reuptake inhibitors (e.g., cocaine , methylphenidate ) GABA A receptor positive allosteric modulators (e.g., barbiturates , benzodiazepines , carbamates , ethanol (alcohol) ( alcoholic drink ), inhalants , nonbenzodiazepines , quinazolinones ) GHB ( sodium oxybate ) and analogues Glucocorticoids (corticosteroids) (e.g., dexamethasone , prednisone ) nACh receptor agonists (e.g., nicotine , tobacco , arecoline , areca nut ) Nitric oxide prodrugs (e.g., alkyl nitrites ( poppers )) NMDA receptor antagonists (e.g., DXM , ketamine , methoxetamine , nitrous oxide , phencyclidine , inhalants ) μ-Opioid receptor agonists ( opioids ) (e.g., morphine , heroin , hydrocodone , oxycodone , opium , kratom ) α 2 δ subunit -containing voltage-dependent calcium channels blockers ( gabapentinoids ) (e.g., gabapentin , pregabalin ) AMPA receptor antagonists (e.g., perampanel ) CB 1 receptor agonists ( cannabinoids ) (e.g., THC , cannabis ) Dopamine releasing agents (e.g., amphetamine , methamphetamine , MDMA , mephedrone ) Dopamine reuptake inhibitors (e.g., cocaine , methylphenidate ) GABA A receptor positive allosteric modulators (e.g., barbiturates , benzodiazepines , carbamates , ethanol (alcohol) ( alcoholic drink ), inhalants , nonbenzodiazepines , quinazolinones ) GHB ( sodium oxybate ) and analogues Glucocorticoids (corticosteroids) (e.g., dexamethasone , prednisone ) nACh receptor agonists (e.g., nicotine , tobacco , arecoline , areca nut ) Nitric oxide prodrugs (e.g., alkyl nitrites ( poppers )) NMDA receptor antagonists (e.g., DXM , ketamine , methoxetamine , nitrous oxide , phencyclidine , inhalants ) See also: Recreational drug use v t e Stimulants v t e Adamantanes Adapromine Amantadine Bromantane Memantine Rimantadine Adapromine Amantadine Bromantane Memantine Rimantadine Adenosine antagonists 8-Chlorotheophylline 8-Cyclopentyltheophylline 8-Phenyltheophylline Aminophylline Caffeine CGS-15943 Dimethazan Istradefylline Paraxanthine SCH-58261 Theobromine Theophylline 8-Chlorotheophylline 8-Cyclopentyltheophylline 8-Phenyltheophylline Aminophylline Caffeine CGS-15943 Dimethazan Istradefylline Paraxanthine SCH-58261 Theobromine Theophylline Alkylamines Cyclopentamine Cypenamine Cyprodenate Heptaminol Isometheptene Methylhexaneamine Octodrine Propylhexedrine Tuaminoheptane Cyclopentamine Cypenamine Cyprodenate Heptaminol Isometheptene Methylhexaneamine Octodrine Propylhexedrine Tuaminoheptane Ampakines CX-516 CX-546 CX-614 CX-691 CX-717 IDRA-21 LY-404,187 LY-503,430 Nooglutyl Org 26576 PEPA S-18986 Sunifiram Unifiram CX-516 CX-546 CX-614 CX-691 CX-717 IDRA-21 LY-404,187 LY-503,430 Nooglutyl Org 26576 PEPA S-18986 Sunifiram Unifiram Arylcyclohexylamines Benocyclidine Dieticyclidine Esketamine Eticyclidine Gacyclidine Ketamine Phencyclamine Phencyclidine Rolicyclidine Tenocyclidine Tiletamine Benocyclidine Dieticyclidine Esketamine Eticyclidine Gacyclidine Ketamine Phencyclamine Phencyclidine Rolicyclidine Tenocyclidine Tiletamine Benzazepines 6-Br-APB SKF-77434 SKF-81297 SKF-82958 6-Br-APB SKF-77434 SKF-81297 SKF-82958 Cathinones 3-FMC 3-MMC 3,4-DMMC 4-BMC 4-CMC 4-Methylbuphedrone 4-Methylcathinone 4-MEAP 4-Methylpentedrone Amfepramone Benzedrone Buphedrone Bupropion Butylone Cathinone Dimethylcathinone Ethcathinone Ethylone Flephedrone Hexedrone Isoethcathinone Mephedrone Methcathinone Methedrone Methylenedioxycathinone Methylone Mexedrone N-Ethylbuphedrone N-Ethylhexedrone Pentedrone Pentylone Phthalimidopropiophenone 3-FMC 3-MMC 3,4-DMMC 4-BMC 4-CMC 4-Methylbuphedrone 4-Methylcathinone 4-MEAP 4-Methylpentedrone Amfepramone Benzedrone Buphedrone Bupropion Butylone Cathinone Dimethylcathinone Ethcathinone Ethylone Flephedrone Hexedrone Isoethcathinone Mephedrone Methcathinone Methedrone Methylenedioxycathinone Methylone Mexedrone N-Ethylbuphedrone N-Ethylhexedrone Pentedrone Pentylone Phthalimidopropiophenone Cholinergics A-84,543 A-366,833 ABT-202 ABT-418 AR-R17779 Altinicline Anabasine Arecoline Bradanicline Cotinine Cytisine Dianicline Epibatidine Epiboxidine GTS-21 Ispronicline Nicotine PHA-543,613 PNU-120,596 PNU-282,987 Pozanicline Rivanicline Sazetidine A SIB-1553A SSR-180,711 TC-1698 TC-1827 TC-2216 Tebanicline UB-165 Varenicline WAY-317,538 A-84,543 A-366,833 ABT-202 ABT-418 AR-R17779 Altinicline Anabasine Arecoline Bradanicline Cotinine Cytisine Dianicline Epibatidine Epiboxidine GTS-21 Ispronicline Nicotine PHA-543,613 PNU-120,596 PNU-282,987 Pozanicline Rivanicline Sazetidine A SIB-1553A SSR-180,711 TC-1698 TC-1827 TC-2216 Tebanicline UB-165 Varenicline WAY-317,538 Convulsants Anatoxin-a Bicuculline DMCM Flurothyl Gabazine Pentetrazol Picrotoxin Strychnine Thujone Anatoxin-a Bicuculline DMCM Flurothyl Gabazine Pentetrazol Picrotoxin Strychnine Thujone Eugeroics Adrafinil Armodafinil CRL-40,940 CRL-40,941 Fluorenol Modafinil Adrafinil Armodafinil CRL-40,940 CRL-40,941 Fluorenol Modafinil Oxazolines 4-Methylaminorex Aminorex Clominorex Cyclazodone Fenozolone Fluminorex Pemoline Thozalinone 4-Methylaminorex Aminorex Clominorex Cyclazodone Fenozolone Fluminorex Pemoline Thozalinone Phenethylamines 1-(4-Methylphenyl)-2-aminobutane 1-Methylamino-1-(3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl)propane 2-Fluoroamphetamine 2-Fluoromethamphetamine 2-OH-PEA 2-Phenyl-3-aminobutane 2,3-MDA 3-Fluoroamphetamine 3-Fluoroethamphetamine 3-Methoxyamphetamine 3-Methylamphetamine 4-Fluoroamphetamine 4-Fluoromethamphetamine 4-MA 4-MMA 4-MTA 6-FNE AL-1095 Alfetamine a-Ethylphenethylamine Amfecloral Amfepentorex Amidephrine 2-Amino-1,2-dihydronaphthalene 2-Aminoindane 5-(2-Aminopropyl)indole 2-Aminotetralin Acridorex Amphetamine ( Dextroamphetamine , Levoamphetamine ) Amphetaminil Arbutamine β-Methylphenethylamine β-Phenylmethamphetamine Benfluorex Benzphetamine BDB BOH 3-Benzhydrylmorpholine BPAP Camfetamine Cathine Chlorphentermine Cilobamine Cinnamedrine Clenbuterol Clobenzorex Cloforex Clortermine Cypenamine D -Deprenyl Denopamine Dimethoxyamphetamine Dimethylamphetamine Dobutamine DOPA ( Dextrodopa , Levodopa ) Dopamine Dopexamine Droxidopa EBDB Ephedrine Epinephrine Epinine Etafedrine Ethylnorepinephrine Etilamfetamine Etilefrine Famprofazone Fencamfamin Fencamine Fenethylline Fenfluramine ( Dexfenfluramine , Levofenfluramine ) Fenproporex Feprosidnine Fludorex 4-Fluorodeprenyl Formetorex Furfenorex Gepefrine Hexapradol HMMA Hordenine 4-Hydroxyamphetamine 5-Iodo-2-aminoindane Ibopamine Indanylamphetamine Iofetamine Isoetarine Isoprenaline L -Deprenyl (Selegiline) Lefetamine Lisdexamfetamine Lophophine MBDB MDA (tenamfetamine) MDBU MDEA MDMA (midomafetamine) MDMPEA MDOH MDPR MDPEA Mefenorex Mephentermine Metanephrine Metaraminol Mesocarb Methamphetamine ( Dextromethamphetamine , Levomethamphetamine ) Methoxamine Methoxyphenamine MMA Methoxyphenamine MMDA MMDMA MMMA Morforex N,alpha-Diethylphenylethylamine N,N-Dimethylphenethylamine Naphthylamphetamine Nisoxetine Norepinephrine Norfenefrine Norfenfluramine Normetanephrine L -Norpseudoephedrine Octopamine Orciprenaline Ortetamine Oxifentorex Oxilofrine PBA PCA PCMA PHA Pentorex Phenatine Phenpromethamine Phentermine Phenylalanine Phenylephrine Phenylpropanolamine Pholedrine PIA PMA PMEA PMMA PPAP Prenylamine Propylamphetamine Pseudoephedrine Pyr-AI Ropinirole Salbutamol ( Levosalbutamol ) Sibutramine Solriamfetol Synephrine Theodrenaline Tiflorex Tranylcypromine Tyramine Tyrosine Xylopropamine Zylofuramine 1-(4-Methylphenyl)-2-aminobutane 1-Methylamino-1-(3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl)propane 2-Fluoroamphetamine 2-Fluoromethamphetamine 2-OH-PEA 2-Phenyl-3-aminobutane 2,3-MDA 3-Fluoroamphetamine 3-Fluoroethamphetamine 3-Methoxyamphetamine 3-Methylamphetamine 4-Fluoroamphetamine 4-Fluoromethamphetamine 4-MA 4-MMA 4-MTA 6-FNE AL-1095 Alfetamine a-Ethylphenethylamine Amfecloral Amfepentorex Amidephrine 2-Amino-1,2-dihydronaphthalene 2-Aminoindane 5-(2-Aminopropyl)indole 2-Aminotetralin Acridorex Amphetamine ( Dextroamphetamine , Levoamphetamine ) Amphetaminil Arbutamine β-Methylphenethylamine β-Phenylmethamphetamine Benfluorex Benzphetamine BDB BOH 3-Benzhydrylmorpholine BPAP Camfetamine Cathine Chlorphentermine Cilobamine Cinnamedrine Clenbuterol Clobenzorex Cloforex Clortermine Cypenamine D -Deprenyl Denopamine Dimethoxyamphetamine Dimethylamphetamine Dobutamine DOPA ( Dextrodopa , Levodopa ) Dopamine Dopexamine Droxidopa EBDB Ephedrine Epinephrine Epinine Etafedrine Ethylnorepinephrine Etilamfetamine Etilefrine Famprofazone Fencamfamin Fencamine Fenethylline Fenfluramine ( Dexfenfluramine , Levofenfluramine ) Fenproporex Feprosidnine Fludorex 4-Fluorodeprenyl Formetorex Furfenorex Gepefrine Hexapradol HMMA Hordenine 4-Hydroxyamphetamine 5-Iodo-2-aminoindane Ibopamine Indanylamphetamine Iofetamine Isoetarine Isoprenaline L -Deprenyl (Selegiline) Lefetamine Lisdexamfetamine Lophophine MBDB MDA (tenamfetamine) MDBU MDEA MDMA (midomafetamine) MDMPEA MDOH MDPR MDPEA Mefenorex Mephentermine Metanephrine Metaraminol Mesocarb Methamphetamine ( Dextromethamphetamine , Levomethamphetamine ) Methoxamine Methoxyphenamine MMA Methoxyphenamine MMDA MMDMA MMMA Morforex N,alpha-Diethylphenylethylamine N,N-Dimethylphenethylamine Naphthylamphetamine Nisoxetine Norepinephrine Norfenefrine Norfenfluramine Normetanephrine L -Norpseudoephedrine Octopamine Orciprenaline Ortetamine Oxifentorex Oxilofrine PBA PCA PCMA PHA Pentorex Phenatine Phenpromethamine Phentermine Phenylalanine Phenylephrine Phenylpropanolamine Pholedrine PIA PMA PMEA PMMA PPAP Prenylamine Propylamphetamine Pseudoephedrine Pyr-AI Ropinirole Salbutamol ( Levosalbutamol ) Sibutramine Solriamfetol Synephrine Theodrenaline Tiflorex Tranylcypromine Tyramine Tyrosine Xylopropamine Zylofuramine Phenylmorpholines 3-Fluorophenmetrazine Fenbutrazate Fenmetramide G-130 Manifaxine Morazone Morforex Oxaflozane PD-128,907 Phendimetrazine Phenmetrazine 2-Phenyl-3,6-dimethylmorpholine Pseudophenmetrazine Radafaxine 3-Fluorophenmetrazine Fenbutrazate Fenmetramide G-130 Manifaxine Morazone Morforex Oxaflozane PD-128,907 Phendimetrazine Phenmetrazine 2-Phenyl-3,6-dimethylmorpholine Pseudophenmetrazine Radafaxine Piperazines 2C-B-BZP 3C-PEP BZP CM156 DBL-583 GBR-12783 GBR-12935 GBR-13069 GBR-13098 GBR-13119 JJC8-088 MeOPP MBZP oMPP Vanoxerine 2C-B-BZP 3C-PEP BZP CM156 DBL-583 GBR-12783 GBR-12935 GBR-13069 GBR-13098 GBR-13119 JJC8-088 MeOPP MBZP oMPP Vanoxerine Piperidines 1-Benzyl-4-(2-(diphenylmethoxy)ethyl)piperidine 2-Benzylpiperidine 2-Methyl-3-phenylpiperidine 3,4-Dichloromethylphenidate 4-Benzylpiperidine 4-Fluoromethylphenidate 4-Methylmethylphenidate Desoxypipradrol Difemetorex Diphenylpyraline Ethylnaphthidate Ethylphenidate Methylnaphthidate Isopropylphenidate JZ-IV-10 Methylphenidate ( Dexmethylphenidate ) Nocaine Phacetoperane Pipradrol Propylphenidate Serdexmethylphenidate SCH-5472 1-Benzyl-4-(2-(diphenylmethoxy)ethyl)piperidine 2-Benzylpiperidine 2-Methyl-3-phenylpiperidine 3,4-Dichloromethylphenidate 4-Benzylpiperidine 4-Fluoromethylphenidate 4-Methylmethylphenidate Desoxypipradrol Difemetorex Diphenylpyraline Ethylnaphthidate Ethylphenidate Methylnaphthidate Isopropylphenidate JZ-IV-10 Methylphenidate ( Dexmethylphenidate ) Nocaine Phacetoperane Pipradrol Propylphenidate Serdexmethylphenidate SCH-5472 Phenethylpyrrolidines 2-Diphenylmethylpyrrolidine 4-Cl-PVP 5-DBFPV α-PPP α-PBP α-PCYP α-PHiP α-PHP α-PHPP α-PVP α-PVT Diphenylprolinol DMPVP FPOP FPVP MDPPP MDPBP MPBP MPEP MPHP MPPP MOPVP MOPPP Indapyrophenidone MDPV Naphyrone PEP Picilorex Prolintane Pyrovalerone 2-Diphenylmethylpyrrolidine 4-Cl-PVP 5-DBFPV α-PPP α-PBP α-PCYP α-PHiP α-PHP α-PHPP α-PVP α-PVT Diphenylprolinol DMPVP FPOP FPVP MDPPP MDPBP MPBP MPEP MPHP MPPP MOPVP MOPPP Indapyrophenidone MDPV Naphyrone PEP Picilorex Prolintane Pyrovalerone Racetams Oxiracetam Phenylpiracetam Phenylpiracetam hydrazide Oxiracetam Phenylpiracetam Phenylpiracetam hydrazide Psychedelics 2,5-DMA (DOH) 2C-B 2C-D 2C-G-N 5-MeO-DiPT 5-MeO-MiPT Ariadne (4C-DOM; BL-3912; Dimoxamine) ASR-2001 (2CB-5PrO) DOET DOM DON DOPR LSD MTFEM 2,5-DMA (DOH) 2C-B 2C-D 2C-G-N 5-MeO-DiPT 5-MeO-MiPT Ariadne (4C-DOM; BL-3912; Dimoxamine) ASR-2001 (2CB-5PrO) DOET DOM DON DOPR LSD MTFEM Tropanes 4-fluorotropacocaine 4'-Fluorococaine Altropane (IACFT) Brasofensine CFT (WIN 35,428) β-CIT (RTI-55) Cocaethylene Cocaine Dichloropane (RTI-111) Difluoropine FE-β-CPPIT FP-β-CPPIT Ioflupane ( 123 I) Norcocaine PIT PTT RTI-31 RTI-32 RTI-51 RTI-112 RTI-113 RTI-120 RTI-121 (IPCIT) RTI-126 RTI-150 RTI-177 RTI-229 RTI-336 RTI-354 RTI-371 RTI-386 Salicylmethylecgonine Tesofensine Troparil (β-CPT, WIN 35,065-2) Tropoxane WF-23 WF-33 4-fluorotropacocaine 4'-Fluorococaine Altropane (IACFT) Brasofensine CFT (WIN 35,428) β-CIT (RTI-55) Cocaethylene Cocaine Dichloropane (RTI-111) Difluoropine FE-β-CPPIT FP-β-CPPIT Ioflupane ( 123 I) Norcocaine PIT PTT RTI-31 RTI-32 RTI-51 RTI-112 RTI-113 RTI-120 RTI-121 (IPCIT) RTI-126 RTI-150 RTI-177 RTI-229 RTI-336 RTI-354 RTI-371 RTI-386 Salicylmethylecgonine Tesofensine Troparil (β-CPT, WIN 35,065-2) Tropoxane WF-23 WF-33 Tryptamines 4-HO-αMT 4-Methyl-αET 4-Methyl-αMT 5-Chloro-αMT 5-Fluoro-αMT 5-MeO-αET 5-MeO-αMT 5-MeO-DIPT 6-Fluoro-αMT 7-Methyl-αET αET αMT 4-HO-αMT 4-Methyl-αET 4-Methyl-αMT 5-Chloro-αMT 5-Fluoro-αMT 5-MeO-αET 5-MeO-αMT 5-MeO-DIPT 6-Fluoro-αMT 7-Methyl-αET αET αMT Others 2-MDP 3,3-Diphenylcyclobutanamine Amfonelic acid Amineptine Amiphenazole Atipamezole Atomoxetine Bemegride Benzydamine BTQ BTS 74,398 Centanafadine Ciclazindol Clofenciclan Cropropamide Crotetamide D-161 Desipramine Diclofensine Dimethocaine Efaroxan Etamivan Fenisorex Fenpentadiol Gamfexine Gilutensin GSK1360707F GYKI-52895 Hexacyclonate Idazoxan Indanorex Indatraline JNJ-7925476 Lazabemide Leptacline Lomevactone LR-5182 Mazindol Meclofenoxate Medifoxamine Mefexamide Methamnetamine Methastyridone Methiopropamine Naphthylaminopropane Nefopam Nikethamide Nomifensine O-2172 Oxaprotiline PNU-99,194 PRC200-SS Rasagiline Rauwolscine Rubidium chloride Setazindol Tametraline Tandamine Thiopropamine Thiothinone Trazium UH-232 Yohimbine 2-MDP 3,3-Diphenylcyclobutanamine Amfonelic acid Amineptine Amiphenazole Atipamezole Atomoxetine Bemegride Benzydamine BTQ BTS 74,398 Centanafadine Ciclazindol Clofenciclan Cropropamide Crotetamide D-161 Desipramine Diclofensine Dimethocaine Efaroxan Etamivan Fenisorex Fenpentadiol Gamfexine Gilutensin GSK1360707F GYKI-52895 Hexacyclonate Idazoxan Indanorex Indatraline JNJ-7925476 Lazabemide Leptacline Lomevactone LR-5182 Mazindol Meclofenoxate Medifoxamine Mefexamide Methamnetamine Methastyridone Methiopropamine Naphthylaminopropane Nefopam Nikethamide Nomifensine O-2172 Oxaprotiline PNU-99,194 PRC200-SS Rasagiline Rauwolscine Rubidium chloride Setazindol Tametraline Tandamine Thiopropamine Thiothinone Trazium UH-232 Yohimbine ATC code : N06B v t e Local anesthetics (primarily sodium channel blockers ) ( N01B ) v t e Esters by acid Aminobenzoic Benzocaine Benzonatate Butacaine Butamben Chloroprocaine Dimethocaine Lucaine Meprylcaine Metabutethamine Metabutoxycaine Nitracaine Orthocaine Propoxycaine Procaine (Novocaine) Proxymetacaine Risocaine Tetracaine Benzoic Amylocaine Cocaine Cyclomethycaine α-Eucaine β-Eucaine Hexylcaine Isobucaine Piperocaine ArCO2- (not para-amino or Ph) Amoproxan (3,4,5-Trimethoxybenzoyl) 3-(p-Fluorobenzoyloxy)tropane Aminobenzoic Benzocaine Benzonatate Butacaine Butamben Chloroprocaine Dimethocaine Lucaine Meprylcaine Metabutethamine Metabutoxycaine Nitracaine Orthocaine Propoxycaine Procaine (Novocaine) Proxymetacaine Risocaine Tetracaine Benzocaine Benzonatate Butacaine Butamben Chloroprocaine Dimethocaine Lucaine Meprylcaine Metabutethamine Metabutoxycaine Nitracaine Orthocaine Propoxycaine Procaine (Novocaine) Proxymetacaine Risocaine Tetracaine Benzoic Amylocaine Cocaine Cyclomethycaine α-Eucaine β-Eucaine Hexylcaine Isobucaine Piperocaine Amylocaine Cocaine Cyclomethycaine α-Eucaine β-Eucaine Hexylcaine Isobucaine Piperocaine ArCO2- (not para-amino or Ph) Amoproxan (3,4,5-Trimethoxybenzoyl) 3-(p-Fluorobenzoyloxy)tropane Amoproxan (3,4,5-Trimethoxybenzoyl) 3-(p-Fluorobenzoyloxy)tropane Amides Articaine Bupivacaine # / Levobupivacaine / Ropivacaine Butanilicaine Carticaine Cinchocaine (Dibucaine) Etidocaine Lidocaine # Mepivacaine Prilocaine Trimecaine Articaine Bupivacaine # / Levobupivacaine / Ropivacaine Butanilicaine Carticaine Cinchocaine (Dibucaine) Etidocaine Lidocaine # Mepivacaine Prilocaine Trimecaine Combinations Anesthetic/vasoconstrictor Bupivacaine/meloxicam Lidocaine/prilocaine TAC Iontocaine Anesthetic/vasoconstrictor Bupivacaine/meloxicam Lidocaine/prilocaine TAC Iontocaine # WHO-EM ‡ Withdrawn from market Clinical trials : † Phase III § Never to phase III # WHO-EM ‡ Withdrawn from market Clinical trials : † Phase III § Never to phase III † Phase III § Never to phase III v t e Ancient anaesthesia v t e Plants / animals Aconitum (aconite) Atropa bella-donna (belladonna) Cannabis medical use Castoreum Coca Conium (hemlock) Datura innoxia (thorn-apple) Datura metel (devil's trumpet) Hyoscyamus niger (henbane) Lactucarium Mandragora officinarum (mandrake) Opium Saussurea (saw-wort) Willow Aconitum (aconite) Atropa bella-donna (belladonna) Cannabis medical use medical use Castoreum Coca Conium (hemlock) Datura innoxia (thorn-apple) Datura metel (devil's trumpet) Hyoscyamus niger (henbane) Lactucarium Mandragora officinarum (mandrake) Opium Saussurea (saw-wort) Willow Preparations Beer Wine Beer Wine Compounds Ethanol ( medical use ) Aconitine Atropine Cocaine Coniine Hyoscine Δ9-THC Hyoscyamine Morphine Salicylate Ethanol ( medical use ) Aconitine Atropine Cocaine Coniine Hyoscine Δ9-THC Hyoscyamine Morphine Salicylate People Abulcasis Avenzoar Avicenna Celsus Dioscorides Galen Hippocrates Rhazes Sabuncuoğlu Sushrutha Theophrastus Zhang Abulcasis Avenzoar Avicenna Celsus Dioscorides Galen Hippocrates Rhazes Sabuncuoğlu Sushrutha Theophrastus Zhang v t e Ion channel modulators v t e Calcium VDCCs Tooltip Voltage-dependent calcium channels Blockers L-type-selective : Dihydropyridines : Amlodipine ( +telmisartan and indapamide ) Aranidipine Azelnidipine Barnidipine Clevidipine Cronidipine Darodipine Dexniguldipine Elgodipine Elnadipine Felodipine Flordipine Furnidipine Iganidipine Isradipine Lacidipine Lemildipine Lercanidipine Levamlodipine Levniguldipine Manidipine Mepirodipine Mesudipine Nicardipine Nifedipine Niguldipine Niludipine Nilvadipine Nimodipine Nisoldipine Nitrendipine Olradipine Oxodipine Palonidipine Pranidipine Ryodipine (riodipine) Sagandipine Sornidipine Teludipine Tiamdipine Trombodipine Vatanidipine ; Diltiazem derivatives: Clentiazem Diltiazem Iprotiazem Nictiazem Siratiazem ; Phenylalkylamines : Anipamil Dagapamil Devapamil Dexverapamil Emopamil Etripamil Falipamil Gallopamil Levemopamil Nexopamil Norverapamil Ronipamil Tiapamil Verapamil ; Others: AH-1058 Brinazarone Budiodarone Celivarone Cyproheptadine Dronedarone Fantofarone SR-33805 Tetrahydropalmatine N-type-selective : ω-Conotoxins ω-Conotoxin GVIA Caroverine Huwentoxin XVI Leconotide (ω-conotoxin CVID) PD-173212 Ralfinamide Safinamide Z160 Ziconotide (ω-conotoxin MVIIA) P-type-selective : ω-Agatoxin IVA ω-Agatoxin IVB R-type-selective : SNX-482 T-type-selective : ABT-639 ML-218 Niflumic acid NNC 55-0396 ProTx I Z944 Zonisamide Non-selective: ω-Agatoxin TK ω-Conotoxin MVIIC Benidipine Bepridil Cilnidipine Cinnarizine Dotarizine Efonidipine Flunarizine Lamotrigine Levetiracetam Lomerizine Loperamide Mibefradil NP078585 Ruthenium red TROX-1 α 2 δ subunit -selective ( gabapentinoids ): 4-Methylpregabalin Arbaclofen Arbaclofen placarbil Atagabalin Baclofen Gabapentin Gabapentin enacarbil Imagabalin Mirogabalin PD-200,347 PD-217,014 PD-299,685 Phenibut Pregabalin Others/unsorted: Bencyclane Berbamine Bevantolol Canadine Carboxyamidotriazole Cycleanine Dauricine Dimeditiapramine Diproteverine Enpiperate Eperisone Elpetrigine Ethadione Ethanol (alcohol) Ethosuximide Fasudil Fendiline Fostedil Imepitoin JTV-519 Lidoflazine Magnesium Manoalide Mesuximide Monatepil Naftopidil Ochratoxin A Osthol Otilonium bromide Paramethadione Phensuximide Pinaverium bromide Prenylamine Rhynchophylline Sesamodil Silperisone Sipatrigine Terodiline Tetrandrine Tolperisone Trimethadione Valperinol Activators L-type-selective : Bay K8644 VDCCs Tooltip Voltage-dependent calcium channels Blockers L-type-selective : Dihydropyridines : Amlodipine ( +telmisartan and indapamide ) Aranidipine Azelnidipine Barnidipine Clevidipine Cronidipine Darodipine Dexniguldipine Elgodipine Elnadipine Felodipine Flordipine Furnidipine Iganidipine Isradipine Lacidipine Lemildipine Lercanidipine Levamlodipine Levniguldipine Manidipine Mepirodipine Mesudipine Nicardipine Nifedipine Niguldipine Niludipine Nilvadipine Nimodipine Nisoldipine Nitrendipine Olradipine Oxodipine Palonidipine Pranidipine Ryodipine (riodipine) Sagandipine Sornidipine Teludipine Tiamdipine Trombodipine Vatanidipine ; Diltiazem derivatives: Clentiazem Diltiazem Iprotiazem Nictiazem Siratiazem ; Phenylalkylamines : Anipamil Dagapamil Devapamil Dexverapamil Emopamil Etripamil Falipamil Gallopamil Levemopamil Nexopamil Norverapamil Ronipamil Tiapamil Verapamil ; Others: AH-1058 Brinazarone Budiodarone Celivarone Cyproheptadine Dronedarone Fantofarone SR-33805 Tetrahydropalmatine N-type-selective : ω-Conotoxins ω-Conotoxin GVIA Caroverine Huwentoxin XVI Leconotide (ω-conotoxin CVID) PD-173212 Ralfinamide Safinamide Z160 Ziconotide (ω-conotoxin MVIIA) P-type-selective : ω-Agatoxin IVA ω-Agatoxin IVB R-type-selective : SNX-482 T-type-selective : ABT-639 ML-218 Niflumic acid NNC 55-0396 ProTx I Z944 Zonisamide Non-selective: ω-Agatoxin TK ω-Conotoxin MVIIC Benidipine Bepridil Cilnidipine Cinnarizine Dotarizine Efonidipine Flunarizine Lamotrigine Levetiracetam Lomerizine Loperamide Mibefradil NP078585 Ruthenium red TROX-1 α 2 δ subunit -selective ( gabapentinoids ): 4-Methylpregabalin Arbaclofen Arbaclofen placarbil Atagabalin Baclofen Gabapentin Gabapentin enacarbil Imagabalin Mirogabalin PD-200,347 PD-217,014 PD-299,685 Phenibut Pregabalin Others/unsorted: Bencyclane Berbamine Bevantolol Canadine Carboxyamidotriazole Cycleanine Dauricine Dimeditiapramine Diproteverine Enpiperate Eperisone Elpetrigine Ethadione Ethanol (alcohol) Ethosuximide Fasudil Fendiline Fostedil Imepitoin JTV-519 Lidoflazine Magnesium Manoalide Mesuximide Monatepil Naftopidil Ochratoxin A Osthol Otilonium bromide Paramethadione Phensuximide Pinaverium bromide Prenylamine Rhynchophylline Sesamodil Silperisone Sipatrigine Terodiline Tetrandrine Tolperisone Trimethadione Valperinol Activators L-type-selective : Bay K8644 Blockers L-type-selective : Dihydropyridines : Amlodipine ( +telmisartan and indapamide ) Aranidipine Azelnidipine Barnidipine Clevidipine Cronidipine Darodipine Dexniguldipine Elgodipine Elnadipine Felodipine Flordipine Furnidipine Iganidipine Isradipine Lacidipine Lemildipine Lercanidipine Levamlodipine Levniguldipine Manidipine Mepirodipine Mesudipine Nicardipine Nifedipine Niguldipine Niludipine Nilvadipine Nimodipine Nisoldipine Nitrendipine Olradipine Oxodipine Palonidipine Pranidipine Ryodipine (riodipine) Sagandipine Sornidipine Teludipine Tiamdipine Trombodipine Vatanidipine ; Diltiazem derivatives: Clentiazem Diltiazem Iprotiazem Nictiazem Siratiazem ; Phenylalkylamines : Anipamil Dagapamil Devapamil Dexverapamil Emopamil Etripamil Falipamil Gallopamil Levemopamil Nexopamil Norverapamil Ronipamil Tiapamil Verapamil ; Others: AH-1058 Brinazarone Budiodarone Celivarone Cyproheptadine Dronedarone Fantofarone SR-33805 Tetrahydropalmatine N-type-selective : ω-Conotoxins ω-Conotoxin GVIA Caroverine Huwentoxin XVI Leconotide (ω-conotoxin CVID) PD-173212 Ralfinamide Safinamide Z160 Ziconotide (ω-conotoxin MVIIA) P-type-selective : ω-Agatoxin IVA ω-Agatoxin IVB R-type-selective : SNX-482 T-type-selective : ABT-639 ML-218 Niflumic acid NNC 55-0396 ProTx I Z944 Zonisamide Non-selective: ω-Agatoxin TK ω-Conotoxin MVIIC Benidipine Bepridil Cilnidipine Cinnarizine Dotarizine Efonidipine Flunarizine Lamotrigine Levetiracetam Lomerizine Loperamide Mibefradil NP078585 Ruthenium red TROX-1 α 2 δ subunit -selective ( gabapentinoids ): 4-Methylpregabalin Arbaclofen Arbaclofen placarbil Atagabalin Baclofen Gabapentin Gabapentin enacarbil Imagabalin Mirogabalin PD-200,347 PD-217,014 PD-299,685 Phenibut Pregabalin Others/unsorted: Bencyclane Berbamine Bevantolol Canadine Carboxyamidotriazole Cycleanine Dauricine Dimeditiapramine Diproteverine Enpiperate Eperisone Elpetrigine Ethadione Ethanol (alcohol) Ethosuximide Fasudil Fendiline Fostedil Imepitoin JTV-519 Lidoflazine Magnesium Manoalide Mesuximide Monatepil Naftopidil Ochratoxin A Osthol Otilonium bromide Paramethadione Phensuximide Pinaverium bromide Prenylamine Rhynchophylline Sesamodil Silperisone Sipatrigine Terodiline Tetrandrine Tolperisone Trimethadione Valperinol L-type-selective : Dihydropyridines : Amlodipine ( +telmisartan and indapamide ) Aranidipine Azelnidipine Barnidipine Clevidipine Cronidipine Darodipine Dexniguldipine Elgodipine Elnadipine Felodipine Flordipine Furnidipine Iganidipine Isradipine Lacidipine Lemildipine Lercanidipine Levamlodipine Levniguldipine Manidipine Mepirodipine Mesudipine Nicardipine Nifedipine Niguldipine Niludipine Nilvadipine Nimodipine Nisoldipine Nitrendipine Olradipine Oxodipine Palonidipine Pranidipine Ryodipine (riodipine) Sagandipine Sornidipine Teludipine Tiamdipine Trombodipine Vatanidipine ; Diltiazem derivatives: Clentiazem Diltiazem Iprotiazem Nictiazem Siratiazem ; Phenylalkylamines : Anipamil Dagapamil Devapamil Dexverapamil Emopamil Etripamil Falipamil Gallopamil Levemopamil Nexopamil Norverapamil Ronipamil Tiapamil Verapamil ; Others: AH-1058 Brinazarone Budiodarone Celivarone Cyproheptadine Dronedarone Fantofarone SR-33805 Tetrahydropalmatine N-type-selective : ω-Conotoxins ω-Conotoxin GVIA Caroverine Huwentoxin XVI Leconotide (ω-conotoxin CVID) PD-173212 Ralfinamide Safinamide Z160 Ziconotide (ω-conotoxin MVIIA) P-type-selective : ω-Agatoxin IVA ω-Agatoxin IVB R-type-selective : SNX-482 T-type-selective : ABT-639 ML-218 Niflumic acid NNC 55-0396 ProTx I Z944 Zonisamide Non-selective: ω-Agatoxin TK ω-Conotoxin MVIIC Benidipine Bepridil Cilnidipine Cinnarizine Dotarizine Efonidipine Flunarizine Lamotrigine Levetiracetam Lomerizine Loperamide Mibefradil NP078585 Ruthenium red TROX-1 α 2 δ subunit -selective ( gabapentinoids ): 4-Methylpregabalin Arbaclofen Arbaclofen placarbil Atagabalin Baclofen Gabapentin Gabapentin enacarbil Imagabalin Mirogabalin PD-200,347 PD-217,014 PD-299,685 Phenibut Pregabalin Others/unsorted: Bencyclane Berbamine Bevantolol Canadine Carboxyamidotriazole Cycleanine Dauricine Dimeditiapramine Diproteverine Enpiperate Eperisone Elpetrigine Ethadione Ethanol (alcohol) Ethosuximide Fasudil Fendiline Fostedil Imepitoin JTV-519 Lidoflazine Magnesium Manoalide Mesuximide Monatepil Naftopidil Ochratoxin A Osthol Otilonium bromide Paramethadione Phensuximide Pinaverium bromide Prenylamine Rhynchophylline Sesamodil Silperisone Sipatrigine Terodiline Tetrandrine Tolperisone Trimethadione Valperinol Activators L-type-selective : Bay K8644 L-type-selective : Bay K8644 Potassium VGKCs Tooltip Voltage-gated potassium channels Blockers 3,4-Diaminopyridine (amifampridine) 4-Aminopyridine (fampridine/dalfampridine) Adekalant Almokalant Amiodarone Azimilide Bretylium Bunaftine Charybdotoxin Clamikalant Conotoxins Dalazatide Dendrotoxin Dofetilide Dronedarone E-4031 Hanatoxin HgeTx1 HsTx1 Ibutilide Inakalant Kaliotoxin Linopirdine Lolitrem B Maurotoxin Nifekalant Notoxin Paxilline Pinokalant Quinidine ShK-186 Sotalol Tedisamil Terikalant Tetraethylammonium Vernakalant hERG (KCNH2, K v 11.1)-specific: Ajmaline Amiodarone AmmTX3 Astemizole Azaspiracid AZD1305 Azimilide Bedaquiline BeKm-1 BmTx3 BRL-32872 Chlorpromazine Cisapride Clarithromycin Darifenacin Dextropropoxyphene Diallyl trisulfide Domperidone E-4031 Ergtoxins Erythromycin Gigactonine Haloperidol Ketoconazole Norpropoxyphene Orphenadrine Pimozide PNU-282,987 Promethazine Quinidine Ranolazine Roxithromycin Sertindole Solifenacin Tamulotoxin Terodiline Terfenadine Thioridazine Tolterodine Vanoxerine Vernakalant KCNQ (K v 7) -specific: Linopirdine XE-991 Spooky toxin (SsTx) Activators KCNQ (K v 7) -specific: Flupirtine Retigabine IRKs Tooltip Inwardly rectifying potassium channel Blockers K ATP Tooltip ATP-sensitive potassium channel -specific: Acetohexamide Carbutamide Chlorpropamide Glibenclamide (glyburide) Glibornuride Glicaramide Gliclazide Glimepiride Glipizide Gliquidone Glisoxepide Glyclopyramide Glycyclamide Metahexamide Mitiglinide Nateglinide Repaglinide Tolazamide Tolbutamide GIRK Tooltip G protein-coupled inwardly rectifying potassium channel -specific: Barium Caramiphen Cloperastine Clozapine Dextromethorphan Ethosuximide Ifenprodil Tertiapin Tipepidine Activators K ATP Tooltip ATP-sensitive potassium channel -specific: Aprikalim Bimakalim Cromakalim Diazoxide Emakalim Levcromakalim Mazokalim Minoxidil Minoxidil sulfate Naminidil Nicorandil Pinacidil Rilmakalim Sarakalim GIRK Tooltip G protein-coupled inwardly rectifying potassium channel -specific: ML-297 (VU0456810) K Ca Tooltip Calcium-activated potassium channel Blockers BK Ca -specific: Ethanol (alcohol) GAL-021 Activators BK Ca -specific: Flufenamic acid Meclofenamic acid Niflumic acid Nimesulide Rottlerin (mallotoxin) Tolfenamic acid K2Ps Tooltip Tandem pore domain potassium channel Blockers 12-O-Tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate Arachidonic acid Fluoxetine Norfluoxetine Activators Riluzole VGKCs Tooltip Voltage-gated potassium channels Blockers 3,4-Diaminopyridine (amifampridine) 4-Aminopyridine (fampridine/dalfampridine) Adekalant Almokalant Amiodarone Azimilide Bretylium Bunaftine Charybdotoxin Clamikalant Conotoxins Dalazatide Dendrotoxin Dofetilide Dronedarone E-4031 Hanatoxin HgeTx1 HsTx1 Ibutilide Inakalant Kaliotoxin Linopirdine Lolitrem B Maurotoxin Nifekalant Notoxin Paxilline Pinokalant Quinidine ShK-186 Sotalol Tedisamil Terikalant Tetraethylammonium Vernakalant hERG (KCNH2, K v 11.1)-specific: Ajmaline Amiodarone AmmTX3 Astemizole Azaspiracid AZD1305 Azimilide Bedaquiline BeKm-1 BmTx3 BRL-32872 Chlorpromazine Cisapride Clarithromycin Darifenacin Dextropropoxyphene Diallyl trisulfide Domperidone E-4031 Ergtoxins Erythromycin Gigactonine Haloperidol Ketoconazole Norpropoxyphene Orphenadrine Pimozide PNU-282,987 Promethazine Quinidine Ranolazine Roxithromycin Sertindole Solifenacin Tamulotoxin Terodiline Terfenadine Thioridazine Tolterodine Vanoxerine Vernakalant KCNQ (K v 7) -specific: Linopirdine XE-991 Spooky toxin (SsTx) Activators KCNQ (K v 7) -specific: Flupirtine Retigabine Blockers 3,4-Diaminopyridine (amifampridine) 4-Aminopyridine (fampridine/dalfampridine) Adekalant Almokalant Amiodarone Azimilide Bretylium Bunaftine Charybdotoxin Clamikalant Conotoxins Dalazatide Dendrotoxin Dofetilide Dronedarone E-4031 Hanatoxin HgeTx1 HsTx1 Ibutilide Inakalant Kaliotoxin Linopirdine Lolitrem B Maurotoxin Nifekalant Notoxin Paxilline Pinokalant Quinidine ShK-186 Sotalol Tedisamil Terikalant Tetraethylammonium Vernakalant hERG (KCNH2, K v 11.1)-specific: Ajmaline Amiodarone AmmTX3 Astemizole Azaspiracid AZD1305 Azimilide Bedaquiline BeKm-1 BmTx3 BRL-32872 Chlorpromazine Cisapride Clarithromycin Darifenacin Dextropropoxyphene Diallyl trisulfide Domperidone E-4031 Ergtoxins Erythromycin Gigactonine Haloperidol Ketoconazole Norpropoxyphene Orphenadrine Pimozide PNU-282,987 Promethazine Quinidine Ranolazine Roxithromycin Sertindole Solifenacin Tamulotoxin Terodiline Terfenadine Thioridazine Tolterodine Vanoxerine Vernakalant KCNQ (K v 7) -specific: Linopirdine XE-991 Spooky toxin (SsTx) 3,4-Diaminopyridine (amifampridine) 4-Aminopyridine (fampridine/dalfampridine) Adekalant Almokalant Amiodarone Azimilide Bretylium Bunaftine Charybdotoxin Clamikalant Conotoxins Dalazatide Dendrotoxin Dofetilide Dronedarone E-4031 Hanatoxin HgeTx1 HsTx1 Ibutilide Inakalant Kaliotoxin Linopirdine Lolitrem B Maurotoxin Nifekalant Notoxin Paxilline Pinokalant Quinidine ShK-186 Sotalol Tedisamil Terikalant Tetraethylammonium Vernakalant hERG (KCNH2, K v 11.1)-specific: Ajmaline Amiodarone AmmTX3 Astemizole Azaspiracid AZD1305 Azimilide Bedaquiline BeKm-1 BmTx3 BRL-32872 Chlorpromazine Cisapride Clarithromycin Darifenacin Dextropropoxyphene Diallyl trisulfide Domperidone E-4031 Ergtoxins Erythromycin Gigactonine Haloperidol Ketoconazole Norpropoxyphene Orphenadrine Pimozide PNU-282,987 Promethazine Quinidine Ranolazine Roxithromycin Sertindole Solifenacin Tamulotoxin Terodiline Terfenadine Thioridazine Tolterodine Vanoxerine Vernakalant KCNQ (K v 7) -specific: Linopirdine XE-991 Spooky toxin (SsTx) Activators KCNQ (K v 7) -specific: Flupirtine Retigabine KCNQ (K v 7) -specific: Flupirtine Retigabine IRKs Tooltip Inwardly rectifying potassium channel Blockers K ATP Tooltip ATP-sensitive potassium channel -specific: Acetohexamide Carbutamide Chlorpropamide Glibenclamide (glyburide) Glibornuride Glicaramide Gliclazide Glimepiride Glipizide Gliquidone Glisoxepide Glyclopyramide Glycyclamide Metahexamide Mitiglinide Nateglinide Repaglinide Tolazamide Tolbutamide GIRK Tooltip G protein-coupled inwardly rectifying potassium channel -specific: Barium Caramiphen Cloperastine Clozapine Dextromethorphan Ethosuximide Ifenprodil Tertiapin Tipepidine Activators K ATP Tooltip ATP-sensitive potassium channel -specific: Aprikalim Bimakalim Cromakalim Diazoxide Emakalim Levcromakalim Mazokalim Minoxidil Minoxidil sulfate Naminidil Nicorandil Pinacidil Rilmakalim Sarakalim GIRK Tooltip G protein-coupled inwardly rectifying potassium channel -specific: ML-297 (VU0456810) Blockers K ATP Tooltip ATP-sensitive potassium channel -specific: Acetohexamide Carbutamide Chlorpropamide Glibenclamide (glyburide) Glibornuride Glicaramide Gliclazide Glimepiride Glipizide Gliquidone Glisoxepide Glyclopyramide Glycyclamide Metahexamide Mitiglinide Nateglinide Repaglinide Tolazamide Tolbutamide GIRK Tooltip G protein-coupled inwardly rectifying potassium channel -specific: Barium Caramiphen Cloperastine Clozapine Dextromethorphan Ethosuximide Ifenprodil Tertiapin Tipepidine K ATP Tooltip ATP-sensitive potassium channel -specific: Acetohexamide Carbutamide Chlorpropamide Glibenclamide (glyburide) Glibornuride Glicaramide Gliclazide Glimepiride Glipizide Gliquidone Glisoxepide Glyclopyramide Glycyclamide Metahexamide Mitiglinide Nateglinide Repaglinide Tolazamide Tolbutamide GIRK Tooltip G protein-coupled inwardly rectifying potassium channel -specific: Barium Caramiphen Cloperastine Clozapine Dextromethorphan Ethosuximide Ifenprodil Tertiapin Tipepidine Activators K ATP Tooltip ATP-sensitive potassium channel -specific: Aprikalim Bimakalim Cromakalim Diazoxide Emakalim Levcromakalim Mazokalim Minoxidil Minoxidil sulfate Naminidil Nicorandil Pinacidil Rilmakalim Sarakalim GIRK Tooltip G protein-coupled inwardly rectifying potassium channel -specific: ML-297 (VU0456810) K ATP Tooltip ATP-sensitive potassium channel -specific: Aprikalim Bimakalim Cromakalim Diazoxide Emakalim Levcromakalim Mazokalim Minoxidil Minoxidil sulfate Naminidil Nicorandil Pinacidil Rilmakalim Sarakalim GIRK Tooltip G protein-coupled inwardly rectifying potassium channel -specific: ML-297 (VU0456810) K Ca Tooltip Calcium-activated potassium channel Blockers BK Ca -specific: Ethanol (alcohol) GAL-021 Activators BK Ca -specific: Flufenamic acid Meclofenamic acid Niflumic acid Nimesulide Rottlerin (mallotoxin) Tolfenamic acid Blockers BK Ca -specific: Ethanol (alcohol) GAL-021 BK Ca -specific: Ethanol (alcohol) GAL-021 Activators BK Ca -specific: Flufenamic acid Meclofenamic acid Niflumic acid Nimesulide Rottlerin (mallotoxin) Tolfenamic acid BK Ca -specific: Flufenamic acid Meclofenamic acid Niflumic acid Nimesulide Rottlerin (mallotoxin) Tolfenamic acid K2Ps Tooltip Tandem pore domain potassium channel Blockers 12-O-Tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate Arachidonic acid Fluoxetine Norfluoxetine Activators Riluzole Blockers 12-O-Tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate Arachidonic acid Fluoxetine Norfluoxetine 12-O-Tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate Arachidonic acid Fluoxetine Norfluoxetine Activators Riluzole Riluzole Sodium VGSCs Tooltip Voltage-gated sodium channels Blockers Antianginals: Ranolazine Antiarrhythmics (class I): Ajmaline Aprindine Disopyramide Dronedarone Encainide Flecainide Lidocaine Lorajmine Lorcainide Mexiletine Moricizine Pilsicainide Prajmaline Procainamide Propafenone Quinidine Sparteine Tocainide Anticonvulsants: Acetylpheneturide Carbamazepine Cenobamate Chlorphenacemide Elpetrigine Eslicarbazepine acetate Ethotoin Fosphenytoin Lamotrigine Lacosamide Licarbazepine Mephenytoin Oxcarbazepine Oxitriptyline Phenacemide Pheneturide Phenytoin Rufinamide Sipatrigine Topiramate Sodium valproate Valnoctamide Valproate pivoxil Valproate semisodium Valproic acid Valpromide Zonisamide Local anesthetics: p FBT Amylocaine Articaine Benzocaine Bupivacaine ( Levobupivacaine , Ropivacaine ) Butacaine Butamben Chloroprocaine Cinchocaine Cocaine Cyclomethycaine Dimethocaine Diphenhydramine Etidocaine Hexylcaine Iontocaine Lidocaine Mepivacaine Meprylcaine Metabutoxycaine Orthocaine Piperocaine Prilocaine Procaine Propoxycaine Proxymetacaine Risocaine Tetracaine Trimecaine Analgesics: AZD-3161 DSP-2230 Funapide GDC-0276 NKTR-171 PF-04531083 PF-05089771 Ralfinamide Raxatrigine RG7893 (GDC-0287) Suzetrigine Toxins: Conotoxins Neosaxitoxin Saxitoxin Tetrodotoxin Zetekitoxin AB Others: Buprenorphine Evenamide Menthol ( mint ) Safinamide Tricyclic antidepressants Activators Aconitine Atracotoxins ( ω-Atracotoxin , Robustoxin , Versutoxin ) Batrachotoxin Ciguatoxins Grayanotoxins Poneratoxin ENaC Tooltip Epithelial sodium channel Blockers Amiloride Benzamil Triamterene Activators Solnatide ASICs Tooltip Acid-sensing ion channel Blockers A-317567 Amiloride Aspirin Ibuprofen PcTX1 VGSCs Tooltip Voltage-gated sodium channels Blockers Antianginals: Ranolazine Antiarrhythmics (class I): Ajmaline Aprindine Disopyramide Dronedarone Encainide Flecainide Lidocaine Lorajmine Lorcainide Mexiletine Moricizine Pilsicainide Prajmaline Procainamide Propafenone Quinidine Sparteine Tocainide Anticonvulsants: Acetylpheneturide Carbamazepine Cenobamate Chlorphenacemide Elpetrigine Eslicarbazepine acetate Ethotoin Fosphenytoin Lamotrigine Lacosamide Licarbazepine Mephenytoin Oxcarbazepine Oxitriptyline Phenacemide Pheneturide Phenytoin Rufinamide Sipatrigine Topiramate Sodium valproate Valnoctamide Valproate pivoxil Valproate semisodium Valproic acid Valpromide Zonisamide Local anesthetics: p FBT Amylocaine Articaine Benzocaine Bupivacaine ( Levobupivacaine , Ropivacaine ) Butacaine Butamben Chloroprocaine Cinchocaine Cocaine Cyclomethycaine Dimethocaine Diphenhydramine Etidocaine Hexylcaine Iontocaine Lidocaine Mepivacaine Meprylcaine Metabutoxycaine Orthocaine Piperocaine Prilocaine Procaine Propoxycaine Proxymetacaine Risocaine Tetracaine Trimecaine Analgesics: AZD-3161 DSP-2230 Funapide GDC-0276 NKTR-171 PF-04531083 PF-05089771 Ralfinamide Raxatrigine RG7893 (GDC-0287) Suzetrigine Toxins: Conotoxins Neosaxitoxin Saxitoxin Tetrodotoxin Zetekitoxin AB Others: Buprenorphine Evenamide Menthol ( mint ) Safinamide Tricyclic antidepressants Activators Aconitine Atracotoxins ( ω-Atracotoxin , Robustoxin , Versutoxin ) Batrachotoxin Ciguatoxins Grayanotoxins Poneratoxin Blockers Antianginals: Ranolazine Antiarrhythmics (class I): Ajmaline Aprindine Disopyramide Dronedarone Encainide Flecainide Lidocaine Lorajmine Lorcainide Mexiletine Moricizine Pilsicainide Prajmaline Procainamide Propafenone Quinidine Sparteine Tocainide Anticonvulsants: Acetylpheneturide Carbamazepine Cenobamate Chlorphenacemide Elpetrigine Eslicarbazepine acetate Ethotoin Fosphenytoin Lamotrigine Lacosamide Licarbazepine Mephenytoin Oxcarbazepine Oxitriptyline Phenacemide Pheneturide Phenytoin Rufinamide Sipatrigine Topiramate Sodium valproate Valnoctamide Valproate pivoxil Valproate semisodium Valproic acid Valpromide Zonisamide Local anesthetics: p FBT Amylocaine Articaine Benzocaine Bupivacaine ( Levobupivacaine , Ropivacaine ) Butacaine Butamben Chloroprocaine Cinchocaine Cocaine Cyclomethycaine Dimethocaine Diphenhydramine Etidocaine Hexylcaine Iontocaine Lidocaine Mepivacaine Meprylcaine Metabutoxycaine Orthocaine Piperocaine Prilocaine Procaine Propoxycaine Proxymetacaine Risocaine Tetracaine Trimecaine Analgesics: AZD-3161 DSP-2230 Funapide GDC-0276 NKTR-171 PF-04531083 PF-05089771 Ralfinamide Raxatrigine RG7893 (GDC-0287) Suzetrigine Toxins: Conotoxins Neosaxitoxin Saxitoxin Tetrodotoxin Zetekitoxin AB Others: Buprenorphine Evenamide Menthol ( mint ) Safinamide Tricyclic antidepressants Antianginals: Ranolazine Antiarrhythmics (class I): Ajmaline Aprindine Disopyramide Dronedarone Encainide Flecainide Lidocaine Lorajmine Lorcainide Mexiletine Moricizine Pilsicainide Prajmaline Procainamide Propafenone Quinidine Sparteine Tocainide Anticonvulsants: Acetylpheneturide Carbamazepine Cenobamate Chlorphenacemide Elpetrigine Eslicarbazepine acetate Ethotoin Fosphenytoin Lamotrigine Lacosamide Licarbazepine Mephenytoin Oxcarbazepine Oxitriptyline Phenacemide Pheneturide Phenytoin Rufinamide Sipatrigine Topiramate Sodium valproate Valnoctamide Valproate pivoxil Valproate semisodium Valproic acid Valpromide Zonisamide Local anesthetics: p FBT Amylocaine Articaine Benzocaine Bupivacaine ( Levobupivacaine , Ropivacaine ) Butacaine Butamben Chloroprocaine Cinchocaine Cocaine Cyclomethycaine Dimethocaine Diphenhydramine Etidocaine Hexylcaine Iontocaine Lidocaine Mepivacaine Meprylcaine Metabutoxycaine Orthocaine Piperocaine Prilocaine Procaine Propoxycaine Proxymetacaine Risocaine Tetracaine Trimecaine Analgesics: AZD-3161 DSP-2230 Funapide GDC-0276 NKTR-171 PF-04531083 PF-05089771 Ralfinamide Raxatrigine RG7893 (GDC-0287) Suzetrigine Toxins: Conotoxins Neosaxitoxin Saxitoxin Tetrodotoxin Zetekitoxin AB Others: Buprenorphine Evenamide Menthol ( mint ) Safinamide Tricyclic antidepressants Activators Aconitine Atracotoxins ( ω-Atracotoxin , Robustoxin , Versutoxin ) Batrachotoxin Ciguatoxins Grayanotoxins Poneratoxin Aconitine Atracotoxins ( ω-Atracotoxin , Robustoxin , Versutoxin ) Batrachotoxin Ciguatoxins Grayanotoxins Poneratoxin ENaC Tooltip Epithelial sodium channel Blockers Amiloride Benzamil Triamterene Activators Solnatide Blockers Amiloride Benzamil Triamterene Amiloride Benzamil Triamterene Activators Solnatide Solnatide ASICs Tooltip Acid-sensing ion channel Blockers A-317567 Amiloride Aspirin Ibuprofen PcTX1 Blockers A-317567 Amiloride Aspirin Ibuprofen PcTX1 A-317567 Amiloride Aspirin Ibuprofen PcTX1 Chloride CaCCs Tooltip Calcium-activated chloride channel Blockers Crofelemer DIDS Ethacrynic acid Flufenamic acid Fluoxetine Furosemide Glibenclamide Mefloquine Mibefradil Niflumic acid Activators Carbachol CFTR Tooltip Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator Blockers Glibenclamide Lonidamine Piretanide Activators 1,7-Phenanthroline 1,10-Phenanthroline 4,7-Phenanthroline 7,8-Benzoquinoline Ivacaftor Phenanthridine Unsorted Blockers Bumetanide Flufenamic acid Meclofenamic acid Mefenamic acid Mepacrine Niflumic acid Talniflumate Tolfenamic acid Trifluoperazine CaCCs Tooltip Calcium-activated chloride channel Blockers Crofelemer DIDS Ethacrynic acid Flufenamic acid Fluoxetine Furosemide Glibenclamide Mefloquine Mibefradil Niflumic acid Activators Carbachol Blockers Crofelemer DIDS Ethacrynic acid Flufenamic acid Fluoxetine Furosemide Glibenclamide Mefloquine Mibefradil Niflumic acid Crofelemer DIDS Ethacrynic acid Flufenamic acid Fluoxetine Furosemide Glibenclamide Mefloquine Mibefradil Niflumic acid Activators Carbachol Carbachol CFTR Tooltip Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator Blockers Glibenclamide Lonidamine Piretanide Activators 1,7-Phenanthroline 1,10-Phenanthroline 4,7-Phenanthroline 7,8-Benzoquinoline Ivacaftor Phenanthridine Blockers Glibenclamide Lonidamine Piretanide Glibenclamide Lonidamine Piretanide Activators 1,7-Phenanthroline 1,10-Phenanthroline 4,7-Phenanthroline 7,8-Benzoquinoline Ivacaftor Phenanthridine 1,7-Phenanthroline 1,10-Phenanthroline 4,7-Phenanthroline 7,8-Benzoquinoline Ivacaftor Phenanthridine Unsorted Blockers Bumetanide Flufenamic acid Meclofenamic acid Mefenamic acid Mepacrine Niflumic acid Talniflumate Tolfenamic acid Trifluoperazine Blockers Bumetanide Flufenamic acid Meclofenamic acid Mefenamic acid Mepacrine Niflumic acid Talniflumate Tolfenamic acid Trifluoperazine Bumetanide Flufenamic acid Meclofenamic acid Mefenamic acid Mepacrine Niflumic acid Talniflumate Tolfenamic acid Trifluoperazine Others TRPs Tooltip Transient receptor potential channels See here instead. LGICs Tooltip Ligand gated ion channels See here instead. TRPs Tooltip Transient receptor potential channels See here instead. See here instead. LGICs Tooltip Ligand gated ion channels See here instead. See here instead. See also: Receptor/signaling modulators • Transient receptor potential channel modulators v t e Monoamine reuptake inhibitors v t e DAT Tooltip Dopamine transporter ( DRIs Tooltip Dopamine reuptake inhibitors ) Piperazines: DBL-583 GBR-12783 GBR-12935 GBR-13069 GBR-13098 JJC8-088 Nefazodone Vanoxerine Piperidines: 4-Fluoropethidine Benocyclidine (BTCP) Desoxypipradrol Dexmethylphenidate Difemetorex Ethylphenidate HDMP-28 Methylphenidate Pethidine (meperidine) Phencyclidine Pipradrol Serdexmethylphenidate Tenocyclidine Pyrrolidines: Diphenylprolinol MDPV Naphyrone Prolintane Pyrovalerone Tropanes: Altropane Benzatropine (benztropine) Brasofensine CFT Cocaine Dichloropane Difluoropine Etybenzatropine (ethybenztropine) FE-β-CPPIT FP-β-CPPIT Ioflupane ( 123 I) RTI-55 RTI-112 RTI-113 RTI-121 RTI-126 RTI-150 RTI-177 RTI-229 RTI-336 Tesofensine Troparil Tropoxane WF-11 WF-23 WF-31 WF-33 Others: Adrafinil Amifitadine Armodafinil Amfonelic acid Amineptine Ansofaxine BTQ BTS 74,398 Bupropion Chaenomeles speciosa Ciclazindol Dasotraline Desmethylsertraline Desmethylsibutramine (BTS-54354) Diclofensine Didesmethylsibutramine (BTS-54505) Dimethocaine Diphenylpyraline Dizocilpine (MK-801) DOV-102,677 DOV-216,303 Efavirenz Ephenidine Esketamine EXP-561 Fencamfamin Fezolamine Fluorenol GYKI-52895 Hydroxybupropion Indatraline Ketamine Lafadofensine Lefetamine Levophacetoperane Liafensine LR-5182 Manifaxine Mazindol Medifoxamine Mesocarb Metaphit MIN-117 (WF-516) Modafinil Nefopam Nomifensine NS-2359 O-2172 Oroxylin A Perafensine Pridefine Radafaxine Rimcazole Sertraline Sibutramine Solriamfetol Tametraline Tedatioxetine Threohydrobupropion Tripelennamine Venlafaxine Piperazines: DBL-583 GBR-12783 GBR-12935 GBR-13069 GBR-13098 JJC8-088 Nefazodone Vanoxerine Piperazines: DBL-583 GBR-12783 GBR-12935 GBR-13069 GBR-13098 JJC8-088 Nefazodone Vanoxerine Piperidines: 4-Fluoropethidine Benocyclidine (BTCP) Desoxypipradrol Dexmethylphenidate Difemetorex Ethylphenidate HDMP-28 Methylphenidate Pethidine (meperidine) Phencyclidine Pipradrol Serdexmethylphenidate Tenocyclidine Piperidines: 4-Fluoropethidine Benocyclidine (BTCP) Desoxypipradrol Dexmethylphenidate Difemetorex Ethylphenidate HDMP-28 Methylphenidate Pethidine (meperidine) Phencyclidine Pipradrol Serdexmethylphenidate Tenocyclidine Pyrrolidines: Diphenylprolinol MDPV Naphyrone Prolintane Pyrovalerone Pyrrolidines: Diphenylprolinol MDPV Naphyrone Prolintane Pyrovalerone Tropanes: Altropane Benzatropine (benztropine) Brasofensine CFT Cocaine Dichloropane Difluoropine Etybenzatropine (ethybenztropine) FE-β-CPPIT FP-β-CPPIT Ioflupane ( 123 I) RTI-55 RTI-112 RTI-113 RTI-121 RTI-126 RTI-150 RTI-177 RTI-229 RTI-336 Tesofensine Troparil Tropoxane WF-11 WF-23 WF-31 WF-33 Tropanes: Altropane Benzatropine (benztropine) Brasofensine CFT Cocaine Dichloropane Difluoropine Etybenzatropine (ethybenztropine) FE-β-CPPIT FP-β-CPPIT Ioflupane ( 123 I) RTI-55 RTI-112 RTI-113 RTI-121 RTI-126 RTI-150 RTI-177 RTI-229 RTI-336 Tesofensine Troparil Tropoxane WF-11 WF-23 WF-31 WF-33 Others: Adrafinil Amifitadine Armodafinil Amfonelic acid Amineptine Ansofaxine BTQ BTS 74,398 Bupropion Chaenomeles speciosa Ciclazindol Dasotraline Desmethylsertraline Desmethylsibutramine (BTS-54354) Diclofensine Didesmethylsibutramine (BTS-54505) Dimethocaine Diphenylpyraline Dizocilpine (MK-801) DOV-102,677 DOV-216,303 Efavirenz Ephenidine Esketamine EXP-561 Fencamfamin Fezolamine Fluorenol GYKI-52895 Hydroxybupropion Indatraline Ketamine Lafadofensine Lefetamine Levophacetoperane Liafensine LR-5182 Manifaxine Mazindol Medifoxamine Mesocarb Metaphit MIN-117 (WF-516) Modafinil Nefopam Nomifensine NS-2359 O-2172 Oroxylin A Perafensine Pridefine Radafaxine Rimcazole Sertraline Sibutramine Solriamfetol Tametraline Tedatioxetine Threohydrobupropion Tripelennamine Venlafaxine Others: Adrafinil Amifitadine Armodafinil Amfonelic acid Amineptine Ansofaxine BTQ BTS 74,398 Bupropion Chaenomeles speciosa Ciclazindol Dasotraline Desmethylsertraline Desmethylsibutramine (BTS-54354) Diclofensine Didesmethylsibutramine (BTS-54505) Dimethocaine Diphenylpyraline Dizocilpine (MK-801) DOV-102,677 DOV-216,303 Efavirenz Ephenidine Esketamine EXP-561 Fencamfamin Fezolamine Fluorenol GYKI-52895 Hydroxybupropion Indatraline Ketamine Lafadofensine Lefetamine Levophacetoperane Liafensine LR-5182 Manifaxine Mazindol Medifoxamine Mesocarb Metaphit MIN-117 (WF-516) Modafinil Nefopam Nomifensine NS-2359 O-2172 Oroxylin A Perafensine Pridefine Radafaxine Rimcazole Sertraline Sibutramine Solriamfetol Tametraline Tedatioxetine Threohydrobupropion Tripelennamine Venlafaxine NET Tooltip Norepinephrine transporter ( NRIs Tooltip Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors ) Selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors: Amedalin Alseroxylon Ciclazindol Daledalin Edivoxetine Esreboxetine Lortalamine Mazindol Nisoxetine Reboxetine Talopram Talsupram Tandamine Teniloxazine Viloxazine Norepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitors: Amineptine Bupropion Fencamine Fencamfamin Hydroxybupropion Lefetamine Levophacetoperane LR-5182 Manifaxine Methylphenidate Nomifensine O-2172 Radafaxine Serdexmethylphenidate Solriamfetol Serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors: Atomoxetine (tomoxetine) CP-39,332 Desvenlafaxine Duloxetine Eclanamine Levomilnacipran McN5652 Milnacipran N-Methyl-PPPA Nafenodone PPPA Tofenacin Venlafaxine Serotonin–norepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitors: 3,3-Diphenylcyclobutanamine Amifitadine Ansofaxine Bicifadine Brasofensine Centanafadine Cocaine Dasotraline Desmethylsertraline Desmethylsibutramine (BTS-54354) Diclofensine Didesmethylsibutramine (BTS-54505) DOV-102677 DOV-216303 EXP-561 Fezolamine HDMP-28 HP-505 Indatraline JNJ-7925476 JZ-IV-10 Lafadofensine Liafensine Mazindol Naphyrone Nefazodone Nefopam NS-2359 Perafensine PRC200 Pridefine SEP-228431 SEP-228432 Sibutramine Tedatioxetine Tesofensine Threohydrobupropion Tropanes (e.g., cocaine ) Tricyclic antidepressants: Amitriptyline Butriptyline Cianopramine Clomipramine Desipramine Dosulepin (dothiepin) Doxepin Imipramine Lofepramine Melitracen Nortriptyline Protriptyline Trimipramine Tetracyclic antidepressants: Amoxapine Maprotiline Mianserin Oxaprotiline Setiptiline Others: Antihistamines (e.g., brompheniramine , chlorphenamine , pheniramine , tripelennamine ) Antipsychotics (e.g., loxapine , ziprasidone ) Arylcyclohexylamines (e.g., ketamine , phencyclidine ) Dopexamine Ephenidine Ginkgo biloba Indeloxazine Nefazodone Opioids (e.g., desmetramadol , methadone , pethidine (meperidine) , tapentadol , tramadol , levorphanol ) Selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors: Amedalin Alseroxylon Ciclazindol Daledalin Edivoxetine Esreboxetine Lortalamine Mazindol Nisoxetine Reboxetine Talopram Talsupram Tandamine Teniloxazine Viloxazine Selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors: Amedalin Alseroxylon Ciclazindol Daledalin Edivoxetine Esreboxetine Lortalamine Mazindol Nisoxetine Reboxetine Talopram Talsupram Tandamine Teniloxazine Viloxazine Norepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitors: Amineptine Bupropion Fencamine Fencamfamin Hydroxybupropion Lefetamine Levophacetoperane LR-5182 Manifaxine Methylphenidate Nomifensine O-2172 Radafaxine Serdexmethylphenidate Solriamfetol Norepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitors: Amineptine Bupropion Fencamine Fencamfamin Hydroxybupropion Lefetamine Levophacetoperane LR-5182 Manifaxine Methylphenidate Nomifensine O-2172 Radafaxine Serdexmethylphenidate Solriamfetol Serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors: Atomoxetine (tomoxetine) CP-39,332 Desvenlafaxine Duloxetine Eclanamine Levomilnacipran McN5652 Milnacipran N-Methyl-PPPA Nafenodone PPPA Tofenacin Venlafaxine Serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors: Atomoxetine (tomoxetine) CP-39,332 Desvenlafaxine Duloxetine Eclanamine Levomilnacipran McN5652 Milnacipran N-Methyl-PPPA Nafenodone PPPA Tofenacin Venlafaxine Serotonin–norepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitors: 3,3-Diphenylcyclobutanamine Amifitadine Ansofaxine Bicifadine Brasofensine Centanafadine Cocaine Dasotraline Desmethylsertraline Desmethylsibutramine (BTS-54354) Diclofensine Didesmethylsibutramine (BTS-54505) DOV-102677 DOV-216303 EXP-561 Fezolamine HDMP-28 HP-505 Indatraline JNJ-7925476 JZ-IV-10 Lafadofensine Liafensine Mazindol Naphyrone Nefazodone Nefopam NS-2359 Perafensine PRC200 Pridefine SEP-228431 SEP-228432 Sibutramine Tedatioxetine Tesofensine Threohydrobupropion Tropanes (e.g., cocaine ) Serotonin–norepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitors: 3,3-Diphenylcyclobutanamine Amifitadine Ansofaxine Bicifadine Brasofensine Centanafadine Cocaine Dasotraline Desmethylsertraline Desmethylsibutramine (BTS-54354) Diclofensine Didesmethylsibutramine (BTS-54505) DOV-102677 DOV-216303 EXP-561 Fezolamine HDMP-28 HP-505 Indatraline JNJ-7925476 JZ-IV-10 Lafadofensine Liafensine Mazindol Naphyrone Nefazodone Nefopam NS-2359 Perafensine PRC200 Pridefine SEP-228431 SEP-228432 Sibutramine Tedatioxetine Tesofensine Threohydrobupropion Tropanes (e.g., cocaine ) Tricyclic antidepressants: Amitriptyline Butriptyline Cianopramine Clomipramine Desipramine Dosulepin (dothiepin) Doxepin Imipramine Lofepramine Melitracen Nortriptyline Protriptyline Trimipramine Tricyclic antidepressants: Amitriptyline Butriptyline Cianopramine Clomipramine Desipramine Dosulepin (dothiepin) Doxepin Imipramine Lofepramine Melitracen Nortriptyline Protriptyline Trimipramine Tetracyclic antidepressants: Amoxapine Maprotiline Mianserin Oxaprotiline Setiptiline Tetracyclic antidepressants: Amoxapine Maprotiline Mianserin Oxaprotiline Setiptiline Others: Antihistamines (e.g., brompheniramine , chlorphenamine , pheniramine , tripelennamine ) Antipsychotics (e.g., loxapine , ziprasidone ) Arylcyclohexylamines (e.g., ketamine , phencyclidine ) Dopexamine Ephenidine Ginkgo biloba Indeloxazine Nefazodone Opioids (e.g., desmetramadol , methadone , pethidine (meperidine) , tapentadol , tramadol , levorphanol ) Others: Antihistamines (e.g., brompheniramine , chlorphenamine , pheniramine , tripelennamine ) Antipsychotics (e.g., loxapine , ziprasidone ) Arylcyclohexylamines (e.g., ketamine , phencyclidine ) Dopexamine Ephenidine Ginkgo biloba Indeloxazine Nefazodone Opioids (e.g., desmetramadol , methadone , pethidine (meperidine) , tapentadol , tramadol , levorphanol ) SERT Tooltip Serotonin transporter ( SRIs Tooltip Serotonin reuptake inhibitors ) Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors: 6-Nitroquipazine Alaproclate Centpropazine Cericlamine Citalopram Dapoxetine Desmethylcitalopram Didesmethylcitalopram Escitalopram Femoxetine Fluoxetine Fluvoxamine Indalpine Ifoxetine Norfluoxetine Omiloxetine Panuramine Paroxetine PIM-35 Pirandamine RTI-353 Seproxetine Sertraline Zimelidine Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and serotonin receptor modulators: Etoperidone Litoxetine Lubazodone LY-393558 Quipazine SB-649915 TGBA01AD Trazodone Vilazodone Vortioxetine Serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors: Atomoxetine (tomoxetine) Bicifadine CP-39332 Desvenlafaxine Duloxetine Eclanamine Levomilnacipran McN5652 Milnacipran N-Methyl-PPPA PPPA Tofenacin Venlafaxine Serotonin–norepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitors: 3,3-Diphenylcyclobutanamine Amifitadine Ansofaxine Bicifadine Brasofensine Centanafadine Cocaine Dasotraline Desmethylsertraline Desmethylsibutramine (BTS-54354) Diclofensine Didesmethylsibutramine (BTS-54505) DOV-102677 DOV-216303 EXP-561 Fezolamine HDMP-28 HP-505 Indatraline JNJ-7925476 JZ-IV-10 Lafadofensine Liafensine Mazindol Naphyrone Nefazodone Nefopam NS-2359 Perafensine PRC200 Pridefine SEP-228431 SEP-228432 Sibutramine Tedatioxetine Tesofensine Threohydrobupropion Tropanes (e.g., cocaine ) Tricyclic antidepressants: Amitriptyline Cianopramine Clomipramine Cyanodothiepin Desipramine Dosulepin (dothiepin) Doxepin Imipramine Lofepramine Nortriptyline Pipofezine Protriptyline Others: A-80426 Amoxapine Antihistamines (e.g., brompheniramine , chlorphenamine , dimenhydrinate , diphenhydramine , mepyramine (pyrilamine) , pheniramine , tripelennamine ) Antipsychotics (e.g., loxapine , ziprasidone ) Arylcyclohexylamines (e.g., 3-MeO-PCP , esketamine , ketamine , methoxetamine , phencyclidine ) Cyclobenzaprine Delucemine Dextromethorphan Dextrorphan Efavirenz Hypidone Medifoxamine Mesembrine Mifepristone MIN-117 (WF-516) N-Me-5-HT Opioids (e.g., dextropropoxyphene , methadone , pethidine (meperidine) , levorphanol , tapentadol , tramadol ) Roxindole Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors: 6-Nitroquipazine Alaproclate Centpropazine Cericlamine Citalopram Dapoxetine Desmethylcitalopram Didesmethylcitalopram Escitalopram Femoxetine Fluoxetine Fluvoxamine Indalpine Ifoxetine Norfluoxetine Omiloxetine Panuramine Paroxetine PIM-35 Pirandamine RTI-353 Seproxetine Sertraline Zimelidine Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and serotonin receptor modulators: Etoperidone Litoxetine Lubazodone LY-393558 Quipazine SB-649915 TGBA01AD Trazodone Vilazodone Vortioxetine Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors: 6-Nitroquipazine Alaproclate Centpropazine Cericlamine Citalopram Dapoxetine Desmethylcitalopram Didesmethylcitalopram Escitalopram Femoxetine Fluoxetine Fluvoxamine Indalpine Ifoxetine Norfluoxetine Omiloxetine Panuramine Paroxetine PIM-35 Pirandamine RTI-353 Seproxetine Sertraline Zimelidine Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and serotonin receptor modulators: Etoperidone Litoxetine Lubazodone LY-393558 Quipazine SB-649915 TGBA01AD Trazodone Vilazodone Vortioxetine Serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors: Atomoxetine (tomoxetine) Bicifadine CP-39332 Desvenlafaxine Duloxetine Eclanamine Levomilnacipran McN5652 Milnacipran N-Methyl-PPPA PPPA Tofenacin Venlafaxine Serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors: Atomoxetine (tomoxetine) Bicifadine CP-39332 Desvenlafaxine Duloxetine Eclanamine Levomilnacipran McN5652 Milnacipran N-Methyl-PPPA PPPA Tofenacin Venlafaxine Serotonin–norepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitors: 3,3-Diphenylcyclobutanamine Amifitadine Ansofaxine Bicifadine Brasofensine Centanafadine Cocaine Dasotraline Desmethylsertraline Desmethylsibutramine (BTS-54354) Diclofensine Didesmethylsibutramine (BTS-54505) DOV-102677 DOV-216303 EXP-561 Fezolamine HDMP-28 HP-505 Indatraline JNJ-7925476 JZ-IV-10 Lafadofensine Liafensine Mazindol Naphyrone Nefazodone Nefopam NS-2359 Perafensine PRC200 Pridefine SEP-228431 SEP-228432 Sibutramine Tedatioxetine Tesofensine Threohydrobupropion Tropanes (e.g., cocaine ) Serotonin–norepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitors: 3,3-Diphenylcyclobutanamine Amifitadine Ansofaxine Bicifadine Brasofensine Centanafadine Cocaine Dasotraline Desmethylsertraline Desmethylsibutramine (BTS-54354) Diclofensine Didesmethylsibutramine (BTS-54505) DOV-102677 DOV-216303 EXP-561 Fezolamine HDMP-28 HP-505 Indatraline JNJ-7925476 JZ-IV-10 Lafadofensine Liafensine Mazindol Naphyrone Nefazodone Nefopam NS-2359 Perafensine PRC200 Pridefine SEP-228431 SEP-228432 Sibutramine Tedatioxetine Tesofensine Threohydrobupropion Tropanes (e.g., cocaine ) Tricyclic antidepressants: Amitriptyline Cianopramine Clomipramine Cyanodothiepin Desipramine Dosulepin (dothiepin) Doxepin Imipramine Lofepramine Nortriptyline Pipofezine Protriptyline Tricyclic antidepressants: Amitriptyline Cianopramine Clomipramine Cyanodothiepin Desipramine Dosulepin (dothiepin) Doxepin Imipramine Lofepramine Nortriptyline Pipofezine Protriptyline Others: A-80426 Amoxapine Antihistamines (e.g., brompheniramine , chlorphenamine , dimenhydrinate , diphenhydramine , mepyramine (pyrilamine) , pheniramine , tripelennamine ) Antipsychotics (e.g., loxapine , ziprasidone ) Arylcyclohexylamines (e.g., 3-MeO-PCP , esketamine , ketamine , methoxetamine , phencyclidine ) Cyclobenzaprine Delucemine Dextromethorphan Dextrorphan Efavirenz Hypidone Medifoxamine Mesembrine Mifepristone MIN-117 (WF-516) N-Me-5-HT Opioids (e.g., dextropropoxyphene , methadone , pethidine (meperidine) , levorphanol , tapentadol , tramadol ) Roxindole Others: A-80426 Amoxapine Antihistamines (e.g., brompheniramine , chlorphenamine , dimenhydrinate , diphenhydramine , mepyramine (pyrilamine) , pheniramine , tripelennamine ) Antipsychotics (e.g., loxapine , ziprasidone ) Arylcyclohexylamines (e.g., 3-MeO-PCP , esketamine , ketamine , methoxetamine , phencyclidine ) Cyclobenzaprine Delucemine Dextromethorphan Dextrorphan Efavirenz Hypidone Medifoxamine Mesembrine Mifepristone MIN-117 (WF-516) N-Me-5-HT Opioids (e.g., dextropropoxyphene , methadone , pethidine (meperidine) , levorphanol , tapentadol , tramadol ) Roxindole VMATs Tooltip Vesicular monoamine transporters Amiodarone Amphetamines (e.g., amphetamine , methamphetamine , MDMA ) APP AZIK Bietaserpine Deserpidine Deutetrabenazine Dihydrotetrabenazine Efavirenz GBR-12935 GZ-793A Ibogaine Ketanserin Lobeline Methoxytetrabenazine Reserpine Rose bengal Tetrabenazine Valbenazine Vanoxerine (GBR-12909) Amiodarone Amphetamines (e.g., amphetamine , methamphetamine , MDMA ) APP AZIK Bietaserpine Deserpidine Deutetrabenazine Dihydrotetrabenazine Efavirenz GBR-12935 GZ-793A Ibogaine Ketanserin Lobeline Methoxytetrabenazine Reserpine Rose bengal Tetrabenazine Valbenazine Vanoxerine (GBR-12909) Others Unsorted: Cendifensine DAT enhancers: Luteolin DAT modulators: Agonist-like: SoRI-9804 SoRI-20040 ; Antagonist-like: SoRI-20041 Unsorted: Cendifensine DAT enhancers: Luteolin DAT modulators: Agonist-like: SoRI-9804 SoRI-20040 ; Antagonist-like: SoRI-20041 See also: Receptor/signaling modulators • Monoamine releasing agents • Adrenergics • Dopaminergics • Serotonergics • Monoamine metabolism modulators • Monoamine neurotoxins v t e Sigma receptor modulators v t e σ 1 Agonists: 3-PPP 4-PPBP 5-MeO-DMT Alazocine (SKF-10047) Amantadine Arketamine BD-737 BD-1052 Blarcamesine Captodiame Citalopram CGRP Tooltip Calcitonin gene-related peptide Cloperastine Cocaine Cutamesine (SA-4503) Cyclazocine Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) ( prasterone ) Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S) ( prasterone sulfate ) Dextrallorphan Dextromethorphan (DXM) Dextrorphan (DXO) Dimemorfan Dimethyltryptamine (DMT) Ditolylguanidine (DTG) Donepezil Eliprodil Escitalopram Fabomotizole (afobazole) Fluoxetine Fluvoxamine Ifenprodil Igmesine (JO-1784) IPAB Ketamine L-687384 MDMA (midomafetamine) Memantine Methamphetamine Methoxetamine Methylphenidate Nepinalone Neuropeptide Y Noscapine OPC-14523 Opipramol Pentazocine Pentoxyverine (carbetapentane) PRE-084 Pregnenolone Pregnenolone sulfate Pridopidine Racemethorphan (methorphan) Racemorphan (morphanol) UMB-23 UMB-82 Antagonists: 3-PPP AC-927 BD-1008 BD-1031 BD-1047 BD-1060 BD-1063 BD-1067 BMY-14802 (BMS-181100) CM-156 Dup-734 E-5842 E-52862 (S1RA) Haloperidol LR-132 LR-172 MS-377 NE-100 NPC-16377 Panamesine (EMD-57455) PD-144418 Pentazocine Progesterone Rimcazole (BW-234U) Sertraline SR-31742A Allosteric modulators: Phenytoin ; Positive: Methylphenylpiracetam SOMCL-668 Unknown/unsorted: 3-Methoxydextrallorphan 3-MeO-PCP 4C-T-2 4-IBP 4-IPBS 4-MeO-PCP 5-MeO-DALT 5-MeO-DiPT Amitriptyline Azidopamil Chlorpromazine Clemastine Clomipramine Clorgiline D -Deprenyl DiPT Tooltip N,N-Diisopropyltryptamine DPT Tooltip N,N-Dipropyltryptamine Ibogaine Imipramine KCR-12-83.1 Nemonapride Noribogaine RHL-033 RS-67,333 RTI-55 Saffron Safinamide Selegiline Spipethiane Trifluoperazine W-18 YKP10A Agonists: 3-PPP 4-PPBP 5-MeO-DMT Alazocine (SKF-10047) Amantadine Arketamine BD-737 BD-1052 Blarcamesine Captodiame Citalopram CGRP Tooltip Calcitonin gene-related peptide Cloperastine Cocaine Cutamesine (SA-4503) Cyclazocine Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) ( prasterone ) Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S) ( prasterone sulfate ) Dextrallorphan Dextromethorphan (DXM) Dextrorphan (DXO) Dimemorfan Dimethyltryptamine (DMT) Ditolylguanidine (DTG) Donepezil Eliprodil Escitalopram Fabomotizole (afobazole) Fluoxetine Fluvoxamine Ifenprodil Igmesine (JO-1784) IPAB Ketamine L-687384 MDMA (midomafetamine) Memantine Methamphetamine Methoxetamine Methylphenidate Nepinalone Neuropeptide Y Noscapine OPC-14523 Opipramol Pentazocine Pentoxyverine (carbetapentane) PRE-084 Pregnenolone Pregnenolone sulfate Pridopidine Racemethorphan (methorphan) Racemorphan (morphanol) UMB-23 UMB-82 Antagonists: 3-PPP AC-927 BD-1008 BD-1031 BD-1047 BD-1060 BD-1063 BD-1067 BMY-14802 (BMS-181100) CM-156 Dup-734 E-5842 E-52862 (S1RA) Haloperidol LR-132 LR-172 MS-377 NE-100 NPC-16377 Panamesine (EMD-57455) PD-144418 Pentazocine Progesterone Rimcazole (BW-234U) Sertraline SR-31742A Allosteric modulators: Phenytoin ; Positive: Methylphenylpiracetam SOMCL-668 Unknown/unsorted: 3-Methoxydextrallorphan 3-MeO-PCP 4C-T-2 4-IBP 4-IPBS 4-MeO-PCP 5-MeO-DALT 5-MeO-DiPT Amitriptyline Azidopamil Chlorpromazine Clemastine Clomipramine Clorgiline D -Deprenyl DiPT Tooltip N,N-Diisopropyltryptamine DPT Tooltip N,N-Dipropyltryptamine Ibogaine Imipramine KCR-12-83.1 Nemonapride Noribogaine RHL-033 RS-67,333 RTI-55 Saffron Safinamide Selegiline Spipethiane Trifluoperazine W-18 YKP10A σ 2 Agonists: 3-PPP Arketamine BD-1047 BD1063 Ditolylguanidine (DTG) DKR-1005 DKR-1051 Haloperidol Ifenprodil Ketamine MDMA (midomafetamine) Methamphetamine OPC-14523 Opipramol PB-28 Phencyclidine Siramesine (Lu 28-179) UKH-1114 Antagonists: AC-927 BD-1008 BD-1067 CM-156 LR-172 MIN-101 Panamesine (EMD-57455) SAS-0132 Zervimesine (CT-1812) Unknown/unsorted: 3-Methoxydextrallorphan 3-MeO-PCE 4-MeO-PCP 5-MeO-DALT 5-MeO-DiPT Clemastine DiPT Tooltip N,N-Diisopropyltryptamine DPT Tooltip N,N-Dipropyltryptamine Ibogaine Lu 29-252 Nemonapride Nepinalone Noribogaine Pentazocine RS-67,333 Safinamide TMA Tooltip 3,4,5-Trimethoxyamphetamine UMB-23 UMB-82 W-18 Agonists: 3-PPP Arketamine BD-1047 BD1063 Ditolylguanidine (DTG) DKR-1005 DKR-1051 Haloperidol Ifenprodil Ketamine MDMA (midomafetamine) Methamphetamine OPC-14523 Opipramol PB-28 Phencyclidine Siramesine (Lu 28-179) UKH-1114 Antagonists: AC-927 BD-1008 BD-1067 CM-156 LR-172 MIN-101 Panamesine (EMD-57455) SAS-0132 Zervimesine (CT-1812) Unknown/unsorted: 3-Methoxydextrallorphan 3-MeO-PCE 4-MeO-PCP 5-MeO-DALT 5-MeO-DiPT Clemastine DiPT Tooltip N,N-Diisopropyltryptamine DPT Tooltip N,N-Dipropyltryptamine Ibogaine Lu 29-252 Nemonapride Nepinalone Noribogaine Pentazocine RS-67,333 Safinamide TMA Tooltip 3,4,5-Trimethoxyamphetamine UMB-23 UMB-82 W-18 Unsorted Agonists: Berberine Ethylketazocine Fourphit Metaphit Naluzotan Tapentadol Tenocyclidine Antagonists: AHD1 AZ66 Lamotrigine Naloxone SM-21 UMB-100 UMB-101 UMB-103 UMB-116 YZ-011 YZ-069 YZ-185 Allosteric modulators: SKF-83959 Unknown/unsorted: 18-Methoxycoronaridine BMY-13980 Butaclamol Caramiphen Carvotroline Chlorphenamine (chlorpheniramine) Chlorpromazine Cinnarizine Cinuperone Clocapramine Dezocine EMD-59983 Hypericin ( St. John's wort ) Fluphenazine Gevotroline (WY-47384) Mepyramine (pyrilamine) Molindone Perphenazine Pimozide Proadifen Promethazine Propranolol Quinidine Remoxipride SL 82.0715 SR-31747A Tiospirone (BMY-13859) Venlafaxine Agonists: Berberine Ethylketazocine Fourphit Metaphit Naluzotan Tapentadol Tenocyclidine Antagonists: AHD1 AZ66 Lamotrigine Naloxone SM-21 UMB-100 UMB-101 UMB-103 UMB-116 YZ-011 YZ-069 YZ-185 Allosteric modulators: SKF-83959 Unknown/unsorted: 18-Methoxycoronaridine BMY-13980 Butaclamol Caramiphen Carvotroline Chlorphenamine (chlorpheniramine) Chlorpromazine Cinnarizine Cinuperone Clocapramine Dezocine EMD-59983 Hypericin ( St. John's wort ) Fluphenazine Gevotroline (WY-47384) Mepyramine (pyrilamine) Molindone Perphenazine Pimozide Proadifen Promethazine Propranolol Quinidine Remoxipride SL 82.0715 SR-31747A Tiospirone (BMY-13859) Venlafaxine See also: Receptor/signaling modulators v t e Chemical classes of psychoactive drugs v t e Stimulants Amphetamine-type/dopamine releasing agents: Alkylamines Cycloalkylaminopropanes Arylpiperazines Benzylpiperazines Phenylpiperazines Phenethylamines Aminorexes/phenyloxazolamines Amphetamines/α-methylphenethylamines Cathinones/β-ketoamphetamines β-Hydroxyamphetamines/cathinols Naphthylaminopropanes Phentermines Phenylisobutylamines/α-ethylphenethylamines α-Propylphenethylamines Phenylmorpholines/phenmetrazines Thiopropamines/thienylaminopropanes Cocaine-type/typical dopamine reuptake inhibitors: Phenethylamines Phenidates / benzylpiperidines Phenylethylpyrrolidines Pyrrolidinophenones Phenyltropanes / cocaine analogues Modafinil-type/atypical dopamine reuptake inhibitors: Modafinil analogues Phenylpiracetams Caffeine-type/adenosine receptor antagonists: Xanthines / methylxanthines Nicotine-type/nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonists: Nicotine analogues Amphetamine-type/dopamine releasing agents: Alkylamines Cycloalkylaminopropanes Cycloalkylaminopropanes Arylpiperazines Benzylpiperazines Phenylpiperazines Benzylpiperazines Phenylpiperazines Phenethylamines Aminorexes/phenyloxazolamines Amphetamines/α-methylphenethylamines Cathinones/β-ketoamphetamines β-Hydroxyamphetamines/cathinols Naphthylaminopropanes Phentermines Phenylisobutylamines/α-ethylphenethylamines α-Propylphenethylamines Phenylmorpholines/phenmetrazines Aminorexes/phenyloxazolamines Amphetamines/α-methylphenethylamines Cathinones/β-ketoamphetamines β-Hydroxyamphetamines/cathinols Naphthylaminopropanes Phentermines Phenylisobutylamines/α-ethylphenethylamines α-Propylphenethylamines Cathinones/β-ketoamphetamines β-Hydroxyamphetamines/cathinols Naphthylaminopropanes Phentermines Phenylisobutylamines/α-ethylphenethylamines α-Propylphenethylamines Phenylmorpholines/phenmetrazines Thiopropamines/thienylaminopropanes Cocaine-type/typical dopamine reuptake inhibitors: Phenethylamines Phenidates / benzylpiperidines Phenylethylpyrrolidines Pyrrolidinophenones Phenidates / benzylpiperidines Phenylethylpyrrolidines Pyrrolidinophenones Pyrrolidinophenones Phenyltropanes / cocaine analogues Modafinil-type/atypical dopamine reuptake inhibitors: Modafinil analogues Phenylpiracetams Caffeine-type/adenosine receptor antagonists: Xanthines / methylxanthines Nicotine-type/nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonists: Nicotine analogues Depressants GABA A receptor positive allosteric modulators: Alcohols / ethanol analogues Barbiturates Benzodiazepines Pyrrolobenzodiazepines Thienobenzodiazepines Thienodiazepines Thienotriazolodiazepines Triazolobenzodiazepines Carbamates Ethers Neuroactive steroids Nonbenzodiazepines β-Carbolines Cyclopyrrolones Imidazopyridines Pyrazolopyrimidines Phenols Piperidinediones Quinazolinones GABA A receptor agonists: Isoxazoles GHB receptor agonists: 1,4-Butanediols α 2 δ subunit-containing voltage-gated calcium channel blockers: Gabapentinoids Opioids/μ-opioid receptor agonists: Benzimidazoles Nitazenes Fentanyl analogues / phenylpiperidines Mitragyna alkaloids Morphinans / phenanthrenes Opiates / opium alkaloids Utopioids Antihistamines/H 1 receptor antagonists: Benzimidazoles Diarylmethanes Ethylenediamines Tricyclics Dibenzocycloheptenes GABA A receptor positive allosteric modulators: Alcohols / ethanol analogues Barbiturates Benzodiazepines Pyrrolobenzodiazepines Thienobenzodiazepines Thienodiazepines Thienotriazolodiazepines Triazolobenzodiazepines Pyrrolobenzodiazepines Thienobenzodiazepines Thienodiazepines Thienotriazolodiazepines Triazolobenzodiazepines Carbamates Ethers Neuroactive steroids Nonbenzodiazepines β-Carbolines Cyclopyrrolones Imidazopyridines Pyrazolopyrimidines β-Carbolines Cyclopyrrolones Imidazopyridines Pyrazolopyrimidines Phenols Piperidinediones Quinazolinones GABA A receptor agonists: Isoxazoles GHB receptor agonists: 1,4-Butanediols α 2 δ subunit-containing voltage-gated calcium channel blockers: Gabapentinoids Opioids/μ-opioid receptor agonists: Benzimidazoles Nitazenes Nitazenes Fentanyl analogues / phenylpiperidines Mitragyna alkaloids Morphinans / phenanthrenes Opiates / opium alkaloids Opiates / opium alkaloids Utopioids Antihistamines/H 1 receptor antagonists: Benzimidazoles Diarylmethanes Ethylenediamines Tricyclics Dibenzocycloheptenes Dibenzocycloheptenes Hallucinogens Serotonergic psychedelics/serotonin 5-HT 2A receptor agonists: Arylpiperazines Phenylpiperazines Quinolinylpiperazines Cyclized phenethylamines 3-Benzazepines Cyclized tryptamines Azepinoindoles Ibogalogs Iboga alkaloids β-Carbolines Harmala alkaloids Ergolines Lysergamides Simplified/partial lysergamides Phenethylamines ( methoxyphenethylamines ) 2Cs 25-NB/NBOMes 2C-Os 2C-Ts HOT-x TWEETIOs Amphetamines/α-methylphenethylamines 3Cs Dimethoxyamphetamines/DMAs DOx Alephs Ethylenedioxyamphetamines/EDxx Methylenedioxyamphetamines/MDxx Trimethoxyamphetamines/TMAs BOx FLYs / benzofurans Phenylisobutylamines/α-ethylphenethylamines 4Cs Scalines Ψ-PEAs Tryptamines α-Alkyltryptamines α-Alkyl-β-ketotryptamines 4-Hydroxytryptamines 5-Hydroxytryptamines 5-Methoxytryptamines Miscellaneous Dissociatives/NMDA receptor antagonists: Adamantanes Arylcyclohexylamines Diarylethylamines Morphinans κ-Opioid receptor agonists: Benzomorphans Salvinorins GABA A receptor agonists: Isoxazoles Deliriants/anticholinergics/muscarinic acetylcholine receptor antagonists: Diarylmethanes Tropanes Others: Cyclized tryptamines Azepinoindoles Iboga alkaloids (Phyto)cannabinoids Serotonergic psychedelics/serotonin 5-HT 2A receptor agonists: Arylpiperazines Phenylpiperazines Quinolinylpiperazines Phenylpiperazines Quinolinylpiperazines Cyclized phenethylamines 3-Benzazepines 3-Benzazepines Cyclized tryptamines Azepinoindoles Ibogalogs Iboga alkaloids β-Carbolines Harmala alkaloids Ergolines Lysergamides Simplified/partial lysergamides Azepinoindoles Ibogalogs Iboga alkaloids Ibogalogs Iboga alkaloids β-Carbolines Harmala alkaloids Harmala alkaloids Ergolines Lysergamides Lysergamides Simplified/partial lysergamides Phenethylamines ( methoxyphenethylamines ) 2Cs 25-NB/NBOMes 2C-Os 2C-Ts HOT-x TWEETIOs Amphetamines/α-methylphenethylamines 3Cs Dimethoxyamphetamines/DMAs DOx Alephs Ethylenedioxyamphetamines/EDxx Methylenedioxyamphetamines/MDxx Trimethoxyamphetamines/TMAs BOx FLYs / benzofurans Phenylisobutylamines/α-ethylphenethylamines 4Cs Scalines Ψ-PEAs 2Cs 25-NB/NBOMes 2C-Os 2C-Ts HOT-x TWEETIOs 25-NB/NBOMes 2C-Os 2C-Ts HOT-x HOT-x TWEETIOs Amphetamines/α-methylphenethylamines 3Cs Dimethoxyamphetamines/DMAs DOx Alephs Ethylenedioxyamphetamines/EDxx Methylenedioxyamphetamines/MDxx Trimethoxyamphetamines/TMAs 3Cs Dimethoxyamphetamines/DMAs DOx Alephs Alephs Ethylenedioxyamphetamines/EDxx Methylenedioxyamphetamines/MDxx Trimethoxyamphetamines/TMAs BOx FLYs / benzofurans Phenylisobutylamines/α-ethylphenethylamines 4Cs 4Cs Scalines Ψ-PEAs Tryptamines α-Alkyltryptamines α-Alkyl-β-ketotryptamines 4-Hydroxytryptamines 5-Hydroxytryptamines 5-Methoxytryptamines α-Alkyltryptamines α-Alkyl-β-ketotryptamines α-Alkyl-β-ketotryptamines 4-Hydroxytryptamines 5-Hydroxytryptamines 5-Methoxytryptamines 5-Methoxytryptamines Miscellaneous Dissociatives/NMDA receptor antagonists: Adamantanes Arylcyclohexylamines Diarylethylamines Morphinans κ-Opioid receptor agonists: Benzomorphans Salvinorins GABA A receptor agonists: Isoxazoles Deliriants/anticholinergics/muscarinic acetylcholine receptor antagonists: Diarylmethanes Tropanes Others: Cyclized tryptamines Azepinoindoles Iboga alkaloids Azepinoindoles Iboga alkaloids Iboga alkaloids (Phyto)cannabinoids Entactogens Serotonin releasing agents: Phenethylamines 2-Aminoindanes 2-Aminotetralins Amphetamines Benzofuranylaminopropanes Benzothiophenylaminopropanes Ethylenedioxyamphetamines/EDxx Indanylaminopropanes Indolylaminopropanes Methylenedioxyamphetamines/MDxx Tetralinylaminopropanes Tryptamines α-Alkyltryptamines Miscellaneous Serotonin releasing agents: Phenethylamines 2-Aminoindanes 2-Aminotetralins Amphetamines Benzofuranylaminopropanes Benzothiophenylaminopropanes Ethylenedioxyamphetamines/EDxx Indanylaminopropanes Indolylaminopropanes Methylenedioxyamphetamines/MDxx Tetralinylaminopropanes 2-Aminoindanes 2-Aminotetralins Amphetamines Benzofuranylaminopropanes Benzothiophenylaminopropanes Ethylenedioxyamphetamines/EDxx Indanylaminopropanes Indolylaminopropanes Methylenedioxyamphetamines/MDxx Tetralinylaminopropanes Benzofuranylaminopropanes Benzothiophenylaminopropanes Ethylenedioxyamphetamines/EDxx Indanylaminopropanes Indolylaminopropanes Methylenedioxyamphetamines/MDxx Tetralinylaminopropanes Tryptamines α-Alkyltryptamines α-Alkyltryptamines Miscellaneous Psychiatric drugs Anxiolytics: Azapirones Benzodiazepines Pyrrolobenzodiazepines Thienobenzodiazepines Thienodiazepines Thienotriazolodiazepines Triazolobenzodiazepines Antidepressants: Tricyclic antidepressants Dibenzazepines Dibenzocycloheptenes Dibenzothiepins Dibenzoxazepines Dibenzoxepins Tetracyclic antidepressants Antipsychotics/dopamine D 2 receptor antagonists or partial agonists: Benzamides Benzimidazoles Benzisothiazoles Benzisoxazoles Butyrophenones Diphenylbutylpiperidines Phenylpiperazines Tricyclics Dibenzazepines Dibenzodiazepines Dibenzothiazepines Dibenzothiepins Dibenzoxazepines Phenothiazines Thienobenzodiazepines Mood stabilizers/anticonvulsants: Gabapentinoids Tricyclics Dibenzazepines Valproates Anxiolytics: Azapirones Benzodiazepines Pyrrolobenzodiazepines Thienobenzodiazepines Thienodiazepines Thienotriazolodiazepines Triazolobenzodiazepines Pyrrolobenzodiazepines Thienobenzodiazepines Thienodiazepines Thienotriazolodiazepines Triazolobenzodiazepines Antidepressants: Tricyclic antidepressants Dibenzazepines Dibenzocycloheptenes Dibenzothiepins Dibenzoxazepines Dibenzoxepins Dibenzazepines Dibenzocycloheptenes Dibenzothiepins Dibenzoxazepines Dibenzoxepins Tetracyclic antidepressants Antipsychotics/dopamine D 2 receptor antagonists or partial agonists: Benzamides Benzimidazoles Benzisothiazoles Benzisoxazoles Butyrophenones Diphenylbutylpiperidines Phenylpiperazines Tricyclics Dibenzazepines Dibenzodiazepines Dibenzothiazepines Dibenzothiepins Dibenzoxazepines Phenothiazines Thienobenzodiazepines Dibenzazepines Dibenzodiazepines Dibenzothiazepines Dibenzothiepins Dibenzoxazepines Phenothiazines Thienobenzodiazepines Mood stabilizers/anticonvulsants: Gabapentinoids Tricyclics Dibenzazepines Dibenzazepines Valproates Others Nootropics: Racetams Phenylpiracetams Miscellaneous: 3-Benzazepines Adamantanes Catecholamines Tetrahydroisoquinolines Yohimbans Nootropics: Racetams Phenylpiracetams Phenylpiracetams Miscellaneous: 3-Benzazepines Adamantanes Catecholamines Tetrahydroisoquinolines Yohimbans v t e Psychoactive substance-related disorders v t e General SID Substance intoxication / Drug overdose Substance-induced psychosis Withdrawal : Neonatal withdrawal Post-acute-withdrawal syndrome (PAWS) SUD Substance abuse / Substance-related disorders Physical dependence / Psychological dependence / Substance dependence SID Substance intoxication / Drug overdose Substance-induced psychosis Withdrawal : Neonatal withdrawal Post-acute-withdrawal syndrome (PAWS) Substance intoxication / Drug overdose Substance-induced psychosis Withdrawal : Neonatal withdrawal Post-acute-withdrawal syndrome (PAWS) Neonatal withdrawal Post-acute-withdrawal syndrome (PAWS) SUD Substance abuse / Substance-related disorders Physical dependence / Psychological dependence / Substance dependence Substance abuse / Substance-related disorders Physical dependence / Psychological dependence / Substance dependence Combined substance use SUD Polysubstance dependence SID Combined drug intoxication (CDI) SUD Polysubstance dependence Polysubstance dependence SID Combined drug intoxication (CDI) Combined drug intoxication (CDI) Alcohol SID Cardiovascular diseases Alcoholic cardiomyopathy (ACM) Alcohol flush reaction (AFR) Gastrointestinal diseases Alcoholic liver disease (ALD): Alcoholic hepatitis Zieve's syndrome Auto-brewery syndrome (ABS) Endocrine diseases Alcoholic ketoacidosis (AKA) Nervous system diseases Alcohol-related dementia (ARD) Alcohol intoxication Hangover Neurological disorders Alcoholic hallucinosis Alcoholic polyneuropathy Alcohol-related brain damage (ARBD) Alcohol withdrawal syndrome (AWS): Alcoholic hallucinosis Delirium tremens (DTs) Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) Korsakoff syndrome (KS) Marchiafava–Bignami disease (MBD) Positional alcohol nystagmus (PAN) Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome (WKS) Wernicke encephalopathy (WE) Respiratory tract diseases Alcohol-induced respiratory reactions Alcoholic lung disease SUD Alcoholism (alcohol use disorder (AUD)) Binge drinking SID Cardiovascular diseases Alcoholic cardiomyopathy (ACM) Alcohol flush reaction (AFR) Gastrointestinal diseases Alcoholic liver disease (ALD): Alcoholic hepatitis Zieve's syndrome Auto-brewery syndrome (ABS) Endocrine diseases Alcoholic ketoacidosis (AKA) Nervous system diseases Alcohol-related dementia (ARD) Alcohol intoxication Hangover Neurological disorders Alcoholic hallucinosis Alcoholic polyneuropathy Alcohol-related brain damage (ARBD) Alcohol withdrawal syndrome (AWS): Alcoholic hallucinosis Delirium tremens (DTs) Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) Korsakoff syndrome (KS) Marchiafava–Bignami disease (MBD) Positional alcohol nystagmus (PAN) Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome (WKS) Wernicke encephalopathy (WE) Respiratory tract diseases Alcohol-induced respiratory reactions Alcoholic lung disease Cardiovascular diseases Alcoholic cardiomyopathy (ACM) Alcohol flush reaction (AFR) Alcoholic cardiomyopathy (ACM) Alcohol flush reaction (AFR) Gastrointestinal diseases Alcoholic liver disease (ALD): Alcoholic hepatitis Zieve's syndrome Auto-brewery syndrome (ABS) Alcoholic liver disease (ALD): Alcoholic hepatitis Zieve's syndrome Alcoholic hepatitis Zieve's syndrome Auto-brewery syndrome (ABS) Endocrine diseases Alcoholic ketoacidosis (AKA) Alcoholic ketoacidosis (AKA) Nervous system diseases Alcohol-related dementia (ARD) Alcohol intoxication Hangover Alcohol-related dementia (ARD) Alcohol intoxication Hangover Neurological disorders Alcoholic hallucinosis Alcoholic polyneuropathy Alcohol-related brain damage (ARBD) Alcohol withdrawal syndrome (AWS): Alcoholic hallucinosis Delirium tremens (DTs) Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) Korsakoff syndrome (KS) Marchiafava–Bignami disease (MBD) Positional alcohol nystagmus (PAN) Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome (WKS) Wernicke encephalopathy (WE) Alcoholic hallucinosis Alcoholic polyneuropathy Alcohol-related brain damage (ARBD) Alcohol withdrawal syndrome (AWS): Alcoholic hallucinosis Delirium tremens (DTs) Alcoholic hallucinosis Delirium tremens (DTs) Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) Korsakoff syndrome (KS) Marchiafava–Bignami disease (MBD) Positional alcohol nystagmus (PAN) Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome (WKS) Wernicke encephalopathy (WE) Respiratory tract diseases Alcohol-induced respiratory reactions Alcoholic lung disease Alcohol-induced respiratory reactions Alcoholic lung disease SUD Alcoholism (alcohol use disorder (AUD)) Binge drinking Alcoholism (alcohol use disorder (AUD)) Binge drinking Caffeine SID Caffeine-induced anxiety disorder Caffeine-induced psychosis Caffeine-induced sleep disorder Caffeinism Caffeine withdrawal SUD Caffeine dependence SID Caffeine-induced anxiety disorder Caffeine-induced psychosis Caffeine-induced sleep disorder Caffeinism Caffeine withdrawal Caffeine-induced anxiety disorder Caffeine-induced psychosis Caffeine-induced sleep disorder Caffeinism Caffeine withdrawal SUD Caffeine dependence Caffeine dependence Cannabis SID Cannabis arteritis Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome (CHS) SUD Cannabis use disorder (CUD) Synthetic cannabinoid use disorder SID Cannabis arteritis Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome (CHS) Cannabis arteritis Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome (CHS) SUD Cannabis use disorder (CUD) Synthetic cannabinoid use disorder Cannabis use disorder (CUD) Synthetic cannabinoid use disorder Cocaine SID Cocaine intoxication Prenatal cocaine exposure (PCE) SUD Cocaine dependence SID Cocaine intoxication Prenatal cocaine exposure (PCE) Cocaine intoxication Prenatal cocaine exposure (PCE) SUD Cocaine dependence Cocaine dependence Hallucinogen SID Acute intoxication from hallucinogens (bad trip) Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (HPPD) SID Acute intoxication from hallucinogens (bad trip) Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (HPPD) Acute intoxication from hallucinogens (bad trip) Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (HPPD) Nicotine SID Nicotine poisoning Green Tobacco Sickness (GTS) Nicotine withdrawal SUD Nicotine dependence SID Nicotine poisoning Green Tobacco Sickness (GTS) Nicotine withdrawal Nicotine poisoning Green Tobacco Sickness (GTS) Green Tobacco Sickness (GTS) Nicotine withdrawal SUD Nicotine dependence Nicotine dependence Opioids SID Opioid overdose Opioid withdrawal Opioid-induced hyperalgesia (OIH) Opioid-induced endocrinopathy (OIE) Opioid-induced constipation (OIC) SUD Opioid use disorder (OUD) SID Opioid overdose Opioid withdrawal Opioid-induced hyperalgesia (OIH) Opioid-induced endocrinopathy (OIE) Opioid-induced constipation (OIC) Opioid overdose Opioid withdrawal Opioid-induced hyperalgesia (OIH) Opioid-induced endocrinopathy (OIE) Opioid-induced constipation (OIC) SUD Opioid use disorder (OUD) Opioid use disorder (OUD) Sedative / hypnotic SID Kindling (sedative–hypnotic withdrawal) benzodiazepine : SID Benzodiazepine overdose Benzodiazepine withdrawal SUD Benzodiazepine use disorder (BUD) Benzodiazepine dependence barbiturate : SID Barbiturate overdose SUD Barbiturate dependence SID Kindling (sedative–hypnotic withdrawal) Kindling (sedative–hypnotic withdrawal) benzodiazepine : SID Benzodiazepine overdose Benzodiazepine withdrawal Benzodiazepine overdose Benzodiazepine withdrawal SUD Benzodiazepine use disorder (BUD) Benzodiazepine dependence Benzodiazepine use disorder (BUD) Benzodiazepine dependence barbiturate : SID Barbiturate overdose Barbiturate overdose SUD Barbiturate dependence Barbiturate dependence Stimulants SID Stimulant psychosis amphetamine : SUD Amphetamine dependence SID Stimulant psychosis Stimulant psychosis amphetamine : SUD Amphetamine dependence Amphetamine dependence Volatile solvent SID Sudden sniffing death syndrome (SSDS) Toluene toxicity Inhalant withdrawal SUD Chronic solvent-induced encephalopathy Inhalant abuse SID Sudden sniffing death syndrome (SSDS) Toluene toxicity Inhalant withdrawal Sudden sniffing death syndrome (SSDS) Toluene toxicity Inhalant withdrawal SUD Chronic solvent-induced encephalopathy Inhalant abuse Chronic solvent-induced encephalopathy Inhalant abuse Related Anabolic-androgenic steroids SUD Anabolic-androgenic steroids abuse Cannabis Amotivational syndrome Chocolate Chocoholic Cocaine Cocaine-induced midline destructive lesions Levamisole induced necrosis syndrome Methamphetamine Meth mouth Anabolic-androgenic steroids SUD Anabolic-androgenic steroids abuse SUD Anabolic-androgenic steroids abuse Anabolic-androgenic steroids abuse Cannabis Amotivational syndrome Amotivational syndrome Chocolate Chocoholic Chocoholic Cocaine Cocaine-induced midline destructive lesions Levamisole induced necrosis syndrome Cocaine-induced midline destructive lesions Levamisole induced necrosis syndrome Methamphetamine Meth mouth Meth mouth v t e Reinforcement disorders: addiction and dependence v t e Addiction Drug Alcohol Amphetamine Cocaine Methamphetamine Methylphenidate Nicotine Opioid Behavioral Financial Gambling Shopping Palatable food Sex-related Intercourse Pornography Internet-related Internet addiction disorder Internet sex addiction Video game addiction Digital media addictions Cellular mechanisms Transcriptional ΔFosB c-Fos Cdk5 CREB GluR2 NF-κB Epigenetic G9a G9a-like protein HDAC1 HDAC2 HDAC3 HDAC4 HDAC5 HDAC9 HDAC10 SIRT1 SIRT2 ... 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G9a G9a-like protein HDAC1 HDAC2 HDAC3 HDAC4 HDAC5 HDAC9 HDAC10 SIRT1 SIRT2 ... 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We gratefully acknowledge support from the Simons Foundation, member institutions , and all contributors. Donate Help | Advanced Search Showing 1–1 of 1 results for author: Abedini, K Show abstracts Hide abstracts arXiv:2601.10581 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.IR From Single to Multi-Agent Reasoning: Advancing GeneGPT for Genomics QA Authors: Kimia Abedini , Farzad Shami , Gianmaria Silvello Abstract : Comprehending genomic information is essential for biomedical research, yet extracting data from complex distributed databases remains challenging. Large language models (LLMs) offer potential for genomic Question Answering (QA) but face limitations due to restricted access to domain-specific databases. GeneGPT is the current state-of-the-art system that enhances LLMs by utilizing specialized API… ▽ More Comprehending genomic information is essential for biomedical research, yet extracting data from complex distributed databases remains challenging. Large language models (LLMs) offer potential for genomic Question Answering (QA) but face limitations due to restricted access to domain-specific databases. GeneGPT is the current state-of-the-art system that enhances LLMs by utilizing specialized API calls, though it is constrained by rigid API dependencies and limited adaptability. We replicate GeneGPT and propose GenomAgent, a multi-agent framework that efficiently coordinates specialized agents for complex genomics queries. Evaluated on nine tasks from the GeneTuring benchmark, GenomAgent outperforms GeneGPT by 12% on average, and its flexible architecture extends beyond genomics to various scientific domains needing expert knowledge extraction. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Accepted paper by the 48th European Conference on Information Retrieval (ECIR'26) arXiv:2601.10581 [ pdf , ps , other ] From Single to Multi-Agent Reasoning: Advancing GeneGPT for Genomics QA Authors: Kimia Abedini , Farzad Shami , Gianmaria Silvello Abstract : Comprehending genomic information is essential for biomedical research, yet extracting data from complex distributed databases remains challenging. Large language models (LLMs) offer potential for genomic Question Answering (QA) but face limitations due to restricted access to domain-specific databases. GeneGPT is the current state-of-the-art system that enhances LLMs by utilizing specialized API… ▽ More Comprehending genomic information is essential for biomedical research, yet extracting data from complex distributed databases remains challenging. Large language models (LLMs) offer potential for genomic Question Answering (QA) but face limitations due to restricted access to domain-specific databases. GeneGPT is the current state-of-the-art system that enhances LLMs by utilizing specialized API calls, though it is constrained by rigid API dependencies and limited adaptability. We replicate GeneGPT and propose GenomAgent, a multi-agent framework that efficiently coordinates specialized agents for complex genomics queries. Evaluated on nine tasks from the GeneTuring benchmark, GenomAgent outperforms GeneGPT by 12% on average, and its flexible architecture extends beyond genomics to various scientific domains needing expert knowledge extraction. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Accepted paper by the 48th European Conference on Information Retrieval (ECIR'26) About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early life 2 Journalism and non-fiction 3 Fiction Toggle Fiction subsection 3.1 Romantic novels series 3.2 The Rutshire Chronicles 3.3 Little Mabel series 3.1 Romantic novels series 3.2 The Rutshire Chronicles 3.3 Little Mabel series 4 Personal life 5 Death and tributes 6 Honours, awards and recognition 7 Film and television productions Toggle Film and television productions subsection 7.1 Screenwriting and appearances 7.2 Adaptations 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 7.1 Screenwriting and appearances 7.2 Adaptations 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 8 Analysis 9 List of works Toggle List of works subsection 9.1 Fiction 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.2 Non-fiction 9.1 Fiction 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.2 Non-fiction 10 References 11 External links Jilly Cooper العربية Български Cymraeg Deutsch Español فارسی Français کٲشُر مصرى Polski Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska Türkçe Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item Dame Jilly Cooper DBE Cooper in 1974 Born Jill Sallitt ( 1937-02-21 ) 21 February 1937 Hornchurch , Essex, England Died 5 October 2025 (2025-10-05) (aged 88) Gloucester , England Occupation Author Genre Erotic , romance Notable works Rutshire Chronicles Spouse .mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-inline{display:inline} Leo Cooper ( m. 1961; died 2013) Children 2 Website jillycooper .co .uk Dame Jilly Cooper (born Jill Sallitt ; 21 February 1937 – 5 October 2025) was an English author and journalist, best known for her long-running Rutshire Chronicles series. She began her career in journalism and published several works of non-fiction, including books on class, animals and marriage, before turning to fiction. Her first book was How to Stay Married , which was published in 1969. She published several collections of journalism, alongside other non-fiction volumes throughout much of her career. Cooper's first novel to be published was the romance , Emily , which appeared in 1975 and was followed by five more, as well as a volume of short stories. Cooper was also an anthologist and wrote the Little Mabel series of children's books. Cooper went on to become a prominent figure in British popular literature, noted for her witty social commentary and depictions of upper-middle-class life. Her best-known works are the Rutshire Chronicles of which the 1985 novel Riders was the first; it was followed by ten more volumes with the latest installment Tackle! published in 2023. The series is known for its humour, sexuality and depictions of upper-class life; several of the volumes feature the character Rupert Campbell-Black as a key protagonist. Whilst Riders alone sold over one million copies, and her romance novels compared to those of Nancy Mitford and Barbara Cartland , not all reviews were positive. Private Eye lampooned Cooper and gave her the nickname 'Super Cooper', which she later used as a title for one of her own books. Nevertheless Cooper is recognised as one of the key writers of the bonkbuster novel, along with Jackie Collins , Shirley Conran and Judith Krantz . Whilst few academics have analysed her work, those that have, recognise her ability to portray large cast of characters and her focus on pleasure as a literary theme. Academic Ian Patterson compared her to Anthony Trollope and Charles Dickens . In 2025, the Jilly Cooper Prize was established as part of the Comedy Women in Print Awards to honour her contribution to comic fiction. After Cooper's death in the same year, Queen Camilla described her as a "wonderfully witty and compassionate friend". Cooper had received several honours during her lifetime, including that of Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2024 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity. Several of her works were adapted for television and radio, including the second Rutshire Chronicles volume, Rivals , which was adapted by Disney+ and released in 2024. It starred David Tennant and Aidan Turner . Early life Jill Sallitt was born in Hornchurch , Essex, on 21 February 1937 to Mary Elaine ( née Whincup) and Brigadier W. B. Sallitt. [ 1 ] She grew up in Ilkley , Yorkshire, and in Surrey . Cooper was educated at Moorfield School in Ilkley and Godolphin School in Salisbury , Wiltshire. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] She subsequently learnt to type in Oxford. [ 3 ] Journalism and non-fiction Aged 20, Cooper became a junior reporter for The Middlesex Independent , based in Brentford . [ 3 ] She worked for the paper from 1957 to 1959. Subsequently, she worked as an account executive, copywriter , publisher's reader and receptionist . [ 4 ] Her break came with a chance meeting at a dinner party with Godfrey Smith , the editor of The Sunday Times Magazine , who asked her to write a feature about her experiences as a young married woman. [ 4 ] This led to a column in which Cooper wrote about marriage , sex and housework . [ 3 ] That column ran from 1969 to 1982, when she moved to The Mail on Sunday , where she worked as a columnist for a further five years. [ 3 ] In parallel to her journalism, Cooper wrote several humorous and satirical books: her earliest columns led to the publication of her first book, the satirical How to Stay Married , in 1969, which was quickly followed by another satirical guide to working life, How to Survive from Nine to Five , in 1970. [ 5 ] Further satirical works were Men and Super Men , published in 1972, [ 6 ] and Women and Super Women , published in 1974. [ 7 ] The former has mixed reviews, with the Liverpool Daily Post describing the puns as bad, but that Cooper's writing had a "knowing adolescence". [ 6 ] In contrast the Evening Dispatch instructed all its readers to immediately buy it, as a guide to "men and sex". [ 8 ] Women and Super Women was reviewed positively by Clive James in The Observer , [ 9 ] whereas other reviews described the book as cruel (if funny) in its discussions of a wide range of women. [ 7 ] Cooper's journalism was first collected into a single volume, Jolly Super , in 1971. [ 5 ] That collection took its title from the nickname given to Cooper by Private Eye . [ 10 ] A further collection Jolly Super Too was published in 1973. [ 11 ] The Birmingham Evening Mail compared Cooper to Mick McManus as someone the public loved to hate, and stated that the book would deliver "a snigger a minute" to readers. [ 12 ] Jolly Superlative was published in 1975 and largely included pieces from The Sunday Times , but also Vogue , and was praised by The Daily Telegraph for its "limitless comic invention". [ 13 ] In 1977 another collection of journalism, Super Jilly, was reviewed by Clive James in the The Observer as "another breathless year-book by the Sunday Times' head-girl". [ 14 ] The same year How to Stay Married and How to Survive from Nine to Five were republished together in a single volume in 1977 under the revised title How To Survive Work and Wedlock. [ 15 ] The combined volume had mixed reviews from "saucy, but relevant" according to the Sydney Morning Herald , [ 16 ] to the Evening Standard describing how "Women's Lib must hate her insouciant approach to the woman's world". [ 17 ] The theme of class dominated much of her writing and her non-fiction with her work written from an explicitly upper-middle-class British perspective, with emphasis on the relationships between men and women and matters of social class in contemporary Britain. [ 2 ] Upon the publication of 1979's book Class , Ralf Dahrendorf reviewed it for the London Review of Books , describing the work as one where "the characters are fun, the observations acute". [ 18 ] Published in 2000 David Cannadine 's Class in Britain assessed Cooper's book, pointing out that Cooper herself had felt that it did not fully describe the intricacies of the British class system. [ 19 ] Another republication during this period was 1980's Super Cooper , which was a volume of excerpts from her earlier books Men and Super Men and Women and Super Women. [ 20 ] This was described the Sydney Morning Herald as a "brilliant guide to the sexes" and by the Liverpool as a volume "that never disappoints the reader". [ 20 ] [ 21 ] Jolly Marsupial another volume of journalism, this time focussing on Cooper's 1980 tour of Australia to promote the book Class , was published in 1982. [ 22 ] In 1981 Cooper published Intelligent and Loyal , which is a book about mongrels . [ 23 ] In it Cooper created her own humorous typology for mongrels. [ 24 ] To gather stories about mongrels for the book, Cooper put an advert in newspapers asking people to share stories about their pets for the book. [ 23 ] [ 25 ] As a result of the book's success Cooper and her dogs subsequently made public appearances, including on The Animals Roadshow in 1989. [ 26 ] In 1983 she published Animals in War , a book that recorded the contributions a variety of species made to the military. [ 27 ] Public response to the book led to a campaign, supported by Cooper, to establish the Animals in War Memorial . [ 28 ] [ 29 ] Cooper edited an anthology of prose and poetry entitled The British in Love . [ 30 ] With Tom Hartman she also co-edited a dictionary of quotations purely sourced from women entitled Violets and Vinegar . [ 31 ] In 2020, some of her writings on sex and marriage from the 1970s were republished as Between the Covers and praised for their honesty . [ 32 ] Fiction Cooper has been described as "the queen of the bonkbuster ", [ 33 ] however her first novels were romances. [ 34 ] [ 35 ] These were followed by the Rutshire Chronicles series, where dogs and horses featured heavily. [ 36 ] Cooper described the research she undertook for each novel as "like studying for an A-level". [ 37 ] Quoted in the Evening Standard in 1994, Cooper stated that she thought that product placement in literary works was acceptable and discussed how she had received thank you gifts as a result of unsolicited mentions in her novels. [ 38 ] Romantic novels series Cooper was encouraged to write romantic fiction by the editor Desmond Elliott , who had read the short stories she had written previously for teenage magazines. [ 34 ] At the time she was working in publicity for HarperCollins ; Elliott commissioned her with a six-book contract and the paperback rights were subsequently sold to Corgi Books . [ 34 ] The series sold in the 100,000s. [ 34 ] The contract was for Cooper to publish a novel every six months. [ 39 ] The first novel in the series was Emily , which was published in 1975. [ 40 ] Set on a remote Scottish island, its storyline follows Emily who moves to the island after a short courtship and marriage to a volatile artist. [ 41 ] Reviews were complimentary, [ 42 ] [ 43 ] although Auberon Waugh noted similarity between Emily and Devil's Cub by Georgette Heyer . [ 44 ] The work was compared to that of Nancy Mitford and Barbara Cartland . [ 39 ] Emily was followed by Harriet and then Bella , both published in 1976. [ 45 ] [ 46 ] In Harriet , the titular character becomes pregnant whilst at university and subsequently works as a nanny for an irascible screenwriter so she can take the baby with her. [ 47 ] In review, Barbara Cartland disliked the novel. [ 48 ] The novel Bella ' s storyline revolves around an actress whose fiancé is super-wealthy, but his family do not approve of Bella. [ 49 ] The novel mixes romance and mystery, as Bella is kidnapped. [ 49 ] Auberon Waugh praised the emotional engagement of the novel, but The Guardian described disappointment since good jokes were lost in the prose. [ 44 ] [ 50 ] In October 1993, seven years after Private Eye had pointed out the similarities, Cooper admitted that sections of Emily and Bella were plagiarised from The Dud Avocado (1958) by Elaine Dundy , but said that it was not deliberate. [ 51 ] The next novel in the series was Octavia , which was published in 1977, set in Britain during the 1970s. [ 52 ] Reviews were less positive than the previous novels, but Cooper's word-play continued to be praised. [ 53 ] In a review Auberon Waugh expressed frustration with the novel as he felt Cooper could write much better than the text. [ 54 ] Octavia was followed by the novel Prudence , which was set in the Lake District in England during a house party. [ 55 ] [ 56 ] The novel had a mixed reception upon publication, including from one reviewer who hoped it was the last in the series. [ 57 ] In response, Cooper's publisher, Desmond Elliott, wrote to the paper announcing that the next novel, Imogen , was due that same year and it too was likely to be enjoyed by hundreds of thousands of readers. [ 57 ] The final novel in the series is Imogen , which was published in 1978. [ 58 ] At the time of publication, the preceding five novels had sold 340,000 copies. [ 59 ] Set between Yorkshire and the south of France, it follows Imogen as she is seduced by a tennis player, who takes her on holiday, but ultimately falls in love with his best friend. [ 58 ] The novel was mostly received favourably, [ 60 ] although the character of Imogen was described in one review as "spineless". [ 61 ] It is cited as an example in academic texts on a variety of themes, including the allure of the French Riviera for Anglo-American culture, [ 62 ] and a cultural analysis of cohabitation in the 1970s. [ 63 ] Also grouped in the romance series is the short story collection Lisa & Co ; each story is based on some of Cooper's earliest writings for women's magazines in the 1960s. [ 64 ] [ 65 ] In 2017 in her book The Gender Games , transgender writer Juno Dawson described how her obsession with the "ultra-glam" covers of these romances as a child gave her a sense that she was not "very good at being a boy". [ 66 ] The Rutshire Chronicles The best-known of Cooper's works, each book of the Rutshire Chronicles is set in a glamorous and wealthy milieu , such as the worlds of show jumping or classical music . [ 67 ] [ 68 ] These books were noted for the luxurious lifestyles portrayed, the proliferation of animals and their wit. [ 69 ] The first in the series was Riders (1985), an international bestseller, which sold over one million copies. [ 70 ] The first version of Riders was written by 1970, but shortly after Cooper had finished it, she took it with her into the West End of London , but left the manuscript on a bus. The London Evening Standard put out an appeal, but it was never found. She was, she says, "devastated" and it took her more than a decade to start it again. [ 71 ] Set in the world of show-jumping, the novel is the first appearance of Cooper's ongoing central character Rupert Campbell-Black . [ 72 ] The novel centres on his rivalry with fellow show-jumper Jake Lovell and the novel's denouement is set in the Los Angeles Olympics . [ 73 ] The follow-up novel to Riders was Rivals , set in the world of commercial television. [ 74 ] Still featuring Campbell-Black, he joins forces with television presenter Declan O'Hara and other characters to take over the local television station. [ 75 ] [ 76 ] Despite some initial scepticism from her publisher about the setting, [ 77 ] the novel debuted at #2 on the Sunday Times bestseller list for hardback fiction on June 12, 1988. [ 78 ] The next novel in the series was Polo , published in 1991, and was a return to the horse-focussed settings that Cooper became known for. [ 79 ] Cooper researched the book by travelling to Palm Beach and to Argentina, meeting polo players there. [ 80 ] [ 81 ] The novel went to number 1 in the UK hardback bestseller list, on its first entry. [ 82 ] Based on a rivalry between British polo player Ricky France-Lynch and an American millionaire Bart Alderton, the novel follows the teams associated with the two figures as they compete around the world. [ 83 ] It also features Rupert Campbell-Black's illegitimate daughter Perdita as a key protagonist. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] [ 86 ] Following Polo , the next novel in the series was The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous , which followed the life of Lysander Hawkley, a man who rich women employed to encourage their unfaithful husbands to return to their marriages. [ 87 ] It was the first novel to feature Roberto Rannaldini, a conductor and sworn enemy of Rupert Campbell-Black. [ 88 ] The novel received a range of reviews, but was praised for its "plain" heroine and a sub-plot relating to miscarriage. [ 89 ] [ 90 ] The next in the series was Appassionata , which was based in the world of classical music and followed the career of soloist, then conductor, Abigail Rosen. [ 91 ] Cooper spent three years researching the novel and travelled on tour to Spain, twice, with the Royal Scottish National Orchestra (RSNO). [ 91 ] The novel was a bestseller, and a soundtrack to the novel was released in parallel to the book. [ 92 ] [ 93 ] Reviews were mixed, with praise for Cooper's research [ 93 ] balanced by suggestions that the cast of characters was too large and contrived plots. [ 94 ] [ 95 ] Cooper remained largely in the world of classical music for her next novel, Score! , but this time focussing on a production of the opera Don Carlos . [ 86 ] In it Rannaldini is directing a film of the production, but is murdered on set, leading to a police investigation. [ 96 ] The novel was a Number 1 bestseller upon its release. The book received mixed reviews, [ 97 ] [ 86 ] as well as the accusation that at some moments the book seemed to suggest "that the death of a dog is rather more grief-worthy than the death of a human". [ 98 ] Her following novel Pandora was set in the art world, [ 99 ] and followed the Belvedon family of dealers and artists, based in the neighbouring county of Larkshire. [ 100 ] Reviewing the novel in The Observer , Robert Macfarlane described how it depicted and lampooned Britart , conceptual art and the Turner Prize . [ 99 ] This theme was continued by the New Statesman , where a reviewer described one scene where a woman who is raped is also menstruating as "very Jake and Dinos Chapman ". [ 101 ] The next volume in the series was Wicked! which was published in 2006 and was set in a boarding school, going to No. 1 in the fiction charts on its release. [ 102 ] [ 103 ] The novel had mixed reviews with some writers sharing unease at the depictions of teenage sex and romance. [ 104 ] [ 86 ] The Guardian stated that running at over 800 pages, the book needed a thorough edit since it was "as long as Anna Karenina and that, surely, is a mistake". [ 105 ] Returning to the world of horses, the ninth novel Jump! was released in 2010. [ 106 ] It features characters from the Rutshire Chronicles in the world of National Hunt steeplechase racing and tells the transformation of a mutilated horse (Mrs Wilkinson) into a successful racehorse. [ 106 ] After publication, it was revealed that Cooper had named a goat in the book (Chisolm) in order to hit back at the critic Anne Chisholm. [ 107 ] The tenth novel in the series Jump! was set in the world of flat racing . [ 108 ] Whilst Cooper's descriptions of the Cotswolds and her descriptions of racing were praised, some reviewers criticised the characterisation and "depraved and ridiculous" sex scenes. [ 109 ] [ 110 ] [ 111 ] The eleventh book in the series was Tackle! , published in 2023 it was set in the world of football. [ 112 ] It was named by The Week as one of the best novels of 2023. [ 113 ] The novel features Rupert Campbell-Black becoming the director of a local football club, based on Cooper's local side Forest Green Rovers . [ 114 ] [ 115 ] The sexual content of the novel received mixed reviews, with praise for the oral sex featured, but dismay that other scenes felt "lacklustre". [ 116 ] Little Mabel series Cooper also wrote a series of four children's books based on the misadventures of a young mongrel puppy called Mabel. [ 117 ] The Little Mabel series comprised Little Mabel, Little Mabel's Great Escape, Little Mabel Wins and Little Mabel Saves the Day. [ 117 ] When interviewed in 2013 to discuss the inclusion of a new class for mongrels at Crufts , Cooper described her book Little Mabel Wins as "prophetic" since it featured a protest against mongrel discrimination at that dog show. [ 118 ] Two of the books featured in the British children's television series Jackanory , read by Victoria Wood and Liza Goddard . [ 119 ] [ 120 ] Personal life In 1961, she married Leo Cooper , a publisher of military history books. [ 121 ] The couple had met when she was aged eight and Cooper aged 10, although they did not marry until she was 24 and he was 27. [ 122 ] [ 3 ] The couple adopted two children and had five grandchildren. [ 123 ] [ 124 ] In 1982, the couple left Putney , south-west London, for an old manor house near Stroud , Gloucestershire. [ 121 ] [ 125 ] As she told The Field in 2002, "I loved London, but I used to cry because I missed the countryside. We did the usual married run: Earl’s Court ; Fulham ; Putney ; Move To The Country." [ 126 ] The Coopers' marriage was greatly disrupted in 1990 when publisher Sarah Johnson revealed that she and Leo had had an affair for several years. [ 127 ] [ 128 ] Leo was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease in 2002. He died on 29 November 2013, at the age of 80. [ 121 ] In 2010, Cooper [ which? ] suffered a minor stroke. [ 129 ] Cooper was a passenger in one of the derailed carriages in the Ladbroke Grove rail crash of 1999, in which 31 people died, [ 123 ] and crawled through a window to escape. She later spoke of feeling that her "number was up". [ 3 ] Cooper was a supporter of the Conservative Party , [ 130 ] and was also in favour of the Iraq War (2003 to 2011). [ 131 ] In a 2007 interview with The Guardian she said, "I loved Mrs Thatcher , I adored her, she was very very nice to me". [ 132 ] By 2012, however, she had grown disillusioned with the Conservatives, telling The Spectator that she was "disappointed with this government" and that the party was "full of terrible people now". [ 133 ] In 2018 Cooper said that because of the #MeToo movement , young men and women no longer feel free to flirt with one another and that she enjoyed being the subject of wolf whistles . [ 134 ] Cooper stated that she was a football fan and supported Leeds United when she lived in Yorkshire. [ 135 ] She was also a Manchester City fan. [ 136 ] Cooper campaigned for the preservation of limestone grasslands in Gloucestershire with the Trust for Nature Conservation. [ 137 ] Death and tributes On 4 October 2025, Cooper was attended to by paramedics after suffering a fall at her home in Bisley , Gloucestershire, which caused a fatal head injury. She was transported to Gloucestershire Royal Hospital , where her condition deteriorated. She died there on 5 October, aged 88, surrounded by family. [ 138 ] Queen Camilla , a long-term friend, led the tributes to Cooper, describing her as a legend and a "wonderfully witty and compassionate friend to me and so many", adding: "May her hereafter be filled with impossibly handsome men and devoted dogs." [ 139 ] The official spokesman of the prime minister, Keir Starmer , said: "Dame Jilly Cooper was a literary force whose wit, warmth and wisdom shaped British culture for over half a century and brought joy to millions." Famously a fan of Cooper's novels, former prime minister Rishi Sunak wrote on X : "Sad to hear of the passing of Dame Jilly Cooper, a storyteller whose wit and love of character brought joy to millions. My thoughts are with her family and fellow readers." [ 140 ] Others paying tribute to Cooper included comedian Helen Lederer , who wrote on X: "Trail blazer, wit, optimist and the giver of the greatest summer parties – you made it look simple." Broadcaster Gyles Brandreth wrote that she was "simply adorable". [ 141 ] Television presenter Kirstie Allsopp said Cooper was "a British institution, funny, enthusiastic and self deprecating, we don't see enough of it these days". [ 142 ] Piers Morgan posted: "Such a fabulously fun, mischievous, warm-hearted lady. If she was in a room, everyone would feel instantly cheerier." [ 142 ] Fellow broadcaster Russell Grant wrote on X: "Jilly was one of the most kind, courteous, generous, warm-hearted and smiley people I ever met when I worked on breakfast and morning TV." [ 143 ] Actress Dame Joanna Lumley , who starred in Cooper's early 1970s sitcom It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling , told BBC News: "She was entirely generous, hugely talented, prolific, enthusiastic, meticulous and wholly loveable: a darling friend and a brilliant person." [ 144 ] A number of authors have also recognised her and her legacy, including Jill Mansell who credited Cooper for inspiring her to be a writer. The Australian-British author Kathy Lette said: "A twinkle has gone out of the world." [ 144 ] Author and former doctor Adam Kay recalled being Cooper's "perhaps unlikely penpal", adding: "We have lost one of the greats." [ 139 ] Honours, awards and recognition Cooper was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2004 Birthday Honours for services to literature, Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2018 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity and Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2024 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity. [ 145 ] On 13 November 2009, Cooper was awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Letters by the University of Gloucestershire at a ceremony in Gloucester Cathedral . [ 146 ] In 2011, She was also awarded an Honorary Doctor of Letters at Anglia Ruskin University . [ 147 ] In 2024 she was named Harper's Bazaar ' s Author of the Year. [ 148 ] In 1997 local councillors in Ilkley , West Yorkshire, rejected a housing developers' proposal to name a street after Cooper. [ 149 ] Located on the site of the tennis courts of Ilkley Hall, where Cooper spent some of her childhood, the street was ultimately named after Thomas Maufe , who was awarded a Victoria Cross . Cooper stated that "[Maufe] is much more deserving than me." [ 149 ] A racehorse was named after Cooper, but it had to be euthanised in 2024 after a racing accident. [ 150 ] [ 151 ] In 2025, the Jilly Cooper Prize was established as part of the Comedy Women in Print Awards to honour her contribution to comic fiction. [ 152 ] The prize recognises works of fiction by women and non-binary authors that demonstrate a distinctive sense of humour, irreverence, and comic narrative voice. The award was introduced following Cooper’s death in 2024, with the intention of acknowledging her influence on contemporary comic fiction and her long-standing reputation for comedic prose, romantic satire, and portrayals of British high society. [ 153 ] The inaugural winner of the prize was Sara Pascoe , who received the award in 2025 for her novel Weirdo . [ 154 ] Film and television productions Screenwriting and appearances In 1971 Cooper wrote the comedy series It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling with Christopher Bond , about four posh young women sharing a flat in London, featuring Joanna Lumley and airing on BBC1 . [ 155 ] [ 156 ] In the 1980s she was a regular guest on the BBC television programme What's My Line? [ 157 ] According to a 2016 interview with Cooper, she was also the subject of a Spitting Image puppet, whose only line was "Sex sex sex sex sex sex". [ 5 ] Adaptations Romance series Emily was adapted by Eleanor Bron for Thames Television in 1976 as part of a six-part romance series. [ 158 ] [ 159 ] Directed by Alastair Reid , [ 160 ] it was broadcast on 6 April 1977. [ 161 ] Prudence was adapted for radio in 1979 by Capital Radio , starring Felicity Kendal as Prudence, [ 162 ] alongside Nigel Davenport and Gerald Harper . [ 163 ] In 2007 a television adaptation of four of the romance novels was proposed. [ 164 ] This was suggested as one of a four-part series focusing on Harriet , Bella , Octavia and one unspecified; the only episode to be filmed was Octavia . [ 164 ] The screenplay was written by Jonathan Harvey . [ 165 ] As of 2009 there was no date for its screening. [ 166 ] In 2013 The Telegraph reported that Harriet was being adapted into a musical by Eva Rice, novelist and daughter of Tim Rice . [ 167 ] Rutshire Chronicles Television adaptations of Cooper's novels were produced for ITV and Disney+. Other productions include the television mini-series The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous , starring Hugh Bonneville , produced by Sarah Lawson ; Riders ; [ 168 ] and, in 2024, Rivals , starring David Tennant , Aidan Turner and Alex Hassell , produced by Eliza Mellor. [ 169 ] The latter was renewed for a second series, which is expected to be released in 2026. [ 170 ] Analysis Cooper has been identified as one of the key writers of the bonkbuster novel, along with Jackie Collins , Shirley Conran and Judith Krantz . [ 70 ] Riders in particular is seen as a key text for the genre, embodying its themes of sex (sometimes coercive) and romance (sometimes unfulfilled). [ 70 ] Indeed, academic Emma Parker has described how the novel "exemplified" the genre. [ 171 ] Ian Patterson , writing for the London Review of Books is one of the few academics to seriously consider Cooper's literary oeuvre. [ 172 ] In his critique of her work, Patterson described how Cooper had a "propensity for subplots worthy of Trollope or Dickens". [ 97 ] Moreover, that her books are "worth thinking about" because they cover "pleasure, that most ticklish of subjects". [ 97 ] Patterson goes on to describe the themes of pleasure that Cooper deals with: "pleasure delayed and deferred, guilty pleasure, the pleasure of repetition and the problems of it", as well as "good pleasures, in various degrees, wrong but permissible pleasures, and unequivocally bad pleasures". [ 97 ] He praised Cooper's use of language, in particular "puns and other forms of verbal humour", which give the reader the impression that Cooper, as writer, is never far away. [ 97 ] On the Romance series, Patterson described the novels as "tightly structured, agreeably predictable wish-fulfilment narratives named for their heroines". [ 97 ] Beyond Cooper's novels, Patterson praised her portrait of Margaret Thatcher, and her Sunday Times columns. [ 97 ] Patterson compared Cooper to Ali Smith since in their writing they share a "fondness for both wordplay and wise children". [ 97 ] Cooper's use of humour as part of erotic writing has been discussed by Tim Miles, who described how there was "is little or no separation" of the two, especially in Riders. [ 173 ] In his analysis of the career of Mary Ward , academic Alan Deyermond describes how she was described as "the Jilly Cooper of her day", which became part of her professional denigration. [ 174 ] Cooper's use of horses as a repeated trope across many of her novels has been considered by academic Gail Cunningham, who described how Riders and Polo provided "women readers with an adult version of the pony book ". [ 175 ] List of works Fiction The Rutshire Chronicles Riders (1985) [ 176 ] Rivals (1988; also known as Players ) [ 177 ] Polo (1991) [ 178 ] The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous (1993) [ 179 ] Appassionata (1996) [ 180 ] Score! (1999) [ 181 ] Pandora (2002) [ 182 ] Wicked! (2006) [ 183 ] Jump! (2010) [ 184 ] Mount! (2016) [ 185 ] Tackle! (2023) [ 186 ] Romances Emily (1975) [ 187 ] Bella (1976) [ 188 ] Harriet (1976) [ 189 ] Octavia (1977) [ 190 ] Prudence (1978) [ 191 ] Imogen (1978) [ 192 ] Lisa & Co . (1981) [ 193 ] "Little Mabel" series Little Mabel (1980) [ 194 ] Little Mabel's Great Escape (1981) [ 195 ] Little Mabel Wins (1982) [ 196 ] Little Mabel Saves the Day (1985) [ 197 ] Other Araminta's Wedding (1993) [ 198 ] Non-fiction How to Stay Married (1969) [ 199 ] How To Survive from Nine To Five (1970) [ 200 ] Jolly Super (1971) [ 201 ] Men and Super Men (1972) [ 202 ] Jolly Super Too (1973) [ 203 ] Women and Super Women (1974) [ 204 ] Jolly Superlative (1975) [ 205 ] Supermen and Superwomen (1976) [ 206 ] How to Survive Work and Wedlock (1977); republication of earlier works [ 207 ] Superjilly (1977) [ 208 ] The British in Love (1979) [ 209 ] Class: A View from Middle England (1979) [ 210 ] Supercooper (1980) [ 211 ] Violets and Vinegar: An Anthology of Women's Writings and Sayings (1980) [ 212 ] Intelligent and Loyal (1981) [ 213 ] Jolly Marsupial (1982) [ 214 ] Animals in War (1983) [ 215 ] The Common Years (1984) [ 216 ] On Rugby (1984; with Leo Cooper ) [ 217 ] On Cricket (1985; with Leo Cooper) [ 218 ] Hotfoot to Zabriskie Point (1985; with Patrick Lichfield ) [ 219 ] Horse Mania! (1986; with Leo Cooper) [ 220 ] How To Survive Christmas (1986) [ 221 ] Turn Right at the Spotted Dog (1987) [ 222 ] Angels Rush In (1990) [ 223 ] Between the Covers (2020) [ 32 ] References ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Biography with magazine quotations" . 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The Changing Legal Regulation of Cohabitation: From Fornicators to Family, 1600–2010 . Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-02084-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). "Introduction". Lisa & Co (PDF) . Corgi. p. 13. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 May 2024 . Retrieved 2 August 2025 . ^ "Frothy romance" . Manchester Evening News . 5 November 1981. p. 14 . Retrieved 30 June 2025 . ^ Dawson, Juno (1 June 2017). The Gender Games: The Problem With Men and Women, From Someone Who Has Been Both . John Murray Press. ISBN 978-1-4736-4861-6 . ^ "BBC Radio 4 - Radio 4 in Four - Why we all adore Jilly Cooper" . BBC . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ Loughrey, Clarisse (30 January 2019). "Jilly Cooper says #MeToo movement has 'diminished' men" . The Independent . Retrieved 4 May 2023 . ^ Risbridger, Ella (28 October 2025). "Could there ever be another Jilly?" . The Bookseller . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ a b c Burge, Amy; McAlister, Jodi; Ireland, Charlotte (31 August 2023). " "Prince Charming with an Erection": The Sensational Pleasures of the Bonkbuster" . Contemporary Women's Writing . 17 (2): 137– 155. doi : 10.1093/cww/vpae002 . ISSN 1754-1484 . ^ Day, Elizabeth (24 April 2011). "Jilly Cooper: 'I'm a reasonable writer but I'm much too colloquial' " . The Guardian . Retrieved 4 May 2023 . ^ Saltzer, Bernice (1 May 1993). "Riders' Rivalry Reaches Boiling Point ." Hartlepool Mail . p. 11. ^ Laing, Olivia (10 November 2023). " 'Sex, puns and labradors': How Olivia Laing fell for Jilly Cooper's bonkbusters" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 14 November 2025 . ^ "Why you should read Rivals as literary fiction" . Varsity Online . Retrieved 15 May 2025 . ^ "Aidan Turner based Rivals character on his dad" . Yahoo News . 15 October 2024 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Venn, Lydia (18 October 2024). "What a Gen Z writer thought reading Jilly Cooper's Rivals for the first time" . Cosmopolitan . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Turner, Graham (27 March 1994). "How to Write a Best-Seller" . Sunday Telegraph . p. 37 . Retrieved 28 May 2025 . ^ "Hardbacks." Books. Sunday Times , June 12, 1988, 15[S5]. The Sunday Times Historical Archive. ^ Lewis, Tim (29 September 2024). " 'Are you good in bed?' Jilly Cooper on horses, lefties and which fictional character she would like to sleep with" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Bell, Jane (13 May 1992). "Jilly Makes a Mint". Aberdeen Evening Express . p. 6. ^ "Judging a Book by its Bonk" . Avidly . 19 February 2013 . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ Flood, Alison (10 September 2016). "Jilly Cooper: 'People were always coming up to us at parties and asking us to bed' " . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 7 April 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1992). Polo: A Legend of Fair Women and Brave Men . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-13552-8 . ^ Vlietstra, Amanda (13 September 2016). "5 (slightly naughty) reasons we're overexcited about Jilly Cooper's new book" . Horse & Hound . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ "A love letter to Jilly Cooper" . Red Online . 7 August 2018. Archived from the original on 31 January 2025 . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ a b c d Flood, Alison (9 August 2010). "Jilly Cooper: Queen of the bonkbuster" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ Walter, Natascha (22 May 1993). "The art of coarse litrutshire" . The Independent . Archived from the original on 7 July 2022 . Retrieved 27 May 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). The Man who Made Husbands Jealous . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15639-4 . ^ Oates, Quentin (30 April 1993). "Jilly goes solo – super". The Bookseller . p. 46. ^ Agg, Jennie (9 February 2023). Life, Almost: Miscarriage, Misconceptions and a Search for Answers from the Brink of Motherhood . Random House. ISBN 978-1-5291-9294-0 . ^ a b "Classical Music: Sex, Chopin and subterfuge - Music, Arts & Entertainment - The Independent" . Independent.co.uk . 26 December 2010. Archived from the original on 26 December 2010 . Retrieved 13 April 2025 . ^ Rasmussen, Sonja. "24 May 1996". Aberdeen Evening Express . p. 25. ^ a b Morley, Christopher (11 April 1996). "A wild tale of sex and drugs and barcarolles". Birmingham Daily Post . p. 14. ^ Campbell-Alexander, Melanie (25 April 1996). "Appassionata". Country Life . p. 85. ^ Ryan, Liz (19 April 1996). "Pointless orchestra tale is the pits". Evening Herald . p. 22. ^ Roberts, Gabriel (14 May 1999). "Jolly Jilly scores with new bonkbuster". Gloucester Citizen . p. 11. ^ a b c d e f g h Patterson, Ian (17 May 2017). "Miss Dior, Prodigally Applied" . London Review of Books . Vol. 39, no. 10. ISSN 0260-9592 . Retrieved 14 October 2025 . ^ Barker, Christine (15 May 1999). "True blue Jilly scores another winner". Birmingham Daily Post . p. 60. ^ a b MacFarlane, Robert (5 May 2002). "Laughing all the way to the bonk" . The Observer . ISSN 0029-7712 . Retrieved 15 April 2025 . ^ Letts, Quentin (11 April 2012). "Fumbling for right touch in Larkshire" . The Standard . Archived from the original on 22 April 2025 . Retrieved 15 April 2025 . ^ Holden, Wendy (13 May 2002). "Foreskin Saga". New Statesman . Vol. 131, no. 4587. ISSN 1364-7431 . ^ Elliott, Giles. "Da Vinci doubles up: Dan Brown's novel takes the top two spots in the chart with sales of his books set to pass 10 million in the UK this week." The Bookseller , no. 5230, 19 May 2006, p. 17. ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 April 2006). "Jilly Cooper goes back to school" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 7 July 2016 . Retrieved 16 April 2025 . ^ Martin, Tim (20 May 2006). "Wicked! by Jilly Cooper" . The Independent . Retrieved 16 April 2025 . ^ Briscoe, Joanna (13 May 2006). "Larks with toffs and oiks!" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 16 April 2025 . ^ a b Laing, Olivia (12 September 2010). "Jump! by Jilly Cooper" . The Observer . Retrieved 26 April 2021 . ^ "Jilly Cooper takes revenge on critic by naming goat after her" . The Daily Telegraph . London. 11 October 2010. Archived from the original on 2 December 2023 . Retrieved 3 April 2018 . ^ "Jilly Cooper - Meet the Author - Suffolk Libraries" . www.suffolklibraries.co.uk . Archived from the original on 25 November 2024 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ Radloff, Lili. "Book review: Mount by Jilly Cooper" . Life . Archived from the original on 22 April 2025 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper's ninth 'bonkbuster' falls short" . www.stuff.co.nz . Archived from the original on 15 July 2023 . Retrieved 25 May 2025 . ^ Bird, Orlando (8 September 2016). "Mount! by Jilly Cooper, review – 'back to basics' " . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 24 May 2024 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ Williams, Zoe (8 November 2023). "Bonk hard and start a business! 10 life lessons I learned from Jilly Cooper" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ "The best novels of 2023" . The Week . 10 February 2023 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Thorp, Clare. "From Riders to Tackle! – how Britain loves Jilly Cooper's raunchy novels" . www.bbc.com . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Silver, Madeleine (20 April 2024). " 'Bonkbuster' queen Jilly Cooper to swap horses for football" . Horse & Hound . Archived from the original on 20 April 2024 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Cooke, Rachel (12 November 2023). "Tackle! review – Jilly Cooper takes on the beautiful game" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ a b "Jilly's age of anxiety" . The Gloucestershire Echo . 13 December 1993. p. 9 . Retrieved 23 August 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Williamson, Charlotte (3 March 2013). "Why our mongrels are a dying breed" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 23 March 2021 . Retrieved 23 August 2025 . ^ "Leafing through the history of Jackanory on World Book Day" . BBC . Archived from the original on 18 August 2025 . Retrieved 18 August 2025 . ^ St Claire, Lynne (23 January 1987). "24 hour TV" . Evening Post . p. 2 . Retrieved 23 August 2025 . ^ a b c Obituary: Leo Cooper , The Daily Telegraph , 2 December 2013. ^ "About Jilly" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ a b Cooper, Jilly (17 September 2010). "Jilly Cooper interview" . The Daily Telegraph . Interviewed by Grice, Elizabeth. Archived from the original on 29 March 2019 . Retrieved 15 January 2026 . ^ Barber, Richard (7 April 2017). "Jilly Cooper: 'My books are my babies' " . The Guardian . Retrieved 29 March 2019 . ^ Horwell, Veronica (6 October 2025). "Dame Jilly Cooper obituary" . The Guardian . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "A Sporting Life – Dame Jilly Cooper" . The Field . 14 October 2024 . Retrieved 8 October 2025 . ^ Barber, Michael (3 December 2013). "Leo Cooper obituary: Publisher of military history books and husband of Jilly Cooper" . The Guardian . Retrieved 7 May 2020 . ^ Davies, Karin (2 September 1990). "Fiction into fact" . UPI . ^ Kennedy, Philippa (26 September 2010). "Jilly Cooper is still riding high" . The National . ^ "Women and gender in the Conservative party archive" . 24 November 2015. ^ Cooper, Jilly (16 February 2003). "Cover story: The voices for and against war" . The Sunday Times . Archived from the original on 5 March 2016 . Retrieved 29 February 2016 . ^ Pool, Hannah; Pool, Hannah Azieb (26 April 2007). "Question time" . The Guardian . ^ "The end is neigh: even Jilly Cooper has dumped Dave" . 3 December 2012. ^ Butterworth, Benjamin (29 July 2018). "Jilly Cooper says she loves being wolf-whistled as she criticises #MeToo movement" . The i Paper . Retrieved 28 February 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper: why I will write just one more novel" . Yorkshire Post . 25 October 2016 [8 October 2016]. Archived from the original on 4 May 2023 . Retrieved 4 May 2023 . ^ Glancy, Josh (28 July 2024). "Jilly Cooper: 'Upper classes are unbelievable, they just love sex' " . The Times . Archived from the original on 28 July 2024 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Clegg, Harry (24 June 1991). "Novelist is riding to rescue of wildlife heritage" . The Citizen . p. 8 . Retrieved 8 July 2025 . ^ De la Mare, Tess (11 November 2025). "Jilly Cooper died from head injury, says coroner" . BBC News . Retrieved 11 November 2025 . ^ a b "Jilly Cooper: Best-selling author of Rivals and Riders dies at 88" . BBC News . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "Camilla's tribute to 'legend' Dame Jilly Cooper after author's death aged 88" . The Independent . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "Author Jilly Cooper has passed away at 88" . Euro Weekly News . 6 October 2025. ^ a b "Queen pays tribute to 'legend' Jilly Cooper after author dies aged 88 – live updates" . BBC News . ^ Grant, Russell (6 October 2025). "Jilly was one of the most kind, courteous, generous, warm-hearted and smiley people I ever met when I worked on breakfast and morning TV" . X . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ a b "Tributes pour in from Rivals cast in honour of Dame Jilly Cooper" . The Independent . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "No. 64269" . The London Gazette (Supplement). 30 December 2023. p. N9. ^ University Announces Honorary Awards Archived 19 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine University of Gloucestershire ^ "Dame Jilly Cooper (1937-2025) - ARU" . www.aru.ac.uk . Retrieved 11 November 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper is our author of the year" . Harper's BAZAAR . 5 December 2024 . Retrieved 6 June 2025 . ^ a b Oldham, Nick (17 January 1997). "Jilly's Street? It's not such a novel idea" . Telegraph and Argus . p. 3 . Retrieved 7 June 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper (IRE) | Race Record & Form" . Racing Post . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper (IRE) | Horse Profile" . Sky Sports . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Kerridge, Jake (12 July 2019). "Jilly Cooper on the Comedy Women in Print Prize: 'Men are funnier than women? Rubbish!' " . The Telegraph . ISSN 0307-1235 . Retrieved 11 November 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper honoured with Comedy Women In Print prize" . Irish Independent . 10 July 2019 . Retrieved 9 November 2025 . ^ Loffhagen, Emma (4 November 2025). "Sara Pascoe's novel wins inaugural Jilly Cooper award" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 9 November 2025 . ^ "It's Awfully Bad For Your Eyes, Darling (Production)" . www.phill.co.uk . Archived from the original on 8 October 2025 . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ Storah, Peter (18 November 1971). "Jilly gets her own laugh show". Lancashire Telegraph . No. 23646. p. 2. ^ "You're a glamorous lot, says author Jilly ..." Western Daily Press . 22 February 1985. p. 7. Archived from the original on 8 July 2025 . Retrieved 8 July 2025 . ^ Macdonald, Keith (6 April 1977). "Eleanor misses out on Romance" . Manchester Evening News . p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Mitchell, Linton (17 February 1977). "Return to romance" . Reading Evening Post . p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Things go so wrong for Emily" . Evening Sentinel . 6 April 1977. p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Television and radio" . Scunthorpe Evening Telegraph . 6 April 1977. p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Drama for the 80s" . The Observer . 2 September 1979. p. 35 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ Howard, Geoffrey (31 August 1979). "Highlights on radio" . Ealing and Acton Gazette . p. 15 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ a b Richardson, Anna (27 July 2007). "Jilly romps to ITV" . The Bookseller . p. 34. ^ Coming Up Archived 28 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine thecustard.tv ^ Dowell, Ben (12 February 2009). "ITV delays single dramas in downturn" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 28 April 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper sets the stage for her West End debut" . The Daily Telegraph . 19 October 2018. Archived from the original on 19 October 2018 . Retrieved 17 May 2025 . ^ "Riders (1993)" . Archived from the original on 21 September 2019 . Retrieved 21 September 2019 . ^ Cormack, Morgan. "David Tennant, Aidan Turner to star in Jilly Cooper adaptation Rivals | Radio Times" . www.radiotimes.com . Retrieved 25 October 2025 . ^ Garden, House & (8 October 2024). "Rivals season 2: Hayley Atwell and Rupert Everett join the cast of the Disney+ adaptation of Jilly Cooper's novel" . House & Garden . Retrieved 25 October 2025 . ^ Parker, Emma (1 December 2006). "Sex Changes: The Politics of Pleasure in the Novels of Michèle Roberts" . Lit: Literature Interpretation Theory . 17 ( 3– 4): 325– 351. doi : 10.1080/10436920601000336 . ISSN 1043-6928 . ^ "Jilly Cooper compared to Charles Dickens and Anthony Trollope by Cambridge academic" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 13 May 2017 . Retrieved 14 October 2025 . ^ Miles, Tim (2011). "Sex, pies and Jilly Cooper: An online, cooperative analysis of humour and the erotic" . Comedy Studies . 2 (1): 63– 71. doi : 10.1386/cost.2.1.63_1 . ISSN 2040-610X . ^ Deyermond, Alan (2004). "Mary Ward, or the Incremental Denigration of a Hispanist" . Hispanic Research Journal . 5 (2): 177– 179. doi : 10.1179/hrj.2004.5.2.177 . ISSN 1468-2737 . ^ Cunningham G. 'Seizing the reins: women, girls and horses' in: Sceats, S. and Cunnigham, G. 2014. Image and Power : Women in Fiction in the Twentieth Century [Online]. Taylor & Francis. ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Riders . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15617-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Rivals . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15637-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (11 March 2025). Polo . Grand Central Publishing. ISBN 978-1-5387-7355-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). The Man who Made Husbands Jealous . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15639-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Appassionata. Jilly Cooper . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15638-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2000). Score! . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14579-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Pandora . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15640-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Wicked! . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15156-6 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2010). Jump! . Bantam Press. ISBN 978-0-593-06153-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (25 October 2016). Mount! . National Geographic Books. ISBN 978-0-593-07291-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2001). Tackle! . Ulverscroft, Charnwood. ISBN 978-1-4448-5217-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Emily . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15249-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Bella: A Deliciously Upbeat and Laugh-out-loud Romance from the Inimitable Multimillion-copy Bestselling Jilly Cooper . Transworld Publishers Limited. ISBN 978-0-552-15250-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Harriet . Transworld Publishers Limited. ISBN 978-0-552-15251-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Octavia: A light-hearted and hilarious romcom from the Sunday Times bestselling author of Rivals . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3218-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Prudence: The feel-good romance from the Sunday Times bestselling author of Rivals . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3228-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1979). Imogen . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11149-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1982). Lisa & Co . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-12041-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1980). Little Mabel . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11158-6 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Little Mabel's Great Escape . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11160-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1982). Little Mabel Wins . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11159-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1985). Little Mabel Saves the Day . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-12291-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (30 June 2012). Araminta's Wedding . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-5252-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 September 2011). How To Stay Married . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4464-9798-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 February 2012). How To Survive From Nine To Five . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0772-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Jolly Super . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11751-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 October 2011). Men and Supermen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0813-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1973). Jolly Super Too . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-30530-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 January 2012). Women And Superwomen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-3505-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Jolly Superlative . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11801-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Super Men and Super Women, by Jilly Cooper . ISBN 978-0-417-05370-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Work and Wedlock . London: Magnum Books. ISBN 978-0417018201 . Retrieved 9 October 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Superjilly . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-38620-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). The British in Love . Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-005650-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1999). Class: A View from Middle England . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14662-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Supercooper . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11832-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Hartman, Tom (1982). Violets and Vinegar: An Anthology of Women's Writings and Sayings . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11869-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Intelligent and Loyal: A Celebration of the Mongrel . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-48000-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 February 2012). Jolly Marsupial . Transworld. ISBN 978-1-4481-0902-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Animals In War . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3190-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1999). The Common Years . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14663-0 . ^ Cooper, Leo; Cooper, Jilly (1984). Leo & Jilly Cooper on Rugby . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2411-6 . ^ Cooper, Leo (1985). Leo & Jilly Cooper on Cricket . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2537-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Lichfield, Patrick (1985). Hotfoot to Zabriskie Point . Constable. ISBN 978-0-09-466760-0 . ^ Cooper, Leo; Cooper, Jilly (1986). Horse Mania! . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2665-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1986). How to Survive Christmas: An Xmasochist's Guide to the Darkest Days of the Year . Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-59780-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1988). Turn Right at the Spotted Dog: And Other Diversions . Chivers. ISBN 978-0-7451-0744-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (24 April 2012). Angels Rush In . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0810-7 . External links Official website Jilly Cooper at IMDb Jilly Cooper at the British Film Institute Portraits of Jilly Cooper at the National Portrait Gallery, London "The queen of chick lit" article , The Guardian , 15 June 2004 An interview with Cooper recorded in 2000 by meettheauthor.co.uk .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Jilly Cooper v t e Fiction Rutshire Chronicles Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Romance series Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Short stories Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Children's stories Little Mabel (series) Rutshire Chronicles Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Romance series Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Short stories Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Children's stories Little Mabel (series) Little Mabel (series) Non-fiction How to Stay Married How To Survive From Nine To Five Jolly Super Jolly Super Too Jolly Superlative Class Violets and Vinegar Intelligent and Loyal Jolly Marsupial Animals in War The Common Years How To Survive Christmas Turn Right at the Spotted Dog Angels Rush In Between the Covers How to Stay Married How To Survive From Nine To Five Jolly Super Jolly Super Too Jolly Superlative Class Violets and Vinegar Intelligent and Loyal Jolly Marsupial Animals in War The Common Years How To Survive Christmas Turn Right at the Spotted Dog Angels Rush In Between the Covers Adaptations It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling Riders The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Rivals It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling Riders The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Rivals Fictional characters Rupert Campbell-Black Rupert Campbell-Black Related Leo Cooper Leo Cooper Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Greece Poland Israel United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Greece Poland Israel Academics CiNii CiNii Artists MusicBrainz MusicBrainz People Trove Trove Other IdRef Open Library Yale LUX IdRef Open Library Yale LUX 1937 births 2025 deaths 20th-century English non-fiction writers 20th-century English novelists 20th-century English women writers 21st-century English non-fiction writers 21st-century English novelists 21st-century English women writers Accidental deaths from falls in the United Kingdom Accidental deaths in England British Book Award winners British women romantic fiction writers British women columnists Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire English romantic fiction writers English women journalists English women non-fiction writers English women novelists People educated at Godolphin School People from Hornchurch Survivors of railway accidents or incidents 21st-century British women novelists 20th-century British women novelists British children's writers British women children's writers Deaths from head injury CS1 maint: publisher location Pages containing London Gazette template with parameter supp set to y Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Use British English from October 2016 All Wikipedia articles written in British English Use dmy dates from October 2025 All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from January 2026 Commons category link from Wikidata National Portrait Gallery (London) person ID same as Wikidata This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 06:20 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History 2 Application 3 Structure Toggle Structure subsection 3.1 Notation 3.2 Basic features and syntax 3.3 Organization 3.3.1 Main classes 3.3.2 Common auxiliary tables 3.3.3 Connecting signs 3.1 Notation 3.2 Basic features and syntax 3.3 Organization 3.3.1 Main classes 3.3.2 Common auxiliary tables 3.3.3 Connecting signs 3.3.1 Main classes 3.3.2 Common auxiliary tables 3.3.3 Connecting signs 4 Outline Toggle Outline subsection 4.1 Main tables 4.1.1 0 Science and knowledge. Organization. Computer science. Information. Documentation. Librarianship. Institution. Publications 4.1.2 1 Philosophy. Psychology 4.1.3 2 Religion. Theology 4.1.4 3 Social sciences 4.1.5 4 Currently Vacant 4.1.6 5 Mathematics. Natural sciences 4.1.7 6 Applied sciences. Medicine. Technology 4.1.8 7 The arts. Recreation. Entertainment. Sport 4.1.9 8 Language. Linguistics. Literature 4.1.10 9 Geography. Biography. History 4.2 Common auxiliary tables 4.2.1 Table 1c: Language 4.2.2 Table 1d: Form 4.2.3 Table 1e: Place 4.2.4 Table 1f: Human ancestry and grouping 4.2.5 Table 1g: Time 4.2.6 Table 1k: General characteristics 4.1 Main tables 4.1.1 0 Science and knowledge. Organization. Computer science. Information. Documentation. Librarianship. Institution. Publications 4.1.2 1 Philosophy. Psychology 4.1.3 2 Religion. Theology 4.1.4 3 Social sciences 4.1.5 4 Currently Vacant 4.1.6 5 Mathematics. Natural sciences 4.1.7 6 Applied sciences. Medicine. Technology 4.1.8 7 The arts. Recreation. Entertainment. Sport 4.1.9 8 Language. Linguistics. Literature 4.1.10 9 Geography. Biography. History 4.1.1 0 Science and knowledge. Organization. Computer science. Information. Documentation. Librarianship. Institution. Publications 4.1.2 1 Philosophy. Psychology 4.1.3 2 Religion. Theology 4.1.4 3 Social sciences 4.1.5 4 Currently Vacant 4.1.6 5 Mathematics. Natural sciences 4.1.7 6 Applied sciences. Medicine. Technology 4.1.8 7 The arts. Recreation. Entertainment. Sport 4.1.9 8 Language. Linguistics. Literature 4.1.10 9 Geography. Biography. History 4.2 Common auxiliary tables 4.2.1 Table 1c: Language 4.2.2 Table 1d: Form 4.2.3 Table 1e: Place 4.2.4 Table 1f: Human ancestry and grouping 4.2.5 Table 1g: Time 4.2.6 Table 1k: General characteristics 4.2.1 Table 1c: Language 4.2.2 Table 1d: Form 4.2.3 Table 1e: Place 4.2.4 Table 1f: Human ancestry and grouping 4.2.5 Table 1g: Time 4.2.6 Table 1k: General characteristics 5 See also Toggle See also subsection 5.1 Classifications based on UDC 5.2 Other faceted classifications 5.3 Other library classifications 5.1 Classifications based on UDC 5.2 Other faceted classifications 5.3 Other library classifications 6 References 7 External links Universal Decimal Classification العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Čeština Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto Euskara Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Português Română Русский සිංහල Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Українська اردو 粵語 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item The Universal Decimal Classification ( UDC ) is a bibliographic and library classification representing the systematic arrangement of all branches of human knowledge organized as a coherent system in which knowledge fields are related and inter-linked. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ] The UDC is an analytico-synthetic and faceted classification system featuring detailed vocabulary and syntax that enables powerful content indexing and information retrieval in large collections. [ 6 ] [ 7 ] Since 1991, the UDC has been owned and managed by the UDC Consortium, [ 8 ] a non-profit international association of publishers with headquarters in The Hague , Netherlands. Unlike other library classification schemes that started their life as national systems, the UDC was conceived and maintained as an international scheme. Its translation into other languages started at the beginning of the 20th century and has since been published in various printed editions in over 40 languages. [ 9 ] [ 10 ] UDC Summary, an abridged Web version of the scheme, is available in over 50 languages. [ 11 ] The classification has been modified and extended over the years to cope with increasing output in all areas of human knowledge, and is still under continuous review to take account of new developments. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] Albeit originally designed as an indexing and retrieval system, due to its logical structure and scalability, UDC has become one of the most widely used knowledge organization systems in libraries, where it is used for either shelf arrangement, content indexing or both. [ 14 ] UDC codes can describe any type of document or object to any desired level of detail. These can include textual documents and other media such as films , video and sound recordings, illustrations , maps as well as realia such as museum objects. History The UDC was developed by the Belgian bibliographers Paul Otlet and Henri La Fontaine at the end of the 19th century. In 1895, they created the Universal Bibliographic Repertory ( Répertoire Bibliographique Universel ) (RBU) which was intended to become a comprehensive classified index to all published information. The idea that the RBU should take the form of a card catalogue came from the young American zoologist Herbert Haviland Field , who was at the time himself setting up a bibliographical agency in Zurich, the Concilium Bibliographicum . [ 15 ] A means of arranging the entries would be needed, and Otlet, having heard of the Dewey Decimal Classification , wrote to Melvil Dewey and obtained permission to translate it into French. The idea outgrew the plan of mere translation, and a number of radical innovations were made, adapting the purely enumerative classification (in which all the subjects envisaged are already listed and coded) into one which allows for synthesis (that is, the construction of compound numbers to denote interrelated subjects that could never be exhaustively foreseen); various possible relations between subjects were identified, and symbols assigned to represent them. In its first edition in French, Manuel du Répertoire bibliographique universel (1905), the UDC already included many features that were revolutionary in the context of knowledge classifications: tables of generally applicable (aspect-free) concepts—called common auxiliary tables; a series of special auxiliary tables with specific but re-usable attributes in a particular field of knowledge; an expressive notational system with connecting symbols and syntax rules to enable coordination of subjects and the creation of a documentation language proper. The Universal Bibliographic Repertory grew to more than eleven million records in the period before World War I . The catalogue and its content organized by UDC can still be seen in Mundaneum in Mons, Belgium. In 2013 this catalogue was accepted onto the UNESCO Memory of the World international register , recognising it as documentary heritage of global importance. [ 16 ] Application UDC is used in around 150,000 libraries in 130 countries and in many bibliographical services which require detailed content indexing. In a number of countries it is the main classification system for information exchange and is used in all types of libraries: public, school, academic and special libraries. [ 17 ] [ 18 ] [ 19 ] UDC is also used in national bibliographies of around 30 countries. Examples of large databases indexed by UDC include: [ 20 ] NEBIS (The Network of Libraries and Information Centers in Switzerland) — 2.6 million records COBIB.SI (Slovenian National Union Catalogue) — 3.5 million records Hungarian National Union Catalogue (MOKKA) — 2.9 million records VINITI RAS database (All-Russian Scientific and Technical Information Institute of Russian Academy of Science) with 28 million records Meteorological & Geoastrophysical Abstracts (MGA) with 600 journal titles PORBASE (Portuguese National Bibliography) with 1.5 million records UDC has traditionally been used for the indexing of scientific articles which was an important source of information of scientific output in the period predating electronic publishing. Collections of research articles in many countries covering decades of scientific output contain UDC codes. Examples of journal articles indexed by UDC: UDC code 663.12:57.06 in the article "Yeast Systematics: from Phenotype to Genotype" in the journal Food Technology and Biotechnology ( .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} ISSN 1330-9862 ) [ 21 ] UDC code 37.037:796.56 , provided in the article "The game method as means of interface of technical-tactical and psychological preparation in sports orienteering" in the Russian journal " Pedagogico-psychological and medico-biological problems of the physical culture and sport " ( ISSN 2070-4798 ). [ 22 ] UDC code 621.715:621.924:539.3 in the article Residual Stress in Shot-Peened Sheets of AIMg4.5Mn Alloy - in the journal Materials and technology ( ISSN 1580-2949 ). [ 23 ] The design of UDC lends itself to machine readability, and the system has been used both with early automatic mechanical sorting devices, and modern library OPACs . [ 24 ] [ 25 ] Since 1993, a standard version of UDC has been maintained and distributed in a database format: UDC Master Reference File (UDC MRF) which is updated and released regularly. [ 26 ] The 2011 version of the MRF (released in 2012) contains over 70,000 classes. [ 1 ] In the past full printed editions used to have around 220,000 subdivisions. [ 11 ] Structure Notation A notation is a code commonly used in classification schemes to represent a class, i.e. a subject and its position in the hierarchy, to enable mechanical sorting and filing of subjects. UDC uses Arabic numerals arranged decimally. Every number is thought of as a decimal fraction with the initial decimal point omitted, which determines the filing order. An advantage of decimal notational systems is that they are infinitely extensible, and when new subdivisions are introduced, they need not disturb the existing allocation of numbers. For ease of reading, a UDC notation is usually punctuated after every third digit: Notation Caption (Class description) 539.120 Theoretical problems of elementary particles physics. Theories and models of fundamental interactions 539.120.2 Symmetries of quantum physics 539.120.22 Conservation laws 539.120.222 Translations. Rotations 539.120.224 Reflection in time and space 539.120.226 Space-time symmetries 539.120.23 Internal symmetries 539.120.3 Currents 539.120.4 Unified field theories 539.120.5 Strings In UDC the notation has two features that make the scheme easier to browse and work with: hierarchically expressive – the longer the notation, the more specific the class: removing the final digit automatically produces a broader class code. syntactically expressive – when UDC codes are combined, the sequence of digits is interrupted by a precise type of punctuation sign which indicates that the expression is a combination of classes rather than a simple class. For example, the colon in 34:32 indicates that there are two distinct notational elements: 34 Law. Jurisprudence and 32 Politics . In the following code 913(574.22)"19"(084.3) , the parentheses and quotes indicate four separate notational elements: 913 Regional geography , (574.22) North Kazakhstan , "19" 20th century and (084.3) Maps (document form) . Basic features and syntax UDC is an analytico-synthetic and faceted classification . It allows an unlimited combination of attributes of a subject and relationships between subjects to be expressed. UDC codes from different tables can be combined to present various aspects of document content and form, e.g. 94(410)"19"(075) History (main subject) of United Kingdom (place) in 20th century (time), a textbook (document form). Or: 37:2 Relationship between Education and Religion . Complex UDC expressions can be accurately parsed into constituent elements. UDC is also a disciplinary classification covering the entire universe of knowledge. [ 27 ] This type of classification can also be described as aspect or perspective , which means that concepts are subsumed and placed under the field in which they are studied. Thus, the same concept can appear in different fields of knowledge. This particular feature is usually implemented in UDC by re-using the same concept in various combinations with the main subject, e.g. a code for language in common auxiliaries of language is used to derive numbers for ethnic grouping, individual languages in linguistics and individual literatures. Or, a code from the auxiliaries of place, e.g. (410) United Kingdom , uniquely representing the concept of United Kingdom can be used to express 911(410) Regional geography of United Kingdom and 94(410) History of United Kingdom . Organization Concepts are organized in two kinds of tables: [ 28 ] Common auxiliary tables (including certain auxiliary signs). These tables contain facets of concepts representing general recurrent characteristics, applicable over a range of subjects throughout the main tables, including notions such as place, language of the text and physical form of the document, which may occur in almost any subject. UDC numbers from these tables, called common auxiliaries are simply added at the end of the number for the subject taken from the main tables. There are over 15,000 common auxiliaries in UDC. The main tables or main schedules containing the various disciplines and branches of knowledge are arranged in 9 main classes, numbered from 0 to 9 (with class 4 being vacant). At the beginning of each class there are also series of special auxiliaries, which express aspects that are recurrent within this specific class. Main tables in UDC contain more than 60,000 subdivisions. Main classes 0 Science and Knowledge . Organization . Computer Science . Information Science . Documentation . Librarianship . Institutions . Publications 1 Philosophy . Psychology 2 Religion . Theology 3 Social Sciences 4 vacant 5 Mathematics . Natural Sciences 6 Applied Sciences . Medicine , Technology 7 The Arts . Entertainment . Sport 8 Linguistics . Literature 9 Geography . History The vacant class 4 is the result of a planned schedule expansion. This class was freed by moving linguistics into class 8 in the 1960s to make space for future developments in the rapidly expanding fields of knowledge; primarily natural sciences and technology. Common auxiliary tables Common auxiliaries are aspect-free concepts that can be used in combination with any other UDC code from the main classes or with other common auxiliaries. They have unique notational representations that make them stand out in complex expressions. Common auxiliary numbers always begin with a certain symbol known as a facet indicator. For example, an equals sign always indicates a language; numbers starting with zero and enclosed in parentheses always indicate a document form. Thus (075) Textbook and =111 English can be combined to express, for example, (075)=111 Textbooks in English . When combined with numbers from the main UDC tables one might get: 2(075)=111 Religion textbooks in English or 51(075)=111 Mathematics textbooks in English . Indicator Table Concepts =... 1c Language (0...) 1d Form (1/9) 1e Place (=...) 1f Human ancestry, ethnic grouping and nationality "..." 1g Time -02 1k Properties -03 Materials -04 Relations, processes and operations -05 Persons and personal characteristics Connecting signs In order to preserve the precise meaning and enable accurate parsing of complex UDC expressions, a number of connecting symbols are made available to relate and extend UDC numbers. These are: Symbol Symbol name Meaning Example + plus coordination, addition 59+636 zoology and animal breeding / stroke consecutive extension 592/599 Systematic zoology (everything from 592 to 599 inclusive) : colon relation 17:7 Relation of ethics to art [ ] square brackets subgrouping 311:[622+669](485) statistics of mining and metallurgy in Sweden (the auxiliary qualifiers 622+669 are considered as a unit) * asterisk Introduces non-UDC notation 523.4*433 Planetology, minor planet Eros ( IAU authorized number after the asterisk) A/Z alphabetical extension Direct alphabetical specification 821.133.1MOL French literature, works of Molière Outline UDC classes in this outline are taken from the Multilingual Universal Decimal Classification Summary (UDCC Publication No. 088) released by the UDC Consortium under the Creative Commons Attribution Share Alike 3.0 license (first release 2009, subsequent update 2012). [ 11 ] Main tables 0 Science and knowledge. Organization. Computer science. Information. Documentation. Librarianship. Institution. Publications Class Description 00 Prolegomena. Fundamentals of knowledge and culture. Propaedeutics 001 Science and knowledge in general. Organization of intellectual work 002 Documentation. Books. Writings. Authorship 003 Writing systems and scripts 004 Computer science and technology. Computing 004.2 Computer architecture 004.3 Computer hardware 004.4 Software 004.5 Human-computer interaction 004.6 Data 004.7 Computer communication 004.8 Artificial intelligence 004.9 Application-oriented computer-based techniques 005 Management 005.1 Management Theory 005.2 Management agents. Mechanisms. Measures 005.3 Management activities 005.5 Management operations. Direction 005.6 Quality management. Total quality management (TQM) 005.7 Organizational management (OM) 005.9 Fields of management 005.92 Records management 005.93 Plant management. Physical resources management 005.94 Knowledge management 005.95/.96 Personnel management. Human Resources management 006 Standardization of products, operations, weights, measures and time 007 Activity and organizing. Information. Communication and control theory generally (cybernetics) 008 Civilization. Culture . Progress 01 Bibliography and bibliographies. Catalogues 02 Librarianship 030 General reference works (as subject) 050 Serial publications, periodicals (as subject) 06 Organizations of a general nature 069 Museums 070 Newspapers (as subject). The Press. Outline of journalism 08 Polygraphies. Collective works (as subject) 09 Manuscripts. Rare and remarkable works (as subject) 1 Philosophy. Psychology Class Description 101 Nature and role of philosophy 11 Metaphysics 111 General metaphysics. Ontology 122/129 Special Metaphysics 13 Philosophy of mind and spirit. Metaphysics of spiritual life 14 Philosophical systems and points of view 141 Kinds of viewpoint. Including: Monism. Dualism. Pluralism. Ontological Materialism. Metaphysical Idealism. Platonism, etc. 159.9 Psychology 159.91 Psychophysiology (physiological psychology). Mental physiology 159.92 Mental development and capacity. Comparative psychology 159.93 Sensation. Sensory perception 159.94 Executive functions 159.95 Higher mental processes 159.96 Special mental states and processes 159.97 Abnormal psychology 159.98 Applied psychology (psychotechnology) in general 16 Logic . Epistemology . Theory of knowledge. Methodology of logic 17 Moral philosophy. Ethics . Practical philosophy 2 Religion. Theology The UDC tables for religion are fully faceted. The second table below lists special auxiliary numbers that can be used to express attributes (facets) of any specific faith. Any special number can be combined with any religion e.g. -5 Worship can be used to express, for example, 26-5 Worship in Judaism , 27-5 Worship in Christianity , or 24-5 Worship in Buddhism . The complete special auxiliary tables contain around 2000 subdivisions of various attributes that can be attached to express various aspects of individual faiths to a great level of specificity allowing equal level of detail for every religion. Class Description 21/29 Religious systems. Religions and faiths 21 Prehistoric and primitive religions 22 Religions originating in the Far East 23 Religions originating in Indian sub-continent. Hindu religion in the broad sense 24 Buddhism 25 Religions of antiquity. Minor cults and religions 26 Judaism 27 Christianity 28 Islam 29 Modern spiritual movements Class Description 2-1 Theory and philosophy of religion. Nature of religion. Phenomenon of religion 2-2 Evidences of religion 2-3 Persons in religion 2-4 Religious activities. Religious practice 2-5 Worship broadly. Cult. Rites and ceremonies 2-6 Processes in religion 2-7 Religious organization and administration 2-8 Religions characterised by various properties 2-9 History of the faith, religion, denomination or church 3 Social sciences Class Description 303 Methods of the social sciences 304 Social questions. Social practice. Cultural practice. Way of life (Lebensweise) 305 Gender studies 308 Sociography. Descriptive studies of society (both qualitative and quantitative) 311 Statistics as a science. Statistical theory 314/316 Society 314 Demography. Population studies 316 Sociology 32 Politics 33 Economics . Economic science 34 Law . Jurisprudence 35 Public administration. Government. Military affairs 36 Safeguarding the mental and material necessities of life 37 Education 39 Cultural anthropology. Ethnography. Customs. Manners. Traditions. Way of life 4 Currently Vacant This section is currently vacant. 5 Mathematics. Natural sciences Class Description 502/504 Environmental science. Conservation of natural resources. Threats to the environment and protection against them 502 The environment and its protection 504 Threats to the environment 51 Mathematics 510 Fundamental and general considerations of mathematics 511 Number theory 512 Algebra 514 Geometry 517 Analysis 519.1 Combinatorial analysis . Graph theory 519.2 Probability . Mathematical statistics 519.6 Computational mathematics. Numerical analysis 519.7 Mathematical cybernetics 519.8 Operational research (OR): mathematical theories and methods 52 Astronomy . Astrophysics. Space research . Geodesy 53 Physics 531/534 Mechanics 535 Optics 536 Heat . Thermodynamics . Statistical physics 537 Electricity . Magnetism . Electromagnetism 538.9 Condensed matter physics . Solid state physics 539 Physical nature of matter 54 Chemistry . Crystallography. Mineralogy 542 Practical laboratory chemistry. Preparative and experimental chemistry 543 Analytical chemistry 544 Physical chemistry 546 Inorganic chemistry 547 Organic chemistry 548/549 Mineralogical sciences. Crystallography. Mineralogy 55 Earth sciences . Geological sciences 56 Paleontology 57 Biological sciences in general 58 Botany 59 Zoology 6 Applied sciences. Medicine. Technology Class 6 occupies the largest proportion of UDC schedules. It contains over 44,000 subdivisions. Each specific field of technology or industry usually contains more than one special auxiliary table with concepts needed to express operations, processes, materials and products. As a result, UDC codes are often created through the combination of various attributes. Equally, some parts of this class enumerate concepts to a great level of detail, for example, 621.882.212 Hexagon screws with additional shapes. Including: Flank screws. Collar screws. Cap screws Class Description 60 Biotechnology 61 Medical sciences 611/612 Human biology 613 Hygiene generally. Personal health and hygiene 614 Public health and hygiene. Accident prevention 615 Pharmacology . Therapeutics . Toxicology 616 Pathology . Clinical medicine 617 Surgery . Orthopaedics . Ophthalmology 618 Gynaecology . Obstetrics 62 Engineering . Technology in general 620 Materials testing. Commercial materials. Power stations. Economics of energy 621 Mechanical engineering in general. Nuclear technology. Electrical engineering. Machinery 622 Mining 623 Military engineering 624 Civil and structural engineering in general 625 Civil engineering of land transport. Railway engineering. Highway engineering 626/627 Hydraulic engineering and construction. Water (aquatic) structures 629 Transport vehicle engineering 63 Agriculture and related sciences and techniques. Forestry. Farming. Wildlife exploitation 630 Forestry 631/635 Farm management. Agronomy. Horticulture 633/635 Horticulture in general. Specific crops 636 Animal husbandry and breeding in general. Livestock rearing. Breeding of domestic animals 64 Home economics. Domestic science. Housekeeping 65 Communication and transport industries. Accountancy. Business management. Public relations 654 Telecommunication and telecontrol (organization, services) 655 Graphic industries. Printing. Publishing. Book trade 656 Transport and postal services. Traffic organization and control 657 Accountancy 658 Business management , administration. Commercial organization 659 Publicity. Information work. Public relations 66 Chemical technology. Chemical and related industries 67 Various industries, trades and crafts 68 Industries, crafts and trades for finished or assembled articles 69 Building ( construction ) trade. Building materials. Building practice and procedure 7 The arts. Recreation. Entertainment. Sport Class Description 71 Physical planning. Regional, town and country planning. Landscapes, parks, gardens 72 Architecture 73 Plastic arts 74 Drawing . Design . Applied arts and crafts 745/749 Industrial and domestic arts and crafts. Applied arts 75 Painting 76 Graphic art, printmaking. Graphics 77 Photography and similar processes 78 Music 79 Recreation. Entertainment . Games . Sport 791 Cinema. Films (motion pictures) 792 Theatre . Stagecraft . Dramatic performances 793 Social entertainments and recreations. Art of movement. Dance 794 Board and table games (of thought, skill and chance) 796 Sport . Games . Physical exercises 797 Water sports. Aerial sports 798 Riding and driving. Horse and other animal sports 799 Sport fishing. Sport hunting. Shooting and target sports Class Description 7.01 Theory and philosophy of art. Principles of design, proportion, optical effect 7.02 Art technique. Craftsmanship 7.03 Artistic periods and phases. Schools, styles, influences 7.04 Subjects for artistic representation. Iconography. Iconology 7.05 Applications of art (in industry, trade, the home, everyday life) 7.06 Various questions concerning art 7.07 Occupations and activities associated with the arts and entertainment 7.08 Characteristic features, forms, combinations etc. (in art, entertainment and sport) 7.091 Performance, presentation (in original medium) 8 Language. Linguistics. Literature Tables for class 8 are fully faceted and details are expressed through combination with common auxiliaries of language ( Table 1c ) and a series of special auxiliary tables to indicate other facets or attributes in Linguistics or Literature. As a result, this class allows for great specificity in indexing although the schedules themselves occupy very little space in UDC. The subdivisions of 811 Languages or 821 Literature , for example, are derived from common auxiliaries of language =1/=9 (Table 1c) by substituting a point for the equals sign. Thus 811.111 English language (as a subject of a linguistic study) and 821.111 English literature derive from =111 English language . Common auxiliaries of place and time are also frequently used in this class to express place and time facets of Linguistics or Literature, e.g. 821.111(71)"18" English literature of Canada in the 19th century . Class Description 80 General questions relating to both linguistics and literature. Philology 801 Prosody. Auxiliary sciences and sources of philology 808 Rhetoric. The effective use of language 81 Linguistics and languages 811 Languages Derived from the common auxiliaries of language =1/=9 ( Table 1c ) by replacing the equals sign = with prefix 811. . E.g. =111 English becomes 811.111 Linguistics of English language . Languages Derived from the common auxiliaries of language =1/=9 ( Table 1c ) by replacing the equals sign = with prefix 811. . E.g. =111 English becomes 811.111 Linguistics of English language . 811.1/.9 All languages natural or artificial 811.1/.8 Individual natural languages 811.1/.2 Indo-European languages 811.21/.22 Indo-Iranian languages 811.3 Dead languages of unknown affiliation. Caucasian languages 811.4 Afro-Asiatic, Nilo-Saharan, Congo-Kordofanian, Khoisan languages 811.5 Ural-Altaic, Palaeo-Siberian, Eskimo-Aleut, Dravidian and Sino-Tibetan languages. Japanese. Korean. Ainu 811.6 Austro-Asiatic languages. Austronesian languages 811.7 Indo-Pacific (non-Austronesian) languages. Australian languages 811.8 American indigenous languages 811.9 Artificial languages 82 Literature 821 Literatures of individual languages and language families Derived from the common auxiliaries of language =1/=9 ( Table 1c ) by replacing the equals sign = with prefix 821. . E.g. =111 English becomes 821.111 English literature . Literatures of individual languages and language families Derived from the common auxiliaries of language =1/=9 ( Table 1c ) by replacing the equals sign = with prefix 821. . E.g. =111 English becomes 821.111 English literature . Class Description 81`1 General linguistics 81`2 Theory of signs . Theory of translation. Standardization. Usage. Geographical linguistics 81`3 Mathematical and applied linguistics. Phonetics. Graphemics. Grammar. Semantics. Stylistics 81`4 Text linguistics, Discourse analysis. Typological linguistics 81`42 Text linguistics. Discourse analysis 81`44 Typological linguistics Class Description 82-1 Poetry . Poems. Verse 82-2 Drama. Plays 82-3 Fiction . Prose narrative 82-31 Novels. Full-length stories 82-32 Short stories. Novellas 82-4 Essays 82-5 Oratory. Speeches 82-6 Letters. Art of letter-writing. Correspondence. Genuine letters 82-7 Prose satire. Humour, epigram, parody 82-8 Miscellanea. Polygraphies. Selections 82-9 Various other literary forms 82-92 Periodical literature. Writings in serials, journals, reviews 82-94 History as literary genre. Historical writing. Historiography. Chronicles. Annals. Memoirs Class Description 82.02 Literary schools, trends and movements 82.09 Literary criticism. Literary studies 82.091 Comparative literary studies. Comparative literature 9 Geography. Biography. History Tables for Geography and History in UDC are fully faceted and place, time and ethnic grouping facets are expressed through combination with common auxiliaries of place ( Table 1e ), ethnic grouping ( Table 1f ) and time ( Table 1g ) Class Description 902/908 Archaeology. Prehistory. Cultural remains. Area studies 902 Archaeology 903 Prehistory. Prehistoric remains, artifacts, antiquities 904 Cultural remains of historical times 908 Area studies. Study of a locality 91 Geography . Exploration of the Earth and of individual countries. Travel. Regional geography 910 General questions. Geography as a science. Exploration. Travel 911 General geography. Science of geographical factors (systematic geography). Theoretical geography 911.2 Physical geography 911.3 Human geography (cultural geography). Geography of cultural factors 911.5/.9 Theoretical geography 912 Nonliterary, nontextual representations of a region 913 Regional geography 92 Biographical studies. Genealogy. Heraldry. Flags 929 Biographical studies 929.5 Genealogy 929.6 Heraldry 929.7 Nobility. Titles. Peerage 929.9 Flags. Standards. Banners 93/94 History 930 Science of history. Historiography 930.1 History as a science 930.2 Methodology of history. Ancillary historical sciences 930.25 Archivistics. Archives (including public and other records) 930.85 History of civilization. Cultural history 94 General Common auxiliary tables Table 1c: Language Class Description =1/=9 Languages (natural and artificial) =1/=8 Natural languages =1/=2 Indo-European languages =1 Indo-European languages of Europe =11 Germanic languages =12 Italic languages =13 Romance languages =14 Greek (Hellenic) =15 Celtic languages =16 Slavic languages =17 Baltic languages =18 Albanian =19 Armenian =2 Indo-Iranian, Nuristani (Kafiri) and dead Indo-European languages =21/=22 Indo-Iranian languages =21 Indic languages =22 Iranian languages =29 Dead Indo-European languages (not listed elsewhere) =3 Dead languages of unknown affiliation. Caucasian languages =34 Dead languages of unknown affiliation, spoken in the Mediterranean and Near East (except Semitic) =35 Caucasian languages =4 Afro-Asiatic, Nilo-Saharan, Congo-Kordofanian, Khoisan languages =41 Afro-Asiatic (Hamito-Semitic) languages =42 Nilo-Saharan languages =43 Congo-Kordofanian (Niger-Kordofanian) languages =45 Khoisan languages =5 Ural-Altaic, Palaeo-Siberian, Eskimo-Aleut, Dravidian and Sino-Tibetan languages. Japanese. Korean. Ainu =51 Ural-Altaic languages =521 Japanese =531 Korean =541 Ainu =55 Palaeo-Siberian languages =56 Eskimo-Aleut languages =58 Sino-Tibetan languages =6 Austro-Asiatic languages. Austronesian languages =61 Austro-Asiatic languages =62 Austronesian languages =7 Indo-Pacific (non-Austronesian) languages. Australian languages =71 Indo-Pacific (non-Austronesian) languages =72 Australian languages =8 American indigenous languages =81 Indigenous languages of Canada, USA and Northern-Central Mexico =82 Indigenous languages of western North American Coast, Mexico and Yucatán =84/=88 Central and South American indigenous languages =84 Ge-Pano-Carib languages. Macro-Chibchan languages =85 Andean languages. Equatorial languages =86 Chaco languages. Patagonian and Fuegian languages =88 Isolated, unclassified Central and South American indigenous languages =9 Artificial languages =92 Artificial languages for use among human beings. International auxiliary languages (interlanguages) =93 Artificial languages used to instruct machines. Programming languages. Computer languages Table 1d: Form Class Description (01) Bibliographies (02) Books in general (03) Reference works (04) Non-serial separates. Separata (041) Pamphlets. Brochures (042) Addresses. Lectures. Speeches (043) Theses. Dissertations (044) Personal documents. Correspondence. Letters. Circulars (045) Articles in serials, collections etc. Contributions (046) Newspaper articles (047) Reports. Notices. Bulletins (048) Bibliographic descriptions. Abstracts. Summaries. Surveys (049) Other non-serial separates (05) Serial publications. Periodicals (06) Documents relating to societies, associations, organizations (07) Documents for instruction, teaching, study, training (08) Collected and polygraphic works. Forms. Lists. Illustrations. Business publications (09) Presentation in historical form. Legal and historical sources (091) Presentation in chronological, historical form. Historical presentation in the strict sense (092) Biographical presentation (093) Historical sources (094) Legal sources. Legal documents Class Description (0.02) Documents according to physical, external form (0.03) Documents according to method of production (0.032) Handwritten documents (autograph, holograph copies). Manuscripts. Pictorial documents (drawings, paintings) (0.034) Machine-readable documents (0.04) Documents according to stage of production (0.05) Documents for particular kinds of user (0.06) Documents according to level of presentation and availability (0.07) Supplementary matter issued with a document (0.08) Separately issued supplements or parts of documents Table 1e: Place Class Description (1) Place and space in general. Localization. Orientation (100) Universal as to place. International. All countries in general (2) Physiographic designation (20) Ecosphere (21) Surface of the Earth in general. Land areas in particular. Natural zones and regions (23) Above sea level. Surface relief. Above ground generally. Mountains (24) Below sea level. Underground. Subterranean (25) Natural flat ground (at, above or below sea level). The ground in its natural condition, cultivated or inhabited (26) Oceans, seas and interconnections (28) Inland waters (29) The world according to physiographic features (3) Places of the ancient and mediaeval world (31) Ancient China and Japan (32) Ancient Egypt (33) Ancient Roman Province of Judaea. The Holy Land. Region of the Israelites (34) Ancient India (35) Medo-Persia (36) Regions of the so-called barbarians (37) Italia. Ancient Rome and Italy (38) Ancient Greece (399) Other regions. Ancient geographical divisions other than those of classical antiquity (4/9) Countries and places of the modern world (4) Europe (5) Asia (6) Africa (7) North and Central America (8) South America (9) States and regions of the South Pacific and Australia . Arctic. Antarctic Class Description (1-0) Zones (1-1) Orientation. Points of the compass. Relative position (1-11) East. Eastern (1-13) South. Southern (1-14) South-west. South-western (1-15) West. Western (1-17) North. Northern (1-19) Relative location, direction and orientation (1-2) Lowest administrative units. Localities (1-5) Dependent or semi-dependent territories (1-6) States or groupings of states from various points of view (1-7) Places and areas according to privacy, publicness and other special features (1-8) Location. Source. Transit. Destination (1-9) Regionalization according to specialized points of view Table 1f: Human ancestry and grouping They are derived mainly from the common auxiliaries of language =... ( Table 1c ) and so may also usefully distinguish linguistic-cultural groups. For example =111 English is used to represent (=111) English speaking peoples . Class Description (=01) Human ancestry groups (=011) European Continental Ancestry Group (=012) Asian Continental Ancestry Group (=013) African Continental Ancestry Group (=014) Oceanic Ancestry Group (=017) American Native Continental Ancestry Group (=1/=8) Linguistic-cultural groups, ethnic groups, peoples [derived from Table 1c ] (=1:1/9) Peoples associated with particular places E.g. (=111:71) Anglophone population of Canada Peoples associated with particular places E.g. (=111:71) Anglophone population of Canada Table 1g: Time Class Description "0/2" Dates and ranges of time (CE or AD) in conventional Christian (Gregorian) reckoning "0" First millennium CE "1" Second millennium CE "2" Third millennium CE "3/7" Time divisions other than dates in Christian (Gregorian) reckoning "3" Conventional time divisions and subdivisions: numbered, named, etc. "4" Duration. Time-span. Period. Term. Ages and age-groups "5" Periodicity. Frequency. Recurrence at specified intervals. "6" Geological, archaeological and cultural time divisions "61/62" Geological time division "63" Archaeological, prehistoric, protohistoric periods and ages "67/69" Time reckonings: universal, secular, non-Christian religious "67" Universal time reckoning. Before Present "68" Secular time reckonings other than universal and the Christian (Gregorian) calendar "69" Dates and time units in non-Christian (non-Gregorian) religious time reckonings "7" Phenomena in time. Phenomenology of time Table 1k: General characteristics Class Description -02 Common auxiliaries of properties -021 Properties of existence -022 Properties of magnitude, degree, quantity, number, temporal values, dimension, size -023 Properties of shape -024 Properties of structure. Properties of position -025 Properties of arrangement -026 Properties of action and movement -027 Operational properties -028 Properties of style and presentation -029 Properties derived from other main classes -03 Common auxiliaries of materials -032 Naturally occurring mineral materials -033 Manufactured mineral-based materials -034 Metals -035 Materials of mainly organic origin -036 Macromolecular materials. Rubbers and plastics -037 Textiles. Fibres. Yarns. Fabrics. Cloth -039 Other materials -04 Common auxiliaries of relations, processes and operations -042 Phase relations -043 General processes -043.8/.9 Processes of existence -045 Processes related to position, arrangement, movement, physical properties, states of matter -047/-049 General operations and activities -05 Common auxiliaries of persons and personal characteristics -051 Persons as agents, doers, practitioners (studying, making, serving etc.) -052 Persons as targets, clients, users (studied, served etc.) -053 Persons according to age or age-groups -054 Persons according to ethnic characteristics, nationality, citizenship etc. -055 Persons according to gender and kinship -056 Persons according to constitution, health, disposition, hereditary or other traits -057 Persons according to occupation, work, livelihood, education -058 Persons according to social class, civil status See also Classifications based on UDC BBC LonClass Other faceted classifications Bliss bibliographic classification Colon classification Other library classifications Dewey Decimal Classification Library of Congress Classification Chinese Library Classification Harvard-Yenching Classification References ^ a b "UDC Fact Sheet" . UDC Consortium website . Retrieved 28 October 2018 . ^ McIlwaine, I. C. (2007). Universal Decimal Classification: a guide to its use (Revised ed.). The Hague: UDC Consortium. ^ McIlwaine, I. C. (2009). "Universal Decimal Classification (UDC)". Encyclopedia of Library and Information Sciences (Third ed.). pp. 5432– 5439. doi : 10.1081/E-ELIS3-120043532 . ISBN 978-0-8493-9712-7 . ^ "Universal Decimal Classification 1: General properties and basic number building". Essential Classification . 2017. pp. 241– 264. doi : 10.29085/9781783302383.019 . ISBN 9781783302383 . ^ "Universal Decimal Classification 2: Auxiliary tables". Essential Classification . 2017. pp. 265– 298. doi : 10.29085/9781783302383.020 . ISBN 9781783302383 . ^ UDC History , "About UDC" - UDC Consortium website ^ McIlwaine, I. C. (1997). "The Universal Decimal Classification: Some factors concerning its origins, development, and influence". Journal of the American Society for Information Science . 48 (4): 331– 339. doi : 10.1002/(SICI)1097-4571(199704)48:4<331::AID-ASI6>3.0.CO;2-X . ^ UDC Consortium , UDC Consortium website ^ UDC Editions , UDC Consortium website ^ Slavic, A. (November 2004). "UDC Translations: a 2004 Survey Report and Bibliography". Extensions & Corrections to the UDC . 26 (2004): 58– 80. hdl : 10150/106363 . ^ a b c "Universal Decimal Classification Summary" . UDC Consortium . Retrieved April 13, 2022 . ^ Major Revisions of the UDC 1993-2013 , UDC Consortium website ^ Slavic, A.; Cordeiro, M. I.; Riesthuis, G. (June 2008). "Maintenance of the Universal Decimal Classification: overview of the past and preparations for the future". International Cataloguing and Bibliographic Control . 37 (2): 23– 29. hdl : 10150/105220 . ^ Slavic, A. (2004). "UDC implementation: from library shelves to a structured indexing language". International Cataloguing and Bibliographic Control . 33.3 (2004): 60– 65. hdl : 10150/105685 . ^ Rayward, W. Boyd: From the index card to the World City: knowledge organization and visualization in the work and ideas of Paul Otlet. IN: A. Slavic, A. Akdag Salah and S. Davies (Eds.): Proceedings of the International UDC Seminar 2013: Classification & Visualization: Interfaces to Knowledge, The Hague (Netherlands), 24–25 October 2013. Wurzburg: Ergon Verlag, 2013, pp. 1-41 ^ "Universal Bibliographic Repertory" . UNESCO Memory of the World Programme . Retrieved 2025-04-04 . ^ Slavic, A. (2006). "Use of the Universal Decimal Classification: a worldwide survey". Journal of Documentation . 64 (2): 211– 228. doi : 10.1108/00220410810858029 . hdl : 10150/105579 . ^ "UDC Users Worldwide" . UDC Consortium website . ^ "UDC Countries" . UDC Consortium . ^ Collections indexed by UDC , UDC Consortium website ^ "Yeast Systematics: from Phenotype to Genotype" . Food Technology and Biotechnology . ISSN 1330-9862 . Retrieved 28 October 2018 . Example: Journal article indexed by UDC ^ "The game method as means of interface of technical-tactical and psychological preparation in sports orienteering" (PDF) . Pedagogico-psychological and Medico-biological Problems of the Physical Culture and Sport (in Russian). ISSN 2070-4798 . Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 March 2016 . Retrieved 28 October 2018 . Example: Journal article indexed by UDC ^ "Residual Stress in Shot-Peened Sheets of AIMg4.5Mn Alloy" . Materials and Technology . ISSN 1580-2949 . Retrieved 28 October 2018 . Example: Journal article indexed by UDC ^ Slavic, A. (December 2006). "The level of exploitation of Universal Decimal Classification in library OPACs: a pilot study". Vjesnik Bibliotekara Hrvatske . 49 ( 3– 4): 155– 182. hdl : 10150/105346 . ^ Slavic, A. (2006). "UDC in subject gateways: experiment or opportunity?". Knowledge Organization . 33 (2): 67– 85. hdl : 10150/105276 . ^ UDC Master Reference File , UDC Consortium website ^ UDC Subject Coverage , UDC Consortium website ^ UDC Structure and Tables , UDC Consortium website External links Universal Decimal Classification (P1190) (see uses ) Universal Decimal Classification Consortium About Universal Decimal Classification Multilingual UDC Summary UDC Summary Linked Data – latest version with downloadable data: Archived 2019-02-16 at the Wayback Machine About Universal Decimal Classification Multilingual UDC Summary UDC Summary Linked Data – latest version with downloadable data: Archived 2019-02-16 at the Wayback Machine .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Library classification systems v t e Bliss (BC) Brian Deer Chinese Library (CLC/CCL) CODOC Colon (CC) Cutter Expansive Dewey Decimal (DDC) Harvard–Yenching Korean decimal (KDC) Library of Congress (LCC) New Classification Scheme for Chinese Libraries NLM Classification Nippon Decimal (NDC) Superintendent of Documents (SuDocs) Swedish library system (SAB) Universal Decimal (UDC) Bliss (BC) Brian Deer Chinese Library (CLC/CCL) CODOC Colon (CC) Cutter Expansive Dewey Decimal (DDC) Harvard–Yenching Korean decimal (KDC) Library of Congress (LCC) New Classification Scheme for Chinese Libraries NLM Classification Nippon Decimal (NDC) Superintendent of Documents (SuDocs) Swedish library system (SAB) Universal Decimal (UDC) See also: Knowledge organization See also: Knowledge organization Category Commons Category Commons Authority control databases International VIAF GND VIAF GND National United States Czech Republic Norway Poland Israel United States Czech Republic Norway Poland Israel Other Yale LUX Yale LUX Belgian inventions Controlled vocabularies Decimal classification systems Library cataloging and classification CS1 Russian-language sources (ru) Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Webarchive template wayback links This page was last edited on 29 November 2025, at 14:43 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Name 2 History Toggle History subsection 2.1 Origins 2.1.1 Pippin I and Arnulf of Metz (613–645) 2.1.2 Pippin I (624–640) 2.1.3 Grimoald (640–656) 2.1.4 Grimoald and Childebert (656–657) 2.1.5 Pippin II (676–714) 2.1.5.1 Rise to power 2.1.5.2 Consolidation of power 2.1.5.3 Later years 2.1.5.4 Death 2.1.6 Charles Martel (714–741) 2.1.6.1 Rise to power 2.1.6.2 Consolidation of power 2.1.6.2.1 Ending the Civil War 2.1.6.2.2 East of the Rhine 2.1.6.2.3 Aquitaine, Burgundy and Provence 2.1.6.3 Ruling Francia 2.1.6.3.1 Vassalage and Church 2.1.6.4 Interregnum, death and divisions 2.1.7 Charlemagne 2.1 Origins 2.1.1 Pippin I and Arnulf of Metz (613–645) 2.1.2 Pippin I (624–640) 2.1.3 Grimoald (640–656) 2.1.4 Grimoald and Childebert (656–657) 2.1.5 Pippin II (676–714) 2.1.5.1 Rise to power 2.1.5.2 Consolidation of power 2.1.5.3 Later years 2.1.5.4 Death 2.1.6 Charles Martel (714–741) 2.1.6.1 Rise to power 2.1.6.2 Consolidation of power 2.1.6.2.1 Ending the Civil War 2.1.6.2.2 East of the Rhine 2.1.6.2.3 Aquitaine, Burgundy and Provence 2.1.6.3 Ruling Francia 2.1.6.3.1 Vassalage and Church 2.1.6.4 Interregnum, death and divisions 2.1.7 Charlemagne 2.1.1 Pippin I and Arnulf of Metz (613–645) 2.1.2 Pippin I (624–640) 2.1.3 Grimoald (640–656) 2.1.4 Grimoald and Childebert (656–657) 2.1.5 Pippin II (676–714) 2.1.5.1 Rise to power 2.1.5.2 Consolidation of power 2.1.5.3 Later years 2.1.5.4 Death 2.1.5.1 Rise to power 2.1.5.2 Consolidation of power 2.1.5.3 Later years 2.1.5.4 Death 2.1.6 Charles Martel (714–741) 2.1.6.1 Rise to power 2.1.6.2 Consolidation of power 2.1.6.2.1 Ending the Civil War 2.1.6.2.2 East of the Rhine 2.1.6.2.3 Aquitaine, Burgundy and Provence 2.1.6.3 Ruling Francia 2.1.6.3.1 Vassalage and Church 2.1.6.4 Interregnum, death and divisions 2.1.6.1 Rise to power 2.1.6.2 Consolidation of power 2.1.6.2.1 Ending the Civil War 2.1.6.2.2 East of the Rhine 2.1.6.2.3 Aquitaine, Burgundy and Provence 2.1.6.2.1 Ending the Civil War 2.1.6.2.2 East of the Rhine 2.1.6.2.3 Aquitaine, Burgundy and Provence 2.1.6.3 Ruling Francia 2.1.6.3.1 Vassalage and Church 2.1.6.3.1 Vassalage and Church 2.1.6.4 Interregnum, death and divisions 2.1.7 Charlemagne 3 Weakening and disappearance of the dynasty Toggle Weakening and disappearance of the dynasty subsection 3.1 Disappearance of Middle Francia 3.2 Decline 3.2.1 Scandinavian invasions 3.1 Disappearance of Middle Francia 3.2 Decline 3.2.1 Scandinavian invasions 3.2.1 Scandinavian invasions 4 Genealogy Toggle Genealogy subsection 4.1 Complete male-line family tree 4.1 Complete male-line family tree 5 Grand strategy 6 See also 7 References Toggle References subsection 7.1 Citations 7.2 Sources 7.1 Citations 7.2 Sources 8 External links Carolingian dynasty Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Aragonés Asturianu Azərbaycanca 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Limburgs Magyar Македонски مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча پښتو Picard Polski Português Română Русский Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt West-Vlams 吴语 粵語 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Carolingian dynasty Carlovingians Autograph of Charlemagne Parent house Pippinids Country Carolingian Empire Austrasia Neustria Burgundy Alamannia Italy Aquitaine Bavaria Bohemia Saxony Brittany Thuringia West Francia Middle Francia East Francia Austrasia Neustria Burgundy Alamannia Italy Aquitaine Bavaria Bohemia Saxony Brittany Thuringia Founded 613 (as mayors) 751 (as kings) 800 (as emperors) Founder Pepin the Elder (as mayor) Pepin the Short (as king) Charlemagne (emperor) Final ruler Arnulf of Carinthia (emperor) Louis V of France (king) Titles List Holy Roman Emperor King of the Franks King of the Lombards King of Italy King of Aquitaine King of Burgundy Duke of Bohemia Duke of Bavaria Duke of Maine Count of Vermandois Count of Valois King of East Francia King of Middle Francia King of West Francia Holy Roman Emperor King of the Franks King of the Lombards King of Italy King of Aquitaine King of Burgundy Duke of Bohemia Duke of Bavaria Duke of Maine Count of Vermandois Count of Valois King of East Francia King of Middle Francia King of West Francia Estate(s) Francia, West Francia, East Francia, Lotharingia, Italy, Holy Roman Empire Deposition 987 (death of Louis V) Cadet branches Lombard branch (extinct) Lotharingian branch (extinct) Aquitainian branch (extinct) German branch (extinct) French branch (extinct) Lombard branch (extinct) Lotharingian branch (extinct) Aquitainian branch (extinct) German branch (extinct) French branch (extinct) Carolingian dynasty Pippinids Pippin the Elder (c. 580–640) Grimoald (616–656) Childebert the Adopted (d. 662) Pippin the Elder (c. 580–640) Grimoald (616–656) Childebert the Adopted (d. 662) Arnulfings Arnulf of Metz (582–640) Ansegisel (d. 662 or 679) Chlodulf of Metz (d. 696 or 697) Pepin of Herstal (635–714) Grimoald II (d. 714) Drogo of Champagne (670–708) Theudoald (d. 741) Arnulf of Metz (582–640) Ansegisel (d. 662 or 679) Chlodulf of Metz (d. 696 or 697) Pepin of Herstal (635–714) Grimoald II (d. 714) Drogo of Champagne (670–708) Theudoald (d. 741) Carolingians Charles Martel (686–741) Carloman (d. 754) Pepin the Short (714–768) Carloman I (751–771) Charlemagne (742–814) Pepin the Hunchback (768–811) Charles the Younger (772–811) Pepin of Italy (773–810) Louis the Pious (778–840) Pepin I of Aquitaine (797–838) Charles Martel (686–741) Carloman (d. 754) Pepin the Short (714–768) Carloman I (751–771) Charlemagne (742–814) Pepin the Hunchback (768–811) Charles the Younger (772–811) Pepin of Italy (773–810) Louis the Pious (778–840) Pepin I of Aquitaine (797–838) After the Treaty of Verdun (843) Lothair I, Holy Roman Emperor (795–855; Middle Francia ) Charles the Bald (823–877) ( West Francia ) Louis the German (804–876) ( East Francia ) Lothair I, Holy Roman Emperor (795–855; Middle Francia ) Charles the Bald (823–877) ( West Francia ) Louis the German (804–876) ( East Francia ) .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e The Carolingian dynasty ( / ˌ k ær ə ˈ l ɪ n dʒ i ə n / KARR -ə- LIN -jee-ən ; [ 1 ] known variously as the Carlovingians , Carolingi , [ 2 ] Carolings , Karolinger or Karlings ) was a Frankish noble family named after Charles Martel and his grandson Charlemagne , descendants of the Arnulfing and Pippinid clans of the 7th century AD. [ 3 ] The dynasty consolidated its power in the 8th century, eventually making the offices of mayor of the palace and dux et princeps Francorum hereditary, and becoming the de facto rulers of the Franks as the real powers behind the Merovingian throne. In 751 the Merovingian dynasty which had ruled the Franks was overthrown with the consent of the Papacy and the aristocracy, and Pepin the Short , son of Martel, was crowned king of the Franks . The Carolingian dynasty reached its peak in 800 with the crowning of Charlemagne as the first emperor of the Romans in the West in over three centuries. Charlemagne's death in 814 began an extended period of fragmentation of the Carolingian Empire and decline that would eventually lead to the evolution of the Kingdom of France and the Holy Roman Empire . Name The Carolingian dynasty takes its name from Carolus , the Latinised name of multiple Frankish kings including Charlemagne and Charles Martel . [ 4 ] The name originates from a common Germanic word, rendered in Old High German as Karl or Kerl , [ 5 ] meaning ' man ' , ' husband ' , or ' freeman ' . [ 6 ] History Origins Pippin I and Arnulf of Metz (613–645) The Carolingian line first began with two important rival Frankish families, the Pippinids and Arnulfings , whose destinies became intermingled in the early 7th century. Both men came from noble backgrounds on the western borders of the Austrasia territory between the Meuse and Moselle rivers, north of Liège . [ 7 ] [ 8 ] The first two figures, Pippin I of Landen and Arnulf of Metz , from whom historians have taken the family names, [ 9 ] both first appeared in the fourth book of the Continuations of Fredegar as advisers to Chlotar II of Neustria , who 'incited' revolt against King Theuderic II and Brunhild of Austrasia in 613. [ 10 ] Through shared interests, Pippin and Arnulf allied their families through the marriage of Pippin's daughter Begga and Arnulf's son Ansegisel . [ 7 ] As repayment for their help during the Austrasian conquest, Chlotar rewarded both men with important positions of power in Austrasia. However, Arnulf was the first to gain. He was bestowed the bishopric of Metz in 614, entrusting him with the management of the Austrasian capital and the education of Chlotar's young son, the future Dagobert I . [ 11 ] This is a position he would hold until his retirement in 629 after Chlotar's death, when he left for a small ecclesiastical community near Habendum; he was later buried at the monastery of Remiremont after his death c. 645 . [ 7 ] Pippin I (624–640) Pippin was not immediately rewarded, but eventually was given the position of maior palatti or ' mayor of the palace ' of Austrasia in 624. This reward secured Pippin a position of prime importance with the Merovingian royal court. The mayor of the palace would act as the mediator between the King and the magnates of the region; as Paul Fouracre summarises, they were 'regarded as the most important non-royal person in the kingdom.' [ 8 ] The reason Pippin was not rewarded sooner is not certain, but two mayors, Rado (613 – c. 617 ) and Chucus ( c. 617 – c. 624 ), are believed to have preceded him and were potentially political rivals connected to the fellow Austrasian Gundoinings noble family. [ 11 ] [ 8 ] Once elected, Pippin served faithfully under Chlotar until the latter's death in 629, and solidified the Pippinids' position of power within Austrasia by supporting Chlotar's son Dagobert, who became King of Austrasia in 623. [ 8 ] Pippin, with support from Arnulf and other Austrasian magnates, even used the opportunity to support the killing of an important political rival Chrodoald , an Agilolfing lord. [ 10 ] Following King Dagobert I's ascent to the throne in c. 629 , he returned the Frankish capital back to Paris in Neustria , from whence it had been removed by Chlotar in 613. As a result, Pippin lost his position as mayor and the support of the Austrasian magnates, who were seemingly irritated by his inability to persuade the King to return the political centre to Austrasia. [ 10 ] Instead, Dagobert turned to the Pippinids' political rival family, the Gundoinings, whose connections in Adalgesil , Cunibert, archbishop of Cologne , Otto and Radulf (who would later revolt in 642) [ 10 ] once again removed the Pippinid and Arnulfing influence in the Austrasia assemblies. [ 7 ] Pippin did not reappear in the historical record until Dagobert's death in 638, [ 11 ] when he had seemingly been reinstated as mayor of Austrasia and began to support the new young King Sigebert III . According to the Continuations , Pippin made arrangements with his rival, Archbishop Cunibert , to get Austrasian support for the 10-year-old King Sigibert III, who ruled Austrasia whilst his brother Clovis II ruled over Neustria and Burgundy . Soon after securing his position once again, he unexpectedly died in 640. [ 10 ] Grimoald (640–656) Following Pippin's sudden death, the Pippinid family worked swiftly to secure their position. Pippin's daughter Gertrude and wife Itta founded and entered the Nivelles Abbey , and his only son Grimoald worked to secure his father's position of maior palatii. The position was not hereditary and therefore passed to another Austrasian noble, Otto, the tutor of Sigebert III. [ 7 ] According to the Continuations , Grimoald began to work with his father's accomplice Cunibert to remove Otto from office. He finally succeeded in c. 641 , when Leuthari II, Duke of Alamannia killed Otto under Grimoald's and, we must assume, Cunibert's orders. [ 10 ] Grimoald then became mayor of Austrasia. His power at this time was extensive, with properties in Utrecht , Nijmegen , Tongeren and Maastricht ; he was even called 'ruler of the realm' by Desiderius of Cahors in 643. [ 7 ] This could not have been done if Grimoald had not secured Sigibert III's support. The Pippinids already gained royal patronage from Pippin I's support, but this was further bolstered by Grimoald's role in Duke Radulf of Thuringia's rebellion. Just prior to Otto's assassination, in c. 640 Radulf revolted against the Merovingians and made himself King of Thuringia. Sigibert, with an Austrasian army including Grimoald and Duke Adalgisel , went on campaign and after a brief victory against Fara , son of the assassinated Agilofing lord Chrodoald, the Austrasians met Radulf on the River Unstrut where he had set up a stronghold. What followed was a disorganized battle spread over several days, in which the Austrasian lords disagreed on tactics. Grimoald and Adalgesil strengthened their position by defending Sigibert's interests, but could not establish a unanimous agreement. During their final assault, the 'men of Mainz ' betrayed the Austrasians and joined with Radulf. This penultimate battle killed many important Austrasian lords, including Duke Bobo and Count Innowales , and resulted in Sigibert's defeat. The Continuations offers a famous description of Sigibert being 'seized with the wildest grief and sat there on his horse weeping unrestrainedly for those he had lost' as Radulf returned to his camp victorious. [ 10 ] Upon Sigibert's return from Unstruct, Grimoald, now mayor, began to build power for the Pippinid clan. He utilized the existing links between the family and ecclesiastical community to gain control over local holy men and women who, in turn, supported Pippinid assertions of power. Grimoald established links with Aquitanian and Columbianan missionaries Amandus and Remaclus , both of whom came to be influential bishops within the Merovingian court. Remaclus, in particular, was important as after becoming bishop of Maastricht, he established two monasteries: Stavelot Abbey and Malmedy . Under Grimoald's direction, the Arnulfings were also further established with Chlodulf of Metz , son of St. Arnulf, taking the bishopric of Metz in 656. [ 7 ] Grimoald and Childebert (656–657) The final moment of Grimoald's life is an area that is disputed in both date and event, titled: 'Grimoald's coup'. [ 8 ] It involves Grimoald and his son Childebert the Adopted taking the Austrasian throne from the true Merovingian King Dagobert II , son of the late Sigibert who died young at 26 years old. Historians like Pierre Riché are certain that Sigibert died in 656, having adopted Childebert due to his lack of an adult male heir. Following this, young Dagobert II was then exiled and tonsured by Grimoald and Dido of Poitiers , who then installed Childebert as King of Austrasia. Clovis II in Neustria, uncle to Dagobert, then reacted to the revolt and lured Grimoald and Childebert into Neustria, where they were executed. [ 7 ] This story is only confirmed by the pro-Neustrian source, [ 12 ] the Liber Historia Francorum ( LHF ) and selected charter evidence. Other contemporary sources like the Continuations fail to mention the event and Carolingian sources like Annales Mettenses Priores ( AMP ) ignore the event and even deny Grimoald's existence. [ 11 ] As such, historian Richard Gerberding has suggested a different chronology and reading of the LHF , which places Sigibert's death on 1 February 651. According to a Gerberding narrative, Grimoald and Dido organised Dagobert's exile around 16 January 651 to Ireland at Nivelles and then, when Sigibert died a month later, they acted out the plan and tonsured Dagobert, replacing him with Childebert, who ruled until 657. Clovis II then immediately acted and invaded Austrasia, executing Grimoald and his son. [ 11 ] Then, either in 657 or 662, the Neustrians (either Clovis II who died in 657 or his son Chlothar III ) installed infant King Childeric II to the throne of Austrasia, marrying him to Bilichild , the daughter of Sigibert's widow Chimnechild of Burgundy . [ 8 ] Grimoald and Childebert's deaths brought an end to the direct Pippinid line of the family, leaving the Arnulfing descendants from Begga and Ansegisel to continue the faction. [ 13 ] Pippin II (676–714) Very little is known about Pippin's early life, but a controversial story from AMP suggests that Pippin reclaimed power in Austrasia by killing a legendary 'Gundoin' as revenge for the assassination of his father Ansegisel. This story is regarded as slightly fantastical by Paul Fouracre , who argues the AMP, a pro-Carolingian source potentially written by Giselle (Charlemagne's sister) in 805 at Chelles, is that Pippin's role primes him perfectly for his future and demonstrates his family to be 'natural leaders of Austrasia.' [ 12 ] However, Fouracre does also acknowledge his existence in charter evidence and confirms that he was a political link to rival mayor Wulfoald . These rivalries would make Pippin natural enemies with Gundoin, making the murder plausible as part of Pippin's rise to power. [ 8 ] Rise to power The Arnulfing clan reappear in the contemporary historical record in c. 676 , when the LHF mentions ' Pippin and Martin' rising up against a tyrannical Ebroin , mayor of Austrasia. [ 7 ] [ 8 ] Pippin II, now head of the faction, and Martin, who was either Pippin's brother or relative, rose up against Ebroin and gathered an army (potentially with the aid of Dagobert II who had been brought back to Austrasia by mayor Wulfoald). [ 8 ] According to the LHF , the Arnulfing army met Ebroin, who had gained the support of King Theuderic III , at Bois-du-Fays , and they were easily defeated. Martin fled to Laon , from where he was lured and murdered by Ebroin at Asfeld . Pippin fled to Austrasia and soon received Ermenfred , an officer of a royal fisc who had assassinated Ebroin. [ 7 ] [ 14 ] The Neustrians, with Ebroin dead, installed Waratto as mayor, and he looked for peace with the Austrasians. Despite an exchange of hostages, Warrato's son Gistemar attacked Pippin at Namur and displaced his father. [ 8 ] He died shortly thereafter and Warrato resumed his position, wherein peace was reached but tense relations remained until Warrato's death in 686. He left behind his wife Ansfled and his son Berchar , whom the Neustrians installed as mayor. Against his father's policy, Berchar did not maintain peace and incited Pippin into violence. [ 14 ] In 687, Pippin rallied an Austrasian army and led an assault on Neustria, facing Theuderic III and the Neustrian mayor, now Berchar, in combat. They met at the Battle of Tertry , where the AMP records that Pippin, after offering peace which was rejected by Theuderic at Berchar's behest, crossed the river Omignon at the break of dawn and attacked the Neustrians, who believed the battle won when they saw Pippin's camp abandoned. This surprise attack was successful and the Neustrians fled. [ 14 ] Following this victory, Berchar was either killed, as the AMP argues, by his own people, but the LHF suggests that it is more likely that he was murdered by his mother-in-law, Ansfled. [ 14 ] This moment was decisive in Arnulfing history as it was the first time that any of the faction had national control. Paul Fouracre even argues it is for this that the AMP starts with Pippin II, as a false dawn upon which Charles Martel would rebuild. [ 12 ] However, historians have discredited the importance of this victory. Marios Costambeys , Matthew Innes and Simon MacLean all show that the Tertry victory did not establish solid authority over Neustria immediately, evidenced by the fact that Pippin immediately installed 'Norbert, one of his followers' (as written in the LHF ) and then his son Grimoald in 696 to ensure continued influence. [ 15 ] [ 14 ] Consolidation of power Pippin II then became overall mayor of the royal palace under Theuderic II, becoming mayor of Austrasia, Neustria and Burgundy. [ 7 ] His son Drogo , from his wife Plectrude , was also imbued with power when he married Berchar's widow Adaltrude (potentially maneuvered by Ansfled) and was made Duke of Champagne. [ 16 ] Pippin was politically dominating and had the power to elect the next two Merovingian kings after Theuderic II died in 691; he installed King Clovis IV (691–695), Childebert III (695–711) and Dagobert III (711–715). [ 7 ] Pippin moved to secure further power by consolidating his position in Neustria, installing several bishops like Gripho , Bishop of Rouen and Bainus at the Abbey of Saint Wandrille in 701, which was later owned along with Fleury Abbey (founded by Pippin in 703). [ 8 ] Imbued with internal strength, Pippin also began to look outwards from the Frankish Empire to subdue the people, that the AMP records, who once were 'subjected to the Franks ... [such as] the Saxons, Frisians, Alemans, Bavarians, Aquitainians, Gascons and Britons.' [ 14 ] Pippin defeated the pagan chieftain Radbod in Frisia, an area that had been slowly encroached upon by Austrasian nobles and Anglo-Saxon missionaries like Willibrord , whose links would later make him a connection between the Arnulfings and the papacy. [ 7 ] Following Gotfrid, Duke of Alemannia in 709, Pippin also moved against the Alemans and subjugated them again to royal control. Later years As Pippin approached his death in late 714, he was faced with a succession crisis. Drogo, Pippin's oldest son, died in 707 and his second son Grimoald, according to the LHF , was killed whilst praying to Saint Lambert in Liège in 714 by Rantgar, suspected by Paul Fouracre to be a pagan. [ 16 ] [ 14 ] [ 8 ] Pippin, before his death, made his six-year-old grandson Theudoald (Grimoald's son) his successor in Neustria, a choice that is believed to have been promoted by his wife Plectrude, [ 7 ] which was a political choice from within the direct family line, as Pippin had two adult illegitimate children, Charles Martel and Childebrand I , from a second wife or concubine named Alpaida . [ 11 ] They were ousted so Theudoald (with Plectrude's regency) could take the throne, a choice that would result in disaster. Death When Pippin II died in December 714, the Arnulfings' dominance over Francia disintegrated. The LHF tells us that 'Plectrude along with her grandchildren and the king directed all the affairs of state under a separate government', a system which created tensions with the Neustrians. [ 14 ] Theudoald ruled uncontested for around six months, until June 715, when the Neustrians revolted. Theudoald and the Arnulfings' supporters met at the Battle of Compiègne on 26 September 715, [ 8 ] and after a decisive victory, the Neustrians installed a new mayor Ragenfrid and, following Dagobert's death, their own Merovingian king Chilperic II . [ 14 ] Charter evidence suggests that Chilperic was the son of the former King Childeric II, but this would make Daniel in his 40s, which is quite old to take the throne. [ 8 ] Charles Martel (714–741) Rise to power Following their victory, the Neustrians joined with Radbod, King of the Frisians and invaded Austrasia, aiming towards the Meuse river to take the heartland of the faction's support. [ 10 ] It is at this moment that Charles Martel is first mentioned in historical records, which note him surviving imprisonment by his step-mother, Plectrude. Charles managed to escape and mustered an Austrasian army to face the encroaching Radbod and the Neustrians. In 716, Charles finally met the Frisians as they approached and, although the AMP attempts equalize the losses, it is confirmed from the descriptions in the LHF and the Continuations that Charles was defeated with heavy losses. [ 10 ] [ 14 ] Chilperic, Raganfred and, according to the Continuations , Radbod, then travelled from Neustria through the forest of the Ardennes and raided around the river Rhine and Cologne , taking treasure from Plectrude and her supporters. As they returned, Charles ambushed the returning party at the Battle of Amblève and was victorious, inflicting heavy losses on the Neustrian invaders. In 717, Charles mustered his army again and marched on Neustria, taking the city of Verdun during his conquest. [ 7 ] He met Chilperic and Raganfred again at the Battle of Vinchy on 21 March 717 and was once again victorious, forcing them back to Paris . He then swiftly returned to Austrasia and besieged Cologne, defeating Plectrude and reclaiming his father's wealth and treasure. Charles bolstered his position by installing the Merovingian king Chlothar IV in Austrasia as an opposing Merovingian to Chilperic II. [ 14 ] Despite not having a Merovingian king for around 40 years in Austrasia, Charles' position was weak at this time and he required the support of the established Merovingians to gather military support. [ 17 ] Despite his weaknesses, Charles' recent success had made him a greater political entity; as such, Chilperic and Raganfred could not win a decisive victory against him. So, in 718 they too sent embassies and won the support of Duke Eudo of Aquitaine who, at their request, mustered 'a Gascon army' to face Charles. In response, Charles brought an army to the eastern Neustrian borders and faced Duke Eudo in battle at Soissons. [ 8 ] Duke Eudo, realising he was outmatched, retreated to Paris, where he took Chilperic and the royal treasury and left for Aquitaine . Charles pursued them, according to the Continuations , as far as Orleans, but Eudo and the Neustrians managed to escape. [ 10 ] In 718, King Chlothar IV died and was not replaced; instead, Charles became the primary authority in Francia. He established a peace treaty with Duke Eudo that ensured Chilperic II was returned to Francia; thereafter, until Chilperic's death in 720 at Noyon , the kingship was restored with Carolingian control and Charles became the maior palatii in both Neustria and Austrasia. [ 17 ] Following Chilperic II's death, the Merovingian king Theuderic IV , son of Dagobert III, was taken from Chelles Abbey and appointed by the Neustrians and Charles as the Frankish king. Consolidation of power With his ascension to the throne, several significant moments in Frankish history occurred. Firstly, the LHF ended, likely composed several years later in 727 and ended one of the several perspectives we have on Charles' ascension. [ 11 ] Secondly, and more importantly, the Arnulfing predominance in the faction ended and the Carolingian (translating to 'sons of Charles') officially began. [ 15 ] Once the immediate dangers were dealt with, Charles then began to consolidate his position as sole mayor of the Frankish kingdom. The civil unrest between 714 and 721 had destroyed the continental political cohesion, and peripheral kingdoms like Aquitaine, Alemannia , Burgundy and Bavaria had slipped from the Carolingian's grasp. Even though the faction had, by Charles Martel's time, established strong political control over Francia, loyalty to the Merovingian power within these border regions remained. [ 15 ] Ending the Civil War Charles first set out to reinstate Carolingian dominance internally within Francia: the Continuations lists Charles' continuous maneuvers which solidified the campaigns generating the Carolingian military foundation. In 718, the AMP records that Charles fought against the Saxons, pushing them as far as the river Weser [ 14 ] and following up with subsequent campaigns in 720 and 724 which secured the northern borders of Austrasia and Neustria. [ 17 ] He subdued his former enemy Raganfred at Angers in 724 and secured his patronage, removing the remaining political resistance that had continued to thrive in western Neustria. [ 13 ] East of the Rhine In 725, Charles set out against the peripheral kingdoms, starting with Alemannia. The region had almost gained independence during the reign of Pippin II and under the leadership of Lantfrid , Duke of Alemannia, as (710–730) they acted without Frankish authority, issuing law codes like the Lex Alamannorum without Carolingian consultation. As recorded in the Alemannia source, [ 18 ] the Breviary of Erchanbert , the Alemanni 'refused to obey the duces of the Franks because they were no longer able to serve the Merovingian kings. Therefore, each of them kept to himself.' [ 16 ] This statement was true for more than just Alemannia and, just like in those regions, Charles brutally forced them into submission. Charles was successful in his first campaign, but returned in 730, the same year that Duke Lantfrid died and was succeeded by his brother Theudebald, Duke of Alamannia . [ 8 ] As successful as campaigning had been, Charles seemingly took inspiration from Anglo-Saxon missionary Saint Boniface , who in 719 was sent by Pope Gregory II to convert Germany, in particular the areas of Thuringia and Hesse , where he established the monasteries of Ohrdruf , Tauberbischofsheim , Kitzingen and Ochsenfurt . Charles, realising the potential of establishing Carolingian-supportive episcopal centres, utilised Saint Pirmin , an itinerant monk, to establish an ecclesiastical foundation on Reichenau Island in Lake Constance . He was expelled in 727 by Lantfrid and he retreated to Alsace , where he established monasteries with the support of the Etichonid clan, who were Carolingian supporters. This relationship gave the Carolingians long-term benefit from Pirmin's future achievements, which brought abbeys in the eastern provinces into Carolingian favour. [ 7 ] In 725, Charles continued his conquest from Alemannia and invaded Bavaria. Like Alemannia, Bavaria had continued to gain independence under the rule of the Agilolfings clan who, in recent years, had increased links with Lombardy and affirmed their own law codes, like the Lex Baiuvariorum . [ 16 ] When Charles moved, the region was experiencing a power struggle between Grimoald of Bavaria and his nephew Hugbert , but when Grimoald died in 725, Hugbert gained the position and Charles reaffirmed their support. The Continuations records that when Charles left Bavaria, he took hostages, one of which was Swanachild , who later would become Charles' second wife. [ 10 ] Paul Fouracre believes this marriage could have been intentionally forced, based upon the fact that Swanchild's heritage related her both to Alemannia and Bavaria. Not only would their marriage have allowed greater control over both regions, but it also would have cut the existing family ties that the Agilofings had to the Pippinid family branch. Plectrude's sister Regintrud was married to Theodo of Bavaria , and this relation provided an opportunity for disenfranchised family members to defect. [ 8 ] Aquitaine, Burgundy and Provence Following his conquest east of the Rhine, Charles had the opportunity to assert his dominance over Aquitaine and began committing military resources and performing raids in 731. [ 19 ] However, before he could make any major movements, Aquitaine was invaded by Umayyad warlord Abd al-Rahman I . Following Abd al-Rahman's ascension in Spain in 731, another local Berber lord Munuza revolted, set himself up at Cerdanya and forged defensive alliances with the Franks and Aquitainians through a marriage to Eudo's daughter. Abd ar-Rahman then besieged Cerdanya and forced Munuza into retreat into France, at which point he continued his advance into Aquitaine, moving as far as Tours before he was met by Charles Martel. Carolingian sources attest that Duke Eudo begged Charles for assistance, but Ian N. Wood claims these embassies have been invented by later pro-Carolingian annalists. Eudo was a main protagonist in the Battle of Toulouse (721) , which famously stopped Muslim lord Al-Samh ibn Malik al-Khawlani 's advances in Narbonne and gained Eudo praise in the Liber Pontificalis . [ 20 ] Charles met the Muslim force at the famous Battle of Poitiers (732) and came out victorious. This moment cemented Charles Martel in historical records and gained him international praise. Bede , writing at the same time in Jarrow , England, recorded the event in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People , and his victory gained Charles Martel the admiration of seminal historian Edward Gibbon who considered him the Christian saviour of Europe. [ 21 ] [ 22 ] Although his victory was considered famous, in reality his victory was far less impactful, and Charles would not gain much control in Aquitaine until Eudo's death in 735. The victory may have given the Carolingians relative local support that potentially allowed Charles to assert dominance over Eudo's son and successor Hunald of Aquitaine , but records of continued hostilities in 736 only further cemented that relations were strained. [ 23 ] [ 15 ] With a stronger establishment in Aquitaine, Charles made moves to assert his dominance into Burgundy. [ 24 ] The region, at least in the Northern areas, had remained controlled and allied with Frankish interest. Influential nobility like Savaric of Auxerre , who had maintained near-autonomy and led military forces against Burgundian towns like Orléans , Nevers and Troyes , even dying whilst besieging Lyon , were the key to Charles' support. As such, Charles made multiple attempts to both gain the faction's support and remove their authority. When Savaric died during Charles' early reign, he agreed to support Savaric's nephew Bishop Eucherius of Orléans ' claim to the bishopric. However, once Charles had established a powerful basis by 737, he exiled Eucherius, with the help of a man called Chrodobert, to the monastery of St Trond . [ 20 ] Charles took further military action in the same year to fully assert his authority, and installed his sons Pippin and Remigius as magnates. This was followed by the installation of political supporters from Bavaria and local supporters like Theuderic of Autun and Adalhard of Chalon . [ 7 ] This acquisition of land in southern France was supported by the increased social chaos that seemingly developed during the Civil War years. This was most apparent in Provence , where local magnates, like Abbo of Provence , were incredibly supportive of Charles' attempts to reinstate Frankish power. [ 25 ] In 739, he used his power in Burgundy and Aquitaine to lead an attack with his brother Childebrand I against Arab invaders and Duke Maurontus , who had been claiming independence and allying himself with Muslim emir Abd ar-Rahman. [ 26 ] It is likely due to Childebrand's sponsorship of the manuscript that his involvement is so extensively recorded in the Continuations . [ 27 ] According to the manuscript, Childebrand and Charles noticed the Arab army, with Maurontus' welcome, entering Avignon and quickly moved against the alliance. They besieged the city and claimed victory; the Franks then made the decision to invade Septimania , taking Narbonne and flanking the Arab army. The Franks then fought off a support army sent from Spain under Omar-ibn Chaled at the River Berre . From there the Franks then pursued the retreating Arabs and ravaged the cities of Nîmes , Agde and Béziers before returning to Francia. Later that year, Charles and Childebrand returned to Provence, likely collecting more forces, and then forcing the rebellious Maurontus into 'impenetrable rocky fastnesses out to sea.' [ 27 ] Paul the Deacon later records in his Historia Langobardorum Maurontus received help from the Lombards, and his Arab allies then fled. [ 28 ] At this time, Charles then assumed control of the region and, judging from Charter evidence, appointed Abbo of Provence as patricius (Patrician) in the region. [ 29 ] Ruling Francia Charles also ruled the Frankish realm, although the majority of his policies were centred upon his conquests and his military ventures. In 19th century historiography, historians like Heinrich Brunner even centred their arguments around Charles' necessity for military resources, in particular the development of mounted warrior or cavalry that would peak in the High Middle Ages . However, in modern historiography, historians like Pierre Riche and Paul Fouracre have discredited his ideas as too simplistic and have aimed to depict more realistic fragments of development that may or not have been interdependent. [ 30 ] This was the period in which the Carolingians first began to establish themselves as fully independent from the Merovingian royalty. Vassalage and Church Charles Martel has become notorious in historiography for his role in the development of the concept of feudalism . The debates are rooted in the arguments of historians like François-Louis Ganshof , who viewed Charles' reign as the birth of the 'feudal' relationship between power and property. This results from the increased use of precaria or temporary land grants by the Carolingians, who allocated and spread their power to their subordinates. Ganshof's arguments connect these ties to a military-tenure relationship; however, this is never represented in primary material, and instead is only implied, and likely derived from, an understanding of 'feudalism' in the High Middle Ages. Recent historians like Paul Fouracre have criticised Ganshof's review for being too simplistic, and in reality, even though these systems of vassalage did exist between lord and populace, they were not as standardised as older historiography has suggested. For example, Fouracre has drawn particular attention to the incentives that drew lords and warriors into the Carolingian armies, arguing that the primary draw was 'booty' and treasure gained from conquest rather than 'feudal' obligation. [ 30 ] Although Charles' reign is no longer considered transitional in its feudal developments, it is seen as a transitional period in the spread of the existing system of vassals and precaria land rights. Due to Charles' continued military and missionary work, the political systems that existed in the heartlands, Austrasia and Neustria, officially began to spread to the periphery. [ 30 ] Those whom Charles appointed as new nobility in these regions, often with lifetime tenures, [ 31 ] ensured that Carolingian loyalties and systems was maintained across the kingdoms. The Carolingians were also far more strict with their land rights and tenure than their Merovingian predecessors, carefully distributing their new land to new families temporarily, but maintaining their control. Merovingians kings weakened themselves by allocating too much of their royal domains to supporting factions; the Carolingians themselves seemingly became increasingly powerful due to their generosity. By giving away their land, the Merovingians allowed themselves to become figureheads and the 'do nothing kings' that Einhard prefaced in the Vita Karoli Magni . [ 7 ] [ 32 ] Due to his vast military conquests, Charles often reallocated existing land settlements, including Church property, to new tenants. Ecclesiastical property and monasteries in the late Merovingian and Carolingian period were political centres and often closely related to the royal court; [ 33 ] as such they often became involved in political matters, which often overlapped with Charles' reallocation of land. This 'secularisation' of Church property caused serious tension between the Carolingian church and state, and often gave Charles a negative depiction in ecclastical sources. The reallocation of church land was not new by Charles' reign; Ian Wood has managed to identify the practice going back to the reigns of Dagobert I (629–639) and Clovis II (639–657). [ 34 ] The majority of the sources that depict Charles' involvement in Church land rights come from the 9th century, and are therefore less reliable, but two supposedly contemporary sources also identify this issue. [ 35 ] The first, a letter sent by missionary Saint Boniface to Anglo-Saxon king Æthelbald of Mercia , called Charles' a 'destroyer of many monasteries, and embezzler of Church revenues for his own use...', condemning him for his use of Church property. This is supported by the second source, the Contintuations , which related that, in 733 in Burgundy, Charles split the Lyonnais between his followers, this likely including Church land. [ 36 ] Further chronicles like the Gesta episcoporum Autissiodorensium and the Gesta Sanctorum Patrum Fontanellensis Coenobii recorded monasteries losing substantial land. The monastery at Auxerre was reduced to a hundred mansus by Pippin III's reign, and at the Abbey of Saint Wandrille under Abbot Teutsind , who was appointed by Charles in 735/6, the Church's local property was reduced to a third its size. [ 30 ] Wood has also criticised this point and proven that the loss of land by the Church was in reality very small, the remaining land being simply leased as it went beyond the Church's capabilities. [ 37 ] Regardless, it is apparent that Charles' expansion of control consumed plenty of reallocated properties, many of which were ecclesiastical domains. Interregnum, death and divisions When King Theuderic IV died in 737, Charles did not install a Merovingian successor. Unlike his Carolingian predecessors, Charles was strong enough by the end of his reign to not rely on Merovingian loyalties. He had created his own power bloc through the vassals he installed in Frankish heartlands and peripheral states. [ 25 ] Even prior to Theuderic's death, Charles did act with complete sovereignty in Austrasia. It was only in areas like Neustria, where Carolingian opposition historically existed, that Charles knew he would face criticism if he usurped the throne. [ 38 ] Therefore, until his death, Charles ruled as Princeps or First Man/First Citizen, officially gaining the title with his uncontested leadership with the acquisition of Provence in 737. [ 39 ] This meant that the issue of kingship remained ever present for his successors who would have to work further to establish themselves as royal. When Charles died in 741, he was buried at St Denis in Paris. He made secure succession plans, likely learning from his father, that ensured Francia was effectively divided between his sons, Carloman and Pippin as maior palatii . According to the Continuations , the eldest son, Carloman, was given control of the eastern kingdoms in Austrasia, Alammania and Thuringia, while Pippin was given the western kingdoms in Burgundy, Neustria and Provence. [ 40 ] Charlemagne The greatest Carolingian monarch was Charlemagne , Pepin's son. Charlemagne was crowned Emperor by Pope Leo III at Rome in 800. [ 41 ] His empire, ostensibly a continuation of the Western Roman Empire , is referred to historiographically as the Carolingian Empire . The Carolingian rulers did not give up the traditional Frankish (and Merovingian ) practice of dividing inheritances among heirs, though the concept of the indivisibility of the Empire was also accepted. The Carolingians had the practice of making their sons minor kings in the various regions ( regna ) of the Empire, which they would inherit on the death of their father, which Charlemagne and his son Louis the Pious both did for their sons. Following the death of the Emperor Louis the Pious in 840, his surviving adult sons, Lothair I and Louis the German , along with their adolescent brother Charles the Bald , fought a three-year civil war ending only with the Treaty of Verdun in 843, which divided the empire into three regna while according imperial status and a nominal lordship to Lothair who, at 48, was the eldest. [ 42 ] The Carolingians differed markedly from the Merovingians in that they disallowed inheritance to illegitimate offspring, possibly in an effort to prevent infighting among heirs and assure a limit to the division of the realm. In the late ninth century, however, the lack of suitable adults among the Carolingians necessitated the rise of Arnulf of Carinthia as the king of East Francia , a bastard child of a legitimate Carolingian king, Carloman of Bavaria , [ 43 ] himself a son of the First King of the Eastern division of the Frankish kingdom, Louis the German. Weakening and disappearance of the dynasty Disappearance of Middle Francia Lothair was the first of the three brothers to die, leaving the empire at the mercy of the other two. Finally, after many twists and turns, his domain was gradually attached to East Francia, with the Scheldt marking the border between West and East Francia. The king of East Francia, at the same time, also recovered the title of emperor. [ 44 ] [ 45 ] Decline After Charlemagne's death the dynasty slowly crumbled. His kingdom was split into three, each being ruled over by one of his grandsons. Only the kingdoms of the eastern and western portions survived, becoming the predecessors of modern Germany and France. [ 46 ] The Carolingians were displaced in most of the regna of the Empire by 888. They ruled in East Francia until 911 and held the throne of West Francia intermittently until 987. Carolingian cadet branches continued to rule in Vermandois and Lower Lorraine after the last king died in 987, but they never sought the royal or imperial thrones and made peace with the new ruling families. One chronicler of Sens dates the end of Carolingian rule with the coronation of Robert II of France as junior co-ruler with his father, Hugh Capet , thus beginning the Capetian dynasty . [ 47 ] Scandinavian invasions The term Vikings generally designated all the peoples from present-day Scandinavia . In the Carolingian period, they were first known as Normans ("men of the north", origin of the name Normandy ) and later as Vikings. They sold amber, animal skins, and metals, and bought honey, wine, and everything they could not produce in their lands. They were present, in small groups, in most coastal towns of the Frankish Empire. [ 48 ] [ 49 ] Around 800 , the Vikings became aware of a new means of enrichment. Since they were not Christians, they did not have to respect the abbeys , which contained, with minimal defensive structure (a wall and sometimes a few guards), considerable treasure, consisting of chasses , reliquaries , precious metal objects for use in worship. These objects were particularly sought after in this period of weak monetary circulation, when metal was important not only for its value but also for the prestige associated with it. [ 50 ] Consequently, from 800 to about 850 , the Vikings continued their trading practices, while also attempting raids on isolated monastic establishments whenever the opportunity arose. The first establishment to suffer was the monastery of Lindisfarne , on the British coast, attacked by the Vikings in 793 . After this first attack, Viking pressure increased: they sailed up rivers aboard their shallow-draft ships, improperly called “ drakkars ”, and plundered the treasures of the abbeys before returning to Scandinavia. For the moment, these were only brief expeditions: the Normans plundered, carried off goods, and left, most often after burning the place. These attacks nevertheless terrified the population by their speed, violence, and also because they struck churches which, since the establishment of Christianity, had never been attacked. In 841 , the Normans attacked the Abbey of Jumièges and the city of Rouen ; the monks had to flee from the danger of raids, carrying with them the relics of their saints. The Île de Noirmoutier was also repeatedly targeted by the Normans, to the point that the monks abandoned their monastery and settled about twenty-five km south of Nantes , at Déas, which became Saint-Philbert-de-Grand-Lieu . In 843 , Nantes was taken and part of the population massacred. In the second third of the 9th century, most of the towns located along rivers were visited by the Normans. [ 51 ] [ 52 ] At the end of the 9th century, the phenomenon grew in importance. These were now much more organized bands, who had decided in advance their routes and knew where to go. The expeditions were also more numerous, sometimes a hundred boats, compared to a small dozen at most at the beginning of the century. Finally, they no longer contented themselves with plundering and leaving. More and more often, they carried away the population to be sold as slaves and settled in conquered territories where they sometimes spent the winter. [ 53 ] [ 54 ] [ 55 ] The Vikings ravaged Europe but also the Iberian Peninsula , then Muslim , and North Africa , without anyone being able to stop them. As it was impossible to control the entire territory and their strength lay in the speed of their fleets and the brutality of their expeditions, it was difficult to predict where they would attack. When they did not attack, the Vikings demanded the payment of heavy tributes. The quarrels among the sons of Louis the Pious hardly improved the situation. Lothair and his brother Louis took little interest in the problem, which fell almost entirely to Charles , the youngest son, who inherited all the coastal territories. Charles, who would be nicknamed the Bald , tried to build additional fortifications. He asked the leaders of the aristocracy to defend the threatened regions. Robert the Strong (ancestor of the Capetians ) was placed by the king at the head of a western march ; he died fighting the Vikings in 866 . Count Odo defended Paris against an attack coming up the Seine in 885 . These great lords acquired immense prestige in the struggle against the Scandinavian invader, prestige that contributed to the weakening of royal power. Military successes were now attributed to the marquises and counts . The inability of the Carolingians to resolve the Scandinavian problem was evident: in 911 , by the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte , King Charles the Simple ceded the Lower Seine to the Viking chief Rollo . He entrusted him with the defense of the estuary and the river downstream of Paris. This decision was at the origin of the creation of the Duchy of Normandy . The Carolingians were forced to cede territories and deliver tributes to counter the Scandinavian threat. They were also absorbed by family quarrels. The climate of insecurity therefore accelerated the disintegration of Carolingian power. [ 52 ] [ 56 ] [ 57 ] Genealogy Carolingians and their relatives, with the names of kings bolded [ 58 ] Arnulf of Metz Pepin the Elder Itta of Metz Chlodulf Ansegisel Begga Gertrude of Nivelles Grimoald the Elder Pepin the Middle Martin Childebert the Adopted Vulfetrude Drogo of Champagne Grimoald the Younger Charles Martel Childebrand I Hugh of Rouen Theudoald Carloman Pepin the Younger Grifo Hiltrud Bernard Nibelung I Gisela of Chelles Charlemagne Carloman I Pepin the Hunchback Pepin of Italy Bertha Charles the Younger Rotrude Louis the Pious Hugh Drogo of Metz Bernard of Italy Nithard Lothar I Pepin I of Aquitaine Arnulf of Sens Louis the German Charles the Bald Gisela Louis II of Italy Lothar II Charles of Provence Pepin II of Aquitaine Charles Carloman of Bavaria Louis the Younger Charles the Fat Louis the Stammerer Charles the Child Judith of Flanders Carloman Berengar I of Italy Ermengard of Italy Hugh of Alsace Bertha Arnulf of Carinthia Louis III of France Carloman II of France Charles the Simple Gisela of Friuli Louis the Blind Hugh of Italy Zwentibold Louis the Child Louis IV of France Berengar II of Italy Lothar II of Italy Lothar II of France Charles of Lower Lorraine Adalbert of Italy Arnulf of Reims Louis V of France Otto of Lower Lorraine Arnulf of Metz Pepin the Elder Itta of Metz Chlodulf Ansegisel Begga Gertrude of Nivelles Grimoald the Elder Pepin the Middle Martin Childebert the Adopted Vulfetrude Drogo of Champagne Grimoald the Younger Charles Martel Childebrand I Hugh of Rouen Theudoald Carloman Pepin the Younger Grifo Hiltrud Bernard Nibelung I Gisela of Chelles Charlemagne Carloman I Pepin the Hunchback Pepin of Italy Bertha Charles the Younger Rotrude Louis the Pious Hugh Drogo of Metz Bernard of Italy Nithard Lothar I Pepin I of Aquitaine Arnulf of Sens Louis the German Charles the Bald Gisela Louis II of Italy Lothar II Charles of Provence Pepin II of Aquitaine Charles Carloman of Bavaria Louis the Younger Charles the Fat Louis the Stammerer Charles the Child Judith of Flanders Carloman Berengar I of Italy Ermengard of Italy Hugh of Alsace Bertha Arnulf of Carinthia Louis III of France Carloman II of France Charles the Simple Gisela of Friuli Louis the Blind Hugh of Italy Zwentibold Louis the Child Louis IV of France Berengar II of Italy Lothar II of Italy Lothar II of France Charles of Lower Lorraine Adalbert of Italy Arnulf of Reims Louis V of France Otto of Lower Lorraine Complete male-line family tree Male, male-line, legitimate, members of the house who either lived to adulthood, or who held a title as a child, are included. Heads of the house are in bold. Arnulf of Metz , c. 582-645 Chlodulf of Metz , c. 605-697 Ansegisel , c. 602/610 - 662/679 Pepin of Herstal , c. 635-714 Drogo of Champagne , c. 675-708 Arnulf of Champagne , fl. 707-723 Hugh of Rouen , d. 730 Gotfrid Pippin Grimoald the Younger , d. 714 Childebrand I , c. 678 - 743/751 Charles Martel , c. 688-741 Carloman , 706/716 - 754 Drogo , b. c. 730 Pepin the Short , c. 714-768 Charlemagne , 748-814 Pepin the Hunchback , 768/769 - 811 Charles the Younger , c. 772-811 Pepin of Italy , 777-810 Louis the Pious , 778-840 Lothair I , 795-855 Louis II of Italy , 825-875 Lothair II , 835-869 Charles of Provence , 845-863 Pepin I of Aquitaine , 797-838 Pepin II of Aquitaine , 823-864 Charles (archbishop of Mainz) , 825/830 - 863 Louis the German , c. 806/810 - 876 Carloman of Bavaria , c. 830-880 Louis the Younger , 830/835 - 882 Charles the Fat , 839-888 Charles the Bald , 823-877 Louis the Stammerer , 846-879 Louis III of France , 863/865 - 882 Carloman II , c. 866-884 Charles the Simple , 879-929 Louis IV of France , 920/921 - 954 Lothair of France , 941-986 Louis V of France , 966/967 - 987 Charles, Duke of Lower Lorraine , 953 - 992/995 Otto, Duke of Lower Lorraine , c. 970-1012 Louis of Lower Lorraine , 975/980 - 1023 Charles the Child , 847/848 - 866 Lothair the Lame , c. 848-865 Carloman , 848 - c. 877 Carloman I , 751-771 Grifo , c. 726-753 Chlodulf of Metz , c. 605-697 Ansegisel , c. 602/610 - 662/679 Pepin of Herstal , c. 635-714 Drogo of Champagne , c. 675-708 Arnulf of Champagne , fl. 707-723 Hugh of Rouen , d. 730 Gotfrid Pippin Grimoald the Younger , d. 714 Childebrand I , c. 678 - 743/751 Charles Martel , c. 688-741 Carloman , 706/716 - 754 Drogo , b. c. 730 Pepin the Short , c. 714-768 Charlemagne , 748-814 Pepin the Hunchback , 768/769 - 811 Charles the Younger , c. 772-811 Pepin of Italy , 777-810 Louis the Pious , 778-840 Lothair I , 795-855 Louis II of Italy , 825-875 Lothair II , 835-869 Charles of Provence , 845-863 Pepin I of Aquitaine , 797-838 Pepin II of Aquitaine , 823-864 Charles (archbishop of Mainz) , 825/830 - 863 Louis the German , c. 806/810 - 876 Carloman of Bavaria , c. 830-880 Louis the Younger , 830/835 - 882 Charles the Fat , 839-888 Charles the Bald , 823-877 Louis the Stammerer , 846-879 Louis III of France , 863/865 - 882 Carloman II , c. 866-884 Charles the Simple , 879-929 Louis IV of France , 920/921 - 954 Lothair of France , 941-986 Louis V of France , 966/967 - 987 Charles, Duke of Lower Lorraine , 953 - 992/995 Otto, Duke of Lower Lorraine , c. 970-1012 Louis of Lower Lorraine , 975/980 - 1023 Charles the Child , 847/848 - 866 Lothair the Lame , c. 848-865 Carloman , 848 - c. 877 Carloman I , 751-771 Grifo , c. 726-753 Pepin of Herstal , c. 635-714 Drogo of Champagne , c. 675-708 Arnulf of Champagne , fl. 707-723 Hugh of Rouen , d. 730 Gotfrid Pippin Grimoald the Younger , d. 714 Childebrand I , c. 678 - 743/751 Charles Martel , c. 688-741 Carloman , 706/716 - 754 Drogo , b. c. 730 Pepin the Short , c. 714-768 Charlemagne , 748-814 Pepin the Hunchback , 768/769 - 811 Charles the Younger , c. 772-811 Pepin of Italy , 777-810 Louis the Pious , 778-840 Lothair I , 795-855 Louis II of Italy , 825-875 Lothair II , 835-869 Charles of Provence , 845-863 Pepin I of Aquitaine , 797-838 Pepin II of Aquitaine , 823-864 Charles (archbishop of Mainz) , 825/830 - 863 Louis the German , c. 806/810 - 876 Carloman of Bavaria , c. 830-880 Louis the Younger , 830/835 - 882 Charles the Fat , 839-888 Charles the Bald , 823-877 Louis the Stammerer , 846-879 Louis III of France , 863/865 - 882 Carloman II , c. 866-884 Charles the Simple , 879-929 Louis IV of France , 920/921 - 954 Lothair of France , 941-986 Louis V of France , 966/967 - 987 Charles, Duke of Lower Lorraine , 953 - 992/995 Otto, Duke of Lower Lorraine , c. 970-1012 Louis of Lower Lorraine , 975/980 - 1023 Charles the Child , 847/848 - 866 Lothair the Lame , c. 848-865 Carloman , 848 - c. 877 Carloman I , 751-771 Grifo , c. 726-753 Drogo of Champagne , c. 675-708 Arnulf of Champagne , fl. 707-723 Hugh of Rouen , d. 730 Gotfrid Pippin Arnulf of Champagne , fl. 707-723 Hugh of Rouen , d. 730 Gotfrid Pippin Grimoald the Younger , d. 714 Childebrand I , c. 678 - 743/751 Charles Martel , c. 688-741 Carloman , 706/716 - 754 Drogo , b. c. 730 Pepin the Short , c. 714-768 Charlemagne , 748-814 Pepin the Hunchback , 768/769 - 811 Charles the Younger , c. 772-811 Pepin of Italy , 777-810 Louis the Pious , 778-840 Lothair I , 795-855 Louis II of Italy , 825-875 Lothair II , 835-869 Charles of Provence , 845-863 Pepin I of Aquitaine , 797-838 Pepin II of Aquitaine , 823-864 Charles (archbishop of Mainz) , 825/830 - 863 Louis the German , c. 806/810 - 876 Carloman of Bavaria , c. 830-880 Louis the Younger , 830/835 - 882 Charles the Fat , 839-888 Charles the Bald , 823-877 Louis the Stammerer , 846-879 Louis III of France , 863/865 - 882 Carloman II , c. 866-884 Charles the Simple , 879-929 Louis IV of France , 920/921 - 954 Lothair of France , 941-986 Louis V of France , 966/967 - 987 Charles, Duke of Lower Lorraine , 953 - 992/995 Otto, Duke of Lower Lorraine , c. 970-1012 Louis of Lower Lorraine , 975/980 - 1023 Charles the Child , 847/848 - 866 Lothair the Lame , c. 848-865 Carloman , 848 - c. 877 Carloman I , 751-771 Grifo , c. 726-753 Carloman , 706/716 - 754 Drogo , b. c. 730 Drogo , b. c. 730 Pepin the Short , c. 714-768 Charlemagne , 748-814 Pepin the Hunchback , 768/769 - 811 Charles the Younger , c. 772-811 Pepin of Italy , 777-810 Louis the Pious , 778-840 Lothair I , 795-855 Louis II of Italy , 825-875 Lothair II , 835-869 Charles of Provence , 845-863 Pepin I of Aquitaine , 797-838 Pepin II of Aquitaine , 823-864 Charles (archbishop of Mainz) , 825/830 - 863 Louis the German , c. 806/810 - 876 Carloman of Bavaria , c. 830-880 Louis the Younger , 830/835 - 882 Charles the Fat , 839-888 Charles the Bald , 823-877 Louis the Stammerer , 846-879 Louis III of France , 863/865 - 882 Carloman II , c. 866-884 Charles the Simple , 879-929 Louis IV of France , 920/921 - 954 Lothair of France , 941-986 Louis V of France , 966/967 - 987 Charles, Duke of Lower Lorraine , 953 - 992/995 Otto, Duke of Lower Lorraine , c. 970-1012 Louis of Lower Lorraine , 975/980 - 1023 Charles the Child , 847/848 - 866 Lothair the Lame , c. 848-865 Carloman , 848 - c. 877 Carloman I , 751-771 Charlemagne , 748-814 Pepin the Hunchback , 768/769 - 811 Charles the Younger , c. 772-811 Pepin of Italy , 777-810 Louis the Pious , 778-840 Lothair I , 795-855 Louis II of Italy , 825-875 Lothair II , 835-869 Charles of Provence , 845-863 Pepin I of Aquitaine , 797-838 Pepin II of Aquitaine , 823-864 Charles (archbishop of Mainz) , 825/830 - 863 Louis the German , c. 806/810 - 876 Carloman of Bavaria , c. 830-880 Louis the Younger , 830/835 - 882 Charles the Fat , 839-888 Charles the Bald , 823-877 Louis the Stammerer , 846-879 Louis III of France , 863/865 - 882 Carloman II , c. 866-884 Charles the Simple , 879-929 Louis IV of France , 920/921 - 954 Lothair of France , 941-986 Louis V of France , 966/967 - 987 Charles, Duke of Lower Lorraine , 953 - 992/995 Otto, Duke of Lower Lorraine , c. 970-1012 Louis of Lower Lorraine , 975/980 - 1023 Charles the Child , 847/848 - 866 Lothair the Lame , c. 848-865 Carloman , 848 - c. 877 Pepin the Hunchback , 768/769 - 811 Charles the Younger , c. 772-811 Pepin of Italy , 777-810 Louis the Pious , 778-840 Lothair I , 795-855 Louis II of Italy , 825-875 Lothair II , 835-869 Charles of Provence , 845-863 Pepin I of Aquitaine , 797-838 Pepin II of Aquitaine , 823-864 Charles (archbishop of Mainz) , 825/830 - 863 Louis the German , c. 806/810 - 876 Carloman of Bavaria , c. 830-880 Louis the Younger , 830/835 - 882 Charles the Fat , 839-888 Charles the Bald , 823-877 Louis the Stammerer , 846-879 Louis III of France , 863/865 - 882 Carloman II , c. 866-884 Charles the Simple , 879-929 Louis IV of France , 920/921 - 954 Lothair of France , 941-986 Louis V of France , 966/967 - 987 Charles, Duke of Lower Lorraine , 953 - 992/995 Otto, Duke of Lower Lorraine , c. 970-1012 Louis of Lower Lorraine , 975/980 - 1023 Charles the Child , 847/848 - 866 Lothair the Lame , c. 848-865 Carloman , 848 - c. 877 Lothair I , 795-855 Louis II of Italy , 825-875 Lothair II , 835-869 Charles of Provence , 845-863 Louis II of Italy , 825-875 Lothair II , 835-869 Charles of Provence , 845-863 Pepin I of Aquitaine , 797-838 Pepin II of Aquitaine , 823-864 Charles (archbishop of Mainz) , 825/830 - 863 Pepin II of Aquitaine , 823-864 Charles (archbishop of Mainz) , 825/830 - 863 Louis the German , c. 806/810 - 876 Carloman of Bavaria , c. 830-880 Louis the Younger , 830/835 - 882 Charles the Fat , 839-888 Carloman of Bavaria , c. 830-880 Louis the Younger , 830/835 - 882 Charles the Fat , 839-888 Charles the Bald , 823-877 Louis the Stammerer , 846-879 Louis III of France , 863/865 - 882 Carloman II , c. 866-884 Charles the Simple , 879-929 Louis IV of France , 920/921 - 954 Lothair of France , 941-986 Louis V of France , 966/967 - 987 Charles, Duke of Lower Lorraine , 953 - 992/995 Otto, Duke of Lower Lorraine , c. 970-1012 Louis of Lower Lorraine , 975/980 - 1023 Charles the Child , 847/848 - 866 Lothair the Lame , c. 848-865 Carloman , 848 - c. 877 Louis the Stammerer , 846-879 Louis III of France , 863/865 - 882 Carloman II , c. 866-884 Charles the Simple , 879-929 Louis IV of France , 920/921 - 954 Lothair of France , 941-986 Louis V of France , 966/967 - 987 Charles, Duke of Lower Lorraine , 953 - 992/995 Otto, Duke of Lower Lorraine , c. 970-1012 Louis of Lower Lorraine , 975/980 - 1023 Louis III of France , 863/865 - 882 Carloman II , c. 866-884 Charles the Simple , 879-929 Louis IV of France , 920/921 - 954 Lothair of France , 941-986 Louis V of France , 966/967 - 987 Charles, Duke of Lower Lorraine , 953 - 992/995 Otto, Duke of Lower Lorraine , c. 970-1012 Louis of Lower Lorraine , 975/980 - 1023 Louis IV of France , 920/921 - 954 Lothair of France , 941-986 Louis V of France , 966/967 - 987 Charles, Duke of Lower Lorraine , 953 - 992/995 Otto, Duke of Lower Lorraine , c. 970-1012 Louis of Lower Lorraine , 975/980 - 1023 Lothair of France , 941-986 Louis V of France , 966/967 - 987 Louis V of France , 966/967 - 987 Charles, Duke of Lower Lorraine , 953 - 992/995 Otto, Duke of Lower Lorraine , c. 970-1012 Louis of Lower Lorraine , 975/980 - 1023 Otto, Duke of Lower Lorraine , c. 970-1012 Louis of Lower Lorraine , 975/980 - 1023 Charles the Child , 847/848 - 866 Lothair the Lame , c. 848-865 Carloman , 848 - c. 877 Carloman I , 751-771 Grifo , c. 726-753 Grand strategy The historian Bernard Bachrach argues that the rise of the Carolingians to power is best understood using the theory of a Carolingian grand strategy . A grand strategy is a long term military and political strategy that lasts for longer than a typical campaigning season, and can span long periods of time. [ 59 ] The Carolingians followed a set course of action that discounts the idea of a random rise in power and can be considered as a grand strategy. Another major part of the grand strategy of the early Carolingians encompassed their political alliance with the aristocracy. This political relationship gave the Carolingians authority and power in the Frankish kingdom. Beginning with Pippin II, the Carolingians set out to put the regnum Francorum ("kingdom of the Franks") back together, after its fragmentation after the death of Dagobert I , a Merovingian king. After an early failed attempt in c. 651 to usurp the throne from the Merovingians, the early Carolingians began to slowly gain power and influence as they consolidated military power as mayors of the palace. In order to do this, the Carolingians used a combination of Late Roman military organization along with the incremental changes that occurred between the fifth and eighth centuries. Because of the defensive strategy the Romans had implemented during the Late Empire, the population had become militarized and were thus available for military use. [ 60 ] The existence of the remaining Roman infrastructure that could be used for military purposes, such as roads, strongholds and fortified cities meant that the reformed strategies of the Late Romans would still be relevant. Civilian men who lived either in or near a walled city or strong point were required to learn how to fight and defend the areas in which they lived. These men were rarely used in the course of Carolingian grand strategy because they were used for defensive purposes, and the Carolingians were for the most part on the offensive most of the time. Another class of civilians were required to serve in the military which included going on campaigns. Depending on one's wealth, one would be required to render different sorts of service, and "the richer the man was, the greater was his military obligation for service". [ 61 ] For example, if rich, one might be required as a knight. Or one might be required to provide a number of fighting men. In addition to those who owed military service for the lands they had, there were also professional soldiers who fought for the Carolingians. If the holder of a certain amount of land was ineligible for military service (women, old men, sickly men or cowards) they would still owe military service. Instead of going themselves, they would hire a soldier to fight in their place. Institutions, such as monasteries or churches were also required to send soldiers to fight based on the wealth and the amount of lands they held. In fact, the use of ecclesiastical institutions for their resources for the military was a tradition that the Carolingians continued and greatly benefitted from. It was "highly unlikely that armies of many more than a hundred thousand effectives with their support systems could be supplied in the field in a single theatre of operation." [ 62 ] Because of this, each landholder would not be required to mobilize all of his men each year for the campaigning season, but instead, the Carolingians would decide which kinds of troops were needed from each landholder, and what they should bring with them. In some cases, sending men to fight could be substituted for different types of war machines. In order to send effective fighting men, many institutions would have well trained soldiers that were skilled in fighting as heavily armored troops. These men would be trained, armored, and given the things they needed in order to fight as heavy troops at the expense of the household or institution for whom they fought. These armed retinues served almost as private armies, "which were supported at the expense of the great magnates, [and] were of considerable importance to early Carolingian military organization and warfare." [ 63 ] The Carolingians themselves supported their own military household and they were the most important "core of the standing army in the" regnum Francorum . [ 64 ] It was by utilizing the organization of the military in an effective manner that contributed to the success of the Carolingians in their grand strategy. This strategy consisted of strictly adhering to the reconstruction of the regnum Francorum under their authority. Bernard Bachrach gives three principles for Carolingian long-term strategy that spanned generations of Carolingian rulers: The first principle… was to move cautiously outward from the Carolingian base in Austrasia. Its second principle was to engage in a single region at a time until the conquest had been accomplished. The third principle was to avoid becoming involved beyond the frontiers of the regnum Francorum or to do so when absolutely necessary and then not for the purpose of conquest". [ 65 ] The first principle… was to move cautiously outward from the Carolingian base in Austrasia. Its second principle was to engage in a single region at a time until the conquest had been accomplished. The third principle was to avoid becoming involved beyond the frontiers of the regnum Francorum or to do so when absolutely necessary and then not for the purpose of conquest". [ 65 ] This is important to the development of medieval history because without such a military organization and without a grand strategy, the Carolingians would not have successfully become kings of the Franks, as legitimized by the bishop of Rome. Furthermore, it was ultimately because of their efforts and infrastructure that Charlemagne was able to become such a powerful king and be crowned Emperor of the Romans in 800. Without the efforts of his predecessors, he would not have been as successful as he was and the revival of the Roman Empire in the West was likely to have not occurred. See also Phantom time conspiracy theory East Francia West Francia Carolingian architecture Royal Administration of Merovingian and Carolingian Dynasties Carolingian art Carolingian minuscule Carolingian Renaissance Carolingian church List of counts of Vermandois King of Italy Phantom time conspiracy theory East Francia West Francia Carolingian architecture Royal Administration of Merovingian and Carolingian Dynasties Carolingian art Carolingian minuscule Carolingian Renaissance Carolingian church List of counts of Vermandois King of Italy List of: Frankish Kings and French monarchs Kings of France family tree List of Holy Roman Emperors and German monarchs German monarchs family tree List of: Frankish Kings and French monarchs Kings of France family tree Kings of France family tree List of Holy Roman Emperors and German monarchs German monarchs family tree German monarchs family tree French monarchs family tree . References Citations ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Carolingian". Collins English Dictionary (13th ed.). HarperCollins. 2018. ISBN 978-0-008-28437-4 . ^ National Identity and Vision of Europe . 2000. p. 26. The word Europe first appeared in the eighth century, when the Carolingi tried to reunite the divided Europe. ^ Chisholm, Hugh , ed. (1911). "Carolingians" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ^ "Carolingian dynasty" . Encyclopædia Britannica . 22 March 2024 . Retrieved 2 April 2024 . ^ Watkin, David (2005). A History of Western Architecture . Laurence King Publishing. p. 107. ISBN 978-1856694599 . Retrieved 5 May 2018 . ^ Hanks, Patrick (8 May 2003). Dictionary of American Family Names: 3-Volume Set . Oxford University Press, USA. p. 277. ISBN 978-0-19-508137-4 . ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Riché, Pierre (1993). Peters, Edward (ed.). The Carolingians: A Family Who Forged Europe . Middle Ages Series. Translated by Allen, Michael Idomir. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 14, 17– 18, 20– 23, 25, 30– 31, 33, 35, 42. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Fouracre, Paul (2000). The Age of Charles Martel . Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. pp. 28, 34– 35, 37– 40, 48, 60, 70, 106, 108– 109. ^ McKitterick, Rosamond (2008). Charlemagne: The Formation of a European Identity . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 57n. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k The Fourth Book of the Chronicle of Fredegar with its continuations . Translated by Wallace-Hadrill, J. M. London: Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd. 1960. pp. 32, 43, 50– 52, 73– 75, 87. ^ a b c d e f g Gerberding, Richard A. (1987). The Rise of the Carolingians and the Liber Historiae Francorum . Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 7, 61, 65, 118, 145. ^ a b c Fouracre, Paul (2005). "The Long Shadow of the Merovingians". In Story, Joanna (ed.). Charlemagne: Empire & Society . Manchester: Manchester University Press. pp. 6, 10– 11. ^ a b Collins, Roger (2010). Early Medieval Europe 300–1000 . Palgrave History of Europe (3rd ed.). London: Palgrave MacMillan. pp. 264, 266. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Paul, Fouracre; Gerberding, Richard (1996). Late Merovingian France: History and Hagiography 640–720 . Manchester Medieval Sources Series. Manchester: Manchester University Press. pp. 91– 94, 358– 359, 365. ^ a b c d Costambeys, Marios; Innes, Matthew; MacLean, Simon (2011). The Carolingian World . Cambridge Medieval Textbooks. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 40, 42, 50– 51. ^ a b c d Wood, Ian (1994). The Merovingian Kingdoms 450–751 . New York: Longman Publishing. pp. 256 , 260, 267, 285. ^ a b c Fouracre, Paul (1995). "Frankish Gaul of 814". The New Cambridge Medieval History . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 88. ^ Goosman, F.C.W. (2013). Memorable crises: Carolingian historiography and the making of Pippin's reign, 750–900 . Amsterdam. p. 223. {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( link ) ^ Fouracre, Paul (1995). "Frankish Gaul of 814". The New Cambridge Medieval History . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 88, 90. ^ a b Wood, Ian (1994). The Merovingian Kingdoms 450–751 . New York: Longman Publishing. pp. 256 , 260, 267, 275– 276, 285. ^ Bede (1968). A History of the English Church and People . Penguin Classics. Translated by Sherley-Price, Leo ; Latham, R. E. London: Penguin Books. p. 330. ^ Gibbon, Edward (1839). Hilman, H. H. (ed.). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire . Vol. X. London: John Murray. pp. 23– 27. ^ Collins, Roger (1998). Charlemagne . Basingstoke: MacMillan Press Ltd. p. 30. ^ Collins, Roger (2010). Early Medieval Europe 300–1000 . Palgrave History of Europe (3rd ed.). London: Palgrave MacMillan. pp. 264, 266, 269. ^ a b Fouracre, Paul (1995). "Frankish Gaul of 814". The New Cambridge Medieval History . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 88– 90. ^ Fouracre, Paul (2000). The Age of Charles Martel . Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. pp. 28, 34– 35, 37– 40, 48, 60, 70, 96– 97, 106, 108– 109. ^ a b The Fourth Book of the Chronicle of Fredegar with its continuations . Translated by Wallace-Hadrill, J. M. London: Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd. 1960. pp. 32, 43, 50– 52, 73– 75, 87, 96, 102– 103. ^ Paul the Deacon (1829). Pertz, G. (ed.). Historia Langobardorum . Vol. II. Hanover: Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores. pp. 262– 268. ^ Lewis, Archibald R. (July 1976). "The Dukes in the Regnum Francorum, A.D. 550–751". Speculum . 51 (3): 401. doi : 10.2307/2851704 . JSTOR 2851704 . S2CID 162248053 . ^ a b c d Fouracre, Paul (2000). The Age of Charles Martel . Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. pp. 28, 34– 35, 37– 40, 48, 60, 70, 96– 97, 106, 108– 109, 121, 137– 154. ^ Collins, Roger (2010). Early Medieval Europe 300–1000 . Palgrave History of Europe (3rd ed.). London: Palgrave MacMillan. pp. 264, 266, 269, 271. ^ Einhard (2008). Two Lives of Charlemagne: Einhard and Notker the Stammerer . Translated by Ganz, David. London: Penguin Books. pp. 18– 19. ISBN 978-0-140-45505-2 . ^ de Jong, Mayke (1995). "Carolingian monasticism: the power of prayer". In McKitterick, Rosamond (ed.). The New Cambridge Medieval History . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 622 . ^ Wood, Ian (2013). "Entrusting Western Europe to the Church, 400–750". Transactions of the Royal Historical Society . 23 : 60– 61. doi : 10.1017/S0080440113000030 . JSTOR 23726102 . S2CID 163341734 . ^ Fouracre, Paul (1995). "Frankish Gaul of 814". In McKitterick, Rosamond (ed.). The New Cambridge Medieval History . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 88 –90, 91. ^ Wood, Ian (1994). The Merovingian Kingdoms 450–751 . New York: Longman Publishing. pp. 256 , 260, 267, 275– 276, 280, 285, 287. ^ Wood, Ian (1995). "Teutsind, Witlaic and the history of Merovingian precaria". In Fouracre, Paul; Davies, Wendy (eds.). Property and Power in the Early Middle Ages . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 31 –52. ISBN 9780521434195 . ^ Wood, Ian (1994). The Merovingian Kingdoms 450–751 . New York: Longman Publishing. pp. 256 , 260, 267, 275– 276, 285, 287. ^ Collins, Roger (1998). "The Making of the Carolingian Dynasty". Charlemagne . Basingstoke: MacMillan Press Ltd. p. 30. ^ The Fourth Book of the Chronicle of Fredegar with its continuations . Translated by Wallace-Hadrill, J. M. London: Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd. 1960. pp. 32, 43, 50– 52, 73– 75, 87, 96– 97, 102– 103. ^ "Charlemagne – Emperor of the Romans | Holy Roman emperor [747?–814]" . Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved 20 September 2017 . ^ "Treaty of Verdun | France [843]" . Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved 20 September 2017 . ^ "Arnulf | Holy Roman emperor" . Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved 20 September 2017 . ^ Jochens, Jenny (1 October 1963). "The Age of the Vikings. By P. H. Sawyer . (New York: St Martin's Press. 1962. Pp. vi, 254.)" . The American Historical Review . 69 (1): 95– 96. doi : 10.1086/ahr/69.1.95 . ISSN 1937-5239 . ^ Mckitterick, Rosamond (8 October 2018). The Frankish Kingdoms under the Carolingians, 751–987 . doi : 10.4324/9781315836973 . ISBN 978-1-315-83697-3 . ^ "Charlemagne and the Carolingian Empire" . penfield.edu . Archived from the original on 29 July 2023 . Retrieved 30 November 2017 . ^ Lewis, Andrew W. (1981). Royal Succession in Capetian France: Studies on Familial Order and the State . Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press , p. 17. ISBN 0-674-77985-1 . ^ Matson, William L. (1971). "Melman, Seymour (ed.), The War Economy of the United States, New York, St. Martin's Press, 1971, 247 p." Études internationales . 2 (4): 714. doi : 10.7202/700161ar . ISSN 0014-2123 . ^ Basson, André; McDonald, R. Andrew; Sharron, David; Somerville, Angus A. (January 2010). "A Thirteenth-Century English Charter at Brock University" . Florilegium . 29 : 6. doi : 10.3138/flor.27.6 . ISSN 0709-5201 . ^ Matson, William L. (1971). "Melman, Seymour (ed.), The War Economy of the United States, New York, St. Martin's Press, 1971, 247 p." Études internationales . 2 (4): 714. doi : 10.7202/700161ar . ISSN 0014-2123 . ^ Roesdahl, Else; Boyer, Régis (1 October 2005), "Monuments archéologiques de l'âge Viking au Danemark" , Les Vikings, premiers Européens , Autrement, pp. 27– 51, doi : 10.3917/autre.boyer.2005.01.0027 , ISBN 978-2-7467-0736-8 , retrieved 6 October 2025 ^ a b "Simon Coupland, Carolingian Coinage and the Vikings: Studies on Power and Trade in the 9th Century. (Variorum Collected Studies Series, 847.) Aldershot, Eng., and Burlington, Vt.: Ashgate, 2007. Pp. x, 324, numbered nonconsecutively; black-and-white frontispiece portrait, black-and-white figures, black-and-white plates, tables, and maps. $124.95" . Speculum . 82 (4): 1054. October 2007. doi : 10.1017/s0038713400012033 . ISSN 0038-7134 . ^ Scammell, G. V. (December 1972). "The German Hansa. By Philippe Dollinger. Translated and edited by D. S. Ault and S. H. Steinberg. London: Macmillan, 1970. Pp. xxii + 474. £6" . The Historical Journal . 15 (4): 804. doi : 10.1017/s0018246x00003575 . ISSN 0018-246X . ^ Nelson, Janet L. (11 June 2014). Charles the Bald . doi : 10.4324/9781315846002 . ISBN 978-1-315-84600-2 . ^ Jochens, Jenny (1 October 1963). "The Age of the Vikings. By P. H. Sawyer . (New York: St Martin's Press. 1962. Pp. vi, 254. $7.00.)" . The American Historical Review . 69 (1): 95– 96. doi : 10.1086/ahr/69.1.95 . ISSN 1937-5239 . ^ Jochens, Jenny (1 October 1963). "The Age of the Vikings. By P. H. Sawyer . (New York: St Martin's Press. 1962. Pp. vi, 254. $7.00.)" . The American Historical Review . 69 (1): 95– 96. doi : 10.1086/ahr/69.1.95 . ISSN 1937-5239 . ^ Roesdahl, Else; Boyer, Régis (1 October 2005), "Monuments archéologiques de l'âge Viking au Danemark" , Les Vikings, premiers Européens , Autrement, pp. 27– 51, doi : 10.3917/autre.boyer.2005.01.0027 , ISBN 978-2-7467-0736-8 , retrieved 6 October 2025 ^ Riché 1993 , pp. 368–369. ^ Bachrach, Bernard S. Early Carolingian Warfare: Prelude to Empire . Philadelphia: University of Philadelphia Press, 2001, p. 1. ^ Bachrach, 52. ^ Bachrach, 55. ^ Bachrach, 58. ^ Bachrach, 64. ^ Bachrach, 65. ^ Bachrach, 49–50. Sources Reuter, Timothy. Germany in the Early Middle Ages 800–1056 . New York: Longman, 1991. [ ISBN missing ] MacLean, Simon. Kingship and Politics in the Late Ninth Century: Charles the Fat and the end of the Carolingian Empire . Cambridge University Press: 2003. [ ISBN missing ] Leyser, Karl. Communications and Power in Medieval Europe: The Carolingian and Ottonian Centuries . London: 1994. [ ISBN missing ] Lot, Ferdinand . (1891). "Origine et signification du mot «carolingien»." Revue Historique , 46 (1): 68–73. Oman, Charles . The Dark Ages, 476–918 . 6th ed. London: Rivingtons, 1914. Painter, Sidney . A History of the Middle Ages, 284–1500 . New York: Knopf, 1953. "Astronomus", Vita Hludovici imperatoris , ed. G. Pertz, ch. 2, in Mon. Gen. Hist. Scriptores, II, 608. Reuter, Timothy (trans.) The Annals of Fulda . (Manchester Medieval series, Ninth-Century Histories, Volume II.) Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1992. Einhard . Vita Karoli Magni Archived 14 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine . Translated by Samuel Epes Turner. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1880. External links @media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}} Media related to Carolingian dynasty at Wikimedia Commons v t e Pippinids, Arnulfings and Carolingians v t e Legend: → ≡ "father of", · ≡ "brother of" Begga , the daughter of Pepin I, married Ansegisel, the son of Arnulf of Metz, and was the mother of Pepin II. Pippinids Carloman → Pepin I → Grimoald I → Childebert the Adopted Carloman → Pepin I → Grimoald I → Childebert the Adopted Arnulfings Arnulf of Metz → Chlodulf of Metz Ansegisel → Pepin II , his sons Drogo , sons Arnulf Hugh of Champagne Godfrey Pepin Grimoald I , son Theudoald Charles Martel , sons Carloman Pepin III Grifo Bernard Jerome Remigius Childebrand I , son Nibelung I → Nibelungids Arnulf of Metz → Chlodulf of Metz Ansegisel → Pepin II , his sons Arnulf of Metz → Chlodulf of Metz Ansegisel → Pepin II , his sons Drogo , sons Arnulf Hugh of Champagne Godfrey Pepin Arnulf Hugh of Champagne Godfrey Pepin Grimoald I , son Theudoald Theudoald Charles Martel , sons Carloman Pepin III Grifo Bernard Jerome Remigius Carloman Pepin III Grifo Bernard Jerome Remigius Childebrand I , son Nibelung I → Nibelungids Nibelung I → Nibelungids Early Carolingians Sons of Charles Martel Carloman , son Drogo Pepin III , sons Charlemagne , sons Pepin the Hunchback Charles the Younger Pepin Louis the Pious Lothair Drogo Hugh Theoderic Carloman , son Pepin Pepin Bernard , sons Wala Adalhard Bernhar Sons of Charles Martel Carloman , son Drogo Drogo Pepin III , sons Charlemagne , sons Pepin the Hunchback Charles the Younger Pepin Louis the Pious Lothair Drogo Hugh Theoderic Carloman , son Pepin Pepin Charlemagne , sons Pepin the Hunchback Charles the Younger Pepin Louis the Pious Lothair Drogo Hugh Theoderic Pepin the Hunchback Charles the Younger Pepin Louis the Pious Lothair Drogo Hugh Theoderic Carloman , son Pepin Pepin Pepin Pepin Bernard , sons Wala Adalhard Bernhar Wala Adalhard Bernhar Carolingian Empire Sons of Charlemagne Pepin , son Bernard → Pepin I, Count of Vermandois → Counts of Vermandois Louis the Pious , sons Arnulf of Sens Lothair I , sons Louis II of Italy → Ermengard → Louis the Blind → Bosonids Lothair II → Hugh Charles Pepin I , son Pepin II Louis the German , sons Carloman → Arnulf → Louis the Child Ratold Zwentibold → Godfrey Otto Louis the Younger → Louis Hugh Charles the Fat → Bernard Ratold → Adalbert Charles the Bald , sons Louis the Stammerer → Louis III Carloman II Charles the Simple Charles the Child Carloman Lothair the Lame Drogo Pepin Charles Sons of Charlemagne Pepin , son Bernard → Pepin I, Count of Vermandois → Counts of Vermandois Bernard → Pepin I, Count of Vermandois → Counts of Vermandois Louis the Pious , sons Arnulf of Sens Lothair I , sons Louis II of Italy → Ermengard → Louis the Blind → Bosonids Lothair II → Hugh Charles Pepin I , son Pepin II Louis the German , sons Carloman → Arnulf → Louis the Child Ratold Zwentibold → Godfrey Otto Louis the Younger → Louis Hugh Charles the Fat → Bernard Ratold → Adalbert Charles the Bald , sons Louis the Stammerer → Louis III Carloman II Charles the Simple Charles the Child Carloman Lothair the Lame Drogo Pepin Charles Arnulf of Sens Arnulf of Sens Lothair I , sons Louis II of Italy → Ermengard → Louis the Blind → Bosonids Lothair II → Hugh Charles Louis II of Italy → Ermengard → Louis the Blind → Bosonids Lothair II → Hugh Charles Pepin I , son Pepin II Pepin II Louis the German , sons Carloman → Arnulf → Louis the Child Ratold Zwentibold → Godfrey Otto Louis the Younger → Louis Hugh Charles the Fat → Bernard Ratold → Adalbert Carloman → Arnulf → Louis the Child Ratold Zwentibold → Godfrey Otto Louis the Younger → Louis Hugh Charles the Fat → Bernard Ratold → Adalbert Charles the Bald , sons Louis the Stammerer → Louis III Carloman II Charles the Simple Charles the Child Carloman Lothair the Lame Drogo Pepin Charles Louis the Stammerer → Louis III Carloman II Charles the Simple Charles the Child Carloman Lothair the Lame Drogo Pepin Charles West Francia West Francia was in the hands of the Robertians from 888 until 898. It was the last Carolingian kingdom. Charles the Simple , sons Louis IV Arnulf Drogo Rorico Louis IV , sons Lothair IV Charles Louis Charles of Lorraine Henry Lothair IV , sons Louis V Arnulf Charles of Lorraine , sons Otto Louis Charles West Francia was in the hands of the Robertians from 888 until 898. It was the last Carolingian kingdom. Charles the Simple , sons Louis IV Arnulf Drogo Rorico Louis IV Arnulf Drogo Rorico Louis IV , sons Lothair IV Charles Louis Charles of Lorraine Henry Lothair IV Charles Louis Charles of Lorraine Henry Lothair IV , sons Louis V Arnulf Louis V Arnulf Charles of Lorraine , sons Otto Louis Charles Otto Louis Charles v t e Monarchs of France v t e Detailed family tree Simplified family tree List of Frankish kings List of French monarchs Detailed family tree Simplified family tree List of Frankish kings List of French monarchs Merovingians (509–751) Clovis I Childebert I Chlothar I Charibert I Guntram Chilperic I Sigebert I Childebert II Chlothar II Dagobert I Sigebert II Clovis II Chlothar III Childeric II Theuderic III Clovis IV Childebert III Dagobert III Chilperic II Chlothar IV Theuderic IV Childeric III Clovis I Childebert I Chlothar I Charibert I Guntram Chilperic I Sigebert I Childebert II Chlothar II Dagobert I Sigebert II Clovis II Chlothar III Childeric II Theuderic III Clovis IV Childebert III Dagobert III Chilperic II Chlothar IV Theuderic IV Childeric III Carolingians , Robertians and Bosonids (751–987) Pepin the Short Carloman I Charlemagne (Charles I) Louis I Charles II Louis II Louis III Carloman II Charles the Fat Odo R Charles III Robert I R Rudolph B Louis IV Lothair Louis V Pepin the Short Carloman I Charlemagne (Charles I) Louis I Charles II Louis II Louis III Carloman II Charles the Fat Odo R Charles III Robert I R Rudolph B Louis IV Lothair Louis V House of Capet (987–1328) Hugh Capet Robert II Henry I Philip I Louis VI Louis VII Philip II Louis VIII Louis IX Philip III Philip IV Louis X John I Philip V Charles IV Hugh Capet Robert II Henry I Philip I Louis VI Louis VII Philip II Louis VIII Louis IX Philip III Philip IV Louis X John I Philip V Charles IV House of Valois (1328–1589) Philip VI John II Charles V Charles VI Charles VII Louis XI Charles VIII Louis XII Francis I Henry II Francis II Charles IX Henry III Philip VI John II Charles V Charles VI Charles VII Louis XI Charles VIII Louis XII Francis I Henry II Francis II Charles IX Henry III House of Lancaster (1422–1453) Henry VI of England Henry VI of England House of Bourbon (1589–1792) Henry IV Louis XIII Louis XIV Louis XV Louis XVI Louis XVII Henry IV Louis XIII Louis XIV Louis XV Louis XVI Louis XVII House of Bonaparte (1804–1814; 1815) Napoleon I Napoleon II Napoleon I Napoleon II House of Bourbon (1814–1815; 1815–1830) Louis XVIII Charles X Louis XIX Henry V Louis XVIII Charles X Louis XIX Henry V House of Orléans (1830–1848) Louis Philippe I Louis Philippe II Louis Philippe I Louis Philippe II House of Bonaparte (1852–1870) Napoleon III Napoleon III Debatable or disputed rulers are in italics . v t e Royal houses of Italy v t e Aleramici Anjou Antelminelli Appiani Anscarids Barcelona Bentivoglio Bonaparte Borgia Bourbon-Parma Bourbon-Two Sicilies Carolingian Della Rovere Della Torre Doria Este Farnese Fieschi Flavia Fregoso Gonzaga Grimaldi Habsburg Habsburg-Lorraine Hauteville Hohenstaufen Imperiali Julio-Claudia Malatesta Malaspina Medici Montefeltro Murat Ordelaffi Palaiologos Pallavicini Savoy Sforza Trastámara Valois Visconti Widonids Aleramici Anjou Antelminelli Appiani Anscarids Barcelona Bentivoglio Bonaparte Borgia Bourbon-Parma Bourbon-Two Sicilies Carolingian Della Rovere Della Torre Doria Este Farnese Fieschi Flavia Fregoso Gonzaga Grimaldi Habsburg Habsburg-Lorraine Hauteville Hohenstaufen Imperiali Julio-Claudia Malatesta Malaspina Medici Montefeltro Murat Ordelaffi Palaiologos Pallavicini Savoy Sforza Trastámara Valois Visconti Widonids Authority control databases International VIAF 2 3 4 5 GND VIAF 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5 GND National United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Croatia Poland Israel United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Croatia Poland Israel People Deutsche Biographie DDB Deutsche Biographie DDB Other IdRef Yale LUX IdRef Yale LUX Carolingian dynasty Frankish noble families Austrian nobility Belarusian noble families Czech nobility Danish nobility Finnish noble families German noble families Hungarian noble families Norwegian nobility Polish nobility Russian nobility Swedish noble families Ukrainian nobility Descendants of individuals Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference CS1 maint: location missing publisher Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use dmy dates from November 2020 Articles containing Latin-language text Pages with missing ISBNs Webarchive template wayback links Commons category link is on Wikidata This page was last edited on 14 January 2026, at 23:08 (UTC) . 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We gratefully acknowledge support from the Simons Foundation, member institutions , and all contributors. Donate Help | Advanced Search Showing 1–14 of 14 results for author: Goncharova, E Show abstracts Hide abstracts arXiv:2601.10254 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI NoReGeo: Non-Reasoning Geometry Benchmark Authors: Irina Abdullaeva , Anton Vasiliuk , Elizaveta Goncharova , Temurbek Rahmatullaev , Zagorulko Ivan , Maxim Kurkin , Andrey Kuznetsov Abstract : We present NoReGeo, a novel benchmark designed to evaluate the intrinsic geometric understanding of large language models (LLMs) without relying on reasoning or algebraic computation. Unlike existing benchmarks that primarily assess models' proficiency in reasoning-based geometry-where solutions are derived using algebraic methods-NoReGeo focuses on evaluating whether LLMs can inherently encode sp… ▽ More We present NoReGeo, a novel benchmark designed to evaluate the intrinsic geometric understanding of large language models (LLMs) without relying on reasoning or algebraic computation. Unlike existing benchmarks that primarily assess models' proficiency in reasoning-based geometry-where solutions are derived using algebraic methods-NoReGeo focuses on evaluating whether LLMs can inherently encode spatial relationships and recognize geometric properties directly. Our benchmark comprises 2,500 trivial geometric problems spanning 25 categories, each carefully crafted to be solvable purely through native geometric understanding, assuming known object locations. We assess a range of state-of-the-art models on NoReGeo, including frontier models like GPT-4, observing that even the most advanced systems achieve an overall maximum of 65% accuracy in binary classification tasks. Further, our ablation experiments demonstrate that such geometric understanding does not emerge through fine-tuning alone, indicating that effective training for geometric comprehension requires a specialized approach from the outset. Our findings highlight a significant gap in current LLMs' ability to natively grasp geometric concepts, providing a foundation for future research toward models with true geometric cognition. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10254 [ pdf , ps , other ] NoReGeo: Non-Reasoning Geometry Benchmark Authors: Irina Abdullaeva , Anton Vasiliuk , Elizaveta Goncharova , Temurbek Rahmatullaev , Zagorulko Ivan , Maxim Kurkin , Andrey Kuznetsov Abstract : We present NoReGeo, a novel benchmark designed to evaluate the intrinsic geometric understanding of large language models (LLMs) without relying on reasoning or algebraic computation. Unlike existing benchmarks that primarily assess models' proficiency in reasoning-based geometry-where solutions are derived using algebraic methods-NoReGeo focuses on evaluating whether LLMs can inherently encode sp… ▽ More We present NoReGeo, a novel benchmark designed to evaluate the intrinsic geometric understanding of large language models (LLMs) without relying on reasoning or algebraic computation. Unlike existing benchmarks that primarily assess models' proficiency in reasoning-based geometry-where solutions are derived using algebraic methods-NoReGeo focuses on evaluating whether LLMs can inherently encode spatial relationships and recognize geometric properties directly. Our benchmark comprises 2,500 trivial geometric problems spanning 25 categories, each carefully crafted to be solvable purely through native geometric understanding, assuming known object locations. We assess a range of state-of-the-art models on NoReGeo, including frontier models like GPT-4, observing that even the most advanced systems achieve an overall maximum of 65% accuracy in binary classification tasks. Further, our ablation experiments demonstrate that such geometric understanding does not emerge through fine-tuning alone, indicating that effective training for geometric comprehension requires a specialized approach from the outset. Our findings highlight a significant gap in current LLMs' ability to natively grasp geometric concepts, providing a foundation for future research toward models with true geometric cognition. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2511.11704 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.CV Simple Vision-Language Math Reasoning via Rendered Text Authors: Matvey Skripkin , Elizaveta Goncharova , Andrey Kuznetsov Abstract : We present a lightweight yet effective pipeline for training vision-language models to solve math problems by rendering LaTeX encoded equations into images and pairing them with structured chain-of-thought prompts. This simple text-to-vision augmentation enables compact multimodal architectures to achieve state-of-the-art reasoning accuracy. Through systematic ablations, we find that rendering fid… ▽ More We present a lightweight yet effective pipeline for training vision-language models to solve math problems by rendering LaTeX encoded equations into images and pairing them with structured chain-of-thought prompts. This simple text-to-vision augmentation enables compact multimodal architectures to achieve state-of-the-art reasoning accuracy. Through systematic ablations, we find that rendering fidelity and prompt design are the primary drivers of performance. Despite its simplicity, our approach consistently matches or surpasses both open-source and proprietary math-focused vision-language solvers on widely used benchmarks, while preserving broad general-domain competence - showing gains on tasks such as MMMU, ChartQA, and DocVQA of up to 20%. △ Less Submitted 12 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.11704 [ pdf , ps , other ] Simple Vision-Language Math Reasoning via Rendered Text Authors: Matvey Skripkin , Elizaveta Goncharova , Andrey Kuznetsov Abstract : We present a lightweight yet effective pipeline for training vision-language models to solve math problems by rendering LaTeX encoded equations into images and pairing them with structured chain-of-thought prompts. This simple text-to-vision augmentation enables compact multimodal architectures to achieve state-of-the-art reasoning accuracy. Through systematic ablations, we find that rendering fid… ▽ More We present a lightweight yet effective pipeline for training vision-language models to solve math problems by rendering LaTeX encoded equations into images and pairing them with structured chain-of-thought prompts. This simple text-to-vision augmentation enables compact multimodal architectures to achieve state-of-the-art reasoning accuracy. Through systematic ablations, we find that rendering fidelity and prompt design are the primary drivers of performance. Despite its simplicity, our approach consistently matches or surpasses both open-source and proprietary math-focused vision-language solvers on widely used benchmarks, while preserving broad general-domain competence - showing gains on tasks such as MMMU, ChartQA, and DocVQA of up to 20%. △ Less Submitted 12 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.08128 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL Sentence-Anchored Gist Compression for Long-Context LLMs Authors: Dmitrii Tarasov , Elizaveta Goncharova , Kuznetsov Andrey Abstract : This work investigates context compression for Large Language Models (LLMs) using learned compression tokens to reduce the memory and computational demands of processing long sequences. We demonstrate that pre-trained LLMs can be fine-tuned to compress their context by factors of 2x to 8x without significant performance degradation, as evaluated on both short-context and long-context benchmarks. F… ▽ More This work investigates context compression for Large Language Models (LLMs) using learned compression tokens to reduce the memory and computational demands of processing long sequences. We demonstrate that pre-trained LLMs can be fine-tuned to compress their context by factors of 2x to 8x without significant performance degradation, as evaluated on both short-context and long-context benchmarks. Furthermore, in experiments on a 3-billion-parameter LLaMA model, our method achieves results on par with alternative compression techniques while attaining higher compression ratios. △ Less Submitted 11 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.08128 [ pdf , ps , other ] Sentence-Anchored Gist Compression for Long-Context LLMs Authors: Dmitrii Tarasov , Elizaveta Goncharova , Kuznetsov Andrey Abstract : This work investigates context compression for Large Language Models (LLMs) using learned compression tokens to reduce the memory and computational demands of processing long sequences. We demonstrate that pre-trained LLMs can be fine-tuned to compress their context by factors of 2x to 8x without significant performance degradation, as evaluated on both short-context and long-context benchmarks. F… ▽ More This work investigates context compression for Large Language Models (LLMs) using learned compression tokens to reduce the memory and computational demands of processing long sequences. We demonstrate that pre-trained LLMs can be fine-tuned to compress their context by factors of 2x to 8x without significant performance degradation, as evaluated on both short-context and long-context benchmarks. Furthermore, in experiments on a 3-billion-parameter LLaMA model, our method achieves results on par with alternative compression techniques while attaining higher compression ratios. △ Less Submitted 11 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2508.05305 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL SONAR-LLM: Autoregressive Transformer that Thinks in Sentence Embeddings and Speaks in Tokens Authors: Nikita Dragunov , Temurbek Rahmatullaev , Elizaveta Goncharova , Andrey Kuznetsov , Anton Razzhigaev Abstract : The recently proposed Large Concept Model (LCM) generates text by predicting a sequence of sentence-level embeddings and training with either mean-squared error or diffusion objectives. We present SONAR-LLM, a decoder-only transformer that "thinks" in the same continuous SONAR embedding space, yet is supervised through token-level cross-entropy propagated via the frozen SONAR decoder. This hybrid… ▽ More The recently proposed Large Concept Model (LCM) generates text by predicting a sequence of sentence-level embeddings and training with either mean-squared error or diffusion objectives. We present SONAR-LLM, a decoder-only transformer that "thinks" in the same continuous SONAR embedding space, yet is supervised through token-level cross-entropy propagated via the frozen SONAR decoder. This hybrid objective retains the semantic abstraction of LCM while eliminating its diffusion sampler and restoring a likelihood-based training signal. Across model sizes from 39M to 1.3B parameters, SONAR-LLM attains competitive generation quality. We report scaling trends, ablations, benchmark results, and release the complete training code and all pretrained checkpoints to foster reproducibility and future research. △ Less Submitted 7 August, 2025; originally announced August 2025. arXiv:2508.05305 [ pdf , ps , other ] SONAR-LLM: Autoregressive Transformer that Thinks in Sentence Embeddings and Speaks in Tokens Authors: Nikita Dragunov , Temurbek Rahmatullaev , Elizaveta Goncharova , Andrey Kuznetsov , Anton Razzhigaev Abstract : The recently proposed Large Concept Model (LCM) generates text by predicting a sequence of sentence-level embeddings and training with either mean-squared error or diffusion objectives. We present SONAR-LLM, a decoder-only transformer that "thinks" in the same continuous SONAR embedding space, yet is supervised through token-level cross-entropy propagated via the frozen SONAR decoder. This hybrid… ▽ More The recently proposed Large Concept Model (LCM) generates text by predicting a sequence of sentence-level embeddings and training with either mean-squared error or diffusion objectives. We present SONAR-LLM, a decoder-only transformer that "thinks" in the same continuous SONAR embedding space, yet is supervised through token-level cross-entropy propagated via the frozen SONAR decoder. This hybrid objective retains the semantic abstraction of LCM while eliminating its diffusion sampler and restoring a likelihood-based training signal. Across model sizes from 39M to 1.3B parameters, SONAR-LLM attains competitive generation quality. We report scaling trends, ablations, benchmark results, and release the complete training code and all pretrained checkpoints to foster reproducibility and future research. △ Less Submitted 7 August, 2025; originally announced August 2025. arXiv:2506.07803 [ pdf , other ] cs.CV Image Reconstruction as a Tool for Feature Analysis Authors: Eduard Allakhverdov , Dmitrii Tarasov , Elizaveta Goncharova , Andrey Kuznetsov Abstract : Vision encoders are increasingly used in modern applications, from vision-only models to multimodal systems such as vision-language models. Despite their remarkable success, it remains unclear how these architectures represent features internally. Here, we propose a novel approach for interpreting vision features via image reconstruction. We compare two related model families, SigLIP and SigLIP2,… ▽ More Vision encoders are increasingly used in modern applications, from vision-only models to multimodal systems such as vision-language models. Despite their remarkable success, it remains unclear how these architectures represent features internally. Here, we propose a novel approach for interpreting vision features via image reconstruction. We compare two related model families, SigLIP and SigLIP2, which differ only in their training objective, and show that encoders pre-trained on image-based tasks retain significantly more image information than those trained on non-image tasks such as contrastive learning. We further apply our method to a range of vision encoders, ranking them by the informativeness of their feature representations. Finally, we demonstrate that manipulating the feature space yields predictable changes in reconstructed images, revealing that orthogonal rotations (rather than spatial transformations) control color encoding. Our approach can be applied to any vision encoder, shedding light on the inner structure of its feature space. The code and model weights to reproduce the experiments are available in GitHub. △ Less Submitted 9 June, 2025; originally announced June 2025. Comments: 23 pages, 14 figures MSC Class: 68T10; 68T30; 68T45 ACM Class: I.2.10 arXiv:2506.07803 [ pdf , other ] Image Reconstruction as a Tool for Feature Analysis Authors: Eduard Allakhverdov , Dmitrii Tarasov , Elizaveta Goncharova , Andrey Kuznetsov Abstract : Vision encoders are increasingly used in modern applications, from vision-only models to multimodal systems such as vision-language models. Despite their remarkable success, it remains unclear how these architectures represent features internally. Here, we propose a novel approach for interpreting vision features via image reconstruction. We compare two related model families, SigLIP and SigLIP2,… ▽ More Vision encoders are increasingly used in modern applications, from vision-only models to multimodal systems such as vision-language models. Despite their remarkable success, it remains unclear how these architectures represent features internally. Here, we propose a novel approach for interpreting vision features via image reconstruction. We compare two related model families, SigLIP and SigLIP2, which differ only in their training objective, and show that encoders pre-trained on image-based tasks retain significantly more image information than those trained on non-image tasks such as contrastive learning. We further apply our method to a range of vision encoders, ranking them by the informativeness of their feature representations. Finally, we demonstrate that manipulating the feature space yields predictable changes in reconstructed images, revealing that orthogonal rotations (rather than spatial transformations) control color encoding. Our approach can be applied to any vision encoder, shedding light on the inner structure of its feature space. The code and model weights to reproduce the experiments are available in GitHub. △ Less Submitted 9 June, 2025; originally announced June 2025. Comments: 23 pages, 14 figures MSC Class: 68T10; 68T30; 68T45 ACM Class: I.2.10 arXiv:2503.16660 [ pdf , other ] cs.CV When Less is Enough: Adaptive Token Reduction for Efficient Image Representation Authors: Eduard Allakhverdov , Elizaveta Goncharova , Andrey Kuznetsov Abstract : Vision encoders typically generate a large number of visual tokens, providing information-rich representations but significantly increasing computational demands. This raises the question of whether all generated tokens are equally valuable or if some of them can be discarded to reduce computational costs without compromising quality. In this paper, we introduce a new method for determining featur… ▽ More Vision encoders typically generate a large number of visual tokens, providing information-rich representations but significantly increasing computational demands. This raises the question of whether all generated tokens are equally valuable or if some of them can be discarded to reduce computational costs without compromising quality. In this paper, we introduce a new method for determining feature utility based on the idea that less valuable features can be reconstructed from more valuable ones. We implement this concept by integrating an autoencoder with a Gumbel-Softmax selection mechanism, that allows identifying and retaining only the most informative visual tokens. To validate our approach, we compared the performance of the LLaVA-NeXT model, using features selected by our method with randomly selected features. We found that on OCR-based tasks, more than 50% of the visual context can be removed with minimal performance loss, whereas randomly discarding the same proportion of features significantly affects the model capabilities. Furthermore, in general-domain tasks, even randomly retaining only 30% of tokens achieves performance comparable to using the full set of visual tokens. Our results highlight a promising direction towards adaptive and efficient multimodal pruning that facilitates scalable and low-overhead inference without compromising performance. △ Less Submitted 20 March, 2025; originally announced March 2025. Comments: 10 pages, 8 figures MSC Class: 68T10; 68T30; 68T45 ACM Class: I.2.10 arXiv:2503.16660 [ pdf , other ] When Less is Enough: Adaptive Token Reduction for Efficient Image Representation Authors: Eduard Allakhverdov , Elizaveta Goncharova , Andrey Kuznetsov Abstract : Vision encoders typically generate a large number of visual tokens, providing information-rich representations but significantly increasing computational demands. This raises the question of whether all generated tokens are equally valuable or if some of them can be discarded to reduce computational costs without compromising quality. In this paper, we introduce a new method for determining featur… ▽ More Vision encoders typically generate a large number of visual tokens, providing information-rich representations but significantly increasing computational demands. This raises the question of whether all generated tokens are equally valuable or if some of them can be discarded to reduce computational costs without compromising quality. In this paper, we introduce a new method for determining feature utility based on the idea that less valuable features can be reconstructed from more valuable ones. We implement this concept by integrating an autoencoder with a Gumbel-Softmax selection mechanism, that allows identifying and retaining only the most informative visual tokens. To validate our approach, we compared the performance of the LLaVA-NeXT model, using features selected by our method with randomly selected features. We found that on OCR-based tasks, more than 50% of the visual context can be removed with minimal performance loss, whereas randomly discarding the same proportion of features significantly affects the model capabilities. Furthermore, in general-domain tasks, even randomly retaining only 30% of tokens achieves performance comparable to using the full set of visual tokens. Our results highlight a promising direction towards adaptive and efficient multimodal pruning that facilitates scalable and low-overhead inference without compromising performance. △ Less Submitted 20 March, 2025; originally announced March 2025. Comments: 10 pages, 8 figures MSC Class: 68T10; 68T30; 68T45 ACM Class: I.2.10 arXiv:2502.15381 [ pdf , other ] cs.CV MOVE: A Mixture-of-Vision-Encoders Approach for Domain-Focused Vision-Language Processing Authors: Matvey Skripkin , Elizaveta Goncharova , Dmitrii Tarasov , Andrey Kuznetsov Abstract : Multimodal language models (MLMs) integrate visual and textual information by coupling a vision encoder with a large language model through the specific adapter. While existing approaches commonly rely on a single pre-trained vision encoder, there is a great variability of specialized encoders that can boost model's performance in distinct domains. In this work, we propose MOVE (Mixture of Vision… ▽ More Multimodal language models (MLMs) integrate visual and textual information by coupling a vision encoder with a large language model through the specific adapter. While existing approaches commonly rely on a single pre-trained vision encoder, there is a great variability of specialized encoders that can boost model's performance in distinct domains. In this work, we propose MOVE (Mixture of Vision Encoders) a simple yet effective approach to leverage multiple pre-trained encoders for specialized multimodal tasks. MOVE automatically routes inputs to the most appropriate encoder among candidates such as Unichat, InternViT, and Texify, thereby enhancing performance across a diverse set of benchmarks, including ChartQA, MMBench, and MMMU. Experimental results demonstrate that MOVE achieves competitive accuracy without incurring the complexities of image slicing for high-resolution images. △ Less Submitted 21 February, 2025; originally announced February 2025. Comments: 10 pages, 6 figures, 4 tables MSC Class: 6804; 68T50 (Primary) ACM Class: I.2.7; I.2.10; I.4.9 arXiv:2502.15381 [ pdf , other ] MOVE: A Mixture-of-Vision-Encoders Approach for Domain-Focused Vision-Language Processing Authors: Matvey Skripkin , Elizaveta Goncharova , Dmitrii Tarasov , Andrey Kuznetsov Abstract : Multimodal language models (MLMs) integrate visual and textual information by coupling a vision encoder with a large language model through the specific adapter. While existing approaches commonly rely on a single pre-trained vision encoder, there is a great variability of specialized encoders that can boost model's performance in distinct domains. In this work, we propose MOVE (Mixture of Vision… ▽ More Multimodal language models (MLMs) integrate visual and textual information by coupling a vision encoder with a large language model through the specific adapter. While existing approaches commonly rely on a single pre-trained vision encoder, there is a great variability of specialized encoders that can boost model's performance in distinct domains. In this work, we propose MOVE (Mixture of Vision Encoders) a simple yet effective approach to leverage multiple pre-trained encoders for specialized multimodal tasks. MOVE automatically routes inputs to the most appropriate encoder among candidates such as Unichat, InternViT, and Texify, thereby enhancing performance across a diverse set of benchmarks, including ChartQA, MMBench, and MMMU. Experimental results demonstrate that MOVE achieves competitive accuracy without incurring the complexities of image slicing for high-resolution images. △ Less Submitted 21 February, 2025; originally announced February 2025. Comments: 10 pages, 6 figures, 4 tables MSC Class: 6804; 68T50 (Primary) ACM Class: I.2.7; I.2.10; I.4.9 arXiv:2502.15007 [ pdf , other ] cs.CL cs.AI LLM-Microscope: Uncovering the Hidden Role of Punctuation in Context Memory of Transformers Authors: Anton Razzhigaev , Matvey Mikhalchuk , Temurbek Rahmatullaev , Elizaveta Goncharova , Polina Druzhinina , Ivan Oseledets , Andrey Kuznetsov Abstract : We introduce methods to quantify how Large Language Models (LLMs) encode and store contextual information, revealing that tokens often seen as minor (e.g., determiners, punctuation) carry surprisingly high context. Notably, removing these tokens -- especially stopwords, articles, and commas -- consistently degrades performance on MMLU and BABILong-4k, even if removing only irrelevant tokens. Our a… ▽ More We introduce methods to quantify how Large Language Models (LLMs) encode and store contextual information, revealing that tokens often seen as minor (e.g., determiners, punctuation) carry surprisingly high context. Notably, removing these tokens -- especially stopwords, articles, and commas -- consistently degrades performance on MMLU and BABILong-4k, even if removing only irrelevant tokens. Our analysis also shows a strong correlation between contextualization and linearity, where linearity measures how closely the transformation from one layer's embeddings to the next can be approximated by a single linear mapping. These findings underscore the hidden importance of filler tokens in maintaining context. For further exploration, we present LLM-Microscope, an open-source toolkit that assesses token-level nonlinearity, evaluates contextual memory, visualizes intermediate layer contributions (via an adapted Logit Lens), and measures the intrinsic dimensionality of representations. This toolkit illuminates how seemingly trivial tokens can be critical for long-range understanding. △ Less Submitted 20 February, 2025; originally announced February 2025. Comments: accepted to NAACL 2025 arXiv:2502.15007 [ pdf , other ] LLM-Microscope: Uncovering the Hidden Role of Punctuation in Context Memory of Transformers Authors: Anton Razzhigaev , Matvey Mikhalchuk , Temurbek Rahmatullaev , Elizaveta Goncharova , Polina Druzhinina , Ivan Oseledets , Andrey Kuznetsov Abstract : We introduce methods to quantify how Large Language Models (LLMs) encode and store contextual information, revealing that tokens often seen as minor (e.g., determiners, punctuation) carry surprisingly high context. Notably, removing these tokens -- especially stopwords, articles, and commas -- consistently degrades performance on MMLU and BABILong-4k, even if removing only irrelevant tokens. Our a… ▽ More We introduce methods to quantify how Large Language Models (LLMs) encode and store contextual information, revealing that tokens often seen as minor (e.g., determiners, punctuation) carry surprisingly high context. Notably, removing these tokens -- especially stopwords, articles, and commas -- consistently degrades performance on MMLU and BABILong-4k, even if removing only irrelevant tokens. Our analysis also shows a strong correlation between contextualization and linearity, where linearity measures how closely the transformation from one layer's embeddings to the next can be approximated by a single linear mapping. These findings underscore the hidden importance of filler tokens in maintaining context. For further exploration, we present LLM-Microscope, an open-source toolkit that assesses token-level nonlinearity, evaluates contextual memory, visualizes intermediate layer contributions (via an adapted Logit Lens), and measures the intrinsic dimensionality of representations. This toolkit illuminates how seemingly trivial tokens can be critical for long-range understanding. △ Less Submitted 20 February, 2025; originally announced February 2025. Comments: accepted to NAACL 2025 arXiv:2411.11531 [ pdf , other ] cs.CL cs.AI Addressing Hallucinations in Language Models with Knowledge Graph Embeddings as an Additional Modality Authors: Viktoriia Chekalina , Anton Razzhigaev , Elizaveta Goncharova , Andrey Kuznetsov Abstract : In this paper we present an approach to reduce hallucinations in Large Language Models (LLMs) by incorporating Knowledge Graphs (KGs) as an additional modality. Our method involves transforming input text into a set of KG embeddings and using an adapter to integrate these embeddings into the language model space, without relying on external retrieval processes. To facilitate this, we created Wik… ▽ More In this paper we present an approach to reduce hallucinations in Large Language Models (LLMs) by incorporating Knowledge Graphs (KGs) as an additional modality. Our method involves transforming input text into a set of KG embeddings and using an adapter to integrate these embeddings into the language model space, without relying on external retrieval processes. To facilitate this, we created WikiEntities, a dataset containing over 3 million Wikipedia texts annotated with entities from Wikidata and their corresponding embeddings from PyTorch-BigGraph. This dataset serves as a valuable resource for training Entity Linking models and adapting the described method to various LLMs using specialized adapters. Our method does not require fine-tuning of the language models themselves; instead, we only train the adapter. This ensures that the model's performance on other tasks is not affected. We trained an adapter for the Mistral 7B, LLaMA 2-7B (chat), and LLaMA 3-8B (instruct) models using this dataset and demonstrated that our approach improves performance on the HaluEval, True-False benchmarks and FEVER dataset. The results indicate that incorporating KGs as a new modality can effectively reduce hallucinations and improve the factual accuracy of language models, all without the need for external retrieval. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2025; v1 submitted 18 November, 2024; originally announced November 2024. arXiv:2411.11531 [ pdf , other ] Addressing Hallucinations in Language Models with Knowledge Graph Embeddings as an Additional Modality Authors: Viktoriia Chekalina , Anton Razzhigaev , Elizaveta Goncharova , Andrey Kuznetsov Abstract : In this paper we present an approach to reduce hallucinations in Large Language Models (LLMs) by incorporating Knowledge Graphs (KGs) as an additional modality. Our method involves transforming input text into a set of KG embeddings and using an adapter to integrate these embeddings into the language model space, without relying on external retrieval processes. To facilitate this, we created Wik… ▽ More In this paper we present an approach to reduce hallucinations in Large Language Models (LLMs) by incorporating Knowledge Graphs (KGs) as an additional modality. Our method involves transforming input text into a set of KG embeddings and using an adapter to integrate these embeddings into the language model space, without relying on external retrieval processes. To facilitate this, we created WikiEntities, a dataset containing over 3 million Wikipedia texts annotated with entities from Wikidata and their corresponding embeddings from PyTorch-BigGraph. This dataset serves as a valuable resource for training Entity Linking models and adapting the described method to various LLMs using specialized adapters. Our method does not require fine-tuning of the language models themselves; instead, we only train the adapter. This ensures that the model's performance on other tasks is not affected. We trained an adapter for the Mistral 7B, LLaMA 2-7B (chat), and LLaMA 3-8B (instruct) models using this dataset and demonstrated that our approach improves performance on the HaluEval, True-False benchmarks and FEVER dataset. The results indicate that incorporating KGs as a new modality can effectively reduce hallucinations and improve the factual accuracy of language models, all without the need for external retrieval. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2025; v1 submitted 18 November, 2024; originally announced November 2024. arXiv:2405.12250 [ pdf , other ] cs.LG cs.AI cs.CL Your Transformer is Secretly Linear Authors: Anton Razzhigaev , Matvey Mikhalchuk , Elizaveta Goncharova , Nikolai Gerasimenko , Ivan Oseledets , Denis Dimitrov , Andrey Kuznetsov Abstract : This paper reveals a novel linear characteristic exclusive to transformer decoders, including models such as GPT, LLaMA, OPT, BLOOM and others. We analyze embedding transformations between sequential layers, uncovering a near-perfect linear relationship (Procrustes similarity score of 0.99). However, linearity decreases when the residual component is removed due to a consistently low output norm o… ▽ More This paper reveals a novel linear characteristic exclusive to transformer decoders, including models such as GPT, LLaMA, OPT, BLOOM and others. We analyze embedding transformations between sequential layers, uncovering a near-perfect linear relationship (Procrustes similarity score of 0.99). However, linearity decreases when the residual component is removed due to a consistently low output norm of the transformer layer. Our experiments show that removing or linearly approximating some of the most linear blocks of transformers does not affect significantly the loss or model performance. Moreover, in our pretraining experiments on smaller models we introduce a cosine-similarity-based regularization, aimed at reducing layer linearity. This regularization improves performance metrics on benchmarks like Tiny Stories and SuperGLUE and as well successfully decreases the linearity of the models. This study challenges the existing understanding of transformer architectures, suggesting that their operation may be more linear than previously assumed. △ Less Submitted 19 May, 2024; originally announced May 2024. Comments: 9 pages, 9 figures arXiv:2405.12250 [ pdf , other ] Your Transformer is Secretly Linear Authors: Anton Razzhigaev , Matvey Mikhalchuk , Elizaveta Goncharova , Nikolai Gerasimenko , Ivan Oseledets , Denis Dimitrov , Andrey Kuznetsov Abstract : This paper reveals a novel linear characteristic exclusive to transformer decoders, including models such as GPT, LLaMA, OPT, BLOOM and others. We analyze embedding transformations between sequential layers, uncovering a near-perfect linear relationship (Procrustes similarity score of 0.99). However, linearity decreases when the residual component is removed due to a consistently low output norm o… ▽ More This paper reveals a novel linear characteristic exclusive to transformer decoders, including models such as GPT, LLaMA, OPT, BLOOM and others. We analyze embedding transformations between sequential layers, uncovering a near-perfect linear relationship (Procrustes similarity score of 0.99). However, linearity decreases when the residual component is removed due to a consistently low output norm of the transformer layer. Our experiments show that removing or linearly approximating some of the most linear blocks of transformers does not affect significantly the loss or model performance. Moreover, in our pretraining experiments on smaller models we introduce a cosine-similarity-based regularization, aimed at reducing layer linearity. This regularization improves performance metrics on benchmarks like Tiny Stories and SuperGLUE and as well successfully decreases the linearity of the models. This study challenges the existing understanding of transformer architectures, suggesting that their operation may be more linear than previously assumed. △ Less Submitted 19 May, 2024; originally announced May 2024. Comments: 9 pages, 9 figures arXiv:2404.06212 [ pdf , other ] cs.CV cs.AI cs.LG OmniFusion Technical Report Authors: Elizaveta Goncharova , Anton Razzhigaev , Matvey Mikhalchuk , Maxim Kurkin , Irina Abdullaeva , Matvey Skripkin , Ivan Oseledets , Denis Dimitrov , Andrey Kuznetsov Abstract : Last year, multimodal architectures served up a revolution in AI-based approaches and solutions, extending the capabilities of large language models (LLM). We propose an \textit{OmniFusion} model based on a pretrained LLM and adapters for visual modality. We evaluated and compared several architecture design principles for better text and visual data coupling: MLP and transformer adapters, various… ▽ More Last year, multimodal architectures served up a revolution in AI-based approaches and solutions, extending the capabilities of large language models (LLM). We propose an \textit{OmniFusion} model based on a pretrained LLM and adapters for visual modality. We evaluated and compared several architecture design principles for better text and visual data coupling: MLP and transformer adapters, various CLIP ViT-based encoders (SigLIP, InternVIT, etc.), and their fusing approach, image encoding method (whole image or tiles encoding) and two 7B LLMs (the proprietary one and open-source Mistral). Experiments on 8 visual-language benchmarks show the top score for the best OmniFusion setup in terms of different VQA tasks in comparison with open-source LLaVA-like solutions: VizWiz, Pope, MM-Vet, ScienceQA, MMBench, TextVQA, VQAv2, MMMU. We also propose a variety of situations, where OmniFusion provides highly-detailed answers in different domains: housekeeping, sightseeing, culture, medicine, handwritten and scanned equations recognition, etc. Mistral-based OmniFusion model is an open-source solution with weights, training and inference scripts available at △ Less Submitted 9 April, 2024; originally announced April 2024. Comments: 17 pages, 4 figures, 9 tables, 2 appendices MSC Class: 6804; 68T50 (Primary) ACM Class: I.2.7; I.2.10; I.4.9 arXiv:2404.06212 [ pdf , other ] OmniFusion Technical Report Authors: Elizaveta Goncharova , Anton Razzhigaev , Matvey Mikhalchuk , Maxim Kurkin , Irina Abdullaeva , Matvey Skripkin , Ivan Oseledets , Denis Dimitrov , Andrey Kuznetsov Abstract : Last year, multimodal architectures served up a revolution in AI-based approaches and solutions, extending the capabilities of large language models (LLM). We propose an \textit{OmniFusion} model based on a pretrained LLM and adapters for visual modality. We evaluated and compared several architecture design principles for better text and visual data coupling: MLP and transformer adapters, various… ▽ More Last year, multimodal architectures served up a revolution in AI-based approaches and solutions, extending the capabilities of large language models (LLM). We propose an \textit{OmniFusion} model based on a pretrained LLM and adapters for visual modality. We evaluated and compared several architecture design principles for better text and visual data coupling: MLP and transformer adapters, various CLIP ViT-based encoders (SigLIP, InternVIT, etc.), and their fusing approach, image encoding method (whole image or tiles encoding) and two 7B LLMs (the proprietary one and open-source Mistral). Experiments on 8 visual-language benchmarks show the top score for the best OmniFusion setup in terms of different VQA tasks in comparison with open-source LLaVA-like solutions: VizWiz, Pope, MM-Vet, ScienceQA, MMBench, TextVQA, VQAv2, MMMU. We also propose a variety of situations, where OmniFusion provides highly-detailed answers in different domains: housekeeping, sightseeing, culture, medicine, handwritten and scanned equations recognition, etc. Mistral-based OmniFusion model is an open-source solution with weights, training and inference scripts available at △ Less Submitted 9 April, 2024; originally announced April 2024. Comments: 17 pages, 4 figures, 9 tables, 2 appendices MSC Class: 6804; 68T50 (Primary) ACM Class: I.2.7; I.2.10; I.4.9 arXiv:2401.04531 [ pdf , other ] cs.CL cs.AI MERA: A Comprehensive LLM Evaluation in Russian Authors: Alena Fenogenova , Artem Chervyakov , Nikita Martynov , Anastasia Kozlova , Maria Tikhonova , Albina Akhmetgareeva , Anton Emelyanov , Denis Shevelev , Pavel Lebedev , Leonid Sinev , Ulyana Isaeva , Katerina Kolomeytseva , Daniil Moskovskiy , Elizaveta Goncharova , Nikita Savushkin , Polina Mikhailova , Denis Dimitrov , Alexander Panchenko , Sergei Markov Abstract : Over the past few years, one of the most notable advancements in AI research has been in foundation models (FMs), headlined by the rise of language models (LMs). As the models' size increases, LMs demonstrate enhancements in measurable aspects and the development of new qualitative features. However, despite researchers' attention and the rapid growth in LM application, the capabilities, limitatio… ▽ More Over the past few years, one of the most notable advancements in AI research has been in foundation models (FMs), headlined by the rise of language models (LMs). As the models' size increases, LMs demonstrate enhancements in measurable aspects and the development of new qualitative features. However, despite researchers' attention and the rapid growth in LM application, the capabilities, limitations, and associated risks still need to be better understood. To address these issues, we introduce an open Multimodal Evaluation of Russian-language Architectures (MERA), a new instruction benchmark for evaluating foundation models oriented towards the Russian language. The benchmark encompasses 21 evaluation tasks for generative models in 11 skill domains and is designed as a black-box test to ensure the exclusion of data leakage. The paper introduces a methodology to evaluate FMs and LMs in zero- and few-shot fixed instruction settings that can be extended to other modalities. We propose an evaluation methodology, an open-source code base for the MERA assessment, and a leaderboard with a submission system. We evaluate open LMs as baselines and find that they are still far behind the human level. We publicly release MERA to guide forthcoming research, anticipate groundbreaking model features, standardize the evaluation procedure, and address potential societal drawbacks. △ Less Submitted 2 August, 2024; v1 submitted 9 January, 2024; originally announced January 2024. Comments: The paper version comparable with the release code v.1.1.0 of the benchmark MERA. ACL-2024 main track camera ready version arXiv:2401.04531 [ pdf , other ] MERA: A Comprehensive LLM Evaluation in Russian Authors: Alena Fenogenova , Artem Chervyakov , Nikita Martynov , Anastasia Kozlova , Maria Tikhonova , Albina Akhmetgareeva , Anton Emelyanov , Denis Shevelev , Pavel Lebedev , Leonid Sinev , Ulyana Isaeva , Katerina Kolomeytseva , Daniil Moskovskiy , Elizaveta Goncharova , Nikita Savushkin , Polina Mikhailova , Denis Dimitrov , Alexander Panchenko , Sergei Markov Abstract : Over the past few years, one of the most notable advancements in AI research has been in foundation models (FMs), headlined by the rise of language models (LMs). As the models' size increases, LMs demonstrate enhancements in measurable aspects and the development of new qualitative features. However, despite researchers' attention and the rapid growth in LM application, the capabilities, limitatio… ▽ More Over the past few years, one of the most notable advancements in AI research has been in foundation models (FMs), headlined by the rise of language models (LMs). As the models' size increases, LMs demonstrate enhancements in measurable aspects and the development of new qualitative features. However, despite researchers' attention and the rapid growth in LM application, the capabilities, limitations, and associated risks still need to be better understood. To address these issues, we introduce an open Multimodal Evaluation of Russian-language Architectures (MERA), a new instruction benchmark for evaluating foundation models oriented towards the Russian language. The benchmark encompasses 21 evaluation tasks for generative models in 11 skill domains and is designed as a black-box test to ensure the exclusion of data leakage. The paper introduces a methodology to evaluate FMs and LMs in zero- and few-shot fixed instruction settings that can be extended to other modalities. We propose an evaluation methodology, an open-source code base for the MERA assessment, and a leaderboard with a submission system. We evaluate open LMs as baselines and find that they are still far behind the human level. We publicly release MERA to guide forthcoming research, anticipate groundbreaking model features, standardize the evaluation procedure, and address potential societal drawbacks. △ Less Submitted 2 August, 2024; v1 submitted 9 January, 2024; originally announced January 2024. Comments: The paper version comparable with the release code v.1.1.0 of the benchmark MERA. ACL-2024 main track camera ready version arXiv:2311.07383 [ pdf , other ] cs.CL cs.LG LM-Polygraph: Uncertainty Estimation for Language Models Authors: Ekaterina Fadeeva , Roman Vashurin , Akim Tsvigun , Artem Vazhentsev , Sergey Petrakov , Kirill Fedyanin , Daniil Vasilev , Elizaveta Goncharova , Alexander Panchenko , Maxim Panov , Timothy Baldwin , Artem Shelmanov Abstract : Recent advancements in the capabilities of large language models (LLMs) have paved the way for a myriad of groundbreaking applications in various fields. However, a significant challenge arises as these models often "hallucinate", i.e., fabricate facts without providing users an apparent means to discern the veracity of their statements. Uncertainty estimation (UE) methods are one path to safer, m… ▽ More Recent advancements in the capabilities of large language models (LLMs) have paved the way for a myriad of groundbreaking applications in various fields. However, a significant challenge arises as these models often "hallucinate", i.e., fabricate facts without providing users an apparent means to discern the veracity of their statements. Uncertainty estimation (UE) methods are one path to safer, more responsible, and more effective use of LLMs. However, to date, research on UE methods for LLMs has been focused primarily on theoretical rather than engineering contributions. In this work, we tackle this issue by introducing LM-Polygraph, a framework with implementations of a battery of state-of-the-art UE methods for LLMs in text generation tasks, with unified program interfaces in Python. Additionally, it introduces an extendable benchmark for consistent evaluation of UE techniques by researchers, and a demo web application that enriches the standard chat dialog with confidence scores, empowering end-users to discern unreliable responses. LM-Polygraph is compatible with the most recent LLMs, including BLOOMz, LLaMA-2, ChatGPT, and GPT-4, and is designed to support future releases of similarly-styled LMs. △ Less Submitted 13 November, 2023; originally announced November 2023. Comments: Accepted at EMNLP-2023 arXiv:2311.07383 [ pdf , other ] LM-Polygraph: Uncertainty Estimation for Language Models Authors: Ekaterina Fadeeva , Roman Vashurin , Akim Tsvigun , Artem Vazhentsev , Sergey Petrakov , Kirill Fedyanin , Daniil Vasilev , Elizaveta Goncharova , Alexander Panchenko , Maxim Panov , Timothy Baldwin , Artem Shelmanov Abstract : Recent advancements in the capabilities of large language models (LLMs) have paved the way for a myriad of groundbreaking applications in various fields. However, a significant challenge arises as these models often "hallucinate", i.e., fabricate facts without providing users an apparent means to discern the veracity of their statements. Uncertainty estimation (UE) methods are one path to safer, m… ▽ More Recent advancements in the capabilities of large language models (LLMs) have paved the way for a myriad of groundbreaking applications in various fields. However, a significant challenge arises as these models often "hallucinate", i.e., fabricate facts without providing users an apparent means to discern the veracity of their statements. Uncertainty estimation (UE) methods are one path to safer, more responsible, and more effective use of LLMs. However, to date, research on UE methods for LLMs has been focused primarily on theoretical rather than engineering contributions. In this work, we tackle this issue by introducing LM-Polygraph, a framework with implementations of a battery of state-of-the-art UE methods for LLMs in text generation tasks, with unified program interfaces in Python. Additionally, it introduces an extendable benchmark for consistent evaluation of UE techniques by researchers, and a demo web application that enriches the standard chat dialog with confidence scores, empowering end-users to discern unreliable responses. LM-Polygraph is compatible with the most recent LLMs, including BLOOMz, LLaMA-2, ChatGPT, and GPT-4, and is designed to support future releases of similarly-styled LMs. △ Less Submitted 13 November, 2023; originally announced November 2023. Comments: Accepted at EMNLP-2023 arXiv:2311.05928 [ pdf , other ] cs.CL cs.AI cs.IT cs.LG math.GN The Shape of Learning: Anisotropy and Intrinsic Dimensions in Transformer-Based Models Authors: Anton Razzhigaev , Matvey Mikhalchuk , Elizaveta Goncharova , Ivan Oseledets , Denis Dimitrov , Andrey Kuznetsov Abstract : In this study, we present an investigation into the anisotropy dynamics and intrinsic dimension of embeddings in transformer architectures, focusing on the dichotomy between encoders and decoders. Our findings reveal that the anisotropy profile in transformer decoders exhibits a distinct bell-shaped curve, with the highest anisotropy concentrations in the middle layers. This pattern diverges from… ▽ More In this study, we present an investigation into the anisotropy dynamics and intrinsic dimension of embeddings in transformer architectures, focusing on the dichotomy between encoders and decoders. Our findings reveal that the anisotropy profile in transformer decoders exhibits a distinct bell-shaped curve, with the highest anisotropy concentrations in the middle layers. This pattern diverges from the more uniformly distributed anisotropy observed in encoders. In addition, we found that the intrinsic dimension of embeddings increases in the initial phases of training, indicating an expansion into higher-dimensional space. Which is then followed by a compression phase towards the end of training with dimensionality decrease, suggesting a refinement into more compact representations. Our results provide fresh insights to the understanding of encoders and decoders embedding properties. △ Less Submitted 26 February, 2024; v1 submitted 10 November, 2023; originally announced November 2023. Comments: Accepted to EACL-2024 arXiv:2311.05928 [ pdf , other ] The Shape of Learning: Anisotropy and Intrinsic Dimensions in Transformer-Based Models Authors: Anton Razzhigaev , Matvey Mikhalchuk , Elizaveta Goncharova , Ivan Oseledets , Denis Dimitrov , Andrey Kuznetsov Abstract : In this study, we present an investigation into the anisotropy dynamics and intrinsic dimension of embeddings in transformer architectures, focusing on the dichotomy between encoders and decoders. Our findings reveal that the anisotropy profile in transformer decoders exhibits a distinct bell-shaped curve, with the highest anisotropy concentrations in the middle layers. This pattern diverges from… ▽ More In this study, we present an investigation into the anisotropy dynamics and intrinsic dimension of embeddings in transformer architectures, focusing on the dichotomy between encoders and decoders. Our findings reveal that the anisotropy profile in transformer decoders exhibits a distinct bell-shaped curve, with the highest anisotropy concentrations in the middle layers. This pattern diverges from the more uniformly distributed anisotropy observed in encoders. In addition, we found that the intrinsic dimension of embeddings increases in the initial phases of training, indicating an expansion into higher-dimensional space. Which is then followed by a compression phase towards the end of training with dimensionality decrease, suggesting a refinement into more compact representations. Our results provide fresh insights to the understanding of encoders and decoders embedding properties. △ Less Submitted 26 February, 2024; v1 submitted 10 November, 2023; originally announced November 2023. Comments: Accepted to EACL-2024 About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early life 2 Early career and Intendant of Montevideo 3 First presidency of Uruguay (2005–2010) 4 Popularity 5 2009 presidential election 6 Second presidency of Uruguay (2015–2020) 7 Personal life and death 8 Honours and awards Toggle Honours and awards subsection 8.1 National honours 8.2 Foreign honours 8.3 WHO recognition 8.1 National honours 8.2 Foreign honours 8.3 WHO recognition 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 External links Tabaré Vázquez Afrikaans العربية Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Aymar aru বাংলা Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština ChiTumbuka Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Kiswahili Latina Lietuvių Magyar მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Pangcah Plattdüütsch Polski Português Runa Simi Русский Sakizaya Seediq Simple English Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Tayal Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 Yorùbá 粵語 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Tabaré Vázquez Vázquez in 2017 39th and 41st President of Uruguay In office 1 March 2015 – 1 March 2020 Vice President .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Raúl Sendic (2015–2017) Lucía Topolansky (2017–2020) Raúl Sendic (2015–2017) Lucía Topolansky (2017–2020) Preceded by José Mujica Succeeded by Luis Lacalle Pou In office 1 March 2005 – 1 March 2010 Vice President Rodolfo Nin Preceded by Jorge Batlle Succeeded by José Mujica President pro tempore of UNASUR In office 1 March 2015 – 23 April 2016 Preceded by José Mujica Succeeded by Nicolás Maduro Intendant of Montevideo In office 5 May 1990 – 5 May 1994 Preceded by Eduardo Fabini Jiménez Succeeded by Tabaré González Personal details Born Tabaré Ramón Vázquez Rosas ( 1940-01-17 ) 17 January 1940 Montevideo , Uruguay Died 6 December 2020 (2020-12-06) (aged 80) Montevideo, Uruguay Resting place Cementerio de La Teja, Montevideo Party Socialist Party of Uruguay Other political affiliations Broad Front Spouse .mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-inline{display:inline} María Auxiliadora Delgado ( m. .mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help} 1964 ; died 2019 ) Children 4 Education University of the Republic Signature Tabaré Ramón Vázquez Rosas ( .mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%} Spanish pronunciation: [taβaˈɾe raˈmom ˈbaskes ˈrosas] ; 17 January 1940 – 6 December 2020) was a Uruguayan politician and oncologist who served as the 39th and 41st President of Uruguay from 2005 to 2010 and from 2015 to 2020. During his political career, Vázquez was a member of the Broad Front coalition. Before his first presidential term, Vázquez was president of the Club Progreso team and made two unsuccessful presidential bids in 1994 and 1999 . He served as Intendant of Montevideo between 1990 and 1994 shortly before his first presidential campaign. Vázquez was first elected president on 31 October 2004 and took office on 1 March 2005. He was the first socialist president of the country. [ 1 ] His first presidency was remembered for his diplomatic relationships with Brazil and Argentina while being criticized by his party over his anti-abortion views. He strengthened the unions and improved Uruguay's social services. After leaving the presidency in 2010, Vázquez successfully ran for a second term in 2014 . After leaving office for a second time in March 2020, he later died of lung cancer in December of that year at the age of 80. Early life Vázquez was born in the neighbourhood of La Teja, Montevideo on 17 January 1940, the fourth child of Héctor Vázquez, a worker of ANCAP , and Elena Rosas. [ 1 ] He had Galician ancestry; his grandparents were originally from Ourense and Santiago de Compostela . [ 2 ] He studied medicine at the Universidad de la República Medical School, graduating as an oncologist in 1972. [ 3 ] In 1976, he received a grant from the French government, allowing him to obtain additional training at the Gustave Roussy Institute in Paris . [ 4 ] Early career and Intendant of Montevideo Vázquez, an avid football fan, was president of the Club Progreso team from 1979 to 1989. [ 5 ] From 1990 to 1995, Vázquez was the Frente Amplio coalition's first Intendant of Montevideo . In that post, he carried out the functions of both the mayor of the city and governor of the department . [ 1 ] In 1994, he made an unsuccessful run for president as the Frente Amplio candidate. [ 6 ] He actually finished with the most votes of the candidates in the field, more than 120,000 votes ahead of the next-highest vote-getter, former president Julio Maria Sanguinetti of the Colorado Party . However, under the multi-candidate Ley de Lemas system then in effect, Sanguinetti won the election, since he was the highest-finishing candidate of the party winning the most votes. Still, Vázquez turned in the best showing of a third-party candidate since the restoration of the presidential system in 1967; he only had 12,100 fewer votes than the combined vote of the second-place National Party . In 1996, he was elected leader of the Frente Amplio, replacing the historic leader of the left-wing coalition, Líber Seregni . [ 7 ] He ran again unsuccessfully for president in 1999 . [ 6 ] In the first election held after Uruguay scrapped the Ley de Lemas system, he led the field in the first round , with 40.1 percent of the vote. He lost the runoff to Colorado candidate Jorge Batlle , taking 45.9 percent of the vote. First presidency of Uruguay (2005–2010) In the 2004 elections , he won 50.45% of the valid votes, enough to win the presidency in a single round. [ 1 ] He became the country's first president from a left-wing party, and thus the first one since the 1830s who was not a member of the National (Blanco) or Colorado parties. [ 1 ] [ 7 ] He also had the support of the President of Brazil , Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva , likewise a centre-left democratic socialist . [ 8 ] Among the most complex issues that dominated his administration was an ongoing conflict with Argentina over potential contamination from pulp mills being built on the Uruguayan side of the Uruguay River . [ 9 ] He even asked Bush for help in the event of an armed conflict with Argentina. [ 10 ] [ 11 ] Vázquez was the first President of Uruguay to visit New Zealand and South Korea , and he established contacts with other countries in Southeast Asia . [ 12 ] [ 13 ] While he maintained cordial relations with the United States , hosting U.S. President George W. Bush , Vázquez did not sign Bush's failed Free Trade Area of the Americas . [ 14 ] This visit attracted a measure of censure from the opposition, from Pedro Bordaberry and others, who were critical of Vázquez for having chosen to be in Cuba during a commemoration – which Vázquez himself initiated – for the victims of the 1973–1985 dictatorship ; Bordaberry's father, Juan María Bordaberry , established the dictatorship with a 1973 decree dissolving Congress. [ 15 ] In 2007 the loading of Iranian arms onto a Uruguayan Navy vessel visiting Venezuela , in contravention of a UN -sponsored arms embargo, provoked international comment. [ 16 ] The domestic controversy regarding this event was centred on protests against Vázquez's Government by the opposition National Party . [ 16 ] In June 2008 President Vázquez visited Cuba . [ 17 ] While in Cuba, Vázquez and the Presidential party engaged in a number of high-profile events, including a summit with President Raúl Castro . [ 18 ] In June 2009 President Vázquez, who had been courting diplomatically the Bolivian President Evo Morales , announced his support for the delisting of coca leaves from the category of a "dangerous drug". [ 19 ] In February 2010 the Vázquez Government was cooperating with an investigation to explain how two Northrop F-5E jet engines valued at many millions of U.S. dollars had surfaced in Uruguay . [ 20 ] Tabaré Vázquez and his government have pursued a centre-left economic policy. Between 2005 and 2008, the minimum wage rose from 1,350 pesos to 4,150 pesos ($70 to $200), while poverty fell from 30.9 per cent to 12.7 per cent of the population and unemployment from 11.3 per cent to 7 per cent. [ 21 ] Popularity According to an Equipos/MORI opinion poll his approval had fallen to 44% by April 2007, a level below the electoral support he received in the 2004 elections. [ 22 ] His approval later recovered, however, reaching 80% by his last term in office. [ 23 ] In October 2006, President Vázquez was still personally more popular than his government with a 62% approval rating. [ 22 ] However, a considerable drop in the government's popularity was registered by an Equipos/MORI poll in late April 2007, showing that 44% of Uruguayans approved of his administration. [ 22 ] A new poll by Factum showed a 57% approval by June 2008, however, indicating a significant recovery from a year earlier. [ 24 ] 2009 presidential election The Constitution of Uruguay does not allow presidents to run for immediate reelection. With this in mind, in January 2008, members of the ruling coalition made proposals to amend the document in order to allow Vázquez to run again in 2009, however Vázquez ruled out a 2009 run. [ 1 ] [ 25 ] José Mujica was elected in November 2009 as president and Vázquez was offered to resume the presidency of the Frente Amplio but he declined. [ 26 ] Vázquez went on to be the Frente Amplio candidate for presidency in 2014. [ 25 ] On 4 December 2008, Vázquez resigned his leadership posts at the Socialist Party due to controversy over his opposition to abortion rights . [ 27 ] Second presidency of Uruguay (2015–2020) In February 2010, a poll showed that he would finish the term ended on 1 March 2010 with an historic 61% of the approval. [ 28 ] Vázquez finally left office with an 80% approval rating. [ 23 ] He formally accepted his candidacy for the 2014 election in February 2013. [ 29 ] Renominated by the Broad Front for the presidency with running mate Raúl Fernando Sendic on 1 June, [ 30 ] he came up just a few thousand votes short of winning the presidency outright in 26 October election. [ 25 ] He was returned to office in the 30 November runoff, defeating right-wing candidate Luis Lacalle Pou of the National Party by 53% to 41% in the second round. [ 31 ] Vázquez took office on 1 March 2015, succeeding José Mujica . [ 32 ] After assuming the position, he also became the President pro tempore of UNASUR until 23 April 2016, [ 33 ] as he succeeded at the same time José Mujica who was holding the presidency of this international organization. [ 34 ] On 9 September 2017, his running mate and Vice President Raúl Fernando Sendic resigned after he was accused allegedly of misusing public funds while heading state oil company Ancap. [ 35 ] Sendic's bad image began with a scandal over his non-existent degree in Human Genetics in 2016, and deeply damaged the image of Vázquez and his government which already suffered from historically low approval. [ 36 ] During his second presidency he spent much of his efforts on fighting non-communicable diseases . The Pan American Health Organization named him Public Health Hero of the Americas in 2018 in recognition of his work. [ 37 ] Personal life and death Vázquez married María Auxiliadora Delgado on 23 October 1964 in the Montevideo parish of Los Vascos. [ 38 ] She died of a heart attack on 31 July 2019. [ 39 ] They had three biological children together and an adopted son. [ 40 ] On 20 August 2019, President Vázquez revealed that he suffered from a lung nodule with malignant appearance. [ 41 ] Nevertheless, he announced his intention of finishing his presidential term on 1 March 2020 as planned. [ 42 ] At mid-November, it was confirmed by authorities of the Public Health Ministry that his lung cancer was cured. [ 43 ] On 27 November 2020, the rumor spread of his worsening state of health and a Republica journalist announced that his cancer had metastasized to the pancreas. [ 44 ] That day, his son reported that his father was in home hospitalization after suffering an acute thrombosis in his left leg, but was recovering. [ 45 ] He died of lung cancer in Montevideo on 6 December 2020, at age 80. [ 46 ] [ 47 ] President Luis Lacalle Pou declared three days of national mourning following his death and said that Uruguay "lost a prominent scientist and a citizen defender of human rights". [ 48 ] His funeral was held in "intimacy" due to the COVID-19 pandemic and he was buried at Cementerio de La Teja in Montevideo alongside his wife. [ 49 ] During the funeral procession, thousands of people took to the streets to see him off to applause and cheers. [ 50 ] The night before a national applause was called from the balconies. [ 51 ] Honours and awards National honours Award or decoration Country Date Place Note Ref Medal of Military Merit , 1st Class Uruguay 18 May 2011 Montevideo Highest Uruguayan Army-related military award [ 52 ] [ 53 ] Foreign honours Award or decoration Country Date Place Note Ref Grand Collar of the Order of San Carlos Colombia 19 September 2005 Cartagena Second highest civilian Colombian decoration [ 54 ] Order of Merit Qatar 2 May 2007 Doha Highest Qatari decoration [ 55 ] Extraordinary Grand Cross of the Order of Omar Torrijos Herrera Panama 16 June 2008 Panama City [ 56 ] National Order of Merit Ecuador 7 March 2010 Montevideo Second highest Ecuadorian decoration [ 57 ] Grand Collar of the National Order of San Lorenzo Ecuador 7 September 2010 Quito Highest Ecuadorian decoration [ 58 ] Collar of the Order of the Aztec Eagle Mexico 14 November 2017 Mexico City Highest Mexican decoration [ 59 ] WHO recognition Vázquez was awarded the World Health Organization Director-General's Award in 2006 in recognition of his leadership on tobacco control in Uruguay, which has implemented some of the most stringent tobacco control measures in the world. [ 60 ] See also Pink tide Notes References ^ a b c d e f .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Tabaré Vázquez, Uruguay's First Socialist President, Dies at 80" . The Washington Post . 6 December 2020 . Retrieved 6 December 2020 . ^ "Tabaré Vázquez "abre las puertas" de Uruguay a las empresas gallegas" . El Faro de Vigo (in Spanish). 29 November 2016. ^ "Uruguay curbs smoking in public" . BBC News . 1 March 2006 . Retrieved 24 May 2010 . ^ "Tabare Vazquez" . Bloomberg . Retrieved 7 December 2020 . ^ "Tabaré Vázquez, Progreso y la AUF: una presidencia exitosa y otra que se le escapó" . Ovacion Digital. 6 December 2020 . Retrieved 6 December 2020 . ^ a b "Tabaré Vázquez: Humble oncologist who rose to be Uruguay's president" . Reuters . 6 December 2020 . Retrieved 7 December 2020 . ^ a b "Tabaré Vázquez, the first leftist president to govern Uruguay, dies" . BBC News . 7 December 2020. ^ "Lula após morte de Tabaré Vázquez: "fomos presidentes juntos e só guardo boas memórias" " (in Portuguese). Brasil247. 6 December 2020 . Retrieved 7 December 2020 . ^ "Uruguay's plans for huge pulp mills still on" . Ecoamericas . Retrieved 7 December 2020 . ^ "El video en el que Tabaré Vázquez habló sobre una guerra por las pasteras" . www.lagaceta.com.ar (in Spanish). 12 October 2011 . Retrieved 24 October 2021 . ^ "President Vázquez asked Bush for support in the event of a war with Argentina" (in Spanish). El Observador . 11 October 2011. ^ "Uruguayan president to visit NZ" . New Zealand Herald. 29 October 2007 . Retrieved 7 December 2020 . ^ "Uruguayan President Tabare Vazquez gets a briefing" . Korea Times. 31 August 2008 . Retrieved 7 December 2020 . ^ "Tabaré Vázquez ve inviable al ALCA; Fox lo refuta" . El Universal . 27 April 2006. Archived from the original on 4 December 2014 . Retrieved 1 December 2014 . ^ Pedro Bordaberry (26 June 2008). "Más, nunca" . Esta Boca es Mía . ^ a b "Uruguay caught buying Iran arms" . The Washington Times . Retrieved 2 August 2008 . ^ SEPREDI, Departamento Web - Presidencia de la Republica Oriental del Uruguay. "Scenes from President Vázquez's June 2008 visit to Cuba" . Archived from the original on 9 July 2008. ^ "Scenes from Vázquez-Castro June 2008 summit" . Presidencie.gub.uy . Retrieved 7 December 2020 . ^ "Uruguayan ports will give Bolivian trade access to the sea" . Mercopress . 15 July 2009. ^ "El enigma de los motores de F-5 robados" . El País . 3 February 2010. ^ "Tabaré Vázquez deixa legado de crescimento econômico no Uruguai" . BBC News Brasil (in Brazilian Portuguese). 27 November 2009 . Retrieved 27 November 2021 . ^ a b c "Vázquez tiene un 44% de aprobación, según encuesta de Equipos Mori" . El Espectador . 16 May 2007. ^ a b "Tabaré Vázquez cierra su mandato con récord histórico de apoyo popular: 80%" . La Red 21 . 22 December 2009. ^ "Vázquez con 57% de aprobación" . La República . 3 July 2008. ^ a b c "Uruguay's presidential election goes to runoff" . BBC . 27 October 2014 . Retrieved 7 December 2020 . ^ "Leftists Win Uruguay Vote" . The New York Times . 29 November 2009 . Retrieved 7 December 2020 . ^ "Uruguay's President Tabare Vazquez resigns from Socialist Party over abortion vote" . Telegraph. 5 December 2008 . Retrieved 7 December 2020 . ^ "Uruguay: Tabaré Vázquez termina con buena nota" [Uruguay: Tabaré Vázquez ends on a high note]. BBC in Spanish . 22 February 2010. ^ "Tabaré Vázquez acepta ser candidato presidencial de la izquierda en 2014" [Tabaré Vázquez agrees to be the left's presidential candidate in 2014]. El Mundo (in Spanish). 28 February 2013. ^ "Victory of Vázquez in the Uruguayan primaries" [Victoire de Vázquez aux primaires uruguayennes]. EL PAIS (in Spanish). 2 June 2014. Archived from the original on 2 June 2014. ^ "Tabare Vazquez wins Uruguay's run-off election" . BBC . 1 December 2014. ^ "Tabaré Vázquez toma posesión como presidente de Uruguay" [Tabaré Vázquez takes office as president of Uruguay]. CNN in Spanish (in Spanish). 1 March 2015. ^ "Cancilleres de la Unasur están reunidos en Quito; Venezuela asume la Presidencia Pro Témpore" . El Comercio (in Spanish). 23 April 2016. ^ "Surinam entrega la presidencia pro tempore de la Unasur a Uruguay" [Suriname hands over the pro tempore presidency of Unasur to Uruguay]. La Vanguardia (in Spanish). 5 December 2014. ^ "Uruguay vice president quits after accused of misuse of funds" . Reuters . 9 September 2017. Archived from the original on 10 September 2017. ^ Martínez, Magdalena (10 September 2017). "Dimite el vicepresidente de Uruguay tras un intenso proceso de descrédito" . El País (in Spanish). ISSN 1134-6582 . Retrieved 15 May 2025 . ^ "Uruguay mourns ex-President Tabaré Vázquez, who died of cancer" . www.bbc.com . 7 December 2020 . Retrieved 5 January 2026 . ^ "María Auxiliadora, la mujer de perfil bajo que cultivo las sonrisas" . El Observador (in Spanish). 1 August 2019. ^ "Muere María Auxiliadora Delgado, la esposa del presidente de Uruguay, Tabaré Vázquez" . BBC (in Spanish). 31 July 2019. ^ "María Auxiliadora: cómo conoció a Vázquez y su vínculo con la fe" . El Observador (in Spanish). 31 July 2019. ^ "Remember you are a mortal" . El Observador (in Spanish). 24 August 2019. ^ "El médico de Tabaré Vázquez es optimista sobre la salud del presidente" . La Diaria (in Spanish). 21 August 2019. ^ Martínez, Magdalena (13 December 2019). "El presidente de Uruguay "no presenta evidencia" del cáncer que padecía" . El País (in Spanish). ISSN 1134-6582 . Retrieved 3 June 2020 . ^ "Preocupación por la salud de Tabaré Vázquez" . La República (in Spanish). 27 November 2020. ^ "El ex presidente de Uruguay, Tabaré Vázquez, sufrió una recaída por el cáncer pulmonar y se encuentra en "delicado estado de salud" " . Infobae (in Spanish). 28 November 2020. ^ "Murió el expresidente Tabaré Vázquez" . El País Uruguay (in Spanish). 6 December 2020. ^ "Murió el expresidente Tabaré Vázquez" . El Observador (in Spanish). 6 December 2020. ^ "Uruguayan gov't declares 3 days of national mourning after death of former president" . Xinhuanet. 7 December 2020 . Retrieved 7 December 2020 . ^ "Así transcurrió el multitudinario último adiós a Tabaré Vázquez" . El País Uruguay (in Spanish). 6 December 2020. ^ "Uruguay mourns ex-President Tabaré Vázquez, who died of cancer" . BBC . 7 December 2020. ^ "Aplausos desde balcones y el poema de Benedetti: así se escuchó el homenaje a Vázquez que convocó el FA" . El País Uruguay (in Spanish). 6 December 2020. ^ "Resolución N° 217/011. OTORGAMIENTO DE MEDALLA AL MERITO MILITAR. JULIO MARIA SANGUINETTI. LUIS ALBERTO LACALLE. JORGE BATLLE. TABARE VAZQUEZ" (in Spanish). IMPO . Retrieved 23 September 2020 . ^ "Medallas militares para ex presidentes" (in Spanish). Montevideo Portal. 18 May 2011 . Retrieved 24 September 2020 . ^ "Vázquez y Uribe acordaron profundizar intercambio comercial entre ambos países" (in Spanish). Presidencia República Oriental del Uruguay. 19 September 2005 . Retrieved 7 May 2025 . ^ Vázquez, condecorado por príncipe heredero de Qatar Lr21.com.uy, 3 May 2007 (in Spanish) ^ "Vázquez en visita de estado. Fortalecer relaciones comerciales e intercambio de experiencias entre Panamá y Uruguay" (in Spanish). Archivo del Presidencia República Oriental de Uruguay. Archived from the original on 24 October 2013 . Retrieved 7 May 2025 . ^ "Tabaré Vázquez condecorado" . uy.press (in Spanish). 7 March 2010 . Retrieved 7 May 2025 . ^ "ECUADOR CONDECORA AL EX PRESIDENTE TABARÉ VÁSQUEZ" (in Spanish). Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Comercio e Integración - Ecuador. 7 September 2010. Archived from the original on 24 June 2013 . Retrieved 22 June 2013 . ^ "Presidente de Uruguay, condecorado por México" . La Hoguera (in Spanish). 14 November 2017 . Retrieved 7 May 2025 . ^ "Award Winners named for World No Tobacco Day in the Americas" . PAHO . 30 May 2006. Archived from the original on 12 December 2006 . Retrieved 31 October 2006 . External links (in Spanish) Site of President of Uruguay Archived 24 February 2011 at the Wayback Machine (in Spanish) Electoral site of Tabaré Vázquez (in Spanish) Biography by CIDOB New leftist cabinet launched in Uruguay ( Xinhua News Agency ) Uruguay inaugurates first leftist president ( The Globe and Mail ) Left-wing Uruguay leader sworn in ( BBC News ) Uruguay joys over new president ( BBC News ) (in Spanish) El Espectador : Tax Reform Leftist Chief Is Installed in Uruguay and Gets Busy on Agenda ( The New York Times ) (in Spanish) Links for Plan de Emergencia Nacional Political offices Preceded by Eduardo Fabini Jiménez Intendant of Montevideo 1990–1994 Succeeded by Tabaré González Preceded by Jorge Batlle President of Uruguay 2005–2010 Succeeded by José Mujica Preceded by José Mujica President of Uruguay 2015–2020 Succeeded by Luis Alberto Lacalle Pou Party political offices Preceded by Liber Seregni Leader of the Broad Front 1996–1999 Succeeded by Jorge Brovetto 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li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Heads of state and government of Uruguay v t e Heads of state Governors (1828–1830) Joaquín Suárez José Rondeau Juan Antonio Lavalleja Presidents (1830–1952) Fructuoso Rivera Carlos Anaya Manuel Oribe Gabriel Antonio Pereira Fructuoso Rivera Joaquín Suárez Bernardo Berro Juan Francisco Giró Triumvirate Rivera Lavalleja Flores Venancio Flores Manuel Basilio Bustamante José María Plá Gabriel Antonio Pereira Bernardo Berro Atanasio Aguirre Tomás Villalba Venancio Flores Pedro Varela Lorenzo Batlle y Grau Tomás Gomensoro José Eugenio Ellauri Pedro Varela Lorenzo Latorre Francisco Antonino Vidal Lorenzo Latorre Francisco Antonino Vidal Alberto Flangini Máximo Santos Francisco Antonino Vidal Máximo Santos Máximo Tajes Julio Herrera y Obes Duncan Stewart Juan Idiarte Borda Juan Lindolfo Cuestas José Batlle y Ordóñez Juan Lindolfo Cuestas José Batlle y Ordóñez Claudio Williman José Batlle y Ordóñez Feliciano Viera Baltasar Brum José Serrato Juan Campisteguy Gabriel Terra Alfredo Baldomir Juan José de Amézaga Tomás Berreta Luis Batlle Berres Andrés Martínez Trueba Chairmen of the National Council of Government (1952–1967) Luis Batlle Berres Alberto Fermín Zubiría Arturo Lezama Carlos Fischer Martín Echegoyen Benito Nardone Eduardo Víctor Haedo Faustino Harrison Daniel Fernández Crespo Luis Giannattasio Washington Beltrán Alberto Héber Usher Presidents (1967–present) Óscar Diego Gestido Jorge Pacheco Areco Juan María Bordaberry Alberto Demicheli Aparicio Méndez Gregorio Conrado Álvarez Rafael Addiego Bruno Julio María Sanguinetti Luis Alberto Lacalle Julio María Sanguinetti Jorge Batlle Ibáñez Tabaré Vázquez José Mujica Tabaré Vázquez Luis Lacalle Pou Yamandú Orsi Governors (1828–1830) Joaquín Suárez José Rondeau Juan Antonio Lavalleja Joaquín Suárez José Rondeau Juan Antonio Lavalleja Presidents (1830–1952) Fructuoso Rivera Carlos Anaya Manuel Oribe Gabriel Antonio Pereira Fructuoso Rivera Joaquín Suárez Bernardo Berro Juan Francisco Giró Triumvirate Rivera Lavalleja Flores Venancio Flores Manuel Basilio Bustamante José María Plá Gabriel Antonio Pereira Bernardo Berro Atanasio Aguirre Tomás Villalba Venancio Flores Pedro Varela Lorenzo Batlle y Grau Tomás Gomensoro José Eugenio Ellauri Pedro Varela Lorenzo Latorre Francisco Antonino Vidal Lorenzo Latorre Francisco Antonino Vidal Alberto Flangini Máximo Santos Francisco Antonino Vidal Máximo Santos Máximo Tajes Julio Herrera y Obes Duncan Stewart Juan Idiarte Borda Juan Lindolfo Cuestas José Batlle y Ordóñez Juan Lindolfo Cuestas José Batlle y Ordóñez Claudio Williman José Batlle y Ordóñez Feliciano Viera Baltasar Brum José Serrato Juan Campisteguy Gabriel Terra Alfredo Baldomir Juan José de Amézaga Tomás Berreta Luis Batlle Berres Andrés Martínez Trueba Fructuoso Rivera Carlos Anaya Manuel Oribe Gabriel Antonio Pereira Fructuoso Rivera Joaquín Suárez Bernardo Berro Juan Francisco Giró Triumvirate Rivera Lavalleja Flores Rivera Lavalleja Flores Venancio Flores Manuel Basilio Bustamante José María Plá Gabriel Antonio Pereira Bernardo Berro Atanasio Aguirre Tomás Villalba Venancio Flores Pedro Varela Lorenzo Batlle y Grau Tomás Gomensoro José Eugenio Ellauri Pedro Varela Lorenzo Latorre Francisco Antonino Vidal Lorenzo Latorre Francisco Antonino Vidal Alberto Flangini Máximo Santos Francisco Antonino Vidal Máximo Santos Máximo Tajes Julio Herrera y Obes Duncan Stewart Juan Idiarte Borda Juan Lindolfo Cuestas José Batlle y Ordóñez Juan Lindolfo Cuestas José Batlle y Ordóñez Claudio Williman José Batlle y Ordóñez Feliciano Viera Baltasar Brum José Serrato Juan Campisteguy Gabriel Terra Alfredo Baldomir Juan José de Amézaga Tomás Berreta Luis Batlle Berres Andrés Martínez Trueba Chairmen of the National Council of Government (1952–1967) Luis Batlle Berres Alberto Fermín Zubiría Arturo Lezama Carlos Fischer Martín Echegoyen Benito Nardone Eduardo Víctor Haedo Faustino Harrison Daniel Fernández Crespo Luis Giannattasio Washington Beltrán Alberto Héber Usher Luis Batlle Berres Alberto Fermín Zubiría Arturo Lezama Carlos Fischer Martín Echegoyen Benito Nardone Eduardo Víctor Haedo Faustino Harrison Daniel Fernández Crespo Luis Giannattasio Washington Beltrán Alberto Héber Usher Presidents (1967–present) Óscar Diego Gestido Jorge Pacheco Areco Juan María Bordaberry Alberto Demicheli Aparicio Méndez Gregorio Conrado Álvarez Rafael Addiego Bruno Julio María Sanguinetti Luis Alberto Lacalle Julio María Sanguinetti Jorge Batlle Ibáñez Tabaré Vázquez José Mujica Tabaré Vázquez Luis Lacalle Pou Yamandú Orsi Óscar Diego Gestido Jorge Pacheco Areco Juan María Bordaberry Alberto Demicheli Aparicio Méndez Gregorio Conrado Álvarez Rafael Addiego Bruno Julio María Sanguinetti Luis Alberto Lacalle Julio María Sanguinetti Jorge Batlle Ibáñez Tabaré Vázquez José Mujica Tabaré Vázquez Luis Lacalle Pou Yamandú Orsi Heads of government The president was both head of state and head of government between 1830 and 1917 Prime ministers of the National Council of Administration (1917–1933) Feliciano Viera José Batlle y Ordóñez Julio María Sosa Luis Alberto de Herrera José Batlle y Ordóñez Luis C. Caviglia Baltasar Brum Juan Pedro Fabini Antonio Rubio The president was both head of state and head of government between 1933 and 1955 Presidency abolished between 1952 and 1967; the National Council of Government became the collective head of government The president is both head of state and head of government from 1967 onward The president was both head of state and head of government between 1830 and 1917 Prime ministers of the National Council of Administration (1917–1933) Feliciano Viera José Batlle y Ordóñez Julio María Sosa Luis Alberto de Herrera José Batlle y Ordóñez Luis C. Caviglia Baltasar Brum Juan Pedro Fabini Antonio Rubio Feliciano Viera José Batlle y Ordóñez Julio María Sosa Luis Alberto de Herrera José Batlle y Ordóñez Luis C. Caviglia Baltasar Brum Juan Pedro Fabini Antonio Rubio The president was both head of state and head of government between 1933 and 1955 Presidency abolished between 1952 and 1967; the National Council of Government became the collective head of government The president is both head of state and head of government from 1967 onward Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat National United States Netherlands Poland United States Netherlands Poland People Uruguay Uruguay Other IdRef Yale LUX IdRef Yale LUX Tabaré Vázquez 1940 births 2020 deaths Presidents of Uruguay Presidents pro tempore of the Union of South American Nations Intendants of Montevideo Recipients of the Medal of Military Merit (Uruguay) Anti-smoking activists Broad Front (Uruguay) politicians Candidates for President of Uruguay Male feminists Politicians from Montevideo University of the Republic (Uruguay) alumni Academic staff of the University of the Republic (Uruguay) Uruguayan feminists Oncologists Uruguayan physicians Uruguayan people of Galician descent Uruguayan socialists Burials at Cementerio de La Teja, Montevideo Deaths from lung cancer in Uruguay Uruguayan Freemasons CS1 Spanish-language sources (es) CS1 Portuguese-language sources (pt) CS1 Brazilian Portuguese-language sources (pt-br) Articles with Spanish-language sources (es) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from December 2020 Pages with Spanish IPA Commons link is on Wikidata Webarchive template wayback links This page was last edited on 5 January 2026, at 23:35 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History Toggle History subsection 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 2 Collaborative editing Toggle Collaborative editing subsection 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 3 Policies and content Toggle Policies and content subsection 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 4 Governance Toggle Governance subsection 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 5 Community Toggle Community subsection 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 6 Language editions Toggle Language editions subsection 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 7 Reception Toggle Reception subsection 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 8 Operation Toggle Operation subsection 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 9 Access to content Toggle Access to content subsection 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 10 Cultural influence Toggle Cultural influence subsection 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 11 Related projects 12 See also 13 Notes 14 References Toggle References subsection 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 15 Further reading Toggle Further reading subsection 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 16 External links Wikipedia Acèh Адыгэбзэ Адыгабзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ अंगिका Ænglisc Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés ܐܪܡܝܐ Արեւմտահայերէն Armãneashti Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Atikamekw अवधी Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali Bamanankan বাংলা Banjar 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Bislama Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Chamoru Chavacano de Zamboanga Chi-Chewa ChiShona ChiTumbuka Corsu Cymraeg Dagbanli Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deitsch Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Dolnoserbski डोटेली ཇོང་ཁ Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Fulfulde Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego ГӀалгӀай 贛語 Gĩkũyũ گیلکی ગુજરાતી 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni Gungbe 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî Хальмг 한국어 Hausa Hawaiʻi Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Ido Igbo Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut Iñupiatun Ирон IsiXhosa IsiZulu Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kernowek Ikirundi Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Кырык мары Ladin Ladino Лакку ລາວ Latgaļu Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Lingua Franca Nova Livvinkarjala La .lojban. 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.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}} Screenshot Wikipedia's desktop homepage Type of site Online encyclopedia Available in 342 languages Headquarters San Francisco , California, US Country of origin United States Owner Wikimedia Foundation (since 2003) Created by .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger URL wikipedia .org Commercial No Registration Optional [ a ] Users 126 million (as of January 16, 2026) Launched January 15, 2001 (25 years ago) ( 2001-01-15 ) Current status Active Content license CC Attribution / Share-Alike 4.0 [ b ] Written in PHP OCLC number 52075003 Wikipedia [ c ] is a free online encyclopedia written and maintained by a community of volunteers , known as Wikipedians , through open collaboration and the wiki software MediaWiki . Founded by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger in 2001, Wikipedia has been hosted since 2003 by the Wikimedia Foundation , an American nonprofit organization funded mainly by donations from readers. [ 1 ] Wikipedia is the largest and most-read reference work in history. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] Initially available only in English , Wikipedia exists in over 340 languages and is one of the world's most visited websites . The English Wikipedia , with over 7 million articles , remains the largest of the editions, which together comprise more than 66 million articles and attract more than 1.5 billion unique device visits and 13 million edits per month (about five edits per second on average) as of April 2024 [update] . [ W 1 ] As of December 2025 [update] , over 25% of Wikipedia's traffic comes from the United States, while Japan accounts for nearly 7%, and the United Kingdom, Germany, and Russia each represent around 5%. [ 4 ] Wikipedia has been praised for enabling the democratization of knowledge , its extensive coverage, unique structure, and culture. Wikipedia has been censored by some national governments, ranging from specific pages to the entire site, sometimes due to its criticism of the government or by content otherwise considered blasphemous. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Although Wikipedia's volunteer editors have written extensively on a wide variety of topics, the encyclopedia has also been criticized for systemic bias, such as a gender bias against women and a geographical bias against the Global South . [ 7 ] [ 8 ] While the reliability of Wikipedia was frequently criticized in the 2000s, it has improved over time, receiving greater praise from the late 2010s onward. [ 2 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ] Articles on breaking news are often accessed as sources for up-to-date information about those events. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] History Nupedia Various collaborative online encyclopedias were attempted before the start of Wikipedia, but with limited success. [ 13 ] Wikipedia began as a complementary project for Nupedia, a free online English-language encyclopedia project whose articles were written by experts and reviewed under a formal process. [ 14 ] It was founded on March 9, 2000, under the ownership of Bomis , a web portal company. Its main figures were Bomis CEO Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger , editor-in-chief for Nupedia and later Wikipedia. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] Nupedia was initially licensed under its own Nupedia Open Content License, but before Wikipedia was founded, Nupedia switched to the GNU Free Documentation License at the urging of Richard Stallman . [ W 2 ] Wales is credited with defining the goal of making a publicly editable encyclopedia, [ 17 ] while Sanger is credited with the strategy of using a wiki to reach that goal. [ 18 ] On January 10, 2001, Sanger proposed on the Nupedia mailing list to create a wiki as a "feeder" project for Nupedia. [ W 3 ] Launch and growth Wikipedia was launched on January 15, 2001 (referred to as "Wikipedia Day"), [ 19 ] as a single English language edition with the domain name www.wikipedia.com , [ W 4 ] and was announced by Sanger on the Nupedia mailing list. [ 17 ] The name, proposed by Sanger to forestall any potential damage to the Nupedia name, [ 20 ] originated from a blend of the words wiki and encyclopedia . [ 21 ] [ 22 ] Its integral policy of " neutral point of view " arose within its first year. [ 23 ] Otherwise, there were initially relatively few rules, and it operated independently of Nupedia. [ 17 ] Bomis originally intended for it to be a for-profit business. [ 24 ] Wikipedia gained early contributors from Nupedia, Slashdot postings, and web search engine indexing. Language editions were created beginning in March 2001, with a total of 161 in use by the end of 2004. [ W 5 ] [ W 6 ] Nupedia and Wikipedia coexisted until the former's servers were taken down permanently in 2003, and its text was incorporated into Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia passed the mark of 2 million articles on September 9, 2007, making it the largest encyclopedia ever assembled, surpassing the Yongle Encyclopedia made in China during the Ming dynasty in 1408, which had held the record for almost 600 years. [ 25 ] Due to fears of commercial advertising and lack of control, users of the Spanish Wikipedia forked from Wikipedia to create Enciclopedia Libre in February 2002. [ W 7 ] Wales then announced that Wikipedia would not display advertisements, and changed Wikipedia's domain from wikipedia.com to wikipedia.org . [ 26 ] [ W 8 ] After an early period of exponential growth, [ 27 ] the growth rate of the English Wikipedia in terms of the numbers of new articles and of editors appears to have peaked around early 2007. [ 28 ] The edition reached 3 million articles in August 2009. Around 1,800 articles were added daily to the encyclopedia in 2006; by 2013 that average was roughly 800. [ W 9 ] A team at the Palo Alto Research Center attributed this slowing of growth to "increased coordination and overhead costs, exclusion of newcomers, and resistance to new edits". [ 27 ] Others suggested that the growth flattened naturally because articles that could be called " low-hanging fruit "—topics that clearly merit an article—had already been created and built up extensively. [ 29 ] [ 30 ] [ 31 ] In November 2009, a researcher at the Rey Juan Carlos University in Madrid, Spain, found that the English Wikipedia had lost 49,000 editors during the first three months of 2009; in comparison, it lost only 4,900 editors during the same period in 2008. [ 32 ] [ 33 ] The Wall Street Journal cited the array of rules applied to editing and disputes related to such content among the reasons for this trend. [ 34 ] Wales disputed these claims in 2009, denying the decline and questioning the study's methodology. [ 35 ] Two years later, in 2011, he acknowledged a slight decline, noting a decrease from "a little more than 36,000 writers" in June 2010 to 35,800 in June 2011. In the same interview, he also claimed the number of editors was "stable and sustainable". [ 36 ] A 2013 MIT Technology Review article, "The Decline of Wikipedia", questioned this claim, reporting that since 2007 Wikipedia had lost a third of its volunteer editors, and suggesting that those remaining had focused increasingly on minutiae. [ 37 ] In July 2012, The Atlantic reported that the number of administrators was also in decline. [ 38 ] In November 2013, New York magazine stated, "Wikipedia, the sixth-most-used website, is facing an internal crisis." [ 39 ] The number of active English Wikipedia editors has since remained steady after a long period of decline. [ 40 ] [ 41 ] On January 20, 2014, Subodh Varma reporting for The Economic Times indicated that not only had Wikipedia's growth stalled, it "had lost nearly ten percent of its page views last year. There was a decline of about 2 billion between December 2012 and December 2013. Its most popular versions are leading the slide: page-views of the English Wikipedia declined by twelve percent, those of German version slid by 17 percent and the Japanese version lost 9 percent." [ 42 ] Varma added, "While Wikipedia's managers think that this could be due to errors in counting, other experts feel that Google's Knowledge Graphs project launched last year may be gobbling up Wikipedia users." [ 42 ] When contacted on this matter, Clay Shirky , associate professor at New York University and fellow at Harvard's Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society said that he suspected much of the page-view decline was due to Knowledge Graphs, stating, "If you can get your question answered from the search page, you don't need to click [any further]." [ 42 ] By the end of December 2016, Wikipedia was ranked the fifth most popular website globally. [ 43 ] As of January 2023, 55,791 English Wikipedia articles have been cited 92,300 times in scholarly journals, [ 44 ] from which cloud computing was the most cited page. [ 45 ] Sister projects Wikipedia has spawned several sister projects, which are also wikis run by the Wikimedia Foundation . These other Wikimedia projects include Wiktionary , a dictionary project launched in December 2002, [ W 10 ] Wikiquote , a collection of quotations created a week after Wikimedia launched, [ 46 ] Wikibooks , a collection of collaboratively written free textbooks and annotated texts, [ W 11 ] Wikimedia Commons , a site devoted to free-knowledge multimedia, [ W 12 ] Wikinews , for collaborative journalism, [ W 13 ] and Wikiversity , a project for the creation of free learning materials and the provision of online learning activities. [ W 14 ] Another sister project of Wikipedia, Wikispecies , is a catalog of all species, but is not open for public editing. [ 47 ] In 2012, Wikivoyage , an editable travel guide, [ 48 ] and Wikidata , an editable knowledge base, launched. [ W 15 ] Milestones In January 2007, Wikipedia first became one of the ten most popular websites in the United States, according to Comscore Networks. [ 49 ] With 42.9 million unique visitors, it was ranked ninth, surpassing The New York Times (No. 10) and Apple (No. 11). [ 49 ] This marked a significant increase over January 2006, when Wikipedia ranked 33rd, with around 18.3 million unique visitors. [ 50 ] In 2014, it received 8 billion page views every month. [ W 16 ] On February 9, 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia had 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, "according to the ratings firm comScore". [ 51 ] As of March 2023 [update] , it ranked sixth in popularity, according to Similarweb . [ 52 ] Jeff Loveland and Joseph Reagle argue that, in process, Wikipedia follows a long tradition of historical encyclopedias that have accumulated improvements piecemeal through " stigmergic accumulation". [ 53 ] [ 54 ] On January 18, 2012, the English Wikipedia participated in a series of coordinated protests against two proposed laws in the United States Congress —the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA) and the PROTECT IP Act (PIPA)—by blacking out its pages for 24 hours . [ 55 ] More than 162 million people viewed the blackout explanation page that temporarily replaced its content. [ 56 ] [ W 17 ] In January 2013, 274301 Wikipedia , an asteroid , was named after Wikipedia; [ 57 ] in October 2014, Wikipedia was honored with the Wikipedia Monument ; [ 58 ] and, in July 2015, 106 of the 7,473 700-page volumes of Wikipedia became available as Print Wikipedia . [ 59 ] In April 2019, an Israeli lunar lander , Beresheet , crash landed on the surface of the Moon carrying a copy of nearly all of the English Wikipedia engraved on thin nickel plates; experts say the plates likely survived the crash. [ 60 ] [ 61 ] In June 2019, scientists reported that all 16 GB of article text from the English Wikipedia had been encoded into synthetic DNA . [ 62 ] On January 18, 2023, Wikipedia debuted a new website redesign, called " Vector 2022 ". [ 63 ] [ 64 ] It featured a redesigned menu bar , moving the table of contents to the left as a sidebar , and numerous changes in the locations of buttons like the language selection tool. [ 64 ] [ W 18 ] The update initially received backlash, most notably when editors of the Swahili Wikipedia unanimously voted to revert the changes. [ 63 ] [ 65 ] Both Sanger and Wales have given public interviews in late 2025 about their reflections about the status and state of Wikipedia leading up to its 25 years of operation on January 15, 2026; Wales appeared on the PBS television news show GZERO World interviewed by Ian Bremmer [ 66 ] and Sanger has appeared on the FOX news network interviewed by Ashley Rindsberg . [ 67 ] Wales's book The Seven Rules of Trust was published in October 2025 by Penguin Random House . It was described by the publisher as a "sweeping reflection on the global crisis of credibility and knowledge" with the book examining the "rules of trust" that enabled the growth and success of Wikipedia. [ 68 ] Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views Since January 2024, the Wikimedia Foundation has reported a roughly 50 percent increase in bandwidth use from downloads of multimedia content across its projects. According to the foundation, this growth is largely attributed to automated programs, or "scraper" bots, that collect large volumes of data from Wikimedia sites for use in training large language models and related applications. [ 69 ] In October 2025, the Wikimedia Foundation reported an estimated 8 percent decline in traffic as compared to the same months in 2024 in human page views. They speculate it reflects the use of generative AI and social media on how people tend to search for information. [ 70 ] [ 71 ] Collaborative editing Restrictions Due to Wikipedia's increasing popularity, some editions, including the English version, have introduced editing restrictions for certain cases. For instance, on the English Wikipedia and some other language editions, only users with 10 edits that have an account that is four days old may create a new article. [ W 19 ] On the English Wikipedia, among others, particularly controversial, sensitive, or vandalism-prone pages have been protected to varying degrees. [ 72 ] A frequently vandalized article can be "semi-protected" or "extended confirmed protected", meaning that only "autoconfirmed" or "extended confirmed" editors can modify it. [ 73 ] A particularly contentious article may be locked so that only administrators can make changes. [ W 20 ] A 2021 article in the Columbia Journalism Review identified Wikipedia's page-protection policies as "perhaps the most important" means at its disposal to "regulate its market of ideas". [ 74 ] Wikipedia has delegated some functions to bots . Such algorithmic governance has an ease of implementation and scaling, though the automated rejection of edits may have contributed to a downturn in active Wikipedia editors. [ 75 ] Bots must be approved by the community before their tasks are implemented. [ 76 ] In certain cases, all editors are allowed to submit modifications, but review is required for some editors, depending on certain conditions. For example, the German Wikipedia maintains "stable versions" of articles which have passed certain reviews. [ W 21 ] Following protracted trials and community discussion, the English Wikipedia introduced the "pending changes" system in December 2012. [ 77 ] Under this system, new and unregistered users' edits to certain controversial or vandalism-prone articles are reviewed by established users before they are published. [ 78 ] However, restrictions on editing may reduce the editor engagement as well as efforts to diversify the editing community. [ 79 ] Articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict are placed under extended-confirmed protection. [ 80 ] Editors also can make only one revert per day across the entire field and can be banned from editing related articles. These restrictions were introduced in 2008. [ 81 ] In January 2025, the Arbitration Committee introduced the "balanced editing restriction", which requires sanctioned users to devote only a third of their edits to articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict even when no misconduct rules have been violated. [ 82 ] [ 83 ] Review of changes Although changes are not systematically reviewed, Wikipedia's software provides tools allowing anyone to review changes made by others. Each article's History page links to each revision. [ e ] [ 84 ] On most articles, anyone can view the latest changes and undo others' revisions by clicking a link on the article's History page. Registered users may maintain a "watchlist" of articles that interest them so they can be notified of changes. [ W 22 ] "New pages patrol" is a process where newly created articles are checked for obvious problems. [ W 23 ] In 2003, economics PhD student Andrea Ciffolilli argued that the low transaction costs of participating in a wiki created a catalyst for collaborative development, and that features such as allowing easy access to past versions of a page favored "creative construction" over "creative destruction". [ 85 ] Vandalism Any change that deliberately compromises Wikipedia's integrity is considered vandalism. The most common and obvious types of vandalism include additions of obscenities and crude humor; it can also include advertising and other types of spam. [ 86 ] Sometimes editors commit vandalism by removing content or entirely blanking a given page. Less common types of vandalism, such as the deliberate addition of plausible but false information, can be more difficult to detect. Vandals can introduce irrelevant formatting, modify page semantics such as the page's title or categorization, manipulate the article's underlying code, or use images disruptively. [ W 24 ] Obvious vandalism is generally easy to remove from Wikipedia articles; the median time to detect and fix it is a few minutes. [ 87 ] [ 88 ] However, some vandalism takes much longer to detect and repair. [ 89 ] In the Seigenthaler biography incident , an anonymous editor introduced false information into the biography of American political figure John Seigenthaler in May 2005, falsely presenting him as a suspect in the assassination of John F. Kennedy . [ 89 ] It remained uncorrected for four months. [ 89 ] Seigenthaler, the founding editorial director of USA Today and founder of the Freedom Forum First Amendment Center at Vanderbilt University , called Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales and asked whether he had any way of knowing who contributed the misinformation. Wales said he did not, although the perpetrator was eventually traced. [ 90 ] [ 91 ] After the incident, Seigenthaler described Wikipedia as "a flawed and irresponsible research tool". [ 89 ] The incident led to policy changes at Wikipedia for tightening up the verifiability of biographical articles of living people. [ 92 ] Disputes and edit warring Wikipedia editors often have disagreements regarding content, which can be discussed on article Talk pages. Disputes may result in repeated competing changes to an article, known as "edit warring". [ W 25 ] [ 93 ] It is widely seen as a resource-consuming scenario where no useful knowledge is added, [ 94 ] and criticized as creating a competitive [ 95 ] and conflict-based editing culture associated with traditional masculine gender roles . [ 96 ] [ 97 ] Research has focused on, for example, impoliteness of disputes, [ 98 ] [ 99 ] the influence of rival editing camps, [ 100 ] [ 101 ] the conversational structure, [ 102 ] and the shift in conflicts to a focus on sources. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] Taha Yasseri of the University of Oxford examined editing conflicts and their resolution in a 2013 study. [ 105 ] [ 106 ] Yasseri contended that simple reverts or "undo" operations were not the most significant measure of counterproductive work behavior at Wikipedia. He relied instead on "mutually reverting edit pairs", where one editor reverts the edit of another editor who then, in sequence, returns to revert the first editor. The results were tabulated for several language versions of Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia's three largest conflict rates belonged to the articles George W. Bush , anarchism , and Muhammad . [ 106 ] By comparison, for the German Wikipedia, the three largest conflict rates at the time of the study were for the articles covering Croatia , Scientology , and 9/11 conspiracy theories . [ 106 ] In 2020, researchers identified other measures of editor behaviors, beyond mutual reverts, to identify editing conflicts across Wikipedia. [ 104 ] Editors also debate the deletion of articles on Wikipedia , with roughly 500,000 such debates since Wikipedia's inception. Once an article is nominated for deletion, the dispute is typically determined by initial votes (to keep or delete) and by reference to topic-specific notability policies. [ 107 ] Policies and content External videos Jimmy Wales , The Birth of Wikipedia, 2006, TED talks , 20 minutes Katherine Maher , What Wikipedia Teaches Us About Balancing Truth and Beliefs, 2022, TED talks , 15 minutes Wikipedia is composed of 11 different namespaces , with its articles being present in mainspace . Other namespaces have a prefix before their page title and fulfill various purposes. For example, the project namespace uses the Wikipedia prefix and is used for self-governance related discussions. Most readers are not aware of these other namespaces. [ 108 ] The fundamental principles of the Wikipedia community are embodied in the "Five pillars", while the detailed editorial principles are expressed in numerous policies and guidelines intended to appropriately shape content. [ W 26 ] The five pillars are: Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is written from a neutral point of view Wikipedia is free content that anyone can use, edit, and distribute Wikipedia's editors should treat each other with respect and civility Wikipedia has no firm rules The rules developed by the community are stored in wiki form, and Wikipedia editors write and revise the website's policies and guidelines in accordance with community consensus. [ 109 ] Originally, rules on the non-English editions of Wikipedia were based on a translation of the rules for the English Wikipedia. They have since diverged to some extent. [ W 21 ] Content policies and guidelines According to the rules on the English Wikipedia community, each entry in Wikipedia must be about a topic that is encyclopedic and is not a dictionary entry or dictionary-style. [ W 27 ] A topic should also meet Wikipedia's standards of "notability" , which generally means that the topic has been covered extensively in reliable sources that are independent of the article's subject. [ 110 ] Wikipedia intends to convey only knowledge that is already established and recognized and therefore must not present original research. [ 111 ] Some subjects such as politicians and academics have specialized notability requirements. [ 110 ] Finally, Wikipedia must reflect a neutral point of view. This is accomplished through summarizing reliable sources, using impartial language, and ensuring that multiple points of view are presented based on their prominence. Information must also be verifiable. [ 112 ] Information without citations may be tagged or removed entirely. [ 113 ] This can at times lead to the removal of information which, though valid, is not properly sourced. [ 114 ] As Wikipedia policies changed over time, and became more complex, their number has grown. In 2008, there were 44 policy pages and 248 guideline pages; by 2013, scholars counted 383 policy pages and 449 guideline pages. [ 75 ] Governance Wikipedia's initial anarchy integrated democratic and hierarchical elements over time. [ 115 ] [ 116 ] An article is not considered to be owned by its creator or any other editor, nor by the subject of the article. [ W 28 ] Editors in good standing in the community can request extra user rights , granting them the technical ability to perform certain special actions. Some user rights are granted automatically, such as the autoconfirmed and extended confirmed groups, when thresholds for account age and edits are met. [ 73 ] Administrators Experienced editors can choose to run for " adminship ", [ 117 ] which includes the ability to delete pages or prevent them from being changed in cases of severe vandalism or editorial disputes. [ W 29 ] Administrators are not supposed to enjoy any special privilege in decision-making; instead, their powers are mostly limited to making edits that have project-wide effects and thus are disallowed to ordinary editors, and to implement restrictions intended to prevent disruptive editors from making unproductive edits. [ W 29 ] By 2012, fewer editors were becoming administrators compared to Wikipedia's earlier years, in part because the process of vetting potential administrators had become more rigorous. [ 38 ] In 2022, there was a particularly contentious request for adminship over the candidate's anti-Trump views; ultimately, they were granted adminship. [ 118 ] Dispute resolution Over time, Wikipedia has developed a semi-formal dispute resolution process. To determine community consensus, editors can raise issues at appropriate community forums, seek outside input through third opinion requests, or initiate a more general community discussion known as a "request for comment", [ W 25 ] in which bots add the discussion to a centralized list of discussions, invite editors to participate, and remove the discussion from the list after 30 days. [ W 30 ] However, editors have the discretion to close (and delist) the discussion early or late. If the result of a discussion is not obvious, a closer—an uninvolved editor usually in good standing—may render a verdict from the strength of the arguments presented and then the numbers of arguers on each side. [ 119 ] Wikipedians emphasize that the process is not a vote by referring to statements of opinion in such discussions as "!vote"s, in which the exclamation mark is the symbol for logical negation and pronounced "not". [ 120 ] Wikipedia encourages local resolutions of conflicts, which Jemielniak argues is quite unique in organization studies, though there has been some recent interest in consensus building in the field. [ 121 ] Reagle and Sue Gardner argue that the approaches to consensus building are similar to those used by Quakers . [ 121 ] : 62 A difference from Quaker meetings is the absence of a facilitator in the presence of disagreement, a role played by the clerk in Quaker meetings. [ 121 ] : 83 Arbitration Committee The Arbitration Committee presides over the ultimate dispute resolution process. Although disputes usually arise from a disagreement between two opposing views on how an article should read, the Arbitration Committee explicitly refuses to directly rule on the specific view that should be adopted. [ 122 ] Statistical analyses suggest that the English Wikipedia committee ignores the content of disputes and rather focuses on the way disputes are conducted, [ 123 ] functioning not so much to resolve disputes and make peace between conflicting editors, but to weed out problematic editors while allowing potentially productive editors back in to participate. [ 122 ] Therefore, the committee does not dictate the content of articles, although it sometimes condemns content changes when it deems the new content violates Wikipedia policies (for example, if the new content is considered biased). [ f ] Commonly used solutions include cautions and probations (used in 63% of cases) and banning editors from articles (43%), subject matters (23%), or Wikipedia (16%). [ 122 ] Complete bans from Wikipedia are generally limited to instances of impersonation and antisocial behavior . [ W 31 ] When conduct is not impersonation or anti-social, but rather edit warring and other violations of editing policies, solutions tend to be limited to warnings. [ 122 ] Community Each article and each user of Wikipedia has an associated and dedicated "talk" page. These form the primary communication channel for editors to discuss, coordinate and debate. [ 124 ] Wikipedia's community has been described as cultlike , [ 125 ] although not always with entirely negative connotations. [ 126 ] Its preference for cohesiveness, even if it requires compromise that includes disregard of credentials , has been referred to as " anti-elitism ". [ W 32 ] Wikipedia does not require that its editors and contributors provide identification. [ 127 ] As Wikipedia grew, "Who writes Wikipedia?" became one of the questions frequently asked there. [ 128 ] Jimmy Wales once argued that only "a community ... a dedicated group of a few hundred volunteers" makes the bulk of contributions to Wikipedia and that the project is therefore "much like any traditional organization". [ 129 ] Since Wikipedia relies on volunteer labour, editors frequently focus on topics that interest them. [ 130 ] The English Wikipedia has 7,122,774 articles, 51,074,164 registered editors, and 267,090 active editors. An editor is considered active if they have made one or more edits in the past 30 days. [ W 33 ] Editors who fail to comply with Wikipedia cultural rituals, such as signing talk page comments, may implicitly signal that they are Wikipedia outsiders, increasing the odds that Wikipedia insiders may target or discount their contributions. Becoming a Wikipedia insider involves non-trivial costs: the contributor is expected to learn Wikipedia-specific technological codes, submit to a sometimes convoluted dispute resolution process, and learn a "baffling culture rich with in-jokes and insider references". [ 131 ] Editors who do not log in are in some sense " second-class citizens " on Wikipedia, [ 131 ] as "participants are accredited by members of the wiki community, who have a vested interest in preserving the quality of the work product, on the basis of their ongoing participation", [ 132 ] but the contribution histories of anonymous unregistered editors recognized only by their IP addresses cannot be attributed to a particular editor with certainty. [ 132 ] New editors often struggle to understand Wikipedia's complexity. Experienced editors are encouraged to not "bite" the newcomers in order to create a more welcoming atmosphere. [ 133 ] Research A 2007 study by researchers from Dartmouth College found that "anonymous and infrequent contributors to Wikipedia ... are as reliable a source of knowledge as those contributors who register with the site". [ 134 ] Jimmy Wales stated in 2009 that "[I]t turns out over 50% of all the edits are done by just 0.7% of the users ... 524 people ... And in fact, the most active 2%, which is 1400 people, have done 73.4% of all the edits." [ 129 ] However, Business Insider editor and journalist Henry Blodget showed in 2009 that in a random sample of articles, most Wikipedia content (measured by the amount of contributed text that survives to the latest sampled edit) is created by "outsiders", while most editing and formatting is done by "insiders". [ 129 ] In 2008, a Slate magazine article reported that "one percent of Wikipedia users are responsible for about half of the site's edits." [ 135 ] This method of evaluating contributions was later disputed by Aaron Swartz , who noted that several articles he sampled had large portions of their content (measured by number of characters) contributed by users with low edit counts. [ 136 ] A 2008 study found that Wikipedians were less agreeable, open, and conscientious than others, [ 137 ] although a later commentary pointed out serious flaws, including that the data showed higher openness and that the differences with the control group and the samples were small. [ 138 ] According to a 2009 study, there is "evidence of growing resistance from the Wikipedia community to new content". [ 139 ] Diversity Several studies have shown that most volunteer Wikipedia contributors are male. The results of a Wikimedia Foundation survey in 2008 showed that only 13 percent of Wikipedia editors were female. [ 140 ] Because of this, universities throughout the United States tried to encourage women to become Wikipedia contributors. [ 141 ] Similarly, many of these universities, including Yale and Brown , gave college credit to students who create or edit an article relating to women in science or technology. [ 141 ] Andrew Lih , a professor and scientist, said that the reason he thought the number of male contributors outnumbered the number of females so greatly was because identifying as a woman may expose oneself to "ugly, intimidating behavior". [ 142 ] Data has shown that Africans are underrepresented among Wikipedia editors. [ 143 ] Language editions English (10.7%) Cebuano (9.20%) German (4.70%) French (4.10%) Swedish (4.00%) Dutch (3.30%) Spanish (3.10%) Russian (3.10%) Italian (2.90%) Polish (2.50%) Egyptian Arabic (2.50%) Chinese (2.30%) Japanese (2.20%) Ukrainian (2.10%) Vietnamese (2.00%) Arabic (2.00%) Waray (1.90%) Portuguese (1.90%) Persian (1.60%) Catalan (1.20%) Other (32.7%) There are currently 342 language editions of Wikipedia (also called language versions , or simply Wikipedias ). As of January 2026, the six largest, in order of article count, are the English , Cebuano , German , French , Swedish , and Dutch Wikipedias. [ W 35 ] The second and fifth-largest Wikipedias owe their position to the article-creating bot Lsjbot , which as of 2013 [update] had created about half the articles on the Swedish Wikipedia , and most of the articles in the Cebuano and Waray Wikipedias . The latter are both languages of the Philippines . In addition to the top six, twelve other Wikipedias have more than a million articles each ( Spanish , Russian , Italian , Polish , Egyptian Arabic , Chinese , Japanese , Ukrainian , Vietnamese , Arabic , Waray , and Portuguese ), seven more have over 500,000 articles ( Persian , Catalan , Indonesian , Korean , Chechen , Serbian , and Norwegian ), 44 more have over 100,000, and 82 more have over 10,000. [ W 36 ] [ W 35 ] The largest, the English Wikipedia, has over 7.1 million articles. As of January 2021, [update] the English Wikipedia receives 48% of Wikipedia's cumulative traffic, with the remaining split among the other languages. The top 10 editions represent approximately 85% of the total traffic. [ W 37 ] Most viewed editions of Wikipedia, 2008–2024 Most edited editions of Wikipedia, 2001–2024 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 Since Wikipedia is based on the Web and therefore worldwide, contributors to the same language edition may use different dialects or may come from different countries (as is the case for the English edition). These differences may lead to some conflicts over spelling differences (e.g. colour versus color ) [ W 38 ] or points of view. [ W 39 ] Though the various language editions are held to global policies such as "neutral point of view", they diverge on some points of policy and practice, most notably on whether images that are not licensed freely may be used under a claim of fair use . [ W 40 ] [ 145 ] The content of articles on the same subject can differ significantly between languages, depending on the sources editors use and other factors. [ 146 ] [ 147 ] Jimmy Wales has described Wikipedia as "an effort to create and distribute a free encyclopedia of the highest possible quality to every single person on the planet in their own language". [ W 41 ] Though each language edition functions more or less independently, some efforts are made to supervise them all. They are coordinated in part by Meta-Wiki, the Wikimedia Foundation's wiki devoted to maintaining all its projects (Wikipedia and others). [ W 42 ] For instance, Meta-Wiki provides important statistics on all language editions of Wikipedia, [ W 43 ] and it maintains a list of articles every Wikipedia should have. [ W 44 ] The list concerns basic content by subject: biography, history, geography, society, culture, science, technology, and mathematics. [ W 44 ] It is not rare for articles strongly related to a particular language not to have counterparts in another edition. For example, articles about small towns in the United States might be available only in English, even when they meet the notability criteria of other language Wikipedia projects. [ W 45 ] Translated articles represent only a small portion of articles in most editions, in part because those editions do not allow fully automated translation of articles. Articles available in more than one language may offer "interwiki links", which link to the counterpart articles in other editions. [ 149 ] [ W 46 ] A study published by PLOS One in 2012 also estimated the share of contributions to different editions of Wikipedia from different regions of the world. It reported that the proportion of the edits made from North America was 51% for the English Wikipedia, and 25% for the Simple English Wikipedia . [ 148 ] English Wikipedia editor numbers On March 1, 2014, The Economist , in an article titled "The Future of Wikipedia", cited a trend analysis concerning data published by the Wikimedia Foundation stating that "the number of editors for the English-language version has fallen by a third in seven years." [ 150 ] The attrition rate for active editors in English Wikipedia was cited by The Economist as substantially in contrast to statistics for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia). The Economist reported that the number of contributors with an average of five or more edits per month was relatively constant since 2008 for Wikipedia in other languages at approximately 42,000 editors within narrow seasonal variances of about 2,000 editors up or down. The number of active editors in English Wikipedia, by sharp comparison, was cited as peaking in 2007 at approximately 50,000 and dropping to 30,000 by the start of 2014. [ 150 ] In contrast, the trend analysis for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) shows success in retaining active editors on a renewable and sustained basis, with their numbers remaining relatively constant at approximately 42,000. No comment was made concerning which of the differentiated edit policy standards from Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) would provide a possible alternative to English Wikipedia for effectively improving substantial editor attrition rates on the English-language Wikipedia. [ 150 ] Reception Various Wikipedians have criticized Wikipedia's large and growing regulation , which includes more than fifty policies and nearly 150,000 words as of 2014. [update] [ 151 ] [ 121 ] Critics have stated that Wikipedia exhibits systemic bias . In 2010, columnist and journalist Edwin Black described Wikipedia as being a mixture of "truth, half-truth, and some falsehoods". [ 152 ] Articles in The Chronicle of Higher Education and The Journal of Academic Librarianship have criticized Wikipedia's " undue-weight policy ", concluding that Wikipedia explicitly is not designed to provide correct information about a subject, but rather focus on all the major viewpoints on the subject, give less attention to minor ones, and creates omissions that can lead to false beliefs based on incomplete information. [ 153 ] [ 154 ] [ 155 ] Journalists Oliver Kamm and Edwin Black alleged (in 2010 and 2011 respectively) that articles are dominated by the loudest and most persistent voices, usually by a group with an "ax to grind" on the topic. [ 152 ] [ 156 ] A 2008 article in Education Next journal concluded that as a resource about controversial topics, Wikipedia is subject to manipulation and spin . [ 157 ] In 2020, Omer Benjakob and Stephen Harrison noted that "Media coverage of Wikipedia has radically shifted over the past two decades: once cast as an intellectual frivolity, it is now lauded as the 'last bastion of shared reality' online." [ 158 ] Multiple news networks and pundits have accused Wikipedia of being ideologically biased . In February 2021, Fox News accused Wikipedia of whitewashing communism and socialism and having too much " leftist bias". [ 159 ] Wikipedia co-founder Larry Sanger , who left Wikipedia in 2002 to establish competing websites, has said that Wikipedia had become "propaganda" for the left-leaning "establishment" and warned the site can no longer be trusted. [ 160 ] [ 161 ] In 2022, libertarian John Stossel opined that Wikipedia, a site he financially supported at one time, appeared to have gradually taken a significant turn in bias to the political left, specifically on political topics. [ 162 ] Some studies suggest that Wikipedia (and in particular the English Wikipedia) has a "western cultural bias " (or "pro-western bias") [ 163 ] or "Eurocentric bias", [ 164 ] reiterating, says Anna Samoilenko, "similar biases that are found in the 'ivory tower' of academic historiography". Carwil Bjork-James proposes that Wikipedia could follow the diversification pattern of contemporary scholarship [ 165 ] and Dangzhi Zhao calls for a "decolonization" of Wikipedia to reduce bias from opinionated White male editors. [ 166 ] In October 2025, Larry Sanger published his Nine Theses , a critical assessment and reform agenda for Wikipedia. The proposal is part of his broader effort to address what Sanger perceives as systemic issues within Wikipedia, which include ideological bias, lack of transparency in the editor hierarchies and an ineffective consensus-based decision making procedure. [ 167 ] [ 168 ] Accuracy of content External audio The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1 , Ideas with Paul Kennedy , CBC , January 15, 2014 Articles for traditional encyclopedias such as Encyclopædia Britannica are written by experts , lending such encyclopedias a reputation for accuracy. [ 169 ] However, a peer review in 2005 of forty-two scientific entries on both Wikipedia and Encyclopædia Britannica by the science journal Nature found few differences in accuracy, and concluded that "the average science entry in Wikipedia contained around four inaccuracies; Britannica , about three." [ 170 ] Joseph Reagle suggested that while the study reflects "a topical strength of Wikipedia contributors" in science articles, "Wikipedia may not have fared so well using a random sampling of articles or on humanities subjects." [ 171 ] [ failed verification ] Others raised similar critiques. [ 172 ] The findings by Nature were disputed by Encyclopædia Britannica , [ 173 ] [ 174 ] and in response, Nature gave a rebuttal of the points raised by Britannica . [ 175 ] In addition to the point-for-point disagreement between these two parties, others have examined the sample size and selection method used in the Nature effort, and suggested a "flawed study design" (in Nature ' s manual selection of articles, in part or in whole, for comparison), absence of statistical analysis (e.g., of reported confidence intervals ), and a lack of study "statistical power" (i.e., owing to small sample size , 42 or 4 × 10 1 articles compared, vs >10 5 and >10 6 set sizes for Britannica and the English Wikipedia, respectively). [ 176 ] As a consequence of the open structure, Wikipedia "makes no guarantee of validity" of its content, since no one is ultimately responsible for any claims appearing in it. [ W 47 ] Concerns have been raised by PC World in 2009 regarding the lack of accountability that results from users' anonymity, the insertion of false information, [ 177 ] vandalism , and similar problems. Legal Research in a Nutshell (2011), cites Wikipedia as a "general source" that "can be a real boon" in "coming up to speed in the law governing a situation" and, "while not authoritative, can provide basic facts as well as leads to more in-depth resources". [ 178 ] Economist Tyler Cowen wrote: "If I had to guess whether Wikipedia or the median refereed journal article on economics was more likely to be true after a not so long think I would opt for Wikipedia." He comments that some traditional sources of non-fiction suffer from systemic biases, and novel results, in his opinion, are over-reported in journal articles as well as relevant information being omitted from news reports. However, he also cautions that errors are frequently found on Internet sites and that academics and experts must be vigilant in correcting them. [ 179 ] Amy Bruckman has argued that, due to the number of reviewers, "the content of a popular Wikipedia page is actually the most reliable form of information ever created". [ 180 ] In September 2022, The Sydney Morning Herald journalist Liam Mannix noted that: "There's no reason to expect Wikipedia to be accurate ... And yet it [is]." Mannix further discussed the multiple studies that have proved Wikipedia to be generally as reliable as Encyclopædia Britannica , summarizing that "...turning our back on such an extraordinary resource is... well, a little petty." [ 181 ] Critics argue that Wikipedia's open nature and a lack of proper sources for most of the information makes it unreliable. [ 182 ] Some commentators suggest that Wikipedia may be reliable, but that the reliability of any given article is not clear. [ 183 ] Editors of traditional reference works such as the Encyclopædia Britannica have questioned the project's utility and status as an encyclopedia. [ 184 ] Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales has claimed that Wikipedia has largely avoided the problem of "fake news" because the Wikipedia community regularly debates the quality of sources in articles. [ 185 ] External videos Inside Wikipedia – Attack of the PR Industry , Deutsche Welle , 7:13 mins [ 186 ] Wikipedia's open structure inherently makes it an easy target for Internet trolls , spammers , and various forms of paid advocacy seen as counterproductive to the maintenance of a neutral and verifiable online encyclopedia. [ 84 ] [ W 48 ] In response to paid advocacy editing and undisclosed editing issues, Wikipedia was reported in an article in The Wall Street Journal to have strengthened its rules and laws against undisclosed editing. [ 187 ] The article stated that: "Beginning Monday [from the date of the article, June 16, 2014], changes in Wikipedia's terms of use will require anyone paid to edit articles to disclose that arrangement. Katherine Maher , the nonprofit Wikimedia Foundation's chief communications officer, said the changes address a sentiment among volunteer editors that 'we're not an advertising service; we're an encyclopedia. ' " [ 187 ] [ 188 ] [ 189 ] [ 190 ] [ 191 ] These issues, among others, had been parodied since the first decade of Wikipedia, notably by Stephen Colbert on The Colbert Report . [ 192 ] Discouragement in education Some university lecturers discourage students from citing any encyclopedia in academic work , preferring primary sources ; [ 193 ] some specifically prohibit Wikipedia citations. [ 194 ] [ 195 ] Wales stresses that encyclopedias of any type are not usually appropriate to use as citable sources, and should not be relied upon as authoritative. [ 196 ] Wales once (2006 or earlier) said he receives about ten emails weekly from students saying they got failing grades on papers because they cited Wikipedia; he told the students they got what they deserved. "For God's sake, you're in college; don't cite the encyclopedia", he said. [ 197 ] In February 2007, an article in The Harvard Crimson newspaper reported that a few of the professors at Harvard University were including Wikipedia articles in their syllabi , although without realizing the articles might change. [ 198 ] In June 2007, Michael Gorman , former president of the American Library Association , condemned Wikipedia, along with Google, stating that academics who endorse the use of Wikipedia are "the intellectual equivalent of a dietitian who recommends a steady diet of Big Macs with everything". [ 199 ] A 2020 research study published in Studies in Higher Education argued that Wikipedia could be applied in the higher education " flipped classroom ", an educational model where students learn before coming to class and apply it in classroom activities. The experimental group was instructed to learn before class and get immediate feedback before going in (the flipped classroom model), while the control group was given direct instructions in class (the conventional classroom model). The groups were then instructed to collaboratively develop Wikipedia entries, which would be graded in quality after the study. The results showed that the experimental group yielded more Wikipedia entries and received higher grades in quality. The study concluded that learning with Wikipedia in flipped classrooms was more effective than in conventional classrooms, demonstrating Wikipedia could be used as an educational tool in higher education. [ 200 ] Medical information On March 5, 2014, Julie Beck writing for The Atlantic magazine in an article titled "Doctors' #1 Source for Healthcare Information: Wikipedia", stated that "Fifty percent of physicians look up conditions on the (Wikipedia) site, and some are editing articles themselves to improve the quality of available information." [ 201 ] Beck continued to detail in this article new programs of Amin Azzam at the University of San Francisco to offer medical school courses to medical students for learning to edit and improve Wikipedia articles on health-related issues , as well as internal quality control programs within Wikipedia organized by James Heilman to improve a group of 200 health-related articles of central medical importance up to Wikipedia's highest standard of articles using its Featured Article and Good Article peer-review evaluation process. [ 201 ] In a May 7, 2014, follow-up article in The Atlantic titled "Can Wikipedia Ever Be a Definitive Medical Text?", Julie Beck quotes WikiProject Medicine's James Heilman as stating: "Just because a reference is peer-reviewed doesn't mean it's a high-quality reference." [ 202 ] Beck added that: "Wikipedia has its own peer review process before articles can be classified as 'good' or 'featured'. Heilman, who has participated in that process before, says 'less than one percent' of Wikipedia's medical articles have passed." [ 202 ] Coverage of topics and systemic bias Wikipedia seeks to create a summary of all human knowledge in the form of an online encyclopedia, with each topic covered encyclopedically in one article. Since it has terabytes of disk space , it can have far more topics than can be covered by any printed encyclopedia. [ W 49 ] The exact degree and manner of coverage on Wikipedia is under constant review by its editors, and disagreements are not uncommon (see deletionism and inclusionism ). [ 203 ] [ 204 ] Wikipedia contains materials that some people may find objectionable, offensive, or pornographic. [ W 50 ] The "Wikipedia is not censored" policy has sometimes proved controversial: in 2008, Wikipedia rejected an online petition against the inclusion of images of Muhammad in the English edition of its Muhammad article, citing this policy. [ 205 ] The presence of politically, religiously, and pornographically sensitive materials in Wikipedia has led to the censorship of Wikipedia by national authorities in China [ 206 ] and Pakistan, [ 207 ] among other countries. [ 208 ] [ 209 ] [ 210 ] Through its "Wikipedia Loves Libraries" program, Wikipedia has partnered with major public libraries such as the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts to expand its coverage of underrepresented subjects and articles. [ 211 ] A 2011 study conducted by researchers at the University of Minnesota indicated that male and female editors focus on different coverage topics. There was a greater concentration of females in the "people and arts" category, while males focus more on "geography and science". [ 212 ] An editorial in The Guardian in 2014 claimed that more effort went into providing references for a list of female porn actors than a list of women writers . [ 213 ] Systemic biases Wikipedia's policies may limit "its capacity for truly representing global knowledge". For example, Wikipedia only considers published sources to be reliable. Oral knowledge of Indigenous cultures is not always reflected in print. Marginalized topics are also more likely to lack significant coverage in reliable sources. Wikipedia's content is therefore limited as a result of larger systemic biases. [ 214 ] Academic studies of Wikipedia have shown that the average contributor to the English Wikipedia is an educated, technically inclined white male, aged 15–49, from a developed, predominantly Christian country. [ 215 ] The corresponding point of view (POV) is over-represented. [ 216 ] [ 165 ] This systemic bias in editor demographic results in cultural bias , gender bias , and geographical bias on Wikipedia . [ 217 ] [ 218 ] There are two broad types of bias, which are implicit (when a topic is omitted) and explicit (when a certain POV is over-represented in an article or by references). [ 216 ] Interdisciplinary scholarly assessments of Wikipedia articles have found that while articles are typically accurate and free of misinformation, they are also typically incomplete and fail to present all perspectives with a neutral point of view . [ 217 ] In 2011, Wales claimed that the unevenness of coverage is a reflection of the demography of the editors, citing for example "biographies of famous women through history and issues surrounding early childcare". [ 36 ] The October 22, 2013, essay by Tom Simonite in MIT's Technology Review titled "The Decline of Wikipedia" discussed the effect of systemic bias and policy creep on the downward trend in the number of editors . [ 37 ] Research conducted by Mark Graham of the Oxford Internet Institute in 2009 indicated that the geographic distribution of article topics is highly uneven, with Africa being the most underrepresented. [ 219 ] Across 30 language editions of Wikipedia, historical articles and sections are generally Eurocentric and focused on recent events. [ 220 ] Explicit content Wikipedia has been criticized for allowing information about graphic content. [ 221 ] Articles depicting what some critics have called objectionable content (such as feces , cadaver , human penis , vulva , and nudity) contain graphic pictures and detailed information easily available to anyone with access to the internet, including children. [ W 51 ] The site also includes sexual content such as images and videos of masturbation and ejaculation , illustrations of zoophilia , and photos from hardcore pornographic films in its articles. It also has non-sexual photographs of nude children . [ W 52 ] The Wikipedia article about Virgin Killer —a 1976 album from the German rock band Scorpions —features a picture of the album's original cover, which depicts a naked prepubescent girl. The original release cover caused controversy and was replaced in some countries. In December 2008, access to the Wikipedia article Virgin Killer was blocked for four days by most Internet service providers in the United Kingdom after the Internet Watch Foundation (IWF) decided the album cover was a potentially illegal indecent image and added the article's URL to a "blacklist" it supplies to British internet service providers. [ 222 ] In April 2010, Sanger wrote a letter to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, outlining his concerns that two categories of images on Wikimedia Commons contained child pornography, and were in violation of US federal obscenity law . [ 223 ] [ 224 ] Sanger later clarified that the images, which were related to pedophilia and one about lolicon , were not of real children, but said that they constituted "obscene visual representations of the sexual abuse of children", under the PROTECT Act of 2003 . [ 225 ] That law bans photographic child pornography and cartoon images and drawings of children that are obscene under American law . [ 225 ] Sanger also expressed concerns about access to the images on Wikipedia in schools. [ 226 ] Wikimedia Foundation spokesman Jay Walsh strongly rejected Sanger's accusation, [ 227 ] saying that Wikipedia did not have "material we would deem to be illegal. If we did, we would remove it." [ 227 ] Following the complaint by Sanger, Wales deleted sexual images without consulting the community. After some editors who volunteered to maintain the site argued that the decision to delete had been made hastily, Wales voluntarily gave up some of the powers he had held up to that time as part of his co-founder status. He wrote in a message to the Wikimedia Foundation mailing-list that this action was "in the interest of encouraging this discussion to be about real philosophical/content issues, rather than be about me and how quickly I acted". [ 228 ] Critics, including Wikipediocracy , noticed that many of the pornographic images deleted from Wikipedia since 2010 have reappeared. [ 229 ] Privacy One privacy concern in the case of Wikipedia regards one's right to remain a private citizen rather than a public figure in the eyes of the law. [ 230 ] [ g ] It is a battle between the right to be anonymous in cyberspace and the right to be anonymous in real life . The Wikimedia Foundation's privacy policy states, "we believe that you shouldn't have to provide personal information to participate in the free knowledge movement", and states that "personal information" may be shared "For legal reasons", "To Protect You, Ourselves & Others", or "To Understand & Experiment". [ W 53 ] In January 2006, a German court ordered the German Wikipedia shut down within Germany because it stated the full name of Boris Floricic , aka "Tron", a deceased hacker. On February 9, 2006, the injunction against Wikimedia Deutschland was overturned, with the court rejecting the notion that Tron's right to privacy or that of his parents was being violated. [ 231 ] Wikipedia has a " .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}} Volunteer Response Team " that uses Znuny, a free and open-source software fork of OTRS [ W 54 ] to handle queries without having to reveal the identities of the involved parties. This is used, for example, in confirming the permission for using individual images and other media in the project. [ W 55 ] In late April 2023, Wikimedia Foundation announced that Wikipedia will not submit to any age verifications that may be required by the UK's Online Safety Bill legislation. Rebecca MacKinnon of the Wikimedia Foundation said that such checks would run counter to the website's commitment to minimal data collection on its contributors and readers. [ 232 ] Sexism Wikipedia was described in 2015 as harboring a battleground culture of sexism and harassment . [ 233 ] [ 234 ] The perceived tolerance of abusive language was a reason put forth in 2013 for the gender gap in Wikipedia editorship. [ 235 ] Edit-a-thons have been held to encourage female editors and increase the coverage of women's topics. [ 236 ] In May 2018, a Wikipedia editor rejected a submitted article about Donna Strickland due to lack of coverage in the media. [ W 56 ] [ 237 ] Five months later, Strickland won a Nobel Prize in Physics "for groundbreaking inventions in the field of laser physics", becoming the third woman to ever receive the award. [ 237 ] [ 238 ] Prior to winning the award, Strickland's only mention on Wikipedia was in the article about her collaborator and co-winner of the award Gérard Mourou . [ 237 ] Her exclusion from Wikipedia led to accusations of sexism, but Corinne Purtill writing for Quartz argued that "it's also a pointed lesson in the hazards of gender bias in media, and of the broader consequences of underrepresentation." [ 239 ] Purtill attributes the issue to the gender bias in media coverage. [ 239 ] A comprehensive 2008 survey, published in 2016, by Julia B. Bear of Stony Brook University 's College of Business and Benjamin Collier of Carnegie Mellon University found significant gender differences in confidence in expertise, discomfort with editing, and response to critical feedback. "Women reported less confidence in their expertise, expressed greater discomfort with editing (which typically involves conflict), and reported more negative responses to critical feedback compared to men." [ 240 ] Operation Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements Wikipedia is hosted and funded by the Wikimedia Foundation , a non-profit organization which also operates Wikipedia-related projects such as Wiktionary and Wikibooks . [ W 57 ] The foundation relies on public contributions and grants to fund its mission. [ 241 ] [ W 58 ] The foundation's 2020 Internal Revenue Service Form 990 shows revenue of $124.6 million and expenses of almost $112.2 million, with assets of about $191.2 million and liabilities of almost $11 million. [ W 59 ] In May 2014, Wikimedia Foundation named Lila Tretikov as its second executive director, taking over for Sue Gardner. [ W 60 ] The Wall Street Journal reported on May 1, 2014, that Tretikov's information technology background, from her years at University of California offers Wikipedia an opportunity to develop in more concentrated directions guided by her often repeated position statement that, "Information, like air, wants to be free." [ 242 ] [ 243 ] The same Wall Street Journal article reported these directions of development according to an interview with spokesman Jay Walsh of Wikimedia, who "said Tretikov would address that issue ( paid advocacy ) as a priority. 'We are really pushing toward more transparency ... We are reinforcing that paid advocacy is not welcome.' Initiatives to involve greater diversity of contributors, better mobile support of Wikipedia, new geo-location tools to find local content more easily, and more tools for users in the second and third world are also priorities", Walsh said. [ 242 ] Following the departure of Tretikov from Wikipedia due to issues concerning the use of the "superprotection" feature which some language versions of Wikipedia have adopted, [ W 61 ] Katherine Maher became the third executive director of the Wikimedia Foundation in June 2016. [ W 62 ] Maher stated that one of her priorities would be the issue of editor harassment endemic to Wikipedia as identified by the Wikipedia board in December. She said to Bloomberg Businessweek regarding the harassment issue that: "It establishes a sense within the community that this is a priority ... [and that correction requires that] it has to be more than words." [ 142 ] Maher served as executive director until April 2021. [ 244 ] Maryana Iskander was named the incoming CEO in September 2021, and took over that role in January 2022. She stated that one of her focuses would be increasing diversity in the Wikimedia community. [ 245 ] Wikipedia is also supported by many organizations and groups that are affiliated with the Wikimedia Foundation but independently-run, called Wikimedia movement affiliates . These include Wikimedia chapters (which are national or sub-national organizations, such as Wikimedia Deutschland and Wikimedia France), thematic organizations (such as Amical Wikimedia for the Catalan language community), and user groups. These affiliates participate in the promotion, development, and funding of Wikipedia. [ W 63 ] Software operations and support The operation of Wikipedia depends on MediaWiki , a custom-made, free and open source wiki software platform written in PHP and built upon the MySQL database system. [ W 64 ] The software incorporates programming features such as a macro language , variables , a transclusion system for templates , and URL redirection . [ W 65 ] MediaWiki is licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL) and it is used by all Wikimedia projects, as well as many other wiki projects. [ W 64 ] [ W 66 ] Originally, Wikipedia ran on UseModWiki written in Perl by Clifford Adams (Phase I), which initially required CamelCase for article hyperlinks; the present double bracket style was incorporated later. [ W 67 ] Starting in January 2002 (Phase II), Wikipedia began running on a PHP wiki engine with a MySQL database; this software was custom-made for Wikipedia by Magnus Manske . The Phase II software was repeatedly modified to accommodate the exponentially increasing demand. In July 2002 (Phase III), Wikipedia shifted to the third-generation software, MediaWiki, originally written by Lee Daniel Crocker . Several MediaWiki extensions are installed to extend the functionality of the MediaWiki software. [ W 68 ] In April 2005, a Lucene extension [ W 69 ] [ W 70 ] was added to MediaWiki's built-in search and Wikipedia switched from MySQL to Lucene for searching. Lucene was later replaced by CirrusSearch which is based on Elasticsearch . [ W 71 ] In July 2013, after extensive beta testing, a WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) extension, VisualEditor , was opened to public use. [ 246 ] [ 247 ] [ 248 ] It was met with much rejection and criticism, and was described as "slow and buggy". [ 249 ] The feature was changed from opt-out to opt-in afterward. [ W 72 ] Automated editing Computer programs called bots have often been used to perform simple and repetitive tasks, such as correcting common misspellings and stylistic issues, or to start articles such as geography entries in a standard format from statistical data. [ W 73 ] [ 250 ] [ 251 ] One controversial contributor, Sverker Johansson , created articles with his bot Lsjbot , which was reported to create up to 10,000 articles on the Swedish Wikipedia on certain days. [ 252 ] Additionally, there are bots designed to automatically notify editors when they make common editing errors (such as unmatched quotes or unmatched parentheses). [ W 74 ] Edits falsely identified by bots as the work of a banned editor can be restored by other editors. An anti-vandal bot is programmed to detect and revert vandalism quickly. [ 250 ] Bots are able to indicate edits from particular accounts or IP address ranges, as occurred at the time of the shooting down of the MH17 jet in July 2014 when it was reported that edits were made via IPs controlled by the Russian government. [ 253 ] Bots on Wikipedia must be approved before activation. [ W 75 ] According to Andrew Lih , the current expansion of Wikipedia to millions of articles would be difficult to envision without the use of such bots. [ 254 ] Hardware operations and support As of 2021, [update] page requests are first passed to a front-end layer of Varnish caching servers and back-end layer caching is done by Apache Traffic Server . [ W 76 ] Requests that cannot be served from the Varnish cache are sent to load-balancing servers running the Linux Virtual Server software, which in turn pass them to one of the Apache web servers for page rendering from the database. [ W 76 ] The web servers deliver pages as requested, performing page rendering for all the language editions of Wikipedia. To increase speed further, rendered pages are cached in a distributed memory cache until invalidated, allowing page rendering to be skipped entirely for most common page accesses. [ 255 ] Wikipedia currently runs on dedicated clusters of Linux servers running the Debian operating system. [ W 77 ] By January 22, 2013, Wikipedia had migrated its primary data center to an Equinix facility in Ashburn, Virginia . [ W 78 ] [ 256 ] A second application data center was created in 2014 in Carrollton, Texas , to improve Wikipedia's reliability. [ 257 ] [ 258 ] Both datacenters work as the primary one, in alternate semesters, with the other one working as secondary datacenter. [ 259 ] In 2017, Wikipedia installed a caching cluster in an Equinix facility in Singapore , the first of its kind in Asia. [ W 79 ] In 2022, a caching data center was opened in Marseille , France. [ W 80 ] In 2024, a caching data center was opened in São Paulo , the first of its kind in South America. [ W 81 ] As of November 2024, [update] caching clusters are located in Amsterdam , San Francisco, Singapore, Marseille, and São Paulo. [ W 82 ] [ W 83 ] Internal research and operational development Following growing amounts of incoming donations in 2013 exceeding seven digits, [ 37 ] the Foundation has reached a threshold of assets which qualify its consideration under the principles of industrial organization economics to indicate the need for the re-investment of donations into the internal research and development of the Foundation. [ 260 ] Two projects of such internal research and development have been the creation of a Visual Editor and the "Thank" tab in the edit history, which were developed to improve issues of editor attrition. [ 37 ] [ 249 ] The estimates for reinvestment by industrial organizations into internal research and development was studied by Adam Jaffe , who recorded that the range of 4% to 25% annually was to be recommended, with high-end technology requiring the higher level of support for internal reinvestment. [ 261 ] At the 2013 level of contributions for Wikimedia presently documented as 45 million dollars, [ W 84 ] the computed budget level recommended by Jaffe for reinvestment into internal research and development is between 1.8 million and 11.3 million dollars annually. [ 261 ] In 2019, the level of contributions were reported by the Wikimedia Foundation as being at $120 million annually, [ W 85 ] updating the Jaffe estimates for the higher level of support to between $3.08 million and $19.2 million annually. [ 261 ] Internal news publications Multiple Wikimedia projects have internal news publications. Wikimedia 's online newspaper The Signpost was founded in 2005 by Michael Snow, a Wikipedia administrator who would join the Wikimedia Foundation's board of trustees in 2008. [ 262 ] [ 263 ] The publication covers news and events from the English Wikipedia, the Wikimedia Foundation, and Wikipedia's sister projects . [ W 86 ] The Wikipedia Library Wikipedia editors sometimes struggle to access paywalled sources needed to improve a subject. [ 264 ] The Wikipedia Library is a resource for Wikipedia editors which provides free access to a wide range of digital publications , so that they can consult and cite these while editing the encyclopedia. [ 265 ] [ 266 ] Over 60 publishers have partnered with The Wikipedia Library to provide access to their resources: when ICE Publishing joined in 2020, a spokesman said "By enabling free access to our content for Wikipedia editors, we hope to further the research community's resources – creating and updating Wikipedia entries on civil engineering which are read by thousands of monthly readers." [ 267 ] Access to content Content licensing When the project was started in 2001, all text in Wikipedia was covered by the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL), a copyleft license permitting the redistribution, creation of derivative works, and commercial use of content while authors retain copyright of their work. [ W 87 ] The GFDL was created for software manuals that come with free software programs licensed under the GPL . This made it a poor choice for a general reference work: for example, the GFDL requires the reprints of materials from Wikipedia to come with a full copy of the GFDL text. [ 268 ] In December 2002, the Creative Commons license was released; it was specifically designed for creative works in general, not just for software manuals. The Wikipedia project sought the switch to the Creative Commons. [ W 88 ] Because the GFDL and Creative Commons were incompatible, in November 2008, following the request of the project, the Free Software Foundation (FSF) released a new version of the GFDL designed specifically to allow Wikipedia to relicense its content to CC BY-SA by August 1, 2009. [ W 89 ] In April 2009, Wikipedia and its sister projects held a community-wide referendum which decided the switch in June 2009. [ W 90 ] [ W 91 ] [ W 92 ] [ W 93 ] The handling of media files (e.g. image files) varies across language editions. Some language editions, such as the English Wikipedia, include non-free image files under fair use doctrine, [ W 94 ] while the others have opted not to, in part because of the lack of fair use doctrines in their home countries (e.g. in Japanese copyright law ). Media files covered by free content licenses (e.g. Creative Commons ' CC BY-SA ) are shared across language editions via Wikimedia Commons repository, a project operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. [ W 95 ] Wikipedia's accommodation of varying international copyright laws regarding images has led some to observe that its photographic coverage of topics lags behind the quality of the encyclopedic text. [ 269 ] The Wikimedia Foundation is not a licensor of content on Wikipedia or its related projects but merely a hosting service for contributors to and licensors of Wikipedia, a position which was successfully defended in 2004 in a court in France. [ 270 ] [ 271 ] Methods of access Since Wikipedia content is distributed under an open license, anyone can reuse or re-distribute it at no charge. [ W 96 ] The content of Wikipedia has been published in many forms, both online and offline, outside the Wikipedia website. Thousands of " mirror sites " exist that republish content from Wikipedia; two prominent ones that also include content from other reference sources are Reference.com and Answers.com . [ 272 ] [ 273 ] Another example is Wapedia , which began to display Wikipedia content in a mobile-device-friendly format before Wikipedia itself did. [ W 97 ] Some web search engines make special use of Wikipedia content when displaying search results: examples include Microsoft Bing (via technology gained from Powerset ) [ 274 ] and DuckDuckGo . Collections of Wikipedia articles have been published on optical discs . An English version released in 2006 contained about 2,000 articles. [ W 98 ] The Polish-language version from 2006 contains nearly 240,000 articles, [ W 99 ] the German-language version from 2007/2008 contains over 620,000 articles, [ W 100 ] and the Spanish-language version from 2011 contains 886,000 articles. [ W 101 ] Additionally, "Wikipedia for Schools", the Wikipedia series of CDs / DVDs produced by Wikipedia and SOS Children , is a free selection from Wikipedia designed for education towards children eight to seventeen. [ W 102 ] There have been efforts to put a select subset of Wikipedia's articles into printed book form. [ 275 ] [ W 103 ] Since 2009, tens of thousands of print-on-demand books that reproduced English, German, Russian, and French Wikipedia articles have been produced by the American company Books LLC and by three Mauritian subsidiaries of the German publisher VDM . [ 276 ] The website DBpedia , begun in 2007, extracts data from the infoboxes and category declarations of the English-language Wikipedia. [ 277 ] Wikimedia has created the Wikidata project with a similar objective of storing the basic facts from each page of Wikipedia and other Wikimedia Foundation projects and make it available in a queryable semantic format, RDF . [ W 104 ] As of February 2023, [update] it has over 101 million items. [ W 105 ] WikiReader is a dedicated reader device that contains an offline copy of Wikipedia, which was launched by OpenMoko and first released in 2009. [ W 106 ] Obtaining the full contents of Wikipedia for reuse presents challenges, since direct cloning via a web crawler is discouraged. [ W 107 ] Wikipedia publishes " dumps " of its contents, but these are text-only; as of 2023, [update] there is no dump available of Wikipedia's images. [ W 108 ] Wikimedia Enterprise is a for-profit solution to this. [ 278 ] Several languages of Wikipedia also maintain a reference desk, where volunteers answer questions from the general public. According to a study by Pnina Shachaf in the Journal of Documentation , the quality of the Wikipedia reference desk is comparable to a standard library reference desk , with an accuracy of 55 percent. [ 279 ] Mobile access Wikipedia's original medium was for users to read and edit content using any standard web browser through a fixed Internet connection . Although Wikipedia content has been accessible through the mobile web since July 2013, The New York Times on February 9, 2014, quoted Erik Möller , deputy director of the Wikimedia Foundation, stating that the transition of internet traffic from desktops to mobile devices was significant and a cause for concern and worry. The article in The New York Times reported the comparison statistics for mobile edits stating that, "Only 20 percent of the readership of the English-language Wikipedia comes via mobile devices, a figure substantially lower than the percentage of mobile traffic for other media sites, many of which approach 50 percent. And the shift to mobile editing has lagged even more." In 2014 The New York Times reported that Möller has assigned "a team of 10 software developers focused on mobile", out of a total of approximately 200 employees working at the Wikimedia Foundation. One principal concern cited by The New York Times for the "worry" is for Wikipedia to effectively address attrition issues with the number of editors which the online encyclopedia attracts to edit and maintain its content in a mobile access environment. [ 51 ] By 2023, the Wikimedia Foundation's staff had grown to over 700 employees. [ 1 ] Access to Wikipedia from mobile phones was possible as early as 2004, through the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP), via the Wapedia service. [ W 97 ] In June 2007, Wikipedia launched en.mobile.wikipedia.org, an official website for wireless devices. In 2009, a newer mobile service was officially released, located at en.m.wikipedia.org, which caters to more advanced mobile devices such as the iPhone , Android -based devices, or WebOS -based devices. [ W 109 ] Several other methods of mobile access to Wikipedia have emerged since. Many devices and applications optimize or enhance the display of Wikipedia content for mobile devices, while some also incorporate additional features such as use of Wikipedia metadata like geoinformation . [ 280 ] [ 281 ] The Android app for Wikipedia was released in January 2012, to over 500,000 installs and generally positive reviews, scoring over four of a possible five in a poll of approximately 200,000 users downloading from Google. [ W 110 ] [ W 111 ] The version for iOS was released on April 3, 2013, to similar reviews. [ W 112 ] Wikipedia Zero was an initiative of the Wikimedia Foundation to expand the reach of the encyclopedia to the developing countries by partnering with mobile operators to allow free access. [ W 113 ] [ 282 ] It was discontinued in February 2018 due to lack of participation from mobile operators. [ W 113 ] Andrew Lih and Andrew Brown both maintain editing Wikipedia with smartphones is difficult and this discourages new potential contributors. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Lih states that the number of Wikipedia editors has been declining after several years, [ 283 ] and Tom Simonite of MIT Technology Review claims the bureaucratic structure and rules are a factor in this. Simonite alleges some Wikipedians use the labyrinthine rules and guidelines to dominate others and those editors have a vested interest in keeping the status quo. [ 37 ] Lih alleges there is a serious disagreement among existing contributors on how to resolve this. Lih fears for Wikipedia's long-term future while Brown fears problems with Wikipedia will remain and rival encyclopedias will not replace it. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Chinese access Access to Wikipedia has been blocked in mainland China since May 2015. [ 6 ] [ 285 ] [ 286 ] This was done after Wikipedia started to use HTTPS encryption, which made selective censorship more difficult. [ 287 ] Cultural influence Trusted source to combat fake news In 2017–18, after a barrage of false news reports, both Facebook and YouTube announced they would rely on Wikipedia to help their users evaluate reports and reject false news. [ 288 ] [ 289 ] Noam Cohen , writing in The Washington Post states, "YouTube's reliance on Wikipedia to set the record straight builds on the thinking of another fact-challenged platform, the Facebook social network, which announced last year that Wikipedia would help its users root out ' fake news '." [ 289 ] [ 290 ] Readership In February 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia was ranked fifth globally among all websites, stating "With 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, ... Wikipedia trails just Yahoo, Facebook, Microsoft and Google, the largest with 1.2 billion unique visitors." [ 51 ] However, its ranking dropped to 13th globally by June 2020 due mostly to a rise in popularity of Chinese websites for online shopping. [ 43 ] The website has since recovered its ranking as of April 2022. [ 43 ] In addition to logistic growth in the number of its articles, [ W 114 ] Wikipedia has steadily gained status as a general reference website since its inception in 2001. [ 291 ] The number of readers of Wikipedia worldwide reached 365 million at the end of 2009. [ W 115 ] The Pew Internet and American Life project found that one third of US Internet users consulted Wikipedia. [ 292 ] In 2011, Business Insider gave Wikipedia a valuation of $4 billion if it ran advertisements. [ 293 ] According to "Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011", the average age of Wikipedia readers is 36, with a rough parity between genders. Almost half of Wikipedia readers visit the site more than five times a month, and a similar number of readers specifically look for Wikipedia in search engine results. About 47 percent of Wikipedia readers do not realize that Wikipedia is a non-profit organization. [ W 116 ] As of February 2023, [update] Wikipedia attracts around 2 billion unique devices monthly, with the English Wikipedia receiving 10 billion pageviews each month. [ W 1 ] COVID-19 pandemic During the COVID-19 pandemic , Wikipedia's coverage of the pandemic and fight against misinformation received international media attention, and brought an increase in Wikipedia readership overall. [ 294 ] [ 295 ] [ 296 ] [ 297 ] Noam Cohen wrote in Wired that Wikipedia's effort to combat misinformation related to the pandemic was different from other major websites, opining, "Unless Twitter, Facebook and the others can learn to address misinformation more effectively, Wikipedia will remain the last best place on the Internet." [ 295 ] In October 2020, the World Health Organization announced they were freely licensing its infographics and other materials on Wikimedia projects. [ 298 ] There were nearly 7,000 COVID-19 related Wikipedia articles across 188 different Wikipedias, as of November 2021. [update] [ 299 ] [ 300 ] Cultural significance Wikipedia's content has also been used in academic studies, books, conferences, and court cases. [ W 117 ] [ 301 ] [ 302 ] The Parliament of Canada 's website refers to Wikipedia's article on same-sex marriage in the "related links" section of its "further reading" list for the Civil Marriage Act . [ 303 ] The encyclopedia's assertions are increasingly used as a source by organizations such as the US federal courts and the World Intellectual Property Organization [ 304 ] —though mainly for supporting information rather than information decisive to a case. [ 305 ] Content appearing on Wikipedia has also been cited as a source and referenced in some US intelligence agency reports. [ 306 ] In December 2008, the scientific journal RNA Biology launched a new section for descriptions of families of RNA molecules and requires authors who contribute to the section to also submit a draft article on the RNA family for publication in Wikipedia. [ 307 ] Wikipedia has also been used as a source in journalism, [ 308 ] [ 309 ] often without attribution, and several reporters have been dismissed for plagiarizing from Wikipedia . [ 310 ] [ 311 ] [ 312 ] [ 313 ] In 2006, Time magazine recognized Wikipedia's participation (along with YouTube, Reddit , MySpace , and Facebook) in the rapid growth of online collaboration and interaction by millions of people worldwide. [ 314 ] On September 16, 2007, The Washington Post reported that Wikipedia had become a focal point in the 2008 US election campaign , saying: "Type a candidate's name into Google, and among the first results is a Wikipedia page, making those entries arguably as important as any ad in defining a candidate. Already, the presidential entries are being edited, dissected and debated countless times each day." [ 315 ] An October 2007 Reuters article, titled "Wikipedia page the latest status symbol", reported the recent phenomenon of how having a Wikipedia article vindicates one's notability. [ 316 ] One of the first times Wikipedia was involved in a governmental affair was on September 28, 2007, when Italian politician Franco Grillini raised a parliamentary question with the minister of cultural resources and activities about the necessity of freedom of panorama . He said that the lack of such freedom forced Wikipedia, "the seventh most consulted website", to forbid all images of modern Italian buildings and art, and claimed this was hugely damaging to tourist revenues. [ 317 ] A working group led by Peter Stone (formed as a part of the Stanford -based project One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence ) in its report called Wikipedia "the best-known example of crowdsourcing ... that far exceeds traditionally-compiled information sources, such as encyclopedias and dictionaries, in scale and depth". [ 318 ] [ 319 ] In a 2017 opinion piece for Wired , Hossein Derakhshan describes Wikipedia as "one of the last remaining pillars of the open and decentralized web " and contrasted its existence as a text-based source of knowledge with social media and social networking services , the latter having "since colonized the web for television's values". For Derakhshan, Wikipedia's goal as an encyclopedia represents the Age of Enlightenment tradition of rationality triumphing over emotions, a trend which he considers "endangered" due to the "gradual shift from a typographic culture to a photographic one, which in turn mean[s] a shift from rationality to emotions, exposition to entertainment". Rather than " sapere aude " ( lit. ' dare to know ' ), social networks have led to a culture of "dare not to care to know". This is while Wikipedia faces "a more concerning problem" than funding, namely "a flattening growth rate in the number of contributors to the website". Consequently, the challenge for Wikipedia and those who use it is to "save Wikipedia and its promise of a free and open collection of all human knowledge amid the conquest of new and old television—how to collect and preserve knowledge when nobody cares to know." [ 320 ] Awards Wikipedia has won many awards, receiving its first two major awards in May 2004. [ W 118 ] The first was a Golden Nica for Digital Communities of the annual Prix Ars Electronica contest; this came with a €10,000 (£6,588; $12,700) grant and an invitation to present at the PAE Cyberarts Festival in Austria later that year. The second was a Judges' Webby Award for the "community" category. [ 321 ] In September 2008, Wikipedia received Quadriga A Mission of Enlightenment award of Werkstatt Deutschland along with Boris Tadić , Eckart Höfling , and Peter Gabriel . The award was presented to Wales by David Weinberger . [ 322 ] In 2015, Wikipedia was awarded both the annual Erasmus Prize , which recognizes exceptional contributions to culture, society or social sciences, [ 323 ] and the Spanish Princess of Asturias Award on International Cooperation. [ 324 ] Speaking at the Asturian Parliament in Oviedo, the city that hosts the awards ceremony, Jimmy Wales praised the work of the Asturian Wikipedia users. [ 325 ] Satire Comedian Stephen Colbert has parodied or referenced Wikipedia on numerous episodes of his show The Colbert Report and coined the related term wikiality , meaning "together we can create a reality that we all agree on—the reality we just agreed on". [ 192 ] Another example can be found in "Wikipedia Celebrates 750 Years of American Independence", a July 2006 front-page article in The Onion , [ 326 ] as well as the 2010 The Onion article " 'L.A. Law' Wikipedia Page Viewed 874 Times Today". [ 327 ] In an April 2007 episode of the American television comedy The Office , office manager ( Michael Scott ) is shown relying on a hypothetical Wikipedia article for information on negotiation tactics to assist him in negotiating lesser pay for an employee. [ 328 ] Viewers of the show tried to add the episode's mention of the page as a section of the actual Wikipedia article on negotiation, but this effort was prevented by other users on the article's talk page. [ 329 ] " My Number One Doctor ", a 2007 episode of the television show Scrubs , played on the perception that Wikipedia is an unreliable reference tool with a scene in which Perry Cox reacts to a patient who says that a Wikipedia article indicates that the raw food diet reverses the effects of bone cancer by retorting that the same editor who wrote that article also wrote the Battlestar Galactica episode guide . [ 330 ] In 2008, the comedy website CollegeHumor produced a video sketch named "Professor Wikipedia", in which the fictitious Professor Wikipedia instructs a class with a medley of unverifiable and occasionally absurd statements. [ 331 ] The Dilbert comic strip from May 8, 2009, features a character supporting an improbable claim by saying "Give me ten minutes and then check Wikipedia." [ 332 ] In July 2009, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a comedy series called Bigipedia , which was set on a website which was a parody of Wikipedia. [ 333 ] Some of the sketches were directly inspired by Wikipedia and its articles. [ 334 ] On August 23, 2013, the New Yorker website published a cartoon with this caption: "Dammit, Manning, have you considered the pronoun war that this is going to start on your Wikipedia page?" [ 335 ] The cartoon referred to Chelsea Elizabeth Manning (born Bradley Edward Manning), an American activist, politician, and former United States Army soldier who had recently come out as a trans woman . [ 336 ] In June 2024, nature.com published a fictional Wikipedia Talk page under the title "Plastic-eating fungus caused doomsday" by Emma Burnett. The Talk page concerned a fictional article describing the unintended consequences of the release of a plastic-eating fungus to clean up an oil spill. The article contained Talk page topics found on Wikipedia, like discussions of changes in the articles priority level. [ 337 ] Publishing The most obvious economic effect of Wikipedia has been the death of commercial encyclopedias, especially printed versions like Encyclopædia Britannica , which were unable to compete with a free alternative. [ 338 ] [ 339 ] [ 340 ] Nicholas Carr 's 2005 essay "The amorality of Web 2.0 " criticizes websites with user-generated content (like Wikipedia) for possibly leading to professional (and, in his view, superior) content producers' going out of business, because "free trumps quality all the time". Carr wrote, "Implicit in the ecstatic visions of Web 2.0 is the hegemony of the amateur. I for one can't imagine anything more frightening." [ 341 ] Others dispute the notion that Wikipedia, or similar efforts, will entirely displace traditional publications. Chris Anderson , the former editor-in-chief of Wired , wrote in Nature that the " wisdom of crowds " approach of Wikipedia will not displace top scientific journals with rigorous peer review processes. [ 342 ] Wikipedia's influence on the biography publishing business has been a concern for some. Book publishing data tracker Nielsen BookScan stated in 2013 that biography sales were dropping "far more sharply". [ 343 ] Kathryn Hughes , professor of life writing at the University of East Anglia and author of two biographies wrote, "The worry is that, if you can get all that information from Wikipedia, what's left for biography?" [ 343 ] Research use Wikipedia has been widely used as a corpus for linguistic research in computational linguistics , information retrieval and natural language processing . [ 344 ] [ 345 ] In particular, it commonly serves as a target knowledge base for the entity linking problem, which is then called "wikification", [ 346 ] and to the related problem of word-sense disambiguation . [ 347 ] Methods similar to wikification can in turn be used to find "missing" links in Wikipedia. [ 348 ] In 2015, French researchers José Lages of the University of Franche-Comté in Besançon and Dima Shepelyansky of Paul Sabatier University in Toulouse published a global university ranking based on Wikipedia scholarly citations. [ 349 ] [ 350 ] [ 351 ] They used PageRank , CheiRank and similar algorithms "followed by the number of appearances in the 24 different language editions of Wikipedia (descending order) and the century in which they were founded (ascending order)". [ 351 ] [ 352 ] The study was updated in 2019. [ 353 ] In December 2015, John Julius Norwich stated, in a letter published in The Times newspaper, that as a historian he resorted to Wikipedia "at least a dozen times a day", and had "never caught it out". He described it as "a work of reference as useful as any in existence", with so wide a range that it is almost impossible to find a person, place, or thing that it has left uncovered and that he could never have written his last two books without it. [ 354 ] A 2017 MIT study suggests that words used in Wikipedia articles end up in scientific publications. [ 355 ] Studies related to Wikipedia have been using machine learning and artificial intelligence [ 319 ] to support various operations. One of the most important areas is the automatic detection of vandalism [ 356 ] [ 357 ] and data quality assessment in Wikipedia. [ 358 ] [ 359 ] Related projects Several interactive multimedia encyclopedias incorporating entries written by the public existed long before Wikipedia was founded. The first of these was the 1986 BBC Domesday Project , which included text (entered on BBC Micro computers) and photographs from more than a million contributors in the UK, and covered the geography, art, and culture of the UK. This was the first interactive multimedia encyclopedia (and was also the first major multimedia document connected through internal links), with the majority of articles being accessible through an interactive map of the UK. The user interface and part of the content of the Domesday Project were emulated on a website until 2008. [ 360 ] Several free-content, collaborative encyclopedias were created around the same period as Wikipedia (e.g. Everything2 ), [ 361 ] with many later being merged into the project (e.g. GNE ). [ W 119 ] One of the most successful early online encyclopedias incorporating entries by the public was h2g2 , which was created by Douglas Adams in 1999. The h2g2 encyclopedia is relatively lighthearted, focusing on articles which are both witty and informative. [ 362 ] Subsequent collaborative knowledge websites have drawn inspiration from Wikipedia. Others use more traditional peer review , such as Encyclopedia of Life and the online wiki encyclopedias Scholarpedia and Citizendium . [ 363 ] [ 364 ] The latter was started by Sanger in an attempt to create a reliable alternative to Wikipedia. [ 365 ] [ 366 ] See also Internet portal Wikipedia portal Democratization of knowledge Interpedia – an early proposal for a collaborative Internet encyclopedia List of films about Wikipedia List of online encyclopedias List of Wikipedia controversies List of wikis Missing Links and Secret Histories Network effect Outline of Wikipedia – guide to the subject of Wikipedia presented as a tree structured list of its subtopics; for an outline of the contents of Wikipedia, see Portal:Contents/Outlines QRpedia – multilingual, mobile interface to Wikipedia Wikipedia Review Notes ^ Registration is required for certain tasks, such as editing protected pages, creating pages on the English Wikipedia, and uploading files. ^ Most text is also dual-licensed under GFDL ; media licensing varies. ^ Pronounced / ˌ w ɪ k ɪ ˈ p iː d i ə / ⓘ WIK -ih- PEE -dee-ə or / ˌ w ɪ k i -/ ⓘ WIK -ee- PEE -dee-ə in English ^ Available as an archive at the Nostalgia Wikipedia ^ Revisions with libelous content, criminal threats, or copyright infringements may be removed completely. ^ The committee may directly rule that a content change is inappropriate, but may not directly rule that certain content is inappropriate. ^ See "Libel" by David McHam for the legal distinction. References Footnotes ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Seitz-Gruwell, Lisa (October 23, 2023). 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If you [...] demand that something be done about constant disruption by trollish behavior, the other listmembers will cry "censorship", attack you, and even come to the defense of the troll. [...] The root problem: anti-elitism, or lack of respect for expertise. There is a deeper problem [...] which explains both of the above-elaborated problems. Namely, as a community, Wikipedia lacks the habit or tradition of respect for expertise. As a community, far from being elitist, it is anti-elitist (which, in this context, means that expertise is not accorded any special respect, and snubs and disrespect of expertise are tolerated). This is one of my failures: a policy that I attempted to institute in Wikipedia's first year, but for which I did not muster adequate support, was the policy of respecting and deferring politely to experts. 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New York: Routledge. pp. 1– 107. ISBN 978-0-367-55571-9 . Further reading Balke, Jeff (March 2008). "For Music Fans: Wikipedia; MySpace" . Houston Chronicle . Broken Record (blog). Archived from the original on December 29, 2008 . Retrieved December 17, 2008 . Borland, John (August 14, 2007). "See Who's Editing Wikipedia – Diebold, the CIA, a Campaign" . Wired . Archived from the original on November 16, 2015 . Retrieved October 23, 2018 . Dee, Jonathan (July 1, 2007). "All the News That's Fit to Print Out" . The New York Times Magazine . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Giles, Jim (September 20, 2007). "Wikipedia 2.0 – Now with Added Trust" . New Scientist . Retrieved January 14, 2008 . Miliard, Mike (December 2, 2007). "Wikipedia Rules" . The Phoenix . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Poe, Marshall (September 1, 2006). "The Hive" . The Atlantic Monthly . Retrieved March 22, 2008 . Rosenwald, Michael S. (October 23, 2009). "Gatekeeper of D.C.'s entry: Road to city's Wikipedia page goes through a DuPont Circle bedroom" . The Washington Post . Retrieved October 22, 2009 . Runciman, David (May 28, 2009). "Like Boiling a Frog" . London Review of Books . Archived from the original on May 27, 2009 . Retrieved June 3, 2009 . Stix, Gary , "Wiki-Curious: Are you a 'busybody,' a 'hunter" or a 'dancer'?", Scientific American , vol. 332, no. 2 (February 2025), p. 18. "'Curiosity actually works by connecting pieces of information, not just acquiring them.'" Taylor, Chris (May 29, 2005). "It's a Wiki, Wiki World" . Time . Archived from the original on June 2, 2005 . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . "Technological Quarterly: Brain Scan: The Free-knowledge Fundamentalist" . The Economist . June 5, 2008 . Retrieved June 5, 2008 . Jimmy Wales changed the world with Wikipedia, the hugely popular online encyclopedia that anyone can edit. What will he do next? "Wikipedia probe into paid-for 'sockpuppet' entries" , BBC News, October 21, 2013. "The Decline of Wikipedia" Archived October 23, 2013, at the Library of Congress Web Archives, MIT Technology Review , October 22, 2013 "Edits to Wikipedia pages on Bell, Garner, Diallo traced to 1 Police Plaza" Archived March 13, 2015, at the Wayback Machine (March 2015), Capital Angola's Wikipedia Pirates Are Exposing Problems (March 2016), Motherboard "Dark Side of Wikipedia" . Full Measure . Archived from the original on August 4, 2016 . Retrieved April 17, 2016 . Full Measure with Sharyl Attkisson , April 17, 2016. (Includes video.) Wales, Jimmy (December 9, 2016). "How Wikipedia Works" . Cato Institute . Jimmy Wales, founder of Wikipedia, discusses the site, how it's treated by governments, and how it's fueled by its users. The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1: A Wiki is a Kind of Bus , Ideas, with Paul Kennedy , CBC Radio One , originally broadcast January 15, 2014. The webpage includes a link to the archived audio program (also found here ). The radio documentary discusses Wikipedia's history, development, and its place within the broader scope of the trend to democratized knowledge. It also includes interviews with several key Wikipedia staff and contributors, including Kat Walsh and Sue Gardner (audio, 53:58, Flash required). "So Is Wikipedia Cracking Up?" The Independent , February 3, 2009. Wikipedia's Year-End List Shows What the Internet Needed to Know in 2019 . Alyse Stanley, December 27, 2019, Gizmodo. Academic studies Leitch, Thomas (2014). Wikipedia U: Knowledge, authority, and a liberal education in the digital age . JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-1535-2 . Jensen, Richard (October 2012). "Military History on the Electronic Frontier: Wikipedia Fights the War of 1812" (PDF) . The Journal of Military History . 76 (4): 523– 556. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 21, 2012. Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Kertész, János (2012). Szolnoki, Attila (ed.). "Circadian Patterns of Wikipedia Editorial Activity: A Demographic Analysis" . PLOS ONE . 7 (1) e30091. arXiv : 1109.1746 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...730091Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0030091 . PMC 3260192 . PMID 22272279 . Goldman, Eric (2010). "Wikipedia's Labor Squeeze and its Consequences". Journal of Telecommunications and High Technology Law . 8 . SSRN 1458162 . ( A blog post by the author. ) Nielsen, Finn (August 2007). "Scientific Citations in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (8). arXiv : 0805.1154 . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.246.4536 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i8.1997 . S2CID 58893 . Pfeil, Ulrike; Zaphiris, Panayiotis; Chee Siang Ang (2006). "Cultural Differences in Collaborative Authoring of Wikipedia" . Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication . 12 (1): 88. doi : 10.1111/j.1083-6101.2006.00316.x . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Priedhorsky; Reid; Chen, Jilin; Shyong (Tony) K. Lam; Panciera, Katherine; Terveen, Loren ; Riedl, John (2007). "Creating, destroying, and restoring value in Wikipedia". Proceedings of the 2007 international ACM conference on Conference on supporting group work – Group '07 . pp. 259– 268. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.123.7456 . doi : 10.1145/1316624.1316663 . ISBN 978-1-59593-845-9 . S2CID 15350808 . Reagle, Joseph (2007). Do as I Do: Authorial Leadership in Wikipedia (PDF) . WikiSym '07: Proceedings of the 2007 International Symposium on Wikis . Montreal: ACM. hdl : 2047/d20002876 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Rijshouwer, Emiel (2019). Organizing Democracy. Power concentration and self-organization in the evolution of Wikipedia (PhD, Erasmus University Rotterdam) . Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. hdl : 1765/113937 . ISBN 978-94-028-1371-5 . OCLC 1081174169 . (Open access) Rosenzweig, Roy . Can History be Open Source? Wikipedia and the Future of the Past . (Originally published in The Journal of American History 93.1 (June 2006): 117–146.) Wilkinson, Dennis M.; Huberman, Bernardo A. (April 2007). "Assessing the Value of Cooperation in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (4). arXiv : cs/0702140 . Bibcode : 2007cs........2140W . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.342.6933 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i4.1763 . hdl : 2027.42/136037 . S2CID 10484077 . Halfaker, Aaron; R. Stuart Geiger; Morgan, Jonathan T.; Riedl, John (2012). "The Rise and Decline of an Open Collaboration Community". American Behavioral Scientist . 57 (5): 664. doi : 10.1177/0002764212469365 . S2CID 144208941 . Maggio, Lauren A.; Willinsky, John M. ; Steinberg, Ryan M.; Mietchen, Daniel; Wass, Joseph L.; Dong, Ting (2017). "Wikipedia as a gateway to biomedical research: The relative distribution and use of citations in the English Wikipedia" . PLOS One . 12 (12) e0190046. PLOS . Bibcode : 2017PLoSO..1290046M . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0190046 . PMC 5739466 . PMID 29267345 . Books Keen, Andrew (2007). The Cult of the Amateur . Doubleday/Currency. ISBN 978-0-385-52080-5 . (Substantial criticisms of Wikipedia and other web 2.0 projects.) Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Ayers, Phoebe; Matthews, Charles; Yates, Ben (2008). How Wikipedia Works: And How You Can Be a Part of It . San Francisco: No Starch Press. ISBN 978-1-59327-176-3 . Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia – The Missing Manual . O'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-0-596-51516-4 . (See book review by Baker, as listed hereafter.) Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia Reader's Guide . Sebastopol: Pogue Press. ISBN 978-0-596-52174-5 . Rafaeli, Sheizaf ; Ariel, Yaron (2008). "Online motivational factors: Incentives for participation and contribution in Wikipedia". In Barak, A. (ed.). Psychological aspects of cyberspace: Theory, research, applications . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press . pp. 243 –267. ISBN 978-0-521-69464-3 . Dalby, Andrew (2009). The World and Wikipedia: How We are Editing Reality . Siduri. ISBN 978-0-9562052-0-9 . Lih, Andrew (2009). The Wikipedia Revolution: How a Bunch of Nobodies Created the World's Greatest Encyclopedia . New York: Hyperion. ISBN 978-1-4013-0371-6 . O'Sullivan, Dan (2009). Wikipedia: a new community of practice? . Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-7433-7 . Rahmstorf, Olaf (2023). Wikipedia – die rationale Seite der Digitalisierung? (in German). transcript Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8394-5862-4 . Reagle, Joseph Michael Jr. (2010). Good Faith Collaboration: The Culture of Wikipedia . Cambridge, MA: the MIT Press . ISBN 978-0-262-01447-2 . Retrieved October 25, 2015 . Jemielniak, Dariusz (2014). Common Knowledge? An Ethnography of Wikipedia . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press . ISBN 978-0-8047-8944-8 . Reagle, Joseph; Koerner, Jackie, eds. (2020). Wikipedia @ 20: Stories of an Incomplete Revolution . MIT Press . doi : 10.7551/mitpress/12366.001.0001 . ISBN 978-0-262-53817-6 . Retrieved October 13, 2020 . Bruckman, Amy S. (2022). Should You Believe Wikipedia?: Online Communities and the Construction of Knowledge . Cambridge University Press. doi : 10.1017/9781108780704 . ISBN 978-1-108-78070-4 . Book review–related articles Baker, Nicholson . "The Charms of Wikipedia" . The New York Review of Books , March 20, 2008. Retrieved December 17, 2008. (Book rev. of The Missing Manual , by John Broughton, as listed previously.) Crovitz, L. Gordon . "Wikipedia's Old-Fashioned Revolution: The online encyclopedia is fast becoming the best." (Originally published in Wall Street Journal online – April 6, 2009.) Postrel, Virginia , "Who Killed Wikipedia? : A hardened corps of volunteer editors is the only force protecting Wikipedia. They might also be killing it" , Pacific Standard , November/December 2014 issue. External links Official website – multilingual portal (contains links to all language editions) Wikipedia on Twitter Wikipedia on Instagram Wikipedia collected news and commentary at The Guardian Wikipedia topic page at The New York Times Video of TED talk by Jimmy Wales on the birth of Wikipedia Ro, Christine (February 19, 2025). "Why these scientists devote time to editing and updating Wikipedia". Nature . doi : 10.1038/d41586-025-00244-7 . PMID 39972088 . .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Wikipedia v t e Overview (outline) Biases gender geographical ideological racial Censorship Conflict-of-interest editing political editing incidents Criticism Deletion of articles deletionism and inclusionism notability Disputes " Ignore all rules " MediaWiki Plagiarism Predictions of the project's end Reliability Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Vandalism Biases gender geographical ideological racial gender geographical ideological racial Censorship Conflict-of-interest editing political editing incidents political editing incidents Criticism Deletion of articles deletionism and inclusionism notability deletionism and inclusionism notability Disputes " Ignore all rules " MediaWiki Plagiarism Predictions of the project's end Reliability Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Vandalism Community (Wikipedians) Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Events Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Wiki Loves Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science People ( list ) Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Women in Red Events Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Wiki Loves Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science People ( list ) Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White History Bomis Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Controversies Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Coverage American politics Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war Bomis Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Bomis Nupedia Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Controversies Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Coverage American politics Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war American politics Donald Trump Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war Honors Wikipedia Monument 274301 Wikipedia Viola angustifolia Wikipedia Monument 274301 Wikipedia Viola angustifolia References and analysis Academic studies Bibliography Cultural Films Listen to Wikipedia Wikipediocracy Wikipedia philosophy phenomenon Academic studies Bibliography Cultural Films Listen to Wikipedia Wikipediocracy Wikipedia philosophy phenomenon Mobile Apps QRpedia Wapedia Wikipedia Zero WikiReader Wikiwand Apps QRpedia Wapedia Wikipedia Zero WikiReader Wikiwand Content use DBpedia Depths of Wikipedia Google and Wikipedia Health information Kiwix Science information Wikipedia-based education DBpedia Depths of Wikipedia Google and Wikipedia Health information Kiwix Science information Wikipedia-based education Related AI on Wikipedia The Iraq War: A Historiography of Wikipedia Changelogs LGBTQ and Wikipedia Magna Carta (An Embroidery) People imprisoned for editing Wikipedia Print Wikipedia The Seven Rules of Trust Wiki rabbit hole Wikimedia Foundation Wikimedia movement Wikipedia for World Heritage Wikipedia in India Wikiracing List of online encyclopedias List of wikis AI on Wikipedia The Iraq War: A Historiography of Wikipedia Changelogs LGBTQ and Wikipedia Magna Carta (An Embroidery) People imprisoned for editing Wikipedia Print Wikipedia The Seven Rules of Trust Wiki rabbit hole Wikimedia Foundation Wikimedia movement Wikipedia for World Heritage Wikipedia in India Wikiracing List of online encyclopedias List of wikis List Category List Category v t e Wikipedia language editions by article count v t e 7,000,000+ English English 6,000,000+ Cebuano Cebuano 3,000,000+ German German 2,000,000+ French Swedish Dutch Russian Spanish French Swedish Dutch Russian Spanish 1,000,000+ Arabic Chinese Egyptian Arabic Italian Japanese Persian Polish Portuguese Ukrainian Vietnamese Waray Arabic Chinese Egyptian Arabic Italian Japanese Persian Polish Portuguese Ukrainian Vietnamese Waray 100,000+ Afrikaans Albanian Armenian Asturian Azerbaijani Basque Belarusian Bengali Bulgarian Burmese Cantonese Catalan Croatian Czech Danish Esperanto Estonian Finnish Galician Georgian Greek Hebrew Hindi Hungarian Indonesian Kazakh Korean Ladin Latin Latvian Macedonian Marathi Norwegian (Bokmål/Riksmål) Norwegian (Nynorsk) Romanian Serbian Serbo-Croatian Simple English Slovak Slovene Southern Min Swahili Tamil Tatar Telugu Thai Turkish Urdu Uzbek Welsh Afrikaans Albanian Armenian Asturian Azerbaijani Basque Belarusian Bengali 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Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia#cite_ref-TNY_reliability_issues_1_235-0
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Help | Advanced Search quick links Login Help Pages About Computer Science > Artificial Intelligence Title: Generative AI collective behavior needs an interactionist paradigm Abstract: In this article, we argue that understanding the collective behavior of agents based on large language models (LLMs) is an essential area of inquiry, with important implications in terms of risks and benefits, impacting us as a society at many levels. We claim that the distinctive nature of LLMs--namely, their initialization with extensive pre-trained knowledge and implicit social priors, together with their capability of adaptation through in-context learning--motivates the need for an interactionist paradigm consisting of alternative theoretical foundations, methodologies, and analytical tools, in order to systematically examine how prior knowledge and embedded values interact with social context to shape emergent phenomena in multi-agent generative AI systems. We propose and discuss four directions that we consider crucial for the development and deployment of LLM-based collectives, focusing on theory, methods, and trans-disciplinary dialogue. Subjects: Artificial Intelligence (cs.AI) ; Computers and Society (cs.CY); Human-Computer Interaction (cs.HC); Machine Learning (cs.LG); Multiagent Systems (cs.MA) Cite as: arXiv:2601.10567 [cs.AI] (or arXiv:2601.10567v1 [cs.AI] for this version) Focus to learn more arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite Submission history Access Paper: View PDF HTML (experimental) TeX Source References & Citations NASA ADS Google Scholar Semantic Scholar BibTeX formatted citation Bookmark Bibliographic and Citation Tools Code, Data and Media Associated with this Article Demos Recommenders and Search Tools Author Venue Institution Topic arXivLabs: experimental projects with community collaborators arXivLabs is a framework that allows collaborators to develop and share new arXiv features directly on our website. Both individuals and organizations that work with arXivLabs have embraced and accepted our values of openness, community, excellence, and user data privacy. arXiv is committed to these values and only works with partners that adhere to them. Have an idea for a project that will add value for arXiv's community? Learn more about arXivLabs . About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status arXiv Operational Status
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https://arxiv.org/abs/2601.10567?context=cs.HC
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Events Toggle Events subsection 1.1 January 1.2 February 1.3 March 1.4 April 1.5 May 1.6 June 1.7 July 1.8 August 1.9 September 1.10 October 1.11 November 1.12 December 1.13 Date unknown 1.1 January 1.2 February 1.3 March 1.4 April 1.5 May 1.6 June 1.7 July 1.8 August 1.9 September 1.10 October 1.11 November 1.12 December 1.13 Date unknown 2 Births Toggle Births subsection 2.1 January 2.2 February 2.3 March 2.4 April 2.5 May 2.6 June 2.7 July 2.8 August 2.9 September 2.10 October 2.11 November 2.12 December 2.1 January 2.2 February 2.3 March 2.4 April 2.5 May 2.6 June 2.7 July 2.8 August 2.9 September 2.10 October 2.11 November 2.12 December 3 Deaths Toggle Deaths subsection 3.1 January 3.2 February 3.3 March 3.4 April 3.5 May 3.6 June 3.7 July 3.8 August 3.9 September 3.10 October 3.11 November 3.12 December 3.1 January 3.2 February 3.3 March 3.4 April 3.5 May 3.6 June 3.7 July 3.8 August 3.9 September 3.10 October 3.11 November 3.12 December 4 Nobel Prizes 5 References 6 Further reading 1945 Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն Arpetan Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali বাংলা Banjar 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Български Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deutsch Dolnoserbski Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego ГӀалгӀай 贛語 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Ido Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Коми Kotava Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Кырык мары Latgaļu Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Livvinkarjala La .lojban. 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Vikram Samvat 2001–2002 - Shaka Samvat 1866–1867 - Kali Yuga 5045–5046 Holocene calendar 11945 Igbo calendar 945–946 Iranian calendar 1323–1324 Islamic calendar 1364–1365 Japanese calendar Shōwa 20 (昭和２０年) Javanese calendar 1875–1876 Juche calendar 34 Julian calendar Gregorian minus 13 days Korean calendar 4278 Minguo calendar ROC 34 民國34年 Nanakshahi calendar 477 Thai solar calendar 2488 Tibetan calendar ཤིང་ཕོ་སྤྲེ་ལོ་ (male Wood- Monkey ) 2071 or 1690 or 918 — to — ཤིང་མོ་བྱ་ལོ་ (female Wood- Bird ) 2072 or 1691 or 919 1945 ( MCMXLV ) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar , the 1945th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 945th year of the 2nd millennium , the 45th year of the 20th century , and the 6th year of the 1940s decade. A turning point [ 1 ] in human history , 1945 marked the end of World War II , ending with the defeat and occupation of Nazi Germany and the Empire of Japan by the United States and the Soviet Union in the world of two superpowers which has led the beginning of the Cold War (1945–1991). It is also the year the Nazi concentration camps were liberated and the only year in which atomic weapons have been used in warfare . Events World War II will be abbreviated as "WWII" January January 1 – WWII: Germany begins Operation Bodenplatte , an attempt by the Luftwaffe to cripple Allied air forces in the Low Countries . [ 2 ] Chenogne massacre : German prisoners are allegedly killed by American forces near the village of Chenogne, Belgium. Germany begins Operation Bodenplatte , an attempt by the Luftwaffe to cripple Allied air forces in the Low Countries . [ 2 ] Chenogne massacre : German prisoners are allegedly killed by American forces near the village of Chenogne, Belgium. January 6 – WWII: A German offensive recaptures Esztergom , Hungary from the Soviets. January 9 – WWII: American and Australian troops land at Lingayen Gulf on western coast of the largest Philippine island of Luzon , occupied by Japan since 1942. January 12 – WWII: The Soviet Union begins the Vistula–Oder Offensive in Eastern Europe, against the German Army . [ 3 ] January 13 – WWII: The Soviet Union begins the East Prussian Offensive , to eliminate German forces in East Prussia . January 16 – WWII: Adolf Hitler takes residence in the Führerbunker in Berlin. [ 4 ] January 17 WWII: The Soviet Union occupies Warsaw , Poland. The Holocaust : Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg , who has saved thousands of Jews, is taken into custody by a Soviet patrol during the Siege of Budapest and is never again seen publicly. [ 5 ] WWII: The Soviet Union occupies Warsaw , Poland. The Holocaust : Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg , who has saved thousands of Jews, is taken into custody by a Soviet patrol during the Siege of Budapest and is never again seen publicly. [ 5 ] January 18 – The Holocaust : The SS begins the evacuation of Auschwitz concentration camp . Nearly 60,000 prisoners, mostly Jews, are forced to march to other locations in Germany; as many as 15,000 die. The 7,000 too sick to move are left without supplies being distributed. January 19 – The Holocaust : Soviet forces liberate the Łódź Ghetto ; only 877 Jews of the initial population of 164,000 remain at this time. [ 6 ] January 20 – Germany begins the Evacuation of East Prussia . January 21 – 22 (night) – At the Grünhagen railroad station, located in East Prussia at this date, two trains, heading for Elbing , collide. At dawn the station is reached by Soviet Army infantry and tanks which destroy the station, killing between 140 and 150 people. January 23 – WWII: Hungary agrees to an armistice with the Allies . German Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz orders the start of Operation Hannibal , the mass evacuation by sea of German troops and civilians from the Courland Pocket , East Prussia and the Polish Corridor , evacuating an estimated 800,000-900,000 German civilians and 350,000 soldiers from advancing Soviet forces. Evacuation of Germans from Grünhagen . Hungary agrees to an armistice with the Allies . German Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz orders the start of Operation Hannibal , the mass evacuation by sea of German troops and civilians from the Courland Pocket , East Prussia and the Polish Corridor , evacuating an estimated 800,000-900,000 German civilians and 350,000 soldiers from advancing Soviet forces. Evacuation of Germans from Grünhagen . January 24 – WWII: AP war correspondent Joseph Morton , nine OSS men, and four SOE agents are executed by the Germans at Mauthausen concentration camp under Hitler's Commando Order of 1942, which stipulates the immediate execution of all captured Allied commandos or saboteurs without trial, even those in proper uniforms. Morton is the only Allied correspondent to be executed by the Axis during the war. January 25 – WWII: Hitler appoints Heinrich Himmler as commander of the hastily formed Army Group Vistula ( Heeresgruppe Weichsel ) to halt the Soviet Red Army 's Vistula–Oder offensive into Pomerania , despite Himmler's lack of military experience. [ 7 ] January 26 – WWII: 19-year-old U.S. Army Staff Sergeant Audie Murphy sees action at Holtzwihr , France, for which is awarded the Medal of Honor . January 27 The Holocaust : The Soviet Red Army liberates the Auschwitz and Birkenau concentration camps. WWII: The Soviet Red Army reaches to Wolf's Lair former Hitler headquarter [ 8 ] The Holocaust : The Soviet Red Army liberates the Auschwitz and Birkenau concentration camps. WWII: The Soviet Red Army reaches to Wolf's Lair former Hitler headquarter [ 8 ] January 30 – WWII: MV Wilhelm Gustloff , with over 10,000 mainly civilian Germans from Gotenhafen ( Gdynia ) is sunk in Gdańsk Bay by three torpedoes from Soviet submarine S-13 in the Baltic Sea ; up to 9,400, 5,000 of whom are children, are thought to have died – the greatest loss of life in a single ship sinking in history. Raid at Cabanatuan : 121 American soldiers and 800 Filipino guerrillas free 813 American prisoners of war from the Japanese-held camp in the city of Cabanatuan , in the Philippines . Adolf Hitler makes his last public speech, on broadcast radio, expressing the belief that Germany will triumph. MV Wilhelm Gustloff , with over 10,000 mainly civilian Germans from Gotenhafen ( Gdynia ) is sunk in Gdańsk Bay by three torpedoes from Soviet submarine S-13 in the Baltic Sea ; up to 9,400, 5,000 of whom are children, are thought to have died – the greatest loss of life in a single ship sinking in history. Raid at Cabanatuan : 121 American soldiers and 800 Filipino guerrillas free 813 American prisoners of war from the Japanese-held camp in the city of Cabanatuan , in the Philippines . Adolf Hitler makes his last public speech, on broadcast radio, expressing the belief that Germany will triumph. January 31 – WWII: The Battle of Hill 170 in the Burma Campaign ends with the British 3rd Commando Brigade defeating the Imperial Japanese Army 54th Division , causing the Japanese Twenty-Eighth Army to withdraw from the Arakan Peninsula. February February – Raymond L. Libby of American Cyanamid 's research laboratories, at Stamford, Connecticut , announces a method of orally administering the antibiotic penicillin . [ 9 ] February 3 – WWII: Battle of Manila : United States forces enter the outskirts of Manila to capture it from the Japanese Imperial Army , starting the battle. On February 4, U.S. Army forces liberate Santo Tomas Internment Camp in the city. The Soviet Union agrees to enter the Pacific War against Japan, once hostilities against Germany are concluded. Battle of Manila : United States forces enter the outskirts of Manila to capture it from the Japanese Imperial Army , starting the battle. On February 4, U.S. Army forces liberate Santo Tomas Internment Camp in the city. The Soviet Union agrees to enter the Pacific War against Japan, once hostilities against Germany are concluded. February 4 – 11 – WWII: President Franklin D. Roosevelt , Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Winston Churchill and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin hold the Yalta Conference . February 7 – WWII: General Douglas MacArthur returns to Manila . February 8 – The Alaska Anti-Discrimination Act of 1945, championed by charismatic native leader Elizabeth Peratrovich , is passed by the territorial Senate, after the legislature defeated a previous bill in 1943. February 9 Walter Ulbricht becomes leader of the German Communists in Moscow. WWII: " Black Friday ": A force of Allied Bristol Beaufighter aircraft suffers heavy casualties in an unsuccessful attack on German destroyer Z33 and escorting vessels sheltering in Førde Fjord , Norway. Walter Ulbricht becomes leader of the German Communists in Moscow. WWII: " Black Friday ": A force of Allied Bristol Beaufighter aircraft suffers heavy casualties in an unsuccessful attack on German destroyer Z33 and escorting vessels sheltering in Førde Fjord , Norway. February 10 – WWII: German troopship SS General von Steuben is sunk by the Soviet submarine S-13 ; 3,608 drown. [ 10 ] February 10 – 20 – WWII: Operation Kita : The Imperial Japanese Navy returns "Completion Force", containing both its Ise -class battleships , safely from Singapore to Kure in Japan despite Allied attacks. February 12 – A devastating tornado outbreak in Mississippi and Alabama kills 45 people and injures 427 others. [ 11 ] February 13 – WWII: The Budapest Offensive and the Siege of Budapest end with Nazi troops surrendering Budapest (Hungary) to Soviet -Romanian forces. Bombing of Dresden (Germany) by the British Royal Air Force and United States Army Air Forces ; 25,000-35,000 are estimated to have died. The Budapest Offensive and the Siege of Budapest end with Nazi troops surrendering Budapest (Hungary) to Soviet -Romanian forces. Bombing of Dresden (Germany) by the British Royal Air Force and United States Army Air Forces ; 25,000-35,000 are estimated to have died. February 16 – WWII: The Bombing of Wesel begins, destroying 97% of the town over three days. American and Filipino ground forces land on Corregidor Island in the Philippines . Combined American and Filipino forces recapture the Bataan Peninsula. Venezuela declares war on Germany. The Bombing of Wesel begins, destroying 97% of the town over three days. American and Filipino ground forces land on Corregidor Island in the Philippines . Combined American and Filipino forces recapture the Bataan Peninsula. Venezuela declares war on Germany. February 18 – March 5 – WWII: American and Brazilian troops kick off Operation Encore in Northern Italy, a successful limited action in the Northern Apennines that prepares for the western portion of the Allied Spring offensive . [ 12 ] February 19 – 20 – 980 (actual figure is disputed) [ 13 ] Japanese soldiers die as a result of being attacked by long saltwater crocodiles in Ramree, Burma . [ 14 ] February 19 – WWII: Battle of Iwo Jima – About 30,000 United States Marines land on Iwo Jima . February 21 – The last V-2 rocket is launched from Peenemünde . February 22 – WWII: Italian Front : The Battle of Monte Castello ends after nearly three months of fighting when the Brazilian Expeditionary Force expels German forces from a pivot point in the (Tuscan) North Apennines where their artillery was impeding the advance of the British Eighth Army toward Bologna . Uruguay declares war on Germany and Japan. Italian Front : The Battle of Monte Castello ends after nearly three months of fighting when the Brazilian Expeditionary Force expels German forces from a pivot point in the (Tuscan) North Apennines where their artillery was impeding the advance of the British Eighth Army toward Bologna . Uruguay declares war on Germany and Japan. February 23 – WWII: Battle of Iwo Jima : A group of United States Marines reach the top of Mount Suribachi on the island, and are photographed raising the American flag . The photo, Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima (taken by Joe Rosenthal ), later wins a Pulitzer Prize . The 11th Airborne Division , with Filipino guerrillas, free the captives of the Los Baños internment camp. The capital of the Philippines , Manila, is liberated by combined American and Filipino ground troops. The suburb of Intramuros is devastated. [ 15 ] The German garrison in Poznań capitulates to Red Army and Polish troops. Bombing of Pforzheim : The heaviest of a series of bombing raids on Pforzheim , Germany by Allied aircraft is carried out by the British Royal Air Force . As many as 17,600 people, or 31.4% of the town's population, are killed in the raid and about 83% of the town's buildings destroyed, two-thirds of its complete area and between 80 and 100% of the inner city. Turkey joins the war on the side of the Allies . Battle of Iwo Jima : A group of United States Marines reach the top of Mount Suribachi on the island, and are photographed raising the American flag . The photo, Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima (taken by Joe Rosenthal ), later wins a Pulitzer Prize . The 11th Airborne Division , with Filipino guerrillas, free the captives of the Los Baños internment camp. The capital of the Philippines , Manila, is liberated by combined American and Filipino ground troops. The suburb of Intramuros is devastated. [ 15 ] The German garrison in Poznań capitulates to Red Army and Polish troops. Bombing of Pforzheim : The heaviest of a series of bombing raids on Pforzheim , Germany by Allied aircraft is carried out by the British Royal Air Force . As many as 17,600 people, or 31.4% of the town's population, are killed in the raid and about 83% of the town's buildings destroyed, two-thirds of its complete area and between 80 and 100% of the inner city. Turkey joins the war on the side of the Allies . February 24 – Egyptian premier Ahmad Mahir Pasha is assassinated in Parliament after declaring war on Germany and Japan. February 27 – The Bombing of Mainz results in 1,209 confirmed dead; 80% of the city is destroyed. February 28 – In Bucharest , a violent demonstration takes place, during which the Bolşevic group opens fire on the army and protesters. In response, Andrei Y. Vishinsky , USSR vice commissioner of foreign affairs and president of the Allied Control Commission for Romania , travels to Bucharest to compel Nicolae Rădescu to resign as premier. March March 1 – President Franklin D. Roosevelt gives what will be his last address to a joint session of the United States Congress , reporting on the Yalta Conference . March 2 Former U.S. vice-president Henry A. Wallace starts his term of office as United States Secretary of Commerce , serving under President Franklin D. Roosevelt . The rocket-propelled Bachem Ba 349 Natter is first test launched at Stetten am kalten Markt . The launch fails and the pilot, Lothar Sieber , dies. [ 16 ] WWII: Allied troops lead by 10th Armored Division captures Trier oldest city in Germany. [ 17 ] Former U.S. vice-president Henry A. Wallace starts his term of office as United States Secretary of Commerce , serving under President Franklin D. Roosevelt . The rocket-propelled Bachem Ba 349 Natter is first test launched at Stetten am kalten Markt . The launch fails and the pilot, Lothar Sieber , dies. [ 16 ] WWII: Allied troops lead by 10th Armored Division captures Trier oldest city in Germany. [ 17 ] March 3 – WWII: Finland declares war on the Axis powers . United States and Filipino troops take Manila , Philippines . Pawłokoma massacre : A Polish Home Army unit massacres between 150 and 500 Ukrainian civilians in the Polish village of Pawłokoma . Bombing of the Bezuidenhout : The British Royal Air Force accidentally bombs the Bezuidenhout neighbourhood in The Hague , Netherlands, killing 511 people. Finland declares war on the Axis powers . United States and Filipino troops take Manila , Philippines . Pawłokoma massacre : A Polish Home Army unit massacres between 150 and 500 Ukrainian civilians in the Polish village of Pawłokoma . Bombing of the Bezuidenhout : The British Royal Air Force accidentally bombs the Bezuidenhout neighbourhood in The Hague , Netherlands, killing 511 people. March 4 In the United Kingdom, Princess Elizabeth (later Queen Elizabeth II), joins the Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS) as a truck driver/mechanic in London. The Swiss cities of Basel and Zürich are accidentally bombed by the United States. [ 18 ] In the United Kingdom, Princess Elizabeth (later Queen Elizabeth II), joins the Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS) as a truck driver/mechanic in London. The Swiss cities of Basel and Zürich are accidentally bombed by the United States. [ 18 ] March 5 – WWII: Brazilian troops take Castelnuovo ( Vergato ), in the last operations of the Allied Operation Encore . March 6 A Communist-led government is formed in Romania under Petru Groza , following Soviet intervention. Resistance fighters accidentally ambush and attempt to execute SS general Hanns Albin Rauter , the arch-persecutor of the Dutch. A Communist-led government is formed in Romania under Petru Groza , following Soviet intervention. Resistance fighters accidentally ambush and attempt to execute SS general Hanns Albin Rauter , the arch-persecutor of the Dutch. March 7 WWII: At the end of Operation Lumberjack , American troops seize the Ludendorff Bridge over the Rhine at Remagen , Germany and begin to cross; in the next 10 days, 25,000 troops with equipment are able to cross. 10th Armored Division captures city of Cologne [ 19 ] WWII: At the end of Operation Lumberjack , American troops seize the Ludendorff Bridge over the Rhine at Remagen , Germany and begin to cross; in the next 10 days, 25,000 troops with equipment are able to cross. 10th Armored Division captures city of Cologne [ 19 ] March 8 Josip Broz Tito forms a Provisional Government of the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia , in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . Nazi authorities kill 117 Dutch men, in reprisal for the attempted murder of Hanns Albin Rauter . Operation Sunrise : Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff meets with Allen Welsh Dulles of the United States Office of Strategic Services at Lucerne , Switzerland, to negotiate the surrender of the Axis forces in Italy to the Allies . Josip Broz Tito forms a Provisional Government of the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia , in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . Nazi authorities kill 117 Dutch men, in reprisal for the attempted murder of Hanns Albin Rauter . Operation Sunrise : Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff meets with Allen Welsh Dulles of the United States Office of Strategic Services at Lucerne , Switzerland, to negotiate the surrender of the Axis forces in Italy to the Allies . March 9 – 10 – WWII: Bombing of Tokyo : USAAF B-29 bombers attack Tokyo, Japan, with incendiary bombs , killing 100,000 citizens in the firebombing. It is the single most destructive conventional air attack of the war. March 11 The Empire of Japan establishes the Empire of Vietnam , a puppet state which will last only until August 23, with Bảo Đại as its ruler. The Sammarinese general election gives San Marino the world's first democratically elected communist government, which will hold power until 1957 . [ 20 ] The Empire of Japan establishes the Empire of Vietnam , a puppet state which will last only until August 23, with Bảo Đại as its ruler. The Sammarinese general election gives San Marino the world's first democratically elected communist government, which will hold power until 1957 . [ 20 ] March 12 – WWII: Swinemünde is destroyed by the USAAF, killing an estimated 8,000 to 23,000 civilians, mostly refugees saved by Operation Hannibal . March 15 – 31 – WWII: The Soviet Red Army carries out the Upper Silesian Offensive . March 15 – The 17th Academy Awards ceremony is held, broadcast via radio in the United States for the first time. Best Picture goes to Going My Way . March 16 – WWII: The Battle of Iwo Jima unofficially ends. The Bombing of Würzburg , as part of the Allied strategic bombing campaign against Nazi Germany, destroys 89% of the city and causes 4,000 deaths. The Battle of Iwo Jima unofficially ends. The Bombing of Würzburg , as part of the Allied strategic bombing campaign against Nazi Germany, destroys 89% of the city and causes 4,000 deaths. March 17 – WWII: Kobe , Japan is fire-bombed by 331 B-29 bombers, killing over 8,000 people. March 18 – WWII: The 40th Infantry Division, spearheaded by the 185th US Infantry Regiment, lands unopposed in Tigbauan forcing the Japanese forces to surrender and General Macario Peralta and Gen. Gen. Eichelberger to declare the Liberation of Panay, Romblon and Guimaras . [ 21 ] 1,250 American bombers attack Berlin. [ 22 ] Battle of Kolberg concludes with the Baltic seaport (designated a key Festung (fortress) by the Germans) taken by Polish and Soviet forces and ethnic Germans evacuated or expelled. [ 23 ] The 40th Infantry Division, spearheaded by the 185th US Infantry Regiment, lands unopposed in Tigbauan forcing the Japanese forces to surrender and General Macario Peralta and Gen. Gen. Eichelberger to declare the Liberation of Panay, Romblon and Guimaras . [ 21 ] 1,250 American bombers attack Berlin. [ 22 ] Battle of Kolberg concludes with the Baltic seaport (designated a key Festung (fortress) by the Germans) taken by Polish and Soviet forces and ethnic Germans evacuated or expelled. [ 23 ] March 19 – WWII: Adolf Hitler issues the " Nero Decree " ordering that all industries, military installations, machine shops, transportation facilities and communications facilities in Germany be destroyed ahead of Allied advances, but Albert Speer , placed in charge of the implementation, deliberately disobeys it. Off the coast of Japan, bombers hit the aircraft carrier USS Franklin , killing about 800 of her crewmen and crippling the ship. Adolf Hitler issues the " Nero Decree " ordering that all industries, military installations, machine shops, transportation facilities and communications facilities in Germany be destroyed ahead of Allied advances, but Albert Speer , placed in charge of the implementation, deliberately disobeys it. Off the coast of Japan, bombers hit the aircraft carrier USS Franklin , killing about 800 of her crewmen and crippling the ship. March 20 – WWII: Hitler dismisses Heinrich Himmler from his military command. [ 3 ] March 21 – WWII: British troops liberate Mandalay , Burma . Bulgarian and Soviet troops successfully defend the north bank of the Drava River , as the Battle of the Transdanubian Hills concludes. British troops liberate Mandalay , Burma . Bulgarian and Soviet troops successfully defend the north bank of the Drava River , as the Battle of the Transdanubian Hills concludes. March 22 The Arab League is formed, with the adoption of a charter in Cairo , Egypt. The Cathedral and the historic centre of Hildesheim in Germany are destroyed in a bombing of the city . The Arab League is formed, with the adoption of a charter in Cairo , Egypt. The Cathedral and the historic centre of Hildesheim in Germany are destroyed in a bombing of the city . March 24 WWII: Operation Varsity – Two airborne divisions capture bridges across the river Rhine to aid the Allied advance. The cartoon character Sylvester the cat debuts in Life with Feathers . WWII: Operation Varsity – Two airborne divisions capture bridges across the river Rhine to aid the Allied advance. The cartoon character Sylvester the cat debuts in Life with Feathers . March 26 – WWII: The Battle of Iwo Jima officially ends, with the destruction of the remaining areas of Japanese resistance, although there are Japanese holdouts here until 1949. March 27 – WWII: The United States Army Air Forces begins Operation Starvation , laying naval mines in many of Japan's seaways. Argentina declares war on Germany and Japan . The United States Army Air Forces begins Operation Starvation , laying naval mines in many of Japan's seaways. Argentina declares war on Germany and Japan . March 29 WWII: The Red Army almost destroys the German 4th Army , in the Heiligenbeil Pocket in East Prussia . WWII: American troops lead by 5th Infantry Division and 6th Armored Division captures city of Frankfurt after three days of battle [ 24 ] The "Clash of Titans": George Mikan and Bob Kurland duel at Madison Square Garden in New York, as Oklahoma State University defeats DePaul 52–44 in basketball . WWII: The Red Army almost destroys the German 4th Army , in the Heiligenbeil Pocket in East Prussia . WWII: American troops lead by 5th Infantry Division and 6th Armored Division captures city of Frankfurt after three days of battle [ 24 ] The "Clash of Titans": George Mikan and Bob Kurland duel at Madison Square Garden in New York, as Oklahoma State University defeats DePaul 52–44 in basketball . March 30 – WWII: The Red Army pushes most of the Axis forces out of Hungary into Austria. American official Alger Hiss is congratulated in Moscow for his part in bringing the positions of the Western powers and the Soviet Union closer to each other, at the Yalta Conference . The Red Army pushes most of the Axis forces out of Hungary into Austria. American official Alger Hiss is congratulated in Moscow for his part in bringing the positions of the Western powers and the Soviet Union closer to each other, at the Yalta Conference . April April 1 – WWII: Battle of Okinawa : The Tenth United States Army lands on Okinawa . April 4 – WWII: American troops liberate their first Nazi concentration camp, Ohrdruf extermination camp in Germany. The Soviet Red Army enters Bratislava and pushes to the outskirts of Vienna , taking it on April 13, after several days of intense fighting. American troops liberate their first Nazi concentration camp, Ohrdruf extermination camp in Germany. The Soviet Red Army enters Bratislava and pushes to the outskirts of Vienna , taking it on April 13, after several days of intense fighting. April 6 – WWII: Sarajevo is liberated from Nazi Germany and the Independent State of Croatia (a fascist puppet state ) by Yugoslav Partisans . The Battle of Slater's Knoll on Bougainville Island concludes with a decisive victory for the Australian Army 's 7th Brigade . Allied forces reach Merkers Salt Mines in Thuringia where gold reserves of the Nazi German Reichsbank and art treasures are stored. Sarajevo is liberated from Nazi Germany and the Independent State of Croatia (a fascist puppet state ) by Yugoslav Partisans . The Battle of Slater's Knoll on Bougainville Island concludes with a decisive victory for the Australian Army 's 7th Brigade . Allied forces reach Merkers Salt Mines in Thuringia where gold reserves of the Nazi German Reichsbank and art treasures are stored. April 7 – WWII: The only flight of the German ramming unit known as Sonderkommando Elbe takes place, resulting in the loss of some 24 B-17s and B-24s of the United States Eighth Air Force . Japanese battleship Yamato and nine other warships take part in Operation Ten-Go , a suicide attack on Allied forces engaged in the Battle of Okinawa. Yamato is sunk by U.S. Navy aircraft in the East China Sea 200 miles (320 km) north of Okinawa with the loss of 2,055 of 2,332 crew, together with five other Japanese warships. Kantarō Suzuki becomes Prime Minister of Japan . The only flight of the German ramming unit known as Sonderkommando Elbe takes place, resulting in the loss of some 24 B-17s and B-24s of the United States Eighth Air Force . Japanese battleship Yamato and nine other warships take part in Operation Ten-Go , a suicide attack on Allied forces engaged in the Battle of Okinawa. Yamato is sunk by U.S. Navy aircraft in the East China Sea 200 miles (320 km) north of Okinawa with the loss of 2,055 of 2,332 crew, together with five other Japanese warships. Kantarō Suzuki becomes Prime Minister of Japan . April 8 – The SS begins to evacuate the Buchenwald concentration camp ; inmates in the Buchenwald Resistance call for American aid, and overpower and kill the remaining guards. April 9 WWII: The Battle of Königsberg , in East Prussia , ends with Soviet forces capturing the city. Abwehr conspirators Wilhelm Canaris , Hans Oster and Hans von Dohnányi are hanged at Flossenberg concentration camp, along with pastor Dietrich Bonhoeffer . Johann Georg Elser , would-be assassin of Adolf Hitler , is executed at Dachau concentration camp . WWII: The Battle of Königsberg , in East Prussia , ends with Soviet forces capturing the city. Abwehr conspirators Wilhelm Canaris , Hans Oster and Hans von Dohnányi are hanged at Flossenberg concentration camp, along with pastor Dietrich Bonhoeffer . Johann Georg Elser , would-be assassin of Adolf Hitler , is executed at Dachau concentration camp . April 10 – WWII: Visoko is liberated by the 7th, 9th and 17th Krajina Brigades from the Tenth Division of Yugoslav Partisan forces. American troops lead by 84th Division captures city of Hanover after thousands of German troops surrenders [ 25 ] Visoko is liberated by the 7th, 9th and 17th Krajina Brigades from the Tenth Division of Yugoslav Partisan forces. American troops lead by 84th Division captures city of Hanover after thousands of German troops surrenders [ 25 ] April 11 – Buchenwald concentration camp is liberated by the United States Army . April 12 Vice President Harry S. Truman becomes the 33rd president of the United States upon the death of President Franklin D. Roosevelt at the Little White House in Warm Springs, Georgia of an intracerebral hemorrhage . President Truman is sworn in later this evening in the White House . A devastating tornado outbreak occurs across the United States, which kills 128 people and injures over 1,000 others. This is heavily overshadowed by the death of President Roosevelt. [ 26 ] WWII: The U.S. Ninth Army under General William H. Simpson crosses the Elbe River astride Magdeburg , and reaches Tangermünde — only 50 miles from Berlin . Richard Strauss completes composition of his Metamorphosen . Vice President Harry S. Truman becomes the 33rd president of the United States upon the death of President Franklin D. Roosevelt at the Little White House in Warm Springs, Georgia of an intracerebral hemorrhage . President Truman is sworn in later this evening in the White House . A devastating tornado outbreak occurs across the United States, which kills 128 people and injures over 1,000 others. This is heavily overshadowed by the death of President Roosevelt. [ 26 ] WWII: The U.S. Ninth Army under General William H. Simpson crosses the Elbe River astride Magdeburg , and reaches Tangermünde — only 50 miles from Berlin . Richard Strauss completes composition of his Metamorphosen . April 14 – WWII: The First Canadian Army assumes military control of the Netherlands, where German forces are trapped in the Atlantic Wall fortifications along the coastline. [ 27 ] Razing of Friesoythe : The 4th Canadian (Armoured) Division deliberately destroys the German town of Friesoythe , on the orders of Major General Christopher Vokes . Bombing of Potsdam The First Canadian Army assumes military control of the Netherlands, where German forces are trapped in the Atlantic Wall fortifications along the coastline. [ 27 ] Razing of Friesoythe : The 4th Canadian (Armoured) Division deliberately destroys the German town of Friesoythe , on the orders of Major General Christopher Vokes . Bombing of Potsdam April 15 – WWII: The Bergen-Belsen concentration camp is liberated by British and Canadian forces. The Canadian First Army reaches the coast in the northern Netherlands , and captures Arnhem . The Bergen-Belsen concentration camp is liberated by British and Canadian forces. The Canadian First Army reaches the coast in the northern Netherlands , and captures Arnhem . April 16 – WWII: The Battle of Berlin begins, opening with the Red Army launching the Battle of the Oder–Neisse and the Battle of the Seelow Heights . Canadian forces take Harlingen and occupy Leeuwarden and Groningen in the Netherlands. MV Goya is sunk by Soviet submarine L-3 in the Baltic Sea while evacuating German troops and civilians as part of Operation Hannibal ; 7,000–8,000 drown. Death marches from Flossenbürg concentration camp begin. The Battle of Berlin begins, opening with the Red Army launching the Battle of the Oder–Neisse and the Battle of the Seelow Heights . Canadian forces take Harlingen and occupy Leeuwarden and Groningen in the Netherlands. MV Goya is sunk by Soviet submarine L-3 in the Baltic Sea while evacuating German troops and civilians as part of Operation Hannibal ; 7,000–8,000 drown. Death marches from Flossenbürg concentration camp begin. April 17 – WWII: Battle of Montese : Brazilian forces liberate the town of Montese , Italy, from German forces. Inundation of the Wieringermeer in the Netherlands by occupying German forces. Battle of Montese : Brazilian forces liberate the town of Montese , Italy, from German forces. Inundation of the Wieringermeer in the Netherlands by occupying German forces. April 18 – American war correspondent Ernie Pyle is killed by Japanese machine gun fire on the island of Ie Shima off Okinawa . April 19 – Rodgers and Hammerstein 's Carousel , a musical play based on Ferenc Molnár 's Liliom , opens on Broadway , and becomes their second long-running stage classic. It includes the standard " You'll Never Walk Alone ". April 20 – WWII: On his 56th birthday, Adolf Hitler leaves his Führerbunker , to decorate a group of Hitler Youth soldiers in Berlin. It will be his last trip to the surface from his underground bunker. The German city of Nuremberg , previously the site of the Nuremberg rallies , is occupied by American troops. American troops lead by 2nd Infantry Division and 69th Infantry Division captures city of Leipzig [ 28 ] " Morotai Mutiny ": members of the Australian First Tactical Air Force based on the island of Morotai in the Dutch East Indies tender their resignations to protest their belief that they are being assigned to missions of no military importance and in which they are not specialists; a subsequent inquiry effectively vindicates them. [ 29 ] On his 56th birthday, Adolf Hitler leaves his Führerbunker , to decorate a group of Hitler Youth soldiers in Berlin. It will be his last trip to the surface from his underground bunker. The German city of Nuremberg , previously the site of the Nuremberg rallies , is occupied by American troops. American troops lead by 2nd Infantry Division and 69th Infantry Division captures city of Leipzig [ 28 ] " Morotai Mutiny ": members of the Australian First Tactical Air Force based on the island of Morotai in the Dutch East Indies tender their resignations to protest their belief that they are being assigned to missions of no military importance and in which they are not specialists; a subsequent inquiry effectively vindicates them. [ 29 ] April 22 – WWII: Heinrich Himmler , through Folke Bernadotte , Count of Wisborg, puts forth an offer of German surrender to the Western Allies, but not the Soviet Union. Adolf Hitler finally concedes that "everything is lost" [ 30 ] at a meeting in the Führerbunker after learning that SS-Obergruppenführer Felix Steiner cannot mobilize enough men to launch a counterattack on the Soviet forces which are surrounding Berlin. Heinrich Himmler , through Folke Bernadotte , Count of Wisborg, puts forth an offer of German surrender to the Western Allies, but not the Soviet Union. Adolf Hitler finally concedes that "everything is lost" [ 30 ] at a meeting in the Führerbunker after learning that SS-Obergruppenführer Felix Steiner cannot mobilize enough men to launch a counterattack on the Soviet forces which are surrounding Berlin. April 23 – WWII: Hermann Göring sends the Göring telegram to Hitler, seeking confirmation that he should take over leadership of Germany, in accordance with the decree of June 29, 1941. Hitler regards this as treason. The main Flossenbürg concentration camp is liberated by the United States Army. Hermann Göring sends the Göring telegram to Hitler, seeking confirmation that he should take over leadership of Germany, in accordance with the decree of June 29, 1941. Hitler regards this as treason. The main Flossenbürg concentration camp is liberated by the United States Army. April 24 – WWII: Battle of Berlin : Red Army troops complete encirclement of Berlin. [ 31 ] Retreating German troops destroy all the bridges over the Adige in Verona , including the historic Ponte di Castelvecchio and Ponte Pietra . Battle of Berlin : Red Army troops complete encirclement of Berlin. [ 31 ] Retreating German troops destroy all the bridges over the Adige in Verona , including the historic Ponte di Castelvecchio and Ponte Pietra . April 25 Founding negotiations for the United Nations begin in San Francisco . WWII – Elbe Day : United States and Soviet troops link up at the river Elbe , cutting Germany in two. Founding negotiations for the United Nations begin in San Francisco . WWII – Elbe Day : United States and Soviet troops link up at the river Elbe , cutting Germany in two. April 25 – 26 – WWII: The last major strategic bombing raid by RAF Bomber Command , the destruction of the oil refinery at Tønsberg in southern Norway, is carried out by 107 Avro Lancasters . April 26 – WWII: Battle of Bautzen : The last "successful" German panzer-offensive in Bautzen ends with the city recaptured. The British 3rd Infantry Division , under General Whistler , captures Bremen. [ 32 ] Nazi surrenders mean the British and Canadians now control the German border with Switzerland, from Basel to Lake Constance . Battle of Bautzen : The last "successful" German panzer-offensive in Bautzen ends with the city recaptured. The British 3rd Infantry Division , under General Whistler , captures Bremen. [ 32 ] Nazi surrenders mean the British and Canadians now control the German border with Switzerland, from Basel to Lake Constance . April 27 The last German formations withdraw from Finland to Norway. The Lapland War and thus, World War II in Finland , comes to an end and the Raising the Flag on the Three-Country Cairn photograph is taken. The provisional government of Austria headed by Karl Renner asserts its independence from Germany. [ 33 ] U.S. Ordnance troops find the coffins of Frederick William I of Prussia , Frederick the Great , Paul von Hindenburg and his wife in a salt mine in Germany. [ 34 ] The last German formations withdraw from Finland to Norway. The Lapland War and thus, World War II in Finland , comes to an end and the Raising the Flag on the Three-Country Cairn photograph is taken. The provisional government of Austria headed by Karl Renner asserts its independence from Germany. [ 33 ] U.S. Ordnance troops find the coffins of Frederick William I of Prussia , Frederick the Great , Paul von Hindenburg and his wife in a salt mine in Germany. [ 34 ] April 28 The bodies of Benito Mussolini , his mistress, Clara Petacci , and other followers are hung by their heels at a gas station in the public square of Milan , Piazzale Loreto, following their execution by Italian partisans after an attempt to flee the country. The Canadian First Army captures Emden and Wilhelmshaven . The bodies of Benito Mussolini , his mistress, Clara Petacci , and other followers are hung by their heels at a gas station in the public square of Milan , Piazzale Loreto, following their execution by Italian partisans after an attempt to flee the country. The Canadian First Army captures Emden and Wilhelmshaven . April 29 At the royal palace in Caserta , Lieutenant-Colonel Viktor von Schweinitz (representing General Heinrich von Vietinghoff ) and SS- Obersturmbannführer Eugen Wenner (representing Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff ) sign an unconditional instrument of surrender for all Axis powers forces in Italy, taking effect on May 2 . Italian General Rodolfo Graziani orders the Esercito Nazionale Repubblicano forces under his command to lay down their arms. [ 35 ] Dachau concentration camp is surrendered to U.S. forces, who kill SS guards at the camp and the nearby hamlet of Webling. [ 36 ] Brazilian forces liberate the commune of Fornovo di Taro , Italy, from German forces. Operation Manna : British Avro Lancaster bombers drop food into the Netherlands to prevent the starvation of the civilian population. Soviet soldiers hoist the Red flag over the Reich Chancellery in Berlin. Adolf Hitler marries his longtime mistress Eva Braun , in a closed civil ceremony in the Berlin Führerbunker , and signs his last will and testament . At the royal palace in Caserta , Lieutenant-Colonel Viktor von Schweinitz (representing General Heinrich von Vietinghoff ) and SS- Obersturmbannführer Eugen Wenner (representing Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff ) sign an unconditional instrument of surrender for all Axis powers forces in Italy, taking effect on May 2 . Italian General Rodolfo Graziani orders the Esercito Nazionale Repubblicano forces under his command to lay down their arms. [ 35 ] Dachau concentration camp is surrendered to U.S. forces, who kill SS guards at the camp and the nearby hamlet of Webling. [ 36 ] Brazilian forces liberate the commune of Fornovo di Taro , Italy, from German forces. Operation Manna : British Avro Lancaster bombers drop food into the Netherlands to prevent the starvation of the civilian population. Soviet soldiers hoist the Red flag over the Reich Chancellery in Berlin. Adolf Hitler marries his longtime mistress Eva Braun , in a closed civil ceremony in the Berlin Führerbunker , and signs his last will and testament . April 30 – WWII: Death of Adolf Hitler : Adolf Hitler and his wife of one day, Eva Braun , commit suicide as the Red Army approaches the Führerbunker in Berlin. Großadmiral Karl Dönitz succeeds Hitler as Reichspräsident (President of Germany) and Joseph Goebbels succeeds as Reichskanzler (Chancellor of Germany) , in accordance with Hitler's political testament the day earlier. American forces enter the Bavarian capital of Munich . Death of Adolf Hitler : Adolf Hitler and his wife of one day, Eva Braun , commit suicide as the Red Army approaches the Führerbunker in Berlin. Großadmiral Karl Dönitz succeeds Hitler as Reichspräsident (President of Germany) and Joseph Goebbels succeeds as Reichskanzler (Chancellor of Germany) , in accordance with Hitler's political testament the day earlier. American forces enter the Bavarian capital of Munich . May May – Interpol (being headquartered in Berlin) effectively ceases to exist (it is recreated on June 3 , 1946 ). May 1 – WWII: Reichssender Hamburg 's Flensburg radio station announces that Hitler has died in battle, "fighting up to his last breath against Bolshevism ." Joseph Goebbels carries out his sole official act as Chancellor of Germany, dictating a letter to the Soviet commander in Berlin advising of Hitler's death and requesting a ceasefire. When the latter is refused, he and his wife Magda kill their six children and commit suicide themselves. Karl Dönitz appoints Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk as the new de facto Chancellor of Germany , in the Flensburg Government . Troops of the Yugoslav 4th Army, together with the Slovene 9th Corpus NOV, enter Trieste . Mass suicide in Demmin : An estimated 700–2,500 suicides take place, after 80% of the town has been destroyed by the Soviets during the past three days. Reichssender Hamburg 's Flensburg radio station announces that Hitler has died in battle, "fighting up to his last breath against Bolshevism ." Joseph Goebbels carries out his sole official act as Chancellor of Germany, dictating a letter to the Soviet commander in Berlin advising of Hitler's death and requesting a ceasefire. When the latter is refused, he and his wife Magda kill their six children and commit suicide themselves. Karl Dönitz appoints Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk as the new de facto Chancellor of Germany , in the Flensburg Government . Troops of the Yugoslav 4th Army, together with the Slovene 9th Corpus NOV, enter Trieste . Mass suicide in Demmin : An estimated 700–2,500 suicides take place, after 80% of the town has been destroyed by the Soviets during the past three days. May 2 – WWII: The Soviet Union announces the fall of Berlin . The famous picture of Raising a Flag over the Reichstag was taken at this date. Lübeck is liberated by the British Army . The surrender of Axis troops in Italy comes into effect. A Holocaust death march from Dachau to the Austrian border is halted under two kilometers west of Waakirchen by the segregated, all- Nisei 522nd Field Artillery Battalion of the U.S. Army in southern Bavaria, saving several hundred prisoners. [ 37 ] Troops of the New Zealand Army 2nd Division enter Trieste a day after the Yugoslavs ; the German Army in Trieste surrenders to the New Zealand Army . Following the death or resignation of the Hitler Cabinet in Germany, the Schwerin von Krosigk cabinet first meets. Neuengamme concentration camp near Hamburg is evacuated at about this date. Expatriate American poet Ezra Pound is arrested by the Italian resistance movement but soon released by them as of no interest; on May 5 he turns himself in to the United States Army and is imprisoned as a traitor. The Soviet Union announces the fall of Berlin . The famous picture of Raising a Flag over the Reichstag was taken at this date. Lübeck is liberated by the British Army . The surrender of Axis troops in Italy comes into effect. A Holocaust death march from Dachau to the Austrian border is halted under two kilometers west of Waakirchen by the segregated, all- Nisei 522nd Field Artillery Battalion of the U.S. Army in southern Bavaria, saving several hundred prisoners. [ 37 ] Troops of the New Zealand Army 2nd Division enter Trieste a day after the Yugoslavs ; the German Army in Trieste surrenders to the New Zealand Army . Following the death or resignation of the Hitler Cabinet in Germany, the Schwerin von Krosigk cabinet first meets. Neuengamme concentration camp near Hamburg is evacuated at about this date. Expatriate American poet Ezra Pound is arrested by the Italian resistance movement but soon released by them as of no interest; on May 5 he turns himself in to the United States Army and is imprisoned as a traitor. May 3 – WWII: The prison ships Cap Arcona (5,000 dead), Thielbek (2,750 dead) and Deutschland (all survive) are sunk by the British Royal Air Force in Lübeck Bay. Rocket scientist Wernher von Braun and 120 members of his team surrender to U.S. forces (later going on to help start the U.S. space program). German Protestant theologian Gerhard Kittel is arrested by the French forces in Tübingen, Germany. Operation Dracula : British troops liberate the Burmese capital of Rangoon from Japanese forces. Capture of Hamburg : British troops of VIII Corps and XII Corps capture city of Hamburg [ 38 ] The prison ships Cap Arcona (5,000 dead), Thielbek (2,750 dead) and Deutschland (all survive) are sunk by the British Royal Air Force in Lübeck Bay. Rocket scientist Wernher von Braun and 120 members of his team surrender to U.S. forces (later going on to help start the U.S. space program). German Protestant theologian Gerhard Kittel is arrested by the French forces in Tübingen, Germany. Operation Dracula : British troops liberate the Burmese capital of Rangoon from Japanese forces. Capture of Hamburg : British troops of VIII Corps and XII Corps capture city of Hamburg [ 38 ] May 4 – WWII: German surrender at Lüneburg Heath : All German armed forces in northwest Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands surrender unconditionally to Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery , effective on May 5 at 08:00 hours British Double (and German) Summer Time. The Netherlands is liberated by British and Canadian troops. [ 39 ] Denmark is liberated. [ 40 ] Admiral Karl Dönitz orders all U-boats to cease offensive operations and return to bases in Norway. [ 41 ] The Holy Crown of Hungary is found in Mattsee , Austria, by the United States Army 86th Infantry Division . The U.S. government keeps the crown in Fort Knox for safekeeping from the Soviets until it is returned to Hungary on January 6 1978 . [ 42 ] German auxiliary cruiser Orion is sunk on her way to Copenhagen carrying refugees, with a loss of over 3,800 lives. American troops captures city of Salzburg [ 43 ] German surrender at Lüneburg Heath : All German armed forces in northwest Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands surrender unconditionally to Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery , effective on May 5 at 08:00 hours British Double (and German) Summer Time. The Netherlands is liberated by British and Canadian troops. [ 39 ] Denmark is liberated. [ 40 ] Admiral Karl Dönitz orders all U-boats to cease offensive operations and return to bases in Norway. [ 41 ] The Holy Crown of Hungary is found in Mattsee , Austria, by the United States Army 86th Infantry Division . The U.S. government keeps the crown in Fort Knox for safekeeping from the Soviets until it is returned to Hungary on January 6 1978 . [ 42 ] German auxiliary cruiser Orion is sunk on her way to Copenhagen carrying refugees, with a loss of over 3,800 lives. American troops captures city of Salzburg [ 43 ] May 5 – WWII: Prague uprising : Prague rises up against occupying Nazi forces, encouraged by radio broadcasts (giving rise to the Battle for Czech Radio ). The US 11th Armored Division liberates the prisoners of Mauthausen concentration camp , including Simon Wiesenthal . Canadian soldiers liberate the city of Amsterdam from Nazi occupation. A Japanese fire balloon kills six people, Elsie Mitchell and five children, near Bly, Oregon , when it explodes as they drag it from the woods. These are the only people killed by an enemy attack on the American mainland during WWII. Prague uprising : Prague rises up against occupying Nazi forces, encouraged by radio broadcasts (giving rise to the Battle for Czech Radio ). The US 11th Armored Division liberates the prisoners of Mauthausen concentration camp , including Simon Wiesenthal . Canadian soldiers liberate the city of Amsterdam from Nazi occupation. A Japanese fire balloon kills six people, Elsie Mitchell and five children, near Bly, Oregon , when it explodes as they drag it from the woods. These are the only people killed by an enemy attack on the American mainland during WWII. May 6 WWII: Mildred Gillars ("Axis Sally") delivers her last propaganda broadcast to Allied troops (the first was on December 11, 1941 ). Holocaust : Ebensee concentration camp in Austria is liberated by troops of the 80th Division (United States) . WWII: American troops of 16th Armored Division reaches city of Plzeň in Czech [ 44 ] WWII: Mildred Gillars ("Axis Sally") delivers her last propaganda broadcast to Allied troops (the first was on December 11, 1941 ). Holocaust : Ebensee concentration camp in Austria is liberated by troops of the 80th Division (United States) . WWII: American troops of 16th Armored Division reaches city of Plzeň in Czech [ 44 ] May 6 – 7 – The government of the Independent State of Croatia , the Nazi-affiliated fascist puppet state established in occupied Yugoslavia , flees Zagreb for a location near Klagenfurt in Austria, but is captured in the Bleiburg repatriations that then leads to mass executions. [ 45 ] May 7 – WWII: At 02:41, General Alfred Jodl signs the unconditional German Instrument of Surrender in SHAEF HQ at Reims , France, to end Germany's participation in the war. Surrender is effective on May 8 at 23:01 hours Central European Time (00:01 hours May 9 German Summer Time). This afternoon Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk , Leading Minister in the rump Flensburg Government , makes a broadcast announcing the German surrender and American journalist Edward Kennedy breaks an Allied embargo on news of the signing. [ 46 ] Numerous RAF Lancasters land in Germany to repatriate British prisoners of war. Some 4,500 ex-POWs are flown back to Great Britain over the next 24 hours. At 02:41, General Alfred Jodl signs the unconditional German Instrument of Surrender in SHAEF HQ at Reims , France, to end Germany's participation in the war. Surrender is effective on May 8 at 23:01 hours Central European Time (00:01 hours May 9 German Summer Time). This afternoon Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk , Leading Minister in the rump Flensburg Government , makes a broadcast announcing the German surrender and American journalist Edward Kennedy breaks an Allied embargo on news of the signing. [ 46 ] Numerous RAF Lancasters land in Germany to repatriate British prisoners of war. Some 4,500 ex-POWs are flown back to Great Britain over the next 24 hours. May 8 – WWII: Victory in Europe Day (VE Day) is observed by the western European powers as Nazi Germany surrenders, marking the end of WWII in Europe. Shortly before midnight (May 9 Moscow time) the final German Instrument of Surrender is signed at the seat of the Soviet Military Administration in Berlin- Karlshorst , attended by Allied representatives. Canadian troops move into Amsterdam , after German troops surrender. The surrender of the Dodecanese is signed in Symi . The Prague uprising ends with a ceasefire. The Eighth British Army , together with Slovene partisan troops and a motorized detachment of the Yugoslav 4th Army, arrives in Carinthia and Klagenfurt . The Croatian Armed Forces of the Independent State of Croatia are ordered by their commanders not to surrender to the Yugoslav Partisans , but to attempt to retreat to Austria and surrender to the British, part of the events leading to the Bleiburg repatriations . Hermann Göring surrenders himself to the United States Army near Radstadt . [ 47 ] Victory in Europe Day (VE Day) is observed by the western European powers as Nazi Germany surrenders, marking the end of WWII in Europe. Shortly before midnight (May 9 Moscow time) the final German Instrument of Surrender is signed at the seat of the Soviet Military Administration in Berlin- Karlshorst , attended by Allied representatives. Canadian troops move into Amsterdam , after German troops surrender. The surrender of the Dodecanese is signed in Symi . The Prague uprising ends with a ceasefire. The Eighth British Army , together with Slovene partisan troops and a motorized detachment of the Yugoslav 4th Army, arrives in Carinthia and Klagenfurt . The Croatian Armed Forces of the Independent State of Croatia are ordered by their commanders not to surrender to the Yugoslav Partisans , but to attempt to retreat to Austria and surrender to the British, part of the events leading to the Bleiburg repatriations . Hermann Göring surrenders himself to the United States Army near Radstadt . [ 47 ] May 8 – 29 – Sétif and Guelma massacre : in Algeria , thousands die as French troops and released Italian POWs kill an estimated 6,000 to 40,000 Algerian citizens. May 9 – WWII: The Soviet Union marks VE Day as the Red Army enters Prague. [ 48 ] Vidkun Quisling and other members of the collaborationist Quisling regime in Norway surrender to the Resistance ( Milorg ) and police at Møllergata 19 in Oslo, as part of the legal purge in Norway after World War II . General Alexander Löhr , Commander of German Army Group E near Topolšica, Slovenia , signs the capitulation of German occupation troops. Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : British forces take the surrender of the occupying troops, with Royal Navy ships HMS Bulldog arriving in St Peter Port , Guernsey , and HMS Beagle in St Helier , Jersey . The Soviet Union marks VE Day as the Red Army enters Prague. [ 48 ] Vidkun Quisling and other members of the collaborationist Quisling regime in Norway surrender to the Resistance ( Milorg ) and police at Møllergata 19 in Oslo, as part of the legal purge in Norway after World War II . General Alexander Löhr , Commander of German Army Group E near Topolšica, Slovenia , signs the capitulation of German occupation troops. Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : British forces take the surrender of the occupying troops, with Royal Navy ships HMS Bulldog arriving in St Peter Port , Guernsey , and HMS Beagle in St Helier , Jersey . May 10 – WWII: Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : Occupation of Sark ends, with British forces taking the surrender of the occupying troops and leaving them under the orders of Dame Sibyl Hathaway . May 12 Argentinian labour leader José Peter declares the Meat Industry Workers Federation dissolved. Rev. W. V. Awdry 's children's book The Three Railway Engines , first of The Railway Series , is published in England. Argentinian labour leader José Peter declares the Meat Industry Workers Federation dissolved. Rev. W. V. Awdry 's children's book The Three Railway Engines , first of The Railway Series , is published in England. May 14 – 15 – WWII: Battle of Poljana : The last battle of the War in Europe is fought at Poljana near Slovenj Gradec , Slovenia . May 15 – WWII: Surrender at Bleiburg – Retreating troops of the Croatian Armed Forces of the former puppet Independent State of Croatia (intermingled with fleeing civilians) attempt to surrender to the British Army at Bleiburg , but are directed to surrender to Yugoslav Partisans , who open fire on them. The remainder, after orders are given by Tito , are force-marched through Croatia and Serbia , interned or massacred, with thousands dying. [ 49 ] May 16 – WWII: Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : Occupation of Alderney ends, with British forces taking the surrender of the occupying troops, the civilian population having been evacuated. May 18 – WWII: Operation Unthinkable – British prime minister Winston Churchill secretly requests his military chiefs of staff to consider a plan for British, American and reactivated German forces to attack the Soviet Red Army on July 1 to preserve the independence of Poland. The operation is ruled militarily unfeasible. [ 50 ] May 23 The Flensburg Government is dissolved by the Allies, and German president Karl Dönitz and German chancellor Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk are arrested by British RAF Regiment personnel at Flensburg . They are respectively the last German head of state and head of government until 1949 . Heinrich Himmler , former head of the Nazi SS , commits suicide in British custody. The Flensburg Government is dissolved by the Allies, and German president Karl Dönitz and German chancellor Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk are arrested by British RAF Regiment personnel at Flensburg . They are respectively the last German head of state and head of government until 1949 . Heinrich Himmler , former head of the Nazi SS , commits suicide in British custody. May 28 – U.S.-born Irish-raised William Joyce (" Lord Haw-Haw ") is captured on the German border. He is later charged in London with high treason for his earlier English-language wartime broadcasts from German radio, convicted, and then hanged in January 1946. May 29 German communists, led by Walter Ulbricht , arrive in Berlin. Dutch painter Han van Meegeren is arrested for collaboration with the Nazis, but the "Dutch Golden Age" paintings he has sold to Hermann Göring (Koch) are later proved to be his own fakes. German communists, led by Walter Ulbricht , arrive in Berlin. Dutch painter Han van Meegeren is arrested for collaboration with the Nazis, but the "Dutch Golden Age" paintings he has sold to Hermann Göring (Koch) are later proved to be his own fakes. May 30 – The Iranian government demands that all Soviet and British troops leave the country. June June 1 – The British take over Lebanon and Syria . June 5 – The Allied Control Council , the military occupation governing body of Germany, formally takes power. June 7 – King Haakon VII of Norway returns to Norway five years to the day after leaving for exile in Britain. June 11 William Lyon Mackenzie King is re-elected as Canadian prime minister. The Franck Committee recommends against a surprise nuclear bombing of Japan. [ 51 ] William Lyon Mackenzie King is re-elected as Canadian prime minister. The Franck Committee recommends against a surprise nuclear bombing of Japan. [ 51 ] June 12 – The Yugoslav Army leaves Trieste , leaving the New Zealand Army in control. June 21 – WWII: The Battle of Okinawa ends, with U.S. occupation of the island until 1972 . June 24 – WWII: A victory parade is held in Red Square in Moscow. June 25 – Seán T. O'Kelly is elected the second president of Ireland . June 26 – The United Nations Charter is signed in San Francisco. June 29 – Czechoslovakia cedes Carpathian Ruthenia to the Soviet Union . June 30 – John von Neumann 's First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC is distributed, containing the first published description of the logical design of a computer, with stored-program and instruction data stored in the same address space within the memory ( von Neumann architecture ). July July 1 WWII: Germany is divided between the Allied occupation forces. WWII: Australian and other Allied forces launch an invasion of the east coast of Japanese-occupied Borneo near Balikpapan . WWII: Germany is divided between the Allied occupation forces. WWII: Australian and other Allied forces launch an invasion of the east coast of Japanese-occupied Borneo near Balikpapan . July 2 – The 1945 Sheikh Bashir rebellion breaks out in Burao and Erigavo in British Somaliland , led by Sheikh Bashir , a Somali religious leader. [ 52 ] July 4 – Brazilian cruiser Bahia is sunk by an accidentally induced explosion, killing more than 300 and stranding the survivors in shark-infested waters. July 5 The 1945 United Kingdom general election is held, though some constituencies delay their polls for local holiday reasons. Counting of votes and declaration of results are delayed until July 26 to allow for voting by the large number of service personnel still overseas. John Curtin , 14th Prime Minister of Australia , dies in office from heart failure at the age of 60. He is briefly replaced by his deputy Frank Forde , who serves as the 15th Prime Minister until a Labor Party leadership election is held to replace Curtin. WWII: The Philippines are declared liberated. The 1945 United Kingdom general election is held, though some constituencies delay their polls for local holiday reasons. Counting of votes and declaration of results are delayed until July 26 to allow for voting by the large number of service personnel still overseas. John Curtin , 14th Prime Minister of Australia , dies in office from heart failure at the age of 60. He is briefly replaced by his deputy Frank Forde , who serves as the 15th Prime Minister until a Labor Party leadership election is held to replace Curtin. WWII: The Philippines are declared liberated. July 6 – 7 – Schio massacre : 54 prisoners, mostly fascist sympathisers, are killed by members of the Italian resistance movement in Schio . July 8 – WWII: Harry S. Truman is informed that Japan will talk peace if it can retain the reign of the Emperor. [ 51 ] July 12 – Ben Chifley is elected leader of the Labor Party , and consequently becomes the 16th Prime Minister of Australia , defeating Frank Forde as well as Norman Makin and H.V. Evatt . As a result, Forde becomes the shortest-serving prime minister in Australian history; nevertheless, he retains his post as deputy leader. July 14 – WWII: Italy declares war on Japan. July 16 The Trinity Test , the first of an atomic bomb , using about six kilograms of plutonium , succeeds in unleashing an explosion equivalent to that of 22 kilotons of TNT. A train collision near Munich , Germany kills 102 war prisoners. The Trinity Test , the first of an atomic bomb , using about six kilograms of plutonium , succeeds in unleashing an explosion equivalent to that of 22 kilotons of TNT. A train collision near Munich , Germany kills 102 war prisoners. July 17 – August 2 – WWII: Potsdam Conference – At Potsdam , the three main Allied leaders hold their final summit of the war. President Truman officially informs Stalin that the U.S. has a powerful new weapon. July 21 – WWII: President Harry S. Truman approves the order for atomic bombs to be used against Japan. [ 51 ] July 23 – WWII: French marshal Philippe Pétain , who headed the Vichy government during WWII, goes on trial for treason. July 26 Winston Churchill resigns as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , after his Conservative Party is soundly defeated by the Labour Party in the 1945 general election . Clement Attlee becomes the new prime minister. It is the first time that Labour has governed Britain with a majority in the House of Commons . [ 53 ] The Potsdam Declaration demands Japan's unconditional surrender; Article 12, permitting Japan to retain the reign of the Emperor, has been deleted by President Truman. [ 51 ] Winston Churchill resigns as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , after his Conservative Party is soundly defeated by the Labour Party in the 1945 general election . Clement Attlee becomes the new prime minister. It is the first time that Labour has governed Britain with a majority in the House of Commons . [ 53 ] The Potsdam Declaration demands Japan's unconditional surrender; Article 12, permitting Japan to retain the reign of the Emperor, has been deleted by President Truman. [ 51 ] July 27 – WWII: Bombing of Aomori – Two USAAF B-29s drop a total of 60,000 leaflets on the city of Aomori , Japan, warning civilians of an air raid and urging them to leave immediately. The city was firebombed the next day, killing more than 1,700 people. July 28 WWII: Japan ambiguously rejects the Potsdam Declaration . [ 51 ] A North American B-25 Mitchell crashes into The Empire State Building , killing 14 people. [ 54 ] WWII: Japan ambiguously rejects the Potsdam Declaration . [ 51 ] A North American B-25 Mitchell crashes into The Empire State Building , killing 14 people. [ 54 ] July 29 The BBC Light Programme radio station is launched in the United Kingdom, aimed at mainstream light entertainment and music . WWII: Bombing of Aomori : The Japanese city of Aomori is firebombed by 63 USAAF B-29 heavy bombers , killing 1,767 civilians and destroying 18,045 homes. The BBC Light Programme radio station is launched in the United Kingdom, aimed at mainstream light entertainment and music . WWII: Bombing of Aomori : The Japanese city of Aomori is firebombed by 63 USAAF B-29 heavy bombers , killing 1,767 civilians and destroying 18,045 homes. July 30 – WWII: Heavy cruiser USS Indianapolis is hit and sunk by torpedoes from the Japanese submarine I-58 in the Philippine Sea . Some 900 survivors jump into the sea and are adrift for up to four days. Nearly 600 die before help arrives. Captain Charles B. McVay III of the cruiser is later court-martialed and convicted; in 2000, he is posthumously exonerated. [ 55 ] August August 6 – WWII: Atomic bombing of Hiroshima : United States Boeing B-29 Superfortress Enola Gay drops a uranium-235 atomic bomb , codenamed " Little Boy ", on the Japanese city of Hiroshima at 8:15 a.m. local time, resulting in between 90,000 and 146,000 deaths. August 7 – U.S. President Harry Truman announces the successful atomic bombing of Hiroshima, while he is returning from the Potsdam Conference aboard the U.S. Navy heavy cruiser USS Augusta (CA-31) , in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean. August 8 The United Nations Charter is ratified by the United States Senate, and this nation becomes the third to join the new international organization. WWII: The Soviet Union declares war on Japan. The United Nations Charter is ratified by the United States Senate, and this nation becomes the third to join the new international organization. WWII: The Soviet Union declares war on Japan. August 9 – WWII: Atomic bombing of Nagasaki : United States B-29 Bockscar drops a plutonium-239 atomic bomb, codenamed " Fat Man ", on the Japanese city of Nagasaki at 11:02 a.m. local time, resulting in between 39,000 and 80,000 deaths. The Soviet–Japanese War opens: The Soviet Union begins its army offensive against Japan, in the northern part of the Japanese-held puppet region of Manchuria including the northern peninsula of Korea that became involved with the 25th Army . [ 56 ] Atomic bombing of Nagasaki : United States B-29 Bockscar drops a plutonium-239 atomic bomb, codenamed " Fat Man ", on the Japanese city of Nagasaki at 11:02 a.m. local time, resulting in between 39,000 and 80,000 deaths. The Soviet–Japanese War opens: The Soviet Union begins its army offensive against Japan, in the northern part of the Japanese-held puppet region of Manchuria including the northern peninsula of Korea that became involved with the 25th Army . [ 56 ] August 10 – WWII: Japan offers to surrender to the Allies, "provided this does not prejudice the sovereignty of the Emperor". August 11 WWII: The Allies reply to the Japanese surrender offer by stating that Emperor Hirohito will be subject to the authority of the Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces . The Holocaust : Kraków pogrom – Róża Berger is shot dead by Polish militia. WWII: The Allies reply to the Japanese surrender offer by stating that Emperor Hirohito will be subject to the authority of the Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces . The Holocaust : Kraków pogrom – Róża Berger is shot dead by Polish militia. August 11 – 25 – Soviet troops complete the occupation of Sakhalin . August 13 – The Zionist World Congress approaches the British government to discuss the founding of the country of Israel . August 14 – WWII: Emperor Hirohito accepts the terms of the Potsdam Declaration . His recorded announcement of this is smuggled out of the Tokyo Imperial Palace . At 19:00 hrs in Washington, D.C. (23:00 GMT ), U.S. president Harry S. Truman announces the Japanese surrender. August 15 WWII: Bombing of Kumagaya , Japan, by the United States using conventional bombs, beginning at 00:23. Hirohito surrender broadcast (Gyokuon-hōsō) : Emperor Hirohito 's announcement of the unconditional surrender of Japan is broadcast on the radio a little after noon (12:00 Japan Standard Time is 03:00 GMT). This is probably the first time an Emperor of Japan has been heard by the common people. Delivered in formal classical Japanese , without directly referring to surrender and following official censorship of the country's weak position, the recorded speech is not immediately easily understood by ordinary people. The Allies call this day Victory over Japan Day (V-J Day). This ends the period of Japanese expansionism , and begins the period of the Occupation of Japan and sets the stage for Korean independence. The August Revolution in Vietnam begins, with the Viet Minh taking over the capital Hanoi , taking advantage of the collapse of Japanese power. The Provisional International Civil Aviation Organization is founded, as a specialized agency of the United Nations . WWII: Bombing of Kumagaya , Japan, by the United States using conventional bombs, beginning at 00:23. Hirohito surrender broadcast (Gyokuon-hōsō) : Emperor Hirohito 's announcement of the unconditional surrender of Japan is broadcast on the radio a little after noon (12:00 Japan Standard Time is 03:00 GMT). This is probably the first time an Emperor of Japan has been heard by the common people. Delivered in formal classical Japanese , without directly referring to surrender and following official censorship of the country's weak position, the recorded speech is not immediately easily understood by ordinary people. The Allies call this day Victory over Japan Day (V-J Day). This ends the period of Japanese expansionism , and begins the period of the Occupation of Japan and sets the stage for Korean independence. Bombing of Kumagaya , Japan, by the United States using conventional bombs, beginning at 00:23. Hirohito surrender broadcast (Gyokuon-hōsō) : Emperor Hirohito 's announcement of the unconditional surrender of Japan is broadcast on the radio a little after noon (12:00 Japan Standard Time is 03:00 GMT). This is probably the first time an Emperor of Japan has been heard by the common people. Delivered in formal classical Japanese , without directly referring to surrender and following official censorship of the country's weak position, the recorded speech is not immediately easily understood by ordinary people. The Allies call this day Victory over Japan Day (V-J Day). This ends the period of Japanese expansionism , and begins the period of the Occupation of Japan and sets the stage for Korean independence. The August Revolution in Vietnam begins, with the Viet Minh taking over the capital Hanoi , taking advantage of the collapse of Japanese power. The Provisional International Civil Aviation Organization is founded, as a specialized agency of the United Nations . August 17 Philippines President José P. Laurel issues an Executive Proclamation putting an end to the Second Philippine Republic , thus ending his term as President of the Philippines. Proclamation of Indonesian Independence : Indonesian nationalists Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declare the independence of the Republic of Indonesia , with Sukarno as president and Mohammad Hatta as vice-president, igniting the Indonesian National Revolution against the Dutch Empire . Philippines President José P. Laurel issues an Executive Proclamation putting an end to the Second Philippine Republic , thus ending his term as President of the Philippines. Proclamation of Indonesian Independence : Indonesian nationalists Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declare the independence of the Republic of Indonesia , with Sukarno as president and Mohammad Hatta as vice-president, igniting the Indonesian National Revolution against the Dutch Empire . August 18 – WWII: Death of Subhas Chandra Bose : Indian nationalist leader Subhas Chandra Bose is killed as a result of his overloaded Japanese plane crashing in Japanese Taiwan . August 19 – Chinese Civil War : Mao Zedong and Chiang Kai-shek meet in Chongqing to discuss an end to hostilities between the Communists and the Nationalists . August 22 – Kim Il Sung as the guerilla fighter returned to the Soviet-occupied capital Pyongyang after the Red Army entered the northern peninsula of Korea . August 23 – Soviet–Japanese War : Joseph Stalin orders the detention of Japanese prisoners of war in the Soviet Union . August 25 – Bảo Đại abdicates as Emperor of Vietnam , ending 2,000 years of dynastic and monarchic rule in the country and 143 years of the Nguyễn dynasty , Paris marked the first anniversary of liberation from Nazi rule by the French Resistance as a momentous event at the Battle of Normandy against Dietrich von Choltitz . August 30 – WWII: Vietnam 's capital Hanoi is taken by the Viet Minh , which ends the French occupation in what becomes North Vietnam , and thus the southern provinces become South Vietnam . This ends the August Revolution . August 31 WWII: Allied troops arrest German field marshal Walther von Brauchitsch . A team at American Cyanamid 's Lederle Laboratories, Pearl River, New York , led by Yellapragada Subbarow , announces they have obtained folic acid in a pure crystalline form. [ 57 ] This vitamin is abundant in green leaf vegetables , liver , kidney , and yeast . [ 58 ] WWII: Allied troops arrest German field marshal Walther von Brauchitsch . A team at American Cyanamid 's Lederle Laboratories, Pearl River, New York , led by Yellapragada Subbarow , announces they have obtained folic acid in a pure crystalline form. [ 57 ] This vitamin is abundant in green leaf vegetables , liver , kidney , and yeast . [ 58 ] September September 2 – World War II ends: Japanese general Tomoyuki Yamashita surrenders to Philippine and American forces at Kiangan, Ifugao . The final official Japanese Instrument of Surrender is accepted by the Supreme Allied Commander, General Douglas MacArthur , and Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz for the United States, and delegates from the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, the Netherlands, China, and others from a Japanese delegation led by Mamoru Shigemitsu , on board the American battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay . General Douglas MacArthur is given the title of Supreme Commander Allied Powers , and is also tasked with the occupation of Japan. [ 59 ] The Democratic Republic of Vietnam is officially established, by Ho Chi Minh . [ 59 ] Japanese general Tomoyuki Yamashita surrenders to Philippine and American forces at Kiangan, Ifugao . The final official Japanese Instrument of Surrender is accepted by the Supreme Allied Commander, General Douglas MacArthur , and Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz for the United States, and delegates from the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, the Netherlands, China, and others from a Japanese delegation led by Mamoru Shigemitsu , on board the American battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay . General Douglas MacArthur is given the title of Supreme Commander Allied Powers , and is also tasked with the occupation of Japan. [ 59 ] The Democratic Republic of Vietnam is officially established, by Ho Chi Minh . [ 59 ] September 4 – WWII: Japanese forces surrender on Wake Island , after hearing word of their country's surrender. September 5 Iva Toguri D'Aquino , a Japanese American suspected of being wartime radio propagandist " Tokyo Rose ", is arrested in Yokohama . Russian code clerk Igor Gouzenko comes forward with numerous documents implicating the Soviet Union in many spy rings in North America, both in the United States and in Canada. Iva Toguri D'Aquino , a Japanese American suspected of being wartime radio propagandist " Tokyo Rose ", is arrested in Yokohama . Russian code clerk Igor Gouzenko comes forward with numerous documents implicating the Soviet Union in many spy rings in North America, both in the United States and in Canada. September 8 U.S. troops arrive in Southern Korea , while the Soviet Union occupies the north , with the dividing line being the 38th parallel of latitude. This arrangement proves to be the indirect beginning of a divided Korea, which will lead to the Korean War when North Korea invades in 1950 . The Afghan government defeats a rebel force at Kunar Khas ; Gerald Crichton, the British Charge de 'affairs in Kabul, later describes the victory as the "turning point" of the Afghan tribal revolts of 1944–1947 . [ 60 ] U.S. troops arrive in Southern Korea , while the Soviet Union occupies the north , with the dividing line being the 38th parallel of latitude. This arrangement proves to be the indirect beginning of a divided Korea, which will lead to the Korean War when North Korea invades in 1950 . The Afghan government defeats a rebel force at Kunar Khas ; Gerald Crichton, the British Charge de 'affairs in Kabul, later describes the victory as the "turning point" of the Afghan tribal revolts of 1944–1947 . [ 60 ] September 9 Chairman of the Nationalist Government of China Chiang Kai-shek officially accepts the Japanese capitulation at Nanking . [ 59 ] Japanese troops in Keijō (present day Seoul ) formally relinquish control over Southern Korea to the United States, effectively ending Japan's 35-year rule of Korea. [ 61 ] Chairman of the Nationalist Government of China Chiang Kai-shek officially accepts the Japanese capitulation at Nanking . [ 59 ] Japanese troops in Keijō (present day Seoul ) formally relinquish control over Southern Korea to the United States, effectively ending Japan's 35-year rule of Korea. [ 61 ] September 10 – Vidkun Quisling is sentenced to death for being a Nazi collaborator in Norway. [ 59 ] September 11 Hideki Tojo , Japanese prime minister during most of World War II, attempts to commit suicide to avoid facing an Allied war crimes tribunal. Radio Republik Indonesia starts broadcasting. The Batu Lintang camp in Sarawak , Borneo is liberated by Australian forces. Hideki Tojo , Japanese prime minister during most of World War II, attempts to commit suicide to avoid facing an Allied war crimes tribunal. Radio Republik Indonesia starts broadcasting. The Batu Lintang camp in Sarawak , Borneo is liberated by Australian forces. September 12 Operation Tiderace : The Japanese Army formally surrenders to the British in Singapore . The office of governor-general of Korea is disbanded by the United States Army Military Government in Korea, formally ending Japan's 35-year rule in Korea. Operation Tiderace : The Japanese Army formally surrenders to the British in Singapore . The office of governor-general of Korea is disbanded by the United States Army Military Government in Korea, formally ending Japan's 35-year rule in Korea. September 18 Typhoon Makurazaki kills 3,746 people in Japan. The Japanese Army in Central China officially surrenders to the Chinese, in Wuhan . Typhoon Makurazaki kills 3,746 people in Japan. The Japanese Army in Central China officially surrenders to the Chinese, in Wuhan . September 20 – Mohandas Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru demand that all British troops depart India. September 24 – Postwar anti-Jewish violence in Slovakia : The Topoľčany pogrom is carried out in Czechoslovakia. October October – Arthur C. Clarke puts forward the idea of a geosynchronous communications satellite , in a Wireless World magazine article. October 1 – 15 – Operation Backfire : Three A4 rockets are launched near Cuxhaven , in a demonstration to Allied forces. October 2 – George Albert Smith becomes president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints . October 4 – The Partizan Belgrade sports club is founded in Belgrade , Serbia . October 5 – Hollywood Black Friday : A strike by the Set Decorator's Union in Hollywood results in a riot. October 8 – 15 – Hadamar Trial: Personnel of the Hadamar Euthanasia Centre , now in the American zone of Allied-occupied Germany , are the first to be tried for systematic extermination in Nazi Germany . October 9 – Former prime minister Pierre Laval is sentenced to death, for collaboration with the Nazis in Vichy France . [ 59 ] October 10 – The Nazi Party is dissolved by the Allied Powers. October 14 – Czechoslovakia : A new provisional national assembly is elected, Kim Il Sung made his first major public appearance in Pyongyang as the celebration of liberation where he was officially introduced to the public by the Soviet authorities as a national hero, a legendary guerrilla fighter and leader. [ 59 ] October 15 – 21 – The Fifth Pan-African Congress is held in Manchester . October 16 – The Food and Agriculture Organization is established at a meeting in Quebec City , as a specialized agency of the United Nations , Syngman Rhee returned to the southern peninsula of Korea as he arrived in Seoul by becoming a prominent figure under the U.S. occupation. October 17 – A massive number of people, headed for the General Confederation of Labour (Argentina) , gather in the Plaza de Mayo in Buenos Aires to demand Juan Perón 's release. This is known to the Peronists as the Día de la lealtad ( Loyalty Day ) and considered the founding day of Peronism . October 18 – Isaías Medina Angarita , president of Venezuela , is overthrown by a military coup . [ 59 ] October 19 – Members of the Indonesian People's Army attack Anglo-Dutch forces in Indonesia . [ 59 ] October 20 – Mongolians vote for independence from China. [ 59 ] October 21 – Women's suffrage : Women are allowed to vote in the French Legislative Election for the first time. October 22 – Rómulo Betancourt is named provisional president of Venezuela . [ 59 ] October 24 The United Nations is founded by ratification of its Charter , by 29 nations such as the United Kingdom , the United States , France , Canada , Egypt , Brazil , Haiti , Luxembourg , Russia (former USSR ) and others. [ 59 ] The International Court of Justice ("World Court") is established by the United Nations Charter . Norwegian Nazi leader Vidkun Quisling is executed by firing squad , for treason against Norway. [ 59 ] The United Nations is founded by ratification of its Charter , by 29 nations such as the United Kingdom , the United States , France , Canada , Egypt , Brazil , Haiti , Luxembourg , Russia (former USSR ) and others. [ 59 ] The International Court of Justice ("World Court") is established by the United Nations Charter . Norwegian Nazi leader Vidkun Quisling is executed by firing squad , for treason against Norway. [ 59 ] October 25 WWII: Japanese armed forces in Taiwan surrender to the Allies. Getúlio Vargas is deposed as president in Brazil; José Linhares is named temporary president. [ 59 ] Osijek prison massacre by Yugoslav secret police. WWII: Japanese armed forces in Taiwan surrender to the Allies. Getúlio Vargas is deposed as president in Brazil; José Linhares is named temporary president. [ 59 ] Osijek prison massacre by Yugoslav secret police. October 27 – November 20 – Indonesian National Revolution : Battle of Surabaya – Pro-independence Indonesian soldiers and militia fight British and British Indian troops in Surabaya . October 29 Getúlio Vargas resigns as president of Brazil. At Gimbels Department Store in New York City, the first ballpoint pens go on sale at $12.50 each. Getúlio Vargas resigns as president of Brazil. At Gimbels Department Store in New York City, the first ballpoint pens go on sale at $12.50 each. October 30 – The undivided country of India joins the United Nations . November November 1 International Labour Organization 's new constitution comes into effect. Telechron introduces the model 8H59 Musalarm, the first clock radio . Australia joins the United Nations . International Labour Organization 's new constitution comes into effect. Telechron introduces the model 8H59 Musalarm, the first clock radio . Australia joins the United Nations . November 5 – Colombia joins the United Nations . November 6 – Indonesians reject an offer of autonomy from the Dutch . [ 59 ] November 7 – South Africa and Mexico both joined the United Nations . November 9 – Soo Bahk Do and Moo Duk Kwan martial arts are founded in Korea . November 10 – Indonesian National Revolution : Battle of Surabaya – Following the killing of British officer Brigadier A. W. S. Mallaby on October 30, the British Indian Army (in support of its allied Dutch colonial administration) begins an advance on Surabaya in the Dutch East Indies against Indonesian nationalists; although most of the city is retaken in 3 days of heavy fighting, the strength of the resistance leads to today being celebrated as Heroes' Day (Hari Pahlawan) in Indonesia. November 11 – 1945 Yugoslavian parliamentary election : Marshal Josip Broz Tito and the People's Front win a decisive majority (90%) in the Yugoslavian Assembly. [ 59 ] November 15 Harry S. Truman , Clement Attlee and Mackenzie King share nuclear information with the U.N. and call for a United Nations Atomic Energy Commission . [ 51 ] [ 59 ] An offensive is begun in Manchuria by the Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalists) against further infiltration by the Chinese Communist Party . [ 59 ] Harry S. Truman , Clement Attlee and Mackenzie King share nuclear information with the U.N. and call for a United Nations Atomic Energy Commission . [ 51 ] [ 59 ] An offensive is begun in Manchuria by the Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalists) against further infiltration by the Chinese Communist Party . [ 59 ] November 16 Charles de Gaulle is unanimously elected president of France by the provisional government . [ 59 ] The United States controversially imports 88 German scientists to help in the production of rocket technology. The foundation of UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) is agreed at a meeting in London. Charles de Gaulle is unanimously elected president of France by the provisional government . [ 59 ] The United States controversially imports 88 German scientists to help in the production of rocket technology. The foundation of UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) is agreed at a meeting in London. November 18 – The Tudeh party starts a bloodless coup, and will form Azerbaijan within days. Soviet troops prevent Iranian troops from getting involved. November 20 – The Nuremberg trials begin: Trials against 22 Nazis for war crimes of World War II start at the Palace of Justice, Nuremberg . [ 59 ] November 26 – U.S. ambassador to China Patrick J. Hurley resigns after he is unable to broker a deal between Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Tse-tung . [ 59 ] November 28 The 1945 Balochistan earthquake causes a tsunami and kills 4,000. British fascist John Amery pleads guilty to treason, and is condemned to death. [ 62 ] The 1945 Balochistan earthquake causes a tsunami and kills 4,000. British fascist John Amery pleads guilty to treason, and is condemned to death. [ 62 ] November 29 The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is declared (this day is celebrated as Republic Day until the 1990s). Marshal Tito is named president. Assembly of the world's first general purpose electronic computer, the Electronic Numerical Integrator Analyzer and Computer ( ENIAC ), is completed in the United States, covering 1,800 square feet (170 m 2 ) of floor space, and the first set of calculations is run on it. The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is declared (this day is celebrated as Republic Day until the 1990s). Marshal Tito is named president. Assembly of the world's first general purpose electronic computer, the Electronic Numerical Integrator Analyzer and Computer ( ENIAC ), is completed in the United States, covering 1,800 square feet (170 m 2 ) of floor space, and the first set of calculations is run on it. December December 1 – German general Anton Dostler is executed by firing squad in Italy for the war crime of ordering the summary execution of captured U.S. commandos. The U.S. military tribunal which has tried him has not accepted his plea of " superior orders ", setting a precedent for future Allied war crimes trials . [ 63 ] December 2 General Eurico Gaspar Dutra is elected president of Brazil. French banks ( Bank of France , BNCI , CNEP , Crédit Lyonnais and Société Générale ) are nationalized. General Eurico Gaspar Dutra is elected president of Brazil. French banks ( Bank of France , BNCI , CNEP , Crédit Lyonnais and Société Générale ) are nationalized. December 3 – Communist demonstrations in Athens presage the Greek Civil War . December 4 – The United States Senate approves the entry of the United States into the United Nations by a vote of 65–7. December 5 – Flight 19 of United States Navy Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bombers disappears on a training exercise from Naval Air Station Fort Lauderdale . December 9 – American General George S. Patton is involved in a car accident in Germany, resulting in his death on December 21. December 21 – Iraq joins the United Nations . December 27 – Twenty-one nations ratify the articles creating the World Bank . [ 64 ] Date unknown A team at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (led by Charles D. Coryell ) discovers chemical element 61, the only one still missing between 1 and 96 on the periodic table , which they will name promethium . [ 65 ] Found by analysis of fission products of irradiated uranium fuel, its discovery is not made public until 1947. The Australian government introduces an Assisted Passage Migration Scheme to encourage the immigration of British subjects, at a fare of £ 10, hence they become known as " Ten Pound Poms ". [ 66 ] The first geothermal milk pasteurization is done in Klamath Falls, Oregon , United States. Births Births January · February · March · April · May · June · July · August · September · October · November · December January January 1 Pietro Grasso , Italian politician Jacky Ickx , Belgian racing driver Pietro Grasso , Italian politician Jacky Ickx , Belgian racing driver January 3 – Stephen Stills , American rock singer-songwriter ( Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young ) January 4 Sima Bina , Iranian vocalist Richard R. Schrock , American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate Sima Bina , Iranian vocalist Richard R. Schrock , American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate January 5 Júlio Isidro , Portuguese television presenter Robert Pindyck , American economist Júlio Isidro , Portuguese television presenter Robert Pindyck , American economist January 7 Shulamith Firestone , Canadian American feminist, writer (d. 2012 ) Raila Odinga , prime minister of Kenya (d. 2025 ) Shulamith Firestone , Canadian American feminist, writer (d. 2012 ) Raila Odinga , prime minister of Kenya (d. 2025 ) January 10 – Sir Rod Stewart , British rock singer January 12 – André Bicaba , Burkinabé sprinter January 14 – Einar Hákonarson , Icelandic painter January 15 Vince Foster , American deputy White House counsel during the first term of President Bill Clinton (d. 1993 ) Princess Michael of Kent , German-born member of the British Royal Family Vince Foster , American deputy White House counsel during the first term of President Bill Clinton (d. 1993 ) Princess Michael of Kent , German-born member of the British Royal Family January 17 – Javed Akhtar , Indian political activist, poet, lyricist and screenwriter January 20 – Robert Olen Butler , American writer January 21 Arthur Beetson , Australian rugby league player and coach (d. 2011 ) Martin Shaw , British actor Arthur Beetson , Australian rugby league player and coach (d. 2011 ) Martin Shaw , British actor January 24 – Subhash Ghai , Indian film director, producer and screenwriter January 25 – Leigh Taylor-Young , American actress January 26 Jacqueline du Pré , English cellist (d. 1987 ) Graham Williams , New Zealand rugby union player (d. 2018 ) Jacqueline du Pré , English cellist (d. 1987 ) Graham Williams , New Zealand rugby union player (d. 2018 ) January 27 – Harold Cardinal , Cree political leader, writer and lawyer (d. 2005 ) January 28 Karen Lynn Gorney , American actress ( Saturday Night Fever ) Chuck Pyle , American country-folk singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) Karen Lynn Gorney , American actress ( Saturday Night Fever ) Chuck Pyle , American country-folk singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) January 29 Jim Nicholson , Northern Irish politician Tom Selleck , American actor ( Magnum, P.I. ) Jim Nicholson , Northern Irish politician Tom Selleck , American actor ( Magnum, P.I. ) January 31 – Joseph Kosuth , American artist February February 1 – Yasuhiro Takai , Japanese professional baseball player (d. 2019 ) February 3 Bob Griese , American football player Philip Waruinge , Kenyan boxer Bob Griese , American football player Philip Waruinge , Kenyan boxer February 4 – John P. Jumper , United States Air Force general February 5 – Sarah Weddington , American attorney (d. 2021 ) February 6 – Bob Marley , Jamaican reggae singer-songwriter and musician (d. 1981 ) February 7 – Gerald Davies , Welsh rugby player February 9 Mia Farrow , American actress Yoshinori Ohsumi , Japanese cell biologist [ 67 ] Mia Farrow , American actress Yoshinori Ohsumi , Japanese cell biologist [ 67 ] February 10 – Koo Bon-moo , South Korean business executive (d. 2018 ) February 12 Luiz Carlos Alborghetti , Italian-Brazilian radio commenter, showman and political figure (d. 2009 ) Maud Adams , Swedish actress David D. Friedman , American economist Luiz Carlos Alborghetti , Italian-Brazilian radio commenter, showman and political figure (d. 2009 ) Maud Adams , Swedish actress David D. Friedman , American economist February 13 – Simon Schama , English historian [ 68 ] February 14 Adiss Harmandian , Lebanese-Armenian pop singer (d. 2019 ) Hans-Adam II, Prince of Liechtenstein Adiss Harmandian , Lebanese-Armenian pop singer (d. 2019 ) Hans-Adam II, Prince of Liechtenstein February 15 – Douglas Hofstadter , American cognitive scientist February 17 – Brenda Fricker , Irish actress [ 69 ] February 18 – Hashem Mahameed , Israeli politician (d. 2018 ) February 22 – Oliver , American singer ( Good Morning Starshine ) (d. 2000 ) February 24 – Barry Bostwick , American actor February 25 – Roy Saari , American swimmer (d. 2008 ) February 26 – Marta Kristen , Norwegian actress ( Lost In Space ) February 27 – Carl Anderson , American singer, actor ( Jesus Christ Superstar ) (d. 2004 ) February 28 Alexey Ekimov , Russian-born chemist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 70 ] Bubba Smith , American football player and actor (d. 2011 ) Alexey Ekimov , Russian-born chemist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 70 ] Bubba Smith , American football player and actor (d. 2011 ) March March 1 – Dirk Benedict , American actor March 3 – George Miller , Australian film director March 4 Dieter Meier , Swiss singer, writer Tommy Svensson , Swedish football manager, player Dieter Meier , Swiss singer, writer Tommy Svensson , Swedish football manager, player March 7 – Arthur Lee , American musician (d. 2006 ) March 8 Micky Dolenz , American actor, director and rock musician ( The Monkees ) Anselm Kiefer , German painter Micky Dolenz , American actor, director and rock musician ( The Monkees ) Anselm Kiefer , German painter March 9 Katja Ebstein , German singer Dennis Rader , American serial killer Katja Ebstein , German singer Dennis Rader , American serial killer March 10 – Nobuhiko Higashikuni , Japanese Imperial prince (d. 2019 ) March 13 Othman Abdullah , Malaysian footballer (d. 2015 ) Anatoly Fomenko , Russian mathematician Othman Abdullah , Malaysian footballer (d. 2015 ) Anatoly Fomenko , Russian mathematician March 14 – Michael Martin Murphey , American country singer-songwriter March 16 – Douglas Ahlstedt , American tenor March 17 Hassan Bechara , Lebanese wrestler (d. 2017 ) Hassan Bechara , Lebanese wrestler (d. 2017 ) March 18 Michael Reagan , American television personality, political commentator and Republican strategist Marta Suplicy , Brazilian politician and psychologist Michael Reagan , American television personality, political commentator and Republican strategist Marta Suplicy , Brazilian politician and psychologist March 20 Jay Ingram , Canadian television host, author and journalist Bobby Jameson , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) Pat Riley , American basketball coach Jay Ingram , Canadian television host, author and journalist Bobby Jameson , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) Pat Riley , American basketball coach March 21 – Charles Greene , American Olympic athlete (d. 2022 ) March 26 – Mikhail Voronin , Russian gymnast (d. 2004 ) March 27 – Władysław Stachurski , Polish football player, manager (d. 2013 ) March 28 Rodrigo Duterte , 16th President of the Philippines Raine Loo , Estonian actress Rodrigo Duterte , 16th President of the Philippines Raine Loo , Estonian actress March 29 Walt Frazier , African-American basketball player Willem Ruis , Dutch game show host (d. 1986 ) Walt Frazier , African-American basketball player Willem Ruis , Dutch game show host (d. 1986 ) March 30 – Eric Clapton , English rock guitarist and singer-songwriter [ 71 ] March 31 Nana Ampadu , Ghanaian musician (d. 2021 ) [ 72 ] Edwin Catmull , American computer scientist, President of Walt Disney Animation Studios [ 73 ] Nana Ampadu , Ghanaian musician (d. 2021 ) [ 72 ] Edwin Catmull , American computer scientist, President of Walt Disney Animation Studios [ 73 ] April April 2 – Linda Hunt , American actress [ 74 ] April 4 – Daniel Cohn-Bendit , French political activist [ 75 ] April 5 Cem Karaca , Turkish musician (d. 2004 ) Tommy Smith , English footballer (d. 2019 ) Cem Karaca , Turkish musician (d. 2004 ) Tommy Smith , English footballer (d. 2019 ) April 12 – Lee Jong-wook , South Korean Director-General of the World Health Organization (d. 2006 ) April 13 Lucha Corpi , Mexican poet Tony Dow , American actor, producer and director (d. 2022 ) Lowell George , American rock musician ( Little Feat ) (d. 1979 ) Lucha Corpi , Mexican poet Tony Dow , American actor, producer and director (d. 2022 ) Lowell George , American rock musician ( Little Feat ) (d. 1979 ) April 14 Ritchie Blackmore , English rock guitarist Tuilaʻepa Saʻilele Malielegaoi , 6th Prime Minister of Samoa Ritchie Blackmore , English rock guitarist Tuilaʻepa Saʻilele Malielegaoi , 6th Prime Minister of Samoa April 20 – Naftali Temu , Kenyan Olympic long-distance runner (d. 2003 ) April 21 – Ana Lúcia Torre , Brazilian actress April 24 – Larry Tesler , American computer scientist (cut, copy, paste) (d. 2020 ) April 25 – Björn Ulvaeus , Swedish rock songwriter ( ABBA ) April 29 – Tammi Terrell , African-American soul singer (d. 1970 ) April 30 – Lara Saint Paul , Eritrean-born Italian singer (d. 2018 ) May May 1 – Rita Coolidge , American pop singer May 2 – Bianca Jagger , Nicaraguan social activist [ 76 ] May 3 – Jeffrey C. Hall , American geneticist and chronobiologist, Nobel Prize laureate May 4 David Magson , Australian-British mathematician and businessman Narasimhan Ram , Indian journalist David Magson , Australian-British mathematician and businessman Narasimhan Ram , Indian journalist May 6 – Bob Seger , American rock singer May 7 – Robin Strasser , American actress May 8 – Keith Jarrett , American musician [ 77 ] May 9 – Jupp Heynckes , German footballer and manager May 11 Mary Cooney , American politician Hilda Pérez Carvajal , Venezuelan biologist Mary Cooney , American politician Hilda Pérez Carvajal , Venezuelan biologist May 13 – Tammam Salam , 34th Prime Minister of Lebanon May 14 – Yochanan Vollach , Israeli footballer and president of Maccabi Haifa, CEO May 15 – Duarte Pio, Duke of Braganza , heir to the Portuguese crown May 17 – Tony Roche , Australian tennis player May 19 – Pete Townshend , English rock guitarist, lyricist ( The Who ) May 20 – Anton Zeilinger , Austrian quantum physicist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 78 ] May 21 Richard Hatch , American actor ( Battlestar Galactica ) (d. 2017 ) Ernst Messerschmid , German physicist, astronaut Richard Hatch , American actor ( Battlestar Galactica ) (d. 2017 ) Ernst Messerschmid , German physicist, astronaut May 22 – Victoria Wyndham , American actress ( Another World ) May 23 Lauren Chapin , American child actress, evangelist Doris Mae Oulton , Canadian community developer Lauren Chapin , American child actress, evangelist Doris Mae Oulton , Canadian community developer May 24 – Priscilla Presley , American actress, businesswoman May 28 Patch Adams , American physician, comedian, social activist, clown and author John Fogerty , American rock singer ( Creedence Clearwater Revival ) Patch Adams , American physician, comedian, social activist, clown and author John Fogerty , American rock singer ( Creedence Clearwater Revival ) May 29 Gary Brooker , English rock keyboardist and singer-songwriter ( Procol Harum ) (d. 2022 ) [ 79 ] Jean-Pierre Van Rossem , Belgian businessman, fraudster and politician (d. 2018 ) Gary Brooker , English rock keyboardist and singer-songwriter ( Procol Harum ) (d. 2022 ) [ 79 ] Jean-Pierre Van Rossem , Belgian businessman, fraudster and politician (d. 2018 ) May 30 Andrea Bronfman , American philanthropist (d. 2006 ) Gladys Horton , American singer ( The Marvelettes ) (d. 2011 ) Andrea Bronfman , American philanthropist (d. 2006 ) Gladys Horton , American singer ( The Marvelettes ) (d. 2011 ) May 31 Rainer Werner Fassbinder , German film director (d. 1982 ) Laurent Gbagbo , President of Côte d'Ivoire Rainer Werner Fassbinder , German film director (d. 1982 ) Laurent Gbagbo , President of Côte d'Ivoire June June 1 – Frederica von Stade , American mezzo-soprano June 2 – Jon Peters , American film producer June 3 – Hale Irwin , American professional golfer June 4 – Anthony Braxton , American composer and musical instrumentalist June 5 John Carlos , American athlete Théophile Georges Kassab , Catholic prelate (d. 2013 ) Nechama Rivlin , Israeli socialite, 10th First lady of Israel (d. 2019 ) John Carlos , American athlete Théophile Georges Kassab , Catholic prelate (d. 2013 ) Nechama Rivlin , Israeli socialite, 10th First lady of Israel (d. 2019 ) June 6 – David Dukes , American actor (d. 2000 ) June 7 – Wolfgang Schüssel , Chancellor of Austria June 9 – Nike Wagner , German woman of the theater June 10 – Benny Gallagher , Scottish singer-songwriter and multi-instrumentalist, half of duo Gallagher and Lyle June 11 – Adrienne Barbeau , American actress, television personality and author ( Maude ) June 12 – Pat Jennings , Northern Irish footballer June 14 – Jörg Immendorff , German painter June 15 Françoise Chandernagor , French writer Miriam Defensor Santiago , Filipino politician (d. 2016 ) Françoise Chandernagor , French writer Miriam Defensor Santiago , Filipino politician (d. 2016 ) June 16 Claire Alexander , Canadian ice hockey player Ivan Lins , Latin Grammy-winning Brazilian musician Claire Alexander , Canadian ice hockey player Ivan Lins , Latin Grammy-winning Brazilian musician June 17 P. D. T. Acharya , Secretary General, Indian Lok Sabha Art Bell , American radio talk show host ( Coast to Coast AM ) (d. 2018 ) Ken Livingstone , British politician Eddy Merckx , Belgian cyclist P. D. T. Acharya , Secretary General, Indian Lok Sabha Art Bell , American radio talk show host ( Coast to Coast AM ) (d. 2018 ) Ken Livingstone , British politician Eddy Merckx , Belgian cyclist June 19 Radovan Karadžić , Serbian politician Aung San Suu Kyi , Myanmar politician and poet, Nobel Peace Prize recipient Radovan Karadžić , Serbian politician Aung San Suu Kyi , Myanmar politician and poet, Nobel Peace Prize recipient June 20 – Anne Murray , Canadian singer June 21 Roberto D'Angelo , Italian slalom canoeist Luis Castañeda Lossio , Peruvian politician Thiagarajan , Indian actor, director and producer Nirmalendu Goon , Bangladeshi poet Marijana Lubej , Slovenian sprinter Roberto D'Angelo , Italian slalom canoeist Luis Castañeda Lossio , Peruvian politician Thiagarajan , Indian actor, director and producer Nirmalendu Goon , Bangladeshi poet Marijana Lubej , Slovenian sprinter June 22 Juma Kapuya , Tanzanian politician Dieter Versen , German football defender (d. 2025 ) Juma Kapuya , Tanzanian politician Dieter Versen , German football defender (d. 2025 ) June 23 Ana Chumachenco , Italian violinist Kim Småge , Norwegian novelist, crime fiction writer, writer of short stories and children's writer Ana Chumachenco , Italian violinist Kim Småge , Norwegian novelist, crime fiction writer, writer of short stories and children's writer June 24 George Pataki , Governor of New York Betty Stöve , Dutch tennis player [ 80 ] Ali Akbar Velayati , Iranian physician, politician George Pataki , Governor of New York Betty Stöve , Dutch tennis player [ 80 ] Ali Akbar Velayati , Iranian physician, politician June 25 Lali Armengol , Spanish playwright, professor and theater director [ 81 ] Mohammed Bakar , Malaysian footballer Carolyn Cheeks Kilpatrick , American politician Baba Gana Kingibe , Nigerian politician Guillermo Mendoza , Mexican cyclist Chaiyasit Shinawatra , commander-in-chief of the Royal Thai Army Lali Armengol , Spanish playwright, professor and theater director [ 81 ] Mohammed Bakar , Malaysian footballer Carolyn Cheeks Kilpatrick , American politician Baba Gana Kingibe , Nigerian politician Guillermo Mendoza , Mexican cyclist Chaiyasit Shinawatra , commander-in-chief of the Royal Thai Army June 26 – Paul Chun , Hong Kong actor June 27 Jose Miguel Arroyo , First Gentleman of the Philippines Ami Ayalon , Israeli politician Norma Kamali , American fashion designer Catherine Lacoste , French amateur golfer Lu Sheng-yen , Taiwanese leader of the True Buddha School Jose Miguel Arroyo , First Gentleman of the Philippines Ami Ayalon , Israeli politician Norma Kamali , American fashion designer Catherine Lacoste , French amateur golfer Lu Sheng-yen , Taiwanese leader of the True Buddha School June 28 Ken Buchanan , Scottish undisputed world lightweight boxing champion (d. 2023 ) Raul Seixas , Brazilian rock singer (d. 1989 ) Ken Buchanan , Scottish undisputed world lightweight boxing champion (d. 2023 ) Raul Seixas , Brazilian rock singer (d. 1989 ) June 29 – Chandrika Kumaratunga , 5th President of Sri Lanka June 30 Kevin Jackman , Australian rules footballer Jerry Kenney , American Major League Baseball infielder Sean Scully , Irish-American-based painter, printmaker James Snyder Jr. , American author, attorney and politician Kevin Jackman , Australian rules footballer Jerry Kenney , American Major League Baseball infielder Sean Scully , Irish-American-based painter, printmaker James Snyder Jr. , American author, attorney and politician July July 1 Jane Cederqvist , Swedish freestyle swimmer Visu , Indian writer, director, stage, actor and talk-show host (d. 2020 ) Billy Rohr , American Major League Baseball player Debbie Harry , American rock singer ( Blondie ) Jane Cederqvist , Swedish freestyle swimmer Visu , Indian writer, director, stage, actor and talk-show host (d. 2020 ) Billy Rohr , American Major League Baseball player Debbie Harry , American rock singer ( Blondie ) July 2 – Linda Warren , American author July 3 – Thomas Mapfumo , Zimbabwean musician July 4 Tiong Thai King , Malaysian politician Steinar Amundsen , Norwegian sprint canoeist Tiong Thai King , Malaysian politician Steinar Amundsen , Norwegian sprint canoeist July 5 Nurul Islam Nahid , Bangladeshi politician Miroslav Mišković , Serbian business magnate, investor Nurul Islam Nahid , Bangladeshi politician Miroslav Mišković , Serbian business magnate, investor July 6 – Burt Ward , American actor ( Batman ) July 7 Heloísa Pinheiro , Brazilian model, businesswoman Moncef Marzouki , Tunisian politician; 4th President of Tunisia Li Chi-an , North Korean football striker Matti Salminen , Finnish bass singer Heloísa Pinheiro , Brazilian model, businesswoman Moncef Marzouki , Tunisian politician; 4th President of Tunisia Li Chi-an , North Korean football striker Matti Salminen , Finnish bass singer July 8 – Micheline Calmy-Rey , Swiss Federal Councilor July 9 Dean Koontz , American writer Mohammad Reza Nematzadeh , Iranian politician, engineer Dean Koontz , American writer Mohammad Reza Nematzadeh , Iranian politician, engineer July 10 Zlatko Tomčić , Croatian politician Daniel Ona Ondo , Gabonese politician Virginia Wade , English professional tennis player Ron Glass , African-American actor (d. 2016 ) Zlatko Tomčić , Croatian politician Daniel Ona Ondo , Gabonese politician Virginia Wade , English professional tennis player Ron Glass , African-American actor (d. 2016 ) July 11 – Richard Wesley , American playwright, screenwriter July 12 Leopoldo Mastelloni , Italian actor, comedian and singer Thor Martinsen , Norwegian ice hockey player Leopoldo Mastelloni , Italian actor, comedian and singer Thor Martinsen , Norwegian ice hockey player July 14 – Antun Vujić , Croatian politician, philosopher, political analyst, lexicographer and author July 15 Hong Ra-hee , South Korean billionaire businesswoman, philanthropist Jürgen Möllemann , German politician (d. 2003 ) Jan-Michael Vincent , American actor (d. 2019 ) Hong Ra-hee , South Korean billionaire businesswoman, philanthropist Jürgen Möllemann , German politician (d. 2003 ) Jan-Michael Vincent , American actor (d. 2019 ) July 16 Victor Sloan , Irish artist Çetin Tekindor , Turkish actor Roy Ho Ten Soeng , Dutch politician Jos Stelling , Dutch film director, screenwriter Victor Sloan , Irish artist Çetin Tekindor , Turkish actor Roy Ho Ten Soeng , Dutch politician Jos Stelling , Dutch film director, screenwriter July 17 Eduardo Olivera , Mexican modern pentathlete Kim Won-hong , North Korean politician, military leader Alexander, Crown Prince of Yugoslavia Eduardo Olivera , Mexican modern pentathlete Kim Won-hong , North Korean politician, military leader Alexander, Crown Prince of Yugoslavia July 19 Oleg Fotin , Russian swimmer Richard Henderson , Scottish molecular biologist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 82 ] Uri Rosenthal , Dutch politician Oleg Fotin , Russian swimmer Richard Henderson , Scottish molecular biologist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 82 ] Uri Rosenthal , Dutch politician July 20 Kim Carnes , American singer-songwriter ( Bette Davis Eyes ) Lothar Koepsel , German sailor Simbarashe Mumbengegwi , Zimbabwean politician and diplomat Kim Carnes , American singer-songwriter ( Bette Davis Eyes ) Lothar Koepsel , German sailor Simbarashe Mumbengegwi , Zimbabwean politician and diplomat July 21 John Lowe , English darts player Barry Richards , South African batsman John Lowe , English darts player Barry Richards , South African batsman July 23 – Edie McClurg , American actress July 24 – Azim Premji , Indian businessman July 26 Helen Mirren , British actress Helen Mirren , British actress July 28 – Jim Davis , American cartoonist ( Garfield ) July 30 Roger Dobkowitz , American producer Patrick Modiano , French novelist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 83 ] David Sanborn , American saxophonist (d. 2024 ) Roger Dobkowitz , American producer Patrick Modiano , French novelist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 83 ] David Sanborn , American saxophonist (d. 2024 ) August August 1 – Douglas Osheroff , American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate August 4 – Alan Mulally , American businessman, CEO of the Ford Motor Company August 5 – Loni Anderson , American actress ( WKRP in Cincinnati ) (d. 2025 ) August 8 – Julie Anne Robinson , British theatre, television, film director and producer August 9 – Posy Simmonds , English cartoonist August 12 Ron Mael , American musician ( Sparks ) [ 84 ] J. D. McClatchy , American poet and literary critic (d. 2018 ) Ron Mael , American musician ( Sparks ) [ 84 ] J. D. McClatchy , American poet and literary critic (d. 2018 ) August 14 Steve Martin , American actor and comedian Valeriy Shmarov , Ukrainian politician (d. 2018 ) Eliana Pittman , Brazilian singer, actress Faustin Twagiramungu , Prime Minister of Rwanda (d. 2023 ) Wim Wenders , German film director, producer Steve Martin , American actor and comedian Valeriy Shmarov , Ukrainian politician (d. 2018 ) Eliana Pittman , Brazilian singer, actress Faustin Twagiramungu , Prime Minister of Rwanda (d. 2023 ) Wim Wenders , German film director, producer August 15 Bobby Treviño , Mexican baseball player (d. 2018 ) Miyuki Matsuhisa , Japanese artistic gymnast Khaleda Zia , Bangladesh politician, Prime Minister of Bangladesh (d. 2025 ) [ 85 ] Bobby Treviño , Mexican baseball player (d. 2018 ) Miyuki Matsuhisa , Japanese artistic gymnast Khaleda Zia , Bangladesh politician, Prime Minister of Bangladesh (d. 2025 ) [ 85 ] August 17 – Katri Helena , Finnish singer August 19 – Ian Gillan , English rock singer ( Deep Purple ) August 22 David Chase , American writer, director and television producer Ron Dante , American rock singer-songwriter and record producer ( The Archies ) David Chase , American writer, director and television producer Ron Dante , American rock singer-songwriter and record producer ( The Archies ) August 24 – Vincent K. "Vince" McMahon , American professional wrestling promoter, chairman and CEO of WWE August 25 – Daniel Hulet , Belgian cartoonist (d. 2011 ) August 26 – Tom Ridge , American politician August 27 – Marianne Sägebrecht , German film actress August 29 Alyosha Abrahamyan , Armenian football player (d. 2018 ) Wyomia Tyus , American Olympic athlete Alyosha Abrahamyan , Armenian football player (d. 2018 ) Wyomia Tyus , American Olympic athlete August 31 Sir Van Morrison , Irish rock musician Itzhak Perlman , Israeli-born American violinist, conductor Sir Van Morrison , Irish rock musician Itzhak Perlman , Israeli-born American violinist, conductor September September 1 – Mustafa Balel , Turkish writer September 5 K. N. T. Sastry , Indian film critic, director and writer (d. 2018 ) Al Stewart , Scottish singer-songwriter ( Year of the Cat ) K. N. T. Sastry , Indian film critic, director and writer (d. 2018 ) Al Stewart , Scottish singer-songwriter ( Year of the Cat ) September 6 – Victor Ramahatra , 5th Prime Minister of Madagascar September 7 – Jacques Lemaire , Canadian ice hockey coach September 8 Ron "Pigpen" McKernan , American musician ( Grateful Dead ) (d. 1973 ) Rogatien Vachon , Canadian ice hockey player Ron "Pigpen" McKernan , American musician ( Grateful Dead ) (d. 1973 ) Rogatien Vachon , Canadian ice hockey player September 10 – José Feliciano , Puerto Rican-American singer (" Feliz Navidad ") September 11 – Franz Beckenbauer , German footballer and manager (d. 2024 ) September 12 – Richard Thaler , American economist September 14 – Benjamin Harjo Jr. , Native American artist September 15 – Jessye Norman , American soprano (d. 2019 ) September 16 – Pat Stevens , American voice actress (d. 2010 ) September 17 Phil Jackson , American basketball coach Bruce Spence , Australian actor Phil Jackson , American basketball coach Bruce Spence , Australian actor September 18 John McAfee , British-American computer programmer and businessman (d. 2021 ) [ 86 ] P. F. Sloan , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) John McAfee , British-American computer programmer and businessman (d. 2021 ) [ 86 ] P. F. Sloan , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) September 19 - Randolph Mantooth , American actor September 21 Shaw Clifton , Northern Ireland-born General of the Salvation Army Kay Ryan , American poet Shaw Clifton , Northern Ireland-born General of the Salvation Army Kay Ryan , American poet September 22 – Gonzaguinha , Brazilian singer, composer (d. 1991 ) September 24 – John Rutter , English choral composer, conductor September 26 – Bryan Ferry , English singer-songwriter and musician ( Roxy Music ) September 27 – Jack Goldstein , Canadian artist (d. 2003 ) September 29 – Nadezhda Chizhova , Russian athlete September 30 Ehud Olmert , 12th Prime Minister of Israel Ralph Siegel , German record producer, songwriter Ehud Olmert , 12th Prime Minister of Israel Ralph Siegel , German record producer, songwriter October October 1 Rod Carew , Panamanian-American baseball player Donny Hathaway , African-American soul singer-songwriter (d. 1979 ) Ram Nath Kovind , 14th President of India Rod Carew , Panamanian-American baseball player Donny Hathaway , African-American soul singer-songwriter (d. 1979 ) Ram Nath Kovind , 14th President of India October 2 Regina Torné , Mexican actress, singer and television presenter Don McLean , American singer-songwriter (" American Pie ") Regina Torné , Mexican actress, singer and television presenter Don McLean , American singer-songwriter (" American Pie ") October 3 – Viktor Saneyev , Soviet athlete and Olympic champion (d. 2022 ) October 6 – Ivan Graziani , Italian singer-songwriter (d. 1997 ) October 9 Vijaya Kumaratunga , Sri Lankan actor and politician (d. 1988 ) Archbishop Nikon of Boston , Albanian bishop (d. 2019 ) Vijaya Kumaratunga , Sri Lankan actor and politician (d. 1988 ) Archbishop Nikon of Boston , Albanian bishop (d. 2019 ) October 12 Aurore Clément , French actress Dusty Rhodes , American wrestler (d. 2015 ) Aurore Clément , French actress Dusty Rhodes , American wrestler (d. 2015 ) October 18 Norio Wakamoto , Japanese voice actor Yıldo , Turkish showman, footballer Norio Wakamoto , Japanese voice actor Yıldo , Turkish showman, footballer October 19 Angus Deaton , Scottish-born economist, recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences John Lithgow , American actor ( Third Rock from the Sun ) Angus Deaton , Scottish-born economist, recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences John Lithgow , American actor ( Third Rock from the Sun ) October 22 – Yvan Ponton , Canadian actor, sportscaster October 23 – Kim Larsen , Danish rock musician (d. 2018 ) October 24 Eugenie Scott , American Executive Director of the National Center for Science Education Sean Solomon , American Principal Investigator of NASA's MESSENGER mission to Mercury and director of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism at the Carnegie Institution for Science Eugenie Scott , American Executive Director of the National Center for Science Education Sean Solomon , American Principal Investigator of NASA's MESSENGER mission to Mercury and director of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism at the Carnegie Institution for Science October 25 Peter Ledger , Australian artist (d. 1994 ) David Schramm , American astrophysicist and educator (d. 1997 ) Keaton Yamada , Japanese voice actor Peter Ledger , Australian artist (d. 1994 ) David Schramm , American astrophysicist and educator (d. 1997 ) Keaton Yamada , Japanese voice actor October 26 Pat Conroy , American author (d. 2016 ) Jaclyn Smith , American actress, businesswoman ( Charlie's Angels ) Pat Conroy , American author (d. 2016 ) Jaclyn Smith , American actress, businesswoman ( Charlie's Angels ) October 27 Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva , 35th President of Brazil Carrie Snodgress , American actress (d. 2004 ) Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva , 35th President of Brazil Carrie Snodgress , American actress (d. 2004 ) October 29 Ching Li , Taiwanese actress (d. 2017 ) Melba Moore , African-American singer, actress Ching Li , Taiwanese actress (d. 2017 ) Melba Moore , African-American singer, actress October 30 – Henry Winkler , American actor, producer and director ( Happy Days ) November November 3 – Gerd Müller , German footballer (d. 2021 ) November 5 – Jacques Lanctôt , Canadian terrorist November 7 Bob Englehart , American editorial cartoonist Waljinah , Javanese singer Bob Englehart , American editorial cartoonist Waljinah , Javanese singer November 8 – Joseph James DeAngelo , American serial killer and serial rapist November 9 – Charlie Robinson , African-American actor (d. 2021 ) November 10 – Madeleine Juneau , Canadian museologist November 11 – Daniel Ortega , 58th and 62nd President of Nicaragua November 12 – Neil Young , Canadian singer-songwriter, musician November 15 – Anni-Frid Lyngstad , Norwegian-born rock singer ( ABBA ) November 17 Elvin Hayes , American basketball player Abdelmadjid Tebboune , President of Algeria Elvin Hayes , American basketball player Abdelmadjid Tebboune , President of Algeria November 18 Wilma Mankiller , Chief of the Cherokee Nation (d. 2010 ) Mahinda Rajapaksa , Sri Lankan politician, 6th President of Sri Lanka Wilma Mankiller , Chief of the Cherokee Nation (d. 2010 ) Mahinda Rajapaksa , Sri Lankan politician, 6th President of Sri Lanka November 21 – Goldie Hawn , American actress Kalervo Kummola – Finnish ice hockey executive, businessman, and politician Kalervo Kummola – Finnish ice hockey executive, businessman, and politician November 22 – Kari Tapio , Finnish singer (d. 2010 ) November 23 – Dennis Nilsen , Scottish serial killer (d. 2018 ) [ 87 ] November 24 – Nuruddin Farah , Somali novelist November 25 – Mary Jo Deschanel , American actress November 26 – John McVie , English rock musician ( Fleetwood Mac ) November 27 Barbara Anderson , American actress James Avery , African-American actor (d. 2013 ) Barbara Anderson , American actress James Avery , African-American actor (d. 2013 ) November 30 Roger Glover , English rock musician ( Deep Purple ) Radu Lupu , Romanian classical pianist (d. 2022 ) Roger Glover , English rock musician ( Deep Purple ) Radu Lupu , Romanian classical pianist (d. 2022 ) December December 1 Lyle Bien , American vice admiral [ 88 ] Bette Midler , American actress, comedian and singer Lyle Bien , American vice admiral [ 88 ] Bette Midler , American actress, comedian and singer December 2 – Tex Watson , American multiple murderer, 'Manson Family' member December 3 – Bozhidar Dimitrov , Bulgarian historian, politician and polemicist (d. 2018 ) December 4 – Geoff Emerick , English recording engineer (d. 2018 ) December 7 – Clive Russell , English actor December 8 – Julie Heldman , American tennis player [ 89 ] December 10 – John Ankerberg , American Christian television host, author and speaker December 11 – Sharafuddin of Selangor , Sultan of Selangor December 12 René Pétillon , French satirical, political cartoonist (d. 2018 ) Portia Simpson-Miller , 2-time Prime Minister of Jamaica Kathy Garver , American actress, author and online radio hostess Donald Pandiangan , Indonesian archery athlete (d. 2008 ) Heather North , American actress (d. 2017 ) René Pétillon , French satirical, political cartoonist (d. 2018 ) Portia Simpson-Miller , 2-time Prime Minister of Jamaica Kathy Garver , American actress, author and online radio hostess Donald Pandiangan , Indonesian archery athlete (d. 2008 ) Heather North , American actress (d. 2017 ) December 15 Michael King , New Zealand popular historian, author and biographer (d. 2004 ) Thaao Penghlis , Australian actor Michael King , New Zealand popular historian, author and biographer (d. 2004 ) Thaao Penghlis , Australian actor December 16 – Patti Deutsch , American voice actress (d. 2017 ) December 17 – Ernie Hudson , African-American actor December 18 – Carolyn Wood , American professional swimmer December 19 – Elaine Joyce , American actress, game show panelist December 20 Peter Criss , American rock drummer ( KISS ) Sivakant Tiwari , senior legal officer of the Singapore Legal Service (d. 2010 ) Peter Criss , American rock drummer ( KISS ) Sivakant Tiwari , senior legal officer of the Singapore Legal Service (d. 2010 ) December 21 – Mari Lill , Estonian actress December 22 – Diane Sawyer , American news journalist December 23 – Donald A. Ritchie , American historian December 24 Lemmy , British singer, bassist ( Motörhead ) (d. 2015 ) [ 90 ] Nicholas Meyer , American screenwriter, producer, director and novelist Sharafuddin of Selangor , Sultan of Selangor Steve Smith , Canadian actor, comedian and writer Lemmy , British singer, bassist ( Motörhead ) (d. 2015 ) [ 90 ] Nicholas Meyer , American screenwriter, producer, director and novelist Sharafuddin of Selangor , Sultan of Selangor Steve Smith , Canadian actor, comedian and writer December 25 – Noel Redding , English musician (d. 2003 ) [ 91 ] December 29 – Birendra of Nepal , King of Nepal (d. 2001 ) December 30 – Davy Jones , English-born pop singer, actor ( The Monkees ) (d. 2012 ) December 31 Barbara Carrera , Nicaraguan-American actress Vernon Wells , Australian actor [ 92 ] Connie Willis , American fiction writer Barbara Carrera , Nicaraguan-American actress Vernon Wells , Australian actor [ 92 ] Connie Willis , American fiction writer Deaths January January 2 – Sir Bertram Ramsay , British admiral (b. 1883 ) January 3 – Edgar Cayce , American mystic (b. 1877 ) January 4 – Ricardo Jiménez Oreamuno , 3-time President of Costa Rica (b. 1859 ) January 6 Josefa Llanes Escoda , Filipino women's suffrage advocate, founder of the Girl Scouts of the Philippines (b. 1898 ) Edith Frank , German-Dutch mother of Anne Frank (b. 1900 ) [ 93 ] Herbert Lumsden , British general (killed in action) (b. 1897 ) [ 94 ] Vladimir Vernadsky , Soviet mineralogist, geochemist (b. 1863 ) Josefa Llanes Escoda , Filipino women's suffrage advocate, founder of the Girl Scouts of the Philippines (b. 1898 ) Edith Frank , German-Dutch mother of Anne Frank (b. 1900 ) [ 93 ] Herbert Lumsden , British general (killed in action) (b. 1897 ) [ 94 ] Vladimir Vernadsky , Soviet mineralogist, geochemist (b. 1863 ) January 7 Alexander Stirling Calder , American sculptor (b. 1870 ) Thomas McGuire , American World War II fighter ace (killed in action) (b. 1920 ) Prince Rainer of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) Alexander Stirling Calder , American sculptor (b. 1870 ) Thomas McGuire , American World War II fighter ace (killed in action) (b. 1920 ) Prince Rainer of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) January 9 – Jüri Uluots , 8th Prime Minister of Estonia (b. 1890 ) January 10 – Pēteris Juraševskis , 8th Prime Minister of Latvia (b. 1872 ) January 12 – Teresio Olivelli , Italian Roman Catholic soldier and venerable (b. 1916 ) January 15 – Pedro Abad Santos , Filipino politician, brother of José Abad Santos (b. 1876 ) January 16 – José Fabella , Filipino physician (b. 1888 ) January 19 Petar Bojović , Serbian field marshal (b. 1858 ) Gustave Mesny , French Army general (b. 1886 ) Petar Bojović , Serbian field marshal (b. 1858 ) Gustave Mesny , French Army general (b. 1886 ) January 20 – Federico Pedrocchi , Italian artist, writer (killed on active service) (b. 1907 ) January 21 Francisco Moreno Fernández , Spanish admiral (b. 1883 ) [ 95 ] Sir Archibald Murray , British Army general (b. 1860 ) Francisco Moreno Fernández , Spanish admiral (b. 1883 ) [ 95 ] Sir Archibald Murray , British Army general (b. 1860 ) January 22 – Else Lasker-Schüler , German poet, author (b. 1869 ) January 23 Eugen Bolz , German politician, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1881 ) Nikolaus Gross , German Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1898 ) Newton E. Mason , United States Navy rear admiral (b. 1850 ) Eugen Bolz , German politician, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1881 ) Nikolaus Gross , German Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1898 ) Newton E. Mason , United States Navy rear admiral (b. 1850 ) January 29 – Hans Conrad Leipelt , Austrian member of the White Rose resistance movement in Nazi Germany (executed) (b. 1921 ) January 30 Sir William Goodenough , British admiral (b. 1867 ) Pedro Paulet , Peruvian scientist (b. 1874 ) Sir William Goodenough , British admiral (b. 1867 ) Pedro Paulet , Peruvian scientist (b. 1874 ) January 31 – Eddie Slovik , American soldier (executed for desertion) (b. 1920 ) [ 96 ] February February (or March) – Anne Frank , German-born Jewish diarist, writer (typhus in Bergen-Belsen concentration camp ) (b. 1929 ) [ 97 ] February 1 Ivan Bagryanov , 30th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1891 ) Dobri Bozhilov , 29th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1884 ) Bogdan Filov , Bulgarian archaeologist, historian and politician, 28th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1883 ) Petar Gabrovski , acting Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1898 ) Johan Huizinga , Dutch cultural historian (b. 1872 ) Prince Kiril of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1895 ) Ivan Bagryanov , 30th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1891 ) Dobri Bozhilov , 29th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1884 ) Bogdan Filov , Bulgarian archaeologist, historian and politician, 28th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1883 ) Petar Gabrovski , acting Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1898 ) Johan Huizinga , Dutch cultural historian (b. 1872 ) Prince Kiril of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1895 ) February 2 Adolf Brand , German campaigner for homosexuality (air raid victim) (b. 1874 ) Alfred Delp , German Jesuit priest and philosopher of the German Resistance, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1907 ) Carl Friedrich Goerdeler , German politician, civil servant, executive and economist, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1884 ) Gustav Heistermann von Ziehlberg , German general, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1898 ) Joe Hunt , American tennis champion (military aircraft crash) (b. 1919 ) Adolf Brand , German campaigner for homosexuality (air raid victim) (b. 1874 ) Alfred Delp , German Jesuit priest and philosopher of the German Resistance, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1907 ) Carl Friedrich Goerdeler , German politician, civil servant, executive and economist, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1884 ) Gustav Heistermann von Ziehlberg , German general, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1898 ) Joe Hunt , American tennis champion (military aircraft crash) (b. 1919 ) February 3 – Roland Freisler , Nazi German judge (air raid victim) (b. 1893 ) February 5 Denise Bloch , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1916 ) Lilian Rolfe , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1914 ) Violette Szabo , French/British World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1921 ) Denise Bloch , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1916 ) Lilian Rolfe , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1914 ) Violette Szabo , French/British World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1921 ) February 6 – Robert Brasillach , French writer (executed) (b. 1909 ) [ 98 ] February 8 – Robert Mallet-Stevens , French architect, designer (b. 1886 ) February 11 – Al Dubin , Swiss-born American songwriter (b. 1891 ) February 13 – Maria Orosa , Filipino technologist, chemist, humanitarian and WWII heroine (air raid victim) (b. 1893 ) February 16 – Otto Kittel , German fighter ace (killed in action) (b. 1917 ) [ 99 ] February 18 – Ivan Chernyakhovsky , Soviet general (died of wounds) (b. 1906 ) February 19 – John Basilone , American war hero (killed in action) (b. 1916 ) February 21 – Eric Liddell , British Olympic athlete (in internment camp) (b. 1902 ) February 22 – Sara Josephine Baker , American physician (b. 1873 ) February 23 José María Moncada , 19th President of Nicaragua (b. 1870 ) Aleksei Nikolaevich Tolstoy , Russian writer (b. 1883 ) [ 100 ] José María Moncada , 19th President of Nicaragua (b. 1870 ) Aleksei Nikolaevich Tolstoy , Russian writer (b. 1883 ) [ 100 ] February 24 – Josef Mayr-Nusser , Italian Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1910 ) February 25 – Mário de Andrade , Brazilian writer, photographer (b. 1893 ) February 26 – Millard Harmon , American general (b. 1888 ) [ 101 ] March March 2 – Emily Carr , Canadian painter (b. 1871 ) March 3 Gheorghe Avramescu , Romanian general (in custody) (b. 1884 ) Aleksandra Samusenko , Soviet WWII tank commander (died of wounds) (b. 1922 ) Gheorghe Avramescu , Romanian general (in custody) (b. 1884 ) Aleksandra Samusenko , Soviet WWII tank commander (died of wounds) (b. 1922 ) March 4 Harry Chauvel , Australian Army general (b. 1865 ) [ 102 ] Lucille La Verne , American actress (b. 1872 ) [ 103 ] Mark Sandrich , American film director (b. 1900 ) Harry Chauvel , Australian Army general (b. 1865 ) [ 102 ] Lucille La Verne , American actress (b. 1872 ) [ 103 ] Mark Sandrich , American film director (b. 1900 ) March 5 – George Alan Vasey , Australian general (killed in military aircraft accident) (b. 1895 ) March 12 – Friedrich Fromm , German Nazi official (executed) (b. 1888 ) March 14 – Francisco Braga , Brazilian composer (b. 1868 ) March 15 – Sava Caracaș , Romanian general (b. 1890 ) March 18 – William Grover-Williams , British/French racing driver, war hero (executed) (b. 1903 ) [ 104 ] March 19 – Marcel Callo , French Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (in concentration camp) (b. 1921 ) March 20 – Lord Alfred Douglas , English poet (b. 1870 ) March 22 Enrico Caviglia , Italian marshal (b. 1862 ) Heinrich Maier , Austrian Roman Catholic priest and blessed (b. 1908 ) Takeichi Nishi , Japanese equestrian gold medalist (1932), tank commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1902 ) Enrico Caviglia , Italian marshal (b. 1862 ) Heinrich Maier , Austrian Roman Catholic priest and blessed (b. 1908 ) Takeichi Nishi , Japanese equestrian gold medalist (1932), tank commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1902 ) March 23 – Élisabeth de Rothschild , French WWII heroine (b. 1902 ) March 26 David Lloyd George , British politician and statesman, 51st Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1863 ) Tadamichi Kuribayashi , Imperial Japanese Army general, commander of the battle of Iwo Jima (probably killed in action) (b. 1891 ) Boris Shaposhnikov , Soviet military leader, Marshal of the Soviet Union (b. 1882 ) Ichimaru Toshinosuke , Japanese naval aviator, commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1891 ) David Lloyd George , British politician and statesman, 51st Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1863 ) Tadamichi Kuribayashi , Imperial Japanese Army general, commander of the battle of Iwo Jima (probably killed in action) (b. 1891 ) Boris Shaposhnikov , Soviet military leader, Marshal of the Soviet Union (b. 1882 ) Ichimaru Toshinosuke , Japanese naval aviator, commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1891 ) March 27 – Halid Ziya Uşaklıgil , Turkish author (b. 1867 ) March 29 – Ferenc Csik , Hungarian swimmer (air raid victim) (b. 1913 ) March 30 – Maurice Rose , American general (killed in action) (b. 1899 ) [ 105 ] March 31 Hans Fischer , German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (suicide) (b. 1881 ) Torgny Segerstedt , Swedish newspaper editor, publicist (b. 1876 ) Maria Skobtsova , Soviet Orthodox nun and saint (killed by poison) (b. 1891 ) Natalia Tulasiewicz , Polish teacher and Roman Catholic blessed (murdered in concentration camp) (b. 1906 ) Hans Fischer , German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (suicide) (b. 1881 ) Torgny Segerstedt , Swedish newspaper editor, publicist (b. 1876 ) Maria Skobtsova , Soviet Orthodox nun and saint (killed by poison) (b. 1891 ) Natalia Tulasiewicz , Polish teacher and Roman Catholic blessed (murdered in concentration camp) (b. 1906 ) April April 7 Seiichi Itō , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1890 ) Aruga Kōsaku , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1897 ) Seiichi Itō , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1890 ) Aruga Kōsaku , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1897 ) April 9 Dietrich Bonhoeffer , German theologian (executed) (b. 1906 ) Wilhelm Canaris , German admiral, head of the Abwehr (executed) (b. 1887 ) Hans von Dohnanyi , Hungarian-born German lawyer, member of the German Resistance, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1902 ) Georg Elser , German carpenter and attempted assassin of Adolf Hitler (executed) (b. 1903 ) [ 106 ] Dietrich Bonhoeffer , German theologian (executed) (b. 1906 ) Wilhelm Canaris , German admiral, head of the Abwehr (executed) (b. 1887 ) Hans von Dohnanyi , Hungarian-born German lawyer, member of the German Resistance, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1902 ) Georg Elser , German carpenter and attempted assassin of Adolf Hitler (executed) (b. 1903 ) [ 106 ] April 10 Gloria Dickson , American actress (fire victim) (b. 1917 ) Hendrik Nicolaas Werkman , Dutch artist and printer (b. 1882 ) [ 107 ] Gloria Dickson , American actress (fire victim) (b. 1917 ) Hendrik Nicolaas Werkman , Dutch artist and printer (b. 1882 ) [ 107 ] April 11 – Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard , British colonial administrator (b. 1858 ) April 12 – Franklin D. Roosevelt , American political leader and statesman, 32nd President of the United States (b. 1882 ) April 13 – Ernst Cassirer , German philosopher (b. 1874 ) April 15 – Joachim Albrecht Eggeling , German SS general (suicide) (b. 1884 ) April 18 Sir Ambrose Fleming , British electrical engineer and physicist (b. 1849 ) Ernie Pyle , American journalist (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm, Prince of Albania (b. 1876 ) Sir Ambrose Fleming , British electrical engineer and physicist (b. 1849 ) Ernie Pyle , American journalist (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm, Prince of Albania (b. 1876 ) April 21 Pavle Đurišić , Montenegrin Serb army commander (b. 1909 ) [ citation needed ] Walter Model , German field marshal (suicide) (b. 1891 ) Pavle Đurišić , Montenegrin Serb army commander (b. 1909 ) [ citation needed ] Walter Model , German field marshal (suicide) (b. 1891 ) April 22 – Käthe Kollwitz , German artist (b. 1867 ) April 23 – Klaus Bonhoeffer , German resistance fighter, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1901 ) April 24 – Ernst-Robert Grawitz , German SS Reichsphysician (suicide) (b. 1899 ) April 28 Executed: Hermann Fegelein , German SS general (b. 1906 ) Benito Mussolini , Italian politician, journalist, 27th Prime Minister of Italy and Duce of Fascism (b. 1883 ) Clara Petacci , mistress of Benito Mussolini (b. 1912 ) Nicola Bombacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1879 ) Roberto Farinacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1892 ) Alessandro Pavolini , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1903 ) Executed: Hermann Fegelein , German SS general (b. 1906 ) Benito Mussolini , Italian politician, journalist, 27th Prime Minister of Italy and Duce of Fascism (b. 1883 ) Clara Petacci , mistress of Benito Mussolini (b. 1912 ) Nicola Bombacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1879 ) Roberto Farinacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1892 ) Alessandro Pavolini , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1903 ) Hermann Fegelein , German SS general (b. 1906 ) Benito Mussolini , Italian politician, journalist, 27th Prime Minister of Italy and Duce of Fascism (b. 1883 ) Clara Petacci , mistress of Benito Mussolini (b. 1912 ) Nicola Bombacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1879 ) Roberto Farinacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1892 ) Alessandro Pavolini , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1903 ) April 29 – Achille Starace , Italian Fascist politician (executed) (b. 1889 ) April 30 Luisa Ferida , Italian actress (executed) (b. 1914 ) Adolf Hitler , Austrian-born German politician, Führer of Germany (suicide) (b. 1889 ) Eva Braun , wife of Adolf Hitler (suicide) (b. 1912 ) Luisa Ferida , Italian actress (executed) (b. 1914 ) Adolf Hitler , Austrian-born German politician, Führer of Germany (suicide) (b. 1889 ) Eva Braun , wife of Adolf Hitler (suicide) (b. 1912 ) May May 1 Joseph Goebbels , Chancellor of Germany for 1 day and Reich Minister of Propaganda (suicide) (b. 1897 ) Magda Goebbels , wife of Joseph Goebbels (suicide) (b. 1901 ) Joseph Goebbels , Chancellor of Germany for 1 day and Reich Minister of Propaganda (suicide) (b. 1897 ) Magda Goebbels , wife of Joseph Goebbels (suicide) (b. 1901 ) May 2 Martin Bormann , Nazi Party leader and private secretary to Adolf Hitler (presumed suicide) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm Burgdorf , German general (suicide) (b. 1895 ) Hans Krebs , German general (suicide) (b. 1898 ) Prince Waldemar of Prussia (haemophilia) (b. 1889 ) Martin Bormann , Nazi Party leader and private secretary to Adolf Hitler (presumed suicide) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm Burgdorf , German general (suicide) (b. 1895 ) Hans Krebs , German general (suicide) (b. 1898 ) Prince Waldemar of Prussia (haemophilia) (b. 1889 ) May 3 – Mario Blasich , Italian physician, politician (b. 1878 ) May 4 – Fedor von Bock , German field marshal (killed in action) (b. 1880 ) [ 108 ] May 6 – Xhem Hasa , Albanian nationalist (assassinated) (b. 1908 ) May 7 – Vladimir Boyarsky , Soviet army officer (executed) (b. 1901 ) May 8 Francis Bruguière , American photographer (b. 1875 ) Julius Hirsch , German footballer (killed in Auschwitz concentration camp) (b. 1892 ) [ 109 ] Wilhelm Rediess , SS and Police Leader of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1900 ) Bernhard Rust , education minister of Nazi Germany (presumed suicide) (b. 1883 ) Josef Terboven , Reichskommissar of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1898 ) Francis Bruguière , American photographer (b. 1875 ) Julius Hirsch , German footballer (killed in Auschwitz concentration camp) (b. 1892 ) [ 109 ] Wilhelm Rediess , SS and Police Leader of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1900 ) Bernhard Rust , education minister of Nazi Germany (presumed suicide) (b. 1883 ) Josef Terboven , Reichskommissar of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1898 ) May 9 – Gustav Becking , German musicologist (b. 1894 ) May 10 – Konrad Henlein , Sudeten German Nazi leader (suicide) (b. 1898 ) May 11 Kiyoshi Ogawa , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1922 ) Seizō Yasunori , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1924 ) [ 110 ] Kiyoshi Ogawa , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1922 ) Seizō Yasunori , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1924 ) [ 110 ] May 14 Joseph Barthélemy , French jurist, politician and journalist (b. 1874 ) Heber J. Grant , 7th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b. 1856 ) Joseph Barthélemy , French jurist, politician and journalist (b. 1874 ) Heber J. Grant , 7th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b. 1856 ) May 15 Kenneth J. Alford , British soldier and composer (b. 1881 ) [ 111 ] Charles Williams , British author (b. 1886 ) Kenneth J. Alford , British soldier and composer (b. 1881 ) [ 111 ] Charles Williams , British author (b. 1886 ) May 16 – Kaju Sugiura , Japanese admiral (killed in action) (b. 1896 ) May 18 – William Joseph Simmons , American founder of the second Ku Klux Klan (b. 1880 ) May 19 – Philipp Bouhler , German Nazi leader and general (suicide) (b. 1899 ) May 21 – Prince Kan'in Kotohito , Japanese prince, member of the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office (b. 1865 ) May 23 – Heinrich Himmler , German politician, Reichsführer-SS (suicide) (b. 1900 ) May 24 – Robert Ritter von Greim , German field marshal (suicide) (b. 1892 ) May 25 Rafael Estrella Ureña , Dominican lawyer and politician, acting president of the Dominican Republic (b. 1889 ) Ishii Kikujirō , Japanese diplomat and politician (killed in bombing raid) (b. 1866 ) [ 112 ] Rafael Estrella Ureña , Dominican lawyer and politician, acting president of the Dominican Republic (b. 1889 ) Ishii Kikujirō , Japanese diplomat and politician (killed in bombing raid) (b. 1866 ) [ 112 ] May 31 Odilo Globocnik , Austrian Nazi leader (suicide) (b. 1904 ) Curt von Gottberg , German SS general (suicide) (b. 1896 ) Odilo Globocnik , Austrian Nazi leader (suicide) (b. 1904 ) Curt von Gottberg , German SS general (suicide) (b. 1896 ) June June 4 – Georg Kaiser , German dramatist (b. 1878 ) June 7 – Kitaro Nishida , Japanese philosopher (b. 1870 ) June 8 Robert Desnos , French poet, resistance fighter (typhoid) (b. 1900 ) Karl Hanke , German Nazi general and last Reichsführer-SS (killed) (b. 1903 ) Robert Desnos , French poet, resistance fighter (typhoid) (b. 1900 ) Karl Hanke , German Nazi general and last Reichsführer-SS (killed) (b. 1903 ) June 11 – Lurana W. Sheldon , American author and editor (b. 1862 ) June 13 – Minoru Ōta , Japanese admiral (suicide) (b. 1891 ) June 15 Carl Gustaf Ekman , Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1872 ) Amélie Rives Troubetzkoy , American author (b. 1863 ) Aris Velouchiotis , Greek World War II resistance leader (suicide) (b. 1905 ) Carl Gustaf Ekman , Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1872 ) Amélie Rives Troubetzkoy , American author (b. 1863 ) Aris Velouchiotis , Greek World War II resistance leader (suicide) (b. 1905 ) June 16 Nikolai Berzarin , Soviet Red Army general (b. 1904 ) Nils Edén , 15th Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1871 ) Nikolai Berzarin , Soviet Red Army general (b. 1904 ) Nils Edén , 15th Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1871 ) June 18 Florence Bascom , American geologist and educator (b. 1862 ) Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr. , American general (killed in action on Okinawa ) (b. 1886 ) Friedrich, Prince of Wied , German prince (b. 1872 ) Florence Bascom , American geologist and educator (b. 1862 ) Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr. , American general (killed in action on Okinawa ) (b. 1886 ) Friedrich, Prince of Wied , German prince (b. 1872 ) June 20 Robert Crewe-Milnes, 1st Marquess of Crewe , British politician (b. 1858 ) Luís Fernando de Orleans y Borbón , Spanish prince (b. 1888 ) Robert Crewe-Milnes, 1st Marquess of Crewe , British politician (b. 1858 ) Luís Fernando de Orleans y Borbón , Spanish prince (b. 1888 ) June 22 Isamu Chō , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1895 ) Mitsuru Ushijima , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) Isamu Chō , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1895 ) Mitsuru Ushijima , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) June 24 – José Gutiérrez Solana , Spanish painter (b. 1886 ) June 27 – Emil Hácha , 3rd President of Czechoslovakia , State President of Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (b. 1872 ) June 30 Germogen (Maximov) , Russian Orthodox Metropolitan (b. 1861 ) Gabriel El-Registan , Soviet poet (b. 1899 ) Germogen (Maximov) , Russian Orthodox Metropolitan (b. 1861 ) Gabriel El-Registan , Soviet poet (b. 1899 ) July July 1 – Félix Evaristo Mejía , Dominican diplomat, educator and writer (b. 1866 ) July 2 – Óscar R. Benavides , Peruvian field marshal, diplomat, politician and President of Peru (b. 1876 ) July 5 – John Curtin , 14th Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1885 ) July 7 – Peter To Rot , Papuan Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1912 ) July 9 – Luigi Aldrovandi Marescotti , Italian politician, diplomat (b. 1876 ) July 12 Boris Galerkin , Russian mathematician (b. 1871 ) [ 113 ] Wolfram von Richthofen , German field marshal (brain tumor) (b. 1895 ) Boris Galerkin , Russian mathematician (b. 1871 ) [ 113 ] Wolfram von Richthofen , German field marshal (brain tumor) (b. 1895 ) July 13 – Alla Nazimova , Russian-born American actress (b. 1879 ) July 17 – Ernst Busch , German field marshal, as prisoner of war (b. 1885 ) July 20 – Paul Valéry , French poet (b. 1871 ) July 24 – Arnold von Winckler , German general (b. 1856 ) July 25 – Malin Craig , United States Army general (b. 1875 ) July 28 – Margot Asquith, Countess of Oxford and Asquith (b. 1864 ) July 29 – Maria Pierina De Micheli , Italian Roman Catholic religious sister, mystic and blessed (b. 1890 ) July 31 – Artemio Ricarte , Filipino general (b. 1866 ) August August 1 – Blas Cabrera Felipe , Spanish physicist (b. 1878 ) August 2 – Pietro Mascagni , Italian composer (b. 1863 ) August 3 – Roman Kochanowski , Polish painter, illustrator (b. 1857 ) August 4 – Gerhard Gentzen , German mathematician and logician (starvation in prison camp) (b. 1909 ) August 5 – Nat Jaffe , American swing jazz pianist (b. 1918 ) August 7 – Jacques Vaillant de Guélis , British/French WWII hero (injuries received in automobile accident) (b. 1907 ) August 8 – Joseph Pujol, Le Pétomane , French flatulist (b. 1857 ) August 9 Harry Hillman , American track athlete (b. 1881 ) [ 114 ] Jun Tosaka , Japanese philosopher (in prison) (b. 1900 ) Harry Hillman , American track athlete (b. 1881 ) [ 114 ] Jun Tosaka , Japanese philosopher (in prison) (b. 1900 ) August 10 – Robert H. Goddard , American rocket scientist (b. 1882 ) August 12 – Karl Leisner , German Roman Catholic priest and blessed (b. 1915 ) August 15 Korechika Anami , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) Matome Ugaki , Japanese admiral (killed in action) (b. 1890 ) Korechika Anami , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) Matome Ugaki , Japanese admiral (killed in action) (b. 1890 ) August 16 – Takijirō Ōnishi , Japanese admiral (ritual suicide) (b. 1891 ) August 18 Subhas Chandra Bose , Leader of Indian National Army (Third-degree burns from aircrash) (b. 1897 ) [ 115 ] Sarala Devi Chaudhurani , Indian educationist (b. 1872 ) Subhas Chandra Bose , Leader of Indian National Army (Third-degree burns from aircrash) (b. 1897 ) [ 115 ] Sarala Devi Chaudhurani , Indian educationist (b. 1872 ) August 24 – Shizuichi Tanaka , Japanese general (suicide) (b. 1887 ) August 25 – Willis Augustus Lee , American admiral, Olympic shooter (b. 1888 ) August 26 Pio Collivadino , Argentinian painter (b. 1869 ) Franz Werfel , Austrian writer (b. 1890 ) Pio Collivadino , Argentinian painter (b. 1869 ) Franz Werfel , Austrian writer (b. 1890 ) August 27 – Blessed María Pilar Izquierdo Albero , Spanish Roman Catholic religious professed (b. 1906 ) August 29 – Fritz Pfleumer , German engineer, inventor (b. 1881 ) August 30 – Florencio Harmodio Arosemena , 6th President of Panama (b. 1872 ) August 31 Stefan Banach , Polish mathematician (b. 1892 ) Pope Macarius III of Alexandria , Egyptian patriarch, saint (b. 1872 ) Stefan Banach , Polish mathematician (b. 1892 ) Pope Macarius III of Alexandria , Egyptian patriarch, saint (b. 1872 ) September September 6 Witold Leon Czartoryski , Polish nobleman (b. 1864 ) John S. McCain Sr. , American admiral (b. 1884 ) Witold Leon Czartoryski , Polish nobleman (b. 1864 ) John S. McCain Sr. , American admiral (b. 1884 ) September 9 – Aage Bertelsen , Danish painter (b. 1873 ) September 12 – Hajime Sugiyama , Japanese general (suicide) (b. 1880 ) September 15 Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer , German physician and bacteriologist (b. 1858 ) [ 116 ] André Tardieu , 3-time prime minister of France (b. 1876 ) Anton Webern , Austrian composer (b. 1883 ) Zhang Mingqi , Qing dynasty politician (b. 1875 ) Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer , German physician and bacteriologist (b. 1858 ) [ 116 ] André Tardieu , 3-time prime minister of France (b. 1876 ) Anton Webern , Austrian composer (b. 1883 ) Zhang Mingqi , Qing dynasty politician (b. 1875 ) September 16 – John McCormack , Irish tenor (b. 1884 ) September 18 José Agripino Barnet , Cuban politician and diplomat, acting president of Cuba (b. 1864 ) Blind Willie Johnson , American gospel blues singer (b. 1897 ) José Agripino Barnet , Cuban politician and diplomat, acting president of Cuba (b. 1864 ) Blind Willie Johnson , American gospel blues singer (b. 1897 ) September 20 Augusto Tasso Fragoso , Brazilian soldier, statesman and interim president of Brazil (b. 1869 ) Eduard Wirths , German doctor, chief SS doctor at Auschwitz concentration camp (suicide) (b. 1909 ) Augusto Tasso Fragoso , Brazilian soldier, statesman and interim president of Brazil (b. 1869 ) Eduard Wirths , German doctor, chief SS doctor at Auschwitz concentration camp (suicide) (b. 1909 ) September 24 – Hans Geiger , German physicist, inventor (b. 1882 ) September 26 Béla Bartók , Hungarian composer (b. 1881 ) [ 117 ] Leonhard Kaupisch , German general (b. 1878 ) [ 118 ] Kiyoshi Miki , Japanese philosopher (b. 1897 ) Béla Bartók , Hungarian composer (b. 1881 ) [ 117 ] Leonhard Kaupisch , German general (b. 1878 ) [ 118 ] Kiyoshi Miki , Japanese philosopher (b. 1897 ) October October 1 – Walter Bradford Cannon , American physiologist (b. 1871 ) [ 119 ] October 6 – Leonardo Conti , German physician, Nazi officer (suicide) (b. 1900 ) October 8 – Felix Salten , Austrian author (b. 1869 ) [ 120 ] October 10 – Joseph Darnand , Vichy French politician (executed) (b. 1897 ) October 12 – Dmytro Antonovych , Soviet politician (b. 1877 ) October 13 – Milton S. Hershey , American chocolate tycoon (b. 1857 ) October 15 – Pierre Laval , French politician, 2-time Prime Minister of France (executed) (b. 1883 ) [ 59 ] October 18 – Frederick Hovey , American tennis player (b. 1868 ) October 19 Plutarco Elías Calles , Mexican general, politician and 40th President of Mexico (b. 1877) N. C. Wyeth , American illustrator (b. 1882 ) Plutarco Elías Calles , Mexican general, politician and 40th President of Mexico (b. 1877) N. C. Wyeth , American illustrator (b. 1882 ) October 21 Henry Armetta , Italian actor (b. 1888 ) Felicija Bortkevičienė , Lithuanian politician and publisher (b. 1873 ) [ 121 ] Henry Armetta , Italian actor (b. 1888 ) Felicija Bortkevičienė , Lithuanian politician and publisher (b. 1873 ) [ 121 ] October 24 Franklin Carmichael , Canadian landscape painter and graphic designer (b. 1890 ) [ 122 ] Vidkun Quisling , Norwegian Nazi collaborator (executed) (b. 1887 ) Franklin Carmichael , Canadian landscape painter and graphic designer (b. 1890 ) [ 122 ] Vidkun Quisling , Norwegian Nazi collaborator (executed) (b. 1887 ) October 25 – Robert Ley , German Nazi politician (suicide) (b. 1890 ) October 26 Adolf von Brudermann , Austro-Hungarian general (b. 1854 ) Paul Pelliot , French explorer (b. 1878 ) Adolf von Brudermann , Austro-Hungarian general (b. 1854 ) Paul Pelliot , French explorer (b. 1878 ) October 30 – Xian Xinghai , Chinese composer (b. 1905 ) October 31 Henry Ainley , British actor (b. 1879 ) Ignacio Zuloaga , Basque Spanish painter (b. 1870 ) Henry Ainley , British actor (b. 1879 ) Ignacio Zuloaga , Basque Spanish painter (b. 1870 ) November November 8 – August von Mackensen , German field marshal (b. 1849 ) November 11 – Jerome Kern , American composer (b. 1885 ) [ 123 ] November 13 – Sir Edwyn Alexander-Sinclair , British admiral (b. 1865 ) [ 124 ] November 16 – Sigurður Eggerz , Minister for Iceland during World War I and 2nd Prime Minister of Iceland (b. 1875 ) November 17 – Frederick Francis IV, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (b. 1882 ) November 20 – Francis William Aston , British chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1877 ) November 21 Robert Benchley , American humorist, theater critic and actor (b. 1889 ) [ 125 ] Ellen Glasgow , American novelist (b. 1873 ) [ 126 ] Alexander Patch , United States Army lieutenant general, World War II army commander (b. 1889 ) Jimmy Quinn , Scottish footballer (b. 1878 ) [ 127 ] Robert Benchley , American humorist, theater critic and actor (b. 1889 ) [ 125 ] Ellen Glasgow , American novelist (b. 1873 ) [ 126 ] Alexander Patch , United States Army lieutenant general, World War II army commander (b. 1889 ) Jimmy Quinn , Scottish footballer (b. 1878 ) [ 127 ] November 23 – Charles Coborn , British singer (b. 1852 ) November 27 – Josep Maria Sert , Spanish Catalan muralist (b. 1874 ) November 28 – Dwight F. Davis , American tennis player (b. 1879 ) November 30 – Shigeru Honjō , Japanese general (suicide) (b. 1876 ) December December 1 – Anton Dostler , German general (executed) (b. 1891 ) December 4 Thomas Hunt Morgan , American biologist, geneticist, embryologist and Nobel Prize in Physiology recipient (b. 1866 ) Richárd Weisz , Hungarian Olympic champion wrestler (b. 1879 ) [ 128 ] Thomas Hunt Morgan , American biologist, geneticist, embryologist and Nobel Prize in Physiology recipient (b. 1866 ) Richárd Weisz , Hungarian Olympic champion wrestler (b. 1879 ) [ 128 ] December 5 – Cosmo Gordon Lang , Archbishop of Canterbury (b. 1864 ) December 8 – Gabriellino D'Annunzio , Italian actor, director and screenwriter (b. 1886 ) December 12 – Prince Frederick of Schaumburg-Lippe (b. 1868 ) December 13 Johanna Bormann , German Nazi concentration camp guard (executed) (b. 1893 ) Henri Dentz , French general (b. 1881 ) Irma Grese , German camp guard at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1923 ) Josef Kramer , German commandant of Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1906 ) Elisabeth Volkenrath , German supervisor at Nazi concentration camps (executed) (b. 1919 ) Johanna Bormann , German Nazi concentration camp guard (executed) (b. 1893 ) Henri Dentz , French general (b. 1881 ) Irma Grese , German camp guard at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1923 ) Josef Kramer , German commandant of Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1906 ) Elisabeth Volkenrath , German supervisor at Nazi concentration camps (executed) (b. 1919 ) December 14 – Forrester Harvey , Irish actor (b. 1884 ) December 16 Giovanni Agnelli , Italian entrepreneur, founder of Fiat (b. 1866 ) Fumimaro Konoe , Japanese general, politician, and 23rd Prime Minister of Japan (suicide) (b. 1891 ) Giovanni Agnelli , Italian entrepreneur, founder of Fiat (b. 1866 ) Fumimaro Konoe , Japanese general, politician, and 23rd Prime Minister of Japan (suicide) (b. 1891 ) December 19 – Leonard F. Wing , American general and politician (b. 1893 ) [ 129 ] December 21 – George S. Patton , American general (injuries from automobile accident) (b. 1885 ) [ 130 ] December 22 – Otto Neurath , Austrian philosopher, political economist (b. 1892 ) December 26 Duy Tân , Emperor of Vietnam (b. 1900 ) Roger Keyes, 1st Baron Keyes , British admiral (b. 1872 ) Duy Tân , Emperor of Vietnam (b. 1900 ) Roger Keyes, 1st Baron Keyes , British admiral (b. 1872 ) December 28 – Theodore Dreiser , American novelist (b. 1871 ) [ 131 ] Nobel Prizes Physics – Wolfgang Pauli Chemistry – Artturi Ilmari Virtanen Physiology or Medicine – Sir Alexander Fleming , Ernst Chain , Howard Florey Literature – Gabriela Mistral Peace – Cordell Hull References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "What Was 1945 a Turning Point - 1377 Words | Bartleby" . ^ Girbig, Werner (1975). Six Months to Oblivion: The Eclipse of the Luftwaffe Fighter Force Over the Western Front, 1944/45 . Schiffer Publishing . p. 74. ISBN 978-0-88740-348-4 . ^ a b Duffy, Christopher (1991). Red Storm on the Reich: The Soviet March on Germany, 1945 . Routledge. ISBN 0-415-22829-8 . ^ "Life in the Führerbunker: Hitler's final days" . Sky HISTORY TV channel . Retrieved September 2, 2025 . ^ Si (July 22, 2025). "Raoul Wallenberg – World War II hero" . sweden.se . Retrieved September 27, 2025 . ^ Abraham J. Peck (1997). "The Agony of the Łódź Ghetto, 1941–1944" . The Chronicle of the Łódź Ghetto, 1941–1944 by Lucjan Dobroszycki , and The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum , Washington D.C . The Simon Wiesenthal Center . Retrieved March 25, 2015 . ^ Kershaw, Ian (2008). Hitler: A Biography . New York: Norton. p. 891. ISBN 978-0-393-06757-6 . ^ Wolf's Lair from Battlefields WW2 ^ "Penicillin Pills May Replace Injection" . The Milwaukee Sentinel . February 16, 1945 . 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March 1945 - The U.S. Army occupies Cologne ^ Nohlen, Dieter ; Stöver, Philip, eds. (2010). Elections in Europe: A data handbook . Baden-Baden: Nomos. p. 1678. ISBN 978-3-8329-5609-7 . ^ "Proclamation No. 430, s. 1989 - DECLARING THE EIGHTEENTH DAY OF MARCH OF EVERY YEAR AS VICTORY DAY IN THE ISLANDS OF PANAY AND ROMBLON, INCLUDING THE CITIES OF ILOILO AND ROXAS" . Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines . Retrieved March 18, 2024 . ^ "Bombing Berlin: The Biggest Wartime Raid on Hitler's Capital" . The National WWII Museum - New Orleans . March 14, 2020 . Retrieved March 18, 2024 . ^ "Festung Kolberg 1945" (in Polish). Archived from the original on August 11, 2007 . Retrieved March 21, 2024 . {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ( link ) ^ Stanton, Shelby (2006). World War II Order of Battle: An Encyclopedic Reference to U.S. Army Ground Forces from Battalion through Division, 1939-1946 (2nd ed.). Stackpole Books. pp. 57, 84. ^ After The Battle #187 – THE ALLIED CAPTURE OF HANNOVER ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (July 1993). Significant Tornadoes, 1680–1991: A Chronology and Analysis of Events . St. Johnsbury, Vermont : The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. p. 919. ISBN 1-879362-03-1 . ^ "1945" . A WW2 Timeline . Worldwar-2.net. Archived from the original on April 28, 2012 . Retrieved November 7, 2012 . ^ Last Stand at Völkerschlachtdenkmal: The Battle of Leipzig, 1945 ^ Alexander, Kristen (September 1, 2004). " "Cleaning the Augean stables": the Morotai Mutiny?" . Sabretache . Military Historical Society of Australia. ^ Jones, Bill (1989). The Fatal Attraction of Adolf Hitler (Television documentary). BBC . Retrieved April 27, 2016 . ^ Ziemke, Earl F. (1969). Battle for Berlin: End of the Third Reich . Ballantine's Illustrated History of World War II, Battle Book #6. Ballantine Books. ^ Smythe, John (1967). Bolo Whistler: The Life of General Sir Lashmer Whistler . 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If they stopped or fell behind, the SS guards shot them and left their corpses along the road. ^ Final Push To Hamburg ^ "Liberatione" . Lib.usc.edu. May 4, 1945. Archived from the original on April 14, 2016 . Retrieved January 16, 2012 . ^ "Befrielsen 1945 – Tidslinje" . Befrielsen1945.dk. January 2, 2012. Archived from the original on January 22, 2011 . Retrieved January 16, 2012 . ^ Waller, Derek (September 25, 2010). "U-Boats that Surrendered" . u-boat.net . Retrieved November 14, 2014 . ^ "Hungary: Recovery of Crown Jewels 1945" . Retrieved December 17, 2008 . ^ THE CITY OF SALZBURG IN 1945 ^ Liberation of Pilsen ^ Milcic, Allen. "Croatian Axis Forces in WWII" . Retrieved June 28, 2012 . ^ "Edward Kennedy, 58, Reporter Who Flashed '45 Surrender, Dies" . The New York Times . Associated Press. November 30, 1963 . Retrieved December 21, 2007 . ^ Killen, John (2003). The Luftwaffe: A History . Barnsley: Pen & Sword. pp. 299– 300. ISBN 978-1-78159-110-9 . ^ Colin F. Baxter; John Martin Carroll, eds. (2007). The American Military Tradition: From Colonial Times to the Present . Rowman & Littlefield. p. 181. ISBN 9780742544284 . ^ Bethell, Nicholas (1974). The Last Secret . London. ISBN 9780465038138 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( link ) ^ Norton-Taylor, Richard (October 2, 1998). "Churchill plotted invasion of Russia". The Guardian . London. ^ a b c d e f "1945 – The Decision to Drop the Bomb" . NuclearFiles . Archived from the original on April 6, 2010. ^ Mohamed, Jama (2002). " 'The Evils of Locust Bait': Popular Nationalism during the 1945 Anti-Locust Control Rebellion in Colonial Somaliland" . Past & Present (174): 184– 216. doi : 10.1093/past/174.1.184 . ISSN 0031-2746 . JSTOR 3600720 . ^ "1945: Labour landslide buries Churchill" . BBC News . April 5, 2005. ^ "Accident North American B-25D-20 Mitchell 41-30577, 28 Jul 1945" . aviation-safety.net . Retrieved May 10, 2023 . ^ "USS Indianapolis sinking: 'You could see sharks circling' " . BBC News . Archived from the original on April 18, 2018 . Retrieved June 20, 2018 . ^ Glantz, LTC David M. (June 1983). Leavenworth Papers No. 8 - August Storm: Soviet Tactical and Operational Combat in Manchuria, 1945 (PDF) . Fort Leavenworth , KS: Combat Studies Institute, U.S. Army Command and General Staff College. p. 1. ISSN 0195-3451 . Retrieved September 26, 2023 . ^ Angier, R. B.; Boothe, J. H.; Hutchings, B. L.; Mowat, J. H.; Semb, J.; Stokstad, E. L. R.; Subbarow, Y.; Waller, C. W.; Cosulich, D. B.; Fahrenbach, M. J.; Hultquist, M. E.; Kuh, E.; Northey, E. H.; Seeger, D. R.; Sickels, J. P.; Smith Jr, J. M. (1945). "Synthesis of a Compound Identical with the L. Casei Factor Isolated from Liver". Science . 102 (2644): 227– 28. Bibcode : 1945Sci...102..227A . doi : 10.1126/science.102.2644.227 . PMID 17778509 . ^ Hoffbrand, A. V.; Weir, D. G. (2001). "The history of folic acid". British Journal of Haematology . 113 (3): 579– 589. doi : 10.1046/j.1365-2141.2001.02822.x . PMID 11380441 . S2CID 22925228 . ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u Jessup, John E. (1989). A Chronology of Conflict and Resolution, 1945-1985 . New York: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-24308-5 . ^ Crichton, Gerald (February 1, 1946). "Review of events in Afghanistan, July-December 1945" . Foreign Office . ^ Myers, Brian Reynolds (December 16, 2023). "The Power to Mystify" . Sthele Press . Archived from the original on January 14, 2024 . Retrieved January 14, 2024 . Assertion that the emperor's surrender 'abruptly' ended Japan's occupation of the peninsula, which in fact continued in the southern part for more than three weeks? ^ "Amery sentenced to death: "A self-confessed traitor." ". The Times . No. 50312. November 29, 1945. p. 2. ^ Brennan, J. G.; Green, L. C. (1997). "The Case of General Dostler" . Naval War College Review . 50 (4): 115– 117. ISSN 0028-1484 . JSTOR 44638781 . ^ "75th Anniversary of World Bank Articles of Agreement Ratification" . World Bank . Retrieved May 5, 2022 . ^ "Discovery of Promethium" . Oak Ridge National Laboratory Review . 36 (1). 2003. Archived from the original on June 22, 2011 . Retrieved June 16, 2011 . ^ Hammerton, A. James; Thomson, Alistair (2005). 'Ten Pound Poms': Australia's Invisible Migrants . Manchester University Press. ISBN 0-719071321 . ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2016" . ^ William D. Rubinstein; Michael Jolles; Hilary L. Rubinstein (February 22, 2011). The Palgrave Dictionary of Anglo-Jewish History . Palgrave Macmillan. p. 868. ISBN 978-1-4039-3910-4 . [ permanent dead link ] ^ Chase's ... Calendar of Events . Contemporary Books. 2003. p. 138. ISBN 978-0-07-139098-9 . ^ "They planted an important seed for nanotechnology" (Press release). The Nobel Prize. October 4, 2023 . Retrieved October 7, 2023 . ^ Geoff Nicholson (1991). Big Noises: Rock Guitar in the 1990s . Quartet. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-7043-0145-0 . ^ "Profile of highlife legend Nana Ampadu" . GhanaWeb . September 30, 2021. Archived from the original on October 19, 2022 . Retrieved October 5, 2021 . ^ Avery, Laura (2004). Newsmakers . Gale Research. p. 61. ISBN 978-0-7876-6806-8 . ISSN 0899-0417 . OCLC 17977680 . ^ Bauer, Pat (March 29, 2022). "Linda Hunt" . Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved February 21, 2023 . ^ Encyclopedia of Contemporary German Culture . Taylor & Francis. 2013. ISBN 9781136816109 . ^ Events, Chase's Calendar of; McGraw-Hill (2007). "Birthday: Bianca Jagger" . Chase's Calendar of Events . McGraw Hill Professional. ISBN 9780071468183 . Retrieved August 5, 2025 . At the time of her marriage to Mick Jagger in 1971 it was reported that she was born in 1945, which is cited as her birth year by most published sources. The charitable organisations with which she has been associated have used 1950. ^ Colin Larkin , ed. (1997). The Virgin Encyclopedia of Popular Music (Concise ed.). Virgin Books . p. 666/7. ISBN 1-85227-745-9 . ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 2022" . Nobel Prize (Press release). The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences . October 4, 2022 . Retrieved October 6, 2022 . ^ Ruggieri, Melissa. "Procol Harum singer Gary Brooker, the voice of 'A Whiter Shade of Pale,' dies at 76" . USA Today . Retrieved February 23, 2022 . ^ "Betty Stöve" . Women's Tennis Association. ^ Dagnino, Maruja. "Lali Armengol Argemi". In Transparencia Venezuela (ed.). 20 mujeres venezolanas del siglo XX (PDF) . pp. 68– 71. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 6, 2021 . Retrieved June 12, 2022 . ^ Anon (2017). "Henderson, Dr Richard" . Who's Who (online Oxford University Press ed.). Oxford: A & C Black. doi : 10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.19818 . (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) ^ "Patrick Modiano" . Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved February 4, 2022 . ^ Easlea, Daryl (April 7, 2010). Talent Is An Asset: The Story Of Sparks . Omnibus Press. ISBN 9780857122377 – via Google Books. ^ "Khaleda Zia" . Britannica Presents 100 Women Trailblazers . February 25, 2020 . Retrieved July 27, 2021 . ^ "Obituary: John McAfee, antivirus software designer, dies aged 75" . The Times . June 24, 2021. Archived from the original on June 24, 2021 . Retrieved June 24, 2021 . ^ "Serial killer Dennis Nilsen dies in prison aged 72" . The Guardian . May 12, 2018 . Retrieved January 3, 2022 . ^ "Legacy Lyle Bien" . South Dakota Hall of Fame . Retrieved June 17, 2024 . ^ David J. Goldman (2014). Jewish Sports Stars; Athletic Heroes Past and Present ^ "Lemmy, Motörhead frontman – obituary" . The Daily Telegraph . December 29, 2015. Archived from the original on January 11, 2022 . Retrieved December 29, 2015 . ^ "Noel Redding" . The Guardian . May 15, 2003 . Retrieved May 4, 2022 . ^ "Vernon Wells" . Movies & TV Dept. The New York Times . 2014. Archived from the original on October 28, 2014. ^ "Edith Frank" . July 6, 2010. Archived from the original on July 6, 2010 . Retrieved October 18, 2017 . ^ Lumsden, Herbert ^ "Francisco Moreno Fernández: Biografía" [Francisco Moreno Fernández: Biography] (in Spanish). Madrid : Real Academia de la Historia. 2022 . Retrieved January 4, 2026 . ^ Kimmelman, Benedict B. (September–October 1987). "The Example Of Private Slovik" . American Heritage Magazine . 38 (6) . Retrieved October 5, 2012 . ^ "One day they simply weren't there any more..." (PDF) . anne frank house . March 2015 . Retrieved April 11, 2015 . ^ Kaplan, Alice (2000). The Collaborator: The Trial and Execution of Robert Brasillach . University of Chicago Press. p. 210. ISBN 978-0-226-42414-9 . ^ Zabecki, David T. , ed. (2019). The German War Machine in World War II . Santa Barbara, California: ABC-Clio . ISBN 978-1-44-086918-1 . ^ "Aleksey Nikolayevich, Count Tolstoy | Soviet writer | Britannica" . www.britannica.com . January 6, 2024. ^ "LIEUTENANT GENERAL MILLARD F. HARMON" . Air Force . [ dead link ] ^ Hill, Alec (1979). " 'Chauvel, Sir Henry George (Harry) (1865–1945)' " . Australian Dictionary of Biography . National Centre of Biography, Australian National University . ISBN 978-0-522-84459-7 . ISSN 1833-7538 . OCLC 70677943 . Retrieved January 11, 2010 . ^ "Preview unavailable" . ProQuest . ProQuest 107039613 . ^ "Casualty Details | CWGC" . www.cwgc.org . Retrieved March 8, 2021 . ^ MG Maurice Rose ^ "Georg Elser" . www.gdw-berlin.de . Retrieved January 4, 2025 . ^ "Ontdek amateurschilder, drukker, fotograaf Hendrik Nicolaas Werkman" . rkd.nl . ^ Evans, Richard J. (2008). The Third Reich at War: 1939–1945 . London: Allen Lane. p. 750. ISBN 978-0-7139-9742-2 . ^ Wallace, Sam (January 25, 2020). "The imperishable story of Julius Hirsch: the great goalscorer murdered at Auschwitz who adorns Stamford Bridge mural" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on January 12, 2022. ^ Maxwell Taylor Kennedy (November 3, 2009). Danger's Hour: The Story of the USS Bunker Hill and the Kamikaze Pilot Who Crippled Her . Simon and Schuster. p. 257. ISBN 978-0-7432-6081-7 . ^ "AAFA Bio - Kenneth J. Alford" . ^ "Ishii Kikujiro | Biography & Facts | Britannica" . www.britannica.com . March 15, 2024. ^ "Boris Galerkin" . TheFreeDictionary.com . ^ Harry Hillman Taken by Death, Cumberland News , August 10, 1945 ^ Firoz Alam (October 1, 2009). Subhas Chandra Bose . Sahni Publications. p. 121. ISBN 978-81-7564-242-3 . ^ Fildes, P. (February 13, 1956). "Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer, 1858-1945" . Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society . 2 (2): 237– 247. doi : 10.1098/rsbm.1956.0016 . S2CID 73380545 . ^ .mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)} Stevens, Halsey. 2018. " Béla Bartók: Hungarian Composer ". Encyclopædia Britannica online (accessed 27 September 2018). ^ "Kaupisch, Leonhard" (in German). lexikon-der-wehrmacht.de . Retrieved September 7, 2025 . ^ "Dr. W.B. Cannon, 73, Neurologist, Dead. Harvard Psychology Professor for 36 Years Noted for His Work on Traumatic Shock Became Professor in 1906" . New York Times . October 2, 1945 . Retrieved October 5, 2010 . ^ "Felix Salten | Austrian novelist | Britannica" . www.britannica.com . September 2, 2023. ^ "Felicija Bortkevičienė" . www.vle.lt . ^ Franklin Carmichael ^ Hugh Fordin, Stephen Sondheim (1995). Getting to Know Him: A Biography of Oscar Hammerstein II . Da Capo Press. p. 237. ISBN 0-306-80668-1 . [ permanent dead link ] ^ [Sinclair, Sir Edwyn Sinclair Alexander-, of Freswick (1865–1945)] ^ Billy Altman, Laughter's Gentle Soul: The Life of Robert Benchley . (New York City: W. W. Norton , 1997. ISBN 0-393-03833-5 ) Pages 352–362 ^ Inge, Tonette Bond. Encyclopedia of Southern Culture , ed. Charles Reagan Wilson and William R. Ferris. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989. Page 884. ^ FC, Celtic. "Jimmy Quinn" . Celtic FC . ^ Siegman, Joseph (2020). Jewish Sports Legends: The International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame . U of Nebraska Press. ISBN 9781496222121 . ^ Wing, Leonard Fish ^ Axelrod, Alan (2006), Patton: A Biography , London : Palgrave Macmillan , pp. 168– 9, ISBN 978-1-4039-7139-5 ^ Theodore Dreiser Recalled . Clemson University Press. 2017. p. 311. ISBN 9781942954446 . Further reading Ian Buruma . Year Zero: A History of 1945 (Penguin Press; 2013) 368 pages; covers liberation, revenge, decolonization, and the rise of the United Nations. excerpt International News Service, It Happened In 1945 The Essential Year Book (1946) Keith Lowe. Savage Continent: Europe in the Aftermath of World War II (2012) excerpt and text search McDannald, A. H. ed. The Americana Annual 1946 (1946) events of 1945 online ; encyclopedia yearbook global coverage in 950pp Walter Yust, ed. 10 Eventful Years, 1937 – 1946 Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 1947, 4 vol., encyclopedia yearbook online v t e Events by month v t e 1949 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1948 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1947 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1946 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1945 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1944 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1943 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1942 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1941 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1940 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Authority control databases National United States Czech Republic Israel United States Czech Republic Israel Other Yale LUX Yale LUX 1945 All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from May 2022 Articles with permanently dead external links CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown CS1 Polish-language sources (pl) CS1 maint: location missing publisher Articles with dead external links from February 2023 CS1 Spanish-language sources (es) Articles with dead external links from March 2025 CS1 German-language sources (de) Use mdy dates from August 2019 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Commons category link from Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2026 This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 01:14 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Publication history Toggle Publication history subsection 1.1 Creation and early history 1.2 Golden, Silver and Bronze Ages 1.3 Modern Age and reboots 1.1 Creation and early history 1.2 Golden, Silver and Bronze Ages 1.3 Modern Age and reboots 2 Characterization Toggle Characterization subsection 2.1 Bruce Wayne 2.1.1 Personality 2.2 Others 2.1 Bruce Wayne 2.1.1 Personality 2.1.1 Personality 2.2 Others 3 Supporting characters Toggle Supporting characters subsection 3.1 Enemies 3.2 Allies 3.3 Sidekicks 3.4 Romantic interests 3.1 Enemies 3.2 Allies 3.3 Sidekicks 3.4 Romantic interests 4 Abilities Toggle Abilities subsection 4.1 Skills and training 4.2 Technology 4.1 Skills and training 4.2 Technology 5 Fictional character biography Toggle Fictional character biography subsection 5.1 20th century 5.1.1 Origin 5.1.2 Golden Age 5.1.3 Silver Age 5.1.4 Bronze Age 5.1.5 Modern Age 5.2 21st century 5.2.1 2000s 5.2.2 2010s 5.3 The New 52 5.4 DC Rebirth 5.1 20th century 5.1.1 Origin 5.1.2 Golden Age 5.1.3 Silver Age 5.1.4 Bronze Age 5.1.5 Modern Age 5.1.1 Origin 5.1.2 Golden Age 5.1.3 Silver Age 5.1.4 Bronze Age 5.1.5 Modern Age 5.2 21st century 5.2.1 2000s 5.2.2 2010s 5.2.1 2000s 5.2.2 2010s 5.3 The New 52 5.4 DC Rebirth 6 Other versions 7 In popular culture Toggle In popular culture subsection 7.1 Media appearances 7.1.1 Criticism 7.2 Different interpretations 7.1 Media appearances 7.1.1 Criticism 7.1.1 Criticism 7.2 Different interpretations 8 Notes 9 References 10 Sources 11 Further reading 12 External links Batman Afrikaans Ænglisc العربية Arpetan Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Беларуская Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Chi-Chewa Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego ગુજરાતી 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Қазақша Kernowek Kreyòl ayisyen Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands नेपाली 日本語 Нохчийн Norsk bokmål Occitan Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Piemontèis Polski Português Română Русский Sardu Scots Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Võro Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש 粵語 中文 Betawi Ghanaian Pidgin Kʋsaal Toki pona ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item This article may incorporate text from a large language model . 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The reason given is: This 2024 "split" that appears to also introduce AI summaries, with usual WP:AISIGNS of promotional tone, vocab distribution, etc. See talk page for more info ( January 2026 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) Batman Cover of the DC Comics Absolute Edition of Batman: Hush (2011) Art by Jim Lee Publication information Publisher DC Comics First appearance Detective Comics #27 ( cover-dated May 1939; published March 30, 1939) [ 1 ] Created by .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Bob Kane Bill Finger [ a ] Bob Kane Bill Finger [ a ] In-story information Alter ego Bruce Wayne Place of origin Gotham City Team affiliations Justice League Bat-Family Outsiders Wayne Enterprises Justice League Bat-Family Outsiders Wayne Enterprises Partnerships Robin (various) Batgirl (various) Alfred Pennyworth James Gordon Superman Wonder Woman Catwoman Robin (various) Batgirl (various) Alfred Pennyworth James Gordon Superman Wonder Woman Catwoman Notable aliases Dark Knight Caped Crusader Matches Malone World's Greatest Detective Dark Knight Caped Crusader Matches Malone World's Greatest Detective Abilities Genius -level intellect Expert detective Master martial artist and hand-to-hand combatant Master tactician, strategist and field commander Proficient in using high-tech equipment and weapons Genius -level intellect Expert detective Master martial artist and hand-to-hand combatant Master tactician, strategist and field commander Proficient in using high-tech equipment and weapons Batman [ b ] is a superhero who appears in American comic books published by DC Comics . Batman was created by writer Bill Finger and artist Bob Kane , and debuted in the 27th issue of the comic book Detective Comics on March 30, 1939. In the DC Universe , Batman is the alias of Bruce Wayne , a wealthy American playboy , philanthropist , and industrialist who resides in the fictional Gotham City . His origin story features him swearing vengeance against criminals after witnessing the murder of his parents, Thomas and Martha , as a child, a vendetta tempered by the ideal of justice . He trains himself physically and intellectually, crafts a bat-inspired persona , and monitors the Gotham streets at night. Kane, Finger, and other creators accompanied Batman with supporting characters , including his sidekicks Robin and Batgirl ; allies Alfred Pennyworth and James Gordon ; love interest and occasional adversary Catwoman ; as well as foes such as the Penguin , the Riddler , Two-Face , and his archenemy , the Joker . Kane conceived Batman in early 1939 to capitalize on the popularity of Superman ; although Kane frequently claimed sole creation credit, Finger substantially developed the concept from a generic superhero into something more bat -like. They drew inspiration from pulp fiction characters like the Shadow , Sherlock Holmes , and the Green Hornet . Batman received a spin-off publication, Batman , in 1940. Kane and Finger introduced Batman as a ruthless vigilante who frequently killed or maimed criminals, but he evolved into a just, tempered superhero with a stringent moral code that prohibits killing during the 1940s. Unlike most superheroes, Batman does not possess any superpowers , instead relying on his intellect, fighting skills, and wealth. The 1960s Batman television series used a camp aesthetic, which continued to be associated with Batman for years after it ended. Various creators worked to return Batman to his darker roots in the 1970s and 1980s, culminating with the 1986 miniseries The Dark Knight Returns by Frank Miller . DC has featured Batman in many comic books , including comics published under its imprints such as Vertigo and Black Label ; he has been considered DC's flagship character [ 4 ] [ 5 ] since the 1990s. The longest-running Batman comic, Detective Comics , is the longest-running comic book in the United States. Batman is frequently depicted alongside other DC superheroes, such as Superman and Wonder Woman , as a member of organizations such as the Justice League and the Outsiders . In addition to Bruce Wayne, other characters used the Batman persona, such as Jean-Paul Valley / Azrael in the 1993–1994 " Knightfall " story arc; Dick Grayson , the first Robin, from 2009 to 2011; and Jace Fox , the son of Wayne's ally Lucius , since 2021. [ 6 ] DC has also published comics featuring alternate versions of Batman, including the incarnation seen in The Dark Knight Returns and its successors, the incarnation from the Flashpoint (2011) event, and numerous interpretations in comics published under the Elseworlds label. Batman is one of the most iconic characters in popular culture and has been listed among the greatest comic book superheroes and characters ever created. He is one of the most commercially successful superheroes, the second best-selling comic book series in history with 460 million copies sold worldwide, [ 7 ] and his likeness has been licensed and featured in various media and merchandise sold around the world; this includes toy lines such as Lego Batman and video games such as the Batman: Arkham series. Batman has been adapted in many live-action and animated television series and films. Adam West portrayed him in the 1960s Batman television series, and he has been portrayed in films by Michael Keaton , Val Kilmer , George Clooney , Christian Bale , Ben Affleck , and Robert Pattinson . Many actors, most prolifically Kevin Conroy , have provided Batman's voice in animation and video games. In September 2024, Batman was given a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame , being the first superhero to receive the honor. Publication history Creation and early history In early 1939, following the success of Superman , DC Comics ' editors requested more superheroes. [ 8 ] Bob Kane created Batman, initially drawing a character with red tights, bat wings, and a domino mask. Bill Finger , a collaborator, made significant contributions by suggesting a cowl, cape, gloves, and a darker costume. [ 9 ] The character's alter ego, Bruce Wayne, was inspired by historical figures Robert the Bruce and Mad Anthony Wayne . [ 10 ] Batman's early adventures drew inspiration from contemporary pulp fiction and characters like Zorro and the Shadow, establishing Batman as a master detective with a dark, brooding persona driven by the murder of his parents. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] Golden, Silver and Bronze Ages Batman debuted in Detective Comics #27 in 1939. Early stories were dark, featuring a Batman who did not shy away from killing. The character quickly became popular, leading to his own solo title in 1940. Robin, Batman's sidekick, was introduced in 1940, lightening the tone and boosting sales. Over the next few years, Batman's rogues' gallery expanded with iconic villains like the Joker and Catwoman. The 1950s saw Batman in lighter, science fiction-influenced stories. However, declining sales led to a 1964 revamp by editor Julius Schwartz, who returned Batman to his detective roots and updated his appearance. The 1966 Batman TV series introduced a campy, humorous tone, which was reflected in the comics until its cancellation in 1968. In the 1970s, writers Dennis O'Neil and Neal Adams restored Batman's dark, gritty nature, a trend that continued despite fluctuating sales. Modern Age and reboots In the Modern Age of Comic Books Batman comics have undergone significant transformations, reflecting changing storytelling trends and audience interests. Beginning with seminal works like The Dark Knight Returns in the 1980s, [ 13 ] which reintroduced Batman in a grittier, more mature context, the character's narrative evolved to explore deeper themes and darker tones. [ 14 ] This period also saw the exploration of Batman's origins and psyche through works like Batman: Year One , [ 14 ] [ 15 ] and Batman: The Killing Joke , which delved into the complexities of heroism and villainy. [ 16 ] In the 1990s, storylines such as " Knightfall " introduced new adversaries like Bane, who physically and mentally challenged Batman, leading to a temporary replacement by Jean-Paul Valley. The aftermath of an earthquake in "No Man's Land" depicted Gotham City in chaos, further pushing Batman to new limits of heroism and survival. [ 17 ] Entering the 21st century, Grant Morrison 's influential run introduced Damian Wayne as Batman's son and heir, bringing familial dynamics and a new generation of challenges to the forefront. Morrison's storytelling also delved into surreal and existential themes, such as in Batman R.I.P. and Final Crisis , which tested Batman's resolve and sanity against cosmic threats and personal demons. [ 18 ] [ 19 ] The New 52 reboot in 2011 refreshed Batman's continuity while preserving core elements of his character. This era introduced modern interpretations of classic storylines, like Night of the Owls , where Batman confronts the Court of Owls, a clandestine society controlling Gotham for centuries. The chilling return of the Joker in "Death of the Family" explored the intricate relationships within Batman's extended family of allies and adversaries. More recent developments under DC Rebirth and Infinite Frontier have continued to evolve Batman's universe, exploring new characters like Gotham and Gotham Girl , and tackling contemporary issues within the context of Gotham City's ever-evolving landscape of crime and heroism. [ 20 ] Characterization Bruce Wayne Batman's secret identity is Bruce Wayne, a wealthy American industrialist. As a child, Bruce witnessed the murder of his parents, Dr. Thomas Wayne and Martha Wayne , which ultimately led him to craft the Batman persona and seek justice against criminals. He resides on the outskirts of Gotham City in his personal residence, Wayne Manor . Wayne averts suspicion by acting the part of a superficial playboy idly living off his family's fortune and the profits of Wayne Enterprises , his inherited conglomerate. [ 21 ] [ 22 ] He supports philanthropic causes through his nonprofit Wayne Foundation, which in part addresses social issues encouraging crime as well as assisting victims of it, but is more widely known as a celebrity socialite. [ 23 ] In public, he frequently appears in the company of high-status women, which encourages tabloid gossip. He feigns near-drunkenness by consuming large quantities of disguised ginger ale , though he is a teetotalor to maintain his physical and mental prowess. [ 24 ] Although Bruce Wayne leads an active romantic life, his vigilante activities as Batman account for most of his time. [ 25 ] While Bruce Wayne is never depicted as being especially religious, he is ethnically Jewish on his mother's side; [ 26 ] [ 27 ] his maternal cousin Batwoman (Kate Kane) is practising. His father, Thomas , raised Bruce as a Christian, but as an adult he doesn't follow any religion. [ 26 ] [ 28 ] Various modern stories have portrayed the extravagant, playboy image of Bruce Wayne as a facade. [ 29 ] This is in contrast to the Post- Crisis Superman, whose Clark Kent persona is the true identity, while the Superman persona is the facade. [ 30 ] [ 31 ] In Batman Unmasked , a television documentary about the psychology of the character, behavioral scientist Benjamin Karney notes that Batman's personality is driven by Bruce Wayne's inherent humanity; that "Batman, for all its benefits and for all of the time Bruce Wayne devotes to it, is ultimately a tool for Bruce Wayne's efforts to make the world better". Bruce Wayne's principles include the desire to prevent future harm and a vow not to kill. Bruce Wayne believes that our actions define us, we fail for a reason, and anything is possible. [ 32 ] Writers of Batman and Superman stories have often compared and contrasted the two. Interpretations vary depending on the writer, the story, and the timing. Grant Morrison [ 33 ] notes that both heroes "believe in the same kind of things" despite the day/night contrast their heroic roles display. Morrison notes an equally stark contrast in their real identities. Bruce Wayne and Clark Kent belong to different social classes: "Bruce has a butler, Clark has a boss." T. James Musler's book Unleashing the Superhero in Us All explores the extent to which Bruce Wayne's vast personal wealth is important in his life story, and the crucial role it plays in his efforts as Batman. [ 34 ] Will Brooker notes in his book Batman Unmasked that "the confirmation of the Batman's identity lies with the young audience ...he doesn't have to be Bruce Wayne; he just needs the suit and gadgets, the abilities, and most importantly the morality, the humanity. There's just a sense about him: 'they trust him ...and they're never wrong." [ 35 ] Personality Batman's primary character traits can be summarized as "wealth; physical prowess; deductive abilities and obsession" . [ 36 ] The details and tone of Batman comic books have varied over the years with different creative teams. Dennis O'Neil noted that character consistency was not a major concern during early editorial regimes: " Julie Schwartz did a Batman in Batman and Detective and Murray Boltinoff did a Batman in the Brave and the Bold and apart from the costume they bore very little resemblance to each other. Julie and Murray did not want to coordinate their efforts, nor were they asked to do so. Continuity was not important in those days." [ 37 ] The driving force behind Bruce Wayne's character is his parents' murder and their absence. Bob Kane and Bill Finger discussed Batman's background and decided that "there's nothing more traumatic than having your parents murdered before your eyes". [ 38 ] Despite his trauma, he sets his mind on studying to become a scientist [ 39 ] [ 40 ] and to train his body into physical perfection [ 39 ] [ 40 ] to fight crime in Gotham City as Batman, an inspired idea from Wayne's insight into the criminal mind. [ 39 ] [ 40 ] He also speaks over 40 languages. [ 41 ] Another of Batman's characterizations is that of a vigilante; in order to stop evil that started with the death of his parents, he must sometimes break the law himself. Although manifested differently by being re-told by different artists, it is nevertheless that the details and the prime components of Batman's origin have never varied at all in the comic books, the "reiteration of the basic origin events holds together otherwise divergent expressions". [ 42 ] The origin is the source of the character's traits and attributes, which play out in many of the character's adventures. [ 36 ] Batman is often treated as a vigilante by other characters in his stories. Frank Miller views the character as "a dionysian figure, a force for anarchy that imposes an individual order". [ 43 ] Dressed as a bat, Batman deliberately cultivates a frightening persona in order to aid him in crime-fighting, [ 44 ] a fear that originates from the criminals' own guilty conscience . [ 45 ] Miller is often credited with reintroducing anti-heroic traits into Batman's characterization, [ 46 ] such as his brooding personality, willingness to use violence and torture, and increasingly alienated behavior. Batman, shortly a year after his debut and the introduction of Robin, was changed in 1940 after DC editor Whitney Ellsworth felt the character would be tainted by his lethal methods and DC established their own ethical code, subsequently he was retconned to have a stringent moral code, [ 47 ] [ 48 ] which has stayed with the character of Batman ever since. Miller's Batman was closer to the original pre-Robin version, who was willing to kill criminals if necessary. [ 49 ] Others On several occasions former Robin Dick Grayson has served as Batman; most notably in 2009 while Wayne was believed dead, and served as a second Batman even after Wayne returned in 2010. [ 50 ] As part of DC's 2011 continuity relaunch , Grayson returned to being Nightwing following the Flashpoint crossover event. In an interview with IGN , Morrison detailed that having Dick Grayson as Batman and Damian Wayne as Robin represented a "reverse" of the normal dynamic between Batman and Robin, with, "a more light-hearted and spontaneous Batman and a scowling, badass Robin". Morrison explained their intentions for the new characterization of Batman: "Dick Grayson is kind of this consummate superhero. The guy has been Batman's partner since he was a kid, he's led the Teen Titans , and he's trained with everybody in the DC Universe. So he's a very different kind of Batman. He's a lot easier; He's a lot looser and more relaxed." [ 51 ] Over the years, there have been numerous others to assume the name of Batman, or to officially take over for Bruce during his leaves of absence. Jean-Paul Valley, also known as Azrael , assumed the cowl after the events of the Knightfall saga. [ 50 ] Jim Gordon donned a mecha-suit after the events of Batman: Endgame , and served as Batman in 2015 and 2016. In 2021, as part of the Fear State crossover event, Lucius Fox 's son Jace Fox succeeds Bruce as Batman in a 2021 storyline, depicted in the series I Am Batman , after Batman was declared dead. Additionally, members of the group Batman Incorporated , Bruce Wayne's experiment at franchising his brand of vigilantism, have at times stood in as the official Batman in cities around the world. [ 50 ] Various others have also taken up the role of Batman in stories set in alternative universes and possible futures, including, among them, various former proteges of Bruce Wayne. Supporting characters Batman's interactions with both villains and cohorts have, over time, developed a strong supporting cast of characters. [ 36 ] Enemies Batman faces a variety of foes ranging from common criminals to outlandish supervillains. Many of them mirror aspects of the Batman's character and development, often having tragic origin stories that lead them to a life of crime. [ 52 ] These foes are commonly referred to as Batman's rogues gallery . Batman's "most implacable foe" is the Joker , a homicidal maniac with a clown-like appearance. The Joker is considered by critics to be his perfect adversary, since he is the antithesis of Batman in personality and appearance; the Joker has a maniacal demeanor with a colorful appearance, while Batman has a serious and resolute demeanor with a dark appearance. As a "personification of the irrational", the Joker represents "everything Batman [opposes]". [ 53 ] Other long-time recurring foes that are part of Batman's rogues gallery include Catwoman (a cat burglar anti-heroine who is variously an ally and romantic interest), the Penguin , Ra's al Ghul , Two-Face (Harvey Dent), the Riddler , the Scarecrow , Mr. Freeze , Poison Ivy , Harley Quinn , Bane , Clayface , and Killer Croc , among others. Many of Batman's adversaries are often psychiatric patients at Arkham Asylum . Allies Alfred Pennyworth , Batman's loyal butler and father figure, first appeared in Batman #16 (1943). After Bruce Wayne's parents were killed, Alfred raised Bruce and became one of the few people to know his secret identity. He is often portrayed as a steadying presence in Bruce's life, offering both emotional support and practical assistance in Batman's crime-fighting endeavors. More than just a caretaker, Alfred is a trusted ally and sometimes sidekick, sharing Wayne Manor with Bruce and contributing to Batman's mission. [ 52 ] One of Batman's most crucial allies is Commissioner James Gordon . Their relationship is built on mutual respect and a shared commitment to justice in Gotham City. In Batman: Year One , Gordon and Batman learn to trust each other, which transforms their efforts against crime into a more effective partnership. Gordon's perspective as a police officer complements Batman's vigilantism, allowing them to tackle Gotham's challenges together. Another important ally is the Justice League , which further emphasizes the importance of collaboration. Batman's relationship with Superman showcases how their contrasting ideologies can complement each other. In stories like World's Finest , their friendship highlights how Batman's methods benefit from Superman's optimism and strength. [ 54 ] Sidekicks Robin, Batman's vigilante partner, has been a widely recognized supporting character for many years; each iteration of the Robin character, of which there have been five in the mainstream continuity, function as members of the Batman family, but additionally, as Batman's "central" sidekick in various media. [ 55 ] Bill Finger stated that he wanted to include Robin because "Batman didn't have anyone to talk to, and it got a little tiresome always having him thinking." [ 56 ] The first Robin, Dick Grayson , was introduced in 1940. In the 1970s he finally grew up, went off to college and became the hero Nightwing . A second Robin, Jason Todd was introduced in the 1980s, following Dick Grayson's departure from the role. Initially impulsive and rebellious, Jason's tenure as Robin was controversial among fans. In 1988, DC held a fan vote to determine his fate in the iconic A Death in the Family storyline, where the Joker brutally beat Jason with a crowbar and left him to die in an explosion. The fans voted for his death. However, Jason was later resurrected and returned as the antihero Red Hood . [ 57 ] The third Robin in the mainstream comics is Tim Drake , who first appeared in 1989. He went on to star in his own comic series, and goes by the name Red Robin , a variation on the traditional Robin persona. In the first decade of the new millennium, Stephanie Brown served as the fourth in-universe Robin between stints as her self-made vigilante identity the Spoiler, and later as Batgirl . [ 58 ] After Brown's apparent death, Drake resumed the role of Robin for a time. The role eventually passed to Damian Wayne , the 10-year-old son of Bruce Wayne and Talia al Ghul , in the late 2000s. [ 59 ] Damian's tenure as du jour Robin ended when the character was killed off in the pages of Batman Incorporated in 2013. [ 60 ] Batman's next young sidekick is Harper Row , a streetwise young woman who avoids the name Robin but followed the ornithological theme nonetheless; she debuted the codename and identity of the Bluebird in 2014. Unlike the Robins, the Bluebird is willing and permitted to use a gun, albeit non-lethal ; her weapon of choice is a modified rifle that fires taser rounds. [ 61 ] In 2015, a new series began titled We Are...Robin , focused on a group of teenagers using the Robin persona to fight crime in Gotham City. The most prominent of these, Duke Thomas , later becomes Batman's crimefighting partner as The Signal. [ 62 ] Romantic interests Batman's first love interest was Julie Madison , an actress introduced in Detective Comics #31 (1939), they ultimately got engaged, and later she left him due to his playboy persona. [ 63 ] Following The New 52 DC relaunch, the character was reintroduced as an artist whose father was a gunrunner involved in the death of Bruce's parents. [ 63 ] Catwoman/Selina Kyle debuting in Batman #1 (1940), during the Golden Age of Comics . [ 63 ] She was created in the pre– Comics Code era and portrayed as a "flirtatious and sensual" character to add a layer of sex appeal to Batman. [ 64 ] The two ultimately got engaged during the DC Rebirth relaunch. [ 63 ] Another love interest is intrepid reporter Vicki Vale , who debuted in Batman #49 (1948), and was inspired by Superman ’s love interest, reporter Lois Lane . Vicki frequently tried to prove that Bruce Wayne was Batman, but never succeeded. [ 63 ] This was followed by Linda Page , who debuted in Batman #5 (1941) as a rich socialite turned nurse. [ 63 ] Kathy Kane/Batwoman debuted in Detective Comics #233 (1956) alongside her sister Bette Kane . Kathy was introduced as a love interest for Batman, following allegations of homosexuality between Batman and Robin. [ 63 ] The character was written out in the 1960s and returned in the 1970s to be killed by the League of Assassins . Writer Grant Morrison later brought Kathy back into DC's continuity in Batman, Inc. , as part of his attempts to canonize every Batman story, but she was ultimately killed off again. [ 63 ] Talia al Ghul , introduced in Detective Comics #411 (1971) as the daughter of Batman's enemy Ra's al Ghul . Their love story resulted in the birth of Damian Wayne , who would later become Robin . [ 63 ] [ 65 ] Natalia Knight/Nocturna , debuted in Detective Comics #529 (1983) as the leader of a criminal organization. She became Batman's love interest and later the adopted mother of Jason Todd . Nocturna was later killed by her former lover, Night-Slayer , but returned in subsequent continuity. [ 63 ] Abilities Skills and training Batman has no inherent superhuman powers; he relies on "his own scientific knowledge, detective skills, and athletic prowess". [ 66 ] Batman's inexhaustible wealth gives him access to advanced technologies, and as a proficient scientist , he is able to use and modify these technologies to his advantage. In the stories, Batman is regarded as one of the world's greatest detectives, if not the world's greatest crime solver. [ 67 ] Batman has been repeatedly described as having a genius-level intellect, being one of the greatest martial artists in the DC Universe, and having peak human physical and mental conditioning. [ 68 ] As a polymath , his knowledge and expertise in countless disciplines is nearly unparalleled by any other character in the DC Universe. He has shown prowess in assorted fields such as mathematics, biology, physics, chemistry, and several levels of engineering. [ 69 ] He has traveled the world acquiring the skills needed to aid him in his endeavors as Batman. In the Superman: Doomed story arc, Superman considers Batman to be one of the most brilliant minds on the planet. [ 70 ] Batman has trained extensively in various fighting styles, making him one of the best hand-to-hand fighters in the DC Universe. He possesses a photographic memory , [ 71 ] and has fully utilized his photographic memory to master a total of 127 forms of martial arts. [ 72 ] In terms of his physical condition, Batman is described as peak human and far beyond an Olympic-athlete-level condition, able to perform feats such as easily running across rooftops in a Parkour -esque fashion, pressing thousands of pounds regularly, and even bench pressing six hundred pounds of soil and coffin in a poisoned and starved state. Superman describes Batman as "the most dangerous man on Earth", able to defeat an entire team of superpowered extraterrestrials by himself in order to rescue his imprisoned teammates in Grant Morrison's first storyline in JLA . Batman is strongly disciplined, and he has the ability to function under great physical pain and resist most forms of telepathy and mind control . He is a master of disguise , multilingual, and an expert in espionage , often gathering information under the identity of a notorious gangster named Matches Malone. Batman is highly skilled in stealth movement and escapology , which allows him to appear and disappear at will and to break free of nearly inescapable deathtraps with little to no harm. He is also a master strategist, considered DC's greatest tactician, with numerous plans in preparation for almost any eventuality. Batman is an expert in interrogation techniques and his intimidating and frightening appearance alone is often all that is needed in getting information from suspects. Despite having the potential to harm his enemies, Batman's most defining characteristic is his strong commitment to justice and his reluctance to take a life. This unyielding moral rectitude has earned him the respect of several heroes in the DC Universe, most notably that of Superman and Wonder Woman . Among physical and other crime fighting related training, he is also proficient at other types of skills. Some of these include being a licensed pilot (in order to operate the Batplane ), as well as being able to operate other types of machinery. In some publications, he even underwent some magician training. Technology Batman utilizes a vast arsenal of specialized, high-tech vehicles and gadgets in his war against crime, the designs of which usually share a bat motif. Batman historian Les Daniels credits Gardner Fox with creating the concept of Batman's arsenal with the introduction of the utility belt in Detective Comics #29 (July 1939) and the first bat-themed weapons the batarang and the "Batgyro" in Detective Comics #31 and 32 (Sept. and October 1939). [ 73 ] Batman's batsuit aids in his combat against enemies, having the properties of both Kevlar and Nomex . It protects him from gunfire and other significant impacts, and incorporates the imagery of a bat in order to frighten criminals. [ 74 ] The details of the Batman costume change repeatedly through various decades, stories, media and artists' interpretations, but the most distinctive elements remain consistent: a scallop-hem cape; a cowl covering most of the face; a pair of bat-like ears; a stylized bat emblem on the chest; and the ever-present utility belt. His gloves typically feature three scallops that protrude from long, gauntlet-like cuffs, although in his earliest appearances he wore short, plain gloves without the scallops. [ 75 ] The overall look of the character, particularly the length of the cowl's ears and of the cape, varies greatly depending on the artist. Dennis O'Neil said, "We now say that Batman has two hundred suits hanging in the Batcave so they don't have to look the same ...Everybody loves to draw Batman, and everybody wants to put their own spin on it." [ 76 ] Finger and Kane originally conceptualized Batman as having a black cape and cowl and grey suit, but conventions in coloring called for black to be highlighted with blue. [ 74 ] Hence, the costume's colors have appeared in the comics as dark blue and grey; [ 74 ] as well as black and grey. In the Tim Burton 's Batman and Batman Returns films, Batman has been depicted as completely black with a bat in the middle surrounded by a yellow background. Christopher Nolan 's The Dark Knight Trilogy depicted Batman wearing high-tech gear painted completely black with a black bat in the middle. Ben Affleck 's Batman in the DC Extended Universe films wears a suit grey in color with a black cowl, cape, and bat symbol. Seemingly following the suit of the DC Extended Universe outfit, Robert Pattinson 's uniform in The Batman restores the more traditional gray bodysuit and black appendage design, notably different from prior iterations by mostly utilizing real world armor and apparel pieces from modern military and motorcycle gear. Batman's primary vehicle is the Batmobile , which is usually depicted as an imposing black car, often with tailfins that suggest a bat's wings. Batman also has an aircraft called the Batplane (originally a relatively traditionally, but bat-motifed plane, later seen as the much more unique "Batwing" starting in the 1989 film ), along with various other means of transportation. In proper practice, the "bat" prefix (as in Batmobile or batarang) is rarely used by Batman himself when referring to his equipment, particularly after some portrayals (primarily the 1960s Batman live-action television show and the Super Friends animated series) stretched the practice to campy proportions. For example, the 1960s television show depicted a Batboat, Bat-Sub , and Batcycle, among other bat-themed vehicles. The 1960s television series Batman has an arsenal that includes such "bat-" names as the Bat-computer, Bat-scanner, bat-radar, bat-cuffs, bat-pontoons, bat-drinking water dispenser, bat-camera with polarized bat-filter, bat- shark repellent bat-spray, and Bat-rope. The storyline "A Death in the Family" suggests that given Batman's grim nature, he is unlikely to have adopted the "bat" prefix on his own. In The Dark Knight Returns , Batman tells Carrie Kelley that the original Robin came up with the name "Batmobile" when he was young, since that is what a kid would call Batman's vehicle. The Batmobile, which was before frequently depicted to resemble a sports car , was redesigned in 2011 when DC Comics relaunched its entire line of comic books, with the Batmobile being given heavier armor and new aesthetics. Batman keeps most of his field equipment in his utility belt . Over the years it has shown to contain an assortment of crime-fighting tools, weapons, and investigative and technological instruments. Different versions of the belt have these items stored in compartments, often as pouches or hard cylinders attached evenly around it. Since the 1989 film , Batman is often depicted as carrying a projectile which shoots a retractable grappling hook attached to a cable (before this, a he employed a traditionally thrown grappling hook.) This allows him to attach to distant objects, be propelled into the air, and thus swing from the rooftops of Gotham City. An exception to the range of Batman's equipment are hand guns , which he refuses to use on principle, since a gun was used in his parents' murder. In modern stories in terms of his vehicles, Batman compromises on that principle to install weapon systems on them for the purpose of non-lethally disabling other vehicles, forcing entry into locations and attacking dangerous targets too large to defeat by other means. When Batman is needed, the Gotham City police activate a searchlight with a bat-shaped insignia over the lens called the Bat-Signal, which shines into the night sky, creating a bat-symbol on a passing cloud which can be seen from any point in Gotham. The origin of the signal varies, depending on the continuity and medium. In various incarnations, most notably the 1960s Batman TV series , Commissioner Gordon also has a dedicated phone line, dubbed the Bat-Phone, connected to a bright red telephone (in the TV series) which sits on a wooden base and has a transparent top. The line connects directly to Batman's residence, Wayne Manor , specifically both to a similar phone sitting on the desk in Bruce Wayne's study and the extension phone in the Batcave. The Batcave is Batman's secret headquarters, consisting of a series of caves beneath his mansion, Wayne Manor . As his command center, the Batcave serves multiple purposes; supercomputer, surveillance, redundant power-generators, forensics lab, medical infirmary, private study, training dojo, fabrication workshop, arsenal, hangar and garage. It houses the vehicles and equipment Batman uses in his campaign to fight crime. It is also a trophy room and storage facility for Batman's unique memorabilia collected over the years from various cases he has worked on. In both the comic book Batman: Shadow of the Bat #45 and the 2005 film Batman Begins , the cave is said to have been part of the Underground Railroad . Fictional character biography Batman's history has undergone many retroactive continuity revisions, both minor and major. Elements of the character's history have varied greatly. Scholars William Uricchio and Roberta E. Pearson noted in the early 1990s, "Unlike some fictional characters, the Batman has no primary urtext set in a specific period, but has rather existed in a plethora of equally valid texts constantly appearing over more than five decades." [ 77 ] 20th century Origin The central fixed event in the Batman stories is the character's origin story . [ 36 ] As a young boy, Bruce Wayne was horrified and traumatized when he watched his parents, the physician Dr. Thomas Wayne and his wife Martha , murdered with a gun by a mugger named Joe Chill . Batman refuses to utilize any sort of gun on the principle that a gun was used to murder his parents. This event drove him to train his body to its peak condition and fight crime in Gotham City as Batman. Pearson and Uricchio also noted beyond the origin story and such events as the introduction of Robin, "Until recently, the fixed and accruing and hence, canonized, events have been few in number", [ 36 ] a situation altered by an increased effort by later Batman editors such as Dennis O'Neil to ensure consistency and continuity between stories. [ 78 ] Golden Age In Batman's first appearance in Detective Comics #27, he is already operating as a crime-fighter. [ 79 ] Batman's origin is first presented in Detective Comics #33 (November 1939) and is later expanded upon in Batman #47. As these comics state, Bruce Wayne is born to Dr. Thomas Wayne and his wife Martha, two very wealthy and charitable Gotham City socialites. Bruce is brought up in Wayne Manor , and leads a happy and privileged existence until the age of 8, when his parents are killed by a small-time criminal named Joe Chill while on their way home from a movie theater. That night, Bruce Wayne swears an oath to spend his life fighting crime. He engages in intense intellectual and physical training; however, he realizes that these skills alone would not be enough. "Criminals are a superstitious cowardly lot", Wayne remarks, "so my disguise must be able to strike terror into their hearts. I must be a creature of the night, black, terrible ..." As if responding to his desires, a bat suddenly flies through the window, inspiring Bruce to craft the Batman persona. [ 80 ] In early strips, Batman's career as a vigilante earns him the ire of the police. During this period, Bruce Wayne has a fiancé named Julie Madison . [ 81 ] In Detective Comics #38, Wayne takes in an orphaned circus acrobat, Dick Grayson , who becomes his vigilante partner, Robin . Batman also becomes a founding member of the Justice Society of America , [ 82 ] although he, like Superman, is an honorary member, [ 83 ] and thus only participates occasionally. Batman's relationship with the law thaws quickly, and he is made an honorary member of Gotham City's police department . [ 84 ] During this time, Alfred Pennyworth arrives at Wayne Manor, and after deducing the Dynamic Duo's secret identities, joins their service as their butler. [ 85 ] Silver Age The Silver Age of Comic Books in DC Comics is sometimes held to have begun in 1956 when the publisher introduced Barry Allen as a new, updated version of the Flash . Batman is not significantly changed by the late 1950s for the continuity which would be later referred to as Earth-One . The lighter tone Batman had taken in the period between the Golden and Silver Ages led to the stories of the late 1950s and early 1960s that often feature many science-fiction elements, and Batman is not significantly updated in the manner of other characters until Detective Comics #327 (May 1964), in which Batman reverts to his detective roots, with most science-fiction elements jettisoned from the series. After the introduction of DC Comics' Multiverse in the 1960s, DC established that stories from the Golden Age star the Earth-Two Batman , a character from a parallel world. This version of Batman partners with and marries the reformed Earth-Two Catwoman (Selina Kyle). The two have a daughter, Helena Wayne , who becomes the Huntress. She assumes the position as Gotham's protector along with Dick Grayson, the Earth-Two Robin , once Bruce Wayne retires to become police commissioner. Wayne holds the position of police commissioner until he is killed during one final adventure as Batman. Batman titles, however, often ignored that a distinction had been made between the pre-revamp and post-revamp Batmen (since unlike the Flash or Green Lantern , Batman comics had been published without interruption through the 1950s) and would occasionally make reference to stories from the Golden Age. [ 86 ] Nevertheless, details of Batman's history were altered or expanded upon through the decades. Additions include meetings with a future Superman during his youth, his upbringing by his uncle Philip Wayne (introduced in Batman #208 (February 1969)) after his parents' death, and appearances of his father and himself as prototypical versions of Batman and Robin, respectively. [ 87 ] [ 88 ] In 1980, then-editor Paul Levitz commissioned the Untold Legend of the Batman miniseries to thoroughly chronicle Batman's origin and history. Batman meets and regularly works with other heroes during the Silver Age, most notably Superman, whom he began regularly working alongside in a series of team-ups in World's Finest Comics , starting in 1954 and continuing through the series' cancellation in 1986. Batman and Superman are usually depicted as close friends. As a founding member of the Justice League of America, Batman appears in its first story, in 1960's The Brave and the Bold #28. In the 1970s and 1980s, The Brave and the Bold became a Batman title, in which Batman teams up with a different DC Universe superhero each month. Bronze Age In 1969, Dick Grayson attends college as part of DC Comics' effort to revise the Batman comics. Additionally, Batman also moves from his mansion, Wayne Manor into a penthouse apartment atop the Wayne Foundation building in downtown Gotham City, in order to be closer to Gotham City's crime. In 1974's "Night of the Stalker" storyline, a diploma on the wall reveals Bruce Wayne as a graduate of Yale Law School . [ 89 ] Batman spends the 1970s and early 1980s mainly working solo, with occasional team-ups with Robin or Batgirl. Batman's adventures also become somewhat darker and more grim during this period, depicting increasingly violent crimes, including the first appearance (since the early Golden Age) of the Joker as a homicidal psychopath , and the arrival of Ra's al Ghul , a centuries-old terrorist who knows Batman's secret identity. In the 1980s, Dick Grayson becomes Nightwing . [ 90 ] In the final issue of The Brave and the Bold in 1983, Batman quits the Justice League and forms a new group called the Outsiders . He serves as the team's leader until Batman and the Outsiders #32 (1986) and the comic subsequently changed its title. Modern Age After the 12-issue miniseries Crisis on Infinite Earths , DC Comics retconned the histories of some major characters in an attempt at updating them for contemporary audiences. Frank Miller retold Batman's origin in the storyline " Year One " from Batman #404–407, which emphasizes a grittier tone in the character. [ 91 ] Though the Earth-Two Batman is erased from history, many stories of Batman's Silver Age/Earth-One career (along with an amount of Golden Age ones) remain canonical in the post- Crisis universe, with his origins remaining the same in essence, despite alteration. For example, Gotham's police are mostly corrupt, setting up further need for Batman's existence. The guardian Phillip Wayne is removed, leaving young Bruce to be raised by Alfred Pennyworth. Additionally, Batman is no longer a founding member of the Justice League of America, although he becomes leader for a short time of a new incarnation of the team launched in 1987. To help fill in the revised backstory for Batman following Crisis , DC launched a new Batman title called Legends of the Dark Knight in 1989 and has published various miniseries and one-shot stories since then that largely take place during the "Year One" period. [ 92 ] Subsequently, Batman begins exhibiting an excessive, reckless approach to his crimefighting, a result of the pain of losing Jason Todd . Batman works solo until the decade's close, when Tim Drake becomes the new Robin. [ 93 ] Many of the major Batman storylines since the 1990s have been intertitle crossovers that run for a number of issues. In 1993, DC published " Knightfall ". During the storyline's first phase, the new villain Bane paralyzes Batman, leading Wayne to ask Azrael to take on the role. After the end of "Knightfall", the storylines split in two directions, following both the Azrael-Batman's adventures, and Bruce Wayne's quest to become Batman once more. The story arcs realign in "KnightsEnd", as Azrael becomes increasingly violent and is defeated by a healed Bruce Wayne. Wayne hands the Batman mantle to Dick Grayson (then Nightwing) for an interim period, while Wayne trains for a return to the role. [ 94 ] The 1994 company-wide crossover storyline Zero Hour: Crisis in Time! changes aspects of DC continuity again, including those of Batman. Noteworthy among these changes is that the general populace and the criminal element now consider Batman an urban legend rather than a known force. Batman once again becomes a member of the Justice League during Grant Morrison's 1996 relaunch of the series, titled JLA . During this time, Gotham City faces catastrophe in the decade's closing crossover arc. In 1998's " Cataclysm " storyline, Gotham City is devastated by an earthquake and ultimately cut off from the United States. Deprived of many of his technological resources, Batman fights to reclaim the city from legions of gangs during 1999's " No Man's Land ". Meanwhile, Batman's relationship with the Gotham City Police Department changed for the worse with the events of "Batman: Officer Down" and "Batman: War Games/War Crimes"; Batman's long-time law enforcement allies Commissioner Gordon and Harvey Bullock are forced out of the police department in "Officer Down", while "War Games" and "War Crimes" saw Batman become a wanted fugitive after a contingency plan of his to neutralize Gotham City's criminal underworld is accidentally triggered, resulting in a massive gang war that ends with Black Mask becoming the undisputed ruler of the city's criminal gangs. Lex Luthor arranges for the murder of Batman's on-again, off-again love interest Vesper Fairchild (introduced in the mid-1990s) during the "Bruce Wayne: Murderer?" and " Bruce Wayne: Fugitive " story arcs. Though Batman is able to clear his name, he loses another ally in the form of his new bodyguard Sasha Bordeaux , who is recruited into the organization Checkmate while stuck in prison due to her refusal to turn state's evidence against her employer. While he was unable to prove that Luthor was behind the murder of Vesper, Batman does get his revenge with help from Talia al Ghul in Superman/Batman #1–6. 21st century 2000s DC Comics' 2005 miniseries Identity Crisis reveals that JLA member Zatanna had edited Batman's memories to prevent him from stopping the Justice League from lobotomizing Dr. Light after he raped Sue Dibny . Batman later creates the satellite surveillance system Brother Eye to watch over and, if necessary, kill the other heroes after he remembered. The revelation of Batman's creation and his tacit responsibility for Blue Beetle 's death becomes a driving force in the lead-up to the Infinite Crisis miniseries, which again restructures DC continuity. Batman and a team of superheroes destroy Brother Eye and the OMACs , though, at the very end, Batman reaches his apparent breaking point when Alexander Luthor Jr. seriously wounds Nightwing. Picking up a gun, Batman nearly shoots Luthor in order to avenge his former sidekick, until Wonder Woman convinces him to not pull the trigger. Following Infinite Crisis , Bruce Wayne, Dick Grayson (having recovered from his wounds), and Tim Drake retrace the steps Bruce had taken when he originally left Gotham City, to "rebuild Batman". [ 95 ] In the Face the Face storyline, Batman and Robin return to Gotham City after their year-long absence. Part of this absence is captured during Week 30 of the 52 series, which shows Batman fighting his inner demons. [ 96 ] Later on in 52 , Batman is shown undergoing an intense meditation ritual in Nanda Parbat . This becomes an important part of the regular Batman title, which reveals that Batman is reborn as a more effective crime fighter while undergoing this ritual, having "hunted down and ate" the last traces of fear in his mind. [ 97 ] [ 98 ] At the end of the "Face the Face" story arc, Bruce officially adopts Tim (who had lost both of his parents at various points in the character's history) as his son. [ 99 ] The follow-up story arc in Batman , Batman and Son , introduces Damian Wayne , who is Batman's son with Talia al Ghul . Although originally, in Batman: Son of the Demon , Bruce's coupling with Talia was implied to be consensual, this arc retconned it into Talia forcing herself on Bruce. [ 100 ] Batman, along with Superman and Wonder Woman, reforms the Justice League in the new Justice League of America series, [ 101 ] and is leading the newest incarnation of the Outsiders . [ 102 ] Grant Morrison 's 2008 storyline, " Batman R.I.P. " featured Batman being physically and mentally broken by the enigmatic villain Doctor Hurt and attracted news coverage in advance of its highly promoted conclusion, which would speculated to feature the death of Bruce Wayne. [ 103 ] However, though Batman is shown to possibly perish at the end of the arc, the two-issue arc "Last Rites", which leads into the crossover storyline " Final Crisis ", shows that Batman survives his helicopter crash into the Gotham City River and returns to the Batcave, only to be summoned to the Hall of Justice by the JLA to help investigate the New God Orion 's death. The story ends with Batman retrieving the god-killing bullet used to kill Orion, setting up its use in "Final Crisis". [ 104 ] In the pages of Final Crisis Batman is reduced to a charred skeleton. [ 105 ] In Final Crisis #7, Wayne is shown witnessing the death of the first man, Anthro . [ 106 ] [ 107 ] Wayne's "death" sets up the three-issue Battle for the Cowl miniseries in which Wayne's ex-proteges compete for the "right" to assume the role of Batman, which concludes with Grayson becoming Batman, [ 108 ] while Tim Drake takes on the identity of the Red Robin . [ 109 ] Dick and Damian continue as Batman and Robin, and in the crossover storyline " Blackest Night ", what appears to be Wayne's corpse is reanimated as a Black Lantern zombie , [ 110 ] but is later shown that the corpse is one of Darkseid's failed Batman clones. Dick and Batman's other friends conclude that Bruce is alive. [ 111 ] [ 112 ] 2010s Bruce subsequently returned in Morrison's miniseries Batman: The Return of Bruce Wayne , which depicted his travels through time from prehistory to present-day Gotham. [ 113 ] [ 114 ] [ 115 ] Bruce's return set up Batman Incorporated , an ongoing series which focused on Wayne franchising the Batman identity across the globe, allowing Dick and Damian to continue as Gotham's Dynamic Duo. Bruce publicly announced that Wayne Enterprises will aid Batman on his mission, known as "Batman, Incorporated". However, due to rebooted continuity that occurred as part of DC Comics' 2011 relaunch of all of its comic books, The New 52 , Dick Grayson was restored as Nightwing with Wayne serving as the sole Batman once again. The relaunch also interrupted the publication of Batman, Incorporated , which resumed its story in 2012–2013 with changes to suit the new status quo. The New 52 During The New 52 , all of DC's continuity was reset and the timeline was changed, making Batman the first superhero to emerge. This emergence took place during Zero Year , where Bruce Wayne returns to Gotham and becomes Batman, fighting the original Red Hood [ 116 ] and the Riddler. [ 117 ] In the present day, Batman discovers the Court of Owls , a secret organization operating in Gotham for decades. [ 118 ] Batman somewhat defeats the Court by defeating Owlman, [ 119 ] although the Court continues to operate on a smaller scale. [ 120 ] The Joker returns after losing the skin on his face (as shown in the opening issue of the second volume of Detective Comics ) and attempts to kill the Batman's allies, though he is stopped by Batman. [ 121 ] After some time, Joker returns again, and both he and Batman die while fighting each other. Jim Gordon temporarily becomes Batman, using a high-tech suit, while it is revealed that an amnesiac Bruce Wayne is still alive. [ citation needed ] Gordon attempts to fight a new villain called Mr. Bloom , while Wayne, regains his memories with the help of Alfred Pennyworth and Julie Madison . Once with his memories, Wayne becomes Batman again and defeats Bloom with the help of Gordon. [ citation needed ] DC Rebirth The timeline was reset again during Rebirth , although no significant changes were made to the Batman mythos. [ citation needed ] Batman meets two new superheroes operating in Gotham named Gotham and Gotham Girl. Psycho-Pirate gets into Gotham's head and turns against Batman, and is finally defeated when he is killed. This event is very traumatic for Gotham Girl and she begins to lose her sanity. [ 122 ] Batman forms his own Suicide Squad , including Catwoman, and attempts to take down Bane . The mission is successful, and Batman breaks Bane's back. [ 123 ] Batman proposes to Catwoman. After healing from his wounds, an angry Bane travels to Gotham, where he fights Batman and loses. [ 124 ] Batman then tells Catwoman about the War of Jokes and Riddles, and she agrees to marry him. [ 125 ] Bane takes control of Arkham Asylum and manipulates Catwoman into leaving Wayne before the wedding. [ 126 ] This causes Wayne to become very angry, and, as Batman, lashes out against criminals, nearly killing Mr. Freeze. [ 127 ] Batman learns of Bane's control over Arkham and teams up with the Penguin to stop him. [ 128 ] Bane captures Batman, and Scarecrow causes him to hallucinate, although he eventually breaks free. [ 129 ] Batman escapes and reunites with Catwoman, while Bane captures and kills Alfred Pennyworth. Batman returns and defeats Bane, although too late to save Alfred. Gotham Girl prompts him to marry Catwoman. [ 130 ] It is revealed that the Joker who was working for Bane was Clayface in disguise. The real Joker has been plotting a master plan to take over Gotham. This plan comes to fruition during The Joker War , in which Joker takes over the city. Batman defeats the Joker who vanishes after an explosion. [ 131 ] Ghost-Maker , an enemy from Batman's past, appears in Gotham, and, after a battle, becomes a sort of ally to Batman. [ 132 ] A new group called the Magistrate rises up in Gotham, led by Simon Saint, whose goal is to outlaw vigilantes such as Batman. At the same time, Scarecrow returns, [ 133 ] fighting Batman. During Fear State , Batman battles and defeats both Scarecrow and the Magistrate's Peacekeepers. Other versions The character of Batman has been portrayed in numerous alternative versions across various media since his debut in 1939. These adaptations explore different facets and interpretations of the character. In Smallville , Bruce Wayne adopts the Batman persona in 2001, later teaming up with Superman and other superheroes. [ 134 ] Frank Miller 's influential series, " The Dark Knight Returns ", reimagines Batman as an older, more hardened vigilante, coming out of retirement to fight crime in a dystopian future. [ 135 ] In the Injustice: Gods Among Us universe, Batman leads a resistance against a tyrannical Superman who has taken control of Earth. The DC Bombshells series sets Batman in a World War II -era context, with Bruce Wayne taking inspiration from Batwoman to become the masked hero. The "Dark Multiverse" introduces various twisted versions of Batman, such as The Batman Who Laughs , a hybrid of Batman and the Joker, and Red Death, a fusion of Batman and the Flash. Other notable reimaginings include JLA/Avengers , where Batman appears in a crossover with Marvel's Avengers ; Stan Lee 's Just Imagine , which offers a completely different origin for Batman; and "Kingdom Come", where an older Batman operates in a dystopian future alongside other aged superheroes. In "Superman: American Alien", Bruce Wayne's journey is retold with significant differences, and "Batman: White Knight" explores a reality where the Joker is cured of his insanity and seeks to expose Batman as the true villain of Gotham. These various adaptations and reinterpretations highlight the versatility and enduring appeal of Batman as a character, allowing for a rich exploration of his mythology across different narratives and settings. In popular culture Batman has ascended to the status of a global pop culture phenomenon, transcending his origins in comic books. His influence expanded notably with the release of the 1989 film, which propelled him to the forefront of public consciousness through widespread merchandising. The Guardian describes Batman as emblematic of the constant reinvention characteristic of modern mass culture, embodying both iconic status and commercial appeal, making him a quintessential cultural artifact of the 21st century. [ 136 ] Media appearances Apart from comics, Batman's presence spans various mediums, including newspapers, radio dramas, television, stage, and film. From the 1940s serials to contemporary TV shows like Gotham and Titans , Batman's legacy endures. Celebrating the character's 75th anniversary, Warner Bros released Batman: Strange Days , showcasing his timeless appeal. [ 137 ] In September 2024, Batman become the first superhero to be given a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame . It was the 2,790th star. [ 138 ] Criticism Batman has been criticized by fans for the extreme changes in tone and style between different iterations of the character in the franchise. [ 139 ] Different interpretations Gay interpretations of Batman have been studied academically since psychologist Fredric Wertham 's claims in 1954. [ 140 ] Andy Medhurst and Will Brooker have explored Batman's appeal to gay audiences and the validity of a queer reading. [ 141 ] Meanwhile, in psychological interpretations, Dr. Travis Langley sees Batman as representing the "shadow archetype", confronting inner darkness to fight evil, according to Carl Jung and Joseph Campbell's theories. Langley's analysis adds depth to Batman's psychological complexity. [ 142 ] Notes ^ Finger was not credited in official materials until 2015. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] ^ Sometimes referred to as "the Batman" and originally stylized as The Bat-Man References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Zalben, Alex (March 28, 2014). 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"Notes from the Batcave: An Interview with Dennis O'Neil" p. 23. ^ Daniels (1999) , p. 31 ^ a b c Detective Comics #33 (November 1939), Bill Finger, Bob Kane ^ a b c Batman #1 (spring 1940), Bill Finger, Bob Kane ^ Lewis, Andrew (January 3, 2017). "Batman: 15 Things You Didn't Know About Bruce Wayne" . ScreenRant . Archived from the original on May 13, 2019 . Retrieved May 13, 2019 . ^ Pearson & Uricchio (1991) , p. 194 ^ Sharrett, Christopher. "Batman and the Twilight of the Idols: An Interview with Frank Miller". The Many Lives of the Batman: Critical Approaches to a Superhero and His Media . Routledge: London, 1991. ISBN 978-0-85170-276-6 , p. 44. ^ Pearson, p. 208. ^ Dennis O'Neil, Wizard Batman Special 1998 ^ Terrence R. Wandtke. The Amazing Transforming Superhero!: Essays on the Revision of Characters on the Revision of Characters in Comic Books, Film and Television . p. 91. ^ Daniels (1999) , p. 42 ^ Kane, Bob (1989). Batman & Me: An Autobiography . Andrae, Tom. Forestville, CA: Eclipse Books. p. 45. ISBN 1-56060-017-9 . OCLC 21114759 . ^ Alex S. Romagnoli; Gian S. Pagnucci. Enter the Superheroes: American Values, Culture, and the Canon of Superhero Literature . p. 27. ^ a b c "2000s". DC Comics Year By Year A Visual Chronicle . Dorling Kindersley . 2010. ISBN 978-0-7566-6742-9 . ^ Phillips, Dan (August 8, 2009). "Grant Morrison's New Batman and Robin" . IGN . Archived from the original on June 9, 2012 . Retrieved August 8, 2009 . ^ a b Boichel (1991) , p. 8. ^ Boichel (1991) , p. 9. ^ Kurten, Guillermo (January 14, 2024). "Does Batman Work Better Alongside His Allies Or Alone?" . CBR . Retrieved October 21, 2024 . ^ Boichel (1991) , p. 7. ^ Langley, Travis (2012). Batman and Psychology: A Dark and Stormy Knight . John Wiley & Sons. p. 179. ^ Mills, Taylor (July 16, 2024). "After 36 Years, DC Squeezes the Last Drop of Trauma from Jason Todd's Iconic Death" . ScreenRant . Retrieved October 21, 2024 . ^ Langley, 180–210 ^ Esposito, Joey (March 5, 2013). "Why Damian Wayne is the Best Robin" . IGN . Archived from the original on March 1, 2014 . Retrieved February 17, 2014 . ^ Saul, Josh (February 25, 2013). "DC killing off Batman's 'Boy Wonder' Damian Wayne in new comic book" . The New York Post . Archived from the original on April 29, 2014 . Retrieved February 17, 2014 . ^ Franich, Darren (February 12, 2014). "Batman has a new female sidekick: Meet Bluebird" . Entertainment Weekly Popwatch. Archived from the original on February 22, 2014 . Retrieved February 17, 2014 . ^ Truitt, Brian. " 'We Are Robin' stars a movement of kid heroes" . USA TODAY . Retrieved October 21, 2024 . ^ a b c d e f g h i j Allan, Scoot; Harth, David (December 1, 2020). "Batman: All of Bruce Wayne's major love interests (in chronological order)" . CBR . Retrieved June 10, 2024 . ^ Downey, Meg (June 7, 2017). "Batman Loves Catwoman: The Complicated Romance Of The Bat & The Cat" . CBR . Retrieved January 6, 2026 . ^ Stone, Sam (January 28, 2021). "Damian Wayne's Mother is a Major Player in Robin's New Series" . CBR . Retrieved January 6, 2026 . ^ Wright, p. 17. ^ Mike Conray, 500 Great Comicbook Action Heroes . 2002, Collins & Brown. ISBN 978-1-84411-004-9 ^ Greenberger, Robert (2008). The Essential Batman Encyclopedia . Del Rey Books. ISBN 978-0-345-50106-6 . ^ Grant Morrison ( w ), Howard Porter ( p ). "War of the Worlds" JLA , no. 3 (March 1997). DC Comics. ^ Scott Lobdell ( w ), Ed Benes and Jack Herbert ( p ). "Superman: Doomed" Superman , no. 31 (July 2014). DC Comics. ^ Collins, Hannah (July 12, 2017). "Case Closed: 15 Detectives Who Could Out-Sleuth Batman" . CBR . Archived from the original on July 15, 2017 . Retrieved April 11, 2024 . ^ Wood, Robert (October 30, 2017). "What Skills Does Batman Have?" . Building the Bat . Archived from the original on March 16, 2019 . Retrieved September 10, 2019 . ^ Daniels (1999) , p. 29 ^ a b c Daniels (1999) [ page needed ] ^ Daniels (1999) , p. 98 ^ Daniels (1999) , pp. 159–60 ^ Batman vol. 3 Annual #2 (January 2018) ^ Pearson, p. 191. ^ Bill Finger ( w ), Bob Kane ( p ). "The Case of the Chemical Syndicate" Detective Comics , no. 27 (May 1939). DC Comics. ^ Bill Finger ( w ), Bob Kane ( p ). "The Batman Wars Against the Dirigible of Doom" Detective Comics , no. 33 (November 1939). DC Comics. ^ She first appears in Detective Comics #31 (September 1939) ^ Paul Levitz ( w ), Joe Staton ( p ). "The Untold Origin of the Justice Society" DC Special , no. 29 (September 1977). DC Comics. ^ Gardner Fox ( w ). All Star Comics , no. 3 (Winter 1940/1941). DC Comics. ^ Bill Finger ( w ), Bob Kane ( p ). "The People vs. the Batman" Batman , vol. 1, no. 7 (November 1941). DC Comics. ^ Batman #16 (May 1943); his original last name, Beagle, is revealed in Detective Comics #96 (February 1945) ^ One example is the Englehart/Rogers run of the late 1970s, which has editorial notes directing readers to issues such as Detective Comics #46 and Batman #1 and 59. ^ Bill Finger ( w ), Sheldon Moldoff ( p ). "The First Batman" Detective Comics , no. 235 (September 1956). DC Comics. ^ Edmond Hamilton ( w ), Dick Sprang ( p ). "When Batman Was Robin" Detective Comics , no. 226 (December 1955). DC Comics. ^ "Why Batman went to Yale" . yalealumnimagazine.com . Archived from the original on February 13, 2022 . Retrieved August 15, 2020 . ^ Beatty, Scott (2008). "Batman". In Dougall, Alastair (ed.). The DC Comics Encyclopedia . London: Dorling Kindersley . pp. 40– 44. ISBN 978-0-7566-4119-1 . ^ Miller, Frank ; David Mazzucchelli ; Richmond Lewis (1987). Batman: Year One . DC Comics. p. 98. ISBN 978-1-85286-077-6 . ^ Matchett, Glenn (September 4, 2015). "Frank Miller's Batman Part One: YEAR ONE, or How Legends are Made" . ComicsVerse . Archived from the original on October 8, 2019 . Retrieved May 30, 2018 . ^ Alan Grant ( w ), Norm Breyfogle ( p ). "Master of Fear" Batman , no. 457 (December 1990). DC Comics. ^ Dixon, Chuck. et al. "Batman: Prodigal". Batman #512–514, Batman: Shadow of the Bat #32–34, Detective Comics #679–681, Robin vol. 4 #11–13. New York: DC Comics, 1995. ^ Infinite Crisis #7, p. 32 ^ 52 #30 ^ Batman #673 ^ Batman #681 ^ James Robinson ( w ), Don Kramer ( p ). "Face the Face – Conclusion" Batman , no. 654 (August 2006). DC Comics. ^ Batman #656 (October 2006): Bruce: "I remember being drugged senseless and refusing to co-operate in some depraved eugenics experiment." Talia: "Believe me, you cooperated ...magnificently." ^ Brad Meltzer ( w ), Ed Benes ( p ). "The Tornado's Path" Justice League of America vol. 2 , no. 1 (August 2006). DC Comics. ^ Chuck Dixon ( w ), Julian Lopex ( p ). Batman and the Outsiders vol. 2 , no. 1 (November 2007). DC Comics. ^ Adams, Guy (November 28, 2008). "Holy smoke, Batman! Are you dead?" . The Independent . Archived from the original on December 1, 2008. ^ Newsarama: "Batman R.I.P. – Finally?" January 15, 2009 ^ Grant Morrison ( w ), J. G. Jones ( p ). "How to Murder the Earth" Final Crisis , no. 6 (January 2009). DC Comics. ^ Grant Morrison ( w ). Final Crisis , no. 7 (January 2009). DC Comics. ^ "Grant Morrison: Final Crisis Exit Interview, Part 2" . Archived from the original on February 7, 2009 . Retrieved June 7, 2009 . ^ Tony Daniel ( w ). Battle for the Cowl , no. 3 (May 2009). DC Comics. ^ Chris Yost ( w ). Red Robin , no. 1 (August 2009). DC Comics. ^ Geoff Johns ( w ). Blackest Night , no. 0 (June 2009). DC Comics. ^ Grant Morrison ( w ). Batman and Robin , no. 7 (January 2010). DC Comics. ^ Grant Morrison ( w ). Batman and Robin , no. 8 (February 2010). DC Comics. ^ Geddes, John (December 9, 2009). "Grant Morrison on return of original Batman" . USA Today . Archived from the original on December 12, 2009 . Retrieved December 10, 2009 . ^ Segura, Alex (December 9, 2009). "DCU in 2010: The Return of Bruce Wayne hits in April" . DC Comics. Archived from the original on December 13, 2009 . Retrieved December 10, 2009 . ^ "Batman solicitations for May 2010 at DC's The Source" . DC Comics. February 11, 2010. Archived from the original on March 6, 2012 . Retrieved June 17, 2010 . ^ Snyder, Scott. Batman Vol. 4: Zero Year- Secret City . DC Comics . ^ Snyder, Scott. Batman Vol 5: Zero Year- Dark City . DC Comics . ^ Snyder, Scott. Batman Vol. 1: The Court of Owls . DC Comics . ^ Snyder, Scott. Batman Vol. 2: The City of Owls . DC Comics . ^ Snyder, Scott. Batman Vol. 10: Epilogue . DC Comics . ^ Snyder, Scott. Batman Vol. 3: Death of the Family . DC Comics . ^ King, Tom. Batman Vol. 1: I Am Gotham . DC Comics . ^ King, Tom. Batman Vol. 2: I Am Suicide . DC Comics . ^ King, Tom. Batman Vol. 3: I Am Bane . DC Comics . ^ King, Tom. Batman Vol. 4: The War of Jokes and Riddles . DC Comics . ^ King, Tom. Batman Vol. 7: The Wedding . DC Comics . ^ King, Tom. Batman Vol. 8: Cold Days . DC Comics . ^ King, Tom. Batman Vol. 9: The Tyrant Wing . DC Comics . ^ King, Tom. Batman Vol. 10: Knightmares . DC Comics . ^ King, Tom. Batman Vol. 13: The City of Bane Part 2 . DC Comics . ^ Tynion IV, James. Batman Vol. 2: The Joker War . DC Comics . ^ Tynion IV, James. Batman Vol. 3: Ghost Stories . DC Comics . ^ Tynion IV, James. Batman Vol. 4: The Cowardly Lot . DC Comics . ^ Smallville: Season 11 #6-9 ^ "Comics Reviews, News, Heroes, Villains, Superheroes & Toys" . IGN . Retrieved June 6, 2024 . ^ Finkelstein, David; Macfarlane, Ross (March 15, 1999). "Batman's big birthday" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on January 14, 2008 . Retrieved June 19, 2007 . ^ Daniels (1999) , p. 50 ^ nrueda (September 26, 2024). "Batman becomes first superhero with star on Hollywood Walk of Fame" . INQUIRER.net USA . Retrieved October 6, 2024 . ^ Glazebrook, Lewis (October 10, 2023). "Why Batman's Most Consistent Movie Complaint Is Actually Great For The DCU's Reboot" . ScreenRant . Retrieved March 25, 2025 . ^ Wertham, Fredric. Seduction of the Innocent . Rinehart and Company, Inc., 1954. pp. 189–90. For discussion of Wertham's impact see Brooker (2001). ^ Medhurst, Andy. "Batman, Deviance, and Camp." The Many Lives of the Batman: Critical Approaches to a Superhero and His Media . Routledge: London, 1991. ISBN 978-0-85170-276-6 , p. 150. ^ Langley, Travis. Batman and Psychology: A Dark and Stormy Knight . John Wiley & Sons; 1st edition, 2012, ISBN 1-118-16765-1 Sources Beatty, Scott (2005). The Batman Handbook: The Ultimate Training Manual . Quirk Books. ISBN 978-1-59474-023-7 . Boichel, Bill (1991). "Batman: Commodity as Myth". The Many Lives of the Batman: Critical Approaches to a Superhero and His Media . London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-85170-276-6 . Daniels, Les (1999). Batman: The Complete History . Chronicle Books. ISBN 978-0-8118-2470-5 . Daniels, Les (1995). DC Comics: Sixty Years of the World's Favorite Comic Book Heroes . Bulfinch. ISBN 978-0-8212-2076-4 . Daniels, Les (2003). DC Comics: A Celebration of the World's Favorite Comic Book Heroes . Billboard Books/Watson-Guptill Publications. ISBN 978-0-8230-7919-3 . Daniels, Les (April 2004). Batman: The Complete History: The Life and Times of the Dark Knight . Chronicle Books. ISBN 978-0-8118-4232-7 . Retrieved November 8, 2020 . Pearson, Roberta E.; Uricchio, William, eds. (1991). The Many Lives of the Batman: Critical Approaches to a Superhero and His Media . London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-85170-276-6 . Wright, Bradford W. (2001). Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture in America . The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-6514-5 . Further reading Jones, Gerard (1995). Men of Tomorrow: Geeks, Gangsters, and the Birth of the Comic Book . Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-03657-8 . 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Morrow Ultra-Humanite Vandal Savage Other supervillains Amos Fortune Black Hand Blockbuster Brain Storm Circe Count Vertigo David Graves Deadshot Doctor Polaris Doctor Sivana Epoch Funky Flashman Gamemnae General Wade Eiling Gentleman Ghost Gog Hyathis Imperiex Key King Kull Ma'alefa'ak Magog Manchester Black Manga Khan Manhunter Matter Master Maxwell Lord Merlyn Morgaine le Fey Nebula Man OMAC Paragon Per Degaton Ra's al Ghul Rainbow Raider Rama Khan Red King Shaggy Man Siren Solaris Solomon Grundy Sonar Starbreaker Weapons Master Weather Wizard Wizard Amos Fortune Black Hand Blockbuster Brain Storm Circe Count Vertigo David Graves Deadshot Doctor Polaris Doctor Sivana Epoch Funky Flashman Gamemnae General Wade Eiling Gentleman Ghost Gog Hyathis Imperiex Key King Kull Ma'alefa'ak Magog Manchester Black Manga Khan Manhunter Matter Master Maxwell Lord Merlyn Morgaine le Fey Nebula Man OMAC Paragon Per Degaton Ra's al Ghul Rainbow Raider Rama Khan Red King Shaggy Man Siren Solaris Solomon Grundy Sonar Starbreaker Weapons Master Weather Wizard Wizard Organizations Aryan Brigade Axis Amerika Black Lantern Corps Brotherhood of Evil Cadre Court of Owls Crime Syndicate of America Darkseid's Elite Demolition Team Dominators Fearsome Five Female Furies H.I.V.E. Injustice League Injustice Society Intergang Kobra League of Assassins Legion of Doom Manhunters Parademons Phantom Zone Villains Rogues Royal Flush Gang Secret Six Secret Society of Super Villains Sinestro Corps White Martians Aryan Brigade Axis Amerika Black Lantern Corps Brotherhood of Evil Cadre Court of Owls Crime Syndicate of America Darkseid's Elite Demolition Team Dominators Fearsome Five Female Furies H.I.V.E. Injustice League Injustice Society Intergang Kobra League of Assassins Legion of Doom Manhunters Parademons Phantom Zone Villains Rogues Royal Flush Gang Secret Six Secret Society of Super Villains Sinestro Corps White Martians Alternative versions Alternate versions of the Justice League Extreme Justice Just'a Lotta Animals Justice Guild of America Justice League 3000 Justice League Dark Justice League Elite Justice League Europe Justice League International Justice League Queer Justice League Task Force Justice League United Justice Legion Alpha Justice Lords Super Buddies Super Jrs. Young Justice Others Superman Wonder Woman Alternate versions of the Justice League Extreme Justice Just'a Lotta Animals Justice Guild of America Justice League 3000 Justice League Dark Justice League Elite Justice League Europe Justice League International Justice League Queer Justice League Task Force Justice League United Justice Legion Alpha Justice Lords Super Buddies Super Jrs. Young Justice Extreme Justice Just'a Lotta Animals Justice Guild of America Justice League 3000 Justice League Dark Justice League Elite Justice League Europe Justice League International Justice League Queer Justice League Task Force Justice League United Justice Legion Alpha Justice Lords Super Buddies Super Jrs. Young Justice Others Superman Wonder Woman Superman Wonder Woman In other media DC Extended Universe Superman Batman Wonder Woman Flash Aquaman DC Extended Universe Superman Batman Wonder Woman Flash Aquaman Superman Batman Wonder Woman Flash Aquaman Category Category Articles and topics related to Batman v t e Batman characters Batman family By codename Batman Batwoman Batgirl Robin Catman Catwoman Owlman Huntress Nightwing Flamebird Red Robin Red Hood Batwing Azrael Phantasm Wrath By public identity Dick Grayson Kathy Kane Bette Kane Barbara Gordon Jason Todd Helena Wayne Helena Bertinelli Tim Drake Stephanie Brown Cassandra Cain Kate Kane Damian Wayne Harper Row Duke Thomas Jace Fox Luke Fox Michael Washington Lane Jean-Paul Valley Andrea Beaumont Pets Ace the Bat-Hound Supporting characters Main supporting Alfred Pennyworth Jim Gordon Julie Madison Holly Robinson Lucius Fox Martha Wayne Thomas Wayne Vicki Vale Gotham City Police Department contacts Jim Gordon Harvey Bullock Sarah Essen Maggie Sawyer Renee Montoya Crispus Allen Jason Bard Slam Bradley Superhero allies Superman Wonder Woman The Flash Barry Allen Wally West Green Lantern Hal Jordan John Stewart Aquaman Black Canary Cyborg Deadman Etrigan Green Arrow Hawkgirl Hawkman John Constantine Martian Manhunter Metamorpho Nightrunner Plastic Man Question Shazam Spectre Vixen Zatanna Superhero groups Batman Incorporated Batmen of All Nations Birds of Prey Justice League Justice Society of America Outsiders World's Finest Team Other characters Bat-Mite Bronze Tiger Creeper Duela Dent Gilda Dent Knight Legs Leslie Thompkins Misfit Mother Panic Nora Fries Orpheus Ragman Sasha Bordeaux Silver St. Cloud Simon Dark Squire Victoria October Antagonists Central rogues gallery Bane Black Mask Catwoman Clayface Deadshot Deathstroke Firefly Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Hush Joker Killer Croc Killer Moth Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Ventriloquist Victor Zsasz Joker's gang Joker Harley Quinn Punchline Bud and Lou League of Assassins Ra's al Ghul Talia al Ghul Nyssa Raatko Sensei Lady Shiva David Cain Merlyn Mobsters Joe Chill Lew Moxon Falcone family Carmine Falcone Alberto Falcone Mario Falcone Sofia Falcone Sal Maroni Squid Rupert Thorne Tobias Whale Johnny Witts Tony Zucco Hamilton Hill Gillian B. Loeb Other enemies Amygdala Anarky Black Spider Blockbuster Calculator Calendar Man Catman Cavalier Clock King Cluemaster Copperhead Cornelius Stirk Crazy Quilt Crime Doctor Deacon Blackfire Doctor Death Doctor Double X Doctor Phosphorus Dollmaker Electrocutioner Enigma Firebug Flamingo Gearhead Great White Shark Humpty Dumpty Jane Doe Key KGBeast King Snake Kite Man Lex Luthor Maxie Zeus Magpie Mirror Man Mr. Bloom Music Meister Nightslayer Nocturna Orca Outsider Owlman Phantasm Phosphorus Rex Planet Master Polka-Dot Man Professor Milo Professor Pyg Rag Doll Ratcatcher Reaper Signalman Simon Hurt Snowman Solomon Grundy Spellbinder Swagman Tally Man Ten-Eyed Man The Batman Who Laughs Tiger Shark Tweedledum and Tweedledee Wrath Zebra-Man Supervillain groups Circus of Strange Court of Owls Kobra Leviathan LexCorp Mutants Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Terrible Trio Alternative versions Batman Earth-Two Batman of Zur-En-Arrh Owlman The Batman Who Laughs Thomas Wayne ( Flashpoint version) Robin Earth-Two Carrie Kelley Helena Wayne Other media 1966 Batman TV series Bookworm Egghead King Tut 1989–1997 film series Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman DC Animated Universe Renee Montoya Harley Quinn Bud and Lou Andrea Beaumont Batman (Terry McGinnis) The Dark Knight Trilogy Bruce Wayne Rachel Dawes Joker DC Extended Universe Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn Joker Gotham Bruce Wayne James Gordon Selina Kyle Fish Mooney Oswald Cobblepot Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Titans Dick Grayson Arrowverse Kate Kane Category v t e Batman publications and storylines Current series Absolute Batman Batgirl Batman Batman/Superman: World's Finest Batman and Robin Birds of Prey Detective Comics ( #27 ) Catwoman Harley Quinn Nightwing Poison Ivy Completed ongoing series Azrael Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Batman (comic strip) Batman '66 Batman '89 Batman and the Outsiders Batman: Arkham Unhinged Batman: The Brave and the Bold Batman: The Dark Knight Batman: Gotham Knights Batman: Legends of the Dark Knight Batman: Shadow of the Bat Batman: Streets of Gotham The Batman Adventures The Batman Chronicles Batman Beyond Batman Confidential Batman Family Batman Incorporated The Batman Strikes! Batman/Superman Batwing Batwoman The Brave and the Bold Gotham by Midnight Gotham Central Gotham City Sirens Gotham Girls Grayson The Huntress The Joker Man-Bat Mother Panic The Penguin Red Hood/Arsenal Red Hood and the Outlaws Red Robin Robin Robin: Son of Batman Superman/Batman Tim Drake: Robin We Are Robin World's Finest Comics Completed miniseries Anarky Batman: Anarky Batman & Dracula trilogy Batman: Arkham City Batman: Battle for the Cowl Batman Black and White Batman: Cacophony Batman: Creature of the Night Batman: The Cult Batman: Damned Batman: The Dark Prince Charming Batman: The Doom That Came to Gotham Batman: Earth One Batman: Gates of Gotham Batman: GCPD Batman: Gotham County Line Batman: Gotham Knights – Gilded City Batman: The Imposter Batman: The Knight Batman: Orpheus Rising Batman: The Return of Bruce Wayne Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Batman: Three Jokers Batman: Thrillkiller Batman: Turning Points The Batman Who Laughs Batman: Year 100 Bat-Mite Dark Knights of Steel First Wave Flashpoint Beyond Flashpoint: Deadman and the Flying Graysons Gotham Underground Harley Quinn and Poison Ivy Man-Bat Penguin: Pain and Prejudice Poison Ivy: Cycle of Life and Death Red Hood: The Lost Days Section 8 Superman & Batman: Generations Trinity The Untold Legend of the Batman Batman Eternal Batman Eternal Batman and Robin Eternal Dark Moon Rising Batman and the Monster Men Batman and the Mad Monk The Long Halloween Batman: The Long Halloween Batman: Dark Victory Catwoman: When in Rome Millerverse The Dark Knight Returns The Dark Knight Strikes Again The Dark Knight III: The Master Race Murphyverse Batman: White Knight Curse of the White Knight White Knight Presents: Red Hood Beyond the White Knight Year One Batgirl: Year One The Riddler: Year One Two-Face: Year One Robin: Year One One-shots Arkham Asylum: A Serious House on Serious Earth Castle of the Bat Dark Knight Dynasty Dark Night: A True Batman Story Death of Innocents Digital Justice Gotham Noir Holy Terror Batman/Houdini: The Devil's Workshop In Darkest Knight The Killing Joke KnightGallery Leatherwing The Man Who Laughs Nine Lives Noël Elseworld's Finest: Supergirl & Batgirl The Joker: Devil's Advocate Batman/Poison Ivy: Cast Shadows Son of the Demon The 12 Cent Adventure Two Faces War on Crime The Batman Adventures: Mad Love The Berlin Batman Gotham by Gaslight Joker Poison Ivy: Thorns Red Hood vs. Anarky Superman and Batman: World's Funnest Storylines 1930-40s " The Case of the Chemical Syndicate " "Robin the Boy Wonder" "The Murders of Clayface" "The Crimes of Two-Face" "The Man Who Led a Double Life" "The End of Two-Face" "The Riddler" 1950s " The Man Behind the Red Hood! " " The Joker's Millions " "The Rainbow Batman" "The Superman of Planet X" "... Meets Bat-Mite" 1960s "Robin Dies at Dawn" "Beware of -- Poison Ivy" "The Million Dollar Debut of Batgirl" "One Bullet Too Many" 1970s "Challenge of the Man-Bat" "Tales of the Demon" "The Joker's Five-Way Revenge" "There is No Hope in Crime Alley" "The Deadshot Ricochet" "The Laughing Fish" 1980s " Batman: Year One " " Year Two " " Batman: A Death in the Family " " Year Three " " The Man Who Falls " " Anarky in Gotham City " 1990s " Gothic " "The Eye of the Beholder" " The Return of the Joker " " Prey " " The Last Arkham " " Knightfall " " Contagion " " Legacy " " Cataclysm " " No Man's Land " 2000s " Joker: Last Laugh " " Bruce Wayne: Fugitive " " Hush " " Broken City " " War Games " " City of Crime " " Under the Hood " " War Crimes " " Face the Face " " Batman and Son " " The Resurrection of Ra's al Ghul " " Batman R.I.P. " " Whatever Happened to the Caped Crusader? " " Batwoman: Elegy " 2010s " Bruce Wayne: The Road Home " " The Black Mirror " " Night of the Owls " " Death of the Family " " Zero Year " " Endgame " " Robin War " " The Button " " Dark Nights: Metal " 2020s " The Joker War " " Dark Nights: Death Metal " " Fear State " " Shadows of the Bat " " Shadow War " " Gotham War " Intercompany crossovers Batman/Aliens Batman/Hellboy/Starman Batman/Judge Dredd: Judgment on Gotham Batman/Spawn: War Devil Batman/Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Batman/Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Adventures Batman/The Spirit Batman Versus Predator Batman vs. Bigby! A Wolf in Gotham Daredevil/Batman: Eye for an Eye Ghost/Batgirl: The Resurrection Machine Harley & Ivy Meet Betty & Veronica Spawn/Batman Superman and Batman versus Aliens and Predator Deadpool/Batman and Batman/Deadpool Incomplete All Star Batman & Robin, the Boy Wonder Batman: The Widening Gyre Related topics Batman: Child of Dreams Batman: Haunted Knight Batman Legends DC Comics – The Legend of Batman Elseworlds The Further Adventures of The Joker Category Publications are listed alphabetically by published titles. Storylines are listed in publication order. Compiled without respect for canon or "current" continuity. v t e Batman franchise media Live-action television Batman (1966) Batman episodes Return to the Batcave: The Misadventures of Adam and Burt Gotham (franchise) Gotham episodes season 1 2 3 4 5 characters Pennyworth Arrowverse Batwoman episodes characters " Crisis on Infinite Earths " The Penguin The Penguin " After Hours " " Inside Man " " Bliss " " Cent'Anni " " Homecoming " " Gold Summit " " Top Hat " " A Great or Little Thing " Other Batman OnStar commercials Birds of Prey Gotham Knights Live-action films Early films Batman (1943) Batman and Robin Batman (1966) 1989–1997 film series Batman (1989) Batman Returns ( special effects ) Batman Forever Batman & Robin The Dark Knight Trilogy Batman Begins The Dark Knight The Dark Knight Rises DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Batgirl (unreleased) The Batman Epic Crime Saga The Batman production Animated television The Batman/Superman Hour The Adventures of Batman The New Adventures of Batman The Batman/Tarzan Adventure Hour The Animated Series episodes The New Batman Adventures Batman Beyond characters episodes The Batman characters episodes The Brave and the Bold episodes Beware the Batman Batwheels Caped Crusader Bat-Fam Animated films Mask of the Phantasm SubZero Return of the Joker Mystery of the Batwoman The Batman vs. Dracula Gotham Knight Public Enemies Under the Red Hood Apocalypse Year One The Dark Knight Returns DC Super Heroes Unite Son of Batman Assault on Arkham Animal Instincts Batman vs. Robin Monster Mayhem Bad Blood The Killing Joke Mechs vs. Mutants Return of the Caped Crusaders The Lego Batman Movie Batman and Harley Quinn Batman vs. Two-Face Scooby-Doo! & Batman: The Brave and the Bold Gotham by Gaslight Batman Ninja Batman vs. Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Hush Family Matters Soul of the Dragon The Long Halloween Battle of the Super Sons The Doom That Came to Gotham Merry Little Batman Batman Ninja vs. Yakuza League Aztec Batman: Clash of Empires Animated shorts Chase Me Strange Days Death in the Family Novels The Ultimate Evil Enemies & Allies Wayne of Gotham Batman: Resurrection Batman: Revolution Podcasts Batman: The Audio Adventures Batman Unburied DC High Volume: Batman Enemies in other media Bane Joker Mr. Freeze Penguin Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Supporting characters in other media Barbara Gordon Catwoman Robin Related topics Batman & Bill Bruce Wayne (unproduced series) Batkid Begins Batman action figures Lego Batman Batman Total Justice Batman Unlimited Bat phone Bat-Manga!: The Secret History of Batman in Japan List of Batman films cast members List of Batman television series cast members List of Batman video games List of Batman children's books Batman music Batman Live Holy Musical B@man! Batman '89 (comic book) The Riddler: Year One v t e Batman music Soundtracks Films Batman score soundtrack Batman Returns Batman Forever soundtrack score Batman & Robin Batman Begins The Dark Knight The Dark Knight Rises Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice The Lego Batman Movie Joker The Batman Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack Video games Batman: Arkham City Batman: Arkham Origins Batman: Arkham Knight Songs Batman (1960s TV series) " Batman Theme " " Batusi " Batman (1989 film) " Batdance " " Partyman " " The Arms of Orion " " Scandalous! " " The Future " Batman Returns " Face to Face " Batman Forever " Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me " " Kiss from a Rose " " The Riddler " Batman & Robin " The End Is the Beginning Is the End " " Look into My Eyes " " Gotham City " " Foolish Games " " Moaner " " Lazy Eye " v t e Batman video games Lego series Lego Batman: The Videogame Lego Batman 2: DC Super Heroes Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham Lego Batman: Legacy of the Dark Knight Arkham series Arkham Asylum Arkham City Lockdown Arkham Origins Mobile Blackgate Arkham Knight Arkham VR Suicide Squad: Kill the Justice League Arkham Shadow Telltale series The Telltale Series The Enemy Within Film -based Batman (Ocean, 1989) Batman: The Video Game (NES, 1989) Batman: The Video Game (Game Boy, 1990) Batman (Mega Drive/Genesis, 1990) Batman (PC Engine, 1990) Batman (arcade, 1991) Batman Returns (Sega systems, 1992) Batman Returns (Atari Lynx, 1992) Batman Returns (NES, 1993) Batman Returns (SNES, 1993) Batman Forever Batman Forever: The Arcade Game Batman & Robin Batman Begins The Dark Knight (canceled) Animation-based The Animated Series The Adventures of Batman & Robin Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker Chaos in Gotham Gotham City Racer Vengeance Rise of Sin Tzu The Brave and the Bold – The Videogame Other games Batman (1986) The Caped Crusader Return of the Joker Dark Tomorrow DC Universe Online Gotham City Impostors Batman (2013) Gotham Knights MultiVersus Category v t e Batman in amusement parks Of Batman Batman Adventure – The Ride Batman: The Dark Knight Batman The Escape Batman: Knight Flight Batman: The Ride Batman: The Ride (S&S Free Spin) Batman & Robin: The Chiller The Dark Knight Coaster Of derivative characters Harley Quinn Crazy Train The Joker (S&S Worldwide) The Joker (Six Flags Discovery Kingdom) The Joker (Six Flags México) The Joker Funhouse Coaster The Joker's Jinx The Riddler Mindbender Mr Freeze: Reverse Blast The Penguin The Riddler Revenge (Six Flags New England) The Riddler's Revenge Of derivative elements Arkham Asylum – Shock Therapy Batwing Spaceshot Batwing Gotham City Gotham City Gauntlet: Escape from Arkham Asylum Shadows of Arkham v t e Batman in film Serials Batman (1943 serial) Batman and Robin (1949 serial) Adam West films Batman (1966) Return of the Caped Crusaders (2016) Batman vs. Two-Face (2017) 1989–1997 series Films Batman (1989) score soundtrack home computer game NES game Game Boy game Sega Genesis game PC Engine game arcade game Batman Returns (1992) soundtrack special effects Sega games Atari Lynx game NES game SNES game Batman Forever (1995) score soundtrack video game arcade game pinball game Batman & Robin (1997) soundtrack video game Characters Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman The Dark Knight trilogy Films Batman Begins (2005) soundtrack video game The Dark Knight (2008) soundtrack canceled video game The Dark Knight Rises (2012) soundtrack Characters Bruce Wayne Joker Rachel Dawes DC Extended Universe Films Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016) soundtrack Suicide Squad (2016) soundtrack Justice League (2017) soundtrack Zack Snyder's Justice League (2021) soundtrack The Flash (2023) soundtrack Batgirl (unreleased) Characters Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn The Batman series The Batman (2022) production accolades soundtrack Theatrical animated films Mask of the Phantasm (1993) soundtrack The Killing Joke (2016) The Lego Batman Movie (2017) soundtrack Spin-off films Catwoman (2004) video game Joker (2019) accolades soundtrack Birds of Prey (2020) soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux (2024) score soundtrack Unofficial and fan films Features Batman Dracula Alyas Batman at Robin James Batman Batman Fights Dracula Fight Batman Fight! Alyas Batman en Robin Batman XXX Shorts Dead End Grayson World's Finest City of Scars Dying Is Easy Batman Beyond: Year One Jokers Wild See also Batman franchise List of Batman films cast members Batman OnStar commercials v t e Batman and Superman Comic books Ongoing series World's Finest Comics Superman/Batman Limited series Superman & Batman: Generations Superman and Batman: World's Funnest Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Superman and Batman versus Aliens and Predator Television The Batman/Superman Hour The Superman/Batman Adventures DC Animated Universe The New Batman/Superman Adventures Books Enemies & Allies Film Live action films Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice soundtrack Animated films Superman/Batman: Public Enemies Superman/Batman: Apocalypse Batman: The Dark Knight Returns Superman: Red Son Injustice Batman and Superman: Battle of the Super Sons Justice League: Warworld Fan works How It Should Have Ended Related Composite Superman Toyman World's Finest Team Categories: Batman Superman v t e Justice League International Keith Giffen J. M. DeMatteis Initial members Pre-Flashpoint Batman Black Canary Blue Beetle/Ted Kord Booster Gold Captain Marvel Doctor Fate Kent Nelson Linda Strauss Doctor Light/Kimiyo Hoshi Green Lantern/Guy Gardner Martian Manhunter Mister Miracle The New 52 August General in Iron Booster Gold Fire Godiva Green Lantern/Guy Gardner Ice Rocket Red/Gavril Ivanovich Vixen Supporting characters L-Ron Catherine Cobert Maxwell Lord Oberon Superman Enemies Antagonists Anti-Monitor Black Hand Darkseid Despero Doomsday Kite Man Lobo Magog Major Disaster Manga Khan Maxwell Lord Neron Queen Bee Signal Men Sinestro Starbreaker Weapons Master Weather Wizard Wizard Organizations Cadre Extremists Injustice League Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Publications and storylines Legends Formerly Known as the Justice League Justice League: Generation Lost Spinoff teams Extreme Justice Justice League America Justice League Europe Justice League Task Force v t e Catwoman Bob Kane Bill Finger Incarnations Selina Kyle Holly Robinson Eiko Hasigawa Supporting characters Batgirl Batman Slam Bradley Gotham City Sirens Dick Grayson Huntress Justice League Outsiders Alfred Pennyworth Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Madame Zodiac Leslie Thompkins Wildcat Antagonists Angle Man Bane Black Mask Clayface Film Freak Hush Joker Penguin Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Riddler Scarecrow Snowflame Hugo Strange Two-Face Zeiss Publications Catwoman Catwoman: When in Rome Gotham City Sirens Nine Lives In other media Catwoman (film) Chase Me DC Showcase: Catwoman Catwoman (video game) Selina Kyle ( Gotham character) "Selina Kyle" ( Gotham episode) Selina Kyle ( Batman Returns ) " The Cat and the Fiddle " " The Cat and the Claw " Catwoman: Soulstealer Catwoman: Hunted Category v t e Batgirl Bill Finger Sheldon Moldoff Gardner Fox Carmine Infantino Incarnations Bette Kane Barbara Gordon Helena Bertinelli Cassandra Cain Stephanie Brown Supporting characters Batman Birds of Prey Black Canary Catwoman James Gordon Dick Grayson Lucius Fox Justice League Misfit Alfred Pennyworth Proxy Harley Quinn Robin Supergirl Leslie Thompkins Alysia Yeoh Antagonists Black Mask Brutale Calculator David Cain Doctor Death Joker Joker's Daughter Killer Moth Knightfall Lady Shiva Livewire Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Madame Zodiac Riddler Ravager Scarecrow Trigger Twins Related identities Flamebird Oracle Huntress Publications Batgirl Batgirl: Year One Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Elseworld's Finest: Supergirl & Batgirl Ghost/Batgirl: The Resurrection Machine Related articles " Enter Batgirl, Exit Penguin " Barbara Gordon in other media Big Game Batgirl (unreleased) Batwoman Category v t e Robin Bill Finger Jerry Robinson Bob Kane Robins Dick Grayson Jason Todd Tim Drake Stephanie Brown Damian Wayne Supporting characters Batgirl Barbara Gordon Batman Catwoman Jack Drake Flying Graysons Lucius Fox Tamara Fox James Gordon Justice League Alfred Pennyworth Nightstar Nocturna Outsiders Starfire Talia al Ghul Teen Titans Leslie Thompkins Warlock's Daughter Antagonists Anarky Bane Blockbuster Brutale Clock King Cluemaster Deathstroke Firefly The General Joker Joker's Daughter Killer Croc Killer Moth King Snake Lady Shiva Lady Vic Lynx Mad Hatter Mr. Freeze Nite-Wing Penguin Prankster Harley Quinn Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Shrike Tarantula Torque Trigger Twins Two-Face Tony Zucco Related identities Nightwing Red Robin Red Hood Squire Red X In other media Batman and Robin (serial) " Robin's Reckoning " Dick Grayson (film character) Batman & Robin (film) soundtrack video game Son of Batman Batman vs. Robin Publications Robin: Year One Robin War All Star Batman & Robin, the Boy Wonder Batman and Robin We Are... Robin Red Robin Batman and Robin Eternal Batman and Son Alternative versions Carrie Kelley Earth-Two Helena Wayne Related Robin Hood Redbird Alyas Batman en Robin Alyas Batman at Robin Batman & Robin: The Chiller Batman and Robin Have an Altercation "Holy..." Batman and Robin (disambiguation) Category v t e The Joker Bill Finger Bob Kane Jerry Robinson Supporting characters Bane Cheetah Clayface Deadshot Deathstroke Duela Dent Firefly Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Hush Killer Croc Legion of Doom Lex Luthor Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Punchline Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Victor Zsasz Antagonists Batgirl Barbara Gordon Batman Batwoman Kate Kane Catwoman Commissioner Gordon Gotham City Police Department Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Huntress Helena Bertinelli) Justice League Nightwing Dick Grayson Penguin Red Hood Jason Todd Red Robin Tim Drake Riddler Robin Damian Wayne Superman The Batman Who Laughs Two-Face Publications and stories The Joker " The Joker's Double Jeopardy " Batman: The Killing Joke Devil's Advocate Batman: The Man Who Laughs The Further Adventures of The Joker Joker (graphic novel) " The Joker's Millions " Last Laugh " The Man Behind the Red Hood! " " The Return of the Joker " Batman: Three Jokers Joker War Alternative versions Red Hood The Batman Who Laughs In other media Incarnations Jack Napier Joker (DC Animated Universe) Joker ( The Dark Knight ) Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Joker (DC Extended Universe) Arthur Fleck Other media Joker accolades soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker video game Batman: The Killing Joke " The Joker's Hard Times " " The Joker Is Wild " " The Joker Goes to School " Batman: Return of the Joker " Joker's Favor " " Christmas with the Joker " Mortal Kombat 11 Harley Quinn and The Joker: Sound Mind Jokers Wild Rides The Joker's Jinx The Joker (S&S Worldwide) The Joker (Six Flags Discovery Kingdom) The Joker Funhouse Coaster The Joker (Six Flags México) Related Ace Chemicals Arkham Asylum Barack Obama "Joker" poster Blackgate Penitentiary Georgia Joker Jokermobile Joker Stairs Jokerz The People's Joker Category v t e Harley Quinn Paul Dini Bruce Timm Karl Kesel Terry Dodson Amanda Conner Jimmy Palmiotti Supporting characters Bruce Wayne / Batman Barbara Gordon / Batgirl Birds of Prey Bud and Lou Selina Kyle/Catwoman Joker Justice League Dick Grayson/Nightwing Pamela Isley/Poison Ivy Karen Starr/Power Girl Robin Cyrus Gold/Solomon Grundy Teams Gotham City Sirens Justice League of Anarchy Secret Six The Society Suicide Squad Antagonists Amanda Waller Bruce Wayne / Batman Barbara Gordon / Batgirl Roman Sionis/Black Mask Jason Woodrue/Floronic Man Hugo Strange Joker Joker's Daughter/Duela Dent Mercy Graves Oswald Cobblepot/Penguin Alexis Kaye/Punchline Edward Nygma/Riddler Dick Grayson / Robin Jonathan Crane/Scarecrow Harvey Dent/Two-Face Publications The Batman Adventures: Mad Love Harley Quinn Batman: White Knight Presents: Harley Quinn Harley and Ivy Meet Betty and Veronica Harley Quinn and Poison Ivy In other media " Joker's Favor " Harley Quinn (TV series) episodes Batman and Harley Quinn Harley Quinn (DCEU character) Birds of Prey soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack Harley Quinn and The Joker: Sound Mind Related articles Harley Quinn Crazy Train Homosexuality in the Batman franchise Harlequin (album) Category v t e The Outsiders Mike W. Barr Jim Aparo Members Founders Batman Black Lightning Geo-Force Halo Katana Metamorpho Others Arsenal Atomic Knight Batgirl Batwing Batwoman Captain Boomerang Captain Marvel Jr. Creeper Duke Thomas Eradicator Francine Langstrom Grace Choi Green Arrow Huntress (Helena Bertinelli) Indigo Jade Lady Shiva Looker Nightwing Olympian Owlman (Roy Raymond Jr.) Red Robin ReMAC Sebastian Faust Starfire Technocrat Thunder Supporting characters Alfred Pennyworth Checkmate Helga Jace Roy Raymond Sapphire Stagg Simon Stagg Enemies Baron Bedlam Brother Blood Doctor Sivana Fearsome Five Doctor Light Gizmo Mammoth Psimon Shimmer Felix Faust Gorilla Grodd Joker Kobra Masters of Disaster Mr. Freeze Nuclear Family Sabbac Tobias Whale Locations Batcave Other media Batman: The Brave and the Bold Young Justice v t e Birds of Prey Creators : Chuck Dixon Jordan B. Gorfinkel Gail Simone Titles Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Main characters Barbara Gordon Black Canary Huntress (Helena Bertinelli) Notable members Big Barda Black Alice Cassandra Cain Gypsy Harley Quinn Hawk and Dove Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders) Jade Canary Judomaster (Sonia Sato) Katana Lady Blackhawk Manhunter (Kate Spencer) Misfit Poison Ivy Power Girl Vixen Zealot Supporting characters Batman Blue Beetle (Ted Kord) Booster Gold James Gordon Creote Catwoman Cyborg Green Arrow Kurt Lance Lois Lane Metamorpho Nightwing Richard Dragon Robin Savant Sin Superman Wildcat Antagonists Atomic Skull Bane Black Mask Blockbuster Brainiac Brutale Calculator Captain Nazi Catwoman Chemo Cheshire Clayface Copperhead Crime Doctor Deathstroke Electrocutioner Gorilla Grodd Harley Quinn Hector Hammond Hellgrammite H.I.V.E. Joker Killer Moth Kobra Lady Shiva Lady Spellbinder Lady Vic Lashina Mad Hatter Mammoth Penguin Poison Ivy Prometheus Psimon Secret Six Secret Society Shadow Thief Shrapnel Spy Smasher Talia al Ghul Victor Zsasz In other media TV series Film soundtrack Category v t e Superman characters Superman family By codename Superman Superboy Supergirl Superwoman Nightwing Flamebird Steel Power Girl By public identity Clark Kent Conner Kent Jon Kent Sodam Yat Mon-El Kara Zor-El Matrix Linda Danvers Laurel Gand Lois Lane Lucy Lane Lana Lang Luma Lynai Donna Troy Kristin Wells Chris Kent/Lor-Zod Thara Ak-Var David Connor John Henry Irons Natasha Irons Kong Kenan Kara Zor-L Pets Krypto the Superdog Streaky the Supercat Beppo the Super-Monkey Comet the Super-Horse Supporting characters Lois Lane Jimmy Olsen Jor-El Lara Jonathan and Martha Kent Perry White Lana Lang Batman Lucy Lane Lori Lemaris Gangbuster Zor-El Alura Dubbilex Sam Lane Lyla Lerrol Pete Ross Professor Potter Lena Luthor Maxima Morgan Edge Dan Turpin Steve Lombard Cat Grant Professor Hamilton Maggie Sawyer Bibbo Bibbowski Ron Troupe Strange Visitor Rampage Vartox Atlas Manchester Black Alexander Luthor Jr. Associated characters Auron The Authority Apollo Enchantress Lightray Manchester Black Midnighter OMAC Steel Guardian Justice League Atom Aquaman Batman Black Canary Blue Beetle Cyborg Flash Green Arrow Green Lantern John Stewart Martian Manhunter Robin/Nightwing Orion Captain Marvel Wonder Woman Justice Society of America Legion of Substitute Heroes Legion of Super-Heroes Cosmic Boy Saturn Girl Lightning Lad Chameleon Boy Colossal Boy Invisible Kid Star Boy Phantom Girl Triplicate Girl Shrinking Violet Bouncing Boy Sun Boy Brainiac 5 Ultra Boy Element Lad Matter-Eater Lad Lightning Lass Dream Girl Timber Wolf Princess Projectra Ferro Lad Karate Kid White Witch Shadow Lass Chemical King Wildfire Tyroc Dawnstar Laurel Gand Legion of Super-Pets Legion of Super-Villains Lobo Maxima Newsboy Legion Project Cadmus Silent Knight Super-Chief Supermen of America World's Finest Team Enemies Central rogues Atomic Skull Bizarro Bloodsport Brainiac Bruno Mannheim Cyborg Superman Hank Henshaw Darkseid Doomsday General Zod Lex Luthor Livewire Mercy Graves Metallo Mister Mxyzptlk Mongul Parasite Silver Banshee Toyman Ultra-Humanite Recurring adversaries Anti-Monitor Atlas Blaze and Satanus Brainiac 2 Chemo Composite Superman Conduit Dev-Em Equus Faora Funky Flashman Gog Hellgramite Imperiex Jax-Ur Joker Kobra Lord Satanis Magpie Mala Mammoth Manchester Black Morgan Edge Neutron Nick O'Teen Non Ol-Vir Prankster Quarmer Quex-Ul Rampage Riot Ruin Scorch Solaris Solomon Grundy Terra-Man Titano Ultraman Ursa Volcana Organizations Black Zero Fearsome Five Intergang Masters of Disaster Royal Flush Gang Secret Society of Super Villains Suicide Squad Superman Revenge Squad Alternative versions Superman Earth-One Earth-Two Ultraman Superboy-Prime Kingdom Come Supergirl Power Girl In other media 1978–1987 film series Superman Lois Lane Lex Luthor Eve Teschmacher General Zod DC Extended Universe Clark Kent / Superman Lois Lane Lex Luthor Zod Smallville Clark Kent Lois Lane Lana Lang Justice League Lex Luthor Lionel Luthor Chloe Sullivan Arrowverse Kara Danvers Alex Danvers Lex Luthor Nia Nal Superman & Lois Clark Kent Lois Lane Related Superman and Lois Lane Daily Planet Alien races Kryptonians Category v t e Wonder Woman William Moulton Marston Elizabeth Holloway Marston Olive Byrne H. G. Peter Other contributors Characters Wonder Women Diana Prince Orana Artemis of Bana-Mighdall Hippolyta Nubia Wonder Girls Cassie Sandsmark Donna Troy Yara Flor Supporting characters Antiope Etta Candy Fury Hephaestus Heracles/Hercules Hermes I Ching Julia and Vanessa Kapatelis Justice League Mala Nemesis (Thomas Tresser) The Olympian Paula von Gunther Philippus Poseidon Queen Desira Helena Sandsmark Sarge Steel Steve Trevor Wonder Man Zeus Zola Enemies Ares Baron Blitzkrieg Baroness Paula von Gunther Blue Snowman Veronica Cale Cheetah Circe Dark Angel Decay Doctor Cyber Doctor Poison Doctor Psycho Duke of Deception Egg Fu Eviless First Born Genocide Giganta Hades Hypnota Kung Mask Maxwell Lord Medusa Minister Blizzard Osira Queen Clea Silver Swan Superwoman Tezcatlipoca Zara Factions Amazons of Themyscira Amazons of Bana-Mighdall Children of Ares Godwatch Olympian Gods Titans of Myth Villainy Inc. Locations Aeaea Themyscira (The Paradise Islands) Publications Absolute Wonder Woman All Star Comics Wonder Woman Amazonia Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Comic Cavalcade Crossover The Legend of Wonder Woman Sensation Comics Superman and Wonder Woman: The Hidden Killer Superman/Wonder Woman Wonder Woman '77 The Wonder Woman Chronicles Wonder Woman: Earth One Wonder Woman Historia: The Amazons The World's Greatest Superheroes Storylines " Introducing Wonder Woman " (1941) Gods and Mortals (1987) Challenge of the Gods (1987–88) War of the Gods (1991) The Contest (1994) The Challenge of Artemis (1995) Paradise Island Lost (2001) Our Worlds at War (2001) The Hiketeia (2002) Down to Earth (2003–04) Who Is Wonder Woman? (2006–07) Amazons Attack! (2007) The Circle (2008) Ends of the Earth (2008) Rise of the Olympian (2009) Flashpoint (2011) The Lies (2016) Year One (2016) The Truth (2017) Godwatch (2017) Trial of the Amazons (2022) Technology Golden Girdle of Gaea Lasso of Truth Wonder Woman's bracelets In other media Film Wonder Woman (1974 film) Wonder Woman (2009 film) Wonder Woman: Bloodlines DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Wonder Woman (2017 film) soundtrack Justice League Zack Snyder's Justice League Wonder Woman 1984 soundtrack Peacemaker: It's Cow or Never Shazam! Fury of the Gods The Flash Television Wonder Woman episodes Wonder Woman (2011 TV pilot) Miscellaneous Alternative versions Earth-Two Bizarra Superwoman Cultural impact Professor Marston and the Wonder Women Literature Wonder Women! The Untold Story of American Superheroines Category v t e Golden Age of Comic Books Ace Comics Captain Courageous Doctor Nemesis The Flag Lash Lightning The Raven Unknown Soldier Vulcan All-American Publications The Atom Al Pratt Black Canary Doctor Mid-Nite Charles McNider Doiby Dickles The Flash Jay Garrick Gay Ghost Green Lantern Alan Scott Hawkgirl Shiera Sanders Hall Hawkman Carter Hall Hop Harrigan Johnny Thunder Justice Society of America The King Mister Terrific Terry Sloane Neptune Perkins Red Tornado Sargon the Sorcerer Terrific Whatzit Thunderbolt Ultra-Man The Whip Wildcat Ted Grant Wonder Woman Centaur Comics Airman Amazing-Man The Arrow The Clock The Eye Fantom of the Fair Magician from Mars The Masked Marvel Minimidget Charlton Comics Atomic Mouse Captain Atom Nightshade Mr. Muscles Nature Boy Space Adventures Yellowjacket Dell Comics Doctor Hormone Flash Gordon The Owl Phantasmo Supermind's Son Zorro Fawcett Comics Bulletgirl Bulletman Captain Marvel Captain Marvel Jr. Captain Midnight Dan Dare Golden Arrow Hoppy the Marvel Bunny Ibis the Invincible Lieutenant Marvels Marvel Family Mary Marvel Master Man Minute-Man Mr. Scarlet Nyoka the Jungle Girl Phantom Eagle Pinky the Whiz Kid Scoop Smith Spy Smasher Squadron of Justice Uncle Marvel Fox Comics Blue Beetle Dan Garret The Bouncer Bronze Man Dynamo The Flame Green Mask The Moth Samson Stardust the Super Wizard U.S. Jones Wonder Man Harvey Comics Black Cat Captain 3-D Captain Freedom Green Hornet Invisible Scarlet O'Neil Kato Shock Gibson Spirit of '76 Lev Gleason Publications Captain Battle Claw Crimebuster Daredevil Little Wise Guys Silver Streak MLJ Comics The Black Hood Bob Phantom Captain Flag The Comet The Firefly The Fox The Hangman Rang-a-Tang the Wonder Dog The Shield Super Duck The Web The Wizard National Allied Publications Ace the Bat-Hound Air Wave Aquaman Batman Batwoman Black Pirate Boy Commandos Captain Comet Chris KL-99 Congo Bill Crimson Avenger Lee Travis Dan the Dyna-Mite Dark Ranger Detective Chimp Doctor Fate Kent Nelson Doctor Occult Genius Jones Gimmick Girl Green Arrow Guardian Hourman Rex Tyler Johnny Chambers King Faraday The Knight Krypto Liberty Belle Manhunter Paul Kirk Martian Manhunter Miss X Mr. America Newsboy Legion Phantom Stranger Rex the Wonder Dog Robin Dick Grayson Robotman Rose Psychic Sandman Wesley Dodds Sandy the Golden Boy Seven Soldiers of Victory Shining Knight Sir Justin Slam Bradley The Spectre Jim Corrigan Speedy Roy Harper Squire Star-Spangled Kid Sylvester Pemberton Starman Ted Knight Stripesy Stuff the Chinatown Kid Superboy Kal-El Superman Superwoman Lois Lane Tarantula TNT Tommy Tomorrow Vigilante Greg Saunders Wonder Woman Zatara Nedor Comics American Crusader American Eagle Black Terror Captain Future Doc Strange Fighting Yank The Ghost Grim Reaper Judy of the Jungle Kara the Jungle Princess Lance Lewis, Space Detective Liberator The Magnet Miss Masque Princess Pantha Pyroman The Scarab The Woman in Red Novelty Press Blue Bolt Dick Cole The Target The Targeteers The Twister Prize Publications Atomic-Man Black Owl Fighting American Green Lama Yank & Doodle Quality Comics Archie O'Toole #711 Black Condor Blackhawk Blue Tracer Bozo the Iron Man Captain Triumph Doll Girl Doll Man Firebrand Human Bomb Invisible Hood The Jester Kid Eternity Lady Luck Madame Fatal Magno Manhunter Merlin the Magician Midnight Miss America Miss Fear Mouthpiece Neon the Unknown Phantom Lady Plastic Man Quicksilver The Ray Red Bee Red Torpedo The Spider Spider Widow Uncle Sam Wildfire Wonder Boy Woozy Winks Timely Comics All-Winners Squad American Ace The Angel Black Marvel Black Widow Claire Voyant Blazing Skull Blonde Phantom Blue Blade Blue Diamond Breeze Barton Bucky Bucky Barnes Captain America Captain Wonder The Challenger Citizen V The Destroyer Dynamic Man Father Time Ferret Fiery Mask The Fin Golden Girl Human Torch Jack Frost Laughing Mask Marvel Boy Mercury Miss America Miss Fury Mister E Namor Namora The Patriot Phantom Reporter Red Raven Rockman Silver Scorpion Sun Girl Super Rabbit Thin Man Thunderer Tim Mulrooney Toro Venus Vision Whizzer Robert Frank Witness Young Allies Misc. American Comics Group Superkatt Anglo-American Publishing Commander Steel Atlas Publications Captain Atom Bell Features The Brain Johnny Canuck Nelvana of the Northern Lights Cardal Publishing Streamline Columbia Comics The Face Skyman David McKay Publications Mandrake the Magician The Phantom DC Thomson The Amazing Mr X Jack Flash Dynamic Publications Dynamic Man Yankee Girl Eastern Color Printing Buck Rogers Hydroman Phantom Magician EC Comics Moon Girl Superduperman Elliot Publishing Company Kismet, Man of Fate Fiction House Fantomah Hillman Periodicals Airboy The Heap Holyoke Publishing Cat-Man Kitten Miss Victory L. Miller & Son, Ltd. Kid Marvelman Marvelman Young Marvelman Magazine Enterprises Funnyman Maple Leaf Publishing Brok Windsor Iron Man Rural Home Publications Green Turtle Street & Smith The Avenger Doc Savage The Shadow Supersnipe v t e Batman characters v t e Batman family By codename Batman Batwoman Batgirl Robin Catman Catwoman Owlman Huntress Nightwing Flamebird Red Robin Red Hood Batwing Azrael Phantasm Wrath By public identity Dick Grayson Kathy Kane Bette Kane Barbara Gordon Jason Todd Helena Wayne Helena Bertinelli Tim Drake Stephanie Brown Cassandra Cain Kate Kane Damian Wayne Harper Row Duke Thomas Jace Fox Luke Fox Michael Washington Lane Jean-Paul Valley Andrea Beaumont Pets Ace the Bat-Hound Batman family By codename Batman Batwoman Batgirl Robin Catman Catwoman Owlman Huntress Nightwing Flamebird Red Robin Red Hood Batwing Azrael Phantasm Wrath By public identity Dick Grayson Kathy Kane Bette Kane Barbara Gordon Jason Todd Helena Wayne Helena Bertinelli Tim Drake Stephanie Brown Cassandra Cain Kate Kane Damian Wayne Harper Row Duke Thomas Jace Fox Luke Fox Michael Washington Lane Jean-Paul Valley Andrea Beaumont Pets Ace the Bat-Hound By codename Batman Batwoman Batgirl Robin Catman Catwoman Owlman Huntress Nightwing Flamebird Red Robin Red Hood Batwing Azrael Phantasm Wrath Batman Batwoman Batgirl Robin Catman Catwoman Owlman Huntress Nightwing Flamebird Red Robin Red Hood Batwing Azrael Phantasm Wrath By public identity Dick Grayson Kathy Kane Bette Kane Barbara Gordon Jason Todd Helena Wayne Helena Bertinelli Tim Drake Stephanie Brown Cassandra Cain Kate Kane Damian Wayne Harper Row Duke Thomas Jace Fox Luke Fox Michael Washington Lane Jean-Paul Valley Andrea Beaumont Dick Grayson Kathy Kane Bette Kane Barbara Gordon Jason Todd Helena Wayne Helena Bertinelli Tim Drake Stephanie Brown Cassandra Cain Kate Kane Damian Wayne Harper Row Duke Thomas Jace Fox Luke Fox Michael Washington Lane Jean-Paul Valley Andrea Beaumont Pets Ace the Bat-Hound Ace the Bat-Hound Supporting characters Main supporting Alfred Pennyworth Jim Gordon Julie Madison Holly Robinson Lucius Fox Martha Wayne Thomas Wayne Vicki Vale Gotham City Police Department contacts Jim Gordon Harvey Bullock Sarah Essen Maggie Sawyer Renee Montoya Crispus Allen Jason Bard Slam Bradley Superhero allies Superman Wonder Woman The Flash Barry Allen Wally West Green Lantern Hal Jordan John Stewart Aquaman Black Canary Cyborg Deadman Etrigan Green Arrow Hawkgirl Hawkman John Constantine Martian Manhunter Metamorpho Nightrunner Plastic Man Question Shazam Spectre Vixen Zatanna Superhero groups Batman Incorporated Batmen of All Nations Birds of Prey Justice League Justice Society of America Outsiders World's Finest Team Other characters Bat-Mite Bronze Tiger Creeper Duela Dent Gilda Dent Knight Legs Leslie Thompkins Misfit Mother Panic Nora Fries Orpheus Ragman Sasha Bordeaux Silver St. Cloud Simon Dark Squire Victoria October Supporting characters Main supporting Alfred Pennyworth Jim Gordon Julie Madison Holly Robinson Lucius Fox Martha Wayne Thomas Wayne Vicki Vale Gotham City Police Department contacts Jim Gordon Harvey Bullock Sarah Essen Maggie Sawyer Renee Montoya Crispus Allen Jason Bard Slam Bradley Superhero allies Superman Wonder Woman The Flash Barry Allen Wally West Green Lantern Hal Jordan John Stewart Aquaman Black Canary Cyborg Deadman Etrigan Green Arrow Hawkgirl Hawkman John Constantine Martian Manhunter Metamorpho Nightrunner Plastic Man Question Shazam Spectre Vixen Zatanna Superhero groups Batman Incorporated Batmen of All Nations Birds of Prey Justice League Justice Society of America Outsiders World's Finest Team Other characters Bat-Mite Bronze Tiger Creeper Duela Dent Gilda Dent Knight Legs Leslie Thompkins Misfit Mother Panic Nora Fries Orpheus Ragman Sasha Bordeaux Silver St. Cloud Simon Dark Squire Victoria October Main supporting Alfred Pennyworth Jim Gordon Julie Madison Holly Robinson Lucius Fox Martha Wayne Thomas Wayne Vicki Vale Alfred Pennyworth Jim Gordon Julie Madison Holly Robinson Lucius Fox Martha Wayne Thomas Wayne Vicki Vale Gotham City Police Department contacts Jim Gordon Harvey Bullock Sarah Essen Maggie Sawyer Renee Montoya Crispus Allen Jason Bard Slam Bradley Jim Gordon Harvey Bullock Sarah Essen Maggie Sawyer Renee Montoya Crispus Allen Jason Bard Slam Bradley Superhero allies Superman Wonder Woman The Flash Barry Allen Wally West Green Lantern Hal Jordan John Stewart Aquaman Black Canary Cyborg Deadman Etrigan Green Arrow Hawkgirl Hawkman John Constantine Martian Manhunter Metamorpho Nightrunner Plastic Man Question Shazam Spectre Vixen Zatanna Superman Wonder Woman The Flash Barry Allen Wally West Barry Allen Wally West Green Lantern Hal Jordan John Stewart Hal Jordan John Stewart Aquaman Black Canary Cyborg Deadman Etrigan Green Arrow Hawkgirl Hawkman John Constantine Martian Manhunter Metamorpho Nightrunner Plastic Man Question Shazam Spectre Vixen Zatanna Superhero groups Batman Incorporated Batmen of All Nations Birds of Prey Justice League Justice Society of America Outsiders World's Finest Team Batman Incorporated Batmen of All Nations Birds of Prey Justice League Justice Society of America Outsiders World's Finest Team Other characters Bat-Mite Bronze Tiger Creeper Duela Dent Gilda Dent Knight Legs Leslie Thompkins Misfit Mother Panic Nora Fries Orpheus Ragman Sasha Bordeaux Silver St. Cloud Simon Dark Squire Victoria October Bat-Mite Bronze Tiger Creeper Duela Dent Gilda Dent Knight Legs Leslie Thompkins Misfit Mother Panic Nora Fries Orpheus Ragman Sasha Bordeaux Silver St. Cloud Simon Dark Squire Victoria October Antagonists Central rogues gallery Bane Black Mask Catwoman Clayface Deadshot Deathstroke Firefly Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Hush Joker Killer Croc Killer Moth Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Ventriloquist Victor Zsasz Joker's gang Joker Harley Quinn Punchline Bud and Lou League of Assassins Ra's al Ghul Talia al Ghul Nyssa Raatko Sensei Lady Shiva David Cain Merlyn Mobsters Joe Chill Lew Moxon Falcone family Carmine Falcone Alberto Falcone Mario Falcone Sofia Falcone Sal Maroni Squid Rupert Thorne Tobias Whale Johnny Witts Tony Zucco Hamilton Hill Gillian B. Loeb Other enemies Amygdala Anarky Black Spider Blockbuster Calculator Calendar Man Catman Cavalier Clock King Cluemaster Copperhead Cornelius Stirk Crazy Quilt Crime Doctor Deacon Blackfire Doctor Death Doctor Double X Doctor Phosphorus Dollmaker Electrocutioner Enigma Firebug Flamingo Gearhead Great White Shark Humpty Dumpty Jane Doe Key KGBeast King Snake Kite Man Lex Luthor Maxie Zeus Magpie Mirror Man Mr. Bloom Music Meister Nightslayer Nocturna Orca Outsider Owlman Phantasm Phosphorus Rex Planet Master Polka-Dot Man Professor Milo Professor Pyg Rag Doll Ratcatcher Reaper Signalman Simon Hurt Snowman Solomon Grundy Spellbinder Swagman Tally Man Ten-Eyed Man The Batman Who Laughs Tiger Shark Tweedledum and Tweedledee Wrath Zebra-Man Supervillain groups Circus of Strange Court of Owls Kobra Leviathan LexCorp Mutants Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Terrible Trio Antagonists Central rogues gallery Bane Black Mask Catwoman Clayface Deadshot Deathstroke Firefly Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Hush Joker Killer Croc Killer Moth Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Ventriloquist Victor Zsasz Joker's gang Joker Harley Quinn Punchline Bud and Lou League of Assassins Ra's al Ghul Talia al Ghul Nyssa Raatko Sensei Lady Shiva David Cain Merlyn Mobsters Joe Chill Lew Moxon Falcone family Carmine Falcone Alberto Falcone Mario Falcone Sofia Falcone Sal Maroni Squid Rupert Thorne Tobias Whale Johnny Witts Tony Zucco Hamilton Hill Gillian B. Loeb Other enemies Amygdala Anarky Black Spider Blockbuster Calculator Calendar Man Catman Cavalier Clock King Cluemaster Copperhead Cornelius Stirk Crazy Quilt Crime Doctor Deacon Blackfire Doctor Death Doctor Double X Doctor Phosphorus Dollmaker Electrocutioner Enigma Firebug Flamingo Gearhead Great White Shark Humpty Dumpty Jane Doe Key KGBeast King Snake Kite Man Lex Luthor Maxie Zeus Magpie Mirror Man Mr. Bloom Music Meister Nightslayer Nocturna Orca Outsider Owlman Phantasm Phosphorus Rex Planet Master Polka-Dot Man Professor Milo Professor Pyg Rag Doll Ratcatcher Reaper Signalman Simon Hurt Snowman Solomon Grundy Spellbinder Swagman Tally Man Ten-Eyed Man The Batman Who Laughs Tiger Shark Tweedledum and Tweedledee Wrath Zebra-Man Supervillain groups Circus of Strange Court of Owls Kobra Leviathan LexCorp Mutants Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Terrible Trio Central rogues gallery Bane Black Mask Catwoman Clayface Deadshot Deathstroke Firefly Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Hush Joker Killer Croc Killer Moth Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Ventriloquist Victor Zsasz Bane Black Mask Catwoman Clayface Deadshot Deathstroke Firefly Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Hush Joker Killer Croc Killer Moth Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Ventriloquist Victor Zsasz Joker's gang Joker Harley Quinn Punchline Bud and Lou Joker Harley Quinn Punchline Bud and Lou League of Assassins Ra's al Ghul Talia al Ghul Nyssa Raatko Sensei Lady Shiva David Cain Merlyn Ra's al Ghul Talia al Ghul Nyssa Raatko Sensei Lady Shiva David Cain Merlyn Mobsters Joe Chill Lew Moxon Falcone family Carmine Falcone Alberto Falcone Mario Falcone Sofia Falcone Sal Maroni Squid Rupert Thorne Tobias Whale Johnny Witts Tony Zucco Hamilton Hill Gillian B. Loeb Joe Chill Lew Moxon Falcone family Carmine Falcone Alberto Falcone Mario Falcone Sofia Falcone Carmine Falcone Alberto Falcone Mario Falcone Sofia Falcone Sal Maroni Squid Rupert Thorne Tobias Whale Johnny Witts Tony Zucco Hamilton Hill Gillian B. Loeb Other enemies Amygdala Anarky Black Spider Blockbuster Calculator Calendar Man Catman Cavalier Clock King Cluemaster Copperhead Cornelius Stirk Crazy Quilt Crime Doctor Deacon Blackfire Doctor Death Doctor Double X Doctor Phosphorus Dollmaker Electrocutioner Enigma Firebug Flamingo Gearhead Great White Shark Humpty Dumpty Jane Doe Key KGBeast King Snake Kite Man Lex Luthor Maxie Zeus Magpie Mirror Man Mr. Bloom Music Meister Nightslayer Nocturna Orca Outsider Owlman Phantasm Phosphorus Rex Planet Master Polka-Dot Man Professor Milo Professor Pyg Rag Doll Ratcatcher Reaper Signalman Simon Hurt Snowman Solomon Grundy Spellbinder Swagman Tally Man Ten-Eyed Man The Batman Who Laughs Tiger Shark Tweedledum and Tweedledee Wrath Zebra-Man Amygdala Anarky Black Spider Blockbuster Calculator Calendar Man Catman Cavalier Clock King Cluemaster Copperhead Cornelius Stirk Crazy Quilt Crime Doctor Deacon Blackfire Doctor Death Doctor Double X Doctor Phosphorus Dollmaker Electrocutioner Enigma Firebug Flamingo Gearhead Great White Shark Humpty Dumpty Jane Doe Key KGBeast King Snake Kite Man Lex Luthor Maxie Zeus Magpie Mirror Man Mr. Bloom Music Meister Nightslayer Nocturna Orca Outsider Owlman Phantasm Phosphorus Rex Planet Master Polka-Dot Man Professor Milo Professor Pyg Rag Doll Ratcatcher Reaper Signalman Simon Hurt Snowman Solomon Grundy Spellbinder Swagman Tally Man Ten-Eyed Man The Batman Who Laughs Tiger Shark Tweedledum and Tweedledee Wrath Zebra-Man Supervillain groups Circus of Strange Court of Owls Kobra Leviathan LexCorp Mutants Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Terrible Trio Circus of Strange Court of Owls Kobra Leviathan LexCorp Mutants Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Terrible Trio Alternative versions Batman Earth-Two Batman of Zur-En-Arrh Owlman The Batman Who Laughs Thomas Wayne ( Flashpoint version) Robin Earth-Two Carrie Kelley Helena Wayne Alternative versions Batman Earth-Two Batman of Zur-En-Arrh Owlman The Batman Who Laughs Thomas Wayne ( Flashpoint version) Robin Earth-Two Carrie Kelley Helena Wayne Batman Earth-Two Batman of Zur-En-Arrh Owlman The Batman Who Laughs Thomas Wayne ( Flashpoint version) Earth-Two Batman of Zur-En-Arrh Owlman The Batman Who Laughs Thomas Wayne ( Flashpoint version) Robin Earth-Two Carrie Kelley Helena Wayne Earth-Two Carrie Kelley Helena Wayne Other media 1966 Batman TV series Bookworm Egghead King Tut 1989–1997 film series Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman DC Animated Universe Renee Montoya Harley Quinn Bud and Lou Andrea Beaumont Batman (Terry McGinnis) The Dark Knight Trilogy Bruce Wayne Rachel Dawes Joker DC Extended Universe Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn Joker Gotham Bruce Wayne James Gordon Selina Kyle Fish Mooney Oswald Cobblepot Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Titans Dick Grayson Arrowverse Kate Kane Other media 1966 Batman TV series Bookworm Egghead King Tut 1989–1997 film series Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman DC Animated Universe Renee Montoya Harley Quinn Bud and Lou Andrea Beaumont Batman (Terry McGinnis) The Dark Knight Trilogy Bruce Wayne Rachel Dawes Joker DC Extended Universe Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn Joker Gotham Bruce Wayne James Gordon Selina Kyle Fish Mooney Oswald Cobblepot Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Titans Dick Grayson Arrowverse Kate Kane 1966 Batman TV series Bookworm Egghead King Tut Bookworm Egghead King Tut 1989–1997 film series Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman DC Animated Universe Renee Montoya Harley Quinn Bud and Lou Andrea Beaumont Batman (Terry McGinnis) Renee Montoya Harley Quinn Bud and Lou Andrea Beaumont Batman (Terry McGinnis) The Dark Knight Trilogy Bruce Wayne Rachel Dawes Joker Bruce Wayne Rachel Dawes Joker DC Extended Universe Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn Joker Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn Joker Gotham Bruce Wayne James Gordon Selina Kyle Fish Mooney Oswald Cobblepot Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Bruce Wayne James Gordon Selina Kyle Fish Mooney Oswald Cobblepot Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Titans Dick Grayson Dick Grayson Arrowverse Kate Kane Kate Kane Category Category v t e Batman publications and storylines v t e Current series Absolute Batman Batgirl Batman Batman/Superman: World's Finest Batman and Robin Birds of Prey Detective Comics ( #27 ) Catwoman Harley Quinn Nightwing Poison Ivy Absolute Batman Batgirl Batman Batman/Superman: World's Finest Batman and Robin Birds of Prey Detective Comics ( #27 ) Catwoman Harley Quinn Nightwing Poison Ivy Completed ongoing series Azrael Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Batman (comic strip) Batman '66 Batman '89 Batman and the Outsiders Batman: Arkham Unhinged Batman: The Brave and the Bold Batman: The Dark Knight Batman: Gotham Knights Batman: Legends of the Dark Knight Batman: Shadow of the Bat Batman: Streets of Gotham The Batman Adventures The Batman Chronicles Batman Beyond Batman Confidential Batman Family Batman Incorporated The Batman Strikes! Batman/Superman Batwing Batwoman The Brave and the Bold Gotham by Midnight Gotham Central Gotham City Sirens Gotham Girls Grayson The Huntress The Joker Man-Bat Mother Panic The Penguin Red Hood/Arsenal Red Hood and the Outlaws Red Robin Robin Robin: Son of Batman Superman/Batman Tim Drake: Robin We Are Robin World's Finest Comics Azrael Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Batman (comic strip) Batman '66 Batman '89 Batman and the Outsiders Batman: Arkham Unhinged Batman: The Brave and the Bold Batman: The Dark Knight Batman: Gotham Knights Batman: Legends of the Dark Knight Batman: Shadow of the Bat Batman: Streets of Gotham The Batman Adventures The Batman Chronicles Batman Beyond Batman Confidential Batman Family Batman Incorporated The Batman Strikes! Batman/Superman Batwing Batwoman The Brave and the Bold Gotham by Midnight Gotham Central Gotham City Sirens Gotham Girls Grayson The Huntress The Joker Man-Bat Mother Panic The Penguin Red Hood/Arsenal Red Hood and the Outlaws Red Robin Robin Robin: Son of Batman Superman/Batman Tim Drake: Robin We Are Robin World's Finest Comics Completed miniseries Anarky Batman: Anarky Batman & Dracula trilogy Batman: Arkham City Batman: Battle for the Cowl Batman Black and White Batman: Cacophony Batman: Creature of the Night Batman: The Cult Batman: Damned Batman: The Dark Prince Charming Batman: The Doom That Came to Gotham Batman: Earth One Batman: Gates of Gotham Batman: GCPD Batman: Gotham County Line Batman: Gotham Knights – Gilded City Batman: The Imposter Batman: The Knight Batman: Orpheus Rising Batman: The Return of Bruce Wayne Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Batman: Three Jokers Batman: Thrillkiller Batman: Turning Points The Batman Who Laughs Batman: Year 100 Bat-Mite Dark Knights of Steel First Wave Flashpoint Beyond Flashpoint: Deadman and the Flying Graysons Gotham Underground Harley Quinn and Poison Ivy Man-Bat Penguin: Pain and Prejudice Poison Ivy: Cycle of Life and Death Red Hood: The Lost Days Section 8 Superman & Batman: Generations Trinity The Untold Legend of the Batman Batman Eternal Batman Eternal Batman and Robin Eternal Dark Moon Rising Batman and the Monster Men Batman and the Mad Monk The Long Halloween Batman: The Long Halloween Batman: Dark Victory Catwoman: When in Rome Millerverse The Dark Knight Returns The Dark Knight Strikes Again The Dark Knight III: The Master Race Murphyverse Batman: White Knight Curse of the White Knight White Knight Presents: Red Hood Beyond the White Knight Year One Batgirl: Year One The Riddler: Year One Two-Face: Year One Robin: Year One Anarky Batman: Anarky Batman: Anarky Batman & Dracula trilogy Batman: Arkham City Batman: Battle for the Cowl Batman Black and White Batman: Cacophony Batman: Creature of the Night Batman: The Cult Batman: Damned Batman: The Dark Prince Charming Batman: The Doom That Came to Gotham Batman: Earth One Batman: Gates of Gotham Batman: GCPD Batman: Gotham County Line Batman: Gotham Knights – Gilded City Batman: The Imposter Batman: The Knight Batman: Orpheus Rising Batman: The Return of Bruce Wayne Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Batman: Three Jokers Batman: Thrillkiller Batman: Turning Points The Batman Who Laughs Batman: Year 100 Bat-Mite Dark Knights of Steel First Wave Flashpoint Beyond Flashpoint: Deadman and the Flying Graysons Gotham Underground Harley Quinn and Poison Ivy Man-Bat Penguin: Pain and Prejudice Poison Ivy: Cycle of Life and Death Red Hood: The Lost Days Section 8 Superman & Batman: Generations Trinity The Untold Legend of the Batman Batman Eternal Batman Eternal Batman and Robin Eternal Batman Eternal Batman and Robin Eternal Dark Moon Rising Batman and the Monster Men Batman and the Mad Monk Batman and the Monster Men Batman and the Mad Monk The Long Halloween Batman: The Long Halloween Batman: Dark Victory Catwoman: When in Rome Batman: The Long Halloween Batman: Dark Victory Catwoman: When in Rome Millerverse The Dark Knight Returns The Dark Knight Strikes Again The Dark Knight III: The Master Race The Dark Knight Returns The Dark Knight Strikes Again The Dark Knight III: The Master Race Murphyverse Batman: White Knight Curse of the White Knight White Knight Presents: Red Hood Beyond the White Knight Batman: White Knight Curse of the White Knight White Knight Presents: Red Hood Beyond the White Knight Year One Batgirl: Year One The Riddler: Year One Two-Face: Year One Robin: Year One Batgirl: Year One The Riddler: Year One Two-Face: Year One Robin: Year One One-shots Arkham Asylum: A Serious House on Serious Earth Castle of the Bat Dark Knight Dynasty Dark Night: A True Batman Story Death of Innocents Digital Justice Gotham Noir Holy Terror Batman/Houdini: The Devil's Workshop In Darkest Knight The Killing Joke KnightGallery Leatherwing The Man Who Laughs Nine Lives Noël Elseworld's Finest: Supergirl & Batgirl The Joker: Devil's Advocate Batman/Poison Ivy: Cast Shadows Son of the Demon The 12 Cent Adventure Two Faces War on Crime The Batman Adventures: Mad Love The Berlin Batman Gotham by Gaslight Joker Poison Ivy: Thorns Red Hood vs. Anarky Superman and Batman: World's Funnest Arkham Asylum: A Serious House on Serious Earth Castle of the Bat Dark Knight Dynasty Dark Night: A True Batman Story Death of Innocents Digital Justice Gotham Noir Holy Terror Batman/Houdini: The Devil's Workshop In Darkest Knight The Killing Joke KnightGallery Leatherwing The Man Who Laughs Nine Lives Noël Elseworld's Finest: Supergirl & Batgirl The Joker: Devil's Advocate Batman/Poison Ivy: Cast Shadows Son of the Demon The 12 Cent Adventure Two Faces War on Crime The Batman Adventures: Mad Love The Berlin Batman Gotham by Gaslight Joker Poison Ivy: Thorns Red Hood vs. Anarky Superman and Batman: World's Funnest Storylines 1930-40s " The Case of the Chemical Syndicate " "Robin the Boy Wonder" "The Murders of Clayface" "The Crimes of Two-Face" "The Man Who Led a Double Life" "The End of Two-Face" "The Riddler" 1950s " The Man Behind the Red Hood! " " The Joker's Millions " "The Rainbow Batman" "The Superman of Planet X" "... Meets Bat-Mite" 1960s "Robin Dies at Dawn" "Beware of -- Poison Ivy" "The Million Dollar Debut of Batgirl" "One Bullet Too Many" 1970s "Challenge of the Man-Bat" "Tales of the Demon" "The Joker's Five-Way Revenge" "There is No Hope in Crime Alley" "The Deadshot Ricochet" "The Laughing Fish" 1980s " Batman: Year One " " Year Two " " Batman: A Death in the Family " " Year Three " " The Man Who Falls " " Anarky in Gotham City " 1990s " Gothic " "The Eye of the Beholder" " The Return of the Joker " " Prey " " The Last Arkham " " Knightfall " " Contagion " " Legacy " " Cataclysm " " No Man's Land " 2000s " Joker: Last Laugh " " Bruce Wayne: Fugitive " " Hush " " Broken City " " War Games " " City of Crime " " Under the Hood " " War Crimes " " Face the Face " " Batman and Son " " The Resurrection of Ra's al Ghul " " Batman R.I.P. " " Whatever Happened to the Caped Crusader? " " Batwoman: Elegy " 2010s " Bruce Wayne: The Road Home " " The Black Mirror " " Night of the Owls " " Death of the Family " " Zero Year " " Endgame " " Robin War " " The Button " " Dark Nights: Metal " 2020s " The Joker War " " Dark Nights: Death Metal " " Fear State " " Shadows of the Bat " " Shadow War " " Gotham War " 1930-40s " The Case of the Chemical Syndicate " "Robin the Boy Wonder" "The Murders of Clayface" "The Crimes of Two-Face" "The Man Who Led a Double Life" "The End of Two-Face" "The Riddler" " The Case of the Chemical Syndicate " "Robin the Boy Wonder" "The Murders of Clayface" "The Crimes of Two-Face" "The Man Who Led a Double Life" "The End of Two-Face" "The Riddler" 1950s " The Man Behind the Red Hood! " " The Joker's Millions " "The Rainbow Batman" "The Superman of Planet X" "... Meets Bat-Mite" " The Man Behind the Red Hood! " " The Joker's Millions " "The Rainbow Batman" "The Superman of Planet X" "... Meets Bat-Mite" 1960s "Robin Dies at Dawn" "Beware of -- Poison Ivy" "The Million Dollar Debut of Batgirl" "One Bullet Too Many" "Robin Dies at Dawn" "Beware of -- Poison Ivy" "The Million Dollar Debut of Batgirl" "One Bullet Too Many" 1970s "Challenge of the Man-Bat" "Tales of the Demon" "The Joker's Five-Way Revenge" "There is No Hope in Crime Alley" "The Deadshot Ricochet" "The Laughing Fish" "Challenge of the Man-Bat" "Tales of the Demon" "The Joker's Five-Way Revenge" "There is No Hope in Crime Alley" "The Deadshot Ricochet" "The Laughing Fish" 1980s " Batman: Year One " " Year Two " " Batman: A Death in the Family " " Year Three " " The Man Who Falls " " Anarky in Gotham City " " Batman: Year One " " Year Two " " Batman: A Death in the Family " " Year Three " " The Man Who Falls " " Anarky in Gotham City " 1990s " Gothic " "The Eye of the Beholder" " The Return of the Joker " " Prey " " The Last Arkham " " Knightfall " " Contagion " " Legacy " " Cataclysm " " No Man's Land " " Gothic " "The Eye of the Beholder" " The Return of the Joker " " Prey " " The Last Arkham " " Knightfall " " Contagion " " Legacy " " Cataclysm " " No Man's Land " 2000s " Joker: Last Laugh " " Bruce Wayne: Fugitive " " Hush " " Broken City " " War Games " " City of Crime " " Under the Hood " " War Crimes " " Face the Face " " Batman and Son " " The Resurrection of Ra's al Ghul " " Batman R.I.P. " " Whatever Happened to the Caped Crusader? " " Batwoman: Elegy " " Joker: Last Laugh " " Bruce Wayne: Fugitive " " Hush " " Broken City " " War Games " " City of Crime " " Under the Hood " " War Crimes " " Face the Face " " Batman and Son " " The Resurrection of Ra's al Ghul " " Batman R.I.P. " " Whatever Happened to the Caped Crusader? " " Batwoman: Elegy " 2010s " Bruce Wayne: The Road Home " " The Black Mirror " " Night of the Owls " " Death of the Family " " Zero Year " " Endgame " " Robin War " " The Button " " Dark Nights: Metal " " Bruce Wayne: The Road Home " " The Black Mirror " " Night of the Owls " " Death of the Family " " Zero Year " " Endgame " " Robin War " " The Button " " Dark Nights: Metal " 2020s " The Joker War " " Dark Nights: Death Metal " " Fear State " " Shadows of the Bat " " Shadow War " " Gotham War " " The Joker War " " Dark Nights: Death Metal " " Fear State " " Shadows of the Bat " " Shadow War " " Gotham War " Intercompany crossovers Batman/Aliens Batman/Hellboy/Starman Batman/Judge Dredd: Judgment on Gotham Batman/Spawn: War Devil Batman/Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Batman/Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Adventures Batman/The Spirit Batman Versus Predator Batman vs. Bigby! A Wolf in Gotham Daredevil/Batman: Eye for an Eye Ghost/Batgirl: The Resurrection Machine Harley & Ivy Meet Betty & Veronica Spawn/Batman Superman and Batman versus Aliens and Predator Deadpool/Batman and Batman/Deadpool Batman/Aliens Batman/Hellboy/Starman Batman/Judge Dredd: Judgment on Gotham Batman/Spawn: War Devil Batman/Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Batman/Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Adventures Batman/The Spirit Batman Versus Predator Batman vs. Bigby! A Wolf in Gotham Daredevil/Batman: Eye for an Eye Ghost/Batgirl: The Resurrection Machine Harley & Ivy Meet Betty & Veronica Spawn/Batman Superman and Batman versus Aliens and Predator Deadpool/Batman and Batman/Deadpool Incomplete All Star Batman & Robin, the Boy Wonder Batman: The Widening Gyre All Star Batman & Robin, the Boy Wonder Batman: The Widening Gyre Related topics Batman: Child of Dreams Batman: Haunted Knight Batman Legends DC Comics – The Legend of Batman Elseworlds The Further Adventures of The Joker Batman: Child of Dreams Batman: Haunted Knight Batman Legends DC Comics – The Legend of Batman Elseworlds The Further Adventures of The Joker Category Publications are listed alphabetically by published titles. Storylines are listed in publication order. Compiled without respect for canon or "current" continuity. v t e Batman franchise media v t e Live-action television Batman (1966) Batman episodes Return to the Batcave: The Misadventures of Adam and Burt Gotham (franchise) Gotham episodes season 1 2 3 4 5 characters Pennyworth Arrowverse Batwoman episodes characters " Crisis on Infinite Earths " The Penguin The Penguin " After Hours " " Inside Man " " Bliss " " Cent'Anni " " Homecoming " " Gold Summit " " Top Hat " " A Great or Little Thing " Other Batman OnStar commercials Birds of Prey Gotham Knights Batman (1966) Batman episodes Return to the Batcave: The Misadventures of Adam and Burt Batman episodes episodes Return to the Batcave: The Misadventures of Adam and Burt Gotham (franchise) Gotham episodes season 1 2 3 4 5 characters Pennyworth Gotham episodes season 1 2 3 4 5 characters episodes season 1 2 3 4 5 season 1 2 3 4 5 characters Pennyworth Arrowverse Batwoman episodes characters " Crisis on Infinite Earths " Batwoman episodes characters episodes characters " Crisis on Infinite Earths " The Penguin The Penguin " After Hours " " Inside Man " " Bliss " " Cent'Anni " " Homecoming " " Gold Summit " " Top Hat " " A Great or Little Thing " The Penguin " After Hours " " Inside Man " " Bliss " " Cent'Anni " " Homecoming " " Gold Summit " " Top Hat " " A Great or Little Thing " " After Hours " " Inside Man " " Bliss " " Cent'Anni " " Homecoming " " Gold Summit " " Top Hat " " A Great or Little Thing " Other Batman OnStar commercials Birds of Prey Gotham Knights Batman OnStar commercials Birds of Prey Gotham Knights Live-action films Early films Batman (1943) Batman and Robin Batman (1966) 1989–1997 film series Batman (1989) Batman Returns ( special effects ) Batman Forever Batman & Robin The Dark Knight Trilogy Batman Begins The Dark Knight The Dark Knight Rises DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Batgirl (unreleased) The Batman Epic Crime Saga The Batman production Early films Batman (1943) Batman and Robin Batman (1966) Batman (1943) Batman and Robin Batman (1966) 1989–1997 film series Batman (1989) Batman Returns ( special effects ) Batman Forever Batman & Robin Batman (1989) Batman Returns ( special effects ) Batman Forever Batman & Robin The Dark Knight Trilogy Batman Begins The Dark Knight The Dark Knight Rises Batman Begins The Dark Knight The Dark Knight Rises DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Batgirl (unreleased) Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Batgirl (unreleased) The Batman Epic Crime Saga The Batman production The Batman production production Animated television The Batman/Superman Hour The Adventures of Batman The New Adventures of Batman The Batman/Tarzan Adventure Hour The Animated Series episodes The New Batman Adventures Batman Beyond characters episodes The Batman characters episodes The Brave and the Bold episodes Beware the Batman Batwheels Caped Crusader Bat-Fam The Batman/Superman Hour The Adventures of Batman The New Adventures of Batman The Batman/Tarzan Adventure Hour The Animated Series episodes episodes The New Batman Adventures Batman Beyond characters episodes characters episodes The Batman characters episodes characters episodes The Brave and the Bold episodes episodes Beware the Batman Batwheels Caped Crusader Bat-Fam Animated films Mask of the Phantasm SubZero Return of the Joker Mystery of the Batwoman The Batman vs. Dracula Gotham Knight Public Enemies Under the Red Hood Apocalypse Year One The Dark Knight Returns DC Super Heroes Unite Son of Batman Assault on Arkham Animal Instincts Batman vs. Robin Monster Mayhem Bad Blood The Killing Joke Mechs vs. Mutants Return of the Caped Crusaders The Lego Batman Movie Batman and Harley Quinn Batman vs. Two-Face Scooby-Doo! & Batman: The Brave and the Bold Gotham by Gaslight Batman Ninja Batman vs. Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Hush Family Matters Soul of the Dragon The Long Halloween Battle of the Super Sons The Doom That Came to Gotham Merry Little Batman Batman Ninja vs. Yakuza League Aztec Batman: Clash of Empires Mask of the Phantasm SubZero Return of the Joker Mystery of the Batwoman The Batman vs. Dracula Gotham Knight Public Enemies Under the Red Hood Apocalypse Year One The Dark Knight Returns DC Super Heroes Unite Son of Batman Assault on Arkham Animal Instincts Batman vs. Robin Monster Mayhem Bad Blood The Killing Joke Mechs vs. Mutants Return of the Caped Crusaders The Lego Batman Movie Batman and Harley Quinn Batman vs. Two-Face Scooby-Doo! & Batman: The Brave and the Bold Gotham by Gaslight Batman Ninja Batman vs. Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Hush Family Matters Soul of the Dragon The Long Halloween Battle of the Super Sons The Doom That Came to Gotham Merry Little Batman Batman Ninja vs. Yakuza League Aztec Batman: Clash of Empires Animated shorts Chase Me Strange Days Death in the Family Chase Me Strange Days Death in the Family Novels The Ultimate Evil Enemies & Allies Wayne of Gotham Batman: Resurrection Batman: Revolution The Ultimate Evil Enemies & Allies Wayne of Gotham Batman: Resurrection Batman: Revolution Podcasts Batman: The Audio Adventures Batman Unburied DC High Volume: Batman Batman: The Audio Adventures Batman Unburied DC High Volume: Batman Enemies in other media Bane Joker Mr. Freeze Penguin Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Bane Joker Mr. Freeze Penguin Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Supporting characters in other media Barbara Gordon Catwoman Robin Barbara Gordon Catwoman Robin Related topics Batman & Bill Bruce Wayne (unproduced series) Batkid Begins Batman action figures Lego Batman Batman Total Justice Batman Unlimited Bat phone Bat-Manga!: The Secret History of Batman in Japan List of Batman films cast members List of Batman television series cast members List of Batman video games List of Batman children's books Batman music Batman Live Holy Musical B@man! Batman '89 (comic book) The Riddler: Year One Batman & Bill Bruce Wayne (unproduced series) Batkid Begins Batman action figures Lego Batman Batman Total Justice Batman Unlimited Lego Batman Batman Total Justice Batman Unlimited Bat phone Bat-Manga!: The Secret History of Batman in Japan List of Batman films cast members List of Batman television series cast members List of Batman video games List of Batman children's books Batman music Batman Live Holy Musical B@man! Batman '89 (comic book) The Riddler: Year One v t e Batman music v t e Soundtracks Films Batman score soundtrack Batman Returns Batman Forever soundtrack score Batman & Robin Batman Begins The Dark Knight The Dark Knight Rises Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice The Lego Batman Movie Joker The Batman Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack Video games Batman: Arkham City Batman: Arkham Origins Batman: Arkham Knight Films Batman score soundtrack Batman Returns Batman Forever soundtrack score Batman & Robin Batman Begins The Dark Knight The Dark Knight Rises Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice The Lego Batman Movie Joker The Batman Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack Batman score soundtrack score soundtrack Batman Returns Batman Forever soundtrack score soundtrack score Batman & Robin Batman Begins The Dark Knight The Dark Knight Rises Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice The Lego Batman Movie Joker The Batman Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack score soundtrack Video games Batman: Arkham City Batman: Arkham Origins Batman: Arkham Knight Batman: Arkham City Batman: Arkham Origins Batman: Arkham Knight Songs Batman (1960s TV series) " Batman Theme " " Batusi " Batman (1989 film) " Batdance " " Partyman " " The Arms of Orion " " Scandalous! " " The Future " Batman Returns " Face to Face " Batman Forever " Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me " " Kiss from a Rose " " The Riddler " Batman & Robin " The End Is the Beginning Is the End " " Look into My Eyes " " Gotham City " " Foolish Games " " Moaner " " Lazy Eye " Batman (1960s TV series) " Batman Theme " " Batusi " " Batman Theme " " Batusi " Batman (1989 film) " Batdance " " Partyman " " The Arms of Orion " " Scandalous! " " The Future " " Batdance " " Partyman " " The Arms of Orion " " Scandalous! " " The Future " Batman Returns " Face to Face " " Face to Face " Batman Forever " Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me " " Kiss from a Rose " " The Riddler " " Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me " " Kiss from a Rose " " The Riddler " Batman & Robin " The End Is the Beginning Is the End " " Look into My Eyes " " Gotham City " " Foolish Games " " Moaner " " Lazy Eye " " The End Is the Beginning Is the End " " Look into My Eyes " " Gotham City " " Foolish Games " " Moaner " " Lazy Eye " v t e Batman video games v t e Lego series Lego Batman: The Videogame Lego Batman 2: DC Super Heroes Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham Lego Batman: Legacy of the Dark Knight Lego Batman: The Videogame Lego Batman 2: DC Super Heroes Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham Lego Batman: Legacy of the Dark Knight Arkham series Arkham Asylum Arkham City Lockdown Arkham Origins Mobile Blackgate Arkham Knight Arkham VR Suicide Squad: Kill the Justice League Arkham Shadow Arkham Asylum Arkham City Lockdown Lockdown Arkham Origins Mobile Blackgate Mobile Blackgate Arkham Knight Arkham VR Suicide Squad: Kill the Justice League Arkham Shadow Telltale series The Telltale Series The Enemy Within The Telltale Series The Enemy Within Film -based Batman (Ocean, 1989) Batman: The Video Game (NES, 1989) Batman: The Video Game (Game Boy, 1990) Batman (Mega Drive/Genesis, 1990) Batman (PC Engine, 1990) Batman (arcade, 1991) Batman Returns (Sega systems, 1992) Batman Returns (Atari Lynx, 1992) Batman Returns (NES, 1993) Batman Returns (SNES, 1993) Batman Forever Batman Forever: The Arcade Game Batman & Robin Batman Begins The Dark Knight (canceled) Batman (Ocean, 1989) Batman: The Video Game (NES, 1989) Batman: The Video Game (Game Boy, 1990) Batman (Mega Drive/Genesis, 1990) Batman (PC Engine, 1990) Batman (arcade, 1991) Batman Returns (Sega systems, 1992) Batman Returns (Atari Lynx, 1992) Batman Returns (NES, 1993) Batman Returns (SNES, 1993) Batman Forever Batman Forever: The Arcade Game Batman & Robin Batman Begins The Dark Knight (canceled) Animation-based The Animated Series The Adventures of Batman & Robin Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker Chaos in Gotham Gotham City Racer Vengeance Rise of Sin Tzu The Brave and the Bold – The Videogame The Animated Series The Adventures of Batman & Robin Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker Chaos in Gotham Gotham City Racer Vengeance Rise of Sin Tzu The Brave and the Bold – The Videogame Other games Batman (1986) The Caped Crusader Return of the Joker Dark Tomorrow DC Universe Online Gotham City Impostors Batman (2013) Gotham Knights MultiVersus Batman (1986) The Caped Crusader Return of the Joker Dark Tomorrow DC Universe Online Gotham City Impostors Batman (2013) Gotham Knights MultiVersus Category Category v t e Batman in amusement parks v t e Of Batman Batman Adventure – The Ride Batman: The Dark Knight Batman The Escape Batman: Knight Flight Batman: The Ride Batman: The Ride (S&S Free Spin) Batman & Robin: The Chiller The Dark Knight Coaster Batman Adventure – The Ride Batman: The Dark Knight Batman The Escape Batman: Knight Flight Batman: The Ride Batman: The Ride (S&S Free Spin) Batman & Robin: The Chiller The Dark Knight Coaster Of derivative characters Harley Quinn Crazy Train The Joker (S&S Worldwide) The Joker (Six Flags Discovery Kingdom) The Joker (Six Flags México) The Joker Funhouse Coaster The Joker's Jinx The Riddler Mindbender Mr Freeze: Reverse Blast The Penguin The Riddler Revenge (Six Flags New England) The Riddler's Revenge Harley Quinn Crazy Train The Joker (S&S Worldwide) The Joker (Six Flags Discovery Kingdom) The Joker (Six Flags México) The Joker Funhouse Coaster The Joker's Jinx The Riddler Mindbender Mr Freeze: Reverse Blast The Penguin The Riddler Revenge (Six Flags New England) The Riddler's Revenge Of derivative elements Arkham Asylum – Shock Therapy Batwing Spaceshot Batwing Gotham City Gotham City Gauntlet: Escape from Arkham Asylum Shadows of Arkham Arkham Asylum – Shock Therapy Batwing Spaceshot Batwing Gotham City Gotham City Gauntlet: Escape from Arkham Asylum Shadows of Arkham v t e Batman in film v t e Serials Batman (1943 serial) Batman and Robin (1949 serial) Batman (1943 serial) Batman and Robin (1949 serial) Adam West films Batman (1966) Return of the Caped Crusaders (2016) Batman vs. Two-Face (2017) Batman (1966) Return of the Caped Crusaders (2016) Batman vs. Two-Face (2017) 1989–1997 series Films Batman (1989) score soundtrack home computer game NES game Game Boy game Sega Genesis game PC Engine game arcade game Batman Returns (1992) soundtrack special effects Sega games Atari Lynx game NES game SNES game Batman Forever (1995) score soundtrack video game arcade game pinball game Batman & Robin (1997) soundtrack video game Characters Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman Films Batman (1989) score soundtrack home computer game NES game Game Boy game Sega Genesis game PC Engine game arcade game Batman Returns (1992) soundtrack special effects Sega games Atari Lynx game NES game SNES game Batman Forever (1995) score soundtrack video game arcade game pinball game Batman & Robin (1997) soundtrack video game Batman (1989) score soundtrack home computer game NES game Game Boy game Sega Genesis game PC Engine game arcade game score soundtrack home computer game NES game Game Boy game Sega Genesis game PC Engine game arcade game Batman Returns (1992) soundtrack special effects Sega games Atari Lynx game NES game SNES game soundtrack special effects Sega games Atari Lynx game NES game SNES game Batman Forever (1995) score soundtrack video game arcade game pinball game score soundtrack video game arcade game pinball game Batman & Robin (1997) soundtrack video game soundtrack video game Characters Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman The Dark Knight trilogy Films Batman Begins (2005) soundtrack video game The Dark Knight (2008) soundtrack canceled video game The Dark Knight Rises (2012) soundtrack Characters Bruce Wayne Joker Rachel Dawes Films Batman Begins (2005) soundtrack video game The Dark Knight (2008) soundtrack canceled video game The Dark Knight Rises (2012) soundtrack Batman Begins (2005) soundtrack video game soundtrack video game The Dark Knight (2008) soundtrack canceled video game soundtrack canceled video game The Dark Knight Rises (2012) soundtrack soundtrack Characters Bruce Wayne Joker Rachel Dawes Bruce Wayne Joker Rachel Dawes DC Extended Universe Films Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016) soundtrack Suicide Squad (2016) soundtrack Justice League (2017) soundtrack Zack Snyder's Justice League (2021) soundtrack The Flash (2023) soundtrack Batgirl (unreleased) Characters Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn Films Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016) soundtrack Suicide Squad (2016) soundtrack Justice League (2017) soundtrack Zack Snyder's Justice League (2021) soundtrack The Flash (2023) soundtrack Batgirl (unreleased) Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016) soundtrack soundtrack Suicide Squad (2016) soundtrack soundtrack Justice League (2017) soundtrack soundtrack Zack Snyder's Justice League (2021) soundtrack soundtrack The Flash (2023) soundtrack soundtrack Batgirl (unreleased) Characters Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn The Batman series The Batman (2022) production accolades soundtrack The Batman (2022) production accolades soundtrack production accolades soundtrack Theatrical animated films Mask of the Phantasm (1993) soundtrack The Killing Joke (2016) The Lego Batman Movie (2017) soundtrack Mask of the Phantasm (1993) soundtrack soundtrack The Killing Joke (2016) The Lego Batman Movie (2017) soundtrack soundtrack Spin-off films Catwoman (2004) video game Joker (2019) accolades soundtrack Birds of Prey (2020) soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux (2024) score soundtrack Catwoman (2004) video game video game Joker (2019) accolades soundtrack accolades soundtrack Birds of Prey (2020) soundtrack soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux (2024) score soundtrack score soundtrack Unofficial and fan films Features Batman Dracula Alyas Batman at Robin James Batman Batman Fights Dracula Fight Batman Fight! Alyas Batman en Robin Batman XXX Shorts Dead End Grayson World's Finest City of Scars Dying Is Easy Batman Beyond: Year One Jokers Wild Features Batman Dracula Alyas Batman at Robin James Batman Batman Fights Dracula Fight Batman Fight! Alyas Batman en Robin Batman XXX Batman Dracula Alyas Batman at Robin James Batman Batman Fights Dracula Fight Batman Fight! Alyas Batman en Robin Batman XXX Shorts Dead End Grayson World's Finest City of Scars Dying Is Easy Batman Beyond: Year One Jokers Wild Dead End Grayson World's Finest City of Scars Dying Is Easy Batman Beyond: Year One Jokers Wild See also Batman franchise List of Batman films cast members Batman OnStar commercials Batman franchise List of Batman films cast members Batman OnStar commercials v t e Batman and Superman v t e Comic books Ongoing series World's Finest Comics Superman/Batman Limited series Superman & Batman: Generations Superman and Batman: World's Funnest Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Superman and Batman versus Aliens and Predator Ongoing series World's Finest Comics Superman/Batman World's Finest Comics Superman/Batman Limited series Superman & Batman: Generations Superman and Batman: World's Funnest Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Superman and Batman versus Aliens and Predator Superman & Batman: Generations Superman and Batman: World's Funnest Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Superman and Batman versus Aliens and Predator Television The Batman/Superman Hour The Superman/Batman Adventures DC Animated Universe The New Batman/Superman Adventures The Batman/Superman Hour The Superman/Batman Adventures DC Animated Universe The New Batman/Superman Adventures The New Batman/Superman Adventures Books Enemies & Allies Enemies & Allies Film Live action films Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice soundtrack Animated films Superman/Batman: Public Enemies Superman/Batman: Apocalypse Batman: The Dark Knight Returns Superman: Red Son Injustice Batman and Superman: Battle of the Super Sons Justice League: Warworld Live action films Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice soundtrack Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice soundtrack soundtrack Animated films Superman/Batman: Public Enemies Superman/Batman: Apocalypse Batman: The Dark Knight Returns Superman: Red Son Injustice Batman and Superman: Battle of the Super Sons Justice League: Warworld Superman/Batman: Public Enemies Superman/Batman: Apocalypse Batman: The Dark Knight Returns Superman: Red Son Injustice Batman and Superman: Battle of the Super Sons Justice League: Warworld Fan works How It Should Have Ended How It Should Have Ended Related Composite Superman Toyman World's Finest Team Composite Superman Toyman World's Finest Team Categories: Batman Superman Categories: Batman Superman v t e Justice League International v t e Keith Giffen J. M. DeMatteis Keith Giffen J. M. DeMatteis Initial members Pre-Flashpoint Batman Black Canary Blue Beetle/Ted Kord Booster Gold Captain Marvel Doctor Fate Kent Nelson Linda Strauss Doctor Light/Kimiyo Hoshi Green Lantern/Guy Gardner Martian Manhunter Mister Miracle The New 52 August General in Iron Booster Gold Fire Godiva Green Lantern/Guy Gardner Ice Rocket Red/Gavril Ivanovich Vixen Pre-Flashpoint Batman Black Canary Blue Beetle/Ted Kord Booster Gold Captain Marvel Doctor Fate Kent Nelson Linda Strauss Doctor Light/Kimiyo Hoshi Green Lantern/Guy Gardner Martian Manhunter Mister Miracle Batman Black Canary Blue Beetle/Ted Kord Booster Gold Captain Marvel Doctor Fate Kent Nelson Linda Strauss Kent Nelson Linda Strauss Doctor Light/Kimiyo Hoshi Green Lantern/Guy Gardner Martian Manhunter Mister Miracle The New 52 August General in Iron Booster Gold Fire Godiva Green Lantern/Guy Gardner Ice Rocket Red/Gavril Ivanovich Vixen August General in Iron Booster Gold Fire Godiva Green Lantern/Guy Gardner Ice Rocket Red/Gavril Ivanovich Vixen Supporting characters L-Ron Catherine Cobert Maxwell Lord Oberon Superman L-Ron Catherine Cobert Maxwell Lord Oberon Superman Enemies Antagonists Anti-Monitor Black Hand Darkseid Despero Doomsday Kite Man Lobo Magog Major Disaster Manga Khan Maxwell Lord Neron Queen Bee Signal Men Sinestro Starbreaker Weapons Master Weather Wizard Wizard Organizations Cadre Extremists Injustice League Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Antagonists Anti-Monitor Black Hand Darkseid Despero Doomsday Kite Man Lobo Magog Major Disaster Manga Khan Maxwell Lord Neron Queen Bee Signal Men Sinestro Starbreaker Weapons Master Weather Wizard Wizard Anti-Monitor Black Hand Darkseid Despero Doomsday Kite Man Lobo Magog Major Disaster Manga Khan Maxwell Lord Neron Queen Bee Signal Men Sinestro Starbreaker Weapons Master Weather Wizard Wizard Organizations Cadre Extremists Injustice League Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Cadre Extremists Injustice League Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Publications and storylines Legends Formerly Known as the Justice League Justice League: Generation Lost Legends Formerly Known as the Justice League Justice League: Generation Lost Spinoff teams Extreme Justice Justice League America Justice League Europe Justice League Task Force Extreme Justice Justice League America Justice League Europe Justice League Task Force v t e Catwoman v t e Bob Kane Bill Finger Bob Kane Bill Finger Incarnations Selina Kyle Holly Robinson Eiko Hasigawa Selina Kyle Holly Robinson Eiko Hasigawa Supporting characters Batgirl Batman Slam Bradley Gotham City Sirens Dick Grayson Huntress Justice League Outsiders Alfred Pennyworth Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Madame Zodiac Leslie Thompkins Wildcat Batgirl Batman Slam Bradley Gotham City Sirens Dick Grayson Huntress Justice League Outsiders Alfred Pennyworth Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Madame Zodiac Leslie Thompkins Wildcat Antagonists Angle Man Bane Black Mask Clayface Film Freak Hush Joker Penguin Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Riddler Scarecrow Snowflame Hugo Strange Two-Face Zeiss Angle Man Bane Black Mask Clayface Film Freak Hush Joker Penguin Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Riddler Scarecrow Snowflame Hugo Strange Two-Face Zeiss Publications Catwoman Catwoman: When in Rome Gotham City Sirens Nine Lives Catwoman Catwoman: When in Rome Gotham City Sirens Nine Lives In other media Catwoman (film) Chase Me DC Showcase: Catwoman Catwoman (video game) Selina Kyle ( Gotham character) "Selina Kyle" ( Gotham episode) Selina Kyle ( Batman Returns ) " The Cat and the Fiddle " " The Cat and the Claw " Catwoman: Soulstealer Catwoman: Hunted Catwoman (film) Chase Me DC Showcase: Catwoman Catwoman (video game) Selina Kyle ( Gotham character) "Selina Kyle" ( Gotham episode) Selina Kyle ( Batman Returns ) " The Cat and the Fiddle " " The Cat and the Claw " Catwoman: Soulstealer Catwoman: Hunted Category Category v t e Batgirl v t e Bill Finger Sheldon Moldoff Gardner Fox Carmine Infantino Bill Finger Sheldon Moldoff Gardner Fox Carmine Infantino Incarnations Bette Kane Barbara Gordon Helena Bertinelli Cassandra Cain Stephanie Brown Bette Kane Barbara Gordon Helena Bertinelli Cassandra Cain Stephanie Brown Supporting characters Batman Birds of Prey Black Canary Catwoman James Gordon Dick Grayson Lucius Fox Justice League Misfit Alfred Pennyworth Proxy Harley Quinn Robin Supergirl Leslie Thompkins Alysia Yeoh Batman Birds of Prey Black Canary Catwoman James Gordon Dick Grayson Lucius Fox Justice League Misfit Alfred Pennyworth Proxy Harley Quinn Robin Supergirl Leslie Thompkins Alysia Yeoh Antagonists Black Mask Brutale Calculator David Cain Doctor Death Joker Joker's Daughter Killer Moth Knightfall Lady Shiva Livewire Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Madame Zodiac Riddler Ravager Scarecrow Trigger Twins Black Mask Brutale Calculator David Cain Doctor Death Joker Joker's Daughter Killer Moth Knightfall Lady Shiva Livewire Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Madame Zodiac Riddler Ravager Scarecrow Trigger Twins Related identities Flamebird Oracle Huntress Flamebird Oracle Huntress Publications Batgirl Batgirl: Year One Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Elseworld's Finest: Supergirl & Batgirl Ghost/Batgirl: The Resurrection Machine Batgirl Batgirl: Year One Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Elseworld's Finest: Supergirl & Batgirl Ghost/Batgirl: The Resurrection Machine Related articles " Enter Batgirl, Exit Penguin " Barbara Gordon in other media Big Game Batgirl (unreleased) Batwoman " Enter Batgirl, Exit Penguin " Barbara Gordon in other media Big Game Batgirl (unreleased) Batwoman Category Category v t e Robin v t e Bill Finger Jerry Robinson Bob Kane Bill Finger Jerry Robinson Bob Kane Robins Dick Grayson Jason Todd Tim Drake Stephanie Brown Damian Wayne Dick Grayson Jason Todd Tim Drake Stephanie Brown Damian Wayne Supporting characters Batgirl Barbara Gordon Batman Catwoman Jack Drake Flying Graysons Lucius Fox Tamara Fox James Gordon Justice League Alfred Pennyworth Nightstar Nocturna Outsiders Starfire Talia al Ghul Teen Titans Leslie Thompkins Warlock's Daughter Batgirl Barbara Gordon Barbara Gordon Batman Catwoman Jack Drake Flying Graysons Lucius Fox Tamara Fox James Gordon Justice League Alfred Pennyworth Nightstar Nocturna Outsiders Starfire Talia al Ghul Teen Titans Leslie Thompkins Warlock's Daughter Antagonists Anarky Bane Blockbuster Brutale Clock King Cluemaster Deathstroke Firefly The General Joker Joker's Daughter Killer Croc Killer Moth King Snake Lady Shiva Lady Vic Lynx Mad Hatter Mr. Freeze Nite-Wing Penguin Prankster Harley Quinn Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Shrike Tarantula Torque Trigger Twins Two-Face Tony Zucco Anarky Bane Blockbuster Brutale Clock King Cluemaster Deathstroke Firefly The General Joker Joker's Daughter Killer Croc Killer Moth King Snake Lady Shiva Lady Vic Lynx Mad Hatter Mr. Freeze Nite-Wing Penguin Prankster Harley Quinn Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Shrike Tarantula Torque Trigger Twins Two-Face Tony Zucco Related identities Nightwing Red Robin Red Hood Squire Red X Nightwing Red Robin Red Hood Squire Red X In other media Batman and Robin (serial) " Robin's Reckoning " Dick Grayson (film character) Batman & Robin (film) soundtrack video game Son of Batman Batman vs. Robin Batman and Robin (serial) " Robin's Reckoning " Dick Grayson (film character) Batman & Robin (film) soundtrack video game soundtrack video game Son of Batman Batman vs. Robin Publications Robin: Year One Robin War All Star Batman & Robin, the Boy Wonder Batman and Robin We Are... Robin Red Robin Batman and Robin Eternal Batman and Son Robin: Year One Robin War All Star Batman & Robin, the Boy Wonder Batman and Robin We Are... Robin Red Robin Batman and Robin Eternal Batman and Son Alternative versions Carrie Kelley Earth-Two Helena Wayne Carrie Kelley Earth-Two Helena Wayne Related Robin Hood Redbird Alyas Batman en Robin Alyas Batman at Robin Batman & Robin: The Chiller Batman and Robin Have an Altercation "Holy..." Batman and Robin (disambiguation) Robin Hood Redbird Alyas Batman en Robin Alyas Batman at Robin Batman & Robin: The Chiller Batman and Robin Have an Altercation "Holy..." Batman and Robin (disambiguation) Category Category v t e The Joker v t e Bill Finger Bob Kane Jerry Robinson Bill Finger Bob Kane Jerry Robinson Supporting characters Bane Cheetah Clayface Deadshot Deathstroke Duela Dent Firefly Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Hush Killer Croc Legion of Doom Lex Luthor Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Punchline Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Victor Zsasz Bane Cheetah Clayface Deadshot Deathstroke Duela Dent Firefly Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Hush Killer Croc Legion of Doom Lex Luthor Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Punchline Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Victor Zsasz Antagonists Batgirl Barbara Gordon Batman Batwoman Kate Kane Catwoman Commissioner Gordon Gotham City Police Department Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Huntress Helena Bertinelli) Justice League Nightwing Dick Grayson Penguin Red Hood Jason Todd Red Robin Tim Drake Riddler Robin Damian Wayne Superman The Batman Who Laughs Two-Face Batgirl Barbara Gordon Barbara Gordon Batman Batwoman Kate Kane Kate Kane Catwoman Commissioner Gordon Gotham City Police Department Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Huntress Helena Bertinelli) Helena Bertinelli) Justice League Nightwing Dick Grayson Dick Grayson Penguin Red Hood Jason Todd Jason Todd Red Robin Tim Drake Tim Drake Riddler Robin Damian Wayne Damian Wayne Superman The Batman Who Laughs Two-Face Publications and stories The Joker " The Joker's Double Jeopardy " Batman: The Killing Joke Devil's Advocate Batman: The Man Who Laughs The Further Adventures of The Joker Joker (graphic novel) " The Joker's Millions " Last Laugh " The Man Behind the Red Hood! " " The Return of the Joker " Batman: Three Jokers Joker War The Joker " The Joker's Double Jeopardy " " The Joker's Double Jeopardy " Batman: The Killing Joke Devil's Advocate Batman: The Man Who Laughs The Further Adventures of The Joker Joker (graphic novel) " The Joker's Millions " Last Laugh " The Man Behind the Red Hood! " " The Return of the Joker " Batman: Three Jokers Joker War Alternative versions Red Hood The Batman Who Laughs Red Hood The Batman Who Laughs In other media Incarnations Jack Napier Joker (DC Animated Universe) Joker ( The Dark Knight ) Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Joker (DC Extended Universe) Arthur Fleck Other media Joker accolades soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker video game Batman: The Killing Joke " The Joker's Hard Times " " The Joker Is Wild " " The Joker Goes to School " Batman: Return of the Joker " Joker's Favor " " Christmas with the Joker " Mortal Kombat 11 Harley Quinn and The Joker: Sound Mind Jokers Wild Incarnations Jack Napier Joker (DC Animated Universe) Joker ( The Dark Knight ) Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Joker (DC Extended Universe) Arthur Fleck Jack Napier Joker (DC Animated Universe) Joker ( The Dark Knight ) Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Joker (DC Extended Universe) Arthur Fleck Other media Joker accolades soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker video game Batman: The Killing Joke " The Joker's Hard Times " " The Joker Is Wild " " The Joker Goes to School " Batman: Return of the Joker " Joker's Favor " " Christmas with the Joker " Mortal Kombat 11 Harley Quinn and The Joker: Sound Mind Jokers Wild Joker accolades soundtrack accolades soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack score soundtrack Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker video game video game Batman: The Killing Joke " The Joker's Hard Times " " The Joker Is Wild " " The Joker Goes to School " Batman: Return of the Joker " Joker's Favor " " Christmas with the Joker " Mortal Kombat 11 Harley Quinn and The Joker: Sound Mind Jokers Wild Rides The Joker's Jinx The Joker (S&S Worldwide) The Joker (Six Flags Discovery Kingdom) The Joker Funhouse Coaster The Joker (Six Flags México) The Joker's Jinx The Joker (S&S Worldwide) The Joker (Six Flags Discovery Kingdom) The Joker Funhouse Coaster The Joker (Six Flags México) Related Ace Chemicals Arkham Asylum Barack Obama "Joker" poster Blackgate Penitentiary Georgia Joker Jokermobile Joker Stairs Jokerz The People's Joker Ace Chemicals Arkham Asylum Barack Obama "Joker" poster Blackgate Penitentiary Georgia Joker Jokermobile Joker Stairs Jokerz The People's Joker Category Category v t e Harley Quinn v t e Paul Dini Bruce Timm Karl Kesel Terry Dodson Amanda Conner Jimmy Palmiotti Paul Dini Bruce Timm Karl Kesel Terry Dodson Amanda Conner Jimmy Palmiotti Supporting characters Bruce Wayne / Batman Barbara Gordon / Batgirl Birds of Prey Bud and Lou Selina Kyle/Catwoman Joker Justice League Dick Grayson/Nightwing Pamela Isley/Poison Ivy Karen Starr/Power Girl Robin Cyrus Gold/Solomon Grundy Bruce Wayne / Batman Barbara Gordon / Batgirl Birds of Prey Bud and Lou Selina Kyle/Catwoman Joker Justice League Dick Grayson/Nightwing Pamela Isley/Poison Ivy Karen Starr/Power Girl Robin Cyrus Gold/Solomon Grundy Teams Gotham City Sirens Justice League of Anarchy Secret Six The Society Suicide Squad Gotham City Sirens Justice League of Anarchy Secret Six The Society Suicide Squad Antagonists Amanda Waller Bruce Wayne / Batman Barbara Gordon / Batgirl Roman Sionis/Black Mask Jason Woodrue/Floronic Man Hugo Strange Joker Joker's Daughter/Duela Dent Mercy Graves Oswald Cobblepot/Penguin Alexis Kaye/Punchline Edward Nygma/Riddler Dick Grayson / Robin Jonathan Crane/Scarecrow Harvey Dent/Two-Face Amanda Waller Bruce Wayne / Batman Barbara Gordon / Batgirl Roman Sionis/Black Mask Jason Woodrue/Floronic Man Hugo Strange Joker Joker's Daughter/Duela Dent Mercy Graves Oswald Cobblepot/Penguin Alexis Kaye/Punchline Edward Nygma/Riddler Dick Grayson / Robin Jonathan Crane/Scarecrow Harvey Dent/Two-Face Publications The Batman Adventures: Mad Love Harley Quinn Batman: White Knight Presents: Harley Quinn Harley and Ivy Meet Betty and Veronica Harley Quinn and Poison Ivy The Batman Adventures: Mad Love Harley Quinn Batman: White Knight Presents: Harley Quinn Harley and Ivy Meet Betty and Veronica Harley Quinn and Poison Ivy In other media " Joker's Favor " Harley Quinn (TV series) episodes Batman and Harley Quinn Harley Quinn (DCEU character) Birds of Prey soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack Harley Quinn and The Joker: Sound Mind " Joker's Favor " Harley Quinn (TV series) episodes episodes Batman and Harley Quinn Harley Quinn (DCEU character) Birds of Prey soundtrack soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack score soundtrack Harley Quinn and The Joker: Sound Mind Related articles Harley Quinn Crazy Train Homosexuality in the Batman franchise Harlequin (album) Harley Quinn Crazy Train Homosexuality in the Batman franchise Harlequin (album) Category Category v t e The Outsiders v t e Mike W. Barr Jim Aparo Mike W. Barr Jim Aparo Members Founders Batman Black Lightning Geo-Force Halo Katana Metamorpho Others Arsenal Atomic Knight Batgirl Batwing Batwoman Captain Boomerang Captain Marvel Jr. Creeper Duke Thomas Eradicator Francine Langstrom Grace Choi Green Arrow Huntress (Helena Bertinelli) Indigo Jade Lady Shiva Looker Nightwing Olympian Owlman (Roy Raymond Jr.) Red Robin ReMAC Sebastian Faust Starfire Technocrat Thunder Founders Batman Black Lightning Geo-Force Halo Katana Metamorpho Batman Black Lightning Geo-Force Halo Katana Metamorpho Others Arsenal Atomic Knight Batgirl Batwing Batwoman Captain Boomerang Captain Marvel Jr. Creeper Duke Thomas Eradicator Francine Langstrom Grace Choi Green Arrow Huntress (Helena Bertinelli) Indigo Jade Lady Shiva Looker Nightwing Olympian Owlman (Roy Raymond Jr.) Red Robin ReMAC Sebastian Faust Starfire Technocrat Thunder Arsenal Atomic Knight Batgirl Batwing Batwoman Captain Boomerang Captain Marvel Jr. Creeper Duke Thomas Eradicator Francine Langstrom Grace Choi Green Arrow Huntress (Helena Bertinelli) Indigo Jade Lady Shiva Looker Nightwing Olympian Owlman (Roy Raymond Jr.) Red Robin ReMAC Sebastian Faust Starfire Technocrat Thunder Supporting characters Alfred Pennyworth Checkmate Helga Jace Roy Raymond Sapphire Stagg Simon Stagg Alfred Pennyworth Checkmate Helga Jace Roy Raymond Sapphire Stagg Simon Stagg Enemies Baron Bedlam Brother Blood Doctor Sivana Fearsome Five Doctor Light Gizmo Mammoth Psimon Shimmer Felix Faust Gorilla Grodd Joker Kobra Masters of Disaster Mr. Freeze Nuclear Family Sabbac Tobias Whale Baron Bedlam Brother Blood Doctor Sivana Fearsome Five Doctor Light Gizmo Mammoth Psimon Shimmer Doctor Light Gizmo Mammoth Psimon Shimmer Felix Faust Gorilla Grodd Joker Kobra Masters of Disaster Mr. Freeze Nuclear Family Sabbac Tobias Whale Locations Batcave Batcave Other media Batman: The Brave and the Bold Young Justice Batman: The Brave and the Bold Young Justice v t e Birds of Prey v t e Creators : Chuck Dixon Jordan B. Gorfinkel Gail Simone Creators : Chuck Dixon Jordan B. Gorfinkel Gail Simone Titles Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Main characters Barbara Gordon Black Canary Huntress (Helena Bertinelli) Barbara Gordon Black Canary Huntress (Helena Bertinelli) Notable members Big Barda Black Alice Cassandra Cain Gypsy Harley Quinn Hawk and Dove Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders) Jade Canary Judomaster (Sonia Sato) Katana Lady Blackhawk Manhunter (Kate Spencer) Misfit Poison Ivy Power Girl Vixen Zealot Big Barda Black Alice Cassandra Cain Gypsy Harley Quinn Hawk and Dove Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders) Jade Canary Judomaster (Sonia Sato) Katana Lady Blackhawk Manhunter (Kate Spencer) Misfit Poison Ivy Power Girl Vixen Zealot Supporting characters Batman Blue Beetle (Ted Kord) Booster Gold James Gordon Creote Catwoman Cyborg Green Arrow Kurt Lance Lois Lane Metamorpho Nightwing Richard Dragon Robin Savant Sin Superman Wildcat Batman Blue Beetle (Ted Kord) Booster Gold James Gordon Creote Catwoman Cyborg Green Arrow Kurt Lance Lois Lane Metamorpho Nightwing Richard Dragon Robin Savant Sin Superman Wildcat Antagonists Atomic Skull Bane Black Mask Blockbuster Brainiac Brutale Calculator Captain Nazi Catwoman Chemo Cheshire Clayface Copperhead Crime Doctor Deathstroke Electrocutioner Gorilla Grodd Harley Quinn Hector Hammond Hellgrammite H.I.V.E. Joker Killer Moth Kobra Lady Shiva Lady Spellbinder Lady Vic Lashina Mad Hatter Mammoth Penguin Poison Ivy Prometheus Psimon Secret Six Secret Society Shadow Thief Shrapnel Spy Smasher Talia al Ghul Victor Zsasz Atomic Skull Bane Black Mask Blockbuster Brainiac Brutale Calculator Captain Nazi Catwoman Chemo Cheshire Clayface Copperhead Crime Doctor Deathstroke Electrocutioner Gorilla Grodd Harley Quinn Hector Hammond Hellgrammite H.I.V.E. Joker Killer Moth Kobra Lady Shiva Lady Spellbinder Lady Vic Lashina Mad Hatter Mammoth Penguin Poison Ivy Prometheus Psimon Secret Six Secret Society Shadow Thief Shrapnel Spy Smasher Talia al Ghul Victor Zsasz In other media TV series Film soundtrack TV series Film soundtrack soundtrack Category Category v t e Superman characters v t e Superman family By codename Superman Superboy Supergirl Superwoman Nightwing Flamebird Steel Power Girl By public identity Clark Kent Conner Kent Jon Kent Sodam Yat Mon-El Kara Zor-El Matrix Linda Danvers Laurel Gand Lois Lane Lucy Lane Lana Lang Luma Lynai Donna Troy Kristin Wells Chris Kent/Lor-Zod Thara Ak-Var David Connor John Henry Irons Natasha Irons Kong Kenan Kara Zor-L Pets Krypto the Superdog Streaky the Supercat Beppo the Super-Monkey Comet the Super-Horse By codename Superman Superboy Supergirl Superwoman Nightwing Flamebird Steel Power Girl Superman Superboy Supergirl Superwoman Nightwing Flamebird Steel Power Girl By public identity Clark Kent Conner Kent Jon Kent Sodam Yat Mon-El Kara Zor-El Matrix Linda Danvers Laurel Gand Lois Lane Lucy Lane Lana Lang Luma Lynai Donna Troy Kristin Wells Chris Kent/Lor-Zod Thara Ak-Var David Connor John Henry Irons Natasha Irons Kong Kenan Kara Zor-L Clark Kent Conner Kent Jon Kent Sodam Yat Mon-El Kara Zor-El Matrix Linda Danvers Laurel Gand Lois Lane Lucy Lane Lana Lang Luma Lynai Donna Troy Kristin Wells Chris Kent/Lor-Zod Thara Ak-Var David Connor John Henry Irons Natasha Irons Kong Kenan Kara Zor-L Pets Krypto the Superdog Streaky the Supercat Beppo the Super-Monkey Comet the Super-Horse Krypto the Superdog Streaky the Supercat Beppo the Super-Monkey Comet the Super-Horse Supporting characters Lois Lane Jimmy Olsen Jor-El Lara Jonathan and Martha Kent Perry White Lana Lang Batman Lucy Lane Lori Lemaris Gangbuster Zor-El Alura Dubbilex Sam Lane Lyla Lerrol Pete Ross Professor Potter Lena Luthor Maxima Morgan Edge Dan Turpin Steve Lombard Cat Grant Professor Hamilton Maggie Sawyer Bibbo Bibbowski Ron Troupe Strange Visitor Rampage Vartox Atlas Manchester Black Alexander Luthor Jr. Lois Lane Jimmy Olsen Jor-El Lara Jonathan and Martha Kent Perry White Lana Lang Batman Lucy Lane Lori Lemaris Gangbuster Zor-El Alura Dubbilex Sam Lane Lyla Lerrol Pete Ross Professor Potter Lena Luthor Maxima Morgan Edge Dan Turpin Steve Lombard Cat Grant Professor Hamilton Maggie Sawyer Bibbo Bibbowski Ron Troupe Strange Visitor Rampage Vartox Atlas Manchester Black Alexander Luthor Jr. Associated characters Auron The Authority Apollo Enchantress Lightray Manchester Black Midnighter OMAC Steel Guardian Justice League Atom Aquaman Batman Black Canary Blue Beetle Cyborg Flash Green Arrow Green Lantern John Stewart Martian Manhunter Robin/Nightwing Orion Captain Marvel Wonder Woman Justice Society of America Legion of Substitute Heroes Legion of Super-Heroes Cosmic Boy Saturn Girl Lightning Lad Chameleon Boy Colossal Boy Invisible Kid Star Boy Phantom Girl Triplicate Girl Shrinking Violet Bouncing Boy Sun Boy Brainiac 5 Ultra Boy Element Lad Matter-Eater Lad Lightning Lass Dream Girl Timber Wolf Princess Projectra Ferro Lad Karate Kid White Witch Shadow Lass Chemical King Wildfire Tyroc Dawnstar Laurel Gand Legion of Super-Pets Legion of Super-Villains Lobo Maxima Newsboy Legion Project Cadmus Silent Knight Super-Chief Supermen of America World's Finest Team Auron The Authority Apollo Enchantress Lightray Manchester Black Midnighter OMAC Steel Apollo Enchantress Lightray Manchester Black Midnighter OMAC Steel Guardian Justice League Atom Aquaman Batman Black Canary Blue Beetle Cyborg Flash Green Arrow Green Lantern John Stewart Martian Manhunter Robin/Nightwing Orion Captain Marvel Wonder Woman Atom Aquaman Batman Black Canary Blue Beetle Cyborg Flash Green Arrow Green Lantern John Stewart Martian Manhunter Robin/Nightwing Orion Captain Marvel Wonder Woman Justice Society of America Legion of Substitute Heroes Legion of Super-Heroes Cosmic Boy Saturn Girl Lightning Lad Chameleon Boy Colossal Boy Invisible Kid Star Boy Phantom Girl Triplicate Girl Shrinking Violet Bouncing Boy Sun Boy Brainiac 5 Ultra Boy Element Lad Matter-Eater Lad Lightning Lass Dream Girl Timber Wolf Princess Projectra Ferro Lad Karate Kid White Witch Shadow Lass Chemical King Wildfire Tyroc Dawnstar Laurel Gand Cosmic Boy Saturn Girl Lightning Lad Chameleon Boy Colossal Boy Invisible Kid Star Boy Phantom Girl Triplicate Girl Shrinking Violet Bouncing Boy Sun Boy Brainiac 5 Ultra Boy Element Lad Matter-Eater Lad Lightning Lass Dream Girl Timber Wolf Princess Projectra Ferro Lad Karate Kid White Witch Shadow Lass Chemical King Wildfire Tyroc Dawnstar Laurel Gand Legion of Super-Pets Legion of Super-Villains Lobo Maxima Newsboy Legion Project Cadmus Silent Knight Super-Chief Supermen of America World's Finest Team Enemies Central rogues Atomic Skull Bizarro Bloodsport Brainiac Bruno Mannheim Cyborg Superman Hank Henshaw Darkseid Doomsday General Zod Lex Luthor Livewire Mercy Graves Metallo Mister Mxyzptlk Mongul Parasite Silver Banshee Toyman Ultra-Humanite Recurring adversaries Anti-Monitor Atlas Blaze and Satanus Brainiac 2 Chemo Composite Superman Conduit Dev-Em Equus Faora Funky Flashman Gog Hellgramite Imperiex Jax-Ur Joker Kobra Lord Satanis Magpie Mala Mammoth Manchester Black Morgan Edge Neutron Nick O'Teen Non Ol-Vir Prankster Quarmer Quex-Ul Rampage Riot Ruin Scorch Solaris Solomon Grundy Terra-Man Titano Ultraman Ursa Volcana Organizations Black Zero Fearsome Five Intergang Masters of Disaster Royal Flush Gang Secret Society of Super Villains Suicide Squad Superman Revenge Squad Central rogues Atomic Skull Bizarro Bloodsport Brainiac Bruno Mannheim Cyborg Superman Hank Henshaw Darkseid Doomsday General Zod Lex Luthor Livewire Mercy Graves Metallo Mister Mxyzptlk Mongul Parasite Silver Banshee Toyman Ultra-Humanite Atomic Skull Bizarro Bloodsport Brainiac Bruno Mannheim Cyborg Superman Hank Henshaw Hank Henshaw Darkseid Doomsday General Zod Lex Luthor Livewire Mercy Graves Metallo Mister Mxyzptlk Mongul Parasite Silver Banshee Toyman Ultra-Humanite Recurring adversaries Anti-Monitor Atlas Blaze and Satanus Brainiac 2 Chemo Composite Superman Conduit Dev-Em Equus Faora Funky Flashman Gog Hellgramite Imperiex Jax-Ur Joker Kobra Lord Satanis Magpie Mala Mammoth Manchester Black Morgan Edge Neutron Nick O'Teen Non Ol-Vir Prankster Quarmer Quex-Ul Rampage Riot Ruin Scorch Solaris Solomon Grundy Terra-Man Titano Ultraman Ursa Volcana Anti-Monitor Atlas Blaze and Satanus Brainiac 2 Chemo Composite Superman Conduit Dev-Em Equus Faora Funky Flashman Gog Hellgramite Imperiex Jax-Ur Joker Kobra Lord Satanis Magpie Mala Mammoth Manchester Black Morgan Edge Neutron Nick O'Teen Non Ol-Vir Prankster Quarmer Quex-Ul Rampage Riot Ruin Scorch Solaris Solomon Grundy Terra-Man Titano Ultraman Ursa Volcana Organizations Black Zero Fearsome Five Intergang Masters of Disaster Royal Flush Gang Secret Society of Super Villains Suicide Squad Superman Revenge Squad Black Zero Fearsome Five Intergang Masters of Disaster Royal Flush Gang Secret Society of Super Villains Suicide Squad Superman Revenge Squad Alternative versions Superman Earth-One Earth-Two Ultraman Superboy-Prime Kingdom Come Supergirl Power Girl Superman Earth-One Earth-Two Ultraman Superboy-Prime Kingdom Come Earth-One Earth-Two Ultraman Superboy-Prime Kingdom Come Supergirl Power Girl Power Girl In other media 1978–1987 film series Superman Lois Lane Lex Luthor Eve Teschmacher General Zod DC Extended Universe Clark Kent / Superman Lois Lane Lex Luthor Zod Smallville Clark Kent Lois Lane Lana Lang Justice League Lex Luthor Lionel Luthor Chloe Sullivan Arrowverse Kara Danvers Alex Danvers Lex Luthor Nia Nal Superman & Lois Clark Kent Lois Lane 1978–1987 film series Superman Lois Lane Lex Luthor Eve Teschmacher General Zod Superman Lois Lane Lex Luthor Eve Teschmacher General Zod DC Extended Universe Clark Kent / Superman Lois Lane Lex Luthor Zod Clark Kent / Superman Lois Lane Lex Luthor Zod Smallville Clark Kent Lois Lane Lana Lang Justice League Lex Luthor Lionel Luthor Chloe Sullivan Clark Kent Lois Lane Lana Lang Justice League Lex Luthor Lionel Luthor Chloe Sullivan Arrowverse Kara Danvers Alex Danvers Lex Luthor Nia Nal Kara Danvers Alex Danvers Lex Luthor Nia Nal Superman & Lois Clark Kent Lois Lane Clark Kent Lois Lane Related Superman and Lois Lane Daily Planet Alien races Kryptonians Superman and Lois Lane Daily Planet Alien races Kryptonians Category Category v t e Wonder Woman v t e William Moulton Marston Elizabeth Holloway Marston Olive Byrne H. G. Peter Other contributors William Moulton Marston Elizabeth Holloway Marston Olive Byrne H. G. Peter Other contributors Characters Wonder Women Diana Prince Orana Artemis of Bana-Mighdall Hippolyta Nubia Wonder Girls Cassie Sandsmark Donna Troy Yara Flor Supporting characters Antiope Etta Candy Fury Hephaestus Heracles/Hercules Hermes I Ching Julia and Vanessa Kapatelis Justice League Mala Nemesis (Thomas Tresser) The Olympian Paula von Gunther Philippus Poseidon Queen Desira Helena Sandsmark Sarge Steel Steve Trevor Wonder Man Zeus Zola Enemies Ares Baron Blitzkrieg Baroness Paula von Gunther Blue Snowman Veronica Cale Cheetah Circe Dark Angel Decay Doctor Cyber Doctor Poison Doctor Psycho Duke of Deception Egg Fu Eviless First Born Genocide Giganta Hades Hypnota Kung Mask Maxwell Lord Medusa Minister Blizzard Osira Queen Clea Silver Swan Superwoman Tezcatlipoca Zara Factions Amazons of Themyscira Amazons of Bana-Mighdall Children of Ares Godwatch Olympian Gods Titans of Myth Villainy Inc. Wonder Women Diana Prince Orana Artemis of Bana-Mighdall Hippolyta Nubia Wonder Girls Cassie Sandsmark Donna Troy Yara Flor Diana Prince Orana Artemis of Bana-Mighdall Hippolyta Nubia Wonder Girls Cassie Sandsmark Donna Troy Yara Flor Cassie Sandsmark Donna Troy Yara Flor Supporting characters Antiope Etta Candy Fury Hephaestus Heracles/Hercules Hermes I Ching Julia and Vanessa Kapatelis Justice League Mala Nemesis (Thomas Tresser) The Olympian Paula von Gunther Philippus Poseidon Queen Desira Helena Sandsmark Sarge Steel Steve Trevor Wonder Man Zeus Zola Antiope Etta Candy Fury Hephaestus Heracles/Hercules Hermes I Ching Julia and Vanessa Kapatelis Justice League Mala Nemesis (Thomas Tresser) The Olympian Paula von Gunther Philippus Poseidon Queen Desira Helena Sandsmark Sarge Steel Steve Trevor Wonder Man Zeus Zola Enemies Ares Baron Blitzkrieg Baroness Paula von Gunther Blue Snowman Veronica Cale Cheetah Circe Dark Angel Decay Doctor Cyber Doctor Poison Doctor Psycho Duke of Deception Egg Fu Eviless First Born Genocide Giganta Hades Hypnota Kung Mask Maxwell Lord Medusa Minister Blizzard Osira Queen Clea Silver Swan Superwoman Tezcatlipoca Zara Ares Baron Blitzkrieg Baroness Paula von Gunther Blue Snowman Veronica Cale Cheetah Circe Dark Angel Decay Doctor Cyber Doctor Poison Doctor Psycho Duke of Deception Egg Fu Eviless First Born Genocide Giganta Hades Hypnota Kung Mask Maxwell Lord Medusa Minister Blizzard Osira Queen Clea Silver Swan Superwoman Tezcatlipoca Zara Factions Amazons of Themyscira Amazons of Bana-Mighdall Children of Ares Godwatch Olympian Gods Titans of Myth Villainy Inc. Amazons of Themyscira Amazons of Bana-Mighdall Children of Ares Godwatch Olympian Gods Titans of Myth Villainy Inc. Locations Aeaea Themyscira (The Paradise Islands) Aeaea Themyscira (The Paradise Islands) Publications Absolute Wonder Woman All Star Comics Wonder Woman Amazonia Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Comic Cavalcade Crossover The Legend of Wonder Woman Sensation Comics Superman and Wonder Woman: The Hidden Killer Superman/Wonder Woman Wonder Woman '77 The Wonder Woman Chronicles Wonder Woman: Earth One Wonder Woman Historia: The Amazons The World's Greatest Superheroes Absolute Wonder Woman All Star Comics Wonder Woman Amazonia Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Comic Cavalcade Crossover The Legend of Wonder Woman Sensation Comics Superman and Wonder Woman: The Hidden Killer Superman/Wonder Woman Wonder Woman '77 The Wonder Woman Chronicles Wonder Woman: Earth One Wonder Woman Historia: The Amazons The World's Greatest Superheroes Storylines " Introducing Wonder Woman " (1941) Gods and Mortals (1987) Challenge of the Gods (1987–88) War of the Gods (1991) The Contest (1994) The Challenge of Artemis (1995) Paradise Island Lost (2001) Our Worlds at War (2001) The Hiketeia (2002) Down to Earth (2003–04) Who Is Wonder Woman? (2006–07) Amazons Attack! (2007) The Circle (2008) Ends of the Earth (2008) Rise of the Olympian (2009) Flashpoint (2011) The Lies (2016) Year One (2016) The Truth (2017) Godwatch (2017) Trial of the Amazons (2022) " Introducing Wonder Woman " (1941) Gods and Mortals (1987) Challenge of the Gods (1987–88) War of the Gods (1991) The Contest (1994) The Challenge of Artemis (1995) Paradise Island Lost (2001) Our Worlds at War (2001) The Hiketeia (2002) Down to Earth (2003–04) Who Is Wonder Woman? (2006–07) Amazons Attack! (2007) The Circle (2008) Ends of the Earth (2008) Rise of the Olympian (2009) Flashpoint (2011) The Lies (2016) Year One (2016) The Truth (2017) Godwatch (2017) Trial of the Amazons (2022) Technology Golden Girdle of Gaea Lasso of Truth Wonder Woman's bracelets Golden Girdle of Gaea Lasso of Truth Wonder Woman's bracelets In other media Film Wonder Woman (1974 film) Wonder Woman (2009 film) Wonder Woman: Bloodlines DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Wonder Woman (2017 film) soundtrack Justice League Zack Snyder's Justice League Wonder Woman 1984 soundtrack Peacemaker: It's Cow or Never Shazam! Fury of the Gods The Flash Television Wonder Woman episodes Wonder Woman (2011 TV pilot) Film Wonder Woman (1974 film) Wonder Woman (2009 film) Wonder Woman: Bloodlines DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Wonder Woman (2017 film) soundtrack Justice League Zack Snyder's Justice League Wonder Woman 1984 soundtrack Peacemaker: It's Cow or Never Shazam! Fury of the Gods The Flash Wonder Woman (1974 film) Wonder Woman (2009 film) Wonder Woman: Bloodlines DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Wonder Woman (2017 film) soundtrack Justice League Zack Snyder's Justice League Wonder Woman 1984 soundtrack Peacemaker: It's Cow or Never Shazam! Fury of the Gods The Flash Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Wonder Woman (2017 film) soundtrack soundtrack Justice League Zack Snyder's Justice League Zack Snyder's Justice League Wonder Woman 1984 soundtrack soundtrack Peacemaker: It's Cow or Never Shazam! Fury of the Gods The Flash Television Wonder Woman episodes Wonder Woman (2011 TV pilot) Wonder Woman episodes episodes Wonder Woman (2011 TV pilot) Miscellaneous Alternative versions Earth-Two Bizarra Superwoman Cultural impact Professor Marston and the Wonder Women Literature Wonder Women! The Untold Story of American Superheroines Alternative versions Earth-Two Bizarra Superwoman Earth-Two Bizarra Superwoman Cultural impact Professor Marston and the Wonder Women Literature Wonder Women! The Untold Story of American Superheroines Category v t e Golden Age of Comic Books v t e Ace Comics Captain Courageous Doctor Nemesis The Flag Lash Lightning The Raven Unknown Soldier Vulcan Captain Courageous Doctor Nemesis The Flag Lash Lightning The Raven Unknown Soldier Vulcan All-American Publications The Atom Al Pratt Black Canary Doctor Mid-Nite Charles McNider Doiby Dickles The Flash Jay Garrick Gay Ghost Green Lantern Alan Scott Hawkgirl Shiera Sanders Hall Hawkman Carter Hall Hop Harrigan Johnny Thunder Justice Society of America The King Mister Terrific Terry Sloane Neptune Perkins Red Tornado Sargon the Sorcerer Terrific Whatzit Thunderbolt Ultra-Man The Whip Wildcat Ted Grant Wonder Woman The Atom Al Pratt Al Pratt Black Canary Doctor Mid-Nite Charles McNider Charles McNider Doiby Dickles The Flash Jay Garrick Jay Garrick Gay Ghost Green Lantern Alan Scott Alan Scott Hawkgirl Shiera Sanders Hall Shiera Sanders Hall Hawkman Carter Hall Carter Hall Hop Harrigan Johnny Thunder Justice Society of America The King Mister Terrific Terry Sloane Terry Sloane Neptune Perkins Red Tornado Sargon the Sorcerer Terrific Whatzit Thunderbolt Ultra-Man The Whip Wildcat Ted Grant Ted Grant Wonder Woman Centaur Comics Airman Amazing-Man The Arrow The Clock The Eye Fantom of the Fair Magician from Mars The Masked Marvel Minimidget Airman Amazing-Man The Arrow The Clock The Eye Fantom of the Fair Magician from Mars The Masked Marvel Minimidget Charlton Comics Atomic Mouse Captain Atom Nightshade Mr. Muscles Nature Boy Space Adventures Yellowjacket Atomic Mouse Captain Atom Nightshade Mr. Muscles Nature Boy Space Adventures Yellowjacket Dell Comics Doctor Hormone Flash Gordon The Owl Phantasmo Supermind's Son Zorro Doctor Hormone Flash Gordon The Owl Phantasmo Supermind's Son Zorro Fawcett Comics Bulletgirl Bulletman Captain Marvel Captain Marvel Jr. Captain Midnight Dan Dare Golden Arrow Hoppy the Marvel Bunny Ibis the Invincible Lieutenant Marvels Marvel Family Mary Marvel Master Man Minute-Man Mr. Scarlet Nyoka the Jungle Girl Phantom Eagle Pinky the Whiz Kid Scoop Smith Spy Smasher Squadron of Justice Uncle Marvel Bulletgirl Bulletman Captain Marvel Captain Marvel Jr. Captain Midnight Dan Dare Golden Arrow Hoppy the Marvel Bunny Ibis the Invincible Lieutenant Marvels Marvel Family Mary Marvel Master Man Minute-Man Mr. Scarlet Nyoka the Jungle Girl Phantom Eagle Pinky the Whiz Kid Scoop Smith Spy Smasher Squadron of Justice Uncle Marvel Fox Comics Blue Beetle Dan Garret The Bouncer Bronze Man Dynamo The Flame Green Mask The Moth Samson Stardust the Super Wizard U.S. Jones Wonder Man Blue Beetle Dan Garret Dan Garret The Bouncer Bronze Man Dynamo The Flame Green Mask The Moth Samson Stardust the Super Wizard U.S. Jones Wonder Man Harvey Comics Black Cat Captain 3-D Captain Freedom Green Hornet Invisible Scarlet O'Neil Kato Shock Gibson Spirit of '76 Black Cat Captain 3-D Captain Freedom Green Hornet Invisible Scarlet O'Neil Kato Shock Gibson Spirit of '76 Lev Gleason Publications Captain Battle Claw Crimebuster Daredevil Little Wise Guys Silver Streak Captain Battle Claw Crimebuster Daredevil Little Wise Guys Silver Streak MLJ Comics The Black Hood Bob Phantom Captain Flag The Comet The Firefly The Fox The Hangman Rang-a-Tang the Wonder Dog The Shield Super Duck The Web The Wizard The Black Hood Bob Phantom Captain Flag The Comet The Firefly The Fox The Hangman Rang-a-Tang the Wonder Dog The Shield Super Duck The Web The Wizard National Allied Publications Ace the Bat-Hound Air Wave Aquaman Batman Batwoman Black Pirate Boy Commandos Captain Comet Chris KL-99 Congo Bill Crimson Avenger Lee Travis Dan the Dyna-Mite Dark Ranger Detective Chimp Doctor Fate Kent Nelson Doctor Occult Genius Jones Gimmick Girl Green Arrow Guardian Hourman Rex Tyler Johnny Chambers King Faraday The Knight Krypto Liberty Belle Manhunter Paul Kirk Martian Manhunter Miss X Mr. America Newsboy Legion Phantom Stranger Rex the Wonder Dog Robin Dick Grayson Robotman Rose Psychic Sandman Wesley Dodds Sandy the Golden Boy Seven Soldiers of Victory Shining Knight Sir Justin Slam Bradley The Spectre Jim Corrigan Speedy Roy Harper Squire Star-Spangled Kid Sylvester Pemberton Starman Ted Knight Stripesy Stuff the Chinatown Kid Superboy Kal-El Superman Superwoman Lois Lane Tarantula TNT Tommy Tomorrow Vigilante Greg Saunders Wonder Woman Zatara Ace the Bat-Hound Air Wave Aquaman Batman Batwoman Black Pirate Boy Commandos Captain Comet Chris KL-99 Congo Bill Crimson Avenger Lee Travis Lee Travis Dan the Dyna-Mite Dark Ranger Detective Chimp Doctor Fate Kent Nelson Kent Nelson Doctor Occult Genius Jones Gimmick Girl Green Arrow Guardian Hourman Rex Tyler Rex Tyler Johnny Chambers King Faraday The Knight Krypto Liberty Belle Manhunter Paul Kirk Paul Kirk Martian Manhunter Miss X Mr. America Newsboy Legion Phantom Stranger Rex the Wonder Dog Robin Dick Grayson Dick Grayson Robotman Rose Psychic Sandman Wesley Dodds Wesley Dodds Sandy the 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We gratefully acknowledge support from the Simons Foundation, member institutions , and all contributors. Donate Help | Advanced Search Showing 1–50 of 15,895 results for author: Wang, Y Show abstracts Hide abstracts 1 2 3 4 5 … arXiv:2601.10596 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.DB Improving Database Performance by Application-side Transaction Merging Authors: Xueyuan Ren , Frank Li , Yang Wang Abstract : This paper explores a new opportunity to improve the performance of transaction processing at the application side by merging structurely similar statements or transactions. Concretely, we re-write transactions to 1) merge similar statements using specific SQL semantics; 2) eliminate redundant reads; and 3) merge contending statements across transactions by pre-computing their aggregated effect. F… ▽ More This paper explores a new opportunity to improve the performance of transaction processing at the application side by merging structurely similar statements or transactions. Concretely, we re-write transactions to 1) merge similar statements using specific SQL semantics; 2) eliminate redundant reads; and 3) merge contending statements across transactions by pre-computing their aggregated effect. Following this idea, we present the design of TransactionMerger, a middleware to collect and merge transactions across different clients. We further present a static analysis tool to identify the merging opportunity without violating isolation as well as our experience of re-writing transactions in TPC-C and Spree, a popular real-world application. Our evaluation shows that such transaction merging can improve TPC-C throughput by up to 2.65X and Spree throughput by 3.52X. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10596 [ pdf , ps , other ] Improving Database Performance by Application-side Transaction Merging Authors: Xueyuan Ren , Frank Li , Yang Wang Abstract : This paper explores a new opportunity to improve the performance of transaction processing at the application side by merging structurely similar statements or transactions. Concretely, we re-write transactions to 1) merge similar statements using specific SQL semantics; 2) eliminate redundant reads; and 3) merge contending statements across transactions by pre-computing their aggregated effect. F… ▽ More This paper explores a new opportunity to improve the performance of transaction processing at the application side by merging structurely similar statements or transactions. Concretely, we re-write transactions to 1) merge similar statements using specific SQL semantics; 2) eliminate redundant reads; and 3) merge contending statements across transactions by pre-computing their aggregated effect. Following this idea, we present the design of TransactionMerger, a middleware to collect and merge transactions across different clients. We further present a static analysis tool to identify the merging opportunity without violating isolation as well as our experience of re-writing transactions in TPC-C and Spree, a popular real-world application. Our evaluation shows that such transaction merging can improve TPC-C throughput by up to 2.65X and Spree throughput by 3.52X. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10589 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CR cs.CL Be Your Own Red Teamer: Safety Alignment via Self-Play and Reflective Experience Replay Authors: Hao Wang , Yanting Wang , Hao Li , Rui Li , Lei Sha Abstract : Large Language Models (LLMs) have achieved remarkable capabilities but remain vulnerable to adversarial ``jailbreak'' attacks designed to bypass safety guardrails. Current safety alignment methods depend heavily on static external red teaming, utilizing fixed defense prompts or pre-collected adversarial datasets. This leads to a rigid defense that overfits known patterns and fails to generalize to… ▽ More Large Language Models (LLMs) have achieved remarkable capabilities but remain vulnerable to adversarial ``jailbreak'' attacks designed to bypass safety guardrails. Current safety alignment methods depend heavily on static external red teaming, utilizing fixed defense prompts or pre-collected adversarial datasets. This leads to a rigid defense that overfits known patterns and fails to generalize to novel, sophisticated threats. To address this critical limitation, we propose empowering the model to be its own red teamer, capable of achieving autonomous and evolving adversarial attacks. Specifically, we introduce Safety Self- Play (SSP), a system that utilizes a single LLM to act concurrently as both the Attacker (generating jailbreaks) and the Defender (refusing harmful requests) within a unified Reinforcement Learning (RL) loop, dynamically evolving attack strategies to uncover vulnerabilities while simultaneously strengthening defense mechanisms. To ensure the Defender effectively addresses critical safety issues during the self-play, we introduce an advanced Reflective Experience Replay Mechanism, which uses an experience pool accumulated throughout the process. The mechanism employs a Upper Confidence Bound (UCB) sampling strategy to focus on failure cases with low rewards, helping the model learn from past hard mistakes while balancing exploration and exploitation. Extensive experiments demonstrate that our SSP approach autonomously evolves robust defense capabilities, significantly outperforming baselines trained on static adversarial datasets and establishing a new benchmark for proactive safety alignment. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10589 [ pdf , ps , other ] Be Your Own Red Teamer: Safety Alignment via Self-Play and Reflective Experience Replay Authors: Hao Wang , Yanting Wang , Hao Li , Rui Li , Lei Sha Abstract : Large Language Models (LLMs) have achieved remarkable capabilities but remain vulnerable to adversarial ``jailbreak'' attacks designed to bypass safety guardrails. Current safety alignment methods depend heavily on static external red teaming, utilizing fixed defense prompts or pre-collected adversarial datasets. This leads to a rigid defense that overfits known patterns and fails to generalize to… ▽ More Large Language Models (LLMs) have achieved remarkable capabilities but remain vulnerable to adversarial ``jailbreak'' attacks designed to bypass safety guardrails. Current safety alignment methods depend heavily on static external red teaming, utilizing fixed defense prompts or pre-collected adversarial datasets. This leads to a rigid defense that overfits known patterns and fails to generalize to novel, sophisticated threats. To address this critical limitation, we propose empowering the model to be its own red teamer, capable of achieving autonomous and evolving adversarial attacks. Specifically, we introduce Safety Self- Play (SSP), a system that utilizes a single LLM to act concurrently as both the Attacker (generating jailbreaks) and the Defender (refusing harmful requests) within a unified Reinforcement Learning (RL) loop, dynamically evolving attack strategies to uncover vulnerabilities while simultaneously strengthening defense mechanisms. To ensure the Defender effectively addresses critical safety issues during the self-play, we introduce an advanced Reflective Experience Replay Mechanism, which uses an experience pool accumulated throughout the process. The mechanism employs a Upper Confidence Bound (UCB) sampling strategy to focus on failure cases with low rewards, helping the model learn from past hard mistakes while balancing exploration and exploitation. Extensive experiments demonstrate that our SSP approach autonomously evolves robust defense capabilities, significantly outperforming baselines trained on static adversarial datasets and establishing a new benchmark for proactive safety alignment. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10572 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.PF Long-term Monitoring of Kernel and Hardware Events to Understand Latency Variance Authors: Fang Zhou , Yuyang Huang , Miao Yu , Sixiang Ma , Tongping Liu , Yang Wang Abstract : This paper presents our experience to understand latency variance caused by kernel and hardware events, which are often invisible at the application level. For this purpose, we have built VarMRI, a tool chain to monitor and analyze those events in the long term. To mitigate the "big data" problem caused by long-term monitoring, VarMRI selectively records a subset of events following two principles… ▽ More This paper presents our experience to understand latency variance caused by kernel and hardware events, which are often invisible at the application level. For this purpose, we have built VarMRI, a tool chain to monitor and analyze those events in the long term. To mitigate the "big data" problem caused by long-term monitoring, VarMRI selectively records a subset of events following two principles: it only records events that are affecting the requests recorded by the application; it records coarse-grained information first and records additional information only when necessary. Furthermore, VarMRI introduces an analysis method that is efficient on large amount of data, robust on different data set and against missing data, and informative to the user. VarMRI has helped us to carry out a 3,000-hour study of six applications and benchmarks on CloudLab. It reveals a wide variety of events causing latency variance, including interrupt preemption, Java GC, pipeline stall, NUMA balancing etc.; simple optimization or tuning can reduce tail latencies by up to 31%. Furthermore, the impacts of some of these events vary significantly across different experiments, which confirms the necessity of long-term monitoring. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10572 [ pdf , ps , other ] Long-term Monitoring of Kernel and Hardware Events to Understand Latency Variance Authors: Fang Zhou , Yuyang Huang , Miao Yu , Sixiang Ma , Tongping Liu , Yang Wang Abstract : This paper presents our experience to understand latency variance caused by kernel and hardware events, which are often invisible at the application level. For this purpose, we have built VarMRI, a tool chain to monitor and analyze those events in the long term. To mitigate the "big data" problem caused by long-term monitoring, VarMRI selectively records a subset of events following two principles… ▽ More This paper presents our experience to understand latency variance caused by kernel and hardware events, which are often invisible at the application level. For this purpose, we have built VarMRI, a tool chain to monitor and analyze those events in the long term. To mitigate the "big data" problem caused by long-term monitoring, VarMRI selectively records a subset of events following two principles: it only records events that are affecting the requests recorded by the application; it records coarse-grained information first and records additional information only when necessary. Furthermore, VarMRI introduces an analysis method that is efficient on large amount of data, robust on different data set and against missing data, and informative to the user. VarMRI has helped us to carry out a 3,000-hour study of six applications and benchmarks on CloudLab. It reveals a wide variety of events causing latency variance, including interrupt preemption, Java GC, pipeline stall, NUMA balancing etc.; simple optimization or tuning can reduce tail latencies by up to 31%. Furthermore, the impacts of some of these events vary significantly across different experiments, which confirms the necessity of long-term monitoring. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10547 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.SD HeartMuLa: A Family of Open Sourced Music Foundation Models Authors: Dongchao Yang , Yuxin Xie , Yuguo Yin , Zheyu Wang , Xiaoyu Yi , Gongxi Zhu , Xiaolong Weng , Zihan Xiong , Yingzhe Ma , Dading Cong , Jingliang Liu , Zihang Huang , Jinghan Ru , Rongjie Huang , Haoran Wan , Peixu Wang , Kuoxi Yu , Helin Wang , Liming Liang , Xianwei Zhuang , Yuanyuan Wang , Haohan Guo , Junjie Cao , Zeqian Ju , Songxiang Liu , et al. (3 additional authors not shown) Abstract : We present a family of open-source Music Foundation Models designed to advance large-scale music understanding and generation across diverse tasks and modalities. Our framework consists of four major components: (1) HeartCLAP, an audio-text alignment model; (2) HeartTranscriptor, a robust lyric recognition model optimized for real-world music scenarios; and (3) HeartCodec, a low-frame-rate (12.5 H… ▽ More We present a family of open-source Music Foundation Models designed to advance large-scale music understanding and generation across diverse tasks and modalities. Our framework consists of four major components: (1) HeartCLAP, an audio-text alignment model; (2) HeartTranscriptor, a robust lyric recognition model optimized for real-world music scenarios; and (3) HeartCodec, a low-frame-rate (12.5 Hz) yet high-fidelity music codec tokenizer that captures long-range musical structure while preserving fine-grained acoustic details and enabling efficient autoregressive modeling; (4) HeartMuLa, an LLM-based song generation model capable of synthesizing high-fidelity music under rich, user-controllable conditions (e.g., textual style descriptions, lyrics, and reference audio). In addition, it provides two specialized modes: (i) fine-grained musical attribute control, which allows users to specify the style of different song sections (e.g., intro, verse, chorus) using natural language prompts; and (ii) short, engaging music generation, which is suitable as background music for short videos. Lastly, HeartMuLa improves significantly when scaled to 7B parameters. For the first time, we show that a Suno-level, commercial-grade system can be reproduced using academic-scale data and GPU resources. We expect these foundation models to serve as strong baselines for future research and to facilitate practical applications in multimodal content production. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10547 [ pdf , ps , other ] HeartMuLa: A Family of Open Sourced Music Foundation Models Authors: Dongchao Yang , Yuxin Xie , Yuguo Yin , Zheyu Wang , Xiaoyu Yi , Gongxi Zhu , Xiaolong Weng , Zihan Xiong , Yingzhe Ma , Dading Cong , Jingliang Liu , Zihang Huang , Jinghan Ru , Rongjie Huang , Haoran Wan , Peixu Wang , Kuoxi Yu , Helin Wang , Liming Liang , Xianwei Zhuang , Yuanyuan Wang , Haohan Guo , Junjie Cao , Zeqian Ju , Songxiang Liu , et al. (3 additional authors not shown) Abstract : We present a family of open-source Music Foundation Models designed to advance large-scale music understanding and generation across diverse tasks and modalities. Our framework consists of four major components: (1) HeartCLAP, an audio-text alignment model; (2) HeartTranscriptor, a robust lyric recognition model optimized for real-world music scenarios; and (3) HeartCodec, a low-frame-rate (12.5 H… ▽ More We present a family of open-source Music Foundation Models designed to advance large-scale music understanding and generation across diverse tasks and modalities. Our framework consists of four major components: (1) HeartCLAP, an audio-text alignment model; (2) HeartTranscriptor, a robust lyric recognition model optimized for real-world music scenarios; and (3) HeartCodec, a low-frame-rate (12.5 Hz) yet high-fidelity music codec tokenizer that captures long-range musical structure while preserving fine-grained acoustic details and enabling efficient autoregressive modeling; (4) HeartMuLa, an LLM-based song generation model capable of synthesizing high-fidelity music under rich, user-controllable conditions (e.g., textual style descriptions, lyrics, and reference audio). In addition, it provides two specialized modes: (i) fine-grained musical attribute control, which allows users to specify the style of different song sections (e.g., intro, verse, chorus) using natural language prompts; and (ii) short, engaging music generation, which is suitable as background music for short videos. Lastly, HeartMuLa improves significantly when scaled to 7B parameters. For the first time, we show that a Suno-level, commercial-grade system can be reproduced using academic-scale data and GPU resources. We expect these foundation models to serve as strong baselines for future research and to facilitate practical applications in multimodal content production. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10527 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.CL cs.CV cs.LG A Safety Report on GPT-5.2, Gemini 3 Pro, Qwen3-VL, Doubao 1.8, Grok 4.1 Fast, Nano Banana Pro, and Seedream 4.5 Authors: Xingjun Ma , Yixu Wang , Hengyuan Xu , Yutao Wu , Yifan Ding , Yunhan Zhao , Zilong Wang , Jiabin Hua , Ming Wen , Jianan Liu , Ranjie Duan , Yifeng Gao , Yingshui Tan , Yunhao Chen , Hui Xue , Xin Wang , Wei Cheng , Jingjing Chen , Zuxuan Wu , Bo Li , Yu-Gang Jiang Abstract : The rapid evolution of Large Language Models (LLMs) and Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) has produced substantial gains in reasoning, perception, and generative capability across language and vision. However, whether these advances yield commensurate improvements in safety remains unclear, in part due to fragmented evaluation practices limited to single modalities or threat models. In this… ▽ More The rapid evolution of Large Language Models (LLMs) and Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) has produced substantial gains in reasoning, perception, and generative capability across language and vision. However, whether these advances yield commensurate improvements in safety remains unclear, in part due to fragmented evaluation practices limited to single modalities or threat models. In this report, we present an integrated safety evaluation of 7 frontier models: GPT-5.2, Gemini 3 Pro, Qwen3-VL, Doubao 1.8, Grok 4.1 Fast, Nano Banana Pro, and Seedream 4.5. We evaluate each model across language, vision-language, and image generation settings using a unified protocol that integrates benchmark evaluation, adversarial evaluation, multilingual evaluation, and compliance evaluation. Aggregating our evaluations into safety leaderboards and model safety profiles across multiple evaluation modes reveals a sharply heterogeneous safety landscape. While GPT-5.2 demonstrates consistently strong and balanced safety performance across evaluations, other models exhibit pronounced trade-offs among benchmark safety, adversarial alignment, multilingual generalization, and regulatory compliance. Both language and vision-language modalities show significant vulnerability under adversarial evaluation, with all models degrading substantially despite strong results on standard benchmarks. Text-to-image models achieve relatively stronger alignment in regulated visual risk categories, yet remain brittle under adversarial or semantically ambiguous prompts. Overall, these results show that safety in frontier models is inherently multidimensional--shaped by modality, language, and evaluation scheme, underscoring the need for standardized safety evaluations to accurately assess real-world risk and guide responsible model development and deployment. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 42 pages, 24 figures arXiv:2601.10527 [ pdf , ps , other ] A Safety Report on GPT-5.2, Gemini 3 Pro, Qwen3-VL, Doubao 1.8, Grok 4.1 Fast, Nano Banana Pro, and Seedream 4.5 Authors: Xingjun Ma , Yixu Wang , Hengyuan Xu , Yutao Wu , Yifan Ding , Yunhan Zhao , Zilong Wang , Jiabin Hua , Ming Wen , Jianan Liu , Ranjie Duan , Yifeng Gao , Yingshui Tan , Yunhao Chen , Hui Xue , Xin Wang , Wei Cheng , Jingjing Chen , Zuxuan Wu , Bo Li , Yu-Gang Jiang Abstract : The rapid evolution of Large Language Models (LLMs) and Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) has produced substantial gains in reasoning, perception, and generative capability across language and vision. However, whether these advances yield commensurate improvements in safety remains unclear, in part due to fragmented evaluation practices limited to single modalities or threat models. In this… ▽ More The rapid evolution of Large Language Models (LLMs) and Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) has produced substantial gains in reasoning, perception, and generative capability across language and vision. However, whether these advances yield commensurate improvements in safety remains unclear, in part due to fragmented evaluation practices limited to single modalities or threat models. In this report, we present an integrated safety evaluation of 7 frontier models: GPT-5.2, Gemini 3 Pro, Qwen3-VL, Doubao 1.8, Grok 4.1 Fast, Nano Banana Pro, and Seedream 4.5. We evaluate each model across language, vision-language, and image generation settings using a unified protocol that integrates benchmark evaluation, adversarial evaluation, multilingual evaluation, and compliance evaluation. Aggregating our evaluations into safety leaderboards and model safety profiles across multiple evaluation modes reveals a sharply heterogeneous safety landscape. While GPT-5.2 demonstrates consistently strong and balanced safety performance across evaluations, other models exhibit pronounced trade-offs among benchmark safety, adversarial alignment, multilingual generalization, and regulatory compliance. Both language and vision-language modalities show significant vulnerability under adversarial evaluation, with all models degrading substantially despite strong results on standard benchmarks. Text-to-image models achieve relatively stronger alignment in regulated visual risk categories, yet remain brittle under adversarial or semantically ambiguous prompts. Overall, these results show that safety in frontier models is inherently multidimensional--shaped by modality, language, and evaluation scheme, underscoring the need for standardized safety evaluations to accurately assess real-world risk and guide responsible model development and deployment. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 42 pages, 24 figures arXiv:2601.10477 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI cs.CY Urban Socio-Semantic Segmentation with Vision-Language Reasoning Authors: Yu Wang , Yi Wang , Rui Dai , Yujie Wang , Kaikui Liu , Xiangxiang Chu , Yansheng Li Abstract : As hubs of human activity, urban surfaces consist of a wealth of semantic entities. Segmenting these various entities from satellite imagery is crucial for a range of downstream applications. Current advanced segmentation models can reliably segment entities defined by physical attributes (e.g., buildings, water bodies) but still struggle with socially defined categories (e.g., schools, parks). In… ▽ More As hubs of human activity, urban surfaces consist of a wealth of semantic entities. Segmenting these various entities from satellite imagery is crucial for a range of downstream applications. Current advanced segmentation models can reliably segment entities defined by physical attributes (e.g., buildings, water bodies) but still struggle with socially defined categories (e.g., schools, parks). In this work, we achieve socio-semantic segmentation by vision-language model reasoning. To facilitate this, we introduce the Urban Socio-Semantic Segmentation dataset named SocioSeg, a new resource comprising satellite imagery, digital maps, and pixel-level labels of social semantic entities organized in a hierarchical structure. Additionally, we propose a novel vision-language reasoning framework called SocioReasoner that simulates the human process of identifying and annotating social semantic entities via cross-modal recognition and multi-stage reasoning. We employ reinforcement learning to optimize this non-differentiable process and elicit the reasoning capabilities of the vision-language model. Experiments demonstrate our approach's gains over state-of-the-art models and strong zero-shot generalization. Our dataset and code are available in △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10477 [ pdf , ps , other ] Urban Socio-Semantic Segmentation with Vision-Language Reasoning Authors: Yu Wang , Yi Wang , Rui Dai , Yujie Wang , Kaikui Liu , Xiangxiang Chu , Yansheng Li Abstract : As hubs of human activity, urban surfaces consist of a wealth of semantic entities. Segmenting these various entities from satellite imagery is crucial for a range of downstream applications. Current advanced segmentation models can reliably segment entities defined by physical attributes (e.g., buildings, water bodies) but still struggle with socially defined categories (e.g., schools, parks). In… ▽ More As hubs of human activity, urban surfaces consist of a wealth of semantic entities. Segmenting these various entities from satellite imagery is crucial for a range of downstream applications. Current advanced segmentation models can reliably segment entities defined by physical attributes (e.g., buildings, water bodies) but still struggle with socially defined categories (e.g., schools, parks). In this work, we achieve socio-semantic segmentation by vision-language model reasoning. To facilitate this, we introduce the Urban Socio-Semantic Segmentation dataset named SocioSeg, a new resource comprising satellite imagery, digital maps, and pixel-level labels of social semantic entities organized in a hierarchical structure. Additionally, we propose a novel vision-language reasoning framework called SocioReasoner that simulates the human process of identifying and annotating social semantic entities via cross-modal recognition and multi-stage reasoning. We employ reinforcement learning to optimize this non-differentiable process and elicit the reasoning capabilities of the vision-language model. Experiments demonstrate our approach's gains over state-of-the-art models and strong zero-shot generalization. Our dataset and code are available in △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10332 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Think-Then-Generate: Reasoning-Aware Text-to-Image Diffusion with LLM Encoders Authors: Siqi Kou , Jiachun Jin , Zetong Zhou , Ye Ma , Yugang Wang , Quan Chen , Peng Jiang , Xiao Yang , Jun Zhu , Kai Yu , Zhijie Deng Abstract : Recent progress in text-to-image (T2I) diffusion models (DMs) has enabled high-quality visual synthesis from diverse textual prompts. Yet, most existing T2I DMs, even those equipped with large language model (LLM)-based text encoders, remain text-pixel mappers -- they employ LLMs merely as text encoders, without leveraging their inherent reasoning capabilities to infer what should be visually depi… ▽ More Recent progress in text-to-image (T2I) diffusion models (DMs) has enabled high-quality visual synthesis from diverse textual prompts. Yet, most existing T2I DMs, even those equipped with large language model (LLM)-based text encoders, remain text-pixel mappers -- they employ LLMs merely as text encoders, without leveraging their inherent reasoning capabilities to infer what should be visually depicted given the textual prompt. To move beyond such literal generation, we propose the think-then-generate (T2G) paradigm, where the LLM-based text encoder is encouraged to reason about and rewrite raw user prompts; the states of the rewritten prompts then serve as diffusion conditioning. To achieve this, we first activate the think-then-rewrite pattern of the LLM encoder with a lightweight supervised fine-tuning process. Subsequently, the LLM encoder and diffusion backbone are co-optimized to ensure faithful reasoning about the context and accurate rendering of the semantics via Dual-GRPO. In particular, the text encoder is reinforced using image-grounded rewards to infer and recall world knowledge, while the diffusion backbone is pushed to produce semantically consistent and visually coherent images. Experiments show substantial improvements in factual consistency, semantic alignment, and visual realism across reasoning-based image generation and editing benchmarks, achieving 0.79 on WISE score, nearly on par with GPT-4. Our results constitute a promising step toward next-generation unified models with reasoning, expression, and demonstration capacities. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10332 [ pdf , ps , other ] Think-Then-Generate: Reasoning-Aware Text-to-Image Diffusion with LLM Encoders Authors: Siqi Kou , Jiachun Jin , Zetong Zhou , Ye Ma , Yugang Wang , Quan Chen , Peng Jiang , Xiao Yang , Jun Zhu , Kai Yu , Zhijie Deng Abstract : Recent progress in text-to-image (T2I) diffusion models (DMs) has enabled high-quality visual synthesis from diverse textual prompts. Yet, most existing T2I DMs, even those equipped with large language model (LLM)-based text encoders, remain text-pixel mappers -- they employ LLMs merely as text encoders, without leveraging their inherent reasoning capabilities to infer what should be visually depi… ▽ More Recent progress in text-to-image (T2I) diffusion models (DMs) has enabled high-quality visual synthesis from diverse textual prompts. Yet, most existing T2I DMs, even those equipped with large language model (LLM)-based text encoders, remain text-pixel mappers -- they employ LLMs merely as text encoders, without leveraging their inherent reasoning capabilities to infer what should be visually depicted given the textual prompt. To move beyond such literal generation, we propose the think-then-generate (T2G) paradigm, where the LLM-based text encoder is encouraged to reason about and rewrite raw user prompts; the states of the rewritten prompts then serve as diffusion conditioning. To achieve this, we first activate the think-then-rewrite pattern of the LLM encoder with a lightweight supervised fine-tuning process. Subsequently, the LLM encoder and diffusion backbone are co-optimized to ensure faithful reasoning about the context and accurate rendering of the semantics via Dual-GRPO. In particular, the text encoder is reinforced using image-grounded rewards to infer and recall world knowledge, while the diffusion backbone is pushed to produce semantically consistent and visually coherent images. Experiments show substantial improvements in factual consistency, semantic alignment, and visual realism across reasoning-based image generation and editing benchmarks, achieving 0.79 on WISE score, nearly on par with GPT-4. Our results constitute a promising step toward next-generation unified models with reasoning, expression, and demonstration capacities. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10323 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.CL ROMA: Real-time Omni-Multimodal Assistant with Interactive Streaming Understanding Authors: Xueyun Tian , Wei Li , Bingbing Xu , Heng Dong , Yuanzhuo Wang , Huawei Shen Abstract : Recent Omni-multimodal Large Language Models show promise in unified audio, vision, and text modeling. However, streaming audio-video understanding remains challenging, as existing approaches suffer from disjointed capabilities: they typically exhibit incomplete modality support or lack autonomous proactive monitoring. To address this, we present ROMA, a real-time omni-multimodal assistant for uni… ▽ More Recent Omni-multimodal Large Language Models show promise in unified audio, vision, and text modeling. However, streaming audio-video understanding remains challenging, as existing approaches suffer from disjointed capabilities: they typically exhibit incomplete modality support or lack autonomous proactive monitoring. To address this, we present ROMA, a real-time omni-multimodal assistant for unified reactive and proactive interaction. ROMA processes continuous inputs as synchronized multimodal units, aligning dense audio with discrete video frames to handle granularity mismatches. For online decision-making, we introduce a lightweight speak head that decouples response initiation from generation to ensure precise triggering without task conflict. We train ROMA with a curated streaming dataset and a two-stage curriculum that progressively optimizes for streaming format adaptation and proactive responsiveness. To standardize the fragmented evaluation landscape, we reorganize diverse benchmarks into a unified suite covering both proactive (alert, narration) and reactive (QA) settings. Extensive experiments across 12 benchmarks demonstrate ROMA achieves state-of-the-art performance on proactive tasks while competitive in reactive settings, validating its robustness in unified real-time omni-multimodal understanding. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Our project page is available at arXiv:2601.10323 [ pdf , ps , other ] ROMA: Real-time Omni-Multimodal Assistant with Interactive Streaming Understanding Authors: Xueyun Tian , Wei Li , Bingbing Xu , Heng Dong , Yuanzhuo Wang , Huawei Shen Abstract : Recent Omni-multimodal Large Language Models show promise in unified audio, vision, and text modeling. However, streaming audio-video understanding remains challenging, as existing approaches suffer from disjointed capabilities: they typically exhibit incomplete modality support or lack autonomous proactive monitoring. To address this, we present ROMA, a real-time omni-multimodal assistant for uni… ▽ More Recent Omni-multimodal Large Language Models show promise in unified audio, vision, and text modeling. However, streaming audio-video understanding remains challenging, as existing approaches suffer from disjointed capabilities: they typically exhibit incomplete modality support or lack autonomous proactive monitoring. To address this, we present ROMA, a real-time omni-multimodal assistant for unified reactive and proactive interaction. ROMA processes continuous inputs as synchronized multimodal units, aligning dense audio with discrete video frames to handle granularity mismatches. For online decision-making, we introduce a lightweight speak head that decouples response initiation from generation to ensure precise triggering without task conflict. We train ROMA with a curated streaming dataset and a two-stage curriculum that progressively optimizes for streaming format adaptation and proactive responsiveness. To standardize the fragmented evaluation landscape, we reorganize diverse benchmarks into a unified suite covering both proactive (alert, narration) and reactive (QA) settings. Extensive experiments across 12 benchmarks demonstrate ROMA achieves state-of-the-art performance on proactive tasks while competitive in reactive settings, validating its robustness in unified real-time omni-multimodal understanding. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Our project page is available at arXiv:2601.10157 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI MMPG: MoE-based Adaptive Multi-Perspective Graph Fusion for Protein Representation Learning Authors: Yusong Wang , Jialun Shen , Zhihao Wu , Yicheng Xu , Shiyin Tan , Mingkun Xu , Changshuo Wang , Zixing Song , Prayag Tiwari Abstract : Graph Neural Networks (GNNs) have been widely adopted for Protein Representation Learning (PRL), as residue interaction networks can be naturally represented as graphs. Current GNN-based PRL methods typically rely on single-perspective graph construction strategies, which capture partial properties of residue interactions, resulting in incomplete protein representations. To address this limitation… ▽ More Graph Neural Networks (GNNs) have been widely adopted for Protein Representation Learning (PRL), as residue interaction networks can be naturally represented as graphs. Current GNN-based PRL methods typically rely on single-perspective graph construction strategies, which capture partial properties of residue interactions, resulting in incomplete protein representations. To address this limitation, we propose MMPG, a framework that constructs protein graphs from multiple perspectives and adaptively fuses them via Mixture of Experts (MoE) for PRL. MMPG constructs graphs from physical, chemical, and geometric perspectives to characterize different properties of residue interactions. To capture both perspective-specific features and their synergies, we develop an MoE module, which dynamically routes perspectives to specialized experts, where experts learn intrinsic features and cross-perspective interactions. We quantitatively verify that MoE automatically specializes experts in modeling distinct levels of interaction from individual representations, to pairwise inter-perspective synergies, and ultimately to a global consensus across all perspectives. Through integrating this multi-level information, MMPG produces superior protein representations and achieves advanced performance on four different downstream protein tasks. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10157 [ pdf , ps , other ] MMPG: MoE-based Adaptive Multi-Perspective Graph Fusion for Protein Representation Learning Authors: Yusong Wang , Jialun Shen , Zhihao Wu , Yicheng Xu , Shiyin Tan , Mingkun Xu , Changshuo Wang , Zixing Song , Prayag Tiwari Abstract : Graph Neural Networks (GNNs) have been widely adopted for Protein Representation Learning (PRL), as residue interaction networks can be naturally represented as graphs. Current GNN-based PRL methods typically rely on single-perspective graph construction strategies, which capture partial properties of residue interactions, resulting in incomplete protein representations. To address this limitation… ▽ More Graph Neural Networks (GNNs) have been widely adopted for Protein Representation Learning (PRL), as residue interaction networks can be naturally represented as graphs. Current GNN-based PRL methods typically rely on single-perspective graph construction strategies, which capture partial properties of residue interactions, resulting in incomplete protein representations. To address this limitation, we propose MMPG, a framework that constructs protein graphs from multiple perspectives and adaptively fuses them via Mixture of Experts (MoE) for PRL. MMPG constructs graphs from physical, chemical, and geometric perspectives to characterize different properties of residue interactions. To capture both perspective-specific features and their synergies, we develop an MoE module, which dynamically routes perspectives to specialized experts, where experts learn intrinsic features and cross-perspective interactions. We quantitatively verify that MoE automatically specializes experts in modeling distinct levels of interaction from individual representations, to pairwise inter-perspective synergies, and ultimately to a global consensus across all perspectives. Through integrating this multi-level information, MMPG produces superior protein representations and achieves advanced performance on four different downstream protein tasks. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10148 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI DecisionLLM: Large Language Models for Long Sequence Decision Exploration Authors: Xiaowei Lv , Zhilin Zhang , Yijun Li , Yusen Huo , Siyuan Ju , Xuyan Li , Chunxiang Hong , Tianyu Wang , Yongcai Wang , Peng Sun , Chuan Yu , Jian Xu , Bo Zheng Abstract : Long-sequence decision-making, which is usually addressed through reinforcement learning (RL), is a critical component for optimizing strategic operations in dynamic environments, such as real-time bidding in computational advertising. The Decision Transformer (DT) introduced a powerful paradigm by framing RL as an autoregressive sequence modeling problem. Concurrently, Large Language Models (LLMs… ▽ More Long-sequence decision-making, which is usually addressed through reinforcement learning (RL), is a critical component for optimizing strategic operations in dynamic environments, such as real-time bidding in computational advertising. The Decision Transformer (DT) introduced a powerful paradigm by framing RL as an autoregressive sequence modeling problem. Concurrently, Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated remarkable success in complex reasoning and planning tasks. This inspires us whether LLMs, which share the same Transformer foundation, but operate at a much larger scale, can unlock new levels of performance in long-horizon sequential decision-making problem. This work investigates the application of LLMs to offline decision making tasks. A fundamental challenge in this domain is the LLMs' inherent inability to interpret continuous values, as they lack a native understanding of numerical magnitude and order when values are represented as text strings. To address this, we propose treating trajectories as a distinct modality. By learning to align trajectory data with natural language task descriptions, our model can autoregressively predict future decisions within a cohesive framework we term DecisionLLM. We establish a set of scaling laws governing this paradigm, demonstrating that performance hinges on three factors: model scale, data volume, and data quality. In offline experimental benchmarks and bidding scenarios, DecisionLLM achieves strong performance. Specifically, DecisionLLM-3B outperforms the traditional Decision Transformer (DT) by 69.4 on Maze2D umaze-v1 and by 0.085 on AuctionNet. It extends the AIGB paradigm and points to promising directions for future exploration in online bidding. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10148 [ pdf , ps , other ] DecisionLLM: Large Language Models for Long Sequence Decision Exploration Authors: Xiaowei Lv , Zhilin Zhang , Yijun Li , Yusen Huo , Siyuan Ju , Xuyan Li , Chunxiang Hong , Tianyu Wang , Yongcai Wang , Peng Sun , Chuan Yu , Jian Xu , Bo Zheng Abstract : Long-sequence decision-making, which is usually addressed through reinforcement learning (RL), is a critical component for optimizing strategic operations in dynamic environments, such as real-time bidding in computational advertising. The Decision Transformer (DT) introduced a powerful paradigm by framing RL as an autoregressive sequence modeling problem. Concurrently, Large Language Models (LLMs… ▽ More Long-sequence decision-making, which is usually addressed through reinforcement learning (RL), is a critical component for optimizing strategic operations in dynamic environments, such as real-time bidding in computational advertising. The Decision Transformer (DT) introduced a powerful paradigm by framing RL as an autoregressive sequence modeling problem. Concurrently, Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated remarkable success in complex reasoning and planning tasks. This inspires us whether LLMs, which share the same Transformer foundation, but operate at a much larger scale, can unlock new levels of performance in long-horizon sequential decision-making problem. This work investigates the application of LLMs to offline decision making tasks. A fundamental challenge in this domain is the LLMs' inherent inability to interpret continuous values, as they lack a native understanding of numerical magnitude and order when values are represented as text strings. To address this, we propose treating trajectories as a distinct modality. By learning to align trajectory data with natural language task descriptions, our model can autoregressively predict future decisions within a cohesive framework we term DecisionLLM. We establish a set of scaling laws governing this paradigm, demonstrating that performance hinges on three factors: model scale, data volume, and data quality. In offline experimental benchmarks and bidding scenarios, DecisionLLM achieves strong performance. Specifically, DecisionLLM-3B outperforms the traditional Decision Transformer (DT) by 69.4 on Maze2D umaze-v1 and by 0.085 on AuctionNet. It extends the AIGB paradigm and points to promising directions for future exploration in online bidding. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10122 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI cs.HC Role-Playing Agents Driven by Large Language Models: Current Status, Challenges, and Future Trends Authors: Ye Wang , Jiaxing Chen , Hongjiang Xiao Abstract : In recent years, with the rapid advancement of large language models (LLMs), role-playing language agents (RPLAs) have emerged as a prominent research focus at the intersection of natural language processing (NLP) and human-computer interaction. This paper systematically reviews the current development and key technologies of RPLAs, delineating the technological evolution from early rule-based tem… ▽ More In recent years, with the rapid advancement of large language models (LLMs), role-playing language agents (RPLAs) have emerged as a prominent research focus at the intersection of natural language processing (NLP) and human-computer interaction. This paper systematically reviews the current development and key technologies of RPLAs, delineating the technological evolution from early rule-based template paradigms, through the language style imitation stage, to the cognitive simulation stage centered on personality modeling and memory mechanisms. It summarizes the critical technical pathways supporting high-quality role-playing, including psychological scale-driven character modeling, memory-augmented prompting mechanisms, and motivation-situation-based behavioral decision control. At the data level, the paper further analyzes the methods and challenges of constructing role-specific corpora, focusing on data sources, copyright constraints, and structured annotation processes. In terms of evaluation, it collates multi-dimensional assessment frameworks and benchmark datasets covering role knowledge, personality fidelity, value alignment, and interactive hallucination, while commenting on the advantages and disadvantages of methods such as human evaluation, reward models, and LLM-based scoring. Finally, the paper outlines future development directions of role-playing agents, including personality evolution modeling, multi-agent collaborative narrative, multimodal immersive interaction, and integration with cognitive neuroscience, aiming to provide a systematic perspective and methodological insights for subsequent research. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10122 [ pdf , ps , other ] Role-Playing Agents Driven by Large Language Models: Current Status, Challenges, and Future Trends Authors: Ye Wang , Jiaxing Chen , Hongjiang Xiao Abstract : In recent years, with the rapid advancement of large language models (LLMs), role-playing language agents (RPLAs) have emerged as a prominent research focus at the intersection of natural language processing (NLP) and human-computer interaction. This paper systematically reviews the current development and key technologies of RPLAs, delineating the technological evolution from early rule-based tem… ▽ More In recent years, with the rapid advancement of large language models (LLMs), role-playing language agents (RPLAs) have emerged as a prominent research focus at the intersection of natural language processing (NLP) and human-computer interaction. This paper systematically reviews the current development and key technologies of RPLAs, delineating the technological evolution from early rule-based template paradigms, through the language style imitation stage, to the cognitive simulation stage centered on personality modeling and memory mechanisms. It summarizes the critical technical pathways supporting high-quality role-playing, including psychological scale-driven character modeling, memory-augmented prompting mechanisms, and motivation-situation-based behavioral decision control. At the data level, the paper further analyzes the methods and challenges of constructing role-specific corpora, focusing on data sources, copyright constraints, and structured annotation processes. In terms of evaluation, it collates multi-dimensional assessment frameworks and benchmark datasets covering role knowledge, personality fidelity, value alignment, and interactive hallucination, while commenting on the advantages and disadvantages of methods such as human evaluation, reward models, and LLM-based scoring. Finally, the paper outlines future development directions of role-playing agents, including personality evolution modeling, multi-agent collaborative narrative, multimodal immersive interaction, and integration with cognitive neuroscience, aiming to provide a systematic perspective and methodological insights for subsequent research. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10117 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Beyond Single Prompts: Synergistic Fusion and Arrangement for VICL Authors: Wenwen Liao , Jianbo Yu , Yuansong Wang , Shifu Yan , Xiaofeng Yang Abstract : Vision In-Context Learning (VICL) enables inpainting models to quickly adapt to new visual tasks from only a few prompts. However, existing methods suffer from two key issues: (1) selecting only the most similar prompt discards complementary cues from other high-quality prompts; and (2) failing to exploit the structured information implied by different prompt arrangements. We propose an end-to-e… ▽ More Vision In-Context Learning (VICL) enables inpainting models to quickly adapt to new visual tasks from only a few prompts. However, existing methods suffer from two key issues: (1) selecting only the most similar prompt discards complementary cues from other high-quality prompts; and (2) failing to exploit the structured information implied by different prompt arrangements. We propose an end-to-end VICL framework to overcome these limitations. Firstly, an adaptive Fusion Module aggregates critical patterns and annotations from multiple prompts to form more precise contextual prompts. Secondly, we introduce arrangement-specific lightweight MLPs to decouple layout priors from the core model, while minimally affecting the overall model. In addition, an bidirectional fine-tuning mechanism swaps the roles of query and prompt, encouraging the model to reconstruct the original prompt from fused context and thus enhancing collaboration between the fusion module and the inpainting model. Experiments on foreground segmentation, single-object detection, and image colorization demonstrate superior results and strong cross-task generalization of our method. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10117 [ pdf , ps , other ] Beyond Single Prompts: Synergistic Fusion and Arrangement for VICL Authors: Wenwen Liao , Jianbo Yu , Yuansong Wang , Shifu Yan , Xiaofeng Yang Abstract : Vision In-Context Learning (VICL) enables inpainting models to quickly adapt to new visual tasks from only a few prompts. However, existing methods suffer from two key issues: (1) selecting only the most similar prompt discards complementary cues from other high-quality prompts; and (2) failing to exploit the structured information implied by different prompt arrangements. We propose an end-to-e… ▽ More Vision In-Context Learning (VICL) enables inpainting models to quickly adapt to new visual tasks from only a few prompts. However, existing methods suffer from two key issues: (1) selecting only the most similar prompt discards complementary cues from other high-quality prompts; and (2) failing to exploit the structured information implied by different prompt arrangements. We propose an end-to-end VICL framework to overcome these limitations. Firstly, an adaptive Fusion Module aggregates critical patterns and annotations from multiple prompts to form more precise contextual prompts. Secondly, we introduce arrangement-specific lightweight MLPs to decouple layout priors from the core model, while minimally affecting the overall model. In addition, an bidirectional fine-tuning mechanism swaps the roles of query and prompt, encouraging the model to reconstruct the original prompt from fused context and thus enhancing collaboration between the fusion module and the inpainting model. Experiments on foreground segmentation, single-object detection, and image colorization demonstrate superior results and strong cross-task generalization of our method. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10107 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Enhancing Visual In-Context Learning by Multi-Faceted Fusion Authors: Wenwen Liao , Jianbo Yu , Yuansong Wang , Qingchao Jiang , Xiaofeng Yang Abstract : Visual In-Context Learning (VICL) has emerged as a powerful paradigm, enabling models to perform novel visual tasks by learning from in-context examples. The dominant "retrieve-then-prompt" approach typically relies on selecting the single best visual prompt, a practice that often discards valuable contextual information from other suitable candidates. While recent work has explored fusing the top… ▽ More Visual In-Context Learning (VICL) has emerged as a powerful paradigm, enabling models to perform novel visual tasks by learning from in-context examples. The dominant "retrieve-then-prompt" approach typically relies on selecting the single best visual prompt, a practice that often discards valuable contextual information from other suitable candidates. While recent work has explored fusing the top-K prompts into a single, enhanced representation, this still simply collapses multiple rich signals into one, limiting the model's reasoning capability. We argue that a more multi-faceted, collaborative fusion is required to unlock the full potential of these diverse contexts. To address this limitation, we introduce a novel framework that moves beyond single-prompt fusion towards an multi-combination collaborative fusion. Instead of collapsing multiple prompts into one, our method generates three contextual representation branches, each formed by integrating information from different combinations of top-quality prompts. These complementary guidance signals are then fed into proposed MULTI-VQGAN architecture, which is designed to jointly interpret and utilize collaborative information from multiple sources. Extensive experiments on diverse tasks, including foreground segmentation, single-object detection, and image colorization, highlight its strong cross-task generalization, effective contextual fusion, and ability to produce more robust and accurate predictions than existing methods. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10107 [ pdf , ps , other ] Enhancing Visual In-Context Learning by Multi-Faceted Fusion Authors: Wenwen Liao , Jianbo Yu , Yuansong Wang , Qingchao Jiang , Xiaofeng Yang Abstract : Visual In-Context Learning (VICL) has emerged as a powerful paradigm, enabling models to perform novel visual tasks by learning from in-context examples. The dominant "retrieve-then-prompt" approach typically relies on selecting the single best visual prompt, a practice that often discards valuable contextual information from other suitable candidates. While recent work has explored fusing the top… ▽ More Visual In-Context Learning (VICL) has emerged as a powerful paradigm, enabling models to perform novel visual tasks by learning from in-context examples. The dominant "retrieve-then-prompt" approach typically relies on selecting the single best visual prompt, a practice that often discards valuable contextual information from other suitable candidates. While recent work has explored fusing the top-K prompts into a single, enhanced representation, this still simply collapses multiple rich signals into one, limiting the model's reasoning capability. We argue that a more multi-faceted, collaborative fusion is required to unlock the full potential of these diverse contexts. To address this limitation, we introduce a novel framework that moves beyond single-prompt fusion towards an multi-combination collaborative fusion. Instead of collapsing multiple prompts into one, our method generates three contextual representation branches, each formed by integrating information from different combinations of top-quality prompts. These complementary guidance signals are then fed into proposed MULTI-VQGAN architecture, which is designed to jointly interpret and utilize collaborative information from multiple sources. Extensive experiments on diverse tasks, including foreground segmentation, single-object detection, and image colorization, highlight its strong cross-task generalization, effective contextual fusion, and ability to produce more robust and accurate predictions than existing methods. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10103 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI FlowAct-R1: Towards Interactive Humanoid Video Generation Authors: Lizhen Wang , Yongming Zhu , Zhipeng Ge , Youwei Zheng , Longhao Zhang , Tianshu Hu , Shiyang Qin , Mingshuang Luo , Jiaxu Zhang , Xin Chen , Yulong Wang , Zerong Zheng , Jianwen Jiang , Chao Liang , Weifeng Chen , Xing Wang , Yuan Zhang , Mingyuan Gao Abstract : Interactive humanoid video generation aims to synthesize lifelike visual agents that can engage with humans through continuous and responsive video. Despite recent advances in video synthesis, existing methods often grapple with the trade-off between high-fidelity synthesis and real-time interaction requirements. In this paper, we propose FlowAct-R1, a framework specifically designed for real-time… ▽ More Interactive humanoid video generation aims to synthesize lifelike visual agents that can engage with humans through continuous and responsive video. Despite recent advances in video synthesis, existing methods often grapple with the trade-off between high-fidelity synthesis and real-time interaction requirements. In this paper, we propose FlowAct-R1, a framework specifically designed for real-time interactive humanoid video generation. Built upon a MMDiT architecture, FlowAct-R1 enables the streaming synthesis of video with arbitrary durations while maintaining low-latency responsiveness. We introduce a chunkwise diffusion forcing strategy, complemented by a novel self-forcing variant, to alleviate error accumulation and ensure long-term temporal consistency during continuous interaction. By leveraging efficient distillation and system-level optimizations, our framework achieves a stable 25fps at 480p resolution with a time-to-first-frame (TTFF) of only around 1.5 seconds. The proposed method provides holistic and fine-grained full-body control, enabling the agent to transition naturally between diverse behavioral states in interactive scenarios. Experimental results demonstrate that FlowAct-R1 achieves exceptional behavioral vividness and perceptual realism, while maintaining robust generalization across diverse character styles. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10103 [ pdf , ps , other ] FlowAct-R1: Towards Interactive Humanoid Video Generation Authors: Lizhen Wang , Yongming Zhu , Zhipeng Ge , Youwei Zheng , Longhao Zhang , Tianshu Hu , Shiyang Qin , Mingshuang Luo , Jiaxu Zhang , Xin Chen , Yulong Wang , Zerong Zheng , Jianwen Jiang , Chao Liang , Weifeng Chen , Xing Wang , Yuan Zhang , Mingyuan Gao Abstract : Interactive humanoid video generation aims to synthesize lifelike visual agents that can engage with humans through continuous and responsive video. Despite recent advances in video synthesis, existing methods often grapple with the trade-off between high-fidelity synthesis and real-time interaction requirements. In this paper, we propose FlowAct-R1, a framework specifically designed for real-time… ▽ More Interactive humanoid video generation aims to synthesize lifelike visual agents that can engage with humans through continuous and responsive video. Despite recent advances in video synthesis, existing methods often grapple with the trade-off between high-fidelity synthesis and real-time interaction requirements. In this paper, we propose FlowAct-R1, a framework specifically designed for real-time interactive humanoid video generation. Built upon a MMDiT architecture, FlowAct-R1 enables the streaming synthesis of video with arbitrary durations while maintaining low-latency responsiveness. We introduce a chunkwise diffusion forcing strategy, complemented by a novel self-forcing variant, to alleviate error accumulation and ensure long-term temporal consistency during continuous interaction. By leveraging efficient distillation and system-level optimizations, our framework achieves a stable 25fps at 480p resolution with a time-to-first-frame (TTFF) of only around 1.5 seconds. The proposed method provides holistic and fine-grained full-body control, enabling the agent to transition naturally between diverse behavioral states in interactive scenarios. Experimental results demonstrate that FlowAct-R1 achieves exceptional behavioral vividness and perceptual realism, while maintaining robust generalization across diverse character styles. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10098 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV InfoSculpt: Sculpting the Latent Space for Generalized Category Discovery Authors: Wenwen Liao , Hang Ruan , Jianbo Yu , Yuansong Wang , Qingchao Jiang , Xiaofeng Yang Abstract : Generalized Category Discovery (GCD) aims to classify instances from both known and novel categories within a large-scale unlabeled dataset, a critical yet challenging task for real-world, open-world applications. However, existing methods often rely on pseudo-labeling, or two-stage clustering, which lack a principled mechanism to explicitly disentangle essential, category-defining signals from in… ▽ More Generalized Category Discovery (GCD) aims to classify instances from both known and novel categories within a large-scale unlabeled dataset, a critical yet challenging task for real-world, open-world applications. However, existing methods often rely on pseudo-labeling, or two-stage clustering, which lack a principled mechanism to explicitly disentangle essential, category-defining signals from instance-specific noise. In this paper, we address this fundamental limitation by re-framing GCD from an information-theoretic perspective, grounded in the Information Bottleneck (IB) principle. We introduce InfoSculpt, a novel framework that systematically sculpts the representation space by minimizing a dual Conditional Mutual Information (CMI) objective. InfoSculpt uniquely combines a Category-Level CMI on labeled data to learn compact and discriminative representations for known classes, and a complementary Instance-Level CMI on all data to distill invariant features by compressing augmentation-induced noise. These two objectives work synergistically at different scales to produce a disentangled and robust latent space where categorical information is preserved while noisy, instance-specific details are discarded. Extensive experiments on 8 benchmarks demonstrate that InfoSculpt validating the effectiveness of our information-theoretic approach. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10098 [ pdf , ps , other ] InfoSculpt: Sculpting the Latent Space for Generalized Category Discovery Authors: Wenwen Liao , Hang Ruan , Jianbo Yu , Yuansong Wang , Qingchao Jiang , Xiaofeng Yang Abstract : Generalized Category Discovery (GCD) aims to classify instances from both known and novel categories within a large-scale unlabeled dataset, a critical yet challenging task for real-world, open-world applications. However, existing methods often rely on pseudo-labeling, or two-stage clustering, which lack a principled mechanism to explicitly disentangle essential, category-defining signals from in… ▽ More Generalized Category Discovery (GCD) aims to classify instances from both known and novel categories within a large-scale unlabeled dataset, a critical yet challenging task for real-world, open-world applications. However, existing methods often rely on pseudo-labeling, or two-stage clustering, which lack a principled mechanism to explicitly disentangle essential, category-defining signals from instance-specific noise. In this paper, we address this fundamental limitation by re-framing GCD from an information-theoretic perspective, grounded in the Information Bottleneck (IB) principle. We introduce InfoSculpt, a novel framework that systematically sculpts the representation space by minimizing a dual Conditional Mutual Information (CMI) objective. InfoSculpt uniquely combines a Category-Level CMI on labeled data to learn compact and discriminative representations for known classes, and a complementary Instance-Level CMI on all data to distill invariant features by compressing augmentation-induced noise. These two objectives work synergistically at different scales to produce a disentangled and robust latent space where categorical information is preserved while noisy, instance-specific details are discarded. Extensive experiments on 8 benchmarks demonstrate that InfoSculpt validating the effectiveness of our information-theoretic approach. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10061 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI CoF-T2I: Video Models as Pure Visual Reasoners for Text-to-Image Generation Authors: Chengzhuo Tong , Mingkun Chang , Shenglong Zhang , Yuran Wang , Cheng Liang , Zhizheng Zhao , Ruichuan An , Bohan Zeng , Yang Shi , Yifan Dai , Ziming Zhao , Guanbin Li , Pengfei Wan , Yuanxing Zhang , Wentao Zhang Abstract : Recent video generation models have revealed the emergence of Chain-of-Frame (CoF) reasoning, enabling frame-by-frame visual inference. With this capability, video models have been successfully applied to various visual tasks (e.g., maze solving, visual puzzles). However, their potential to enhance text-to-image (T2I) generation remains largely unexplored due to the absence of a clearly defined vi… ▽ More Recent video generation models have revealed the emergence of Chain-of-Frame (CoF) reasoning, enabling frame-by-frame visual inference. With this capability, video models have been successfully applied to various visual tasks (e.g., maze solving, visual puzzles). However, their potential to enhance text-to-image (T2I) generation remains largely unexplored due to the absence of a clearly defined visual reasoning starting point and interpretable intermediate states in the T2I generation process. To bridge this gap, we propose CoF-T2I, a model that integrates CoF reasoning into T2I generation via progressive visual refinement, where intermediate frames act as explicit reasoning steps and the final frame is taken as output. To establish such an explicit generation process, we curate CoF-Evol-Instruct, a dataset of CoF trajectories that model the generation process from semantics to aesthetics. To further improve quality and avoid motion artifacts, we enable independent encoding operation for each frame. Experiments show that CoF-T2I significantly outperforms the base video model and achieves competitive performance on challenging benchmarks, reaching 0.86 on GenEval and 7.468 on Imagine-Bench. These results indicate the substantial promise of video models for advancing high-quality text-to-image generation. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 16 pages, 8 figures arXiv:2601.10061 [ pdf , ps , other ] CoF-T2I: Video Models as Pure Visual Reasoners for Text-to-Image Generation Authors: Chengzhuo Tong , Mingkun Chang , Shenglong Zhang , Yuran Wang , Cheng Liang , Zhizheng Zhao , Ruichuan An , Bohan Zeng , Yang Shi , Yifan Dai , Ziming Zhao , Guanbin Li , Pengfei Wan , Yuanxing Zhang , Wentao Zhang Abstract : Recent video generation models have revealed the emergence of Chain-of-Frame (CoF) reasoning, enabling frame-by-frame visual inference. With this capability, video models have been successfully applied to various visual tasks (e.g., maze solving, visual puzzles). However, their potential to enhance text-to-image (T2I) generation remains largely unexplored due to the absence of a clearly defined vi… ▽ More Recent video generation models have revealed the emergence of Chain-of-Frame (CoF) reasoning, enabling frame-by-frame visual inference. With this capability, video models have been successfully applied to various visual tasks (e.g., maze solving, visual puzzles). However, their potential to enhance text-to-image (T2I) generation remains largely unexplored due to the absence of a clearly defined visual reasoning starting point and interpretable intermediate states in the T2I generation process. To bridge this gap, we propose CoF-T2I, a model that integrates CoF reasoning into T2I generation via progressive visual refinement, where intermediate frames act as explicit reasoning steps and the final frame is taken as output. To establish such an explicit generation process, we curate CoF-Evol-Instruct, a dataset of CoF trajectories that model the generation process from semantics to aesthetics. To further improve quality and avoid motion artifacts, we enable independent encoding operation for each frame. Experiments show that CoF-T2I significantly outperforms the base video model and achieves competitive performance on challenging benchmarks, reaching 0.86 on GenEval and 7.468 on Imagine-Bench. These results indicate the substantial promise of video models for advancing high-quality text-to-image generation. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 16 pages, 8 figures arXiv:2601.10020 [ pdf ] cs.CL EHRNavigator: A Multi-Agent System for Patient-Level Clinical Question Answering over Heterogeneous Electronic Health Records Authors: Lingfei Qian , Mauro Giuffre , Yan Wang , Huan He , Qianqian Xie , Xuguang Ai , Xeuqing Peng , Fan Ma , Ruey-Ling Weng , Donald Wright , Adan Wang , Qingyu Chen , Vipina K. Keloth , Hua Xu Abstract : Clinical decision-making increasingly relies on timely and context-aware access to patient information within Electronic Health Records (EHRs), yet most existing natural language question-answering (QA) systems are evaluated solely on benchmark datasets, limiting their practical relevance. To overcome this limitation, we introduce EHRNavigator, a multi-agent framework that harnesses AI agents to p… ▽ More Clinical decision-making increasingly relies on timely and context-aware access to patient information within Electronic Health Records (EHRs), yet most existing natural language question-answering (QA) systems are evaluated solely on benchmark datasets, limiting their practical relevance. To overcome this limitation, we introduce EHRNavigator, a multi-agent framework that harnesses AI agents to perform patient-level question answering across heterogeneous and multimodal EHR data. We assessed its performance using both public benchmark and institutional datasets under realistic hospital conditions characterized by diverse schemas, temporal reasoning demands, and multimodal evidence integration. Through quantitative evaluation and clinician-validated chart review, EHRNavigator demonstrated strong generalization, achieving 86% accuracy on real-world cases while maintaining clinically acceptable response times. Overall, these findings confirm that EHRNavigator effectively bridges the gap between benchmark evaluation and clinical deployment, offering a robust, adaptive, and efficient solution for real-world EHR question answering. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10020 [ pdf ] EHRNavigator: A Multi-Agent System for Patient-Level Clinical Question Answering over Heterogeneous Electronic Health Records Authors: Lingfei Qian , Mauro Giuffre , Yan Wang , Huan He , Qianqian Xie , Xuguang Ai , Xeuqing Peng , Fan Ma , Ruey-Ling Weng , Donald Wright , Adan Wang , Qingyu Chen , Vipina K. Keloth , Hua Xu Abstract : Clinical decision-making increasingly relies on timely and context-aware access to patient information within Electronic Health Records (EHRs), yet most existing natural language question-answering (QA) systems are evaluated solely on benchmark datasets, limiting their practical relevance. To overcome this limitation, we introduce EHRNavigator, a multi-agent framework that harnesses AI agents to p… ▽ More Clinical decision-making increasingly relies on timely and context-aware access to patient information within Electronic Health Records (EHRs), yet most existing natural language question-answering (QA) systems are evaluated solely on benchmark datasets, limiting their practical relevance. To overcome this limitation, we introduce EHRNavigator, a multi-agent framework that harnesses AI agents to perform patient-level question answering across heterogeneous and multimodal EHR data. We assessed its performance using both public benchmark and institutional datasets under realistic hospital conditions characterized by diverse schemas, temporal reasoning demands, and multimodal evidence integration. Through quantitative evaluation and clinician-validated chart review, EHRNavigator demonstrated strong generalization, achieving 86% accuracy on real-world cases while maintaining clinically acceptable response times. Overall, these findings confirm that EHRNavigator effectively bridges the gap between benchmark evaluation and clinical deployment, offering a robust, adaptive, and efficient solution for real-world EHR question answering. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09839 [ pdf ] cs.PL Lazy Evaluation: A Comparative Analysis of SAS MACROs and R Functions Authors: Chen Ling , Yachen Wang Abstract : Lazy evaluation is a powerful technique that can optimize code execution by deferring evaluations until their results are required, thus enhancing efficiency. In most modern programming languages, like R, lazy evaluation is commonly applied to function arguments. However, the application of lazy evaluation in SAS has not been extensively explored. This paper focuses on the mechanisms of lazy evalu… ▽ More Lazy evaluation is a powerful technique that can optimize code execution by deferring evaluations until their results are required, thus enhancing efficiency. In most modern programming languages, like R, lazy evaluation is commonly applied to function arguments. However, the application of lazy evaluation in SAS has not been extensively explored. This paper focuses on the mechanisms of lazy evaluation in SAS MACROs and R functions, offering a comparative analysis of the underlying principles that drive these processes. R's lazy evaluation is driven by a data structure called Promise, which postpones evaluation and does not occupy memory until the value is needed, utilizing a call-by-need strategy. SAS, on the other hand, achieves lazy evaluation through its symbol tables, employing memory to store parameters, and operates on a call-by-name basis. These discrepancies in lazy evaluation strategies can notably impact the results of R functions and SAS MACROs. By examining these distinct approaches, the paper illuminates the impact of lazy evaluation on programming efficiency, supported by illustrative examples. As the shift from SAS to R becomes increasingly prevalent in the pharmaceutical industry, understanding these techniques enables programmers to optimize their code for greater efficacy. This exploration serves as a guide to enhance programming capabilities and performance in both languages. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: This paper was originally published in SESUG 2025 Conference Proceedings. Cary, NC: SouthEast SAS Users Group arXiv:2601.09839 [ pdf ] Lazy Evaluation: A Comparative Analysis of SAS MACROs and R Functions Authors: Chen Ling , Yachen Wang Abstract : Lazy evaluation is a powerful technique that can optimize code execution by deferring evaluations until their results are required, thus enhancing efficiency. In most modern programming languages, like R, lazy evaluation is commonly applied to function arguments. However, the application of lazy evaluation in SAS has not been extensively explored. This paper focuses on the mechanisms of lazy evalu… ▽ More Lazy evaluation is a powerful technique that can optimize code execution by deferring evaluations until their results are required, thus enhancing efficiency. In most modern programming languages, like R, lazy evaluation is commonly applied to function arguments. However, the application of lazy evaluation in SAS has not been extensively explored. This paper focuses on the mechanisms of lazy evaluation in SAS MACROs and R functions, offering a comparative analysis of the underlying principles that drive these processes. R's lazy evaluation is driven by a data structure called Promise, which postpones evaluation and does not occupy memory until the value is needed, utilizing a call-by-need strategy. SAS, on the other hand, achieves lazy evaluation through its symbol tables, employing memory to store parameters, and operates on a call-by-name basis. These discrepancies in lazy evaluation strategies can notably impact the results of R functions and SAS MACROs. By examining these distinct approaches, the paper illuminates the impact of lazy evaluation on programming efficiency, supported by illustrative examples. As the shift from SAS to R becomes increasingly prevalent in the pharmaceutical industry, understanding these techniques enables programmers to optimize their code for greater efficacy. This exploration serves as a guide to enhance programming capabilities and performance in both languages. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: This paper was originally published in SESUG 2025 Conference Proceedings. Cary, NC: SouthEast SAS Users Group arXiv:2601.09808 [ pdf ] cs.PL From Dynamic to Lexical: A Comparative Exploration of Scoping Rules in SAS and R Authors: Chen Ling , Yachen Wang Abstract : Variable scoping dictates how and where variables are accessible within programming languages, playing a crucial role in code efficiency and organization. This paper examines the distinct scoping rules in SAS and R, focusing on SAS's dynamic scoping and R's lexical scoping. In SAS, dynamic scoping utilizes symbol tables, resolving variables at runtime by dynamically searching through active macro… ▽ More Variable scoping dictates how and where variables are accessible within programming languages, playing a crucial role in code efficiency and organization. This paper examines the distinct scoping rules in SAS and R, focusing on SAS's dynamic scoping and R's lexical scoping. In SAS, dynamic scoping utilizes symbol tables, resolving variables at runtime by dynamically searching through active macro layers. R, in contrast, employs lexical scoping, using environments to resolve variables based on the structure in which functions are defined. Illustrative examples highlight the differences between these scoping strategies, showcasing their impact on code behavior. Additionally, the paper outlines methods for inspecting variables in SAS's symbol tables and R's environments, offering practical insights for debugging and optimization. Strategies for controlling variable scope in both languages are discussed, enhancing code precision and reliability. This exploration equips programmers with critical understanding to optimize variable management, improving their programming practices in SAS and R. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: This paper was originally published in the SESUG 2025 Conference Proceedings. Cary, NC arXiv:2601.09808 [ pdf ] From Dynamic to Lexical: A Comparative Exploration of Scoping Rules in SAS and R Authors: Chen Ling , Yachen Wang Abstract : Variable scoping dictates how and where variables are accessible within programming languages, playing a crucial role in code efficiency and organization. This paper examines the distinct scoping rules in SAS and R, focusing on SAS's dynamic scoping and R's lexical scoping. In SAS, dynamic scoping utilizes symbol tables, resolving variables at runtime by dynamically searching through active macro… ▽ More Variable scoping dictates how and where variables are accessible within programming languages, playing a crucial role in code efficiency and organization. This paper examines the distinct scoping rules in SAS and R, focusing on SAS's dynamic scoping and R's lexical scoping. In SAS, dynamic scoping utilizes symbol tables, resolving variables at runtime by dynamically searching through active macro layers. R, in contrast, employs lexical scoping, using environments to resolve variables based on the structure in which functions are defined. Illustrative examples highlight the differences between these scoping strategies, showcasing their impact on code behavior. Additionally, the paper outlines methods for inspecting variables in SAS's symbol tables and R's environments, offering practical insights for debugging and optimization. Strategies for controlling variable scope in both languages are discussed, enhancing code precision and reliability. This exploration equips programmers with critical understanding to optimize variable management, improving their programming practices in SAS and R. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: This paper was originally published in the SESUG 2025 Conference Proceedings. Cary, NC arXiv:2601.09708 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI cs.LG cs.RO Fast-ThinkAct: Efficient Vision-Language-Action Reasoning via Verbalizable Latent Planning Authors: Chi-Pin Huang , Yunze Man , Zhiding Yu , Min-Hung Chen , Jan Kautz , Yu-Chiang Frank Wang , Fu-En Yang Abstract : Vision-Language-Action (VLA) tasks require reasoning over complex visual scenes and executing adaptive actions in dynamic environments. While recent studies on reasoning VLAs show that explicit chain-of-thought (CoT) can improve generalization, they suffer from high inference latency due to lengthy reasoning traces. We propose Fast-ThinkAct, an efficient reasoning framework that achieves compact y… ▽ More Vision-Language-Action (VLA) tasks require reasoning over complex visual scenes and executing adaptive actions in dynamic environments. While recent studies on reasoning VLAs show that explicit chain-of-thought (CoT) can improve generalization, they suffer from high inference latency due to lengthy reasoning traces. We propose Fast-ThinkAct, an efficient reasoning framework that achieves compact yet performant planning through verbalizable latent reasoning. Fast-ThinkAct learns to reason efficiently with latent CoTs by distilling from a teacher, driven by a preference-guided objective to align manipulation trajectories that transfers both linguistic and visual planning capabilities for embodied control. This enables reasoning-enhanced policy learning that effectively connects compact reasoning to action execution. Extensive experiments across diverse embodied manipulation and reasoning benchmarks demonstrate that Fast-ThinkAct achieves strong performance with up to 89.3\% reduced inference latency over state-of-the-art reasoning VLAs, while maintaining effective long-horizon planning, few-shot adaptation, and failure recovery. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Project page: arXiv:2601.09708 [ pdf , ps , other ] Fast-ThinkAct: Efficient Vision-Language-Action Reasoning via Verbalizable Latent Planning Authors: Chi-Pin Huang , Yunze Man , Zhiding Yu , Min-Hung Chen , Jan Kautz , Yu-Chiang Frank Wang , Fu-En Yang Abstract : Vision-Language-Action (VLA) tasks require reasoning over complex visual scenes and executing adaptive actions in dynamic environments. While recent studies on reasoning VLAs show that explicit chain-of-thought (CoT) can improve generalization, they suffer from high inference latency due to lengthy reasoning traces. We propose Fast-ThinkAct, an efficient reasoning framework that achieves compact y… ▽ More Vision-Language-Action (VLA) tasks require reasoning over complex visual scenes and executing adaptive actions in dynamic environments. While recent studies on reasoning VLAs show that explicit chain-of-thought (CoT) can improve generalization, they suffer from high inference latency due to lengthy reasoning traces. We propose Fast-ThinkAct, an efficient reasoning framework that achieves compact yet performant planning through verbalizable latent reasoning. Fast-ThinkAct learns to reason efficiently with latent CoTs by distilling from a teacher, driven by a preference-guided objective to align manipulation trajectories that transfers both linguistic and visual planning capabilities for embodied control. This enables reasoning-enhanced policy learning that effectively connects compact reasoning to action execution. Extensive experiments across diverse embodied manipulation and reasoning benchmarks demonstrate that Fast-ThinkAct achieves strong performance with up to 89.3\% reduced inference latency over state-of-the-art reasoning VLAs, while maintaining effective long-horizon planning, few-shot adaptation, and failure recovery. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Project page: arXiv:2601.09703 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.SE cs.AI cs.CL ShortCoder: Knowledge-Augmented Syntax Optimization for Token-Efficient Code Generation Authors: Sicong Liu , Yanxian Huang , Mingwei Liu , Jiachi Chen , Ensheng Shi , Yuchi Ma , Hongyu Zhang , Yin Zhang , Yanlin Wang Abstract : Code generation tasks aim to automate the conversion of user requirements into executable code, significantly reducing manual development efforts and enhancing software productivity. The emergence of large language models (LLMs) has significantly advanced code generation, though their efficiency is still impacted by certain inherent architectural constraints. Each token generation necessitates a c… ▽ More Code generation tasks aim to automate the conversion of user requirements into executable code, significantly reducing manual development efforts and enhancing software productivity. The emergence of large language models (LLMs) has significantly advanced code generation, though their efficiency is still impacted by certain inherent architectural constraints. Each token generation necessitates a complete inference pass, requiring persistent retention of contextual information in memory and escalating resource consumption. While existing research prioritizes inference-phase optimizations such as prompt compression and model quantization, the generation phase remains underexplored. To tackle these challenges, we propose a knowledge-infused framework named ShortCoder, which optimizes code generation efficiency while preserving semantic equivalence and readability. In particular, we introduce: (1) ten syntax-level simplification rules for Python, derived from AST-preserving transformations, achieving 18.1% token reduction without functional compromise; (2) a hybrid data synthesis pipeline integrating rule-based rewriting with LLM-guided refinement, producing ShorterCodeBench, a corpus of validated tuples of original code and simplified code with semantic consistency; (3) a fine-tuning strategy that injects conciseness awareness into the base LLMs. Extensive experimental results demonstrate that ShortCoder consistently outperforms state-of-the-art methods on HumanEval, achieving an improvement of 18.1%-37.8% in generation efficiency over previous methods while ensuring the performance of code generation. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09703 [ pdf , ps , other ] ShortCoder: Knowledge-Augmented Syntax Optimization for Token-Efficient Code Generation Authors: Sicong Liu , Yanxian Huang , Mingwei Liu , Jiachi Chen , Ensheng Shi , Yuchi Ma , Hongyu Zhang , Yin Zhang , Yanlin Wang Abstract : Code generation tasks aim to automate the conversion of user requirements into executable code, significantly reducing manual development efforts and enhancing software productivity. The emergence of large language models (LLMs) has significantly advanced code generation, though their efficiency is still impacted by certain inherent architectural constraints. Each token generation necessitates a c… ▽ More Code generation tasks aim to automate the conversion of user requirements into executable code, significantly reducing manual development efforts and enhancing software productivity. The emergence of large language models (LLMs) has significantly advanced code generation, though their efficiency is still impacted by certain inherent architectural constraints. Each token generation necessitates a complete inference pass, requiring persistent retention of contextual information in memory and escalating resource consumption. While existing research prioritizes inference-phase optimizations such as prompt compression and model quantization, the generation phase remains underexplored. To tackle these challenges, we propose a knowledge-infused framework named ShortCoder, which optimizes code generation efficiency while preserving semantic equivalence and readability. In particular, we introduce: (1) ten syntax-level simplification rules for Python, derived from AST-preserving transformations, achieving 18.1% token reduction without functional compromise; (2) a hybrid data synthesis pipeline integrating rule-based rewriting with LLM-guided refinement, producing ShorterCodeBench, a corpus of validated tuples of original code and simplified code with semantic consistency; (3) a fine-tuning strategy that injects conciseness awareness into the base LLMs. Extensive experimental results demonstrate that ShortCoder consistently outperforms state-of-the-art methods on HumanEval, achieving an improvement of 18.1%-37.8% in generation efficiency over previous methods while ensuring the performance of code generation. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09688 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL DeepResearchEval: An Automated Framework for Deep Research Task Construction and Agentic Evaluation Authors: Yibo Wang , Lei Wang , Yue Deng , Keming Wu , Yao Xiao , Huanjin Yao , Liwei Kang , Hai Ye , Yongcheng Jing , Lidong Bing Abstract : Deep research systems are widely used for multi-step web research, analysis, and cross-source synthesis, yet their evaluation remains challenging. Existing benchmarks often require annotation-intensive task construction, rely on static evaluation dimensions, or fail to reliably verify facts when citations are missing. To bridge these gaps, we introduce DeepResearchEval, an automated framework for… ▽ More Deep research systems are widely used for multi-step web research, analysis, and cross-source synthesis, yet their evaluation remains challenging. Existing benchmarks often require annotation-intensive task construction, rely on static evaluation dimensions, or fail to reliably verify facts when citations are missing. To bridge these gaps, we introduce DeepResearchEval, an automated framework for deep research task construction and agentic evaluation. For task construction, we propose a persona-driven pipeline generating realistic, complex research tasks anchored in diverse user profiles, applying a two-stage filter Task Qualification and Search Necessity to retain only tasks requiring multi-source evidence integration and external retrieval. For evaluation, we propose an agentic pipeline with two components: an Adaptive Point-wise Quality Evaluation that dynamically derives task-specific evaluation dimensions, criteria, and weights conditioned on each generated task, and an Active Fact-Checking that autonomously extracts and verifies report statements via web search, even when citations are missing. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Source code: arXiv:2601.09688 [ pdf , ps , other ] DeepResearchEval: An Automated Framework for Deep Research Task Construction and Agentic Evaluation Authors: Yibo Wang , Lei Wang , Yue Deng , Keming Wu , Yao Xiao , Huanjin Yao , Liwei Kang , Hai Ye , Yongcheng Jing , Lidong Bing Abstract : Deep research systems are widely used for multi-step web research, analysis, and cross-source synthesis, yet their evaluation remains challenging. Existing benchmarks often require annotation-intensive task construction, rely on static evaluation dimensions, or fail to reliably verify facts when citations are missing. To bridge these gaps, we introduce DeepResearchEval, an automated framework for… ▽ More Deep research systems are widely used for multi-step web research, analysis, and cross-source synthesis, yet their evaluation remains challenging. Existing benchmarks often require annotation-intensive task construction, rely on static evaluation dimensions, or fail to reliably verify facts when citations are missing. To bridge these gaps, we introduce DeepResearchEval, an automated framework for deep research task construction and agentic evaluation. For task construction, we propose a persona-driven pipeline generating realistic, complex research tasks anchored in diverse user profiles, applying a two-stage filter Task Qualification and Search Necessity to retain only tasks requiring multi-source evidence integration and external retrieval. For evaluation, we propose an agentic pipeline with two components: an Adaptive Point-wise Quality Evaluation that dynamically derives task-specific evaluation dimensions, criteria, and weights conditioned on each generated task, and an Active Fact-Checking that autonomously extracts and verifies report statements via web search, even when citations are missing. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Source code: arXiv:2601.09667 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.CL Collaborative Multi-Agent Test-Time Reinforcement Learning for Reasoning Authors: Zhiyuan Hu , Yunhai Hu , Juncheng Liu , Shuyue Stella Li , Yucheng Wang , Zhen Xu , See-Kiong Ng , Anh Tuan Luu , Xinxing Xu , Bryan Hooi , Cynthia Breazeal , Hae Won Park Abstract : Multi-agent systems have evolved into practical LLM-driven collaborators for many applications, gaining robustness from diversity and cross-checking. However, multi-agent RL (MARL) training is resource-intensive and unstable: co-adapting teammates induce non-stationarity, and rewards are often sparse and high-variance. Therefore, we introduce \textbf{Multi-Agent Test-Time Reinforcement Learning (M… ▽ More Multi-agent systems have evolved into practical LLM-driven collaborators for many applications, gaining robustness from diversity and cross-checking. However, multi-agent RL (MARL) training is resource-intensive and unstable: co-adapting teammates induce non-stationarity, and rewards are often sparse and high-variance. Therefore, we introduce \textbf{Multi-Agent Test-Time Reinforcement Learning (MATTRL)}, a framework that injects structured textual experience into multi-agent deliberation at inference time. MATTRL forms a multi-expert team of specialists for multi-turn discussions, retrieves and integrates test-time experiences, and reaches consensus for final decision-making. We also study credit assignment for constructing a turn-level experience pool, then reinjecting it into the dialogue. Across challenging benchmarks in medicine, math, and education, MATTRL improves accuracy by an average of 3.67\% over a multi-agent baseline, and by 8.67\% over comparable single-agent baselines. Ablation studies examine different credit-assignment schemes and provide a detailed comparison of how they affect training outcomes. MATTRL offers a stable, effective and efficient path to distribution-shift-robust multi-agent reasoning without tuning. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; v1 submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Work in Progress arXiv:2601.09667 [ pdf , ps , other ] Collaborative Multi-Agent Test-Time Reinforcement Learning for Reasoning Authors: Zhiyuan Hu , Yunhai Hu , Juncheng Liu , Shuyue Stella Li , Yucheng Wang , Zhen Xu , See-Kiong Ng , Anh Tuan Luu , Xinxing Xu , Bryan Hooi , Cynthia Breazeal , Hae Won Park Abstract : Multi-agent systems have evolved into practical LLM-driven collaborators for many applications, gaining robustness from diversity and cross-checking. However, multi-agent RL (MARL) training is resource-intensive and unstable: co-adapting teammates induce non-stationarity, and rewards are often sparse and high-variance. Therefore, we introduce \textbf{Multi-Agent Test-Time Reinforcement Learning (M… ▽ More Multi-agent systems have evolved into practical LLM-driven collaborators for many applications, gaining robustness from diversity and cross-checking. However, multi-agent RL (MARL) training is resource-intensive and unstable: co-adapting teammates induce non-stationarity, and rewards are often sparse and high-variance. Therefore, we introduce \textbf{Multi-Agent Test-Time Reinforcement Learning (MATTRL)}, a framework that injects structured textual experience into multi-agent deliberation at inference time. MATTRL forms a multi-expert team of specialists for multi-turn discussions, retrieves and integrates test-time experiences, and reaches consensus for final decision-making. We also study credit assignment for constructing a turn-level experience pool, then reinjecting it into the dialogue. Across challenging benchmarks in medicine, math, and education, MATTRL improves accuracy by an average of 3.67\% over a multi-agent baseline, and by 8.67\% over comparable single-agent baselines. Ablation studies examine different credit-assignment schemes and provide a detailed comparison of how they affect training outcomes. MATTRL offers a stable, effective and efficient path to distribution-shift-robust multi-agent reasoning without tuning. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; v1 submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Work in Progress arXiv:2601.09613 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI CogRail: Benchmarking VLMs in Cognitive Intrusion Perception for Intelligent Railway Transportation Systems Authors: Yonglin Tian , Qiyao Zhang , Wei Xu , Yutong Wang , Yihao Wu , Xinyi Li , Xingyuan Dai , Hui Zhang , Zhiyong Cui , Baoqing Guo , Zujun Yu , Yisheng Lv Abstract : Accurate and early perception of potential intrusion targets is essential for ensuring the safety of railway transportation systems. However, most existing systems focus narrowly on object classification within fixed visual scopes and apply rule-based heuristics to determine intrusion status, often overlooking targets that pose latent intrusion risks. Anticipating such risks requires the cognition… ▽ More Accurate and early perception of potential intrusion targets is essential for ensuring the safety of railway transportation systems. However, most existing systems focus narrowly on object classification within fixed visual scopes and apply rule-based heuristics to determine intrusion status, often overlooking targets that pose latent intrusion risks. Anticipating such risks requires the cognition of spatial context and temporal dynamics for the object of interest (OOI), which presents challenges for conventional visual models. To facilitate deep intrusion perception, we introduce a novel benchmark, CogRail, which integrates curated open-source datasets with cognitively driven question-answer annotations to support spatio-temporal reasoning and prediction. Building upon this benchmark, we conduct a systematic evaluation of state-of-the-art visual-language models (VLMs) using multimodal prompts to identify their strengths and limitations in this domain. Furthermore, we fine-tune VLMs for better performance and propose a joint fine-tuning framework that integrates three core tasks, position perception, movement prediction, and threat analysis, facilitating effective adaptation of general-purpose foundation models into specialized models tailored for cognitive intrusion perception. Extensive experiments reveal that current large-scale multimodal models struggle with the complex spatial-temporal reasoning required by the cognitive intrusion perception task, underscoring the limitations of existing foundation models in this safety-critical domain. In contrast, our proposed joint fine-tuning framework significantly enhances model performance by enabling targeted adaptation to domain-specific reasoning demands, highlighting the advantages of structured multi-task learning in improving both accuracy and interpretability. Code will be available at △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09613 [ pdf , ps , other ] CogRail: Benchmarking VLMs in Cognitive Intrusion Perception for Intelligent Railway Transportation Systems Authors: Yonglin Tian , Qiyao Zhang , Wei Xu , Yutong Wang , Yihao Wu , Xinyi Li , Xingyuan Dai , Hui Zhang , Zhiyong Cui , Baoqing Guo , Zujun Yu , Yisheng Lv Abstract : Accurate and early perception of potential intrusion targets is essential for ensuring the safety of railway transportation systems. However, most existing systems focus narrowly on object classification within fixed visual scopes and apply rule-based heuristics to determine intrusion status, often overlooking targets that pose latent intrusion risks. Anticipating such risks requires the cognition… ▽ More Accurate and early perception of potential intrusion targets is essential for ensuring the safety of railway transportation systems. However, most existing systems focus narrowly on object classification within fixed visual scopes and apply rule-based heuristics to determine intrusion status, often overlooking targets that pose latent intrusion risks. Anticipating such risks requires the cognition of spatial context and temporal dynamics for the object of interest (OOI), which presents challenges for conventional visual models. To facilitate deep intrusion perception, we introduce a novel benchmark, CogRail, which integrates curated open-source datasets with cognitively driven question-answer annotations to support spatio-temporal reasoning and prediction. Building upon this benchmark, we conduct a systematic evaluation of state-of-the-art visual-language models (VLMs) using multimodal prompts to identify their strengths and limitations in this domain. Furthermore, we fine-tune VLMs for better performance and propose a joint fine-tuning framework that integrates three core tasks, position perception, movement prediction, and threat analysis, facilitating effective adaptation of general-purpose foundation models into specialized models tailored for cognitive intrusion perception. Extensive experiments reveal that current large-scale multimodal models struggle with the complex spatial-temporal reasoning required by the cognitive intrusion perception task, underscoring the limitations of existing foundation models in this safety-critical domain. In contrast, our proposed joint fine-tuning framework significantly enhances model performance by enabling targeted adaptation to domain-specific reasoning demands, highlighting the advantages of structured multi-task learning in improving both accuracy and interpretability. Code will be available at △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09575 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV OpenVoxel: Training-Free Grouping and Captioning Voxels for Open-Vocabulary 3D Scene Understanding Authors: Sheng-Yu Huang , Jaesung Choe , Yu-Chiang Frank Wang , Cheng Sun Abstract : We propose OpenVoxel, a training-free algorithm for grouping and captioning sparse voxels for the open-vocabulary 3D scene understanding tasks. Given the sparse voxel rasterization (SVR) model obtained from multi-view images of a 3D scene, our OpenVoxel is able to produce meaningful groups that describe different objects in the scene. Also, by leveraging powerful Vision Language Models (VLMs) and… ▽ More We propose OpenVoxel, a training-free algorithm for grouping and captioning sparse voxels for the open-vocabulary 3D scene understanding tasks. Given the sparse voxel rasterization (SVR) model obtained from multi-view images of a 3D scene, our OpenVoxel is able to produce meaningful groups that describe different objects in the scene. Also, by leveraging powerful Vision Language Models (VLMs) and Multi-modal Large Language Models (MLLMs), our OpenVoxel successfully build an informative scene map by captioning each group, enabling further 3D scene understanding tasks such as open-vocabulary segmentation (OVS) or referring expression segmentation (RES). Unlike previous methods, our method is training-free and does not introduce embeddings from a CLIP/BERT text encoder. Instead, we directly proceed with text-to-text search using MLLMs. Through extensive experiments, our method demonstrates superior performance compared to recent studies, particularly in complex referring expression segmentation (RES) tasks. The code will be open. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: project page: arXiv:2601.09575 [ pdf , ps , other ] OpenVoxel: Training-Free Grouping and Captioning Voxels for Open-Vocabulary 3D Scene Understanding Authors: Sheng-Yu Huang , Jaesung Choe , Yu-Chiang Frank Wang , Cheng Sun Abstract : We propose OpenVoxel, a training-free algorithm for grouping and captioning sparse voxels for the open-vocabulary 3D scene understanding tasks. Given the sparse voxel rasterization (SVR) model obtained from multi-view images of a 3D scene, our OpenVoxel is able to produce meaningful groups that describe different objects in the scene. Also, by leveraging powerful Vision Language Models (VLMs) and… ▽ More We propose OpenVoxel, a training-free algorithm for grouping and captioning sparse voxels for the open-vocabulary 3D scene understanding tasks. Given the sparse voxel rasterization (SVR) model obtained from multi-view images of a 3D scene, our OpenVoxel is able to produce meaningful groups that describe different objects in the scene. Also, by leveraging powerful Vision Language Models (VLMs) and Multi-modal Large Language Models (MLLMs), our OpenVoxel successfully build an informative scene map by captioning each group, enabling further 3D scene understanding tasks such as open-vocabulary segmentation (OVS) or referring expression segmentation (RES). Unlike previous methods, our method is training-free and does not introduce embeddings from a CLIP/BERT text encoder. Instead, we directly proceed with text-to-text search using MLLMs. Through extensive experiments, our method demonstrates superior performance compared to recent studies, particularly in complex referring expression segmentation (RES) tasks. The code will be open. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: project page: arXiv:2601.09504 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL MVSS: A Unified Framework for Multi-View Structured Survey Generation Authors: Yinqi Liu , Yueqi Zhu , Yongkang Zhang , Xinfeng Li , Feiran Liu , Yufei Sun , Xin Wang , Renzhao Liang , Yidong Wang , Cunxiang Wang Abstract : Scientific surveys require not only summarizing large bodies of literature, but also organizing them into clear and coherent conceptual structures. Existing automatic survey generation methods typically focus on linear text generation and struggle to explicitly model hierarchical relations among research topics and structured methodological comparisons, resulting in gaps in structural organization… ▽ More Scientific surveys require not only summarizing large bodies of literature, but also organizing them into clear and coherent conceptual structures. Existing automatic survey generation methods typically focus on linear text generation and struggle to explicitly model hierarchical relations among research topics and structured methodological comparisons, resulting in gaps in structural organization compared to expert-written surveys. We propose MVSS, a multi-view structured survey generation framework that jointly generates and aligns citation-grounded hierarchical trees, structured comparison tables, and survey text. MVSS follows a structure-first paradigm: it first constructs a conceptual tree of the research domain, then generates comparison tables constrained by the tree, and finally uses both as structural constraints for text generation. This enables complementary multi-view representations across structure, comparison, and narrative. We introduce an evaluation framework assessing structural quality, comparative completeness, and citation fidelity. Experiments on 76 computer science topics show MVSS outperforms existing methods in organization and evidence grounding, achieving performance comparable to expert surveys. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09504 [ pdf , ps , other ] MVSS: A Unified Framework for Multi-View Structured Survey Generation Authors: Yinqi Liu , Yueqi Zhu , Yongkang Zhang , Xinfeng Li , Feiran Liu , Yufei Sun , Xin Wang , Renzhao Liang , Yidong Wang , Cunxiang Wang Abstract : Scientific surveys require not only summarizing large bodies of literature, but also organizing them into clear and coherent conceptual structures. Existing automatic survey generation methods typically focus on linear text generation and struggle to explicitly model hierarchical relations among research topics and structured methodological comparisons, resulting in gaps in structural organization… ▽ More Scientific surveys require not only summarizing large bodies of literature, but also organizing them into clear and coherent conceptual structures. Existing automatic survey generation methods typically focus on linear text generation and struggle to explicitly model hierarchical relations among research topics and structured methodological comparisons, resulting in gaps in structural organization compared to expert-written surveys. We propose MVSS, a multi-view structured survey generation framework that jointly generates and aligns citation-grounded hierarchical trees, structured comparison tables, and survey text. MVSS follows a structure-first paradigm: it first constructs a conceptual tree of the research domain, then generates comparison tables constrained by the tree, and finally uses both as structural constraints for text generation. This enables complementary multi-view representations across structure, comparison, and narrative. We introduce an evaluation framework assessing structural quality, comparative completeness, and citation fidelity. Experiments on 76 computer science topics show MVSS outperforms existing methods in organization and evidence grounding, achieving performance comparable to expert surveys. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09467 [ pdf ] cs.LG cs.AI physics.ao-ph Searth Transformer: A Transformer Architecture Incorporating Earth's Geospheric Physical Priors for Global Mid-Range Weather Forecasting Authors: Tianye Li , Qi Liu , Hao Li , Lei Chen , Wencong Cheng , Fei Zheng , Xiangao Xia , Ya Wang , Gang Huang , Weiwei Wang , Xuan Tong , Ziqing Zu , Yi Fang , Shenming Fu , Jiang Jiang , Haochen Li , Mingxing Li , Jiangjiang Xia Abstract : Accurate global medium-range weather forecasting is fundamental to Earth system science. Most existing Transformer-based forecasting models adopt vision-centric architectures that neglect the Earth's spherical geometry and zonal periodicity. In addition, conventional autoregressive training is computationally expensive and limits forecast horizons due to error accumulation. To address these challe… ▽ More Accurate global medium-range weather forecasting is fundamental to Earth system science. Most existing Transformer-based forecasting models adopt vision-centric architectures that neglect the Earth's spherical geometry and zonal periodicity. In addition, conventional autoregressive training is computationally expensive and limits forecast horizons due to error accumulation. To address these challenges, we propose the Shifted Earth Transformer (Searth Transformer), a physics-informed architecture that incorporates zonal periodicity and meridional boundaries into window-based self-attention for physically consistent global information exchange. We further introduce a Relay Autoregressive (RAR) fine-tuning strategy that enables learning long-range atmospheric evolution under constrained memory and computational budgets. Based on these methods, we develop YanTian, a global medium-range weather forecasting model. YanTian achieves higher accuracy than the high-resolution forecast of the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts and performs competitively with state-of-the-art AI models at one-degree resolution, while requiring roughly 200 times lower computational cost than standard autoregressive fine-tuning. Furthermore, YanTian attains a longer skillful forecast lead time for Z500 (10.3 days) than HRES (9 days). Beyond weather forecasting, this work establishes a robust algorithmic foundation for predictive modeling of complex global-scale geophysical circulation systems, offering new pathways for Earth system science. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09467 [ pdf ] Searth Transformer: A Transformer Architecture Incorporating Earth's Geospheric Physical Priors for Global Mid-Range Weather Forecasting Authors: Tianye Li , Qi Liu , Hao Li , Lei Chen , Wencong Cheng , Fei Zheng , Xiangao Xia , Ya Wang , Gang Huang , Weiwei Wang , Xuan Tong , Ziqing Zu , Yi Fang , Shenming Fu , Jiang Jiang , Haochen Li , Mingxing Li , Jiangjiang Xia Abstract : Accurate global medium-range weather forecasting is fundamental to Earth system science. Most existing Transformer-based forecasting models adopt vision-centric architectures that neglect the Earth's spherical geometry and zonal periodicity. In addition, conventional autoregressive training is computationally expensive and limits forecast horizons due to error accumulation. To address these challe… ▽ More Accurate global medium-range weather forecasting is fundamental to Earth system science. Most existing Transformer-based forecasting models adopt vision-centric architectures that neglect the Earth's spherical geometry and zonal periodicity. In addition, conventional autoregressive training is computationally expensive and limits forecast horizons due to error accumulation. To address these challenges, we propose the Shifted Earth Transformer (Searth Transformer), a physics-informed architecture that incorporates zonal periodicity and meridional boundaries into window-based self-attention for physically consistent global information exchange. We further introduce a Relay Autoregressive (RAR) fine-tuning strategy that enables learning long-range atmospheric evolution under constrained memory and computational budgets. Based on these methods, we develop YanTian, a global medium-range weather forecasting model. YanTian achieves higher accuracy than the high-resolution forecast of the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts and performs competitively with state-of-the-art AI models at one-degree resolution, while requiring roughly 200 times lower computational cost than standard autoregressive fine-tuning. Furthermore, YanTian attains a longer skillful forecast lead time for Z500 (10.3 days) than HRES (9 days). Beyond weather forecasting, this work establishes a robust algorithmic foundation for predictive modeling of complex global-scale geophysical circulation systems, offering new pathways for Earth system science. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09417 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.GR Variable Basis Mapping for Real-Time Volumetric Visualization Authors: Qibiao Li , Yuxuan Wang , Youcheng Cai , Huangsheng Du , Ligang Liu Abstract : Real-time visualization of large-scale volumetric data remains challenging, as direct volume rendering and voxel-based methods suffer from prohibitively high computational cost. We propose Variable Basis Mapping (VBM), a framework that transforms volumetric fields into 3D Gaussian Splatting (3DGS) representations through wavelet-domain analysis. First, we precompute a compact Wavelet-to-Gaussian T… ▽ More Real-time visualization of large-scale volumetric data remains challenging, as direct volume rendering and voxel-based methods suffer from prohibitively high computational cost. We propose Variable Basis Mapping (VBM), a framework that transforms volumetric fields into 3D Gaussian Splatting (3DGS) representations through wavelet-domain analysis. First, we precompute a compact Wavelet-to-Gaussian Transition Bank that provides optimal Gaussian surrogates for canonical wavelet atoms across multiple scales. Second, we perform analytical Gaussian construction that maps discrete wavelet coefficients directly to 3DGS parameters using a closed-form, mathematically principled rule. Finally, a lightweight image-space fine-tuning stage further refines the representation to improve rendering fidelity. Experiments on diverse datasets demonstrate that VBM significantly accelerates convergence and enhances rendering quality, enabling real-time volumetric visualization. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 11 pages. Under review arXiv:2601.09417 [ pdf , ps , other ] Variable Basis Mapping for Real-Time Volumetric Visualization Authors: Qibiao Li , Yuxuan Wang , Youcheng Cai , Huangsheng Du , Ligang Liu Abstract : Real-time visualization of large-scale volumetric data remains challenging, as direct volume rendering and voxel-based methods suffer from prohibitively high computational cost. We propose Variable Basis Mapping (VBM), a framework that transforms volumetric fields into 3D Gaussian Splatting (3DGS) representations through wavelet-domain analysis. First, we precompute a compact Wavelet-to-Gaussian T… ▽ More Real-time visualization of large-scale volumetric data remains challenging, as direct volume rendering and voxel-based methods suffer from prohibitively high computational cost. We propose Variable Basis Mapping (VBM), a framework that transforms volumetric fields into 3D Gaussian Splatting (3DGS) representations through wavelet-domain analysis. First, we precompute a compact Wavelet-to-Gaussian Transition Bank that provides optimal Gaussian surrogates for canonical wavelet atoms across multiple scales. Second, we perform analytical Gaussian construction that maps discrete wavelet coefficients directly to 3DGS parameters using a closed-form, mathematically principled rule. Finally, a lightweight image-space fine-tuning stage further refines the representation to improve rendering fidelity. Experiments on diverse datasets demonstrate that VBM significantly accelerates convergence and enhances rendering quality, enabling real-time volumetric visualization. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 11 pages. Under review arXiv:2601.09413 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.SD cs.AI cs.CL cs.MA eess.AS Speech-Hands: A Self-Reflection Voice Agentic Approach to Speech Recognition and Audio Reasoning with Omni Perception Authors: Zhen Wan , Chao-Han Huck Yang , Jinchuan Tian , Hanrong Ye , Ankita Pasad , Szu-wei Fu , Arushi Goel , Ryo Hachiuma , Shizhe Diao , Kunal Dhawan , Sreyan Ghosh , Yusuke Hirota , Zhehuai Chen , Rafael Valle , Ehsan Hosseini Asl , Chenhui Chu , Shinji Watanabe , Yu-Chiang Frank Wang , Boris Ginsburg Abstract : We introduce a voice-agentic framework that learns one critical omni-understanding skill: knowing when to trust itself versus when to consult external audio perception. Our work is motivated by a crucial yet counterintuitive finding: naively fine-tuning an omni-model on both speech recognition and external sound understanding tasks often degrades performance, as the model can be easily misled by n… ▽ More We introduce a voice-agentic framework that learns one critical omni-understanding skill: knowing when to trust itself versus when to consult external audio perception. Our work is motivated by a crucial yet counterintuitive finding: naively fine-tuning an omni-model on both speech recognition and external sound understanding tasks often degrades performance, as the model can be easily misled by noisy hypotheses. To address this, our framework, Speech-Hands, recasts the problem as an explicit self-reflection decision. This learnable reflection primitive proves effective in preventing the model from being derailed by flawed external candidates. We show that this agentic action mechanism generalizes naturally from speech recognition to complex, multiple-choice audio reasoning. Across the OpenASR leaderboard, Speech-Hands consistently outperforms strong baselines by 12.1% WER on seven benchmarks. The model also achieves 77.37% accuracy and high F1 on audio QA decisions, showing robust generalization and reliability across diverse audio question answering datasets. By unifying perception and decision-making, our work offers a practical path toward more reliable and resilient audio intelligence. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Preprint. The version was submitted in October 2025 arXiv:2601.09413 [ pdf , ps , other ] Speech-Hands: A Self-Reflection Voice Agentic Approach to Speech Recognition and Audio Reasoning with Omni Perception Authors: Zhen Wan , Chao-Han Huck Yang , Jinchuan Tian , Hanrong Ye , Ankita Pasad , Szu-wei Fu , Arushi Goel , Ryo Hachiuma , Shizhe Diao , Kunal Dhawan , Sreyan Ghosh , Yusuke Hirota , Zhehuai Chen , Rafael Valle , Ehsan Hosseini Asl , Chenhui Chu , Shinji Watanabe , Yu-Chiang Frank Wang , Boris Ginsburg Abstract : We introduce a voice-agentic framework that learns one critical omni-understanding skill: knowing when to trust itself versus when to consult external audio perception. Our work is motivated by a crucial yet counterintuitive finding: naively fine-tuning an omni-model on both speech recognition and external sound understanding tasks often degrades performance, as the model can be easily misled by n… ▽ More We introduce a voice-agentic framework that learns one critical omni-understanding skill: knowing when to trust itself versus when to consult external audio perception. Our work is motivated by a crucial yet counterintuitive finding: naively fine-tuning an omni-model on both speech recognition and external sound understanding tasks often degrades performance, as the model can be easily misled by noisy hypotheses. To address this, our framework, Speech-Hands, recasts the problem as an explicit self-reflection decision. This learnable reflection primitive proves effective in preventing the model from being derailed by flawed external candidates. We show that this agentic action mechanism generalizes naturally from speech recognition to complex, multiple-choice audio reasoning. Across the OpenASR leaderboard, Speech-Hands consistently outperforms strong baselines by 12.1% WER on seven benchmarks. The model also achieves 77.37% accuracy and high F1 on audio QA decisions, showing robust generalization and reliability across diverse audio question answering datasets. By unifying perception and decision-making, our work offers a practical path toward more reliable and resilient audio intelligence. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Preprint. The version was submitted in October 2025 arXiv:2601.09246 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL TeachPro: Multi-Label Qualitative Teaching Evaluation via Cross-View Graph Synergy and Semantic Anchored Evidence Encoding Authors: Xiangqian Wang , Yifan Jia , Yang Xiang , Yumin Zhang , Yanbin Wang , Ke Liu Abstract : Standardized Student Evaluation of Teaching often suffer from low reliability, restricted response options, and response distortion. Existing machine learning methods that mine open-ended comments usually reduce feedback to binary sentiment, which overlooks concrete concerns such as content clarity, feedback timeliness, and instructor demeanor, and provides limited guidance for instructional impro… ▽ More Standardized Student Evaluation of Teaching often suffer from low reliability, restricted response options, and response distortion. Existing machine learning methods that mine open-ended comments usually reduce feedback to binary sentiment, which overlooks concrete concerns such as content clarity, feedback timeliness, and instructor demeanor, and provides limited guidance for instructional improvement.We propose TeachPro, a multi-label learning framework that systematically assesses five key teaching dimensions: professional expertise, instructional behavior, pedagogical efficacy, classroom experience, and other performance metrics. We first propose a Dimension-Anchored Evidence Encoder, which integrates three core components: (i) a pre-trained text encoder that transforms qualitative feedback annotations into contextualized embeddings; (ii) a prompt module that represents five teaching dimensions as learnable semantic anchors; and (iii) a cross-attention mechanism that aligns evidence with pedagogical dimensions within a structured semantic space. We then propose a Cross-View Graph Synergy Network to represent student comments. This network comprises two components: (i) a Syntactic Branch that extracts explicit grammatical dependencies from parse trees, and (ii) a Semantic Branch that models latent conceptual relations derived from BERT-based similarity graphs. BiAffine fusion module aligns syntactic and semantic units, while a differential regularizer disentangles embeddings to encourage complementary representations. Finally, a cross-attention mechanism bridges the dimension-anchored evidence with the multi-view comment representations. We also contribute a novel benchmark dataset featuring expert qualitative annotations and multi-label scores. Extensive experiments demonstrate that TeachPro offers superior diagnostic granularity and robustness across diverse evaluation settings. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09246 [ pdf , ps , other ] TeachPro: Multi-Label Qualitative Teaching Evaluation via Cross-View Graph Synergy and Semantic Anchored Evidence Encoding Authors: Xiangqian Wang , Yifan Jia , Yang Xiang , Yumin Zhang , Yanbin Wang , Ke Liu Abstract : Standardized Student Evaluation of Teaching often suffer from low reliability, restricted response options, and response distortion. Existing machine learning methods that mine open-ended comments usually reduce feedback to binary sentiment, which overlooks concrete concerns such as content clarity, feedback timeliness, and instructor demeanor, and provides limited guidance for instructional impro… ▽ More Standardized Student Evaluation of Teaching often suffer from low reliability, restricted response options, and response distortion. Existing machine learning methods that mine open-ended comments usually reduce feedback to binary sentiment, which overlooks concrete concerns such as content clarity, feedback timeliness, and instructor demeanor, and provides limited guidance for instructional improvement.We propose TeachPro, a multi-label learning framework that systematically assesses five key teaching dimensions: professional expertise, instructional behavior, pedagogical efficacy, classroom experience, and other performance metrics. We first propose a Dimension-Anchored Evidence Encoder, which integrates three core components: (i) a pre-trained text encoder that transforms qualitative feedback annotations into contextualized embeddings; (ii) a prompt module that represents five teaching dimensions as learnable semantic anchors; and (iii) a cross-attention mechanism that aligns evidence with pedagogical dimensions within a structured semantic space. We then propose a Cross-View Graph Synergy Network to represent student comments. This network comprises two components: (i) a Syntactic Branch that extracts explicit grammatical dependencies from parse trees, and (ii) a Semantic Branch that models latent conceptual relations derived from BERT-based similarity graphs. BiAffine fusion module aligns syntactic and semantic units, while a differential regularizer disentangles embeddings to encourage complementary representations. Finally, a cross-attention mechanism bridges the dimension-anchored evidence with the multi-view comment representations. We also contribute a novel benchmark dataset featuring expert qualitative annotations and multi-label scores. Extensive experiments demonstrate that TeachPro offers superior diagnostic granularity and robustness across diverse evaluation settings. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09113 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI The AI Hippocampus: How Far are We From Human Memory? Authors: Zixia Jia , Jiaqi Li , Yipeng Kang , Yuxuan Wang , Tong Wu , Quansen Wang , Xiaobo Wang , Shuyi Zhang , Junzhe Shen , Qing Li , Siyuan Qi , Yitao Liang , Di He , Zilong Zheng , Song-Chun Zhu Abstract : Memory plays a foundational role in augmenting the reasoning, adaptability, and contextual fidelity of modern Large Language Models and Multi-Modal LLMs. As these models transition from static predictors to interactive systems capable of continual learning and personalized inference, the incorporation of memory mechanisms has emerged as a central theme in their architectural and functional evoluti… ▽ More Memory plays a foundational role in augmenting the reasoning, adaptability, and contextual fidelity of modern Large Language Models and Multi-Modal LLMs. As these models transition from static predictors to interactive systems capable of continual learning and personalized inference, the incorporation of memory mechanisms has emerged as a central theme in their architectural and functional evolution. This survey presents a comprehensive and structured synthesis of memory in LLMs and MLLMs, organizing the literature into a cohesive taxonomy comprising implicit, explicit, and agentic memory paradigms. Specifically, the survey delineates three primary memory frameworks. Implicit memory refers to the knowledge embedded within the internal parameters of pre-trained transformers, encompassing their capacity for memorization, associative retrieval, and contextual reasoning. Recent work has explored methods to interpret, manipulate, and reconfigure this latent memory. Explicit memory involves external storage and retrieval components designed to augment model outputs with dynamic, queryable knowledge representations, such as textual corpora, dense vectors, and graph-based structures, thereby enabling scalable and updatable interaction with information sources. Agentic memory introduces persistent, temporally extended memory structures within autonomous agents, facilitating long-term planning, self-consistency, and collaborative behavior in multi-agent systems, with relevance to embodied and interactive AI. Extending beyond text, the survey examines the integration of memory within multi-modal settings, where coherence across vision, language, audio, and action modalities is essential. Key architectural advances, benchmark tasks, and open challenges are discussed, including issues related to memory capacity, alignment, factual consistency, and cross-system interoperability. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Journal ref: Transactions on Machine Learning Research (11/2025) arXiv:2601.09113 [ pdf , ps , other ] The AI Hippocampus: How Far are We From Human Memory? Authors: Zixia Jia , Jiaqi Li , Yipeng Kang , Yuxuan Wang , Tong Wu , Quansen Wang , Xiaobo Wang , Shuyi Zhang , Junzhe Shen , Qing Li , Siyuan Qi , Yitao Liang , Di He , Zilong Zheng , Song-Chun Zhu Abstract : Memory plays a foundational role in augmenting the reasoning, adaptability, and contextual fidelity of modern Large Language Models and Multi-Modal LLMs. As these models transition from static predictors to interactive systems capable of continual learning and personalized inference, the incorporation of memory mechanisms has emerged as a central theme in their architectural and functional evoluti… ▽ More Memory plays a foundational role in augmenting the reasoning, adaptability, and contextual fidelity of modern Large Language Models and Multi-Modal LLMs. As these models transition from static predictors to interactive systems capable of continual learning and personalized inference, the incorporation of memory mechanisms has emerged as a central theme in their architectural and functional evolution. This survey presents a comprehensive and structured synthesis of memory in LLMs and MLLMs, organizing the literature into a cohesive taxonomy comprising implicit, explicit, and agentic memory paradigms. Specifically, the survey delineates three primary memory frameworks. Implicit memory refers to the knowledge embedded within the internal parameters of pre-trained transformers, encompassing their capacity for memorization, associative retrieval, and contextual reasoning. Recent work has explored methods to interpret, manipulate, and reconfigure this latent memory. Explicit memory involves external storage and retrieval components designed to augment model outputs with dynamic, queryable knowledge representations, such as textual corpora, dense vectors, and graph-based structures, thereby enabling scalable and updatable interaction with information sources. Agentic memory introduces persistent, temporally extended memory structures within autonomous agents, facilitating long-term planning, self-consistency, and collaborative behavior in multi-agent systems, with relevance to embodied and interactive AI. Extending beyond text, the survey examines the integration of memory within multi-modal settings, where coherence across vision, language, audio, and action modalities is essential. Key architectural advances, benchmark tasks, and open challenges are discussed, including issues related to memory capacity, alignment, factual consistency, and cross-system interoperability. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Journal ref: Transactions on Machine Learning Research (11/2025) arXiv:2601.08875 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI cs.LG Learning Domain-Invariant Representations for Cross-Domain Image Registration via Scene-Appearance Disentanglement Authors: Jiahao Qin , Yiwen Wang Abstract : Image registration under domain shift remains a fundamental challenge in computer vision and medical imaging: when source and target images exhibit systematic intensity differences, the brightness constancy assumption underlying conventional registration methods is violated, rendering correspondence estimation ill-posed. We propose SAR-Net, a unified framework that addresses this challenge through… ▽ More Image registration under domain shift remains a fundamental challenge in computer vision and medical imaging: when source and target images exhibit systematic intensity differences, the brightness constancy assumption underlying conventional registration methods is violated, rendering correspondence estimation ill-posed. We propose SAR-Net, a unified framework that addresses this challenge through principled scene-appearance disentanglement. Our key insight is that observed images can be decomposed into domain-invariant scene representations and domain-specific appearance codes, enabling registration via re-rendering rather than direct intensity matching. We establish theoretical conditions under which this decomposition enables consistent cross-domain alignment (Proposition 1) and prove that our scene consistency loss provides a sufficient condition for geometric correspondence in the shared latent space (Proposition 2). Empirically, we validate SAR-Net on bidirectional scanning microscopy, where coupled domain shift and geometric distortion create a challenging real-world testbed. Our method achieves 0.885 SSIM and 0.979 NCC, representing 3.1x improvement over the strongest baseline, while maintaining real-time performance (77 fps). Ablation studies confirm that both scene consistency and domain alignment losses are necessary: removing either degrades performance by 90% SSIM or causes 223x increase in latent alignment error, respectively. Code and data are available at △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 12 pages, 7 figures, 4 tables. Code and data available at MSC Class: 68T45; 68U10; 92C55 ACM Class: I.4.3; I.4.7; I.5.1 arXiv:2601.08875 [ pdf , ps , other ] Learning Domain-Invariant Representations for Cross-Domain Image Registration via Scene-Appearance Disentanglement Authors: Jiahao Qin , Yiwen Wang Abstract : Image registration under domain shift remains a fundamental challenge in computer vision and medical imaging: when source and target images exhibit systematic intensity differences, the brightness constancy assumption underlying conventional registration methods is violated, rendering correspondence estimation ill-posed. We propose SAR-Net, a unified framework that addresses this challenge through… ▽ More Image registration under domain shift remains a fundamental challenge in computer vision and medical imaging: when source and target images exhibit systematic intensity differences, the brightness constancy assumption underlying conventional registration methods is violated, rendering correspondence estimation ill-posed. We propose SAR-Net, a unified framework that addresses this challenge through principled scene-appearance disentanglement. Our key insight is that observed images can be decomposed into domain-invariant scene representations and domain-specific appearance codes, enabling registration via re-rendering rather than direct intensity matching. We establish theoretical conditions under which this decomposition enables consistent cross-domain alignment (Proposition 1) and prove that our scene consistency loss provides a sufficient condition for geometric correspondence in the shared latent space (Proposition 2). Empirically, we validate SAR-Net on bidirectional scanning microscopy, where coupled domain shift and geometric distortion create a challenging real-world testbed. Our method achieves 0.885 SSIM and 0.979 NCC, representing 3.1x improvement over the strongest baseline, while maintaining real-time performance (77 fps). Ablation studies confirm that both scene consistency and domain alignment losses are necessary: removing either degrades performance by 90% SSIM or causes 223x increase in latent alignment error, respectively. Code and data are available at △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 12 pages, 7 figures, 4 tables. Code and data available at MSC Class: 68T45; 68U10; 92C55 ACM Class: I.4.3; I.4.7; I.5.1 arXiv:2601.08868 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI cs.RO Residual Cross-Modal Fusion Networks for Audio-Visual Navigation Authors: Yi Wang , Yinfeng Yu , Bin Ren Abstract : Audio-visual embodied navigation aims to enable an agent to autonomously localize and reach a sound source in unseen 3D environments by leveraging auditory cues. The key challenge of this task lies in effectively modeling the interaction between heterogeneous features during multimodal fusion, so as to avoid single-modality dominance or information degradation, particularly in cross-domain scenari… ▽ More Audio-visual embodied navigation aims to enable an agent to autonomously localize and reach a sound source in unseen 3D environments by leveraging auditory cues. The key challenge of this task lies in effectively modeling the interaction between heterogeneous features during multimodal fusion, so as to avoid single-modality dominance or information degradation, particularly in cross-domain scenarios. To address this, we propose a Cross-Modal Residual Fusion Network, which introduces bidirectional residual interactions between audio and visual streams to achieve complementary modeling and fine-grained alignment, while maintaining the independence of their representations. Unlike conventional methods that rely on simple concatenation or attention gating, CRFN explicitly models cross-modal interactions via residual connections and incorporates stabilization techniques to improve convergence and robustness. Experiments on the Replica and Matterport3D datasets demonstrate that CRFN significantly outperforms state-of-the-art fusion baselines and achieves stronger cross-domain generalization. Notably, our experiments also reveal that agents exhibit differentiated modality dependence across different datasets. The discovery of this phenomenon provides a new perspective for understanding the cross-modal collaboration mechanism of embodied agents. △ Less Submitted 11 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Main paper (10 pages). Accepted for publication by the 14th international conference on Computational Visual Media (CVM 2026) arXiv:2601.08868 [ pdf , ps , other ] Residual Cross-Modal Fusion Networks for Audio-Visual Navigation Authors: Yi Wang , Yinfeng Yu , Bin Ren Abstract : Audio-visual embodied navigation aims to enable an agent to autonomously localize and reach a sound source in unseen 3D environments by leveraging auditory cues. The key challenge of this task lies in effectively modeling the interaction between heterogeneous features during multimodal fusion, so as to avoid single-modality dominance or information degradation, particularly in cross-domain scenari… ▽ More Audio-visual embodied navigation aims to enable an agent to autonomously localize and reach a sound source in unseen 3D environments by leveraging auditory cues. The key challenge of this task lies in effectively modeling the interaction between heterogeneous features during multimodal fusion, so as to avoid single-modality dominance or information degradation, particularly in cross-domain scenarios. To address this, we propose a Cross-Modal Residual Fusion Network, which introduces bidirectional residual interactions between audio and visual streams to achieve complementary modeling and fine-grained alignment, while maintaining the independence of their representations. Unlike conventional methods that rely on simple concatenation or attention gating, CRFN explicitly models cross-modal interactions via residual connections and incorporates stabilization techniques to improve convergence and robustness. Experiments on the Replica and Matterport3D datasets demonstrate that CRFN significantly outperforms state-of-the-art fusion baselines and achieves stronger cross-domain generalization. Notably, our experiments also reveal that agents exhibit differentiated modality dependence across different datasets. The discovery of this phenomenon provides a new perspective for understanding the cross-modal collaboration mechanism of embodied agents. △ Less Submitted 11 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Main paper (10 pages). Accepted for publication by the 14th international conference on Computational Visual Media (CVM 2026) arXiv:2601.08763 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.CL Rewarding the Rare: Uniqueness-Aware RL for Creative Problem Solving in LLMs Authors: Zhiyuan Hu , Yucheng Wang , Yufei He , Jiaying Wu , Yilun Zhao , See-Kiong Ng , Cynthia Breazeal , Anh Tuan Luu , Hae Won Park , Bryan Hooi Abstract : Reinforcement learning (RL) has become a central paradigm for post-training large language models (LLMs), particularly for complex reasoning tasks, yet it often suffers from exploration collapse: policies prematurely concentrate on a small set of dominant reasoning patterns, improving pass@1 while limiting rollout-level diversity and gains in pass@k. We argue that this failure stems from regulariz… ▽ More Reinforcement learning (RL) has become a central paradigm for post-training large language models (LLMs), particularly for complex reasoning tasks, yet it often suffers from exploration collapse: policies prematurely concentrate on a small set of dominant reasoning patterns, improving pass@1 while limiting rollout-level diversity and gains in pass@k. We argue that this failure stems from regularizing local token behavior rather than diversity over sets of solutions. To address this, we propose Uniqueness-Aware Reinforcement Learning, a rollout-level objective that explicitly rewards correct solutions that exhibit rare high-level strategies. Our method uses an LLM-based judge to cluster rollouts for the same problem according to their high-level solution strategies, ignoring superficial variations, and reweights policy advantages inversely with cluster size. As a result, correct but novel strategies receive higher rewards than redundant ones. Across mathematics, physics, and medical reasoning benchmarks, our approach consistently improves pass@$k$ across large sampling budgets and increases the area under the pass@$k$ curve (AUC@$K$) without sacrificing pass@1, while sustaining exploration and uncovering more diverse solution strategies at scale. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; v1 submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Work in Progress arXiv:2601.08763 [ pdf , ps , other ] Rewarding the Rare: Uniqueness-Aware RL for Creative Problem Solving in LLMs Authors: Zhiyuan Hu , Yucheng Wang , Yufei He , Jiaying Wu , Yilun Zhao , See-Kiong Ng , Cynthia Breazeal , Anh Tuan Luu , Hae Won Park , Bryan Hooi Abstract : Reinforcement learning (RL) has become a central paradigm for post-training large language models (LLMs), particularly for complex reasoning tasks, yet it often suffers from exploration collapse: policies prematurely concentrate on a small set of dominant reasoning patterns, improving pass@1 while limiting rollout-level diversity and gains in pass@k. We argue that this failure stems from regulariz… ▽ More Reinforcement learning (RL) has become a central paradigm for post-training large language models (LLMs), particularly for complex reasoning tasks, yet it often suffers from exploration collapse: policies prematurely concentrate on a small set of dominant reasoning patterns, improving pass@1 while limiting rollout-level diversity and gains in pass@k. We argue that this failure stems from regularizing local token behavior rather than diversity over sets of solutions. To address this, we propose Uniqueness-Aware Reinforcement Learning, a rollout-level objective that explicitly rewards correct solutions that exhibit rare high-level strategies. Our method uses an LLM-based judge to cluster rollouts for the same problem according to their high-level solution strategies, ignoring superficial variations, and reweights policy advantages inversely with cluster size. As a result, correct but novel strategies receive higher rewards than redundant ones. Across mathematics, physics, and medical reasoning benchmarks, our approach consistently improves pass@$k$ across large sampling budgets and increases the area under the pass@$k$ curve (AUC@$K$) without sacrificing pass@1, while sustaining exploration and uncovering more diverse solution strategies at scale. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; v1 submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Work in Progress arXiv:2601.08731 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI Learning from Demonstrations via Capability-Aware Goal Sampling Authors: Yuanlin Duan , Yuning Wang , Wenjie Qiu , He Zhu Abstract : Despite its promise, imitation learning often fails in long-horizon environments where perfect replication of demonstrations is unrealistic and small errors can accumulate catastrophically. We introduce Cago (Capability-Aware Goal Sampling), a novel learning-from-demonstrations method that mitigates the brittle dependence on expert trajectories for direct imitation. Unlike prior methods that rely… ▽ More Despite its promise, imitation learning often fails in long-horizon environments where perfect replication of demonstrations is unrealistic and small errors can accumulate catastrophically. We introduce Cago (Capability-Aware Goal Sampling), a novel learning-from-demonstrations method that mitigates the brittle dependence on expert trajectories for direct imitation. Unlike prior methods that rely on demonstrations only for policy initialization or reward shaping, Cago dynamically tracks the agent's competence along expert trajectories and uses this signal to select intermediate steps--goals that are just beyond the agent's current reach--to guide learning. This results in an adaptive curriculum that enables steady progress toward solving the full task. Empirical results demonstrate that Cago significantly improves sample efficiency and final performance across a range of sparse-reward, goal-conditioned tasks, consistently outperforming existing learning from-demonstrations baselines. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 39th Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems (NeurIPS 2025) Journal ref: 39th Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems (NeurIPS 2025) arXiv:2601.08731 [ pdf , ps , other ] Learning from Demonstrations via Capability-Aware Goal Sampling Authors: Yuanlin Duan , Yuning Wang , Wenjie Qiu , He Zhu Abstract : Despite its promise, imitation learning often fails in long-horizon environments where perfect replication of demonstrations is unrealistic and small errors can accumulate catastrophically. We introduce Cago (Capability-Aware Goal Sampling), a novel learning-from-demonstrations method that mitigates the brittle dependence on expert trajectories for direct imitation. Unlike prior methods that rely… ▽ More Despite its promise, imitation learning often fails in long-horizon environments where perfect replication of demonstrations is unrealistic and small errors can accumulate catastrophically. We introduce Cago (Capability-Aware Goal Sampling), a novel learning-from-demonstrations method that mitigates the brittle dependence on expert trajectories for direct imitation. Unlike prior methods that rely on demonstrations only for policy initialization or reward shaping, Cago dynamically tracks the agent's competence along expert trajectories and uses this signal to select intermediate steps--goals that are just beyond the agent's current reach--to guide learning. This results in an adaptive curriculum that enables steady progress toward solving the full task. Empirical results demonstrate that Cago significantly improves sample efficiency and final performance across a range of sparse-reward, goal-conditioned tasks, consistently outperforming existing learning from-demonstrations baselines. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 39th Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems (NeurIPS 2025) Journal ref: 39th Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems (NeurIPS 2025) arXiv:2601.08679 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI PersonaDual: Balancing Personalization and Objectivity via Adaptive Reasoning Authors: Xiaoyou Liu , Xinyi Mou , Shengbin Yue , Liang Wang , Yuqing Wang , Qiexiang Wang , Tianrui Qin , Wangchunshu Zhou , Zhongyu Wei Abstract : As users increasingly expect LLMs to align with their preferences, personalized information becomes valuable. However, personalized information can be a double-edged sword: it can improve interaction but may compromise objectivity and factual correctness, especially when it is misaligned with the question. To alleviate this problem, we propose PersonaDual, a framework that supports both general-pu… ▽ More As users increasingly expect LLMs to align with their preferences, personalized information becomes valuable. However, personalized information can be a double-edged sword: it can improve interaction but may compromise objectivity and factual correctness, especially when it is misaligned with the question. To alleviate this problem, we propose PersonaDual, a framework that supports both general-purpose objective reasoning and personalized reasoning in a single model, and adaptively switches modes based on context. PersonaDual is first trained with SFT to learn two reasoning patterns, and then further optimized via reinforcement learning with our proposed DualGRPO to improve mode selection. Experiments on objective and personalized benchmarks show that PersonaDual preserves the benefits of personalization while reducing interference, achieving near interference-free performance and better leveraging helpful personalized signals to improve objective problem-solving. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.08679 [ pdf , ps , other ] PersonaDual: Balancing Personalization and Objectivity via Adaptive Reasoning Authors: Xiaoyou Liu , Xinyi Mou , Shengbin Yue , Liang Wang , Yuqing Wang , Qiexiang Wang , Tianrui Qin , Wangchunshu Zhou , Zhongyu Wei Abstract : As users increasingly expect LLMs to align with their preferences, personalized information becomes valuable. However, personalized information can be a double-edged sword: it can improve interaction but may compromise objectivity and factual correctness, especially when it is misaligned with the question. To alleviate this problem, we propose PersonaDual, a framework that supports both general-pu… ▽ More As users increasingly expect LLMs to align with their preferences, personalized information becomes valuable. However, personalized information can be a double-edged sword: it can improve interaction but may compromise objectivity and factual correctness, especially when it is misaligned with the question. To alleviate this problem, we propose PersonaDual, a framework that supports both general-purpose objective reasoning and personalized reasoning in a single model, and adaptively switches modes based on context. PersonaDual is first trained with SFT to learn two reasoning patterns, and then further optimized via reinforcement learning with our proposed DualGRPO to improve mode selection. Experiments on objective and personalized benchmarks show that PersonaDual preserves the benefits of personalization while reducing interference, achieving near interference-free performance and better leveraging helpful personalized signals to improve objective problem-solving. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.08631 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.AI M$^2$FMoE: Multi-Resolution Multi-View Frequency Mixture-of-Experts for Extreme-Adaptive Time Series Forecasting Authors: Yaohui Huang , Runmin Zou , Yun Wang , Laeeq Aslam , Ruipeng Dong Abstract : Forecasting time series with extreme events is critical yet challenging due to their high variance, irregular dynamics, and sparse but high-impact nature. While existing methods excel in modeling dominant regular patterns, their performance degrades significantly during extreme events, constituting the primary source of forecasting errors in real-world applications. Although some approaches incorp… ▽ More Forecasting time series with extreme events is critical yet challenging due to their high variance, irregular dynamics, and sparse but high-impact nature. While existing methods excel in modeling dominant regular patterns, their performance degrades significantly during extreme events, constituting the primary source of forecasting errors in real-world applications. Although some approaches incorporate auxiliary signals to improve performance, they still fail to capture extreme events' complex temporal dynamics. To address these limitations, we propose M$^2$FMoE, an extreme-adaptive forecasting model that learns both regular and extreme patterns through multi-resolution and multi-view frequency modeling. It comprises three modules: (1) a multi-view frequency mixture-of-experts module assigns experts to distinct spectral bands in Fourier and Wavelet domains, with cross-view shared band splitter aligning frequency partitions and enabling inter-expert collaboration to capture both dominant and rare fluctuations; (2) a multi-resolution adaptive fusion module that hierarchically aggregates frequency features from coarse to fine resolutions, enhancing sensitivity to both short-term variations and sudden changes; (3) a temporal gating integration module that dynamically balances long-term trends and short-term frequency-aware features, improving adaptability to both regular and extreme temporal patterns. Experiments on real-world hydrological datasets with extreme patterns demonstrate that M$^2$FMoE outperforms state-of-the-art baselines without requiring extreme-event labels. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Accepted by AAAI 2026 arXiv:2601.08631 [ pdf , ps , other ] M$^2$FMoE: Multi-Resolution Multi-View Frequency Mixture-of-Experts for Extreme-Adaptive Time Series Forecasting Authors: Yaohui Huang , Runmin Zou , Yun Wang , Laeeq Aslam , Ruipeng Dong Abstract : Forecasting time series with extreme events is critical yet challenging due to their high variance, irregular dynamics, and sparse but high-impact nature. While existing methods excel in modeling dominant regular patterns, their performance degrades significantly during extreme events, constituting the primary source of forecasting errors in real-world applications. Although some approaches incorp… ▽ More Forecasting time series with extreme events is critical yet challenging due to their high variance, irregular dynamics, and sparse but high-impact nature. While existing methods excel in modeling dominant regular patterns, their performance degrades significantly during extreme events, constituting the primary source of forecasting errors in real-world applications. Although some approaches incorporate auxiliary signals to improve performance, they still fail to capture extreme events' complex temporal dynamics. To address these limitations, we propose M$^2$FMoE, an extreme-adaptive forecasting model that learns both regular and extreme patterns through multi-resolution and multi-view frequency modeling. It comprises three modules: (1) a multi-view frequency mixture-of-experts module assigns experts to distinct spectral bands in Fourier and Wavelet domains, with cross-view shared band splitter aligning frequency partitions and enabling inter-expert collaboration to capture both dominant and rare fluctuations; (2) a multi-resolution adaptive fusion module that hierarchically aggregates frequency features from coarse to fine resolutions, enhancing sensitivity to both short-term variations and sudden changes; (3) a temporal gating integration module that dynamically balances long-term trends and short-term frequency-aware features, improving adaptability to both regular and extreme temporal patterns. Experiments on real-world hydrological datasets with extreme patterns demonstrate that M$^2$FMoE outperforms state-of-the-art baselines without requiring extreme-event labels. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Accepted by AAAI 2026 arXiv:2601.08626 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL How Order-Sensitive Are LLMs? OrderProbe for Deterministic Structural Reconstruction Authors: Yingjie He , Zhaolu Kang , Kehan Jiang , Qianyuan Zhang , Jiachen Qian , Chunlei Meng , Yujie Feng , Yuan Wang , Jiabao Dou , Aming Wu , Leqi Zheng , Pengxiang Zhao , Jiaxin Liu , Zeyu Zhang , Lei Wang , Guansu Wang , Qishi Zhan , Xiaomin He , Meisheng Zhang , Jianyuan Ni Abstract : Large language models (LLMs) excel at semantic understanding, yet their ability to reconstruct internal structure from scrambled inputs remains underexplored. Sentence-level restoration is ill-posed for automated evaluation because multiple valid word orders often exist. We introduce OrderProbe, a deterministic benchmark for structural reconstruction using fixed four-character expressions in Chine… ▽ More Large language models (LLMs) excel at semantic understanding, yet their ability to reconstruct internal structure from scrambled inputs remains underexplored. Sentence-level restoration is ill-posed for automated evaluation because multiple valid word orders often exist. We introduce OrderProbe, a deterministic benchmark for structural reconstruction using fixed four-character expressions in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean, which have a unique canonical order and thus support exact-match scoring. We further propose a diagnostic framework that evaluates models beyond recovery accuracy, including semantic fidelity, logical validity, consistency, robustness sensitivity, and information density. Experiments on twelve widely used LLMs show that structural reconstruction remains difficult even for frontier systems: zero-shot recovery frequently falls below 35%. We also observe a consistent dissociation between semantic recall and structural planning, suggesting that structural robustness is not an automatic byproduct of semantic competence. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.08626 [ pdf , ps , other ] How Order-Sensitive Are LLMs? OrderProbe for Deterministic Structural Reconstruction Authors: Yingjie He , Zhaolu Kang , Kehan Jiang , Qianyuan Zhang , Jiachen Qian , Chunlei Meng , Yujie Feng , Yuan Wang , Jiabao Dou , Aming Wu , Leqi Zheng , Pengxiang Zhao , Jiaxin Liu , Zeyu Zhang , Lei Wang , Guansu Wang , Qishi Zhan , Xiaomin He , Meisheng Zhang , Jianyuan Ni Abstract : Large language models (LLMs) excel at semantic understanding, yet their ability to reconstruct internal structure from scrambled inputs remains underexplored. Sentence-level restoration is ill-posed for automated evaluation because multiple valid word orders often exist. We introduce OrderProbe, a deterministic benchmark for structural reconstruction using fixed four-character expressions in Chine… ▽ More Large language models (LLMs) excel at semantic understanding, yet their ability to reconstruct internal structure from scrambled inputs remains underexplored. Sentence-level restoration is ill-posed for automated evaluation because multiple valid word orders often exist. We introduce OrderProbe, a deterministic benchmark for structural reconstruction using fixed four-character expressions in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean, which have a unique canonical order and thus support exact-match scoring. We further propose a diagnostic framework that evaluates models beyond recovery accuracy, including semantic fidelity, logical validity, consistency, robustness sensitivity, and information density. Experiments on twelve widely used LLMs show that structural reconstruction remains difficult even for frontier systems: zero-shot recovery frequently falls below 35%. We also observe a consistent dissociation between semantic recall and structural planning, suggesting that structural robustness is not an automatic byproduct of semantic competence. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.08584 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL Ministral 3 Authors: Alexander H. Liu , Kartik Khandelwal , Sandeep Subramanian , Victor Jouault , Abhinav Rastogi , Adrien Sadé , Alan Jeffares , Albert Jiang , Alexandre Cahill , Alexandre Gavaudan , Alexandre Sablayrolles , Amélie Héliou , Amos You , Andy Ehrenberg , Andy Lo , Anton Eliseev , Antonia Calvi , Avinash Sooriyarachchi , Baptiste Bout , Baptiste Rozière , Baudouin De Monicault , Clémence Lanfranchi , Corentin Barreau , Cyprien Courtot , Daniele Grattarola , et al. (95 additional authors not shown) Abstract : We introduce the Ministral 3 series, a family of parameter-efficient dense language models designed for compute and memory constrained applications, available in three model sizes: 3B, 8B, and 14B parameters. For each model size, we release three variants: a pretrained base model for general-purpose use, an instruction finetuned, and a reasoning model for complex problem-solving. In addition, we p… ▽ More We introduce the Ministral 3 series, a family of parameter-efficient dense language models designed for compute and memory constrained applications, available in three model sizes: 3B, 8B, and 14B parameters. For each model size, we release three variants: a pretrained base model for general-purpose use, an instruction finetuned, and a reasoning model for complex problem-solving. In addition, we present our recipe to derive the Ministral 3 models through Cascade Distillation, an iterative pruning and continued training with distillation technique. Each model comes with image understanding capabilities, all under the Apache 2.0 license. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Release page: ; Models available at arXiv:2601.08584 [ pdf , ps , other ] Ministral 3 Authors: Alexander H. Liu , Kartik Khandelwal , Sandeep Subramanian , Victor Jouault , Abhinav Rastogi , Adrien Sadé , Alan Jeffares , Albert Jiang , Alexandre Cahill , Alexandre Gavaudan , Alexandre Sablayrolles , Amélie Héliou , Amos You , Andy Ehrenberg , Andy Lo , Anton Eliseev , Antonia Calvi , Avinash Sooriyarachchi , Baptiste Bout , Baptiste Rozière , Baudouin De Monicault , Clémence Lanfranchi , Corentin Barreau , Cyprien Courtot , Daniele Grattarola , et al. (95 additional authors not shown) Abstract : We introduce the Ministral 3 series, a family of parameter-efficient dense language models designed for compute and memory constrained applications, available in three model sizes: 3B, 8B, and 14B parameters. For each model size, we release three variants: a pretrained base model for general-purpose use, an instruction finetuned, and a reasoning model for complex problem-solving. In addition, we p… ▽ More We introduce the Ministral 3 series, a family of parameter-efficient dense language models designed for compute and memory constrained applications, available in three model sizes: 3B, 8B, and 14B parameters. For each model size, we release three variants: a pretrained base model for general-purpose use, an instruction finetuned, and a reasoning model for complex problem-solving. In addition, we present our recipe to derive the Ministral 3 models through Cascade Distillation, an iterative pruning and continued training with distillation technique. Each model comes with image understanding capabilities, all under the Apache 2.0 license. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Release page: ; Models available at arXiv:2601.08468 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI cs.LG JudgeRLVR: Judge First, Generate Second for Efficient Reasoning Authors: Jiangshan Duo , Hanyu Li , Hailin Zhang , Yudong Wang , Sujian Li , Liang Zhao Abstract : Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards (RLVR) has become a standard paradigm for reasoning in Large Language Models. However, optimizing solely for final-answer correctness often drives models into aimless, verbose exploration, where they rely on exhaustive trial-and-error tactics rather than structured planning to reach solutions. While heuristic constraints like length penalties can redu… ▽ More Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards (RLVR) has become a standard paradigm for reasoning in Large Language Models. However, optimizing solely for final-answer correctness often drives models into aimless, verbose exploration, where they rely on exhaustive trial-and-error tactics rather than structured planning to reach solutions. While heuristic constraints like length penalties can reduce verbosity, they often truncate essential reasoning steps, creating a difficult trade-off between efficiency and verification. In this paper, we argue that discriminative capability is a prerequisite for efficient generation: by learning to distinguish valid solutions, a model can internalize a guidance signal that prunes the search space. We propose JudgeRLVR, a two-stage judge-then-generate paradigm. In the first stage, we train the model to judge solution responses with verifiable answers. In the second stage, we fine-tune the same model with vanilla generating RLVR initialized from the judge. Compared to Vanilla RLVR using the same math-domain training data, JudgeRLVR achieves a better quality--efficiency trade-off for Qwen3-30B-A3B: on in-domain math, it delivers about +3.7 points average accuracy gain with -42\% average generation length; on out-of-domain benchmarks, it delivers about +4.5 points average accuracy improvement, demonstrating enhanced generalization. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 16 pages, 5 figures arXiv:2601.08468 [ pdf , ps , other ] JudgeRLVR: Judge First, Generate Second for Efficient Reasoning Authors: Jiangshan Duo , Hanyu Li , Hailin Zhang , Yudong Wang , Sujian Li , Liang Zhao Abstract : Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards (RLVR) has become a standard paradigm for reasoning in Large Language Models. However, optimizing solely for final-answer correctness often drives models into aimless, verbose exploration, where they rely on exhaustive trial-and-error tactics rather than structured planning to reach solutions. While heuristic constraints like length penalties can redu… ▽ More Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards (RLVR) has become a standard paradigm for reasoning in Large Language Models. However, optimizing solely for final-answer correctness often drives models into aimless, verbose exploration, where they rely on exhaustive trial-and-error tactics rather than structured planning to reach solutions. While heuristic constraints like length penalties can reduce verbosity, they often truncate essential reasoning steps, creating a difficult trade-off between efficiency and verification. In this paper, we argue that discriminative capability is a prerequisite for efficient generation: by learning to distinguish valid solutions, a model can internalize a guidance signal that prunes the search space. We propose JudgeRLVR, a two-stage judge-then-generate paradigm. In the first stage, we train the model to judge solution responses with verifiable answers. In the second stage, we fine-tune the same model with vanilla generating RLVR initialized from the judge. Compared to Vanilla RLVR using the same math-domain training data, JudgeRLVR achieves a better quality--efficiency trade-off for Qwen3-30B-A3B: on in-domain math, it delivers about +3.7 points average accuracy gain with -42\% average generation length; on out-of-domain benchmarks, it delivers about +4.5 points average accuracy improvement, demonstrating enhanced generalization. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 16 pages, 5 figures arXiv:2601.08444 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI Beyond Linearization: Attributed Table Graphs for Table Reasoning Authors: Yuxiang Wang , Junhao Gan , Shengxiang Gao , Shenghao Ye , Zhengyi Yang , Jianzhong Qi Abstract : Table reasoning, a task to answer questions by reasoning over data presented in tables, is an important topic due to the prevalence of knowledge stored in tabular formats. Recent solutions use Large Language Models (LLMs), exploiting the semantic understanding and reasoning capabilities of LLMs. A common paradigm of such solutions linearizes tables to form plain texts that are served as input to L… ▽ More Table reasoning, a task to answer questions by reasoning over data presented in tables, is an important topic due to the prevalence of knowledge stored in tabular formats. Recent solutions use Large Language Models (LLMs), exploiting the semantic understanding and reasoning capabilities of LLMs. A common paradigm of such solutions linearizes tables to form plain texts that are served as input to LLMs. This paradigm has critical issues. It loses table structures, lacks explicit reasoning paths for result explainability, and is subject to the "lost-in-the-middle" issue. To address these issues, we propose Table Graph Reasoner (TABGR), a training-free model that represents tables as an Attributed Table Graph (ATG). The ATG explicitly preserves row-column-cell structures while enabling graph-based reasoning for explainability. We further propose a Question-Guided Personalized PageRank (QG-PPR) mechanism to rerank tabular data and mitigate the lost-in-the-middle issue. Extensive experiments on two commonly used benchmarks show that TABGR consistently outperforms state-of-the-art models by up to 9.7% in accuracy. Our code will be made publicly available upon publication. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.08444 [ pdf , ps , other ] Beyond Linearization: Attributed Table Graphs for Table Reasoning Authors: Yuxiang Wang , Junhao Gan , Shengxiang Gao , Shenghao Ye , Zhengyi Yang , Jianzhong Qi Abstract : Table reasoning, a task to answer questions by reasoning over data presented in tables, is an important topic due to the prevalence of knowledge stored in tabular formats. Recent solutions use Large Language Models (LLMs), exploiting the semantic understanding and reasoning capabilities of LLMs. A common paradigm of such solutions linearizes tables to form plain texts that are served as input to L… ▽ More Table reasoning, a task to answer questions by reasoning over data presented in tables, is an important topic due to the prevalence of knowledge stored in tabular formats. Recent solutions use Large Language Models (LLMs), exploiting the semantic understanding and reasoning capabilities of LLMs. A common paradigm of such solutions linearizes tables to form plain texts that are served as input to LLMs. This paradigm has critical issues. It loses table structures, lacks explicit reasoning paths for result explainability, and is subject to the "lost-in-the-middle" issue. To address these issues, we propose Table Graph Reasoner (TABGR), a training-free model that represents tables as an Attributed Table Graph (ATG). The ATG explicitly preserves row-column-cell structures while enabling graph-based reasoning for explainability. We further propose a Question-Guided Personalized PageRank (QG-PPR) mechanism to rerank tabular data and mitigate the lost-in-the-middle issue. Extensive experiments on two commonly used benchmarks show that TABGR consistently outperforms state-of-the-art models by up to 9.7% in accuracy. Our code will be made publicly available upon publication. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.08412 [ pdf ] cs.AI Hybrid Distillation with CoT Guidance for Edge-Drone Control Code Generation Authors: Yizhan Feng , Hichem Snoussi , Yuhang Wang , Jing Teng , Abel Cherouat , Tian Wang Abstract : With large language models demonstrating significant potential in code generation tasks, their application to onboard control of resource-constrained Unmanned Aerial Vehicles has emerged as an important research direction. However, a notable contradiction exists between the high resource consumption of large models and the real-time, lightweight requirements of UAV platforms. This paper proposes a… ▽ More With large language models demonstrating significant potential in code generation tasks, their application to onboard control of resource-constrained Unmanned Aerial Vehicles has emerged as an important research direction. However, a notable contradiction exists between the high resource consumption of large models and the real-time, lightweight requirements of UAV platforms. This paper proposes an integrated approach that combines knowledge distillation, chain-of-thought guidance, and supervised fine-tuning for UAV multi-SDK control tasks, aiming to efficiently transfer complex reasoning and code generation capabilities to smaller models. Firstly, a high-quality dataset covering various mainstream UAV SDKs is constructed, featuring instruction-code-reasoning chains, and incorporates counterfactual negative samples for data augmentation, guiding the model to learn the end-to-end logic from instruction parsing to code generation. Secondly, leveraging DeepSeek-Coder-V2-Lite quantized via QLoRA as the teacher model, and based on a hybrid black-box and white-box distillation strategy, high-quality chain-of-thought soft labels are generated. These are combined with a weighted cross-entropy loss using hard labels to transfer complex reasoning capabilities to the smaller student model. Finally, through prompt tuning engineering optimized for the UAV control scenario, the model performance on core tasks such as SDK type recognition and function call matching is enhanced. Experimental results indicate that the distilled lightweight model maintains high code generation accuracy while achieving significant improvements in deployment and inference efficiency, effectively demonstrating the feasibility and superiority of our approach in achieving precise and lightweight intelligent control for UAVs △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 2nd International Conference on Drones and Unmanned Systems (DAUS' 2026) arXiv:2601.08412 [ pdf ] Hybrid Distillation with CoT Guidance for Edge-Drone Control Code Generation Authors: Yizhan Feng , Hichem Snoussi , Yuhang Wang , Jing Teng , Abel Cherouat , Tian Wang Abstract : With large language models demonstrating significant potential in code generation tasks, their application to onboard control of resource-constrained Unmanned Aerial Vehicles has emerged as an important research direction. However, a notable contradiction exists between the high resource consumption of large models and the real-time, lightweight requirements of UAV platforms. This paper proposes a… ▽ More With large language models demonstrating significant potential in code generation tasks, their application to onboard control of resource-constrained Unmanned Aerial Vehicles has emerged as an important research direction. However, a notable contradiction exists between the high resource consumption of large models and the real-time, lightweight requirements of UAV platforms. This paper proposes an integrated approach that combines knowledge distillation, chain-of-thought guidance, and supervised fine-tuning for UAV multi-SDK control tasks, aiming to efficiently transfer complex reasoning and code generation capabilities to smaller models. Firstly, a high-quality dataset covering various mainstream UAV SDKs is constructed, featuring instruction-code-reasoning chains, and incorporates counterfactual negative samples for data augmentation, guiding the model to learn the end-to-end logic from instruction parsing to code generation. Secondly, leveraging DeepSeek-Coder-V2-Lite quantized via QLoRA as the teacher model, and based on a hybrid black-box and white-box distillation strategy, high-quality chain-of-thought soft labels are generated. These are combined with a weighted cross-entropy loss using hard labels to transfer complex reasoning capabilities to the smaller student model. Finally, through prompt tuning engineering optimized for the UAV control scenario, the model performance on core tasks such as SDK type recognition and function call matching is enhanced. Experimental results indicate that the distilled lightweight model maintains high code generation accuracy while achieving significant improvements in deployment and inference efficiency, effectively demonstrating the feasibility and superiority of our approach in achieving precise and lightweight intelligent control for UAVs △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 2nd International Conference on Drones and Unmanned Systems (DAUS' 2026) arXiv:2601.08408 [ pdf ] cs.CV cs.RO Edge-Optimized Multimodal Learning for UAV Video Understanding via BLIP-2 Authors: Yizhan Feng , Hichem Snoussi , Jing Teng , Jian Liu , Yuyang Wang , Abel Cherouat , Tian Wang Abstract : The demand for real-time visual understanding and interaction in complex scenarios is increasingly critical for unmanned aerial vehicles. However, a significant challenge arises from the contradiction between the high computational cost of large Vision language models and the limited computing resources available on UAV edge devices. To address this challenge, this paper proposes a lightweight mul… ▽ More The demand for real-time visual understanding and interaction in complex scenarios is increasingly critical for unmanned aerial vehicles. However, a significant challenge arises from the contradiction between the high computational cost of large Vision language models and the limited computing resources available on UAV edge devices. To address this challenge, this paper proposes a lightweight multimodal task platform based on BLIP-2, integrated with YOLO-World and YOLOv8-Seg models. This integration extends the multi-task capabilities of BLIP-2 for UAV applications with minimal adaptation and without requiring task-specific fine-tuning on drone data. Firstly, the deep integration of BLIP-2 with YOLO models enables it to leverage the precise perceptual results of YOLO for fundamental tasks like object detection and instance segmentation, thereby facilitating deeper visual-attention understanding and reasoning. Secondly, a content-aware key frame sampling mechanism based on K-Means clustering is designed, which incorporates intelligent frame selection and temporal feature concatenation. This equips the lightweight BLIP-2 architecture with the capability to handle video-level interactive tasks effectively. Thirdly, a unified prompt optimization scheme for multi-task adaptation is implemented. This scheme strategically injects structured event logs from the YOLO models as contextual information into BLIP-2's input. Combined with output constraints designed to filter out technical details, this approach effectively guides the model to generate accurate and contextually relevant outputs for various tasks. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: The Tenth International Conference on Data Mining and Big Data (DMBD'2025) arXiv:2601.08408 [ pdf ] Edge-Optimized Multimodal Learning for UAV Video Understanding via BLIP-2 Authors: Yizhan Feng , Hichem Snoussi , Jing Teng , Jian Liu , Yuyang Wang , Abel Cherouat , Tian Wang Abstract : The demand for real-time visual understanding and interaction in complex scenarios is increasingly critical for unmanned aerial vehicles. However, a significant challenge arises from the contradiction between the high computational cost of large Vision language models and the limited computing resources available on UAV edge devices. To address this challenge, this paper proposes a lightweight mul… ▽ More The demand for real-time visual understanding and interaction in complex scenarios is increasingly critical for unmanned aerial vehicles. However, a significant challenge arises from the contradiction between the high computational cost of large Vision language models and the limited computing resources available on UAV edge devices. To address this challenge, this paper proposes a lightweight multimodal task platform based on BLIP-2, integrated with YOLO-World and YOLOv8-Seg models. This integration extends the multi-task capabilities of BLIP-2 for UAV applications with minimal adaptation and without requiring task-specific fine-tuning on drone data. Firstly, the deep integration of BLIP-2 with YOLO models enables it to leverage the precise perceptual results of YOLO for fundamental tasks like object detection and instance segmentation, thereby facilitating deeper visual-attention understanding and reasoning. Secondly, a content-aware key frame sampling mechanism based on K-Means clustering is designed, which incorporates intelligent frame selection and temporal feature concatenation. This equips the lightweight BLIP-2 architecture with the capability to handle video-level interactive tasks effectively. Thirdly, a unified prompt optimization scheme for multi-task adaptation is implemented. This scheme strategically injects structured event logs from the YOLO models as contextual information into BLIP-2's input. Combined with output constraints designed to filter out technical details, this approach effectively guides the model to generate accurate and contextually relevant outputs for various tasks. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: The Tenth International Conference on Data Mining and Big Data (DMBD'2025) arXiv:2601.08393 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.AI Controlled LLM Training on Spectral Sphere Authors: Tian Xie , Haoming Luo , Haoyu Tang , Yiwen Hu , Jason Klein Liu , Qingnan Ren , Yang Wang , Wayne Xin Zhao , Rui Yan , Bing Su , Chong Luo , Baining Guo Abstract : Scaling large models requires optimization strategies that ensure rapid convergence grounded in stability. Maximal Update Parametrization ($\boldsymbolμ$P) provides a theoretical safeguard for width-invariant $Θ(1)$ activation control, whereas emerging optimizers like Muon are only ``half-aligned'' with these constraints: they control updates but allow weights to drift. To address this limitation,… ▽ More Scaling large models requires optimization strategies that ensure rapid convergence grounded in stability. Maximal Update Parametrization ($\boldsymbolμ$P) provides a theoretical safeguard for width-invariant $Θ(1)$ activation control, whereas emerging optimizers like Muon are only ``half-aligned'' with these constraints: they control updates but allow weights to drift. To address this limitation, we introduce the \textbf{Spectral Sphere Optimizer (SSO)}, which enforces strict module-wise spectral constraints on both weights and their updates. By deriving the steepest descent direction on the spectral sphere, SSO realizes a fully $\boldsymbolμ$P-aligned optimization process. To enable large-scale training, we implement SSO as an efficient parallel algorithm within Megatron. Through extensive pretraining on diverse architectures, including Dense 1.7B, MoE 8B-A1B, and 200-layer DeepNet models, SSO consistently outperforms AdamW and Muon. Furthermore, we observe significant practical stability benefits, including improved MoE router load balancing, suppressed outliers, and strictly bounded activations. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.08393 [ pdf , ps , other ] Controlled LLM Training on Spectral Sphere Authors: Tian Xie , Haoming Luo , Haoyu Tang , Yiwen Hu , Jason Klein Liu , Qingnan Ren , Yang Wang , Wayne Xin Zhao , Rui Yan , Bing Su , Chong Luo , Baining Guo Abstract : Scaling large models requires optimization strategies that ensure rapid convergence grounded in stability. Maximal Update Parametrization ($\boldsymbolμ$P) provides a theoretical safeguard for width-invariant $Θ(1)$ activation control, whereas emerging optimizers like Muon are only ``half-aligned'' with these constraints: they control updates but allow weights to drift. To address this limitation,… ▽ More Scaling large models requires optimization strategies that ensure rapid convergence grounded in stability. Maximal Update Parametrization ($\boldsymbolμ$P) provides a theoretical safeguard for width-invariant $Θ(1)$ activation control, whereas emerging optimizers like Muon are only ``half-aligned'' with these constraints: they control updates but allow weights to drift. To address this limitation, we introduce the \textbf{Spectral Sphere Optimizer (SSO)}, which enforces strict module-wise spectral constraints on both weights and their updates. By deriving the steepest descent direction on the spectral sphere, SSO realizes a fully $\boldsymbolμ$P-aligned optimization process. To enable large-scale training, we implement SSO as an efficient parallel algorithm within Megatron. Through extensive pretraining on diverse architectures, including Dense 1.7B, MoE 8B-A1B, and 200-layer DeepNet models, SSO consistently outperforms AdamW and Muon. Furthermore, we observe significant practical stability benefits, including improved MoE router load balancing, suppressed outliers, and strictly bounded activations. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.08325 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.RO ActiveVLA: Injecting Active Perception into Vision-Language-Action Models for Precise 3D Robotic Manipulation Authors: Zhenyang Liu , Yongchong Gu , Yikai Wang , Xiangyang Xue , Yanwei Fu Abstract : Recent advances in robot manipulation have leveraged pre-trained vision-language models (VLMs) and explored integrating 3D spatial signals into these models for effective action prediction, giving rise to the promising vision-language-action (VLA) paradigm. However, most existing approaches overlook the importance of active perception: they typically rely on static, wrist-mounted cameras that prov… ▽ More Recent advances in robot manipulation have leveraged pre-trained vision-language models (VLMs) and explored integrating 3D spatial signals into these models for effective action prediction, giving rise to the promising vision-language-action (VLA) paradigm. However, most existing approaches overlook the importance of active perception: they typically rely on static, wrist-mounted cameras that provide an end-effector-centric viewpoint. As a result, these models are unable to adaptively select optimal viewpoints or resolutions during task execution, which significantly limits their performance in long-horizon tasks and fine-grained manipulation scenarios. To address these limitations, we propose ActiveVLA, a novel vision-language-action framework that empowers robots with active perception capabilities for high-precision, fine-grained manipulation. ActiveVLA adopts a coarse-to-fine paradigm, dividing the process into two stages: (1) Critical region localization. ActiveVLA projects 3D inputs onto multi-view 2D projections, identifies critical 3D regions, and supports dynamic spatial awareness. (2) Active perception optimization. Drawing on the localized critical regions, ActiveVLA uses an active view selection strategy to choose optimal viewpoints. These viewpoints aim to maximize amodal relevance and diversity while minimizing occlusions. Additionally, ActiveVLA applies a 3D zoom-in to improve resolution in key areas. Together, these steps enable finer-grained active perception for precise manipulation. Extensive experiments demonstrate that ActiveVLA achieves precise 3D manipulation and outperforms state-of-the-art baselines on three simulation benchmarks. Moreover, ActiveVLA transfers seamlessly to real-world scenarios, enabling robots to learn high-precision tasks in complex environments. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.08325 [ pdf , ps , other ] ActiveVLA: Injecting Active Perception into Vision-Language-Action Models for Precise 3D Robotic Manipulation Authors: Zhenyang Liu , Yongchong Gu , Yikai Wang , Xiangyang Xue , Yanwei Fu Abstract : Recent advances in robot manipulation have leveraged pre-trained vision-language models (VLMs) and explored integrating 3D spatial signals into these models for effective action prediction, giving rise to the promising vision-language-action (VLA) paradigm. However, most existing approaches overlook the importance of active perception: they typically rely on static, wrist-mounted cameras that prov… ▽ More Recent advances in robot manipulation have leveraged pre-trained vision-language models (VLMs) and explored integrating 3D spatial signals into these models for effective action prediction, giving rise to the promising vision-language-action (VLA) paradigm. However, most existing approaches overlook the importance of active perception: they typically rely on static, wrist-mounted cameras that provide an end-effector-centric viewpoint. As a result, these models are unable to adaptively select optimal viewpoints or resolutions during task execution, which significantly limits their performance in long-horizon tasks and fine-grained manipulation scenarios. To address these limitations, we propose ActiveVLA, a novel vision-language-action framework that empowers robots with active perception capabilities for high-precision, fine-grained manipulation. ActiveVLA adopts a coarse-to-fine paradigm, dividing the process into two stages: (1) Critical region localization. ActiveVLA projects 3D inputs onto multi-view 2D projections, identifies critical 3D regions, and supports dynamic spatial awareness. (2) Active perception optimization. Drawing on the localized critical regions, ActiveVLA uses an active view selection strategy to choose optimal viewpoints. These viewpoints aim to maximize amodal relevance and diversity while minimizing occlusions. Additionally, ActiveVLA applies a 3D zoom-in to improve resolution in key areas. Together, these steps enable finer-grained active perception for precise manipulation. Extensive experiments demonstrate that ActiveVLA achieves precise 3D manipulation and outperforms state-of-the-art baselines on three simulation benchmarks. Moreover, ActiveVLA transfers seamlessly to real-world scenarios, enabling robots to learn high-precision tasks in complex environments. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.08248 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.RO Spiking Neural-Invariant Kalman Fusion for Accurate Localization Using Low-Cost IMUs Authors: Yaohua Liu , Qiao Xu , Yemin Wang , Hui Yi Leong , Binkai Ou Abstract : Low-cost inertial measurement units (IMUs) are widely utilized in mobile robot localization due to their affordability and ease of integration. However, their complex, nonlinear, and time-varying noise characteristics often lead to significant degradation in localization accuracy when applied directly for dead reckoning. To overcome this limitation, we propose a novel brain-inspired state estimati… ▽ More Low-cost inertial measurement units (IMUs) are widely utilized in mobile robot localization due to their affordability and ease of integration. However, their complex, nonlinear, and time-varying noise characteristics often lead to significant degradation in localization accuracy when applied directly for dead reckoning. To overcome this limitation, we propose a novel brain-inspired state estimation framework that combines a spiking neural network (SNN) with an invariant extended Kalman filter (InEKF). The SNN is designed to extract motion-related features from long sequences of IMU data affected by substantial random noise and is trained via a surrogate gradient descent algorithm to enable dynamic adaptation of the covariance noise parameter within the InEKF. By fusing the SNN output with raw IMU measurements, the proposed method enhances the robustness and accuracy of pose estimation. Extensive experiments conducted on the KITTI dataset and real-world data collected using a mobile robot equipped with a low-cost IMU demonstrate that the proposed approach outperforms state-of-the-art methods in localization accuracy and exhibits strong robustness to sensor noise, highlighting its potential for real-world mobile robot applications. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.08248 [ pdf , ps , other ] Spiking Neural-Invariant Kalman Fusion for Accurate Localization Using Low-Cost IMUs Authors: Yaohua Liu , Qiao Xu , Yemin Wang , Hui Yi Leong , Binkai Ou Abstract : Low-cost inertial measurement units (IMUs) are widely utilized in mobile robot localization due to their affordability and ease of integration. However, their complex, nonlinear, and time-varying noise characteristics often lead to significant degradation in localization accuracy when applied directly for dead reckoning. To overcome this limitation, we propose a novel brain-inspired state estimati… ▽ More Low-cost inertial measurement units (IMUs) are widely utilized in mobile robot localization due to their affordability and ease of integration. However, their complex, nonlinear, and time-varying noise characteristics often lead to significant degradation in localization accuracy when applied directly for dead reckoning. To overcome this limitation, we propose a novel brain-inspired state estimation framework that combines a spiking neural network (SNN) with an invariant extended Kalman filter (InEKF). The SNN is designed to extract motion-related features from long sequences of IMU data affected by substantial random noise and is trained via a surrogate gradient descent algorithm to enable dynamic adaptation of the covariance noise parameter within the InEKF. By fusing the SNN output with raw IMU measurements, the proposed method enhances the robustness and accuracy of pose estimation. Extensive experiments conducted on the KITTI dataset and real-world data collected using a mobile robot equipped with a low-cost IMU demonstrate that the proposed approach outperforms state-of-the-art methods in localization accuracy and exhibits strong robustness to sensor noise, highlighting its potential for real-world mobile robot applications. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.08198 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.LG Triplets Better Than Pairs: Towards Stable and Effective Self-Play Fine-Tuning for LLMs Authors: Yibo Wang , Hai-Long Sun , Qing-Guo Chen , Zhao Xu , Weihua Luo , Kaifu Zhang , Lijun Zhang Abstract : Recently, self-play fine-tuning (SPIN) has been proposed to adapt large language models to downstream applications with scarce expert-annotated data, by iteratively generating synthetic responses from the model itself. However, SPIN is designed to optimize the current reward advantages of annotated responses over synthetic responses at hand, which may gradually vanish during iterations, leading to… ▽ More Recently, self-play fine-tuning (SPIN) has been proposed to adapt large language models to downstream applications with scarce expert-annotated data, by iteratively generating synthetic responses from the model itself. However, SPIN is designed to optimize the current reward advantages of annotated responses over synthetic responses at hand, which may gradually vanish during iterations, leading to unstable optimization. Moreover, the utilization of reference policy induces a misalignment issue between the reward formulation for training and the metric for generation. To address these limitations, we propose a novel Triplet-based Self-Play fIne-tuNing (T-SPIN) method that integrates two key designs. First, beyond current advantages, T-SPIN additionally incorporates historical advantages between iteratively generated responses and proto-synthetic responses produced by the initial policy. Even if the current advantages diminish, historical advantages remain effective, stabilizing the overall optimization. Second, T-SPIN introduces the entropy constraint into the self-play framework, which is theoretically justified to support reference-free fine-tuning, eliminating the training-generation discrepancy. Empirical results on various tasks demonstrate not only the superior performance of T-SPIN over SPIN, but also its stable evolution during iterations. Remarkably, compared to supervised fine-tuning, T-SPIN achieves comparable or even better performance with only 25% samples, highlighting its effectiveness when faced with scarce annotated data. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: NeurIPS 2025 arXiv:2601.08198 [ pdf , ps , other ] Triplets Better Than Pairs: Towards Stable and Effective Self-Play Fine-Tuning for LLMs Authors: Yibo Wang , Hai-Long Sun , Qing-Guo Chen , Zhao Xu , Weihua Luo , Kaifu Zhang , Lijun Zhang Abstract : Recently, self-play fine-tuning (SPIN) has been proposed to adapt large language models to downstream applications with scarce expert-annotated data, by iteratively generating synthetic responses from the model itself. However, SPIN is designed to optimize the current reward advantages of annotated responses over synthetic responses at hand, which may gradually vanish during iterations, leading to… ▽ More Recently, self-play fine-tuning (SPIN) has been proposed to adapt large language models to downstream applications with scarce expert-annotated data, by iteratively generating synthetic responses from the model itself. However, SPIN is designed to optimize the current reward advantages of annotated responses over synthetic responses at hand, which may gradually vanish during iterations, leading to unstable optimization. Moreover, the utilization of reference policy induces a misalignment issue between the reward formulation for training and the metric for generation. To address these limitations, we propose a novel Triplet-based Self-Play fIne-tuNing (T-SPIN) method that integrates two key designs. First, beyond current advantages, T-SPIN additionally incorporates historical advantages between iteratively generated responses and proto-synthetic responses produced by the initial policy. Even if the current advantages diminish, historical advantages remain effective, stabilizing the overall optimization. Second, T-SPIN introduces the entropy constraint into the self-play framework, which is theoretically justified to support reference-free fine-tuning, eliminating the training-generation discrepancy. Empirical results on various tasks demonstrate not only the superior performance of T-SPIN over SPIN, but also its stable evolution during iterations. Remarkably, compared to supervised fine-tuning, T-SPIN achieves comparable or even better performance with only 25% samples, highlighting its effectiveness when faced with scarce annotated data. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: NeurIPS 2025 arXiv:2601.08125 [ pdf ] cs.AI How vehicles change lanes after encountering crashes: Empirical analysis and modeling Authors: Kequan Chen , Yuxuan Wang , Pan Liu , Victor L. Knoop , David Z. W. Wang , Yu Han Abstract : When a traffic crash occurs, following vehicles need to change lanes to bypass the obstruction. We define these maneuvers as post crash lane changes. In such scenarios, vehicles in the target lane may refuse to yield even after the lane change has already begun, increasing the complexity and crash risk of post crash LCs. However, the behavioral characteristics and motion patterns of post crash LCs… ▽ More When a traffic crash occurs, following vehicles need to change lanes to bypass the obstruction. We define these maneuvers as post crash lane changes. In such scenarios, vehicles in the target lane may refuse to yield even after the lane change has already begun, increasing the complexity and crash risk of post crash LCs. However, the behavioral characteristics and motion patterns of post crash LCs remain unknown. To address this gap, we construct a post crash LC dataset by extracting vehicle trajectories from drone videos captured after crashes. Our empirical analysis reveals that, compared to mandatory LCs (MLCs) and discretionary LCs (DLCs), post crash LCs exhibit longer durations, lower insertion speeds, and higher crash risks. Notably, 79.4% of post crash LCs involve at least one instance of non yielding behavior from the new follower, compared to 21.7% for DLCs and 28.6% for MLCs. Building on these findings, we develop a novel trajectory prediction framework for post crash LCs. At its core is a graph based attention module that explicitly models yielding behavior as an auxiliary interaction aware task. This module is designed to guide both a conditional variational autoencoder and a Transformer based decoder to predict the lane changer's trajectory. By incorporating the interaction aware module, our model outperforms existing baselines in trajectory prediction performance by more than 10% in both average displacement error and final displacement error across different prediction horizons. Moreover, our model provides more reliable crash risk analysis by reducing false crash rates and improving conflict prediction accuracy. Finally, we validate the model's transferability using additional post crash LC datasets collected from different sites. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.08125 [ pdf ] How vehicles change lanes after encountering crashes: Empirical analysis and modeling Authors: Kequan Chen , Yuxuan Wang , Pan Liu , Victor L. Knoop , David Z. W. Wang , Yu Han Abstract : When a traffic crash occurs, following vehicles need to change lanes to bypass the obstruction. We define these maneuvers as post crash lane changes. In such scenarios, vehicles in the target lane may refuse to yield even after the lane change has already begun, increasing the complexity and crash risk of post crash LCs. However, the behavioral characteristics and motion patterns of post crash LCs… ▽ More When a traffic crash occurs, following vehicles need to change lanes to bypass the obstruction. We define these maneuvers as post crash lane changes. In such scenarios, vehicles in the target lane may refuse to yield even after the lane change has already begun, increasing the complexity and crash risk of post crash LCs. However, the behavioral characteristics and motion patterns of post crash LCs remain unknown. To address this gap, we construct a post crash LC dataset by extracting vehicle trajectories from drone videos captured after crashes. Our empirical analysis reveals that, compared to mandatory LCs (MLCs) and discretionary LCs (DLCs), post crash LCs exhibit longer durations, lower insertion speeds, and higher crash risks. Notably, 79.4% of post crash LCs involve at least one instance of non yielding behavior from the new follower, compared to 21.7% for DLCs and 28.6% for MLCs. Building on these findings, we develop a novel trajectory prediction framework for post crash LCs. At its core is a graph based attention module that explicitly models yielding behavior as an auxiliary interaction aware task. This module is designed to guide both a conditional variational autoencoder and a Transformer based decoder to predict the lane changer's trajectory. By incorporating the interaction aware module, our model outperforms existing baselines in trajectory prediction performance by more than 10% in both average displacement error and final displacement error across different prediction horizons. Moreover, our model provides more reliable crash risk analysis by reducing false crash rates and improving conflict prediction accuracy. Finally, we validate the model's transferability using additional post crash LC datasets collected from different sites. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.08089 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.AI Q-realign: Piggybacking Realignment on Quantization for Safe and Efficient LLM Deployment Authors: Qitao Tan , Xiaoying Song , Ningxi Cheng , Ninghao Liu , Xiaoming Zhai , Lingzi Hong , Yanzhi Wang , Zhen Xiang , Geng Yuan Abstract : Public large language models (LLMs) are typically safety-aligned during pretraining, yet task-specific fine-tuning required for deployment often erodes this alignment and introduces safety risks. Existing defenses either embed safety recovery into fine-tuning or rely on fine-tuning-derived priors for post-hoc correction, leaving safety recovery tightly coupled with training and incurring high comp… ▽ More Public large language models (LLMs) are typically safety-aligned during pretraining, yet task-specific fine-tuning required for deployment often erodes this alignment and introduces safety risks. Existing defenses either embed safety recovery into fine-tuning or rely on fine-tuning-derived priors for post-hoc correction, leaving safety recovery tightly coupled with training and incurring high computational overhead and a complex workflow. To address these challenges, we propose \texttt{Q-realign}, a post-hoc defense method based on post-training quantization, guided by an analysis of representational structure. By reframing quantization as a dual-objective procedure for compression and safety, \texttt{Q-realign} decouples safety alignment from fine-tuning and naturally piggybacks into modern deployment pipelines. Experiments across multiple models and datasets demonstrate that our method substantially reduces unsafe behaviors while preserving task performance, with significant reductions in memory usage and GPU hours. Notably, our approach can recover the safety alignment of a fine-tuned 7B LLM on a single RTX 4090 within 40 minutes. Overall, our work provides a practical, turnkey solution for safety-aware deployment. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.08089 [ pdf , ps , other ] Q-realign: Piggybacking Realignment on Quantization for Safe and Efficient LLM Deployment Authors: Qitao Tan , Xiaoying Song , Ningxi Cheng , Ninghao Liu , Xiaoming Zhai , Lingzi Hong , Yanzhi Wang , Zhen Xiang , Geng Yuan Abstract : Public large language models (LLMs) are typically safety-aligned during pretraining, yet task-specific fine-tuning required for deployment often erodes this alignment and introduces safety risks. Existing defenses either embed safety recovery into fine-tuning or rely on fine-tuning-derived priors for post-hoc correction, leaving safety recovery tightly coupled with training and incurring high comp… ▽ More Public large language models (LLMs) are typically safety-aligned during pretraining, yet task-specific fine-tuning required for deployment often erodes this alignment and introduces safety risks. Existing defenses either embed safety recovery into fine-tuning or rely on fine-tuning-derived priors for post-hoc correction, leaving safety recovery tightly coupled with training and incurring high computational overhead and a complex workflow. To address these challenges, we propose \texttt{Q-realign}, a post-hoc defense method based on post-training quantization, guided by an analysis of representational structure. By reframing quantization as a dual-objective procedure for compression and safety, \texttt{Q-realign} decouples safety alignment from fine-tuning and naturally piggybacks into modern deployment pipelines. Experiments across multiple models and datasets demonstrate that our method substantially reduces unsafe behaviors while preserving task performance, with significant reductions in memory usage and GPU hours. Notably, our approach can recover the safety alignment of a fine-tuned 7B LLM on a single RTX 4090 within 40 minutes. Overall, our work provides a practical, turnkey solution for safety-aware deployment. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.08034 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.RO cs.CV Fiducial Exoskeletons: Image-Centric Robot State Estimation Authors: Cameron Smith , Basile Van Hoorick , Vitor Guizilini , Yue Wang Abstract : We introduce Fiducial Exoskeletons, an image-based reformulation of 3D robot state estimation that replaces cumbersome procedures and motor-centric pipelines with single-image inference. Traditional approaches - especially robot-camera extrinsic estimation - often rely on high-precision actuators and require time-consuming routines such as hand-eye calibration. In contrast, modern learning-based r… ▽ More We introduce Fiducial Exoskeletons, an image-based reformulation of 3D robot state estimation that replaces cumbersome procedures and motor-centric pipelines with single-image inference. Traditional approaches - especially robot-camera extrinsic estimation - often rely on high-precision actuators and require time-consuming routines such as hand-eye calibration. In contrast, modern learning-based robot control is increasingly trained and deployed from RGB observations on lower-cost hardware. Our key insight is twofold. First, we cast robot state estimation as 6D pose estimation of each link from a single RGB image: the robot-camera base transform is obtained directly as the estimated base-link pose, and the joint state is recovered via a lightweight global optimization that enforces kinematic consistency with the observed link poses (optionally warm-started with encoder readings). Second, we make per-link 6D pose estimation robust and simple - even without learning - by introducing the fiducial exoskeleton: a lightweight 3D-printed mount with a fiducial marker on each link and known marker-link geometry. This design yields robust camera-robot extrinsics, per-link SE(3) poses, and joint-angle state from a single image, enabling robust state estimation even on unplugged robots. Demonstrated on a low-cost robot arm, fiducial exoskeletons substantially simplify setup while improving calibration, state accuracy, and downstream 3D control performance. We release code and printable hardware designs to enable further algorithm-hardware co-design. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.08034 [ pdf , ps , other ] Fiducial Exoskeletons: Image-Centric Robot State Estimation Authors: Cameron Smith , Basile Van Hoorick , Vitor Guizilini , Yue Wang Abstract : We introduce Fiducial Exoskeletons, an image-based reformulation of 3D robot state estimation that replaces cumbersome procedures and motor-centric pipelines with single-image inference. Traditional approaches - especially robot-camera extrinsic estimation - often rely on high-precision actuators and require time-consuming routines such as hand-eye calibration. In contrast, modern learning-based r… ▽ More We introduce Fiducial Exoskeletons, an image-based reformulation of 3D robot state estimation that replaces cumbersome procedures and motor-centric pipelines with single-image inference. Traditional approaches - especially robot-camera extrinsic estimation - often rely on high-precision actuators and require time-consuming routines such as hand-eye calibration. In contrast, modern learning-based robot control is increasingly trained and deployed from RGB observations on lower-cost hardware. Our key insight is twofold. First, we cast robot state estimation as 6D pose estimation of each link from a single RGB image: the robot-camera base transform is obtained directly as the estimated base-link pose, and the joint state is recovered via a lightweight global optimization that enforces kinematic consistency with the observed link poses (optionally warm-started with encoder readings). Second, we make per-link 6D pose estimation robust and simple - even without learning - by introducing the fiducial exoskeleton: a lightweight 3D-printed mount with a fiducial marker on each link and known marker-link geometry. This design yields robust camera-robot extrinsics, per-link SE(3) poses, and joint-angle state from a single image, enabling robust state estimation even on unplugged robots. Demonstrated on a low-cost robot arm, fiducial exoskeletons substantially simplify setup while improving calibration, state accuracy, and downstream 3D control performance. We release code and printable hardware designs to enable further algorithm-hardware co-design. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. 1 2 3 4 5 … About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Sources 2 Early life Toggle Early life subsection 2.1 In the East 2.2 In the West 2.1 In the East 2.2 In the West 3 Reign Toggle Reign subsection 3.1 Maxentius's rebellion 3.2 Maximian's rebellion 3.3 Civil wars 3.3.1 War against Maxentius 3.3.2 Milvian Bridge 3.3.3 In Rome 3.3.4 Wars against Licinius 3.4 Later rule 3.4.1 Foundation of Constantinople 3.4.2 Religion and religious policy 3.4.3 Administrative reforms 3.4.4 Monetary reforms 3.4.5 Executions of Crispus and Fausta 3.4.6 Later campaigns 3.4.7 Illness and death 3.1 Maxentius's rebellion 3.2 Maximian's rebellion 3.3 Civil wars 3.3.1 War against Maxentius 3.3.2 Milvian Bridge 3.3.3 In Rome 3.3.4 Wars against Licinius 3.3.1 War against Maxentius 3.3.2 Milvian Bridge 3.3.3 In Rome 3.3.4 Wars against Licinius 3.4 Later rule 3.4.1 Foundation of Constantinople 3.4.2 Religion and religious policy 3.4.3 Administrative reforms 3.4.4 Monetary reforms 3.4.5 Executions of Crispus and Fausta 3.4.6 Later campaigns 3.4.7 Illness and death 3.4.1 Foundation of Constantinople 3.4.2 Religion and religious policy 3.4.3 Administrative reforms 3.4.4 Monetary reforms 3.4.5 Executions of Crispus and Fausta 3.4.6 Later campaigns 3.4.7 Illness and death 4 Assessment and legacy Toggle Assessment and legacy subsection 4.1 Veneration as a saint 4.2 Historiography 4.3 Donation of Constantine 4.4 Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia 4.1 Veneration as a saint 4.2 Historiography 4.3 Donation of Constantine 4.4 Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia 5 Family tree 6 See also 7 Notes 8 Citations Toggle Citations subsection 8.1 Bibliography 8.1.1 Ancient sources 8.1.2 Modern sources 8.1 Bibliography 8.1.1 Ancient sources 8.1.2 Modern sources 8.1.1 Ancient sources 8.1.2 Modern sources 9 Further reading 10 External links Constantine the Great Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն অসমীয়া Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Limburgs Lingua Franca Nova Lombard Magyar Madhurâ Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी მარგალური مصرى Bahasa Melayu Mirandés Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی پښتو Piemontèis Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sakizaya संस्कृतम् Sardu Scots Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça తెలుగు ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt 文言 Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki Žemaitėška 中文 Betawi Batak Mandailing Yerwa Kanuri ရခိုင် Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Wikidata item Constantine I Head of the Colossus of Constantine , Capitoline Museums Roman emperor Reign 25 July 306 – 22 May 337 (alone from 19 September 324) Predecessor Constantius I (in the West) Successor .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Co-rulers .mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal} See list Galerius (306–311) [ a ] Severus II (306–307) [ b ] Maxentius (306–312) [ c ] Maximian (306–308, 310) [ c ] Licinius (308–324) [ d ] Maximinus II (310–313) [ a ] Valens (316–317) [ e ] Martinian (324) [ e ] Galerius (306–311) [ a ] Severus II (306–307) [ b ] Maxentius (306–312) [ c ] Maximian (306–308, 310) [ c ] Licinius (308–324) [ d ] Maximinus II (310–313) [ a ] Valens (316–317) [ e ] Martinian (324) [ e ] Born Flavius Constantinus 27 February 272 Naissus , Moesia Superior , Roman Empire Died 22 May 337 (aged 65) Achyron, Nicomedia , Bithynia , Roman Empire Burial Church of the Holy Apostles , Constantinople (remains now lost) Spouses Minervina [ f ] Fausta Minervina [ f ] Fausta Issue Detail Crispus Constantine II Constantius II Constantina Constans I Helena Crispus Constantine II Constantius II Constantina Constans I Helena Names Flavius Valerius Constantinus Regnal name Imperator Caesar Flavius Valerius Constantinus Augustus Names Flavius Valerius Constantinus Regnal name Imperator Caesar Flavius Valerius Constantinus Augustus Dynasty Constantinian Father Constantius Chlorus Mother Helena Religion Ancient Roman religion (until 312) Christianity (from 312) Ancient Roman religion (until 312) Christianity (from 312) Constantine I [ g ] (27 February 272 – 22 May 337), also known as Constantine the Great , or known mononymously as Constantine , was Roman emperor from AD 306 to 337 and the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity . [ h ] He played a pivotal role in elevating the status of Christianity in Rome, the Edict of Milan decriminalising Christian practice and ceasing Christian persecution . This was a turning point in the Christianisation of the Roman Empire . He founded the city of Constantinople (now Istanbul ) and made it the capital of the Empire, which it remained for over a millennium. Born in Naissus , a city located in the province of Moesia Superior (now Niš , Serbia), Constantine was the son of Flavius Constantius , a Roman army officer from Moesia Superior, who would become one of the four emperors of the Tetrarchy . His mother, Helena , was a woman of low birth, probably from Bithynia . Later canonised as a saint , she is credited for the conversion of her son in some traditions, though others believe that Constantine converted her. He served with distinction under emperors Diocletian and Galerius . He began his career by campaigning in the eastern provinces against the Persians , before being recalled to the west in AD 305 to fight with his father in the province of Britannia . After his father's death in 306, Constantine was proclaimed as augustus (emperor) by his army at Eboracum ( York , England). He eventually emerged victorious in Civil wars of the Tetrarchy against the emperors Maxentius and Licinius to become the sole ruler of the Roman Empire by 324. Upon his accession, Constantine enacted many reforms to strengthen the empire. He restructured the government, separating civil and military authorities. To combat inflation, he introduced the solidus , a new gold coin that became the standard for Byzantine and European currencies for more than a thousand years. The Roman army was reorganised to consist of mobile units ( comitatenses ), often around the emperor, to serve on campaigns against external enemies or Roman rebels, and frontier-garrison troops ( limitanei ) which were capable of countering barbarian raids, but less and less capable of countering full-scale barbarian invasions . Constantine pursued campaigns against the tribes on the Roman frontiers —such as the Franks , the Alemanni , the Goths , and the Sarmatians —and resettled territories abandoned by his predecessors during the Crisis of the Third Century with citizens of Roman society. Although Constantine lived much of his life as a pagan , he later became a catechumen , as he began to favour Christianity in 312, finally being baptised by Eusebius of Nicomedia , an Arian bishop. He played an influential role in the proclamation of the Edict of Milan in 313, which legalized Christianity in the Roman Empire. He convoked the First Council of Nicaea in 325, which produced the Christian statement of belief known as the Nicene Creed . On his orders, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was built at the site claimed to be the tomb of Jesus in Jerusalem and was deemed the holiest place in Christendom . He has historically been referred to as the "First Christian Emperor" but while he did favour the Christian Church, some modern scholars debate his beliefs and even his comprehension of Christianity. [ i ] He is venerated as a saint in Eastern Christianity , and he did much to push Christianity towards the mainstream of Roman culture. The age of Constantine marked a distinct epoch in the history of the Roman Empire and a pivotal moment in the evolution from classical antiquity to the Middle Ages . He built a new imperial residence in the city of Byzantium , which was officially renamed New Rome , while also taking on the name Constantinople in his honour. It subsequently served as the capital of the empire for more than a thousand years—with the Eastern Roman Empire for most of that period commonly referred to retrospectively as the Byzantine Empire in English. In leaving the empire to his sons and other members of the Constantinian dynasty , Constantine's immediate political legacy was the replacement of Diocletian's Tetrarchy with the principle of dynastic succession . His memory was held in high regard during the lifetime of his children and for centuries after his reign. The medieval church held him up as a paragon of virtue, while secular rulers invoked him as a symbol of imperial legitimacy. The rediscovery of anti-Constantinian sources in the early Renaissance engendered more critical appraisals of his reign, with modern and contemporary scholarship often seeking to balance the extremes of earlier accounts. Sources Constantine was a ruler of major importance and has always been a controversial figure. [ 4 ] The fluctuations in his reputation reflect the nature of the ancient sources for his reign. These are abundant and detailed, but they have been strongly influenced by the official propaganda of the period and are often one-sided. [ 5 ] No contemporaneous histories or biographies dealing with his life and rule have survived; the nearest alternative is Eusebius 's Vita Constantini , which offers a mixture of eulogy and hagiography [ 6 ] written between 335 and 339 [ 7 ] to extol Constantine's moral and religious virtues. [ 8 ] The Vita creates a contentiously positive image of Constantine, [ 9 ] and modern historians have frequently challenged its reliability. [ 10 ] The fullest secular life of Constantine is the anonymous Origo Constantini , a work of uncertain date which focuses on military and political events to the neglect of cultural and religious matters. [ 11 ] Lactantius ' De mortibus persecutorum , a political Christian pamphlet on the reigns of Diocletian and the Tetrarchy , provides valuable but tendentious detail on Constantine's predecessors and early life. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] The ecclesiastical histories of Socrates , Sozomen , and Theodoret describe the ecclesiastic disputes of Constantine's later reign. Written during the reign of Theodosius II (r. 402–450), a century after Constantine's reign, these ecclesiastical historians obscure the events and theologies of the Constantinian period through misdirection, misrepresentation, and deliberate obscurity. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] [ 14 ] The contemporary writings of the orthodox Christian Athanasius of Alexandria and the ecclesiastical history of the Arian Philostorgius also survive, though their biases are no less firm. [ 15 ] The epitomes of Aurelius Victor ( De Caesaribus ), Eutropius ( Breviarium ), Festus ( Breviarium ), and the anonymous author of the Epitome de Caesaribus offer compressed secular political and military histories of the period. Although not Christian, the epitomes paint a favourable image of Constantine but omit reference to Constantine's religious policies. [ 12 ] [ 16 ] The Panegyrici Latini , a collection of panegyrics from the late 3rd and early 4th centuries, provides valuable information on the politics and ideology of the tetrarchic period and the early life of Constantine. [ 12 ] [ 17 ] In addition, contemporary architecture—such as the Arch of Constantine in Rome and palaces in Gamzigrad and Córdoba [ 18 ] — epigraphic remains, and the coinage of the era complement the literary sources. [ 12 ] [ 17 ] Early life Constantine was born on 27 February 272. [ 19 ] While his official birthday is recorded in sources, his year of birth is not, and scholars have given several estimates between 271 and 280, with most leaning for 272 or 273. However, the evidence points to 272 being the correct year. [ 19 ] [ j ] He was born inside the city of Naissus, during a time when the unity of the Empire was threatened by the breakaway wars of the Palmyrene Empire . The city (modern Niš , Serbia) was located in Dardania within the province of Moesia Superior . [ 21 ] [ 22 ] His father was Flavius Constantius , [ k ] an Illyrian [ 26 ] [ 27 ] [ 23 ] [ l ] or, according to his nephew, Julian The Apostate , a Thracian . [ 29 ] His original full name, as well as that of his father, is not known. [ 30 ] [ 31 ] His praenomen is variously given as Lucius , Marcus and Gaius . [ 31 ] [ m ] Whatever the case, praenomina had already disappeared from most public records by this time. [ 33 ] He also adopted the name "Valerius", the nomen of emperor Diocletian , following his father's ascension as caesar . [ 31 ] [ 30 ] Constantine probably spent little time with his father [ 34 ] who was an officer in the Roman army, part of Emperor Aurelian 's imperial bodyguard. Being described as a tolerant and politically skilled man, [ 35 ] [ 36 ] Constantius advanced through the ranks, earning the governorship of Dalmatia from Emperor Diocletian, another of Aurelian's companions from Illyricum , in 284 or 285. [ 37 ] Constantine's mother was Helena , a woman of low social standing, possibly from Drepanum (later renamed Helenopolis ) of Bithynia , which would likely have made her a Greek -speaker. [ 38 ] [ 39 ] [ 40 ] It is uncertain whether she was legally married to Constantius or merely his concubine . [ 41 ] Constantine's own language was Latin , and during his public speeches in the church councils, which were held in Greek, he needed Greek translators. [ 42 ] In April 286 Diocletian declared Maximian , another colleague from Illyricum, his co-emperor. Each emperor would have his own court, his own military and administrative faculties, and each would rule with a separate praetorian prefect as chief lieutenant. [ 43 ] Maximian ruled in the West, from his capitals at Mediolanum ( Milan , Italy) or Augusta Treverorum ( Trier , Germany), while Diocletian ruled in the East, from Nicomedia ( İzmit , Turkey). The division was merely pragmatic: the empire was called "indivisible" in official panegyric, and both emperors could move freely throughout the empire. [ 44 ] In 288, Maximian appointed Constantius to serve as his praetorian prefect in Gaul . Constantius left Helena to marry Maximian's stepdaughter Theodora in 288 or 289. [ 45 ] Diocletian divided the empire again in 293, appointing two caesars to rule over further subdivisions of East and West. Each would be subordinate to his respective augustus but would act with supreme authority in his assigned lands. This system would later be called the Tetrarchy. Diocletian's first appointee for the office of Caesar was Constantius ; his second was Galerius , a native of Felix Romuliana . According to Lactantius , Galerius was a brutal, animalistic man. Although he shared the paganism of Rome's aristocracy, he seemed to them an alien figure, a semi-barbarian. [ 46 ] On 1 March, Constantius was promoted to the office of Caesar , and dispatched to Gaul to fight the rebels Carausius and Allectus . In spite of meritocratic overtones, the Tetrarchy retained vestiges of hereditary privilege, and Constantine became the prime candidate for future appointment as Caesar as soon as his father took the position. Constantine went to the court of Diocletian, where he lived as his father's heir presumptive . [ 47 ] In the East Constantine received a formal education at Diocletian's court, where he learned Latin literature, Greek, and philosophy. [ 48 ] The cultural environment in Nicomedia was open, fluid, and socially mobile; in it, Constantine could mix with intellectuals both pagan and Christian. He may have attended the lectures of Lactantius, a Christian scholar of Latin in the city. [ 49 ] Because Diocletian did not completely trust Constantius—none of the Tetrarchs fully trusted their colleagues—Constantine was held as something of a hostage, a tool to ensure Constantius' best behavior. Constantine was nonetheless a prominent member of the court: he fought for Diocletian and Galerius in Asia and served in a variety of tribunates ; he campaigned against barbarians on the Danube in 296 and fought the Persians under Diocletian in Syria in 297, as well as under Galerius in Mesopotamia in 298–299. [ 50 ] [ 51 ] By late 305, according to some, he had become a tribune of the first order, a tribunus ordinis primi . [ 51 ] [ 52 ] Constantine had returned to Nicomedia from the eastern front by the spring of 303, in time to witness the beginnings of Diocletian's " Great Persecution ", the most severe persecution of Christians in Roman history. [ 53 ] [ 54 ] In late 302, Diocletian and Galerius sent a messenger to the oracle of Apollo at Didyma with an inquiry about Christians. [ 55 ] [ 56 ] Constantine could recall his presence at the palace when the messenger returned and Diocletian accepted the imperial court's demands for universal persecution. [ 57 ] [ 58 ] On 23 February 303, Diocletian ordered the destruction of Nicomedia s new church, condemned its scriptures to the flames, and had its treasures seized. In the months that followed, churches and scriptures were destroyed, Christians were deprived of official ranks, and priests were imprisoned. [ 59 ] It is unlikely that Constantine played any role in the persecution. [ 60 ] In his later writings, he attempted to present himself as an opponent of Diocletian's "sanguinary edicts" against the "Worshippers of God", [ 61 ] [ 62 ] but nothing indicates that he opposed it effectively at the time. Although no contemporary Christian challenged Constantine for his inaction during the persecutions, it remained a political liability throughout his life. [ 63 ] On 1 May 305 Diocletian, as a result of a debilitating sickness taken in the winter of 304–305, announced his resignation. In a parallel ceremony in Milan , Maximian did the same. [ 64 ] Lactantius states that Galerius manipulated the weakened Diocletian into resigning and forced him to accept Galerius' allies in the imperial succession. According to Lactantius, the crowd listening to Diocletian's resignation speech believed, until the last moment, that Diocletian would choose Constantine and Maxentius (Maximian's son) as his successors. [ 65 ] [ 66 ] It was not to be: Constantius and Galerius were promoted to augusti , while Severus and Maximinus , Galerius' nephew, were appointed their caesars respectively. Constantine and Maxentius were ignored. [ 67 ] Some of the ancient sources detail plots that Galerius made on Constantine's life in the months following Diocletian's abdication. They assert that Galerius assigned Constantine to lead an advance unit in a cavalry charge through a swamp on the middle Danube, made him enter into single combat with a lion, and attempted to kill him in hunts and wars. Constantine always emerged victorious: the lion emerged from the contest in a poorer condition than Constantine; Constantine returned to Nicomedia from the Danube with a Sarmatian captive to drop at Galerius' feet. [ 68 ] [ 69 ] It is uncertain how much these tales can be trusted. [ 70 ] In the West Constantine recognised the implicit danger in remaining at Galerius' court, where he was held as a virtual hostage. His career depended on being rescued by his father in the West. Constantius was quick to intervene. In the late spring or early summer of 305, Constantius requested leave for his son to help him campaign in Britain. After a long evening of drinking, Galerius granted the request. Constantine's later propaganda describes how he fled the court in the night, before Galerius could change his mind. He rode from post-house to post-house at high speed, hamstringing every horse in his wake. By the time Galerius awoke the following morning, Constantine had fled too far to be caught. Constantine joined his father in Gaul , at Bononia ( Boulogne ) before the summer of 305. [ 71 ] From Bononia they crossed the English Channel to Britain and made their way to Eboracum ( York ), capital of the province of Britannia Secunda and home to a large military base. Constantine was able to spend a year in northern Britain at his father's side, campaigning against the Picts beyond Hadrian's Wall in the summer and autumn. [ 72 ] Constantius' campaign, like that of Septimius Severus before it, probably advanced far into the north without achieving great success. [ 73 ] Constantius had become severely sick over the course of his reign and died on 25 July 306 in Eboracum. Before dying, he declared his support for raising Constantine as emperor. The Alamannic king Chrocus , a barbarian taken into service under Constantius, then proclaimed Constantine as augustus. The troops loyal to Constantius' memory followed him in acclamation. Gaul and Britain quickly accepted his rule; [ 74 ] Hispania , which had been in his father's domain for less than a year, rejected it. [ 75 ] Constantine sent Galerius an official notice of Constantius' death and his own acclamation. Along with the notice, he included a portrait of himself in the robes of an Augustus. [ 74 ] The portrait was wreathed in bay . [ 76 ] He requested recognition as heir to his father's throne and passed off responsibility for his unlawful ascension on his army, claiming they had "forced it upon him". [ 77 ] Galerius was put into a fury by the message; he almost set the portrait and messenger on fire. [ 78 ] His advisers calmed him and argued that outright denial of Constantine's claims would mean certain war. [ 79 ] Galerius was compelled to compromise: he granted Constantine the title "caesar" rather than "augustus" (the latter office went to Severus instead). Wishing to make it clear that he alone gave Constantine legitimacy, Galerius personally sent Constantine the emperor's traditional purple robes . Constantine accepted the decision, knowing that it would remove doubts as to his legitimacy. [ 80 ] Reign Constantine's share of the empire consisted of Britain, Gaul, and Spain, and he commanded one of the largest Roman armies which was stationed along the important Rhine frontier. [ 81 ] He remained in Britain after his promotion to emperor, driving back the tribes of the Picts and securing his control in the northwestern dioceses. He completed the reconstruction of military bases begun under his father's rule, and he ordered the repair of the region's roadways. [ 82 ] He then left for Augusta Treverorum ( Trier ) in Gaul, the Tetrarchic capital of the northwestern Roman Empire. [ 83 ] The Franks learned of Constantine's acclamation and invaded Gaul across the lower Rhine over the winter of 306–307. [ 84 ] He drove them back beyond the Rhine and captured kings Ascaric and Merogais ; the kings and their soldiers were fed to the beasts of Trier Amphitheater in the adventus (arrival) celebrations which followed. [ 85 ] Constantine began a major expansion of Trier. He strengthened the circuit wall around the city with military towers and fortified gates, and he began building a palace complex in the northeastern part of the city. To the south of his palace, he ordered the construction of a large formal audience hall and a massive imperial bathhouse. He sponsored many building projects throughout Gaul during his tenure as emperor of the West, especially in Augustodunum ( Autun ) and Arelate ( Arles ). [ 88 ] According to Lactantius, Constantine followed a tolerant policy towards Christianity, although he was not yet a Christian. He probably judged it a more sensible policy than open persecution [ 89 ] and a way to distinguish himself from the "great persecutor" Galerius. [ 90 ] He decreed a formal end to persecution and returned to Christians all that they had lost under the first of the persecuting edicts. [ 91 ] Constantine was largely untried and had a hint of illegitimacy about him; he relied on his father's reputation in his early propaganda, which gave as much coverage to his father's deeds as to his. [ 92 ] His military skill and building projects, however, soon gave the panegyrist the opportunity to comment favourably on the similarities between father and son, and Eusebius remarked that Constantine was a "renewal, as it were, in his own person, of his father's life and reign". [ 93 ] Constantinian coinage, sculpture, and oratory also show a tendency for disdain towards the "barbarians" beyond the frontiers. He minted a coin issue after his victory over the Alemanni which depicts weeping and begging Alemannic tribesmen, "the Alemanni conquered" beneath the phrase "Romans' rejoicing". [ 94 ] There was little sympathy for these enemies; as his panegyrist declared, "It is a stupid clemency that spares the conquered foe." [ 95 ] Maxentius's rebellion Following Galerius's recognition of Constantine as caesar, Constantine's portrait was brought to Rome, as was customary. Maxentius mocked the portrait's subject as the son of a harlot and lamented his own powerlessness. [ 96 ] Maxentius, envious of Constantine's authority, [ 97 ] seized the title of emperor on 28 October 306. Galerius refused to recognise him but failed to unseat him. Severus was sent against Maxentius in April 307, [ 98 ] but during the campaign, Severus' armies, previously under command of Maxentius' father Maximian, defected, and Severus was seized and imprisoned. [ 99 ] Maximian, brought out of retirement by his son's rebellion, left for Gaul to confer with Constantine. He offered to marry his daughter Fausta to Constantine and elevate him to augustan rank. In return, Constantine would reaffirm the old family alliance between Maximian and Constantius and offer support to Maxentius' cause in Italy. Constantine accepted and married Fausta in Trier in summer 307. [ n ] Constantine gave Maxentius his meagre support, offering Maxentius political recognition. [ 103 ] Constantine remained aloof from the Italian conflict, however. Over the spring and summer of 307 he had left Gaul for Britain to avoid any involvement in the Italian turmoil; [ 104 ] now, instead of giving Maxentius military aid, he sent his troops against Germanic tribes along the Rhine. In 308, he raided the territory of the Bructeri and made a bridge across the Rhine at Colonia Agrippinensium ( Cologne ). In 310, he marched to the northern Rhine and fought the Franks. When not campaigning, he toured his lands advertising his benevolence and supporting the economy and the arts. His refusal to participate in the war increased his popularity among his people and strengthened his power base in the West. [ 105 ] Maximian returned to Rome in the winter of 307–308 but soon fell out with his son. In early 308, after a failed attempt to usurp Maxentius' title, Maximian returned to Constantine's court. [ 106 ] On 11 November 308 Galerius called a general council at the military city of Carnuntum ( Petronell-Carnuntum , Austria) to resolve the instability in the western provinces. In attendance were Diocletian, briefly returned from retirement, Galerius, and Maximian. Maximian was forced to abdicate again and Constantine was again demoted to caesar. Licinius , one of Galerius' old military companions, was appointed augustus in the western regions. The new system did not last long: Constantine refused to accept the demotion and continued to style himself as augustus on his coinage, even as other members of the Tetrarchy referred to him as a caesar on theirs. Maximinus was frustrated that he had been passed over for promotion while the newcomer Licinius had been raised to the office of augustus and demanded that Galerius promote him. Galerius offered to call both Maximinus and Constantine "sons of the augusti", [ 107 ] but neither accepted the new title. By the spring of 310, Galerius was referring to both men as augusti. [ 108 ] Maximian's rebellion In 310 a dispossessed Maximian rebelled against Constantine while Constantine was away campaigning against the Franks. Maximian had been sent south to Arles with a contingent of Constantine's army, in preparation for any attacks by Maxentius in southern Gaul. He announced that Constantine was dead and took up the imperial purple. In spite of a large donative pledge to any who would support him as emperor, most of Constantine's army remained loyal to their emperor, and Maximian was soon compelled to leave. When Constantine heard of the rebellion, he abandoned his campaign against the Franks and marched his army up the Rhine. [ 110 ] At Cabillunum ( Chalon-sur-Saône ), he moved his troops onto waiting boats to row down the slow waters of the Saône to the quicker waters of the Rhone . He disembarked at Lugdunum ( Lyon ). [ 111 ] Maximian fled to Massilia ( Marseille ), a town better able to withstand a long siege than Arles. It made little difference, however, as loyal citizens opened the rear gates to Constantine. Maximian was captured and reproved for his crimes. Constantine granted some clemency but strongly encouraged his suicide. In July 310, Maximian hanged himself . [ 110 ] In spite of the earlier rupture in their relations, Maxentius was eager to present himself as his father's devoted son after his death. [ 112 ] He began minting coins with his father's deified image, proclaiming his desire to avenge Maximian's death. [ 113 ] Constantine initially presented the suicide as an unfortunate family tragedy. By 311, however, he was spreading another version. According to this, after Constantine had pardoned him, Maximian planned to murder Constantine in his sleep. Fausta learned of the plot and warned Constantine, who put a eunuch in his own place in bed. Maximian was apprehended when he killed the eunuch and was offered suicide, which he accepted. [ 114 ] Along with using propaganda, Constantine instituted a damnatio memoriae on Maximian, destroying all inscriptions referring to him and eliminating any public work bearing his image. [ 115 ] The death of Maximian required a shift in Constantine's public image. He could no longer rely on his connection to the elder Emperor Maximian and needed a new source of legitimacy. [ 116 ] In a speech delivered in Gaul on 25 July 310, the anonymous orator reveals a previously unknown dynastic connection to Claudius II , a 3rd-century emperor famed for defeating the Goths and restoring order to the empire. Breaking away from tetrarchic models, the speech emphasises Constantine's ancestral prerogative to rule, rather than principles of imperial equality. The new ideology expressed in the speech made Galerius and Maximian irrelevant to Constantine's right to rule. [ 117 ] Indeed, the orator emphasises ancestry to the exclusion of all other factors: "No chance agreement of men, nor some unexpected consequence of favour, made you emperor," the orator declares to Constantine. [ 118 ] The oration also moves away from the religious ideology of the Tetrarchy, with its focus on twin dynasties of Jupiter and Hercules . Instead, the orator proclaims that Constantine experienced a divine vision of Apollo and Victory granting him laurel wreaths of health and a long reign. In the likeness of Apollo, Constantine recognised himself as the saving figure to whom would be granted "rule of the whole world", [ 119 ] as the poet Virgil had once foretold. [ 120 ] The oration's religious shift is paralleled by a similar shift in Constantine's coinage. In his early reign, the coinage of Constantine advertised Mars as his patron. From 310 on, Mars was replaced by Sol Invictus , a god conventionally identified with Apollo. [ 121 ] There is little reason to believe that either the dynastic connection or the divine vision are anything other than fiction, but their proclamation strengthened Constantine's claims to legitimacy and increased his popularity among the citizens of Gaul. [ 122 ] Civil wars War against Maxentius .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Battles of Constantine I v t e Civil wars of the Tetrarchy Segusio Turin Brescia Verona Milvian Bridge Cibalae Mardia Adrianople Hellespont Byzantium Chrysopolis German and Sarmatian campaigns Segusio Turin Brescia Verona Milvian Bridge Cibalae Mardia Adrianople Hellespont Byzantium Chrysopolis By the middle of 310 Galerius had become too ill to involve himself in imperial politics. [ 123 ] His final act survives: a letter to provincials posted in Nicomedia on 30 April 311, proclaiming an end to the persecutions, and the resumption of religious toleration. [ 124 ] Eusebius maintains "divine providence [...] took action against the perpetrator of these crimes" and gives a graphic account of Galerius' demise: "Without warning suppurative inflammation broke out round the middle of his genitals, then a deep-seated fistula ulcer; these ate their way incurably into his innermost bowels. From them came a teeming indescribable mass of worms, and a sickening smell was given off, for the whole of his hulking body, thanks to over eating, had been transformed even before his illness into a huge lump of flabby fat, which then decomposed and presented those who came near it with a revolting and horrifying sight." [ 125 ] Galerius died soon after the edict's proclamation, [ 126 ] destroying what little remained of the Tetrarchy. [ 127 ] Maximinus mobilised against Licinius and seized Asia Minor . A hasty peace was signed on a boat in the middle of the Bosphorus . [ 128 ] While Constantine toured Britain and Gaul, Maxentius prepared for war. [ 129 ] He fortified northern Italy and strengthened his support in the Christian community by allowing it to elect Eusebius as bishop of Rome . [ 130 ] Maxentius' rule was nevertheless insecure. His early support dissolved in the wake of heightened tax rates and depressed trade; riots broke out in Rome and Carthage ; [ 132 ] and Domitius Alexander was able to briefly usurp his authority in Africa. [ 133 ] By 312, he was a man barely tolerated, not one actively supported, [ 134 ] even among Christian Italians. [ 135 ] In the summer of 311, Maxentius mobilised against Constantine while Licinius was occupied with affairs in the East. He declared war on Constantine, vowing to avenge his father's "murder". [ 136 ] To prevent Maxentius from forming an alliance against him with Licinius, [ 137 ] Constantine forged his own alliance with Licinius over the winter of 311–312 and offered him his sister Constantia in marriage. Maximinus considered Constantine's arrangement with Licinius an affront to his authority. In response, he sent ambassadors to Rome, offering political recognition to Maxentius in exchange for a military support, which Maxentius accepted. [ 138 ] According to Eusebius, inter-regional travel became impossible, and there was military buildup everywhere. There was "not a place where people were not expecting the onset of hostilities every day". [ 139 ] Constantine's advisers and generals cautioned against preemptive attack on Maxentius; [ 140 ] even his soothsayers recommended against it, stating that the sacrifices had produced unfavourable omens. [ 141 ] Constantine, with a spirit that left a deep impression on his followers, inspiring some to believe that he had some form of supernatural guidance, [ 142 ] ignored all these cautions. [ 143 ] Early in the spring of 312, [ 144 ] Constantine crossed the Cottian Alps with a quarter of his army, a force numbering about 40,000. [ 145 ] The first town his army encountered was Segusium ( Susa , Italy), a heavily fortified town that shut its gates to him. Constantine ordered his men to set fire to its gates and scale its walls. He took the town quickly. Constantine ordered his troops not to loot the town and advanced into northern Italy. [ 144 ] At the approach to the west of the important city of Augusta Taurinorum ( Turin , Italy), Constantine met a large force of heavily armed Maxentian cavalry. [ 146 ] In the ensuing Battle of Turin Constantine's army encircled Maxentius' cavalry, flanked them with his own cavalry, and dismounted them with blows from his soldiers' iron-tipped clubs. Constantine's armies emerged victorious. [ 147 ] Turin refused to give refuge to Maxentius' retreating forces, opening its gates to Constantine instead. [ 148 ] Other cities of the north Italian plain sent Constantine embassies of congratulation for his victory. He moved on to Milan, where he was met with open gates and jubilant rejoicing. Constantine rested his army in Milan until mid-summer 312, when he moved on to Brixia ( Brescia ). [ 149 ] Brescia's army was easily dispersed, [ 150 ] and Constantine quickly advanced to Verona where a large Maxentian force was camped. [ 151 ] Ruricius Pompeianus , general of the Veronese forces and Maxentius' praetorian prefect, [ 152 ] was in a strong defensive position since the town was surrounded on three sides by the Adige . Constantine sent a small force north of the town in an attempt to cross the river unnoticed. Ruricius sent a large detachment to counter Constantine's expeditionary force but was defeated. Constantine's forces successfully surrounded the town and laid siege. [ 153 ] Ruricius gave Constantine the slip and returned with a larger force to oppose Constantine. Constantine refused to let up on the siege and sent only a small force to oppose him. In the desperately fought encounter that followed, Ruricius was killed and his army destroyed. [ 154 ] Verona surrendered soon afterwards, followed by Aquileia , [ 155 ] Mutina ( Modena ), [ 156 ] and Ravenna . [ 157 ] The road to Rome was now wide open to Constantine. [ 158 ] Maxentius prepared for the same type of war he had waged against Severus and Galerius: he occupied Rome and prepared for a siege. [ 159 ] He still controlled Rome's Praetorian Guard , was well-stocked with African grain, and was surrounded on all sides by the seemingly impregnable Aurelian Walls . He ordered all bridges across the Tiber cut, reportedly on the counsel of the gods, [ 160 ] and left the rest of central Italy undefended; Constantine secured that region's support without challenge. [ 161 ] Constantine progressed slowly [ 162 ] along the Via Flaminia , [ 163 ] allowing the weakness of Maxentius to draw his regime further into turmoil. [ 162 ] Maxentius' support continued to weaken: at chariot races on 27 October, the crowd openly taunted Maxentius, shouting that Constantine was invincible. [ 164 ] Maxentius, no longer certain that he would emerge from a siege victorious, built a temporary boat bridge across the Tiber in preparation for a field battle against Constantine. [ 165 ] On 28 October 312, the sixth anniversary of his reign, he approached the keepers of the Sibylline Books for guidance. The keepers prophesied that, on that very day, "the enemy of the Romans" would die. Maxentius advanced north to meet Constantine in battle. [ 166 ] Milvian Bridge Maxentius' forces were still twice the size of Constantine's, and he organised them in long lines facing the battle plain with their backs to the river. [ 167 ] Constantine's army arrived on the field bearing unfamiliar symbols on their standards and their shields. [ 168 ] According to Lactantius "Constantine was directed in a dream to cause the heavenly sign to be delineated on the shields of his soldiers, and so to proceed to battle. He did as he had been commanded, and he marked on their shields the letter Χ, with a perpendicular line drawn through it and turned round thus at the top, being the cipher of Christ. Having this sign (☧), his troops stood to arms." [ 169 ] Eusebius describes a vision that Constantine had while marching at midday in which "he saw with his own eyes the trophy of a cross of light in the heavens, above the sun, and bearing the inscription, In Hoc Signo Vinces " ("In this sign thou shalt conquer"). [ 170 ] In Eusebius' account, Constantine had a dream the following night in which Christ appeared with the same heavenly sign and told him to make an army standard in the form of the labarum . [ 171 ] Eusebius is vague about when and where these events took place, [ 172 ] but it enters his narrative before the war begins against Maxentius. [ 173 ] He describes the sign as Chi (Χ) traversed by Rho (Ρ) to form ☧, representing the first two letters of the Greek word ΧΡΙΣΤΟΣ (Christos). [ 174 ] [ 175 ] A medallion was issued at Ticinum in 315 which shows Constantine wearing a helmet emblazoned with the Chi Rho , [ 176 ] and coins issued at Siscia in 317/318 repeat the image. [ 177 ] The figure was otherwise rare and is uncommon in imperial iconography and propaganda before the 320s. [ 178 ] It was not completely unknown, however, being an abbreviation of the Greek word chrēston (good), having previously appeared on the coins of Ptolemy III Euergetes in the 3rd century BC. Following Constantine, centuries of Christians invoked the miraculous or the supernatural when justifying or describing their warfare. [ 179 ] Constantine deployed his own forces along the whole length of Maxentius' line. He ordered his cavalry to charge, and they broke Maxentius' cavalry. He then sent his infantry against Maxentius' infantry, pushing many into the Tiber where they were slaughtered and drowned. [ 167 ] The battle was brief, [ 180 ] and Maxentius' troops were broken before the first charge. [ 181 ] His horse guards and praetorians initially held their position, but they broke under the force of a Constantinian cavalry charge; they also broke ranks and fled to the river. Maxentius rode with them and attempted to cross the bridge of boats ( Ponte Milvio ), but he was pushed into the Tiber and drowned by the mass of his fleeing soldiers. [ 182 ] In Rome Constantine entered Rome on 29 October 312 [ 184 ] [ 185 ] and staged a grand adventus in the city which was met with jubilation. [ 186 ] Maxentius' body was fished out of the Tiber and decapitated, and his head was paraded through the streets for all to see. [ 187 ] After the ceremonies, the disembodied head was sent to Carthage, and Carthage offered no further resistance. [ 188 ] Unlike his predecessors, Constantine neglected to make the trip to the Capitoline Hill and perform customary sacrifices at the Temple of Jupiter . [ 189 ] However, he did visit the Senatorial Curia Julia , [ 190 ] and he promised to restore its ancestral privileges and give it a secure role in his reformed government; there would be no revenge against Maxentius' supporters. [ 191 ] In response, the Senate decreed him "title of the first name", which meant that his name would be listed first in all official documents, [ 192 ] and they acclaimed him as "the greatest augustus". [ 193 ] He issued decrees returning property that was lost under Maxentius, recalling political exiles, and releasing Maxentius' imprisoned opponents. [ 194 ] An extensive propaganda campaign followed, during which Maxentius' image was purged from all public places. He was written up as a "tyrant" and set against an idealised image of Constantine the "liberator". Eusebius is the best representative of this strand of Constantinian propaganda. [ 195 ] Maxentius' rescripts were declared invalid, and the honours that he had granted to leaders of the Senate were also invalidated. [ 196 ] Constantine also attempted to remove Maxentius' influence on Rome's urban landscape. All structures built by him were rededicated to Constantine, including the Temple of Romulus and the Basilica of Maxentius . [ 197 ] At the focal point of the basilica, a stone statue was erected of Constantine holding the Christian labarum in its hand. Its inscription bore the message which the statue illustrated: "By this sign, Constantine had freed Rome from the yoke of the tyrant." [ 198 ] Constantine also sought to upstage Maxentius' achievements. For example, the Circus Maximus was redeveloped so that its seating capacity was 25 times larger than that of Maxentius' racing complex on the Via Appia . [ 199 ] Maxentius' strongest military supporters were neutralised when Constantine disbanded the Praetorian Guard and Imperial Horse Guard . [ 200 ] The tombstones of the Imperial Horse Guard were ground up and used in a basilica on the Via Labicana , [ 201 ] and their former base was redeveloped into the Lateran Basilica on 9 November 312—barely two weeks after Constantine captured the city. [ 202 ] The Legio II Parthica was removed from Albano Laziale , [ 196 ] and the remainder of Maxentius' armies were sent to do frontier duty on the Rhine. [ 203 ] Wars against Licinius In the following years, Constantine gradually consolidated his military superiority over his rivals in the crumbling Tetrarchy. In 313, he met Licinius in Milan to secure their alliance by the marriage of Licinius and Constantine's half-sister Constantia. During this meeting, the emperors agreed on the so-called Edict of Milan , [ 204 ] officially granting full tolerance to Christianity and all religions in the empire. [ 205 ] The document had special benefits for Christians, legalising their religion and granting them restoration for all property seized during Diocletian's persecution. It repudiates past methods of religious coercion and used only general terms to refer to the divine sphere—"Divinity" and "Supreme Divinity", summa divinitas . [ 206 ] The conference was cut short, however, when news reached Licinius that his rival Maximinus had crossed the Bosporus and invaded European territory. Licinius departed and eventually defeated Maximinus, gaining control over the entire eastern half of the Roman Empire. Relations between the two remaining emperors deteriorated, as Constantine suffered an assassination attempt at the hands of a character that Licinius wanted elevated to the rank of Caesar; [ 207 ] Licinius, for his part, had Constantine's statues in Emona destroyed. [ 208 ] In either 314 or 316 the two augusti fought against one another at the Battle of Cibalae , with Constantine being victorious. They clashed again at the Battle of Mardia in 317 and agreed to a settlement in which Constantine's sons Crispus and Constantine II , and Licinius' son Licinius Junior were made caesars . [ 209 ] After this arrangement, Constantine ruled the dioceses of Pannonia and Macedonia and took residence at Sirmium , whence he could wage war on the Goths and Sarmatians in 322, and on the Goths in 323, defeating and killing their leader Rausimod . [ 207 ] In 320 Licinius allegedly reneged on the religious freedom promised by the Edict of Milan and began to oppress Christians anew, [ 210 ] generally without bloodshed, but resorting to confiscations and sacking of Christian office-holders. [ 211 ] Although this characterisation of Licinius as anti-Christian is somewhat doubtful, the fact is that he seems to have been far less open in his support of Christianity than Constantine. Therefore, Licinius was prone to see the Church as a force more loyal to Constantine than to the Imperial system in general, [ 212 ] as the explanation offered by the Church historian Sozomen . [ 213 ] This dubious arrangement eventually became a challenge to Constantine in the West, climaxing in the great civil war of 324. Constantine's Christian eulogists present the war as a battle between Christianity and paganism; Licinius, aided by Gothic mercenaries, represented the past and ancient paganism, while Constantine and his Franks marched under the standard of the labarum . [ citation needed ] Outnumbered but fired by their zeal, Constantine's army emerged victorious in the Battle of Adrianople . Licinius fled across the Bosphorus and appointed Martinian , his magister officiorum , as nominal augustus in the West, but Constantine next won the Battle of the Hellespont and finally the Battle of Chrysopolis on 18 September 324. [ 214 ] Licinius and Martinian surrendered to Constantine at Nicomedia on the promise their lives would be spared: they were sent to live as private citizens in Thessalonica and Cappadocia respectively, but in 325 Constantine accused Licinius of plotting against him and had them both arrested and hanged; Licinius' son (the son of Constantine's half-sister) was killed in 326. [ 215 ] Thus Constantine became the sole emperor of the Roman Empire. [ 216 ] Later rule Foundation of Constantinople Diocletian had chosen Nicomedia in the East as his capital during the Tetrarchy [ 218 ] —not far from Byzantium, well situated to defend Thrace, Asia, and Egypt, all of which had required his military attention. [ 219 ] Constantine had recognised the shift of the empire from the remote and depopulated [ why? ] West to the richer cities of the East, and the military strategic importance of protecting the Danube from barbarian excursions and Asia from a hostile Persia in choosing his new capital [ 220 ] as well as being able to monitor shipping traffic between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. [ 221 ] Licinius' defeat came to represent the defeat of a rival centre of pagan and Greek-speaking political activity in the East, as opposed to the Christian and Latin-speaking Rome, and it was proposed that a new Eastern capital should represent the integration of the East into the Roman Empire as a whole, as a centre of learning, prosperity, and cultural preservation for the whole of the Eastern Roman Empire. [ 222 ] Among the various locations proposed for this alternative capital, Constantine appears to have toyed earlier with Serdica (present-day Sofia ), as he was reported saying that " Serdica is my Rome ". [ 223 ] Sirmium and Thessalonica were also considered. [ 224 ] Eventually, however, Constantine decided to work on the Greek city of Byzantium , which offered the advantage of having already been extensively rebuilt on Roman patterns of urbanism during the preceding century by Septimius Severus and Caracalla , who had already acknowledged its strategic importance. [ 225 ] The city was thus founded in 324, [ 226 ] dedicated on 11 May 330 [ 226 ] and renamed Constantinopolis ("Constantine's City" or Constantinople in English). Special commemorative coins were issued in 330 to honour the event. The new city was later protected by the relics of the True Cross , the Rod of Moses and other holy relics, though a cameo now at the Hermitage Museum also represented Constantine crowned by the tyche of the new city. [ 227 ] The figures of old gods were either replaced or assimilated into a framework of Christian symbolism . Generations later there was the story that a divine vision led Constantine to this spot, and an angel no one else could see led him on a circuit of the new walls. [ 228 ] The capital would often be compared to the 'old' Rome as Nova Roma Constantinopolitana , the "New Rome of Constantinople". [ 216 ] [ 229 ] Religion and religious policy Saint Constantine the Great Mosaic in the Hagia Sophia , section: Maria as patroness of Constantinople, detail: donor portrait of Emperor Constantine I with a model of the city Emperor and Equal to the Apostles Resting place Constantinople Venerated in Eastern Orthodoxy Eastern Catholicism Oriental Orthodoxy Anglican Communion Lutheran Church Eastern Orthodoxy Eastern Catholicism Oriental Orthodoxy Anglican Communion Lutheran Church Major shrine Church of the Holy Apostles , Constantinople Feast 21 May Constantine was the first emperor to stop the persecution of Christians and to legalise Christianity, along with all other religions and cults in the Roman Empire. In February 313, he met with Licinius in Milan and developed the Edict of Milan, which stated that Christians should be allowed to follow their faith without oppression. [ 230 ] This removed penalties for professing Christianity, under which many had been martyred previously , and it returned confiscated Church property. The edict protected all religions from persecution, not only Christianity, allowing anyone to worship any deity that they chose. A similar edict had been issued in 311 by Galerius, senior emperor of the Tetrarchy, which granted Christians the right to practise their religion but did not restore any property to them. [ 231 ] The Edict of Milan included several clauses which stated that all confiscated churches would be returned, as well as other provisions for previously persecuted Christians. Some scholars think that Helena adopted Christianity as an adult, and according to Eusebius she was converted by Constantine, [ 232 ] but other historians debate whether Constantine adopted his mother Helena's Christianity in his youth or whether he adopted it gradually over the course of his life. [ 233 ] Constantine possibly retained the title of pontifex maximus which emperors bore as heads of the ancient Roman religion until Gratian renounced the title. [ 234 ] [ 235 ] According to Christian writers, Constantine was over 40 years old when he finally declared himself a Christian, making it clear that he owed his successes only to the protection of the Christian God. [ 236 ] Despite these declarations of being a Christian, he waited to be baptised until on his deathbed, believing that the baptism would release him of any sins he committed in the course of carrying out his policies while emperor. [ 237 ] He supported the Church financially, built basilicas, granted privileges to clergy (such as exemption from certain taxes), promoted Christians to high office, and returned property confiscated during the long period of persecution. [ 238 ] His most famous building projects include the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and Old St. Peter's Basilica . In constructing the Old St. Peter's Basilica, Constantine went to great lengths to erect the basilica on top of St. Peter 's resting place, so much so that it even affected the design of the basilica, including the challenge of erecting it on the hill where St. Peter rested, making its complete construction time over 30 years from the date Constantine ordered it to be built. Constantine might not have patronised Christianity alone. A triumphal arch was built in 315 to celebrate his victory in the Battle of the Milvian Bridge which was decorated with images of the goddess Victoria , and sacrifices were made to pagan gods at its dedication, including Apollo , Diana , and Hercules . Absent from the arch are any depictions of Christian symbolism. However, the arch was commissioned by the Senate, so the absence of Christian symbols may reflect the role of the Curia at the time as a pagan redoubt. [ 239 ] In 321, he legislated that the venerable Sunday should be a day of rest for all citizens. [ 240 ] In 323, he issued a decree banning Christians from participating in state sacrifices. [ 241 ] After the pagan gods had disappeared from his coinage, Christian symbols appeared as Constantine's attributes, the chi rho between his hands or on his labarum, [ 242 ] as well on the coinage. [ 243 ] The reign of Constantine established a precedent for the emperor to have great influence and authority in the early Christian councils, most notably the dispute over Arianism. Constantine disliked the risks to societal stability that religious disputes and controversies brought with them, preferring to establish an orthodoxy. [ 244 ] His influence over the Church councils was to enforce doctrine, root out heresy, and uphold ecclesiastical unity; the Church's role was to determine proper worship, doctrines, and dogma. [ 245 ] North African bishops struggled with Christian bishops who had been ordained by Donatus in opposition to Caecilian from 313 to 316. The African bishops could not come to terms, and the Donatists asked Constantine to act as a judge in the dispute. Three regional Church councils and another trial before Constantine all ruled against Donatus and the Donatism movement in North Africa. In 317, Constantine issued an edict to confiscate Donatist church property and to send Donatist clergy into exile. [ 246 ] More significantly, in 325 he summoned the First Council of Nicaea, most known for its dealing with Arianism and for instituting the Nicene Creed . [ 247 ] He enforced the council's prohibition against celebrating the Lord's Supper on the day before the Jewish Passover , which marked a definite break of Christianity from the Judaic tradition. From then on, the solar Julian calendar was given precedence over the lunisolar Hebrew calendar among the Christian churches of the Roman Empire. [ 248 ] Constantine made some new laws regarding the Jews; some of them were unfavourable towards Jews, although they were not harsher than those of his predecessors. [ 249 ] It was made illegal for Jews to seek converts or to attack other Jews who had converted to Christianity. [ 249 ] They were forbidden to own Christian slaves or to circumcise their slaves. [ 250 ] [ 251 ] On the other hand, Jewish clergy were given the same exemptions as Christian clergy. [ 249 ] [ 252 ] Administrative reforms Beginning in the mid-3rd century, the emperors began to favour members of the equestrian order over senators, who had a monopoly on the most important offices of the state. Senators were stripped of the command of legions and most provincial governorships, as it was felt that they lacked the specialised military upbringing needed in an age of acute defense needs; [ 253 ] such posts were given to equestrians by Diocletian and his colleagues, following a practice enforced piecemeal by their predecessors. The emperors, however, still needed the talents and the help of the very rich, who were relied on to maintain social order and cohesion by means of a web of powerful influence and contacts at all levels. Exclusion of the old senatorial aristocracy threatened this arrangement. In 326 Constantine reversed this pro-equestrian trend, raising many administrative positions to senatorial rank and thus opening these offices to the old aristocracy; at the same time, he elevated the rank of existing equestrian office-holders to senator, degrading the equestrian order in the process (at least as a bureaucratic rank). [ 254 ] The title of perfectissimus was granted only to mid- or low-level officials by the end of the 4th century. By the new Constantinian arrangement, one could become a senator by being elected praetor or by fulfilling a function of senatorial rank. [ 255 ] From then on, holding actual power and social status were melded together into a joint imperial hierarchy. Constantine gained the support of the old nobility with this, [ 256 ] as the Senate was allowed to elect praetors and quaestors in place of the usual practice of the emperors directly creating magistrates ( adlectio ). An inscription in honour of city prefect Ceionius Rufus Albinus states that Constantine had restored the Senate "the auctoritas it had lost at Caesar's time". [ 257 ] The Senate as a body remained devoid of any significant power; nevertheless, the senators had been marginalised as potential holders of imperial functions during the 3rd century but could dispute such positions alongside more upstart bureaucrats. [ 258 ] Some modern historians see in those administrative reforms an attempt by Constantine at reintegrating the senatorial order into the imperial administrative elite to counter the possibility of alienating pagan senators from a Christianised imperial rule; [ 259 ] however, such an interpretation remains conjectural, given the fact that we do not have the precise numbers about pre-Constantine conversions to Christianity in the old senatorial milieu. Some historians suggest that early conversions among the old aristocracy were more numerous than previously supposed. [ 260 ] Constantine's reforms had to do only with the civilian administration. The military chiefs had risen from the ranks since the Crisis of the Third Century [ 261 ] but remained outside the Senate, in which they were included only by Constantine's children. [ 262 ] Monetary reforms In the 3rd century the production of fiat money to pay for public expenses resulted in runaway inflation , and Diocletian tried unsuccessfully to re-establish trustworthy minting of silver coins, as well as silver-bronze " billon " coins (the term "billon" meaning an alloy of precious and base metals that is mostly base metal). Silver currency was overvalued in terms of its actual metal content and therefore could only circulate at much discounted rates. Constantine stopped minting the Diocletianic "pure" silver argenteus soon after 305, while the "billon" currency continued to be used until the 360s. From the early 300s on, Constantine forsook any attempts at restoring the silver currency, preferring instead to concentrate on minting large quantities of the gold solidus , 72 of which made a pound of gold. New and highly debased silver pieces continued to be issued during his later reign and after his death, in a continuous process of retariffing, until this "billon" minting ceased in 367, and the silver piece was continued by various denominations of bronze coins, the most important being the centenionalis . [ 263 ] These bronze pieces continued to be devalued, assuring the possibility of keeping fiduciary minting alongside a gold standard. The author of De Rebus Bellicis held that the rift widened between classes because of this monetary policy; the rich benefited from the stability in purchasing power of the gold piece, while the poor had to cope with ever-degrading bronze pieces. [ 264 ] Later emperors such as Julian the Apostate insisted on trustworthy mintings of the bronze currency. [ 265 ] Constantine's monetary policies were closely associated with his religious policies; increased minting was associated with the confiscation of all gold, silver, and bronze statues from pagan temples between 331 and 336 which were declared to be imperial property. Two imperial commissioners for each province had the task of getting the statues and melting them for immediate minting, with the exception of a number of bronze statues that were used as public monuments in Constantinople. [ 266 ] Executions of Crispus and Fausta Constantine had his eldest son Crispus seized and put to death by "cold poison" at Pola ( Pula , Croatia) sometime between 15 May and 17 June 326. [ 267 ] In July, he had his wife Empress Fausta (stepmother of Crispus) killed in an overheated bath. [ 268 ] Their names were wiped from the face of many inscriptions, references to their lives were eradicated from the literary record, and their memory was condemned. Eusebius, for example, edited out any praise of Crispus from later copies of Historia Ecclesiastica , and his Vita Constantini contains no mention of Fausta or Crispus. [ 269 ] Few ancient sources are willing to discuss possible motives for the events, and the few that do are of later provenance and are generally unreliable. [ 270 ] At the time of the executions it was commonly believed that Empress Fausta was either in an illicit relationship with Crispus or was spreading rumours to that effect. A popular myth arose, modified to allude to the Hippolytus – Phaedra legend, with the suggestion that Constantine killed Crispus and Fausta for their immoralities; [ 271 ] the largely fictional Passion of Artemius explicitly makes this connection. [ 272 ] The myth rests on slim evidence as an interpretation of the executions; only late and unreliable sources allude to the relationship between Crispus and Fausta, and there is no evidence for the modern suggestion that Constantine's "godly" edicts of 326 and the irregularities of Crispus are somehow connected. [ 271 ] Although Constantine created his apparent heirs "caesars", following a pattern established by Diocletian, he gave his creations a hereditary character, alien to the tetrarchic system: Constantine's caesars were to be kept in the hope of ascending to empire and entirely subordinated to their augustus, as long as he was alive. [ 273 ] Adrian Goldsworthy speculates an alternative explanation for the execution of Crispus was Constantine's desire to keep a firm grip on his prospective heirs, this—and Fausta's desire for having her sons inheriting instead of their half-brother—being reason enough for killing Crispus; the subsequent execution of Fausta, however, was probably meant as a reminder to her children that Constantine would not hesitate in "killing his own relatives when he felt this was necessary". [ 274 ] Later campaigns Constantine considered Constantinople his capital and permanent residence. He lived there for a good portion of his later life. In 328, construction was completed on Constantine's Bridge at Sucidava , (today Celei in Romania ) [ 275 ] in hopes of reconquering Dacia , a province that had been abandoned under Aurelian. In the late winter of 332, Constantine campaigned with the Sarmatians against the Goths . The weather and lack of food reportedly cost the Goths dearly before they submitted to Rome. In 334, after Sarmatian commoners had overthrown their leaders, Constantine led a campaign against the tribe. He won a victory in the war and extended his control over the region, as remains of camps and fortifications in the region indicate. [ 276 ] Constantine resettled some Sarmatian exiles as farmers in Illyrian and Roman districts and conscripted the rest into the army. Constantine reconquered the South of Dacia and the new frontier in Dacia was along the wall and ditch called Brazda lui Novac line supported by new castra . [ 277 ] Constantine took the title Dacicus maximus in 336. [ 278 ] In the last years of his life, Constantine made plans for a campaign against Persia . In a letter written to the king of Persia, Shapur , Constantine had asserted his patronage over Persia's Christian subjects and urged Shapur to treat them well. [ 279 ] The letter is undatable. In response to border raids, Constantine sent Constantius to guard the eastern frontier in 335. In 336, Prince Narseh invaded Armenia (a Christian kingdom since 301) and installed a Persian client on the throne. Constantine then resolved to campaign against Persia. He treated the war as a Christian crusade, calling for bishops to accompany the army and commissioning a tent in the shape of a church to follow him everywhere. Constantine planned to be baptised in the Jordan River before crossing into Persia. Persian diplomats came to Constantinople over the winter of 336–337, seeking peace, but Constantine turned them away. The campaign was called off, however, when Constantine became sick in the spring of 337. [ 280 ] Illness and death From his recent illness, Constantine knew death would soon come. Within the Church of the Holy Apostles , which he had built in Constantinople, Constantine had secretly prepared a final resting-place for himself. [ 281 ] It came sooner than he had expected. Soon after the Feast of Easter 337, Constantine fell seriously ill. [ 282 ] He left Constantinople for the hot baths near his mother's city of Helenopolis ( Altınova ), on the southern shores of the Gulf of Nicomedia (present-day Gulf of İzmit ). Once in Helenopolis, in a church he had built in honour of Lucian the Martyr , he began to pray and offer supplications for God. He soon felt that his life was ending and desired to seek purification of the sins he had committed through baptism. Making his way to the suburbs of Nicomedia, where he summoned the local bishops. [ 283 ] He then told them of his hope to be baptised in the Jordan River , where Christ was baptised, yet praises God, knowing that it is fitting for him to receive the blessing here instead. He then professed the desire to live the rest of his life united with the people of God and His Church. The bishops, Eusebius records, "the prelates performed the sacred ceremonies in the usual manner". [ 284 ] He chose the Arian bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia , bishop of the city where he lay dying, as his baptiser. [ 285 ] It has been thought that Constantine put off baptism as long as he did to be absolved from as much of his sin as possible. [ 286 ] Constantine died soon after at a suburban villa called Achyron, on the last day of the fifty-day festival of Pentecost directly following Pascha (or Easter ), on 22 May 337. [ 287 ] Although Constantine's death follows the conclusion of the Persian campaign in Eusebius's account, most other sources report his death as occurring in its middle. Emperor Julian (a nephew of Constantine), writing in the mid-350s, observes that the Sassanians escaped punishment for their ill-deeds, because Constantine died "in the middle of his preparations for war". [ 288 ] Similar accounts are given in the Origo Constantini , an anonymous document composed while Constantine was still living, which has Constantine dying in Nicomedia ; [ 289 ] the Historiae abbreviatae of Sextus Aurelius Victor , written in 361, which has Constantine dying at an estate near Nicomedia called Achyrona while marching against the Persians; [ 290 ] and the Breviarium of Eutropius , a handbook compiled in 369 for the Emperor Valens , which has Constantine dying in a nameless state villa in Nicomedia . [ 291 ] From these and other accounts, some have concluded that Eusebius's Vita was edited to defend Constantine's reputation against what Eusebius saw as a less congenial version of the campaign. [ 292 ] Following his death, his body was transferred to Constantinople and buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles, [ 293 ] in a porphyry sarcophagus that was described in the 10th century by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in the De Ceremoniis . [ 294 ] His body survived the plundering of the city during the Fourth Crusade in 1204 but was destroyed at some point afterwards. [ 295 ] A fragment of a sarcophagus that is believed to be Constantine's is currently on display at the Istanbul Archaeology Museums . Constantine was succeeded by his three sons born of Fausta, Constantine II, Constantius II and Constans . His sons, along with his nephew Dalmatius , had already received one division of the empire each to administer as caesars; Constantine may have intended his successors to resume a structure akin to Diocletian's Tetrarchy. [ 296 ] A number of relatives were killed by followers of Constantius, notably Constantine's nephews Dalmatius (who held the rank of caesar) and Hannibalianus , presumably to eliminate possible contenders to an already complicated succession. He also had two daughters, Constantina and Helena , wife of Emperor Julian. [ 297 ] Assessment and legacy Constantine reunited the empire under one emperor, and he won major victories over the Franks and Alamanni in 306–308, the Franks again in 313–314, the Goths in 332, and the Sarmatians in 334. By 336, he had reoccupied most of the long-lost province of Dacia which Aurelian had been forced to abandon in 271. At the time of his death, he was planning a great expedition to end raids on the eastern provinces from the Persian Empire. [ 298 ] In the cultural sphere, Constantine revived the clean-shaven face fashion of earlier emperors, originally introduced among the Romans by Scipio Africanus (236–183 BC) and changed into the wearing of the beard by Hadrian (r. 117–138). With some departures, such as Julian the Apostate (r. 360–363), this new Roman imperial fashion lasted until the reign of Phocas (r. 602–610) in the 7th century. [ 299 ] [ 300 ] [ better source needed ] The Holy Roman Empire reckoned Constantine among the venerable figures of its tradition. In the later Byzantine state, it became a great honour for an emperor to be hailed as a "new Constantine"; ten emperors carried the name, including the last emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire. [ 301 ] Charlemagne used monumental Constantinian forms in his court to suggest that he was Constantine's successor and equal. Charlemagne, Henry VIII , Philip II of Spain , Godfrey of Bouillon , the House of Capet , the House of Habsburg , the House of Stuart , the Macedonian dynasty and the Phokas family claimed descent from Constantine. [ 302 ] [ 303 ] [ 304 ] Geoffrey of Monmouth embroidered a tale that the legendary king of Britain, King Arthur , was also a descendant of Constantine. [ 305 ] Constantine acquired a mythic role as a hero and warrior against heathens. His reception as a saint seems to have spread within the Byzantine empire during wars against the Sasanian Persians and the Muslims in the late 6th and 7th century. [ 306 ] The motif of the Romanesque equestrian, the mounted figure in the posture of a triumphant Roman emperor, became a visual metaphor in statuary in praise of local benefactors. The name "Constantine" enjoyed renewed popularity in western France in the 11th and 12th centuries. [ 307 ] During the Fascist period in Italy in the 20th century , parallels between Constantine and Mussolini became especially popular after the signing of the Lateran Pacts by the Italian State and the Catholic Church in 1929. Mussolini's perceived role in bringing about the historic agreement was sometimes even explicitly compared to Constantine's Edict of Milan. For example, the archbishop of Milan, Cardinal Ildefonso Schuster , claimed that, after sixteen centuries, a second March on Rome had occurred and a second 'religious pact' had been established, linking Mussolini to the spiriti magni of both Constantine and Augustus . [ 308 ] The Niš Constantine the Great Airport is named in honour of him. A large cross was planned to be built on a hill overlooking Niš, but the project was cancelled. [ 309 ] In 2012, a memorial was erected in Niš in his honour. The Commemoration of the Edict of Milan was held in Niš in 2013. [ 310 ] Constantine is sometimes associated with the religiopolitical ideology known as Caesaropapism , which epitomises the unity of church and state. However, his association with this ideology has been debated. [ 311 ] Veneration as a saint Constantine is commemorated annually as a saint by most, if not all, Eastern Christian Churches . The Eastern Orthodox Churches and the Greek Catholic Churches venerate Saint Constantine (Άγιος Κωνσταντίνος) as isapostolos (ισαπόστολος Κωνσταντίνος)—an equal of the Apostles . [ 312 ] He and his mother, Saint Helena, are commemorated on 21 May, [ 313 ] with liturgical propers composed for the Horologion (e.g., Great Vespers ) [ 314 ] and Divine Liturgy . [ 315 ] Several Orthodox monasteries, shrines and churches claim to have first-class relics of Constantine. [ 316 ] The Coptic Orthodox Church commemorates Saint Constantine on 28 Parmouti . [ 317 ] The Armenian Apostolic Church commemorates Saint Constantine and Saint Helena on the Tuesday of the fourth week after Pentecost. [ 318 ] The Armenian Catholic Church commemorates both on 1 July. Constantine is not recognized officially as a saint in the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church , although he had been referred to as piissimi Imperatoris (most pious Emperor) in editions of the Martyrologium Romanum up until the 1956 edition. Historiography During Constantine's lifetime, Praxagoras of Athens and Libanius , pagan authors, showered Constantine with praise, presenting him as a paragon of virtue. His nephew and son-in-law Julian the Apostate, however, wrote the satire Symposium, or the Saturnalia in 361, after the last of his sons died; it denigrated Constantine, calling him inferior to the great pagan emperors, and given over to luxury and greed. [ 319 ] Following Julian, Eunapius began – and Zosimus continued – a historiographic tradition that blamed Constantine for weakening the empire through his indulgence to the Christians. [ 320 ] During the Middle Ages , European and Near-East Byzantine writers presented Constantine as an ideal ruler, the standard against which any king or emperor could be measured. [ 320 ] The Renaissance rediscovery of anti-Constantinian sources prompted a re-evaluation of his career. German humanist Johannes Leunclavius discovered Zosimus' writings and published a Latin translation in 1576. In its preface, he argues that Zosimus' picture of Constantine offered a more balanced view than that of Eusebius and the Church historians. [ 321 ] Cardinal Caesar Baronius criticised Zosimus, favouring Eusebius' account of the Constantinian era. Baronius' Life of Constantine (1588) presents Constantine as the model of a Christian prince. [ 322 ] Edward Gibbon aimed to unite the two extremes of Constantinian scholarship in his work The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776–1789) by contrasting the portraits presented by Eusebius and Zosimus. [ 323 ] He presents a noble war hero who transforms into an Oriental despot in his old age, "degenerating into a cruel and dissolute monarch". [ 324 ] Modern interpretations of Constantine's rule begin with Jacob Burckhardt 's The Age of Constantine the Great (1853, rev. 1880). Burckhardt's Constantine is a scheming secularist, a politician who manipulates all parties in a quest to secure his own power. [ 325 ] Henri Grégoire followed Burckhardt's evaluation of Constantine in the 1930s, suggesting that Constantine developed an interest in Christianity only after witnessing its political usefulness. Grégoire was skeptical of the authenticity of Eusebius's Vita , and postulated a pseudo-Eusebius to assume responsibility for the vision and conversion narratives of that work. [ 326 ] Otto Seeck 's Geschichte des Untergangs der antiken Welt (1920–1923) and André Piganiol 's L'empereur Constantin (1932) go against this historiographic tradition. Seeck presents Constantine as a sincere war hero whose ambiguities were the product of his own naïve inconsistency. [ 327 ] Piganiol's Constantine is a philosophical monotheist, a child of his era's religious syncretism. [ 328 ] Related histories by Arnold Hugh Martin Jones ( Constantine and the Conversion of Europe , 1949) and Ramsay MacMullen ( Constantine , 1969) give portraits of a less visionary and more impulsive Constantine. [ 329 ] These later accounts were more willing to present Constantine as a genuine convert to Christianity. Norman H. Baynes began a historiographic tradition with Constantine the Great and the Christian Church (1929) which presents Constantine as a committed Christian, reinforced by Andreas Alföldi 's The Conversion of Constantine and Pagan Rome (1948), and Timothy Barnes 's Constantine and Eusebius (1981) is the culmination of this trend. Barnes' Constantine experienced a radical conversion which drove him on a personal crusade to convert his empire. [ 330 ] Charles Matson Odahl's Constantine and the Christian Empire (2004) takes much the same tack. [ 331 ] In spite of Barnes' work, arguments continue over the strength and depth of Constantine's religious conversion. [ 332 ] Certain themes in this school reached new extremes in T. G. Elliott's The Christianity of Constantine the Great (1996), which presented Constantine as a committed Christian from early childhood. [ 333 ] Paul Veyne 's 2007 work Quand notre monde est devenu chrétien holds a similar view which does not speculate on the origin of Constantine's Christian motivation, but presents him as a religious revolutionary who fervently believed that he was meant "to play a providential role in the millenary economy of the salvation of humanity". [ 334 ] Peter Heather argues that it is most plausible that Constantine had been a Christian considerably before 312 – possibly even for his entire life – with the public timeline of events instead reflecting his "coming out" as Christian in stages as doing so became politically viable. As a parallel illustrating the cogency of this interpretation, Heather gestures to the later conversion of Constantine's nephew Julian from Christianity to Hellenism, after which he practiced in secret for a decade. [ 335 ] Donation of Constantine Latin Christians considered it inappropriate that Constantine was baptised only on his death bed by an unorthodox bishop, and a legend emerged by the early 4th century that Pope Sylvester I had cured the pagan emperor from leprosy. According to this legend, Constantine was baptised and began the construction of a church in the Lateran Basilica . [ 336 ] [ 337 ] The Donation of Constantine appeared in the 8th century, most likely during the pontificate of Pope Stephen II , in which the freshly converted Constantine gives "the city of Rome and all the provinces, districts, and cities of Italy and the Western regions" to Sylvester and his successors. [ 338 ] In the High Middle Ages , [ 339 ] [ 340 ] this document was used and accepted as the basis for the pope's temporal power , though it was denounced as a forgery by Emperor Otto III [ 341 ] and lamented as the root of papal worldliness by Dante Alighieri . [ 342 ] Philologist and Catholic priest Lorenzo Valla proved in 1440 that the document was indeed a forgery. [ 343 ] Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia During the medieval period, Britons regarded Constantine as a king of their own people, particularly associating him with Caernarfon in Gwynedd . While some of this is owed to his fame and his proclamation as emperor in Britain , there was also confusion of his family with Magnus Maximus 's supposed wife Elen and her son, another Constantine ( Welsh : Custennin ) . In the 12th century Henry of Huntingdon included a passage in his Historia Anglorum that the Emperor Constantine's mother was a Briton, making her the daughter of King Cole of Colchester . [ 344 ] Geoffrey of Monmouth expanded this story in his highly fictionalised Historia Regum Britanniae , an account of the supposed Kings of Britain from their Trojan origins to the Anglo-Saxon invasion . [ 345 ] According to Geoffrey, Cole was King of the Britons when Constantius, here a senator, came to Britain. Afraid of the Romans, Cole submits to Roman law so long as he retains his kingship. However, he dies only a month later, and Constantius takes the throne himself, marrying Cole's daughter Helena. They have their son Constantine, who succeeds his father as King of Britain before becoming Roman emperor. Historically, this series of events is extremely improbable. Constantius had already left Helena by the time he left for Britain. [ 45 ] Additionally, no earlier source mentions that Helena was born in Britain, let alone that she was a princess. Henry's source for the story is unknown, though it may have been a lost hagiography of Helena. [ 345 ] Family tree v t e CONSTANTINIAN DYNASTY detailed family tree v t e Afranius Hannibalianus Eutropia Maximian Western emperor Theodora Constantius I Chlorus Western emperor 250-305-306 Helena 250–330 Maxentius Western emperor Constantia 293–330 ∞ Licinius 250-308-324-325 Flavius Dalmatius censor 1. Galla Julius Constantius d. 337 ∞ 2.Basilina Anastasia Eutropia Fausta 289–326 Constantine I the Great 272-306-337 Minervina Dalmatius caesar Hannibalianus (1) Constantius Gallus (2) Julian 331-360-363 Helena d. 360 Constantina ∞ 1. Hannibalianus 2. Constantius Gallus Constantius II 317-337-361 ∞ Faustina Constantine II Western emperor 316-337-340 Constans I Western emperor 320-337-350 (daughter) ∞ Justus Crispus d. 326 Jovian 331-363-364 Marina Severa Valentinian I Western emperor VALENTINIANIC DYNASTY Justina Constantia 361–383 Gratian Western emperor 359-367-383 Galla Theodosius I Eastern emperor THEODOSIAN DYNASTY Afranius Hannibalianus Eutropia Maximian Western emperor Theodora Constantius I Chlorus Western emperor 250-305-306 Helena 250–330 Maxentius Western emperor Constantia 293–330 ∞ Licinius 250-308-324-325 Flavius Dalmatius censor 1. Galla Julius Constantius d. 337 ∞ 2.Basilina Anastasia Eutropia Fausta 289–326 Constantine I the Great 272-306-337 Minervina Dalmatius caesar Hannibalianus (1) Constantius Gallus (2) Julian 331-360-363 Helena d. 360 Constantina ∞ 1. Hannibalianus 2. Constantius Gallus Constantius II 317-337-361 ∞ Faustina Constantine II Western emperor 316-337-340 Constans I Western emperor 320-337-350 (daughter) ∞ Justus Crispus d. 326 Jovian 331-363-364 Marina Severa Valentinian I Western emperor VALENTINIANIC DYNASTY Justina Constantia 361–383 Gratian Western emperor 359-367-383 Galla Theodosius I Eastern emperor THEODOSIAN DYNASTY Family of Constantine the Great Emperors are shown with a rounded-corner border with their dates as Augusti , names with a thicker border appear in both sections 1: Constantine's parents and half-siblings Claudius Gothicus 268–270 fabricated ancestry Julia Helena Constantius I 305–306 Maximiana Theodora Constantine I 306–337 Flavius Dalmatius Hannibalianus Flavia Julia Constantia Licinius 308–324 Anastasia Bassianus Galla Julius Constantius Basilina Licinius II Eutropia Virius Nepotianus Hannibalianus Constantina Constantius Gallus Julian 360–363 Helena Nepotianus 2: Constantine's children Minervina Constantine I 306–337 Fausta Crispus Constantine II 337–340 Constans 337–350 Hannibalianus Constantina Constantius Gallus Faustina Constantius II 337–361 Helena Julian 360–363 Gratian 367–383 Constantia Emperors are shown with a rounded-corner border with their dates as Augusti , names with a thicker border appear in both sections 1: Constantine's parents and half-siblings Claudius Gothicus 268–270 fabricated ancestry Claudius Gothicus 268–270 fabricated ancestry Julia Helena Constantius I 305–306 Constantius I 305–306 Maximiana Theodora Constantine I 306–337 Constantine I 306–337 Flavius Dalmatius Hannibalianus Flavia Julia Constantia Licinius 308–324 Licinius 308–324 Anastasia Bassianus Galla Julius Constantius Basilina Licinius II Eutropia Virius Nepotianus Hannibalianus Constantina Constantius Gallus Julian 360–363 Julian 360–363 Helena Nepotianus 2: Constantine's children Minervina Constantine I 306–337 Constantine I 306–337 Fausta Crispus Constantine II 337–340 Constantine II 337–340 Constans 337–350 Constans 337–350 Hannibalianus Constantina Constantius Gallus Faustina Constantius II 337–361 Constantius II 337–361 Helena Julian 360–363 Julian 360–363 Gratian 367–383 Gratian 367–383 Constantia See also Byzantine Empire portal Saints portal Bronze colossus of Constantine Colossus of Constantine Fifty Bibles of Constantine German and Sarmatian campaigns of Constantine Life of Constantine List of Byzantine emperors List of people known as the great Notes ^ a b Emperor of the East ^ Emperor of the West ^ a b In the West; unrecognised outside Italy ^ Originally emperor of the West; became emperor of the East after 313. ^ a b In the East; nominal emperor of the West. ^ Minervina may have been his concubine . ^ / ˈ k ɒ n s t ən t aɪ n , - t iː n / KON -stən-tyne, -teen ; Latin : Flāvius Valerius Cōnstantīnus , .mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%} Classical Latin : [konstanˈtiːnus] ; Koine Greek : Κωνσταντῖνος , romanized: Kōnstantînos ^ With the possible exception of Philip the Arab ( r. 244–249 ). See Philip the Arab and Christianity . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] ^ Constantine was not baptised until just before his death. [ 3 ] ^ Constantine's age at the time of his death was 65 years and 3 months, as recorded by Eustathius . Socrates , Sozomen , Zonaras , Skoutariotes , Theophanes , Symeon and Kedrenos all record 65 years. Eutropius and Jerome ( c. 380) give 66 years, as Latin writers often used inclusive counting . Aurelius Victor gives 62, likely a corruption of .mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%} lxvi into lxii , and his epitomer further corrupts the number into 63 ( lxiii ), while also computing his regnal years wrong. [ 19 ] [ 20 ] ^ The claim that Constantius descended from Claudius Gothicus , and thus also from the Flavian dynasty , is most certainly a fabrication. [ 23 ] [ 24 ] His family probably adopted the name "Flavius" after being granted citizenship by one of the Flavian emperors, as it was common for "new Romans" to adopt the names of their benefactors. [ 25 ] ^ On the other hand, Timothy Barnes argues that when ancient writers used the words Illyricum and Thrace / Thracians to describe where Constantius came from, they were speaking of broad geographic terms rather than precise origins. [ 28 ] ^ Constantius' regnal name is attested as both "Gaius Flavius Constantius" and "Marcus Flavius Constantius". However, the latter is almost certainly the correct form, as it was also the praenomen of his adopted father Maximian. [ 32 ] ^ The event is the focus of the Panegyrici Latini VI. The exact chronology of events is uncertain. Constantine and Fausta's wedding is sometimes dated to 31 March, but this is probably a mistake. It probably took place in September 307. [ 100 ] [ 101 ] [ 102 ] Citations ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Shahîd, Irfan (1984). "The First Christian Roman Emperor: Philip or Constantine?" . Rome and the Arabs . Dumbarton Oaks . pp. 65– 93. ^ Pohlsander, Hans A. (1980). "Philip the Arab and Christianity" . Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte . 29 (4): 463– 473. ISSN 0018-2311 . JSTOR 4435734 . ^ Harris, Jonathan (2017). Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium (2nd ed.). Bloomsbury. p. 38. ISBN 978-1-4742-5467-0 . ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 272. ^ Lenski et al. , pp. 2–3, 14, 23–25; Southern 2001 , p. 169; Cameron 2005 , pp. 90–91. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 265–268. ^ Drake 1988 . ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.11; cited in Odahl 2001 , p. 3 ^ Lenski et al. , p. 5; Storch 1971 . ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 265–271; Cameron 2005 , pp. 90–92; Elliott 1996 , pp. 162–171. ^ Lieu & Montserrat 1996 , pp. 39–40; Odahl 2001 , p. 3; Lenski et al. , p. 26. ^ a b c d e Lenski et al. , pp. 14–32; Odahl 2001 , pp. 6–14. ^ a b Barnes 1981 , pp. 12–14; MacKay 1999 , p. 207. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 225. ^ Odahl 2001 , pp. 6, 10. ^ Lieu & Montserrat 1996 , pp. 2–6; Warmington 1999 , pp. 166–167. ^ a b Wienand 2012 , pp. 26–86. ^ Lenski et al. , pp. 20–21, 288–291; Odahl 2001 , pp. 8–11. ^ a b c Doležal 2022 , pp. 221–237. ^ Bernard 2019 , p. 543. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 3, 39–42; Elliott 1996 , p. 17; Odahl 2001 , pp. 15–16; Pohlsander 2004b ; Southern 2001 , p. 169, 341; Barnes 1982 , pp. 39–42; Jones 1978 , pp. 13–14; Lenski et al. , p. 59; Pohlsander 2004a , p. 14; Rodgers 1989 ; Wright 1987 . ^ Wilkes, John (2012). "Dardani" . In Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (eds.). The Oxford Classical Dictionary . Oxford University Press. p. 414. ISBN 978-0-19-954556-8 . ^ a b Kazhdan 1991 , pp. 524–525. ^ Jones, Martindale & Morris , p. 223. ^ Salway, Benet (1994). "What's in a Name? A Survey of Roman Onomastic Practice from c. 700 B.C. to A.D. 700" (PDF) . Journal of Roman Studies . 84 : 124– 145. doi : 10.2307/300873 . ISSN 0075-4358 . JSTOR 300873 . S2CID 162435434 . Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 April 2020. ^ Stanislav Doležal, The Reign of Constantine, 306–337. Continuity and Change in the Late Roman Empire . Palgrave Macmillan Cham, 2022; pp. 2–3: "In a sense, this book is dedicated to the " Illyrian Emperors ", i.e. those emperors who were born in the Western Balkans and saved, stabilised, and reformed the empire. This line begins with Claudius II (268— 270) and then moves on to Quintillus (270), Aurelian (270—275), and Probus (276—282).3 After a brief interruption by the reigns of Carus and his two sons (282—284), whose birthplace we do not know, the Illyr-ians continued their run with Diocletian (284—305) and three of his colleagues: Maximian (285—305), Constantius (293—306), and Galerius (293—311). A 4th-century historian said of them: "Illyricum was actually the native land of all of them: so although they were deficient in culture, they had nevertheless been sufficiently schooled by the hardships of the countryside and of military service to be the best men for the state". 4 This is not the end of the Illyrian Emperors: Severus (305—307), Maximinus Daia (305—313), Licinius (308—324), and Constantine himself (306—337) can also be counted among them." ^ Odahl 2001 , pp. 36-41 . ^ Barnes 2011 , p. 30 . ^ Tougher, Shaun (2007). Julian the Apostate . Edinburgh University Press. doi : 10.1515/9781474473286 . ISBN 9780748618873 . ^ a b Otto Seeck : " Constantius 1 " (in German) . In: Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft (RE). Vol. IV,1, Stuttgart, 1900, col. 1013–1026. ^ a b c Conrad Benjamin: " Constantinus 2 " (in German) . In: Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft (RE). Vol. IV,1, Stuttgart, 1900, col. 1013–1026. ^ Barnes 1982 , p. 5. ^ Wilson, Steven (2003). The Means Of Naming: A Social History . Routledge . p. 47. ISBN 978-1-135-36836-4 . ^ MacMullen 1969 , p. 21. ^ Panegyrici Latini 8(5), 9(4); Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 8.7; Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.13.3 ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 13, 290. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 3; Lenski et al. , pp. 59–60; Odahl 2001 , pp. 16–17. ^ Hillner, Julia (2023). Helena Augusta: Mother of the Empire . Oxford University Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-19-087529-9 . ^ Drijvers, Jan Willem (1991). Helena Augusta . BRILL. pp. 9– 17. ISBN 978-90-04-24676-8 . ^ Stanton, Andrea L. (2012). Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia . SAGE. p. 25. ISBN 978-1-4129-8176-7 . Constantine's mother, Helena, was a Greek from Asia Minor and also a devoted Christian who seemed to have influenced his choices. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 3, 39–42; Barnes 1982 , p. 39–40; Elliott 1996 , p. 17; Lenski et al. , pp. 59, 83; Odahl 2001 , p. 16; Pohlsander 2004a , p. 14. ^ Tejirian, Eleanor H.; Simon, Reeva Spector (2012). Conflict, conquest, and conversion: two thousand years of Christian missions in the Middle East . New York: Columbia University Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-231-51109-4 . ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 8–14; Lenski et al. , pp. 46–50; Treadgold 1997 , pp. 14–15. ^ Bowman 2005 , p. 70; Potter 2004 , p. 283. ^ a b Barnes 1981 , p. 3; Elliott 1996 , p. 20; Lenski et al. , pp. 59–60; Odahl 2001 , pp. 47, 299; Pohlsander 2004a , p. 14. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 7.1; cited in Barnes 1981 , pp. 13, 290 ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 3, 8–9; Lenski et al. , pp. 40–43, 54; Elliott 1996 , p. 20; Odahl 2001 , pp. 46–47, 56–57; Pohlsander 2004a , pp. 8–9, 14; Treadgold 1997 , p. 17. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 73–74; Lenski et al. , pp. 60; Odahl 2001 , pp. 72, 301. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 73–74; Fowden 1988 , pp. 175–176. ^ Constantine, Oratio ad Sanctorum Coetum , 16.2 ^ a b Elliott 1996 , pp. 29–30; Lenski et al. , p. 60; Odahl 2001 , pp. 72–74. ^ Pohlsander 2004a , p. 15. ^ Constantine, Oratio ad Sanctorum Coetum 25 ^ Elliott 1996 , p. 30; Odahl 2001 , p. 73. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 10.6–11 ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 21; Elliott 1996 , pp. 35–36; MacMullen 1969 , p. 24; Odahl 2001 , p. 67; Potter 2004 , p. 338. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 2.49–52 ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 21; Odahl 2001 , pp. 67, 73, 304; Potter 2004 , p. 338. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 22–25; MacMullen 1969 , pp. 24–30; Odahl 2001 , pp. 67–69; Potter 2004 , p. 337. ^ MacMullen 1969 , pp. 24–25. ^ Oratio ad Sanctorum Coetum 25 ^ Odahl 2001 , p. 73. ^ Elliott 1987 , pp. 425–426; Lenski et al. , p. 126. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 25–27; Lenski et al. , p. 60; Odahl 2001 , pp. 69–72; Pohlsander 2004a , p. 15; Potter 2004 , pp. 341–342. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 19.2–6 ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 26; Potter 2004 , p. 342. ^ Lenski et al. , pp. 60–61; Odahl 2001 , pp. 72–74; Pohlsander 2004a , p. 15. ^ Origo 4; Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 24.3–9; Praxagoras fr. 1.2; Aurelius Victor 40.2–3; Epitome de Caesaribus 41.2; Zosimus 2.8.3; Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.21 ^ Lenski et al. , p. 61; MacMullen 1969 , p. 32; Odahl 2001 , p. 73. ^ Lenski et al. , p. 61. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 27; Elliott 1987 , pp. 39–40; Lenski et al. , p. 61; Odahl 2001 , p. 75–77; Pohlsander 2004a , pp. 15–16; Potter 2004 , pp. 344–345; Southern 2001 , pp. 169–170, 341; MacMullen 1969 , p. 32. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 27, 298; Elliott 1996 , p. 39; Odahl 2001 , p. 77–78, 309; Pohlsander 2004a , pp. 15–16. ^ Alföldi 1948 , pp. 233–234; Southern 2001 , pp. 170, 341. ^ a b Barnes 1981 , pp. 27–29; Jones 1978 , p. 59; Lenski et al. , pp. 61–62; Odahl 2001 , pp. 78–80. ^ Jones 1978 , p. 59. ^ Jones 1978 , p. 59; MacMullen 1969 , p. 39. ^ Treadgold 1997 , p. 28. ^ Gibbon, Edward (2018). History of The Decline and Fall of The Roman Empire . [Otbebookpublishing]. ISBN 978-3-96272-518-1 . OCLC 1059411020 . ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 28–29; Rees 2002 , p. 160; Lenski et al. , p. 62; Odahl 2001 , pp. 78–80. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 29; Elliott 1996 , p. 41; Jones 1978 , p. 41; MacMullen 1969 , p. 39; Odahl 2001 , pp. 79–80. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 16–17. ^ Odahl, 80–81. ^ Odahl, 81. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 39; Odahl, 81–82. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 29; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 41; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 63; MacMullen, Constantine , 39–40; Odahl, 81–83. ^ Odahl, 82–83. ^ "Detail :: Last Statues of Antiquity" . laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk . ^ Odahl, 82–83. See also: William E. Gwatkin, Jr. Roman Trier ." The Classical Journal 29 (1933): 3–12. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 24.9; Barnes, "Lactantius and Constantine", 43–46; Odahl, 85, 310–311. ^ Odahl, 86. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 28. ^ Rodgers, 236. ^ Panegyrici Latini 7(6)3.4; Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.22, qtd. and tr. Odahl, 83; Rodgers, 238. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 40. ^ Qtd. in MacMullen, Constantine , 40. ^ Zosimus, 2.9.2; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62; MacMullen, Constantine , 39. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 29; Odahl, 86; Potter, 346. ^ Barnes, New Empire , 5. Galerius and Maximinus ceased to be recognized as consuls at this time. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 30–31; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 41–42; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62–63; Odahl, 86–87; Potter, 348–349. ^ Nixon, C. E. V.; Rodgers, Barbara S. (2023). In Praise of Later Roman Emperors: The Panegyrici Latini . University of California Press. pp. 180– 185. ISBN 978-0-520-34282-8 . The ceremony took place after 25 July, as there are coins that refer to Constantine as caesar while also commemorating his dies imperii . ^ Rees 2002 , p. 165 . ^ Sang, J. C. (1979). Panegyrici Latini, VI and VII: Translated with Introductions and Commentary . University of Cape Town. pp. 6– 14, favouring late April/early May instead. ISBN 978-0-19-924918-3 . ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 31; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 64; Odahl, 87–88; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 15–16. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 30; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62–63; Odahl, 86–87. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 34; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 63–65; Odahl, 89; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 15–16. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 32; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 64; Odahl, 89, 93. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 32–34; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 42–43; Jones, 61; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 65; Odahl, 90–91; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 17; Potter, 349–350; Treadgold, 29. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 33; Jones, 61. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 36–37. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 34–35; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 43; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 65–66; Odahl, 93; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 17; Potter, 352. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 34. ^ Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 43; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 20. ^ Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 45; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 30.1; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 40–41, 305. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68. ^ Potter, 352. ^ Panegyrici Latini 6(7); Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 35–37, 301; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 66; Odahl, 94–95, 314–315; Potter, 352–353. ^ Panegyrici Latini 6(7)1. Qtd. in Potter, 353. ^ Panegyrici Latini 6(7).21.5. ^ Virgil, Ecologues 4.10. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 36–37; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 67; Odahl, 95. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 36–37; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 50–53; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 66–67; Odahl, 94–95. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 31–35; Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 8.16; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 43; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; Odahl, 95–96, 316. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 34; Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 8.17; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 304; Jones, 66. ^ Eusebius (1965). The History of the Church . Penguin Classics. p. 278. ISBN 0-14-044535-8 . ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 39; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 43–44; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; Odahl, 95–96. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 45; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 69; Odahl, 96. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 39–40; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 44; Odahl, 96. ^ Odahl, 96. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 38; Odahl, 96. ^ Hillner, Julia (2017). "Constantia, half-sister of Constantine and wife of Licinius". Constantia . Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics. doi : 10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.8065 . ISBN 978-0-19-938113-5 . ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 37; Curran, 66; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; MacMullen, Constantine , 62. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 37. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 37–39. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 38–39; MacMullen, Constantine , 62. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 40; Curran, 66. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 44–45; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 69; Odahl, 96. ^ Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 8.15.1–2, qtd. and tr. in MacMullen, Constantine , 65. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; MacMullen, Constantine , 71. ^ Panegyrici Latini 12(9)2.5; Curran, 67. ^ Curran, 67. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 70–71. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Odahl, 101. ^ Panegyrici Latini 12(9)5.1–3; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 101. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Jones, 70; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 101–102. ^ Panegyrici Latini 12(9)5–6; 4(10)21–24; Jones, 70–71; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 102, 317–318. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Jones, 71; Odahl, 102. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41–42; Odahl, 103. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Jones, 71; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 103. ^ Jones, 71; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 103. ^ Jones, 71; Odahl, 103. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Jones, 71; Odahl, 103. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Jones, 71; Odahl, 103–104. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Jones, 71; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 69; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 104. ^ Jones, 71; MacMullen, Constantine , 71. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 71. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Curran, 67; Jones, 71. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Jones, 71; Odahl, 105. ^ Jones, 71. ^ Odahl, 104. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 72; Odahl, 107. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Curran, 67; Jones, 71–72; Odahl, 107–108. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42–43; MacMullen, Constantine , 78; Odahl, 108. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 44.8; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43; Curran, 67; Jones, 72; Odahl, 108. ^ a b Odahl, 108. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43; Digeser, 122; Jones, 72; Odahl, 106. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 44.4–6, tr. J. L. Creed, Lactantius: De Mortibus Persecutorum (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984), qtd. in Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 71. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.28, tr. Odahl, 105. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43; Drake, "Impact of Constantine on Christianity" (CC), 113; Odahl, 105. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.27–29; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43, 306; Odahl, 105–106, 319–320. ^ Drake, "Impact of Constantine on Christianity" (CC), 113. ^ Cameron and Hall, 208. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 306; MacMullen, Constantine , 73; Odahl, 319. ^ Cameron and Hall, 206–207; Drake, "Impact of Constantine on Christianity" (CC), 114; Nicholson, 311. ^ Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 71, citing Roman Imperial Coinage 7 Ticinum 36. ^ R. Ross Holloway, Constantine and Rome (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004), 3, citing Kraft, "Das Silbermedaillon Constantins des Grosses mit dem Christusmonogram auf dem Helm", Jahrbuch für Numismatik und Geldgeschichte 5–6 (1954/55): 151–178. ^ Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 71. ^ Rowley, Matthew; Hodgson, Natasha R., eds. (2022). Miracles, political authority and violence in medieval and early modern history . Themes in medieval and early modern history. London New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN 978-0-367-76728-0 . ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43; Curran, 68. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 78. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43; Curran, 68; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 70; MacMullen, Constantine , 78; Odahl, 108. ^ Head of the bronze colossus , Capitoline Museums ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 44 . ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 81; Odahl, 108. ^ Cameron, 93; Curran, 71–74; Odahl, 110. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 44; Curran, 72; Jones, 72; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 70; MacMullen, Constantine , 78; Odahl, 108. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 44–45. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 44; MacMullen, Constantine , 81; Odahl, 111. Cf. also Curran, 72–75. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 45; Curran, 72; MacMullen, Constantine , 81; Odahl, 109. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 45–46; Odahl, 109. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 46; Odahl, 109. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 46. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 44. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 45–47; Cameron, 93; Curran, 76–77; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 70. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 45. ^ Curran, 80–83. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 47. ^ Curran, 83–85. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 45; Curran, 76; Odahl, 109. ^ Curran, 101. ^ Krautheimer, Corpus Basilicarum Christianarum Romanorum , 5.90, cited in Curran, 93–96. ^ Odahl, 109. ^ The term is a misnomer as the act of Milan was not an edict, while the subsequent edicts by Licinius—of which the edicts to the provinces of Bythinia and Palestine are recorded by Lactantius and Eusebius, respectively—were not issued in Milan. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 25. ^ Drake, "Impact", 121–123. ^ a b Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain , 229. ^ Byfield, Ted, ed. The Christians: Their First Two Thousand Years . vol. III. p. 148. "The sign in the sky that changed history" . Archived from the original on 19 January 2016 . Retrieved 5 February 2016 . ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , pp. 38–39. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , pp. 41–42. ^ Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain , pp. 229–230. ^ Timothy E. Gregory, A History of Byzantium . Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 2010, ISBN 978-1-4051-8471-7 , p. 54. ^ Philip Schaff, ed., Nicene and Post-nicene Fathers: Second Series . New York: Cosimo, 2007, ISBN 978-1-60206-508-6 , p. 418, footnote 6. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 42–43. ^ Scarre, Chronicle of the Roman Emperors , 215. ^ a b MacMullen, Constantine . ^ The Early Reception and Appropriation of the Apostle Peter (60-800 CE): The Anchors of the Fisherman . BRILL. 17 March 2020. p. 36. ISBN 978-90-04-42568-2 . ^ Sherrard, ed. Krieger, Byzantium , Silver Burdett Company, Morristown, New Jersey, 1966 p. 15. ^ Sinnigen & Boak, A History of Rome to A.D. 565 , 6th ed., Macmillan, New York, 1977 pp. 409–310. ^ Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries , Penguin Books, Middlesex, 1988, p. 40. ^ Sherrard, ed. Krieger, Byzantium , Silver Burdett Company, Morristown, New Jersey, 1966 p. 18. ^ Gilbert Dagron, Naissance d'une Capitale , 24. ^ Petrus Patricius excerpta Vaticana , 190: Κωνσταντίνος εβουλεύσατο πρώτον εν Σαρδική μεταγαγείν τά δημόσια· φιλών τε τήν πόλιν εκείνην συνεχώς έλεγεν "η εμή Ρώμη Σαρδική εστι." ^ Ramsey MacMullen, Constantine , Routledge ed., 1987, 149. ^ Dagron, Naissance d'une Capitale , 15/19. ^ a b "Constantinople" in The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium , Oxford University Press , Oxford, 1991, p. 508. ISBN 0-19-504652-8 ^ Sardonyx cameo depicting constantine the great crowned by Constantinople, 4th century AD Archived 16 March 2006 at the Wayback Machine at "The Road to Byzantium: Luxury Arts of Antiquity". The Hermitage Rooms at Somerset House (30 March 2006 – 3 September 2006). ^ Philostorgius, Historia Ecclesiastica 2.9. ^ According to the Reallexikon für Antike und Christentum , vol. 164 (Stuttgart: A. Hiersemann, 2005), column 442, there is no evidence for the tradition that Constantine officially dubbed the city "New Rome" ( Nova Roma or Nea Rhome ). Commemorative coins that were issued during the 330s already refer to the city as Constantinopolis (Michael Grant, The Climax of Rome (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1968), 133). It is possible that the emperor called the city "Second Rome" ( Deutera Rhome ) by official decree, as reported by the 5th-century church historian Socrates of Constantinople. ^ Bowder, Diana (1987). The Age of Constantine and Julian . Barnes & Noble Books. p. 28. ISBN 978-0-06-490601-2 . ^ See Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 34–35. ^ Young 2006 , p. 6 and n. 24. ^ R. Gerberding and J. H. Moran Cruz, Medieval Worlds (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004) p. 55. ^ " Gratian " Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 3 February 2008. ^ Pontifex Maximus Archived 3 March 2013 at the Wayback Machine Livius article by Jona Lendering retrieved 21 August 2011. ^ Peter Brown , The Rise of Christendom 2nd edition (Oxford, Blackwell Publishing, 2003) p. 60. ^ Drake 2000 , p. 395. ^ R. Gerberding and J. H. Moran Cruz, Medieval Worlds (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004) pp. 55–56. ^ Robin Lane Fox, apud Jonathan Bardill, Constantine, Divine Emperor of the Christian Golden Age . Cambridge University Press, 2011, ISBN 978-0-521-76423-0 , p. 307, note 27. ^ Codex Justinianeus 3.12.2. ^ Codex Theodosianus 16.2.5. ^ Cf. Paul Veyne, Quand notre monde est devenu chrétien , 163. ^ R. MacMullen, "Christianizing The Roman Empire A.D. 100–400, Yale University Press, 1984, p. 44, ISBN 0-300-03642-6 ^ Richards, Jeffrey. The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476–752 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) 14–15; The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476–752 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) 15. ^ Richards, Jeffrey. The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476–752 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) pp. 15–16. ^ Frend, W. H. C., "The Donatist Church; A Movement of Protest in Roman North Africa," (1952 Oxford), pp. 156–162. ^ Norwich, John Julius (1996). Byzantium (First American ed.). New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 54– 57. ISBN 0-394-53778-5 . OCLC 18164817 . ^ "Church Fathers: Life of Constantine, Book III (Eusebius), chapter 18" . New Advent . ^ a b c Cf. Adrian Goldsworthy, How Rome Fell , 187. ^ Stemberger, Gunter (1999). Jews and Christians in the Holy Land . A&C Black. pp. 37– 38. ISBN 978-0-567-23050-8 . If a Jew has bought and circumcised a Christian slave or one belonging to any other religious community, he may under no circumstances keep the circumcised person in slavery; rather, whoever suffers such a thing shall obtain the privilege of freedom. ^ Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World . Routledge. p. 182. ISBN 978-1-134-40317-2 . Constantine forbade the circumcision of Christian slaves, and declared any slave circumcised despite this prohibition a free man ^ Cameron, 107. ^ Christol & Nony, Rome et son Empire , 241. ^ As equestrian order refers to people of equestrian census that had an actual position in the state bureaucracy, thousands of whom had no state function; cf. Claude Lepelley , "Fine delle' ordine equestre: le tappe delle'unificazione dela classe dirigente romana nel IV secolo", IN Giardina, ed., Società romana e impero tardoantico , Bari: Laterza, 1986, V. 1, quoted by Carrié & Rouselle, p. 660. ^ Christol & Nony, Rome et son Empire , 247; Carrié & Rousselle L'Empire Romain , 658. ^ Carrié & Rousselle L'Empire Romain , 658–659. ^ Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae , archived from the original on 20 July 2012 , retrieved 5 February 2016 ; Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain , p. 659 ^ Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain , 660. ^ Cf. Arnhein, The Senatorial Aristocracy in the Later Roman Empire , quoted by Perry Anderson, Passages from Antiquity to Feudalism , 101. ^ Carrié & Rousselle, p.657 citing T. D. Barnes, "Statistics and the Conversion of the Roman Aristocracy", Journal of Roman Studies , 85, 1995. ^ Cf. Paul Veyne, L'Empire Gréco-Romain , 49. ^ Christol & Nony, Rome et son Empire , 247. ^ Walter Scheidel, "The Monetary Systems of the Han and Roman Empires", 174/175. ^ De Rebus Bellicis , 2. ^ Sandro Mazzarino, according to Christol & Nony, Rome et son Empire , 246. ^ Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain , 245–246. ^ Guthrie, 325–326. ^ Guthrie, 326; Woods, "Death of the Empress", 70–72. ^ Guthrie, 326; Woods, "Death of the Empress", 72. ^ Encyclopedia of Roman Empire . MobileReference.com. 2008. ISBN 978-1-60501-314-5 . Retrieved 5 October 2014 . ^ a b Guthrie, 326–327. ^ Art. Pass 45; Woods, "Death of the Empress", 71–72. ^ Christol & Nony, Rome et son Empire , 237/238. ^ Cf. Adrian Goldsworthy, How Rome Fell , 189 & 191. ^ Madgearu, Alexandru (2008). Istoria Militară a Daciei Post Romane 275–376. Cetatea de Scaun. ISBN 978-973-8966-70-3 , pp. 64–126. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 250. ^ Madgearu, Alexandru(2008). Istoria Militară a Daciei Post Romane 275–376. Cetatea de Scaun. ISBN 978-973-8966-70-3 , pp. 64–126. ^ Odahl, 261. ^ Eusebius, VC 4.9ff, cited in Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 259. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 258–259. See also: Fowden, "Last Days", 146–148, and Wiemer, 515. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.58–60; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 259. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.61; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 259. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.62. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.62.4. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 75–76; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 82. ^ Amerise, Marilena (2005). Il battesimo di Costantino il Grande: storia di una scomoda eredità [ The baptism of Constantine the Great: The story of an uncomfortable legacy ]. Hermes: Bulletin for Classical Philology , supplements (in Italian). Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag. ISBN 978-3-515-08721-6 . ISSN 0341-0064 . OCLC 61029662 . ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.64; Fowden, "Last Days of Constantine", 147; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 82. ^ Julian, Orations 1.18.b. ^ Origo Constantini 35. ^ Sextus Aurelius Victor, Historiae abbreviatae XLI.16. ^ Eutropius, Breviarium X.8.2. ^ Fowden, "Last Days of Constantine", 148–149. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 75–76. ^ A. A. Vasiliev (1848). "Imperial Porphyry Sarcophagi in Constantinople" (PDF) . Dumbarton Oaks Papers . 4 : 1+3–26. doi : 10.2307/1291047 . JSTOR 1291047 . Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 December 2019. ^ Majeska, George P (1984). Russian Travelers to Constantinople in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries . Dumbarton Oaks. ISBN 978-0-88402-101-8 . Retrieved 15 April 2017 – via Google Knihy. ^ Edward J. Watts (2020). The Final Pagan Generation: Rome's Unexpected Path to Christianity . University of California Press. p. 83. 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"Viewing Rome in the Latin Literature of the Ventennio Fascista : Francesco Giammaria's Capitolium Novum " . Fascism . 8 (2). Brill: 172. doi : 10.1163/22116257-00802002 . hdl : 10852/76385 . ISSN 2211-6249 . ^ "Niš: Vinik osta pusto brdo" . NOVOSTI . ^ "Edict of Milan celebration to begin in Niš" . 17 January 2013. ^ Averil Cameron, "Introduction", in Constantine: History, Historiography, and Legend , ed. Samuel N. C. Lieu and Dominic Montserrat (New York: Routledge, 1998), 3; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 91 ^ Lieu, "Constantine in Legendary Literature" (CC), 305. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 92–93. ^ "Holy Great Rulers Constantine and Helen, Equal to the Apostles: Great Vespers" (PDF) . Liturgical Texts and Music: Part of the Royal Doors Family . Retrieved 9 August 2025 . ^ "Holy Great Rulers Constantine and Helen, Equal to the Apostles: Divine Liturgy" (PDF) . Liturgical Texts and Music: Part of the Royal Doors Family . Retrieved 9 August 2025 . ^ "530 - Λεἰψανα του Μεγάλου Κωνσταντίνου" . Η ΛΕΙΨΑΝΟΘΗΚΗ (in Greek) . Retrieved 9 August 2025 . ^ "Commemorations for Baramhat 28" . CopticChurch.Net . Retrieved 9 August 2025 . ^ Findikyan, Bishop Daniel. "Liturgical Year of the Armenian Apostolic Church" . Armenian Apostolic Church of Holy Resurrection . Retrieved 9 August 2025 . ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 272–223. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 273. ^ Johannes Leunclavius , Apologia pro Zosimo adversus Evagrii, Nicephori Callisti et aliorum acerbas criminationes ( Defence of Zosimus against the Unjustified Charges of Evagrius, Nicephorus Callistus, and Others ) (Basel, 1576), cited in Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 273, and Odahl, 282. ^ Caesar Baronius, Annales Ecclesiastici 3 (Antwerp, 1623), cited in Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 274, and Odahl, 282. ^ Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire Chapter 18, cited in Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 274, and Odahl, 282. See also Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 6–7. ^ Gibbon, Decline and Fall , 1.256; David P. Jordan, "Gibbon's 'Age of Constantine' and the Fall of Rome", History and Theory 8:1 (1969): 71–96. ^ Jacob Burckhardt, Die Zeit Constantins des Grossen (Basel, 1853; revised edition, Leipzig, 1880), cited in Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 274; Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 7. ^ Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 7. ^ Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 7–8. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 274. ^ Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 8. ^ Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 8–9; Odahl, 283. ^ Odahl, 283; Mark Humphries, "Constantine", review of Constantine and the Christian Empire , by Charles Odahl, Classical Quarterly 56:2 (2006), 449. ^ Averil Cameron, "Introduction", in Constantine: History, Historiography, and Legend , ed. Samuel N. C. Lieu and Dominic Montserrat (New York: Routledge, 1998), 3. ^ Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 10. ^ Quand notre monde est devenu chretien , Fabian E. Udoh, review, Theological Studies , June 2008. ^ Peter Heather, Christendom (London: Allen Lane, 2022), pp. 11–20. ^ Canella, Tessa. Gli Actus Silvestri fra Oriente e Occidente: Storia e diffusione di una leggenda Costantiniana . Academia. pp. 243– 244 . Retrieved 10 May 2021 . ^ Lieu, "Constantine in Legendary Literature" (CC), 298–301. ^ Constitutum Constantini 17, qtd. in Lieu, "Constantine in Legendary Literature" (CC), 301–303. ^ Gregory, A History of Byzantium , 49. ^ Van Dam, Remembering Constantine at the Milvian Bridge , 30. ^ Henry Charles Lea, "The 'Donation of Constantine'". The English Historical Review 10: 37 (1895), 86–87. ^ Inferno 19.115; Paradisio 20.55; cf. De Monarchia 3.10. ^ Fubini, 79–86; Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 6. ^ Henry of Huntingdon, Historia Anglorum , Book I, ch. 37. ^ a b Greenway, Diana (Ed.); Henry of Huntingdon (1996). Historia Anglorum: The History of the English People . Oxford University Press. p. civ. ISBN 978-0-19-822224-8 . 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ISBN 0-14-044535-8 McGiffert, Arthur Cushman, trans. Church History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 28 September 2009. Oratio de Laudibus Constantini ( Oration in Praise of Constantine , sometimes the Tricennial Oration ) 336. Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Oration in Praise of Constantine . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 16 August 2009. Vita Constantini ( The Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine ) c. 336 –339. Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Life of Constantine . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine . 2009. Reprint of Bagster edition [1845]. Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-93-0 . Cameron, Averil and Stuart Hall, trans. Life of Constantine . 1999. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814924-7 . Historia Ecclesiastica ( Church History ) first seven books c. 300 , eighth and ninth book c. 313 , tenth book c. 315 , epilogue c. 325 . Williamson, G. A., trans. Church History . London: Penguin, 1989. ISBN 0-14-044535-8 McGiffert, Arthur Cushman, trans. Church History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 28 September 2009. Williamson, G. A., trans. Church History . London: Penguin, 1989. ISBN 0-14-044535-8 McGiffert, Arthur Cushman, trans. Church History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 28 September 2009. Oratio de Laudibus Constantini ( Oration in Praise of Constantine , sometimes the Tricennial Oration ) 336. Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Oration in Praise of Constantine . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 16 August 2009. Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Oration in Praise of Constantine . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 16 August 2009. Vita Constantini ( The Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine ) c. 336 –339. Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Life of Constantine . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine . 2009. Reprint of Bagster edition [1845]. Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-93-0 . Cameron, Averil and Stuart Hall, trans. Life of Constantine . 1999. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814924-7 . Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Life of Constantine . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine . 2009. Reprint of Bagster edition [1845]. Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-93-0 . Cameron, Averil and Stuart Hall, trans. Life of Constantine . 1999. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814924-7 . Eutropius , Breviarium ab Urbe Condita ( Abbreviated History from the City's Founding ) c. 369 . Watson, John Henry, trans. Justin, Cornelius Nepos and Eutropius . London: George Bell & Sons, 1886. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 28 September 2009. Watson, John Henry, trans. Justin, Cornelius Nepos and Eutropius . London: George Bell & Sons, 1886. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 28 September 2009. Rufus Festus , Breviarium Festi ( The Abbreviated History of Festus ) c. 370 . Banchich, Thomas M., and Jennifer A. Meka, trans. Breviarium of the Accomplishments of the Roman People . Canisius College Translated Texts 2. Buffalo, New York: Canisius College, 2001. Online at De Imperatoribus Romanis . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Banchich, Thomas M., and Jennifer A. Meka, trans. Breviarium of the Accomplishments of the Roman People . Canisius College Translated Texts 2. Buffalo, New York: Canisius College, 2001. Online at De Imperatoribus Romanis . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Jerome , Chronicon ( Chronicle ) c. 380 . Pearse, Roger, et al. ., trans. The Chronicle of St. Jerome , in Early Church Fathers: Additional Texts . Tertullian, 2005. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 14 August 2009. Pearse, Roger, et al. ., trans. The Chronicle of St. Jerome , in Early Church Fathers: Additional Texts . Tertullian, 2005. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 14 August 2009. Jordanes , De origine actibusque Getarum [ Getica ] ( The Origin and Deeds of the Goths ) c. 551 . Mierow, Charles C. , trans. The Origins and Deeds of the Goths . Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1915. Online at the University of Calgary . Retrieved 28 September 2009. The Gothic History of Jordanes . 2006. Reprint of 1915 edition. Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-77-0 . The Christian Roman Empire series Mierow, Charles C. , trans. The Origins and Deeds of the Goths . Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1915. Online at the University of Calgary . Retrieved 28 September 2009. The Gothic History of Jordanes . 2006. Reprint of 1915 edition. Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-77-0 . The Christian Roman Empire series Online at the University of Calgary . Retrieved 28 September 2009. The Gothic History of Jordanes . 2006. Reprint of 1915 edition. Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-77-0 . The Christian Roman Empire series Lactantius , De mortibus persecutorum ( On the Deaths of the Persecutors ) c. 313–315 . Fletcher, William, trans. Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died . From Ante-Nicene Fathers , Vol. 7. Edited by Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1886. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Fletcher, William, trans. Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died . From Ante-Nicene Fathers , Vol. 7. Edited by Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1886. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Libanius , Orationes ( Orations ) c. 362 –365. Optatus , Libri VII de Schismate Donatistarum ( Seven Books on the Schism of the Donatists ) first edition c. 365 –367, second edition c. 385 . Vassall-Phillips, O. R., trans. The Work of St. Optatus Against the Donatists . London: Longmans, Green, & Co., 1917. Transcribed at The Tertullian Project by Roger Pearse, 2006. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Optatus (1997). Edwards, Mark (ed.). Optatus: Against the Donatists . Translated by Edwards, Mark. doi : 10.3828/978-0-85323-752-5 (inactive 1 July 2025). ISBN 978-0-85323-752-5 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 ( link ) Vassall-Phillips, O. R., trans. The Work of St. Optatus Against the Donatists . London: Longmans, Green, & Co., 1917. Transcribed at The Tertullian Project by Roger Pearse, 2006. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Optatus (1997). Edwards, Mark (ed.). Optatus: Against the Donatists . Translated by Edwards, Mark. doi : 10.3828/978-0-85323-752-5 (inactive 1 July 2025). ISBN 978-0-85323-752-5 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 ( link ) Origo Constantini Imperiatoris ( The Lineage of the Emperor Constantine ) c. 340 –390. Rolfe, J. C., trans. Excerpta Valesiana , in vol. 3 of Rolfe's translation of Ammianus Marcellinus' History . Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1952. Online at LacusCurtius . Retrieved 16 August 2009. Rolfe, J. C., trans. Excerpta Valesiana , in vol. 3 of Rolfe's translation of Ammianus Marcellinus' History . Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1952. Online at LacusCurtius . Retrieved 16 August 2009. Orosius , Historiarum Adversum Paganos Libri VII ( Seven Books of History Against the Pagans ) c. 417 . XII Panegyrici Latini ( Twelve Latin Panegyircs ) relevant panegyrics dated 289, 291, 297, 298, 307, 310, 311, 313 and 321. Philostorgius , Historia Ecclesiastica ( Church History ) c. 433 . Walford, Edward, trans. Epitome of the Ecclesiastical History of Philostorgius, Compiled by Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople . London: Henry G. Bohn, 1855. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Walford, Edward, trans. Epitome of the Ecclesiastical History of Philostorgius, Compiled by Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople . London: Henry G. Bohn, 1855. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Praxagoras of Athens , Historia ( History of Constantine the Great ) c. 337 . [Fragmentary] Socrates of Constantinople (Scholasticus), Historia Ecclesiastica ( Church History ) c. 443 . Zenos, A. C., trans. Ecclesiastical History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 2. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 14 August 2009. Zenos, A. C., trans. Ecclesiastical History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 2. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 14 August 2009. Sozomen , Historia Ecclesiastica ( Church History ) c. 445 . Hartranft, Chester D. Ecclesiastical History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 2. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Hartranft, Chester D. Ecclesiastical History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 2. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Theodoret , Historia Ecclesiastica ( Church History ) c. 448 . Jackson, Blomfield, trans. Ecclesiastical History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 3. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Jackson, Blomfield, trans. Ecclesiastical History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 3. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Zosimus , Historia Nova ( New History ) c. 500 . Unknown, trans. The History of Count Zosimus . London: Green and Champlin, 1814. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Unknown, trans. The History of Count Zosimus . London: Green and Champlin, 1814. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Modern sources Alföldi, Andreas (1948) [1948]. The conversion of Constantine and pagan Rome . Translated by Harold Mattingly. Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814356-7 . {{ cite book }} : ISBN / Date incompatibility ( help ) CS1 maint: ref duplicates default ( link ) Anderson, Perry (2013) [1974]. Passages from Antiquity to Feudalism . Verso Books. ISBN 978-1-78168-008-7 . Armstrong, Gregory T. (1964). "Church and State Relations: The Changes Wrought by Constantine". Journal of the American Academy of Religion . XXXII : 1– 7. doi : 10.1093/jaarel/XXXII.1.1 . Armstrong, Gregory T. (1974). "Constantine's Churches: Symbol and Structure". Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians . 33 (1): 5– 16. doi : 10.2307/988835 . JSTOR 988835 . Barnes, T. D. (1973). "Lactantius and Constantine". Journal of Roman Studies . 63 : 29– 46. doi : 10.2307/299163 . JSTOR 299163 . S2CID 163051414 . Barnes, Timothy D. (1981). Constantine and Eusebius . Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-16531-1 . Barnes, Timothy D. (1982). The New Empire of Diocletian and Constantine . doi : 10.4159/harvard.9780674280670 . ISBN 978-0-674-28067-0 . S2CID 162343436 . Barnes, T. D. (1985). "Constantine and the Christians of Persia". Journal of Roman Studies . 75 : 126– 136. doi : 10.2307/300656 . JSTOR 300656 . S2CID 162744718 . Barnes, Timothy (2011). Constantine: Dynasty, Religion and Power in the Later Roman Empire . Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-1727-2 . Bernard, Outtier; et al. (2019). Armenia between Byzantium and the Orient . BRILL. pp. 230– 580. ISBN 978-90-04-39774-3 . Bowman, Alan K. (2005). "Diocletian and the first tetrarchy, a.d. 284–305". The Cambridge Ancient History . pp. 67– 89. doi : 10.1017/CHOL9780521301992.004 . ISBN 978-1-139-05392-1 . Cameron, Averil (2005). "The Reign of Constantine, a.d. 306–337" . The Cambridge Ancient History . Vol. 12. pp. 90– 109. doi : 10.1017/CHOL9780521301992.005 . ISBN 978-1-139-05392-1 . Carrié, Jean-Michel; Rouselle, Aline (1999). L'Empire Romain en mutation- des Sévères à Constantin, 192–337 . Paris: Seuil. ISBN 2-02-025819-6 . Christol, Michel ; Nony, D. (2003). Rome et son Empire . Paris: Hachette. ISBN 2-02-025819-6 . Corcoran, Simon (1996). The Empire of the Tetrarchs: Imperial Pronouncements and Government, AD 284–324 . Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-815304-X . Curran, John (2000). Pagan City and Christian Capital (Hardcover ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-815278-7 . Paperback ISBN 0-19-925420-6 Dagron, Gilbert (1984). Naissance d'une Capitale: Constantinople et ses institutions de 330 a 451 . Paris: Presses Universitaires de France. ISBN 2-13-038902-3 . Digeser, Elizabeth DePalma (2000). The Making of A Christian Empire: Lactantius and Rome . London: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-3594-3 . Doležal, Stanislav (2022). The Reign of Constantine, 306–337: Continuity and Change in the Late Roman Empire . Springer Nature. ISBN 978-3-030-97464-0 . Downey, Glanville (1957). "Education in the Christian Roman Empire: Christian and Pagan Theories under Constantine and His Successors". Speculum . 32 (1): 48– 61. doi : 10.2307/2849245 . JSTOR 2849245 . S2CID 161904593 . Drake, H. A. (1988). "What Eusebius Knew: The Genesis of the "Vita Constantini" ". Classical Philology . 83 : 20– 38. doi : 10.1086/367077 . S2CID 162370910 . Drake, H. A. (1995). "Constantine and Consensus". Church History . 64 (1): 1– 15. doi : 10.2307/3168653 . JSTOR 3168653 . S2CID 163129848 . Drake, H. A. (1996). "Lambs into Lions: Explaining Early Christian Intolerance". Past & Present (153): 3– 36. doi : 10.1093/past/153.1.3 . Drake, H. A. (2000). Constantine and the Bishops: The Politics of Intolerance . Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-6218-3 . Elliott, T. G. (1987). "Constantine's Conversion: Do We Really Need It?". Phoenix . 41 (4): 420– 438. doi : 10.2307/1088714 . JSTOR 1088714 . Elliott, T. G. (1991). "Eusebian Frauds in the "Vita Constantini" ". Phoenix . 45 (2): 162– 171. doi : 10.2307/1088553 . JSTOR 1088553 . Elliott, T. G. (1996). The Christianity of Constantine the Great . Scranton, Pennsylvania: University of Scranton Press. ISBN 0-940866-59-5 . Fowden, Garth (1988). "Between Pagans and Christians". Journal of Roman Studies . 78 : 173– 182. doi : 10.2307/301456 . JSTOR 301456 . S2CID 163374397 . Fowden, Garth (1994). "The Last Days of Constantine: Oppositional Versions and their Influence". Journal of Roman Studies . 84 : 146– 170. doi : 10.2307/300874 . JSTOR 300874 . S2CID 161959828 . Fubini, Riccardo (1996). "Humanism and Truth: Valla Writes Against the Donation of Constantine". Journal of the History of Ideas . 57 : 79– 86. doi : 10.1353/jhi.1996.0004 . S2CID 170927536 . Gibbon, Edward (1952) [1789]. Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire . Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. in 2 volumes. Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). How Rome Fell . Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-13719-4 . Grant, Robert M. (1975). "Religion and Politics at the Council at Nicaea". The Journal of Religion . 55 : 1– 12. doi : 10.1086/486406 . S2CID 170410226 . Guthrie, Patrick (1966). "The Execution of Crispus". Phoenix . 20 (4): 325– 331. doi : 10.2307/1087057 . JSTOR 1087057 . Helgeland, John (1974). "Christians and the Roman Army A.D. 173–337". Church History . 43 (2): 149– 163. doi : 10.2307/3163949 . JSTOR 3163949 . S2CID 162376477 . Jones, A. H. M. ; J. R. Martindale & J. Morris (1971). Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire . Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-07233-6 . Jordan, David P. (1969). "Gibbon's "Age of Constantine" and the Fall of Rome". History and Theory . 8 (1): 71– 96. doi : 10.2307/2504190 . JSTOR 2504190 . Kazhdan, Alexander P. , ed. (1991). Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium . Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6 . Jones, A. H. M. (1978) [1948]. Constantine and the Conversion of Europe . Buffalo: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-6369-4 . Lenski, Noel; et al. (2006). The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine . New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-52157-4 . Lieu, Samuel N. C. ; Montserrat, Dominic (1996). From Constantine to Julian: Pagan and Byzantine Views; A Source History . New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-09335-4 . MacKay, Christopher S. (1999). "Lactantius and the Succession to Diocletian". Classical Philology . 94 (2): 198– 209. doi : 10.1086/449431 . S2CID 161141658 . MacMullen, Ramsay (1969). Constantine . New York: Dial Press. ISBN 0-7099-4685-6 . Mattingly, David . An Imperial Possession: Britain in the Roman Empire . London: Penguin, 2007. ISBN 978-0-14-014822-0 McLay, Denis (2015), "An Examination of the Role of Ossius, Bishop of Córdoba, in the Arian Controversy" , Dissertation – Durham University Nicholson, Oliver (2000). "Constantine's Vision of the Ecross". Vigiliae Christianae . 54 (3): 309– 323. doi : 10.1163/157007200X00189 . Odahl, Charles M. (2001). Constantine and the Christian Empire . London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-17485-5 . Pears, Edwin (1909). "The Campaign against Paganism A.D. 824". The English Historical Review . XXIV (XCIII): 1– 17. doi : 10.1093/ehr/XXIV.XCIII.1 . Vaudour, Catherine (1984). "La céramique normande". Études Normandes . 33 (2): 79– 106. doi : 10.3406/etnor.1984.2597 . Pohlsander, Hans (2004a). The Emperor Constantine . London & New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-31937-4 . Paperback ISBN 0-415-31938-2 Pohlsander, Hans (2004b). "Constantine I (306–337)" . De Imperatoribus Romanis . Archived from the original on 2 April 2022. Potter, David S. (2004). The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395 (Hardcover ed.). New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10057-7 . Paperback ISBN 0-415-10058-5 Rees, Roger (2002). Layers of Loyalty in Latin Panegyric . doi : 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199249183.001.0001 . ISBN 978-0-19-924918-3 . Rodgers, Barbara Saylor (1989). "The Metamorphosis of Constantine". The Classical Quarterly . 39 : 233– 246. doi : 10.1017/S0009838800040611 . S2CID 170720156 . Scheidel, Walter. "The Monetary Systems of the Han and Roman Empires". In Scheidel, ed., Rome and China: Comparative Perspectives on Ancient World Empires . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010, ISBN 978-0-19-975835-7 Seidel, Linda (1976). "Constantine 'and' Charlemagne". Gesta . 15 (1/2): 237– 239. doi : 10.2307/766771 . JSTOR 766771 . S2CID 193434433 . Southern, Pat. (2001). The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine . New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-23944-3 . Storch, Rudolph H. (1971). "The 'Eusebian Constantine' ". Church History . 40 (2): 145– 155. doi : 10.2307/3162367 . JSTOR 3162367 . S2CID 162937055 . Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society . Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-2630-6 . Udoh, Fabian E. "Quand notre monde est devenu chretien", review, Theological Studies , June 2008 Veyne, Paul . L'Empire Gréco-Romain , Paris: Seuil, 2005. ISBN 2-02-057798-4 Veyne, Paul . Quand notre monde est devenu chrétien , Paris: Albin Michel, 2007. ISBN 978-2-226-17609-7 Warmington, Brian (1999). "Some Constantinian References in Ammianus" . In Drijvers, J.W. (ed.). The Late Roman World and its Historian: Interpreting Ammianus Marcellinus . Routledge. pp. 166– 167. ISBN 0-415-20271-X . Weiss, Peter (2003). "The vision of Constantine". Journal of Roman Archaeology . 16 : 237– 259. doi : 10.1017/S1047759400013088 . S2CID 162396067 . Wiemer, Hans-Ulrich (1994). "Libanius on Constantine". The Classical Quarterly . 44 (2): 511– 524. doi : 10.1017/S0009838800043962 . S2CID 170876695 . Wienand, Johannes (2012). Der Kaiser als Sieger . doi : 10.1524/9783050059044 . ISBN 978-3-05-005904-4 . Wienand, Johannes (ed.). Contested Monarchy. Integrating the Roman Empire in the Fourth Century AD . Oxford: Oxford University Press 2015. Williams, Stephen (1997). Diocletian and the Roman Recovery . New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-91827-8 . Woods, David (1998). "On the Death of the Empress Fausta" . Greece and Rome . 45 : 70– 86. doi : 10.1093/gr/45.1.70 . Woods, D. (1997). "Where Did Constantine I Die?". The Journal of Theological Studies . 48 (2): 531– 535. doi : 10.1093/jts/48.2.531 . Wright, David H. (1987). "The True Face of Constantine the Great". Dumbarton Oaks Papers . 41 : 493– 507. doi : 10.2307/1291584 . JSTOR 1291584 . Young, Frances M. (2006). "Prelude: Jesus Christ, Foundation of Christianity". In Mitchell, Margaret M.; Young, Frances M. (eds.). Origins to Constantine . The Cambridge History of Christianity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1– 34. ISBN 978-1-107-42361-9 . Further reading Arjava, Antii. Women and Law in Late Antiquity . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. ISBN 0-19-815233-7 Barbero, Alessandro (2016). Costantino il vincitore [Constantine the victor]. Rome: Salerno, ISBN 978-88-6973-138-9 . Baynes, Norman H. (1930). Constantine the Great and the Christian Church . London: Milford. Burckhardt, Jacob (1949). The Age of Constantine the Great . London: Routledge. Cameron, Averil (1993). The later Roman empire: AD 284–430 . London: Fontana Press. ISBN 978-0-00-686172-0 . Cowan, Ross (2016). Milvian Bridge AD 312: Constantine's Battle for Empire and Faith . Oxford: Osprey Publishing. Demandt, Alexander ; Engemann, Josef (eds) (2006). Konstantin der Große. Geschichte – Archäologie – Rezeption [Constantine the Great. History – Archaeology – Reception]. Trier: Rheinisches Landesmuseum, ISBN 3-923319-67-3 . Doležal, Stanislav (2022). The Reign of Constantine, 306–337: Continuity and Change in the Late Roman Empire. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan. Eadie, John W., ed. (1971). The conversion of Constantine . New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. ISBN 978-0-03-083645-9 . Fourlas, Benjamin (2020). "St Constantine and the Army of Heroic Men Raised by Tiberius II Constantine in 574/575. Some Thoughts on the Historical Significance of the Early Byzantine Silver Hoard at Karlsruhe". Jahrbuch des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums 62, 2015 [published 2020], 341–375. doi : 10.11588/jrgzm.2015.1.77142 Girardet, Klaus Martin (2010). Der Kaiser und sein Gott. Das Christentum im Denken und in der Religionspolitik Konstantins des Großen [The Emperor and his God. Christianity in the Thought and Religious Policy of Constantine the Great]. Berlin/New York: De Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-022788-8 . Goltz, Andreas; Schlange-Schöningen, Heinrich (eds) (2008). Konstantin der Große. Das Bild des Kaisers im Wandel der Zeiten [Constantine the Great. The image of the emperor through the ages]. Köln: Böhlau, ISBN 978-3-412-20192-0 . Harries, Jill. Law and Empire in Late Antiquity . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004. Hardcover ISBN 0-521-41087-8 Paperback ISBN 0-521-42273-6 Hartley, Elizabeth. Constantine the Great: York's Roman Emperor . York: Lund Humphries, 2004. ISBN 978-0-85331-928-3 . Heather, Peter J. " Foedera and Foederati of the Fourth Century." In From Roman Provinces to Medieval Kingdoms , edited by Thomas F. X. Noble, 292–308. New York: Routledge, 2006. Hardcover ISBN 0-415-32741-5 Paperback ISBN 0-415-32742-3 Leithart, Peter J. Defending Constantine: The Twilight of an Empire and the Dawn of Christendom. Downers Grove: IL, InterVarsity Press 2010 MacMullen, Ramsay. Christianizing the Roman Empire A.D. 100–400 . New Haven, Connecticut; London: Yale University Press, 1984. ISBN 978-0-300-03642-8 MacMullen, Ramsay. Christianity and Paganism in the Fourth to Eighth Centuries . New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-300-07148-5 Pelikán, Jaroslav (1987). The excellent empire: the fall of Rome and the triumph of the church . San Francisco: Harper & Row. ISBN 978-0-06-254636-4 . Velikov, Yuliyan (2013). Imperator et Sacerdos . Veliko Turnovo University Press. ISBN 978-954-524-932-7 (in Bulgarian) External links Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Complete chronological list of Constantine's extant writings (archived 19 February 2013) Firth, John B. "Constantine the Great, the Reorganisation of the Empire and the Triumph of the Church" . Archived from the original on 15 March 2012 . Retrieved 19 February 2016 . Letters of Constantine: Book 1 , Book 2 , & Book 3 Encyclopædia Britannica, Constantine I Henry Stuart Jones (1911). " Constantine (emperors) ". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica . 6. (11th ed.), Cambridge University Press. pp. 988–992. Charles George Herbermann and Georg Grupp (1908). " Constantine the Great ". In Catholic Encyclopedia . 4. New York: Robert Appleton Company. BBC North Yorkshire's site on Constantine the Great Constantine's time in York on the 'History of York' Commemorations Roman Legionary AD 284–337: The Age of Diocletian and Constantine the Great Milvian Bridge AD 312: Constantine's Battle for Empire and Faith Constantine the Great Constantinian dynasty Born: 27 February 272 Died: 22 May 337 Regnal titles Preceded by Constantius Chlorus Roman emperor 306–337 With: Galerius , Severus II , Maxentius , Maximian , Licinius , Maximinus II , Valerius Valens & Martinian Succeeded by Constantine II Constantius II Constans Political offices Preceded by Constantius Chlorus Galerius Roman consul 307 with Maximian Succeeded by Diocletian Galerius Preceded by Galerius Maximinus Roman consul II–III 312–313 with Licinius Maximinus Succeeded by C. Ceionius Rufius Volusianus Petronius Annianus Preceded by C. 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Diadumenian ) Elagabalus Severus Alexander Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus (w. Diadumenian ) Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–284 Maximinus I Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip I (w. Philip II ) Decius (w. Herennius Etruscus ) Trebonianus Gallus (w. Hostilian & Volusianus ) Aemilianus Silbannacus (?) Valerian Gallienus (w. Saloninus ) Claudius II Quintillus Aurelian Tacitus Florianus Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Maximinus I Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip I (w. Philip II ) Decius (w. Herennius Etruscus ) Trebonianus Gallus (w. Hostilian & Volusianus ) Aemilianus Silbannacus (?) Valerian Gallienus (w. Saloninus ) Claudius II Quintillus Aurelian Tacitus Florianus Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Later Roman Empire 284–641 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus II Constantine I Maxentius Licinius Maximinus II Valerius Valens Martinian Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Nepotianus Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I Valens Procopius Gratian Theodosius I Valentinian II Magnus Maximus (w. Victor ) Eugenius Western Empire 395–476 Honorius Constantine III (w. Constans II ) Priscus Attalus Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Severus III Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern Empire 395–641 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus (w. Marcus ) Anastasius I Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice (w. Theodosius ) Phocas Heraclius Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus II Constantine I Maxentius Licinius Maximinus II Valerius Valens Martinian Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Nepotianus Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I Valens Procopius Gratian Theodosius I Valentinian II Magnus Maximus (w. Victor ) Eugenius Western Empire 395–476 Honorius Constantine III (w. Constans II ) Priscus Attalus Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Severus III Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Honorius Constantine III (w. Constans II ) Priscus Attalus Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Severus III Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern Empire 395–641 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus (w. Marcus ) Anastasius I Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice (w. Theodosius ) Phocas Heraclius Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus (w. Marcus ) Anastasius I Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice (w. Theodosius ) Phocas Heraclius Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 641–1453 Constantine III Heraclonas (w. Tiberius ) Constans II Constantine IV (w. Heraclius & Tiberius ) Justinian II Leontius Tiberius III Justinian II (w. Tiberius ) Philippicus Anastasius II Theodosius III Leo III Constantine V Artabasdos (w. Nikephoros ) Leo IV Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe (w. Theophylact & Staurakios ) Leo V (w. Constantine ) Michael II Theophilos (w. Constantine ) Michael III (w. Thekla ) Basil I (w. Constantine ) Leo VI Alexander Constantine VII Romanos I Lekapenos (w. Christopher , Romanos (?), Stephen & Constantine Lekapenos ) Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoe Romanos III Argyros Michael IV Michael V Constantine IX Monomachos Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Eudokia Makrembolitissa Romanos IV Diogenes (w. Leo & Nikephoros ) Michael VII Doukas (w. Andronikos , Konstantios & Constantine Doukas ) Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos (w. Constantine Doukas ) John II Komnenos (w. Alexios ) Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos (w. John ) Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Alexios V Doukas Theodore I Laskaris (w. Nicholas ) John III Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos (w. Irene ) Michael IX Palaiologos Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos (w. Anna ) John VI Kantakouzenos (w. Matthew ) Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos (w. Andronikos V ) Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Constantine III Heraclonas (w. Tiberius ) Constans II Constantine IV (w. Heraclius & Tiberius ) Justinian II Leontius Tiberius III Justinian II (w. Tiberius ) Philippicus Anastasius II Theodosius III Leo III Constantine V Artabasdos (w. Nikephoros ) Leo IV Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe (w. Theophylact & Staurakios ) Leo V (w. Constantine ) Michael II Theophilos (w. Constantine ) Michael III (w. Thekla ) Basil I (w. Constantine ) Leo VI Alexander Constantine VII Romanos I Lekapenos (w. Christopher , Romanos (?), Stephen & Constantine Lekapenos ) Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoe Romanos III Argyros Michael IV Michael V Constantine IX Monomachos Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Eudokia Makrembolitissa Romanos IV Diogenes (w. Leo & Nikephoros ) Michael VII Doukas (w. Andronikos , Konstantios & Constantine Doukas ) Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos (w. Constantine Doukas ) John II Komnenos (w. Alexios ) Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos (w. John ) Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Alexios V Doukas Theodore I Laskaris (w. Nicholas ) John III Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos (w. Irene ) Michael IX Palaiologos Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos (w. Anna ) John VI Kantakouzenos (w. Matthew ) Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos (w. Andronikos V ) Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos See also Gallic emperors (260–274) Palmyrene emperors (271–273) Britannic emperors (286–296) Trapezuntine emperors (1204–1461) Thessalonian emperors (1224–1242) Empresses Augustae Usurpers Classical Eastern Gallic emperors (260–274) Palmyrene emperors (271–273) Britannic emperors (286–296) Trapezuntine emperors (1204–1461) Thessalonian emperors (1224–1242) Empresses Augustae Usurpers Classical Eastern Classical Eastern Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, underlining indicates an emperor variously regarded as either legitimate or a usurper Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF 2 3 4 5 6 7 GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF 2 3 4 5 6 7 2 3 4 5 6 7 GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Japan Italy Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Croatia Greece Korea Sweden Poland Vatican Israel Finland Catalonia Belgium United States France BnF data Japan Italy Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Croatia Greece Korea Sweden Poland Vatican Israel Finland Catalonia Belgium Artists ULAN ULAN People Trove Deutsche Biographie DDB Trove Deutsche Biographie DDB Other IdRef Open Library SNAC Te Papa (New Zealand) RISM Yale LUX IdRef Open Library SNAC Te Papa (New Zealand) RISM Yale LUX Constantine the Great 272 births 337 deaths 3rd-century births 4th-century Christian saints 4th-century Roman consuls 4th-century Roman emperors Ancient Romans in Britain Angelic visionaries Burials at the Church of the Holy Apostles Byzantine royal saints City founders Constantinian dynasty Converts to Christianity from ancient Roman religions Deified Roman emperors Eastern Orthodox saints Filicides Flavii Gothicus Maximus Illyrian emperors Illyrian people Participants in the First Council of Nicaea People from Niš Sons of Roman emperors Tetrarchy Valerii Articles containing Latin-language text Pages with Classical Latin IPA Articles containing Koine Greek-language text Articles with German-language sources (de) Webarchive template wayback links CS1 Italian-language sources (it) CS1 Greek-language sources (el) Articles containing German-language text Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages Use British English from July 2022 All Wikipedia articles written in British English Use dmy dates from September 2025 Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2021 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from July 2024 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images All articles lacking reliable references Articles lacking reliable references from May 2025 Articles containing French-language text Articles containing Welsh-language text CS1 Latin-language sources (la) CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 CS1 errors: ISBN date CS1 maint: ref duplicates default Commons link is locally defined CS1: unfit URL This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 08:54 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History Toggle History subsection 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 2 Collaborative editing Toggle Collaborative editing subsection 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 3 Policies and content Toggle Policies and content subsection 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 4 Governance Toggle Governance subsection 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 5 Community Toggle Community subsection 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 6 Language editions Toggle Language editions subsection 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 7 Reception Toggle Reception subsection 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 8 Operation Toggle Operation subsection 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 9 Access to content Toggle Access to content subsection 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 10 Cultural influence Toggle Cultural influence subsection 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 11 Related projects 12 See also 13 Notes 14 References Toggle References subsection 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 15 Further reading Toggle Further reading subsection 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 16 External links Wikipedia Acèh Адыгэбзэ Адыгабзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ अंगिका Ænglisc Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés ܐܪܡܝܐ Արեւմտահայերէն Armãneashti Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Atikamekw अवधी Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali Bamanankan বাংলা Banjar 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Bislama Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Chamoru Chavacano de Zamboanga Chi-Chewa ChiShona ChiTumbuka Corsu Cymraeg Dagbanli Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deitsch Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Dolnoserbski डोटेली ཇོང་ཁ Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Fulfulde Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego ГӀалгӀай 贛語 Gĩkũyũ گیلکی ગુજરાતી 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni Gungbe 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî Хальмг 한국어 Hausa Hawaiʻi Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Ido Igbo Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut Iñupiatun Ирон IsiXhosa IsiZulu Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kernowek Ikirundi Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Кырык мары Ladin Ladino Лакку ລາວ Latgaļu Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Lingua Franca Nova Livvinkarjala La .lojban. 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.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}} Screenshot Wikipedia's desktop homepage Type of site Online encyclopedia Available in 342 languages Headquarters San Francisco , California, US Country of origin United States Owner Wikimedia Foundation (since 2003) Created by .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger URL wikipedia .org Commercial No Registration Optional [ a ] Users 126 million (as of January 16, 2026) Launched January 15, 2001 (25 years ago) ( 2001-01-15 ) Current status Active Content license CC Attribution / Share-Alike 4.0 [ b ] Written in PHP OCLC number 52075003 Wikipedia [ c ] is a free online encyclopedia written and maintained by a community of volunteers , known as Wikipedians , through open collaboration and the wiki software MediaWiki . Founded by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger in 2001, Wikipedia has been hosted since 2003 by the Wikimedia Foundation , an American nonprofit organization funded mainly by donations from readers. [ 1 ] Wikipedia is the largest and most-read reference work in history. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] Initially available only in English , Wikipedia exists in over 340 languages and is one of the world's most visited websites . The English Wikipedia , with over 7 million articles , remains the largest of the editions, which together comprise more than 66 million articles and attract more than 1.5 billion unique device visits and 13 million edits per month (about five edits per second on average) as of April 2024 [update] . [ W 1 ] As of December 2025 [update] , over 25% of Wikipedia's traffic comes from the United States, while Japan accounts for nearly 7%, and the United Kingdom, Germany, and Russia each represent around 5%. [ 4 ] Wikipedia has been praised for enabling the democratization of knowledge , its extensive coverage, unique structure, and culture. Wikipedia has been censored by some national governments, ranging from specific pages to the entire site, sometimes due to its criticism of the government or by content otherwise considered blasphemous. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Although Wikipedia's volunteer editors have written extensively on a wide variety of topics, the encyclopedia has also been criticized for systemic bias, such as a gender bias against women and a geographical bias against the Global South . [ 7 ] [ 8 ] While the reliability of Wikipedia was frequently criticized in the 2000s, it has improved over time, receiving greater praise from the late 2010s onward. [ 2 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ] Articles on breaking news are often accessed as sources for up-to-date information about those events. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] History Nupedia Various collaborative online encyclopedias were attempted before the start of Wikipedia, but with limited success. [ 13 ] Wikipedia began as a complementary project for Nupedia, a free online English-language encyclopedia project whose articles were written by experts and reviewed under a formal process. [ 14 ] It was founded on March 9, 2000, under the ownership of Bomis , a web portal company. Its main figures were Bomis CEO Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger , editor-in-chief for Nupedia and later Wikipedia. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] Nupedia was initially licensed under its own Nupedia Open Content License, but before Wikipedia was founded, Nupedia switched to the GNU Free Documentation License at the urging of Richard Stallman . [ W 2 ] Wales is credited with defining the goal of making a publicly editable encyclopedia, [ 17 ] while Sanger is credited with the strategy of using a wiki to reach that goal. [ 18 ] On January 10, 2001, Sanger proposed on the Nupedia mailing list to create a wiki as a "feeder" project for Nupedia. [ W 3 ] Launch and growth Wikipedia was launched on January 15, 2001 (referred to as "Wikipedia Day"), [ 19 ] as a single English language edition with the domain name www.wikipedia.com , [ W 4 ] and was announced by Sanger on the Nupedia mailing list. [ 17 ] The name, proposed by Sanger to forestall any potential damage to the Nupedia name, [ 20 ] originated from a blend of the words wiki and encyclopedia . [ 21 ] [ 22 ] Its integral policy of " neutral point of view " arose within its first year. [ 23 ] Otherwise, there were initially relatively few rules, and it operated independently of Nupedia. [ 17 ] Bomis originally intended for it to be a for-profit business. [ 24 ] Wikipedia gained early contributors from Nupedia, Slashdot postings, and web search engine indexing. Language editions were created beginning in March 2001, with a total of 161 in use by the end of 2004. [ W 5 ] [ W 6 ] Nupedia and Wikipedia coexisted until the former's servers were taken down permanently in 2003, and its text was incorporated into Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia passed the mark of 2 million articles on September 9, 2007, making it the largest encyclopedia ever assembled, surpassing the Yongle Encyclopedia made in China during the Ming dynasty in 1408, which had held the record for almost 600 years. [ 25 ] Due to fears of commercial advertising and lack of control, users of the Spanish Wikipedia forked from Wikipedia to create Enciclopedia Libre in February 2002. [ W 7 ] Wales then announced that Wikipedia would not display advertisements, and changed Wikipedia's domain from wikipedia.com to wikipedia.org . [ 26 ] [ W 8 ] After an early period of exponential growth, [ 27 ] the growth rate of the English Wikipedia in terms of the numbers of new articles and of editors appears to have peaked around early 2007. [ 28 ] The edition reached 3 million articles in August 2009. Around 1,800 articles were added daily to the encyclopedia in 2006; by 2013 that average was roughly 800. [ W 9 ] A team at the Palo Alto Research Center attributed this slowing of growth to "increased coordination and overhead costs, exclusion of newcomers, and resistance to new edits". [ 27 ] Others suggested that the growth flattened naturally because articles that could be called " low-hanging fruit "—topics that clearly merit an article—had already been created and built up extensively. [ 29 ] [ 30 ] [ 31 ] In November 2009, a researcher at the Rey Juan Carlos University in Madrid, Spain, found that the English Wikipedia had lost 49,000 editors during the first three months of 2009; in comparison, it lost only 4,900 editors during the same period in 2008. [ 32 ] [ 33 ] The Wall Street Journal cited the array of rules applied to editing and disputes related to such content among the reasons for this trend. [ 34 ] Wales disputed these claims in 2009, denying the decline and questioning the study's methodology. [ 35 ] Two years later, in 2011, he acknowledged a slight decline, noting a decrease from "a little more than 36,000 writers" in June 2010 to 35,800 in June 2011. In the same interview, he also claimed the number of editors was "stable and sustainable". [ 36 ] A 2013 MIT Technology Review article, "The Decline of Wikipedia", questioned this claim, reporting that since 2007 Wikipedia had lost a third of its volunteer editors, and suggesting that those remaining had focused increasingly on minutiae. [ 37 ] In July 2012, The Atlantic reported that the number of administrators was also in decline. [ 38 ] In November 2013, New York magazine stated, "Wikipedia, the sixth-most-used website, is facing an internal crisis." [ 39 ] The number of active English Wikipedia editors has since remained steady after a long period of decline. [ 40 ] [ 41 ] On January 20, 2014, Subodh Varma reporting for The Economic Times indicated that not only had Wikipedia's growth stalled, it "had lost nearly ten percent of its page views last year. There was a decline of about 2 billion between December 2012 and December 2013. Its most popular versions are leading the slide: page-views of the English Wikipedia declined by twelve percent, those of German version slid by 17 percent and the Japanese version lost 9 percent." [ 42 ] Varma added, "While Wikipedia's managers think that this could be due to errors in counting, other experts feel that Google's Knowledge Graphs project launched last year may be gobbling up Wikipedia users." [ 42 ] When contacted on this matter, Clay Shirky , associate professor at New York University and fellow at Harvard's Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society said that he suspected much of the page-view decline was due to Knowledge Graphs, stating, "If you can get your question answered from the search page, you don't need to click [any further]." [ 42 ] By the end of December 2016, Wikipedia was ranked the fifth most popular website globally. [ 43 ] As of January 2023, 55,791 English Wikipedia articles have been cited 92,300 times in scholarly journals, [ 44 ] from which cloud computing was the most cited page. [ 45 ] Sister projects Wikipedia has spawned several sister projects, which are also wikis run by the Wikimedia Foundation . These other Wikimedia projects include Wiktionary , a dictionary project launched in December 2002, [ W 10 ] Wikiquote , a collection of quotations created a week after Wikimedia launched, [ 46 ] Wikibooks , a collection of collaboratively written free textbooks and annotated texts, [ W 11 ] Wikimedia Commons , a site devoted to free-knowledge multimedia, [ W 12 ] Wikinews , for collaborative journalism, [ W 13 ] and Wikiversity , a project for the creation of free learning materials and the provision of online learning activities. [ W 14 ] Another sister project of Wikipedia, Wikispecies , is a catalog of all species, but is not open for public editing. [ 47 ] In 2012, Wikivoyage , an editable travel guide, [ 48 ] and Wikidata , an editable knowledge base, launched. [ W 15 ] Milestones In January 2007, Wikipedia first became one of the ten most popular websites in the United States, according to Comscore Networks. [ 49 ] With 42.9 million unique visitors, it was ranked ninth, surpassing The New York Times (No. 10) and Apple (No. 11). [ 49 ] This marked a significant increase over January 2006, when Wikipedia ranked 33rd, with around 18.3 million unique visitors. [ 50 ] In 2014, it received 8 billion page views every month. [ W 16 ] On February 9, 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia had 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, "according to the ratings firm comScore". [ 51 ] As of March 2023 [update] , it ranked sixth in popularity, according to Similarweb . [ 52 ] Jeff Loveland and Joseph Reagle argue that, in process, Wikipedia follows a long tradition of historical encyclopedias that have accumulated improvements piecemeal through " stigmergic accumulation". [ 53 ] [ 54 ] On January 18, 2012, the English Wikipedia participated in a series of coordinated protests against two proposed laws in the United States Congress —the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA) and the PROTECT IP Act (PIPA)—by blacking out its pages for 24 hours . [ 55 ] More than 162 million people viewed the blackout explanation page that temporarily replaced its content. [ 56 ] [ W 17 ] In January 2013, 274301 Wikipedia , an asteroid , was named after Wikipedia; [ 57 ] in October 2014, Wikipedia was honored with the Wikipedia Monument ; [ 58 ] and, in July 2015, 106 of the 7,473 700-page volumes of Wikipedia became available as Print Wikipedia . [ 59 ] In April 2019, an Israeli lunar lander , Beresheet , crash landed on the surface of the Moon carrying a copy of nearly all of the English Wikipedia engraved on thin nickel plates; experts say the plates likely survived the crash. [ 60 ] [ 61 ] In June 2019, scientists reported that all 16 GB of article text from the English Wikipedia had been encoded into synthetic DNA . [ 62 ] On January 18, 2023, Wikipedia debuted a new website redesign, called " Vector 2022 ". [ 63 ] [ 64 ] It featured a redesigned menu bar , moving the table of contents to the left as a sidebar , and numerous changes in the locations of buttons like the language selection tool. [ 64 ] [ W 18 ] The update initially received backlash, most notably when editors of the Swahili Wikipedia unanimously voted to revert the changes. [ 63 ] [ 65 ] Both Sanger and Wales have given public interviews in late 2025 about their reflections about the status and state of Wikipedia leading up to its 25 years of operation on January 15, 2026; Wales appeared on the PBS television news show GZERO World interviewed by Ian Bremmer [ 66 ] and Sanger has appeared on the FOX news network interviewed by Ashley Rindsberg . [ 67 ] Wales's book The Seven Rules of Trust was published in October 2025 by Penguin Random House . It was described by the publisher as a "sweeping reflection on the global crisis of credibility and knowledge" with the book examining the "rules of trust" that enabled the growth and success of Wikipedia. [ 68 ] Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views Since January 2024, the Wikimedia Foundation has reported a roughly 50 percent increase in bandwidth use from downloads of multimedia content across its projects. According to the foundation, this growth is largely attributed to automated programs, or "scraper" bots, that collect large volumes of data from Wikimedia sites for use in training large language models and related applications. [ 69 ] In October 2025, the Wikimedia Foundation reported an estimated 8 percent decline in traffic as compared to the same months in 2024 in human page views. They speculate it reflects the use of generative AI and social media on how people tend to search for information. [ 70 ] [ 71 ] Collaborative editing Restrictions Due to Wikipedia's increasing popularity, some editions, including the English version, have introduced editing restrictions for certain cases. For instance, on the English Wikipedia and some other language editions, only users with 10 edits that have an account that is four days old may create a new article. [ W 19 ] On the English Wikipedia, among others, particularly controversial, sensitive, or vandalism-prone pages have been protected to varying degrees. [ 72 ] A frequently vandalized article can be "semi-protected" or "extended confirmed protected", meaning that only "autoconfirmed" or "extended confirmed" editors can modify it. [ 73 ] A particularly contentious article may be locked so that only administrators can make changes. [ W 20 ] A 2021 article in the Columbia Journalism Review identified Wikipedia's page-protection policies as "perhaps the most important" means at its disposal to "regulate its market of ideas". [ 74 ] Wikipedia has delegated some functions to bots . Such algorithmic governance has an ease of implementation and scaling, though the automated rejection of edits may have contributed to a downturn in active Wikipedia editors. [ 75 ] Bots must be approved by the community before their tasks are implemented. [ 76 ] In certain cases, all editors are allowed to submit modifications, but review is required for some editors, depending on certain conditions. For example, the German Wikipedia maintains "stable versions" of articles which have passed certain reviews. [ W 21 ] Following protracted trials and community discussion, the English Wikipedia introduced the "pending changes" system in December 2012. [ 77 ] Under this system, new and unregistered users' edits to certain controversial or vandalism-prone articles are reviewed by established users before they are published. [ 78 ] However, restrictions on editing may reduce the editor engagement as well as efforts to diversify the editing community. [ 79 ] Articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict are placed under extended-confirmed protection. [ 80 ] Editors also can make only one revert per day across the entire field and can be banned from editing related articles. These restrictions were introduced in 2008. [ 81 ] In January 2025, the Arbitration Committee introduced the "balanced editing restriction", which requires sanctioned users to devote only a third of their edits to articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict even when no misconduct rules have been violated. [ 82 ] [ 83 ] Review of changes Although changes are not systematically reviewed, Wikipedia's software provides tools allowing anyone to review changes made by others. Each article's History page links to each revision. [ e ] [ 84 ] On most articles, anyone can view the latest changes and undo others' revisions by clicking a link on the article's History page. Registered users may maintain a "watchlist" of articles that interest them so they can be notified of changes. [ W 22 ] "New pages patrol" is a process where newly created articles are checked for obvious problems. [ W 23 ] In 2003, economics PhD student Andrea Ciffolilli argued that the low transaction costs of participating in a wiki created a catalyst for collaborative development, and that features such as allowing easy access to past versions of a page favored "creative construction" over "creative destruction". [ 85 ] Vandalism Any change that deliberately compromises Wikipedia's integrity is considered vandalism. The most common and obvious types of vandalism include additions of obscenities and crude humor; it can also include advertising and other types of spam. [ 86 ] Sometimes editors commit vandalism by removing content or entirely blanking a given page. Less common types of vandalism, such as the deliberate addition of plausible but false information, can be more difficult to detect. Vandals can introduce irrelevant formatting, modify page semantics such as the page's title or categorization, manipulate the article's underlying code, or use images disruptively. [ W 24 ] Obvious vandalism is generally easy to remove from Wikipedia articles; the median time to detect and fix it is a few minutes. [ 87 ] [ 88 ] However, some vandalism takes much longer to detect and repair. [ 89 ] In the Seigenthaler biography incident , an anonymous editor introduced false information into the biography of American political figure John Seigenthaler in May 2005, falsely presenting him as a suspect in the assassination of John F. Kennedy . [ 89 ] It remained uncorrected for four months. [ 89 ] Seigenthaler, the founding editorial director of USA Today and founder of the Freedom Forum First Amendment Center at Vanderbilt University , called Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales and asked whether he had any way of knowing who contributed the misinformation. Wales said he did not, although the perpetrator was eventually traced. [ 90 ] [ 91 ] After the incident, Seigenthaler described Wikipedia as "a flawed and irresponsible research tool". [ 89 ] The incident led to policy changes at Wikipedia for tightening up the verifiability of biographical articles of living people. [ 92 ] Disputes and edit warring Wikipedia editors often have disagreements regarding content, which can be discussed on article Talk pages. Disputes may result in repeated competing changes to an article, known as "edit warring". [ W 25 ] [ 93 ] It is widely seen as a resource-consuming scenario where no useful knowledge is added, [ 94 ] and criticized as creating a competitive [ 95 ] and conflict-based editing culture associated with traditional masculine gender roles . [ 96 ] [ 97 ] Research has focused on, for example, impoliteness of disputes, [ 98 ] [ 99 ] the influence of rival editing camps, [ 100 ] [ 101 ] the conversational structure, [ 102 ] and the shift in conflicts to a focus on sources. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] Taha Yasseri of the University of Oxford examined editing conflicts and their resolution in a 2013 study. [ 105 ] [ 106 ] Yasseri contended that simple reverts or "undo" operations were not the most significant measure of counterproductive work behavior at Wikipedia. He relied instead on "mutually reverting edit pairs", where one editor reverts the edit of another editor who then, in sequence, returns to revert the first editor. The results were tabulated for several language versions of Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia's three largest conflict rates belonged to the articles George W. Bush , anarchism , and Muhammad . [ 106 ] By comparison, for the German Wikipedia, the three largest conflict rates at the time of the study were for the articles covering Croatia , Scientology , and 9/11 conspiracy theories . [ 106 ] In 2020, researchers identified other measures of editor behaviors, beyond mutual reverts, to identify editing conflicts across Wikipedia. [ 104 ] Editors also debate the deletion of articles on Wikipedia , with roughly 500,000 such debates since Wikipedia's inception. Once an article is nominated for deletion, the dispute is typically determined by initial votes (to keep or delete) and by reference to topic-specific notability policies. [ 107 ] Policies and content External videos Jimmy Wales , The Birth of Wikipedia, 2006, TED talks , 20 minutes Katherine Maher , What Wikipedia Teaches Us About Balancing Truth and Beliefs, 2022, TED talks , 15 minutes Wikipedia is composed of 11 different namespaces , with its articles being present in mainspace . Other namespaces have a prefix before their page title and fulfill various purposes. For example, the project namespace uses the Wikipedia prefix and is used for self-governance related discussions. Most readers are not aware of these other namespaces. [ 108 ] The fundamental principles of the Wikipedia community are embodied in the "Five pillars", while the detailed editorial principles are expressed in numerous policies and guidelines intended to appropriately shape content. [ W 26 ] The five pillars are: Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is written from a neutral point of view Wikipedia is free content that anyone can use, edit, and distribute Wikipedia's editors should treat each other with respect and civility Wikipedia has no firm rules The rules developed by the community are stored in wiki form, and Wikipedia editors write and revise the website's policies and guidelines in accordance with community consensus. [ 109 ] Originally, rules on the non-English editions of Wikipedia were based on a translation of the rules for the English Wikipedia. They have since diverged to some extent. [ W 21 ] Content policies and guidelines According to the rules on the English Wikipedia community, each entry in Wikipedia must be about a topic that is encyclopedic and is not a dictionary entry or dictionary-style. [ W 27 ] A topic should also meet Wikipedia's standards of "notability" , which generally means that the topic has been covered extensively in reliable sources that are independent of the article's subject. [ 110 ] Wikipedia intends to convey only knowledge that is already established and recognized and therefore must not present original research. [ 111 ] Some subjects such as politicians and academics have specialized notability requirements. [ 110 ] Finally, Wikipedia must reflect a neutral point of view. This is accomplished through summarizing reliable sources, using impartial language, and ensuring that multiple points of view are presented based on their prominence. Information must also be verifiable. [ 112 ] Information without citations may be tagged or removed entirely. [ 113 ] This can at times lead to the removal of information which, though valid, is not properly sourced. [ 114 ] As Wikipedia policies changed over time, and became more complex, their number has grown. In 2008, there were 44 policy pages and 248 guideline pages; by 2013, scholars counted 383 policy pages and 449 guideline pages. [ 75 ] Governance Wikipedia's initial anarchy integrated democratic and hierarchical elements over time. [ 115 ] [ 116 ] An article is not considered to be owned by its creator or any other editor, nor by the subject of the article. [ W 28 ] Editors in good standing in the community can request extra user rights , granting them the technical ability to perform certain special actions. Some user rights are granted automatically, such as the autoconfirmed and extended confirmed groups, when thresholds for account age and edits are met. [ 73 ] Administrators Experienced editors can choose to run for " adminship ", [ 117 ] which includes the ability to delete pages or prevent them from being changed in cases of severe vandalism or editorial disputes. [ W 29 ] Administrators are not supposed to enjoy any special privilege in decision-making; instead, their powers are mostly limited to making edits that have project-wide effects and thus are disallowed to ordinary editors, and to implement restrictions intended to prevent disruptive editors from making unproductive edits. [ W 29 ] By 2012, fewer editors were becoming administrators compared to Wikipedia's earlier years, in part because the process of vetting potential administrators had become more rigorous. [ 38 ] In 2022, there was a particularly contentious request for adminship over the candidate's anti-Trump views; ultimately, they were granted adminship. [ 118 ] Dispute resolution Over time, Wikipedia has developed a semi-formal dispute resolution process. To determine community consensus, editors can raise issues at appropriate community forums, seek outside input through third opinion requests, or initiate a more general community discussion known as a "request for comment", [ W 25 ] in which bots add the discussion to a centralized list of discussions, invite editors to participate, and remove the discussion from the list after 30 days. [ W 30 ] However, editors have the discretion to close (and delist) the discussion early or late. If the result of a discussion is not obvious, a closer—an uninvolved editor usually in good standing—may render a verdict from the strength of the arguments presented and then the numbers of arguers on each side. [ 119 ] Wikipedians emphasize that the process is not a vote by referring to statements of opinion in such discussions as "!vote"s, in which the exclamation mark is the symbol for logical negation and pronounced "not". [ 120 ] Wikipedia encourages local resolutions of conflicts, which Jemielniak argues is quite unique in organization studies, though there has been some recent interest in consensus building in the field. [ 121 ] Reagle and Sue Gardner argue that the approaches to consensus building are similar to those used by Quakers . [ 121 ] : 62 A difference from Quaker meetings is the absence of a facilitator in the presence of disagreement, a role played by the clerk in Quaker meetings. [ 121 ] : 83 Arbitration Committee The Arbitration Committee presides over the ultimate dispute resolution process. Although disputes usually arise from a disagreement between two opposing views on how an article should read, the Arbitration Committee explicitly refuses to directly rule on the specific view that should be adopted. [ 122 ] Statistical analyses suggest that the English Wikipedia committee ignores the content of disputes and rather focuses on the way disputes are conducted, [ 123 ] functioning not so much to resolve disputes and make peace between conflicting editors, but to weed out problematic editors while allowing potentially productive editors back in to participate. [ 122 ] Therefore, the committee does not dictate the content of articles, although it sometimes condemns content changes when it deems the new content violates Wikipedia policies (for example, if the new content is considered biased). [ f ] Commonly used solutions include cautions and probations (used in 63% of cases) and banning editors from articles (43%), subject matters (23%), or Wikipedia (16%). [ 122 ] Complete bans from Wikipedia are generally limited to instances of impersonation and antisocial behavior . [ W 31 ] When conduct is not impersonation or anti-social, but rather edit warring and other violations of editing policies, solutions tend to be limited to warnings. [ 122 ] Community Each article and each user of Wikipedia has an associated and dedicated "talk" page. These form the primary communication channel for editors to discuss, coordinate and debate. [ 124 ] Wikipedia's community has been described as cultlike , [ 125 ] although not always with entirely negative connotations. [ 126 ] Its preference for cohesiveness, even if it requires compromise that includes disregard of credentials , has been referred to as " anti-elitism ". [ W 32 ] Wikipedia does not require that its editors and contributors provide identification. [ 127 ] As Wikipedia grew, "Who writes Wikipedia?" became one of the questions frequently asked there. [ 128 ] Jimmy Wales once argued that only "a community ... a dedicated group of a few hundred volunteers" makes the bulk of contributions to Wikipedia and that the project is therefore "much like any traditional organization". [ 129 ] Since Wikipedia relies on volunteer labour, editors frequently focus on topics that interest them. [ 130 ] The English Wikipedia has 7,122,774 articles, 51,074,164 registered editors, and 267,090 active editors. An editor is considered active if they have made one or more edits in the past 30 days. [ W 33 ] Editors who fail to comply with Wikipedia cultural rituals, such as signing talk page comments, may implicitly signal that they are Wikipedia outsiders, increasing the odds that Wikipedia insiders may target or discount their contributions. Becoming a Wikipedia insider involves non-trivial costs: the contributor is expected to learn Wikipedia-specific technological codes, submit to a sometimes convoluted dispute resolution process, and learn a "baffling culture rich with in-jokes and insider references". [ 131 ] Editors who do not log in are in some sense " second-class citizens " on Wikipedia, [ 131 ] as "participants are accredited by members of the wiki community, who have a vested interest in preserving the quality of the work product, on the basis of their ongoing participation", [ 132 ] but the contribution histories of anonymous unregistered editors recognized only by their IP addresses cannot be attributed to a particular editor with certainty. [ 132 ] New editors often struggle to understand Wikipedia's complexity. Experienced editors are encouraged to not "bite" the newcomers in order to create a more welcoming atmosphere. [ 133 ] Research A 2007 study by researchers from Dartmouth College found that "anonymous and infrequent contributors to Wikipedia ... are as reliable a source of knowledge as those contributors who register with the site". [ 134 ] Jimmy Wales stated in 2009 that "[I]t turns out over 50% of all the edits are done by just 0.7% of the users ... 524 people ... And in fact, the most active 2%, which is 1400 people, have done 73.4% of all the edits." [ 129 ] However, Business Insider editor and journalist Henry Blodget showed in 2009 that in a random sample of articles, most Wikipedia content (measured by the amount of contributed text that survives to the latest sampled edit) is created by "outsiders", while most editing and formatting is done by "insiders". [ 129 ] In 2008, a Slate magazine article reported that "one percent of Wikipedia users are responsible for about half of the site's edits." [ 135 ] This method of evaluating contributions was later disputed by Aaron Swartz , who noted that several articles he sampled had large portions of their content (measured by number of characters) contributed by users with low edit counts. [ 136 ] A 2008 study found that Wikipedians were less agreeable, open, and conscientious than others, [ 137 ] although a later commentary pointed out serious flaws, including that the data showed higher openness and that the differences with the control group and the samples were small. [ 138 ] According to a 2009 study, there is "evidence of growing resistance from the Wikipedia community to new content". [ 139 ] Diversity Several studies have shown that most volunteer Wikipedia contributors are male. The results of a Wikimedia Foundation survey in 2008 showed that only 13 percent of Wikipedia editors were female. [ 140 ] Because of this, universities throughout the United States tried to encourage women to become Wikipedia contributors. [ 141 ] Similarly, many of these universities, including Yale and Brown , gave college credit to students who create or edit an article relating to women in science or technology. [ 141 ] Andrew Lih , a professor and scientist, said that the reason he thought the number of male contributors outnumbered the number of females so greatly was because identifying as a woman may expose oneself to "ugly, intimidating behavior". [ 142 ] Data has shown that Africans are underrepresented among Wikipedia editors. [ 143 ] Language editions English (10.7%) Cebuano (9.20%) German (4.70%) French (4.10%) Swedish (4.00%) Dutch (3.30%) Spanish (3.10%) Russian (3.10%) Italian (2.90%) Polish (2.50%) Egyptian Arabic (2.50%) Chinese (2.30%) Japanese (2.20%) Ukrainian (2.10%) Vietnamese (2.00%) Arabic (2.00%) Waray (1.90%) Portuguese (1.90%) Persian (1.60%) Catalan (1.20%) Other (32.7%) There are currently 342 language editions of Wikipedia (also called language versions , or simply Wikipedias ). As of January 2026, the six largest, in order of article count, are the English , Cebuano , German , French , Swedish , and Dutch Wikipedias. [ W 35 ] The second and fifth-largest Wikipedias owe their position to the article-creating bot Lsjbot , which as of 2013 [update] had created about half the articles on the Swedish Wikipedia , and most of the articles in the Cebuano and Waray Wikipedias . The latter are both languages of the Philippines . In addition to the top six, twelve other Wikipedias have more than a million articles each ( Spanish , Russian , Italian , Polish , Egyptian Arabic , Chinese , Japanese , Ukrainian , Vietnamese , Arabic , Waray , and Portuguese ), seven more have over 500,000 articles ( Persian , Catalan , Indonesian , Korean , Chechen , Serbian , and Norwegian ), 44 more have over 100,000, and 82 more have over 10,000. [ W 36 ] [ W 35 ] The largest, the English Wikipedia, has over 7.1 million articles. As of January 2021, [update] the English Wikipedia receives 48% of Wikipedia's cumulative traffic, with the remaining split among the other languages. The top 10 editions represent approximately 85% of the total traffic. [ W 37 ] Most viewed editions of Wikipedia, 2008–2024 Most edited editions of Wikipedia, 2001–2024 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 Since Wikipedia is based on the Web and therefore worldwide, contributors to the same language edition may use different dialects or may come from different countries (as is the case for the English edition). These differences may lead to some conflicts over spelling differences (e.g. colour versus color ) [ W 38 ] or points of view. [ W 39 ] Though the various language editions are held to global policies such as "neutral point of view", they diverge on some points of policy and practice, most notably on whether images that are not licensed freely may be used under a claim of fair use . [ W 40 ] [ 145 ] The content of articles on the same subject can differ significantly between languages, depending on the sources editors use and other factors. [ 146 ] [ 147 ] Jimmy Wales has described Wikipedia as "an effort to create and distribute a free encyclopedia of the highest possible quality to every single person on the planet in their own language". [ W 41 ] Though each language edition functions more or less independently, some efforts are made to supervise them all. They are coordinated in part by Meta-Wiki, the Wikimedia Foundation's wiki devoted to maintaining all its projects (Wikipedia and others). [ W 42 ] For instance, Meta-Wiki provides important statistics on all language editions of Wikipedia, [ W 43 ] and it maintains a list of articles every Wikipedia should have. [ W 44 ] The list concerns basic content by subject: biography, history, geography, society, culture, science, technology, and mathematics. [ W 44 ] It is not rare for articles strongly related to a particular language not to have counterparts in another edition. For example, articles about small towns in the United States might be available only in English, even when they meet the notability criteria of other language Wikipedia projects. [ W 45 ] Translated articles represent only a small portion of articles in most editions, in part because those editions do not allow fully automated translation of articles. Articles available in more than one language may offer "interwiki links", which link to the counterpart articles in other editions. [ 149 ] [ W 46 ] A study published by PLOS One in 2012 also estimated the share of contributions to different editions of Wikipedia from different regions of the world. It reported that the proportion of the edits made from North America was 51% for the English Wikipedia, and 25% for the Simple English Wikipedia . [ 148 ] English Wikipedia editor numbers On March 1, 2014, The Economist , in an article titled "The Future of Wikipedia", cited a trend analysis concerning data published by the Wikimedia Foundation stating that "the number of editors for the English-language version has fallen by a third in seven years." [ 150 ] The attrition rate for active editors in English Wikipedia was cited by The Economist as substantially in contrast to statistics for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia). The Economist reported that the number of contributors with an average of five or more edits per month was relatively constant since 2008 for Wikipedia in other languages at approximately 42,000 editors within narrow seasonal variances of about 2,000 editors up or down. The number of active editors in English Wikipedia, by sharp comparison, was cited as peaking in 2007 at approximately 50,000 and dropping to 30,000 by the start of 2014. [ 150 ] In contrast, the trend analysis for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) shows success in retaining active editors on a renewable and sustained basis, with their numbers remaining relatively constant at approximately 42,000. No comment was made concerning which of the differentiated edit policy standards from Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) would provide a possible alternative to English Wikipedia for effectively improving substantial editor attrition rates on the English-language Wikipedia. [ 150 ] Reception Various Wikipedians have criticized Wikipedia's large and growing regulation , which includes more than fifty policies and nearly 150,000 words as of 2014. [update] [ 151 ] [ 121 ] Critics have stated that Wikipedia exhibits systemic bias . In 2010, columnist and journalist Edwin Black described Wikipedia as being a mixture of "truth, half-truth, and some falsehoods". [ 152 ] Articles in The Chronicle of Higher Education and The Journal of Academic Librarianship have criticized Wikipedia's " undue-weight policy ", concluding that Wikipedia explicitly is not designed to provide correct information about a subject, but rather focus on all the major viewpoints on the subject, give less attention to minor ones, and creates omissions that can lead to false beliefs based on incomplete information. [ 153 ] [ 154 ] [ 155 ] Journalists Oliver Kamm and Edwin Black alleged (in 2010 and 2011 respectively) that articles are dominated by the loudest and most persistent voices, usually by a group with an "ax to grind" on the topic. [ 152 ] [ 156 ] A 2008 article in Education Next journal concluded that as a resource about controversial topics, Wikipedia is subject to manipulation and spin . [ 157 ] In 2020, Omer Benjakob and Stephen Harrison noted that "Media coverage of Wikipedia has radically shifted over the past two decades: once cast as an intellectual frivolity, it is now lauded as the 'last bastion of shared reality' online." [ 158 ] Multiple news networks and pundits have accused Wikipedia of being ideologically biased . In February 2021, Fox News accused Wikipedia of whitewashing communism and socialism and having too much " leftist bias". [ 159 ] Wikipedia co-founder Larry Sanger , who left Wikipedia in 2002 to establish competing websites, has said that Wikipedia had become "propaganda" for the left-leaning "establishment" and warned the site can no longer be trusted. [ 160 ] [ 161 ] In 2022, libertarian John Stossel opined that Wikipedia, a site he financially supported at one time, appeared to have gradually taken a significant turn in bias to the political left, specifically on political topics. [ 162 ] Some studies suggest that Wikipedia (and in particular the English Wikipedia) has a "western cultural bias " (or "pro-western bias") [ 163 ] or "Eurocentric bias", [ 164 ] reiterating, says Anna Samoilenko, "similar biases that are found in the 'ivory tower' of academic historiography". Carwil Bjork-James proposes that Wikipedia could follow the diversification pattern of contemporary scholarship [ 165 ] and Dangzhi Zhao calls for a "decolonization" of Wikipedia to reduce bias from opinionated White male editors. [ 166 ] In October 2025, Larry Sanger published his Nine Theses , a critical assessment and reform agenda for Wikipedia. The proposal is part of his broader effort to address what Sanger perceives as systemic issues within Wikipedia, which include ideological bias, lack of transparency in the editor hierarchies and an ineffective consensus-based decision making procedure. [ 167 ] [ 168 ] Accuracy of content External audio The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1 , Ideas with Paul Kennedy , CBC , January 15, 2014 Articles for traditional encyclopedias such as Encyclopædia Britannica are written by experts , lending such encyclopedias a reputation for accuracy. [ 169 ] However, a peer review in 2005 of forty-two scientific entries on both Wikipedia and Encyclopædia Britannica by the science journal Nature found few differences in accuracy, and concluded that "the average science entry in Wikipedia contained around four inaccuracies; Britannica , about three." [ 170 ] Joseph Reagle suggested that while the study reflects "a topical strength of Wikipedia contributors" in science articles, "Wikipedia may not have fared so well using a random sampling of articles or on humanities subjects." [ 171 ] [ failed verification ] Others raised similar critiques. [ 172 ] The findings by Nature were disputed by Encyclopædia Britannica , [ 173 ] [ 174 ] and in response, Nature gave a rebuttal of the points raised by Britannica . [ 175 ] In addition to the point-for-point disagreement between these two parties, others have examined the sample size and selection method used in the Nature effort, and suggested a "flawed study design" (in Nature ' s manual selection of articles, in part or in whole, for comparison), absence of statistical analysis (e.g., of reported confidence intervals ), and a lack of study "statistical power" (i.e., owing to small sample size , 42 or 4 × 10 1 articles compared, vs >10 5 and >10 6 set sizes for Britannica and the English Wikipedia, respectively). [ 176 ] As a consequence of the open structure, Wikipedia "makes no guarantee of validity" of its content, since no one is ultimately responsible for any claims appearing in it. [ W 47 ] Concerns have been raised by PC World in 2009 regarding the lack of accountability that results from users' anonymity, the insertion of false information, [ 177 ] vandalism , and similar problems. Legal Research in a Nutshell (2011), cites Wikipedia as a "general source" that "can be a real boon" in "coming up to speed in the law governing a situation" and, "while not authoritative, can provide basic facts as well as leads to more in-depth resources". [ 178 ] Economist Tyler Cowen wrote: "If I had to guess whether Wikipedia or the median refereed journal article on economics was more likely to be true after a not so long think I would opt for Wikipedia." He comments that some traditional sources of non-fiction suffer from systemic biases, and novel results, in his opinion, are over-reported in journal articles as well as relevant information being omitted from news reports. However, he also cautions that errors are frequently found on Internet sites and that academics and experts must be vigilant in correcting them. [ 179 ] Amy Bruckman has argued that, due to the number of reviewers, "the content of a popular Wikipedia page is actually the most reliable form of information ever created". [ 180 ] In September 2022, The Sydney Morning Herald journalist Liam Mannix noted that: "There's no reason to expect Wikipedia to be accurate ... And yet it [is]." Mannix further discussed the multiple studies that have proved Wikipedia to be generally as reliable as Encyclopædia Britannica , summarizing that "...turning our back on such an extraordinary resource is... well, a little petty." [ 181 ] Critics argue that Wikipedia's open nature and a lack of proper sources for most of the information makes it unreliable. [ 182 ] Some commentators suggest that Wikipedia may be reliable, but that the reliability of any given article is not clear. [ 183 ] Editors of traditional reference works such as the Encyclopædia Britannica have questioned the project's utility and status as an encyclopedia. [ 184 ] Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales has claimed that Wikipedia has largely avoided the problem of "fake news" because the Wikipedia community regularly debates the quality of sources in articles. [ 185 ] External videos Inside Wikipedia – Attack of the PR Industry , Deutsche Welle , 7:13 mins [ 186 ] Wikipedia's open structure inherently makes it an easy target for Internet trolls , spammers , and various forms of paid advocacy seen as counterproductive to the maintenance of a neutral and verifiable online encyclopedia. [ 84 ] [ W 48 ] In response to paid advocacy editing and undisclosed editing issues, Wikipedia was reported in an article in The Wall Street Journal to have strengthened its rules and laws against undisclosed editing. [ 187 ] The article stated that: "Beginning Monday [from the date of the article, June 16, 2014], changes in Wikipedia's terms of use will require anyone paid to edit articles to disclose that arrangement. Katherine Maher , the nonprofit Wikimedia Foundation's chief communications officer, said the changes address a sentiment among volunteer editors that 'we're not an advertising service; we're an encyclopedia. ' " [ 187 ] [ 188 ] [ 189 ] [ 190 ] [ 191 ] These issues, among others, had been parodied since the first decade of Wikipedia, notably by Stephen Colbert on The Colbert Report . [ 192 ] Discouragement in education Some university lecturers discourage students from citing any encyclopedia in academic work , preferring primary sources ; [ 193 ] some specifically prohibit Wikipedia citations. [ 194 ] [ 195 ] Wales stresses that encyclopedias of any type are not usually appropriate to use as citable sources, and should not be relied upon as authoritative. [ 196 ] Wales once (2006 or earlier) said he receives about ten emails weekly from students saying they got failing grades on papers because they cited Wikipedia; he told the students they got what they deserved. "For God's sake, you're in college; don't cite the encyclopedia", he said. [ 197 ] In February 2007, an article in The Harvard Crimson newspaper reported that a few of the professors at Harvard University were including Wikipedia articles in their syllabi , although without realizing the articles might change. [ 198 ] In June 2007, Michael Gorman , former president of the American Library Association , condemned Wikipedia, along with Google, stating that academics who endorse the use of Wikipedia are "the intellectual equivalent of a dietitian who recommends a steady diet of Big Macs with everything". [ 199 ] A 2020 research study published in Studies in Higher Education argued that Wikipedia could be applied in the higher education " flipped classroom ", an educational model where students learn before coming to class and apply it in classroom activities. The experimental group was instructed to learn before class and get immediate feedback before going in (the flipped classroom model), while the control group was given direct instructions in class (the conventional classroom model). The groups were then instructed to collaboratively develop Wikipedia entries, which would be graded in quality after the study. The results showed that the experimental group yielded more Wikipedia entries and received higher grades in quality. The study concluded that learning with Wikipedia in flipped classrooms was more effective than in conventional classrooms, demonstrating Wikipedia could be used as an educational tool in higher education. [ 200 ] Medical information On March 5, 2014, Julie Beck writing for The Atlantic magazine in an article titled "Doctors' #1 Source for Healthcare Information: Wikipedia", stated that "Fifty percent of physicians look up conditions on the (Wikipedia) site, and some are editing articles themselves to improve the quality of available information." [ 201 ] Beck continued to detail in this article new programs of Amin Azzam at the University of San Francisco to offer medical school courses to medical students for learning to edit and improve Wikipedia articles on health-related issues , as well as internal quality control programs within Wikipedia organized by James Heilman to improve a group of 200 health-related articles of central medical importance up to Wikipedia's highest standard of articles using its Featured Article and Good Article peer-review evaluation process. [ 201 ] In a May 7, 2014, follow-up article in The Atlantic titled "Can Wikipedia Ever Be a Definitive Medical Text?", Julie Beck quotes WikiProject Medicine's James Heilman as stating: "Just because a reference is peer-reviewed doesn't mean it's a high-quality reference." [ 202 ] Beck added that: "Wikipedia has its own peer review process before articles can be classified as 'good' or 'featured'. Heilman, who has participated in that process before, says 'less than one percent' of Wikipedia's medical articles have passed." [ 202 ] Coverage of topics and systemic bias Wikipedia seeks to create a summary of all human knowledge in the form of an online encyclopedia, with each topic covered encyclopedically in one article. Since it has terabytes of disk space , it can have far more topics than can be covered by any printed encyclopedia. [ W 49 ] The exact degree and manner of coverage on Wikipedia is under constant review by its editors, and disagreements are not uncommon (see deletionism and inclusionism ). [ 203 ] [ 204 ] Wikipedia contains materials that some people may find objectionable, offensive, or pornographic. [ W 50 ] The "Wikipedia is not censored" policy has sometimes proved controversial: in 2008, Wikipedia rejected an online petition against the inclusion of images of Muhammad in the English edition of its Muhammad article, citing this policy. [ 205 ] The presence of politically, religiously, and pornographically sensitive materials in Wikipedia has led to the censorship of Wikipedia by national authorities in China [ 206 ] and Pakistan, [ 207 ] among other countries. [ 208 ] [ 209 ] [ 210 ] Through its "Wikipedia Loves Libraries" program, Wikipedia has partnered with major public libraries such as the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts to expand its coverage of underrepresented subjects and articles. [ 211 ] A 2011 study conducted by researchers at the University of Minnesota indicated that male and female editors focus on different coverage topics. There was a greater concentration of females in the "people and arts" category, while males focus more on "geography and science". [ 212 ] An editorial in The Guardian in 2014 claimed that more effort went into providing references for a list of female porn actors than a list of women writers . [ 213 ] Systemic biases Wikipedia's policies may limit "its capacity for truly representing global knowledge". For example, Wikipedia only considers published sources to be reliable. Oral knowledge of Indigenous cultures is not always reflected in print. Marginalized topics are also more likely to lack significant coverage in reliable sources. Wikipedia's content is therefore limited as a result of larger systemic biases. [ 214 ] Academic studies of Wikipedia have shown that the average contributor to the English Wikipedia is an educated, technically inclined white male, aged 15–49, from a developed, predominantly Christian country. [ 215 ] The corresponding point of view (POV) is over-represented. [ 216 ] [ 165 ] This systemic bias in editor demographic results in cultural bias , gender bias , and geographical bias on Wikipedia . [ 217 ] [ 218 ] There are two broad types of bias, which are implicit (when a topic is omitted) and explicit (when a certain POV is over-represented in an article or by references). [ 216 ] Interdisciplinary scholarly assessments of Wikipedia articles have found that while articles are typically accurate and free of misinformation, they are also typically incomplete and fail to present all perspectives with a neutral point of view . [ 217 ] In 2011, Wales claimed that the unevenness of coverage is a reflection of the demography of the editors, citing for example "biographies of famous women through history and issues surrounding early childcare". [ 36 ] The October 22, 2013, essay by Tom Simonite in MIT's Technology Review titled "The Decline of Wikipedia" discussed the effect of systemic bias and policy creep on the downward trend in the number of editors . [ 37 ] Research conducted by Mark Graham of the Oxford Internet Institute in 2009 indicated that the geographic distribution of article topics is highly uneven, with Africa being the most underrepresented. [ 219 ] Across 30 language editions of Wikipedia, historical articles and sections are generally Eurocentric and focused on recent events. [ 220 ] Explicit content Wikipedia has been criticized for allowing information about graphic content. [ 221 ] Articles depicting what some critics have called objectionable content (such as feces , cadaver , human penis , vulva , and nudity) contain graphic pictures and detailed information easily available to anyone with access to the internet, including children. [ W 51 ] The site also includes sexual content such as images and videos of masturbation and ejaculation , illustrations of zoophilia , and photos from hardcore pornographic films in its articles. It also has non-sexual photographs of nude children . [ W 52 ] The Wikipedia article about Virgin Killer —a 1976 album from the German rock band Scorpions —features a picture of the album's original cover, which depicts a naked prepubescent girl. The original release cover caused controversy and was replaced in some countries. In December 2008, access to the Wikipedia article Virgin Killer was blocked for four days by most Internet service providers in the United Kingdom after the Internet Watch Foundation (IWF) decided the album cover was a potentially illegal indecent image and added the article's URL to a "blacklist" it supplies to British internet service providers. [ 222 ] In April 2010, Sanger wrote a letter to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, outlining his concerns that two categories of images on Wikimedia Commons contained child pornography, and were in violation of US federal obscenity law . [ 223 ] [ 224 ] Sanger later clarified that the images, which were related to pedophilia and one about lolicon , were not of real children, but said that they constituted "obscene visual representations of the sexual abuse of children", under the PROTECT Act of 2003 . [ 225 ] That law bans photographic child pornography and cartoon images and drawings of children that are obscene under American law . [ 225 ] Sanger also expressed concerns about access to the images on Wikipedia in schools. [ 226 ] Wikimedia Foundation spokesman Jay Walsh strongly rejected Sanger's accusation, [ 227 ] saying that Wikipedia did not have "material we would deem to be illegal. If we did, we would remove it." [ 227 ] Following the complaint by Sanger, Wales deleted sexual images without consulting the community. After some editors who volunteered to maintain the site argued that the decision to delete had been made hastily, Wales voluntarily gave up some of the powers he had held up to that time as part of his co-founder status. He wrote in a message to the Wikimedia Foundation mailing-list that this action was "in the interest of encouraging this discussion to be about real philosophical/content issues, rather than be about me and how quickly I acted". [ 228 ] Critics, including Wikipediocracy , noticed that many of the pornographic images deleted from Wikipedia since 2010 have reappeared. [ 229 ] Privacy One privacy concern in the case of Wikipedia regards one's right to remain a private citizen rather than a public figure in the eyes of the law. [ 230 ] [ g ] It is a battle between the right to be anonymous in cyberspace and the right to be anonymous in real life . The Wikimedia Foundation's privacy policy states, "we believe that you shouldn't have to provide personal information to participate in the free knowledge movement", and states that "personal information" may be shared "For legal reasons", "To Protect You, Ourselves & Others", or "To Understand & Experiment". [ W 53 ] In January 2006, a German court ordered the German Wikipedia shut down within Germany because it stated the full name of Boris Floricic , aka "Tron", a deceased hacker. On February 9, 2006, the injunction against Wikimedia Deutschland was overturned, with the court rejecting the notion that Tron's right to privacy or that of his parents was being violated. [ 231 ] Wikipedia has a " .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}} Volunteer Response Team " that uses Znuny, a free and open-source software fork of OTRS [ W 54 ] to handle queries without having to reveal the identities of the involved parties. This is used, for example, in confirming the permission for using individual images and other media in the project. [ W 55 ] In late April 2023, Wikimedia Foundation announced that Wikipedia will not submit to any age verifications that may be required by the UK's Online Safety Bill legislation. Rebecca MacKinnon of the Wikimedia Foundation said that such checks would run counter to the website's commitment to minimal data collection on its contributors and readers. [ 232 ] Sexism Wikipedia was described in 2015 as harboring a battleground culture of sexism and harassment . [ 233 ] [ 234 ] The perceived tolerance of abusive language was a reason put forth in 2013 for the gender gap in Wikipedia editorship. [ 235 ] Edit-a-thons have been held to encourage female editors and increase the coverage of women's topics. [ 236 ] In May 2018, a Wikipedia editor rejected a submitted article about Donna Strickland due to lack of coverage in the media. [ W 56 ] [ 237 ] Five months later, Strickland won a Nobel Prize in Physics "for groundbreaking inventions in the field of laser physics", becoming the third woman to ever receive the award. [ 237 ] [ 238 ] Prior to winning the award, Strickland's only mention on Wikipedia was in the article about her collaborator and co-winner of the award Gérard Mourou . [ 237 ] Her exclusion from Wikipedia led to accusations of sexism, but Corinne Purtill writing for Quartz argued that "it's also a pointed lesson in the hazards of gender bias in media, and of the broader consequences of underrepresentation." [ 239 ] Purtill attributes the issue to the gender bias in media coverage. [ 239 ] A comprehensive 2008 survey, published in 2016, by Julia B. Bear of Stony Brook University 's College of Business and Benjamin Collier of Carnegie Mellon University found significant gender differences in confidence in expertise, discomfort with editing, and response to critical feedback. "Women reported less confidence in their expertise, expressed greater discomfort with editing (which typically involves conflict), and reported more negative responses to critical feedback compared to men." [ 240 ] Operation Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements Wikipedia is hosted and funded by the Wikimedia Foundation , a non-profit organization which also operates Wikipedia-related projects such as Wiktionary and Wikibooks . [ W 57 ] The foundation relies on public contributions and grants to fund its mission. [ 241 ] [ W 58 ] The foundation's 2020 Internal Revenue Service Form 990 shows revenue of $124.6 million and expenses of almost $112.2 million, with assets of about $191.2 million and liabilities of almost $11 million. [ W 59 ] In May 2014, Wikimedia Foundation named Lila Tretikov as its second executive director, taking over for Sue Gardner. [ W 60 ] The Wall Street Journal reported on May 1, 2014, that Tretikov's information technology background, from her years at University of California offers Wikipedia an opportunity to develop in more concentrated directions guided by her often repeated position statement that, "Information, like air, wants to be free." [ 242 ] [ 243 ] The same Wall Street Journal article reported these directions of development according to an interview with spokesman Jay Walsh of Wikimedia, who "said Tretikov would address that issue ( paid advocacy ) as a priority. 'We are really pushing toward more transparency ... We are reinforcing that paid advocacy is not welcome.' Initiatives to involve greater diversity of contributors, better mobile support of Wikipedia, new geo-location tools to find local content more easily, and more tools for users in the second and third world are also priorities", Walsh said. [ 242 ] Following the departure of Tretikov from Wikipedia due to issues concerning the use of the "superprotection" feature which some language versions of Wikipedia have adopted, [ W 61 ] Katherine Maher became the third executive director of the Wikimedia Foundation in June 2016. [ W 62 ] Maher stated that one of her priorities would be the issue of editor harassment endemic to Wikipedia as identified by the Wikipedia board in December. She said to Bloomberg Businessweek regarding the harassment issue that: "It establishes a sense within the community that this is a priority ... [and that correction requires that] it has to be more than words." [ 142 ] Maher served as executive director until April 2021. [ 244 ] Maryana Iskander was named the incoming CEO in September 2021, and took over that role in January 2022. She stated that one of her focuses would be increasing diversity in the Wikimedia community. [ 245 ] Wikipedia is also supported by many organizations and groups that are affiliated with the Wikimedia Foundation but independently-run, called Wikimedia movement affiliates . These include Wikimedia chapters (which are national or sub-national organizations, such as Wikimedia Deutschland and Wikimedia France), thematic organizations (such as Amical Wikimedia for the Catalan language community), and user groups. These affiliates participate in the promotion, development, and funding of Wikipedia. [ W 63 ] Software operations and support The operation of Wikipedia depends on MediaWiki , a custom-made, free and open source wiki software platform written in PHP and built upon the MySQL database system. [ W 64 ] The software incorporates programming features such as a macro language , variables , a transclusion system for templates , and URL redirection . [ W 65 ] MediaWiki is licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL) and it is used by all Wikimedia projects, as well as many other wiki projects. [ W 64 ] [ W 66 ] Originally, Wikipedia ran on UseModWiki written in Perl by Clifford Adams (Phase I), which initially required CamelCase for article hyperlinks; the present double bracket style was incorporated later. [ W 67 ] Starting in January 2002 (Phase II), Wikipedia began running on a PHP wiki engine with a MySQL database; this software was custom-made for Wikipedia by Magnus Manske . The Phase II software was repeatedly modified to accommodate the exponentially increasing demand. In July 2002 (Phase III), Wikipedia shifted to the third-generation software, MediaWiki, originally written by Lee Daniel Crocker . Several MediaWiki extensions are installed to extend the functionality of the MediaWiki software. [ W 68 ] In April 2005, a Lucene extension [ W 69 ] [ W 70 ] was added to MediaWiki's built-in search and Wikipedia switched from MySQL to Lucene for searching. Lucene was later replaced by CirrusSearch which is based on Elasticsearch . [ W 71 ] In July 2013, after extensive beta testing, a WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) extension, VisualEditor , was opened to public use. [ 246 ] [ 247 ] [ 248 ] It was met with much rejection and criticism, and was described as "slow and buggy". [ 249 ] The feature was changed from opt-out to opt-in afterward. [ W 72 ] Automated editing Computer programs called bots have often been used to perform simple and repetitive tasks, such as correcting common misspellings and stylistic issues, or to start articles such as geography entries in a standard format from statistical data. [ W 73 ] [ 250 ] [ 251 ] One controversial contributor, Sverker Johansson , created articles with his bot Lsjbot , which was reported to create up to 10,000 articles on the Swedish Wikipedia on certain days. [ 252 ] Additionally, there are bots designed to automatically notify editors when they make common editing errors (such as unmatched quotes or unmatched parentheses). [ W 74 ] Edits falsely identified by bots as the work of a banned editor can be restored by other editors. An anti-vandal bot is programmed to detect and revert vandalism quickly. [ 250 ] Bots are able to indicate edits from particular accounts or IP address ranges, as occurred at the time of the shooting down of the MH17 jet in July 2014 when it was reported that edits were made via IPs controlled by the Russian government. [ 253 ] Bots on Wikipedia must be approved before activation. [ W 75 ] According to Andrew Lih , the current expansion of Wikipedia to millions of articles would be difficult to envision without the use of such bots. [ 254 ] Hardware operations and support As of 2021, [update] page requests are first passed to a front-end layer of Varnish caching servers and back-end layer caching is done by Apache Traffic Server . [ W 76 ] Requests that cannot be served from the Varnish cache are sent to load-balancing servers running the Linux Virtual Server software, which in turn pass them to one of the Apache web servers for page rendering from the database. [ W 76 ] The web servers deliver pages as requested, performing page rendering for all the language editions of Wikipedia. To increase speed further, rendered pages are cached in a distributed memory cache until invalidated, allowing page rendering to be skipped entirely for most common page accesses. [ 255 ] Wikipedia currently runs on dedicated clusters of Linux servers running the Debian operating system. [ W 77 ] By January 22, 2013, Wikipedia had migrated its primary data center to an Equinix facility in Ashburn, Virginia . [ W 78 ] [ 256 ] A second application data center was created in 2014 in Carrollton, Texas , to improve Wikipedia's reliability. [ 257 ] [ 258 ] Both datacenters work as the primary one, in alternate semesters, with the other one working as secondary datacenter. [ 259 ] In 2017, Wikipedia installed a caching cluster in an Equinix facility in Singapore , the first of its kind in Asia. [ W 79 ] In 2022, a caching data center was opened in Marseille , France. [ W 80 ] In 2024, a caching data center was opened in São Paulo , the first of its kind in South America. [ W 81 ] As of November 2024, [update] caching clusters are located in Amsterdam , San Francisco, Singapore, Marseille, and São Paulo. [ W 82 ] [ W 83 ] Internal research and operational development Following growing amounts of incoming donations in 2013 exceeding seven digits, [ 37 ] the Foundation has reached a threshold of assets which qualify its consideration under the principles of industrial organization economics to indicate the need for the re-investment of donations into the internal research and development of the Foundation. [ 260 ] Two projects of such internal research and development have been the creation of a Visual Editor and the "Thank" tab in the edit history, which were developed to improve issues of editor attrition. [ 37 ] [ 249 ] The estimates for reinvestment by industrial organizations into internal research and development was studied by Adam Jaffe , who recorded that the range of 4% to 25% annually was to be recommended, with high-end technology requiring the higher level of support for internal reinvestment. [ 261 ] At the 2013 level of contributions for Wikimedia presently documented as 45 million dollars, [ W 84 ] the computed budget level recommended by Jaffe for reinvestment into internal research and development is between 1.8 million and 11.3 million dollars annually. [ 261 ] In 2019, the level of contributions were reported by the Wikimedia Foundation as being at $120 million annually, [ W 85 ] updating the Jaffe estimates for the higher level of support to between $3.08 million and $19.2 million annually. [ 261 ] Internal news publications Multiple Wikimedia projects have internal news publications. Wikimedia 's online newspaper The Signpost was founded in 2005 by Michael Snow, a Wikipedia administrator who would join the Wikimedia Foundation's board of trustees in 2008. [ 262 ] [ 263 ] The publication covers news and events from the English Wikipedia, the Wikimedia Foundation, and Wikipedia's sister projects . [ W 86 ] The Wikipedia Library Wikipedia editors sometimes struggle to access paywalled sources needed to improve a subject. [ 264 ] The Wikipedia Library is a resource for Wikipedia editors which provides free access to a wide range of digital publications , so that they can consult and cite these while editing the encyclopedia. [ 265 ] [ 266 ] Over 60 publishers have partnered with The Wikipedia Library to provide access to their resources: when ICE Publishing joined in 2020, a spokesman said "By enabling free access to our content for Wikipedia editors, we hope to further the research community's resources – creating and updating Wikipedia entries on civil engineering which are read by thousands of monthly readers." [ 267 ] Access to content Content licensing When the project was started in 2001, all text in Wikipedia was covered by the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL), a copyleft license permitting the redistribution, creation of derivative works, and commercial use of content while authors retain copyright of their work. [ W 87 ] The GFDL was created for software manuals that come with free software programs licensed under the GPL . This made it a poor choice for a general reference work: for example, the GFDL requires the reprints of materials from Wikipedia to come with a full copy of the GFDL text. [ 268 ] In December 2002, the Creative Commons license was released; it was specifically designed for creative works in general, not just for software manuals. The Wikipedia project sought the switch to the Creative Commons. [ W 88 ] Because the GFDL and Creative Commons were incompatible, in November 2008, following the request of the project, the Free Software Foundation (FSF) released a new version of the GFDL designed specifically to allow Wikipedia to relicense its content to CC BY-SA by August 1, 2009. [ W 89 ] In April 2009, Wikipedia and its sister projects held a community-wide referendum which decided the switch in June 2009. [ W 90 ] [ W 91 ] [ W 92 ] [ W 93 ] The handling of media files (e.g. image files) varies across language editions. Some language editions, such as the English Wikipedia, include non-free image files under fair use doctrine, [ W 94 ] while the others have opted not to, in part because of the lack of fair use doctrines in their home countries (e.g. in Japanese copyright law ). Media files covered by free content licenses (e.g. Creative Commons ' CC BY-SA ) are shared across language editions via Wikimedia Commons repository, a project operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. [ W 95 ] Wikipedia's accommodation of varying international copyright laws regarding images has led some to observe that its photographic coverage of topics lags behind the quality of the encyclopedic text. [ 269 ] The Wikimedia Foundation is not a licensor of content on Wikipedia or its related projects but merely a hosting service for contributors to and licensors of Wikipedia, a position which was successfully defended in 2004 in a court in France. [ 270 ] [ 271 ] Methods of access Since Wikipedia content is distributed under an open license, anyone can reuse or re-distribute it at no charge. [ W 96 ] The content of Wikipedia has been published in many forms, both online and offline, outside the Wikipedia website. Thousands of " mirror sites " exist that republish content from Wikipedia; two prominent ones that also include content from other reference sources are Reference.com and Answers.com . [ 272 ] [ 273 ] Another example is Wapedia , which began to display Wikipedia content in a mobile-device-friendly format before Wikipedia itself did. [ W 97 ] Some web search engines make special use of Wikipedia content when displaying search results: examples include Microsoft Bing (via technology gained from Powerset ) [ 274 ] and DuckDuckGo . Collections of Wikipedia articles have been published on optical discs . An English version released in 2006 contained about 2,000 articles. [ W 98 ] The Polish-language version from 2006 contains nearly 240,000 articles, [ W 99 ] the German-language version from 2007/2008 contains over 620,000 articles, [ W 100 ] and the Spanish-language version from 2011 contains 886,000 articles. [ W 101 ] Additionally, "Wikipedia for Schools", the Wikipedia series of CDs / DVDs produced by Wikipedia and SOS Children , is a free selection from Wikipedia designed for education towards children eight to seventeen. [ W 102 ] There have been efforts to put a select subset of Wikipedia's articles into printed book form. [ 275 ] [ W 103 ] Since 2009, tens of thousands of print-on-demand books that reproduced English, German, Russian, and French Wikipedia articles have been produced by the American company Books LLC and by three Mauritian subsidiaries of the German publisher VDM . [ 276 ] The website DBpedia , begun in 2007, extracts data from the infoboxes and category declarations of the English-language Wikipedia. [ 277 ] Wikimedia has created the Wikidata project with a similar objective of storing the basic facts from each page of Wikipedia and other Wikimedia Foundation projects and make it available in a queryable semantic format, RDF . [ W 104 ] As of February 2023, [update] it has over 101 million items. [ W 105 ] WikiReader is a dedicated reader device that contains an offline copy of Wikipedia, which was launched by OpenMoko and first released in 2009. [ W 106 ] Obtaining the full contents of Wikipedia for reuse presents challenges, since direct cloning via a web crawler is discouraged. [ W 107 ] Wikipedia publishes " dumps " of its contents, but these are text-only; as of 2023, [update] there is no dump available of Wikipedia's images. [ W 108 ] Wikimedia Enterprise is a for-profit solution to this. [ 278 ] Several languages of Wikipedia also maintain a reference desk, where volunteers answer questions from the general public. According to a study by Pnina Shachaf in the Journal of Documentation , the quality of the Wikipedia reference desk is comparable to a standard library reference desk , with an accuracy of 55 percent. [ 279 ] Mobile access Wikipedia's original medium was for users to read and edit content using any standard web browser through a fixed Internet connection . Although Wikipedia content has been accessible through the mobile web since July 2013, The New York Times on February 9, 2014, quoted Erik Möller , deputy director of the Wikimedia Foundation, stating that the transition of internet traffic from desktops to mobile devices was significant and a cause for concern and worry. The article in The New York Times reported the comparison statistics for mobile edits stating that, "Only 20 percent of the readership of the English-language Wikipedia comes via mobile devices, a figure substantially lower than the percentage of mobile traffic for other media sites, many of which approach 50 percent. And the shift to mobile editing has lagged even more." In 2014 The New York Times reported that Möller has assigned "a team of 10 software developers focused on mobile", out of a total of approximately 200 employees working at the Wikimedia Foundation. One principal concern cited by The New York Times for the "worry" is for Wikipedia to effectively address attrition issues with the number of editors which the online encyclopedia attracts to edit and maintain its content in a mobile access environment. [ 51 ] By 2023, the Wikimedia Foundation's staff had grown to over 700 employees. [ 1 ] Access to Wikipedia from mobile phones was possible as early as 2004, through the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP), via the Wapedia service. [ W 97 ] In June 2007, Wikipedia launched en.mobile.wikipedia.org, an official website for wireless devices. In 2009, a newer mobile service was officially released, located at en.m.wikipedia.org, which caters to more advanced mobile devices such as the iPhone , Android -based devices, or WebOS -based devices. [ W 109 ] Several other methods of mobile access to Wikipedia have emerged since. Many devices and applications optimize or enhance the display of Wikipedia content for mobile devices, while some also incorporate additional features such as use of Wikipedia metadata like geoinformation . [ 280 ] [ 281 ] The Android app for Wikipedia was released in January 2012, to over 500,000 installs and generally positive reviews, scoring over four of a possible five in a poll of approximately 200,000 users downloading from Google. [ W 110 ] [ W 111 ] The version for iOS was released on April 3, 2013, to similar reviews. [ W 112 ] Wikipedia Zero was an initiative of the Wikimedia Foundation to expand the reach of the encyclopedia to the developing countries by partnering with mobile operators to allow free access. [ W 113 ] [ 282 ] It was discontinued in February 2018 due to lack of participation from mobile operators. [ W 113 ] Andrew Lih and Andrew Brown both maintain editing Wikipedia with smartphones is difficult and this discourages new potential contributors. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Lih states that the number of Wikipedia editors has been declining after several years, [ 283 ] and Tom Simonite of MIT Technology Review claims the bureaucratic structure and rules are a factor in this. Simonite alleges some Wikipedians use the labyrinthine rules and guidelines to dominate others and those editors have a vested interest in keeping the status quo. [ 37 ] Lih alleges there is a serious disagreement among existing contributors on how to resolve this. Lih fears for Wikipedia's long-term future while Brown fears problems with Wikipedia will remain and rival encyclopedias will not replace it. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Chinese access Access to Wikipedia has been blocked in mainland China since May 2015. [ 6 ] [ 285 ] [ 286 ] This was done after Wikipedia started to use HTTPS encryption, which made selective censorship more difficult. [ 287 ] Cultural influence Trusted source to combat fake news In 2017–18, after a barrage of false news reports, both Facebook and YouTube announced they would rely on Wikipedia to help their users evaluate reports and reject false news. [ 288 ] [ 289 ] Noam Cohen , writing in The Washington Post states, "YouTube's reliance on Wikipedia to set the record straight builds on the thinking of another fact-challenged platform, the Facebook social network, which announced last year that Wikipedia would help its users root out ' fake news '." [ 289 ] [ 290 ] Readership In February 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia was ranked fifth globally among all websites, stating "With 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, ... Wikipedia trails just Yahoo, Facebook, Microsoft and Google, the largest with 1.2 billion unique visitors." [ 51 ] However, its ranking dropped to 13th globally by June 2020 due mostly to a rise in popularity of Chinese websites for online shopping. [ 43 ] The website has since recovered its ranking as of April 2022. [ 43 ] In addition to logistic growth in the number of its articles, [ W 114 ] Wikipedia has steadily gained status as a general reference website since its inception in 2001. [ 291 ] The number of readers of Wikipedia worldwide reached 365 million at the end of 2009. [ W 115 ] The Pew Internet and American Life project found that one third of US Internet users consulted Wikipedia. [ 292 ] In 2011, Business Insider gave Wikipedia a valuation of $4 billion if it ran advertisements. [ 293 ] According to "Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011", the average age of Wikipedia readers is 36, with a rough parity between genders. Almost half of Wikipedia readers visit the site more than five times a month, and a similar number of readers specifically look for Wikipedia in search engine results. About 47 percent of Wikipedia readers do not realize that Wikipedia is a non-profit organization. [ W 116 ] As of February 2023, [update] Wikipedia attracts around 2 billion unique devices monthly, with the English Wikipedia receiving 10 billion pageviews each month. [ W 1 ] COVID-19 pandemic During the COVID-19 pandemic , Wikipedia's coverage of the pandemic and fight against misinformation received international media attention, and brought an increase in Wikipedia readership overall. [ 294 ] [ 295 ] [ 296 ] [ 297 ] Noam Cohen wrote in Wired that Wikipedia's effort to combat misinformation related to the pandemic was different from other major websites, opining, "Unless Twitter, Facebook and the others can learn to address misinformation more effectively, Wikipedia will remain the last best place on the Internet." [ 295 ] In October 2020, the World Health Organization announced they were freely licensing its infographics and other materials on Wikimedia projects. [ 298 ] There were nearly 7,000 COVID-19 related Wikipedia articles across 188 different Wikipedias, as of November 2021. [update] [ 299 ] [ 300 ] Cultural significance Wikipedia's content has also been used in academic studies, books, conferences, and court cases. [ W 117 ] [ 301 ] [ 302 ] The Parliament of Canada 's website refers to Wikipedia's article on same-sex marriage in the "related links" section of its "further reading" list for the Civil Marriage Act . [ 303 ] The encyclopedia's assertions are increasingly used as a source by organizations such as the US federal courts and the World Intellectual Property Organization [ 304 ] —though mainly for supporting information rather than information decisive to a case. [ 305 ] Content appearing on Wikipedia has also been cited as a source and referenced in some US intelligence agency reports. [ 306 ] In December 2008, the scientific journal RNA Biology launched a new section for descriptions of families of RNA molecules and requires authors who contribute to the section to also submit a draft article on the RNA family for publication in Wikipedia. [ 307 ] Wikipedia has also been used as a source in journalism, [ 308 ] [ 309 ] often without attribution, and several reporters have been dismissed for plagiarizing from Wikipedia . [ 310 ] [ 311 ] [ 312 ] [ 313 ] In 2006, Time magazine recognized Wikipedia's participation (along with YouTube, Reddit , MySpace , and Facebook) in the rapid growth of online collaboration and interaction by millions of people worldwide. [ 314 ] On September 16, 2007, The Washington Post reported that Wikipedia had become a focal point in the 2008 US election campaign , saying: "Type a candidate's name into Google, and among the first results is a Wikipedia page, making those entries arguably as important as any ad in defining a candidate. Already, the presidential entries are being edited, dissected and debated countless times each day." [ 315 ] An October 2007 Reuters article, titled "Wikipedia page the latest status symbol", reported the recent phenomenon of how having a Wikipedia article vindicates one's notability. [ 316 ] One of the first times Wikipedia was involved in a governmental affair was on September 28, 2007, when Italian politician Franco Grillini raised a parliamentary question with the minister of cultural resources and activities about the necessity of freedom of panorama . He said that the lack of such freedom forced Wikipedia, "the seventh most consulted website", to forbid all images of modern Italian buildings and art, and claimed this was hugely damaging to tourist revenues. [ 317 ] A working group led by Peter Stone (formed as a part of the Stanford -based project One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence ) in its report called Wikipedia "the best-known example of crowdsourcing ... that far exceeds traditionally-compiled information sources, such as encyclopedias and dictionaries, in scale and depth". [ 318 ] [ 319 ] In a 2017 opinion piece for Wired , Hossein Derakhshan describes Wikipedia as "one of the last remaining pillars of the open and decentralized web " and contrasted its existence as a text-based source of knowledge with social media and social networking services , the latter having "since colonized the web for television's values". For Derakhshan, Wikipedia's goal as an encyclopedia represents the Age of Enlightenment tradition of rationality triumphing over emotions, a trend which he considers "endangered" due to the "gradual shift from a typographic culture to a photographic one, which in turn mean[s] a shift from rationality to emotions, exposition to entertainment". Rather than " sapere aude " ( lit. ' dare to know ' ), social networks have led to a culture of "dare not to care to know". This is while Wikipedia faces "a more concerning problem" than funding, namely "a flattening growth rate in the number of contributors to the website". Consequently, the challenge for Wikipedia and those who use it is to "save Wikipedia and its promise of a free and open collection of all human knowledge amid the conquest of new and old television—how to collect and preserve knowledge when nobody cares to know." [ 320 ] Awards Wikipedia has won many awards, receiving its first two major awards in May 2004. [ W 118 ] The first was a Golden Nica for Digital Communities of the annual Prix Ars Electronica contest; this came with a €10,000 (£6,588; $12,700) grant and an invitation to present at the PAE Cyberarts Festival in Austria later that year. The second was a Judges' Webby Award for the "community" category. [ 321 ] In September 2008, Wikipedia received Quadriga A Mission of Enlightenment award of Werkstatt Deutschland along with Boris Tadić , Eckart Höfling , and Peter Gabriel . The award was presented to Wales by David Weinberger . [ 322 ] In 2015, Wikipedia was awarded both the annual Erasmus Prize , which recognizes exceptional contributions to culture, society or social sciences, [ 323 ] and the Spanish Princess of Asturias Award on International Cooperation. [ 324 ] Speaking at the Asturian Parliament in Oviedo, the city that hosts the awards ceremony, Jimmy Wales praised the work of the Asturian Wikipedia users. [ 325 ] Satire Comedian Stephen Colbert has parodied or referenced Wikipedia on numerous episodes of his show The Colbert Report and coined the related term wikiality , meaning "together we can create a reality that we all agree on—the reality we just agreed on". [ 192 ] Another example can be found in "Wikipedia Celebrates 750 Years of American Independence", a July 2006 front-page article in The Onion , [ 326 ] as well as the 2010 The Onion article " 'L.A. Law' Wikipedia Page Viewed 874 Times Today". [ 327 ] In an April 2007 episode of the American television comedy The Office , office manager ( Michael Scott ) is shown relying on a hypothetical Wikipedia article for information on negotiation tactics to assist him in negotiating lesser pay for an employee. [ 328 ] Viewers of the show tried to add the episode's mention of the page as a section of the actual Wikipedia article on negotiation, but this effort was prevented by other users on the article's talk page. [ 329 ] " My Number One Doctor ", a 2007 episode of the television show Scrubs , played on the perception that Wikipedia is an unreliable reference tool with a scene in which Perry Cox reacts to a patient who says that a Wikipedia article indicates that the raw food diet reverses the effects of bone cancer by retorting that the same editor who wrote that article also wrote the Battlestar Galactica episode guide . [ 330 ] In 2008, the comedy website CollegeHumor produced a video sketch named "Professor Wikipedia", in which the fictitious Professor Wikipedia instructs a class with a medley of unverifiable and occasionally absurd statements. [ 331 ] The Dilbert comic strip from May 8, 2009, features a character supporting an improbable claim by saying "Give me ten minutes and then check Wikipedia." [ 332 ] In July 2009, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a comedy series called Bigipedia , which was set on a website which was a parody of Wikipedia. [ 333 ] Some of the sketches were directly inspired by Wikipedia and its articles. [ 334 ] On August 23, 2013, the New Yorker website published a cartoon with this caption: "Dammit, Manning, have you considered the pronoun war that this is going to start on your Wikipedia page?" [ 335 ] The cartoon referred to Chelsea Elizabeth Manning (born Bradley Edward Manning), an American activist, politician, and former United States Army soldier who had recently come out as a trans woman . [ 336 ] In June 2024, nature.com published a fictional Wikipedia Talk page under the title "Plastic-eating fungus caused doomsday" by Emma Burnett. The Talk page concerned a fictional article describing the unintended consequences of the release of a plastic-eating fungus to clean up an oil spill. The article contained Talk page topics found on Wikipedia, like discussions of changes in the articles priority level. [ 337 ] Publishing The most obvious economic effect of Wikipedia has been the death of commercial encyclopedias, especially printed versions like Encyclopædia Britannica , which were unable to compete with a free alternative. [ 338 ] [ 339 ] [ 340 ] Nicholas Carr 's 2005 essay "The amorality of Web 2.0 " criticizes websites with user-generated content (like Wikipedia) for possibly leading to professional (and, in his view, superior) content producers' going out of business, because "free trumps quality all the time". Carr wrote, "Implicit in the ecstatic visions of Web 2.0 is the hegemony of the amateur. I for one can't imagine anything more frightening." [ 341 ] Others dispute the notion that Wikipedia, or similar efforts, will entirely displace traditional publications. Chris Anderson , the former editor-in-chief of Wired , wrote in Nature that the " wisdom of crowds " approach of Wikipedia will not displace top scientific journals with rigorous peer review processes. [ 342 ] Wikipedia's influence on the biography publishing business has been a concern for some. Book publishing data tracker Nielsen BookScan stated in 2013 that biography sales were dropping "far more sharply". [ 343 ] Kathryn Hughes , professor of life writing at the University of East Anglia and author of two biographies wrote, "The worry is that, if you can get all that information from Wikipedia, what's left for biography?" [ 343 ] Research use Wikipedia has been widely used as a corpus for linguistic research in computational linguistics , information retrieval and natural language processing . [ 344 ] [ 345 ] In particular, it commonly serves as a target knowledge base for the entity linking problem, which is then called "wikification", [ 346 ] and to the related problem of word-sense disambiguation . [ 347 ] Methods similar to wikification can in turn be used to find "missing" links in Wikipedia. [ 348 ] In 2015, French researchers José Lages of the University of Franche-Comté in Besançon and Dima Shepelyansky of Paul Sabatier University in Toulouse published a global university ranking based on Wikipedia scholarly citations. [ 349 ] [ 350 ] [ 351 ] They used PageRank , CheiRank and similar algorithms "followed by the number of appearances in the 24 different language editions of Wikipedia (descending order) and the century in which they were founded (ascending order)". [ 351 ] [ 352 ] The study was updated in 2019. [ 353 ] In December 2015, John Julius Norwich stated, in a letter published in The Times newspaper, that as a historian he resorted to Wikipedia "at least a dozen times a day", and had "never caught it out". He described it as "a work of reference as useful as any in existence", with so wide a range that it is almost impossible to find a person, place, or thing that it has left uncovered and that he could never have written his last two books without it. [ 354 ] A 2017 MIT study suggests that words used in Wikipedia articles end up in scientific publications. [ 355 ] Studies related to Wikipedia have been using machine learning and artificial intelligence [ 319 ] to support various operations. One of the most important areas is the automatic detection of vandalism [ 356 ] [ 357 ] and data quality assessment in Wikipedia. [ 358 ] [ 359 ] Related projects Several interactive multimedia encyclopedias incorporating entries written by the public existed long before Wikipedia was founded. The first of these was the 1986 BBC Domesday Project , which included text (entered on BBC Micro computers) and photographs from more than a million contributors in the UK, and covered the geography, art, and culture of the UK. This was the first interactive multimedia encyclopedia (and was also the first major multimedia document connected through internal links), with the majority of articles being accessible through an interactive map of the UK. The user interface and part of the content of the Domesday Project were emulated on a website until 2008. [ 360 ] Several free-content, collaborative encyclopedias were created around the same period as Wikipedia (e.g. Everything2 ), [ 361 ] with many later being merged into the project (e.g. GNE ). [ W 119 ] One of the most successful early online encyclopedias incorporating entries by the public was h2g2 , which was created by Douglas Adams in 1999. The h2g2 encyclopedia is relatively lighthearted, focusing on articles which are both witty and informative. [ 362 ] Subsequent collaborative knowledge websites have drawn inspiration from Wikipedia. Others use more traditional peer review , such as Encyclopedia of Life and the online wiki encyclopedias Scholarpedia and Citizendium . [ 363 ] [ 364 ] The latter was started by Sanger in an attempt to create a reliable alternative to Wikipedia. [ 365 ] [ 366 ] See also Internet portal Wikipedia portal Democratization of knowledge Interpedia – an early proposal for a collaborative Internet encyclopedia List of films about Wikipedia List of online encyclopedias List of Wikipedia controversies List of wikis Missing Links and Secret Histories Network effect Outline of Wikipedia – guide to the subject of Wikipedia presented as a tree structured list of its subtopics; for an outline of the contents of Wikipedia, see Portal:Contents/Outlines QRpedia – multilingual, mobile interface to Wikipedia Wikipedia Review Notes ^ Registration is required for certain tasks, such as editing protected pages, creating pages on the English Wikipedia, and uploading files. ^ Most text is also dual-licensed under GFDL ; media licensing varies. ^ Pronounced / ˌ w ɪ k ɪ ˈ p iː d i ə / ⓘ WIK -ih- PEE -dee-ə or / ˌ w ɪ k i -/ ⓘ WIK -ee- PEE -dee-ə in English ^ Available as an archive at the Nostalgia Wikipedia ^ Revisions with libelous content, criminal threats, or copyright infringements may be removed completely. ^ The committee may directly rule that a content change is inappropriate, but may not directly rule that certain content is inappropriate. ^ See "Libel" by David McHam for the legal distinction. References Footnotes ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Seitz-Gruwell, Lisa (October 23, 2023). 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If you [...] demand that something be done about constant disruption by trollish behavior, the other listmembers will cry "censorship", attack you, and even come to the defense of the troll. [...] The root problem: anti-elitism, or lack of respect for expertise. There is a deeper problem [...] which explains both of the above-elaborated problems. Namely, as a community, Wikipedia lacks the habit or tradition of respect for expertise. As a community, far from being elitist, it is anti-elitist (which, in this context, means that expertise is not accorded any special respect, and snubs and disrespect of expertise are tolerated). This is one of my failures: a policy that I attempted to institute in Wikipedia's first year, but for which I did not muster adequate support, was the policy of respecting and deferring politely to experts. 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New York: Routledge. pp. 1– 107. ISBN 978-0-367-55571-9 . Further reading Balke, Jeff (March 2008). "For Music Fans: Wikipedia; MySpace" . Houston Chronicle . Broken Record (blog). Archived from the original on December 29, 2008 . Retrieved December 17, 2008 . Borland, John (August 14, 2007). "See Who's Editing Wikipedia – Diebold, the CIA, a Campaign" . Wired . Archived from the original on November 16, 2015 . Retrieved October 23, 2018 . Dee, Jonathan (July 1, 2007). "All the News That's Fit to Print Out" . The New York Times Magazine . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Giles, Jim (September 20, 2007). "Wikipedia 2.0 – Now with Added Trust" . New Scientist . Retrieved January 14, 2008 . Miliard, Mike (December 2, 2007). "Wikipedia Rules" . The Phoenix . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Poe, Marshall (September 1, 2006). "The Hive" . The Atlantic Monthly . Retrieved March 22, 2008 . Rosenwald, Michael S. (October 23, 2009). "Gatekeeper of D.C.'s entry: Road to city's Wikipedia page goes through a DuPont Circle bedroom" . The Washington Post . Retrieved October 22, 2009 . Runciman, David (May 28, 2009). "Like Boiling a Frog" . London Review of Books . Archived from the original on May 27, 2009 . Retrieved June 3, 2009 . Stix, Gary , "Wiki-Curious: Are you a 'busybody,' a 'hunter" or a 'dancer'?", Scientific American , vol. 332, no. 2 (February 2025), p. 18. "'Curiosity actually works by connecting pieces of information, not just acquiring them.'" Taylor, Chris (May 29, 2005). "It's a Wiki, Wiki World" . Time . Archived from the original on June 2, 2005 . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . "Technological Quarterly: Brain Scan: The Free-knowledge Fundamentalist" . The Economist . June 5, 2008 . Retrieved June 5, 2008 . Jimmy Wales changed the world with Wikipedia, the hugely popular online encyclopedia that anyone can edit. What will he do next? "Wikipedia probe into paid-for 'sockpuppet' entries" , BBC News, October 21, 2013. "The Decline of Wikipedia" Archived October 23, 2013, at the Library of Congress Web Archives, MIT Technology Review , October 22, 2013 "Edits to Wikipedia pages on Bell, Garner, Diallo traced to 1 Police Plaza" Archived March 13, 2015, at the Wayback Machine (March 2015), Capital Angola's Wikipedia Pirates Are Exposing Problems (March 2016), Motherboard "Dark Side of Wikipedia" . Full Measure . Archived from the original on August 4, 2016 . Retrieved April 17, 2016 . Full Measure with Sharyl Attkisson , April 17, 2016. (Includes video.) Wales, Jimmy (December 9, 2016). "How Wikipedia Works" . Cato Institute . Jimmy Wales, founder of Wikipedia, discusses the site, how it's treated by governments, and how it's fueled by its users. The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1: A Wiki is a Kind of Bus , Ideas, with Paul Kennedy , CBC Radio One , originally broadcast January 15, 2014. The webpage includes a link to the archived audio program (also found here ). The radio documentary discusses Wikipedia's history, development, and its place within the broader scope of the trend to democratized knowledge. It also includes interviews with several key Wikipedia staff and contributors, including Kat Walsh and Sue Gardner (audio, 53:58, Flash required). "So Is Wikipedia Cracking Up?" The Independent , February 3, 2009. Wikipedia's Year-End List Shows What the Internet Needed to Know in 2019 . Alyse Stanley, December 27, 2019, Gizmodo. Academic studies Leitch, Thomas (2014). Wikipedia U: Knowledge, authority, and a liberal education in the digital age . JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-1535-2 . Jensen, Richard (October 2012). "Military History on the Electronic Frontier: Wikipedia Fights the War of 1812" (PDF) . The Journal of Military History . 76 (4): 523– 556. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 21, 2012. Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Kertész, János (2012). Szolnoki, Attila (ed.). "Circadian Patterns of Wikipedia Editorial Activity: A Demographic Analysis" . PLOS ONE . 7 (1) e30091. arXiv : 1109.1746 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...730091Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0030091 . PMC 3260192 . PMID 22272279 . Goldman, Eric (2010). "Wikipedia's Labor Squeeze and its Consequences". Journal of Telecommunications and High Technology Law . 8 . SSRN 1458162 . ( A blog post by the author. ) Nielsen, Finn (August 2007). "Scientific Citations in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (8). arXiv : 0805.1154 . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.246.4536 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i8.1997 . S2CID 58893 . Pfeil, Ulrike; Zaphiris, Panayiotis; Chee Siang Ang (2006). "Cultural Differences in Collaborative Authoring of Wikipedia" . Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication . 12 (1): 88. doi : 10.1111/j.1083-6101.2006.00316.x . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Priedhorsky; Reid; Chen, Jilin; Shyong (Tony) K. Lam; Panciera, Katherine; Terveen, Loren ; Riedl, John (2007). "Creating, destroying, and restoring value in Wikipedia". Proceedings of the 2007 international ACM conference on Conference on supporting group work – Group '07 . pp. 259– 268. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.123.7456 . doi : 10.1145/1316624.1316663 . ISBN 978-1-59593-845-9 . S2CID 15350808 . Reagle, Joseph (2007). Do as I Do: Authorial Leadership in Wikipedia (PDF) . WikiSym '07: Proceedings of the 2007 International Symposium on Wikis . Montreal: ACM. hdl : 2047/d20002876 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Rijshouwer, Emiel (2019). Organizing Democracy. Power concentration and self-organization in the evolution of Wikipedia (PhD, Erasmus University Rotterdam) . Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. hdl : 1765/113937 . ISBN 978-94-028-1371-5 . OCLC 1081174169 . (Open access) Rosenzweig, Roy . Can History be Open Source? Wikipedia and the Future of the Past . (Originally published in The Journal of American History 93.1 (June 2006): 117–146.) Wilkinson, Dennis M.; Huberman, Bernardo A. (April 2007). "Assessing the Value of Cooperation in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (4). arXiv : cs/0702140 . Bibcode : 2007cs........2140W . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.342.6933 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i4.1763 . hdl : 2027.42/136037 . S2CID 10484077 . Halfaker, Aaron; R. Stuart Geiger; Morgan, Jonathan T.; Riedl, John (2012). "The Rise and Decline of an Open Collaboration Community". American Behavioral Scientist . 57 (5): 664. doi : 10.1177/0002764212469365 . S2CID 144208941 . Maggio, Lauren A.; Willinsky, John M. ; Steinberg, Ryan M.; Mietchen, Daniel; Wass, Joseph L.; Dong, Ting (2017). "Wikipedia as a gateway to biomedical research: The relative distribution and use of citations in the English Wikipedia" . PLOS One . 12 (12) e0190046. PLOS . Bibcode : 2017PLoSO..1290046M . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0190046 . PMC 5739466 . PMID 29267345 . Books Keen, Andrew (2007). The Cult of the Amateur . Doubleday/Currency. ISBN 978-0-385-52080-5 . (Substantial criticisms of Wikipedia and other web 2.0 projects.) Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Ayers, Phoebe; Matthews, Charles; Yates, Ben (2008). How Wikipedia Works: And How You Can Be a Part of It . San Francisco: No Starch Press. ISBN 978-1-59327-176-3 . Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia – The Missing Manual . O'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-0-596-51516-4 . (See book review by Baker, as listed hereafter.) Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia Reader's Guide . Sebastopol: Pogue Press. ISBN 978-0-596-52174-5 . Rafaeli, Sheizaf ; Ariel, Yaron (2008). "Online motivational factors: Incentives for participation and contribution in Wikipedia". In Barak, A. (ed.). Psychological aspects of cyberspace: Theory, research, applications . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press . pp. 243 –267. ISBN 978-0-521-69464-3 . Dalby, Andrew (2009). The World and Wikipedia: How We are Editing Reality . Siduri. ISBN 978-0-9562052-0-9 . Lih, Andrew (2009). The Wikipedia Revolution: How a Bunch of Nobodies Created the World's Greatest Encyclopedia . New York: Hyperion. ISBN 978-1-4013-0371-6 . O'Sullivan, Dan (2009). Wikipedia: a new community of practice? . Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-7433-7 . Rahmstorf, Olaf (2023). Wikipedia – die rationale Seite der Digitalisierung? (in German). transcript Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8394-5862-4 . Reagle, Joseph Michael Jr. (2010). Good Faith Collaboration: The Culture of Wikipedia . Cambridge, MA: the MIT Press . ISBN 978-0-262-01447-2 . Retrieved October 25, 2015 . Jemielniak, Dariusz (2014). Common Knowledge? An Ethnography of Wikipedia . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press . ISBN 978-0-8047-8944-8 . Reagle, Joseph; Koerner, Jackie, eds. (2020). Wikipedia @ 20: Stories of an Incomplete Revolution . MIT Press . doi : 10.7551/mitpress/12366.001.0001 . ISBN 978-0-262-53817-6 . Retrieved October 13, 2020 . Bruckman, Amy S. (2022). Should You Believe Wikipedia?: Online Communities and the Construction of Knowledge . Cambridge University Press. doi : 10.1017/9781108780704 . ISBN 978-1-108-78070-4 . Book review–related articles Baker, Nicholson . "The Charms of Wikipedia" . The New York Review of Books , March 20, 2008. Retrieved December 17, 2008. (Book rev. of The Missing Manual , by John Broughton, as listed previously.) Crovitz, L. Gordon . "Wikipedia's Old-Fashioned Revolution: The online encyclopedia is fast becoming the best." (Originally published in Wall Street Journal online – April 6, 2009.) Postrel, Virginia , "Who Killed Wikipedia? : A hardened corps of volunteer editors is the only force protecting Wikipedia. They might also be killing it" , Pacific Standard , November/December 2014 issue. External links Official website – multilingual portal (contains links to all language editions) Wikipedia on Twitter Wikipedia on Instagram Wikipedia collected news and commentary at The Guardian Wikipedia topic page at The New York Times Video of TED talk by Jimmy Wales on the birth of Wikipedia Ro, Christine (February 19, 2025). "Why these scientists devote time to editing and updating Wikipedia". Nature . doi : 10.1038/d41586-025-00244-7 . 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Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 References 2 Literature cited Simplicidentata العربية فارسی 日本語 Slovenčina Српски / srpski Türkçe Українська 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikispecies Wikidata item Simplicidentata Temporal range: Early Paleocene to present Marsh rice rat ( Oryzomys palustris ) Scientific classification Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Grandorder: Glires Mirorder: Simplicidentata Weber, 1904 Orders † Mixodontia Rodentia † Sinomylus † Mixodontia Rodentia † Sinomylus Simplicidentata is a group of mammals that includes the rodents (order Rodentia) and their closest extinct relatives. The term has historically been used as an alternative to Rodentia, contrasting the rodents (which have one pair of upper incisors) with their close relatives the lagomorphs (which have two). [ 1 ] However, Simplicidentata is now defined as including all members of Glires (the clade formed by lagomorphs and rodents) that share a more recent common ancestor with living rodents than with living lagomorphs. Thus, Simplicidentata is a total group that is more inclusive than Rodentia, a crown group that includes all living rodents, their last common ancestor, and all its descendants. [ 2 ] Under this definition, the loss of the second pair of upper incisors is a synapomorphic (shared derived) feature of Simplicidentata. [ 3 ] The loss of the second upper premolar (P2) has also been considered as synapomorphic for Simplicidentata, but the primitive simplicidentate Sinomylus does have a P2. [ 4 ] This sense of Simplicidentata was introduced by Chuankui Li and colleagues in 1987, who ranked Simplicidentata as a superorder including Rodentia and the extinct Mixodontia , contrasted with the superorder Duplicidentata (including Lagomorpha and the extinct Mimotonida ). [ 5 ] In their 1997 book Classification of Mammals , Malcolm C. McKenna and Susan K. Bell ranked Simplicidentata as a mirorder within the grandorder Anagalida (also including lagomorphs, macroscelideans , and some additional extinct groups). Within Simplicidentata, they recognized the orders Mixodontia (including only the extinct family Eurymylidae from the Paleocene and Eocene of Asia) and Rodentia. [ 6 ] McKenna and Bell's decision to use Simplicidentata was criticized by reviewer Frederick S. Szalay, who preferred to simply place the Mixodontia within Rodentia, which would leave Simplicidentata unnecessary. [ 7 ] In The Beginning of the Age of Mammals (2006), Kenneth Rose recognized a mirorder Simplicidentata, including Mixodontia, Rodentia, and the genus Sinomylus (not placed in either order), within the superorder Anagalida. [ 8 ] References ^ Landry, 1999, p. 286 ^ Meng et al., 2009, p. 1 ^ Meng and Wyss, 1994, p. 201 ^ McKenna and Meng, 2001, p. 565 ^ Meng and Wyss, 1994, p. 199 ^ McKenna and Bell, 1997, p. 113 ^ Szalay, 1999, p. 194 ^ Rose, 2006, pp. 9, 315 Literature cited Landry, S.O., Jr. 1999. A proposal for a new classification and nomenclature for the Glires (Lagomorpha and Rodentia). Mitteilungen aus dem Museum für Naturkunde in Berlin, Zoologische Reihe 75(2):283–316. McKenna, M.C. and Bell, S.K. 1997. Classification of Mammals: Above the species level. New York: Columbia University Press , 631 pp. .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} ISBN 978-0-231-11013-6 McKenna, M.C. and Meng, J. 2001. A primitive relative of rodents from the Chinese Paleocene. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 21(3):565–572. Meng, J. and Wyss, A.R. 1994. Enamel microstructure of Tribosphenomys (Mammalia, Glires): Character analysis and systematic implications. Journal of Mammalian Evolution 2(3):185–203. Meng, J. and Wyss, A.R. 2001. The morphology of Tribosphenomys (Rodentiaformes, Mammalia): phylogenetic implications for basal Glires. Journal of Mammalian Evolution 8(1):1–71. Meng, J., Hu, Y. and Li, C. 2003. The osteology of Rhombomylus (Mammalia, Glires): implications for phylogeny and evolution of Glires. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History , 275:1–247. Meng, J., Kraatz, B.P., Wang, Y., Ni, X., Gebo, D.L. and Beard, K.C. 2009. A new species of Gomphos (Glires, Mammalia) from the Eocene of the Erlian Basin, Nei Mongol, China. American Museum Novitates 3670:1–11. Rose, K.D. 2006. The Beginning of the Age of Mammals. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press , 428 pp. ISBN 978-0-8018-8472-6 Szalay, F.S. 1999. [Review of] Classification of Mammals: Above the Species Level (subscription required). Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 19(1):191–195. Taxon identifiers Simplicidentata Wikidata : Q7520911 Wikispecies : Simplicidentata Paleobiology Database : 93645 Wikidata : Q7520911 Wikispecies : Simplicidentata Paleobiology Database : 93645 Glires Mammal unranked clades Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles with 'species' microformats This page was last edited on 15 June 2025, at 11:16 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Events Toggle Events subsection 1.1 Pre-1600 1.2 1601–1900 1.3 1901–present 1.1 Pre-1600 1.2 1601–1900 1.3 1901–present 2 Births Toggle Births subsection 2.1 Pre-1600 2.2 1601–1900 2.3 1901–present 2.1 Pre-1600 2.2 1601–1900 2.3 1901–present 3 Deaths Toggle Deaths subsection 3.1 Pre-1600 3.2 1601–1900 3.3 1901–present 3.1 Pre-1600 3.2 1601–1900 3.3 1901–present 4 Holidays and observances 5 References 6 External links January 17 Afrikaans Alemannisch Алтай тил አማርኛ Anarâškielâ Ænglisc Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Авар Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali বাংলা Banjar 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Български བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština ChiShona Corsu Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego 贛語 ગુજરાતી 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî Хальмг 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Ido Igbo Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kiswahili Коми Kongo Kotava Kreyòl ayisyen Kurdî ລາວ Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Livvinkarjala La .lojban. 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Events Pre-1600 38 BC – Octavian divorces his wife Scribonia and marries Livia Drusilla , ending the fragile peace between the Second Triumvirate and Sextus Pompey . [ 1 ] 1362 – Saint Marcellus' flood kills at least 25,000 people on the shores of the North Sea. [ 2 ] 1377 – Pope Gregory XI reaches Rome, after deciding to move the Papacy back to Rome from Avignon . [ 3 ] 1524 – Giovanni da Verrazzano sets sail westward from Madeira to find a sea route to the Pacific Ocean. [ 4 ] 1562 – France grants religious toleration to the Huguenots in the Edict of Saint-Germain . [ 5 ] 1595 – During the French Wars of Religion , Henry IV of France declares war on Spain. [ 6 ] 1601–1900 1608 – Emperor Susenyos I of Ethiopia surprises an Oromo army at Ebenat; his army reportedly kills 12,000 Oromo at the cost of 400 of his men. [ 7 ] 1648 – England's Long Parliament passes the " Vote of No Addresses ", breaking off negotiations with King Charles I and thereby setting the scene for the second phase of the English Civil War . [ 8 ] 1649 – The Second Ormonde Peace creates an alliance between the Irish Royalists and Confederates during the War of the Three Kingdoms . The coalition was then decisively defeated during the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland . [ 9 ] 1773 – Captain James Cook leads the first expedition to sail south of the Antarctic Circle . [ 10 ] 1781 – American Revolutionary War : Battle of Cowpens : Continental troops under Brigadier General Daniel Morgan defeat British forces under Lieutenant Colonel Banastre Tarleton at the battle in South Carolina . [ 11 ] 1799 – Maltese patriot Dun Mikiel Xerri , along with a number of other patriots, is executed. [ 12 ] 1811 – Mexican War of Independence : In the Battle of Calderón Bridge , a heavily outnumbered Spanish force of 6,000 troops defeats nearly 100,000 Mexican revolutionaries. [ 13 ] 1852 – The United Kingdom signs the Sand River Convention with the South African Republic . [ 14 ] 1873 – A group of Modoc warriors defeats the United States Army in the First Battle of the Stronghold , part of the Modoc War . [ 15 ] 1885 – A British force defeats a large Dervish army at the Battle of Abu Klea in the Sudan . [ 16 ] 1893 – Lorrin A. Thurston , along with the Citizens' Committee of Public Safety , led the Overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii and the government of Queen Liliʻuokalani . [ 17 ] 1899 – The United States takes possession of Wake Island in the Pacific Ocean. [ 18 ] 1901–present 1903 – El Yunque National Forest in Puerto Rico becomes part of the United States National Forest System as the Luquillo Forest Reserve. 1904 – Anton Chekhov 's The Cherry Orchard receives its premiere performance at the Moscow Art Theatre . [ 19 ] 1912 – British polar explorer Captain Robert Falcon Scott reaches the South Pole , one month after Roald Amundsen . 1915 – Russia defeats Ottoman Turkey in the Battle of Sarikamish during the Caucasus Campaign of World War I . 1917 – The United States pays Denmark $25 million for the Virgin Islands . [ 20 ] 1918 – Finnish Civil War : The first serious battles take place between the Red Guards and the White Guard . 1920 – Alcohol Prohibition begins in the United States as the Volstead Act goes into effect. [ 21 ] 1941 – Franco-Thai War : Vichy French forces inflict a decisive defeat over the Royal Thai Navy . 1943 – World War II : Greek submarine Papanikolis captures the 200-ton sailing vessel Agios Stefanos and mans her with part of her crew. 1944 – World War II: Allied forces launch the first of four assaults on Monte Cassino with the intention of breaking through the Winter Line and seizing Rome, an effort that would ultimately take four months and cost 105,000 Allied casualties. 1945 – World War II: The Vistula–Oder Offensive forces German troops out of Warsaw . 1945 – The SS-Totenkopfverbände begin the evacuation of the Auschwitz concentration camp as the Red Army closes in. 1945 – Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg is taken into Soviet custody while in Hungary; he is never publicly seen again. [ 22 ] 1946 – The UN Security Council holds its first session. 1948 – The Renville Agreement between the Netherlands and Indonesia is ratified. 1950 – The Great Brink's Robbery : Eleven thieves steal more than $2 million from an armored car company's offices in Boston . [ 23 ] 1950 – United Nations Security Council Resolution 79 relating to arms control is adopted. 1961 – U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower delivers a televised farewell address to the nation three days before leaving office, in which he warns against the accumulation of power by the " military–industrial complex " as well as the dangers of massive spending, especially deficit spending. 1961 – Former Congolese Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba is murdered together with former Minister of Youth and Sports of the Republic of the Congo Maurice Mpolo and former Senator from Kasai Province Joseph Okito in circumstances suggesting the support and complicity of the governments of Belgium and the United States. 1966 – Palomares incident : A B-52 bomber collides with a KC-135 Stratotanker over Spain, killing seven airmen, and dropping three 70-kiloton nuclear bombs near the town of Palomares and another one into the sea. 1969 – Black Panther Party members Bunchy Carter and John Huggins are killed during a meeting in Campbell Hall on the campus of UCLA . 1977 – Capital punishment in the United States resumes after a ten-year hiatus, as convicted murderer Gary Gilmore is executed by firing squad in Utah. 1981 – President of the Philippines Ferdinand Marcos lifts martial law eight years and five months after declaring it. 1991 – Gulf War : Operation Desert Storm begins early in the morning as aircraft strike positions across Iraq, it is also the first major combat sortie for the F-117 . LCDR Scott Speicher's F/A-18C Hornet from VFA-81 is shot down by a Mig-25 and is the first American casualty of the War. Iraq fires eight Scud missiles into Israel in an unsuccessful bid to provoke Israeli retaliation. 1991 – Crown Prince Harald of Norway becomes King Harald V , following the death of his father, King Olav V . 1992 – During a visit to South Korea, Japanese Prime Minister Kiichi Miyazawa apologizes for forcing Korean women into sexual slavery during World War II. 1994 – The 6.7 M w Northridge earthquake shakes the Greater Los Angeles Area with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX ( Violent ), leaving 57 people dead and more than 8,700 injured. 1995 – The 6.9 M w Great Hanshin earthquake shakes the southern Hyōgo Prefecture with a maximum Shindo of 7, leaving 5,502–6,434 people dead, and 251,301–310,000 displaced. 1996 – The Czech Republic applies for membership in the European Union . 1997 – Cape Canaveral Air Force Station : A Delta II carrying the GPS IIR-1 satellite explodes 13 seconds after launch, dropping 250 tons of burning rocket remains around the launch pad. 1998 – Clinton–Lewinsky scandal : Matt Drudge breaks the story of the Bill Clinton – Monica Lewinsky affair on his Drudge Report website. 2002 – Mount Nyiragongo erupts in the Democratic Republic of the Congo , displacing an estimated 400,000 people. 2007 – The Doomsday Clock is set to five minutes to midnight in response to North Korea 's nuclear testing. 2008 – British Airways Flight 38 crashes short of the runway at Heathrow Airport , injuring 47. [ 24 ] 2010 – Rioting begins between Muslim and Christian groups in Jos, Nigeria , results in at least 200 deaths. 2013 – Former cyclist Lance Armstrong confesses to his doping in an airing of Oprah's Next Chapter . [ 25 ] 2013 – Shahzad Luqman is murdered by members of Golden Dawn in Petralona , Athens , leading the creation of new measures to combat race-based attacks in Greece . [ 26 ] 2016 – President Barack Obama announces the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action , an agreement intended to limit Iran's nuclear program. [ 27 ] 2017 – The search for Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 is announced to be suspended. [ 28 ] 2023 – An avalanche strikes Nyingchi, Tibet , killing 28 people. [ 29 ] Births Pre-1600 1342 – Philip II, Duke of Burgundy (died 1404) 1429 – Antonio del Pollaiuolo , Italian artist (diedc. 1498 ) 1463 – Frederick III, Elector of Saxony (died 1525) 1463 – Antoine Duprat , French cardinal (died 1535) 1472 – Guidobaldo da Montefeltro , Italian captain (died 1508) 1484 – George Spalatin , German priest and reformer (died 1545) 1501 – Leonhart Fuchs , German physician and botanist (died 1566) 1504 – Pope Pius V (died 1572) [ 30 ] 1517 – Henry Grey, 1st Duke of Suffolk , English Duke (died 1554) 1560 – Gaspard Bauhin , Swiss botanist, physician, and academic (died 1624) 1574 – Robert Fludd , English physician, astrologer, and mathematician (died 1637) 1593 – William Backhouse , English alchemist and astrologer (died 1662) 1600 – Pedro Calderón de la Barca , Spanish playwright and poet (died 1681) 1601–1900 1612 – Thomas Fairfax , English general and politician (died 1671) 1640 – Jonathan Singletary Dunham , American settler (died 1724) 1659 – Antonio Veracini , Italian violinist and composer (died 1745) 1666 – Antonio Maria Valsalva , Italian anatomist and physician (died 1723) 1686 – Archibald Bower , Scottish historian and author (died 1766) 1693 – Melchor de Navarrete , Spanish colonial governor of Cartagena de Indias (Colombia, 1739 – 1742); of Spanish Florida (1749 – 1752); and of Yucatán (Mexico, 1754 – 1758) (died 1761) [ 31 ] 1706 – Benjamin Franklin , American publisher, inventor, and politician, 6th President of Pennsylvania (died 1790) 1712 – John Stanley , English organist and composer (died 1786) 1719 – William Vernon , American businessman (died 1806) 1728 – Johann Gottfried Müthel , German pianist and composer (died 1788) 1732 – Stanisław August Poniatowski , Polish-Lithuanian king (died 1798) 1734 – François-Joseph Gossec , French composer and conductor (died 1829) 1761 – Sir James Hall, 4th Baronet , Scottish geologist and geophysicist (died 1832) 1789 – August Neander , German historian and theologian (died 1850) 1793 – Antonio José Martínez , Spanish-American priest, rancher and politician (died 1867) 1814 – Ellen Wood , English author (died 1887) 1820 – Anne Brontë , English author and poet (died 1849) 1828 – Lewis A. Grant , American lawyer and general, Medal of Honor recipient (died 1918) 1828 – Ede Reményi , Hungarian violinist and composer (died 1898) 1832 – Henry Martyn Baird , American historian and academic (died 1906) 1834 – August Weismann , German biologist, zoologist, and geneticist (died 1914) 1850 – Joaquim Arcoverde de Albuquerque Cavalcanti , Brazilian cardinal (died 1930) 1850 – Alexander Taneyev , Russian pianist and composer (died 1918) 1851 – A. B. Frost , American author and illustrator (died 1928) 1853 – Alva Belmont , American suffragist (died 1933) [ 32 ] 1853 – T. Alexander Harrison , American painter and academic (died 1930) 1857 – Wilhelm Kienzl , Austrian pianist, composer, and conductor (died 1941) 1857 – Eugene Augustin Lauste , French-American engineer (died 1935) 1858 – Tomás Carrasquilla , Colombian author (died 1940) 1860 – Douglas Hyde , Irish academic and politician, 1st President of Ireland (died 1949) 1863 – David Lloyd George , Welsh lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (died 1945) 1863 – Konstantin Stanislavski , Russian actor and director (died 1938) 1865 – Sir Charles Fergusson, 7th Baronet , English general and politician, 3rd Governor-General of New Zealand (died 1951) 1867 – Carl Laemmle , German-born American film producer, co-founded Universal Studios (died 1939) 1867 – Sir Alfred Rawlinson, 3rd Baronet , English colonel, pilot, and polo player (died 1934) 1871 – David Beatty, 1st Earl Beatty , English admiral (died 1936) 1871 – Nicolae Iorga , Romanian historian and politician, 34th Prime Minister of Romania (died 1940) 1875 – Florencio Sánchez , Uruguayan journalist and playwright (died 1910) 1876 – Frank Hague , American lawyer and politician, 30th Mayor of Jersey City (died 1956) 1877 – Marie Zdeňka Baborová-Čiháková , Czech botanist and zoologist (died 1937) [ 33 ] 1877 – May Gibbs , English-Australian author and illustrator (died 1969) 1880 – Mack Sennett , Canadian-American actor, director, and producer (died 1960) 1881 – Antoni Łomnicki , Polish mathematician and academic (died 1941) 1881 – Harry Price , English psychologist and author (died 1948) 1882 – Noah Beery, Sr. , American actor (died 1946) 1883 – Compton Mackenzie , English-Scottish author, poet, and playwright (died 1972) 1886 – Glenn L. Martin , American pilot and businessman, founded the Glenn L. Martin Company (died 1955) 1887 – Ola Raknes , Norwegian psychoanalyst and philologist (died 1975) 1888 – Babu Gulabrai , Indian philosopher and author (died 1963) 1897 – Marcel Petiot , French physician and serial killer (died 1946) 1898 – Lela Mevorah , Serbian librarian (died 1972) [ 34 ] 1899 – Al Capone , American mob boss (died 1947) 1899 – Robert Maynard Hutchins , American philosopher and academic (died 1977) 1899 – Nevil Shute , English engineer and author (died 1960) 1901–present 1901 – Aron Gurwitsch , Lithuanian-American philosopher and author (died 1973) 1904 – Hem Vejakorn , Thai painter and illustrator (died 1969) 1905 – Ray Cunningham , American baseball player (died 2005) 1905 – Peggy Gilbert , American saxophonist and bandleader (died 2007) 1905 – Eduard Oja , Estonian composer, conductor, educator, and critic (died 1950) 1905 – Guillermo Stábile , Argentinian footballer and manager (died 1966) 1905 – Jan Zahradníček , Czech poet and translator (died 1960) 1907 – Henk Badings , Indonesian-Dutch composer and engineer (died 1987) 1907 – Alfred Wainwright , British fellwalker, guidebook author and illustrator (died 1991) 1908 – Cus D'Amato , American boxing manager and trainer (died 1985) 1911 – Busher Jackson , Canadian ice hockey player (died 1966) 1911 – John S. McCain Jr. , American admiral (died 1981) 1911 – George Stigler , American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (died 1991) 1914 – Anacleto Angelini , Italian-Chilean businessman (died 2007) 1914 – Irving Brecher , American director, producer, and screenwriter (died 2008) 1914 – Howard Marion-Crawford , English actor (died 1969) [ 35 ] 1914 – Paul Royle , Australian lieutenant and pilot (died 2015) 1914 – William Stafford , American poet and author (died 1993) 1916 – Peter Frelinghuysen Jr. , American lieutenant and politician (died 2011) 1917 – M. G. Ramachandran , Indian actor, director, and politician, 3rd Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu (died 1987) 1918 – Keith Joseph , English lawyer and politician, Secretary of State for Education (died 1994) 1918 – George M. Leader , American soldier and politician, 36th Governor of Pennsylvania (died 2013) 1920 – Georges Pichard , French author and illustrator (died 2003) 1921 – Jackie Henderson , Scottish footballer (died 2005) [ 36 ] 1921 – Asghar Khan , Pakistani general and politician (died 2018) 1921 – Charlie Mitten , English footballer and manager (died 2002) [ 37 ] 1921 – Antonio Prohías , Cuban cartoonist (died 1998) 1922 – Luis Echeverría , Mexican academic and politician, 50th President of Mexico (died 2022) [ 38 ] 1922 – Nicholas Katzenbach , American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 65th United States Attorney General (died 2012) 1922 – Betty White , American actress, game show panelist, television personality, and animal rights activist (died 2021) [ 39 ] 1923 – Rangeya Raghav , Indian author and playwright (died 1962) 1924 – Rik De Saedeleer , Belgian footballer and journalist (died 2013) 1924 – Jewel Plummer Cobb , American biologist, cancer researcher, and academic (died 2017) 1925 – Gunnar Birkerts , Latvian-American architect (died 2017) 1925 – Robert Cormier , American author and journalist (died 2000) 1925 – Abdul Hafeez Kardar , Pakistani cricketer and author (died 1996) 1926 – Newton N. Minow , American lawyer and politician (died 2023) [ 40 ] 1926 – Moira Shearer , Scottish-English ballerina and actress (died 2006) 1926 – Clyde Walcott , Barbadian cricketer (died 2006) 1927 – Thomas Anthony Dooley III , American physician and humanitarian (died 1961) 1927 – Eartha Kitt , American actress and singer (died 2008) [ 41 ] 1927 – Harlan Mathews , American lawyer and politician (died 2014) 1927 – E. W. Swackhamer , American director and producer (died 1994) 1928 – Jean Barraqué , French composer (died 1973) 1928 – Vidal Sassoon , English-American hairdresser and businessman (died 2012) [ 42 ] 1929 – Philip Latham , British actor (died 2020) [ 43 ] 1929 – Jacques Plante , Canadian-Swiss ice hockey player, coach, and sportscaster (died 1986) 1929 – Tan Boon Teik , Malaysian-Singaporean lawyer and politician, Attorney-General of Singapore (died 2012) 1931 – James Earl Jones , American actor (died 2024) [ 44 ] 1931 – Douglas Wilder , American sergeant and politician, 66th Governor of Virginia [ 42 ] 1931 – Don Zimmer , American baseball player, coach, and manager (died 2014) 1932 – John Cater , English actor (died 2009) [ 45 ] 1932 – Sheree North , American actress and dancer (died 2005) [ 46 ] 1933 – Dalida , Egyptian-French singer and actress (died 1987) 1933 – Prince Sadruddin Aga Khan , French-Pakistani diplomat, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (died 2003) 1933 – Shari Lewis , American actress, puppeteer/ventriloquist, and television host (died 1998) [ 42 ] 1934 – Donald Cammell , Scottish-American director and screenwriter (died 1996) [ 47 ] 1935 – Ruth Ann Minner , American businesswoman and politician, 72nd Governor of Delaware (died 2021) 1936 – John Boyd , English academic and diplomat, British ambassador to Japan (died 2019) 1936 – A. Thangathurai , Sri Lankan lawyer and politician (died 1997) 1937 – Alain Badiou , French philosopher and academic 1938 – John Bellairs , American author and academic (died 1991) 1938 – Toini Gustafsson , Swedish cross country skier 1939 – Christodoulos of Athens , Greek archbishop (died 2008) 1939 – Maury Povich , American talk show host and producer [ 48 ] 1940 – Nerses Bedros XIX Tarmouni , Egyptian-Armenian patriarch (died 2015) 1940 – Kipchoge Keino , Kenyan athlete [ 42 ] 1940 – Tabaré Vázquez , Uruguayan physician and politician, 39th President of Uruguay (died 2020) 1941 – István Horthy, Jr. , Hungarian physicist and architect 1942 – Muhammad Ali , American boxer and activist (died 2016) [ 49 ] 1942 – Ita Buttrose , Australian journalist and author 1942 – Ulf Hoelscher , German violinist and educator 1942 – Nigel McCulloch , English bishop 1943 – Chris Montez , American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1943 – René Préval , Haitian agronomist and politician, 52nd President of Haiti (died 2017) 1944 – Ann Oakley , English sociologist, author, and academic 1945 – Javed Akhtar , Indian poet, playwright, and composer 1945 – Anne Cutler , Australian psychologist and academic (died 2022) 1947 – Joanna David , English actress [ 48 ] 1947 – Jane Elliot , American actress [ 48 ] 1948 – Davíð Oddsson , Icelandic politician, 21st Prime Minister of Iceland 1949 – Anita Borg , American computer scientist and academic (died 2003) 1949 – Gyude Bryant , Liberian businessman and politician (died 2014) 1949 – Augustin Dumay , French violinist and conductor 1949 – Andy Kaufman , American actor and comedian (died 1984) [ 42 ] 1949 – Mick Taylor , English singer-songwriter and guitarist [ 42 ] 1950 – Luis López Nieves , Puerto Rican-American author and academic 1952 – Tom Deitz , American author (died 2009) [ 50 ] 1952 – Darrell Porter , American baseball player and sportscaster (died 2002) 1952 – Ryuichi Sakamoto , Japanese pianist, composer, and producer (died 2023) [ 51 ] 1953 – Jeff Berlin , American bass player and educator 1953 – Carlos Johnson , American singer and guitarist 1954 – Robert F. Kennedy, Jr. , American environmental lawyer, writer, and conspiracy theorist 1955 – Steve Earle , American singer-songwriter, musician, record producer, author and actor [ 48 ] 1955 – Pietro Parolin , Italian cardinal 1955 – Steve Javie , American basketball player and referee 1956 – Damian Green , English journalist and politician 1956 – Paul Young , English singer-songwriter and guitarist [ 48 ] 1957 – Steve Harvey , American actor, comedian, television personality and game show host [ 52 ] 1957 – Ann Nocenti , American journalist and author 1958 – Tony Kouzarides , English biologist, cancer researcher 1959 – Susanna Hoffs , American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actress [ 48 ] 1960 – John Crawford , American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1960 – Chili Davis , Jamaican-American baseball player and coach 1961 – Brian Helgeland , American director, producer, and screenwriter [ 48 ] 1962 – Jun Azumi , Japanese broadcaster and politician, 46th Japanese Minister of Finance 1962 – Jim Carrey , Canadian-American actor, comedian, and producer [ 48 ] 1962 – Sebastian Junger , American journalist and author [ 42 ] 1962 – Denis O'Hare , American actor and singer [ 48 ] 1963 – Colin Gordon , English footballer, agent, manager and chief executive [ 53 ] 1963 – Kai Hansen , German singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1964 – Michelle Obama , American lawyer and activist, 44th First Lady of the United States [ 48 ] 1964 – John Schuster , Samoan-New Zealand rugby player 1965 – Sylvain Turgeon , Canadian ice hockey player 1966 – Trish Johnson , English golfer 1966 – Joshua Malina , American actor [ 48 ] 1966 – Shabba Ranks , Jamaican rapper, musician, and songwriter [ 48 ] 1967 – Richard Hawley , English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1968 – Rowan Pelling , English journalist and author 1968 – Ilja Leonard Pfeijffer , Dutch author, poet, and scholar 1969 – Naveen Andrews , English actor [ 48 ] 1969 – Lukas Moodysson , Swedish director, screenwriter, and author 1969 – Tiësto , Dutch DJ and producer [ 48 ] 1970 – Cássio Alves de Barros , Brazilian footballer 1970 – Jeremy Roenick , American ice hockey player and actor 1970 – Genndy Tartakovsky , Russian-American animator, director, and producer [ 54 ] 1971 – Giorgos Balogiannis , Greek basketball player 1971 – Richard Burns , English race car driver (died 2005) 1971 – Kid Rock , American singer-songwriter, producer, and actor [ 48 ] 1971 – Sylvie Testud , French actress, director, and screenwriter 1973 – Cuauhtémoc Blanco , Mexican footballer and actor 1973 – Chris Bowen , Australian politician, 37th Treasurer of Australia 1973 – Liz Ellis , Australian netball player and sportscaster 1973 – Aaron Ward , Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster 1974 – Yang Chen , Chinese footballer and manager 1974 – Vesko Kountchev , Bulgarian viola player, composer, and producer 1974 – Derrick Mason , American football player 1975 – Freddy Rodriguez , American actor [ 48 ] 1977 – Leigh Whannell , Australian actor, director, screenwriter, and producer [ 48 ] 1978 – Lisa Llorens , Australian Paralympian [ 55 ] 1978 – Ricky Wilson , English singer-songwriter 1980 – Maksim Chmerkovskiy , Ukrainian-American dancer and choreographer [ 42 ] 1980 – Zooey Deschanel , American singer-songwriter and actress [ 48 ] 1980 – Modestas Stonys , Lithuanian footballer 1981 – Warren Feeney , Northern Irish footballer and manager 1981 – Ray J , American singer, actor, and television personality [ 56 ] 1981 – Michael Zigomanis , Canadian ice hockey player [ 57 ] 1982 – Dwyane Wade , American basketball player [ 42 ] 1982 – Andrew Webster , Australian rugby league player and coach [ 58 ] 1982 – Amanda Wilkinson , Canadian singer [ 48 ] 1983 – Álvaro Arbeloa , Spanish footballer 1983 – Ryan Gage , English actor [ 48 ] 1983 – Johannes Herber , German basketball player 1983 – Rick Kelly , Australian race car driver 1983 – Marcelo Garcia , Brazilian martial artist 1984 – Calvin Harris , Scottish singer-songwriter, DJ, and producer [ 48 ] 1984 – Dexter Lumis , American wrestler [ 59 ] 1985 – Pablo Barrientos , Argentinian footballer 1985 – Simone Simons , Dutch singer-songwriter 1986 – Viktor Stålberg , Swedish ice hockey player [ 60 ] 1987 – Cody Decker , American baseball player 1987 – Oleksandr Usyk , Ukrainian boxer [ 61 ] 1988 – Andrea Antonelli , Italian motorcycle racer (died 2013) 1988 – Earl Clark , American basketball player [ 62 ] 1988 – Will Genia , Australian rugby player 1988 – Jonathan Keltz , American actor [ 48 ] 1988 – Héctor Moreno , Mexican footballer 1989 – Taylor Jordan , American baseball player 1989 – Kelly Marie Tran , American actress [ 48 ] 1990 – Santiago Tréllez , Colombian footballer 1990 – Tyler Zeller , American basketball player [ 63 ] 1991 – Trevor Bauer , American baseball player 1991 – Willa Fitzgerald , American actress [ 42 ] 1991 – Esapekka Lappi , Finnish rally driver 1991 – Alise Post , American BMX rider 1992 – Stanislav Galiev , Russian ice hockey player [ 64 ] 1994 – Lucy Boynton , American-English actress [ 42 ] 1994 – Mark Steketee , Australian cricketer 1995 – Indya Moore , American actor and model [ 65 ] 1996 – Allonzo Trier , American basketball player [ 66 ] 1997 – Jake Paul , American boxer, actor, rapper, and social media personality [ 67 ] 1997 – Kyle Tucker , American baseball player [ 68 ] 1998 – Sophie Molineux , Australian cricketer 1998 – Jeff Reine-Adélaïde , French footballer 1999 – Isa Briones , American actor and singer [ 69 ] 2000 – Kang Chan-hee , South Korean singer and actor [ 70 ] 2000 – Devlin DeFrancesco , Canadian race car driver [ 71 ] 2000 – Ayo Dosunmu , American basketball player [ 72 ] 2001 – Enzo Fernández , Argentinian footballer [ 73 ] 2002 – Samuel , American singer based in South Korea. [ 74 ] 2003 – Robin Roefs , Dutch footballer [ 75 ] 2005 – Peio Canales , Spanish footballer [ 76 ] Deaths Pre-1600 395 – Theodosius I , Roman emperor (born 347) 644 – Sulpitius the Pious , French bishop and saint 764 – Joseph of Freising , German bishop 1040 – Mas'ud I of Ghazni , Sultan of the Ghaznavid Empire (born 998) 1156 – André de Montbard , fifth Grand Master of the Knights Templar 1168 – Thierry, Count of Flanders (born 1099) 1229 – Albert of Riga , German bishop (born 1165) 1329 – Roseline of Villeneuve , Carthusian nun (born 1263) 1334 – John of Brittany, Earl of Richmond (born 1266) 1345 – Henry of Asti , Greek patriarch 1345 – Martino Zaccaria , Genoese Lord of Chios 1369 – Peter I of Cyprus (born 1328) 1456 – Elisabeth of Lorraine-Vaudémont , French translator (born 1395) 1468 – Skanderbeg , Albanian soldier and politician (born 1405) 1523 – Elisabeth of Hesse-Marburg , German landgravine (born 1466) [ 77 ] [ 78 ] 1588 – Qi Jiguang , Chinese general (born 1528) 1598 – Feodor I of Russia (born 1557) 1601–1900 1617 – Fausto Veranzio , Croatian bishop and lexicographer (born 1551) 1705 – John Ray , English botanist and historian (born 1627) 1718 – Benjamin Church , American colonel (born 1639) 1737 – Matthäus Daniel Pöppelmann , German architect (born 1662) 1738 – Jean-François Dandrieu , French organist and composer (born 1682) 1751 – Tomaso Albinoni , Italian violinist and composer (born 1671) 1826 – Juan Crisóstomo Arriaga , Spanish-French composer (born 1806) 1834 – Giovanni Aldini , Italian physicist and academic (born 1762) 1850 – Elizabeth Simcoe , English-Canadian painter and author (born 1762) [ 79 ] 1861 – Lola Montez , Irish actress and dancer (born 1821) 1863 – Horace Vernet , French painter (born 1789) 1869 – Alexander Dargomyzhsky , Russian composer (born 1813) 1878 – Edward Shepherd Creasy , English historian and jurist (born 1812) 1884 – Hermann Schlegel , German ornithologist and herpetologist (born 1804) 1887 – William Giblin , Australian lawyer and politician, 13th Premier of Tasmania (born 1840) 1888 – Big Bear , Canadian tribal chief (born 1825) 1891 – George Bancroft , American historian and politician, 17th United States Secretary of the Navy (born 1800) 1893 – Rutherford B. Hayes , American general, lawyer, and politician, 19th President of the United States (born 1822) 1896 – Augusta Hall, Baroness Llanover , Welsh writer and patron of the arts (born 1802) [ 80 ] 1901–present 1903 – Ignaz Wechselmann , Hungarian architect and philanthropist (born 1828) 1908 – Ferdinand IV, Grand Duke of Tuscany (born 1835) 1909 – Agathon Meurman , Finnish politician and journalist (born 1826) [ 81 ] 1909 – Francis Smith , Australian lawyer, judge, and politician, 4th Premier of Tasmania (born 1819) 1911 – Francis Galton , English polymath, anthropologist, and geographer (born 1822) 1927 – Juliette Gordon Low , American founder of the Girl Scouts of the USA (born 1860) 1930 – Gauhar Jaan , One of the first performers to record music on 78 rpm records in India. (born 1873) 1931 – Grand Duke Peter Nikolaevich of Russia (born 1864) 1932 – Ahmet Derviş , Turkish general (born 1881) 1932 – Albert Jacka , Australian captain, Victoria Cross recipient (born 1893) 1933 – Louis Comfort Tiffany , American stained glass artist (born 1848) 1936 – Mateiu Caragiale , Romanian journalist, author, and poet (born 1885) 1942 – Walther von Reichenau , German field marshal (born 1884) 1947 – Pyotr Krasnov , Russian historian and general (born 1869) 1947 – Jean-Marie-Rodrigue Villeneuve , Canadian cardinal (born 1883) 1951 – Jyoti Prasad Agarwala , Indian poet, playwright, and director (born 1903) 1952 – Walter Briggs Sr. , American businessman (born 1877) 1961 – Patrice Lumumba , Congolese politician, 1st Prime Minister of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (born 1925) 1970 – Simon Kovar , Russian-American bassoon player and educator (born 1890) 1970 – Billy Stewart , American rhythm and blues singer and pianist (born 1937) 1972 – Betty Smith , American author and playwright (born 1896) 1977 – Dougal Haston , Scottish mountaineer (born 1940) 1977 – Gary Gilmore , American murderer (born 1940) 1981 – Loukas Panourgias , Greek footballer and lawyer (born 1899) 1984 – Kostas Giannidis , Greek pianist, composer, and conductor (born 1903) 1987 – Hugo Fregonese , Argentinian director and screenwriter (born 1908) 1987 – Lawrence Kohlberg , American psychologist and author (born 1927) [ 82 ] 1988 – Percy Qoboza , South African journalist and author (born 1938) 1990 – Panka Pelishek , Bulgarian pianist and music teacher (born 1899) [ 83 ] 1991 – Olav V of Norway (born 1903) 1992 – Frank Pullen , English soldier and businessman (born 1915) 1993 – Albert Hourani , English-Lebanese historian and academic (born 1915) 1994 – Yevgeni Ivanov , Russian spy (born 1926) 1994 – Helen Stephens , American runner, shot putter, and discus thrower (born 1918) 1996 – Barbara Jordan , American lawyer and politician (born 1936) 1996 – Sylvia Lawler , English geneticist (born 1922) 1997 – Bert Kelly , Australian farmer and politician, 20th Australian Minister for the Navy (born 1912) 1997 – Clyde Tombaugh , American astronomer and academic, discovered Pluto (born 1906) 2000 – Philip Jones , English trumpet player and educator (born 1928) 2000 – Ion Rațiu , Romanian journalist and politician (born 1917) 2002 – Camilo José Cela , Spanish author and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (born 1916) 2002 – Roman Personov , Russian physicist and academic (born 1932) 2003 – Richard Crenna , American actor and director (born 1926) 2004 – Raymond Bonham Carter , English banker (born 1929) 2004 – Harry Brecheen , American baseball player and coach (born 1914) 2004 – Ray Stark , American film producer (born 1915) 2004 – Noble Willingham , American actor (born 1931) 2005 – Charlie Bell , Australian businessman (born 1960) 2005 – Virginia Mayo , American actress, singer, and dancer (born 1920) 2005 – Albert Schatz , American microbiologist and academic (born 1920) 2005 – Zhao Ziyang , Chinese politician, 3rd Premier of the People's Republic of China (born 1919) 2006 – Pierre Grondin , Canadian surgeon (born 1925) 2007 – Art Buchwald , American journalist and author (born 1925) 2007 – Yevhen Kushnaryov , Ukrainian engineer and politician (born 1951) 2007 – Uwe Nettelbeck , German record producer, journalist and film critic (born 1940) [ 84 ] 2008 – Bobby Fischer , American chess player and author (born 1943) [ 85 ] 2008 – Ernie Holmes , American football player, wrestler, and actor (born 1948) 2009 – Anders Isaksson , Swedish journalist and historian (born 1943) 2010 – Gaines Adams , American football player (born 1983) 2010 – Jyoti Basu , Indian politician and 9th Chief Minister of West Bengal (born 1914) 2010 – Michalis Papakonstantinou , Greek journalist and politician, Foreign Minister of Greece (born 1919) 2010 – Erich Segal , American author and screenwriter (born 1937) 2011 – Don Kirshner , American songwriter and producer (born 1934) 2012 – Julius Meimberg , German soldier and pilot (born 1917) 2012 – Johnny Otis , American singer-songwriter and producer (born 1921) 2012 – Marty Springstead , American baseball player and umpire (born 1937) 2013 – Mehmet Ali Birand , Turkish journalist and author (born 1941) 2013 – Jakob Arjouni , German author (born 1964) 2013 – Yves Debay , Belgian journalist (born 1954) 2013 – John Nkomo , Zimbabwean politician, Vice President of Zimbabwe (born 1934) 2013 – Lizbeth Webb , English soprano and actress (born 1926) 2014 – Syedna Mohammed Burhanuddin , Indian spiritual leader, 52nd Da'i al-Mutlaq (born 1915) 2014 – Francine Lalonde , Canadian educator and politician (born 1940) 2014 – Alistair McAlpine, Baron McAlpine of West Green , English businessman and politician (born 1942) 2014 – John J. McGinty III , American captain, Medal of Honor recipient (born 1940) 2014 – Sunanda Pushkar , Indian-Canadian businesswoman (born 1962) 2014 – Suchitra Sen , Indian film actress (born 1931) [ 86 ] 2015 – Ken Furphy , English footballer and manager (born 1931) 2015 – Faten Hamama , Egyptian actress and producer (born 1931) 2015 – Don Harron , Canadian actor and screenwriter (born 1924) 2016 – Blowfly , American singer-songwriter and producer (born 1939) 2016 – Melvin Day , New Zealand painter and historian (born 1923) 2016 – V. Rama Rao , Indian lawyer and politician, 12th Governor of Sikkim (born 1935) 2016 – Sudhindra Thirtha , Indian religious leader (born 1926) 2017 – Tirrel Burton , American football player and coach (born 1929) 2017 – Colo , American western lowland gorilla , first gorilla born in captivity and oldest recorded (born 1956) [ 87 ] [ 88 ] 2019 – S. Balakrishnan , Malayalam movie composer (born 1948) [ 89 ] 2020 – Derek Fowlds , British actor (born1937) [ 90 ] 2021 – Rasheed Naz , Pakistani film and television actor (born 1948) [ 91 ] 2022 – Birju Maharaj , Indian dancer (born 1937) [ 92 ] 2023 – Lucile Randon , French supercentenarian (born 1904) [ 93 ] 2025 – Didier Guillaume , French politician, 25th Minister of State of Monaco (born 1959) [ 94 ] 2025 – Jules Feiffer , American cartoonist, playwright, screenwriter, and educator (born 1929) [ 95 ] 2025 – Punsalmaagiin Ochirbat , Mongolian politician, 1st President of Mongolia (born 1942) [ 96 ] 2025 – Denis Law , Scottish footballer (born 1940) [ 97 ] [ 98 ] Holidays and observances Christian feast day : Anthony the Great Blessed Angelo Paoli Blessed Gamelbert of Michaelsbuch Charles Gore ( Church of England ) Jenaro Sánchez Delgadillo (one of Saints of the Cristero War ) Mildgyth Our Lady of Pontmain Sulpitius the Pious January 17 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Anthony the Great Blessed Angelo Paoli Blessed Gamelbert of Michaelsbuch Charles Gore ( Church of England ) Jenaro Sánchez Delgadillo (one of Saints of the Cristero War ) Mildgyth Our Lady of Pontmain Sulpitius the Pious January 17 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) National Day ( Menorca , Spain ) The opening ceremony of Patras Carnival , celebrated until Clean Monday . ( Patras , Greece ) References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Anthony A. 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ABC-CLIO. p. 650. ISBN 978-0-313-35797-8 . ^ "Colin Gordon" . neilbrown.newcastlefans.com . Retrieved 12 April 2025 . ^ Lenberg, Jeff (2006). Who's Who in Animated Cartoons: An International Guide to Film and TV Award-Winning and Legendary Animators . New York: Applause. p. 331. ISBN 9781557836717 . ^ Australian Media Guide : 2000 Paralympic Games Sydney . Sydney: Australian Paralympic Committee. 2000. p. 30. ^ Heching, Dan (17 January 2022). "Brandy Wishes 'Genius' Brother Ray J a Happy Birthday: He 'Can Do It All' " . People . Retrieved 17 January 2023 . ^ "Mike Zigomanis" . National Hockey League . Retrieved 16 January 2024 . ^ "Andrew Webster" . 22 October 2023. ^ "Dexter Lumis" . ESPN . 1 November 2022 . Retrieved 16 January 2024 . ^ "Viktor Stalberg" . National Hockey League . Retrieved 16 January 2024 . ^ Donald McRae (6 February 2023). "Oleksandr Usyk: 'There had been laughter in that gym. When I got there, only darkness and death' " . The Guardian . Retrieved 2023-02-06 . ^ "Earl Clark" . National Basketball Association . Retrieved 16 January 2024 . ^ "Tyler Zeller" . National Basketball Association . Retrieved 16 January 2024 . ^ "Stanislav Galiev" . National Hockey League . Retrieved 16 January 2024 . ^ Moore, Indya [@IndyaMoore] (January 17, 2020). "Thank you all so much for the birthday love!!" ( Tweet ) . Retrieved July 30, 2020 – via Twitter . ^ "Allonzo Trier" . National Basketball Association . Retrieved 16 January 2024 . ^ "Jake Paul – Rotten Tomatoes" . Rotten Tomatoes . Retrieved 2021-06-14 . ^ "Kyle Tucker" . Major League Baseball . Retrieved 13 January 2023 . ^ Nepales, Ruben V. (January 30, 2020). "Fil-Am Isa Briones went from Hamilton to a female lead role in Picard —and she's just 21" . Philippine Daily Inquirer . p. 1 . Retrieved April 6, 2020 . ^ "찬희 프로필" (in Korean). Naver. ^ "Devlin DeFrancesco" . Retrieved 2 October 2018 . ^ "Ayo Dosunmu" . National Basketball Association . 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OCLC 252454075 . ^ Agathon Meurman – Agathon Meurmanin sukuseura (in Finnish) ^ Rest, James; Power, Clark; Brabeck, Mary (May 1988). "Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987)". American Psychologist . 43 (5): 399– 400. doi : 10.1037/h0091958 . ^ Bozhikova, Milena (2001). "Pelishek, Panka" . Grove Music Online . Oxford Music Online. doi : 10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.2274258 . Retrieved 19 August 2025 . ^ Boyd, J (13 February 2007). "Obituary: Uwe Nettelbeck" . The Guardian . London . Retrieved 10 June 2021 . ^ "Bobby Fischer (March 9, 1943 – January 17, 2008) – The U.S. Chess Trust" . uschesstrust.org . Retrieved 31 January 2020 . ^ "Suchitra Sen, India's Greta Garbo, dies aged 82" . The National . January 18, 2014. ^ Lyttle, Jeff (1997). Gorillas in Our Midst: The Story of the Columbus Zoo Gorillas . Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University Press. ISBN 9780814207666 . ^ "Colo, the oldest gorilla in captivity, dies aged 60" . BBC News. January 18, 2017 . Retrieved June 20, 2023 . ^ "Noted music composer S Balakrishnan passes away" . Mathrubhumi . Archived from the original on 2019-01-19 . Retrieved 2019-01-17 . ^ Louise Randell. "Yes Minister and Heartbeat star Derek Fowlds dead at 82" . MSN . Retrieved 2020-01-18 . ^ "Veteran actor Rashid Naz passes away at 73" . Images . 2022-01-17 . Retrieved 2025-08-07 . ^ "Leading Indian dancer Birju Maharaj dies" . Reuters . 2022-01-17 . Retrieved 2022-01-18 . ^ "The world's oldest known person, French nun Lucile Randon, dead at 118" . France 24 . 2023-01-17 . Retrieved 2023-03-05 . ^ Beaudet, Florence (January 17, 2025). "Drôme : Didier Guillaume, ancien président du département et ancien ministre de l'Agriculture, est mort" . France Bleu (in French) . Retrieved January 18, 2025 . ^ Webster, Andy (January 21, 2025). "Jules Feiffer, Acerbic Cartoonist, Writer and Much Else, Dies at 95" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved January 21, 2025 . ^ "Mongolian ex-president passes away" . 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External links BBC: On This Day The New York Times : On This Day Historical Events on January 17 .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Months and days of the year v t e Today: January 16 , 2026 [refresh] January 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 February 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 March 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 April 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 May 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 June 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 July 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 August 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 September 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 October 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 November 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 December 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Related: List of non-standard dates Related: List of non-standard dates Days of January CS1 errors: ISBN date CS1 Czech-language sources (cs) CS1 Korean-language sources (ko) CS1 Dutch-language sources (nl) CS1 French-language sources (fr) Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages Wikipedia pending changes protected pages Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles using Mw magnitude scale Commons link from Wikidata This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 03:25 (UTC) . 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Help | Advanced Search quick links Login Help Pages About Astrophysics > High Energy Astrophysical Phenomena Title: Multi-messenger Observations of a Binary Neutron Star Merger Abstract: On 2017 August 17 a binary neutron star coalescence candidate (later designated GW170817) with merger time 12:41:04 UTC was observed through gravitational waves by the Advanced LIGO and Advanced Virgo detectors. The Fermi Gamma-ray Burst Monitor independently detected a gamma-ray burst (GRB 170817A) with a time delay of $\sim$1.7 s with respect to the merger time. From the gravitational-wave signal, the source was initially localized to a sky region of 31 deg$^2$ at a luminosity distance of $40^{+8}_{-8}$ Mpc and with component masses consistent with neutron stars. The component masses were later measured to be in the range 0.86 to 2.26 Msun. An extensive observing campaign was launched across the electromagnetic spectrum leading to the discovery of a bright optical transient (SSS17a, now with the IAU identification of AT 2017gfo) in NGC 4993 (at $\sim$40 Mpc) less than 11 hours after the merger by the One-Meter, Two Hemisphere (1M2H) team using the 1 m Swope Telescope. The optical transient was independently detected by multiple teams within an hour. Subsequent observations targeted the object and its environment. Early ultraviolet observations revealed a blue transient that faded within 48 hours. Optical and infrared observations showed a redward evolution over $\sim$10 days. Following early non-detections, X-ray and radio emission were discovered at the transient's position $\sim$9 and $\sim$16 days, respectively, after the merger. Both the X-ray and radio emission likely arise from a physical process that is distinct from the one that generates the UV/optical/near-infrared emission. No ultra-high-energy gamma-rays and no neutrino candidates consistent with the source were found in follow-up searches. (Abridged) Comments: This is a reproduction of the article published in the Astrophysical Journal Letters, under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 licence Subjects: High Energy Astrophysical Phenomena (astro-ph.HE) ; General Relativity and Quantum Cosmology (gr-qc) Report number: LIGO-P1700294, VIR-0802A-17 Cite as: arXiv:1710.05833 [astro-ph.HE] (or arXiv:1710.05833v2 [astro-ph.HE] for this version) Focus to learn more arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite Journal reference: ApJL, 848:L12, 2017 Related DOI : Focus to learn more DOI(s) linking to related resources Submission history Access Paper: View PDF References & Citations INSPIRE HEP NASA ADS Google Scholar Semantic Scholar 1 blog link BibTeX formatted citation Bookmark Bibliographic and Citation Tools Code, Data and Media Associated with this Article Demos Recommenders and Search Tools Author Venue Institution Topic arXivLabs: experimental projects with community collaborators arXivLabs is a framework that allows collaborators to develop and share new arXiv features directly on our website. Both individuals and organizations that work with arXivLabs have embraced and accepted our values of openness, community, excellence, and user data privacy. arXiv is committed to these values and only works with partners that adhere to them. Have an idea for a project that will add value for arXiv's community? Learn more about arXivLabs . About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status arXiv Operational Status
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Portal : Current events/August 2009 Portal Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version August 2009 was the eighth month of that common year. The month, which began on a Saturday , ended on a Monday after 31 days. Portal:Current events This is an archived version of Wikipedia's Current events Portal from August 2009. .mw-parser-output .current-events-main{margin:0.5em 0;padding:0.3em;background-color:var(--background-color-base,#fff);color:inherit;border:1px #cef2e0 solid}.mw-parser-output .current-events-heading{background-color:#cef2e0;color:inherit;font-weight:bold}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .current-events-heading{background-color:#0b281a}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .current-events-heading{background-color:#0b281a}}.mw-parser-output .current-events-title{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .current-events-navbar{list-style:none;margin:0;font-size:small}.mw-parser-output .current-events-navbar li{display:inline-block;padding:0 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .current-events-content{padding:0 0.3em}.mw-parser-output .current-events-content-heading{margin-top:0.3em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .current-events-more{border-width:2px;font-size:10pt;font-weight:bold;padding:0.3em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .current-events-nav{margin:auto;text-align:center;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .current-events-nav a{display:inline-block;margin:0.5em;padding:0.5em;background-color:var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0)}.mw-parser-output .current-events-nav a>div{font-weight:bold}@media all and (min-width:480px){.mw-parser-output .current-events-heading{align-items:center;display:flex}.mw-parser-output .current-events-title{flex:1}.mw-parser-output .current-events-navbar{flex:0 auto;text-align:right;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .current-events-nav{max-width:22em}.mw-parser-output .current-events-nav a{width:9em}} August 1, 2009 ( 2009-08-01 ) (Saturday) edit history watch At least two people are killed and at least fifteen are wounded in a shooting attack at a building frequented by gay youths in Tel-Aviv , Israel . ( Haaretz ) 4,000 people are evacuated from the Canary Islands due to severe forest fires. (RTÉ) Former President of the Philippines Corazon Aquino dies at the age of 76 of cardiopulmonary arrest after complications of colon cancer . A memorial service and funeral is scheduled for August 5. ( Philippine Daily Inquirer ) Russia signs a deal to open a second military base in Kyrgyzstan at a Collective Security Treaty Organisation summit. (AP) The trial of 30 protesters in Iran who demonstrated in protests after the disputed presidential election begins. (Press TV) (BBC) (Al Jazeera) Thousands demonstrate in Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia , against a current security law that allows for detention without trial. (Bernama) (Al Jazeera) ( The Times of India ) Police fire tear gas and arrest over 400 people at street protests over laws that can see people detained indefinitely without trial by the authorities in Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia . (RTÉ) (Malaysian Insider) Venezuela orders 34 private radio stations to be closed. (CNN) (Al Jazeera) Chinese hackers target the website of the Melbourne International Film Festival for a second time as Uyghur leader Rebiya Kadeer is to visit the country. (AFP) ( The Australian ) (Bloomberg) North Korea says a South Korean fishing boat it seized "illegally" entered its waters. (Yonhap) (BBC) Six Christians are killed in religious unrest in Punjab , Pakistan , after days of tension following an alleged desecration of a Qur’an . (BBC) Rare Buddhist treasures, buried in the 1930s during Mongolia 's Communist purge, are unearthed in the Gobi Desert . (BBC) August 2, 2009 ( 2009-08-02 ) (Sunday) edit history watch One person is killed and 75 injured after an outdoor stage collapses at the Big Valley Jamboree country music festival in Alberta , Canada . (CBC) (CNN) One person dies of pneumonic plague and eleven of his relatives are quarantined in Hainan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture . ( People's Daily Online ) Three workers from the Russian Emergency Ministry are killed in Ingushetia . ( Kyiv Post ) (RIA Novosti) Nine families who have been living in East Jerusalem since 1956 are evicted by force. (Previous reports of 'two families' are wrong.) (Al Jazeera) (AFP) (BBC) Merpati Nusantara Airlines Flight 9760 , a Twin Otter plane with 16 on board, disappears over Papua , Indonesia . (Japan Today) (Bernama) (AFP) Two newly discovered works by Mozart —a prelude and concerto movement—are performed in Salzburg , Austria . (BBC) (Associated Press) (Reuters) A new strain of the virus that causes AIDS is discovered in a woman from Cameroon . (MSNBC) Chinese police detain a further 319 people over unrest in the Xinjiang region last month. (Xinhua) (Press TV) (Reuters India) Hundreds of firefighters on the Spanish island of La Palma in the Canary Islands are continuing to battle wildfires . ( The Times ) ( The Telegraph ) At least 33 people die and several are injured as a bus flips over thrice in Zimbabwe . (BBC) Around 2700 people are evacuated as 530 forest fires burn in British Columbia , Canada . ( The Age ) (AFP) A large oil spill occurs in Langesund , Norway , after a Chinese ship, the Full City , drifted aground. (Stockholm News) ( The Local ) Former Iranian President Mohammad Khatami criticizes the " show trial " of election protestors currently underway in the country. (Press TV) ( The Independent ) The death toll from sectarian clashes in northern Nigeria rises to 700. ( This Day ) (CNN) The BBC obtains a photograph showing Yusuf Mohamed , leader of the Boko Haram sect, was alive when captured by the Nigerian army. (BBC) The remains of Michael Scott Speicher , the first United States Gulf War casualty, are located in the Al Anbar Governorate desert. ( The Irish Times ) August 3, 2009 ( 2009-08-03 ) (Monday) edit history watch Bolivia becomes the first country in the history of South America to declare the right of indigenous people to govern themselves. (MercoPress) Georgia accuses Russia of trying to seize more of its territory as the anniversary of the 2008 war between the two countries approaches. (BBC) . Several earthquakes, including one of 6.9 magnitude , hit northwestern Mexico . (USGS) (BBC) Continental Airlines Flight 128 , from Rio de Janeiro to Houston , makes an emergency landing in Miami after severe turbulence, injuring dozens. ( New York Daily News ) Evidence that haggis was invented by the English is unearthed. (IOL) (News.com.au) Iran is reportedly ready to build a nuclear weapon , according to Western intelligence services. ( The Times ) Barclays posts a profit of £2.98bn for the first half of the year, up 8% on the same period of 2008. (Sky News) Iran 's Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei formally approves the second-term presidency of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad . (BBC) (Press TV) (Reuters) (Al Jazeera) Water supplies in Chifeng , Inner Mongolia , China , are cut off to over 580,000 people after contaminants caused the hospitalization of 4,125 people due to gastrointestinal illness. (Xinhua) (Associated Press) A town in Qinghai , China, is sealed off after a second person dies of pneumonic plague . (Xinhua) ( The Times ) (Al Jazeera) Somali pirates release a Malaysian tugboat with 11 Indonesian crew after being held for more than seven months. (Reuters) ( People's Daily ) ( The Straits Times ) [ permanent dead link ] The Washington Post newspaper in the United States reports that officials are considering a plan to move Guantánamo Bay detainees to a prison camp . (RTÉ) An Australian radio show is axed and presenter Kyle Sandilands sacked from a television show after a lie detector stunt sees a 14-year-old girl say she was raped so her mother could claim Pink tickets. ( Bangkok Post ) (BBC) (CTV) ( The Guardian ) ( Herald Sun ) (IOL) 185 people are killed in tribal clashes in South Sudan . (Associated Press) (AHN) (BBC) The death sentences of more than 4000 prisoners in Kenya are commuted to life imprisonment . (BBC) (Capital FM) August 4, 2009 ( 2009-08-04 ) (Tuesday) edit history watch A European Commission report finds that more than 50% of all Europeans regularly surf the Internet , up 33% in five years. (Deutsche Welle) Burundian police detain opposition leader and former journalist Alexis Sinduhije at Ruyigi in eastern Burundi, where he is accused of hosting an illegal meeting. (IOL) Pro- government activist, Lina Ron , surrenders to Venezuelan authorities one day after attacking opposition television station Globovisión . President Hugo Chávez condemns the attack, saying it helps his opponents brand him as a tyrant . (BBC) ( The Guardian ) Amos Kenan , Israeli columnist, painter, sculptor, playwright, novelist and leading intellectual of Canaanism died at the age of 82 in Israel , his funeral is scheduled for Thursday, August 6th, at a kibbutz cemetery in central Israel. ( The Associated Press ) Former United States President Bill Clinton arrives in Pyongyang , North Korea , and secures the freedom of two detained American journalists, Laura Ling and Euna Lee . (BBC) (Yonhap) (KCNA) (Al Jazeera) ( The Times ) (BBC) Georgia The Russian and U.S. Presidents discuss in a phone conversation the Georgian situation and “the need to decrease tensions in the region,” America's White House claims. (Civil) . Russia establishes combat readiness of its troops in South Ossetia due to the situation. (Rustavi 2) , (Civil) . Georgia urges the European Union and United States to help avert a new war with Russia , as tensions escalate ahead of the first anniversary of the 2008 South Ossetia war . (AFP via Google News) South Ossetian separatists throw grenades into Georgian and Russian checkpoints. (Rustavi2) Police in Australia foil a major terror operation involving a suicide attack on a military base understood to be Holsworthy Barracks on Sydney 's western outskirts. (Sky News) ( The Age ) ( The Hindu ) 5,300 people flee flames which thousands of firefighters fight in British Columbia . (BBC) (Canada.com) (CBS News) ( National Post ) Bangkok Airways Flight PG 266 crashes into a disused control tower at Samui Airport on the island of Ko Samui , Thailand , killing at least one person. ( Bangkok Post ) [ permanent dead link ] (BBC) ( China Daily ) (RTÉ) A referendum on whether to extend Mamadou Tandja 's presidency for a third term is held in Niger . (BBC) (Associated Press) Gotland governor Marianne Samuelsson is forced to resign after she was taped arguing that a local businessman should be given favourable treatment. ( The Local ) UBS remains cautious about its prospects after client withdrawals spurred by protracted U.S. tax litigation drags the Swiss bank into another big quarterly loss. (Reuters) John Yettaw , detained in Burma for making an uninvited visit to Aung San Suu Kyi , is taken to hospital suffering seizures. (BBC) (AFP) (CNN) After a public demonstration in support, a High Court judge in Ireland orders the release of Thomas Cook staff, including one woman who went into labour, who were arrested after occupying the company's premises on Grafton Street , Dublin . ( The Irish Times ) (Reuters) (RTÉ) ( The Times ) About 100 Algerians and Chinese clash in Algiers . (Reuters India) (BBC) Nigerian President Umaru Yar'Adua orders an investigation into the recent sectarian violence in the north of the country. (NEXT) (Reuters) Opposition groups in Iran call for further protests ahead of President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad 's inauguration. (Associated Press) The trial of a Sudanese woman accused of public indecency after wearing trousers is adjourned for a second time after police disperse protesters outside the court. (IOL) (Al Jazeera) Kenyan President Mwai Kibaki commutes the sentences of more than 4,000 death row inmates to life imprisonment. (IOL) Nigerian airport officials release a Ukrainian aircraft and its crew arrested in June with an arms cargo bound for Equatorial Guinea . (IOL) August 5, 2009 ( 2009-08-05 ) (Wednesday) edit history watch The 40th Pacific Islands Forum leaders' meeting opens in Cairns, Australia . (RNZI) Mahmoud Ahmadinejad is officially sworn in as President of Iran for a second term. (Press TV) (BBC) The funeral of Corazon Aquino , the first female President of an Asian country and the Philippines , takes place in the Philippines . (CNN) Brazilian President Lula da Silva says his country is “now advising the International Monetary Fund , IMF”. (MercoPress) Bolivian President Evo Morales expresses concern in La Paz about the possibility that the “Pinochetistas” in Chile and the “fascist right” in Argentina could win the general elections in those countries and that it "would be very serious for Latin American democracy and for South America ". (MercoPress) Iraq 's government announces that all Bremer walls will be removed from Baghdad within forty days. (BBC) 11 men drown when a boat sinks on the Nile near Khartoum , Sudan . (IOL) Two United States journalists, Laura Ling and Euna Lee , who had been detained by North Korea , return home with former U.S. President Bill Clinton . (CNN) Former Madagascar leader Marc Ravalomanana is hopeful that a relaunch of peace talks between the country's rival factions will bring progress toward a return of political stability. (IOL) A dog featured in an American film called I Love You, Man , which was named after assassinated Egyptian President Anwar El Sadat , leads to a court case as bloggers complain that their country has been insulted. (BBC) Fourteen people are shot at a women's dance class in LA Fitness gymnasium in Collier Township , Pennsylvania , United States . Three women die, as does the gunman. (BBC News) Eight people are injured when an Airbus A320 plane catches fire on one of its engines at Paris-Orly Airport . The fire is quickly brought under control. (Reuters) (BBC News) Three more men are charged with plotting a suicide attack on a military base in Australia . (BBC News) Ireland 's Health Service Executive threatens several pharmacies with High Court injunctions if they do not adhere with their contracts to dispense drugs. ( The Irish Times ) (RTÉ) Part-nationalised UK lender Lloyds Banking Group reports pre-tax losses of £4 billion for the first half of this year. (Sky News) Chansa Kabwela, the news editor of the The Post , goes on trial in Zambia after being accused of distributing obscene images. (BBC) (IOL) Police fire teargas at protesters rallying in support of Lubna al-Hussein , the Sudanese woman facing 40 lashes for wearing trousers in public. (IOL) A court in Moscow opens a new trial into the murder of Russian journalist Anna Politkovskaya . (RIA Novosti) (BBC) (AFP) A Chinese teenager sent to an internet addiction rehabilitation camp is allegedly beaten to death by its counsellors. (BBC) ( Global Times ) The United States White House defends its decision to award its Presidential Medal of Freedom to former President of Ireland Mary Robinson . ( Irish Examiner ) ( The Irish Times ) ( The Sydney Morning Herald ) Austrian police probe the shooting of two adolescents who allegedly broke into a supermarket and died by police. (Deutsche Welle) An anthem sung by FC Schalke 04 's fans draws Islamic protests because of its reference to the Prophet Muhammad . (BBC) Romanians who fled Belfast following racist attacks return to Northern Ireland . (BBC) ( The Irish Times ) Belgian Justice Minister Stefaan De Clerck is under fire after three men with criminal records escape from a courthouse in Brussls. The escape follows the helicopter breakout of three inmates, including one of Belgium's most dangerous criminals, and the ladder breakout of six more convicts all in the space of twelve days. (Deutsche Welle) Former Argentine President Fernando de la Rúa is indicted in a bribery case. (MercoPress) Former Lieutenant Governor of the Northern Mariana Islands Timothy P. Villagomez is sentenced to seven years in prison for political corruption . ( Sapain Tribune ) Thirty-three people are reported missing following the sinking of the Princess Ashika ferry in Tonga . (RNZI) August 6, 2009 ( 2009-08-06 ) (Thursday) edit history watch 64th anniversary of Hiroshima and Nagasaki atomic bombings Japan calls for a nuclear-weapons-free world as it marks 64 years since Hiroshima was hit in the world's first atomic bomb attack. (RTÉ) ( The Daily Telegraph ) Up to 50,000 people, including officials and visitors from countries around the world, attend a memorial service in the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park built directly below the point where the bomb exploded. (Al Jazeera) (Xinhua) Speaking at the ceremony, Mayor of Hiroshima Tadatoshi Akiba supports a call by United States President Barack Obama for the abolition of nuclear weapons. ( The Guardian ) ( The Jerusalem Post ) The Japanese Government agrees to set up a compensation fund for 300 survivors of the atomic bombings. (ABC) A poll finds 61% of Americans believe their country was correct to drop the atomic bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki . (Reuters India) ( Brisbane Times ) Supporters of Iran 's opposition leader, Mir-Hossein Mousavi , battle riot police as they hoot horns and take to the streets of Tehran shouting " Death to the dictator ". (BBC) An Indian court sentences to death three people for carrying out bombings that killed more than 50 people in Mumbai in 2003. (Al Jazeera) (BBC) ( The New York Times ) Malagasy crisis talks resume between interim leader Andry Rajoelina , ousted president Marc Ravalomanana and former presidents Didier Ratsiraka and Albert Zafy in Maputo , Mozambique . (IOL) New Zealand ’s Prime Minister John Key says he believes Fiji ’s self-appointed Prime Minister Commodore Frank Bainimarama has given up on the Pacific Islands Forum . (RNZI) Argentina , Brazil and Bolivia express concerns whilst Peru supports a planned accord by Colombian President Álvaro Uribe to allow United States troops to use several bases. Venezuela announces trade measures against Colombia. (BBC) Brazil returns 1.500 tonnes of syringes, condoms and dirty nappies which were sent from the United Kingdom . (MercoPress) Micro-blogging website Twitter is knocked offline by a distributed denial-of-service attack targeted at a Georgian blogger . (RTÉ) (CNN) (BBC) South African photographer Neil Hartmann , accused of documenting Namibia 's annual seal cull, is detained without charge for nearly seven hours less than a month after the arrest of two journalists. (IOL) A company manager claims that a 77-day occupation of a car plant by hundreds of laid-off workers in South Korea has come to an end. (BBC) Japan 's first jury trial for more than 60 years ends with a man in his 70s being sentenced to 15 years in prison for murder . (ABC News) (BBC) ( The Guardian ) ( The Independent ) ( The New York Times ) Iran bans all pilgrimages to Saudi Arabia during the Islamic holy month of Ramadan in an attempt to contain the spread of swine flu . (BBC) Hundreds of panic-stricken people queue at hospitals in Pune , India , to be tested for swine flu following the first death from the disease in that country. (BBC) The Iraqi cabinet agrees a draft law to restrict smoking in public places and ban tobacco advertising. (BBC) President Jacob Zuma names Sandile Ngcobo as Chief Justice of South Africa . (IOL) ( Mail & Guardian ) Sonia Sotomayor is confirmed by the United States Senate as Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court , replacing David Souter . (Reuters) (CNN) At least nine people are killed and several inhale fumes after a fire at a retirement home in Melle , Belgium . (BBC) The Presidents of Democratic Republic of Congo and Rwanda , Joseph Kabila and Paul Kagame , pledge to boost economic and security ties after a rare meeting. (BBC) Scientists say they have decoded the entire genetic structure of HIV-1—the main cause of AIDS in humans. (BBC) News Corp. announces its intent to start charging online customers for news content across all its websites, including The Times , The Sun , The Wall Street Journal , New York Post and Herald Sun . (BBC) ( The New Zealand Herald ) (Reuters) At least 34 people are feared dead after their bus plunges into the Indus River in Pakistan . (BBC) The Slender-billed Vulture , one of the world's most endangered birds and said to be rarer than the Tiger , is twice successfully bred in Haryana and West Bengal . (BBC) August 7, 2009 ( 2009-08-07 ) (Friday) edit history watch The leaders of three South African opposition parties urge President Jacob Zuma to withdraw his statement on the nomination of Sandile Ngcobo to replace outgoing Chief Justice Pius Langa , calling it "unconstitutional". (IOL) Senator Miguel Carrioza says the Congress of Paraguay is not interested in considering the protocol for Venezuela ’s incorporation to Mercosur . (MercoPress) Mel Martinez , U.S. Senator from Florida , announces his resignation. (MSNBC) Selvarasa Pathmanathan , the new leader of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam , is detained in Thailand . (BBC) According to both Pakistani officials and Taliban insurgents, Baitullah Mehsud , leader of the Pakistani Taliban , was killed in a drone strike. (New York Times) Shootouts leave at least 11 dead in the escalating violence since Mexico 's continuing national crackdown on the illegal drug trade . (AP foreign-UK Guardian) Ronnie Biggs , one of the participants of the Great Train Robbery , is freed on medical grounds. (UK Guardian) Bomb attacks on a Shia mosque and pilgrims at Shreikhan village near Mosul kill at least 36 people as Iraq 's largest Muslim community marks one of its biggest feasts, gathering in Karbala to mark the birth of Muhammad al-Mahdi . (BBC) August 8, 2009 ( 2009-08-08 ) (Saturday) edit history watch One of Southeast Asia 's most wanted terror suspects, Noordin Mohammed Top , is allegedly killed after a 16 hour siege at a house in Java , Indonesia . ( Jakarta Post ) (BBC) (Al Jazeera) The second hearing in the trial of Iranian election protesters resumes. (Al Jazeera) (Xinhua) (Press TV) Local government elections take place in northern Sri Lanka , the first elections since the end of the civil war . ( Daily News ) (Reuters) (Press TV) A small plane and a tour helicopter collide over the Hudson River in the United States . (CNN) A suicide bomber detonates a bomb outside the French embassy in Nouakchott , Mauritania , wounding two. The attack is the first suicide bombing in Mauritania's history. (France 24) (RFI) August 9, 2009 ( 2009-08-09 ) (Sunday) edit history watch South African opposition parties call on President Jacob Zuma to withdraw Sandile Ngcobo as Chief Justice because he failed to consult the opposition and Judicial Service Committee . ( The Times ) [ permanent dead link ] Sri Lanka 's governing coalition wins in Jaffna but suffers a surprise defeat in Vavuniya in the country's first post-war local elections . (BBC) (AFP) A million people are evacuated in southeastern China as Typhoon Morakot approaches. ( The Daily Telegraph ) (Xinhua) (AFP) A 6.9 magnitude earthquake hits Tokyo and eastern Japan . (Nikkei) [ permanent dead link ] (Press Association) (Reuters) Tonga raises the death toll from the MV Princess Ashika sinking to 93. (Bloomberg) ( Matangi Tonga ) Three bombs explode on the island of Majorca , Spain . (Bloomberg) (BBC) (RTÉ) At least 43 people are feared dead after a massive mudslide sweeps away three hamlets in northern India . (CNN) (RTÉ) A Kam Air plane bound for the Xinjiang Autonomous Region in northwestern China is diverted to Kandahar , Afghanistan after an earlier alleged bomb threat. (Associated Press) (Xinhua) (BBC) Former Taoiseach of Ireland Garret FitzGerald is among twenty Irish nationals who are quarantined at a French chateau due to swine flu . ( Irish Examiner ) ( Expatica ) A senior General from the Iranian Revolutionary Guard calls for opposition leaders Mohammad Khatami , Mir Hossein Mousavi and Mehdi Karroubi to stand trial . ( Gulf Times ) (Press TV) A same-sex marriage demonstration occurs outside the Department of Justice, Equality and Law Reform in Dublin . ( The Irish Times ) (RTÉ) The last of three men who escaped from a Belgian jail on board a hijacked helicopter are recaptured in Morocco . (BBC) ( People's Daily online ) ( The New York Times ) Seventeen people, including five children, are killed when a crowded bus crashes into a ditch after being side-swiped by an oncoming heavy truck in Mount Darwin , Zimbabwe . (IOL) August 10, 2009 ( 2009-08-10 ) (Monday) edit history watch In an open letter four South African opposition leaders accuse President Jacob Zuma of abuse of power after his naming of Sandile Ngcobo as Chief Justice . The office of President Jacob Zuma responds by saying there was "nothing unconstitutional" in Zuma's action. ( The Times ) (IOL) The UNASUR summit opens in Quito to discuss issues such as Venezuela 's “ethics responsibility” clause, Colombian military bases and the Honduras crisis . (MercoPress) At the funeral of Vice-President Joseph Msika , President Robert Mugabe lashes out at "racist" western countries, saying " Zimbabwe need not be tied to any one corner of the world, least of all, to a corner of former imperialist and racist colonisers". ( The Times ) [ permanent dead link ] (IOL) During a tour of Africa , Hillary Clinton , the United States Secretary of State , attacks a Congolese university student for asking about the opinion of her husband Bill Clinton . (IOL) ( New York Daily News ) (ABC News) ( The Guardian ) Ecuadorean President Rafael Correa is sworn in for a second term vowing to deepen his socialist “revolution”. (MercoPress) The interim government in Honduras agrees to accept a delegation from the Organization of American States to help solve the political crisis in the country. (AFP) (CNN) Pope Benedict XVI triggers a “scandalous poverty” debate in Argentina , with Buenos Aires province governor Daniel Scioli preparing to meet with all Catholic bishops of his area. (MercoPress) The head of Hyundai Asan , embarks on a mission to North Korea to attempt to secure the release of a company worker. (BBC) Libya and Chad sign seven agreements to boost trade, security and political co-operation. (IOL) Negotiators gather in Austria for informal talks aimed at unblocking a 34-year-old dispute between Morocco and the Western Sahara independence movement. (IOL) The head of MI6 John Scarlett denies complicity in the alleged torture of British detainee Binyam Mohamed , as the government rejects calls for an inquiry. (BBC) ( The Times ) ( The Daily Telegraph ) More than 350 new species—including 244 plants and 16 amphibians—are discovered in the Eastern Himalayas . (WWF) ( The Daily Telegraph ) (Xinhua) The Fatah Palestinian faction votes in leadership elections for the first time in 20 years. (AFP) (Al Jazeera) A series of bombings in Iraq kill 48 people and injure 231 in Baghdad and Mosul in continuing violence between Shiites and Sunnis in the area. (CNN) Ecuador ’s Health Minister Caroline Chang says South America ’s twelve nations have pledged to respect regional vaccine price ceilings to prevent businesses from exploiting fear of the A/H1N1 flu pandemic. (MercoPress) Two Namibians and a Chinese who are suspected in a corruption investigation involving a firm linked to the son of China's President Hu Jintao appear in a Windhoek court asking to be released on bail. (IOL) August 11, 2009 ( 2009-08-11 ) (Tuesday) edit history watch President of Costa Rica , Óscar Arias Sánchez is diagnosed with Influenza AH1N1 but his condition is stable, according to official reports. (ANSA) (AP) (MercoPress) A court ruling in Pretoria bars President Jacob Zuma from appointing a successor to axed prosecutions chief Vusi Pikoli . (IOL) UNASUR leaders express fresh concerns over Colombian plans to grant United States troops access to its military bases but cannot agree on a declaration to formally condemn the proposals. Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez warns that "the winds of war are beginning to blow" across the region. (MercoPress) Former Cuban President Fidel Castro calls Colombia "disloyal", saying the pending military deal with the United States could be used to attack other Latin American countries. (MercoPress) ( Granma ) A court in Burma finds Aung San Suu Kyi guilty of violating the terms of her detention, and sentences her to a further 18 months house arrest . (BBC) ( The Straits Times ) ( The Bangkok Post ) [ permanent dead link ] (Al Jazeera) Rescue operations continue in southern China and Taiwan in the aftermath of Typhoon Morakot . ( The Times ) ( Taiwan News ) Two strong earthquakes hit Asia ; a 7.6 magnitude quake off the Indian Andaman Islands and a 6.5 magnitude quake in the Tokyo area of Japan , killing one and injuring dozens. (Press Association) (Associated Press) (BBC) A German court sentences former Nazi army commander Josef Scheungraber to life in prison for his role in the murder of 10 Italians in Tuscany in 1944. (RTÉ) (BBC) (IOL) [ permanent dead link ] ( The Sydney Morning Herald ) Thousands of people worship a baby born with four arms and four legs in Ramechhap , Nepal , revering him as the reincarnation of Ganesh . ( The Guardian ) Kuwait foils an al Qaeda -linked plan to bomb a United States army camp and other "important facilities" in the country. ( The Irish Times ) (Reuters) (BBC) Nine corpses are recovered from a Handlová coal mine following a fire and explosion in Slovakia . ( Irish Independent ) The government meets in emergency session and declares a day of mourning. (TSAR) Argentina 's Cabinet Chief Aníbal Fernández comments on the suspension of the debt-ridden Primera División by saying that football transmission should be free because it is not only a national passion but an industry that generates many jobs and activity. (MercoPress) Two members of the Russian humanitarian organisation Let's Save the Generation are found dead in Grozny , Chechnya . (Al Jazeera) (RIA Novosti) (Press TV) Police in Pakistan register a criminal case with former President Pervez Musharraf over the latter's decision to detain judges in 2007. (AFP) ( Indian Express ) ( The Nation ) The NASA Spitzer Space Telescope finds evidence of a high-speed collision between two burgeoning planets orbiting a young star. (BBC) Russian President Dmitry Medvedev delays sending a new ambassador to Ukraine after criticising its "anti-Russian" stance. (AFP) (Xinhua) (ITAR-TASS) A pilot flying from England to Ireland is airlifted to safety after his two-man aircraft crashes into the Irish Sea near Tuskar Rock . (RTÉ) ( The Irish Times ) Swedish Princess Madeleine announces her engagement to lawyer and longterm boyfriend Jonas Bergström, becoming the second royal in Sweden to announce her engagment after Crown Princess Victoria . (Aftonbladet) A Russian woman is arrested after throwing a teacup at the Mona Lisa portrait in the Louvre , Paris . ( Irish Independent ) (CNN) A passenger plane carrying 13 people, including nine Australians , en route to Kokoda , site of a hiking trail and famous World War II battle, is reported missing over Papua New Guinea . (BBC) (RTÉ) Nepenthes attenboroughii , a new species of giant carnivorous plant, is discovered in the highlands of the central Philippines . (BBC) Two Kenyans , two French , a Bulgarian and a Belgian held captive since November 2008 are freed by their Somali kidnappers. (IOL) August 12, 2009 ( 2009-08-12 ) (Wednesday) edit history watch At a meeting in Caracas , Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez and Argentine President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner sign agreements expanding trade between their two countries. (MercoPress) It is discovered that the Killer Whale creates and visits 'social clubs'. (BBC) Yemeni troops, backed by tanks and fighter aircraft, launch a major offensive on the stronghold of Shia fighters in northern Yemen. (Al Jazeera) Thirty people are killed in Warrap state in southern Sudan , in a resurgence of the nomadic conflicts . (IOL) Russia 's navy is deployed to find the MV Arctic Sea , a missing ship reportedly hijacked three weeks ago in the Baltic Sea . (BBC News) About 700 people missing in southern Taiwan after Typhoon Morakot are located alive. (BBC) (RTÉ) Indonesian police say DNA tests show that a militant killed in a weekend raid was not Noordin Mohammed Top , one of the region's most wanted men. (BBC) The wreckage of an Airlines PNG De Havilland Twin Otter 300 plane carrying 11 passengers and 2 crew is found near Isurava , Papua New Guinea ; there are no signs of survivors. (Al Jazeera) (RNZI) Gunmen shoot dead five Pakistani Muslim preachers outside a mosque in Galkayo , Somalia . (IOL) (BBC) Gregoire Ndahimana , a Rwandan fugitive accused of genocide and crimes against humanity, is arrested by a joint Rwandan - Congolese military operation. (IOL) (BBC) An estimated 20,000 people march through Noumea , New Caledonia , to denounce violent clashes by USTKE trade unionists against police . (RNZI) MV Princess Ashika New Zealand Navy divers believe they have located the sunken MV Princess Ashika a week after the accident. (RNZI) Tonga 's Transportation Minister Paul Karalus resigns after the sinking of the MV Princess Ashika , which killed an estimated 93 people. ( New Zealand Herald ) German CDU politician Vera Lengsfeld attracts controversy for displaying a photo of Angela Merkel in a revealing gown without the authorisation of the Chancellor . (BBC) Lubna al-Hussein , the Sudanese woman facing forty lashes for wearing trousers in public, is prevented from leaving the country for a trip to Lebanon , where she was to take part in a televised talk-show about women's issues. (IOL) (BBC) Diego León Montoya Sánchez , Norte Valle Cartel leader, pleads guilty to drug, murder and racketeering charges. (www.BackgroundNow.com) The Roman Catholic Church is expresses "unease" and "mortification" over revelations surrounding the private life of Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi . (BBC) Astronomers discover WASP-17b , the first planet that orbits in the opposite direction to the spin of its star. (BBC) August 13, 2009 ( 2009-08-13 ) (Thursday) edit history watch On an official visit to Colombia , Mexican President Felipe Calderón offers his country’s mediation in the conflict between that country, Ecuador and Venezuela . (MercoPress) Ousted Honduran President Manuel Zelaya praises Chile for its “great image” as he meets its President Michelle Bachelet in Santiago and says he expects the United States to take " more drastic actions " against the de facto government of Roberto Micheletti . (MercoPress) Eleven people, including four policemen, are killed in several separate insurgent attacks in Russia 's Republic of Dagestan . (AFP) At least 23 government soldiers and more than 20 Muslim extremists are killed in a day-long clash in the southern Philippines . (France 24) [ permanent dead link ] Former Afghan President Burhanuddin Rabbani survives an ambush by the Taliban in the Ali Abad District of Kunduz province , Afghanistan . ( Voice of America ) [ permanent dead link ] Supporters of Guinea 's self-declared President , Captain Moussa Dadis Camara , form a movement, Dadis Must Stay , to call for him to be allowed to continue in office. (BBC) The French and German economies rebound, helping push the Eurozone to the brink of economic recovery in the second quarter, delivering a further signal that the worst of the global crisis may be coming to an end in Europe . (FT) The European Union will extend its sanctions on Burma to cover members of the judiciary responsible for the verdict in the trial of opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi . (Reuters) A rare signed copy of Adolf Hitler ’s Mein Kampf sells at the Mullock’s auction at Ludlow Racecourse , Shropshire , for £ 21,000 ( € 24,400). ( The Irish Times ) (BBC) ( Evening Herald ) ( The Guardian ) ( The New York Times ) ( Toronto Star ) August 14, 2009 ( 2009-08-14 ) (Friday) edit history watch Pakistan begins its first international freight train service from Islamabad to Istanbul . (BBC) Hundreds of people protest in Caracas , Venezuela, after journalists protesting a new education law were beaten the previous day. ( El Universal ) (Associated Press) Malagasy peace talks break down when the armed forces reject one clause in the peace deal. (IOL) The MV Arctic Sea , missing since late July, is reportedly found 400 nmi (740 km) off the Cape Verde islands. (BBC) ( The Times ) A Canadian court orders the government to repatriate Omar Khadr , the sole remaining Western citizen held in Guantanamo Bay detention camp . ( The Star ) (Canadian Press) At least 13 people have died after a bus-train collision in Iaşi County , Romania . (Euronews) (Le Figaro) (Mediafax) Paraguay ’s government withdraws a bill approving Venezuela 's incorporation to Mercosur , fearing a defeat in Congress could hurt relations between the two countries. (MercoPress) In an unexpected move, Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir replaces Salah Gosh , his country's chief of security and intelligence since the mid-1990s, with General Mohamed Atta al-Mawla . (BBC) The remains of over 2,000 people discovered in Poland 's largest mass grave from World War II are reburied in a military cemetery. (ABC News) (BBC) ( Boston Globe ) In Montevideo , President of Mexico Felipe Calderón and President of Uruguay Tabaré Vázquez sign a Strategic Association accord to strengthen political dialogue and bilateral trade relations. (MercoPress) After launching a major offensive attack on a suspected ASG training camp, the day-long clash in the Southern Philippines resulted in 23 government casualties and 31 casualties from the Abu Sayyaf Group . (Philippines Government Portal) Iranian reformists call for a probe of the Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei and his ability to rule. (Associated Press) (BBC) An archaeological excavation uncovers the foundations of the 17th-century Smock Alley Theatre and several artefacts from theatrical performances in Dublin . (RTÉ) Lynette Fromme , a former member of the Manson family , is released after serving 34 years in prison. (ABC News) Lawyers for the Lockerbie bomber , Abdelbaset al-Megrahi , say he is abandoning his second appeal against his conviction for the December 1988 attack as Scottish officials consider his request to be sent home to Libya . (MSNBC) The United Kingdom imposes direct rule on the Turks and Caicos Islands after an inquiry found evidence of government corruption. (BBC) ( Turks and Caicos Sun ) At least 13 people are killed and at least 85 are injured in a fierce gun battle in Gaza . (BBC) United States senator Jim Webb arrives in Burma for talks with General Than Shwe . (Associated Press) ( Bangkok Post ) A University of Glasgow study suggests Asians may view faces differently from others. (BBC) August 15, 2009 ( 2009-08-15 ) (Saturday) edit history watch Hamas police claim to have killed Abdel-Latif Moussa , head of the Islamic group Jund Ansar Allah in a shootout . ( The New York Times ) (Petra) [ permanent dead link ] Hong Kong posts 3.3% growth over its previous quarter, far exceeding predictions, signaling an end to its recession. ( The Straits Times ) Colombia claims to have completed talks with the United States to allow US troops to use seven of Colombia's military bases. (BBC) Japan expresses remorse for its actions in World War II on the anniversary of its 1945 defeat , but former Prime Ministers Junichiro Koizumi and Shinzo Abe visit the Yasukuni Shrine , a controversial war shrine seen as a symbol of its past militarism. ( The Straits Times ) [ permanent dead link ] ( Mainichi Daily News ) Former President of Zambia , Frederick Chiluba , awaits the verdict in his trial into his criminal case for being accused of plundering the national economy during his decade-long rule. ( The Sydney Morning Herald ) MV Arctic Sea A ransom demand is made for the missing ship. (Al Jazeera) ( Bangkok Post ) ( The Times ) The tracking device onboard the Arctic Sea was briefly reactivated according to Russian media, showing the vessel to be off the coast of France . (RIA Novosti) (Associated Press) A suicide bomb attack occurs outside the NATO headquarters in Kabul , Afghanistan , killing at least seven and injuring 100. ( The Times ) (Xinhua) (RTHK) A prison riot in the Mexican state of Durango leaves at least 19 people dead and 20 injured. (BBC) (Reuters) (Press TV) Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi speaks at a news conference to say his country will crack down on organised crime over the next four years. ( The Straits Times ) Burma is to free detained American John Yettaw , who appeared uninvited at Aung San Suu Kyi 's home, after a meeting with US Senator Jim Webb . (BBC) ( The Straits Times ) ( The Telegraph ) A blaze in a tent in Kuwait , where a wedding party is held, kills 43 women and children. The ex-wife of the groom confesses to starting the fire. (Al Jazeera) August 16, 2009 ( 2009-08-16 ) (Sunday) edit history watch A 6.9 magnitude earthquake occurs near Siberut Island , Sumatra , Indonesia , at 14:38 local time, injuring at least seven people. (France24.com) Police clash with hundreds of protesters in Peru demonstrating over the failure of President Alan García 's government to rebuild the city of Pisco two years since it was devastated by a powerful earthquake. ( The Irish Times ) Two Russian Sukhoi Su-27 fighter jets collide during a training flight southeast of Moscow , killing the commander of the Russian Knights demonstration team. (RIA Novosti) (Xinhua) (BBC) Tropical Storm Claudette becomes the first tropical cyclone to affect the U.S. mainland in 2009 . (Weather.com) August 17, 2009 ( 2009-08-17 ) (Monday) edit history watch Japan officially exits the recession. (BBC) (RTÉ) A bomb explodes on a truck at a fuel station in Charsadda , North-West Frontier Province , Pakistan (20 km from Peshawar ), killing seven people. (BBC News) A suicide bomber explodes a truck at a police station in Nazran in Russia 's North Caucasus , killing at least 20 people and wounding about 60 others. (Yahoo! News) ( NY Times ) An accident at the Sayano–Shushenskaya hydroelectric power station in Russia kills seven and causes power shortages in Siberia . (Reuters) (RTÉ) The Canadian Forces begin exercises to protect Canada 's sovereignty in the far north. (CTV) The MV Arctic Sea , a cargo ship missing after an apparent hijacking in July off the Swedish coast, is discovered by the Russian Navy off Cape Verde . (CNN) August 18, 2009 ( 2009-08-18 ) (Tuesday) edit history watch Former South Korean President and 2000 Nobel Peace Prize recipient Kim Dae-jung dies of multiple organ dysfunction syndrome . (Reuters) Seven people are killed in a bombing targeting a NATO convoy in Kabul , days before the presidential elections in Afghanistan . (BBC) Jesse Jackson is crowned prince of the Agni people during a three-day visit to Côte d'Ivoire , succeeding Michael Jackson . (IOL) August 19, 2009 ( 2009-08-19 ) (Wednesday) edit history watch Seven car bombs are detonated in Baghdad, killing at least 95, and wounding nearly 600. (The Times) Sierra Leone 's annual rains kill 15 people and displace hundreds of others. (IOL) The United States and Switzerland sign an agreement designed to end a tax evasion dispute surrounding UBS U.S. customers. (BBC) Spanish police capture two suspected members, Aitzol Etxaburu and Andoni Sarasola, of the Basque -region separatist group ETA . (CNN) John Marek becomes the 68th death row inmate in the state of Florida , United States to be executed by lethal injection since the death sentence was re-instated in 1979 . (Miami Herald) August 20, 2009 ( 2009-08-20 ) (Thursday) edit history watch Abdelbaset al-Megrahi , convicted of the bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie in 1988, is released on compassionate grounds due to terminal cancer, and boards a flight to Libya . (BBC) A bicycle bomb explodes near a restaurant in Baghdad , killing two people. (Yahoo! news) 18 prospectors are killed overnight in a diamond mine in Kasai province in central Democratic Republic of the Congo . (IOL) A line of severe thunderstorms rolls through Ontario , Canada , spawns over 18 tornadoes in one day which has been declared to be the largest tornado outbreak in Canadian history , at least four F-2 tornadoes were confirmed, including one touching down in the town of Durham, Ontario , northwest of Toronto where at least one person was killed, and the other in a Toronto suburb of Vaughan, Ontario where over 600 homes were damaged or destroyed. (CTV) Switzerland 's president, Hans-Rudolf Merz , apologizes to the Libyan government for last year's arrest of a son of Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi . (MSNBC) Elizabeth Ramos and Louis Williams, owners of defense contracting company Technical Logistics, admit to bribing an employee of the U.S. Navy 's Space and Naval Warfare Systems Command in exchange for defense contracts. (UPI) For the first time video ads will appear in a magazine, using a screen similar to a cell phone that can store 40 minutes of video. (BBC) August 21, 2009 ( 2009-08-21 ) (Friday) edit history watch Argentina 's association football championship kicks off after President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner puts it on the state payroll to avoid a financial crisis. (MercoPress) Brazil becomes Chile 's third largest trading partner, displacing Japan , according to recently released government trade figures. (MercoPress) South African President Jacob Zuma makes a pilgrimage to a former anti- apartheid guerrilla camp in Angola where he lays a wreath and pays tribute to fallen comrades. (IOL) The presidents or heads of state of five nations, including Seretse Ian Khama of Botswana and Robert Mugabe of Zimbabwe , along with ministers and musical troupes gather at the cricket stadium in Oranjemund , Namibia , for a welcoming ceremony at the conclusion of explorer Kingsley Holgate 's latest expedition, which took him through nine countries. (IOL) William Calley , the former US army officer found guilty of organizing mass killings in the Vietnamese community of My Lai during the Vietnam War makes a public apology. (NPR) A missile fired from a U.S. unmanned plane destroyed a suspected militant hide-out in northwest Pakistan on Friday, killing at least 12 people in a stronghold of a jihadi leader blamed for attacks in Afghanistan . (Associated Press) Four policemen are killed after 4 suicide bombs on bicycles detonate in Grozny , Chechnya . (RIA Novosti) (AFP) (Al Jazeera) A North Korean delegation arrives in South Korea to mourn the death of former South Korean President Kim Dae-jung . (Al Jazeera) (Yonhap) ( China Daily ) 20 people are killed and 40 injured after clashes between pro-government and Islamist forces in Mogadishu , Somalia . (Bloomberg) A rockfall on a beach in the Algarve , Portugal , kills 5 holidaymakers and injures several others. (BBC) ( The Daily Telegraph ) (euronews) Mexico decriminalises the use of small amounts of marijuana , cocaine , heroin and other drugs for "personal use". ( The Times of India ) (Al Jazeera) U.S. President Barack Obama condemns Lockerbie bomber Abdelbaset al-Megrahi 's homecoming in Libya . (CNN) A 34-year-old Tunisian woman from Gafsa , thought to have been pregnant with 12 babies and whose story had attracted international attention, is determined to have been the victim of a phantom pregnancy . (IOL) László Sólyom , President of Hungary was declared unwelcome by Slovakia and was not allowed to step on Slovak soil to attend an unveiling of a statue depicting King Saint Stephen , first King of Hungary . (BBC) August 22, 2009 ( 2009-08-22 ) (Saturday) edit history watch Cardinal Seán Brady , Archbishop of Armagh and Primate of All Ireland , criticises Ireland 's Civil Partnership Bill , which gives statutory partnership rights to same-sex couples . (RTÉ) ( Sunday Independent ) Argentina 's Foreign Affairs Ministry “harshly condemns” the nomination of Ahmad Vahidi to serve as Iran 's Defence Minister as he is a suspected international terrorist sought by Interpol in connection with the 1994 attack on AMIA Jewish community centre in Buenos Aires . (MercoPress) Islamic insurgents attack a government checkpoint in Somalia 's capital, Mogadishu , sparking a gunbattle that kills at least five people on the first day of Ramadan . (IOL) The militant group Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta hands over hundreds of weapons to the Nigerian government as part of a weapons amnesty. (BBC) (NEXT) (IOL) Officials from North and South Korea meet for talks for the first time in two years. (BBC) (Yonhap) Brazilian President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva arrives in Bolivia with a "strong tone-down message". (MercoPress) Niger 's police use tear gas to injure and arrest several people during clashes with opponents of a new constitution that would enable President Mamadou Tandja to seek unlimited mandates. (IOL) Thousands of Venezuelans join rival marches in Caracas over a controversial education law that critics say strengthens President Hugo Chávez 's grip over schools and universities. (Reuters) (BBC) Two turkey farms in Valparaíso , Chile , are quarantined over fears the birds have caught swine influenza from humans. (MercoPress) Taliban official Hakeemullah Mehsud is selected as the new head of the Pakistani Taliban , a local Taliban commander in Pakistan's federally administered tribal areas confirms. (CNN) August 23, 2009 ( 2009-08-23 ) (Sunday) edit history watch Tens of thousands of people in the Baltic states mark the twentieth anniversary of the ' Baltic Way ' - when two million people formed a human chain to protest against Soviet Union rule. (Aljazeera) , (Guardian) , (Baltic Times) . Tens of thousands of people protest against a new law which gives women equal rights in marriage in Bamako , Mali . (BBC) (Afrique en ligne) 26 men accused of plotting attacks on tourist resorts and ships in the Suez Canal on behalf of Lebanon 's Hezbollah group go on trial in an Egyptian security court. (IOL) (BBC) Thousands of people are evacuated as forest fires reach the outskirts of the Greek capital, Athens . (Associated Press) (BBC) ( Daily Mail ) (RTÉ) North Korean envoys meet the South Korean President Lee Myung-bak for the first time since he took office. (Al Jazeera) (Yonhap) A new picture of Fidel Castro is published in the Juventud Rebelde state-run newspaper, apparently showing Cuba 's ailing former leader in much better health. (BBC) (CNN) (IOL) [ permanent dead link ] (Reuters Africa) Afghan President Hamid Karzai 's main rival Abdullah Abdullah alleges fraud in the presidential election . (Xinhua) ( The Guardian ) ( The Times of India ) Yemeni troops claim to have killed more than 100 Shia rebels in the past two weeks, including two leaders, but the rebels deny their leaders, Mohsen Saleh Gawd and Salah Jorman , are dead and no independent confirmation is made available. (BBC) A leak at an offshore oil rig that caused a large oil spill off the coast of Australia "could take weeks" to be plugged. (Associated Press) ( The Australian ) [ permanent dead link ] A severe drought in northern China leaves 5 million people short of water and damages 8.7 million hectares of farmland . ( The Straits Times ) (Press Trust of India) ( China Daily ) England reclaim The Ashes with a 2-1 series win over Australia . (BBC) Iraq broadcasts a video of former police chief Wissam Ali Kadhem Ibrahim , a Saddam Hussein loyalist, confessing to orchestrating a truck bombing at the finance ministry , the first of two bombings that killed 95 people and maimed hundreds more in Baghdad on 19 August. ( The Sydney Morning Herald ) ( Straits Times ) ZANU-PF party members walk out of a meeting of Zimbabwe cabinet members to review the work of a unity government it has formed with its opponents, over charges of electoral fraud . (Reuters Africa) Honduras 's Supreme Court rejects a Costa Rica -brokered deal to restore ousted President Manuel Zelaya to power and orders his arrest if he returns. (BBC) Stefania Fernandez of Venezuela was crowned Miss Universe 2009 by her compatriot Dayana Mendoza , the first in the history. She was crowned at the Atlantis Paradise Island , Nassau , The Bahamas . August 24, 2009 ( 2009-08-24 ) (Monday) edit history watch According to court documents, the Los Angeles County coroner 's preliminary assessment is that Michael Jackson 's death was caused by an overdose of the anesthetic propofol . (Reuters) The district court in Stockholm orders BitTorrent tracker The Pirate Bay 's largest ISP , Black Internet, to stop serving the website's traffic. (CNET News) Sweden 's TeliaSonera AB announces cash offers worth around $687.7 million in total for shares it doesn't already own in Baltic operators Teo LT and Eesti Telekom . ( The Wall Street Journal ) Former Cuban leader Fidel Castro appears on television for the first time in more than a year. (BBC) (Al Jazeera) Thieves kill an endangered Sumatran Tiger in an Indonesian zoo and steal its body, leaving its intestines behind. (BBC) ( Jakarta Globe ) Ireland 's Green Party and gay rights organisations defend plans to introduce civil partnerships for same-sex couples following criticism of the move by Cardinal Seán Brady , Archbishop of Armagh and Primate of All Ireland . ( The Irish Times ) China is to try 200 people suspected of their involvement in the Ürümqi riots last month. (GBC) (Associated Press) (Press TV) Two mass graves containing the remains of communist soldiers dating from the Vietnam War are discovered in central Vietnam . ( The Straits Times ) ( China Daily ) A Malaysian Muslim woman, Kartika Sari Dewi Shukarno , who was convicted of drinking alcohol , is granted a reprieve until after Ramadan . (Al Jazeera) (Bernama) (Xinhua) (IOL) Scottish Justice Secretary Kenny MacAskill defends his decision to release the man convicted of the Lockerbie bombing , Abdelbaset al-Megrahi . (BBC) ( The Guardian ) (Al Jazeera) (Xinhua) Kenya 's fifth national census takes place. (KBC) [ permanent dead link ] (BBC) ( The Nation ) (Associated Press) Captain Moussa Dadis Camara who seized power in a military coup in Guinea , refuses to rule out standing for President , after previously promising not to. (BBC) (AFP) (IOL) At least 200 children are killed and around 900 hospitalised by Japanese encephalitis in Uttar Pradesh , India . (BBC) Baitullah Mehsud is confirmed dead by leaders of Pakistan's Taliban . (Associated Press) August 25, 2009 ( 2009-08-25 ) (Tuesday) edit history watch At least 40 people are killed and 57 wounded in a car bomb explosion in Kandahar , southern Afghanistan . (Reuters) (BBC) (The New York Times) (Aljazeera) British Prime Minister Gordon Brown repeats that the British Government played no role in the release from prison of Lockerbie bomber Abdelbaset al-Megrahi , it being a matter for the Scottish Government . (Daily Telegraph) The Malaysian opposition party PAS defeats the government party UMNO in the by-election at Permatang Pasir , Penang . (Bernama) A suicide bombing in Mesker-Yurt , Chechnya , kills three police officers. (Yahoo! news) (BBC News) Madagascar 's political rivals meet for a second round of talks in Maputo , Mozambique . (Reuters Africa) South Korea launches its first space rocket, Naro-1 , but fails to put the STSAT-2A satellite into the planned orbit. (BBC News) (The Korea Times) (Yonhap) U.S. President Barack Obama nominates Ben Bernanke for his second term as chairman of the Federal Reserve . (Bloomberg) A bomb in Afghanistan kills four American soldiers, making 2009 the deadliest year for foreign troops since the 2001 invasion . (BBC) A gas explosion at a coal mine in Shanxi , China , kills at least 14 people. (China Daily) (BBC) The United States budget deficit for 2009 will reach $1.6 trillion, the highest ever recorded. (BBC) 42 people are injured after a car bomb explodes at a crowded restaurant with government officials in Narathiwat , southern Thailand . (Bangkok Post) [ permanent dead link ] (The Age) Syria and Iraq recall their ambassadors over a dispute following the recent bombings in Baghdad last week. (The Daily Star Lebanon) (Al Jazeera) (Syrian News Station) Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez announces plans to break off diplomatic relations with Colombia over the neighboring country's plan to allow U.S. troops access to its military bases. (CNN) The Morris Fire begins near Morris Dam in the Angeles National Forest . This fire is thought to have been caused by arson and is the first in a series of wildfires to burn through Southern California in 2009. August 26, 2009 ( 2009-08-26 ) (Wednesday) edit history watch U.S. Senator Ted Kennedy of Massachusetts , the last surviving Kennedy brother , dies at age 77, after battling brain cancer . (New York Times) Lithuania launches an inquiry into allegations that it hosted a secret CIA prison for al-Qaeda suspects. (BBC) . The government of Moldova announces that it will stand down before the opening of parliament on 28 August. (BBC) French police uncover a large cache of weapons and explosives belonging to terrorist group ETA . (BBC) The Iranian Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei says he has no evidence that opposition protests were backed by foreign countries. (AFP) (Press TV) (BBC) Japan 's exports fall by 36.5% as demand falls. (Bloomberg) (Reuters) North and South Korea resume talks on allowing families divided since the Korean War to begin meeting again, for the first time in two years. (Xinhua) (Yonhap) Zimbabwe denies reports that President Robert Mugabe suffered a health scare. ( The Guardian ) (Zim Online) ( Daily Nation ) Kidnapping of Jaycee Dugard Jaycee Dugard, who disappeared in 1991, is found alive after 18 years and is reunited with her family. (Record Net) August 27, 2009 ( 2009-08-27 ) (Thursday) edit history watch English youth Michael Perham , aged 17 years, 5 months, becomes the youngest person to complete a solo circumnavigation of the world by sailboat , breaking the previous record by two months. (Reuters) South African President Jacob Zuma is to visit Zimbabwe for talks on the power-sharing government. ( The Herald ) (IOL) (AFP) Taiwan approves a visit by the Dalai Lama to comfort the victims of Typhoon Morakot . ( Taiwan News ) ( Times South Africa ) [ permanent dead link ] (Al Jazeera) (Xinhua) Mali 's parliament is to review a law giving women greater rights after thousands of Muslims protested the proposed law. (BBC) (AFP) The United Nations Special Rapporteur on indigenous rights, James Anaya , says the Australian government intervention in Aboriginal areas is "discriminatory". ( The Australian ) (Xinhua) (BBC) Colombia files a complaint about Venezuela with the Organization of American States , saying the country has been interfering in its domestic affairs. (MercoPress) (BBC) Thousands of people flee fighting between government troops and ethnic rebels in northeastern Burma . ( Bangkok Post ) (AFP) (Australia Network News) The head of the joint United Nations–African Union force in Darfur , Martin Agwai, says the war in the region is over and is now only suffering low-level disputes. (BBC) (Reuters) Sri Lanka dismisses a video purporting to show violence by its Armed Forces against Tamils . ( The Guardian ) (CNN) (SLBC) South Korea proposes regular reunions of families separated by the Korean War to North Korea . (Yonhap) ( Times of India ) (Associated Press) Judges at the Supreme Court of India agree to make their financial assets public. (BBC) (Press Trust of India) The Standing Committee of the National People's Congress passes its first law on the People's Armed Police , giving it statutory authority to respond to riots, terrorist attacks or other emergencies. ( China Daily ) (IOL) ( The New York Times ) Russia deploys an S-400 anti-missile defence system close to its border with North Korea . ( The Guardian ) ( Tehran Times ) A suicide bomber hits a Pakistani security checkpoint at the main border crossing for convoys ferrying NATO supplies into Afghanistan , killing at least 18 border guards. (MSNBC) August 28, 2009 ( 2009-08-28 ) (Friday) edit history watch A suicide bomber lightly wounds Prince Muhammad bin Nayef , deputy interior minister of Saudi Arabia , in his Jeddah office. (Associated Press) ( NY Times ) ( The Washington Post ) Reading Rainbow , the third longest-running children's show on United States public-service television network PBS , ends its 26-year run. (NPR) The detailed chemical structure of a single molecule has been imaged for the first time. The physical shape of single carbon nanotubes has been outlined before, using similar techniques , but the new method even shows up chemical bonds . (BBC) The United Nations warns that poultry farms could become infected with the H1N1 virus , following the discovery of the virus in turkeys in Chile last week. (BBC) According to declassified documents released this week, a survival manual produced by Transport Canada was used by U.S. interrogators to set limits on dousing detainees with cold water as a form of water torture . (CBC) [ permanent dead link ] (CTV) [ permanent dead link ] Japan 's unemployment rate reaches a record high of 5.7%. (BBC) Iceland 's Althing votes in favour of repaying more than US$ 5 billion owed to the governments of the Netherlands and the United Kingdom as a result of the collapse of the Icesave bank . (BBC) The Los Angeles County coroner rules that American entertainer and musician Michael Jackson 's death was a homicide caused by acute intoxication from the drug propofol . (Reuters) Prime Minister of Italy Silvio Berlusconi launches legal action against French weekly Nouvel Observateur , Spanish newspaper El País , and Italian newspaper La Repubblica , and has authorized his attorneys to prepare cases against British newspapers, charging the newspapers with libel . (Reuters) King Mohammed VI of Morocco is hospitalized for five days for treatment of a rotavirus and dehydration . ( Monsters & Critics ) Clashes between rebels and government troops in the Kokang region of northeastern Burma continue, with around 30,000 refugees fleeing across the border to China . ( China Daily ) ( The Times ) (Reuters) United Nations diplomats confirm the United Arab Emirates seized a North Korean ship carrying weapons to Iran , in violation of Security Council Resolution 1874 . ( Financial Times ) (AFP) Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad calls for opposition leaders to be punished over election protests which occurred earlier this year. (Al Jazeera) (Press TV) NASA launches the Space Shuttle Discovery ( STS-128 ) for a resupply and crew rotation mission to the International Space Station . The mission will also deliver the Multi-Purpose Logistics Module Leonardo. This is Discovery's 37th flight and will celebrate the 25th anniversary of its first flight during the mission. (AFP) ( Chosun Ilbo ) Oasis (band) band breaks up August 29, 2009 ( 2009-08-29 ) (Saturday) edit history watch Chandrayaan-1 loses contact with ground control. (Indian Express) Noel Gallagher leaves the British rock band Oasis . ( The Times ) (Channel News Asia) (Reuters India) ( The New York Times ) Several people are reported killed after fresh clashes erupt in the Kokang region of Shan State , northeastern Burma , near the border with China . A bomb is also thrown across the border. ( Global Times ) (Al Jazeera) ( Times of India ) (AFP) North Korea frees four South Korean fishermen seized last month when the boat strayed across the Northern Limit Line sea boundary. (BBC) ( JoongAng Daily ) Two civilian members of the UNAMID peacekeeping force are kidnapped by armed men in Darfur , Sudan . (BBC) Seven people are found dead in the US state of Georgia and two are seriously wounded in one of the worst slayings in the state in 25 years. CBS News August 30, 2009 ( 2009-08-30 ) (Sunday) edit history watch Japanese general election, 2009 : Japanese voters go to the polls. (Reuters) (Xinhua) (Kyodo) [ permanent dead link ] The Democratic Party of Japan win 308 seats in the 480-seat House of Representatives , ending nearly 50 years of control by the Liberal Democratic Party . Opposition leader Yukio Hatoyama is expected to be confirmed as the next Prime Minister . (Kyodo) ( New York Times ) A presidential election takes place in Gabon . (BBC) (Al Jazeera) Brazil 's former Environment minister Marina Silva joins the Green Party which wants to field her as a black female candidate for the 2010 Brazilian presidential race when President Lula 's two terms comes to an end. (MercoPress) Israeli jets bomb a building in the Gaza Strip which the military says hides a tunnel that Palestinian militants could use to infiltrate Israel . (BBC) (Ynet News) A suspected suicide bomber kills 14 police cadets in an attack on a training centre in Mingora , Pakistan . (BBC) At least five people are killed and 275 injured in a train crash near Yaoundé , Cameroon . (BBC) (Press TV) The remains of 92 victims of a military massacre in Putis , Peru , are laid to rest 25 years later. (Associated Press) [ permanent dead link ] (BBC) Ehud Olmert is indicted on three counts of corruption, becoming the first ex-Prime Minister of Israel to face criminal charges. (BBC) Al-Qaeda claims responsibility for the attempted assassination on Saudi Prince Muhammad bin Nayef . (Al Jazeera) (BBC) The Iranian Parliament begins debating President Mahmoud Ahmadinejads choice of Cabinet. (Associated Press) (Fars News Agency) (Press TV) Burma says 26 government troops and 8 rebels were killed during violence in the Kokang region of Shan State . (Associated Press) The Dalai Lama begins a visit to Taiwan , amid criticism from China . (Al Jazeera) ( Hindustan Times ) ( Straits Times ) August 31, 2009 ( 2009-08-31 ) (Monday) edit history watch Figures from 2008 reveal Ireland has experienced its highest number of births since 1896. (RTÉ) ( Irish Independent ) ( The Irish Times ) Lesbians are granted equal birth rights in England and Wales . (BBC) ( The Daily Telegraph ) ( The Guardian ) Britain will face widespread power cuts and rationing of energy in 2019 for the first time since the 1970s, according to Her Majesty's Government . ( The Daily Telegraph ) Disney reaches a deal to acquire Marvel Entertainment for US$ 4 billion, with Marvel shareholders being issued $30 and about 0.745 Disney shares for each share of Marvel they own. (Marketwatch) Nigeria charges several banking executives with financial crimes discovered following the $2.6 billion bail-out of five banks. (BBC) American Airlines retires all of its Airbus A300 aircraft after flying for American Airlines for the past 21 years. Russian forces state that they have killed an Algerian Al Qaeda operative and another militant during a raid on a house in Khasavyurt , Dagestan . (BBC) Iraqi officials begin negotiations with Serbia over the return of 19 MiG-21 and MiG-23 fighter jets sent to Yugoslavia in the 1980's for repairs. (BBC) Jason Mraz 's I'm Yours becomes the longest running single in the Billboard Hot 100 's history at 71 weeks on the chart. ( Associated Press ) Armenia and Turkey agree to establish diplomatic relations . ( New York Times ) edit history watch At least two people are killed and at least fifteen are wounded in a shooting attack at a building frequented by gay youths in Tel-Aviv , Israel . ( Haaretz ) 4,000 people are evacuated from the Canary Islands due to severe forest fires. (RTÉ) Former President of the Philippines Corazon Aquino dies at the age of 76 of cardiopulmonary arrest after complications of colon cancer . A memorial service and funeral is scheduled for August 5. ( Philippine Daily Inquirer ) Russia signs a deal to open a second military base in Kyrgyzstan at a Collective Security Treaty Organisation summit. (AP) The trial of 30 protesters in Iran who demonstrated in protests after the disputed presidential election begins. (Press TV) (BBC) (Al Jazeera) Thousands demonstrate in Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia , against a current security law that allows for detention without trial. (Bernama) (Al Jazeera) ( The Times of India ) Police fire tear gas and arrest over 400 people at street protests over laws that can see people detained indefinitely without trial by the authorities in Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia . (RTÉ) (Malaysian Insider) Venezuela orders 34 private radio stations to be closed. (CNN) (Al Jazeera) Chinese hackers target the website of the Melbourne International Film Festival for a second time as Uyghur leader Rebiya Kadeer is to visit the country. (AFP) ( The Australian ) (Bloomberg) North Korea says a South Korean fishing boat it seized "illegally" entered its waters. (Yonhap) (BBC) Six Christians are killed in religious unrest in Punjab , Pakistan , after days of tension following an alleged desecration of a Qur’an . (BBC) Rare Buddhist treasures, buried in the 1930s during Mongolia 's Communist purge, are unearthed in the Gobi Desert . (BBC) edit history watch One person is killed and 75 injured after an outdoor stage collapses at the Big Valley Jamboree country music festival in Alberta , Canada . (CBC) (CNN) One person dies of pneumonic plague and eleven of his relatives are quarantined in Hainan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture . ( People's Daily Online ) Three workers from the Russian Emergency Ministry are killed in Ingushetia . ( Kyiv Post ) (RIA Novosti) Nine families who have been living in East Jerusalem since 1956 are evicted by force. (Previous reports of 'two families' are wrong.) (Al Jazeera) (AFP) (BBC) Merpati Nusantara Airlines Flight 9760 , a Twin Otter plane with 16 on board, disappears over Papua , Indonesia . (Japan Today) (Bernama) (AFP) Two newly discovered works by Mozart —a prelude and concerto movement—are performed in Salzburg , Austria . (BBC) (Associated Press) (Reuters) A new strain of the virus that causes AIDS is discovered in a woman from Cameroon . (MSNBC) Chinese police detain a further 319 people over unrest in the Xinjiang region last month. (Xinhua) (Press TV) (Reuters India) Hundreds of firefighters on the Spanish island of La Palma in the Canary Islands are continuing to battle wildfires . ( The Times ) ( The Telegraph ) At least 33 people die and several are injured as a bus flips over thrice in Zimbabwe . (BBC) Around 2700 people are evacuated as 530 forest fires burn in British Columbia , Canada . ( The Age ) (AFP) A large oil spill occurs in Langesund , Norway , after a Chinese ship, the Full City , drifted aground. (Stockholm News) ( The Local ) Former Iranian President Mohammad Khatami criticizes the " show trial " of election protestors currently underway in the country. (Press TV) ( The Independent ) The death toll from sectarian clashes in northern Nigeria rises to 700. ( This Day ) (CNN) The BBC obtains a photograph showing Yusuf Mohamed , leader of the Boko Haram sect, was alive when captured by the Nigerian army. (BBC) The remains of Michael Scott Speicher , the first United States Gulf War casualty, are located in the Al Anbar Governorate desert. ( The Irish Times ) edit history watch Bolivia becomes the first country in the history of South America to declare the right of indigenous people to govern themselves. (MercoPress) Georgia accuses Russia of trying to seize more of its territory as the anniversary of the 2008 war between the two countries approaches. (BBC) . Several earthquakes, including one of 6.9 magnitude , hit northwestern Mexico . (USGS) (BBC) Continental Airlines Flight 128 , from Rio de Janeiro to Houston , makes an emergency landing in Miami after severe turbulence, injuring dozens. ( New York Daily News ) Evidence that haggis was invented by the English is unearthed. (IOL) (News.com.au) Iran is reportedly ready to build a nuclear weapon , according to Western intelligence services. ( The Times ) Barclays posts a profit of £2.98bn for the first half of the year, up 8% on the same period of 2008. (Sky News) Iran 's Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei formally approves the second-term presidency of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad . (BBC) (Press TV) (Reuters) (Al Jazeera) Water supplies in Chifeng , Inner Mongolia , China , are cut off to over 580,000 people after contaminants caused the hospitalization of 4,125 people due to gastrointestinal illness. (Xinhua) (Associated Press) A town in Qinghai , China, is sealed off after a second person dies of pneumonic plague . (Xinhua) ( The Times ) (Al Jazeera) Somali pirates release a Malaysian tugboat with 11 Indonesian crew after being held for more than seven months. (Reuters) ( People's Daily ) ( The Straits Times ) [ permanent dead link ] The Washington Post newspaper in the United States reports that officials are considering a plan to move Guantánamo Bay detainees to a prison camp . (RTÉ) An Australian radio show is axed and presenter Kyle Sandilands sacked from a television show after a lie detector stunt sees a 14-year-old girl say she was raped so her mother could claim Pink tickets. ( Bangkok Post ) (BBC) (CTV) ( The Guardian ) ( Herald Sun ) (IOL) 185 people are killed in tribal clashes in South Sudan . (Associated Press) (AHN) (BBC) The death sentences of more than 4000 prisoners in Kenya are commuted to life imprisonment . (BBC) (Capital FM) edit history watch A European Commission report finds that more than 50% of all Europeans regularly surf the Internet , up 33% in five years. (Deutsche Welle) Burundian police detain opposition leader and former journalist Alexis Sinduhije at Ruyigi in eastern Burundi, where he is accused of hosting an illegal meeting. (IOL) Pro- government activist, Lina Ron , surrenders to Venezuelan authorities one day after attacking opposition television station Globovisión . President Hugo Chávez condemns the attack, saying it helps his opponents brand him as a tyrant . (BBC) ( The Guardian ) Amos Kenan , Israeli columnist, painter, sculptor, playwright, novelist and leading intellectual of Canaanism died at the age of 82 in Israel , his funeral is scheduled for Thursday, August 6th, at a kibbutz cemetery in central Israel. ( The Associated Press ) Former United States President Bill Clinton arrives in Pyongyang , North Korea , and secures the freedom of two detained American journalists, Laura Ling and Euna Lee . (BBC) (Yonhap) (KCNA) (Al Jazeera) ( The Times ) (BBC) Georgia The Russian and U.S. Presidents discuss in a phone conversation the Georgian situation and “the need to decrease tensions in the region,” America's White House claims. (Civil) . Russia establishes combat readiness of its troops in South Ossetia due to the situation. (Rustavi 2) , (Civil) . Georgia urges the European Union and United States to help avert a new war with Russia , as tensions escalate ahead of the first anniversary of the 2008 South Ossetia war . (AFP via Google News) South Ossetian separatists throw grenades into Georgian and Russian checkpoints. (Rustavi2) The Russian and U.S. Presidents discuss in a phone conversation the Georgian situation and “the need to decrease tensions in the region,” America's White House claims. (Civil) . Russia establishes combat readiness of its troops in South Ossetia due to the situation. (Rustavi 2) , (Civil) . Georgia urges the European Union and United States to help avert a new war with Russia , as tensions escalate ahead of the first anniversary of the 2008 South Ossetia war . (AFP via Google News) South Ossetian separatists throw grenades into Georgian and Russian checkpoints. (Rustavi2) Police in Australia foil a major terror operation involving a suicide attack on a military base understood to be Holsworthy Barracks on Sydney 's western outskirts. (Sky News) ( The Age ) ( The Hindu ) 5,300 people flee flames which thousands of firefighters fight in British Columbia . (BBC) (Canada.com) (CBS News) ( National Post ) Bangkok Airways Flight PG 266 crashes into a disused control tower at Samui Airport on the island of Ko Samui , Thailand , killing at least one person. ( Bangkok Post ) [ permanent dead link ] (BBC) ( China Daily ) (RTÉ) A referendum on whether to extend Mamadou Tandja 's presidency for a third term is held in Niger . (BBC) (Associated Press) Gotland governor Marianne Samuelsson is forced to resign after she was taped arguing that a local businessman should be given favourable treatment. ( The Local ) UBS remains cautious about its prospects after client withdrawals spurred by protracted U.S. tax litigation drags the Swiss bank into another big quarterly loss. (Reuters) John Yettaw , detained in Burma for making an uninvited visit to Aung San Suu Kyi , is taken to hospital suffering seizures. (BBC) (AFP) (CNN) After a public demonstration in support, a High Court judge in Ireland orders the release of Thomas Cook staff, including one woman who went into labour, who were arrested after occupying the company's premises on Grafton Street , Dublin . ( The Irish Times ) (Reuters) (RTÉ) ( The Times ) About 100 Algerians and Chinese clash in Algiers . (Reuters India) (BBC) Nigerian President Umaru Yar'Adua orders an investigation into the recent sectarian violence in the north of the country. (NEXT) (Reuters) Opposition groups in Iran call for further protests ahead of President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad 's inauguration. (Associated Press) The trial of a Sudanese woman accused of public indecency after wearing trousers is adjourned for a second time after police disperse protesters outside the court. (IOL) (Al Jazeera) Kenyan President Mwai Kibaki commutes the sentences of more than 4,000 death row inmates to life imprisonment. (IOL) Nigerian airport officials release a Ukrainian aircraft and its crew arrested in June with an arms cargo bound for Equatorial Guinea . (IOL) edit history watch The 40th Pacific Islands Forum leaders' meeting opens in Cairns, Australia . (RNZI) Mahmoud Ahmadinejad is officially sworn in as President of Iran for a second term. (Press TV) (BBC) The funeral of Corazon Aquino , the first female President of an Asian country and the Philippines , takes place in the Philippines . (CNN) Brazilian President Lula da Silva says his country is “now advising the International Monetary Fund , IMF”. (MercoPress) Bolivian President Evo Morales expresses concern in La Paz about the possibility that the “Pinochetistas” in Chile and the “fascist right” in Argentina could win the general elections in those countries and that it "would be very serious for Latin American democracy and for South America ". (MercoPress) Iraq 's government announces that all Bremer walls will be removed from Baghdad within forty days. (BBC) 11 men drown when a boat sinks on the Nile near Khartoum , Sudan . (IOL) Two United States journalists, Laura Ling and Euna Lee , who had been detained by North Korea , return home with former U.S. President Bill Clinton . (CNN) Former Madagascar leader Marc Ravalomanana is hopeful that a relaunch of peace talks between the country's rival factions will bring progress toward a return of political stability. (IOL) A dog featured in an American film called I Love You, Man , which was named after assassinated Egyptian President Anwar El Sadat , leads to a court case as bloggers complain that their country has been insulted. (BBC) Fourteen people are shot at a women's dance class in LA Fitness gymnasium in Collier Township , Pennsylvania , United States . Three women die, as does the gunman. (BBC News) Eight people are injured when an Airbus A320 plane catches fire on one of its engines at Paris-Orly Airport . The fire is quickly brought under control. (Reuters) (BBC News) Three more men are charged with plotting a suicide attack on a military base in Australia . (BBC News) Ireland 's Health Service Executive threatens several pharmacies with High Court injunctions if they do not adhere with their contracts to dispense drugs. ( The Irish Times ) (RTÉ) Part-nationalised UK lender Lloyds Banking Group reports pre-tax losses of £4 billion for the first half of this year. (Sky News) Chansa Kabwela, the news editor of the The Post , goes on trial in Zambia after being accused of distributing obscene images. (BBC) (IOL) Police fire teargas at protesters rallying in support of Lubna al-Hussein , the Sudanese woman facing 40 lashes for wearing trousers in public. (IOL) A court in Moscow opens a new trial into the murder of Russian journalist Anna Politkovskaya . (RIA Novosti) (BBC) (AFP) A Chinese teenager sent to an internet addiction rehabilitation camp is allegedly beaten to death by its counsellors. (BBC) ( Global Times ) The United States White House defends its decision to award its Presidential Medal of Freedom to former President of Ireland Mary Robinson . ( Irish Examiner ) ( The Irish Times ) ( The Sydney Morning Herald ) Austrian police probe the shooting of two adolescents who allegedly broke into a supermarket and died by police. (Deutsche Welle) An anthem sung by FC Schalke 04 's fans draws Islamic protests because of its reference to the Prophet Muhammad . (BBC) Romanians who fled Belfast following racist attacks return to Northern Ireland . (BBC) ( The Irish Times ) Belgian Justice Minister Stefaan De Clerck is under fire after three men with criminal records escape from a courthouse in Brussls. The escape follows the helicopter breakout of three inmates, including one of Belgium's most dangerous criminals, and the ladder breakout of six more convicts all in the space of twelve days. (Deutsche Welle) Former Argentine President Fernando de la Rúa is indicted in a bribery case. (MercoPress) Former Lieutenant Governor of the Northern Mariana Islands Timothy P. Villagomez is sentenced to seven years in prison for political corruption . ( Sapain Tribune ) Thirty-three people are reported missing following the sinking of the Princess Ashika ferry in Tonga . (RNZI) edit history watch 64th anniversary of Hiroshima and Nagasaki atomic bombings Japan calls for a nuclear-weapons-free world as it marks 64 years since Hiroshima was hit in the world's first atomic bomb attack. (RTÉ) ( The Daily Telegraph ) Up to 50,000 people, including officials and visitors from countries around the world, attend a memorial service in the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park built directly below the point where the bomb exploded. (Al Jazeera) (Xinhua) Speaking at the ceremony, Mayor of Hiroshima Tadatoshi Akiba supports a call by United States President Barack Obama for the abolition of nuclear weapons. ( The Guardian ) ( The Jerusalem Post ) The Japanese Government agrees to set up a compensation fund for 300 survivors of the atomic bombings. (ABC) A poll finds 61% of Americans believe their country was correct to drop the atomic bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki . (Reuters India) ( Brisbane Times ) Japan calls for a nuclear-weapons-free world as it marks 64 years since Hiroshima was hit in the world's first atomic bomb attack. (RTÉ) ( The Daily Telegraph ) Up to 50,000 people, including officials and visitors from countries around the world, attend a memorial service in the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park built directly below the point where the bomb exploded. (Al Jazeera) (Xinhua) Speaking at the ceremony, Mayor of Hiroshima Tadatoshi Akiba supports a call by United States President Barack Obama for the abolition of nuclear weapons. ( The Guardian ) ( The Jerusalem Post ) The Japanese Government agrees to set up a compensation fund for 300 survivors of the atomic bombings. (ABC) A poll finds 61% of Americans believe their country was correct to drop the atomic bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki . (Reuters India) ( Brisbane Times ) Supporters of Iran 's opposition leader, Mir-Hossein Mousavi , battle riot police as they hoot horns and take to the streets of Tehran shouting " Death to the dictator ". (BBC) An Indian court sentences to death three people for carrying out bombings that killed more than 50 people in Mumbai in 2003. (Al Jazeera) (BBC) ( The New York Times ) Malagasy crisis talks resume between interim leader Andry Rajoelina , ousted president Marc Ravalomanana and former presidents Didier Ratsiraka and Albert Zafy in Maputo , Mozambique . (IOL) New Zealand ’s Prime Minister John Key says he believes Fiji ’s self-appointed Prime Minister Commodore Frank Bainimarama has given up on the Pacific Islands Forum . (RNZI) Argentina , Brazil and Bolivia express concerns whilst Peru supports a planned accord by Colombian President Álvaro Uribe to allow United States troops to use several bases. Venezuela announces trade measures against Colombia. (BBC) Brazil returns 1.500 tonnes of syringes, condoms and dirty nappies which were sent from the United Kingdom . (MercoPress) Micro-blogging website Twitter is knocked offline by a distributed denial-of-service attack targeted at a Georgian blogger . (RTÉ) (CNN) (BBC) South African photographer Neil Hartmann , accused of documenting Namibia 's annual seal cull, is detained without charge for nearly seven hours less than a month after the arrest of two journalists. (IOL) A company manager claims that a 77-day occupation of a car plant by hundreds of laid-off workers in South Korea has come to an end. (BBC) Japan 's first jury trial for more than 60 years ends with a man in his 70s being sentenced to 15 years in prison for murder . (ABC News) (BBC) ( The Guardian ) ( The Independent ) ( The New York Times ) Iran bans all pilgrimages to Saudi Arabia during the Islamic holy month of Ramadan in an attempt to contain the spread of swine flu . (BBC) Hundreds of panic-stricken people queue at hospitals in Pune , India , to be tested for swine flu following the first death from the disease in that country. (BBC) The Iraqi cabinet agrees a draft law to restrict smoking in public places and ban tobacco advertising. (BBC) President Jacob Zuma names Sandile Ngcobo as Chief Justice of South Africa . (IOL) ( Mail & Guardian ) Sonia Sotomayor is confirmed by the United States Senate as Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court , replacing David Souter . (Reuters) (CNN) At least nine people are killed and several inhale fumes after a fire at a retirement home in Melle , Belgium . (BBC) The Presidents of Democratic Republic of Congo and Rwanda , Joseph Kabila and Paul Kagame , pledge to boost economic and security ties after a rare meeting. (BBC) Scientists say they have decoded the entire genetic structure of HIV-1—the main cause of AIDS in humans. (BBC) News Corp. announces its intent to start charging online customers for news content across all its websites, including The Times , The Sun , The Wall Street Journal , New York Post and Herald Sun . (BBC) ( The New Zealand Herald ) (Reuters) At least 34 people are feared dead after their bus plunges into the Indus River in Pakistan . (BBC) The Slender-billed Vulture , one of the world's most endangered birds and said to be rarer than the Tiger , is twice successfully bred in Haryana and West Bengal . (BBC) edit history watch The leaders of three South African opposition parties urge President Jacob Zuma to withdraw his statement on the nomination of Sandile Ngcobo to replace outgoing Chief Justice Pius Langa , calling it "unconstitutional". (IOL) Senator Miguel Carrioza says the Congress of Paraguay is not interested in considering the protocol for Venezuela ’s incorporation to Mercosur . (MercoPress) Mel Martinez , U.S. Senator from Florida , announces his resignation. (MSNBC) Selvarasa Pathmanathan , the new leader of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam , is detained in Thailand . (BBC) According to both Pakistani officials and Taliban insurgents, Baitullah Mehsud , leader of the Pakistani Taliban , was killed in a drone strike. (New York Times) Shootouts leave at least 11 dead in the escalating violence since Mexico 's continuing national crackdown on the illegal drug trade . (AP foreign-UK Guardian) Ronnie Biggs , one of the participants of the Great Train Robbery , is freed on medical grounds. (UK Guardian) Bomb attacks on a Shia mosque and pilgrims at Shreikhan village near Mosul kill at least 36 people as Iraq 's largest Muslim community marks one of its biggest feasts, gathering in Karbala to mark the birth of Muhammad al-Mahdi . (BBC) edit history watch One of Southeast Asia 's most wanted terror suspects, Noordin Mohammed Top , is allegedly killed after a 16 hour siege at a house in Java , Indonesia . ( Jakarta Post ) (BBC) (Al Jazeera) The second hearing in the trial of Iranian election protesters resumes. (Al Jazeera) (Xinhua) (Press TV) Local government elections take place in northern Sri Lanka , the first elections since the end of the civil war . ( Daily News ) (Reuters) (Press TV) A small plane and a tour helicopter collide over the Hudson River in the United States . (CNN) A suicide bomber detonates a bomb outside the French embassy in Nouakchott , Mauritania , wounding two. The attack is the first suicide bombing in Mauritania's history. (France 24) (RFI) edit history watch South African opposition parties call on President Jacob Zuma to withdraw Sandile Ngcobo as Chief Justice because he failed to consult the opposition and Judicial Service Committee . ( The Times ) [ permanent dead link ] Sri Lanka 's governing coalition wins in Jaffna but suffers a surprise defeat in Vavuniya in the country's first post-war local elections . (BBC) (AFP) A million people are evacuated in southeastern China as Typhoon Morakot approaches. ( The Daily Telegraph ) (Xinhua) (AFP) A 6.9 magnitude earthquake hits Tokyo and eastern Japan . (Nikkei) [ permanent dead link ] (Press Association) (Reuters) Tonga raises the death toll from the MV Princess Ashika sinking to 93. (Bloomberg) ( Matangi Tonga ) Three bombs explode on the island of Majorca , Spain . (Bloomberg) (BBC) (RTÉ) At least 43 people are feared dead after a massive mudslide sweeps away three hamlets in northern India . (CNN) (RTÉ) A Kam Air plane bound for the Xinjiang Autonomous Region in northwestern China is diverted to Kandahar , Afghanistan after an earlier alleged bomb threat. (Associated Press) (Xinhua) (BBC) Former Taoiseach of Ireland Garret FitzGerald is among twenty Irish nationals who are quarantined at a French chateau due to swine flu . ( Irish Examiner ) ( Expatica ) A senior General from the Iranian Revolutionary Guard calls for opposition leaders Mohammad Khatami , Mir Hossein Mousavi and Mehdi Karroubi to stand trial . ( Gulf Times ) (Press TV) A same-sex marriage demonstration occurs outside the Department of Justice, Equality and Law Reform in Dublin . ( The Irish Times ) (RTÉ) The last of three men who escaped from a Belgian jail on board a hijacked helicopter are recaptured in Morocco . (BBC) ( People's Daily online ) ( The New York Times ) Seventeen people, including five children, are killed when a crowded bus crashes into a ditch after being side-swiped by an oncoming heavy truck in Mount Darwin , Zimbabwe . (IOL) edit history watch In an open letter four South African opposition leaders accuse President Jacob Zuma of abuse of power after his naming of Sandile Ngcobo as Chief Justice . The office of President Jacob Zuma responds by saying there was "nothing unconstitutional" in Zuma's action. ( The Times ) (IOL) The UNASUR summit opens in Quito to discuss issues such as Venezuela 's “ethics responsibility” clause, Colombian military bases and the Honduras crisis . (MercoPress) At the funeral of Vice-President Joseph Msika , President Robert Mugabe lashes out at "racist" western countries, saying " Zimbabwe need not be tied to any one corner of the world, least of all, to a corner of former imperialist and racist colonisers". ( The Times ) [ permanent dead link ] (IOL) During a tour of Africa , Hillary Clinton , the United States Secretary of State , attacks a Congolese university student for asking about the opinion of her husband Bill Clinton . (IOL) ( New York Daily News ) (ABC News) ( The Guardian ) Ecuadorean President Rafael Correa is sworn in for a second term vowing to deepen his socialist “revolution”. (MercoPress) The interim government in Honduras agrees to accept a delegation from the Organization of American States to help solve the political crisis in the country. (AFP) (CNN) Pope Benedict XVI triggers a “scandalous poverty” debate in Argentina , with Buenos Aires province governor Daniel Scioli preparing to meet with all Catholic bishops of his area. (MercoPress) The head of Hyundai Asan , embarks on a mission to North Korea to attempt to secure the release of a company worker. (BBC) Libya and Chad sign seven agreements to boost trade, security and political co-operation. (IOL) Negotiators gather in Austria for informal talks aimed at unblocking a 34-year-old dispute between Morocco and the Western Sahara independence movement. (IOL) The head of MI6 John Scarlett denies complicity in the alleged torture of British detainee Binyam Mohamed , as the government rejects calls for an inquiry. (BBC) ( The Times ) ( The Daily Telegraph ) More than 350 new species—including 244 plants and 16 amphibians—are discovered in the Eastern Himalayas . (WWF) ( The Daily Telegraph ) (Xinhua) The Fatah Palestinian faction votes in leadership elections for the first time in 20 years. (AFP) (Al Jazeera) A series of bombings in Iraq kill 48 people and injure 231 in Baghdad and Mosul in continuing violence between Shiites and Sunnis in the area. (CNN) Ecuador ’s Health Minister Caroline Chang says South America ’s twelve nations have pledged to respect regional vaccine price ceilings to prevent businesses from exploiting fear of the A/H1N1 flu pandemic. (MercoPress) Two Namibians and a Chinese who are suspected in a corruption investigation involving a firm linked to the son of China's President Hu Jintao appear in a Windhoek court asking to be released on bail. (IOL) edit history watch President of Costa Rica , Óscar Arias Sánchez is diagnosed with Influenza AH1N1 but his condition is stable, according to official reports. (ANSA) (AP) (MercoPress) A court ruling in Pretoria bars President Jacob Zuma from appointing a successor to axed prosecutions chief Vusi Pikoli . (IOL) UNASUR leaders express fresh concerns over Colombian plans to grant United States troops access to its military bases but cannot agree on a declaration to formally condemn the proposals. Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez warns that "the winds of war are beginning to blow" across the region. (MercoPress) Former Cuban President Fidel Castro calls Colombia "disloyal", saying the pending military deal with the United States could be used to attack other Latin American countries. (MercoPress) ( Granma ) A court in Burma finds Aung San Suu Kyi guilty of violating the terms of her detention, and sentences her to a further 18 months house arrest . (BBC) ( The Straits Times ) ( The Bangkok Post ) [ permanent dead link ] (Al Jazeera) Rescue operations continue in southern China and Taiwan in the aftermath of Typhoon Morakot . ( The Times ) ( Taiwan News ) Two strong earthquakes hit Asia ; a 7.6 magnitude quake off the Indian Andaman Islands and a 6.5 magnitude quake in the Tokyo area of Japan , killing one and injuring dozens. (Press Association) (Associated Press) (BBC) A German court sentences former Nazi army commander Josef Scheungraber to life in prison for his role in the murder of 10 Italians in Tuscany in 1944. (RTÉ) (BBC) (IOL) [ permanent dead link ] ( The Sydney Morning Herald ) Thousands of people worship a baby born with four arms and four legs in Ramechhap , Nepal , revering him as the reincarnation of Ganesh . ( The Guardian ) Kuwait foils an al Qaeda -linked plan to bomb a United States army camp and other "important facilities" in the country. ( The Irish Times ) (Reuters) (BBC) Nine corpses are recovered from a Handlová coal mine following a fire and explosion in Slovakia . ( Irish Independent ) The government meets in emergency session and declares a day of mourning. (TSAR) Argentina 's Cabinet Chief Aníbal Fernández comments on the suspension of the debt-ridden Primera División by saying that football transmission should be free because it is not only a national passion but an industry that generates many jobs and activity. (MercoPress) Two members of the Russian humanitarian organisation Let's Save the Generation are found dead in Grozny , Chechnya . (Al Jazeera) (RIA Novosti) (Press TV) Police in Pakistan register a criminal case with former President Pervez Musharraf over the latter's decision to detain judges in 2007. (AFP) ( Indian Express ) ( The Nation ) The NASA Spitzer Space Telescope finds evidence of a high-speed collision between two burgeoning planets orbiting a young star. (BBC) Russian President Dmitry Medvedev delays sending a new ambassador to Ukraine after criticising its "anti-Russian" stance. (AFP) (Xinhua) (ITAR-TASS) A pilot flying from England to Ireland is airlifted to safety after his two-man aircraft crashes into the Irish Sea near Tuskar Rock . (RTÉ) ( The Irish Times ) Swedish Princess Madeleine announces her engagement to lawyer and longterm boyfriend Jonas Bergström, becoming the second royal in Sweden to announce her engagment after Crown Princess Victoria . (Aftonbladet) A Russian woman is arrested after throwing a teacup at the Mona Lisa portrait in the Louvre , Paris . ( Irish Independent ) (CNN) A passenger plane carrying 13 people, including nine Australians , en route to Kokoda , site of a hiking trail and famous World War II battle, is reported missing over Papua New Guinea . (BBC) (RTÉ) Nepenthes attenboroughii , a new species of giant carnivorous plant, is discovered in the highlands of the central Philippines . (BBC) Two Kenyans , two French , a Bulgarian and a Belgian held captive since November 2008 are freed by their Somali kidnappers. (IOL) edit history watch At a meeting in Caracas , Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez and Argentine President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner sign agreements expanding trade between their two countries. (MercoPress) It is discovered that the Killer Whale creates and visits 'social clubs'. (BBC) Yemeni troops, backed by tanks and fighter aircraft, launch a major offensive on the stronghold of Shia fighters in northern Yemen. (Al Jazeera) Thirty people are killed in Warrap state in southern Sudan , in a resurgence of the nomadic conflicts . (IOL) Russia 's navy is deployed to find the MV Arctic Sea , a missing ship reportedly hijacked three weeks ago in the Baltic Sea . (BBC News) About 700 people missing in southern Taiwan after Typhoon Morakot are located alive. (BBC) (RTÉ) Indonesian police say DNA tests show that a militant killed in a weekend raid was not Noordin Mohammed Top , one of the region's most wanted men. (BBC) The wreckage of an Airlines PNG De Havilland Twin Otter 300 plane carrying 11 passengers and 2 crew is found near Isurava , Papua New Guinea ; there are no signs of survivors. (Al Jazeera) (RNZI) Gunmen shoot dead five Pakistani Muslim preachers outside a mosque in Galkayo , Somalia . (IOL) (BBC) Gregoire Ndahimana , a Rwandan fugitive accused of genocide and crimes against humanity, is arrested by a joint Rwandan - Congolese military operation. (IOL) (BBC) An estimated 20,000 people march through Noumea , New Caledonia , to denounce violent clashes by USTKE trade unionists against police . (RNZI) MV Princess Ashika New Zealand Navy divers believe they have located the sunken MV Princess Ashika a week after the accident. (RNZI) Tonga 's Transportation Minister Paul Karalus resigns after the sinking of the MV Princess Ashika , which killed an estimated 93 people. ( New Zealand Herald ) New Zealand Navy divers believe they have located the sunken MV Princess Ashika a week after the accident. (RNZI) Tonga 's Transportation Minister Paul Karalus resigns after the sinking of the MV Princess Ashika , which killed an estimated 93 people. ( New Zealand Herald ) German CDU politician Vera Lengsfeld attracts controversy for displaying a photo of Angela Merkel in a revealing gown without the authorisation of the Chancellor . (BBC) Lubna al-Hussein , the Sudanese woman facing forty lashes for wearing trousers in public, is prevented from leaving the country for a trip to Lebanon , where she was to take part in a televised talk-show about women's issues. (IOL) (BBC) Diego León Montoya Sánchez , Norte Valle Cartel leader, pleads guilty to drug, murder and racketeering charges. (www.BackgroundNow.com) The Roman Catholic Church is expresses "unease" and "mortification" over revelations surrounding the private life of Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi . (BBC) Astronomers discover WASP-17b , the first planet that orbits in the opposite direction to the spin of its star. (BBC) edit history watch On an official visit to Colombia , Mexican President Felipe Calderón offers his country’s mediation in the conflict between that country, Ecuador and Venezuela . (MercoPress) Ousted Honduran President Manuel Zelaya praises Chile for its “great image” as he meets its President Michelle Bachelet in Santiago and says he expects the United States to take " more drastic actions " against the de facto government of Roberto Micheletti . (MercoPress) Eleven people, including four policemen, are killed in several separate insurgent attacks in Russia 's Republic of Dagestan . (AFP) At least 23 government soldiers and more than 20 Muslim extremists are killed in a day-long clash in the southern Philippines . (France 24) [ permanent dead link ] Former Afghan President Burhanuddin Rabbani survives an ambush by the Taliban in the Ali Abad District of Kunduz province , Afghanistan . ( Voice of America ) [ permanent dead link ] Supporters of Guinea 's self-declared President , Captain Moussa Dadis Camara , form a movement, Dadis Must Stay , to call for him to be allowed to continue in office. (BBC) The French and German economies rebound, helping push the Eurozone to the brink of economic recovery in the second quarter, delivering a further signal that the worst of the global crisis may be coming to an end in Europe . (FT) The European Union will extend its sanctions on Burma to cover members of the judiciary responsible for the verdict in the trial of opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi . (Reuters) A rare signed copy of Adolf Hitler ’s Mein Kampf sells at the Mullock’s auction at Ludlow Racecourse , Shropshire , for £ 21,000 ( € 24,400). ( The Irish Times ) (BBC) ( Evening Herald ) ( The Guardian ) ( The New York Times ) ( Toronto Star ) edit history watch Pakistan begins its first international freight train service from Islamabad to Istanbul . (BBC) Hundreds of people protest in Caracas , Venezuela, after journalists protesting a new education law were beaten the previous day. ( El Universal ) (Associated Press) Malagasy peace talks break down when the armed forces reject one clause in the peace deal. (IOL) The MV Arctic Sea , missing since late July, is reportedly found 400 nmi (740 km) off the Cape Verde islands. (BBC) ( The Times ) A Canadian court orders the government to repatriate Omar Khadr , the sole remaining Western citizen held in Guantanamo Bay detention camp . ( The Star ) (Canadian Press) At least 13 people have died after a bus-train collision in Iaşi County , Romania . (Euronews) (Le Figaro) (Mediafax) Paraguay ’s government withdraws a bill approving Venezuela 's incorporation to Mercosur , fearing a defeat in Congress could hurt relations between the two countries. (MercoPress) In an unexpected move, Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir replaces Salah Gosh , his country's chief of security and intelligence since the mid-1990s, with General Mohamed Atta al-Mawla . (BBC) The remains of over 2,000 people discovered in Poland 's largest mass grave from World War II are reburied in a military cemetery. (ABC News) (BBC) ( Boston Globe ) In Montevideo , President of Mexico Felipe Calderón and President of Uruguay Tabaré Vázquez sign a Strategic Association accord to strengthen political dialogue and bilateral trade relations. (MercoPress) After launching a major offensive attack on a suspected ASG training camp, the day-long clash in the Southern Philippines resulted in 23 government casualties and 31 casualties from the Abu Sayyaf Group . (Philippines Government Portal) Iranian reformists call for a probe of the Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei and his ability to rule. (Associated Press) (BBC) An archaeological excavation uncovers the foundations of the 17th-century Smock Alley Theatre and several artefacts from theatrical performances in Dublin . (RTÉ) Lynette Fromme , a former member of the Manson family , is released after serving 34 years in prison. (ABC News) Lawyers for the Lockerbie bomber , Abdelbaset al-Megrahi , say he is abandoning his second appeal against his conviction for the December 1988 attack as Scottish officials consider his request to be sent home to Libya . (MSNBC) The United Kingdom imposes direct rule on the Turks and Caicos Islands after an inquiry found evidence of government corruption. (BBC) ( Turks and Caicos Sun ) At least 13 people are killed and at least 85 are injured in a fierce gun battle in Gaza . (BBC) United States senator Jim Webb arrives in Burma for talks with General Than Shwe . (Associated Press) ( Bangkok Post ) A University of Glasgow study suggests Asians may view faces differently from others. (BBC) edit history watch Hamas police claim to have killed Abdel-Latif Moussa , head of the Islamic group Jund Ansar Allah in a shootout . ( The New York Times ) (Petra) [ permanent dead link ] Hong Kong posts 3.3% growth over its previous quarter, far exceeding predictions, signaling an end to its recession. ( The Straits Times ) Colombia claims to have completed talks with the United States to allow US troops to use seven of Colombia's military bases. (BBC) Japan expresses remorse for its actions in World War II on the anniversary of its 1945 defeat , but former Prime Ministers Junichiro Koizumi and Shinzo Abe visit the Yasukuni Shrine , a controversial war shrine seen as a symbol of its past militarism. ( The Straits Times ) [ permanent dead link ] ( Mainichi Daily News ) Former President of Zambia , Frederick Chiluba , awaits the verdict in his trial into his criminal case for being accused of plundering the national economy during his decade-long rule. ( The Sydney Morning Herald ) MV Arctic Sea A ransom demand is made for the missing ship. (Al Jazeera) ( Bangkok Post ) ( The Times ) The tracking device onboard the Arctic Sea was briefly reactivated according to Russian media, showing the vessel to be off the coast of France . (RIA Novosti) (Associated Press) A ransom demand is made for the missing ship. (Al Jazeera) ( Bangkok Post ) ( The Times ) The tracking device onboard the Arctic Sea was briefly reactivated according to Russian media, showing the vessel to be off the coast of France . (RIA Novosti) (Associated Press) A suicide bomb attack occurs outside the NATO headquarters in Kabul , Afghanistan , killing at least seven and injuring 100. ( The Times ) (Xinhua) (RTHK) A prison riot in the Mexican state of Durango leaves at least 19 people dead and 20 injured. (BBC) (Reuters) (Press TV) Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi speaks at a news conference to say his country will crack down on organised crime over the next four years. ( The Straits Times ) Burma is to free detained American John Yettaw , who appeared uninvited at Aung San Suu Kyi 's home, after a meeting with US Senator Jim Webb . (BBC) ( The Straits Times ) ( The Telegraph ) A blaze in a tent in Kuwait , where a wedding party is held, kills 43 women and children. The ex-wife of the groom confesses to starting the fire. (Al Jazeera) edit history watch A 6.9 magnitude earthquake occurs near Siberut Island , Sumatra , Indonesia , at 14:38 local time, injuring at least seven people. (France24.com) Police clash with hundreds of protesters in Peru demonstrating over the failure of President Alan García 's government to rebuild the city of Pisco two years since it was devastated by a powerful earthquake. ( The Irish Times ) Two Russian Sukhoi Su-27 fighter jets collide during a training flight southeast of Moscow , killing the commander of the Russian Knights demonstration team. (RIA Novosti) (Xinhua) (BBC) Tropical Storm Claudette becomes the first tropical cyclone to affect the U.S. mainland in 2009 . (Weather.com) edit history watch Japan officially exits the recession. (BBC) (RTÉ) A bomb explodes on a truck at a fuel station in Charsadda , North-West Frontier Province , Pakistan (20 km from Peshawar ), killing seven people. (BBC News) A suicide bomber explodes a truck at a police station in Nazran in Russia 's North Caucasus , killing at least 20 people and wounding about 60 others. (Yahoo! News) ( NY Times ) An accident at the Sayano–Shushenskaya hydroelectric power station in Russia kills seven and causes power shortages in Siberia . (Reuters) (RTÉ) The Canadian Forces begin exercises to protect Canada 's sovereignty in the far north. (CTV) The MV Arctic Sea , a cargo ship missing after an apparent hijacking in July off the Swedish coast, is discovered by the Russian Navy off Cape Verde . (CNN) edit history watch Former South Korean President and 2000 Nobel Peace Prize recipient Kim Dae-jung dies of multiple organ dysfunction syndrome . (Reuters) Seven people are killed in a bombing targeting a NATO convoy in Kabul , days before the presidential elections in Afghanistan . (BBC) Jesse Jackson is crowned prince of the Agni people during a three-day visit to Côte d'Ivoire , succeeding Michael Jackson . (IOL) edit history watch Seven car bombs are detonated in Baghdad, killing at least 95, and wounding nearly 600. (The Times) Sierra Leone 's annual rains kill 15 people and displace hundreds of others. (IOL) The United States and Switzerland sign an agreement designed to end a tax evasion dispute surrounding UBS U.S. customers. (BBC) Spanish police capture two suspected members, Aitzol Etxaburu and Andoni Sarasola, of the Basque -region separatist group ETA . (CNN) John Marek becomes the 68th death row inmate in the state of Florida , United States to be executed by lethal injection since the death sentence was re-instated in 1979 . (Miami Herald) edit history watch Abdelbaset al-Megrahi , convicted of the bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie in 1988, is released on compassionate grounds due to terminal cancer, and boards a flight to Libya . (BBC) A bicycle bomb explodes near a restaurant in Baghdad , killing two people. (Yahoo! news) 18 prospectors are killed overnight in a diamond mine in Kasai province in central Democratic Republic of the Congo . (IOL) A line of severe thunderstorms rolls through Ontario , Canada , spawns over 18 tornadoes in one day which has been declared to be the largest tornado outbreak in Canadian history , at least four F-2 tornadoes were confirmed, including one touching down in the town of Durham, Ontario , northwest of Toronto where at least one person was killed, and the other in a Toronto suburb of Vaughan, Ontario where over 600 homes were damaged or destroyed. (CTV) Switzerland 's president, Hans-Rudolf Merz , apologizes to the Libyan government for last year's arrest of a son of Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi . (MSNBC) Elizabeth Ramos and Louis Williams, owners of defense contracting company Technical Logistics, admit to bribing an employee of the U.S. Navy 's Space and Naval Warfare Systems Command in exchange for defense contracts. (UPI) For the first time video ads will appear in a magazine, using a screen similar to a cell phone that can store 40 minutes of video. (BBC) edit history watch Argentina 's association football championship kicks off after President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner puts it on the state payroll to avoid a financial crisis. (MercoPress) Brazil becomes Chile 's third largest trading partner, displacing Japan , according to recently released government trade figures. (MercoPress) South African President Jacob Zuma makes a pilgrimage to a former anti- apartheid guerrilla camp in Angola where he lays a wreath and pays tribute to fallen comrades. (IOL) The presidents or heads of state of five nations, including Seretse Ian Khama of Botswana and Robert Mugabe of Zimbabwe , along with ministers and musical troupes gather at the cricket stadium in Oranjemund , Namibia , for a welcoming ceremony at the conclusion of explorer Kingsley Holgate 's latest expedition, which took him through nine countries. (IOL) William Calley , the former US army officer found guilty of organizing mass killings in the Vietnamese community of My Lai during the Vietnam War makes a public apology. (NPR) A missile fired from a U.S. unmanned plane destroyed a suspected militant hide-out in northwest Pakistan on Friday, killing at least 12 people in a stronghold of a jihadi leader blamed for attacks in Afghanistan . (Associated Press) Four policemen are killed after 4 suicide bombs on bicycles detonate in Grozny , Chechnya . (RIA Novosti) (AFP) (Al Jazeera) A North Korean delegation arrives in South Korea to mourn the death of former South Korean President Kim Dae-jung . (Al Jazeera) (Yonhap) ( China Daily ) 20 people are killed and 40 injured after clashes between pro-government and Islamist forces in Mogadishu , Somalia . (Bloomberg) A rockfall on a beach in the Algarve , Portugal , kills 5 holidaymakers and injures several others. (BBC) ( The Daily Telegraph ) (euronews) Mexico decriminalises the use of small amounts of marijuana , cocaine , heroin and other drugs for "personal use". ( The Times of India ) (Al Jazeera) U.S. President Barack Obama condemns Lockerbie bomber Abdelbaset al-Megrahi 's homecoming in Libya . (CNN) A 34-year-old Tunisian woman from Gafsa , thought to have been pregnant with 12 babies and whose story had attracted international attention, is determined to have been the victim of a phantom pregnancy . (IOL) László Sólyom , President of Hungary was declared unwelcome by Slovakia and was not allowed to step on Slovak soil to attend an unveiling of a statue depicting King Saint Stephen , first King of Hungary . (BBC) edit history watch Cardinal Seán Brady , Archbishop of Armagh and Primate of All Ireland , criticises Ireland 's Civil Partnership Bill , which gives statutory partnership rights to same-sex couples . (RTÉ) ( Sunday Independent ) Argentina 's Foreign Affairs Ministry “harshly condemns” the nomination of Ahmad Vahidi to serve as Iran 's Defence Minister as he is a suspected international terrorist sought by Interpol in connection with the 1994 attack on AMIA Jewish community centre in Buenos Aires . (MercoPress) Islamic insurgents attack a government checkpoint in Somalia 's capital, Mogadishu , sparking a gunbattle that kills at least five people on the first day of Ramadan . (IOL) The militant group Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta hands over hundreds of weapons to the Nigerian government as part of a weapons amnesty. (BBC) (NEXT) (IOL) Officials from North and South Korea meet for talks for the first time in two years. (BBC) (Yonhap) Brazilian President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva arrives in Bolivia with a "strong tone-down message". (MercoPress) Niger 's police use tear gas to injure and arrest several people during clashes with opponents of a new constitution that would enable President Mamadou Tandja to seek unlimited mandates. (IOL) Thousands of Venezuelans join rival marches in Caracas over a controversial education law that critics say strengthens President Hugo Chávez 's grip over schools and universities. (Reuters) (BBC) Two turkey farms in Valparaíso , Chile , are quarantined over fears the birds have caught swine influenza from humans. (MercoPress) Taliban official Hakeemullah Mehsud is selected as the new head of the Pakistani Taliban , a local Taliban commander in Pakistan's federally administered tribal areas confirms. (CNN) edit history watch Tens of thousands of people in the Baltic states mark the twentieth anniversary of the ' Baltic Way ' - when two million people formed a human chain to protest against Soviet Union rule. (Aljazeera) , (Guardian) , (Baltic Times) . Tens of thousands of people protest against a new law which gives women equal rights in marriage in Bamako , Mali . (BBC) (Afrique en ligne) 26 men accused of plotting attacks on tourist resorts and ships in the Suez Canal on behalf of Lebanon 's Hezbollah group go on trial in an Egyptian security court. (IOL) (BBC) Thousands of people are evacuated as forest fires reach the outskirts of the Greek capital, Athens . (Associated Press) (BBC) ( Daily Mail ) (RTÉ) North Korean envoys meet the South Korean President Lee Myung-bak for the first time since he took office. (Al Jazeera) (Yonhap) A new picture of Fidel Castro is published in the Juventud Rebelde state-run newspaper, apparently showing Cuba 's ailing former leader in much better health. (BBC) (CNN) (IOL) [ permanent dead link ] (Reuters Africa) Afghan President Hamid Karzai 's main rival Abdullah Abdullah alleges fraud in the presidential election . (Xinhua) ( The Guardian ) ( The Times of India ) Yemeni troops claim to have killed more than 100 Shia rebels in the past two weeks, including two leaders, but the rebels deny their leaders, Mohsen Saleh Gawd and Salah Jorman , are dead and no independent confirmation is made available. (BBC) A leak at an offshore oil rig that caused a large oil spill off the coast of Australia "could take weeks" to be plugged. (Associated Press) ( The Australian ) [ permanent dead link ] A severe drought in northern China leaves 5 million people short of water and damages 8.7 million hectares of farmland . ( The Straits Times ) (Press Trust of India) ( China Daily ) England reclaim The Ashes with a 2-1 series win over Australia . (BBC) Iraq broadcasts a video of former police chief Wissam Ali Kadhem Ibrahim , a Saddam Hussein loyalist, confessing to orchestrating a truck bombing at the finance ministry , the first of two bombings that killed 95 people and maimed hundreds more in Baghdad on 19 August. ( The Sydney Morning Herald ) ( Straits Times ) ZANU-PF party members walk out of a meeting of Zimbabwe cabinet members to review the work of a unity government it has formed with its opponents, over charges of electoral fraud . (Reuters Africa) Honduras 's Supreme Court rejects a Costa Rica -brokered deal to restore ousted President Manuel Zelaya to power and orders his arrest if he returns. (BBC) Stefania Fernandez of Venezuela was crowned Miss Universe 2009 by her compatriot Dayana Mendoza , the first in the history. She was crowned at the Atlantis Paradise Island , Nassau , The Bahamas . edit history watch According to court documents, the Los Angeles County coroner 's preliminary assessment is that Michael Jackson 's death was caused by an overdose of the anesthetic propofol . (Reuters) The district court in Stockholm orders BitTorrent tracker The Pirate Bay 's largest ISP , Black Internet, to stop serving the website's traffic. (CNET News) Sweden 's TeliaSonera AB announces cash offers worth around $687.7 million in total for shares it doesn't already own in Baltic operators Teo LT and Eesti Telekom . ( The Wall Street Journal ) Former Cuban leader Fidel Castro appears on television for the first time in more than a year. (BBC) (Al Jazeera) Thieves kill an endangered Sumatran Tiger in an Indonesian zoo and steal its body, leaving its intestines behind. (BBC) ( Jakarta Globe ) Ireland 's Green Party and gay rights organisations defend plans to introduce civil partnerships for same-sex couples following criticism of the move by Cardinal Seán Brady , Archbishop of Armagh and Primate of All Ireland . ( The Irish Times ) China is to try 200 people suspected of their involvement in the Ürümqi riots last month. (GBC) (Associated Press) (Press TV) Two mass graves containing the remains of communist soldiers dating from the Vietnam War are discovered in central Vietnam . ( The Straits Times ) ( China Daily ) A Malaysian Muslim woman, Kartika Sari Dewi Shukarno , who was convicted of drinking alcohol , is granted a reprieve until after Ramadan . (Al Jazeera) (Bernama) (Xinhua) (IOL) Scottish Justice Secretary Kenny MacAskill defends his decision to release the man convicted of the Lockerbie bombing , Abdelbaset al-Megrahi . (BBC) ( The Guardian ) (Al Jazeera) (Xinhua) Kenya 's fifth national census takes place. (KBC) [ permanent dead link ] (BBC) ( The Nation ) (Associated Press) Captain Moussa Dadis Camara who seized power in a military coup in Guinea , refuses to rule out standing for President , after previously promising not to. (BBC) (AFP) (IOL) At least 200 children are killed and around 900 hospitalised by Japanese encephalitis in Uttar Pradesh , India . (BBC) Baitullah Mehsud is confirmed dead by leaders of Pakistan's Taliban . (Associated Press) edit history watch At least 40 people are killed and 57 wounded in a car bomb explosion in Kandahar , southern Afghanistan . (Reuters) (BBC) (The New York Times) (Aljazeera) British Prime Minister Gordon Brown repeats that the British Government played no role in the release from prison of Lockerbie bomber Abdelbaset al-Megrahi , it being a matter for the Scottish Government . (Daily Telegraph) The Malaysian opposition party PAS defeats the government party UMNO in the by-election at Permatang Pasir , Penang . (Bernama) A suicide bombing in Mesker-Yurt , Chechnya , kills three police officers. (Yahoo! news) (BBC News) Madagascar 's political rivals meet for a second round of talks in Maputo , Mozambique . (Reuters Africa) South Korea launches its first space rocket, Naro-1 , but fails to put the STSAT-2A satellite into the planned orbit. (BBC News) (The Korea Times) (Yonhap) U.S. President Barack Obama nominates Ben Bernanke for his second term as chairman of the Federal Reserve . (Bloomberg) A bomb in Afghanistan kills four American soldiers, making 2009 the deadliest year for foreign troops since the 2001 invasion . (BBC) A gas explosion at a coal mine in Shanxi , China , kills at least 14 people. (China Daily) (BBC) The United States budget deficit for 2009 will reach $1.6 trillion, the highest ever recorded. (BBC) 42 people are injured after a car bomb explodes at a crowded restaurant with government officials in Narathiwat , southern Thailand . (Bangkok Post) [ permanent dead link ] (The Age) Syria and Iraq recall their ambassadors over a dispute following the recent bombings in Baghdad last week. (The Daily Star Lebanon) (Al Jazeera) (Syrian News Station) Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez announces plans to break off diplomatic relations with Colombia over the neighboring country's plan to allow U.S. troops access to its military bases. (CNN) The Morris Fire begins near Morris Dam in the Angeles National Forest . This fire is thought to have been caused by arson and is the first in a series of wildfires to burn through Southern California in 2009. edit history watch U.S. Senator Ted Kennedy of Massachusetts , the last surviving Kennedy brother , dies at age 77, after battling brain cancer . (New York Times) Lithuania launches an inquiry into allegations that it hosted a secret CIA prison for al-Qaeda suspects. (BBC) . The government of Moldova announces that it will stand down before the opening of parliament on 28 August. (BBC) French police uncover a large cache of weapons and explosives belonging to terrorist group ETA . (BBC) The Iranian Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei says he has no evidence that opposition protests were backed by foreign countries. (AFP) (Press TV) (BBC) Japan 's exports fall by 36.5% as demand falls. (Bloomberg) (Reuters) North and South Korea resume talks on allowing families divided since the Korean War to begin meeting again, for the first time in two years. (Xinhua) (Yonhap) Zimbabwe denies reports that President Robert Mugabe suffered a health scare. ( The Guardian ) (Zim Online) ( Daily Nation ) Kidnapping of Jaycee Dugard Jaycee Dugard, who disappeared in 1991, is found alive after 18 years and is reunited with her family. (Record Net) Jaycee Dugard, who disappeared in 1991, is found alive after 18 years and is reunited with her family. (Record Net) edit history watch English youth Michael Perham , aged 17 years, 5 months, becomes the youngest person to complete a solo circumnavigation of the world by sailboat , breaking the previous record by two months. (Reuters) South African President Jacob Zuma is to visit Zimbabwe for talks on the power-sharing government. ( The Herald ) (IOL) (AFP) Taiwan approves a visit by the Dalai Lama to comfort the victims of Typhoon Morakot . ( Taiwan News ) ( Times South Africa ) [ permanent dead link ] (Al Jazeera) (Xinhua) Mali 's parliament is to review a law giving women greater rights after thousands of Muslims protested the proposed law. (BBC) (AFP) The United Nations Special Rapporteur on indigenous rights, James Anaya , says the Australian government intervention in Aboriginal areas is "discriminatory". ( The Australian ) (Xinhua) (BBC) Colombia files a complaint about Venezuela with the Organization of American States , saying the country has been interfering in its domestic affairs. (MercoPress) (BBC) Thousands of people flee fighting between government troops and ethnic rebels in northeastern Burma . ( Bangkok Post ) (AFP) (Australia Network News) The head of the joint United Nations–African Union force in Darfur , Martin Agwai, says the war in the region is over and is now only suffering low-level disputes. (BBC) (Reuters) Sri Lanka dismisses a video purporting to show violence by its Armed Forces against Tamils . ( The Guardian ) (CNN) (SLBC) South Korea proposes regular reunions of families separated by the Korean War to North Korea . (Yonhap) ( Times of India ) (Associated Press) Judges at the Supreme Court of India agree to make their financial assets public. (BBC) (Press Trust of India) The Standing Committee of the National People's Congress passes its first law on the People's Armed Police , giving it statutory authority to respond to riots, terrorist attacks or other emergencies. ( China Daily ) (IOL) ( The New York Times ) Russia deploys an S-400 anti-missile defence system close to its border with North Korea . ( The Guardian ) ( Tehran Times ) A suicide bomber hits a Pakistani security checkpoint at the main border crossing for convoys ferrying NATO supplies into Afghanistan , killing at least 18 border guards. (MSNBC) edit history watch A suicide bomber lightly wounds Prince Muhammad bin Nayef , deputy interior minister of Saudi Arabia , in his Jeddah office. (Associated Press) ( NY Times ) ( The Washington Post ) Reading Rainbow , the third longest-running children's show on United States public-service television network PBS , ends its 26-year run. (NPR) The detailed chemical structure of a single molecule has been imaged for the first time. The physical shape of single carbon nanotubes has been outlined before, using similar techniques , but the new method even shows up chemical bonds . (BBC) The United Nations warns that poultry farms could become infected with the H1N1 virus , following the discovery of the virus in turkeys in Chile last week. (BBC) According to declassified documents released this week, a survival manual produced by Transport Canada was used by U.S. interrogators to set limits on dousing detainees with cold water as a form of water torture . (CBC) [ permanent dead link ] (CTV) [ permanent dead link ] Japan 's unemployment rate reaches a record high of 5.7%. (BBC) Iceland 's Althing votes in favour of repaying more than US$ 5 billion owed to the governments of the Netherlands and the United Kingdom as a result of the collapse of the Icesave bank . (BBC) The Los Angeles County coroner rules that American entertainer and musician Michael Jackson 's death was a homicide caused by acute intoxication from the drug propofol . (Reuters) Prime Minister of Italy Silvio Berlusconi launches legal action against French weekly Nouvel Observateur , Spanish newspaper El País , and Italian newspaper La Repubblica , and has authorized his attorneys to prepare cases against British newspapers, charging the newspapers with libel . (Reuters) King Mohammed VI of Morocco is hospitalized for five days for treatment of a rotavirus and dehydration . ( Monsters & Critics ) Clashes between rebels and government troops in the Kokang region of northeastern Burma continue, with around 30,000 refugees fleeing across the border to China . ( China Daily ) ( The Times ) (Reuters) United Nations diplomats confirm the United Arab Emirates seized a North Korean ship carrying weapons to Iran , in violation of Security Council Resolution 1874 . ( Financial Times ) (AFP) Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad calls for opposition leaders to be punished over election protests which occurred earlier this year. (Al Jazeera) (Press TV) NASA launches the Space Shuttle Discovery ( STS-128 ) for a resupply and crew rotation mission to the International Space Station . The mission will also deliver the Multi-Purpose Logistics Module Leonardo. This is Discovery's 37th flight and will celebrate the 25th anniversary of its first flight during the mission. (AFP) ( Chosun Ilbo ) Oasis (band) band breaks up edit history watch Chandrayaan-1 loses contact with ground control. (Indian Express) Noel Gallagher leaves the British rock band Oasis . ( The Times ) (Channel News Asia) (Reuters India) ( The New York Times ) Several people are reported killed after fresh clashes erupt in the Kokang region of Shan State , northeastern Burma , near the border with China . A bomb is also thrown across the border. ( Global Times ) (Al Jazeera) ( Times of India ) (AFP) North Korea frees four South Korean fishermen seized last month when the boat strayed across the Northern Limit Line sea boundary. (BBC) ( JoongAng Daily ) Two civilian members of the UNAMID peacekeeping force are kidnapped by armed men in Darfur , Sudan . (BBC) Seven people are found dead in the US state of Georgia and two are seriously wounded in one of the worst slayings in the state in 25 years. CBS News edit history watch Japanese general election, 2009 : Japanese voters go to the polls. (Reuters) (Xinhua) (Kyodo) [ permanent dead link ] The Democratic Party of Japan win 308 seats in the 480-seat House of Representatives , ending nearly 50 years of control by the Liberal Democratic Party . Opposition leader Yukio Hatoyama is expected to be confirmed as the next Prime Minister . (Kyodo) ( New York Times ) Japanese voters go to the polls. (Reuters) (Xinhua) (Kyodo) [ permanent dead link ] The Democratic Party of Japan win 308 seats in the 480-seat House of Representatives , ending nearly 50 years of control by the Liberal Democratic Party . Opposition leader Yukio Hatoyama is expected to be confirmed as the next Prime Minister . (Kyodo) ( New York Times ) A presidential election takes place in Gabon . (BBC) (Al Jazeera) Brazil 's former Environment minister Marina Silva joins the Green Party which wants to field her as a black female candidate for the 2010 Brazilian presidential race when President Lula 's two terms comes to an end. (MercoPress) Israeli jets bomb a building in the Gaza Strip which the military says hides a tunnel that Palestinian militants could use to infiltrate Israel . (BBC) (Ynet News) A suspected suicide bomber kills 14 police cadets in an attack on a training centre in Mingora , Pakistan . (BBC) At least five people are killed and 275 injured in a train crash near Yaoundé , Cameroon . (BBC) (Press TV) The remains of 92 victims of a military massacre in Putis , Peru , are laid to rest 25 years later. (Associated Press) [ permanent dead link ] (BBC) Ehud Olmert is indicted on three counts of corruption, becoming the first ex-Prime Minister of Israel to face criminal charges. (BBC) Al-Qaeda claims responsibility for the attempted assassination on Saudi Prince Muhammad bin Nayef . (Al Jazeera) (BBC) The Iranian Parliament begins debating President Mahmoud Ahmadinejads choice of Cabinet. (Associated Press) (Fars News Agency) (Press TV) Burma says 26 government troops and 8 rebels were killed during violence in the Kokang region of Shan State . (Associated Press) The Dalai Lama begins a visit to Taiwan , amid criticism from China . (Al Jazeera) ( Hindustan Times ) ( Straits Times ) edit history watch Figures from 2008 reveal Ireland has experienced its highest number of births since 1896. (RTÉ) ( Irish Independent ) ( The Irish Times ) Lesbians are granted equal birth rights in England and Wales . (BBC) ( The Daily Telegraph ) ( The Guardian ) Britain will face widespread power cuts and rationing of energy in 2019 for the first time since the 1970s, according to Her Majesty's Government . ( The Daily Telegraph ) Disney reaches a deal to acquire Marvel Entertainment for US$ 4 billion, with Marvel shareholders being issued $30 and about 0.745 Disney shares for each share of Marvel they own. (Marketwatch) Nigeria charges several banking executives with financial crimes discovered following the $2.6 billion bail-out of five banks. (BBC) American Airlines retires all of its Airbus A300 aircraft after flying for American Airlines for the past 21 years. Russian forces state that they have killed an Algerian Al Qaeda operative and another militant during a raid on a house in Khasavyurt , Dagestan . (BBC) Iraqi officials begin negotiations with Serbia over the return of 19 MiG-21 and MiG-23 fighter jets sent to Yugoslavia in the 1980's for repairs. (BBC) Jason Mraz 's I'm Yours becomes the longest running single in the Billboard Hot 100 's history at 71 weeks on the chart. ( Associated Press ) Armenia and Turkey agree to establish diplomatic relations . ( New York Times ) .mw-parser-output .current-events-calendar{clear:right;max-width:350px;width:100%;margin:auto;padding:0.2em;font-size:88%;line-height:1.5;border-spacing:3px;border:1px solid #cedff2;text-align:center;background-color:#f5faff;color:black}.mw-parser-output .current-events-calendar tbody a{font-weight:bold;width:100%;display:inline-block}.mw-parser-output .current-events-calendar-archive{margin:8px 0 0 0}.mw-parser-output .current-events-calendar caption{font-weight:bold;background-color:#cedff2;line-height:1.6;padding:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .current-events-calendar caption span:first-child{float:left;width:calc(14% + 6px)}.mw-parser-output .current-events-calendar caption span:last-child{float:right;width:calc(14% + 6px)}.mw-parser-output .current-events-calendar th{width:14%}.mw-parser-output .current-events-calendar-footer td{padding-top:3px;padding-bottom:5px;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .current-events-calendar-footer td a{font-weight:normal;width:initial} ◀ August 2009 ▶ S M T W T F S 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Ongoing events Economic [ edit ] Automotive industry crisis Financial crisis Worldwide recession Medical [ edit ] H1N1/09 flu pandemic West African meningitis outbreak HIV/AIDS in Africa Scientific [ edit ] Expedition 20 STS-128 Political [ edit ] Honduran constitutional crisis Nigerien constitutional crisis Treaty of Lisbon ratification edit this archived sidebar Recent deaths August [ edit ] 29 : Simon Dee 28 : Adam Goldstein 26 : Abdul Aziz al-Hakim 26 : Dominick Dunne 26 : Ellie Greenwich 25 : Ted Kennedy 24 : Toni Sailer 22 : Muriel Duckworth 22 : Elmer Kelton 21 : Johnny Carter 20 : Larry Knechtel 20 : Dudu Topaz 19 : Don Hewitt 18 : Rose Friedman 18 : Kim Dae-jung 18 : Hugo Loetscher 18 : Robert Novak edit this archived sidebar Ongoing conflicts Worldwide [ edit ] War on terror Africa / Middle East [ edit ] Chadian Civil War Iraq War Israeli–Palestinian conflict Maghreb insurgency Niger Delta conflict Somali Civil War Turkey–PKK conflict Asia [ edit ] War in Afghanistan Balochistan conflict Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir Insurgency in the Philippines Ethnic conflict in Nagaland Naxalite–Maoist insurgency War in North-West Pakistan South Thailand insurgency Americas [ edit ] Colombian conflict Mexican drug war edit this archived sidebar Elections Recent [ edit ] August [ edit ] 4 : Niger , Constitutional referendum 20 : Afghanistan , President 30 : Gabon , President 30 : Japan , Parliament Upcoming [ edit ] September [ edit ] 1 : Vanuatu , President 14 : Norway , Parliament 16 : Switzerland , Federal Council 20 : Macau , Legislative 25 : Aruba , Parliament edit this archived sidebar Trials Recently concluded [ edit ] Burma: Aung San Suu Kyi Canada: Larry O'Brien New Zealand: Nai Yin Xue New Zealand: David Bain ( retrial ) Peru: Alberto Fujimori Sweden: The Pirate Bay United States: James Charles Kopp , Aníbal Acevedo Vilá , Phil Spector , Bernard Madoff , William J. Jefferson Ongoing [ edit ] Cambodia: Khmer Rouge Tribunal France: Church of Scientology Iraq: Supreme Criminal Tribunal Italy: Raffaele Sollecito, Amanda Knox Netherlands: Thomas Lubanga ( ICC ), Radovan Karadžić ( ICTY ) Republic of China: Chen Shui-bian Russia: Mikhail Khodorkovsky , Platon Lebedev Sierra Leone: Charles Taylor ( SCFSL ) Singapore: Tak Boleh Tahan Thailand: Thaksin Shinawatra United States: Jena Six Upcoming [ edit ] Germany: John Demjanjuk Sudan: Lubna al-Hussein United Kingdom: Allen Stanford United States: Viktor Bout , Noshir Gowadia , Ehren Watada , Sheila Dixon , Joseph Bruno edit this archived sidebar Holidays and observances August [ edit ] Ongoing [ edit ] 21 evening – September 20 : Ramadan ( Islam ) 23 – September 3 : Ganesh Chaturthi ( Hinduism ) 28 – 31 : Umhlanga ( Swaziland ) Current [ edit ] 31 : Summer Bank Holiday (England, Northern Ireland , Wales) 31 : Independence Day (Kyrgyzstan) 31 : Hari Merdeka ( Malaysia ) 31 : National Language Day ( Moldova ) 31 : National Heroes' Day (Philippines) 31 : Independence Day (Trinidad and Tobago) September [ edit ] Upcoming [ edit ] 1 : Parkash Guru Granth Sahib ( Sikhism ) 1 : Revolution Day (Eritrea) 1 : National Day (Libya) 1 : Random Acts of Kindness Day (New Zealand) 1 : Knowledge Day (Russia) 1 : Teachers' Day (Singapore) 1 : Constitution Day (Slovakia) 1 : Independence Day (Uzbekistan) edit this archived sidebar S M T W T F S 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Ongoing events Economic [ edit ] Automotive industry crisis Financial crisis Worldwide recession Medical [ edit ] H1N1/09 flu pandemic West African meningitis outbreak HIV/AIDS in Africa Scientific [ edit ] Expedition 20 STS-128 Political [ edit ] Honduran constitutional crisis Nigerien constitutional crisis Treaty of Lisbon ratification edit this archived sidebar Economic Automotive industry crisis Financial crisis Worldwide recession Medical H1N1/09 flu pandemic West African meningitis outbreak HIV/AIDS in Africa Scientific Expedition 20 STS-128 Political Honduran constitutional crisis Nigerien constitutional crisis Treaty of Lisbon ratification edit this archived sidebar Recent deaths August [ edit ] 29 : Simon Dee 28 : Adam Goldstein 26 : Abdul Aziz al-Hakim 26 : Dominick Dunne 26 : Ellie Greenwich 25 : Ted Kennedy 24 : Toni Sailer 22 : Muriel Duckworth 22 : Elmer Kelton 21 : Johnny Carter 20 : Larry Knechtel 20 : Dudu Topaz 19 : Don Hewitt 18 : Rose Friedman 18 : Kim Dae-jung 18 : Hugo Loetscher 18 : Robert Novak edit this archived sidebar August 29 : Simon Dee 28 : Adam Goldstein 26 : Abdul Aziz al-Hakim 26 : Dominick Dunne 26 : Ellie Greenwich 25 : Ted Kennedy 24 : Toni Sailer 22 : Muriel Duckworth 22 : Elmer Kelton 21 : Johnny Carter 20 : Larry Knechtel 20 : Dudu Topaz 19 : Don Hewitt 18 : Rose Friedman 18 : Kim Dae-jung 18 : Hugo Loetscher 18 : Robert Novak edit this archived sidebar Ongoing conflicts Worldwide [ edit ] War on terror Africa / Middle East [ edit ] Chadian Civil War Iraq War Israeli–Palestinian conflict Maghreb insurgency Niger Delta conflict Somali Civil War Turkey–PKK conflict Asia [ edit ] War in Afghanistan Balochistan conflict Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir Insurgency in the Philippines Ethnic conflict in Nagaland Naxalite–Maoist insurgency War in North-West Pakistan South Thailand insurgency Americas [ edit ] Colombian conflict Mexican drug war edit this archived sidebar Worldwide War on terror Africa / Middle East Chadian Civil War Iraq War Israeli–Palestinian conflict Maghreb insurgency Niger Delta conflict Somali Civil War Turkey–PKK conflict Asia War in Afghanistan Balochistan conflict Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir Insurgency in the Philippines Ethnic conflict in Nagaland Naxalite–Maoist insurgency War in North-West Pakistan South Thailand insurgency Americas Colombian conflict Mexican drug war edit this archived sidebar Elections Recent [ edit ] August [ edit ] 4 : Niger , Constitutional referendum 20 : Afghanistan , President 30 : Gabon , President 30 : Japan , Parliament Upcoming [ edit ] September [ edit ] 1 : Vanuatu , President 14 : Norway , Parliament 16 : Switzerland , Federal Council 20 : Macau , Legislative 25 : Aruba , Parliament edit this archived sidebar Recent August 4 : Niger , Constitutional referendum 20 : Afghanistan , President 30 : Gabon , President 30 : Japan , Parliament Upcoming September 1 : Vanuatu , President 14 : Norway , Parliament 16 : Switzerland , Federal Council 20 : Macau , Legislative 25 : Aruba , Parliament edit this archived sidebar Trials Recently concluded [ edit ] Burma: Aung San Suu Kyi Canada: Larry O'Brien New Zealand: Nai Yin Xue New Zealand: David Bain ( retrial ) Peru: Alberto Fujimori Sweden: The Pirate Bay United States: James Charles Kopp , Aníbal Acevedo Vilá , Phil Spector , Bernard Madoff , William J. Jefferson Ongoing [ edit ] Cambodia: Khmer Rouge Tribunal France: Church of Scientology Iraq: Supreme Criminal Tribunal Italy: Raffaele Sollecito, Amanda Knox Netherlands: Thomas Lubanga ( ICC ), Radovan Karadžić ( ICTY ) Republic of China: Chen Shui-bian Russia: Mikhail Khodorkovsky , Platon Lebedev Sierra Leone: Charles Taylor ( SCFSL ) Singapore: Tak Boleh Tahan Thailand: Thaksin Shinawatra United States: Jena Six Upcoming [ edit ] Germany: John Demjanjuk Sudan: Lubna al-Hussein United Kingdom: Allen Stanford United States: Viktor Bout , Noshir Gowadia , Ehren Watada , Sheila Dixon , Joseph Bruno edit this archived sidebar Recently concluded Burma: Aung San Suu Kyi Canada: Larry O'Brien New Zealand: Nai Yin Xue New Zealand: David Bain ( retrial ) Peru: Alberto Fujimori Sweden: The Pirate Bay United States: James Charles Kopp , Aníbal Acevedo Vilá , Phil Spector , Bernard Madoff , William J. Jefferson Ongoing Cambodia: Khmer Rouge Tribunal France: Church of Scientology Iraq: Supreme Criminal Tribunal Italy: Raffaele Sollecito, Amanda Knox Netherlands: Thomas Lubanga ( ICC ), Radovan Karadžić ( ICTY ) Republic of China: Chen Shui-bian Russia: Mikhail Khodorkovsky , Platon Lebedev Sierra Leone: Charles Taylor ( SCFSL ) Singapore: Tak Boleh Tahan Thailand: Thaksin Shinawatra United States: Jena Six Upcoming Germany: John Demjanjuk Sudan: Lubna al-Hussein United Kingdom: Allen Stanford United States: Viktor Bout , Noshir Gowadia , Ehren Watada , Sheila Dixon , Joseph Bruno edit this archived sidebar Holidays and observances August [ edit ] Ongoing [ edit ] 21 evening – September 20 : Ramadan ( Islam ) 23 – September 3 : Ganesh Chaturthi ( Hinduism ) 28 – 31 : Umhlanga ( Swaziland ) Current [ edit ] 31 : Summer Bank Holiday (England, Northern Ireland , Wales) 31 : Independence Day (Kyrgyzstan) 31 : Hari Merdeka ( Malaysia ) 31 : National Language Day ( Moldova ) 31 : National Heroes' Day (Philippines) 31 : Independence Day (Trinidad and Tobago) September [ edit ] Upcoming [ edit ] 1 : Parkash Guru Granth Sahib ( Sikhism ) 1 : Revolution Day (Eritrea) 1 : National Day (Libya) 1 : Random Acts of Kindness Day (New Zealand) 1 : Knowledge Day (Russia) 1 : Teachers' Day (Singapore) 1 : Constitution Day (Slovakia) 1 : Independence Day (Uzbekistan) edit this archived sidebar August Ongoing 21 evening – September 20 : Ramadan ( Islam ) 23 – September 3 : Ganesh Chaturthi ( Hinduism ) 28 – 31 : Umhlanga ( Swaziland ) Current 31 : Summer Bank Holiday (England, Northern Ireland , Wales) 31 : Independence Day (Kyrgyzstan) 31 : Hari Merdeka ( Malaysia ) 31 : National Language Day ( Moldova ) 31 : National Heroes' Day (Philippines) 31 : Independence Day (Trinidad and Tobago) September Upcoming 1 : Parkash Guru Granth Sahib ( Sikhism ) 1 : Revolution Day (Eritrea) 1 : National Day (Libya) 1 : Random Acts of Kindness Day (New Zealand) 1 : Knowledge Day (Russia) 1 : Teachers' Day (Singapore) 1 : Constitution Day (Slovakia) 1 : Independence Day (Uzbekistan) edit this archived sidebar .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Current events by month v t e 2013 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2012 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2011 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2010 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2009 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2008 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2007 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2006 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2005 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2004 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2009 by day August 2009 Months in the 2000s Current events archives This page was last edited on 8 September 2023, at 03:51 (UTC) . 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We gratefully acknowledge support from the Simons Foundation, member institutions , and all contributors. Donate Help | Advanced Search Showing 1–50 of 3,005 results for author: Huang, J Show abstracts Hide abstracts 1 2 3 4 5 … arXiv:2601.10398 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI LatentRefusal: Latent-Signal Refusal for Unanswerable Text-to-SQL Queries Authors: Xuancheng Ren , Shijing Hu , Zhihui Lu , Jiangqi Huang , Qiang Duan Abstract : In LLM-based text-to-SQL systems, unanswerable and underspecified user queries may generate not only incorrect text but also executable programs that yield misleading results or violate safety constraints, posing a major barrier to safe deployment. Existing refusal strategies for such queries either rely on output-level instruction following, which is brittle due to model hallucinations, or estima… ▽ More In LLM-based text-to-SQL systems, unanswerable and underspecified user queries may generate not only incorrect text but also executable programs that yield misleading results or violate safety constraints, posing a major barrier to safe deployment. Existing refusal strategies for such queries either rely on output-level instruction following, which is brittle due to model hallucinations, or estimate output uncertainty, which adds complexity and overhead. To address this challenge, we formalize safe refusal in text-to-SQL systems as an answerability-gating problem and propose LatentRefusal, a latent-signal refusal mechanism that predicts query answerability from intermediate hidden activations of a large language model. We introduce the Tri-Residual Gated Encoder, a lightweight probing architecture, to suppress schema noise and amplify sparse, localized cues of question-schema mismatch that indicate unanswerability. Extensive empirical evaluations across diverse ambiguous and unanswerable settings, together with ablation studies and interpretability analyses, demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed approach and show that LatentRefusal provides an attachable and efficient safety layer for text-to-SQL systems. Across four benchmarks, LatentRefusal improves average F1 to 88.5 percent on both backbones while adding approximately 2 milliseconds of probe overhead. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10398 [ pdf , ps , other ] LatentRefusal: Latent-Signal Refusal for Unanswerable Text-to-SQL Queries Authors: Xuancheng Ren , Shijing Hu , Zhihui Lu , Jiangqi Huang , Qiang Duan Abstract : In LLM-based text-to-SQL systems, unanswerable and underspecified user queries may generate not only incorrect text but also executable programs that yield misleading results or violate safety constraints, posing a major barrier to safe deployment. Existing refusal strategies for such queries either rely on output-level instruction following, which is brittle due to model hallucinations, or estima… ▽ More In LLM-based text-to-SQL systems, unanswerable and underspecified user queries may generate not only incorrect text but also executable programs that yield misleading results or violate safety constraints, posing a major barrier to safe deployment. Existing refusal strategies for such queries either rely on output-level instruction following, which is brittle due to model hallucinations, or estimate output uncertainty, which adds complexity and overhead. To address this challenge, we formalize safe refusal in text-to-SQL systems as an answerability-gating problem and propose LatentRefusal, a latent-signal refusal mechanism that predicts query answerability from intermediate hidden activations of a large language model. We introduce the Tri-Residual Gated Encoder, a lightweight probing architecture, to suppress schema noise and amplify sparse, localized cues of question-schema mismatch that indicate unanswerability. Extensive empirical evaluations across diverse ambiguous and unanswerable settings, together with ablation studies and interpretability analyses, demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed approach and show that LatentRefusal provides an attachable and efficient safety layer for text-to-SQL systems. Across four benchmarks, LatentRefusal improves average F1 to 88.5 percent on both backbones while adding approximately 2 milliseconds of probe overhead. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10245 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.CL cs.LG TRIM: Hybrid Inference via Targeted Stepwise Routing in Multi-Step Reasoning Tasks Authors: Vansh Kapoor , Aman Gupta , Hao Chen , Anurag Beniwal , Jing Huang , Aviral Kumar Abstract : Multi-step reasoning tasks like mathematical problem solving are vulnerable to cascading failures, where a single incorrect step leads to complete solution breakdown. Current LLM routing methods assign entire queries to one model, treating all reasoning steps as equal. We propose TRIM (Targeted routing in multi-step reasoning tasks), which routes only critical steps$\unicode{x2013}$those likely to… ▽ More Multi-step reasoning tasks like mathematical problem solving are vulnerable to cascading failures, where a single incorrect step leads to complete solution breakdown. Current LLM routing methods assign entire queries to one model, treating all reasoning steps as equal. We propose TRIM (Targeted routing in multi-step reasoning tasks), which routes only critical steps$\unicode{x2013}$those likely to derail the solution$\unicode{x2013}$to larger models while letting smaller models handle routine continuations. Our key insight is that targeted step-level interventions can fundamentally transform inference efficiency by confining expensive calls to precisely those steps where stronger models prevent cascading errors. TRIM operates at the step-level: it uses process reward models to identify erroneous steps and makes routing decisions based on step-level uncertainty and budget constraints. We develop several routing strategies within TRIM, ranging from a simple threshold-based policy to more expressive policies that reason about long-horizon accuracy-cost trade-offs and uncertainty in step-level correctness estimates. On MATH-500, even the simplest thresholding strategy surpasses prior routing methods with 5x higher cost efficiency, while more advanced policies match the strong, expensive model's performance using 80% fewer expensive model tokens. On harder benchmarks such as AIME, TRIM achieves up to 6x higher cost efficiency. All methods generalize effectively across math reasoning tasks, demonstrating that step-level difficulty represents fundamental characteristics of reasoning. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10245 [ pdf , ps , other ] TRIM: Hybrid Inference via Targeted Stepwise Routing in Multi-Step Reasoning Tasks Authors: Vansh Kapoor , Aman Gupta , Hao Chen , Anurag Beniwal , Jing Huang , Aviral Kumar Abstract : Multi-step reasoning tasks like mathematical problem solving are vulnerable to cascading failures, where a single incorrect step leads to complete solution breakdown. Current LLM routing methods assign entire queries to one model, treating all reasoning steps as equal. We propose TRIM (Targeted routing in multi-step reasoning tasks), which routes only critical steps$\unicode{x2013}$those likely to… ▽ More Multi-step reasoning tasks like mathematical problem solving are vulnerable to cascading failures, where a single incorrect step leads to complete solution breakdown. Current LLM routing methods assign entire queries to one model, treating all reasoning steps as equal. We propose TRIM (Targeted routing in multi-step reasoning tasks), which routes only critical steps$\unicode{x2013}$those likely to derail the solution$\unicode{x2013}$to larger models while letting smaller models handle routine continuations. Our key insight is that targeted step-level interventions can fundamentally transform inference efficiency by confining expensive calls to precisely those steps where stronger models prevent cascading errors. TRIM operates at the step-level: it uses process reward models to identify erroneous steps and makes routing decisions based on step-level uncertainty and budget constraints. We develop several routing strategies within TRIM, ranging from a simple threshold-based policy to more expressive policies that reason about long-horizon accuracy-cost trade-offs and uncertainty in step-level correctness estimates. On MATH-500, even the simplest thresholding strategy surpasses prior routing methods with 5x higher cost efficiency, while more advanced policies match the strong, expensive model's performance using 80% fewer expensive model tokens. On harder benchmarks such as AIME, TRIM achieves up to 6x higher cost efficiency. All methods generalize effectively across math reasoning tasks, demonstrating that step-level difficulty represents fundamental characteristics of reasoning. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10198 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL HUMANLLM: Benchmarking and Reinforcing LLM Anthropomorphism via Human Cognitive Patterns Authors: Xintao Wang , Jian Yang , Weiyuan Li , Rui Xie , Jen-tse Huang , Jun Gao , Shuai Huang , Yueping Kang , Liyuan Gou , Hongwei Feng , Yanghua Xiao Abstract : Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated remarkable capabilities in reasoning and generation, serving as the foundation for advanced persona simulation and Role-Playing Language Agents (RPLAs). However, achieving authentic alignment with human cognitive and behavioral patterns remains a critical challenge for these agents. We present HUMANLLM, a framework treating psychological patterns as i… ▽ More Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated remarkable capabilities in reasoning and generation, serving as the foundation for advanced persona simulation and Role-Playing Language Agents (RPLAs). However, achieving authentic alignment with human cognitive and behavioral patterns remains a critical challenge for these agents. We present HUMANLLM, a framework treating psychological patterns as interacting causal forces. We construct 244 patterns from ~12,000 academic papers and synthesize 11,359 scenarios where 2-5 patterns reinforce, conflict, or modulate each other, with multi-turn conversations expressing inner thoughts, actions, and dialogue. Our dual-level checklists evaluate both individual pattern fidelity and emergent multi-pattern dynamics, achieving strong human alignment (r=0.91) while revealing that holistic metrics conflate simulation accuracy with social desirability. HUMANLLM-8B outperforms Qwen3-32B on multi-pattern dynamics despite 4x fewer parameters, demonstrating that authentic anthropomorphism requires cognitive modeling--simulating not just what humans do, but the psychological processes generating those behaviors. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10198 [ pdf , ps , other ] HUMANLLM: Benchmarking and Reinforcing LLM Anthropomorphism via Human Cognitive Patterns Authors: Xintao Wang , Jian Yang , Weiyuan Li , Rui Xie , Jen-tse Huang , Jun Gao , Shuai Huang , Yueping Kang , Liyuan Gou , Hongwei Feng , Yanghua Xiao Abstract : Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated remarkable capabilities in reasoning and generation, serving as the foundation for advanced persona simulation and Role-Playing Language Agents (RPLAs). However, achieving authentic alignment with human cognitive and behavioral patterns remains a critical challenge for these agents. We present HUMANLLM, a framework treating psychological patterns as i… ▽ More Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated remarkable capabilities in reasoning and generation, serving as the foundation for advanced persona simulation and Role-Playing Language Agents (RPLAs). However, achieving authentic alignment with human cognitive and behavioral patterns remains a critical challenge for these agents. We present HUMANLLM, a framework treating psychological patterns as interacting causal forces. We construct 244 patterns from ~12,000 academic papers and synthesize 11,359 scenarios where 2-5 patterns reinforce, conflict, or modulate each other, with multi-turn conversations expressing inner thoughts, actions, and dialogue. Our dual-level checklists evaluate both individual pattern fidelity and emergent multi-pattern dynamics, achieving strong human alignment (r=0.91) while revealing that holistic metrics conflate simulation accuracy with social desirability. HUMANLLM-8B outperforms Qwen3-32B on multi-pattern dynamics despite 4x fewer parameters, demonstrating that authentic anthropomorphism requires cognitive modeling--simulating not just what humans do, but the psychological processes generating those behaviors. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09430 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Video-MSR: Benchmarking Multi-hop Spatial Reasoning Capabilities of MLLMs Authors: Rui Zhu , Xin Shen , Shuchen Wu , Chenxi Miao , Xin Yu , Yang Li , Weikang Li , Deguo Xia , Jizhou Huang Abstract : Spatial reasoning has emerged as a critical capability for Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs), drawing increasing attention and rapid advancement. However, existing benchmarks primarily focus on single-step perception-to-judgment tasks, leaving scenarios requiring complex visual-spatial logical chains significantly underexplored. To bridge this gap, we introduce Video-MSR, the first benchmar… ▽ More Spatial reasoning has emerged as a critical capability for Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs), drawing increasing attention and rapid advancement. However, existing benchmarks primarily focus on single-step perception-to-judgment tasks, leaving scenarios requiring complex visual-spatial logical chains significantly underexplored. To bridge this gap, we introduce Video-MSR, the first benchmark specifically designed to evaluate Multi-hop Spatial Reasoning (MSR) in dynamic video scenarios. Video-MSR systematically probes MSR capabilities through four distinct tasks: Constrained Localization, Chain-based Reference Retrieval, Route Planning, and Counterfactual Physical Deduction. Our benchmark comprises 3,052 high-quality video instances with 4,993 question-answer pairs, constructed via a scalable, visually-grounded pipeline combining advanced model generation with rigorous human verification. Through a comprehensive evaluation of 20 state-of-the-art MLLMs, we uncover significant limitations, revealing that while models demonstrate proficiency in surface-level perception, they exhibit distinct performance drops in MSR tasks, frequently suffering from spatial disorientation and hallucination during multi-step deductions. To mitigate these shortcomings and empower models with stronger MSR capabilities, we further curate MSR-9K, a specialized instruction-tuning dataset, and fine-tune Qwen-VL, achieving a +7.82% absolute improvement on Video-MSR. Our results underscore the efficacy of multi-hop spatial instruction data and establish Video-MSR as a vital foundation for future research. The code and data will be available at △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09430 [ pdf , ps , other ] Video-MSR: Benchmarking Multi-hop Spatial Reasoning Capabilities of MLLMs Authors: Rui Zhu , Xin Shen , Shuchen Wu , Chenxi Miao , Xin Yu , Yang Li , Weikang Li , Deguo Xia , Jizhou Huang Abstract : Spatial reasoning has emerged as a critical capability for Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs), drawing increasing attention and rapid advancement. However, existing benchmarks primarily focus on single-step perception-to-judgment tasks, leaving scenarios requiring complex visual-spatial logical chains significantly underexplored. To bridge this gap, we introduce Video-MSR, the first benchmar… ▽ More Spatial reasoning has emerged as a critical capability for Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs), drawing increasing attention and rapid advancement. However, existing benchmarks primarily focus on single-step perception-to-judgment tasks, leaving scenarios requiring complex visual-spatial logical chains significantly underexplored. To bridge this gap, we introduce Video-MSR, the first benchmark specifically designed to evaluate Multi-hop Spatial Reasoning (MSR) in dynamic video scenarios. Video-MSR systematically probes MSR capabilities through four distinct tasks: Constrained Localization, Chain-based Reference Retrieval, Route Planning, and Counterfactual Physical Deduction. Our benchmark comprises 3,052 high-quality video instances with 4,993 question-answer pairs, constructed via a scalable, visually-grounded pipeline combining advanced model generation with rigorous human verification. Through a comprehensive evaluation of 20 state-of-the-art MLLMs, we uncover significant limitations, revealing that while models demonstrate proficiency in surface-level perception, they exhibit distinct performance drops in MSR tasks, frequently suffering from spatial disorientation and hallucination during multi-step deductions. To mitigate these shortcomings and empower models with stronger MSR capabilities, we further curate MSR-9K, a specialized instruction-tuning dataset, and fine-tune Qwen-VL, achieving a +7.82% absolute improvement on Video-MSR. Our results underscore the efficacy of multi-hop spatial instruction data and establish Video-MSR as a vital foundation for future research. The code and data will be available at △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09416 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI Radiomics-Integrated Deep Learning with Hierarchical Loss for Osteosarcoma Histology Classification Authors: Yaxi Chen , Zi Ye , Shaheer U. Saeed , Oliver Yu , Simin Ni , Jie Huang , Yipeng Hu Abstract : Osteosarcoma (OS) is an aggressive primary bone malignancy. Accurate histopathological assessment of viable versus non-viable tumor regions after neoadjuvant chemotherapy is critical for prognosis and treatment planning, yet manual evaluation remains labor-intensive, subjective, and prone to inter-observer variability. Recent advances in digital pathology have enabled automated necrosis quantifica… ▽ More Osteosarcoma (OS) is an aggressive primary bone malignancy. Accurate histopathological assessment of viable versus non-viable tumor regions after neoadjuvant chemotherapy is critical for prognosis and treatment planning, yet manual evaluation remains labor-intensive, subjective, and prone to inter-observer variability. Recent advances in digital pathology have enabled automated necrosis quantification. Evaluating on test data, independently sampled on patient-level, revealed that the deep learning model performance dropped significantly from the tile-level generalization ability reported in previous studies. First, this work proposes the use of radiomic features as additional input in model training. We show that, despite that they are derived from the images, such a multimodal input effectively improved the classification performance, in addition to its added benefits in interpretability. Second, this work proposes to optimize two binary classification tasks with hierarchical classes (i.e. tumor-vs-non-tumor and viable-vs-non-viable), as opposed to the alternative ``flat'' three-class classification task (i.e. non-tumor, non-viable tumor, viable tumor), thereby enabling a hierarchical loss. We show that such a hierarchical loss, with trainable weightings between the two tasks, the per-class performance can be improved significantly. Using the TCIA OS Tumor Assessment dataset, we experimentally demonstrate the benefits from each of the proposed new approaches and their combination, setting a what we consider new state-of-the-art performance on this open dataset for this application. Code and trained models: △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09416 [ pdf , ps , other ] Radiomics-Integrated Deep Learning with Hierarchical Loss for Osteosarcoma Histology Classification Authors: Yaxi Chen , Zi Ye , Shaheer U. Saeed , Oliver Yu , Simin Ni , Jie Huang , Yipeng Hu Abstract : Osteosarcoma (OS) is an aggressive primary bone malignancy. Accurate histopathological assessment of viable versus non-viable tumor regions after neoadjuvant chemotherapy is critical for prognosis and treatment planning, yet manual evaluation remains labor-intensive, subjective, and prone to inter-observer variability. Recent advances in digital pathology have enabled automated necrosis quantifica… ▽ More Osteosarcoma (OS) is an aggressive primary bone malignancy. Accurate histopathological assessment of viable versus non-viable tumor regions after neoadjuvant chemotherapy is critical for prognosis and treatment planning, yet manual evaluation remains labor-intensive, subjective, and prone to inter-observer variability. Recent advances in digital pathology have enabled automated necrosis quantification. Evaluating on test data, independently sampled on patient-level, revealed that the deep learning model performance dropped significantly from the tile-level generalization ability reported in previous studies. First, this work proposes the use of radiomic features as additional input in model training. We show that, despite that they are derived from the images, such a multimodal input effectively improved the classification performance, in addition to its added benefits in interpretability. Second, this work proposes to optimize two binary classification tasks with hierarchical classes (i.e. tumor-vs-non-tumor and viable-vs-non-viable), as opposed to the alternative ``flat'' three-class classification task (i.e. non-tumor, non-viable tumor, viable tumor), thereby enabling a hierarchical loss. We show that such a hierarchical loss, with trainable weightings between the two tasks, the per-class performance can be improved significantly. Using the TCIA OS Tumor Assessment dataset, we experimentally demonstrate the benefits from each of the proposed new approaches and their combination, setting a what we consider new state-of-the-art performance on this open dataset for this application. Code and trained models: △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09404 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.DB cs.HC TiInsight: A SQL-based Automated Exploratory Data Analysis System through Large Language Models Authors: Jun-Peng Zhu , Boyan Niu , Peng Cai , Zheming Ni , Kai Xu , Jiajun Huang , Shengbo Ma , Bing Wang , Xuan Zhou , Guanglei Bao , Donghui Zhang , Liu Tang , Qi Liu Abstract : The SQL-based exploratory data analysis has garnered significant attention within the data analysis community. The emergence of large language models (LLMs) has facilitated the paradigm shift from manual to automated data exploration. However, existing methods generally lack the ability for cross-domain analysis, and the exploration of LLMs capabilities remains insufficient. This paper presents Ti… ▽ More The SQL-based exploratory data analysis has garnered significant attention within the data analysis community. The emergence of large language models (LLMs) has facilitated the paradigm shift from manual to automated data exploration. However, existing methods generally lack the ability for cross-domain analysis, and the exploration of LLMs capabilities remains insufficient. This paper presents TiInsight, an SQL-based automated cross-domain exploratory data analysis system. First, TiInsight offers a user-friendly GUI enabling users to explore data using natural language queries. Second, TiInsight offers a robust cross-domain exploratory data analysis pipeline: hierarchical data context (i.e., HDC) generation, question clarification and decomposition, text-to-SQL (i.e., TiSQL), and data visualization (i.e., TiChart). Third, we have implemented and deployed TiInsight in the production environment of PingCAP and demonstrated its capabilities using representative datasets. The demo video is available at △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 4 pages, 5 figures ACM Class: H.4 arXiv:2601.09404 [ pdf , ps , other ] TiInsight: A SQL-based Automated Exploratory Data Analysis System through Large Language Models Authors: Jun-Peng Zhu , Boyan Niu , Peng Cai , Zheming Ni , Kai Xu , Jiajun Huang , Shengbo Ma , Bing Wang , Xuan Zhou , Guanglei Bao , Donghui Zhang , Liu Tang , Qi Liu Abstract : The SQL-based exploratory data analysis has garnered significant attention within the data analysis community. The emergence of large language models (LLMs) has facilitated the paradigm shift from manual to automated data exploration. However, existing methods generally lack the ability for cross-domain analysis, and the exploration of LLMs capabilities remains insufficient. This paper presents Ti… ▽ More The SQL-based exploratory data analysis has garnered significant attention within the data analysis community. The emergence of large language models (LLMs) has facilitated the paradigm shift from manual to automated data exploration. However, existing methods generally lack the ability for cross-domain analysis, and the exploration of LLMs capabilities remains insufficient. This paper presents TiInsight, an SQL-based automated cross-domain exploratory data analysis system. First, TiInsight offers a user-friendly GUI enabling users to explore data using natural language queries. Second, TiInsight offers a robust cross-domain exploratory data analysis pipeline: hierarchical data context (i.e., HDC) generation, question clarification and decomposition, text-to-SQL (i.e., TiSQL), and data visualization (i.e., TiChart). Third, we have implemented and deployed TiInsight in the production environment of PingCAP and demonstrated its capabilities using representative datasets. The demo video is available at △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 4 pages, 5 figures ACM Class: H.4 arXiv:2601.08871 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.SD cs.AI eess.AS Semantic visually-guided acoustic highlighting with large vision-language models Authors: Junhua Huang , Chao Huang , Chenliang Xu Abstract : Balancing dialogue, music, and sound effects with accompanying video is crucial for immersive storytelling, yet current audio mixing workflows remain largely manual and labor-intensive. While recent advancements have introduced the visually guided acoustic highlighting task, which implicitly rebalances audio sources using multimodal guidance, it remains unclear which visual aspects are most effect… ▽ More Balancing dialogue, music, and sound effects with accompanying video is crucial for immersive storytelling, yet current audio mixing workflows remain largely manual and labor-intensive. While recent advancements have introduced the visually guided acoustic highlighting task, which implicitly rebalances audio sources using multimodal guidance, it remains unclear which visual aspects are most effective as conditioning signals.We address this gap through a systematic study of whether deep video understanding improves audio remixing. Using textual descriptions as a proxy for visual analysis, we prompt large vision-language models to extract six types of visual-semantic aspects, including object and character appearance, emotion, camera focus, tone, scene background, and inferred sound-related cues. Through extensive experiments, camera focus, tone, and scene background consistently yield the largest improvements in perceptual mix quality over state-of-the-art baselines. Our findings (i) identify which visual-semantic cues most strongly support coherent and visually aligned audio remixing, and (ii) outline a practical path toward automating cinema-grade sound design using lightweight guidance derived from large vision-language models. △ Less Submitted 11 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.08871 [ pdf , ps , other ] Semantic visually-guided acoustic highlighting with large vision-language models Authors: Junhua Huang , Chao Huang , Chenliang Xu Abstract : Balancing dialogue, music, and sound effects with accompanying video is crucial for immersive storytelling, yet current audio mixing workflows remain largely manual and labor-intensive. While recent advancements have introduced the visually guided acoustic highlighting task, which implicitly rebalances audio sources using multimodal guidance, it remains unclear which visual aspects are most effect… ▽ More Balancing dialogue, music, and sound effects with accompanying video is crucial for immersive storytelling, yet current audio mixing workflows remain largely manual and labor-intensive. While recent advancements have introduced the visually guided acoustic highlighting task, which implicitly rebalances audio sources using multimodal guidance, it remains unclear which visual aspects are most effective as conditioning signals.We address this gap through a systematic study of whether deep video understanding improves audio remixing. Using textual descriptions as a proxy for visual analysis, we prompt large vision-language models to extract six types of visual-semantic aspects, including object and character appearance, emotion, camera focus, tone, scene background, and inferred sound-related cues. Through extensive experiments, camera focus, tone, and scene background consistently yield the largest improvements in perceptual mix quality over state-of-the-art baselines. Our findings (i) identify which visual-semantic cues most strongly support coherent and visually aligned audio remixing, and (ii) outline a practical path toward automating cinema-grade sound design using lightweight guidance derived from large vision-language models. △ Less Submitted 11 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.08834 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI cs.CL Reading or Reasoning? Format Decoupled Reinforcement Learning for Document OCR Authors: Yufeng Zhong , Lei Chen , Zhixiong Zeng , Xuanle Zhao , Deyang Jiang , Liming Zheng , Jing Huang , Haibo Qiu , Peng Shi , Siqi Yang , Lin Ma Abstract : Reading text from images or scanned documents via OCR models has been a longstanding focus of researchers. Intuitively, text reading is perceived as a straightforward perceptual task, and existing work primarily focuses on constructing enriched data engineering to enhance SFT capabilities. In this work, we observe that even advanced OCR models exhibit significantly higher entropy in formatted text… ▽ More Reading text from images or scanned documents via OCR models has been a longstanding focus of researchers. Intuitively, text reading is perceived as a straightforward perceptual task, and existing work primarily focuses on constructing enriched data engineering to enhance SFT capabilities. In this work, we observe that even advanced OCR models exhibit significantly higher entropy in formatted text (\emph{e.g.}, formula, table, etc.) compared to plain text, often by an order of magnitude. These statistical patterns reveal that advanced OCR models struggle with high output uncertainty when dealing with format sensitive document, suggesting that reasoning over diverse reading pathways may improve OCR performance. To address this, we propose format decoupled reinforcement learning (FD-RL), which leverages high-entropy patterns for targeted optimization. Our approach employs entropy-based data filtration strategy to identify format-intensive instances, and adopt format decoupled rewards tailored to different format types, enabling format-level validation rather than token-level memorization. FD-RL achieves an average score of 90.41 on OmniDocBench, setting a new record for end-to-end models on this highly popular benchmark. More importantly, we conduct comprehensive ablation studies over data, training, filtering, and rewarding strategies, thoroughly validating their effectiveness. △ Less Submitted 11 December, 2025; originally announced January 2026. Comments: technical report arXiv:2601.08834 [ pdf , ps , other ] Reading or Reasoning? Format Decoupled Reinforcement Learning for Document OCR Authors: Yufeng Zhong , Lei Chen , Zhixiong Zeng , Xuanle Zhao , Deyang Jiang , Liming Zheng , Jing Huang , Haibo Qiu , Peng Shi , Siqi Yang , Lin Ma Abstract : Reading text from images or scanned documents via OCR models has been a longstanding focus of researchers. Intuitively, text reading is perceived as a straightforward perceptual task, and existing work primarily focuses on constructing enriched data engineering to enhance SFT capabilities. In this work, we observe that even advanced OCR models exhibit significantly higher entropy in formatted text… ▽ More Reading text from images or scanned documents via OCR models has been a longstanding focus of researchers. Intuitively, text reading is perceived as a straightforward perceptual task, and existing work primarily focuses on constructing enriched data engineering to enhance SFT capabilities. In this work, we observe that even advanced OCR models exhibit significantly higher entropy in formatted text (\emph{e.g.}, formula, table, etc.) compared to plain text, often by an order of magnitude. These statistical patterns reveal that advanced OCR models struggle with high output uncertainty when dealing with format sensitive document, suggesting that reasoning over diverse reading pathways may improve OCR performance. To address this, we propose format decoupled reinforcement learning (FD-RL), which leverages high-entropy patterns for targeted optimization. Our approach employs entropy-based data filtration strategy to identify format-intensive instances, and adopt format decoupled rewards tailored to different format types, enabling format-level validation rather than token-level memorization. FD-RL achieves an average score of 90.41 on OmniDocBench, setting a new record for end-to-end models on this highly popular benchmark. More importantly, we conduct comprehensive ablation studies over data, training, filtering, and rewarding strategies, thoroughly validating their effectiveness. △ Less Submitted 11 December, 2025; originally announced January 2026. Comments: technical report arXiv:2601.08816 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.IR cs.AI MemRec: Collaborative Memory-Augmented Agentic Recommender System Authors: Weixin Chen , Yuhan Zhao , Jingyuan Huang , Zihe Ye , Clark Mingxuan Ju , Tong Zhao , Neil Shah , Li Chen , Yongfeng Zhang Abstract : The evolution of recommender systems has shifted preference storage from rating matrices and dense embeddings to semantic memory in the agentic era. Yet existing agents rely on isolated memory, overlooking crucial collaborative signals. Bridging this gap is hindered by the dual challenges of distilling vast graph contexts without overwhelming reasoning agents with cognitive load, and evolving the… ▽ More The evolution of recommender systems has shifted preference storage from rating matrices and dense embeddings to semantic memory in the agentic era. Yet existing agents rely on isolated memory, overlooking crucial collaborative signals. Bridging this gap is hindered by the dual challenges of distilling vast graph contexts without overwhelming reasoning agents with cognitive load, and evolving the collaborative memory efficiently without incurring prohibitive computational costs. To address this, we propose MemRec, a framework that architecturally decouples reasoning from memory management to enable efficient collaborative augmentation. MemRec introduces a dedicated, cost-effective LM_Mem to manage a dynamic collaborative memory graph, serving synthesized, high-signal context to a downstream LLM_Rec. The framework operates via a practical pipeline featuring efficient retrieval and cost-effective asynchronous graph propagation that evolves memory in the background. Extensive experiments on four benchmarks demonstrate that MemRec achieves state-of-the-art performance. Furthermore, architectural analysis confirms its flexibility, establishing a new Pareto frontier that balances reasoning quality, cost, and privacy through support for diverse deployments, including local open-source models. Code: and Homepage: △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.08816 [ pdf , ps , other ] MemRec: Collaborative Memory-Augmented Agentic Recommender System Authors: Weixin Chen , Yuhan Zhao , Jingyuan Huang , Zihe Ye , Clark Mingxuan Ju , Tong Zhao , Neil Shah , Li Chen , Yongfeng Zhang Abstract : The evolution of recommender systems has shifted preference storage from rating matrices and dense embeddings to semantic memory in the agentic era. Yet existing agents rely on isolated memory, overlooking crucial collaborative signals. Bridging this gap is hindered by the dual challenges of distilling vast graph contexts without overwhelming reasoning agents with cognitive load, and evolving the… ▽ More The evolution of recommender systems has shifted preference storage from rating matrices and dense embeddings to semantic memory in the agentic era. Yet existing agents rely on isolated memory, overlooking crucial collaborative signals. Bridging this gap is hindered by the dual challenges of distilling vast graph contexts without overwhelming reasoning agents with cognitive load, and evolving the collaborative memory efficiently without incurring prohibitive computational costs. To address this, we propose MemRec, a framework that architecturally decouples reasoning from memory management to enable efficient collaborative augmentation. MemRec introduces a dedicated, cost-effective LM_Mem to manage a dynamic collaborative memory graph, serving synthesized, high-signal context to a downstream LLM_Rec. The framework operates via a practical pipeline featuring efficient retrieval and cost-effective asynchronous graph propagation that evolves memory in the background. Extensive experiments on four benchmarks demonstrate that MemRec achieves state-of-the-art performance. Furthermore, architectural analysis confirms its flexibility, establishing a new Pareto frontier that balances reasoning quality, cost, and privacy through support for diverse deployments, including local open-source models. Code: and Homepage: △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.08604 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.LG Interpretability and Individuality in Knee MRI: Patient-Specific Radiomic Fingerprint with Reconstructed Healthy Personas Authors: Yaxi Chen , Simin Ni , Shuai Li , Shaheer U. Saeed , Aleksandra Ivanova , Rikin Hargunani , Jie Huang , Chaozong Liu , Yipeng Hu Abstract : For automated assessment of knee MRI scans, both accuracy and interpretability are essential for clinical use and adoption. Traditional radiomics rely on predefined features chosen at the population level; while more interpretable, they are often too restrictive to capture patient-specific variability and can underperform end-to-end deep learning (DL). To address this, we propose two complementary… ▽ More For automated assessment of knee MRI scans, both accuracy and interpretability are essential for clinical use and adoption. Traditional radiomics rely on predefined features chosen at the population level; while more interpretable, they are often too restrictive to capture patient-specific variability and can underperform end-to-end deep learning (DL). To address this, we propose two complementary strategies that bring individuality and interpretability: radiomic fingerprints and healthy personas. First, a radiomic fingerprint is a dynamically constructed, patient-specific feature set derived from MRI. Instead of applying a uniform population-level signature, our model predicts feature relevance from a pool of candidate features and selects only those most predictive for each patient, while maintaining feature-level interpretability. This fingerprint can be viewed as a latent-variable model of feature usage, where an image-conditioned predictor estimates usage probabilities and a transparent logistic regression with global coefficients performs classification. Second, a healthy persona synthesises a pathology-free baseline for each patient using a diffusion model trained to reconstruct healthy knee MRIs. Comparing features extracted from pathological images against their personas highlights deviations from normal anatomy, enabling intuitive, case-specific explanations of disease manifestations. We systematically compare fingerprints, personas, and their combination across three clinical tasks. Experimental results show that both approaches yield performance comparable to or surpassing state-of-the-art DL models, while supporting interpretability at multiple levels. Case studies further illustrate how these perspectives facilitate human-explainable biomarker discovery and pathology localisation. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.08604 [ pdf , ps , other ] Interpretability and Individuality in Knee MRI: Patient-Specific Radiomic Fingerprint with Reconstructed Healthy Personas Authors: Yaxi Chen , Simin Ni , Shuai Li , Shaheer U. Saeed , Aleksandra Ivanova , Rikin Hargunani , Jie Huang , Chaozong Liu , Yipeng Hu Abstract : For automated assessment of knee MRI scans, both accuracy and interpretability are essential for clinical use and adoption. Traditional radiomics rely on predefined features chosen at the population level; while more interpretable, they are often too restrictive to capture patient-specific variability and can underperform end-to-end deep learning (DL). To address this, we propose two complementary… ▽ More For automated assessment of knee MRI scans, both accuracy and interpretability are essential for clinical use and adoption. Traditional radiomics rely on predefined features chosen at the population level; while more interpretable, they are often too restrictive to capture patient-specific variability and can underperform end-to-end deep learning (DL). To address this, we propose two complementary strategies that bring individuality and interpretability: radiomic fingerprints and healthy personas. First, a radiomic fingerprint is a dynamically constructed, patient-specific feature set derived from MRI. Instead of applying a uniform population-level signature, our model predicts feature relevance from a pool of candidate features and selects only those most predictive for each patient, while maintaining feature-level interpretability. This fingerprint can be viewed as a latent-variable model of feature usage, where an image-conditioned predictor estimates usage probabilities and a transparent logistic regression with global coefficients performs classification. Second, a healthy persona synthesises a pathology-free baseline for each patient using a diffusion model trained to reconstruct healthy knee MRIs. Comparing features extracted from pathological images against their personas highlights deviations from normal anatomy, enabling intuitive, case-specific explanations of disease manifestations. We systematically compare fingerprints, personas, and their combination across three clinical tasks. Experimental results show that both approaches yield performance comparable to or surpassing state-of-the-art DL models, while supporting interpretability at multiple levels. Case studies further illustrate how these perspectives facilitate human-explainable biomarker discovery and pathology localisation. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.08321 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV UM-Text: A Unified Multimodal Model for Image Understanding Authors: Lichen Ma , Xiaolong Fu , Gaojing Zhou , Zipeng Guo , Ting Zhu , Yichun Liu , Yu Shi , Jason Li , Junshi Huang Abstract : With the rapid advancement of image generation, visual text editing using natural language instructions has received increasing attention. The main challenge of this task is to fully understand the instruction and reference image, and thus generate visual text that is style-consistent with the image. Previous methods often involve complex steps of specifying the text content and attributes, such a… ▽ More With the rapid advancement of image generation, visual text editing using natural language instructions has received increasing attention. The main challenge of this task is to fully understand the instruction and reference image, and thus generate visual text that is style-consistent with the image. Previous methods often involve complex steps of specifying the text content and attributes, such as font size, color, and layout, without considering the stylistic consistency with the reference image. To address this, we propose UM-Text, a unified multimodal model for context understanding and visual text editing by natural language instructions. Specifically, we introduce a Visual Language Model (VLM) to process the instruction and reference image, so that the text content and layout can be elaborately designed according to the context information. To generate an accurate and harmonious visual text image, we further propose the UM-Encoder to combine the embeddings of various condition information, where the combination is automatically configured by VLM according to the input instruction. During training, we propose a regional consistency loss to offer more effective supervision for glyph generation on both latent and RGB space, and design a tailored three-stage training strategy to further enhance model performance. In addition, we contribute the UM-DATA-200K, a large-scale visual text image dataset on diverse scenes for model training. Extensive qualitative and quantitative results on multiple public benchmarks demonstrate that our method achieves state-of-the-art performance. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.08321 [ pdf , ps , other ] UM-Text: A Unified Multimodal Model for Image Understanding Authors: Lichen Ma , Xiaolong Fu , Gaojing Zhou , Zipeng Guo , Ting Zhu , Yichun Liu , Yu Shi , Jason Li , Junshi Huang Abstract : With the rapid advancement of image generation, visual text editing using natural language instructions has received increasing attention. The main challenge of this task is to fully understand the instruction and reference image, and thus generate visual text that is style-consistent with the image. Previous methods often involve complex steps of specifying the text content and attributes, such a… ▽ More With the rapid advancement of image generation, visual text editing using natural language instructions has received increasing attention. The main challenge of this task is to fully understand the instruction and reference image, and thus generate visual text that is style-consistent with the image. Previous methods often involve complex steps of specifying the text content and attributes, such as font size, color, and layout, without considering the stylistic consistency with the reference image. To address this, we propose UM-Text, a unified multimodal model for context understanding and visual text editing by natural language instructions. Specifically, we introduce a Visual Language Model (VLM) to process the instruction and reference image, so that the text content and layout can be elaborately designed according to the context information. To generate an accurate and harmonious visual text image, we further propose the UM-Encoder to combine the embeddings of various condition information, where the combination is automatically configured by VLM according to the input instruction. During training, we propose a regional consistency loss to offer more effective supervision for glyph generation on both latent and RGB space, and design a tailored three-stage training strategy to further enhance model performance. In addition, we contribute the UM-DATA-200K, a large-scale visual text image dataset on diverse scenes for model training. Extensive qualitative and quantitative results on multiple public benchmarks demonstrate that our method achieves state-of-the-art performance. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.08267 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL Med-CoReasoner: Reducing Language Disparities in Medical Reasoning via Language-Informed Co-Reasoning Authors: Fan Gao , Sherry T. Tong , Jiwoong Sohn , Jiahao Huang , Junfeng Jiang , Ding Xia , Piyalitt Ittichaiwong , Kanyakorn Veerakanjana , Hyunjae Kim , Qingyu Chen , Edison Marrese Taylor , Kazuma Kobayashi , Akkiko Aizawa , Irene Li Abstract : While reasoning-enhanced large language models perform strongly on English medical tasks, a persistent multilingual gap remains, with substantially weaker reasoning in local languages, limiting equitable global medical deployment. To bridge this gap, we introduce Med-CoReasoner, a language-informed co-reasoning framework that elicits parallel English and local-language reasoning, abstracts them in… ▽ More While reasoning-enhanced large language models perform strongly on English medical tasks, a persistent multilingual gap remains, with substantially weaker reasoning in local languages, limiting equitable global medical deployment. To bridge this gap, we introduce Med-CoReasoner, a language-informed co-reasoning framework that elicits parallel English and local-language reasoning, abstracts them into structured concepts, and integrates local clinical knowledge into an English logical scaffold via concept-level alignment and retrieval. This design combines the structural robustness of English reasoning with the practice-grounded expertise encoded in local languages. To evaluate multilingual medical reasoning beyond multiple-choice settings, we construct MultiMed-X, a benchmark covering seven languages with expert-annotated long-form question answering and natural language inference tasks, comprising 350 instances per language. Experiments across three benchmarks show that Med-CoReasoner improves multilingual reasoning performance by an average of 5%, with particularly substantial gains in low-resource languages. Moreover, model distillation and expert evaluation analysis further confirm that Med-CoReasoner produces clinically sound and culturally grounded reasoning traces. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.08267 [ pdf , ps , other ] Med-CoReasoner: Reducing Language Disparities in Medical Reasoning via Language-Informed Co-Reasoning Authors: Fan Gao , Sherry T. Tong , Jiwoong Sohn , Jiahao Huang , Junfeng Jiang , Ding Xia , Piyalitt Ittichaiwong , Kanyakorn Veerakanjana , Hyunjae Kim , Qingyu Chen , Edison Marrese Taylor , Kazuma Kobayashi , Akkiko Aizawa , Irene Li Abstract : While reasoning-enhanced large language models perform strongly on English medical tasks, a persistent multilingual gap remains, with substantially weaker reasoning in local languages, limiting equitable global medical deployment. To bridge this gap, we introduce Med-CoReasoner, a language-informed co-reasoning framework that elicits parallel English and local-language reasoning, abstracts them in… ▽ More While reasoning-enhanced large language models perform strongly on English medical tasks, a persistent multilingual gap remains, with substantially weaker reasoning in local languages, limiting equitable global medical deployment. To bridge this gap, we introduce Med-CoReasoner, a language-informed co-reasoning framework that elicits parallel English and local-language reasoning, abstracts them into structured concepts, and integrates local clinical knowledge into an English logical scaffold via concept-level alignment and retrieval. This design combines the structural robustness of English reasoning with the practice-grounded expertise encoded in local languages. To evaluate multilingual medical reasoning beyond multiple-choice settings, we construct MultiMed-X, a benchmark covering seven languages with expert-annotated long-form question answering and natural language inference tasks, comprising 350 instances per language. Experiments across three benchmarks show that Med-CoReasoner improves multilingual reasoning performance by an average of 5%, with particularly substantial gains in low-resource languages. Moreover, model distillation and expert evaluation analysis further confirm that Med-CoReasoner produces clinically sound and culturally grounded reasoning traces. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07972 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL Knowing But Not Doing: Convergent Morality and Divergent Action in LLMs Authors: Jen-tse Huang , Jiantong Qin , Xueli Qiu , Sharon Levy , Michelle R. Kaufman , Mark Dredze Abstract : Value alignment is central to the development of safe and socially compatible artificial intelligence. However, how Large Language Models (LLMs) represent and enact human values in real-world decision contexts remains under-explored. We present ValAct-15k, a dataset of 3,000 advice-seeking scenarios derived from Reddit, designed to elicit ten values defined by Schwartz Theory of Basic Human Values… ▽ More Value alignment is central to the development of safe and socially compatible artificial intelligence. However, how Large Language Models (LLMs) represent and enact human values in real-world decision contexts remains under-explored. We present ValAct-15k, a dataset of 3,000 advice-seeking scenarios derived from Reddit, designed to elicit ten values defined by Schwartz Theory of Basic Human Values. Using both the scenario-based questions and the traditional value questionnaire, we evaluate ten frontier LLMs (five from U.S. companies, five from Chinese ones) and human participants ($n = 55$). We find near-perfect cross-model consistency in scenario-based decisions (Pearson $r \approx 1.0$), contrasting sharply with the broad variability observed among humans ($r \in [-0.79, 0.98]$). Yet, both humans and LLMs show weak correspondence between self-reported and enacted values ($r = 0.4, 0.3$), revealing a systematic knowledge-action gap. When instructed to "hold" a specific value, LLMs' performance declines up to $6.6%$ compared to merely selecting the value, indicating a role-play aversion. These findings suggest that while alignment training yields normative value convergence, it does not eliminate the human-like incoherence between knowing and acting upon values. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 9 pages, 7 figures arXiv:2601.07972 [ pdf , ps , other ] Knowing But Not Doing: Convergent Morality and Divergent Action in LLMs Authors: Jen-tse Huang , Jiantong Qin , Xueli Qiu , Sharon Levy , Michelle R. Kaufman , Mark Dredze Abstract : Value alignment is central to the development of safe and socially compatible artificial intelligence. However, how Large Language Models (LLMs) represent and enact human values in real-world decision contexts remains under-explored. We present ValAct-15k, a dataset of 3,000 advice-seeking scenarios derived from Reddit, designed to elicit ten values defined by Schwartz Theory of Basic Human Values… ▽ More Value alignment is central to the development of safe and socially compatible artificial intelligence. However, how Large Language Models (LLMs) represent and enact human values in real-world decision contexts remains under-explored. We present ValAct-15k, a dataset of 3,000 advice-seeking scenarios derived from Reddit, designed to elicit ten values defined by Schwartz Theory of Basic Human Values. Using both the scenario-based questions and the traditional value questionnaire, we evaluate ten frontier LLMs (five from U.S. companies, five from Chinese ones) and human participants ($n = 55$). We find near-perfect cross-model consistency in scenario-based decisions (Pearson $r \approx 1.0$), contrasting sharply with the broad variability observed among humans ($r \in [-0.79, 0.98]$). Yet, both humans and LLMs show weak correspondence between self-reported and enacted values ($r = 0.4, 0.3$), revealing a systematic knowledge-action gap. When instructed to "hold" a specific value, LLMs' performance declines up to $6.6%$ compared to merely selecting the value, indicating a role-play aversion. These findings suggest that while alignment training yields normative value convergence, it does not eliminate the human-like incoherence between knowing and acting upon values. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 9 pages, 7 figures arXiv:2601.07510 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.GT Machine Learning Model Trading with Verification under Information Asymmetry Authors: Xiang Li , Jianwei Huang , Kai Yang , Chenyou Fan Abstract : Machine learning (ML) model trading, known for its role in protecting data privacy, faces a major challenge: information asymmetry. This issue can lead to model deception, a problem that current literature has not fully solved, where the seller misrepresents model performance to earn more. We propose a game-theoretic approach, adding a verification step in the ML model market that lets buyers chec… ▽ More Machine learning (ML) model trading, known for its role in protecting data privacy, faces a major challenge: information asymmetry. This issue can lead to model deception, a problem that current literature has not fully solved, where the seller misrepresents model performance to earn more. We propose a game-theoretic approach, adding a verification step in the ML model market that lets buyers check model quality before buying. However, this method can be expensive and offers imperfect information, making it harder for buyers to decide. Our analysis reveals that a seller might probabilistically conduct model deception considering the chance of model verification. This deception probability decreases with the verification accuracy and increases with the verification cost. To maximize seller payoff, we further design optimal pricing schemes accounting for heterogeneous buyers' strategic behaviors. Interestingly, we find that reducing information asymmetry benefits both the seller and buyer. Meanwhile, protecting buyer order information doesn't improve the payoff for the buyer or the seller. These findings highlight the importance of reducing information asymmetry in ML model trading and open new directions for future research. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Accepted in IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON NETWORKING 2025 arXiv:2601.07510 [ pdf , ps , other ] Machine Learning Model Trading with Verification under Information Asymmetry Authors: Xiang Li , Jianwei Huang , Kai Yang , Chenyou Fan Abstract : Machine learning (ML) model trading, known for its role in protecting data privacy, faces a major challenge: information asymmetry. This issue can lead to model deception, a problem that current literature has not fully solved, where the seller misrepresents model performance to earn more. We propose a game-theoretic approach, adding a verification step in the ML model market that lets buyers chec… ▽ More Machine learning (ML) model trading, known for its role in protecting data privacy, faces a major challenge: information asymmetry. This issue can lead to model deception, a problem that current literature has not fully solved, where the seller misrepresents model performance to earn more. We propose a game-theoretic approach, adding a verification step in the ML model market that lets buyers check model quality before buying. However, this method can be expensive and offers imperfect information, making it harder for buyers to decide. Our analysis reveals that a seller might probabilistically conduct model deception considering the chance of model verification. This deception probability decreases with the verification accuracy and increases with the verification cost. To maximize seller payoff, we further design optimal pricing schemes accounting for heterogeneous buyers' strategic behaviors. Interestingly, we find that reducing information asymmetry benefits both the seller and buyer. Meanwhile, protecting buyer order information doesn't improve the payoff for the buyer or the seller. These findings highlight the importance of reducing information asymmetry in ML model trading and open new directions for future research. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Accepted in IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON NETWORKING 2025 arXiv:2601.07280 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL ReasonTabQA: A Comprehensive Benchmark for Table Question Answering from Real World Industrial Scenarios Authors: Changzai Pan , Jie Zhang , Kaiwen Wei , Chenshuo Pan , Yu Zhao , Jingwang Huang , Jian Yang , Zhenhe Wu , Haoyang Zeng , Xiaoyan Gu , Weichao Sun , Yanbo Zhai , Yujie Mao , Zhuoru Jiang , Jiang Zhong , Shuangyong Song , Yongxiang Li , Zhongjiang He Abstract : Recent advancements in Large Language Models (LLMs) have significantly catalyzed table-based question answering (TableQA). However, existing TableQA benchmarks often overlook the intricacies of industrial scenarios, which are characterized by multi-table structures, nested headers, and massive scales. These environments demand robust table reasoning through deep structured inference, presenting a… ▽ More Recent advancements in Large Language Models (LLMs) have significantly catalyzed table-based question answering (TableQA). However, existing TableQA benchmarks often overlook the intricacies of industrial scenarios, which are characterized by multi-table structures, nested headers, and massive scales. These environments demand robust table reasoning through deep structured inference, presenting a significant challenge that remains inadequately addressed by current methodologies. To bridge this gap, we present ReasonTabQA, a large-scale bilingual benchmark encompassing 1,932 tables across 30 industry domains such as energy and automotive. ReasonTabQA provides high-quality annotations for both final answers and explicit reasoning chains, supporting both thinking and no-thinking paradigms. Furthermore, we introduce TabCodeRL, a reinforcement learning method that leverages table-aware verifiable rewards to guide the generation of logical reasoning paths. Extensive experiments on ReasonTabQA and 4 TableQA datasets demonstrate that while TabCodeRL yields substantial performance gains on open-source LLMs, the persistent performance gap on ReasonTabQA underscores the inherent complexity of real-world industrial TableQA. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07280 [ pdf , ps , other ] ReasonTabQA: A Comprehensive Benchmark for Table Question Answering from Real World Industrial Scenarios Authors: Changzai Pan , Jie Zhang , Kaiwen Wei , Chenshuo Pan , Yu Zhao , Jingwang Huang , Jian Yang , Zhenhe Wu , Haoyang Zeng , Xiaoyan Gu , Weichao Sun , Yanbo Zhai , Yujie Mao , Zhuoru Jiang , Jiang Zhong , Shuangyong Song , Yongxiang Li , Zhongjiang He Abstract : Recent advancements in Large Language Models (LLMs) have significantly catalyzed table-based question answering (TableQA). However, existing TableQA benchmarks often overlook the intricacies of industrial scenarios, which are characterized by multi-table structures, nested headers, and massive scales. These environments demand robust table reasoning through deep structured inference, presenting a… ▽ More Recent advancements in Large Language Models (LLMs) have significantly catalyzed table-based question answering (TableQA). However, existing TableQA benchmarks often overlook the intricacies of industrial scenarios, which are characterized by multi-table structures, nested headers, and massive scales. These environments demand robust table reasoning through deep structured inference, presenting a significant challenge that remains inadequately addressed by current methodologies. To bridge this gap, we present ReasonTabQA, a large-scale bilingual benchmark encompassing 1,932 tables across 30 industry domains such as energy and automotive. ReasonTabQA provides high-quality annotations for both final answers and explicit reasoning chains, supporting both thinking and no-thinking paradigms. Furthermore, we introduce TabCodeRL, a reinforcement learning method that leverages table-aware verifiable rewards to guide the generation of logical reasoning paths. Extensive experiments on ReasonTabQA and 4 TableQA datasets demonstrate that while TabCodeRL yields substantial performance gains on open-source LLMs, the persistent performance gap on ReasonTabQA underscores the inherent complexity of real-world industrial TableQA. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.06600 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL Probing Multimodal Large Language Models on Cognitive Biases in Chinese Short-Video Misinformation Authors: Jen-tse Huang , Chang Chen , Shiyang Lai , Wenxuan Wang , Michelle R. Kaufman , Mark Dredze Abstract : Short-video platforms have become major channels for misinformation, where deceptive claims frequently leverage visual experiments and social cues. While Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) have demonstrated impressive reasoning capabilities, their robustness against misinformation entangled with cognitive biases remains under-explored. In this paper, we introduce a comprehensive evaluation f… ▽ More Short-video platforms have become major channels for misinformation, where deceptive claims frequently leverage visual experiments and social cues. While Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) have demonstrated impressive reasoning capabilities, their robustness against misinformation entangled with cognitive biases remains under-explored. In this paper, we introduce a comprehensive evaluation framework using a high-quality, manually annotated dataset of 200 short videos spanning four health domains. This dataset provides fine-grained annotations for three deceptive patterns, experimental errors, logical fallacies, and fabricated claims, each verified by evidence such as national standards and academic literature. We evaluate eight frontier MLLMs across five modality settings. Experimental results demonstrate that Gemini-2.5-Pro achieves the highest performance in the multimodal setting with a belief score of 71.5/100, while o3 performs the worst at 35.2. Furthermore, we investigate social cues that induce false beliefs in videos and find that models are susceptible to biases like authoritative channel IDs. △ Less Submitted 10 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 9 pages, 6 figures, 9 tables arXiv:2601.06600 [ pdf , ps , other ] Probing Multimodal Large Language Models on Cognitive Biases in Chinese Short-Video Misinformation Authors: Jen-tse Huang , Chang Chen , Shiyang Lai , Wenxuan Wang , Michelle R. Kaufman , Mark Dredze Abstract : Short-video platforms have become major channels for misinformation, where deceptive claims frequently leverage visual experiments and social cues. While Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) have demonstrated impressive reasoning capabilities, their robustness against misinformation entangled with cognitive biases remains under-explored. In this paper, we introduce a comprehensive evaluation f… ▽ More Short-video platforms have become major channels for misinformation, where deceptive claims frequently leverage visual experiments and social cues. While Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) have demonstrated impressive reasoning capabilities, their robustness against misinformation entangled with cognitive biases remains under-explored. In this paper, we introduce a comprehensive evaluation framework using a high-quality, manually annotated dataset of 200 short videos spanning four health domains. This dataset provides fine-grained annotations for three deceptive patterns, experimental errors, logical fallacies, and fabricated claims, each verified by evidence such as national standards and academic literature. We evaluate eight frontier MLLMs across five modality settings. Experimental results demonstrate that Gemini-2.5-Pro achieves the highest performance in the multimodal setting with a belief score of 71.5/100, while o3 performs the worst at 35.2. Furthermore, we investigate social cues that induce false beliefs in videos and find that models are susceptible to biases like authoritative channel IDs. △ Less Submitted 10 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 9 pages, 6 figures, 9 tables arXiv:2601.06153 [ pdf ] cs.CY cs.AI Interoperability in AI Safety Governance: Ethics, Regulations, and Standards Authors: Yik Chan Chin , David A. Raho , Hag-Min Kim , Chunli Bi , James Ong , Jingbo Huang , Serge Stinckwich Abstract : This policy report draws on country studies from China, South Korea, Singapore, and the United Kingdom to identify effective tools and key barriers to interoperability in AI safety governance. It offers practical recommendations to support a globally informed yet locally grounded governance ecosystem. Interoperability is a central goal of AI governance, vital for reducing risks, fostering innovati… ▽ More This policy report draws on country studies from China, South Korea, Singapore, and the United Kingdom to identify effective tools and key barriers to interoperability in AI safety governance. It offers practical recommendations to support a globally informed yet locally grounded governance ecosystem. Interoperability is a central goal of AI governance, vital for reducing risks, fostering innovation, enhancing competitiveness, promoting standardization, and building public trust. However, structural gaps such as fragmented regulations and lack of global coordination, and conceptual gaps, including limited Global South engagement, continue to hinder progress. Focusing on three high-stakes domains - autonomous vehicles, education, and cross-border data flows - the report compares ethical, legal, and technical frameworks across the four countries. It identifies areas of convergence, divergence, and potential alignment, offering policy recommendations that support the development of interoperability mechanisms aligned with the Global Digital Compact and relevant UN resolutions. The analysis covers seven components: objectives, regulators, ethics, binding measures, targeted frameworks, technical standards, and key risks. △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 122 pages arXiv:2601.06153 [ pdf ] Interoperability in AI Safety Governance: Ethics, Regulations, and Standards Authors: Yik Chan Chin , David A. Raho , Hag-Min Kim , Chunli Bi , James Ong , Jingbo Huang , Serge Stinckwich Abstract : This policy report draws on country studies from China, South Korea, Singapore, and the United Kingdom to identify effective tools and key barriers to interoperability in AI safety governance. It offers practical recommendations to support a globally informed yet locally grounded governance ecosystem. Interoperability is a central goal of AI governance, vital for reducing risks, fostering innovati… ▽ More This policy report draws on country studies from China, South Korea, Singapore, and the United Kingdom to identify effective tools and key barriers to interoperability in AI safety governance. It offers practical recommendations to support a globally informed yet locally grounded governance ecosystem. Interoperability is a central goal of AI governance, vital for reducing risks, fostering innovation, enhancing competitiveness, promoting standardization, and building public trust. However, structural gaps such as fragmented regulations and lack of global coordination, and conceptual gaps, including limited Global South engagement, continue to hinder progress. Focusing on three high-stakes domains - autonomous vehicles, education, and cross-border data flows - the report compares ethical, legal, and technical frameworks across the four countries. It identifies areas of convergence, divergence, and potential alignment, offering policy recommendations that support the development of interoperability mechanisms aligned with the Global Digital Compact and relevant UN resolutions. The analysis covers seven components: objectives, regulators, ethics, binding measures, targeted frameworks, technical standards, and key risks. △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 122 pages arXiv:2601.05403 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL Same Claim, Different Judgment: Benchmarking Scenario-Induced Bias in Multilingual Financial Misinformation Detection Authors: Zhiwei Liu , Yupen Cao , Yuechen Jiang , Mohsinul Kabir , Polydoros Giannouris , Chen Xu , Ziyang Xu , Tianlei Zhu , Tariquzzaman Faisal , Triantafillos Papadopoulos , Yan Wang , Lingfei Qian , Xueqing Peng , Zhuohan Xie , Ye Yuan , Saeed Almheiri , Abdulrazzaq Alnajjar , Mingbin Chen , Harry Stuart , Paul Thompson , Prayag Tiwari , Alejandro Lopez-Lira , Xue Liu , Jimin Huang , Sophia Ananiadou Abstract : Large language models (LLMs) have been widely applied across various domains of finance. Since their training data are largely derived from human-authored corpora, LLMs may inherit a range of human biases. Behavioral biases can lead to instability and uncertainty in decision-making, particularly when processing financial information. However, existing research on LLM bias has mainly focused on dir… ▽ More Large language models (LLMs) have been widely applied across various domains of finance. Since their training data are largely derived from human-authored corpora, LLMs may inherit a range of human biases. Behavioral biases can lead to instability and uncertainty in decision-making, particularly when processing financial information. However, existing research on LLM bias has mainly focused on direct questioning or simplified, general-purpose settings, with limited consideration of the complex real-world financial environments and high-risk, context-sensitive, multilingual financial misinformation detection tasks (\mfmd). In this work, we propose \mfmdscen, a comprehensive benchmark for evaluating behavioral biases of LLMs in \mfmd across diverse economic scenarios. In collaboration with financial experts, we construct three types of complex financial scenarios: (i) role- and personality-based, (ii) role- and region-based, and (iii) role-based scenarios incorporating ethnicity and religious beliefs. We further develop a multilingual financial misinformation dataset covering English, Chinese, Greek, and Bengali. By integrating these scenarios with misinformation claims, \mfmdscen enables a systematic evaluation of 22 mainstream LLMs. Our findings reveal that pronounced behavioral biases persist across both commercial and open-source models. This project will be available at △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Work in progress arXiv:2601.05403 [ pdf , ps , other ] Same Claim, Different Judgment: Benchmarking Scenario-Induced Bias in Multilingual Financial Misinformation Detection Authors: Zhiwei Liu , Yupen Cao , Yuechen Jiang , Mohsinul Kabir , Polydoros Giannouris , Chen Xu , Ziyang Xu , Tianlei Zhu , Tariquzzaman Faisal , Triantafillos Papadopoulos , Yan Wang , Lingfei Qian , Xueqing Peng , Zhuohan Xie , Ye Yuan , Saeed Almheiri , Abdulrazzaq Alnajjar , Mingbin Chen , Harry Stuart , Paul Thompson , Prayag Tiwari , Alejandro Lopez-Lira , Xue Liu , Jimin Huang , Sophia Ananiadou Abstract : Large language models (LLMs) have been widely applied across various domains of finance. Since their training data are largely derived from human-authored corpora, LLMs may inherit a range of human biases. Behavioral biases can lead to instability and uncertainty in decision-making, particularly when processing financial information. However, existing research on LLM bias has mainly focused on dir… ▽ More Large language models (LLMs) have been widely applied across various domains of finance. Since their training data are largely derived from human-authored corpora, LLMs may inherit a range of human biases. Behavioral biases can lead to instability and uncertainty in decision-making, particularly when processing financial information. However, existing research on LLM bias has mainly focused on direct questioning or simplified, general-purpose settings, with limited consideration of the complex real-world financial environments and high-risk, context-sensitive, multilingual financial misinformation detection tasks (\mfmd). In this work, we propose \mfmdscen, a comprehensive benchmark for evaluating behavioral biases of LLMs in \mfmd across diverse economic scenarios. In collaboration with financial experts, we construct three types of complex financial scenarios: (i) role- and personality-based, (ii) role- and region-based, and (iii) role-based scenarios incorporating ethnicity and religious beliefs. We further develop a multilingual financial misinformation dataset covering English, Chinese, Greek, and Bengali. By integrating these scenarios with misinformation claims, \mfmdscen enables a systematic evaluation of 22 mainstream LLMs. Our findings reveal that pronounced behavioral biases persist across both commercial and open-source models. This project will be available at △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Work in progress arXiv:2601.05167 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI cs.LG RelayLLM: Efficient Reasoning via Collaborative Decoding Authors: Chengsong Huang , Tong Zheng , Langlin Huang , Jinyuan Li , Haolin Liu , Jiaxin Huang Abstract : Large Language Models (LLMs) for complex reasoning is often hindered by high computational costs and latency, while resource-efficient Small Language Models (SLMs) typically lack the necessary reasoning capacity. Existing collaborative approaches, such as cascading or routing, operate at a coarse granularity by offloading entire queries to LLMs, resulting in significant computational waste when th… ▽ More Large Language Models (LLMs) for complex reasoning is often hindered by high computational costs and latency, while resource-efficient Small Language Models (SLMs) typically lack the necessary reasoning capacity. Existing collaborative approaches, such as cascading or routing, operate at a coarse granularity by offloading entire queries to LLMs, resulting in significant computational waste when the SLM is capable of handling the majority of reasoning steps. To address this, we propose RelayLLM, a novel framework for efficient reasoning via token-level collaborative decoding. Unlike routers, RelayLLM empowers the SLM to act as an active controller that dynamically invokes the LLM only for critical tokens via a special command, effectively "relaying" the generation process. We introduce a two-stage training framework, including warm-up and Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO) to teach the model to balance independence with strategic help-seeking. Empirical results across six benchmarks demonstrate that RelayLLM achieves an average accuracy of 49.52%, effectively bridging the performance gap between the two models. Notably, this is achieved by invoking the LLM for only 1.07% of the total generated tokens, offering a 98.2% cost reduction compared to performance-matched random routers. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05167 [ pdf , ps , other ] RelayLLM: Efficient Reasoning via Collaborative Decoding Authors: Chengsong Huang , Tong Zheng , Langlin Huang , Jinyuan Li , Haolin Liu , Jiaxin Huang Abstract : Large Language Models (LLMs) for complex reasoning is often hindered by high computational costs and latency, while resource-efficient Small Language Models (SLMs) typically lack the necessary reasoning capacity. Existing collaborative approaches, such as cascading or routing, operate at a coarse granularity by offloading entire queries to LLMs, resulting in significant computational waste when th… ▽ More Large Language Models (LLMs) for complex reasoning is often hindered by high computational costs and latency, while resource-efficient Small Language Models (SLMs) typically lack the necessary reasoning capacity. Existing collaborative approaches, such as cascading or routing, operate at a coarse granularity by offloading entire queries to LLMs, resulting in significant computational waste when the SLM is capable of handling the majority of reasoning steps. To address this, we propose RelayLLM, a novel framework for efficient reasoning via token-level collaborative decoding. Unlike routers, RelayLLM empowers the SLM to act as an active controller that dynamically invokes the LLM only for critical tokens via a special command, effectively "relaying" the generation process. We introduce a two-stage training framework, including warm-up and Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO) to teach the model to balance independence with strategic help-seeking. Empirical results across six benchmarks demonstrate that RelayLLM achieves an average accuracy of 49.52%, effectively bridging the performance gap between the two models. Notably, this is achieved by invoking the LLM for only 1.07% of the total generated tokens, offering a 98.2% cost reduction compared to performance-matched random routers. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05049 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI How to Set the Learning Rate for Large-Scale Pre-training? Authors: Yunhua Zhou , Shuhao Xing , Junhao Huang , Xipeng Qiu , Qipeng Guo Abstract : Optimal configuration of the learning rate (LR) is a fundamental yet formidable challenge in large-scale pre-training. Given the stringent trade-off between training costs and model performance, the pivotal question is whether the optimal LR can be accurately extrapolated from low-cost experiments. In this paper, we formalize this investigation into two distinct research paradigms: Fitting and Tra… ▽ More Optimal configuration of the learning rate (LR) is a fundamental yet formidable challenge in large-scale pre-training. Given the stringent trade-off between training costs and model performance, the pivotal question is whether the optimal LR can be accurately extrapolated from low-cost experiments. In this paper, we formalize this investigation into two distinct research paradigms: Fitting and Transfer. Within the Fitting Paradigm, we innovatively introduce a Scaling Law for search factor, effectively reducing the search complexity from O(n^3) to O(n*C_D*C_η) via predictive modeling. Within the Transfer Paradigm, we extend the principles of $μ$Transfer to the Mixture of Experts (MoE) architecture, broadening its applicability to encompass model depth, weight decay, and token horizons. By pushing the boundaries of existing hyperparameter research in terms of scale, we conduct a comprehensive comparison between these two paradigms. Our empirical results challenge the scalability of the widely adopted $μ$ Transfer in large-scale pre-training scenarios. Furthermore, we provide a rigorous analysis through the dual lenses of training stability and feature learning to elucidate the underlying reasons why module-wise parameter tuning underperforms in large-scale settings. This work offers systematic practical guidelines and a fresh theoretical perspective for optimizing industrial-level pre-training. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05049 [ pdf , ps , other ] How to Set the Learning Rate for Large-Scale Pre-training? Authors: Yunhua Zhou , Shuhao Xing , Junhao Huang , Xipeng Qiu , Qipeng Guo Abstract : Optimal configuration of the learning rate (LR) is a fundamental yet formidable challenge in large-scale pre-training. Given the stringent trade-off between training costs and model performance, the pivotal question is whether the optimal LR can be accurately extrapolated from low-cost experiments. In this paper, we formalize this investigation into two distinct research paradigms: Fitting and Tra… ▽ More Optimal configuration of the learning rate (LR) is a fundamental yet formidable challenge in large-scale pre-training. Given the stringent trade-off between training costs and model performance, the pivotal question is whether the optimal LR can be accurately extrapolated from low-cost experiments. In this paper, we formalize this investigation into two distinct research paradigms: Fitting and Transfer. Within the Fitting Paradigm, we innovatively introduce a Scaling Law for search factor, effectively reducing the search complexity from O(n^3) to O(n*C_D*C_η) via predictive modeling. Within the Transfer Paradigm, we extend the principles of $μ$Transfer to the Mixture of Experts (MoE) architecture, broadening its applicability to encompass model depth, weight decay, and token horizons. By pushing the boundaries of existing hyperparameter research in terms of scale, we conduct a comprehensive comparison between these two paradigms. Our empirical results challenge the scalability of the widely adopted $μ$ Transfer in large-scale pre-training scenarios. Furthermore, we provide a rigorous analysis through the dual lenses of training stability and feature learning to elucidate the underlying reasons why module-wise parameter tuning underperforms in large-scale settings. This work offers systematic practical guidelines and a fresh theoretical perspective for optimizing industrial-level pre-training. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05034 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI How to Set the Batch Size for Large-Scale Pre-training? Authors: Yunhua Zhou , Junhao Huang , Shuhao Xing , Yechen Zhang , Runyu Peng , Qiping Guo , Xipeng Qiu Abstract : The concept of Critical Batch Size, as pioneered by OpenAI, has long served as a foundational principle for large-scale pre-training. However, with the paradigm shift towards the Warmup-Stable-Decay (WSD) learning rate scheduler, we observe that the original theoretical framework and its underlying mechanisms fail to align with new pre-training dynamics. To bridge this gap between theory and pract… ▽ More The concept of Critical Batch Size, as pioneered by OpenAI, has long served as a foundational principle for large-scale pre-training. However, with the paradigm shift towards the Warmup-Stable-Decay (WSD) learning rate scheduler, we observe that the original theoretical framework and its underlying mechanisms fail to align with new pre-training dynamics. To bridge this gap between theory and practice, this paper derives a revised E(S) relationship tailored for WSD scheduler, characterizing the trade-off between training data consumption E and steps S during pre-training. Our theoretical analysis reveals two fundamental properties of WSD-based pre-training: 1) B_min, the minimum batch size threshold required to achieve a target loss, and 2) B_opt, the optimal batch size that maximizes data efficiency by minimizing total tokens. Building upon these properties, we propose a dynamic Batch Size Scheduler. Extensive experiments demonstrate that our revised formula precisely captures the dynamics of large-scale pre-training, and the resulting scheduling strategy significantly enhances both training efficiency and final model quality. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; v1 submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05034 [ pdf , ps , other ] How to Set the Batch Size for Large-Scale Pre-training? Authors: Yunhua Zhou , Junhao Huang , Shuhao Xing , Yechen Zhang , Runyu Peng , Qiping Guo , Xipeng Qiu Abstract : The concept of Critical Batch Size, as pioneered by OpenAI, has long served as a foundational principle for large-scale pre-training. However, with the paradigm shift towards the Warmup-Stable-Decay (WSD) learning rate scheduler, we observe that the original theoretical framework and its underlying mechanisms fail to align with new pre-training dynamics. To bridge this gap between theory and pract… ▽ More The concept of Critical Batch Size, as pioneered by OpenAI, has long served as a foundational principle for large-scale pre-training. However, with the paradigm shift towards the Warmup-Stable-Decay (WSD) learning rate scheduler, we observe that the original theoretical framework and its underlying mechanisms fail to align with new pre-training dynamics. To bridge this gap between theory and practice, this paper derives a revised E(S) relationship tailored for WSD scheduler, characterizing the trade-off between training data consumption E and steps S during pre-training. Our theoretical analysis reveals two fundamental properties of WSD-based pre-training: 1) B_min, the minimum batch size threshold required to achieve a target loss, and 2) B_opt, the optimal batch size that maximizes data efficiency by minimizing total tokens. Building upon these properties, we propose a dynamic Batch Size Scheduler. Extensive experiments demonstrate that our revised formula precisely captures the dynamics of large-scale pre-training, and the resulting scheduling strategy significantly enhances both training efficiency and final model quality. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; v1 submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.04651 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.IR cs.MA Adversarial Yet Cooperative: Multi-Perspective Reasoning in Retrieved-Augmented Language Models Authors: Can Xu , Lingyong Yan , Jiayi Wu , Haosen Wang , Shuaiqiang Wang , Yuchen Li , Jizhou Huang , Dawei Yin , Xiang Li Abstract : Recent advances in synergizing large reasoning models (LRMs) with retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) have shown promising results, yet two critical challenges remain: (1) reasoning models typically operate from a single, unchallenged perspective, limiting their ability to conduct deep, self-correcting reasoning over external documents, and (2) existing training paradigms rely excessively on outc… ▽ More Recent advances in synergizing large reasoning models (LRMs) with retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) have shown promising results, yet two critical challenges remain: (1) reasoning models typically operate from a single, unchallenged perspective, limiting their ability to conduct deep, self-correcting reasoning over external documents, and (2) existing training paradigms rely excessively on outcome-oriented rewards, which provide insufficient signal for shaping the complex, multi-step reasoning process. To address these issues, we propose an Reasoner-Verifier framework named Adversarial Reasoning RAG (ARR). The Reasoner and Verifier engage in reasoning on retrieved evidence and critiquing each other's logic while being guided by process-aware advantage that requires no external scoring model. This reward combines explicit observational signals with internal model uncertainty to jointly optimize reasoning fidelity and verification rigor. Experiments on multiple benchmarks demonstrate the effectiveness of our method. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; v1 submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.04651 [ pdf , ps , other ] Adversarial Yet Cooperative: Multi-Perspective Reasoning in Retrieved-Augmented Language Models Authors: Can Xu , Lingyong Yan , Jiayi Wu , Haosen Wang , Shuaiqiang Wang , Yuchen Li , Jizhou Huang , Dawei Yin , Xiang Li Abstract : Recent advances in synergizing large reasoning models (LRMs) with retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) have shown promising results, yet two critical challenges remain: (1) reasoning models typically operate from a single, unchallenged perspective, limiting their ability to conduct deep, self-correcting reasoning over external documents, and (2) existing training paradigms rely excessively on outc… ▽ More Recent advances in synergizing large reasoning models (LRMs) with retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) have shown promising results, yet two critical challenges remain: (1) reasoning models typically operate from a single, unchallenged perspective, limiting their ability to conduct deep, self-correcting reasoning over external documents, and (2) existing training paradigms rely excessively on outcome-oriented rewards, which provide insufficient signal for shaping the complex, multi-step reasoning process. To address these issues, we propose an Reasoner-Verifier framework named Adversarial Reasoning RAG (ARR). The Reasoner and Verifier engage in reasoning on retrieved evidence and critiquing each other's logic while being guided by process-aware advantage that requires no external scoring model. This reward combines explicit observational signals with internal model uncertainty to jointly optimize reasoning fidelity and verification rigor. Experiments on multiple benchmarks demonstrate the effectiveness of our method. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; v1 submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.04648 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.GT cs.DC cs.LG Mechanism Design for Federated Learning with Non-Monotonic Network Effects Authors: Xiang Li , Bing Luo , Jianwei Huang , Yuan Luo Abstract : Mechanism design is pivotal to federated learning (FL) for maximizing social welfare by coordinating self-interested clients. Existing mechanisms, however, often overlook the network effects of client participation and the diverse model performance requirements (i.e., generalization error) across applications, leading to suboptimal incentives and social welfare, or even inapplicability in real dep… ▽ More Mechanism design is pivotal to federated learning (FL) for maximizing social welfare by coordinating self-interested clients. Existing mechanisms, however, often overlook the network effects of client participation and the diverse model performance requirements (i.e., generalization error) across applications, leading to suboptimal incentives and social welfare, or even inapplicability in real deployments. To address this gap, we explore incentive mechanism design for FL with network effects and application-specific requirements of model performance. We develop a theoretical model to quantify the impact of network effects on heterogeneous client participation, revealing the non-monotonic nature of such effects. Based on these insights, we propose a Model Trading and Sharing (MoTS) framework, which enables clients to obtain FL models through either participation or purchase. To further address clients' strategic behaviors, we design a Social Welfare maximization with Application-aware and Network effects (SWAN) mechanism, exploiting model customer payments for incentivization. Experimental results on a hardware prototype demonstrate that our SWAN mechanism outperforms existing FL mechanisms, improving social welfare by up to $352.42\%$ and reducing extra incentive costs by $93.07\%$. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Journal extension of Mobihoc conference version, under review of IEEE TMC arXiv:2601.04648 [ pdf , ps , other ] Mechanism Design for Federated Learning with Non-Monotonic Network Effects Authors: Xiang Li , Bing Luo , Jianwei Huang , Yuan Luo Abstract : Mechanism design is pivotal to federated learning (FL) for maximizing social welfare by coordinating self-interested clients. Existing mechanisms, however, often overlook the network effects of client participation and the diverse model performance requirements (i.e., generalization error) across applications, leading to suboptimal incentives and social welfare, or even inapplicability in real dep… ▽ More Mechanism design is pivotal to federated learning (FL) for maximizing social welfare by coordinating self-interested clients. Existing mechanisms, however, often overlook the network effects of client participation and the diverse model performance requirements (i.e., generalization error) across applications, leading to suboptimal incentives and social welfare, or even inapplicability in real deployments. To address this gap, we explore incentive mechanism design for FL with network effects and application-specific requirements of model performance. We develop a theoretical model to quantify the impact of network effects on heterogeneous client participation, revealing the non-monotonic nature of such effects. Based on these insights, we propose a Model Trading and Sharing (MoTS) framework, which enables clients to obtain FL models through either participation or purchase. To further address clients' strategic behaviors, we design a Social Welfare maximization with Application-aware and Network effects (SWAN) mechanism, exploiting model customer payments for incentivization. Experimental results on a hardware prototype demonstrate that our SWAN mechanism outperforms existing FL mechanisms, improving social welfare by up to $352.42\%$ and reducing extra incentive costs by $93.07\%$. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Journal extension of Mobihoc conference version, under review of IEEE TMC arXiv:2601.04567 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV All Changes May Have Invariant Principles: Improving Ever-Shifting Harmful Meme Detection via Design Concept Reproduction Authors: Ziyou Jiang , Mingyang Li , Junjie Wang , Yuekai Huang , Jie Huang , Zhiyuan Chang , Zhaoyang Li , Qing Wang Abstract : Harmful memes are ever-shifting in the Internet communities, which are difficult to analyze due to their type-shifting and temporal-evolving nature. Although these memes are shifting, we find that different memes may share invariant principles, i.e., the underlying design concept of malicious users, which can help us analyze why these memes are harmful. In this paper, we propose RepMD, an ever-shi… ▽ More Harmful memes are ever-shifting in the Internet communities, which are difficult to analyze due to their type-shifting and temporal-evolving nature. Although these memes are shifting, we find that different memes may share invariant principles, i.e., the underlying design concept of malicious users, which can help us analyze why these memes are harmful. In this paper, we propose RepMD, an ever-shifting harmful meme detection method based on the design concept reproduction. We first refer to the attack tree to define the Design Concept Graph (DCG), which describes steps that people may take to design a harmful meme. Then, we derive the DCG from historical memes with design step reproduction and graph pruning. Finally, we use DCG to guide the Multimodal Large Language Model (MLLM) to detect harmful memes. The evaluation results show that RepMD achieves the highest accuracy with 81.1% and has slight accuracy decreases when generalized to type-shifting and temporal-evolving memes. Human evaluation shows that RepMD can improve the efficiency of human discovery on harmful memes, with 15$\sim$30 seconds per meme. △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 18 pages, 11 figures arXiv:2601.04567 [ pdf , ps , other ] All Changes May Have Invariant Principles: Improving Ever-Shifting Harmful Meme Detection via Design Concept Reproduction Authors: Ziyou Jiang , Mingyang Li , Junjie Wang , Yuekai Huang , Jie Huang , Zhiyuan Chang , Zhaoyang Li , Qing Wang Abstract : Harmful memes are ever-shifting in the Internet communities, which are difficult to analyze due to their type-shifting and temporal-evolving nature. Although these memes are shifting, we find that different memes may share invariant principles, i.e., the underlying design concept of malicious users, which can help us analyze why these memes are harmful. In this paper, we propose RepMD, an ever-shi… ▽ More Harmful memes are ever-shifting in the Internet communities, which are difficult to analyze due to their type-shifting and temporal-evolving nature. Although these memes are shifting, we find that different memes may share invariant principles, i.e., the underlying design concept of malicious users, which can help us analyze why these memes are harmful. In this paper, we propose RepMD, an ever-shifting harmful meme detection method based on the design concept reproduction. We first refer to the attack tree to define the Design Concept Graph (DCG), which describes steps that people may take to design a harmful meme. Then, we derive the DCG from historical memes with design step reproduction and graph pruning. Finally, we use DCG to guide the Multimodal Large Language Model (MLLM) to detect harmful memes. The evaluation results show that RepMD achieves the highest accuracy with 81.1% and has slight accuracy decreases when generalized to type-shifting and temporal-evolving memes. Human evaluation shows that RepMD can improve the efficiency of human discovery on harmful memes, with 15$\sim$30 seconds per meme. △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 18 pages, 11 figures arXiv:2601.04160 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.CE q-fin.CP All That Glisters Is Not Gold: A Benchmark for Reference-Free Counterfactual Financial Misinformation Detection Authors: Yuechen Jiang , Zhiwei Liu , Yupeng Cao , Yueru He , Ziyang Xu , Chen Xu , Zhiyang Deng , Prayag Tiwari , Xi Chen , Alejandro Lopez-Lira , Jimin Huang , Junichi Tsujii , Sophia Ananiadou Abstract : We introduce RFC Bench, a benchmark for evaluating large language models on financial misinformation under realistic news. RFC Bench operates at the paragraph level and captures the contextual complexity of financial news where meaning emerges from dispersed cues. The benchmark defines two complementary tasks: reference free misinformation detection and comparison based diagnosis using paired orig… ▽ More We introduce RFC Bench, a benchmark for evaluating large language models on financial misinformation under realistic news. RFC Bench operates at the paragraph level and captures the contextual complexity of financial news where meaning emerges from dispersed cues. The benchmark defines two complementary tasks: reference free misinformation detection and comparison based diagnosis using paired original perturbed inputs. Experiments reveal a consistent pattern: performance is substantially stronger when comparative context is available, while reference free settings expose significant weaknesses, including unstable predictions and elevated invalid outputs. These results indicate that current models struggle to maintain coherent belief states without external grounding. By highlighting this gap, RFC Bench provides a structured testbed for studying reference free reasoning and advancing more reliable financial misinformation detection in real world settings. △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; v1 submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 48 pages; 24 figures arXiv:2601.04160 [ pdf , ps , other ] All That Glisters Is Not Gold: A Benchmark for Reference-Free Counterfactual Financial Misinformation Detection Authors: Yuechen Jiang , Zhiwei Liu , Yupeng Cao , Yueru He , Ziyang Xu , Chen Xu , Zhiyang Deng , Prayag Tiwari , Xi Chen , Alejandro Lopez-Lira , Jimin Huang , Junichi Tsujii , Sophia Ananiadou Abstract : We introduce RFC Bench, a benchmark for evaluating large language models on financial misinformation under realistic news. RFC Bench operates at the paragraph level and captures the contextual complexity of financial news where meaning emerges from dispersed cues. The benchmark defines two complementary tasks: reference free misinformation detection and comparison based diagnosis using paired orig… ▽ More We introduce RFC Bench, a benchmark for evaluating large language models on financial misinformation under realistic news. RFC Bench operates at the paragraph level and captures the contextual complexity of financial news where meaning emerges from dispersed cues. The benchmark defines two complementary tasks: reference free misinformation detection and comparison based diagnosis using paired original perturbed inputs. Experiments reveal a consistent pattern: performance is substantially stronger when comparative context is available, while reference free settings expose significant weaknesses, including unstable predictions and elevated invalid outputs. These results indicate that current models struggle to maintain coherent belief states without external grounding. By highlighting this gap, RFC Bench provides a structured testbed for studying reference free reasoning and advancing more reliable financial misinformation detection in real world settings. △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; v1 submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 48 pages; 24 figures arXiv:2601.04090 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Gen3R: 3D Scene Generation Meets Feed-Forward Reconstruction Authors: Jiaxin Huang , Yuanbo Yang , Bangbang Yang , Lin Ma , Yuewen Ma , Yiyi Liao Abstract : We present Gen3R, a method that bridges the strong priors of foundational reconstruction models and video diffusion models for scene-level 3D generation. We repurpose the VGGT reconstruction model to produce geometric latents by training an adapter on its tokens, which are regularized to align with the appearance latents of pre-trained video diffusion models. By jointly generating these disentangl… ▽ More We present Gen3R, a method that bridges the strong priors of foundational reconstruction models and video diffusion models for scene-level 3D generation. We repurpose the VGGT reconstruction model to produce geometric latents by training an adapter on its tokens, which are regularized to align with the appearance latents of pre-trained video diffusion models. By jointly generating these disentangled yet aligned latents, Gen3R produces both RGB videos and corresponding 3D geometry, including camera poses, depth maps, and global point clouds. Experiments demonstrate that our approach achieves state-of-the-art results in single- and multi-image conditioned 3D scene generation. Additionally, our method can enhance the robustness of reconstruction by leveraging generative priors, demonstrating the mutual benefit of tightly coupling reconstruction and generative models. △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Project page: arXiv:2601.04090 [ pdf , ps , other ] Gen3R: 3D Scene Generation Meets Feed-Forward Reconstruction Authors: Jiaxin Huang , Yuanbo Yang , Bangbang Yang , Lin Ma , Yuewen Ma , Yiyi Liao Abstract : We present Gen3R, a method that bridges the strong priors of foundational reconstruction models and video diffusion models for scene-level 3D generation. We repurpose the VGGT reconstruction model to produce geometric latents by training an adapter on its tokens, which are regularized to align with the appearance latents of pre-trained video diffusion models. By jointly generating these disentangl… ▽ More We present Gen3R, a method that bridges the strong priors of foundational reconstruction models and video diffusion models for scene-level 3D generation. We repurpose the VGGT reconstruction model to produce geometric latents by training an adapter on its tokens, which are regularized to align with the appearance latents of pre-trained video diffusion models. By jointly generating these disentangled yet aligned latents, Gen3R produces both RGB videos and corresponding 3D geometry, including camera poses, depth maps, and global point clouds. Experiments demonstrate that our approach achieves state-of-the-art results in single- and multi-image conditioned 3D scene generation. Additionally, our method can enhance the robustness of reconstruction by leveraging generative priors, demonstrating the mutual benefit of tightly coupling reconstruction and generative models. △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Project page: arXiv:2601.04035 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI MobileDreamer: Generative Sketch World Model for GUI Agent Authors: Yilin Cao , Yufeng Zhong , Zhixiong Zeng , Liming Zheng , Jing Huang , Haibo Qiu , Peng Shi , Wenji Mao , Wan Guanglu Abstract : Mobile GUI agents have shown strong potential in real-world automation and practical applications. However, most existing agents remain reactive, making decisions mainly from current screen, which limits their performance on long-horizon tasks. Building a world model from repeated interactions enables forecasting action outcomes and supports better decision making for mobile GUI agents. This is ch… ▽ More Mobile GUI agents have shown strong potential in real-world automation and practical applications. However, most existing agents remain reactive, making decisions mainly from current screen, which limits their performance on long-horizon tasks. Building a world model from repeated interactions enables forecasting action outcomes and supports better decision making for mobile GUI agents. This is challenging because the model must predict post-action states with spatial awareness while remaining efficient enough for practical deployment. In this paper, we propose MobileDreamer, an efficient world-model-based lookahead framework to equip the GUI agents based on the future imagination provided by the world model. It consists of textual sketch world model and rollout imagination for GUI agent. Textual sketch world model forecasts post-action states through a learning process to transform digital images into key task-related sketches, and designs a novel order-invariant learning strategy to preserve the spatial information of GUI elements. The rollout imagination strategy for GUI agent optimizes the action-selection process by leveraging the prediction capability of world model. Experiments on Android World show that MobileDreamer achieves state-of-the-art performance and improves task success by 5.25%. World model evaluations further verify that our textual sketch modeling accurately forecasts key GUI elements. △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.04035 [ pdf , ps , other ] MobileDreamer: Generative Sketch World Model for GUI Agent Authors: Yilin Cao , Yufeng Zhong , Zhixiong Zeng , Liming Zheng , Jing Huang , Haibo Qiu , Peng Shi , Wenji Mao , Wan Guanglu Abstract : Mobile GUI agents have shown strong potential in real-world automation and practical applications. However, most existing agents remain reactive, making decisions mainly from current screen, which limits their performance on long-horizon tasks. Building a world model from repeated interactions enables forecasting action outcomes and supports better decision making for mobile GUI agents. This is ch… ▽ More Mobile GUI agents have shown strong potential in real-world automation and practical applications. However, most existing agents remain reactive, making decisions mainly from current screen, which limits their performance on long-horizon tasks. Building a world model from repeated interactions enables forecasting action outcomes and supports better decision making for mobile GUI agents. This is challenging because the model must predict post-action states with spatial awareness while remaining efficient enough for practical deployment. In this paper, we propose MobileDreamer, an efficient world-model-based lookahead framework to equip the GUI agents based on the future imagination provided by the world model. It consists of textual sketch world model and rollout imagination for GUI agent. Textual sketch world model forecasts post-action states through a learning process to transform digital images into key task-related sketches, and designs a novel order-invariant learning strategy to preserve the spatial information of GUI elements. The rollout imagination strategy for GUI agent optimizes the action-selection process by leveraging the prediction capability of world model. Experiments on Android World show that MobileDreamer achieves state-of-the-art performance and improves task success by 5.25%. World model evaluations further verify that our textual sketch modeling accurately forecasts key GUI elements. △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.03908 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL Decide Then Retrieve: A Training-Free Framework with Uncertainty-Guided Triggering and Dual-Path Retrieval Authors: Wang Chen , Guanqiang Qi , Weikang Li , Yang Li , Deguo Xia , Jizhou Huang Abstract : Retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) enhances large language models (LLMs) by incorporating external knowledge, but existing approaches indiscriminately trigger retrieval and rely on single-path evidence construction, often introducing noise and limiting performance gains. In this work, we propose Decide Then Retrieve (DTR), a training-free framework that adaptively determines when retrieval is ne… ▽ More Retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) enhances large language models (LLMs) by incorporating external knowledge, but existing approaches indiscriminately trigger retrieval and rely on single-path evidence construction, often introducing noise and limiting performance gains. In this work, we propose Decide Then Retrieve (DTR), a training-free framework that adaptively determines when retrieval is necessary and how external information should be selected. DTR leverages generation uncertainty to guide retrieval triggering and introduces a dual-path retrieval mechanism with adaptive information selection to better handle sparse and ambiguous queries. Extensive experiments across five open-domain QA benchmarks, multiple model scales, and different retrievers demonstrate that DTR consistently improves EM and F1 over standard RAG and strong retrieval-enhanced baselines, while reducing unnecessary retrievals. The code and data used in this paper are available at △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.03908 [ pdf , ps , other ] Decide Then Retrieve: A Training-Free Framework with Uncertainty-Guided Triggering and Dual-Path Retrieval Authors: Wang Chen , Guanqiang Qi , Weikang Li , Yang Li , Deguo Xia , Jizhou Huang Abstract : Retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) enhances large language models (LLMs) by incorporating external knowledge, but existing approaches indiscriminately trigger retrieval and rely on single-path evidence construction, often introducing noise and limiting performance gains. In this work, we propose Decide Then Retrieve (DTR), a training-free framework that adaptively determines when retrieval is ne… ▽ More Retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) enhances large language models (LLMs) by incorporating external knowledge, but existing approaches indiscriminately trigger retrieval and rely on single-path evidence construction, often introducing noise and limiting performance gains. In this work, we propose Decide Then Retrieve (DTR), a training-free framework that adaptively determines when retrieval is necessary and how external information should be selected. DTR leverages generation uncertainty to guide retrieval triggering and introduces a dual-path retrieval mechanism with adaptive information selection to better handle sparse and ambiguous queries. Extensive experiments across five open-domain QA benchmarks, multiple model scales, and different retrievers demonstrate that DTR consistently improves EM and F1 over standard RAG and strong retrieval-enhanced baselines, while reducing unnecessary retrievals. The code and data used in this paper are available at △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.03825 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.HC cs.LG Beyond Physical Labels: Redefining Domains for Robust WiFi-based Gesture Recognition Authors: Xiang Zhang , Huan Yan , Jinyang Huang , Bin Liu , Yuanhao Feng , Jianchun Liu , Meng Li , Fusang Zhang , Zhi Liu Abstract : In this paper, we propose GesFi, a novel WiFi-based gesture recognition system that introduces WiFi latent domain mining to redefine domains directly from the data itself. GesFi first processes raw sensing data collected from WiFi receivers using CSI-ratio denoising, Short-Time Fast Fourier Transform, and visualization techniques to generate standardized input representations. It then employs clas… ▽ More In this paper, we propose GesFi, a novel WiFi-based gesture recognition system that introduces WiFi latent domain mining to redefine domains directly from the data itself. GesFi first processes raw sensing data collected from WiFi receivers using CSI-ratio denoising, Short-Time Fast Fourier Transform, and visualization techniques to generate standardized input representations. It then employs class-wise adversarial learning to suppress gesture semantic and leverages unsupervised clustering to automatically uncover latent domain factors responsible for distributional shifts. These latent domains are then aligned through adversarial learning to support robust cross-domain generalization. Finally, the system is applied to the target environment for robust gesture inference. We deployed GesFi under both single-pair and multi-pair settings using commodity WiFi transceivers, and evaluated it across multiple public datasets and real-world environments. Compared to state-of-the-art baselines, GesFi achieves up to 78% and 50% performance improvements over existing adversarial methods, and consistently outperforms prior generalization approaches across most cross-domain tasks. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; v1 submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Accepted by IMWUT/Ubicomp 2026 arXiv:2601.03825 [ pdf , ps , other ] Beyond Physical Labels: Redefining Domains for Robust WiFi-based Gesture Recognition Authors: Xiang Zhang , Huan Yan , Jinyang Huang , Bin Liu , Yuanhao Feng , Jianchun Liu , Meng Li , Fusang Zhang , Zhi Liu Abstract : In this paper, we propose GesFi, a novel WiFi-based gesture recognition system that introduces WiFi latent domain mining to redefine domains directly from the data itself. GesFi first processes raw sensing data collected from WiFi receivers using CSI-ratio denoising, Short-Time Fast Fourier Transform, and visualization techniques to generate standardized input representations. It then employs clas… ▽ More In this paper, we propose GesFi, a novel WiFi-based gesture recognition system that introduces WiFi latent domain mining to redefine domains directly from the data itself. GesFi first processes raw sensing data collected from WiFi receivers using CSI-ratio denoising, Short-Time Fast Fourier Transform, and visualization techniques to generate standardized input representations. It then employs class-wise adversarial learning to suppress gesture semantic and leverages unsupervised clustering to automatically uncover latent domain factors responsible for distributional shifts. These latent domains are then aligned through adversarial learning to support robust cross-domain generalization. Finally, the system is applied to the target environment for robust gesture inference. We deployed GesFi under both single-pair and multi-pair settings using commodity WiFi transceivers, and evaluated it across multiple public datasets and real-world environments. Compared to state-of-the-art baselines, GesFi achieves up to 78% and 50% performance improvements over existing adversarial methods, and consistently outperforms prior generalization approaches across most cross-domain tasks. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; v1 submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Accepted by IMWUT/Ubicomp 2026 arXiv:2601.03698 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL Evaluation Framework for AI Creativity: A Case Study Based on Story Generation Authors: Pharath Sathya , Yin Jou Huang , Fei Cheng Abstract : Evaluating creative text generation remains a challenge because existing reference-based metrics fail to capture the subjective nature of creativity. We propose a structured evaluation framework for AI story generation comprising four components (Novelty, Value, Adherence, and Resonance) and eleven sub-components. Using controlled story generation via ``Spike Prompting'' and a crowdsourced study o… ▽ More Evaluating creative text generation remains a challenge because existing reference-based metrics fail to capture the subjective nature of creativity. We propose a structured evaluation framework for AI story generation comprising four components (Novelty, Value, Adherence, and Resonance) and eleven sub-components. Using controlled story generation via ``Spike Prompting'' and a crowdsourced study of 115 readers, we examine how different creative components shape both immediate and reflective human creativity judgments. Our findings show that creativity is evaluated hierarchically rather than cumulatively, with different dimensions becoming salient at different stages of judgment, and that reflective evaluation substantially alters both ratings and inter-rater agreement. Together, these results support the effectiveness of our framework in revealing dimensions of creativity that are obscured by reference-based evaluation. △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Work in progress arXiv:2601.03698 [ pdf , ps , other ] Evaluation Framework for AI Creativity: A Case Study Based on Story Generation Authors: Pharath Sathya , Yin Jou Huang , Fei Cheng Abstract : Evaluating creative text generation remains a challenge because existing reference-based metrics fail to capture the subjective nature of creativity. We propose a structured evaluation framework for AI story generation comprising four components (Novelty, Value, Adherence, and Resonance) and eleven sub-components. Using controlled story generation via ``Spike Prompting'' and a crowdsourced study o… ▽ More Evaluating creative text generation remains a challenge because existing reference-based metrics fail to capture the subjective nature of creativity. We propose a structured evaluation framework for AI story generation comprising four components (Novelty, Value, Adherence, and Resonance) and eleven sub-components. Using controlled story generation via ``Spike Prompting'' and a crowdsourced study of 115 readers, we examine how different creative components shape both immediate and reflective human creativity judgments. Our findings show that creativity is evaluated hierarchically rather than cumulatively, with different dimensions becoming salient at different stages of judgment, and that reflective evaluation substantially alters both ratings and inter-rater agreement. Together, these results support the effectiveness of our framework in revealing dimensions of creativity that are obscured by reference-based evaluation. △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Work in progress arXiv:2601.03425 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.AI The Illusion of Specialization: Unveiling the Domain-Invariant "Standing Committee" in Mixture-of-Experts Models Authors: Yan Wang , Yitao Xu , Nanhan Shen , Jinyan Su , Jimin Huang , Zining Zhu Abstract : Mixture of Experts models are widely assumed to achieve domain specialization through sparse routing. In this work, we question this assumption by introducing COMMITTEEAUDIT, a post hoc framework that analyzes routing behavior at the level of expert groups rather than individual experts. Across three representative models and the MMLU benchmark, we uncover a domain-invariant Standing Committee. Th… ▽ More Mixture of Experts models are widely assumed to achieve domain specialization through sparse routing. In this work, we question this assumption by introducing COMMITTEEAUDIT, a post hoc framework that analyzes routing behavior at the level of expert groups rather than individual experts. Across three representative models and the MMLU benchmark, we uncover a domain-invariant Standing Committee. This is a compact coalition of routed experts that consistently captures the majority of routing mass across domains, layers, and routing budgets, even when architectures already include shared experts. Qualitative analysis further shows that Standing Committees anchor reasoning structure and syntax, while peripheral experts handle domain-specific knowledge. These findings reveal a strong structural bias toward centralized computation, suggesting that specialization in Mixture of Experts models is far less pervasive than commonly believed. This inherent bias also indicates that current training objectives, such as load-balancing losses that enforce uniform expert utilization, may be working against the model's natural optimization path, thereby limiting training efficiency and performance. △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 16 pages, 10 figures arXiv:2601.03425 [ pdf , ps , other ] The Illusion of Specialization: Unveiling the Domain-Invariant "Standing Committee" in Mixture-of-Experts Models Authors: Yan Wang , Yitao Xu , Nanhan Shen , Jinyan Su , Jimin Huang , Zining Zhu Abstract : Mixture of Experts models are widely assumed to achieve domain specialization through sparse routing. In this work, we question this assumption by introducing COMMITTEEAUDIT, a post hoc framework that analyzes routing behavior at the level of expert groups rather than individual experts. Across three representative models and the MMLU benchmark, we uncover a domain-invariant Standing Committee. Th… ▽ More Mixture of Experts models are widely assumed to achieve domain specialization through sparse routing. In this work, we question this assumption by introducing COMMITTEEAUDIT, a post hoc framework that analyzes routing behavior at the level of expert groups rather than individual experts. Across three representative models and the MMLU benchmark, we uncover a domain-invariant Standing Committee. This is a compact coalition of routed experts that consistently captures the majority of routing mass across domains, layers, and routing budgets, even when architectures already include shared experts. Qualitative analysis further shows that Standing Committees anchor reasoning structure and syntax, while peripheral experts handle domain-specific knowledge. These findings reveal a strong structural bias toward centralized computation, suggesting that specialization in Mixture of Experts models is far less pervasive than commonly believed. This inherent bias also indicates that current training objectives, such as load-balancing losses that enforce uniform expert utilization, may be working against the model's natural optimization path, thereby limiting training efficiency and performance. △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 16 pages, 10 figures arXiv:2601.02107 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV MagicFight: Personalized Martial Arts Combat Video Generation Authors: Jiancheng Huang , Mingfu Yan , Songyan Chen , Yi Huang , Shifeng Chen Abstract : Amid the surge in generic text-to-video generation, the field of personalized human video generation has witnessed notable advancements, primarily concentrated on single-person scenarios. However, to our knowledge, the domain of two-person interactions, particularly in the context of martial arts combat, remains uncharted. We identify a significant gap: existing models for single-person dancing ge… ▽ More Amid the surge in generic text-to-video generation, the field of personalized human video generation has witnessed notable advancements, primarily concentrated on single-person scenarios. However, to our knowledge, the domain of two-person interactions, particularly in the context of martial arts combat, remains uncharted. We identify a significant gap: existing models for single-person dancing generation prove insufficient for capturing the subtleties and complexities of two engaged fighters, resulting in challenges such as identity confusion, anomalous limbs, and action mismatches. To address this, we introduce a pioneering new task, Personalized Martial Arts Combat Video Generation. Our approach, MagicFight, is specifically crafted to overcome these hurdles. Given this pioneering task, we face a lack of appropriate datasets. Thus, we generate a bespoke dataset using the game physics engine Unity, meticulously crafting a multitude of 3D characters, martial arts moves, and scenes designed to represent the diversity of combat. MagicFight refines and adapts existing models and strategies to generate high-fidelity two-person combat videos that maintain individual identities and ensure seamless, coherent action sequences, thereby laying the groundwork for future innovations in the realm of interactive video content creation. Website: Dataset: △ Less Submitted 5 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Accepted by ACM MM 2024 arXiv:2601.02107 [ pdf , ps , other ] MagicFight: Personalized Martial Arts Combat Video Generation Authors: Jiancheng Huang , Mingfu Yan , Songyan Chen , Yi Huang , Shifeng Chen Abstract : Amid the surge in generic text-to-video generation, the field of personalized human video generation has witnessed notable advancements, primarily concentrated on single-person scenarios. However, to our knowledge, the domain of two-person interactions, particularly in the context of martial arts combat, remains uncharted. We identify a significant gap: existing models for single-person dancing ge… ▽ More Amid the surge in generic text-to-video generation, the field of personalized human video generation has witnessed notable advancements, primarily concentrated on single-person scenarios. However, to our knowledge, the domain of two-person interactions, particularly in the context of martial arts combat, remains uncharted. We identify a significant gap: existing models for single-person dancing generation prove insufficient for capturing the subtleties and complexities of two engaged fighters, resulting in challenges such as identity confusion, anomalous limbs, and action mismatches. To address this, we introduce a pioneering new task, Personalized Martial Arts Combat Video Generation. Our approach, MagicFight, is specifically crafted to overcome these hurdles. Given this pioneering task, we face a lack of appropriate datasets. Thus, we generate a bespoke dataset using the game physics engine Unity, meticulously crafting a multitude of 3D characters, martial arts moves, and scenes designed to represent the diversity of combat. MagicFight refines and adapts existing models and strategies to generate high-fidelity two-person combat videos that maintain individual identities and ensure seamless, coherent action sequences, thereby laying the groundwork for future innovations in the realm of interactive video content creation. Website: Dataset: △ Less Submitted 5 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Accepted by ACM MM 2024 arXiv:2601.01712 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.DC cs.AI cs.LG RelayGR: Scaling Long-Sequence Generative Recommendation via Cross-Stage Relay-Race Inference Authors: Jiarui Wang , Huichao Chai , Yuanhang Zhang , Zongjin Zhou , Wei Guo , Xingkun Yang , Qiang Tang , Bo Pan , Jiawei Zhu , Ke Cheng , Yuting Yan , Shulan Wang , Yingjie Zhu , Zhengfan Yuan , Jiaqi Huang , Yuhan Zhang , Xiaosong Sun , Zhinan Zhang , Hong Zhu , Yongsheng Zhang , Tiantian Dong , Zhong Xiao , Deliang Liu , Chengzhou Lu , Yuan Sun , et al. (16 additional authors not shown) Abstract : Real-time recommender systems execute multi-stage cascades (retrieval, pre-processing, fine-grained ranking) under strict tail-latency SLOs, leaving only tens of milliseconds for ranking. Generative recommendation (GR) models can improve quality by consuming long user-behavior sequences, but in production their online sequence length is tightly capped by the ranking-stage P99 budget. We observe th… ▽ More Real-time recommender systems execute multi-stage cascades (retrieval, pre-processing, fine-grained ranking) under strict tail-latency SLOs, leaving only tens of milliseconds for ranking. Generative recommendation (GR) models can improve quality by consuming long user-behavior sequences, but in production their online sequence length is tightly capped by the ranking-stage P99 budget. We observe that the majority of GR tokens encode user behaviors that are independent of the item candidates, suggesting an opportunity to pre-infer a user-behavior prefix once and reuse it during ranking rather than recomputing it on the critical path. Realizing this idea at industrial scale is non-trivial: the prefix cache must survive across multiple pipeline stages before the final ranking instance is determined, the user population implies cache footprints far beyond a single device, and indiscriminate pre-inference would overload shared resources under high QPS. We present RelayGR, a production system that enables in-HBM relay-race inference for GR. RelayGR selectively pre-infers long-term user prefixes, keeps their KV caches resident in HBM over the request lifecycle, and ensures the subsequent ranking can consume them without remote fetches. RelayGR combines three techniques: 1) a sequence-aware trigger that admits only at-risk requests under a bounded cache footprint and pre-inference load, 2) an affinity-aware router that co-locates cache production and consumption by routing both the auxiliary pre-infer signal and the ranking request to the same instance, and 3) a memory-aware expander that uses server-local DRAM to capture short-term cross-request reuse while avoiding redundant reloads. We implement RelayGR on Huawei Ascend NPUs and evaluate it with real queries. Under a fixed P99 SLO, RelayGR supports up to 1.5$\times$ longer sequences and improves SLO-compliant throughput by up to 3.6$\times$. △ Less Submitted 4 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.01712 [ pdf , ps , other ] RelayGR: Scaling Long-Sequence Generative Recommendation via Cross-Stage Relay-Race Inference Authors: Jiarui Wang , Huichao Chai , Yuanhang Zhang , Zongjin Zhou , Wei Guo , Xingkun Yang , Qiang Tang , Bo Pan , Jiawei Zhu , Ke Cheng , Yuting Yan , Shulan Wang , Yingjie Zhu , Zhengfan Yuan , Jiaqi Huang , Yuhan Zhang , Xiaosong Sun , Zhinan Zhang , Hong Zhu , Yongsheng Zhang , Tiantian Dong , Zhong Xiao , Deliang Liu , Chengzhou Lu , Yuan Sun , et al. (16 additional authors not shown) Abstract : Real-time recommender systems execute multi-stage cascades (retrieval, pre-processing, fine-grained ranking) under strict tail-latency SLOs, leaving only tens of milliseconds for ranking. Generative recommendation (GR) models can improve quality by consuming long user-behavior sequences, but in production their online sequence length is tightly capped by the ranking-stage P99 budget. We observe th… ▽ More Real-time recommender systems execute multi-stage cascades (retrieval, pre-processing, fine-grained ranking) under strict tail-latency SLOs, leaving only tens of milliseconds for ranking. Generative recommendation (GR) models can improve quality by consuming long user-behavior sequences, but in production their online sequence length is tightly capped by the ranking-stage P99 budget. We observe that the majority of GR tokens encode user behaviors that are independent of the item candidates, suggesting an opportunity to pre-infer a user-behavior prefix once and reuse it during ranking rather than recomputing it on the critical path. Realizing this idea at industrial scale is non-trivial: the prefix cache must survive across multiple pipeline stages before the final ranking instance is determined, the user population implies cache footprints far beyond a single device, and indiscriminate pre-inference would overload shared resources under high QPS. We present RelayGR, a production system that enables in-HBM relay-race inference for GR. RelayGR selectively pre-infers long-term user prefixes, keeps their KV caches resident in HBM over the request lifecycle, and ensures the subsequent ranking can consume them without remote fetches. RelayGR combines three techniques: 1) a sequence-aware trigger that admits only at-risk requests under a bounded cache footprint and pre-inference load, 2) an affinity-aware router that co-locates cache production and consumption by routing both the auxiliary pre-infer signal and the ranking request to the same instance, and 3) a memory-aware expander that uses server-local DRAM to capture short-term cross-request reuse while avoiding redundant reloads. We implement RelayGR on Huawei Ascend NPUs and evaluate it with real queries. Under a fixed P99 SLO, RelayGR supports up to 1.5$\times$ longer sequences and improves SLO-compliant throughput by up to 3.6$\times$. △ Less Submitted 4 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.01387 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.AI Scale-Adaptive Power Flow Analysis with Local Topology Slicing and Multi-Task Graph Learning Authors: Yongzhe Li , Lin Guan , Zihan Cai , Zuxian Lin , Jiyu Huang , Liukai Chen Abstract : Developing deep learning models with strong adaptability to topological variations is of great practical significance for power flow analysis. To enhance model performance under variable system scales and improve robustness in branch power prediction, this paper proposes a Scale-adaptive Multi-task Power Flow Analysis (SaMPFA) framework. SaMPFA introduces a Local Topology Slicing (LTS) sampling te… ▽ More Developing deep learning models with strong adaptability to topological variations is of great practical significance for power flow analysis. To enhance model performance under variable system scales and improve robustness in branch power prediction, this paper proposes a Scale-adaptive Multi-task Power Flow Analysis (SaMPFA) framework. SaMPFA introduces a Local Topology Slicing (LTS) sampling technique that extracts subgraphs of different scales from the complete power network to strengthen the model's cross-scale learning capability. Furthermore, a Reference-free Multi-task Graph Learning (RMGL) model is designed for robust power flow prediction. Unlike existing approaches, RMGL predicts bus voltages and branch powers instead of phase angles. This design not only avoids the risk of error amplification in branch power calculation but also guides the model to learn the physical relationships of phase angle differences. In addition, the loss function incorporates extra terms that encourage the model to capture the physical patterns of angle differences and power transmission, further improving consistency between predictions and physical laws. Simulations on the IEEE 39-bus system and a real provincial grid in China demonstrate that the proposed model achieves superior adaptability and generalization under variable system scales, with accuracy improvements of 4.47% and 36.82%, respectively. △ Less Submitted 4 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.01387 [ pdf , ps , other ] Scale-Adaptive Power Flow Analysis with Local Topology Slicing and Multi-Task Graph Learning Authors: Yongzhe Li , Lin Guan , Zihan Cai , Zuxian Lin , Jiyu Huang , Liukai Chen Abstract : Developing deep learning models with strong adaptability to topological variations is of great practical significance for power flow analysis. To enhance model performance under variable system scales and improve robustness in branch power prediction, this paper proposes a Scale-adaptive Multi-task Power Flow Analysis (SaMPFA) framework. SaMPFA introduces a Local Topology Slicing (LTS) sampling te… ▽ More Developing deep learning models with strong adaptability to topological variations is of great practical significance for power flow analysis. To enhance model performance under variable system scales and improve robustness in branch power prediction, this paper proposes a Scale-adaptive Multi-task Power Flow Analysis (SaMPFA) framework. SaMPFA introduces a Local Topology Slicing (LTS) sampling technique that extracts subgraphs of different scales from the complete power network to strengthen the model's cross-scale learning capability. Furthermore, a Reference-free Multi-task Graph Learning (RMGL) model is designed for robust power flow prediction. Unlike existing approaches, RMGL predicts bus voltages and branch powers instead of phase angles. This design not only avoids the risk of error amplification in branch power calculation but also guides the model to learn the physical relationships of phase angle differences. In addition, the loss function incorporates extra terms that encourage the model to capture the physical patterns of angle differences and power transmission, further improving consistency between predictions and physical laws. Simulations on the IEEE 39-bus system and a real provincial grid in China demonstrate that the proposed model achieves superior adaptability and generalization under variable system scales, with accuracy improvements of 4.47% and 36.82%, respectively. △ Less Submitted 4 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.01362 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.LG stat.ML Investigating the Multilingual Calibration Effects of Language Model Instruction-Tuning Authors: Jerry Huang , Peng Lu , Qiuhao Zeng , Yusuke Iwasawa , Yutaka Matsuo , Sarath Chandar , Edison Marrese-Taylor , Irene Li Abstract : Ensuring that deep learning models are well-calibrated in terms of their predictive uncertainty is essential in maintaining their trustworthiness and reliability, yet despite increasing advances in foundation model research, the relationship between such large language models (LLMs) and their calibration remains an open area of research. In this work, we look at a critical gap in the calibration o… ▽ More Ensuring that deep learning models are well-calibrated in terms of their predictive uncertainty is essential in maintaining their trustworthiness and reliability, yet despite increasing advances in foundation model research, the relationship between such large language models (LLMs) and their calibration remains an open area of research. In this work, we look at a critical gap in the calibration of LLMs within multilingual settings, in an attempt to better understand how the data scarcity can potentially lead to different calibration effects and how commonly used techniques can apply in these settings. Our analysis on two multilingual benchmarks, over 29 and 42 languages respectively, reveals that even in low-resource languages, model confidence can increase significantly after instruction-tuning on high-resource language SFT datasets. However, improvements in accuracy are marginal or non-existent, resulting in mis-calibration, highlighting a critical shortcoming of standard SFT for multilingual languages. Furthermore, we observe that the use of label smoothing to be a reasonable method alleviate this concern, again without any need for low-resource SFT data, maintaining better calibration across all languages. Overall, this highlights the importance of multilingual considerations for both training and tuning LLMs in order to improve their reliability and fairness in downstream use. △ Less Submitted 3 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Accepted to The 19th Conference of the European Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics (EACL) arXiv:2601.01362 [ pdf , ps , other ] Investigating the Multilingual Calibration Effects of Language Model Instruction-Tuning Authors: Jerry Huang , Peng Lu , Qiuhao Zeng , Yusuke Iwasawa , Yutaka Matsuo , Sarath Chandar , Edison Marrese-Taylor , Irene Li Abstract : Ensuring that deep learning models are well-calibrated in terms of their predictive uncertainty is essential in maintaining their trustworthiness and reliability, yet despite increasing advances in foundation model research, the relationship between such large language models (LLMs) and their calibration remains an open area of research. In this work, we look at a critical gap in the calibration o… ▽ More Ensuring that deep learning models are well-calibrated in terms of their predictive uncertainty is essential in maintaining their trustworthiness and reliability, yet despite increasing advances in foundation model research, the relationship between such large language models (LLMs) and their calibration remains an open area of research. In this work, we look at a critical gap in the calibration of LLMs within multilingual settings, in an attempt to better understand how the data scarcity can potentially lead to different calibration effects and how commonly used techniques can apply in these settings. Our analysis on two multilingual benchmarks, over 29 and 42 languages respectively, reveals that even in low-resource languages, model confidence can increase significantly after instruction-tuning on high-resource language SFT datasets. However, improvements in accuracy are marginal or non-existent, resulting in mis-calibration, highlighting a critical shortcoming of standard SFT for multilingual languages. Furthermore, we observe that the use of label smoothing to be a reasonable method alleviate this concern, again without any need for low-resource SFT data, maintaining better calibration across all languages. Overall, this highlights the importance of multilingual considerations for both training and tuning LLMs in order to improve their reliability and fairness in downstream use. △ Less Submitted 3 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Accepted to The 19th Conference of the European Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics (EACL) arXiv:2601.01321 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI Digital Twin AI: Opportunities and Challenges from Large Language Models to World Models Authors: Rong Zhou , Dongping Chen , Zihan Jia , Yao Su , Yixin Liu , Yiwen Lu , Dongwei Shi , Yue Huang , Tianyang Xu , Yi Pan , Xinliang Li , Yohannes Abate , Qingyu Chen , Zhengzhong Tu , Yu Yang , Yu Zhang , Qingsong Wen , Gengchen Mai , Sunyang Fu , Jiachen Li , Xuyu Wang , Ziran Wang , Jing Huang , Tianming Liu , Yong Chen , et al. (2 additional authors not shown) Abstract : Digital twins, as precise digital representations of physical systems, have evolved from passive simulation tools into intelligent and autonomous entities through the integration of artificial intelligence technologies. This paper presents a unified four-stage framework that systematically characterizes AI integration across the digital twin lifecycle, spanning modeling, mirroring, intervention, a… ▽ More Digital twins, as precise digital representations of physical systems, have evolved from passive simulation tools into intelligent and autonomous entities through the integration of artificial intelligence technologies. This paper presents a unified four-stage framework that systematically characterizes AI integration across the digital twin lifecycle, spanning modeling, mirroring, intervention, and autonomous management. By synthesizing existing technologies and practices, we distill a unified four-stage framework that systematically characterizes how AI methodologies are embedded across the digital twin lifecycle: (1) modeling the physical twin through physics-based and physics-informed AI approaches, (2) mirroring the physical system into a digital twin with real-time synchronization, (3) intervening in the physical twin through predictive modeling, anomaly detection, and optimization strategies, and (4) achieving autonomous management through large language models, foundation models, and intelligent agents. We analyze the synergy between physics-based modeling and data-driven learning, highlighting the shift from traditional numerical solvers to physics-informed and foundation models for physical systems. Furthermore, we examine how generative AI technologies, including large language models and generative world models, transform digital twins into proactive and self-improving cognitive systems capable of reasoning, communication, and creative scenario generation. Through a cross-domain review spanning eleven application domains, including healthcare, aerospace, smart manufacturing, robotics, and smart cities, we identify common challenges related to scalability, explainability, and trustworthiness, and outline directions for responsible AI-driven digital twin systems. △ Less Submitted 3 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.01321 [ pdf , ps , other ] Digital Twin AI: Opportunities and Challenges from Large Language Models to World Models Authors: Rong Zhou , Dongping Chen , Zihan Jia , Yao Su , Yixin Liu , Yiwen Lu , Dongwei Shi , Yue Huang , Tianyang Xu , Yi Pan , Xinliang Li , Yohannes Abate , Qingyu Chen , Zhengzhong Tu , Yu Yang , Yu Zhang , Qingsong Wen , Gengchen Mai , Sunyang Fu , Jiachen Li , Xuyu Wang , Ziran Wang , Jing Huang , Tianming Liu , Yong Chen , et al. (2 additional authors not shown) Abstract : Digital twins, as precise digital representations of physical systems, have evolved from passive simulation tools into intelligent and autonomous entities through the integration of artificial intelligence technologies. This paper presents a unified four-stage framework that systematically characterizes AI integration across the digital twin lifecycle, spanning modeling, mirroring, intervention, a… ▽ More Digital twins, as precise digital representations of physical systems, have evolved from passive simulation tools into intelligent and autonomous entities through the integration of artificial intelligence technologies. This paper presents a unified four-stage framework that systematically characterizes AI integration across the digital twin lifecycle, spanning modeling, mirroring, intervention, and autonomous management. By synthesizing existing technologies and practices, we distill a unified four-stage framework that systematically characterizes how AI methodologies are embedded across the digital twin lifecycle: (1) modeling the physical twin through physics-based and physics-informed AI approaches, (2) mirroring the physical system into a digital twin with real-time synchronization, (3) intervening in the physical twin through predictive modeling, anomaly detection, and optimization strategies, and (4) achieving autonomous management through large language models, foundation models, and intelligent agents. We analyze the synergy between physics-based modeling and data-driven learning, highlighting the shift from traditional numerical solvers to physics-informed and foundation models for physical systems. Furthermore, we examine how generative AI technologies, including large language models and generative world models, transform digital twins into proactive and self-improving cognitive systems capable of reasoning, communication, and creative scenario generation. Through a cross-domain review spanning eleven application domains, including healthcare, aerospace, smart manufacturing, robotics, and smart cities, we identify common challenges related to scalability, explainability, and trustworthiness, and outline directions for responsible AI-driven digital twin systems. △ Less Submitted 3 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.00538 [ pdf , ps , other ] eess.SP cs.AI Parametrized Sharing for Multi-Agent Hybrid DRL for Multiple Multi-Functional RISs-Aided Downlink NOMA Networks Authors: Chi-Te Kuo , Li-Hsiang Shen , Jyun-Jhe Huang Abstract : Multi-functional reconfigurable intelligent surface (MF-RIS) is conceived to address the communication efficiency thanks to its extended signal coverage from its active RIS capability and self-sustainability from energy harvesting (EH). We investigate the architecture of multi-MF-RISs to assist non-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA) downlink networks. We formulate an energy efficiency (EE) maximiza… ▽ More Multi-functional reconfigurable intelligent surface (MF-RIS) is conceived to address the communication efficiency thanks to its extended signal coverage from its active RIS capability and self-sustainability from energy harvesting (EH). We investigate the architecture of multi-MF-RISs to assist non-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA) downlink networks. We formulate an energy efficiency (EE) maximization problem by optimizing power allocation, transmit beamforming and MF-RIS configurations of amplitudes, phase-shifts and EH ratios, as well as the position of MF-RISs, while satisfying constraints of available power, user rate requirements, and self-sustainability property. We design a parametrized sharing scheme for multi-agent hybrid deep reinforcement learning (PMHRL), where the multi-agent proximal policy optimization (PPO) and deep-Q network (DQN) handle continuous and discrete variables, respectively. The simulation results have demonstrated that proposed PMHRL has the highest EE compared to other benchmarks, including cases without parametrized sharing, pure PPO and DQN. Moreover, the proposed multi-MF-RISs-aided downlink NOMA achieves the highest EE compared to scenarios of no-EH/amplification, traditional RISs, and deployment without RISs/MF-RISs under different multiple access. △ Less Submitted 1 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.00538 [ pdf , ps , other ] Parametrized Sharing for Multi-Agent Hybrid DRL for Multiple Multi-Functional RISs-Aided Downlink NOMA Networks Authors: Chi-Te Kuo , Li-Hsiang Shen , Jyun-Jhe Huang Abstract : Multi-functional reconfigurable intelligent surface (MF-RIS) is conceived to address the communication efficiency thanks to its extended signal coverage from its active RIS capability and self-sustainability from energy harvesting (EH). We investigate the architecture of multi-MF-RISs to assist non-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA) downlink networks. We formulate an energy efficiency (EE) maximiza… ▽ More Multi-functional reconfigurable intelligent surface (MF-RIS) is conceived to address the communication efficiency thanks to its extended signal coverage from its active RIS capability and self-sustainability from energy harvesting (EH). We investigate the architecture of multi-MF-RISs to assist non-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA) downlink networks. We formulate an energy efficiency (EE) maximization problem by optimizing power allocation, transmit beamforming and MF-RIS configurations of amplitudes, phase-shifts and EH ratios, as well as the position of MF-RISs, while satisfying constraints of available power, user rate requirements, and self-sustainability property. We design a parametrized sharing scheme for multi-agent hybrid deep reinforcement learning (PMHRL), where the multi-agent proximal policy optimization (PPO) and deep-Q network (DQN) handle continuous and discrete variables, respectively. The simulation results have demonstrated that proposed PMHRL has the highest EE compared to other benchmarks, including cases without parametrized sharing, pure PPO and DQN. Moreover, the proposed multi-MF-RISs-aided downlink NOMA achieves the highest EE compared to scenarios of no-EH/amplification, traditional RISs, and deployment without RISs/MF-RISs under different multiple access. △ Less Submitted 1 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.00311 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV ReMA: A Training-Free Plug-and-Play Mixing Augmentation for Video Behavior Recognition Authors: Feng-Qi Cui , Jinyang Huang , Sirui Zhao , Jinglong Guo , Qifan Cai , Xin Yan , Zhi Liu Abstract : Video behavior recognition demands stable and discriminative representations under complex spatiotemporal variations. However, prevailing data augmentation strategies for videos remain largely perturbation-driven, often introducing uncontrolled variations that amplify non-discriminative factors, which finally weaken intra-class distributional structure and representation drift with inconsistent ga… ▽ More Video behavior recognition demands stable and discriminative representations under complex spatiotemporal variations. However, prevailing data augmentation strategies for videos remain largely perturbation-driven, often introducing uncontrolled variations that amplify non-discriminative factors, which finally weaken intra-class distributional structure and representation drift with inconsistent gains across temporal scales. To address these problems, we propose Representation-aware Mixing Augmentation (ReMA), a plug-and-play augmentation strategy that formulates mixing as a controlled replacement process to expand representations while preserving class-conditional stability. ReMA integrates two complementary mechanisms. Firstly, the Representation Alignment Mechanism (RAM) performs structured intra-class mixing under distributional alignment constraints, suppressing irrelevant intra-class drift while enhancing statistical reliability. Then, the Dynamic Selection Mechanism (DSM) generates motion-aware spatiotemporal masks to localize perturbations, guiding them away from discrimination-sensitive regions and promoting temporal coherence. By jointly controlling how and where mixing is applied, ReMA improves representation robustness without additional supervision or trainable parameters. Extensive experiments on diverse video behavior benchmarks demonstrate that ReMA consistently enhances generalization and robustness across different spatiotemporal granularities. △ Less Submitted 1 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.00311 [ pdf , ps , other ] ReMA: A Training-Free Plug-and-Play Mixing Augmentation for Video Behavior Recognition Authors: Feng-Qi Cui , Jinyang Huang , Sirui Zhao , Jinglong Guo , Qifan Cai , Xin Yan , Zhi Liu Abstract : Video behavior recognition demands stable and discriminative representations under complex spatiotemporal variations. However, prevailing data augmentation strategies for videos remain largely perturbation-driven, often introducing uncontrolled variations that amplify non-discriminative factors, which finally weaken intra-class distributional structure and representation drift with inconsistent ga… ▽ More Video behavior recognition demands stable and discriminative representations under complex spatiotemporal variations. However, prevailing data augmentation strategies for videos remain largely perturbation-driven, often introducing uncontrolled variations that amplify non-discriminative factors, which finally weaken intra-class distributional structure and representation drift with inconsistent gains across temporal scales. To address these problems, we propose Representation-aware Mixing Augmentation (ReMA), a plug-and-play augmentation strategy that formulates mixing as a controlled replacement process to expand representations while preserving class-conditional stability. ReMA integrates two complementary mechanisms. Firstly, the Representation Alignment Mechanism (RAM) performs structured intra-class mixing under distributional alignment constraints, suppressing irrelevant intra-class drift while enhancing statistical reliability. Then, the Dynamic Selection Mechanism (DSM) generates motion-aware spatiotemporal masks to localize perturbations, guiding them away from discrimination-sensitive regions and promoting temporal coherence. By jointly controlling how and where mixing is applied, ReMA improves representation robustness without additional supervision or trainable parameters. Extensive experiments on diverse video behavior benchmarks demonstrate that ReMA consistently enhances generalization and robustness across different spatiotemporal granularities. △ Less Submitted 1 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.00170 [ pdf , ps , other ] eess.IV cs.AI Hear the Heartbeat in Phases: Physiologically Grounded Phase-Aware ECG Biometrics Authors: Jintao Huang , Lu Leng , Yi Zhang , Ziyuan Yang Abstract : Electrocardiography (ECG) is adopted for identity authentication in wearable devices due to its individual-specific characteristics and inherent liveness. However, existing methods often treat heartbeats as homogeneous signals, overlooking the phase-specific characteristics within the cardiac cycle. To address this, we propose a Hierarchical Phase-Aware Fusion~(HPAF) framework that explicitly avoi… ▽ More Electrocardiography (ECG) is adopted for identity authentication in wearable devices due to its individual-specific characteristics and inherent liveness. However, existing methods often treat heartbeats as homogeneous signals, overlooking the phase-specific characteristics within the cardiac cycle. To address this, we propose a Hierarchical Phase-Aware Fusion~(HPAF) framework that explicitly avoids cross-feature entanglement through a three-stage design. In the first stage, Intra-Phase Representation (IPR) independently extracts representations for each cardiac phase, ensuring that phase-specific morphological and variation cues are preserved without interference from other phases. In the second stage, Phase-Grouped Hierarchical Fusion (PGHF) aggregates physiologically related phases in a structured manner, enabling reliable integration of complementary phase information. In the final stage, Global Representation Fusion (GRF) further combines the grouped representations and adaptively balances their contributions to produce a unified and discriminative identity representation. Moreover, considering ECG signals are continuously acquired, multiple heartbeats can be collected for each individual. We propose a Heartbeat-Aware Multi-prototype (HAM) enrollment strategy, which constructs a multi-prototype gallery template set to reduce the impact of heartbeat-specific noise and variability. Extensive experiments on three public datasets demonstrate that HPAF achieves state-of-the-art results in the comparison with other methods under both closed and open-set settings. △ Less Submitted 31 December, 2025; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.00170 [ pdf , ps , other ] Hear the Heartbeat in Phases: Physiologically Grounded Phase-Aware ECG Biometrics Authors: Jintao Huang , Lu Leng , Yi Zhang , Ziyuan Yang Abstract : Electrocardiography (ECG) is adopted for identity authentication in wearable devices due to its individual-specific characteristics and inherent liveness. However, existing methods often treat heartbeats as homogeneous signals, overlooking the phase-specific characteristics within the cardiac cycle. To address this, we propose a Hierarchical Phase-Aware Fusion~(HPAF) framework that explicitly avoi… ▽ More Electrocardiography (ECG) is adopted for identity authentication in wearable devices due to its individual-specific characteristics and inherent liveness. However, existing methods often treat heartbeats as homogeneous signals, overlooking the phase-specific characteristics within the cardiac cycle. To address this, we propose a Hierarchical Phase-Aware Fusion~(HPAF) framework that explicitly avoids cross-feature entanglement through a three-stage design. In the first stage, Intra-Phase Representation (IPR) independently extracts representations for each cardiac phase, ensuring that phase-specific morphological and variation cues are preserved without interference from other phases. In the second stage, Phase-Grouped Hierarchical Fusion (PGHF) aggregates physiologically related phases in a structured manner, enabling reliable integration of complementary phase information. In the final stage, Global Representation Fusion (GRF) further combines the grouped representations and adaptively balances their contributions to produce a unified and discriminative identity representation. Moreover, considering ECG signals are continuously acquired, multiple heartbeats can be collected for each individual. We propose a Heartbeat-Aware Multi-prototype (HAM) enrollment strategy, which constructs a multi-prototype gallery template set to reduce the impact of heartbeat-specific noise and variability. Extensive experiments on three public datasets demonstrate that HPAF achieves state-of-the-art results in the comparison with other methods under both closed and open-set settings. △ Less Submitted 31 December, 2025; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2512.25066 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV From Inpainting to Editing: A Self-Bootstrapping Framework for Context-Rich Visual Dubbing Authors: Xu He , Haoxian Zhang , Hejia Chen , Changyuan Zheng , Liyang Chen , Songlin Tang , Jiehui Huang , Xiaoqiang Liu , Pengfei Wan , Zhiyong Wu Abstract : Audio-driven visual dubbing aims to synchronize a video's lip movements with new speech, but is fundamentally challenged by the lack of ideal training data: paired videos where only a subject's lip movements differ while all other visual conditions are identical. Existing methods circumvent this with a mask-based inpainting paradigm, where an incomplete visual conditioning forces models to simulta… ▽ More Audio-driven visual dubbing aims to synchronize a video's lip movements with new speech, but is fundamentally challenged by the lack of ideal training data: paired videos where only a subject's lip movements differ while all other visual conditions are identical. Existing methods circumvent this with a mask-based inpainting paradigm, where an incomplete visual conditioning forces models to simultaneously hallucinate missing content and sync lips, leading to visual artifacts, identity drift, and poor synchronization. In this work, we propose a novel self-bootstrapping framework that reframes visual dubbing from an ill-posed inpainting task into a well-conditioned video-to-video editing problem. Our approach employs a Diffusion Transformer, first as a data generator, to synthesize ideal training data: a lip-altered companion video for each real sample, forming visually aligned video pairs. A DiT-based audio-driven editor is then trained on these pairs end-to-end, leveraging the complete and aligned input video frames to focus solely on precise, audio-driven lip modifications. This complete, frame-aligned input conditioning forms a rich visual context for the editor, providing it with complete identity cues, scene interactions, and continuous spatiotemporal dynamics. Leveraging this rich context fundamentally enables our method to achieve highly accurate lip sync, faithful identity preservation, and exceptional robustness against challenging in-the-wild scenarios. We further introduce a timestep-adaptive multi-phase learning strategy as a necessary component to disentangle conflicting editing objectives across diffusion timesteps, thereby facilitating stable training and yielding enhanced lip synchronization and visual fidelity. Additionally, we propose ContextDubBench, a comprehensive benchmark dataset for robust evaluation in diverse and challenging practical application scenarios. △ Less Submitted 31 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Project Page arXiv:2512.25066 [ pdf , ps , other ] From Inpainting to Editing: A Self-Bootstrapping Framework for Context-Rich Visual Dubbing Authors: Xu He , Haoxian Zhang , Hejia Chen , Changyuan Zheng , Liyang Chen , Songlin Tang , Jiehui Huang , Xiaoqiang Liu , Pengfei Wan , Zhiyong Wu Abstract : Audio-driven visual dubbing aims to synchronize a video's lip movements with new speech, but is fundamentally challenged by the lack of ideal training data: paired videos where only a subject's lip movements differ while all other visual conditions are identical. Existing methods circumvent this with a mask-based inpainting paradigm, where an incomplete visual conditioning forces models to simulta… ▽ More Audio-driven visual dubbing aims to synchronize a video's lip movements with new speech, but is fundamentally challenged by the lack of ideal training data: paired videos where only a subject's lip movements differ while all other visual conditions are identical. Existing methods circumvent this with a mask-based inpainting paradigm, where an incomplete visual conditioning forces models to simultaneously hallucinate missing content and sync lips, leading to visual artifacts, identity drift, and poor synchronization. In this work, we propose a novel self-bootstrapping framework that reframes visual dubbing from an ill-posed inpainting task into a well-conditioned video-to-video editing problem. Our approach employs a Diffusion Transformer, first as a data generator, to synthesize ideal training data: a lip-altered companion video for each real sample, forming visually aligned video pairs. A DiT-based audio-driven editor is then trained on these pairs end-to-end, leveraging the complete and aligned input video frames to focus solely on precise, audio-driven lip modifications. This complete, frame-aligned input conditioning forms a rich visual context for the editor, providing it with complete identity cues, scene interactions, and continuous spatiotemporal dynamics. Leveraging this rich context fundamentally enables our method to achieve highly accurate lip sync, faithful identity preservation, and exceptional robustness against challenging in-the-wild scenarios. We further introduce a timestep-adaptive multi-phase learning strategy as a necessary component to disentangle conflicting editing objectives across diffusion timesteps, thereby facilitating stable training and yielding enhanced lip synchronization and visual fidelity. Additionally, we propose ContextDubBench, a comprehensive benchmark dataset for robust evaluation in diverse and challenging practical application scenarios. △ Less Submitted 31 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Project Page arXiv:2512.24974 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.RO Hierarchical Deformation Planning and Neural Tracking for DLOs in Constrained Environments Authors: Yunxi Tang , Tianqi Yang , Jing Huang , Xiangyu Chu , Kwok Wai Samuel Au Abstract : Deformable linear objects (DLOs) manipulation presents significant challenges due to DLOs' inherent high-dimensional state space and complex deformation dynamics. The wide-populated obstacles in realistic workspaces further complicate DLO manipulation, necessitating efficient deformation planning and robust deformation tracking. In this work, we propose a novel framework for DLO manipulation in co… ▽ More Deformable linear objects (DLOs) manipulation presents significant challenges due to DLOs' inherent high-dimensional state space and complex deformation dynamics. The wide-populated obstacles in realistic workspaces further complicate DLO manipulation, necessitating efficient deformation planning and robust deformation tracking. In this work, we propose a novel framework for DLO manipulation in constrained environments. This framework combines hierarchical deformation planning with neural tracking, ensuring reliable performance in both global deformation synthesis and local deformation tracking. Specifically, the deformation planner begins by generating a spatial path set that inherently satisfies the homotopic constraints associated with DLO keypoint paths. Next, a path-set-guided optimization method is applied to synthesize an optimal temporal deformation sequence for the DLO. In manipulation execution, a neural model predictive control approach, leveraging a data-driven deformation model, is designed to accurately track the planned DLO deformation sequence. The effectiveness of the proposed framework is validated in extensive constrained DLO manipulation tasks. △ Less Submitted 31 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.24974 [ pdf , ps , other ] Hierarchical Deformation Planning and Neural Tracking for DLOs in Constrained Environments Authors: Yunxi Tang , Tianqi Yang , Jing Huang , Xiangyu Chu , Kwok Wai Samuel Au Abstract : Deformable linear objects (DLOs) manipulation presents significant challenges due to DLOs' inherent high-dimensional state space and complex deformation dynamics. The wide-populated obstacles in realistic workspaces further complicate DLO manipulation, necessitating efficient deformation planning and robust deformation tracking. In this work, we propose a novel framework for DLO manipulation in co… ▽ More Deformable linear objects (DLOs) manipulation presents significant challenges due to DLOs' inherent high-dimensional state space and complex deformation dynamics. The wide-populated obstacles in realistic workspaces further complicate DLO manipulation, necessitating efficient deformation planning and robust deformation tracking. In this work, we propose a novel framework for DLO manipulation in constrained environments. This framework combines hierarchical deformation planning with neural tracking, ensuring reliable performance in both global deformation synthesis and local deformation tracking. Specifically, the deformation planner begins by generating a spatial path set that inherently satisfies the homotopic constraints associated with DLO keypoint paths. Next, a path-set-guided optimization method is applied to synthesize an optimal temporal deformation sequence for the DLO. In manipulation execution, a neural model predictive control approach, leveraging a data-driven deformation model, is designed to accurately track the planned DLO deformation sequence. The effectiveness of the proposed framework is validated in extensive constrained DLO manipulation tasks. △ Less Submitted 31 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.24957 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI AMAP Agentic Planning Technical Report Authors: AMAP AI Agent Team , Yulan Hu , Xiangwen Zhang , Sheng Ouyang , Hao Yi , Lu Xu , Qinglin Lang , Lide Tan , Xiang Cheng , Tianchen Ye , Zhicong Li , Ge Chen , Wenjin Yang , Zheng Pan , Shaopan Xiong , Siran Yang , Ju Huang , Yan Zhang , Jiamang Wang , Yong Liu , Yinfeng Huang , Ning Wang , Tucheng Lin , Xin Li , Ning Guo Abstract : We present STAgent, an agentic large language model tailored for spatio-temporal understanding, designed to solve complex tasks such as constrained point-of-interest discovery and itinerary planning. STAgent is a specialized model capable of interacting with ten distinct tools within spatio-temporal scenarios, enabling it to explore, verify, and refine intermediate steps during complex reasoning.… ▽ More We present STAgent, an agentic large language model tailored for spatio-temporal understanding, designed to solve complex tasks such as constrained point-of-interest discovery and itinerary planning. STAgent is a specialized model capable of interacting with ten distinct tools within spatio-temporal scenarios, enabling it to explore, verify, and refine intermediate steps during complex reasoning. Notably, STAgent effectively preserves its general capabilities. We empower STAgent with these capabilities through three key contributions: (1) a stable tool environment that supports over ten domain-specific tools, enabling asynchronous rollout and training; (2) a hierarchical data curation framework that identifies high-quality data like a needle in a haystack, curating high-quality queries by retaining less than 1\% of the raw data, emphasizing both diversity and difficulty; and (3) a cascaded training recipe that starts with a seed SFT stage acting as a guardian to measure query difficulty, followed by a second SFT stage fine-tuned on queries with high certainty, and an ultimate RL stage that leverages data of low certainty. Initialized with Qwen3-30B-A3B to establish a strong SFT foundation and leverage insights into sample difficulty, STAgent yields promising performance on TravelBench while maintaining its general capabilities across a wide range of general benchmarks, thereby demonstrating the effectiveness of our proposed agentic model. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; v1 submitted 31 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.24957 [ pdf , ps , other ] AMAP Agentic Planning Technical Report Authors: AMAP AI Agent Team , Yulan Hu , Xiangwen Zhang , Sheng Ouyang , Hao Yi , Lu Xu , Qinglin Lang , Lide Tan , Xiang Cheng , Tianchen Ye , Zhicong Li , Ge Chen , Wenjin Yang , Zheng Pan , Shaopan Xiong , Siran Yang , Ju Huang , Yan Zhang , Jiamang Wang , Yong Liu , Yinfeng Huang , Ning Wang , Tucheng Lin , Xin Li , Ning Guo Abstract : We present STAgent, an agentic large language model tailored for spatio-temporal understanding, designed to solve complex tasks such as constrained point-of-interest discovery and itinerary planning. STAgent is a specialized model capable of interacting with ten distinct tools within spatio-temporal scenarios, enabling it to explore, verify, and refine intermediate steps during complex reasoning.… ▽ More We present STAgent, an agentic large language model tailored for spatio-temporal understanding, designed to solve complex tasks such as constrained point-of-interest discovery and itinerary planning. STAgent is a specialized model capable of interacting with ten distinct tools within spatio-temporal scenarios, enabling it to explore, verify, and refine intermediate steps during complex reasoning. Notably, STAgent effectively preserves its general capabilities. We empower STAgent with these capabilities through three key contributions: (1) a stable tool environment that supports over ten domain-specific tools, enabling asynchronous rollout and training; (2) a hierarchical data curation framework that identifies high-quality data like a needle in a haystack, curating high-quality queries by retaining less than 1\% of the raw data, emphasizing both diversity and difficulty; and (3) a cascaded training recipe that starts with a seed SFT stage acting as a guardian to measure query difficulty, followed by a second SFT stage fine-tuned on queries with high certainty, and an ultimate RL stage that leverages data of low certainty. Initialized with Qwen3-30B-A3B to establish a strong SFT foundation and leverage insights into sample difficulty, STAgent yields promising performance on TravelBench while maintaining its general capabilities across a wide range of general benchmarks, thereby demonstrating the effectiveness of our proposed agentic model. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; v1 submitted 31 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.24873 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.CL Let It Flow: Agentic Crafting on Rock and Roll, Building the ROME Model within an Open Agentic Learning Ecosystem Authors: Weixun Wang , XiaoXiao Xu , Wanhe An , Fangwen Dai , Wei Gao , Yancheng He , Ju Huang , Qiang Ji , Hanqi Jin , Xiaoyang Li , Yang Li , Zhongwen Li , Shirong Lin , Jiashun Liu , Zenan Liu , Tao Luo , Dilxat Muhtar , Yuanbin Qu , Jiaqiang Shi , Qinghui Sun , Yingshui Tan , Hao Tang , Runze Wang , Yi Wang , Zhaoguo Wang , et al. (65 additional authors not shown) Abstract : Agentic crafting requires LLMs to operate in real-world environments over multiple turns by taking actions, observing outcomes, and iteratively refining artifacts. Despite its importance, the open-source community lacks a principled, end-to-end ecosystem to streamline agent development. We introduce the Agentic Learning Ecosystem (ALE), a foundational infrastructure that optimizes the production p… ▽ More Agentic crafting requires LLMs to operate in real-world environments over multiple turns by taking actions, observing outcomes, and iteratively refining artifacts. Despite its importance, the open-source community lacks a principled, end-to-end ecosystem to streamline agent development. We introduce the Agentic Learning Ecosystem (ALE), a foundational infrastructure that optimizes the production pipeline for agentic model. ALE consists of three components: ROLL, a post-training framework for weight optimization; ROCK, a sandbox environment manager for trajectory generation; and iFlow CLI, an agent framework for efficient context engineering. We release ROME, an open-source agent grounded by ALE and trained on over one million trajectories. Our approach includes data composition protocols for synthesizing complex behaviors and a novel policy optimization algorithm, Interaction-Perceptive Agentic Policy Optimization (IPA), which assigns credit over semantic interaction chunks rather than individual tokens to improve long-horizon training stability. Empirically, we evaluate ROME within a structured setting and introduce Terminal Bench Pro, a benchmark with improved scale and contamination control. ROME demonstrates strong performance across benchmarks like SWE-bench Verified and Terminal Bench, proving the effectiveness of ALE. △ Less Submitted 4 January, 2026; v1 submitted 31 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 36 pages, 15 figures arXiv:2512.24873 [ pdf , ps , other ] Let It Flow: Agentic Crafting on Rock and Roll, Building the ROME Model within an Open Agentic Learning Ecosystem Authors: Weixun Wang , XiaoXiao Xu , Wanhe An , Fangwen Dai , Wei Gao , Yancheng He , Ju Huang , Qiang Ji , Hanqi Jin , Xiaoyang Li , Yang Li , Zhongwen Li , Shirong Lin , Jiashun Liu , Zenan Liu , Tao Luo , Dilxat Muhtar , Yuanbin Qu , Jiaqiang Shi , Qinghui Sun , Yingshui Tan , Hao Tang , Runze Wang , Yi Wang , Zhaoguo Wang , et al. (65 additional authors not shown) Abstract : Agentic crafting requires LLMs to operate in real-world environments over multiple turns by taking actions, observing outcomes, and iteratively refining artifacts. Despite its importance, the open-source community lacks a principled, end-to-end ecosystem to streamline agent development. We introduce the Agentic Learning Ecosystem (ALE), a foundational infrastructure that optimizes the production p… ▽ More Agentic crafting requires LLMs to operate in real-world environments over multiple turns by taking actions, observing outcomes, and iteratively refining artifacts. Despite its importance, the open-source community lacks a principled, end-to-end ecosystem to streamline agent development. We introduce the Agentic Learning Ecosystem (ALE), a foundational infrastructure that optimizes the production pipeline for agentic model. ALE consists of three components: ROLL, a post-training framework for weight optimization; ROCK, a sandbox environment manager for trajectory generation; and iFlow CLI, an agent framework for efficient context engineering. We release ROME, an open-source agent grounded by ALE and trained on over one million trajectories. Our approach includes data composition protocols for synthesizing complex behaviors and a novel policy optimization algorithm, Interaction-Perceptive Agentic Policy Optimization (IPA), which assigns credit over semantic interaction chunks rather than individual tokens to improve long-horizon training stability. Empirically, we evaluate ROME within a structured setting and introduce Terminal Bench Pro, a benchmark with improved scale and contamination control. ROME demonstrates strong performance across benchmarks like SWE-bench Verified and Terminal Bench, proving the effectiveness of ALE. △ Less Submitted 4 January, 2026; v1 submitted 31 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 36 pages, 15 figures arXiv:2512.24858 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.SE Feature Slice Matching for Precise Bug Detection Authors: Ke Ma , Jianjun Huang , Wei You , Bin Liang , Jingzheng Wu , Yanjun Wu , Yuanjun Gong Abstract : Measuring the function similarity to detect bugs is effective, but the statements unrelated to the bugs can impede the performance due to the noise interference. Suppressing the noise interference in existing works does not manage the tough job, i.e., eliminating the noise in the targets. In this paper, we propose MATUS to mitigate the target noise for precise bug detection based on similarity mea… ▽ More Measuring the function similarity to detect bugs is effective, but the statements unrelated to the bugs can impede the performance due to the noise interference. Suppressing the noise interference in existing works does not manage the tough job, i.e., eliminating the noise in the targets. In this paper, we propose MATUS to mitigate the target noise for precise bug detection based on similarity measurement. Feature slices are extracted from both the buggy query and the targets to represent the semantic feature of (potential) bug logics. In particular, MATUS guides the target slicing with the prior knowledge from the buggy code, in an end-to-end way to pinpoint the slicing criterion in the targets. All feature slices are embedded and compared based on the vector similarity. Buggy candidates are audited to confirm unknown bugs in the targets. Experiments show that MATUS holds advantages in bug detection for real-world projects with acceptable efficiency. In total, MATUS has spotted 31 unknown bugs in the Linux kernel. All of them have been confirmed by the kernel developers, and 11 have been assigned CVEs. △ Less Submitted 3 January, 2026; v1 submitted 31 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Accepted by FSE2026 arXiv:2512.24858 [ pdf , ps , other ] Feature Slice Matching for Precise Bug Detection Authors: Ke Ma , Jianjun Huang , Wei You , Bin Liang , Jingzheng Wu , Yanjun Wu , Yuanjun Gong Abstract : Measuring the function similarity to detect bugs is effective, but the statements unrelated to the bugs can impede the performance due to the noise interference. Suppressing the noise interference in existing works does not manage the tough job, i.e., eliminating the noise in the targets. In this paper, we propose MATUS to mitigate the target noise for precise bug detection based on similarity mea… ▽ More Measuring the function similarity to detect bugs is effective, but the statements unrelated to the bugs can impede the performance due to the noise interference. Suppressing the noise interference in existing works does not manage the tough job, i.e., eliminating the noise in the targets. In this paper, we propose MATUS to mitigate the target noise for precise bug detection based on similarity measurement. Feature slices are extracted from both the buggy query and the targets to represent the semantic feature of (potential) bug logics. In particular, MATUS guides the target slicing with the prior knowledge from the buggy code, in an end-to-end way to pinpoint the slicing criterion in the targets. All feature slices are embedded and compared based on the vector similarity. Buggy candidates are audited to confirm unknown bugs in the targets. Experiments show that MATUS holds advantages in bug detection for real-world projects with acceptable efficiency. In total, MATUS has spotted 31 unknown bugs in the Linux kernel. All of them have been confirmed by the kernel developers, and 11 have been assigned CVEs. △ Less Submitted 3 January, 2026; v1 submitted 31 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Accepted by FSE2026 arXiv:2512.24762 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.IR OpenOneRec Technical Report Authors: Guorui Zhou , Honghui Bao , Jiaming Huang , Jiaxin Deng , Jinghao Zhang , Junda She , Kuo Cai , Lejian Ren , Lu Ren , Qiang Luo , Qianqian Wang , Qigen Hu , Rongzhou Zhang , Ruiming Tang , Shiyao Wang , Wuchao Li , Xiangyu Wu , Xinchen Luo , Xingmei Wang , Yifei Hu , Yunfan Wu , Zhanyu Liu , Zhiyang Zhang , Zixing Zhang , Bo Chen , et al. (22 additional authors not shown) Abstract : While the OneRec series has successfully unified the fragmented recommendation pipeline into an end-to-end generative framework, a significant gap remains between recommendation systems and general intelligence. Constrained by isolated data, they operate as domain specialists-proficient in pattern matching but lacking world knowledge, reasoning capabilities, and instruction following. This limitat… ▽ More While the OneRec series has successfully unified the fragmented recommendation pipeline into an end-to-end generative framework, a significant gap remains between recommendation systems and general intelligence. Constrained by isolated data, they operate as domain specialists-proficient in pattern matching but lacking world knowledge, reasoning capabilities, and instruction following. This limitation is further compounded by the lack of a holistic benchmark to evaluate such integrated capabilities. To address this, our contributions are: 1) RecIF Bench & Open Data: We propose RecIF-Bench, a holistic benchmark covering 8 diverse tasks that thoroughly evaluate capabilities from fundamental prediction to complex reasoning. Concurrently, we release a massive training dataset comprising 96 million interactions from 160,000 users to facilitate reproducible research. 2) Framework & Scaling: To ensure full reproducibility, we open-source our comprehensive training pipeline, encompassing data processing, co-pretraining, and post-training. Leveraging this framework, we demonstrate that recommendation capabilities can scale predictably while mitigating catastrophic forgetting of general knowledge. 3) OneRec-Foundation: We release OneRec Foundation (1.7B and 8B), a family of models establishing new state-of-the-art (SOTA) results across all tasks in RecIF-Bench. Furthermore, when transferred to the Amazon benchmark, our models surpass the strongest baselines with an average 26.8% improvement in Recall@10 across 10 diverse datasets (Figure 1). This work marks a step towards building truly intelligent recommender systems. Nonetheless, realizing this vision presents significant technical and theoretical challenges, highlighting the need for broader research engagement in this promising direction. △ Less Submitted 31 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.24762 [ pdf , ps , other ] OpenOneRec Technical Report Authors: Guorui Zhou , Honghui Bao , Jiaming Huang , Jiaxin Deng , Jinghao Zhang , Junda She , Kuo Cai , Lejian Ren , Lu Ren , Qiang Luo , Qianqian Wang , Qigen Hu , Rongzhou Zhang , Ruiming Tang , Shiyao Wang , Wuchao Li , Xiangyu Wu , Xinchen Luo , Xingmei Wang , Yifei Hu , Yunfan Wu , Zhanyu Liu , Zhiyang Zhang , Zixing Zhang , Bo Chen , et al. (22 additional authors not shown) Abstract : While the OneRec series has successfully unified the fragmented recommendation pipeline into an end-to-end generative framework, a significant gap remains between recommendation systems and general intelligence. Constrained by isolated data, they operate as domain specialists-proficient in pattern matching but lacking world knowledge, reasoning capabilities, and instruction following. This limitat… ▽ More While the OneRec series has successfully unified the fragmented recommendation pipeline into an end-to-end generative framework, a significant gap remains between recommendation systems and general intelligence. Constrained by isolated data, they operate as domain specialists-proficient in pattern matching but lacking world knowledge, reasoning capabilities, and instruction following. This limitation is further compounded by the lack of a holistic benchmark to evaluate such integrated capabilities. To address this, our contributions are: 1) RecIF Bench & Open Data: We propose RecIF-Bench, a holistic benchmark covering 8 diverse tasks that thoroughly evaluate capabilities from fundamental prediction to complex reasoning. Concurrently, we release a massive training dataset comprising 96 million interactions from 160,000 users to facilitate reproducible research. 2) Framework & Scaling: To ensure full reproducibility, we open-source our comprehensive training pipeline, encompassing data processing, co-pretraining, and post-training. Leveraging this framework, we demonstrate that recommendation capabilities can scale predictably while mitigating catastrophic forgetting of general knowledge. 3) OneRec-Foundation: We release OneRec Foundation (1.7B and 8B), a family of models establishing new state-of-the-art (SOTA) results across all tasks in RecIF-Bench. Furthermore, when transferred to the Amazon benchmark, our models surpass the strongest baselines with an average 26.8% improvement in Recall@10 across 10 diverse datasets (Figure 1). This work marks a step towards building truly intelligent recommender systems. Nonetheless, realizing this vision presents significant technical and theoretical challenges, highlighting the need for broader research engagement in this promising direction. △ Less Submitted 31 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.24618 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL Youtu-LLM: Unlocking the Native Agentic Potential for Lightweight Large Language Models Authors: Junru Lu , Jiarui Qin , Lingfeng Qiao , Yinghui Li , Xinyi Dai , Bo Ke , Jianfeng He , Ruizhi Qiao , Di Yin , Xing Sun , Yunsheng Wu , Yinsong Liu , Shuangyin Liu , Mingkong Tang , Haodong Lin , Jiayi Kuang , Fanxu Meng , Xiaojuan Tang , Yunjia Xi , Junjie Huang , Haotong Yang , Zhenyi Shen , Yangning Li , Qianwen Zhang , Yifei Yu , et al. (13 additional authors not shown) Abstract : We introduce Youtu-LLM, a lightweight yet powerful language model that harmonizes high computational efficiency with native agentic intelligence. Unlike typical small models that rely on distillation, Youtu-LLM (1.96B) is pre-trained from scratch to systematically cultivate reasoning and planning capabilities. The key technical advancements are as follows: (1) Compact Architecture with Long-Contex… ▽ More We introduce Youtu-LLM, a lightweight yet powerful language model that harmonizes high computational efficiency with native agentic intelligence. Unlike typical small models that rely on distillation, Youtu-LLM (1.96B) is pre-trained from scratch to systematically cultivate reasoning and planning capabilities. The key technical advancements are as follows: (1) Compact Architecture with Long-Context Support: Built on a dense Multi-Latent Attention (MLA) architecture with a novel STEM-oriented vocabulary, Youtu-LLM supports a 128k context window. This design enables robust long-context reasoning and state tracking within a minimal memory footprint, making it ideal for long-horizon agent and reasoning tasks. (2) Principled "Commonsense-STEM-Agent" Curriculum: We curated a massive corpus of approximately 11T tokens and implemented a multi-stage training strategy. By progressively shifting the pre-training data distribution from general commonsense to complex STEM and agentic tasks, we ensure the model acquires deep cognitive abilities rather than superficial alignment. (3) Scalable Agentic Mid-training: Specifically for the agentic mid-training, we employ diverse data construction schemes to synthesize rich and varied trajectories across math, coding, and tool-use domains. This high-quality data enables the model to internalize planning and reflection behaviors effectively. Extensive evaluations show that Youtu-LLM sets a new state-of-the-art for sub-2B LLMs. On general benchmarks, it achieves competitive performance against larger models, while on agent-specific tasks, it significantly surpasses existing SOTA baselines, demonstrating that lightweight models can possess strong intrinsic agentic capabilities. △ Less Submitted 4 January, 2026; v1 submitted 30 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 57 pages, 26 figures arXiv:2512.24618 [ pdf , ps , other ] Youtu-LLM: Unlocking the Native Agentic Potential for Lightweight Large Language Models Authors: Junru Lu , Jiarui Qin , Lingfeng Qiao , Yinghui Li , Xinyi Dai , Bo Ke , Jianfeng He , Ruizhi Qiao , Di Yin , Xing Sun , Yunsheng Wu , Yinsong Liu , Shuangyin Liu , Mingkong Tang , Haodong Lin , Jiayi Kuang , Fanxu Meng , Xiaojuan Tang , Yunjia Xi , Junjie Huang , Haotong Yang , Zhenyi Shen , Yangning Li , Qianwen Zhang , Yifei Yu , et al. (13 additional authors not shown) Abstract : We introduce Youtu-LLM, a lightweight yet powerful language model that harmonizes high computational efficiency with native agentic intelligence. Unlike typical small models that rely on distillation, Youtu-LLM (1.96B) is pre-trained from scratch to systematically cultivate reasoning and planning capabilities. The key technical advancements are as follows: (1) Compact Architecture with Long-Contex… ▽ More We introduce Youtu-LLM, a lightweight yet powerful language model that harmonizes high computational efficiency with native agentic intelligence. Unlike typical small models that rely on distillation, Youtu-LLM (1.96B) is pre-trained from scratch to systematically cultivate reasoning and planning capabilities. The key technical advancements are as follows: (1) Compact Architecture with Long-Context Support: Built on a dense Multi-Latent Attention (MLA) architecture with a novel STEM-oriented vocabulary, Youtu-LLM supports a 128k context window. This design enables robust long-context reasoning and state tracking within a minimal memory footprint, making it ideal for long-horizon agent and reasoning tasks. (2) Principled "Commonsense-STEM-Agent" Curriculum: We curated a massive corpus of approximately 11T tokens and implemented a multi-stage training strategy. By progressively shifting the pre-training data distribution from general commonsense to complex STEM and agentic tasks, we ensure the model acquires deep cognitive abilities rather than superficial alignment. (3) Scalable Agentic Mid-training: Specifically for the agentic mid-training, we employ diverse data construction schemes to synthesize rich and varied trajectories across math, coding, and tool-use domains. This high-quality data enables the model to internalize planning and reflection behaviors effectively. Extensive evaluations show that Youtu-LLM sets a new state-of-the-art for sub-2B LLMs. On general benchmarks, it achieves competitive performance against larger models, while on agent-specific tasks, it significantly surpasses existing SOTA baselines, demonstrating that lightweight models can possess strong intrinsic agentic capabilities. △ Less Submitted 4 January, 2026; v1 submitted 30 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 57 pages, 26 figures arXiv:2512.24605 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV MoniRefer: A Real-world Large-scale Multi-modal Dataset based on Roadside Infrastructure for 3D Visual Grounding Authors: Panquan Yang , Junfei Huang , Zongzhangbao Yin , Yingsong Hu , Anni Xu , Xinyi Luo , Xueqi Sun , Hai Wu , Sheng Ao , Zhaoxing Zhu , Chenglu Wen , Cheng Wang Abstract : 3D visual grounding aims to localize the object in 3D point cloud scenes that semantically corresponds to given natural language sentences. It is very critical for roadside infrastructure system to interpret natural languages and localize relevant target objects in complex traffic environments. However, most existing datasets and approaches for 3D visual grounding focus on the indoor and outdoor d… ▽ More 3D visual grounding aims to localize the object in 3D point cloud scenes that semantically corresponds to given natural language sentences. It is very critical for roadside infrastructure system to interpret natural languages and localize relevant target objects in complex traffic environments. However, most existing datasets and approaches for 3D visual grounding focus on the indoor and outdoor driving scenes, outdoor monitoring scenarios remain unexplored due to scarcity of paired point cloud-text data captured by roadside infrastructure sensors. In this paper, we introduce a novel task of 3D Visual Grounding for Outdoor Monitoring Scenarios, which enables infrastructure-level understanding of traffic scenes beyond the ego-vehicle perspective. To support this task, we construct MoniRefer, the first real-world large-scale multi-modal dataset for roadside-level 3D visual grounding. The dataset consists of about 136,018 objects with 411,128 natural language expressions collected from multiple complex traffic intersections in the real-world environments. To ensure the quality and accuracy of the dataset, we manually verified all linguistic descriptions and 3D labels for objects. Additionally, we also propose a new end-to-end method, named Moni3DVG, which utilizes the rich appearance information provided by images and geometry and optical information from point cloud for multi-modal feature learning and 3D object localization. Extensive experiments and ablation studies on the proposed benchmarks demonstrate the superiority and effectiveness of our method. Our dataset and code will be released. △ Less Submitted 30 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 14 pages arXiv:2512.24605 [ pdf , ps , other ] MoniRefer: A Real-world Large-scale Multi-modal Dataset based on Roadside Infrastructure for 3D Visual Grounding Authors: Panquan Yang , Junfei Huang , Zongzhangbao Yin , Yingsong Hu , Anni Xu , Xinyi Luo , Xueqi Sun , Hai Wu , Sheng Ao , Zhaoxing Zhu , Chenglu Wen , Cheng Wang Abstract : 3D visual grounding aims to localize the object in 3D point cloud scenes that semantically corresponds to given natural language sentences. It is very critical for roadside infrastructure system to interpret natural languages and localize relevant target objects in complex traffic environments. However, most existing datasets and approaches for 3D visual grounding focus on the indoor and outdoor d… ▽ More 3D visual grounding aims to localize the object in 3D point cloud scenes that semantically corresponds to given natural language sentences. It is very critical for roadside infrastructure system to interpret natural languages and localize relevant target objects in complex traffic environments. However, most existing datasets and approaches for 3D visual grounding focus on the indoor and outdoor driving scenes, outdoor monitoring scenarios remain unexplored due to scarcity of paired point cloud-text data captured by roadside infrastructure sensors. In this paper, we introduce a novel task of 3D Visual Grounding for Outdoor Monitoring Scenarios, which enables infrastructure-level understanding of traffic scenes beyond the ego-vehicle perspective. To support this task, we construct MoniRefer, the first real-world large-scale multi-modal dataset for roadside-level 3D visual grounding. The dataset consists of about 136,018 objects with 411,128 natural language expressions collected from multiple complex traffic intersections in the real-world environments. To ensure the quality and accuracy of the dataset, we manually verified all linguistic descriptions and 3D labels for objects. Additionally, we also propose a new end-to-end method, named Moni3DVG, which utilizes the rich appearance information provided by images and geometry and optical information from point cloud for multi-modal feature learning and 3D object localization. Extensive experiments and ablation studies on the proposed benchmarks demonstrate the superiority and effectiveness of our method. Our dataset and code will be released. △ Less Submitted 30 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 14 pages arXiv:2512.24201 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.GR BATISNet: Instance Segmentation of Tooth Point Clouds with Boundary Awareness Authors: Yating Cai , Yanghui Xu , Zehua Hu , Jiazhou Chen , Jing Huang Abstract : Accurate segmentation of the tooth point cloud is of great significance for diagnosis clinical assisting and treatment planning. Existing methods mostly employ semantic segmentation, focusing on the semantic feature between different types of teeth. However, due to the tightly packed structure of teeth, unclear boundaries, and the diversity of complex cases such as missing teeth, malposed teeth, s… ▽ More Accurate segmentation of the tooth point cloud is of great significance for diagnosis clinical assisting and treatment planning. Existing methods mostly employ semantic segmentation, focusing on the semantic feature between different types of teeth. However, due to the tightly packed structure of teeth, unclear boundaries, and the diversity of complex cases such as missing teeth, malposed teeth, semantic segmentation often struggles to achieve satisfactory results when dealing with complex dental cases. To address these issues, this paper propose BATISNet, a boundary-aware instance network for tooth point cloud segmentation. This network model consists of a feature extraction backbone and an instance segmentation module. It not only focuses on extracting the semantic features of different types of teeth but also learns the instance features of individual teeth. It helps achieve more robust and accurate tooth instance segmentation in complex clinical scenarios such as missing teeth and malposed teeth. Additionally, to further enhance the completeness and accuracy of tooth boundary segmentation, a boundary-aware loss function is designed to specifically supervise the boundary segmentation between instances. It mitigates effectively tooth adhesion and boundary ambiguity issues. Extensive experimental results show that BATISNet outperforms existing methods in tooth integrity segmentation, providing more reliable and detailed data support for practical clinical applications. △ Less Submitted 30 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 10 pages, 4 figures arXiv:2512.24201 [ pdf , ps , other ] BATISNet: Instance Segmentation of Tooth Point Clouds with Boundary Awareness Authors: Yating Cai , Yanghui Xu , Zehua Hu , Jiazhou Chen , Jing Huang Abstract : Accurate segmentation of the tooth point cloud is of great significance for diagnosis clinical assisting and treatment planning. Existing methods mostly employ semantic segmentation, focusing on the semantic feature between different types of teeth. However, due to the tightly packed structure of teeth, unclear boundaries, and the diversity of complex cases such as missing teeth, malposed teeth, s… ▽ More Accurate segmentation of the tooth point cloud is of great significance for diagnosis clinical assisting and treatment planning. Existing methods mostly employ semantic segmentation, focusing on the semantic feature between different types of teeth. However, due to the tightly packed structure of teeth, unclear boundaries, and the diversity of complex cases such as missing teeth, malposed teeth, semantic segmentation often struggles to achieve satisfactory results when dealing with complex dental cases. To address these issues, this paper propose BATISNet, a boundary-aware instance network for tooth point cloud segmentation. This network model consists of a feature extraction backbone and an instance segmentation module. It not only focuses on extracting the semantic features of different types of teeth but also learns the instance features of individual teeth. It helps achieve more robust and accurate tooth instance segmentation in complex clinical scenarios such as missing teeth and malposed teeth. Additionally, to further enhance the completeness and accuracy of tooth boundary segmentation, a boundary-aware loss function is designed to specifically supervise the boundary segmentation between instances. It mitigates effectively tooth adhesion and boundary ambiguity issues. Extensive experimental results show that BATISNet outperforms existing methods in tooth integrity segmentation, providing more reliable and detailed data support for practical clinical applications. △ Less Submitted 30 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 10 pages, 4 figures arXiv:2512.24086 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV RainFusion2.0: Temporal-Spatial Awareness and Hardware-Efficient Block-wise Sparse Attention Authors: Aiyue Chen , Yaofu Liu , Junjian Huang , Guang Lian , Yiwu Yao , Wangli Lan , Jing Lin , Zhixin Ma , Tingting Zhou , Harry Yang Abstract : In video and image generation tasks, Diffusion Transformer (DiT) models incur extremely high computational costs due to attention mechanisms, which limits their practical applications. Furthermore, with hardware advancements, a wide range of devices besides graphics processing unit (GPU), such as application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC), have been increasingly adopted for model inference. Sp… ▽ More In video and image generation tasks, Diffusion Transformer (DiT) models incur extremely high computational costs due to attention mechanisms, which limits their practical applications. Furthermore, with hardware advancements, a wide range of devices besides graphics processing unit (GPU), such as application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC), have been increasingly adopted for model inference. Sparse attention, which leverages the inherent sparsity of attention by skipping computations for insignificant tokens, is an effective approach to mitigate computational costs. However, existing sparse attention methods have two critical limitations: the overhead of sparse pattern prediction and the lack of hardware generality, as most of these methods are designed for GPU. To address these challenges, this study proposes RainFusion2.0, which aims to develop an online adaptive, hardware-efficient, and low-overhead sparse attention mechanism to accelerate both video and image generative models, with robust performance across diverse hardware platforms. Key technical insights include: (1) leveraging block-wise mean values as representative tokens for sparse mask prediction; (2) implementing spatiotemporal-aware token permutation; and (3) introducing a first-frame sink mechanism specifically designed for video generation scenarios. Experimental results demonstrate that RainFusion2.0 can achieve 80% sparsity while achieving an end-to-end speedup of 1.5~1.8x without compromising video quality. Moreover, RainFusion2.0 demonstrates effectiveness across various generative models and validates its generalization across diverse hardware platforms. △ Less Submitted 30 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.24086 [ pdf , ps , other ] RainFusion2.0: Temporal-Spatial Awareness and Hardware-Efficient Block-wise Sparse Attention Authors: Aiyue Chen , Yaofu Liu , Junjian Huang , Guang Lian , Yiwu Yao , Wangli Lan , Jing Lin , Zhixin Ma , Tingting Zhou , Harry Yang Abstract : In video and image generation tasks, Diffusion Transformer (DiT) models incur extremely high computational costs due to attention mechanisms, which limits their practical applications. Furthermore, with hardware advancements, a wide range of devices besides graphics processing unit (GPU), such as application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC), have been increasingly adopted for model inference. Sp… ▽ More In video and image generation tasks, Diffusion Transformer (DiT) models incur extremely high computational costs due to attention mechanisms, which limits their practical applications. Furthermore, with hardware advancements, a wide range of devices besides graphics processing unit (GPU), such as application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC), have been increasingly adopted for model inference. Sparse attention, which leverages the inherent sparsity of attention by skipping computations for insignificant tokens, is an effective approach to mitigate computational costs. However, existing sparse attention methods have two critical limitations: the overhead of sparse pattern prediction and the lack of hardware generality, as most of these methods are designed for GPU. To address these challenges, this study proposes RainFusion2.0, which aims to develop an online adaptive, hardware-efficient, and low-overhead sparse attention mechanism to accelerate both video and image generative models, with robust performance across diverse hardware platforms. Key technical insights include: (1) leveraging block-wise mean values as representative tokens for sparse mask prediction; (2) implementing spatiotemporal-aware token permutation; and (3) introducing a first-frame sink mechanism specifically designed for video generation scenarios. Experimental results demonstrate that RainFusion2.0 can achieve 80% sparsity while achieving an end-to-end speedup of 1.5~1.8x without compromising video quality. Moreover, RainFusion2.0 demonstrates effectiveness across various generative models and validates its generalization across diverse hardware platforms. △ Less Submitted 30 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.24015 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV On Exact Editing of Flow-Based Diffusion Models Authors: Zixiang Li , Yue Song , Jianing Peng , Ting Liu , Jun Huang , Xiaochao Qu , Luoqi Liu , Wei Wang , Yao Zhao , Yunchao Wei Abstract : Recent methods in flow-based diffusion editing have enabled direct transformations between source and target image distribution without explicit inversion. However, the latent trajectories in these methods often exhibit accumulated velocity errors, leading to semantic inconsistency and loss of structural fidelity. We propose Conditioned Velocity Correction (CVC), a principled framework that reform… ▽ More Recent methods in flow-based diffusion editing have enabled direct transformations between source and target image distribution without explicit inversion. However, the latent trajectories in these methods often exhibit accumulated velocity errors, leading to semantic inconsistency and loss of structural fidelity. We propose Conditioned Velocity Correction (CVC), a principled framework that reformulates flow-based editing as a distribution transformation problem driven by a known source prior. CVC rethinks the role of velocity in inter-distribution transformation by introducing a dual-perspective velocity conversion mechanism. This mechanism explicitly decomposes the latent evolution into two components: a structure-preserving branch that remains consistent with the source trajectory, and a semantically-guided branch that drives a controlled deviation toward the target distribution. The conditional velocity field exhibits an absolute velocity error relative to the true underlying distribution trajectory, which inherently introduces potential instability and trajectory drift in the latent space. To address this quantifiable deviation and maintain fidelity to the true flow, we apply a posterior-consistent update to the resulting conditional velocity field. This update is derived from Empirical Bayes Inference and Tweedie correction, which ensures a mathematically grounded error compensation over time. Our method yields stable and interpretable latent dynamics, achieving faithful reconstruction alongside smooth local semantic conversion. Comprehensive experiments demonstrate that CVC consistently achieves superior fidelity, better semantic alignment, and more reliable editing behavior across diverse tasks. △ Less Submitted 5 January, 2026; v1 submitted 30 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.24015 [ pdf , ps , other ] On Exact Editing of Flow-Based Diffusion Models Authors: Zixiang Li , Yue Song , Jianing Peng , Ting Liu , Jun Huang , Xiaochao Qu , Luoqi Liu , Wei Wang , Yao Zhao , Yunchao Wei Abstract : Recent methods in flow-based diffusion editing have enabled direct transformations between source and target image distribution without explicit inversion. However, the latent trajectories in these methods often exhibit accumulated velocity errors, leading to semantic inconsistency and loss of structural fidelity. We propose Conditioned Velocity Correction (CVC), a principled framework that reform… ▽ More Recent methods in flow-based diffusion editing have enabled direct transformations between source and target image distribution without explicit inversion. However, the latent trajectories in these methods often exhibit accumulated velocity errors, leading to semantic inconsistency and loss of structural fidelity. We propose Conditioned Velocity Correction (CVC), a principled framework that reformulates flow-based editing as a distribution transformation problem driven by a known source prior. CVC rethinks the role of velocity in inter-distribution transformation by introducing a dual-perspective velocity conversion mechanism. This mechanism explicitly decomposes the latent evolution into two components: a structure-preserving branch that remains consistent with the source trajectory, and a semantically-guided branch that drives a controlled deviation toward the target distribution. The conditional velocity field exhibits an absolute velocity error relative to the true underlying distribution trajectory, which inherently introduces potential instability and trajectory drift in the latent space. To address this quantifiable deviation and maintain fidelity to the true flow, we apply a posterior-consistent update to the resulting conditional velocity field. This update is derived from Empirical Bayes Inference and Tweedie correction, which ensures a mathematically grounded error compensation over time. Our method yields stable and interpretable latent dynamics, achieving faithful reconstruction alongside smooth local semantic conversion. Comprehensive experiments demonstrate that CVC consistently achieves superior fidelity, better semantic alignment, and more reliable editing behavior across diverse tasks. △ Less Submitted 5 January, 2026; v1 submitted 30 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. 1 2 3 4 5 … About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack
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https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&query=Huang,+J
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early life and career 2 Political career Toggle Political career subsection 2.1 Pre-independence 2.2 Federation of Malaysia 2.3 Post-independence 2.3.1 Minister for Interior and Defence (1965–1967) 2.3.2 Minister for Finance (1967–1970) 2.3.3 Minister for Defence (1970–1979) 2.3.4 Deputy Prime Minister (1973–1984) 2.4 Other contributions 2.4.1 Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) 2.4.2 Defence Science Organisation (DSO) 2.4.3 Cultural, sports and recreation 2.1 Pre-independence 2.2 Federation of Malaysia 2.3 Post-independence 2.3.1 Minister for Interior and Defence (1965–1967) 2.3.2 Minister for Finance (1967–1970) 2.3.3 Minister for Defence (1970–1979) 2.3.4 Deputy Prime Minister (1973–1984) 2.3.1 Minister for Interior and Defence (1965–1967) 2.3.2 Minister for Finance (1967–1970) 2.3.3 Minister for Defence (1970–1979) 2.3.4 Deputy Prime Minister (1973–1984) 2.4 Other contributions 2.4.1 Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) 2.4.2 Defence Science Organisation (DSO) 2.4.3 Cultural, sports and recreation 2.4.1 Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) 2.4.2 Defence Science Organisation (DSO) 2.4.3 Cultural, sports and recreation 3 Personal life 4 Death 5 Honours and legacy 6 Publications 7 References Toggle References subsection 7.1 Notes 7.2 Citations 7.3 Sources 7.1 Notes 7.2 Citations 7.3 Sources 8 Further reading Toggle Further reading subsection 8.1 Books 8.2 Eulogies at the state funeral 8.3 Letters of condolence 8.4 News reports 8.1 Books 8.2 Eulogies at the state funeral 8.3 Letters of condolence 8.4 News reports 9 External links Goh Keng Swee Български Deutsch Bahasa Indonesia मैथिली मराठी Bahasa Melayu Русский Simple English Tiếng Việt 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Goh Keng Swee DUT .mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal} 吳慶瑞 Goh in 1948 2nd Deputy Prime Minister of Singapore In office 20 March 1973 – 1 January 1985 Serving with S. Rajaratnam (1980–1985) Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Toh Chin Chye Succeeded by Goh Chok Tong Ong Teng Cheong Chairman of the Monetary Authority of Singapore In office August 1980 – December 1997 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Hon Sui Sen Succeeded by Richard Hu Minister for Education In office 12 February 1979 – 2 January 1985 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Chua Sian Chin Succeeded by Tony Tan Minister for Defence In office 11 August 1970 – 11 February 1979 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Lim Kim San (as Minister for Interior and Defence) Succeeded by Howe Yoon Chong Minister for Finance In office 17 August 1967 – 10 August 1970 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Lim Kim San Succeeded by Hon Sui Sen In office 5 June 1959 – 8 August 1965 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Office established Succeeded by Lim Kim San Minister for Interior and Defence In office 9 August 1965 – 16 August 1967 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Office established Succeeded by Lim Kim San Member of the Malaysian Parliament for Singapore In office 2 November 1963 [ 1 ] – 9 August 1965 Preceded by Position established Succeeded by Position abolished Member of the Singapore Parliament for Kreta Ayer In office 30 May 1959 – 4 December 1984 Preceded by Constituency established Succeeded by Richard Hu ( PAP ) Personal details Born Robert Goh Keng Swee [ 2 ] ( 1918-10-06 ) 6 October 1918 Malacca , Straits Settlements Died 14 May 2010 (2010-05-14) (aged 91) Singapore Cause of death Bladder cancer Resting place Mandai Crematorium and Columbarium Nationality Singaporean Party People's Action Party Spouse(s) Alice Woon (m. 1942 div. 1986) Phua Swee Liang (m. 1991) [ 3 ] Children Goh Kian Chee (son) [ 3 ] Relatives Goh Hood Keng (uncle) Tan Cheng Lock (maternal uncle) Tan Siew Sin (maternal cousin) Education London School of Economics ( BSc , PhD ) Signature Military service Branch/service Singapore Volunteer Corps Years of service 1939–1942 Rank Colonel [ a ] Unit 20th People's Defence Force [ 4 ] Goh Keng Swee Traditional Chinese 吳慶瑞 Simplified Chinese 吴庆瑞 Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Wú Qìngruì Southern Min Hokkien POJ Gô͘ Khèng-sūi Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Wú Qìngruì Southern Min Hokkien POJ Gô͘ Khèng-sūi Goh Keng Swee [ b ] DUT (born Robert Goh Keng Swee ; [ 2 ] 6 October 1918 – 14 May 2010) was a Singaporean statesman and economist who served as the second Deputy Prime Minister of Singapore between 1973 and 1985. Goh is widely recognised as one of the founding fathers of modern Singapore. Goh was a member of the People's Action Party (PAP), which has governed the country continuously since independence. He was also a prominent member of the first generation of political leaders following Singapore's independence in 1965. He served as Minister for Finance from 1959 to 1965 and again from 1967 to 1970. He was Minister for Interior and Defence between 1965 and 1967, Minister for Defence from 1970 to 1979 and Minister for Education from 1979 to 1985. Throughout his entire political career, he represented the constituency of Kreta Ayer . As Minister for Interior and Defence, Goh's main objective was to strengthen the country's military and domestic security capabilities after the British had withdrawn its troops from Singapore, which made the newly independent nation vulnerable. A key policy was the creation of National Service (NS), a mandatory conscription system for able-bodied young males. Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew had mentioned that he had wanted a conscription consisting both men and women, similar to Israel . However, Goh rejected it, citing that the labour cost at least in its initial years would be too great for the newly independent nation. During Goh's tenure as Minister for Finance, he declined to allow the central bank to issue currency, favouring instead a currency board system as this would signal to citizens, academics and the financial world that governments cannot "spend their way to prosperity"; the Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS) was later established in 1971. In 1981, Goh also expressed the view that the central bank need not hold large amounts of cash in reserve to defend the currency, proposing that the Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) be established to invest excess reserves. At the time, it was unprecedented for a non- commodity -based economy to have such a sovereign wealth fund . Goh died in 2010 at the age of 91, and he was accorded a state funeral . Early life and career Goh was born in Malacca on 6 October 1918, then a part of the Straits Settlements , [ 5 ] into a middle class Peranakan family and the fifth of six children. [ 6 ] His father Goh Leng Inn was a manager of a rubber plantation, while his mother Tan Swee Eng, [ 7 ] came from the family that produced the Malaysian politicians Tan Cheng Lock and his son, Tan Siew Sin , who would later become Goh's lifelong political opponent. [ 8 ] [ 9 ] Goh was given the Christian name Robert, which he disliked and refused to respond to. When he was two years old, his family moved from Malacca to Singapore where his maternal grandparents owned several properties. The Gohs later relocated to the Pasir Panjang rubber estate when his father found work there and became manager in 1933. Like many Peranakan families, the Gohs spoke both English and Malay at home; church services were held at home on Sundays in Malay. [ 2 ] Goh's father Leng Inn and his brothers-in-law Chew Cheng Yong and Goh Hood Keng taught at the Anglo-Chinese School and were involved in the Middle Road Baba Church , where Hood Keng was pastor. Goh attended the church as well. [ 10 ] Goh attended the Anglo-Chinese School [ 6 ] between 1927 and 1936, where he ranked second in his class in the Senior Cambridge examinations. He graduated from Raffles College (now the National University of Singapore ) in 1939 with a Class II Diploma in Arts, with special distinction in economics . [ 7 ] After graduation, Goh joined the colonial Civil Service as a tax collector with the War Tax Department, though his superiors noted he was not very good at the job and he was nearly dismissed. [ 6 ] Shortly after the start of the Second World War , he joined the Singapore Volunteer Corps , a local militia, but returned to his previous work after the fall of Singapore . In 1942, Goh married Alice Woon, a secretary and colleague, [ 6 ] and they had one son, Goh Kian Chee, two years later. After the Japanese occupation ended, Goh moved his family back to Singapore in 1946 and joined the Department of Social Welfare, becoming a supervisor of its Research Section six months later. [ 7 ] Goh earned a scholarship to study at the London School of Economics . While in London, he met fellow students seeking independence for British Malaya , including Abdul Razak , Maurice Baker, Lee Kuan Yew and Toh Chin Chye . He was founding chairman of the Malayan Forum , a student discussion group formed in 1948. [ 5 ] [ 7 ] Goh graduated in 1951 with a first class honours in economics and won the William Farr Prize for the highest marks in statistics . [ 5 ] Returning to the Department of Social Welfare, he was appointed Assistant Secretary of Research. In 1952, together with fellow civil servant Kenneth Michael Byrne , he formed the Council of Joint Action to oppose salary and promotion policies favouring Europeans over Asians. Byrne later became Minister for Labour and Minister for Law . [ 7 ] Goh returned to the London School of Economics in 1954 for doctoral studies, supported by a University of London scholarship. He completed his PhD in economics in 1956, [ 11 ] and returned to the Department of Social Welfare, serving as assistant director and then Director. In 1958, he became Director of the Social and Economic Research Division in the Chief Minister's Office before resigning from the civil service in August to work full-time for the People's Action Party (PAP). [ 7 ] Political career Pre-independence Goh was a key member of the PAP's Central Executive Committee (CEC), and serving as vice-chairman. Goh contested in Kreta Ayer during the 1959 general election and won. He was subsequently elected into the Legislative Assembly on 30 May 1959, [ 12 ] and appointed Minister for Finance under Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew 's first Cabinet . As Minister for Finance, Goh assumed the stewardship of Singapore's economy . As a budget deficit of S$14 million was forecast that year, he introduced stringent fiscal discipline which including cutting civil service salaries. As a result of these measures, he was able to announce at the end of the year when delivering the budget that the government had achieved a surplus of $1 million. [ 13 ] Goh initiated the setting up of the Economic Development Board (EDB) which was established in August 1961 to attract foreign multinational corporations to invest in Singapore. [ 5 ] [ 14 ] The next year, he started the development of the Jurong industrial estate on the western end of the island which was then a swamp, offering incentives to local and foreign businesses to locate there. [ 5 ] [ 7 ] According to former Permanent Secretary Sim Kee Boon , Goh admitted that the Jurong project was "an act of faith and he himself jokingly said that this could prove to be Goh's folly". [ 14 ] Nonetheless, Goh also felt strongly that "the only way to avoid making mistakes is not to do anything. And that... will be the ultimate mistake." [ 15 ] In the 1960s, there were great pressures from communist agitators working through Chinese-medium schools and trade unions. Divisions existed within the PAP as well, with a pro-communist faction working to wrest control of the party from the moderate wing, of which Goh and Lee Kuan Yew were key members. A key source of division was the issue of merger with Malaya to form a new state of Malaysia. Goh and his fellow moderates believed this was a necessary condition for Singapore's economic development because Malaya was a key economic hinterland; merger would also provide an alternate vision against communism for Singapore's Chinese majority. In July 1961, 16 members of the pro-communist faction broke away from the PAP to form the Barisan Sosialis , and captured control of the main trade unions . Federation of Malaysia In 1961, the Singapore Government secured approval from Malaysian Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman for a merger, motivated in part by the Tunku's desire to stabilise the security situation in Singapore and to counter the perceived communist threat by the Malayan Communist Party . In 1963, Singapore joined Malaya , along with Sabah and Sarawak , to form the Federation of Malaysia. [ 16 ] However, the merger soon proved problematic for Singapore's leaders. Fundamental disagreements emerged over political and economic principles, particularly the issue of Malay dominance . Communal tensions escalated into violence in 1964, incited by both Malay and Chinese activists in Singapore. According to Lee, Goh played a key role in safeguarding Singapore's interests, especially in economic disputes with the Malaysian Minister of Finance and his own cousin Tan Siew Sin , whom he believed acted in hostility toward Singapore. After two difficult years within the Federation, Lee asked Goh to negotiate with Malaysian Deputy Prime Minister Tun Abdul Razak and Minister for External Affairs Ismail Abdul Rahman in July 1965. The aim was to explore the possibility of a looser arrangement for Singapore within Malaysia. However, following the discussions, all parties concluded that a clean break would be in the best interests of both sides. Tunku Abdul Rahman ultimately agreed to this course of action, paving the way for Singapore's separation from Malaysia. [ 17 ] Goh maintained a secret dossier that he codenamed " Albatross ", which contains files and notes from the months leading up to Singapore's independence. According to one of the file's documents, authored by Goh himself, Goh chose not to follow Lee's orders to negotiate for a "looser arrangement" but only ever broached separation with Tunku. Writing in his memoirs, Lee claimed that he only realised that Goh "never pressed Razak for a looser rearrangement as I had asked him to" in 1994. [ 18 ] Post-independence Minister for Interior and Defence (1965–1967) Upon the independence of Singapore in 1965, Goh relinquished his portfolio of Minister for Finance and became Minister for Interior and Defence in 1967, assuming responsibilities for strengthening Singapore's military and domestic security capabilities. A key policy was the creation of National Service , a mandatory conscription system for able-bodied young males. [ 19 ] Minister for Finance (1967–1970) Goh served as Minister for Finance again between 1967 and 1970, [ 5 ] [ 7 ] during which he declined to allow the central bank to issue currency, favouring instead a currency board system in the form of the Board of Commissioners of Currency, Singapore , as this would signal to citizens, academics and the financial world that governments cannot "spend their way to prosperity". Minister for Defence (1970–1979) On 11 August 1970, he was reappointed Minister for Defence . [ 5 ] [ 7 ] Deputy Prime Minister (1973–1984) On 1 March 1973, [ 12 ] Goh was appointed Deputy Prime Minister concurrently with his other Cabinet portfolio. [ 7 ] On 12 February 1979, Goh moved on from the Ministry of Defence to the Ministry of Education , where his Goh Report [ 20 ] greatly influenced the development of Singapore's education system. He was described as both a key political and strategic leader responsible for the transformation of the system over 30 years from "fair" to "great", according to a November 2010 McKinsey report. [ 21 ] He set up the Curriculum Development Institute, and introduced key policies such as religious education—subsequently discontinued and, in 1980, the channelling of students into different programmes of study according to their learning abilities, known as "streaming". [ 22 ] Goh served two terms as Minister for Education, his first term ended in 1980, and his second following the 1980 general election from 1981 until his retirement in 1985. From 1 June 1980, he was redesignated First Deputy Prime Minister upon S. Rajaratnam being made Second Deputy Prime Minister, and served as Chairman of the Monetary Authority of Singapore until he stepped down from Parliament on 3 December 1984, at the age of 66. [ 5 ] [ 7 ] [ 12 ] In a tribute to mark the occasion, Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew wrote: "A whole generation of Singaporeans take their present standard of living for granted because you had laid the foundations of the economy of modern Singapore." [ 23 ] Other contributions Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) In 1981, Goh expressed the view that the central bank need not hold large amounts of cash in reserve to defend the currency, proposing that the Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) be established to invest excess reserves. At the time, it was unprecedented for a non- commodity -based economy to have such a sovereign wealth fund . [ 24 ] The foreign merchant bank, Rothschild, advised on the GIC. [ 25 ] Defence Science Organisation (DSO) In 1971, Goh put together the Electronic Warfare Study Group, a team of newly graduated engineers who had excelled in their university studies that was headed by Tay Eng Soon , then a university lecturer. The group worked on Project Magpie, a secret project to develop Singapore's defence technology capabilities. In 1977, the group was renamed the Defence Science Organisation (DSO). Originally part of the Ministry of Defence, the organisation became a non-profit corporation called DSO National Laboratories in 1997. [ 26 ] Cultural, sports and recreation Goh was also responsible for projects that sought to improve Singaporeans' cultural and leisure life, such as the Jurong Bird Park , Singapore Zoo and the Singapore Symphony Orchestra . [ 27 ] He backed the construction of the Kreta Ayer People's Theatre in his constituency as a venue for Chinese opera performances. [ 28 ] In 1968, Goh encouraged the establishment of the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. Goh was also instrumental in introducing rugby in the Singapore Armed Forces and later in schools. In recognition of his role in promoting the sport, the Schools "C" Division Cup is named after him. [ 29 ] Impressed by an oceanarium in the Bahamas , he contacted the Sentosa Development Corporation and persuaded them to build an oceanarium in Singapore. [ 6 ] Underwater World opened in 1991. Personal life In 1986, Goh divorced his first wife Alice. In 1991, he married his former Ministry of Education colleague Phua Swee Liang. [ 6 ] [ 7 ] Goh suffered his first stroke in 1999, and a subsequent one in 2000 which affected the vision in his right eye. [ 30 ] According to Goh's daughter-in-law Tan Siok Sun, the medical condition caused him to become withdrawn and introverted. In July 2007, Tan published a biography titled Goh Keng Swee: A Portrait . Goh's second wife issued a statement claiming that Goh had not been consulted on the book and had indicated to her that he did not want any book to be written about him. "Therefore, the publication of this book is contrary to his wishes, and is a show of disregard and utmost disrespect to him." In an interview with The Straits Times , Tan said she did not start the dispute between Mrs. Goh and herself, nor did she wish to prolong it. [ 31 ] After retirement from politics, Goh continued to be active in public life, serving as Deputy Chairman of GIC between 1981 and 1994, Economic Adviser to the State Council of the People's Republic of China on Coastal Development and Adviser on Tourism in 1985, Deputy Chairman of the Monetary Authority of Singapore between 1985 and 1992, Chairman of the Singapore Totalisator Board between 1988 and 1990, Director of Gateway Technologies Services Pte. Ltd. from 1991 onward, Adviser to the United Overseas Bank Group from 1993 onward, Chairman of N. M. Rothschild & Sons (Singapore) Ltd. from 1994 onward, and vice-chairman of Hong Leong Asia Ltd. from 1995 onward. [ 5 ] Goh was also chairman of the Board of Governors of the Institute of East Asian Philosophies between 1983 and 1992, which was founded to study Confucianism . The institute later turned its focus on China's political and economic development, renaming itself the Institute of East Asian Political Economy, and Goh continued as Executive Chairman and chairman of the Board of Governors until 1995. [ 7 ] In April 1997, the institute was reconstituted as the East Asian Institute, an autonomous research organisation under the auspices of the National University of Singapore . [ 32 ] Death On 14 May 2010, Goh died in the early morning at his home in Dunbar Walk off East Coast Road in Siglap , at the age of 91. His death was as a result of his old age and pneumonia. [ 33 ] His body lay in state at Parliament House from 20 to 22 May, [ 34 ] and there was a state funeral on 23 May 2010 at the Singapore Conference Hall followed by a private ceremony for family members at the Mandai Crematorium . [ 35 ] The latter was conducted by the pastor-in-charge of Barker Road Methodist Church, with a message delivered by the Bishop of the Methodist Church in Singapore , Robert M. Solomon . [ 10 ] As a mark of respect, State flags at all Government buildings were flown at half-mast from 20 to 23 May. [ 36 ] Honours and legacy In 1966, Goh was made an Honorary Fellow of the London school of Economics . In 1972, he was the recipient of the Ramon Magsaysay Award for Government Services, which is often regarded as "Asia's Nobel Prize". [ 37 ] It is awarded to people who have demonstrated integrity in government, courageous service to the people, and pragmatic idealism within a democratic society. That same year, the Philippine Government conferred upon him the Order of Sikatuna , which is given to diplomats, officials and nationals of foreign states who have rendered conspicuous services in fostering, developing and strengthening relations between their country and the Philippines. [ 5 ] Following his retirement from politics, Goh was awarded the Order of Temasek (First Class, now known as High Distinction) in 1985, Singapore's highest civilian honour and second overall after the Star of Temasek . He was also presented with the LSE's Distinguished Alumnus Award on 21 January 1989, [ 38 ] and made the first Distinguished Fellow of the Economic Development Board Society in 1991. [ 5 ] Goh is known as one of Singapore's founding fathers. [ 13 ] [ 39 ] During the National Day Rally on 29 August 2010, Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong announced that the Singapore Command and Staff College , where senior officers of the Singapore Armed Forces receive training; and a complex to be constructed at the Ministry of Education's North Buona Vista Road headquarters for specialist teacher training academies in English language, physical education, sports and the arts would be respectively named the Goh Keng Swee Command and Staff College and the Goh Keng Swee Centre for Education. [ 40 ] Publications .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} The Economic Front: From a Malayan Point of View . Singapore: Government Printers. 1940. OCLC 226068826 . . Urban Incomes & Housing: A Report on the Social Survey of Singapore, 1953–54 . Singapore: [Department of Social Welfare]. 1956. OCLC 504452751 . . Techniques of National Income Estimation in Under-developed Territories, with Special Reference to Asia and Africa [Unpublished PhD thesis, University of London, London School of Economics, 1956] . London: University of London Library, Photographic Section. 1978. OCLC 63630985 . . This is How Your Money is Spent [Budget statement by Goh Keng Swee, Minister for Finance; Towards Socialism, vol. 3] . Singapore: Ministry of Finance . 1960. OCLC 63838096 . . Some Problems of Industrialisation [Towards Socialism; vol. 7] . Singapore: Government Printing Office. 1963. OCLC 17270555 . . Communism in Non-Communist Asian Countries . Singapore: Printed by the Government Printing Office for the Ministry of Culture . c. 1967. OCLC 433094 . . The Economics of Modernization and other Essays . [Singapore]: Asia Pacific Press. 1972. OCLC 534320 . . Later editions: The Economics of Modernization . Singapore: Federal Publications. 1995. ISBN 978-981-01-2317-8 . . The Economics of Modernization . Singapore: Marshall Cavendish Academic . 2004. ISBN 978-981-210-330-7 . . The Economics of Modernization . Singapore: Federal Publications. 1995. ISBN 978-981-01-2317-8 . . The Economics of Modernization . Singapore: Marshall Cavendish Academic . 2004. ISBN 978-981-210-330-7 . . Some Problems of Manpower Development in Singapore [Occasional publication (Singapore Training and Development Association); no. 1] . Singapore: Ad Hoc Publications Sub-committee, Singapore Training & Development Association. 1974. OCLC 226024028 . . Some Unsolved Problems of Economic Growth [Kesatuan lecture; 1] . Singapore: Kesatuan Akademis Universiti Singapura. 1976. ISBN 9971-68-076-9 . OCLC 3072805 . . The Practice of Economic Growth . Singapore: Federal Publications. 1977. OCLC 4465760 . . Later edition: The Practice of Economic Growth . Singapore: Federal Publications. 1995. ISBN 978-981-01-2322-2 . . The Practice of Economic Growth . Singapore: Federal Publications. 1995. ISBN 978-981-01-2322-2 . . Goh, Keng Swee; Education Study Team (1979). Report on the Ministry of Education 1978 . Singapore: Printed by Singapore National Printers. OCLC 416421063 . . Goh, Keng Swee (1995). Low, Linda (ed.). Wealth of East Asian Nations: Speeches and Writings . Singapore: Federal Publications. ISBN 978-981-01-2297-3 . . References Notes ^ Honorary, and during his tenure as the civilian head of the Ministry of the Interior and Defence. He oversaw the establishment of the Singapore Armed Forces (SAF) after 1965, a process that laid the foundation built primarily on National Service (NS) from 1967. [ 4 ] ^ simplified Chinese : 吴庆瑞 ; traditional Chinese : 吳慶瑞 ; Pe̍h-ōe-jī : Gô͘ Khèng-sūi ; pinyin : Wú Qìngruì Citations ^ "PARLIAMENTARY DEBATES DEWAN RA'AYAT (HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES) OFFICIAL REPORT" (PDF) . Dewan Rakyat . Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 August 2016 . Retrieved 19 August 2019 . ^ a b c Tan Siok Sun (7 July 2007), A shy, quiet boy who loved books [Excerpt from Goh Keng Swee, a Portrait ] , AsiaOne , archived from the original on 2 December 2012 , retrieved 15 May 2010 . ^ a b Obituary notice of Dr. Goh Keng Swee, The Straits Times (15 May 2010), p. C28. ^ a b Desker, Barry; Kwa, Chong Guan, eds. (2011). Goh Keng Swee: A Public Career Remembered . World Scientific. pp. 83, 98, 101. ISBN 978-9814407533 . ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Jenny Tien Mui Mun (8 October 2002), Dr Goh Keng Swee , Singapore Infopedia, National Library, Singapore , archived from the original on 23 June 2008 , retrieved 15 May 2010 . ^ a b c d e f Nur Dianah Suhaimi (16 May 2010), "His work was his passion: The late Goh Keng Swee showed brilliance even when he was a child", The Sunday Times , Singapore, p. 10 . ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m "From civil servant to PAP stalwart", The Straits Times (Saturday) , p. D2, 15 May 2010 . ^ Lee Kuan Yew (1998), The Singapore Story: Memoirs of Lee Kuan Yew , Singapore: Times Publishing, pp. 600–602 , ISBN 978-981-204-983-4 . ^ Tan Siok Sun (2007), Goh Keng Swee: A Portrait , Singapore: Editions Didier Millet , pp. 114– 115, ISBN 978-981-4155-82-3 . ^ a b "The lesser known side of Dr Goh Keng Swee" , Methodist Message , vol. 112, no. 7, p. 12, July 2010, archived from the original on 5 October 2018 . ^ His thesis was entitled Techniques of National Income Estimation in Under-developed Territories, with Special Reference to Asia, Malacca, Singapore and Africa [Unpublished PhD thesis, University of London, London School of Economics, 1956] , London: University of London Library, Photographic Section, 1978, OCLC 63630985 . ^ a b c "Parliament pays respects", The Straits Times , 18 May 2010 . ^ a b Lee Hsien Loong (24 May 2010), "A giant in our midst [eulogy by the Prime Minister]" , Today , pp. 12– 14, archived from the original on 25 May 2010 . ^ a b "A visionary who didn't believe in dreams: A look into the life of the man responsible for HDB flats, National Service, JTC ... even the Zoo", Weekend Today , pp. 12– 13, 15–16 May 2010 . ^ As recalled by Lim Siong Guan , Group President of GIC and former Head of the Singapore Civil Service : see Chua Mui Hoong (15 May 2010), "Passing of a S'pore titan: Former DPM Goh Keng Swee was economic architect of Singapore and mentor to many", The Straits Times , pp. A1 – A2 . ^ "Singapore – Road to Independence" . U.S. Library of Congress . Retrieved 27 June 2006 . ^ Lee Kuan Yew (24 May 2010), "He made the greatest difference: Eulogy by Minister Mentor Lee Kuan Yew", The Straits Times , p. A6 . ^ Chin, Soo Fang (7 December 2025). "New book sheds light on Singapore's secret negotiations for independence" . The Straits Times . ^ "National Service becomes compulsory - Singapore History" . eresources.nlb.gov.sg . Retrieved 1 January 2023 . ^ Goh Keng Swee; Education Study Team (1979), Report on the Ministry of Education 1978 , Singapore: Printed by Singapore National Printers, OCLC 416421063 . ^ Michael Barber; Chinezi Chijioke; Mona Mourshed (2010), Education: How the World's Most Improved School Systems Keep Getting Better , London: McKinsey & Company, pp. 101– 118 . ^ MOKHTAR, FARIS. "Timeline: How secondary school streaming evolved over the decades" . TODAY . Retrieved 1 January 2023 . ^ Chua Mui Hoong (15 May 2010), "Passing of a S'pore titan: Former DPM Goh Keng Swee was economic architect of Singapore and mentor to many", The Straits Times , pp. A1 – A2 . ^ Janadas Devan (15 May 2010), "Remembering Goh Keng Swee, 1918–2010", The Straits Times (Saturday) , p. D2 . ^ Hamilton-Hart, Natasha (2003). Asian states, Asian bankers : central banking in Southeast Asia . Singapore: Singapore University Press. p. 89 . ISBN 978-0801439872 . ^ Melanie Chew; Bernard Tan (2002), "A Tribute to Dr Goh Keng Swee" (PDF) , Creating the Technology Edge: DSO National Laboratories, Singapore 1972–2002 , Singapore: Epigram for DSO National Laboratories, pp. 4– 9, ISBN 978-981-04-7199-6 , archived from the original (PDF) on 28 September 2007 . ^ Saad, Imelda (15–16 May 2010), "S'pore's master builder" , Weekend Today , p. 2, archived from the original on 18 May 2010 . ^ Leong Weng Kam (15 May 2010), "A thinker and a doer: Dr Goh was a 'great intellectual', recall PAP Old Guard members", The Straits Times , p. A6 . ^ Saad, Imelda (15–16 May 2010), " 'One of the most brilliant architects' of the country, says SM Goh" , Weekend Today , p. 3, archived from the original on 18 May 2010 . ^ Nur Dianah Suhaimi (28 May 2010), "Love against the odds [interview with Dr. Phua Swee Liang]", The Straits Times , pp. A40 – A41 . ^ Lydia Lim (7 July 2007), "No regrets despite objections, except one" , The Straits Times (reproduced on the AsiaOne website) , archived from the original on 2 December 2012 . ^ EAI's profile & objectives , East Asia Institute, National University of Singapore , 2008, archived from the original on 21 December 2010 , retrieved 16 May 2010 . ^ "Farewell to one of Singapore's prime architects" , Weekend Today , p. 1, 15–16 May 2010, archived from the original on 16 May 2010 . See also Rachel Lin (15 May 2010), "A quiet passing for a quiet man: He lived simply, was a private man, with S'pore uppermost in his mind", The Straits Times , p. A3 . ^ Esther Ng (21 May 2010), "From all walks of life, they came to pay their respects: More than 5,000 queue up at Parliament House to honour Dr Goh" , Today , p. 3, archived from the original on 23 May 2010 ; Nur Dianah Suhaimi; Kor Kian Beng (22 May 2010), " 'Thank you and goodbye': Young and old, from near and far, over 7,000 pay respects to Dr Goh", The Straits Times , p. A16 . ^ Cassandra Chew (22 May 2010), "State funeral an honour reserved for rare few", The Straits Times , p. A16 ; Chua Mui Hoong (24 May 2010), "Goodbye, Dr Goh: Tributes flow at state funeral for one of Singapore's founding fathers", The Straits Times , pp. A1 – A2 ; Rachel Lin (24 May 2010), "A simple, moving funeral for Dr Goh: Nation mourns one of its founders in a sombre but intimate ceremony", The Straits Times , pp. A2 – A3 ; Zul Othman (24 May 2010), "A nation says goodbye" , Today , pp. 1 & 3, archived from the original on 29 May 2010 . ^ "State funeral on May 23" , Weekend Today , p. 2, 15–16 May 2010, archived from the original on 16 May 2010 . ^ 1972 Ramon Magsaysay Award for Government Services: Biography of Goh Keng Swee , Ramon Magsaysay Award Foundation, August 1972, archived from the original on 1 August 2008 , retrieved 15 May 2010 . ^ Phua Kai Hong (25 May 2010), "The day Dr Goh removed words from his citation [letter]" , Today , p. 8, archived from the original on 27 May 2010 . ^ "Remembering the three most outstanding founding fathers" . Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, NUS . Retrieved 10 August 2025 . ^ Clarissa Oon (30 August 2010), "SAF institute, education centre named after Goh Keng Swee", The Straits Times , p. B4 ; Alicia Wong (30 August 2010), "Military college and education centre to be named after Goh Keng Swee", Today , p. 13 . Sources "From civil servant to PAP stalwart". The Straits Times (Saturday) . 15 May 2010. p. D2. Nur Dianah Suhaimi (16 May 2010). His work was his passion: The late Goh Keng Swee showed brilliance even when he was a child . Singapore. p. 10. {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( link ) "Parliament pays respects". The Straits Times . 18 May 2010. Tien, Jenny Mui Mun (8 October 2002). "Dr Goh Keng Swee" . Singapore Infopedia, National Library, Singapore . Archived from the original on 23 June 2008 . Retrieved 15 May 2010 . Further reading Books Austin, Ian Patrick (2004). Goh Keng Swee and Southeast Asian Governance . Singapore: Marshall Cavendish Academic . ISBN 978-981-210-351-2 . Desker, Barry; Kwa, Chong Guan, eds. (2011). Goh Keng Swee – A Public Career Remembered . Singapore: World Scientific . ISBN 978-981-4291-38-5 . Doshi, Tilak; Coclanis, Peter (1999). "The Economic Architect: Goh Keng Swee". In Lam, Peng Er; Tan, Kevin (eds.). Lee's Lieutenants: Singapore's Old Guard . St. Leonards, N.S.W.: Allen & Unwin . pp. 24– 44. ISBN 978-1-86448-639-1 . Kuah, Adrian (2007). UnChartered territory: Dr Goh Keng Swee and the ST Engineering Story . Singapore: Published for ST Engineering by SNP International. ISBN 978-981-248-169-6 . Kwok, Kian-Woon (1999). "The Social Architect: Goh Keng Swee". In Lam, Peng Er; Tan, Kevin (eds.). Lee's Lieutenants: Singapore's Old Guard . St. Leonards, N.S.W.: Allen & Unwin. pp. 45– 69. ISBN 978-1-86448-639-1 . Nair, E. Shailaja (2008). The Master Sculptor: Goh Keng Swee [Great Singapore Stories. Founding Fathers.] Singapore: SNP Editions. ISBN 978-981-248-160-3 . Ngiam, Tong Dow (2006). A Mandarin and the Making of Public Policy: Reflections by Ngiam Tong Dow . Singapore: NUS Press . ISBN 978-9971-69-350-3 . Ooi, Kee Beng (2010). In Lieu of Ideology: The Intellectual Biography of Goh Keng Swee . Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 978-981-4311-30-4 . Tan, Siok Sun (2007). Goh Keng Swee: A Portrait . Singapore: Editions Didier Millet . ISBN 978-981-4155-82-3 . . Yeo, Siew Siang (1990). Tan Cheng Lock, the Straits Legislator and Chinese Leader . Petaling Jaya, Selangor: Pelanduk Publications. ISBN 978-967-978-236-3 . Eulogies at the state funeral Lee, Hsien Loong (24 May 2010). "Without him, much of S'pore wouldn't exist: Eulogy by Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong". The Straits Times . pp. A4 & A6. ; Lee, Hsien Loong (24 May 2010). "A giant in our midst [eulogy by the Prime Minister]" . Today . pp. 12– 14. Archived from the original on 25 May 2010. See also " 'He turned the tide for Singapore': PM Lee recounts Dr Goh's contributions and compassion" . Today . 24 May 2010. p. 4. Archived from the original on 26 May 2010. Lee, Kuan Yew (24 May 2010). "He made the greatest difference: Eulogy by Minister Mentor Lee Kuan Yew". The Straits Times . p. A6. . See also "As my troubleshooter, I gave him toughest jobs in Govt: MM" . Today . 24 May 2010. p. 3. Archived from the original on 26 May 2010. S. Dhanabalan (24 May 2010). "Singapore's greatest entrepreneur: Eulogy by S. Dhanabalan, chairman of Temasek Holdings". The Straits Times . p. A8. . See also "Dhanabalan: How Dr Goh changed my life" . Today . 24 May 2010. p. 4. Archived from the original on 26 May 2010. Goh, Ken-Yi (24 May 2010). "A caring, selfless grandfather: Eulogy by grandson Goh Ken-Yi". The Straits Times . p. A10. . See also Zul Othman (24 May 2010). "To me, he was simply a great grandfather" . Today . p. 2. Archived from the original on 26 May 2010. Hui, Marian (24 May 2010). "He motivated me to pursue my dreams: Excerpt of eulogy by Grand-niece Marian Hui". The Straits Times . p. A8. Letters of condolence Lee, Hsien Loong (15–16 May 2010). "A far-sighted visionary and pragmatic manager [letter from the Prime Minister to Mrs. Goh Keng Swee]" . Weekend Today . p. 10. Archived from the original on 16 May 2010. S.R. Nathan (15–16 May 2010). "Nothing too insignificant for his attention [letter from the president to Mrs. Goh Keng Swee]" . Weekend Today . p. 10. Archived from the original on 16 May 2010. Goh, Chok Tong (15–16 May 2010). "Practical and full of ideas [letter from the Senior Minister to Mrs. Goh Keng Swee]" . Weekend Today . p. 11. Archived from the original on 22 June 2011. Tan, Tony Keng Yam (15–16 May 2010). "Farsightedness and fortitude [letter from the Deputy Chairman and Executive Director of the Government Investment Corporation of Singapore to Mrs. Goh Keng Swee]" . Weekend Today . p. 11. Archived from the original on 16 May 2010. News reports Chang, Rachel; Cai, Haoxiang; Kor, Kian Beng (15 May 2010). "Ex-MPs recall a fearsome technocrat: A strict taskmaster who didn't suffer fools, but he was never brusque". The Straits Times . p. A8. "Leaders salute 'this marvellous man' ". The Straits Times . 15 May 2010. p. A4. S. Ramesh (15–16 May 2010). "A national hero who touched people's lives" . Weekend Today . p. 2. Archived from the original on 18 May 2010. "Goh Keng Swee: Passing of a colossus [editorial]". The Straits Times . 22 May 2010. p. A32. Balji, P.N. (22–23 May 2010). "Dr Goh, the Dream No 2" . Weekend Today . p. 11. Archived from the original on 30 May 2010. Devan, Janadas (23 May 2010). "Simply sincere: Dr Goh's simple yet eloquent writing style showed desire to reach out to ordinary people". The Sunday Times . Singapore. p. 35. External links Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Channel NewsAsia – Obituary: Goh Keng Swee 1918–2010 at the Wayback Machine (archived 1 April 2013), archived from the original on 1 April 2013 National Library Singapore – NLS Resource guide on Dr. Goh Keng Swee Political offices Preceded by New post Minister for Finance 1959–65 Succeeded by Lim Kim San Preceded by New post Minister for Defence 1965–67 Succeeded by Lim Kim San Preceded by Lim Kim San Minister for Finance 1967–70 Succeeded by Hon Sui Sen Preceded by Lim Kim San Minister for Finance 1970–79 Succeeded by Howe Yoon Chong Preceded by Chua Sian Chin Minister for Education 1979–80 Succeeded by Tony Tan Keng Yam Preceded by Tony Tan Keng Yam Minister for Education 1981–85 Succeeded by Tony Tan Keng Yam Preceded by Toh Chin Chye Deputy Prime Minister of Singapore 1973–85 Succeeded by Goh Chok Tong Parliament of Singapore New constituency Member of Parliament for Kreta Ayer 1959–84 Succeeded by Richard Hu Tsu Tau Military offices New title 1st Director, General Staff of Defence Force 1965-1967 Succeeded by T. J. D. Campbell Politics Biography Economics Singapore .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Ramon Magsaysay Award recipients v t e Government Service (1958–2008) Cambodia Ek Sonn Chan China Yuan Longping India C.D. Deshmukh J. M. Lyngdoh Indonesia Raden Kodijat Ali Sadikin Japan Morihiko Hiramatsu Hiroshi Kuroki Yukiharu Miki Laos Keo Viphakone Malaysia Mohamed Suffian Mohamed Hashim B. C. Shekhar Pakistan Akhtar Hameed Khan Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Jose Vasquez Aguilar Francisca Reyes-Aquino Hilario Davide Jr. Grace Padaca Jesse Robredo Jovito R. Salonga Miriam Defensor Santiago Haydee Yorac Singapore Goh Keng Swee Thailand Anand Panyarachun Chamlong Srimuang Jon Ungphakorn Phon Sangsingkeo Prawase Wasi Puey Ungpakorn Taiwan Shih-chu Hsu Li Kwoh-ting Jiang Menglin Government Service (1958–2008) Cambodia Ek Sonn Chan China Yuan Longping India C.D. Deshmukh J. M. Lyngdoh Indonesia Raden Kodijat Ali Sadikin Japan Morihiko Hiramatsu Hiroshi Kuroki Yukiharu Miki Laos Keo Viphakone Malaysia Mohamed Suffian Mohamed Hashim B. C. Shekhar Pakistan Akhtar Hameed Khan Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Jose Vasquez Aguilar Francisca Reyes-Aquino Hilario Davide Jr. Grace Padaca Jesse Robredo Jovito R. Salonga Miriam Defensor Santiago Haydee Yorac Singapore Goh Keng Swee Thailand Anand Panyarachun Chamlong Srimuang Jon Ungphakorn Phon Sangsingkeo Prawase Wasi Puey Ungpakorn Taiwan Shih-chu Hsu Li Kwoh-ting Jiang Menglin Cambodia Ek Sonn Chan Ek Sonn Chan China Yuan Longping Yuan Longping India C.D. Deshmukh J. M. Lyngdoh C.D. Deshmukh J. M. Lyngdoh Indonesia Raden Kodijat Ali Sadikin Raden Kodijat Ali Sadikin Japan Morihiko Hiramatsu Hiroshi Kuroki Yukiharu Miki Morihiko Hiramatsu Hiroshi Kuroki Yukiharu Miki Laos Keo Viphakone Keo Viphakone Malaysia Mohamed Suffian Mohamed Hashim B. C. Shekhar Mohamed Suffian Mohamed Hashim B. C. Shekhar Pakistan Akhtar Hameed Khan Ibn Abdur Rehman Akhtar Hameed Khan Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Jose Vasquez Aguilar Francisca Reyes-Aquino Hilario Davide Jr. Grace Padaca Jesse Robredo Jovito R. Salonga Miriam Defensor Santiago Haydee Yorac Jose Vasquez Aguilar Francisca Reyes-Aquino Hilario Davide Jr. Grace Padaca Jesse Robredo Jovito R. Salonga Miriam Defensor Santiago Haydee Yorac Singapore Goh Keng Swee Goh Keng Swee Thailand Anand Panyarachun Chamlong Srimuang Jon Ungphakorn Phon Sangsingkeo Prawase Wasi Puey Ungpakorn Anand Panyarachun Chamlong Srimuang Jon Ungphakorn Phon Sangsingkeo Prawase Wasi Puey Ungpakorn Taiwan Shih-chu Hsu Li Kwoh-ting Jiang Menglin Shih-chu Hsu Li Kwoh-ting Jiang Menglin Public Service (1958–2008) Burma Tee Tee Luce Ceylon Mary H. Rutnam China Gao Yaojie Jiang Yanyong Liang Congjie Wu Qing India Baba Amte Banoo Jehangir Coyaji Manibhai Desai Jayaprakash Narayan V. Shanta Indonesia H.B. Jassin Teten Masduki Pakistan Ruth Pfau Philippines Pedro Orata Center for Agriculture and Rural Development Mutually Reinforcing Institutions (CARD MRI) South Korea Kim Sun-tae Park Won-soon Spain based in Philippines Joaquin Villalonga Thailand Fua Hariphitak Mechai Viravaidya Nilawan Pintong Phra Parnchand Prateep Ungsongtham Hata Sirindhorn Sithiporn Kridakara Sophon Suphapong Therdchai Jivacate Thongbai Thongpao Public Service (1958–2008) Burma Tee Tee Luce Ceylon Mary H. Rutnam China Gao Yaojie Jiang Yanyong Liang Congjie Wu Qing India Baba Amte Banoo Jehangir Coyaji Manibhai Desai Jayaprakash Narayan V. Shanta Indonesia H.B. Jassin Teten Masduki Pakistan Ruth Pfau Philippines Pedro Orata Center for Agriculture and Rural Development Mutually Reinforcing Institutions (CARD MRI) South Korea Kim Sun-tae Park Won-soon Spain based in Philippines Joaquin Villalonga Thailand Fua Hariphitak Mechai Viravaidya Nilawan Pintong Phra Parnchand Prateep Ungsongtham Hata Sirindhorn Sithiporn Kridakara Sophon Suphapong Therdchai Jivacate Thongbai Thongpao Burma Tee Tee Luce Tee Tee Luce Ceylon Mary H. Rutnam Mary H. Rutnam China Gao Yaojie Jiang Yanyong Liang Congjie Wu Qing Gao Yaojie Jiang Yanyong Liang Congjie Wu Qing India Baba Amte Banoo Jehangir Coyaji Manibhai Desai Jayaprakash Narayan V. Shanta Baba Amte Banoo Jehangir Coyaji Manibhai Desai Jayaprakash Narayan V. Shanta Indonesia H.B. Jassin Teten Masduki H.B. Jassin Teten Masduki Pakistan Ruth Pfau Ruth Pfau Philippines Pedro Orata Center for Agriculture and Rural Development Mutually Reinforcing Institutions (CARD MRI) Pedro Orata Center for Agriculture and Rural Development Mutually Reinforcing Institutions (CARD MRI) South Korea Kim Sun-tae Park Won-soon Kim Sun-tae Park Won-soon Spain based in Philippines Joaquin Villalonga Joaquin Villalonga Thailand Fua Hariphitak Mechai Viravaidya Nilawan Pintong Phra Parnchand Prateep Ungsongtham Hata Sirindhorn Sithiporn Kridakara Sophon Suphapong Therdchai Jivacate Thongbai Thongpao Fua Hariphitak Mechai Viravaidya Nilawan Pintong Phra Parnchand Prateep Ungsongtham Hata Sirindhorn Sithiporn Kridakara Sophon Suphapong Therdchai Jivacate Thongbai Thongpao Community Leadership (1958–2008) Bangladesh Tahrunessa Abdullah Fazle Hasan Abed Muhammad Yunus Zafrullah Chowdhury Mohammed Yeasin Angela Gomes Burma Cynthia Maung India Mandakini Amte & Prakash Amte Mabelle Arole & Rajanikant Arole Pandurang Shastri Athavale Chandi Prasad Bhatt Ela Bhatt Vinoba Bhave Aruna Roy Shantha Sinha Rajendra Singh Japan Fusaye Ichikawa Laos Sombath Somphone Malaysia Tunku Abdul Rahman Nepal Mahabir Pun Philippines Gawad Kalinga Community Development Foundation Antonio Meloto Thailand Aree Valyasevi Krasae Chanawongse Prayong Ronnarong Tibet 14th Dalai Lama Community Leadership (1958–2008) Bangladesh Tahrunessa Abdullah Fazle Hasan Abed Muhammad Yunus Zafrullah Chowdhury Mohammed Yeasin Angela Gomes Burma Cynthia Maung India Mandakini Amte & Prakash Amte Mabelle Arole & Rajanikant Arole Pandurang Shastri Athavale Chandi Prasad Bhatt Ela Bhatt Vinoba Bhave Aruna Roy Shantha Sinha Rajendra Singh Japan Fusaye Ichikawa Laos Sombath Somphone Malaysia Tunku Abdul Rahman Nepal Mahabir Pun Philippines Gawad Kalinga Community Development Foundation Antonio Meloto Thailand Aree Valyasevi Krasae Chanawongse Prayong Ronnarong Tibet 14th Dalai Lama Bangladesh Tahrunessa Abdullah Fazle Hasan Abed Muhammad Yunus Zafrullah Chowdhury Mohammed Yeasin Angela Gomes Tahrunessa Abdullah Fazle Hasan Abed Muhammad Yunus Zafrullah Chowdhury Mohammed Yeasin Angela Gomes Burma Cynthia Maung Cynthia Maung India Mandakini Amte & Prakash Amte Mabelle Arole & Rajanikant Arole Pandurang Shastri Athavale Chandi Prasad Bhatt Ela Bhatt Vinoba Bhave Aruna Roy Shantha Sinha Rajendra Singh Mandakini Amte & Prakash Amte Mabelle Arole & Rajanikant Arole Pandurang Shastri Athavale Chandi Prasad Bhatt Ela Bhatt Vinoba Bhave Aruna Roy Shantha Sinha Rajendra Singh Japan Fusaye Ichikawa Fusaye Ichikawa Laos Sombath Somphone Sombath Somphone Malaysia Tunku Abdul Rahman Tunku Abdul Rahman Nepal Mahabir Pun Mahabir Pun Philippines Gawad Kalinga Community Development Foundation Antonio Meloto Gawad Kalinga Community Development Foundation Antonio Meloto Thailand Aree Valyasevi Krasae Chanawongse Prayong Ronnarong Aree Valyasevi Krasae Chanawongse Prayong Ronnarong Tibet 14th Dalai Lama 14th Dalai Lama Journalism, Literature, and the Creative Communication Arts (1958–2008) Bangladesh Matiur Rahman Abdullah Abu Sayeed Burma Edward Michael Law-Yone Ceylon or Sri Lanka Wannakuwatta Amaradeva Tarzie Vittachi India Mahasweta Devi Palagummi Sainath Amitabha Chowdhury Indonesia Atmakusumah Astraatmadja Mochtar Lubis Japan Akira Kurosawa Yasuji Hanamori Michiko Ishimure Akio Ishii Nepal Bharat Koirala Philippines Zacarias Sarian F. Sionil José Lino Brocka Radio Veritas James Reuter Bienvenido Lumbera Nick Joaquin Raul Locsin Eugenia Duran Apostol Sheila Coronel Thailand Prayoon Chanyavongs Great Britain based in Philippines Robert McCulloch Dick Journalism, Literature, and the Creative Communication Arts (1958–2008) Bangladesh Matiur Rahman Abdullah Abu Sayeed Burma Edward Michael Law-Yone Ceylon or Sri Lanka Wannakuwatta Amaradeva Tarzie Vittachi India Mahasweta Devi Palagummi Sainath Amitabha Chowdhury Indonesia Atmakusumah Astraatmadja Mochtar Lubis Japan Akira Kurosawa Yasuji Hanamori Michiko Ishimure Akio Ishii Nepal Bharat Koirala Philippines Zacarias Sarian F. Sionil José Lino Brocka Radio Veritas James Reuter Bienvenido Lumbera Nick Joaquin Raul Locsin Eugenia Duran Apostol Sheila Coronel Thailand Prayoon Chanyavongs Great Britain based in Philippines Robert McCulloch Dick Bangladesh Matiur Rahman Abdullah Abu Sayeed Matiur Rahman Abdullah Abu Sayeed Burma Edward Michael Law-Yone Edward Michael Law-Yone Ceylon or Sri Lanka Wannakuwatta Amaradeva Tarzie Vittachi Wannakuwatta Amaradeva Tarzie Vittachi India Mahasweta Devi Palagummi Sainath Amitabha Chowdhury Mahasweta Devi Palagummi Sainath Amitabha Chowdhury Indonesia Atmakusumah Astraatmadja Mochtar Lubis Atmakusumah Astraatmadja Mochtar Lubis Japan Akira Kurosawa Yasuji Hanamori Michiko Ishimure Akio Ishii Akira Kurosawa Yasuji Hanamori Michiko Ishimure Akio Ishii Nepal Bharat Koirala Bharat Koirala Philippines Zacarias Sarian F. Sionil José Lino Brocka Radio Veritas James Reuter Bienvenido Lumbera Nick Joaquin Raul Locsin Eugenia Duran Apostol Sheila Coronel Zacarias Sarian F. Sionil José Lino Brocka Radio Veritas James Reuter Bienvenido Lumbera Nick Joaquin Raul Locsin Eugenia Duran Apostol Sheila Coronel Thailand Prayoon Chanyavongs Prayoon Chanyavongs Great Britain based in Philippines Robert McCulloch Dick Robert McCulloch Dick Peace and International Understanding (1958–2008) China Tang Xiyang India Mother Teresa Jockin Arputham Laxminarayan Ramdas Indonesia Ahmad Syafi'i Maarif Japan Ikuo Hirayama Tetsu Nakamura Saburo Okita Seiei Toyama Nepal Sanduk Ruit Pakistan Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Operation Brotherhood Summer Institute of Linguistics William Masterson Harold Ray Watson International Institute of Rural Reconstruction Press Foundation of Asia Asian Institute of Management Corazon Aquino South Korea Pomnyun Sunim Thailand Asian Institute of Technology The Royal Project United States based in Thailand Genevieve Caulfield Peace and International Understanding (1958–2008) China Tang Xiyang India Mother Teresa Jockin Arputham Laxminarayan Ramdas Indonesia Ahmad Syafi'i Maarif Japan Ikuo Hirayama Tetsu Nakamura Saburo Okita Seiei Toyama Nepal Sanduk Ruit Pakistan Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Operation Brotherhood Summer Institute of Linguistics William Masterson Harold Ray Watson International Institute of Rural Reconstruction Press Foundation of Asia Asian Institute of Management Corazon Aquino South Korea Pomnyun Sunim Thailand Asian Institute of Technology The Royal Project United States based in Thailand Genevieve Caulfield China Tang Xiyang Tang Xiyang India Mother Teresa Jockin Arputham Laxminarayan Ramdas Mother Teresa Jockin Arputham Laxminarayan Ramdas Indonesia Ahmad Syafi'i Maarif Ahmad Syafi'i Maarif Japan Ikuo Hirayama Tetsu Nakamura Saburo Okita Seiei Toyama Ikuo Hirayama Tetsu Nakamura Saburo Okita Seiei Toyama Nepal Sanduk Ruit Sanduk Ruit Pakistan Ibn Abdur Rehman Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Operation Brotherhood Summer Institute of Linguistics William Masterson Harold Ray Watson International Institute of Rural Reconstruction Press Foundation of Asia Asian Institute of Management Corazon Aquino Operation Brotherhood Summer Institute of Linguistics William Masterson Harold Ray Watson International Institute of Rural Reconstruction Press Foundation of Asia Asian Institute of Management Corazon Aquino South Korea Pomnyun Sunim Pomnyun Sunim Thailand Asian Institute of Technology The Royal Project Asian Institute of Technology The Royal Project United States based in Thailand Genevieve Caulfield Genevieve Caulfield Emergent Leadership (2001–) Burma Ka Hsaw Wa China Chen Guangcheng Cambodia Oung Chanthol India Sanjiv Chaturvedi Arvind Kejriwal Nileema Mishra Sandeep Pandey Indonesia Ambrosius Ruwindrijarto Dita Indah Sari Philippines Benjamin Abadiano South Korea Yoon Hye-ran Sri Lanka Ananda Galappatti Timor-Leste Aniceto Guterres Lopes United States based in Hong Kong Chung To Emergent Leadership (2001–) Burma Ka Hsaw Wa China Chen Guangcheng Cambodia Oung Chanthol India Sanjiv Chaturvedi Arvind Kejriwal Nileema Mishra Sandeep Pandey Indonesia Ambrosius Ruwindrijarto Dita Indah Sari Philippines Benjamin Abadiano South Korea Yoon Hye-ran Sri Lanka Ananda Galappatti Timor-Leste Aniceto Guterres Lopes United States based in Hong Kong Chung To Burma Ka Hsaw Wa Ka Hsaw Wa China Chen Guangcheng Chen Guangcheng Cambodia Oung Chanthol Oung Chanthol India Sanjiv Chaturvedi Arvind Kejriwal Nileema Mishra Sandeep Pandey Sanjiv Chaturvedi Arvind Kejriwal Nileema Mishra Sandeep Pandey Indonesia Ambrosius Ruwindrijarto Dita Indah Sari Ambrosius Ruwindrijarto Dita Indah Sari Philippines Benjamin Abadiano Benjamin Abadiano South Korea Yoon Hye-ran Yoon Hye-ran Sri Lanka Ananda Galappatti Ananda Galappatti Timor-Leste Aniceto Guterres Lopes Aniceto Guterres Lopes United States based in Hong Kong Chung To Chung To Uncategorized (2009–) Bangladesh Syeda Rizwana Hasan A.H.M. Noman Khan Cambodia Yang Saing Koma Koul Panha China Fu Qiping Huo Daishan Ma Jun Pan Yue Yu Xiaogang India Kulandei Francis Harish Hande Deep Joshi Indonesia Hasanain Juaini Tri Mumpuni Japan Tadatoshi Akiba Philippines Alternative Indigenous Development Foundation , Inc. (AIDFI) Christopher Bernido Maria Victoria Carpio-Bernido Romulo Davide Antonio Oposa Jr. Taiwan Chen Shu-chu Thailand Krisana Kraisintu Uncategorized (2009–) Bangladesh Syeda Rizwana Hasan A.H.M. Noman Khan Cambodia Yang Saing Koma Koul Panha China Fu Qiping Huo Daishan Ma Jun Pan Yue Yu Xiaogang India Kulandei Francis Harish Hande Deep Joshi Indonesia Hasanain Juaini Tri Mumpuni Japan Tadatoshi Akiba Philippines Alternative Indigenous Development Foundation , Inc. (AIDFI) Christopher Bernido Maria Victoria Carpio-Bernido Romulo Davide Antonio Oposa Jr. Taiwan Chen Shu-chu Thailand Krisana Kraisintu Bangladesh Syeda Rizwana Hasan A.H.M. Noman Khan Syeda Rizwana Hasan A.H.M. Noman Khan Cambodia Yang Saing Koma Koul Panha Yang Saing Koma Koul Panha China Fu Qiping Huo Daishan Ma Jun Pan Yue Yu Xiaogang Fu Qiping Huo Daishan Ma Jun Pan Yue Yu Xiaogang India Kulandei Francis Harish Hande Deep Joshi Kulandei Francis Harish Hande Deep Joshi Indonesia Hasanain Juaini Tri Mumpuni Hasanain Juaini Tri Mumpuni Japan Tadatoshi Akiba Tadatoshi Akiba Philippines Alternative Indigenous Development Foundation , Inc. (AIDFI) Christopher Bernido Maria Victoria Carpio-Bernido Romulo Davide Antonio Oposa Jr. Alternative Indigenous Development Foundation , Inc. 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We gratefully acknowledge support from the Simons Foundation, member institutions , and all contributors. Donate Help | Advanced Search Showing 1–50 of 5,425 results for author: Zhang, L Show abstracts Hide abstracts 1 2 3 4 5 … arXiv:2601.10525 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.HC Learning from Brain Topography: A Hierarchical Local-Global Graph-Transformer Network for EEG Emotion Recognition Authors: Yijin Zhou , Fu Li , Yi Niu , Boxun Fu , Huaning Wang , Lijian Zhang Abstract : Understanding how local neurophysiological patterns interact with global brain dynamics is essential for decoding human emotions from EEG signals. However, existing deep learning approaches often overlook the brain's intrinsic spatial organization, failing to simultaneously capture local topological relations and global dependencies. To address these challenges, we propose Neuro-HGLN, a Neurologic… ▽ More Understanding how local neurophysiological patterns interact with global brain dynamics is essential for decoding human emotions from EEG signals. However, existing deep learning approaches often overlook the brain's intrinsic spatial organization, failing to simultaneously capture local topological relations and global dependencies. To address these challenges, we propose Neuro-HGLN, a Neurologically-informed Hierarchical Graph-Transformer Learning Network that integrates biologically grounded priors with hierarchical representation learning. Neuro-HGLN first constructs a spatial Euclidean prior graph based on physical electrode distances to serve as an anatomically grounded inductive bias. A learnable global dynamic graph is then introduced to model functional connectivity across the entire brain. In parallel, to capture fine-grained regional dependencies, Neuro-HGLN builds region-level local graphs using a multi-head self-attention mechanism. These graphs are processed synchronously through local-constrained parallel GCN layers to produce region-specific representations. Subsequently, an iTransformer encoder aggregates these features to capture cross-region dependencies under a dimension-as-token formulation. Extensive experiments demonstrate that Neuro-HGLN achieves state-of-the-art performance on multiple benchmarks, providing enhanced interpretability grounded in neurophysiological structure. These results highlight the efficacy of unifying local topological learning with cross-region dependency modeling for robust EEG emotion recognition. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10525 [ pdf , ps , other ] Learning from Brain Topography: A Hierarchical Local-Global Graph-Transformer Network for EEG Emotion Recognition Authors: Yijin Zhou , Fu Li , Yi Niu , Boxun Fu , Huaning Wang , Lijian Zhang Abstract : Understanding how local neurophysiological patterns interact with global brain dynamics is essential for decoding human emotions from EEG signals. However, existing deep learning approaches often overlook the brain's intrinsic spatial organization, failing to simultaneously capture local topological relations and global dependencies. To address these challenges, we propose Neuro-HGLN, a Neurologic… ▽ More Understanding how local neurophysiological patterns interact with global brain dynamics is essential for decoding human emotions from EEG signals. However, existing deep learning approaches often overlook the brain's intrinsic spatial organization, failing to simultaneously capture local topological relations and global dependencies. To address these challenges, we propose Neuro-HGLN, a Neurologically-informed Hierarchical Graph-Transformer Learning Network that integrates biologically grounded priors with hierarchical representation learning. Neuro-HGLN first constructs a spatial Euclidean prior graph based on physical electrode distances to serve as an anatomically grounded inductive bias. A learnable global dynamic graph is then introduced to model functional connectivity across the entire brain. In parallel, to capture fine-grained regional dependencies, Neuro-HGLN builds region-level local graphs using a multi-head self-attention mechanism. These graphs are processed synchronously through local-constrained parallel GCN layers to produce region-specific representations. Subsequently, an iTransformer encoder aggregates these features to capture cross-region dependencies under a dimension-as-token formulation. Extensive experiments demonstrate that Neuro-HGLN achieves state-of-the-art performance on multiple benchmarks, providing enhanced interpretability grounded in neurophysiological structure. These results highlight the efficacy of unifying local topological learning with cross-region dependency modeling for robust EEG emotion recognition. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10406 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI ErrEval: Error-Aware Evaluation for Question Generation through Explicit Diagnostics Authors: Weiping Fu , Bifan Wei , Jingyi Hao , Yushun Zhang , Jian Zhang , Jiaxin Wang , Bo Li , Yu He , Lingling Zhang , Jun Liu Abstract : Automatic Question Generation (QG) often produces outputs with critical defects, such as factual hallucinations and answer mismatches. However, existing evaluation methods, including LLM-based evaluators, mainly adopt a black-box and holistic paradigm without explicit error modeling, leading to the neglect of such defects and overestimation of question quality. To address this issue, we propose Er… ▽ More Automatic Question Generation (QG) often produces outputs with critical defects, such as factual hallucinations and answer mismatches. However, existing evaluation methods, including LLM-based evaluators, mainly adopt a black-box and holistic paradigm without explicit error modeling, leading to the neglect of such defects and overestimation of question quality. To address this issue, we propose ErrEval, a flexible and Error-aware Evaluation framework that enhances QG evaluation through explicit error diagnostics. Specifically, ErrEval reformulates evaluation as a two-stage process of error diagnosis followed by informed scoring. At the first stage, a lightweight plug-and-play Error Identifier detects and categorizes common errors across structural, linguistic, and content-related aspects. These diagnostic signals are then incorporated as explicit evidence to guide LLM evaluators toward more fine-grained and grounded judgments. Extensive experiments on three benchmarks demonstrate the effectiveness of ErrEval, showing that incorporating explicit diagnostics improves alignment with human judgments. Further analyses confirm that ErrEval effectively mitigates the overestimation of low-quality questions. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10406 [ pdf , ps , other ] ErrEval: Error-Aware Evaluation for Question Generation through Explicit Diagnostics Authors: Weiping Fu , Bifan Wei , Jingyi Hao , Yushun Zhang , Jian Zhang , Jiaxin Wang , Bo Li , Yu He , Lingling Zhang , Jun Liu Abstract : Automatic Question Generation (QG) often produces outputs with critical defects, such as factual hallucinations and answer mismatches. However, existing evaluation methods, including LLM-based evaluators, mainly adopt a black-box and holistic paradigm without explicit error modeling, leading to the neglect of such defects and overestimation of question quality. To address this issue, we propose Er… ▽ More Automatic Question Generation (QG) often produces outputs with critical defects, such as factual hallucinations and answer mismatches. However, existing evaluation methods, including LLM-based evaluators, mainly adopt a black-box and holistic paradigm without explicit error modeling, leading to the neglect of such defects and overestimation of question quality. To address this issue, we propose ErrEval, a flexible and Error-aware Evaluation framework that enhances QG evaluation through explicit error diagnostics. Specifically, ErrEval reformulates evaluation as a two-stage process of error diagnosis followed by informed scoring. At the first stage, a lightweight plug-and-play Error Identifier detects and categorizes common errors across structural, linguistic, and content-related aspects. These diagnostic signals are then incorporated as explicit evidence to guide LLM evaluators toward more fine-grained and grounded judgments. Extensive experiments on three benchmarks demonstrate the effectiveness of ErrEval, showing that incorporating explicit diagnostics improves alignment with human judgments. Further analyses confirm that ErrEval effectively mitigates the overestimation of low-quality questions. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10402 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI Toward Ultra-Long-Horizon Agentic Science: Cognitive Accumulation for Machine Learning Engineering Authors: Xinyu Zhu , Yuzhu Cai , Zexi Liu , Bingyang Zheng , Cheng Wang , Rui Ye , Jiaao Chen , Hanrui Wang , Wei-Chen Wang , Yuzhi Zhang , Linfeng Zhang , Weinan E , Di Jin , Siheng Chen Abstract : The advancement of artificial intelligence toward agentic science is currently bottlenecked by the challenge of ultra-long-horizon autonomy, the ability to sustain strategic coherence and iterative correction over experimental cycles spanning days or weeks. While Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated prowess in short-horizon reasoning, they are easily overwhelmed by execution details in t… ▽ More The advancement of artificial intelligence toward agentic science is currently bottlenecked by the challenge of ultra-long-horizon autonomy, the ability to sustain strategic coherence and iterative correction over experimental cycles spanning days or weeks. While Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated prowess in short-horizon reasoning, they are easily overwhelmed by execution details in the high-dimensional, delayed-feedback environments of real-world research, failing to consolidate sparse feedback into coherent long-term guidance. Here, we present ML-Master 2.0, an autonomous agent that masters ultra-long-horizon machine learning engineering (MLE) which is a representative microcosm of scientific discovery. By reframing context management as a process of cognitive accumulation, our approach introduces Hierarchical Cognitive Caching (HCC), a multi-tiered architecture inspired by computer systems that enables the structural differentiation of experience over time. By dynamically distilling transient execution traces into stable knowledge and cross-task wisdom, HCC allows agents to decouple immediate execution from long-term experimental strategy, effectively overcoming the scaling limits of static context windows. In evaluations on OpenAI's MLE-Bench under 24-hour budgets, ML-Master 2.0 achieves a state-of-the-art medal rate of 56.44%. Our findings demonstrate that ultra-long-horizon autonomy provides a scalable blueprint for AI capable of autonomous exploration beyond human-precedent complexities. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 26 pages. 5 figures arXiv:2601.10402 [ pdf , ps , other ] Toward Ultra-Long-Horizon Agentic Science: Cognitive Accumulation for Machine Learning Engineering Authors: Xinyu Zhu , Yuzhu Cai , Zexi Liu , Bingyang Zheng , Cheng Wang , Rui Ye , Jiaao Chen , Hanrui Wang , Wei-Chen Wang , Yuzhi Zhang , Linfeng Zhang , Weinan E , Di Jin , Siheng Chen Abstract : The advancement of artificial intelligence toward agentic science is currently bottlenecked by the challenge of ultra-long-horizon autonomy, the ability to sustain strategic coherence and iterative correction over experimental cycles spanning days or weeks. While Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated prowess in short-horizon reasoning, they are easily overwhelmed by execution details in t… ▽ More The advancement of artificial intelligence toward agentic science is currently bottlenecked by the challenge of ultra-long-horizon autonomy, the ability to sustain strategic coherence and iterative correction over experimental cycles spanning days or weeks. While Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated prowess in short-horizon reasoning, they are easily overwhelmed by execution details in the high-dimensional, delayed-feedback environments of real-world research, failing to consolidate sparse feedback into coherent long-term guidance. Here, we present ML-Master 2.0, an autonomous agent that masters ultra-long-horizon machine learning engineering (MLE) which is a representative microcosm of scientific discovery. By reframing context management as a process of cognitive accumulation, our approach introduces Hierarchical Cognitive Caching (HCC), a multi-tiered architecture inspired by computer systems that enables the structural differentiation of experience over time. By dynamically distilling transient execution traces into stable knowledge and cross-task wisdom, HCC allows agents to decouple immediate execution from long-term experimental strategy, effectively overcoming the scaling limits of static context windows. In evaluations on OpenAI's MLE-Bench under 24-hour budgets, ML-Master 2.0 achieves a state-of-the-art medal rate of 56.44%. Our findings demonstrate that ultra-long-horizon autonomy provides a scalable blueprint for AI capable of autonomous exploration beyond human-precedent complexities. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 26 pages. 5 figures arXiv:2601.10338 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CR cs.AI cs.CL cs.SE Agent Skills in the Wild: An Empirical Study of Security Vulnerabilities at Scale Authors: Yi Liu , Weizhe Wang , Ruitao Feng , Yao Zhang , Guangquan Xu , Gelei Deng , Yuekang Li , Leo Zhang Abstract : The rise of AI agent frameworks has introduced agent skills, modular packages containing instructions and executable code that dynamically extend agent capabilities. While this architecture enables powerful customization, skills execute with implicit trust and minimal vetting, creating a significant yet uncharacterized attack surface. We conduct the first large-scale empirical security analysis of… ▽ More The rise of AI agent frameworks has introduced agent skills, modular packages containing instructions and executable code that dynamically extend agent capabilities. While this architecture enables powerful customization, skills execute with implicit trust and minimal vetting, creating a significant yet uncharacterized attack surface. We conduct the first large-scale empirical security analysis of this emerging ecosystem, collecting 42,447 skills from two major marketplaces and systematically analyzing 31,132 using SkillScan, a multi-stage detection framework integrating static analysis with LLM-based semantic classification. Our findings reveal pervasive security risks: 26.1% of skills contain at least one vulnerability, spanning 14 distinct patterns across four categories: prompt injection, data exfiltration, privilege escalation, and supply chain risks. Data exfiltration (13.3%) and privilege escalation (11.8%) are most prevalent, while 5.2% of skills exhibit high-severity patterns strongly suggesting malicious intent. We find that skills bundling executable scripts are 2.12x more likely to contain vulnerabilities than instruction-only skills (OR=2.12, p<0.001). Our contributions include: (1) a grounded vulnerability taxonomy derived from 8,126 vulnerable skills, (2) a validated detection methodology achieving 86.7% precision and 82.5% recall, and (3) an open dataset and detection toolkit to support future research. These results demonstrate an urgent need for capability-based permission systems and mandatory security vetting before this attack vector is further exploited. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10338 [ pdf , ps , other ] Agent Skills in the Wild: An Empirical Study of Security Vulnerabilities at Scale Authors: Yi Liu , Weizhe Wang , Ruitao Feng , Yao Zhang , Guangquan Xu , Gelei Deng , Yuekang Li , Leo Zhang Abstract : The rise of AI agent frameworks has introduced agent skills, modular packages containing instructions and executable code that dynamically extend agent capabilities. While this architecture enables powerful customization, skills execute with implicit trust and minimal vetting, creating a significant yet uncharacterized attack surface. We conduct the first large-scale empirical security analysis of… ▽ More The rise of AI agent frameworks has introduced agent skills, modular packages containing instructions and executable code that dynamically extend agent capabilities. While this architecture enables powerful customization, skills execute with implicit trust and minimal vetting, creating a significant yet uncharacterized attack surface. We conduct the first large-scale empirical security analysis of this emerging ecosystem, collecting 42,447 skills from two major marketplaces and systematically analyzing 31,132 using SkillScan, a multi-stage detection framework integrating static analysis with LLM-based semantic classification. Our findings reveal pervasive security risks: 26.1% of skills contain at least one vulnerability, spanning 14 distinct patterns across four categories: prompt injection, data exfiltration, privilege escalation, and supply chain risks. Data exfiltration (13.3%) and privilege escalation (11.8%) are most prevalent, while 5.2% of skills exhibit high-severity patterns strongly suggesting malicious intent. We find that skills bundling executable scripts are 2.12x more likely to contain vulnerabilities than instruction-only skills (OR=2.12, p<0.001). Our contributions include: (1) a grounded vulnerability taxonomy derived from 8,126 vulnerable skills, (2) a validated detection methodology achieving 86.7% precision and 82.5% recall, and (3) an open dataset and detection toolkit to support future research. These results demonstrate an urgent need for capability-based permission systems and mandatory security vetting before this attack vector is further exploited. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10187 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI HOMURA: Taming the Sand-Glass for Time-Constrained LLM Translation via Reinforcement Learning Authors: Ziang Cui , Mengran Yu , Tianjiao Li , Chenyu Shi , Yingxuan Shi , Lusheng Zhang , Hongwei Lin Abstract : Large Language Models (LLMs) have achieved remarkable strides in multilingual translation but are hindered by a systemic cross-lingual verbosity bias, rendering them unsuitable for strict time-constrained tasks like subtitling and dubbing. Current prompt-engineering approaches struggle to resolve this conflict between semantic fidelity and rigid temporal feasibility. To bridge this gap, we first i… ▽ More Large Language Models (LLMs) have achieved remarkable strides in multilingual translation but are hindered by a systemic cross-lingual verbosity bias, rendering them unsuitable for strict time-constrained tasks like subtitling and dubbing. Current prompt-engineering approaches struggle to resolve this conflict between semantic fidelity and rigid temporal feasibility. To bridge this gap, we first introduce Sand-Glass, a benchmark specifically designed to evaluate translation under syllable-level duration constraints. Furthermore, we propose HOMURA, a reinforcement learning framework that explicitly optimizes the trade-off between semantic preservation and temporal compliance. By employing a KL-regularized objective with a novel dynamic syllable-ratio reward, HOMURA effectively "tames" the output length. Experimental results demonstrate that our method significantly outperforms strong LLM baselines, achieving precise length control that respects linguistic density hierarchies without compromising semantic adequacy. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10187 [ pdf , ps , other ] HOMURA: Taming the Sand-Glass for Time-Constrained LLM Translation via Reinforcement Learning Authors: Ziang Cui , Mengran Yu , Tianjiao Li , Chenyu Shi , Yingxuan Shi , Lusheng Zhang , Hongwei Lin Abstract : Large Language Models (LLMs) have achieved remarkable strides in multilingual translation but are hindered by a systemic cross-lingual verbosity bias, rendering them unsuitable for strict time-constrained tasks like subtitling and dubbing. Current prompt-engineering approaches struggle to resolve this conflict between semantic fidelity and rigid temporal feasibility. To bridge this gap, we first i… ▽ More Large Language Models (LLMs) have achieved remarkable strides in multilingual translation but are hindered by a systemic cross-lingual verbosity bias, rendering them unsuitable for strict time-constrained tasks like subtitling and dubbing. Current prompt-engineering approaches struggle to resolve this conflict between semantic fidelity and rigid temporal feasibility. To bridge this gap, we first introduce Sand-Glass, a benchmark specifically designed to evaluate translation under syllable-level duration constraints. Furthermore, we propose HOMURA, a reinforcement learning framework that explicitly optimizes the trade-off between semantic preservation and temporal compliance. By employing a KL-regularized objective with a novel dynamic syllable-ratio reward, HOMURA effectively "tames" the output length. Experimental results demonstrate that our method significantly outperforms strong LLM baselines, achieving precise length control that respects linguistic density hierarchies without compromising semantic adequacy. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10109 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL Skill-Aware Data Selection and Fine-Tuning for Data-Efficient Reasoning Distillation Authors: Lechen Zhang , Yunxiang Zhang , Wei Hu , Lu Wang Abstract : Large reasoning models such as DeepSeek-R1 and their distilled variants achieve strong performance on complex reasoning tasks. Yet, distilling these models often demands large-scale data for supervised fine-tuning (SFT), motivating the pursuit of data-efficient training methods. To address this, we propose a skill-centric distillation framework that efficiently transfers reasoning ability to weake… ▽ More Large reasoning models such as DeepSeek-R1 and their distilled variants achieve strong performance on complex reasoning tasks. Yet, distilling these models often demands large-scale data for supervised fine-tuning (SFT), motivating the pursuit of data-efficient training methods. To address this, we propose a skill-centric distillation framework that efficiently transfers reasoning ability to weaker models with two components: (1) Skill-based data selection, which prioritizes examples targeting the student model's weaker skills, and (2) Skill-aware fine-tuning, which encourages explicit skill decomposition during problem solving. With only 1,000 training examples selected from a 100K teacher-generated corpus, our method surpasses random SFT baselines by +1.6% on Qwen3-4B and +1.4% on Qwen3-8B across five mathematical reasoning benchmarks. Further analysis confirms that these gains concentrate on skills emphasized during training, highlighting the effectiveness of skill-centric training for efficient reasoning distillation. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10109 [ pdf , ps , other ] Skill-Aware Data Selection and Fine-Tuning for Data-Efficient Reasoning Distillation Authors: Lechen Zhang , Yunxiang Zhang , Wei Hu , Lu Wang Abstract : Large reasoning models such as DeepSeek-R1 and their distilled variants achieve strong performance on complex reasoning tasks. Yet, distilling these models often demands large-scale data for supervised fine-tuning (SFT), motivating the pursuit of data-efficient training methods. To address this, we propose a skill-centric distillation framework that efficiently transfers reasoning ability to weake… ▽ More Large reasoning models such as DeepSeek-R1 and their distilled variants achieve strong performance on complex reasoning tasks. Yet, distilling these models often demands large-scale data for supervised fine-tuning (SFT), motivating the pursuit of data-efficient training methods. To address this, we propose a skill-centric distillation framework that efficiently transfers reasoning ability to weaker models with two components: (1) Skill-based data selection, which prioritizes examples targeting the student model's weaker skills, and (2) Skill-aware fine-tuning, which encourages explicit skill decomposition during problem solving. With only 1,000 training examples selected from a 100K teacher-generated corpus, our method surpasses random SFT baselines by +1.6% on Qwen3-4B and +1.4% on Qwen3-8B across five mathematical reasoning benchmarks. Further analysis confirms that these gains concentrate on skills emphasized during training, highlighting the effectiveness of skill-centric training for efficient reasoning distillation. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10103 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI FlowAct-R1: Towards Interactive Humanoid Video Generation Authors: Lizhen Wang , Yongming Zhu , Zhipeng Ge , Youwei Zheng , Longhao Zhang , Tianshu Hu , Shiyang Qin , Mingshuang Luo , Jiaxu Zhang , Xin Chen , Yulong Wang , Zerong Zheng , Jianwen Jiang , Chao Liang , Weifeng Chen , Xing Wang , Yuan Zhang , Mingyuan Gao Abstract : Interactive humanoid video generation aims to synthesize lifelike visual agents that can engage with humans through continuous and responsive video. Despite recent advances in video synthesis, existing methods often grapple with the trade-off between high-fidelity synthesis and real-time interaction requirements. In this paper, we propose FlowAct-R1, a framework specifically designed for real-time… ▽ More Interactive humanoid video generation aims to synthesize lifelike visual agents that can engage with humans through continuous and responsive video. Despite recent advances in video synthesis, existing methods often grapple with the trade-off between high-fidelity synthesis and real-time interaction requirements. In this paper, we propose FlowAct-R1, a framework specifically designed for real-time interactive humanoid video generation. Built upon a MMDiT architecture, FlowAct-R1 enables the streaming synthesis of video with arbitrary durations while maintaining low-latency responsiveness. We introduce a chunkwise diffusion forcing strategy, complemented by a novel self-forcing variant, to alleviate error accumulation and ensure long-term temporal consistency during continuous interaction. By leveraging efficient distillation and system-level optimizations, our framework achieves a stable 25fps at 480p resolution with a time-to-first-frame (TTFF) of only around 1.5 seconds. The proposed method provides holistic and fine-grained full-body control, enabling the agent to transition naturally between diverse behavioral states in interactive scenarios. Experimental results demonstrate that FlowAct-R1 achieves exceptional behavioral vividness and perceptual realism, while maintaining robust generalization across diverse character styles. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10103 [ pdf , ps , other ] FlowAct-R1: Towards Interactive Humanoid Video Generation Authors: Lizhen Wang , Yongming Zhu , Zhipeng Ge , Youwei Zheng , Longhao Zhang , Tianshu Hu , Shiyang Qin , Mingshuang Luo , Jiaxu Zhang , Xin Chen , Yulong Wang , Zerong Zheng , Jianwen Jiang , Chao Liang , Weifeng Chen , Xing Wang , Yuan Zhang , Mingyuan Gao Abstract : Interactive humanoid video generation aims to synthesize lifelike visual agents that can engage with humans through continuous and responsive video. Despite recent advances in video synthesis, existing methods often grapple with the trade-off between high-fidelity synthesis and real-time interaction requirements. In this paper, we propose FlowAct-R1, a framework specifically designed for real-time… ▽ More Interactive humanoid video generation aims to synthesize lifelike visual agents that can engage with humans through continuous and responsive video. Despite recent advances in video synthesis, existing methods often grapple with the trade-off between high-fidelity synthesis and real-time interaction requirements. In this paper, we propose FlowAct-R1, a framework specifically designed for real-time interactive humanoid video generation. Built upon a MMDiT architecture, FlowAct-R1 enables the streaming synthesis of video with arbitrary durations while maintaining low-latency responsiveness. We introduce a chunkwise diffusion forcing strategy, complemented by a novel self-forcing variant, to alleviate error accumulation and ensure long-term temporal consistency during continuous interaction. By leveraging efficient distillation and system-level optimizations, our framework achieves a stable 25fps at 480p resolution with a time-to-first-frame (TTFF) of only around 1.5 seconds. The proposed method provides holistic and fine-grained full-body control, enabling the agent to transition naturally between diverse behavioral states in interactive scenarios. Experimental results demonstrate that FlowAct-R1 achieves exceptional behavioral vividness and perceptual realism, while maintaining robust generalization across diverse character styles. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10037 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.ET Resistive Memory based Efficient Machine Unlearning and Continual Learning Authors: Ning Lin , Jichang Yang , Yangu He , Zijian Ye , Kwun Hang Wong , Xinyuan Zhang , Songqi Wang , Yi Li , Kemi Xu , Leo Yu Zhang , Xiaoming Chen , Dashan Shang , Han Wang , Xiaojuan Qi , Zhongrui Wang Abstract : Resistive memory (RM) based neuromorphic systems can emulate synaptic plasticity and thus support continual learning, but they generally lack biologically inspired mechanisms for active forgetting, which are critical for meeting modern data privacy requirements. Algorithmic forgetting, or machine unlearning, seeks to remove the influence of specific data from trained models to prevent memorization… ▽ More Resistive memory (RM) based neuromorphic systems can emulate synaptic plasticity and thus support continual learning, but they generally lack biologically inspired mechanisms for active forgetting, which are critical for meeting modern data privacy requirements. Algorithmic forgetting, or machine unlearning, seeks to remove the influence of specific data from trained models to prevent memorization of sensitive information and the generation of harmful content, yet existing exact and approximate unlearning schemes incur prohibitive programming overheads on RM hardware owing to device variability and iterative write-verify cycles. Analogue implementations of continual learning face similar barriers. Here we present a hardware-software co-design that enables an efficient training, deployment and inference pipeline for machine unlearning and continual learning on RM accelerators. At the software level, we introduce a low-rank adaptation (LoRA) framework that confines updates to compact parameter branches, substantially reducing the number of trainable parameters and therefore the training cost. At the hardware level, we develop a hybrid analogue-digital compute-in-memory system in which well-trained weights are stored in analogue RM arrays, whereas dynamic LoRA updates are implemented in a digital computing unit with SRAM buffer. This hybrid architecture avoids costly reprogramming of analogue weights and maintains high energy efficiency during inference. Fabricated in a 180 nm CMOS process, the prototype achieves up to a 147.76-fold reduction in training cost, a 387.95-fold reduction in deployment overhead and a 48.44-fold reduction in inference energy across privacy-sensitive tasks including face recognition, speaker authentication and stylized image generation, paving the way for secure and efficient neuromorphic intelligence at the edge. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10037 [ pdf , ps , other ] Resistive Memory based Efficient Machine Unlearning and Continual Learning Authors: Ning Lin , Jichang Yang , Yangu He , Zijian Ye , Kwun Hang Wong , Xinyuan Zhang , Songqi Wang , Yi Li , Kemi Xu , Leo Yu Zhang , Xiaoming Chen , Dashan Shang , Han Wang , Xiaojuan Qi , Zhongrui Wang Abstract : Resistive memory (RM) based neuromorphic systems can emulate synaptic plasticity and thus support continual learning, but they generally lack biologically inspired mechanisms for active forgetting, which are critical for meeting modern data privacy requirements. Algorithmic forgetting, or machine unlearning, seeks to remove the influence of specific data from trained models to prevent memorization… ▽ More Resistive memory (RM) based neuromorphic systems can emulate synaptic plasticity and thus support continual learning, but they generally lack biologically inspired mechanisms for active forgetting, which are critical for meeting modern data privacy requirements. Algorithmic forgetting, or machine unlearning, seeks to remove the influence of specific data from trained models to prevent memorization of sensitive information and the generation of harmful content, yet existing exact and approximate unlearning schemes incur prohibitive programming overheads on RM hardware owing to device variability and iterative write-verify cycles. Analogue implementations of continual learning face similar barriers. Here we present a hardware-software co-design that enables an efficient training, deployment and inference pipeline for machine unlearning and continual learning on RM accelerators. At the software level, we introduce a low-rank adaptation (LoRA) framework that confines updates to compact parameter branches, substantially reducing the number of trainable parameters and therefore the training cost. At the hardware level, we develop a hybrid analogue-digital compute-in-memory system in which well-trained weights are stored in analogue RM arrays, whereas dynamic LoRA updates are implemented in a digital computing unit with SRAM buffer. This hybrid architecture avoids costly reprogramming of analogue weights and maintains high energy efficiency during inference. Fabricated in a 180 nm CMOS process, the prototype achieves up to a 147.76-fold reduction in training cost, a 387.95-fold reduction in deployment overhead and a 48.44-fold reduction in inference energy across privacy-sensitive tasks including face recognition, speaker authentication and stylized image generation, paving the way for secure and efficient neuromorphic intelligence at the edge. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09606 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV GRCF: Two-Stage Groupwise Ranking and Calibration Framework for Multimodal Sentiment Analysis Authors: Manning Gao , Leheng Zhang , Shiqin Han , Haifeng Hu , Yuncheng Jiang , Sijie Mai Abstract : Most Multimodal Sentiment Analysis research has focused on point-wise regression. While straightforward, this approach is sensitive to label noise and neglects whether one sample is more positive than another, resulting in unstable predictions and poor correlation alignment. Pairwise ordinal learning frameworks emerged to address this gap, capturing relative order by learning from comparisons. Yet… ▽ More Most Multimodal Sentiment Analysis research has focused on point-wise regression. While straightforward, this approach is sensitive to label noise and neglects whether one sample is more positive than another, resulting in unstable predictions and poor correlation alignment. Pairwise ordinal learning frameworks emerged to address this gap, capturing relative order by learning from comparisons. Yet, they introduce two new trade-offs: First, they assign uniform importance to all comparisons, failing to adaptively focus on hard-to-rank samples. Second, they employ static ranking margins, which fail to reflect the varying semantic distances between sentiment groups. To address this, we propose a Two-Stage Group-wise Ranking and Calibration Framework (GRCF) that adapts the philosophy of Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO). Our framework resolves these trade-offs by simultaneously preserving relative ordinal structure, ensuring absolute score calibration, and adaptively focusing on difficult samples. Specifically, Stage 1 introduces a GRPO-inspired Advantage-Weighted Dynamic Margin Ranking Loss to build a fine-grained ordinal structure. Stage 2 then employs an MAE-driven objective to align prediction magnitudes. To validate its generalizability, we extend GRCF to classification tasks, including multimodal humor detection and sarcasm detection. GRCF achieves state-of-the-art performance on core regression benchmarks, while also showing strong generalizability in classification tasks. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09606 [ pdf , ps , other ] GRCF: Two-Stage Groupwise Ranking and Calibration Framework for Multimodal Sentiment Analysis Authors: Manning Gao , Leheng Zhang , Shiqin Han , Haifeng Hu , Yuncheng Jiang , Sijie Mai Abstract : Most Multimodal Sentiment Analysis research has focused on point-wise regression. While straightforward, this approach is sensitive to label noise and neglects whether one sample is more positive than another, resulting in unstable predictions and poor correlation alignment. Pairwise ordinal learning frameworks emerged to address this gap, capturing relative order by learning from comparisons. Yet… ▽ More Most Multimodal Sentiment Analysis research has focused on point-wise regression. While straightforward, this approach is sensitive to label noise and neglects whether one sample is more positive than another, resulting in unstable predictions and poor correlation alignment. Pairwise ordinal learning frameworks emerged to address this gap, capturing relative order by learning from comparisons. Yet, they introduce two new trade-offs: First, they assign uniform importance to all comparisons, failing to adaptively focus on hard-to-rank samples. Second, they employ static ranking margins, which fail to reflect the varying semantic distances between sentiment groups. To address this, we propose a Two-Stage Group-wise Ranking and Calibration Framework (GRCF) that adapts the philosophy of Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO). Our framework resolves these trade-offs by simultaneously preserving relative ordinal structure, ensuring absolute score calibration, and adaptively focusing on difficult samples. Specifically, Stage 1 introduces a GRPO-inspired Advantage-Weighted Dynamic Margin Ranking Loss to build a fine-grained ordinal structure. Stage 2 then employs an MAE-driven objective to align prediction magnitudes. To validate its generalizability, we extend GRCF to classification tasks, including multimodal humor detection and sarcasm detection. GRCF achieves state-of-the-art performance on core regression benchmarks, while also showing strong generalizability in classification tasks. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09572 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Trustworthy Longitudinal Brain MRI Completion: A Deformation-Based Approach with KAN-Enhanced Diffusion Model Authors: Tianli Tao , Ziyang Wang , Delong Yang , Han Zhang , Le Zhang Abstract : Longitudinal brain MRI is essential for lifespan study, yet high attrition rates often lead to missing data, complicating analysis. Deep generative models have been explored, but most rely solely on image intensity, leading to two key limitations: 1) the fidelity or trustworthiness of the generated brain images are limited, making downstream studies questionable; 2) the usage flexibility is restri… ▽ More Longitudinal brain MRI is essential for lifespan study, yet high attrition rates often lead to missing data, complicating analysis. Deep generative models have been explored, but most rely solely on image intensity, leading to two key limitations: 1) the fidelity or trustworthiness of the generated brain images are limited, making downstream studies questionable; 2) the usage flexibility is restricted due to fixed guidance rooted in the model structure, restricting full ability to versatile application scenarios. To address these challenges, we introduce DF-DiffCom, a Kolmogorov-Arnold Networks (KAN)-enhanced diffusion model that smartly leverages deformation fields for trustworthy longitudinal brain image completion. Trained on OASIS-3, DF-DiffCom outperforms state-of-the-art methods, improving PSNR by 5.6% and SSIM by 0.12. More importantly, its modality-agnostic nature allows smooth extension to varied MRI modalities, even to attribute maps such as brain tissue segmentation results. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09572 [ pdf , ps , other ] Trustworthy Longitudinal Brain MRI Completion: A Deformation-Based Approach with KAN-Enhanced Diffusion Model Authors: Tianli Tao , Ziyang Wang , Delong Yang , Han Zhang , Le Zhang Abstract : Longitudinal brain MRI is essential for lifespan study, yet high attrition rates often lead to missing data, complicating analysis. Deep generative models have been explored, but most rely solely on image intensity, leading to two key limitations: 1) the fidelity or trustworthiness of the generated brain images are limited, making downstream studies questionable; 2) the usage flexibility is restri… ▽ More Longitudinal brain MRI is essential for lifespan study, yet high attrition rates often lead to missing data, complicating analysis. Deep generative models have been explored, but most rely solely on image intensity, leading to two key limitations: 1) the fidelity or trustworthiness of the generated brain images are limited, making downstream studies questionable; 2) the usage flexibility is restricted due to fixed guidance rooted in the model structure, restricting full ability to versatile application scenarios. To address these challenges, we introduce DF-DiffCom, a Kolmogorov-Arnold Networks (KAN)-enhanced diffusion model that smartly leverages deformation fields for trustworthy longitudinal brain image completion. Trained on OASIS-3, DF-DiffCom outperforms state-of-the-art methods, improving PSNR by 5.6% and SSIM by 0.12. More importantly, its modality-agnostic nature allows smooth extension to varied MRI modalities, even to attribute maps such as brain tissue segmentation results. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09465 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI EvoFSM: Controllable Self-Evolution for Deep Research with Finite State Machines Authors: Shuo Zhang , Chaofa Yuan , Ryan Guo , Xiaomin Yu , Rui Xu , Zhangquan Chen , Zinuo Li , Zhi Yang , Shuhao Guan , Zhenheng Tang , Sen Hu , Liwen Zhang , Ronghao Chen , Huacan Wang Abstract : While LLM-based agents have shown promise for deep research, most existing approaches rely on fixed workflows that struggle to adapt to real-world, open-ended queries. Recent work therefore explores self-evolution by allowing agents to rewrite their own code or prompts to improve problem-solving ability, but unconstrained optimization often triggers instability, hallucinations, and instruction dri… ▽ More While LLM-based agents have shown promise for deep research, most existing approaches rely on fixed workflows that struggle to adapt to real-world, open-ended queries. Recent work therefore explores self-evolution by allowing agents to rewrite their own code or prompts to improve problem-solving ability, but unconstrained optimization often triggers instability, hallucinations, and instruction drift. We propose EvoFSM, a structured self-evolving framework that achieves both adaptability and control by evolving an explicit Finite State Machine (FSM) instead of relying on free-form rewriting. EvoFSM decouples the optimization space into macroscopic Flow (state-transition logic) and microscopic Skill (state-specific behaviors), enabling targeted improvements under clear behavioral boundaries. Guided by a critic mechanism, EvoFSM refines the FSM through a small set of constrained operations, and further incorporates a self-evolving memory that distills successful trajectories as reusable priors and failure patterns as constraints for future queries. Extensive evaluations on five multi-hop QA benchmarks demonstrate the effectiveness of EvoFSM. In particular, EvoFSM reaches 58.0% accuracy on the DeepSearch benchmark. Additional results on interactive decision-making tasks further validate its generalization. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09465 [ pdf , ps , other ] EvoFSM: Controllable Self-Evolution for Deep Research with Finite State Machines Authors: Shuo Zhang , Chaofa Yuan , Ryan Guo , Xiaomin Yu , Rui Xu , Zhangquan Chen , Zinuo Li , Zhi Yang , Shuhao Guan , Zhenheng Tang , Sen Hu , Liwen Zhang , Ronghao Chen , Huacan Wang Abstract : While LLM-based agents have shown promise for deep research, most existing approaches rely on fixed workflows that struggle to adapt to real-world, open-ended queries. Recent work therefore explores self-evolution by allowing agents to rewrite their own code or prompts to improve problem-solving ability, but unconstrained optimization often triggers instability, hallucinations, and instruction dri… ▽ More While LLM-based agents have shown promise for deep research, most existing approaches rely on fixed workflows that struggle to adapt to real-world, open-ended queries. Recent work therefore explores self-evolution by allowing agents to rewrite their own code or prompts to improve problem-solving ability, but unconstrained optimization often triggers instability, hallucinations, and instruction drift. We propose EvoFSM, a structured self-evolving framework that achieves both adaptability and control by evolving an explicit Finite State Machine (FSM) instead of relying on free-form rewriting. EvoFSM decouples the optimization space into macroscopic Flow (state-transition logic) and microscopic Skill (state-specific behaviors), enabling targeted improvements under clear behavioral boundaries. Guided by a critic mechanism, EvoFSM refines the FSM through a small set of constrained operations, and further incorporates a self-evolving memory that distills successful trajectories as reusable priors and failure patterns as constraints for future queries. Extensive evaluations on five multi-hop QA benchmarks demonstrate the effectiveness of EvoFSM. In particular, EvoFSM reaches 58.0% accuracy on the DeepSearch benchmark. Additional results on interactive decision-making tasks further validate its generalization. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09428 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.GR Draw it like Euclid: Teaching transformer models to generate CAD profiles using ruler and compass construction steps Authors: Siyi Li , Joseph G. Lambourne , Longfei Zhang , Pradeep Kumar Jayaraman , Karl. D. D. Willis Abstract : We introduce a new method of generating Computer Aided Design (CAD) profiles via a sequence of simple geometric constructions including curve offsetting, rotations and intersections. These sequences start with geometry provided by a designer and build up the points and curves of the final profile step by step. We demonstrate that adding construction steps between the designer's input geometry and… ▽ More We introduce a new method of generating Computer Aided Design (CAD) profiles via a sequence of simple geometric constructions including curve offsetting, rotations and intersections. These sequences start with geometry provided by a designer and build up the points and curves of the final profile step by step. We demonstrate that adding construction steps between the designer's input geometry and the final profile improves generation quality in a similar way to the introduction of a chain of thought in language models. Similar to the constraints in a parametric CAD model, the construction sequences reduce the degrees of freedom in the modeled shape to a small set of parameter values which can be adjusted by the designer, allowing parametric editing with the constructed geometry evaluated to floating point precision. In addition we show that applying reinforcement learning to the construction sequences gives further improvements over a wide range of metrics, including some which were not explicitly optimized. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. MSC Class: 65D17 (Primary) 68U07; 68T05 (Secondary) ACM Class: J.6 arXiv:2601.09428 [ pdf , ps , other ] Draw it like Euclid: Teaching transformer models to generate CAD profiles using ruler and compass construction steps Authors: Siyi Li , Joseph G. Lambourne , Longfei Zhang , Pradeep Kumar Jayaraman , Karl. D. D. Willis Abstract : We introduce a new method of generating Computer Aided Design (CAD) profiles via a sequence of simple geometric constructions including curve offsetting, rotations and intersections. These sequences start with geometry provided by a designer and build up the points and curves of the final profile step by step. We demonstrate that adding construction steps between the designer's input geometry and… ▽ More We introduce a new method of generating Computer Aided Design (CAD) profiles via a sequence of simple geometric constructions including curve offsetting, rotations and intersections. These sequences start with geometry provided by a designer and build up the points and curves of the final profile step by step. We demonstrate that adding construction steps between the designer's input geometry and the final profile improves generation quality in a similar way to the introduction of a chain of thought in language models. Similar to the constraints in a parametric CAD model, the construction sequences reduce the degrees of freedom in the modeled shape to a small set of parameter values which can be adjusted by the designer, allowing parametric editing with the constructed geometry evaluated to floating point precision. In addition we show that applying reinforcement learning to the construction sequences gives further improvements over a wide range of metrics, including some which were not explicitly optimized. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. MSC Class: 65D17 (Primary) 68U07; 68T05 (Secondary) ACM Class: J.6 arXiv:2601.09259 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI MAXS: Meta-Adaptive Exploration with LLM Agents Authors: Jian Zhang , Zhiyuan Wang , Zhangqi Wang , Yu He , Haoran Luo , li yuan , Lingling Zhang , Rui Mao , Qika Lin , Jun Liu Abstract : Large Language Model (LLM) Agents exhibit inherent reasoning abilities through the collaboration of multiple tools. However, during agent inference, existing methods often suffer from (i) locally myopic generation, due to the absence of lookahead, and (ii) trajectory instability, where minor early errors can escalate into divergent reasoning paths. These issues make it difficult to balance global… ▽ More Large Language Model (LLM) Agents exhibit inherent reasoning abilities through the collaboration of multiple tools. However, during agent inference, existing methods often suffer from (i) locally myopic generation, due to the absence of lookahead, and (ii) trajectory instability, where minor early errors can escalate into divergent reasoning paths. These issues make it difficult to balance global effectiveness and computational efficiency. To address these two issues, we propose meta-adaptive exploration with LLM agents a meta-adaptive reasoning framework based on LLM Agents that flexibly integrates tool execution and reasoning planning. MAXS employs a lookahead strategy to extend reasoning paths a few steps ahead, estimating the advantage value of tool usage, and combines step consistency variance and inter-step trend slopes to jointly select stable, consistent, and high-value reasoning steps. Additionally, we introduce a trajectory convergence mechanism that controls computational cost by halting further rollouts once path consistency is achieved, enabling a balance between resource efficiency and global effectiveness in multi-tool reasoning. We conduct extensive empirical studies across three base models (MiMo-VL-7B, Qwen2.5-VL-7B, Qwen2.5-VL-32B) and five datasets, demonstrating that MAXS consistently outperforms existing methods in both performance and inference efficiency. Further analysis confirms the effectiveness of our lookahead strategy and tool usage. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09259 [ pdf , ps , other ] MAXS: Meta-Adaptive Exploration with LLM Agents Authors: Jian Zhang , Zhiyuan Wang , Zhangqi Wang , Yu He , Haoran Luo , li yuan , Lingling Zhang , Rui Mao , Qika Lin , Jun Liu Abstract : Large Language Model (LLM) Agents exhibit inherent reasoning abilities through the collaboration of multiple tools. However, during agent inference, existing methods often suffer from (i) locally myopic generation, due to the absence of lookahead, and (ii) trajectory instability, where minor early errors can escalate into divergent reasoning paths. These issues make it difficult to balance global… ▽ More Large Language Model (LLM) Agents exhibit inherent reasoning abilities through the collaboration of multiple tools. However, during agent inference, existing methods often suffer from (i) locally myopic generation, due to the absence of lookahead, and (ii) trajectory instability, where minor early errors can escalate into divergent reasoning paths. These issues make it difficult to balance global effectiveness and computational efficiency. To address these two issues, we propose meta-adaptive exploration with LLM agents a meta-adaptive reasoning framework based on LLM Agents that flexibly integrates tool execution and reasoning planning. MAXS employs a lookahead strategy to extend reasoning paths a few steps ahead, estimating the advantage value of tool usage, and combines step consistency variance and inter-step trend slopes to jointly select stable, consistent, and high-value reasoning steps. Additionally, we introduce a trajectory convergence mechanism that controls computational cost by halting further rollouts once path consistency is achieved, enabling a balance between resource efficiency and global effectiveness in multi-tool reasoning. We conduct extensive empirical studies across three base models (MiMo-VL-7B, Qwen2.5-VL-7B, Qwen2.5-VL-32B) and five datasets, demonstrating that MAXS consistently outperforms existing methods in both performance and inference efficiency. Further analysis confirms the effectiveness of our lookahead strategy and tool usage. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09100 [ pdf ] cs.AI DScheLLM: Enabling Dynamic Scheduling through a Fine-Tuned Dual-System Large language Model Authors: Lixiang Zhang , Chenggong Zhao , Qing Gao , Xiaoke Zhao , Gengyi Bai , Jinhu Lv Abstract : Production scheduling is highly susceptible to dynamic disruptions, such as variations in processing times, machine availability, and unexpected task insertions. Conventional approaches typically rely on event-specific models and explicit analytical formulations, which limits their adaptability and generalization across previously unseen disturbances. To overcome these limitations, this paper prop… ▽ More Production scheduling is highly susceptible to dynamic disruptions, such as variations in processing times, machine availability, and unexpected task insertions. Conventional approaches typically rely on event-specific models and explicit analytical formulations, which limits their adaptability and generalization across previously unseen disturbances. To overcome these limitations, this paper proposes DScheLLM, a dynamic scheduling approach that leverages fine-tuned large language models within a dual-system (fast-slow) reasoning architecture to address disturbances of different scales. A unified large language model-based framework is constructed to handle dynamic events, where training datasets for both fast and slow reasoning modes are generated using exact schedules obtained from an operations research solver. The Huawei OpenPangu Embedded-7B model is subsequently fine-tuned under the hybrid reasoning paradigms using LoRA. Experimental evaluations on standard job shop scheduling benchmarks demonstrate that the fast-thinking mode can efficiently generate high-quality schedules and the slow-thinking mode can produce solver-compatible and well-formatted decision inputs. To the best of our knowledge, this work represents one of the earliest studies applying large language models to job shop scheduling in dynamic environments, highlighting their considerable potential for intelligent and adaptive scheduling optimization. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; v1 submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 14 pages, 6 figures arXiv:2601.09100 [ pdf ] DScheLLM: Enabling Dynamic Scheduling through a Fine-Tuned Dual-System Large language Model Authors: Lixiang Zhang , Chenggong Zhao , Qing Gao , Xiaoke Zhao , Gengyi Bai , Jinhu Lv Abstract : Production scheduling is highly susceptible to dynamic disruptions, such as variations in processing times, machine availability, and unexpected task insertions. Conventional approaches typically rely on event-specific models and explicit analytical formulations, which limits their adaptability and generalization across previously unseen disturbances. To overcome these limitations, this paper prop… ▽ More Production scheduling is highly susceptible to dynamic disruptions, such as variations in processing times, machine availability, and unexpected task insertions. Conventional approaches typically rely on event-specific models and explicit analytical formulations, which limits their adaptability and generalization across previously unseen disturbances. To overcome these limitations, this paper proposes DScheLLM, a dynamic scheduling approach that leverages fine-tuned large language models within a dual-system (fast-slow) reasoning architecture to address disturbances of different scales. A unified large language model-based framework is constructed to handle dynamic events, where training datasets for both fast and slow reasoning modes are generated using exact schedules obtained from an operations research solver. The Huawei OpenPangu Embedded-7B model is subsequently fine-tuned under the hybrid reasoning paradigms using LoRA. Experimental evaluations on standard job shop scheduling benchmarks demonstrate that the fast-thinking mode can efficiently generate high-quality schedules and the slow-thinking mode can produce solver-compatible and well-formatted decision inputs. To the best of our knowledge, this work represents one of the earliest studies applying large language models to job shop scheduling in dynamic environments, highlighting their considerable potential for intelligent and adaptive scheduling optimization. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; v1 submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 14 pages, 6 figures arXiv:2601.08434 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.RO cs.AI Large Multimodal Models for Embodied Intelligent Driving: The Next Frontier in Self-Driving? Authors: Long Zhang , Yuchen Xia , Bingqing Wei , Zhen Liu , Shiwen Mao , Zhu Han , Mohsen Guizani Abstract : The advent of Large Multimodal Models (LMMs) offers a promising technology to tackle the limitations of modular design in autonomous driving, which often falters in open-world scenarios requiring sustained environmental understanding and logical reasoning. Besides, embodied artificial intelligence facilitates policy optimization through closed-loop interactions to achieve the continuous learning c… ▽ More The advent of Large Multimodal Models (LMMs) offers a promising technology to tackle the limitations of modular design in autonomous driving, which often falters in open-world scenarios requiring sustained environmental understanding and logical reasoning. Besides, embodied artificial intelligence facilitates policy optimization through closed-loop interactions to achieve the continuous learning capability, thereby advancing autonomous driving toward embodied intelligent (El) driving. However, such capability will be constrained by relying solely on LMMs to enhance EI driving without joint decision-making. This article introduces a novel semantics and policy dual-driven hybrid decision framework to tackle this challenge, ensuring continuous learning and joint decision. The framework merges LMMs for semantic understanding and cognitive representation, and deep reinforcement learning (DRL) for real-time policy optimization. We starts by introducing the foundational principles of EI driving and LMMs. Moreover, we examine the emerging opportunities this framework enables, encompassing potential benefits and representative use cases. A case study is conducted experimentally to validate the performance superiority of our framework in completing lane-change planning task. Finally, several future research directions to empower EI driving are identified to guide subsequent work. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; v1 submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.08434 [ pdf , ps , other ] Large Multimodal Models for Embodied Intelligent Driving: The Next Frontier in Self-Driving? Authors: Long Zhang , Yuchen Xia , Bingqing Wei , Zhen Liu , Shiwen Mao , Zhu Han , Mohsen Guizani Abstract : The advent of Large Multimodal Models (LMMs) offers a promising technology to tackle the limitations of modular design in autonomous driving, which often falters in open-world scenarios requiring sustained environmental understanding and logical reasoning. Besides, embodied artificial intelligence facilitates policy optimization through closed-loop interactions to achieve the continuous learning c… ▽ More The advent of Large Multimodal Models (LMMs) offers a promising technology to tackle the limitations of modular design in autonomous driving, which often falters in open-world scenarios requiring sustained environmental understanding and logical reasoning. Besides, embodied artificial intelligence facilitates policy optimization through closed-loop interactions to achieve the continuous learning capability, thereby advancing autonomous driving toward embodied intelligent (El) driving. However, such capability will be constrained by relying solely on LMMs to enhance EI driving without joint decision-making. This article introduces a novel semantics and policy dual-driven hybrid decision framework to tackle this challenge, ensuring continuous learning and joint decision. The framework merges LMMs for semantic understanding and cognitive representation, and deep reinforcement learning (DRL) for real-time policy optimization. We starts by introducing the foundational principles of EI driving and LMMs. Moreover, we examine the emerging opportunities this framework enables, encompassing potential benefits and representative use cases. A case study is conducted experimentally to validate the performance superiority of our framework in completing lane-change planning task. Finally, several future research directions to empower EI driving are identified to guide subsequent work. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; v1 submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.08198 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.LG Triplets Better Than Pairs: Towards Stable and Effective Self-Play Fine-Tuning for LLMs Authors: Yibo Wang , Hai-Long Sun , Qing-Guo Chen , Zhao Xu , Weihua Luo , Kaifu Zhang , Lijun Zhang Abstract : Recently, self-play fine-tuning (SPIN) has been proposed to adapt large language models to downstream applications with scarce expert-annotated data, by iteratively generating synthetic responses from the model itself. However, SPIN is designed to optimize the current reward advantages of annotated responses over synthetic responses at hand, which may gradually vanish during iterations, leading to… ▽ More Recently, self-play fine-tuning (SPIN) has been proposed to adapt large language models to downstream applications with scarce expert-annotated data, by iteratively generating synthetic responses from the model itself. However, SPIN is designed to optimize the current reward advantages of annotated responses over synthetic responses at hand, which may gradually vanish during iterations, leading to unstable optimization. Moreover, the utilization of reference policy induces a misalignment issue between the reward formulation for training and the metric for generation. To address these limitations, we propose a novel Triplet-based Self-Play fIne-tuNing (T-SPIN) method that integrates two key designs. First, beyond current advantages, T-SPIN additionally incorporates historical advantages between iteratively generated responses and proto-synthetic responses produced by the initial policy. Even if the current advantages diminish, historical advantages remain effective, stabilizing the overall optimization. Second, T-SPIN introduces the entropy constraint into the self-play framework, which is theoretically justified to support reference-free fine-tuning, eliminating the training-generation discrepancy. Empirical results on various tasks demonstrate not only the superior performance of T-SPIN over SPIN, but also its stable evolution during iterations. Remarkably, compared to supervised fine-tuning, T-SPIN achieves comparable or even better performance with only 25% samples, highlighting its effectiveness when faced with scarce annotated data. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: NeurIPS 2025 arXiv:2601.08198 [ pdf , ps , other ] Triplets Better Than Pairs: Towards Stable and Effective Self-Play Fine-Tuning for LLMs Authors: Yibo Wang , Hai-Long Sun , Qing-Guo Chen , Zhao Xu , Weihua Luo , Kaifu Zhang , Lijun Zhang Abstract : Recently, self-play fine-tuning (SPIN) has been proposed to adapt large language models to downstream applications with scarce expert-annotated data, by iteratively generating synthetic responses from the model itself. However, SPIN is designed to optimize the current reward advantages of annotated responses over synthetic responses at hand, which may gradually vanish during iterations, leading to… ▽ More Recently, self-play fine-tuning (SPIN) has been proposed to adapt large language models to downstream applications with scarce expert-annotated data, by iteratively generating synthetic responses from the model itself. However, SPIN is designed to optimize the current reward advantages of annotated responses over synthetic responses at hand, which may gradually vanish during iterations, leading to unstable optimization. Moreover, the utilization of reference policy induces a misalignment issue between the reward formulation for training and the metric for generation. To address these limitations, we propose a novel Triplet-based Self-Play fIne-tuNing (T-SPIN) method that integrates two key designs. First, beyond current advantages, T-SPIN additionally incorporates historical advantages between iteratively generated responses and proto-synthetic responses produced by the initial policy. Even if the current advantages diminish, historical advantages remain effective, stabilizing the overall optimization. Second, T-SPIN introduces the entropy constraint into the self-play framework, which is theoretically justified to support reference-free fine-tuning, eliminating the training-generation discrepancy. Empirical results on various tasks demonstrate not only the superior performance of T-SPIN over SPIN, but also its stable evolution during iterations. Remarkably, compared to supervised fine-tuning, T-SPIN achieves comparable or even better performance with only 25% samples, highlighting its effectiveness when faced with scarce annotated data. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: NeurIPS 2025 arXiv:2601.08174 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Towards Cross-Platform Generalization: Domain Adaptive 3D Detection with Augmentation and Pseudo-Labeling Authors: Xiyan Feng , Wenbo Zhang , Lu Zhang , Yunzhi Zhuge , Huchuan Lu , You He Abstract : This technical report represents the award-winning solution to the Cross-platform 3D Object Detection task in the RoboSense2025 Challenge. Our approach is built upon PVRCNN++, an efficient 3D object detection framework that effectively integrates point-based and voxel-based features. On top of this foundation, we improve cross-platform generalization by narrowing domain gaps through tailored data… ▽ More This technical report represents the award-winning solution to the Cross-platform 3D Object Detection task in the RoboSense2025 Challenge. Our approach is built upon PVRCNN++, an efficient 3D object detection framework that effectively integrates point-based and voxel-based features. On top of this foundation, we improve cross-platform generalization by narrowing domain gaps through tailored data augmentation and a self-training strategy with pseudo-labels. These enhancements enabled our approach to secure the 3rd place in the challenge, achieving a 3D AP of 62.67% for the Car category on the phase-1 target domain, and 58.76% and 49.81% for Car and Pedestrian categories respectively on the phase-2 target domain. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.08174 [ pdf , ps , other ] Towards Cross-Platform Generalization: Domain Adaptive 3D Detection with Augmentation and Pseudo-Labeling Authors: Xiyan Feng , Wenbo Zhang , Lu Zhang , Yunzhi Zhuge , Huchuan Lu , You He Abstract : This technical report represents the award-winning solution to the Cross-platform 3D Object Detection task in the RoboSense2025 Challenge. Our approach is built upon PVRCNN++, an efficient 3D object detection framework that effectively integrates point-based and voxel-based features. On top of this foundation, we improve cross-platform generalization by narrowing domain gaps through tailored data… ▽ More This technical report represents the award-winning solution to the Cross-platform 3D Object Detection task in the RoboSense2025 Challenge. Our approach is built upon PVRCNN++, an efficient 3D object detection framework that effectively integrates point-based and voxel-based features. On top of this foundation, we improve cross-platform generalization by narrowing domain gaps through tailored data augmentation and a self-training strategy with pseudo-labels. These enhancements enabled our approach to secure the 3rd place in the challenge, achieving a 3D AP of 62.67% for the Car category on the phase-1 target domain, and 58.76% and 49.81% for Car and Pedestrian categories respectively on the phase-2 target domain. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07930 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG Transformer-Based Approach for Automated Functional Group Replacement in Chemical Compounds Authors: Bo Pan , Zhiping Zhang , Kevin Spiekermann , Tianchi Chen , Xiang Yu , Liying Zhang , Liang Zhao Abstract : Functional group replacement is a pivotal approach in cheminformatics to enable the design of novel chemical compounds with tailored properties. Traditional methods for functional group removal and replacement often rely on rule-based heuristics, which can be limited in their ability to generate diverse and novel chemical structures. Recently, transformer-based models have shown promise in improvi… ▽ More Functional group replacement is a pivotal approach in cheminformatics to enable the design of novel chemical compounds with tailored properties. Traditional methods for functional group removal and replacement often rely on rule-based heuristics, which can be limited in their ability to generate diverse and novel chemical structures. Recently, transformer-based models have shown promise in improving the accuracy and efficiency of molecular transformations, but existing approaches typically focus on single-step modeling, lacking the guarantee of structural similarity. In this work, we seek to advance the state of the art by developing a novel two-stage transformer model for functional group removal and replacement. Unlike one-shot approaches that generate entire molecules in a single pass, our method generates the functional group to be removed and appended sequentially, ensuring strict substructure-level modifications. Using a matched molecular pairs (MMPs) dataset derived from ChEMBL, we trained an encoder-decoder transformer model with SMIRKS-based representations to capture transformation rules effectively. Extensive evaluations demonstrate our method's ability to generate chemically valid transformations, explore diverse chemical spaces, and maintain scalability across varying search sizes. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: The 2nd AAAI Workshop on Foundation Models for Biological Discoveries at AAAI 2025 arXiv:2601.07930 [ pdf , ps , other ] Transformer-Based Approach for Automated Functional Group Replacement in Chemical Compounds Authors: Bo Pan , Zhiping Zhang , Kevin Spiekermann , Tianchi Chen , Xiang Yu , Liying Zhang , Liang Zhao Abstract : Functional group replacement is a pivotal approach in cheminformatics to enable the design of novel chemical compounds with tailored properties. Traditional methods for functional group removal and replacement often rely on rule-based heuristics, which can be limited in their ability to generate diverse and novel chemical structures. Recently, transformer-based models have shown promise in improvi… ▽ More Functional group replacement is a pivotal approach in cheminformatics to enable the design of novel chemical compounds with tailored properties. Traditional methods for functional group removal and replacement often rely on rule-based heuristics, which can be limited in their ability to generate diverse and novel chemical structures. Recently, transformer-based models have shown promise in improving the accuracy and efficiency of molecular transformations, but existing approaches typically focus on single-step modeling, lacking the guarantee of structural similarity. In this work, we seek to advance the state of the art by developing a novel two-stage transformer model for functional group removal and replacement. Unlike one-shot approaches that generate entire molecules in a single pass, our method generates the functional group to be removed and appended sequentially, ensuring strict substructure-level modifications. Using a matched molecular pairs (MMPs) dataset derived from ChEMBL, we trained an encoder-decoder transformer model with SMIRKS-based representations to capture transformation rules effectively. Extensive evaluations demonstrate our method's ability to generate chemically valid transformations, explore diverse chemical spaces, and maintain scalability across varying search sizes. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: The 2nd AAAI Workshop on Foundation Models for Biological Discoveries at AAAI 2025 arXiv:2601.07853 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CR cs.AI FinVault: Benchmarking Financial Agent Safety in Execution-Grounded Environments Authors: Zhi Yang , Runguo Li , Qiqi Qiang , Jiashun Wang , Fangqi Lou , Mengping Li , Dongpo Cheng , Rui Xu , Heng Lian , Shuo Zhang , Xiaolong Liang , Xiaoming Huang , Zheng Wei , Zhaowei Liu , Xin Guo , Huacan Wang , Ronghao Chen , Liwen Zhang Abstract : Financial agents powered by large language models (LLMs) are increasingly deployed for investment analysis, risk assessment, and automated decision-making, where their abilities to plan, invoke tools, and manipulate mutable state introduce new security risks in high-stakes and highly regulated financial environments. However, existing safety evaluations largely focus on language-model-level conten… ▽ More Financial agents powered by large language models (LLMs) are increasingly deployed for investment analysis, risk assessment, and automated decision-making, where their abilities to plan, invoke tools, and manipulate mutable state introduce new security risks in high-stakes and highly regulated financial environments. However, existing safety evaluations largely focus on language-model-level content compliance or abstract agent settings, failing to capture execution-grounded risks arising from real operational workflows and state-changing actions. To bridge this gap, we propose FinVault, the first execution-grounded security benchmark for financial agents, comprising 31 regulatory case-driven sandbox scenarios with state-writable databases and explicit compliance constraints, together with 107 real-world vulnerabilities and 963 test cases that systematically cover prompt injection, jailbreaking, financially adapted attacks, as well as benign inputs for false-positive evaluation. Experimental results reveal that existing defense mechanisms remain ineffective in realistic financial agent settings, with average attack success rates (ASR) still reaching up to 50.0\% on state-of-the-art models and remaining non-negligible even for the most robust systems (ASR 6.7\%), highlighting the limited transferability of current safety designs and the need for stronger financial-specific defenses. Our code can be found at △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07853 [ pdf , ps , other ] FinVault: Benchmarking Financial Agent Safety in Execution-Grounded Environments Authors: Zhi Yang , Runguo Li , Qiqi Qiang , Jiashun Wang , Fangqi Lou , Mengping Li , Dongpo Cheng , Rui Xu , Heng Lian , Shuo Zhang , Xiaolong Liang , Xiaoming Huang , Zheng Wei , Zhaowei Liu , Xin Guo , Huacan Wang , Ronghao Chen , Liwen Zhang Abstract : Financial agents powered by large language models (LLMs) are increasingly deployed for investment analysis, risk assessment, and automated decision-making, where their abilities to plan, invoke tools, and manipulate mutable state introduce new security risks in high-stakes and highly regulated financial environments. However, existing safety evaluations largely focus on language-model-level conten… ▽ More Financial agents powered by large language models (LLMs) are increasingly deployed for investment analysis, risk assessment, and automated decision-making, where their abilities to plan, invoke tools, and manipulate mutable state introduce new security risks in high-stakes and highly regulated financial environments. However, existing safety evaluations largely focus on language-model-level content compliance or abstract agent settings, failing to capture execution-grounded risks arising from real operational workflows and state-changing actions. To bridge this gap, we propose FinVault, the first execution-grounded security benchmark for financial agents, comprising 31 regulatory case-driven sandbox scenarios with state-writable databases and explicit compliance constraints, together with 107 real-world vulnerabilities and 963 test cases that systematically cover prompt injection, jailbreaking, financially adapted attacks, as well as benign inputs for false-positive evaluation. Experimental results reveal that existing defense mechanisms remain ineffective in realistic financial agent settings, with average attack success rates (ASR) still reaching up to 50.0\% on state-of-the-art models and remaining non-negligible even for the most robust systems (ASR 6.7\%), highlighting the limited transferability of current safety designs and the need for stronger financial-specific defenses. Our code can be found at △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07773 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Beyond External Guidance: Unleashing the Semantic Richness Inside Diffusion Transformers for Improved Training Authors: Lingchen Sun , Rongyuan Wu , Zhengqiang Zhang , Ruibin Li , Yujing Sun , Shuaizheng Liu , Lei Zhang Abstract : Recent works such as REPA have shown that guiding diffusion models with external semantic features (e.g., DINO) can significantly accelerate the training of diffusion transformers (DiTs). However, this requires the use of pretrained external networks, introducing additional dependencies and reducing flexibility. In this work, we argue that DiTs actually have the power to guide the training of them… ▽ More Recent works such as REPA have shown that guiding diffusion models with external semantic features (e.g., DINO) can significantly accelerate the training of diffusion transformers (DiTs). However, this requires the use of pretrained external networks, introducing additional dependencies and reducing flexibility. In this work, we argue that DiTs actually have the power to guide the training of themselves, and propose \textbf{Self-Transcendence}, a simple yet effective method that achieves fast convergence using internal feature supervision only. It is found that the slow convergence in DiT training primarily stems from the difficulty of representation learning in shallow layers. To address this, we initially train the DiT model by aligning its shallow features with the latent representations from the pretrained VAE for a short phase (e.g., 40 epochs), then apply classifier-free guidance to the intermediate features, enhancing their discriminative capability and semantic expressiveness. These enriched internal features, learned entirely within the model, are used as supervision signals to guide a new DiT training. Compared to existing self-contained methods, our approach brings a significant performance boost. It can even surpass REPA in terms of generation quality and convergence speed, but without the need for any external pretrained models. Our method is not only more flexible for different backbones but also has the potential to be adopted for a wider range of diffusion-based generative tasks. The source code of our method can be found at △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07773 [ pdf , ps , other ] Beyond External Guidance: Unleashing the Semantic Richness Inside Diffusion Transformers for Improved Training Authors: Lingchen Sun , Rongyuan Wu , Zhengqiang Zhang , Ruibin Li , Yujing Sun , Shuaizheng Liu , Lei Zhang Abstract : Recent works such as REPA have shown that guiding diffusion models with external semantic features (e.g., DINO) can significantly accelerate the training of diffusion transformers (DiTs). However, this requires the use of pretrained external networks, introducing additional dependencies and reducing flexibility. In this work, we argue that DiTs actually have the power to guide the training of them… ▽ More Recent works such as REPA have shown that guiding diffusion models with external semantic features (e.g., DINO) can significantly accelerate the training of diffusion transformers (DiTs). However, this requires the use of pretrained external networks, introducing additional dependencies and reducing flexibility. In this work, we argue that DiTs actually have the power to guide the training of themselves, and propose \textbf{Self-Transcendence}, a simple yet effective method that achieves fast convergence using internal feature supervision only. It is found that the slow convergence in DiT training primarily stems from the difficulty of representation learning in shallow layers. To address this, we initially train the DiT model by aligning its shallow features with the latent representations from the pretrained VAE for a short phase (e.g., 40 epochs), then apply classifier-free guidance to the intermediate features, enhancing their discriminative capability and semantic expressiveness. These enriched internal features, learned entirely within the model, are used as supervision signals to guide a new DiT training. Compared to existing self-contained methods, our approach brings a significant performance boost. It can even surpass REPA in terms of generation quality and convergence speed, but without the need for any external pretrained models. Our method is not only more flexible for different backbones but also has the potential to be adopted for a wider range of diffusion-based generative tasks. The source code of our method can be found at △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07526 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.DC cs.SE MegaFlow: Large-Scale Distributed Orchestration System for the Agentic Era Authors: Lei Zhang , Mouxiang Chen , Ruisheng Cao , Jiawei Chen , Fan Zhou , Yiheng Xu , Jiaxi Yang , Zeyao Ma , Liang Chen , Changwei Luo , Kai Zhang , Fan Yan , KaShun Shum , Jiajun Zhang , Zeyu Cui , Feng Hu , Junyang Lin , Binyuan Hui , Min Yang Abstract : The rapid development of interactive and autonomous AI systems signals our entry into the agentic era. Training and evaluating agents on complex agentic tasks such as software engineering and computer use requires not only efficient model computation but also sophisticated infrastructure capable of coordinating vast agent-environment interactions. However, no open-source infrastructure can effecti… ▽ More The rapid development of interactive and autonomous AI systems signals our entry into the agentic era. Training and evaluating agents on complex agentic tasks such as software engineering and computer use requires not only efficient model computation but also sophisticated infrastructure capable of coordinating vast agent-environment interactions. However, no open-source infrastructure can effectively support large-scale training and evaluation on such complex agentic tasks. To address this challenge, we present MegaFlow, a large-scale distributed orchestration system that enables efficient scheduling, resource allocation, and fine-grained task management for agent-environment workloads. MegaFlow abstracts agent training infrastructure into three independent services (Model Service, Agent Service, and Environment Service) that interact through unified interfaces, enabling independent scaling and flexible resource allocation across diverse agent-environment configurations. In our agent training deployments, MegaFlow successfully orchestrates tens of thousands of concurrent agent tasks while maintaining high system stability and achieving efficient resource utilization. By enabling such large-scale agent training, MegaFlow addresses a critical infrastructure gap in the emerging agentic AI landscape. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; v1 submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07526 [ pdf , ps , other ] MegaFlow: Large-Scale Distributed Orchestration System for the Agentic Era Authors: Lei Zhang , Mouxiang Chen , Ruisheng Cao , Jiawei Chen , Fan Zhou , Yiheng Xu , Jiaxi Yang , Zeyao Ma , Liang Chen , Changwei Luo , Kai Zhang , Fan Yan , KaShun Shum , Jiajun Zhang , Zeyu Cui , Feng Hu , Junyang Lin , Binyuan Hui , Min Yang Abstract : The rapid development of interactive and autonomous AI systems signals our entry into the agentic era. Training and evaluating agents on complex agentic tasks such as software engineering and computer use requires not only efficient model computation but also sophisticated infrastructure capable of coordinating vast agent-environment interactions. However, no open-source infrastructure can effecti… ▽ More The rapid development of interactive and autonomous AI systems signals our entry into the agentic era. Training and evaluating agents on complex agentic tasks such as software engineering and computer use requires not only efficient model computation but also sophisticated infrastructure capable of coordinating vast agent-environment interactions. However, no open-source infrastructure can effectively support large-scale training and evaluation on such complex agentic tasks. To address this challenge, we present MegaFlow, a large-scale distributed orchestration system that enables efficient scheduling, resource allocation, and fine-grained task management for agent-environment workloads. MegaFlow abstracts agent training infrastructure into three independent services (Model Service, Agent Service, and Environment Service) that interact through unified interfaces, enabling independent scaling and flexible resource allocation across diverse agent-environment configurations. In our agent training deployments, MegaFlow successfully orchestrates tens of thousands of concurrent agent tasks while maintaining high system stability and achieving efficient resource utilization. By enabling such large-scale agent training, MegaFlow addresses a critical infrastructure gap in the emerging agentic AI landscape. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; v1 submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07462 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV From Sketch to Fresco: Efficient Diffusion Transformer with Progressive Resolution Authors: Shikang Zheng , Guantao Chen , Lixuan He , Jiacheng Liu , Yuqi Lin , Chang Zou , Linfeng Zhang Abstract : Diffusion Transformers achieve impressive generative quality but remain computationally expensive due to iterative sampling. Recently, dynamic resolution sampling has emerged as a promising acceleration technique by reducing the resolution of early sampling steps. However, existing methods rely on heuristic re-noising at every resolution transition, injecting noise that breaks cross-stage consiste… ▽ More Diffusion Transformers achieve impressive generative quality but remain computationally expensive due to iterative sampling. Recently, dynamic resolution sampling has emerged as a promising acceleration technique by reducing the resolution of early sampling steps. However, existing methods rely on heuristic re-noising at every resolution transition, injecting noise that breaks cross-stage consistency and forces the model to relearn global structure. In addition, these methods indiscriminately upsample the entire latent space at once without checking which regions have actually converged, causing accumulated errors, and visible artifacts. Therefore, we propose \textbf{Fresco}, a dynamic resolution framework that unifies re-noise and global structure across stages with progressive upsampling, preserving both the efficiency of low-resolution drafting and the fidelity of high-resolution refinement, with all stages aligned toward the same final target. Fresco achieves near-lossless acceleration across diverse domains and models, including 10$\times$ speedup on FLUX, and 5$\times$ on HunyuanVideo, while remaining orthogonal to distillation, quantization and feature caching, reaching 22$\times$ speedup when combined with distilled models. Our code is in supplementary material and will be released on Github. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07462 [ pdf , ps , other ] From Sketch to Fresco: Efficient Diffusion Transformer with Progressive Resolution Authors: Shikang Zheng , Guantao Chen , Lixuan He , Jiacheng Liu , Yuqi Lin , Chang Zou , Linfeng Zhang Abstract : Diffusion Transformers achieve impressive generative quality but remain computationally expensive due to iterative sampling. Recently, dynamic resolution sampling has emerged as a promising acceleration technique by reducing the resolution of early sampling steps. However, existing methods rely on heuristic re-noising at every resolution transition, injecting noise that breaks cross-stage consiste… ▽ More Diffusion Transformers achieve impressive generative quality but remain computationally expensive due to iterative sampling. Recently, dynamic resolution sampling has emerged as a promising acceleration technique by reducing the resolution of early sampling steps. However, existing methods rely on heuristic re-noising at every resolution transition, injecting noise that breaks cross-stage consistency and forces the model to relearn global structure. In addition, these methods indiscriminately upsample the entire latent space at once without checking which regions have actually converged, causing accumulated errors, and visible artifacts. Therefore, we propose \textbf{Fresco}, a dynamic resolution framework that unifies re-noise and global structure across stages with progressive upsampling, preserving both the efficiency of low-resolution drafting and the fidelity of high-resolution refinement, with all stages aligned toward the same final target. Fresco achieves near-lossless acceleration across diverse domains and models, including 10$\times$ speedup on FLUX, and 5$\times$ on HunyuanVideo, while remaining orthogonal to distillation, quantization and feature caching, reaching 22$\times$ speedup when combined with distilled models. Our code is in supplementary material and will be released on Github. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07396 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Forecast the Principal, Stabilize the Residual: Subspace-Aware Feature Caching for Efficient Diffusion Transformers Authors: Guantao Chen , Shikang Zheng , Yuqi Lin , Linfeng Zhang Abstract : Diffusion Transformer (DiT) models have achieved unprecedented quality in image and video generation, yet their iterative sampling process remains computationally prohibitive. To accelerate inference, feature caching methods have emerged by reusing intermediate representations across timesteps. However, existing caching approaches treat all feature components uniformly. We reveal that DiT feature… ▽ More Diffusion Transformer (DiT) models have achieved unprecedented quality in image and video generation, yet their iterative sampling process remains computationally prohibitive. To accelerate inference, feature caching methods have emerged by reusing intermediate representations across timesteps. However, existing caching approaches treat all feature components uniformly. We reveal that DiT feature spaces contain distinct principal and residual subspaces with divergent temporal behavior: the principal subspace evolves smoothly and predictably, while the residual subspace exhibits volatile, low-energy oscillations that resist accurate prediction. Building on this insight, we propose SVD-Cache, a subspace-aware caching framework that decomposes diffusion features via Singular Value Decomposition (SVD), applies exponential moving average (EMA) prediction to the dominant low-rank components, and directly reuses the residual subspace. Extensive experiments demonstrate that SVD-Cache achieves near-lossless across diverse models and methods, including 5.55$\times$ speedup on FLUX and HunyuanVideo, and compatibility with model acceleration techniques including distillation, quantization and sparse attention. Our code is in supplementary material and will be released on Github. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07396 [ pdf , ps , other ] Forecast the Principal, Stabilize the Residual: Subspace-Aware Feature Caching for Efficient Diffusion Transformers Authors: Guantao Chen , Shikang Zheng , Yuqi Lin , Linfeng Zhang Abstract : Diffusion Transformer (DiT) models have achieved unprecedented quality in image and video generation, yet their iterative sampling process remains computationally prohibitive. To accelerate inference, feature caching methods have emerged by reusing intermediate representations across timesteps. However, existing caching approaches treat all feature components uniformly. We reveal that DiT feature… ▽ More Diffusion Transformer (DiT) models have achieved unprecedented quality in image and video generation, yet their iterative sampling process remains computationally prohibitive. To accelerate inference, feature caching methods have emerged by reusing intermediate representations across timesteps. However, existing caching approaches treat all feature components uniformly. We reveal that DiT feature spaces contain distinct principal and residual subspaces with divergent temporal behavior: the principal subspace evolves smoothly and predictably, while the residual subspace exhibits volatile, low-energy oscillations that resist accurate prediction. Building on this insight, we propose SVD-Cache, a subspace-aware caching framework that decomposes diffusion features via Singular Value Decomposition (SVD), applies exponential moving average (EMA) prediction to the dominant low-rank components, and directly reuses the residual subspace. Extensive experiments demonstrate that SVD-Cache achieves near-lossless across diverse models and methods, including 5.55$\times$ speedup on FLUX and HunyuanVideo, and compatibility with model acceleration techniques including distillation, quantization and sparse attention. Our code is in supplementary material and will be released on Github. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07377 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI Learning Dynamic Collaborative Network for Semi-supervised 3D Vessel Segmentation Authors: Jiao Xu , Xin Chen , Lihe Zhang Abstract : In this paper, we present a new dynamic collaborative network for semi-supervised 3D vessel segmentation, termed DiCo. Conventional mean teacher (MT) methods typically employ a static approach, where the roles of the teacher and student models are fixed. However, due to the complexity of 3D vessel data, the teacher model may not always outperform the student model, leading to cognitive biases that… ▽ More In this paper, we present a new dynamic collaborative network for semi-supervised 3D vessel segmentation, termed DiCo. Conventional mean teacher (MT) methods typically employ a static approach, where the roles of the teacher and student models are fixed. However, due to the complexity of 3D vessel data, the teacher model may not always outperform the student model, leading to cognitive biases that can limit performance. To address this issue, we propose a dynamic collaborative network that allows the two models to dynamically switch their teacher-student roles. Additionally, we introduce a multi-view integration module to capture various perspectives of the inputs, mirroring the way doctors conduct medical analysis. We also incorporate adversarial supervision to constrain the shape of the segmented vessels in unlabeled data. In this process, the 3D volume is projected into 2D views to mitigate the impact of label inconsistencies. Experiments demonstrate that our DiCo method sets new state-of-the-art performance on three 3D vessel segmentation benchmarks. The code repository address is △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Accepted to the IEEE/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR) 2025 arXiv:2601.07377 [ pdf , ps , other ] Learning Dynamic Collaborative Network for Semi-supervised 3D Vessel Segmentation Authors: Jiao Xu , Xin Chen , Lihe Zhang Abstract : In this paper, we present a new dynamic collaborative network for semi-supervised 3D vessel segmentation, termed DiCo. Conventional mean teacher (MT) methods typically employ a static approach, where the roles of the teacher and student models are fixed. However, due to the complexity of 3D vessel data, the teacher model may not always outperform the student model, leading to cognitive biases that… ▽ More In this paper, we present a new dynamic collaborative network for semi-supervised 3D vessel segmentation, termed DiCo. Conventional mean teacher (MT) methods typically employ a static approach, where the roles of the teacher and student models are fixed. However, due to the complexity of 3D vessel data, the teacher model may not always outperform the student model, leading to cognitive biases that can limit performance. To address this issue, we propose a dynamic collaborative network that allows the two models to dynamically switch their teacher-student roles. Additionally, we introduce a multi-view integration module to capture various perspectives of the inputs, mirroring the way doctors conduct medical analysis. We also incorporate adversarial supervision to constrain the shape of the segmented vessels in unlabeled data. In this process, the 3D volume is projected into 2D views to mitigate the impact of label inconsistencies. Experiments demonstrate that our DiCo method sets new state-of-the-art performance on three 3D vessel segmentation benchmarks. The code repository address is △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Accepted to the IEEE/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR) 2025 arXiv:2601.07344 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI PulseMind: A Multi-Modal Medical Model for Real-World Clinical Diagnosis Authors: Jiao Xu , Junwei Liu , Jiangwei Lao , Qi Zhu , Yunpeng Zhao , Congyun Jin , Shinan Liu , Zhihong Lu , Lihe Zhang , Xin Chen , Jian Wang , Ping Wang Abstract : Recent advances in medical multi-modal models focus on specialized image analysis like dermatology, pathology, or radiology. However, they do not fully capture the complexity of real-world clinical diagnostics, which involve heterogeneous inputs and require ongoing contextual understanding during patient-physician interactions. To bridge this gap, we introduce PulseMind, a new family of multi-moda… ▽ More Recent advances in medical multi-modal models focus on specialized image analysis like dermatology, pathology, or radiology. However, they do not fully capture the complexity of real-world clinical diagnostics, which involve heterogeneous inputs and require ongoing contextual understanding during patient-physician interactions. To bridge this gap, we introduce PulseMind, a new family of multi-modal diagnostic models that integrates a systematically curated dataset, a comprehensive evaluation benchmark, and a tailored training framework. Specifically, we first construct a diagnostic dataset, MediScope, which comprises 98,000 real-world multi-turn consultations and 601,500 medical images, spanning over 10 major clinical departments and more than 200 sub-specialties. Then, to better reflect the requirements of real-world clinical diagnosis, we develop the PulseMind Benchmark, a multi-turn diagnostic consultation benchmark with a four-dimensional evaluation protocol comprising proactiveness, accuracy, usefulness, and language quality. Finally, we design a training framework tailored for multi-modal clinical diagnostics, centered around a core component named Comparison-based Reinforcement Policy Optimization (CRPO). Compared to absolute score rewards, CRPO uses relative preference signals from multi-dimensional com-parisons to provide stable and human-aligned training guidance. Extensive experiments demonstrate that PulseMind achieves competitive performance on both the diagnostic consultation benchmark and public medical benchmarks. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Accepted to AAAI 2026 arXiv:2601.07344 [ pdf , ps , other ] PulseMind: A Multi-Modal Medical Model for Real-World Clinical Diagnosis Authors: Jiao Xu , Junwei Liu , Jiangwei Lao , Qi Zhu , Yunpeng Zhao , Congyun Jin , Shinan Liu , Zhihong Lu , Lihe Zhang , Xin Chen , Jian Wang , Ping Wang Abstract : Recent advances in medical multi-modal models focus on specialized image analysis like dermatology, pathology, or radiology. However, they do not fully capture the complexity of real-world clinical diagnostics, which involve heterogeneous inputs and require ongoing contextual understanding during patient-physician interactions. To bridge this gap, we introduce PulseMind, a new family of multi-moda… ▽ More Recent advances in medical multi-modal models focus on specialized image analysis like dermatology, pathology, or radiology. However, they do not fully capture the complexity of real-world clinical diagnostics, which involve heterogeneous inputs and require ongoing contextual understanding during patient-physician interactions. To bridge this gap, we introduce PulseMind, a new family of multi-modal diagnostic models that integrates a systematically curated dataset, a comprehensive evaluation benchmark, and a tailored training framework. Specifically, we first construct a diagnostic dataset, MediScope, which comprises 98,000 real-world multi-turn consultations and 601,500 medical images, spanning over 10 major clinical departments and more than 200 sub-specialties. Then, to better reflect the requirements of real-world clinical diagnosis, we develop the PulseMind Benchmark, a multi-turn diagnostic consultation benchmark with a four-dimensional evaluation protocol comprising proactiveness, accuracy, usefulness, and language quality. Finally, we design a training framework tailored for multi-modal clinical diagnostics, centered around a core component named Comparison-based Reinforcement Policy Optimization (CRPO). Compared to absolute score rewards, CRPO uses relative preference signals from multi-dimensional com-parisons to provide stable and human-aligned training guidance. Extensive experiments demonstrate that PulseMind achieves competitive performance on both the diagnostic consultation benchmark and public medical benchmarks. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Accepted to AAAI 2026 arXiv:2601.07303 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.SD ESDD2: Environment-Aware Speech and Sound Deepfake Detection Challenge Evaluation Plan Authors: Xueping Zhang , Han Yin , Yang Xiao , Lin Zhang , Ting Dang , Rohan Kumar Das , Ming Li Abstract : Audio recorded in real-world environments often contains a mixture of foreground speech and background environmental sounds. With rapid advances in text-to-speech, voice conversion, and other generation models, either component can now be modified independently. Such component-level manipulations are harder to detect, as the remaining unaltered component can mislead the systems designed for whole… ▽ More Audio recorded in real-world environments often contains a mixture of foreground speech and background environmental sounds. With rapid advances in text-to-speech, voice conversion, and other generation models, either component can now be modified independently. Such component-level manipulations are harder to detect, as the remaining unaltered component can mislead the systems designed for whole deepfake audio, and they often sound more natural to human listeners. To address this gap, we have proposed CompSpoofV2 dataset and a separation-enhanced joint learning framework. CompSpoofV2 is a large-scale curated dataset designed for component-level audio anti-spoofing, which contains over 250k audio samples, with a total duration of approximately 283 hours. Based on the CompSpoofV2 and the separation-enhanced joint learning framework, we launch the Environment-Aware Speech and Sound Deepfake Detection Challenge (ESDD2), focusing on component-level spoofing, where both speech and environmental sounds may be manipulated or synthesized, creating a more challenging and realistic detection scenario. The challenge will be held in conjunction with the IEEE International Conference on Multimedia and Expo 2026 (ICME 2026). △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; v1 submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07303 [ pdf , ps , other ] ESDD2: Environment-Aware Speech and Sound Deepfake Detection Challenge Evaluation Plan Authors: Xueping Zhang , Han Yin , Yang Xiao , Lin Zhang , Ting Dang , Rohan Kumar Das , Ming Li Abstract : Audio recorded in real-world environments often contains a mixture of foreground speech and background environmental sounds. With rapid advances in text-to-speech, voice conversion, and other generation models, either component can now be modified independently. Such component-level manipulations are harder to detect, as the remaining unaltered component can mislead the systems designed for whole… ▽ More Audio recorded in real-world environments often contains a mixture of foreground speech and background environmental sounds. With rapid advances in text-to-speech, voice conversion, and other generation models, either component can now be modified independently. Such component-level manipulations are harder to detect, as the remaining unaltered component can mislead the systems designed for whole deepfake audio, and they often sound more natural to human listeners. To address this gap, we have proposed CompSpoofV2 dataset and a separation-enhanced joint learning framework. CompSpoofV2 is a large-scale curated dataset designed for component-level audio anti-spoofing, which contains over 250k audio samples, with a total duration of approximately 283 hours. Based on the CompSpoofV2 and the separation-enhanced joint learning framework, we launch the Environment-Aware Speech and Sound Deepfake Detection Challenge (ESDD2), focusing on component-level spoofing, where both speech and environmental sounds may be manipulated or synthesized, creating a more challenging and realistic detection scenario. The challenge will be held in conjunction with the IEEE International Conference on Multimedia and Expo 2026 (ICME 2026). △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; v1 submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07281 [ pdf , ps , other ] stat.ML cs.LG stat.ME Covariance-Driven Regression Trees: Reducing Overfitting in CART Authors: Likun Zhang , Wei Ma Abstract : Decision trees are powerful machine learning algorithms, widely used in fields such as economics and medicine for their simplicity and interpretability. However, decision trees such as CART are prone to overfitting, especially when grown deep or the sample size is small. Conventional methods to reduce overfitting include pre-pruning and post-pruning, which constrain the growth of uninformative bra… ▽ More Decision trees are powerful machine learning algorithms, widely used in fields such as economics and medicine for their simplicity and interpretability. However, decision trees such as CART are prone to overfitting, especially when grown deep or the sample size is small. Conventional methods to reduce overfitting include pre-pruning and post-pruning, which constrain the growth of uninformative branches. In this paper, we propose a complementary approach by introducing a covariance-driven splitting criterion for regression trees (CovRT). This method is more robust to overfitting than the empirical risk minimization criterion used in CART, as it produces more balanced and stable splits and more effectively identifies covariates with true signals. We establish an oracle inequality of CovRT and prove that its predictive accuracy is comparable to that of CART in high-dimensional settings. We find that CovRT achieves superior prediction accuracy compared to CART in both simulations and real-world tasks. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07281 [ pdf , ps , other ] Covariance-Driven Regression Trees: Reducing Overfitting in CART Authors: Likun Zhang , Wei Ma Abstract : Decision trees are powerful machine learning algorithms, widely used in fields such as economics and medicine for their simplicity and interpretability. However, decision trees such as CART are prone to overfitting, especially when grown deep or the sample size is small. Conventional methods to reduce overfitting include pre-pruning and post-pruning, which constrain the growth of uninformative bra… ▽ More Decision trees are powerful machine learning algorithms, widely used in fields such as economics and medicine for their simplicity and interpretability. However, decision trees such as CART are prone to overfitting, especially when grown deep or the sample size is small. Conventional methods to reduce overfitting include pre-pruning and post-pruning, which constrain the growth of uninformative branches. In this paper, we propose a complementary approach by introducing a covariance-driven splitting criterion for regression trees (CovRT). This method is more robust to overfitting than the empirical risk minimization criterion used in CART, as it produces more balanced and stable splits and more effectively identifies covariates with true signals. We establish an oracle inequality of CovRT and prove that its predictive accuracy is comparable to that of CART in high-dimensional settings. We find that CovRT achieves superior prediction accuracy compared to CART in both simulations and real-world tasks. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07260 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL ActiShade: Activating Overshadowed Knowledge to Guide Multi-Hop Reasoning in Large Language Models Authors: Huipeng Ma , Luan Zhang , Dandan Song , Linmei Hu , Yuhang Tian , Jun Yang , Changzhi Zhou , Chenhao Li , Yizhou Jin , Xudong Li , Meng Lin , Mingxing Zhang , Shuhao Zhang Abstract : In multi-hop reasoning, multi-round retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) methods typically rely on LLM-generated content as the retrieval query. However, these approaches are inherently vulnerable to knowledge overshadowing - a phenomenon where critical information is overshadowed during generation. As a result, the LLM-generated content may be incomplete or inaccurate, leading to irrelevant retri… ▽ More In multi-hop reasoning, multi-round retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) methods typically rely on LLM-generated content as the retrieval query. However, these approaches are inherently vulnerable to knowledge overshadowing - a phenomenon where critical information is overshadowed during generation. As a result, the LLM-generated content may be incomplete or inaccurate, leading to irrelevant retrieval and causing error accumulation during the iteration process. To address this challenge, we propose ActiShade, which detects and activates overshadowed knowledge to guide large language models (LLMs) in multi-hop reasoning. Specifically, ActiShade iteratively detects the overshadowed keyphrase in the given query, retrieves documents relevant to both the query and the overshadowed keyphrase, and generates a new query based on the retrieved documents to guide the next-round iteration. By supplementing the overshadowed knowledge during the formulation of next-round queries while minimizing the introduction of irrelevant noise, ActiShade reduces the error accumulation caused by knowledge overshadowing. Extensive experiments show that ActiShade outperforms existing methods across multiple datasets and LLMs. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Accepted to AAAI 2026 arXiv:2601.07260 [ pdf , ps , other ] ActiShade: Activating Overshadowed Knowledge to Guide Multi-Hop Reasoning in Large Language Models Authors: Huipeng Ma , Luan Zhang , Dandan Song , Linmei Hu , Yuhang Tian , Jun Yang , Changzhi Zhou , Chenhao Li , Yizhou Jin , Xudong Li , Meng Lin , Mingxing Zhang , Shuhao Zhang Abstract : In multi-hop reasoning, multi-round retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) methods typically rely on LLM-generated content as the retrieval query. However, these approaches are inherently vulnerable to knowledge overshadowing - a phenomenon where critical information is overshadowed during generation. As a result, the LLM-generated content may be incomplete or inaccurate, leading to irrelevant retri… ▽ More In multi-hop reasoning, multi-round retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) methods typically rely on LLM-generated content as the retrieval query. However, these approaches are inherently vulnerable to knowledge overshadowing - a phenomenon where critical information is overshadowed during generation. As a result, the LLM-generated content may be incomplete or inaccurate, leading to irrelevant retrieval and causing error accumulation during the iteration process. To address this challenge, we propose ActiShade, which detects and activates overshadowed knowledge to guide large language models (LLMs) in multi-hop reasoning. Specifically, ActiShade iteratively detects the overshadowed keyphrase in the given query, retrieves documents relevant to both the query and the overshadowed keyphrase, and generates a new query based on the retrieved documents to guide the next-round iteration. By supplementing the overshadowed knowledge during the formulation of next-round queries while minimizing the introduction of irrelevant noise, ActiShade reduces the error accumulation caused by knowledge overshadowing. Extensive experiments show that ActiShade outperforms existing methods across multiple datasets and LLMs. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Accepted to AAAI 2026 arXiv:2601.06938 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.CR Forgetting Similar Samples: Can Machine Unlearning Do it Better? Authors: Heng Xu , Tianqing Zhu , Dayong Ye , Lefeng Zhang , Le Wang , Wanlei Zhou Abstract : Machine unlearning, a process enabling pre-trained models to remove the influence of specific training samples, has attracted significant attention in recent years. Although extensive research has focused on developing efficient machine unlearning strategies, we argue that these methods mainly aim at removing samples rather than removing samples' influence on the model, thus overlooking the fundam… ▽ More Machine unlearning, a process enabling pre-trained models to remove the influence of specific training samples, has attracted significant attention in recent years. Although extensive research has focused on developing efficient machine unlearning strategies, we argue that these methods mainly aim at removing samples rather than removing samples' influence on the model, thus overlooking the fundamental definition of machine unlearning. In this paper, we first conduct a comprehensive study to evaluate the effectiveness of existing unlearning schemes when the training dataset includes many samples similar to those targeted for unlearning. Specifically, we evaluate: Do existing unlearning methods truly adhere to the original definition of machine unlearning and effectively eliminate all influence of target samples when similar samples are present in the training dataset? Our extensive experiments, conducted on four carefully constructed datasets with thorough analysis, reveal a notable gap between the expected and actual performance of most existing unlearning methods for image and language models, even for the retraining-from-scratch baseline. Additionally, we also explore potential solutions to enhance current unlearning approaches. △ Less Submitted 11 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.06938 [ pdf , ps , other ] Forgetting Similar Samples: Can Machine Unlearning Do it Better? Authors: Heng Xu , Tianqing Zhu , Dayong Ye , Lefeng Zhang , Le Wang , Wanlei Zhou Abstract : Machine unlearning, a process enabling pre-trained models to remove the influence of specific training samples, has attracted significant attention in recent years. Although extensive research has focused on developing efficient machine unlearning strategies, we argue that these methods mainly aim at removing samples rather than removing samples' influence on the model, thus overlooking the fundam… ▽ More Machine unlearning, a process enabling pre-trained models to remove the influence of specific training samples, has attracted significant attention in recent years. Although extensive research has focused on developing efficient machine unlearning strategies, we argue that these methods mainly aim at removing samples rather than removing samples' influence on the model, thus overlooking the fundamental definition of machine unlearning. In this paper, we first conduct a comprehensive study to evaluate the effectiveness of existing unlearning schemes when the training dataset includes many samples similar to those targeted for unlearning. Specifically, we evaluate: Do existing unlearning methods truly adhere to the original definition of machine unlearning and effectively eliminate all influence of target samples when similar samples are present in the training dataset? Our extensive experiments, conducted on four carefully constructed datasets with thorough analysis, reveal a notable gap between the expected and actual performance of most existing unlearning methods for image and language models, even for the retraining-from-scratch baseline. Additionally, we also explore potential solutions to enhance current unlearning approaches. △ Less Submitted 11 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.06810 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.AI math-ph WFR-FM: Simulation-Free Dynamic Unbalanced Optimal Transport Authors: Qiangwei Peng , Zihan Wang , Junda Ying , Yuhao Sun , Qing Nie , Lei Zhang , Tiejun Li , Peijie Zhou Abstract : The Wasserstein-Fisher-Rao (WFR) metric extends dynamic optimal transport (OT) by coupling displacement with change of mass, providing a principled geometry for modeling unbalanced snapshot dynamics. Existing WFR solvers, however, are often unstable, computationally expensive, and difficult to scale. Here we introduce WFR Flow Matching (WFR-FM), a simulation-free training algorithm that unifies fl… ▽ More The Wasserstein-Fisher-Rao (WFR) metric extends dynamic optimal transport (OT) by coupling displacement with change of mass, providing a principled geometry for modeling unbalanced snapshot dynamics. Existing WFR solvers, however, are often unstable, computationally expensive, and difficult to scale. Here we introduce WFR Flow Matching (WFR-FM), a simulation-free training algorithm that unifies flow matching with dynamic unbalanced OT. Unlike classical flow matching which regresses only a transport vector field, WFR-FM simultaneously regresses a vector field for displacement and a scalar growth rate function for birth-death dynamics, yielding continuous flows under the WFR geometry. Theoretically, we show that minimizing the WFR-FM loss exactly recovers WFR geodesics. Empirically, WFR-FM yields more accurate and robust trajectory inference in single-cell biology, reconstructing consistent dynamics with proliferation and apoptosis, estimating time-varying growth fields, and applying to generative dynamics under imbalanced data. It outperforms state-of-the-art baselines in efficiency, stability, and reconstruction accuracy. Overall, WFR-FM establishes a unified and efficient paradigm for learning dynamical systems from unbalanced snapshots, where not only states but also mass evolve over time. △ Less Submitted 11 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.06810 [ pdf , ps , other ] WFR-FM: Simulation-Free Dynamic Unbalanced Optimal Transport Authors: Qiangwei Peng , Zihan Wang , Junda Ying , Yuhao Sun , Qing Nie , Lei Zhang , Tiejun Li , Peijie Zhou Abstract : The Wasserstein-Fisher-Rao (WFR) metric extends dynamic optimal transport (OT) by coupling displacement with change of mass, providing a principled geometry for modeling unbalanced snapshot dynamics. Existing WFR solvers, however, are often unstable, computationally expensive, and difficult to scale. Here we introduce WFR Flow Matching (WFR-FM), a simulation-free training algorithm that unifies fl… ▽ More The Wasserstein-Fisher-Rao (WFR) metric extends dynamic optimal transport (OT) by coupling displacement with change of mass, providing a principled geometry for modeling unbalanced snapshot dynamics. Existing WFR solvers, however, are often unstable, computationally expensive, and difficult to scale. Here we introduce WFR Flow Matching (WFR-FM), a simulation-free training algorithm that unifies flow matching with dynamic unbalanced OT. Unlike classical flow matching which regresses only a transport vector field, WFR-FM simultaneously regresses a vector field for displacement and a scalar growth rate function for birth-death dynamics, yielding continuous flows under the WFR geometry. Theoretically, we show that minimizing the WFR-FM loss exactly recovers WFR geodesics. Empirically, WFR-FM yields more accurate and robust trajectory inference in single-cell biology, reconstructing consistent dynamics with proliferation and apoptosis, estimating time-varying growth fields, and applying to generative dynamics under imbalanced data. It outperforms state-of-the-art baselines in efficiency, stability, and reconstruction accuracy. Overall, WFR-FM establishes a unified and efficient paradigm for learning dynamical systems from unbalanced snapshots, where not only states but also mass evolve over time. △ Less Submitted 11 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.06461 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CR cs.CV cs.ET VIPER Strike: Defeating Visual Reasoning CAPTCHAs via Structured Vision-Language Inference Authors: Minfeng Qi , Dongyang He , Qin Wang , Lefeng Zhang Abstract : Visual Reasoning CAPTCHAs (VRCs) combine visual scenes with natural-language queries that demand compositional inference over objects, attributes, and spatial relations. They are increasingly deployed as a primary defense against automated bots. Existing solvers fall into two paradigms: vision-centric, which rely on template-specific detectors but fail on novel layouts, and reasoning-centric, whic… ▽ More Visual Reasoning CAPTCHAs (VRCs) combine visual scenes with natural-language queries that demand compositional inference over objects, attributes, and spatial relations. They are increasingly deployed as a primary defense against automated bots. Existing solvers fall into two paradigms: vision-centric, which rely on template-specific detectors but fail on novel layouts, and reasoning-centric, which leverage LLMs but struggle with fine-grained visual perception. Both lack the generality needed to handle heterogeneous VRC deployments. We present ViPer, a unified attack framework that integrates structured multi-object visual perception with adaptive LLM-based reasoning. ViPer parses visual layouts, grounds attributes to question semantics, and infers target coordinates within a modular pipeline. Evaluated on six major VRC providers (VTT, Geetest, NetEase, Dingxiang, Shumei, Xiaodun), ViPer achieves up to 93.2% success, approaching human-level performance across multiple benchmarks. Compared to prior solvers, GraphNet (83.2%), Oedipus (65.8%), and the Holistic approach (89.5%), ViPer consistently outperforms all baselines. The framework further maintains robustness across alternative LLM backbones (GPT, Grok, DeepSeek, Kimi), sustaining accuracy above 90%. To anticipate defense, we further introduce Template-Space Randomization (TSR), a lightweight strategy that perturbs linguistic templates without altering task semantics. TSR measurably reduces solver (i.e., attacker) performance. Our proposed design suggests directions for human-solvable but machine-resistant CAPTCHAs. △ Less Submitted 10 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Accepted by Usenix Security 2026 arXiv:2601.06461 [ pdf , ps , other ] VIPER Strike: Defeating Visual Reasoning CAPTCHAs via Structured Vision-Language Inference Authors: Minfeng Qi , Dongyang He , Qin Wang , Lefeng Zhang Abstract : Visual Reasoning CAPTCHAs (VRCs) combine visual scenes with natural-language queries that demand compositional inference over objects, attributes, and spatial relations. They are increasingly deployed as a primary defense against automated bots. Existing solvers fall into two paradigms: vision-centric, which rely on template-specific detectors but fail on novel layouts, and reasoning-centric, whic… ▽ More Visual Reasoning CAPTCHAs (VRCs) combine visual scenes with natural-language queries that demand compositional inference over objects, attributes, and spatial relations. They are increasingly deployed as a primary defense against automated bots. Existing solvers fall into two paradigms: vision-centric, which rely on template-specific detectors but fail on novel layouts, and reasoning-centric, which leverage LLMs but struggle with fine-grained visual perception. Both lack the generality needed to handle heterogeneous VRC deployments. We present ViPer, a unified attack framework that integrates structured multi-object visual perception with adaptive LLM-based reasoning. ViPer parses visual layouts, grounds attributes to question semantics, and infers target coordinates within a modular pipeline. Evaluated on six major VRC providers (VTT, Geetest, NetEase, Dingxiang, Shumei, Xiaodun), ViPer achieves up to 93.2% success, approaching human-level performance across multiple benchmarks. Compared to prior solvers, GraphNet (83.2%), Oedipus (65.8%), and the Holistic approach (89.5%), ViPer consistently outperforms all baselines. The framework further maintains robustness across alternative LLM backbones (GPT, Grok, DeepSeek, Kimi), sustaining accuracy above 90%. To anticipate defense, we further introduce Template-Space Randomization (TSR), a lightweight strategy that perturbs linguistic templates without altering task semantics. TSR measurably reduces solver (i.e., attacker) performance. Our proposed design suggests directions for human-solvable but machine-resistant CAPTCHAs. △ Less Submitted 10 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Accepted by Usenix Security 2026 arXiv:2601.06406 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.SD doi 10.1609/aaai.v39i23.34624 Representing Sounds as Neural Amplitude Fields: A Benchmark of Coordinate-MLPs and A Fourier Kolmogorov-Arnold Framework Authors: Linfei Li , Lin Zhang , Zhong Wang , Fengyi Zhang , Zelin Li , Ying Shen Abstract : Although Coordinate-MLP-based implicit neural representations have excelled in representing radiance fields, 3D shapes, and images, their application to audio signals remains underexplored. To fill this gap, we investigate existing implicit neural representations, from which we extract 3 types of positional encoding and 16 commonly used activation functions. Through combinatorial design, we establ… ▽ More Although Coordinate-MLP-based implicit neural representations have excelled in representing radiance fields, 3D shapes, and images, their application to audio signals remains underexplored. To fill this gap, we investigate existing implicit neural representations, from which we extract 3 types of positional encoding and 16 commonly used activation functions. Through combinatorial design, we establish the first benchmark for Coordinate-MLPs in audio signal representations. Our benchmark reveals that Coordinate-MLPs require complex hyperparameter tuning and frequency-dependent initialization, limiting their robustness. To address these issues, we propose Fourier-ASR, a novel framework based on the Fourier series theorem and the Kolmogorov-Arnold representation theorem. Fourier-ASR introduces Fourier Kolmogorov-Arnold Networks (Fourier-KAN), which leverage periodicity and strong nonlinearity to represent audio signals, eliminating the need for additional positional encoding. Furthermore, a Frequency-adaptive Learning Strategy (FaLS) is proposed to enhance the convergence of Fourier-KAN by capturing high-frequency components and preventing overfitting of low-frequency signals. Extensive experiments conducted on natural speech and music datasets reveal that: (1) well-designed positional encoding and activation functions in Coordinate-MLPs can effectively improve audio representation quality; and (2) Fourier-ASR can robustly represent complex audio signals without extensive hyperparameter tuning. Looking ahead, the continuity and infinite resolution of implicit audio representations make our research highly promising for tasks such as audio compression, synthesis, and generation. The source code will be released publicly to ensure reproducibility. The code is available at △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Accepted by AAAI 2025. Code: arXiv:2601.06406 [ pdf , ps , other ] Representing Sounds as Neural Amplitude Fields: A Benchmark of Coordinate-MLPs and A Fourier Kolmogorov-Arnold Framework Authors: Linfei Li , Lin Zhang , Zhong Wang , Fengyi Zhang , Zelin Li , Ying Shen Abstract : Although Coordinate-MLP-based implicit neural representations have excelled in representing radiance fields, 3D shapes, and images, their application to audio signals remains underexplored. To fill this gap, we investigate existing implicit neural representations, from which we extract 3 types of positional encoding and 16 commonly used activation functions. Through combinatorial design, we establ… ▽ More Although Coordinate-MLP-based implicit neural representations have excelled in representing radiance fields, 3D shapes, and images, their application to audio signals remains underexplored. To fill this gap, we investigate existing implicit neural representations, from which we extract 3 types of positional encoding and 16 commonly used activation functions. Through combinatorial design, we establish the first benchmark for Coordinate-MLPs in audio signal representations. Our benchmark reveals that Coordinate-MLPs require complex hyperparameter tuning and frequency-dependent initialization, limiting their robustness. To address these issues, we propose Fourier-ASR, a novel framework based on the Fourier series theorem and the Kolmogorov-Arnold representation theorem. Fourier-ASR introduces Fourier Kolmogorov-Arnold Networks (Fourier-KAN), which leverage periodicity and strong nonlinearity to represent audio signals, eliminating the need for additional positional encoding. Furthermore, a Frequency-adaptive Learning Strategy (FaLS) is proposed to enhance the convergence of Fourier-KAN by capturing high-frequency components and preventing overfitting of low-frequency signals. Extensive experiments conducted on natural speech and music datasets reveal that: (1) well-designed positional encoding and activation functions in Coordinate-MLPs can effectively improve audio representation quality; and (2) Fourier-ASR can robustly represent complex audio signals without extensive hyperparameter tuning. Looking ahead, the continuity and infinite resolution of implicit audio representations make our research highly promising for tasks such as audio compression, synthesis, and generation. The source code will be released publicly to ensure reproducibility. The code is available at △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Accepted by AAAI 2025. Code: arXiv:2601.06401 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.CL BizFinBench.v2: A Unified Dual-Mode Bilingual Benchmark for Expert-Level Financial Capability Alignment Authors: Xin Guo , Rongjunchen Zhang , Guilong Lu , Xuntao Guo , Shuai Jia , Zhi Yang , Liwen Zhang Abstract : Large language models have undergone rapid evolution, emerging as a pivotal technology for intelligence in financial operations. However, existing benchmarks are often constrained by pitfalls such as reliance on simulated or general-purpose samples and a focus on singular, offline static scenarios. Consequently, they fail to align with the requirements for authenticity and real-time responsiveness… ▽ More Large language models have undergone rapid evolution, emerging as a pivotal technology for intelligence in financial operations. However, existing benchmarks are often constrained by pitfalls such as reliance on simulated or general-purpose samples and a focus on singular, offline static scenarios. Consequently, they fail to align with the requirements for authenticity and real-time responsiveness in financial services, leading to a significant discrepancy between benchmark performance and actual operational efficacy. To address this, we introduce BizFinBench.v2, the first large-scale evaluation benchmark grounded in authentic business data from both Chinese and U.S. equity markets, integrating online assessment. We performed clustering analysis on authentic user queries from financial platforms, resulting in eight fundamental tasks and two online tasks across four core business scenarios, totaling 29,578 expert-level Q&A pairs. Experimental results demonstrate that ChatGPT-5 achieves a prominent 61.5% accuracy in main tasks, though a substantial gap relative to financial experts persists; in online tasks, DeepSeek-R1 outperforms all other commercial LLMs. Error analysis further identifies the specific capability deficiencies of existing models within practical financial business contexts. BizFinBench.v2 transcends the limitations of current benchmarks, achieving a business-level deconstruction of LLM financial capabilities and providing a precise basis for evaluating efficacy in the widespread deployment of LLMs within the financial domain. The data and code are available at △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.06401 [ pdf , ps , other ] BizFinBench.v2: A Unified Dual-Mode Bilingual Benchmark for Expert-Level Financial Capability Alignment Authors: Xin Guo , Rongjunchen Zhang , Guilong Lu , Xuntao Guo , Shuai Jia , Zhi Yang , Liwen Zhang Abstract : Large language models have undergone rapid evolution, emerging as a pivotal technology for intelligence in financial operations. However, existing benchmarks are often constrained by pitfalls such as reliance on simulated or general-purpose samples and a focus on singular, offline static scenarios. Consequently, they fail to align with the requirements for authenticity and real-time responsiveness… ▽ More Large language models have undergone rapid evolution, emerging as a pivotal technology for intelligence in financial operations. However, existing benchmarks are often constrained by pitfalls such as reliance on simulated or general-purpose samples and a focus on singular, offline static scenarios. Consequently, they fail to align with the requirements for authenticity and real-time responsiveness in financial services, leading to a significant discrepancy between benchmark performance and actual operational efficacy. To address this, we introduce BizFinBench.v2, the first large-scale evaluation benchmark grounded in authentic business data from both Chinese and U.S. equity markets, integrating online assessment. We performed clustering analysis on authentic user queries from financial platforms, resulting in eight fundamental tasks and two online tasks across four core business scenarios, totaling 29,578 expert-level Q&A pairs. Experimental results demonstrate that ChatGPT-5 achieves a prominent 61.5% accuracy in main tasks, though a substantial gap relative to financial experts persists; in online tasks, DeepSeek-R1 outperforms all other commercial LLMs. Error analysis further identifies the specific capability deficiencies of existing models within practical financial business contexts. BizFinBench.v2 transcends the limitations of current benchmarks, achieving a business-level deconstruction of LLM financial capabilities and providing a precise basis for evaluating efficacy in the widespread deployment of LLMs within the financial domain. The data and code are available at △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.06220 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.AI Breaking Model Lock-in: Cost-Efficient Zero-Shot LLM Routing via a Universal Latent Space Authors: Cheng Yan , Wuyang Zhang , Zhiyuan Ning , Fan Xu , Ziyang Tao , Lu Zhang , Bing Yin , Yanyong Zhang Abstract : The rapid proliferation of Large Language Models (LLMs) has led to a fragmented and inefficient ecosystem, a state of ``model lock-in'' where seamlessly integrating novel models remains a significant bottleneck. Current routing frameworks require exhaustive, costly retraining, hindering scalability and adaptability. We introduce ZeroRouter, a new paradigm for LLM routing that breaks this lock-in.… ▽ More The rapid proliferation of Large Language Models (LLMs) has led to a fragmented and inefficient ecosystem, a state of ``model lock-in'' where seamlessly integrating novel models remains a significant bottleneck. Current routing frameworks require exhaustive, costly retraining, hindering scalability and adaptability. We introduce ZeroRouter, a new paradigm for LLM routing that breaks this lock-in. Our approach is founded on a universal latent space, a model-agnostic representation of query difficulty that fundamentally decouples the characterization of a query from the profiling of a model. This allows for zero-shot onboarding of new models without full-scale retraining. ZeroRouter features a context-aware predictor that maps queries to this universal space and a dual-mode optimizer that balances accuracy, cost, and latency. Our framework consistently outperforms all baselines, delivering higher accuracy at lower cost and latency. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.06220 [ pdf , ps , other ] Breaking Model Lock-in: Cost-Efficient Zero-Shot LLM Routing via a Universal Latent Space Authors: Cheng Yan , Wuyang Zhang , Zhiyuan Ning , Fan Xu , Ziyang Tao , Lu Zhang , Bing Yin , Yanyong Zhang Abstract : The rapid proliferation of Large Language Models (LLMs) has led to a fragmented and inefficient ecosystem, a state of ``model lock-in'' where seamlessly integrating novel models remains a significant bottleneck. Current routing frameworks require exhaustive, costly retraining, hindering scalability and adaptability. We introduce ZeroRouter, a new paradigm for LLM routing that breaks this lock-in.… ▽ More The rapid proliferation of Large Language Models (LLMs) has led to a fragmented and inefficient ecosystem, a state of ``model lock-in'' where seamlessly integrating novel models remains a significant bottleneck. Current routing frameworks require exhaustive, costly retraining, hindering scalability and adaptability. We introduce ZeroRouter, a new paradigm for LLM routing that breaks this lock-in. Our approach is founded on a universal latent space, a model-agnostic representation of query difficulty that fundamentally decouples the characterization of a query from the profiling of a model. This allows for zero-shot onboarding of new models without full-scale retraining. ZeroRouter features a context-aware predictor that maps queries to this universal space and a dual-mode optimizer that balances accuracy, cost, and latency. Our framework consistently outperforms all baselines, delivering higher accuracy at lower cost and latency. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.06078 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV physics.ao-ph OptFormer: Optical Flow-Guided Attention and Phase Space Reconstruction for SST Forecasting Authors: Yin Wang , Chunlin Gong , Zhuozhen Xu , Lehan Zhang , Xiang Wu Abstract : Sea Surface Temperature (SST) prediction plays a vital role in climate modeling and disaster forecasting. However, it remains challenging due to its nonlinear spatiotemporal dynamics and extended prediction horizons. To address this, we propose OptFormer, a novel encoder-decoder model that integrates phase-space reconstruction with a motion-aware attention mechanism guided by optical flow. Unlike… ▽ More Sea Surface Temperature (SST) prediction plays a vital role in climate modeling and disaster forecasting. However, it remains challenging due to its nonlinear spatiotemporal dynamics and extended prediction horizons. To address this, we propose OptFormer, a novel encoder-decoder model that integrates phase-space reconstruction with a motion-aware attention mechanism guided by optical flow. Unlike conventional attention, our approach leverages inter-frame motion cues to highlight relative changes in the spatial field, allowing the model to focus on dynamic regions and capture long-range temporal dependencies more effectively. Experiments on NOAA SST datasets across multiple spatial scales demonstrate that OptFormer achieves superior performance under a 1:1 training-to-prediction setting, significantly outperforming existing baselines in accuracy and robustness. △ Less Submitted 29 December, 2025; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 11 pages,4 figures, 5 tables arXiv:2601.06078 [ pdf , ps , other ] OptFormer: Optical Flow-Guided Attention and Phase Space Reconstruction for SST Forecasting Authors: Yin Wang , Chunlin Gong , Zhuozhen Xu , Lehan Zhang , Xiang Wu Abstract : Sea Surface Temperature (SST) prediction plays a vital role in climate modeling and disaster forecasting. However, it remains challenging due to its nonlinear spatiotemporal dynamics and extended prediction horizons. To address this, we propose OptFormer, a novel encoder-decoder model that integrates phase-space reconstruction with a motion-aware attention mechanism guided by optical flow. Unlike… ▽ More Sea Surface Temperature (SST) prediction plays a vital role in climate modeling and disaster forecasting. However, it remains challenging due to its nonlinear spatiotemporal dynamics and extended prediction horizons. To address this, we propose OptFormer, a novel encoder-decoder model that integrates phase-space reconstruction with a motion-aware attention mechanism guided by optical flow. Unlike conventional attention, our approach leverages inter-frame motion cues to highlight relative changes in the spatial field, allowing the model to focus on dynamic regions and capture long-range temporal dependencies more effectively. Experiments on NOAA SST datasets across multiple spatial scales demonstrate that OptFormer achieves superior performance under a 1:1 training-to-prediction setting, significantly outperforming existing baselines in accuracy and robustness. △ Less Submitted 29 December, 2025; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 11 pages,4 figures, 5 tables arXiv:2601.06029 [ pdf ] cs.HC cs.AI A Recommendation System-Based Framework for Enhancing Human-Machine Collaboration in Industrial Timetabling Rescheduling: Application in Preventive Maintenance Authors: Kévin Ducharlet , Liwen Zhang , Sara Maqrot , Houssem Saidi Abstract : Industrial timetabling is a critical task for decision-makers across various sectors to ensure efficient system operation. In real-world settings, it remains challenging because unexpected events often disrupt execution. When such events arise, effective rescheduling and collaboration between humans and machines becomes essential. This paper presents a recommendation system-based framework for han… ▽ More Industrial timetabling is a critical task for decision-makers across various sectors to ensure efficient system operation. In real-world settings, it remains challenging because unexpected events often disrupt execution. When such events arise, effective rescheduling and collaboration between humans and machines becomes essential. This paper presents a recommendation system-based framework for handling rescheduling challenges, built on Timefold, a powerful AI-driven planning engine. Our experimental study evaluates nine instances inspired by a realworld preventive maintenance use case, aiming to identify the heuristic that best balances solution quality and computing time to support near-optimal decisionmaking when rescheduling is required due to unexpected events during operational days. Finally, we illustrate the complete process of our recommendation system through a simple use case. △ Less Submitted 4 November, 2025; originally announced January 2026. Journal ref: 26th IFIP WG 5.5 SOCOLNET Working Conference on Virtual Enterprises, PRO-VE 2025, Oct 2025, Porto, Portugal. pp.363-381 arXiv:2601.06029 [ pdf ] A Recommendation System-Based Framework for Enhancing Human-Machine Collaboration in Industrial Timetabling Rescheduling: Application in Preventive Maintenance Authors: Kévin Ducharlet , Liwen Zhang , Sara Maqrot , Houssem Saidi Abstract : Industrial timetabling is a critical task for decision-makers across various sectors to ensure efficient system operation. In real-world settings, it remains challenging because unexpected events often disrupt execution. When such events arise, effective rescheduling and collaboration between humans and machines becomes essential. This paper presents a recommendation system-based framework for han… ▽ More Industrial timetabling is a critical task for decision-makers across various sectors to ensure efficient system operation. In real-world settings, it remains challenging because unexpected events often disrupt execution. When such events arise, effective rescheduling and collaboration between humans and machines becomes essential. This paper presents a recommendation system-based framework for handling rescheduling challenges, built on Timefold, a powerful AI-driven planning engine. Our experimental study evaluates nine instances inspired by a realworld preventive maintenance use case, aiming to identify the heuristic that best balances solution quality and computing time to support near-optimal decisionmaking when rescheduling is required due to unexpected events during operational days. Finally, we illustrate the complete process of our recommendation system through a simple use case. △ Less Submitted 4 November, 2025; originally announced January 2026. Journal ref: 26th IFIP WG 5.5 SOCOLNET Working Conference on Virtual Enterprises, PRO-VE 2025, Oct 2025, Porto, Portugal. pp.363-381 arXiv:2601.05688 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV SketchVL: Policy Optimization via Fine-Grained Credit Assignment for Chart Understanding and More Authors: Muye Huang , Lingling Zhang , Yifei Li , Yaqiang Wu , Jun Liu Abstract : Charts are high-density visual carriers of complex data and medium for information extraction and analysis. Due to the need for precise and complex visual reasoning, automated chart understanding poses a significant challenge to existing Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs). Many MLLMs trained with reinforcement learning (RL) face the challenge of credit assignment. Their advantage estimation,… ▽ More Charts are high-density visual carriers of complex data and medium for information extraction and analysis. Due to the need for precise and complex visual reasoning, automated chart understanding poses a significant challenge to existing Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs). Many MLLMs trained with reinforcement learning (RL) face the challenge of credit assignment. Their advantage estimation, typically performed at the trajectory level, cannot distinguish between correct and incorrect reasoning steps within a single generated response. To address this limitation, we introduce SketchVL, a novel MLLM that optimized with FinePO, a new RL algorithm designed for fine-grained credit assignment within each trajectory. SketchVL's methodology involves drawing its intermediate reasoning steps as markers on the image and feeding the annotated image back to itself, creating a robust, multi-step reasoning process. During training, the FinePO algorithm leverages a Fine-grained Process Reward Model (FinePRM) to score each drawing action within a trajectory, thereby precisely assigning credit for each step. This mechanism allows FinePO to more strongly reward correct tokens when a trajectory is globally successful, and more heavily penalize incorrect tokens when the trajectory is globally suboptimal, thus achieving fine-grained reinforcement signals. Experiments show that SketchVL learns to align its step-level behavior with the FinePRM, achieving an average performance gain of 7.23\% over its base model across chart datasets, natural image datasets, and mathematics, providing a promising new direction for training powerful reasoning models. △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05688 [ pdf , ps , other ] SketchVL: Policy Optimization via Fine-Grained Credit Assignment for Chart Understanding and More Authors: Muye Huang , Lingling Zhang , Yifei Li , Yaqiang Wu , Jun Liu Abstract : Charts are high-density visual carriers of complex data and medium for information extraction and analysis. Due to the need for precise and complex visual reasoning, automated chart understanding poses a significant challenge to existing Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs). Many MLLMs trained with reinforcement learning (RL) face the challenge of credit assignment. Their advantage estimation,… ▽ More Charts are high-density visual carriers of complex data and medium for information extraction and analysis. Due to the need for precise and complex visual reasoning, automated chart understanding poses a significant challenge to existing Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs). Many MLLMs trained with reinforcement learning (RL) face the challenge of credit assignment. Their advantage estimation, typically performed at the trajectory level, cannot distinguish between correct and incorrect reasoning steps within a single generated response. To address this limitation, we introduce SketchVL, a novel MLLM that optimized with FinePO, a new RL algorithm designed for fine-grained credit assignment within each trajectory. SketchVL's methodology involves drawing its intermediate reasoning steps as markers on the image and feeding the annotated image back to itself, creating a robust, multi-step reasoning process. During training, the FinePO algorithm leverages a Fine-grained Process Reward Model (FinePRM) to score each drawing action within a trajectory, thereby precisely assigning credit for each step. This mechanism allows FinePO to more strongly reward correct tokens when a trajectory is globally successful, and more heavily penalize incorrect tokens when the trajectory is globally suboptimal, thus achieving fine-grained reinforcement signals. Experiments show that SketchVL learns to align its step-level behavior with the FinePRM, achieving an average performance gain of 7.23\% over its base model across chart datasets, natural image datasets, and mathematics, providing a promising new direction for training powerful reasoning models. △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05640 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV SGDrive: Scene-to-Goal Hierarchical World Cognition for Autonomous Driving Authors: Jingyu Li , Junjie Wu , Dongnan Hu , Xiangkai Huang , Bin Sun , Zhihui Hao , Xianpeng Lang , Xiatian Zhu , Li Zhang Abstract : Recent end-to-end autonomous driving approaches have leveraged Vision-Language Models (VLMs) to enhance planning capabilities in complex driving scenarios. However, VLMs are inherently trained as generalist models, lacking specialized understanding of driving-specific reasoning in 3D space and time. When applied to autonomous driving, these models struggle to establish structured spatial-temporal… ▽ More Recent end-to-end autonomous driving approaches have leveraged Vision-Language Models (VLMs) to enhance planning capabilities in complex driving scenarios. However, VLMs are inherently trained as generalist models, lacking specialized understanding of driving-specific reasoning in 3D space and time. When applied to autonomous driving, these models struggle to establish structured spatial-temporal representations that capture geometric relationships, scene context, and motion patterns critical for safe trajectory planning. To address these limitations, we propose SGDrive, a novel framework that explicitly structures the VLM's representation learning around driving-specific knowledge hierarchies. Built upon a pre-trained VLM backbone, SGDrive decomposes driving understanding into a scene-agent-goal hierarchy that mirrors human driving cognition: drivers first perceive the overall environment (scene context), then attend to safety-critical agents and their behaviors, and finally formulate short-term goals before executing actions. This hierarchical decomposition provides the structured spatial-temporal representation that generalist VLMs lack, integrating multi-level information into a compact yet comprehensive format for trajectory planning. Extensive experiments on the NAVSIM benchmark demonstrate that SGDrive achieves state-of-the-art performance among camera-only methods on both PDMS and EPDMS, validating the effectiveness of hierarchical knowledge structuring for adapting generalist VLMs to autonomous driving. △ Less Submitted 11 January, 2026; v1 submitted 9 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05640 [ pdf , ps , other ] SGDrive: Scene-to-Goal Hierarchical World Cognition for Autonomous Driving Authors: Jingyu Li , Junjie Wu , Dongnan Hu , Xiangkai Huang , Bin Sun , Zhihui Hao , Xianpeng Lang , Xiatian Zhu , Li Zhang Abstract : Recent end-to-end autonomous driving approaches have leveraged Vision-Language Models (VLMs) to enhance planning capabilities in complex driving scenarios. However, VLMs are inherently trained as generalist models, lacking specialized understanding of driving-specific reasoning in 3D space and time. When applied to autonomous driving, these models struggle to establish structured spatial-temporal… ▽ More Recent end-to-end autonomous driving approaches have leveraged Vision-Language Models (VLMs) to enhance planning capabilities in complex driving scenarios. However, VLMs are inherently trained as generalist models, lacking specialized understanding of driving-specific reasoning in 3D space and time. When applied to autonomous driving, these models struggle to establish structured spatial-temporal representations that capture geometric relationships, scene context, and motion patterns critical for safe trajectory planning. To address these limitations, we propose SGDrive, a novel framework that explicitly structures the VLM's representation learning around driving-specific knowledge hierarchies. Built upon a pre-trained VLM backbone, SGDrive decomposes driving understanding into a scene-agent-goal hierarchy that mirrors human driving cognition: drivers first perceive the overall environment (scene context), then attend to safety-critical agents and their behaviors, and finally formulate short-term goals before executing actions. This hierarchical decomposition provides the structured spatial-temporal representation that generalist VLMs lack, integrating multi-level information into a compact yet comprehensive format for trajectory planning. Extensive experiments on the NAVSIM benchmark demonstrate that SGDrive achieves state-of-the-art performance among camera-only methods on both PDMS and EPDMS, validating the effectiveness of hierarchical knowledge structuring for adapting generalist VLMs to autonomous driving. △ Less Submitted 11 January, 2026; v1 submitted 9 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05607 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG Orchestrating Tokens and Sequences: Dynamic Hybrid Policy Optimization for RLVR Authors: Zijun Min , Bingshuai Liu , Ante Wang , Long Zhang , Anxiang Zeng , Haibo Zhang , Jinsong Su Abstract : Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards (RLVR) offers a promising framework for optimizing large language models in reasoning tasks. However, existing RLVR algorithms focus on different granularities, and each has complementary strengths and limitations. Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO) updates the policy with token-level importance ratios, which preserves fine-grained credit assig… ▽ More Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards (RLVR) offers a promising framework for optimizing large language models in reasoning tasks. However, existing RLVR algorithms focus on different granularities, and each has complementary strengths and limitations. Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO) updates the policy with token-level importance ratios, which preserves fine-grained credit assignment but often suffers from high variance and instability. In contrast, Group Sequence Policy Optimization (GSPO) applies single sequence-level importance ratios across all tokens in a response that better matches sequence-level rewards, but sacrifices token-wise credit assignment. In this paper, we propose Dynamic Hybrid Policy Optimization (DHPO) to bridge GRPO and GSPO within a single clipped surrogate objective. DHPO combines token-level and sequence-level importance ratios using weighting mechanisms. We explore two variants of the mixing mechanism, including an averaged mixing and an entropy-guided mixing. To further stabilize training, we employ a branch-specific clipping strategy that constrains token-level and sequence-level ratios within separate trust regions before mixing, preventing outliers in either branch from dominating the update. Across seven challenging mathematical reasoning benchmarks, experiments on both dense and MoE models from the Qwen3 series show that DHPO consistently outperforms GRPO and GSPO. We will release our code upon acceptance of this paper. △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05607 [ pdf , ps , other ] Orchestrating Tokens and Sequences: Dynamic Hybrid Policy Optimization for RLVR Authors: Zijun Min , Bingshuai Liu , Ante Wang , Long Zhang , Anxiang Zeng , Haibo Zhang , Jinsong Su Abstract : Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards (RLVR) offers a promising framework for optimizing large language models in reasoning tasks. However, existing RLVR algorithms focus on different granularities, and each has complementary strengths and limitations. Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO) updates the policy with token-level importance ratios, which preserves fine-grained credit assig… ▽ More Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards (RLVR) offers a promising framework for optimizing large language models in reasoning tasks. However, existing RLVR algorithms focus on different granularities, and each has complementary strengths and limitations. Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO) updates the policy with token-level importance ratios, which preserves fine-grained credit assignment but often suffers from high variance and instability. In contrast, Group Sequence Policy Optimization (GSPO) applies single sequence-level importance ratios across all tokens in a response that better matches sequence-level rewards, but sacrifices token-wise credit assignment. In this paper, we propose Dynamic Hybrid Policy Optimization (DHPO) to bridge GRPO and GSPO within a single clipped surrogate objective. DHPO combines token-level and sequence-level importance ratios using weighting mechanisms. We explore two variants of the mixing mechanism, including an averaged mixing and an entropy-guided mixing. To further stabilize training, we employ a branch-specific clipping strategy that constrains token-level and sequence-level ratios within separate trust regions before mixing, preventing outliers in either branch from dominating the update. Across seven challenging mathematical reasoning benchmarks, experiments on both dense and MoE models from the Qwen3 series show that DHPO consistently outperforms GRPO and GSPO. We will release our code upon acceptance of this paper. △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05106 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.CL cs.LG Token-Level LLM Collaboration via FusionRoute Authors: Nuoya Xiong , Yuhang Zhou , Hanqing Zeng , Zhaorun Chen , Furong Huang , Shuchao Bi , Lizhu Zhang , Zhuokai Zhao Abstract : Large language models (LLMs) exhibit strengths across diverse domains. However, achieving strong performance across these domains with a single general-purpose model typically requires scaling to sizes that are prohibitively expensive to train and deploy. On the other hand, while smaller domain-specialized models are much more efficient, they struggle to generalize beyond their training distributi… ▽ More Large language models (LLMs) exhibit strengths across diverse domains. However, achieving strong performance across these domains with a single general-purpose model typically requires scaling to sizes that are prohibitively expensive to train and deploy. On the other hand, while smaller domain-specialized models are much more efficient, they struggle to generalize beyond their training distributions. To address this dilemma, we propose FusionRoute, a robust and effective token-level multi-LLM collaboration framework in which a lightweight router simultaneously (i) selects the most suitable expert at each decoding step and (ii) contributes a complementary logit that refines or corrects the selected expert's next-token distribution via logit addition. Unlike existing token-level collaboration methods that rely solely on fixed expert outputs, we provide a theoretical analysis showing that pure expert-only routing is fundamentally limited: unless strong global coverage assumptions hold, it cannot in general realize the optimal decoding policy. By augmenting expert selection with a trainable complementary generator, FusionRoute expands the effective policy class and enables recovery of optimal value functions under mild conditions. Empirically, across both Llama-3 and Gemma-2 families and diverse benchmarks spanning mathematical reasoning, code generation, and instruction following, FusionRoute outperforms both sequence- and token-level collaboration, model merging, and direct fine-tuning, while remaining competitive with domain experts on their respective tasks. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 25 pages arXiv:2601.05106 [ pdf , ps , other ] Token-Level LLM Collaboration via FusionRoute Authors: Nuoya Xiong , Yuhang Zhou , Hanqing Zeng , Zhaorun Chen , Furong Huang , Shuchao Bi , Lizhu Zhang , Zhuokai Zhao Abstract : Large language models (LLMs) exhibit strengths across diverse domains. However, achieving strong performance across these domains with a single general-purpose model typically requires scaling to sizes that are prohibitively expensive to train and deploy. On the other hand, while smaller domain-specialized models are much more efficient, they struggle to generalize beyond their training distributi… ▽ More Large language models (LLMs) exhibit strengths across diverse domains. However, achieving strong performance across these domains with a single general-purpose model typically requires scaling to sizes that are prohibitively expensive to train and deploy. On the other hand, while smaller domain-specialized models are much more efficient, they struggle to generalize beyond their training distributions. To address this dilemma, we propose FusionRoute, a robust and effective token-level multi-LLM collaboration framework in which a lightweight router simultaneously (i) selects the most suitable expert at each decoding step and (ii) contributes a complementary logit that refines or corrects the selected expert's next-token distribution via logit addition. Unlike existing token-level collaboration methods that rely solely on fixed expert outputs, we provide a theoretical analysis showing that pure expert-only routing is fundamentally limited: unless strong global coverage assumptions hold, it cannot in general realize the optimal decoding policy. By augmenting expert selection with a trainable complementary generator, FusionRoute expands the effective policy class and enables recovery of optimal value functions under mild conditions. Empirically, across both Llama-3 and Gemma-2 families and diverse benchmarks spanning mathematical reasoning, code generation, and instruction following, FusionRoute outperforms both sequence- and token-level collaboration, model merging, and direct fine-tuning, while remaining competitive with domain experts on their respective tasks. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 25 pages arXiv:2601.05014 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.RO The RoboSense Challenge: Sense Anything, Navigate Anywhere, Adapt Across Platforms Authors: Lingdong Kong , Shaoyuan Xie , Zeying Gong , Ye Li , Meng Chu , Ao Liang , Yuhao Dong , Tianshuai Hu , Ronghe Qiu , Rong Li , Hanjiang Hu , Dongyue Lu , Wei Yin , Wenhao Ding , Linfeng Li , Hang Song , Wenwei Zhang , Yuexin Ma , Junwei Liang , Zhedong Zheng , Lai Xing Ng , Benoit R. Cottereau , Wei Tsang Ooi , Ziwei Liu , Zhanpeng Zhang , et al. (114 additional authors not shown) Abstract : Autonomous systems are increasingly deployed in open and dynamic environments -- from city streets to aerial and indoor spaces -- where perception models must remain reliable under sensor noise, environmental variation, and platform shifts. However, even state-of-the-art methods often degrade under unseen conditions, highlighting the need for robust and generalizable robot sensing. The RoboSense 2… ▽ More Autonomous systems are increasingly deployed in open and dynamic environments -- from city streets to aerial and indoor spaces -- where perception models must remain reliable under sensor noise, environmental variation, and platform shifts. However, even state-of-the-art methods often degrade under unseen conditions, highlighting the need for robust and generalizable robot sensing. The RoboSense 2025 Challenge is designed to advance robustness and adaptability in robot perception across diverse sensing scenarios. It unifies five complementary research tracks spanning language-grounded decision making, socially compliant navigation, sensor configuration generalization, cross-view and cross-modal correspondence, and cross-platform 3D perception. Together, these tasks form a comprehensive benchmark for evaluating real-world sensing reliability under domain shifts, sensor failures, and platform discrepancies. RoboSense 2025 provides standardized datasets, baseline models, and unified evaluation protocols, enabling large-scale and reproducible comparison of robust perception methods. The challenge attracted 143 teams from 85 institutions across 16 countries, reflecting broad community engagement. By consolidating insights from 23 winning solutions, this report highlights emerging methodological trends, shared design principles, and open challenges across all tracks, marking a step toward building robots that can sense reliably, act robustly, and adapt across platforms in real-world environments. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Official IROS 2025 RoboSense Challenge Report; 51 pages, 37 figures, 5 tables; Competition Website at arXiv:2601.05014 [ pdf , ps , other ] The RoboSense Challenge: Sense Anything, Navigate Anywhere, Adapt Across Platforms Authors: Lingdong Kong , Shaoyuan Xie , Zeying Gong , Ye Li , Meng Chu , Ao Liang , Yuhao Dong , Tianshuai Hu , Ronghe Qiu , Rong Li , Hanjiang Hu , Dongyue Lu , Wei Yin , Wenhao Ding , Linfeng Li , Hang Song , Wenwei Zhang , Yuexin Ma , Junwei Liang , Zhedong Zheng , Lai Xing Ng , Benoit R. Cottereau , Wei Tsang Ooi , Ziwei Liu , Zhanpeng Zhang , et al. (114 additional authors not shown) Abstract : Autonomous systems are increasingly deployed in open and dynamic environments -- from city streets to aerial and indoor spaces -- where perception models must remain reliable under sensor noise, environmental variation, and platform shifts. However, even state-of-the-art methods often degrade under unseen conditions, highlighting the need for robust and generalizable robot sensing. The RoboSense 2… ▽ More Autonomous systems are increasingly deployed in open and dynamic environments -- from city streets to aerial and indoor spaces -- where perception models must remain reliable under sensor noise, environmental variation, and platform shifts. However, even state-of-the-art methods often degrade under unseen conditions, highlighting the need for robust and generalizable robot sensing. The RoboSense 2025 Challenge is designed to advance robustness and adaptability in robot perception across diverse sensing scenarios. It unifies five complementary research tracks spanning language-grounded decision making, socially compliant navigation, sensor configuration generalization, cross-view and cross-modal correspondence, and cross-platform 3D perception. Together, these tasks form a comprehensive benchmark for evaluating real-world sensing reliability under domain shifts, sensor failures, and platform discrepancies. RoboSense 2025 provides standardized datasets, baseline models, and unified evaluation protocols, enabling large-scale and reproducible comparison of robust perception methods. The challenge attracted 143 teams from 85 institutions across 16 countries, reflecting broad community engagement. By consolidating insights from 23 winning solutions, this report highlights emerging methodological trends, shared design principles, and open challenges across all tracks, marking a step toward building robots that can sense reliably, act robustly, and adapt across platforms in real-world environments. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Official IROS 2025 RoboSense Challenge Report; 51 pages, 37 figures, 5 tables; Competition Website at arXiv:2601.04907 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG Distributed Online Convex Optimization with Efficient Communication: Improved Algorithm and Lower bounds Authors: Sifan Yang , Wenhao Yang , Wei Jiang , Lijun Zhang Abstract : We investigate distributed online convex optimization with compressed communication, where $n$ learners connected by a network collaboratively minimize a sequence of global loss functions using only local information and compressed data from neighbors. Prior work has established regret bounds of $O(\max\{ω^{-2}ρ^{-4}n^{1/2},ω^{-4}ρ^{-8}\}n\sqrt{T})$ and… ▽ More We investigate distributed online convex optimization with compressed communication, where $n$ learners connected by a network collaboratively minimize a sequence of global loss functions using only local information and compressed data from neighbors. Prior work has established regret bounds of $O(\max\{ω^{-2}ρ^{-4}n^{1/2},ω^{-4}ρ^{-8}\}n\sqrt{T})$ and $O(\max\{ω^{-2}ρ^{-4}n^{1/2},ω^{-4}ρ^{-8}\}n\ln{T})$ for convex and strongly convex functions, respectively, where $ω\in(0,1]$ is the compression quality factor ($ω=1$ means no compression) and $ρ<1$ is the spectral gap of the communication matrix. However, these regret bounds suffer from a quadratic or even quartic dependence on $ω^{-1}$. Moreover, the super-linear dependence on $n$ is also undesirable. To overcome these limitations, we propose a novel algorithm that achieves improved regret bounds of $\tilde{O}(ω^{-1/2}ρ^{-1}n\sqrt{T})$ and $\tilde{O}(ω^{-1}ρ^{-2}n\ln{T})$ for convex and strongly convex functions, respectively. The primary idea is to design a two-level blocking update framework incorporating two novel ingredients: an online gossip strategy and an error compensation scheme, which collaborate to achieve a better consensus among learners. Furthermore, we establish the first lower bounds for this problem, justifying the optimality of our results with respect to both $ω$ and $T$. Additionally, we consider the bandit feedback scenario, and extend our method with the classic gradient estimators to enhance existing regret bounds. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; v1 submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.04907 [ pdf , ps , other ] Distributed Online Convex Optimization with Efficient Communication: Improved Algorithm and Lower bounds Authors: Sifan Yang , Wenhao Yang , Wei Jiang , Lijun Zhang Abstract : We investigate distributed online convex optimization with compressed communication, where $n$ learners connected by a network collaboratively minimize a sequence of global loss functions using only local information and compressed data from neighbors. Prior work has established regret bounds of $O(\max\{ω^{-2}ρ^{-4}n^{1/2},ω^{-4}ρ^{-8}\}n\sqrt{T})$ and… ▽ More We investigate distributed online convex optimization with compressed communication, where $n$ learners connected by a network collaboratively minimize a sequence of global loss functions using only local information and compressed data from neighbors. Prior work has established regret bounds of $O(\max\{ω^{-2}ρ^{-4}n^{1/2},ω^{-4}ρ^{-8}\}n\sqrt{T})$ and $O(\max\{ω^{-2}ρ^{-4}n^{1/2},ω^{-4}ρ^{-8}\}n\ln{T})$ for convex and strongly convex functions, respectively, where $ω\in(0,1]$ is the compression quality factor ($ω=1$ means no compression) and $ρ<1$ is the spectral gap of the communication matrix. However, these regret bounds suffer from a quadratic or even quartic dependence on $ω^{-1}$. Moreover, the super-linear dependence on $n$ is also undesirable. To overcome these limitations, we propose a novel algorithm that achieves improved regret bounds of $\tilde{O}(ω^{-1/2}ρ^{-1}n\sqrt{T})$ and $\tilde{O}(ω^{-1}ρ^{-2}n\ln{T})$ for convex and strongly convex functions, respectively. The primary idea is to design a two-level blocking update framework incorporating two novel ingredients: an online gossip strategy and an error compensation scheme, which collaborate to achieve a better consensus among learners. Furthermore, we establish the first lower bounds for this problem, justifying the optimality of our results with respect to both $ω$ and $T$. Additionally, we consider the bandit feedback scenario, and extend our method with the classic gradient estimators to enhance existing regret bounds. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; v1 submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.04895 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI DVD: A Robust Method for Detecting Variant Contamination in Large Language Model Evaluation Authors: Renzhao Liang , Jingru Chen , Bo Jia , Bo Deng , Chenggang Xie , Yidong Wang , Ke Jin , Xin Wang , Linfeng Zhang , Cunxiang Wang Abstract : Evaluating large language models (LLMs) is increasingly confounded by \emph{variant contamination}: the training corpus contains semantically equivalent yet lexically or syntactically altered versions of test items. Unlike verbatim leakage, these paraphrased or structurally transformed variants evade existing detectors based on sampling consistency or perplexity, thereby inflating benchmark scores… ▽ More Evaluating large language models (LLMs) is increasingly confounded by \emph{variant contamination}: the training corpus contains semantically equivalent yet lexically or syntactically altered versions of test items. Unlike verbatim leakage, these paraphrased or structurally transformed variants evade existing detectors based on sampling consistency or perplexity, thereby inflating benchmark scores via memorization rather than genuine reasoning. We formalize this problem and introduce \textbf{DVD} (\textbf{D}etection via \textbf{V}ariance of generation \textbf{D}istribution), a single-sample detector that models the local output distribution induced by temperature sampling. Our key insight is that contaminated items trigger alternation between a \emph{memory-adherence} state and a \emph{perturbation-drift} state, yielding abnormally high variance in the synthetic difficulty of low-probability tokens; uncontaminated items remain in drift with comparatively smooth variance. We construct the first benchmark for variant contamination across two domains Omni-MATH and SuperGPQA by generating and filtering semantically equivalent variants, and simulate contamination via fine-tuning models of different scales and architectures (Qwen2.5 and Llama3.1). Across datasets and models, \textbf{DVD} consistently outperforms perplexity-based, Min-$k$\%++, edit-distance (CDD), and embedding-similarity baselines, while exhibiting strong robustness to hyperparameters. Our results establish variance of the generation distribution as a principled and practical fingerprint for detecting variant contamination in LLM evaluation. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.04895 [ pdf , ps , other ] DVD: A Robust Method for Detecting Variant Contamination in Large Language Model Evaluation Authors: Renzhao Liang , Jingru Chen , Bo Jia , Bo Deng , Chenggang Xie , Yidong Wang , Ke Jin , Xin Wang , Linfeng Zhang , Cunxiang Wang Abstract : Evaluating large language models (LLMs) is increasingly confounded by \emph{variant contamination}: the training corpus contains semantically equivalent yet lexically or syntactically altered versions of test items. Unlike verbatim leakage, these paraphrased or structurally transformed variants evade existing detectors based on sampling consistency or perplexity, thereby inflating benchmark scores… ▽ More Evaluating large language models (LLMs) is increasingly confounded by \emph{variant contamination}: the training corpus contains semantically equivalent yet lexically or syntactically altered versions of test items. Unlike verbatim leakage, these paraphrased or structurally transformed variants evade existing detectors based on sampling consistency or perplexity, thereby inflating benchmark scores via memorization rather than genuine reasoning. We formalize this problem and introduce \textbf{DVD} (\textbf{D}etection via \textbf{V}ariance of generation \textbf{D}istribution), a single-sample detector that models the local output distribution induced by temperature sampling. Our key insight is that contaminated items trigger alternation between a \emph{memory-adherence} state and a \emph{perturbation-drift} state, yielding abnormally high variance in the synthetic difficulty of low-probability tokens; uncontaminated items remain in drift with comparatively smooth variance. We construct the first benchmark for variant contamination across two domains Omni-MATH and SuperGPQA by generating and filtering semantically equivalent variants, and simulate contamination via fine-tuning models of different scales and architectures (Qwen2.5 and Llama3.1). Across datasets and models, \textbf{DVD} consistently outperforms perplexity-based, Min-$k$\%++, edit-distance (CDD), and embedding-similarity baselines, while exhibiting strong robustness to hyperparameters. Our results establish variance of the generation distribution as a principled and practical fingerprint for detecting variant contamination in LLM evaluation. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.04589 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV MiLDEdit: Reasoning-Based Multi-Layer Design Document Editing Authors: Zihao Lin , Wanrong Zhu , Jiuxiang Gu , Jihyung Kil , Christopher Tensmeyer , Lin Zhang , Shilong Liu , Ruiyi Zhang , Lifu Huang , Vlad I. Morariu , Tong Sun Abstract : Real-world design documents (e.g., posters) are inherently multi-layered, combining decoration, text, and images. Editing them from natural-language instructions requires fine-grained, layer-aware reasoning to identify relevant layers and coordinate modifications. Prior work largely overlooks multi-layer design document editing, focusing instead on single-layer image editing or multi-layer generat… ▽ More Real-world design documents (e.g., posters) are inherently multi-layered, combining decoration, text, and images. Editing them from natural-language instructions requires fine-grained, layer-aware reasoning to identify relevant layers and coordinate modifications. Prior work largely overlooks multi-layer design document editing, focusing instead on single-layer image editing or multi-layer generation, which assume a flat canvas and lack the reasoning needed to determine what and where to modify. To address this gap, we introduce the Multi-Layer Document Editing Agent (MiLDEAgent), a reasoning-based framework that combines an RL-trained multimodal reasoner for layer-wise understanding with an image editor for targeted modifications. To systematically benchmark this setting, we introduce the MiLDEBench, a human-in-the-loop corpus of over 20K design documents paired with diverse editing instructions. The benchmark is complemented by a task-specific evaluation protocol, MiLDEEval, which spans four dimensions including instruction following, layout consistency, aesthetics, and text rendering. Extensive experiments on 14 open-source and 2 closed-source models reveal that existing approaches fail to generalize: open-source models often cannot complete multi-layer document editing tasks, while closed-source models suffer from format violations. In contrast, MiLDEAgent achieves strong layer-aware reasoning and precise editing, significantly outperforming all open-source baselines and attaining performance comparable to closed-source models, thereby establishing the first strong baseline for multi-layer document editing. △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.04589 [ pdf , ps , other ] MiLDEdit: Reasoning-Based Multi-Layer Design Document Editing Authors: Zihao Lin , Wanrong Zhu , Jiuxiang Gu , Jihyung Kil , Christopher Tensmeyer , Lin Zhang , Shilong Liu , Ruiyi Zhang , Lifu Huang , Vlad I. Morariu , Tong Sun Abstract : Real-world design documents (e.g., posters) are inherently multi-layered, combining decoration, text, and images. Editing them from natural-language instructions requires fine-grained, layer-aware reasoning to identify relevant layers and coordinate modifications. Prior work largely overlooks multi-layer design document editing, focusing instead on single-layer image editing or multi-layer generat… ▽ More Real-world design documents (e.g., posters) are inherently multi-layered, combining decoration, text, and images. Editing them from natural-language instructions requires fine-grained, layer-aware reasoning to identify relevant layers and coordinate modifications. Prior work largely overlooks multi-layer design document editing, focusing instead on single-layer image editing or multi-layer generation, which assume a flat canvas and lack the reasoning needed to determine what and where to modify. To address this gap, we introduce the Multi-Layer Document Editing Agent (MiLDEAgent), a reasoning-based framework that combines an RL-trained multimodal reasoner for layer-wise understanding with an image editor for targeted modifications. To systematically benchmark this setting, we introduce the MiLDEBench, a human-in-the-loop corpus of over 20K design documents paired with diverse editing instructions. The benchmark is complemented by a task-specific evaluation protocol, MiLDEEval, which spans four dimensions including instruction following, layout consistency, aesthetics, and text rendering. Extensive experiments on 14 open-source and 2 closed-source models reveal that existing approaches fail to generalize: open-source models often cannot complete multi-layer document editing tasks, while closed-source models suffer from format violations. In contrast, MiLDEAgent achieves strong layer-aware reasoning and precise editing, significantly outperforming all open-source baselines and attaining performance comparable to closed-source models, thereby establishing the first strong baseline for multi-layer document editing. △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.04544 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI TCAndon-Router: Adaptive Reasoning Router for Multi-Agent Collaboration Authors: Jiuzhou Zhao , Chunrong Chen , Chenqi Qiao , Lebin Zheng , Minqi Han , Yanchi Liu Yongzhou Xu Xiaochuan Xu Min Zhang Abstract : Multi-Agent Systems(MAS) have become a powerful paradigm for building high performance intelligent applications. Within these systems, the router responsible for determining which expert agents should handle a given query plays a crucial role in overall performance. Existing routing strategies generally fall into two categories: performance routing, which balances latency and cost across models of… ▽ More Multi-Agent Systems(MAS) have become a powerful paradigm for building high performance intelligent applications. Within these systems, the router responsible for determining which expert agents should handle a given query plays a crucial role in overall performance. Existing routing strategies generally fall into two categories: performance routing, which balances latency and cost across models of different sizes, and task routing, which assigns queries to domain-specific experts to improve accuracy. In real-world enterprise applications, task routing is more suitable; however, most existing approaches rely on static single-label decisions, which introduce two major limitations: (i) difficulty in seamlessly integrating new agents as business domains expand, and (ii) routing conflicts caused by overlapping agent capabilities, ultimately degrading accuracy and robustness.To address these challenges, we propose TCAndon-Router(TCAR): an adaptive reasoning router for multi-agent collaboration. Unlike traditional routers, TCAR supports dynamic agent onboarding and first generates a natural-language reasoning chain before predicting a set of candidate agents capable of handling the query. In addition, we design a collaborative execution pipeline in which selected agents independently produce responses, which are then aggregated and refined into a single high-quality response by a dedicated Refining Agent.Experiments on public datasets and real enterprise data demonstrate that TCAR significantly improves routing accuracy, reduces routing conflicts, and remains robust in ambiguous scenarios. We have released TCAR at to support future research on explainable and collaborative multi-agent routing. △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 16 pages, 6 figures. Under review at IJCAI arXiv:2601.04544 [ pdf , ps , other ] TCAndon-Router: Adaptive Reasoning Router for Multi-Agent Collaboration Authors: Jiuzhou Zhao , Chunrong Chen , Chenqi Qiao , Lebin Zheng , Minqi Han , Yanchi Liu Yongzhou Xu Xiaochuan Xu Min Zhang Abstract : Multi-Agent Systems(MAS) have become a powerful paradigm for building high performance intelligent applications. Within these systems, the router responsible for determining which expert agents should handle a given query plays a crucial role in overall performance. Existing routing strategies generally fall into two categories: performance routing, which balances latency and cost across models of… ▽ More Multi-Agent Systems(MAS) have become a powerful paradigm for building high performance intelligent applications. Within these systems, the router responsible for determining which expert agents should handle a given query plays a crucial role in overall performance. Existing routing strategies generally fall into two categories: performance routing, which balances latency and cost across models of different sizes, and task routing, which assigns queries to domain-specific experts to improve accuracy. In real-world enterprise applications, task routing is more suitable; however, most existing approaches rely on static single-label decisions, which introduce two major limitations: (i) difficulty in seamlessly integrating new agents as business domains expand, and (ii) routing conflicts caused by overlapping agent capabilities, ultimately degrading accuracy and robustness.To address these challenges, we propose TCAndon-Router(TCAR): an adaptive reasoning router for multi-agent collaboration. Unlike traditional routers, TCAR supports dynamic agent onboarding and first generates a natural-language reasoning chain before predicting a set of candidate agents capable of handling the query. In addition, we design a collaborative execution pipeline in which selected agents independently produce responses, which are then aggregated and refined into a single high-quality response by a dedicated Refining Agent.Experiments on public datasets and real enterprise data demonstrate that TCAR significantly improves routing accuracy, reduces routing conflicts, and remains robust in ambiguous scenarios. We have released TCAR at to support future research on explainable and collaborative multi-agent routing. △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 16 pages, 6 figures. Under review at IJCAI arXiv:2601.04476 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AR Memory-Guided Unified Hardware Accelerator for Mixed-Precision Scientific Computing Authors: Chuanzhen Wang , Leo Zhang , Eric Liu Abstract : Recent hardware acceleration advances have enabled powerful specialized accelerators for finite element computations, spiking neural network inference, and sparse tensor operations. However, existing approaches face fundamental limitations: (1) finite element methods lack comprehensive rounding error analysis for reduced-precision implementations and use fixed precision assignment strategies that… ▽ More Recent hardware acceleration advances have enabled powerful specialized accelerators for finite element computations, spiking neural network inference, and sparse tensor operations. However, existing approaches face fundamental limitations: (1) finite element methods lack comprehensive rounding error analysis for reduced-precision implementations and use fixed precision assignment strategies that cannot adapt to varying numerical conditioning; (2) spiking neural network accelerators cannot handle non-spike operations and suffer from bit-width escalation as network depth increases; and (3) FPGA tensor accelerators optimize only for dense computations while requiring manual configuration for each sparsity pattern. To address these challenges, we introduce \textbf{Memory-Guided Unified Hardware Accelerator for Mixed-Precision Scientific Computing}, a novel framework that integrates three enhanced modules with memory-guided adaptation for efficient mixed-workload processing on unified platforms. Our approach employs memory-guided precision selection to overcome fixed precision limitations, integrates experience-driven bit-width management and dynamic parallelism adaptation for enhanced spiking neural network acceleration, and introduces curriculum learning for automatic sparsity pattern discovery. Extensive experiments on FEniCS, COMSOL, ANSYS benchmarks, MNIST, CIFAR-10, CIFAR-100, DVS-Gesture datasets, and COCO 2017 demonstrate 2.8\% improvement in numerical accuracy, 47\% throughput increase, 34\% energy reduction, and 45-65\% throughput improvement compared to specialized accelerators. Our work enables unified processing of finite element methods, spiking neural networks, and sparse computations on a single platform while eliminating data transfer overhead between separate units. △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 22 pages arXiv:2601.04476 [ pdf , ps , other ] Memory-Guided Unified Hardware Accelerator for Mixed-Precision Scientific Computing Authors: Chuanzhen Wang , Leo Zhang , Eric Liu Abstract : Recent hardware acceleration advances have enabled powerful specialized accelerators for finite element computations, spiking neural network inference, and sparse tensor operations. However, existing approaches face fundamental limitations: (1) finite element methods lack comprehensive rounding error analysis for reduced-precision implementations and use fixed precision assignment strategies that… ▽ More Recent hardware acceleration advances have enabled powerful specialized accelerators for finite element computations, spiking neural network inference, and sparse tensor operations. However, existing approaches face fundamental limitations: (1) finite element methods lack comprehensive rounding error analysis for reduced-precision implementations and use fixed precision assignment strategies that cannot adapt to varying numerical conditioning; (2) spiking neural network accelerators cannot handle non-spike operations and suffer from bit-width escalation as network depth increases; and (3) FPGA tensor accelerators optimize only for dense computations while requiring manual configuration for each sparsity pattern. To address these challenges, we introduce \textbf{Memory-Guided Unified Hardware Accelerator for Mixed-Precision Scientific Computing}, a novel framework that integrates three enhanced modules with memory-guided adaptation for efficient mixed-workload processing on unified platforms. Our approach employs memory-guided precision selection to overcome fixed precision limitations, integrates experience-driven bit-width management and dynamic parallelism adaptation for enhanced spiking neural network acceleration, and introduces curriculum learning for automatic sparsity pattern discovery. Extensive experiments on FEniCS, COMSOL, ANSYS benchmarks, MNIST, CIFAR-10, CIFAR-100, DVS-Gesture datasets, and COCO 2017 demonstrate 2.8\% improvement in numerical accuracy, 47\% throughput increase, 34\% energy reduction, and 45-65\% throughput improvement compared to specialized accelerators. Our work enables unified processing of finite element methods, spiking neural networks, and sparse computations on a single platform while eliminating data transfer overhead between separate units. △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 22 pages arXiv:2601.04120 [ pdf , ps , other ] math.OC cs.LG A Single-Loop Bilevel Deep Learning Method for Optimal Control of Obstacle Problems Authors: Yongcun Song , Shangzhi Zeng , Jin Zhang , Lvgang Zhang Abstract : Optimal control of obstacle problems arises in a wide range of applications and is computationally challenging due to its nonsmoothness, nonlinearity, and bilevel structure. Classical numerical approaches rely on mesh-based discretization and typically require solving a sequence of costly subproblems. In this work, we propose a single-loop bilevel deep learning method, which is mesh-free, scalable… ▽ More Optimal control of obstacle problems arises in a wide range of applications and is computationally challenging due to its nonsmoothness, nonlinearity, and bilevel structure. Classical numerical approaches rely on mesh-based discretization and typically require solving a sequence of costly subproblems. In this work, we propose a single-loop bilevel deep learning method, which is mesh-free, scalable to high-dimensional and complex domains, and avoids repeated solution of discretized subproblems. The method employs constraint-embedding neural networks to approximate the state and control and preserves the bilevel structure. To train the neural networks efficiently, we propose a Single-Loop Stochastic First-Order Bilevel Algorithm (S2-FOBA), which eliminates nested optimization and does not rely on restrictive lower-level uniqueness assumptions. We analyze the convergence behavior of S2-FOBA under mild assumptions. Numerical experiments on benchmark examples, including distributed and obstacle control problems with regular and irregular obstacles on complex domains, demonstrate that the proposed method achieves satisfactory accuracy while reducing computational cost compared to classical numerical methods. △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. MSC Class: 68T07; 49M41; 65K15; 93-08 arXiv:2601.04120 [ pdf , ps , other ] A Single-Loop Bilevel Deep Learning Method for Optimal Control of Obstacle Problems Authors: Yongcun Song , Shangzhi Zeng , Jin Zhang , Lvgang Zhang Abstract : Optimal control of obstacle problems arises in a wide range of applications and is computationally challenging due to its nonsmoothness, nonlinearity, and bilevel structure. Classical numerical approaches rely on mesh-based discretization and typically require solving a sequence of costly subproblems. In this work, we propose a single-loop bilevel deep learning method, which is mesh-free, scalable… ▽ More Optimal control of obstacle problems arises in a wide range of applications and is computationally challenging due to its nonsmoothness, nonlinearity, and bilevel structure. Classical numerical approaches rely on mesh-based discretization and typically require solving a sequence of costly subproblems. In this work, we propose a single-loop bilevel deep learning method, which is mesh-free, scalable to high-dimensional and complex domains, and avoids repeated solution of discretized subproblems. The method employs constraint-embedding neural networks to approximate the state and control and preserves the bilevel structure. To train the neural networks efficiently, we propose a Single-Loop Stochastic First-Order Bilevel Algorithm (S2-FOBA), which eliminates nested optimization and does not rely on restrictive lower-level uniqueness assumptions. We analyze the convergence behavior of S2-FOBA under mild assumptions. Numerical experiments on benchmark examples, including distributed and obstacle control problems with regular and irregular obstacles on complex domains, demonstrate that the proposed method achieves satisfactory accuracy while reducing computational cost compared to classical numerical methods. △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. MSC Class: 68T07; 49M41; 65K15; 93-08 arXiv:2601.03682 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI From Implicit to Explicit: Token-Efficient Logical Supervision for Mathematical Reasoning in LLMs Authors: Shaojie Wang , Liang Zhang Abstract : Recent studies reveal that large language models (LLMs) exhibit limited logical reasoning abilities in mathematical problem-solving, instead often relying on pattern-matching and memorization. We systematically analyze this limitation, focusing on logical relationship understanding, which is a core capability underlying genuine logical reasoning, and reveal that errors related to this capability a… ▽ More Recent studies reveal that large language models (LLMs) exhibit limited logical reasoning abilities in mathematical problem-solving, instead often relying on pattern-matching and memorization. We systematically analyze this limitation, focusing on logical relationship understanding, which is a core capability underlying genuine logical reasoning, and reveal that errors related to this capability account for over 90\% of incorrect predictions, with Chain-of-Thought Supervised Fine-Tuning (CoT-SFT) failing to substantially reduce these errors. To address this bottleneck, we propose First-Step Logical Reasoning (FSLR), a lightweight training framework targeting logical relationship understanding. Our key insight is that the first planning step-identifying which variables to use and which operation to apply-encourages the model to derive logical relationships directly from the problem statement. By training models on this isolated step, FSLR provides explicit supervision for logical relationship understanding, unlike CoT-SFT which implicitly embeds such relationships within complete solution trajectories. Extensive experiments across multiple models and datasets demonstrate that FSLR consistently outperforms CoT-SFT under both in-distribution and out-of-distribution settings, with average improvements of 3.2\% and 4.6\%, respectively. Moreover, FSLR achieves 4-6x faster training and reduces training token consumption by over 80\%. △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.03682 [ pdf , ps , other ] From Implicit to Explicit: Token-Efficient Logical Supervision for Mathematical Reasoning in LLMs Authors: Shaojie Wang , Liang Zhang Abstract : Recent studies reveal that large language models (LLMs) exhibit limited logical reasoning abilities in mathematical problem-solving, instead often relying on pattern-matching and memorization. We systematically analyze this limitation, focusing on logical relationship understanding, which is a core capability underlying genuine logical reasoning, and reveal that errors related to this capability a… ▽ More Recent studies reveal that large language models (LLMs) exhibit limited logical reasoning abilities in mathematical problem-solving, instead often relying on pattern-matching and memorization. We systematically analyze this limitation, focusing on logical relationship understanding, which is a core capability underlying genuine logical reasoning, and reveal that errors related to this capability account for over 90\% of incorrect predictions, with Chain-of-Thought Supervised Fine-Tuning (CoT-SFT) failing to substantially reduce these errors. To address this bottleneck, we propose First-Step Logical Reasoning (FSLR), a lightweight training framework targeting logical relationship understanding. Our key insight is that the first planning step-identifying which variables to use and which operation to apply-encourages the model to derive logical relationships directly from the problem statement. By training models on this isolated step, FSLR provides explicit supervision for logical relationship understanding, unlike CoT-SFT which implicitly embeds such relationships within complete solution trajectories. Extensive experiments across multiple models and datasets demonstrate that FSLR consistently outperforms CoT-SFT under both in-distribution and out-of-distribution settings, with average improvements of 3.2\% and 4.6\%, respectively. Moreover, FSLR achieves 4-6x faster training and reduces training token consumption by over 80\%. △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.03594 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CR Jailbreaking LLMs & VLMs: Mechanisms, Evaluation, and Unified Defense Authors: Zejian Chen , Chaozhuo Li , Chao Li , Xi Zhang , Litian Zhang , Yiming He Abstract : This paper provides a systematic survey of jailbreak attacks and defenses on Large Language Models (LLMs) and Vision-Language Models (VLMs), emphasizing that jailbreak vulnerabilities stem from structural factors such as incomplete training data, linguistic ambiguity, and generative uncertainty. It further differentiates between hallucinations and jailbreaks in terms of intent and triggering mecha… ▽ More This paper provides a systematic survey of jailbreak attacks and defenses on Large Language Models (LLMs) and Vision-Language Models (VLMs), emphasizing that jailbreak vulnerabilities stem from structural factors such as incomplete training data, linguistic ambiguity, and generative uncertainty. It further differentiates between hallucinations and jailbreaks in terms of intent and triggering mechanisms. We propose a three-dimensional survey framework: (1) Attack dimension-including template/encoding-based, in-context learning manipulation, reinforcement/adversarial learning, LLM-assisted and fine-tuned attacks, as well as prompt- and image-level perturbations and agent-based transfer in VLMs; (2) Defense dimension-encompassing prompt-level obfuscation, output evaluation, and model-level alignment or fine-tuning; and (3) Evaluation dimension-covering metrics such as Attack Success Rate (ASR), toxicity score, query/time cost, and multimodal Clean Accuracy and Attribute Success Rate. Compared with prior works, this survey spans the full spectrum from text-only to multimodal settings, consolidating shared mechanisms and proposing unified defense principles: variant-consistency and gradient-sensitivity detection at the perception layer, safety-aware decoding and output review at the generation layer, and adversarially augmented preference alignment at the parameter layer. Additionally, we summarize existing multimodal safety benchmarks and discuss future directions, including automated red teaming, cross-modal collaborative defense, and standardized evaluation. △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.03594 [ pdf , ps , other ] Jailbreaking LLMs & VLMs: Mechanisms, Evaluation, and Unified Defense Authors: Zejian Chen , Chaozhuo Li , Chao Li , Xi Zhang , Litian Zhang , Yiming He Abstract : This paper provides a systematic survey of jailbreak attacks and defenses on Large Language Models (LLMs) and Vision-Language Models (VLMs), emphasizing that jailbreak vulnerabilities stem from structural factors such as incomplete training data, linguistic ambiguity, and generative uncertainty. It further differentiates between hallucinations and jailbreaks in terms of intent and triggering mecha… ▽ More This paper provides a systematic survey of jailbreak attacks and defenses on Large Language Models (LLMs) and Vision-Language Models (VLMs), emphasizing that jailbreak vulnerabilities stem from structural factors such as incomplete training data, linguistic ambiguity, and generative uncertainty. It further differentiates between hallucinations and jailbreaks in terms of intent and triggering mechanisms. We propose a three-dimensional survey framework: (1) Attack dimension-including template/encoding-based, in-context learning manipulation, reinforcement/adversarial learning, LLM-assisted and fine-tuned attacks, as well as prompt- and image-level perturbations and agent-based transfer in VLMs; (2) Defense dimension-encompassing prompt-level obfuscation, output evaluation, and model-level alignment or fine-tuning; and (3) Evaluation dimension-covering metrics such as Attack Success Rate (ASR), toxicity score, query/time cost, and multimodal Clean Accuracy and Attribute Success Rate. Compared with prior works, this survey spans the full spectrum from text-only to multimodal settings, consolidating shared mechanisms and proposing unified defense principles: variant-consistency and gradient-sensitivity detection at the perception layer, safety-aware decoding and output review at the generation layer, and adversarially augmented preference alignment at the parameter layer. Additionally, we summarize existing multimodal safety benchmarks and discuss future directions, including automated red teaming, cross-modal collaborative defense, and standardized evaluation. △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.03586 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Detecting AI-Generated Images via Distributional Deviations from Real Images Authors: Yakun Niu , Yingjian Chen , Lei Zhang Abstract : The rapid advancement of generative models has significantly enhanced the quality of AI-generated images, raising concerns about misinformation and the erosion of public trust. Detecting AI-generated images has thus become a critical challenge, particularly in terms of generalizing to unseen generative models. Existing methods using frozen pre-trained CLIP models show promise in generalization but… ▽ More The rapid advancement of generative models has significantly enhanced the quality of AI-generated images, raising concerns about misinformation and the erosion of public trust. Detecting AI-generated images has thus become a critical challenge, particularly in terms of generalizing to unseen generative models. Existing methods using frozen pre-trained CLIP models show promise in generalization but treat the image encoder as a basic feature extractor, failing to fully exploit its potential. In this paper, we perform an in-depth analysis of the frozen CLIP image encoder (CLIP-ViT), revealing that it effectively clusters real images in a high-level, abstract feature space. However, it does not truly possess the ability to distinguish between real and AI-generated images. Based on this analysis, we propose a Masking-based Pre-trained model Fine-Tuning (MPFT) strategy, which introduces a Texture-Aware Masking (TAM) mechanism to mask textured areas containing generative model-specific patterns during fine-tuning. This approach compels CLIP-ViT to attend to the "distributional deviations"from authentic images for AI-generated image detection, thereby achieving enhanced generalization performance. Extensive experiments on the GenImage and UniversalFakeDetect datasets demonstrate that our method, fine-tuned with only a minimal number of images, significantly outperforms existing approaches, achieving up to 98.2% and 94.6% average accuracy on the two datasets, respectively. △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.03586 [ pdf , ps , other ] Detecting AI-Generated Images via Distributional Deviations from Real Images Authors: Yakun Niu , Yingjian Chen , Lei Zhang Abstract : The rapid advancement of generative models has significantly enhanced the quality of AI-generated images, raising concerns about misinformation and the erosion of public trust. Detecting AI-generated images has thus become a critical challenge, particularly in terms of generalizing to unseen generative models. Existing methods using frozen pre-trained CLIP models show promise in generalization but… ▽ More The rapid advancement of generative models has significantly enhanced the quality of AI-generated images, raising concerns about misinformation and the erosion of public trust. Detecting AI-generated images has thus become a critical challenge, particularly in terms of generalizing to unseen generative models. Existing methods using frozen pre-trained CLIP models show promise in generalization but treat the image encoder as a basic feature extractor, failing to fully exploit its potential. In this paper, we perform an in-depth analysis of the frozen CLIP image encoder (CLIP-ViT), revealing that it effectively clusters real images in a high-level, abstract feature space. However, it does not truly possess the ability to distinguish between real and AI-generated images. Based on this analysis, we propose a Masking-based Pre-trained model Fine-Tuning (MPFT) strategy, which introduces a Texture-Aware Masking (TAM) mechanism to mask textured areas containing generative model-specific patterns during fine-tuning. This approach compels CLIP-ViT to attend to the "distributional deviations"from authentic images for AI-generated image detection, thereby achieving enhanced generalization performance. Extensive experiments on the GenImage and UniversalFakeDetect datasets demonstrate that our method, fine-tuned with only a minimal number of images, significantly outperforms existing approaches, achieving up to 98.2% and 94.6% average accuracy on the two datasets, respectively. △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. 1 2 3 4 5 … About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack
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https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&query=Zhang,+L
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NL FR EN OPAC Andere sites Bibliothèque fédérale BNTL Dépôt légal Galerie My KBR My KBR Naar het menu gaan Naar de inhoud gaan Naar de zoekopdracht gaan Bibliothèque fédérale BNTL Dépôt légal Galerie My KBR My KBR Syracuse Alle catalogi Enkel catalogus KBR Elektronische bronnen Auteurs - Personen U bent hier: Home / Gedetailleerde beschrijving / Gedetailleerde beschrijving Nederlands (België) Français (Belgique) English (United Kingdom) Algemene catalogus Collecties Elektronische bronnen Online databanken Online tijdschriften E-books Gedigitaliseerde documenten Belgica BelgicaPress BelgicaPeriodicals Belgische publicaties Aangekondigde publicaties Belgische bibliografie Kaarten en Plannen Prenten en Tekeningen Oude en kostbare drukwerken Hedendaagse drukwerken Kranten Handschriften Munten en Penningen Muziek Elektronische bronnen Online databanken Online tijdschriften E-books Online databanken Online tijdschriften E-books Gedigitaliseerde documenten Belgica BelgicaPress BelgicaPeriodicals Belgica BelgicaPress BelgicaPeriodicals Belgische publicaties Aangekondigde publicaties Belgische bibliografie Aangekondigde publicaties Belgische bibliografie Kaarten en Plannen Prenten en Tekeningen Oude en kostbare drukwerken Hedendaagse drukwerken Kranten Handschriften Munten en Penningen Muziek Auteurs Personen Personen PDF CSV ISBD Export RIS (Zotero) 0 recensie Adams, Scott 1957- - Auteur et dessinateur de bandes dessinées, économiste, journaliste, blogueur, ingénieur, écrivain Fysieke persoon Beschrijving Wat vindt u van dit document? Geef ons uw beoordeling De velden aangeduid met * zijn verplicht. Wordt geëxporteerd… Uw recensie aanpassen De velden aangeduid met * zijn verplicht. De zoekopdracht opslaan De zoekopdracht zal bewaard worden in uw account en kan te aller tijde opnieuw worden uitgevoerd. Uw melding is opgeslagen U kunt uw meldingen rechtstreeks in uw account beheren Mij inschrijven voor de gebeurtenissen van dezelfde categorie Abonneer u op de gebeurtenissen van de categorie en ontvang de nieuwigheden via e-mail. Mijn lezerskaart ©2025 KBR - Toegankelijkheidsverklaring : niet-conform - Juridische informatie - Schrijf u in op de maandelijkse nieuwsbrief Mogelijk gemaakt door Archimed - Documentbeheer voor bibliotheken Kader delen Kopieer de code en plak ze op uw site om het kader weer te geven Of u kunt ze delen op de sociale netwerken Bevestig uw actie Weet u zeker dat u alle documenten wilt verwijderen uit de huidige selectie? Een exemplaar reserveren Een exemplaar aanvragen Zich inschrijven voor een evenement Annulering van de inschrijving Let op! Bent u zeker dat u uw inschrijving wilt annuleren? Dit evenement toevoegen aan uw kalender Reserveringen van animatietools
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History Toggle History subsection 1.1 Today 1.1 Today 2 Honors 3 In popular culture 4 See also 5 References 6 External links Whisky a Go Go Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Français Հայերեն Italiano עברית ქართული Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Suomi Svenska 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item "The Whisky" The Whisky a Go Go on the Sunset Strip in 2006 Interactive map of Whisky a Go Go Address 8901 Sunset Blvd Location West Hollywood, California 90069 Coordinates .mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap} 34°5′26″N 118°23′8″W / 34.09056°N 118.38556°W / 34.09056; -118.38556 Type Nightclub Capacity 500 Construction Opened January 16, 1964 Website whiskyagogo .com The Whisky a Go Go (informally nicknamed The Whisky ) is a historic nightclub in West Hollywood, California , United States. It is located at 8901 Sunset Boulevard on the Sunset Strip , corner North Clark Street, opposite North San Vicente Boulevard, northwest corner. The club played a central role in the Los Angeles music scene from the 1960s through the 1990s. History In 1958, [ 1 ] the first Whisky a Go Go in the United States opened in Chicago , Illinois , on the corner of Rush and Chestnut streets. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] It has been called the first real American discothèque . A franchise was opened in 1966 on M Street in the Georgetown section of Washington, D.C., by restaurateur Jacques Vivien. It owes its name to the first discothèque, the Whisky à Gogo, ( à gogo , meaning, in French, "in abundance", "galore"), established in Paris in 1947 by Paul Pacini (d. 2017), [ 5 ] which itself took the name from the movie Whisky Galore! based on the British novel Whisky Galore which was released in France as Whisky a Gogo . The Sunset Strip Whisky was founded by Elmer Valentine , Phil Tanzini, Shelly Davis, and attorney Theodore Flier and opened on January 16, 1964. [ 6 ] [ 7 ] In 1966, Valentine, Lou Adler , and others founded The Roxy Theatre . [ 7 ] In 1972, Valentine, Adler, Mario Maglieri and others started the Rainbow Bar & Grill on the Sunset Strip. [ 8 ] Lou Adler bought into the Whisky in the late 1970s. Valentine sold his interest in the Whisky a Go Go in the 1990s but retained an ownership in the Rainbow Bar & Grill and the Roxy Theatre until his death in December 2008. [ 7 ] Although the club was billed as a discothèque, suggesting that it offered only recorded music, the Whisky a Go Go opened with a live band led by Johnny Rivers and DJ Rhonda Lane, spinning records between sets from a suspended cage at the right of the stage. Shortly after opening, the club began booking live rock groups upon suggestion from their publicist, Ronnie Haran. Haran eventually hired The Doors as the Whisky house band , [ 9 ] where they performed seven nights a week. In September 1969, the group Gypsy took over as the house band at the club until April 1971. The Whisky a Go Go was one of the places that popularized go-go dancing . Elmer Valentine, in a 2006 Vanity Fair article, recalled arranging to have a female DJ play records between Rivers' sets so patrons could continue dancing. But because there was not enough room on the floor for a DJ booth, he had a glass-walled booth mounted high above the floor. [ 7 ] [ 10 ] A contest was held for the female DJ job but when the young winner called Valentine on the night of the opening and tearfully said her mother forbade her from doing it, Valentine recruited the club's cigarette girl , Patty Brockhurst. Valentine quickly hired two more female dancers, one of whom, Joanna Labean, designed the official go-go-girl costume of fringed dress and white boots . [ 10 ] Rivers rode the Whisky-born go-go craze to national fame with records recorded partly Live at the Whisky . In addition, The Miracles recorded the song " Going to a Go-Go " in 1966 (which was covered in 1982 by The Rolling Stones ), and Whisky a Go Go franchises sprang up all over the country. [ 11 ] Arguably, the rock and roll scene in Los Angeles was born when the Whisky started operation; because of its status as a historic music landmark, the venue was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2006. [ 12 ] The Whisky played an important role in many musical careers, especially for bands based in Southern California . The Byrds , Buffalo Springfield , Smokestack Lightnin' , and Love were regulars, and the Doors were the house band for a while. Van Morrison 's band Them had a two-week residency in June 1966, with the Doors as the opening act. On the last night they all jammed together on " Gloria ." Frank Zappa 's the Mothers of Invention got their record contract based on a performance at the Whisky. The Turtles performed there when their newest (and biggest-selling) single " Happy Together " was becoming a hit, only to lose their new bassist, Chip Douglas (who had arranged the song), to the Monkees ; guitarist Michael Nesmith invited him to become their producer (he returned to the Turtles a year later, to produce them). Neil Diamond also played at the Whisky on occasion. Metallica bassist Cliff Burton was recruited by the band after they watched him play a show there with his band Trauma. At one point, singer and actress E.G. Daily had a residency at the Whisky. Arthur Lee of Love immortalized the Whisky in the song "Maybe the People Would Be the Times or Between Clark and Hilldale". "Here they always play my songs," he would sing on the side-two opener of Forever Changes . The Whisky was located on the strip between the streets Clark and Hilldale. British rockers Status Quo also referenced the venue in their 1978 song " Long Legged Linda " with the lines, "Well, if you're ever in Los Angeles and you've got time to spare / Take a stroll up Sunset Boulevard, you'll find the Whisky there." Loggins and Messina sang about the club in their tune "Whiskey", found on their 1972 album Loggins and Messina . In 1966, the Whisky was one of the centers of what fans call the Sunset Strip police riots . In the mid-1970s, the Whisky hosted stage presentations, including the long-running show The Cycle Sluts . During the early 1990s, the Whisky hosted a number of Seattle -based musicians who would be a part of the grunge movement , including Soundgarden , Mudhoney , Melvins , Fitz of Depression and 7 Year Bitch . [ 13 ] Tracks recorded from a February 12, 1992 concert of Hole appear on their EP , Ask for It (1995). In 1994, Oasis played a controversial set at the Whisky, with frontman Liam Gallagher visibly intoxicated. Immediately following the gig, lead songwriter Noel Gallagher temporarily left the group out of frustration, fleeing to San Francisco , where he penned the song " Talk Tonight ". In 1997, System of a Down played at the Whisky. The band were unsigned at the time, and played songs from their early demo tapes, in particular containing the band's only live performance of the song "Blue". Today On September 12, 2016, Whisky a Go Go launched an official TV channel on the Roku Connected TV platform. The Whisky a Go Go channel opens the Whisky's doors to a global audience with live music videos, full concerts and related content spanning its 60-year history. [ 14 ] On May 9, 2025, a dump truck crashed into Whiskey a Go Go, as well as several vehicles and an electrical pole. The incident forced the cancellation of the night's scheduled concert, which was to feature bands including Boy Hits Car , Barefoot in the Bathroom, and Gearheart. [ 15 ] Honors A gene that codes for a subunit of a common potassium ion channel was named for the establishment in the 1960s by William D. Kaplan and William E. Trout. The human Ether-à-go-go-Related Gene ( hERG ) was so named because when Drosophila flies with mutations in the Ether-à-go-go gene are anaesthetised with ether , their legs start to shake, like the dancing at the Whisky a Go Go nightclub. [ 16 ] In popular culture Starting in issue #7 of the Marvel comic, Uncanny X-Men , the similarly titled "Coffee-a-Go-Go" became a common hangout spot for the team to take dates to. The 2013 videogame Grand Theft Auto V features a nightclub known as Tequi-la-la, which is based on Whisky a Go Go. [ 17 ] See also Los Angeles portal Live at the Whisky a Go Go (disambiguation) Otis Redding In Person at the Whisky a Go Go , an album recorded in 1966 at the venue Hugh Masekela Is Alive and Well at the Whisky , a 1967 album by Hugh Masekela recorded live at the venue The Troubadour The Viper Room References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "January 11, 1964: Whisky a Go Go Opens in L.A." bestclassicbands.com . July 29, 2015 . Retrieved April 10, 2017 . ^ "Charles W. Cushman Photograph Collection >> Results >> Details" . Indiana University Archives. May 1966 . Retrieved July 13, 2013 . ^ "Charles W. Cushman Photograph Collection >> Results >> Details" . Indiana University Archives. May 1966 . Retrieved July 13, 2013 . ^ "1967 Discotheque Club Chicago with Marquee of Rovin Kind & G | Flickr – Condivisione di foto!" . Flickr. March 22, 2009 . Retrieved July 13, 2013 . ^ Brewster, Bill; Broughton, Frank (1999). Last Night a Dj Saved My Life: The History of the Disc Jockey . Grove Press. p. 50. ISBN 9781555846114 . ^ "Whisky Articles" . Whisky a Go Go. January 16, 1964 . Retrieved July 13, 2013 . ^ a b c d McLellan, Dennis (December 7, 2008). "Elmer Valentine, co-founder of Whisky a Go Go, dies at 85" . Los Angeles Times . pp. B11. ^ Sandomir, Richard (May 9, 2017). "Mario Maglieri, Who Coddled Rockers at His Clubs, Dies at 93" . The New York Times . p. B14. Archived from the original on May 24, 2017. ^ "50 Years Gone: Behind the Morrison Myths" . rokritr.com . July 2, 2021 . Retrieved May 24, 2024 . ^ a b Kamp, David (September 4, 2006). "Live At The Whisky" . Vanity Fair . Archived from the original on November 9, 2006. ^ Perrone, Pierre (March 25, 2009). "Elmer Valentine: Promoter behind Los Angeles' Whisky a Go Go and Roxy clubs" . The Independent . ^ "Take a stroll through music history at Hollywood's Whisky a Go Go" . AXS. June 12, 2014. ^ "Whisky A Go-Go" . Tripod - The Sunset Strip . Retrieved April 3, 2015 . ^ Smith, Kevin (September 12, 2016). "Whisky a Go Go's new streaming channel allows you to watch iconic live music performances" . Los Angeles Daily News . ^ Peters, Mitchell (May 10, 2025). "Dump Truck Crashes Into Iconic Whisky a Go Go Music Venue on Sunset Strip" . Billboard . Retrieved May 11, 2025 . ^ Kaplan, William D.; Trout, William E. (February 1, 1969). "The behavior of four neurological mutants of Drosophila" . Genetics . 61 (2): 399– 409. doi : 10.1093/genetics/61.2.399 . PMC 1212165 . PMID 5807804 . ^ Mitra, Ritwik; Painter, Ben (May 19, 2024). "GTA 5 Locations That Are Based On Real-Life" . Game Rant . External links Official website The History of The Whisky-A-Go-Go .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e West Hollywood, California v t e Districts Norma Triangle Sunset Strip West Hollywood West Norma Triangle Sunset Strip West Hollywood West Government City Hall Library City Hall Library Schools Center for Early Education Center for Early Education Center for Early Education Attractions Museums / Galleries Louis Stern Fine Arts MAK Center for Art and Architecture New Image Art RIVERA & RIVERA Parks Memorial Walk Plummer Restaurants Abbey Carney's Formosa Cafe Original Cannabis Cafe Pink Taco Rainbow Bar and Grill Saddle Ranch Chop House Somni Shopping West Hollywood Gateway Theaters / Nightclubs Comedy Store Roxy Troubadour Viper Room Whisky a Go Go Museums / Galleries Louis Stern Fine Arts MAK Center for Art and Architecture New Image Art RIVERA & RIVERA Louis Stern Fine Arts MAK Center for Art and Architecture New Image Art RIVERA & RIVERA Parks Memorial Walk Plummer Memorial Walk Plummer Restaurants Abbey Carney's Formosa Cafe Original Cannabis Cafe Pink Taco Rainbow Bar and Grill Saddle Ranch Chop House Somni Abbey Carney's Formosa Cafe Original Cannabis Cafe Pink Taco Rainbow Bar and Grill Saddle Ranch Chop House Somni Shopping West Hollywood Gateway West Hollywood Gateway Theaters / Nightclubs Comedy Store Roxy Troubadour Viper Room Whisky a Go Go Comedy Store Roxy Troubadour Viper Room Whisky a Go Go Hotels Andaz Chamberlain Mondrian Sunset Marquis Sunset Tower Andaz Chamberlain Mondrian Sunset Marquis Sunset Tower Residences Colonial House Doheny Plaza Fontaine Granville Towers Hacienda Arms Lloyd Wright Romanesque Villa Schindler House Sierra Towers Colonial House Doheny Plaza Fontaine Granville Towers Hacienda Arms Lloyd Wright Romanesque Villa Schindler House Sierra Towers Religious Saint Victor Catholic Church St. Ambrose Church Saint Victor Catholic Church St. Ambrose Church Other buildings 9200 Sunset Community Clubhouse Pacific Design Center 9200 Sunset Community Clubhouse Pacific Design Center Transportation Public K Line Northern Extension The PickUp Vehicle Doheny Dr Fairfax Ave La Cienega Blvd Melrose Ave Robertson Blvd San Vicente Blvd Santa Monica Blvd Sunset Blvd Sunset Strip Public K Line Northern Extension The PickUp K Line Northern Extension The PickUp Vehicle Doheny Dr Fairfax Ave La Cienega Blvd Melrose Ave Robertson Blvd San Vicente Blvd Santa Monica Blvd Sunset Blvd Sunset Strip Doheny Dr Fairfax Ave La Cienega Blvd Melrose Ave Robertson Blvd San Vicente Blvd Santa Monica Blvd Sunset Blvd Sunset Strip Sunset Strip Companies / Organizations Appian Way Productions Atlantis Events Barney's Beanery Fortis Films Harpo Productions June L. Mazer Lesbian Archives Kapital Entertainment Millarworld Muzik OBB Media Pink Dot Samuel Goldwyn Studio Trevor Project Vanguard Animation Westlake Recording Studios Appian Way Productions Atlantis Events Barney's Beanery Fortis Films Harpo Productions June L. Mazer Lesbian Archives Kapital Entertainment Millarworld Muzik OBB Media Pink Dot Samuel Goldwyn Studio Trevor Project Vanguard Animation Westlake Recording Studios Defunct Ah Men Bastide Ben Frank's Bodhi Tree Bookstore Chasen's Ciro's Dudley Do-Right Emporium The Film Department Garden of Allah Gauntlet Gazzarri's Greenblatt's London Fog Mocambo Pacific Hills School Pandora's Box Parlour Club Red Granite Pictures Rodney Bingenheimer's English Disco Schwab's Pharmacy Starwood Trocadero Tropicana Motel Walter L. Dodge House Ah Men Bastide Ben Frank's Bodhi Tree Bookstore Chasen's Ciro's Dudley Do-Right Emporium The Film Department Garden of Allah Gauntlet Gazzarri's Greenblatt's London Fog Mocambo Pacific Hills School Pandora's Box Parlour Club Red Granite Pictures Rodney Bingenheimer's English Disco Schwab's Pharmacy Starwood Trocadero Tropicana Motel Walter L. Dodge House This list is incomplete. v t e Music venues of California v t e Outdoor venues Northern California Concord Pavilion Cushing Memorial Amphitheatre Frost Amphitheater Gundlach Bundschu Hearst Greek Theatre Jerry Garcia Amphitheatre Mountain Winery Shoreline Amphitheatre Toyota Amphitheatre Southern California Greek Theatre Hollywood Bowl John Anson Ford Amphitheatre North Island Credit Union Amphitheatre Pacific Amphitheatre Glen Helen Amphitheater Santa Barbara Bowl Starlight Bowl (Burbank) Starlight Bowl (San Diego) Northern California Concord Pavilion Cushing Memorial Amphitheatre Frost Amphitheater Gundlach Bundschu Hearst Greek Theatre Jerry Garcia Amphitheatre Mountain Winery Shoreline Amphitheatre Toyota Amphitheatre Concord Pavilion Cushing Memorial Amphitheatre Frost Amphitheater Gundlach Bundschu Hearst Greek Theatre Jerry Garcia Amphitheatre Mountain Winery Shoreline Amphitheatre Toyota Amphitheatre Southern California Greek Theatre Hollywood Bowl John Anson Ford Amphitheatre North Island Credit Union Amphitheatre Pacific Amphitheatre Glen Helen Amphitheater Santa Barbara Bowl Starlight Bowl (Burbank) Starlight Bowl (San Diego) Greek Theatre Hollywood Bowl John Anson Ford Amphitheatre North Island Credit Union Amphitheatre Pacific Amphitheatre Glen Helen Amphitheater Santa Barbara Bowl Starlight Bowl (Burbank) Starlight Bowl (San Diego) Indoor venues Northern California 924 Gilman Street Bimbo's 365 Club Bottom of the Hill Cafe Du Nord Club Fugazi Cowell Theater DNA Lounge The Fillmore Great American Music Hall Herbst Theatre Hotel Utah Luggage Store Gallery Luther Burbank Center Mystic Theatre Palace of Fine Arts Paramount Theatre Phoenix Theater Sacramento Memorial Auditorium San Jose Civic SF Masonic Auditorium War Memorial and Performing Arts Center Sweetwater Saloon Yoshi's Southern California Arlington Theatre Balboa Theatre Bridges Hall of Music Bridges Auditorium City National Grove of Anaheim Dolby Theatre Hollywood Palladium Jacobs Music Center Los Angeles Music Center Majestic Ventura Theatre Mechanics Bank Theater Pasadena Civic Auditorium Peacock Theater Regent Theatre Roxy Theatre San Diego Civic Theatre Segerstrom Center for the Arts Shrine Auditorium SOMA San Diego The Troubadour Whisky a Go Go The York Manor YouTube Theater Northern California 924 Gilman Street Bimbo's 365 Club Bottom of the Hill Cafe Du Nord Club Fugazi Cowell Theater DNA Lounge The Fillmore Great American Music Hall Herbst Theatre Hotel Utah Luggage Store Gallery Luther Burbank Center Mystic Theatre Palace of Fine Arts Paramount Theatre Phoenix Theater Sacramento Memorial Auditorium San Jose Civic SF Masonic Auditorium War Memorial and Performing Arts Center Sweetwater Saloon Yoshi's 924 Gilman Street Bimbo's 365 Club Bottom of the Hill Cafe Du Nord Club Fugazi Cowell Theater DNA Lounge The Fillmore Great American Music Hall Herbst Theatre Hotel Utah Luggage Store Gallery Luther Burbank Center Mystic Theatre Palace of Fine Arts Paramount Theatre Phoenix Theater Sacramento Memorial Auditorium San Jose Civic SF Masonic Auditorium War Memorial and Performing Arts Center Sweetwater Saloon Yoshi's Southern California Arlington Theatre Balboa Theatre Bridges Hall of Music Bridges Auditorium City National Grove of Anaheim Dolby Theatre Hollywood Palladium Jacobs Music Center Los Angeles Music Center Majestic Ventura Theatre Mechanics Bank Theater Pasadena Civic Auditorium Peacock Theater Regent Theatre Roxy Theatre San Diego Civic Theatre Segerstrom Center for the Arts Shrine Auditorium SOMA San Diego The Troubadour Whisky a Go Go The York Manor YouTube Theater Arlington Theatre Balboa Theatre Bridges Hall of Music Bridges Auditorium City National Grove of Anaheim Dolby Theatre Hollywood Palladium Jacobs Music Center Los Angeles Music Center Majestic Ventura Theatre Mechanics Bank Theater Pasadena Civic Auditorium Peacock Theater Regent Theatre Roxy Theatre San Diego Civic Theatre Segerstrom Center for the Arts Shrine Auditorium SOMA San Diego The Troubadour Whisky a Go Go The York Manor YouTube Theater Stadiums Angel Stadium BMO Stadium CEFCU Stadium Dignity Health Sports Park Dodger Stadium Harder Stadium Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum Levi's Stadium Oakland Coliseum Oracle Park Petco Park Rose Bowl SoFi Stadium Angel Stadium BMO Stadium CEFCU Stadium Dignity Health Sports Park Dodger Stadium Harder Stadium Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum Levi's Stadium Oakland Coliseum Oracle Park Petco Park Rose Bowl SoFi Stadium Arenas Alex G. Spanos Center Anaheim Convention Center Bill Graham Civic Auditorium Bren Events Center Chase Center Coussoulis Arena Cow Palace Crypto.com Arena Del Mar Arena Farm Credit Dairy Center Golden Hall Golden 1 Center Honda Center Intuit Dome Jenny Craig Pavilion Kia Forum Long Beach Arena Mechanics Bank Arena Oakland Arena Orange Pavilion Paso Robles Event Center Pauley Pavilion Pechanga Arena RIMAC Arena SAP Center Save Mart Center Selland Arena Stockton Arena Stockton Memorial Civic Auditorium Thunderdome Toyota Arena Viejas Arena Alex G. Spanos Center Anaheim Convention Center Bill Graham Civic Auditorium Bren Events Center Chase Center Coussoulis Arena Cow Palace Crypto.com Arena Del Mar Arena Farm Credit Dairy Center Golden Hall Golden 1 Center Honda Center Intuit Dome Jenny Craig Pavilion Kia Forum Long Beach Arena Mechanics Bank Arena Oakland Arena Orange Pavilion Paso Robles Event Center Pauley Pavilion Pechanga Arena RIMAC Arena SAP Center Save Mart Center Selland Arena Stockton Arena Stockton Memorial Civic Auditorium Thunderdome Toyota Arena Viejas Arena Festivals BottleRock Napa Valley Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival Earthdance Hardly Strictly Bluegrass High Sierra Music Festival Hog Farm Hideaway Monterey Jazz Festival Noise Pop Festival Outside Lands Music and Arts Festival Reggae on the River Rock the Bells Spirit West Coast Stagecoach Festival Symbiosis Gathering Treasure Island Music Festival BottleRock Napa Valley Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival Earthdance Hardly Strictly Bluegrass High Sierra Music Festival Hog Farm Hideaway Monterey Jazz Festival Noise Pop Festival Outside Lands Music and Arts Festival Reggae on the River Rock the Bells Spirit West Coast Stagecoach Festival Symbiosis Gathering Treasure Island Music Festival Demolished and/or closed Northern California ARCO Arena Avalon Ballroom Black Hawk The Boarding House Bop City California Hall Candlestick Park Circle Star Theater The Deaf Club Dino and Carlo's Fillmore West Harding Theater Hyatt Music Theater hungry i The Jabberwock Kaiser Auditorium The Keystone Keystone Palo Alto Mabuhay Gardens Maritime Hall The Matrix Mission Creek Music and Arts Festival New Langton Arts Theater Nourse Auditorium The Purple Onion San Diego Stadium San Francisco Blues Festival Slim's Sound of Music Terrapin Crossroads Tin Angel Valencia Tool & Die Southern California Cathay de Grande Cuckoo's Nest FivePoint Amphitheatre Mocambo Irvine Meadows Amphitheatre Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena Raji's Starwood Universal Amphitheatre Northern California ARCO Arena Avalon Ballroom Black Hawk The Boarding House Bop City California Hall Candlestick Park Circle Star Theater The Deaf Club Dino and Carlo's Fillmore West Harding Theater Hyatt Music Theater hungry i The Jabberwock Kaiser Auditorium The Keystone Keystone Palo Alto Mabuhay Gardens Maritime Hall The Matrix Mission Creek Music and Arts Festival New Langton Arts Theater Nourse Auditorium The Purple Onion San Diego Stadium San Francisco Blues Festival Slim's Sound of Music Terrapin Crossroads Tin Angel Valencia Tool & Die ARCO Arena Avalon Ballroom Black Hawk The Boarding House Bop City California Hall Candlestick Park Circle Star Theater The Deaf Club Dino and Carlo's Fillmore West Harding Theater Hyatt Music Theater hungry i The Jabberwock Kaiser Auditorium The Keystone Keystone Palo Alto Mabuhay Gardens Maritime Hall The Matrix Mission Creek Music and Arts Festival New Langton Arts Theater Nourse Auditorium The Purple Onion San Diego Stadium San Francisco Blues Festival Slim's Sound of Music Terrapin Crossroads Tin Angel Valencia Tool & Die Southern California Cathay de Grande Cuckoo's Nest FivePoint Amphitheatre Mocambo Irvine Meadows Amphitheatre Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena Raji's Starwood Universal Amphitheatre Cathay de Grande Cuckoo's Nest FivePoint Amphitheatre Mocambo Irvine Meadows Amphitheatre Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena Raji's Starwood Universal Amphitheatre Authority control databases International VIAF GND VIAF GND National United States United States Geographic MusicBrainz place MusicBrainz place Other Yale LUX Yale LUX Music venues in California Nightclubs in Los Angeles County, California West Hollywood, California Historic Rock and Roll Landmarks Landmarks in Los Angeles County, California Music venues completed in 1964 1964 establishments in California Albums recorded at the Whisky a Go Go Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use American English from January 2025 All Wikipedia articles written in American English Use mdy dates from February 2021 Pages using infobox mapframe without shape links in Wikidata Coordinates on Wikidata Commons category link from Wikidata Official website different in Wikidata and Wikipedia Pages using the Kartographer extension This page was last edited on 11 January 2026, at 15:26 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Naming conventions 2 Layout Toggle Layout subsection 2.1 For games 2.2 For characters 2.3 For settings 2.1 For games 2.2 For characters 2.3 For settings 3 Article content Toggle Article content subsection 3.1 What is appropriate? 3.2 Essential content 3.2.1 Release dates 3.2.2 Platforms 3.2.3 Categorizing upcoming games 3.3 Inappropriate content 3.3.1 Pop culture citations 3.3.2 Exceptions 3.4 Remakes, expansions, and series articles 3.1 What is appropriate? 3.2 Essential content 3.2.1 Release dates 3.2.2 Platforms 3.2.3 Categorizing upcoming games 3.2.1 Release dates 3.2.2 Platforms 3.2.3 Categorizing upcoming games 3.3 Inappropriate content 3.3.1 Pop culture citations 3.3.2 Exceptions 3.3.1 Pop culture citations 3.3.2 Exceptions 3.4 Remakes, expansions, and series articles 4 General style Toggle General style subsection 4.1 Name formatting 4.2 Neutral point of view 4.3 Naming within articles 4.4 Verb tense 4.5 Japanese titles 4.5.1 Exceptions 4.6 Video game jargon 4.1 Name formatting 4.2 Neutral point of view 4.3 Naming within articles 4.4 Verb tense 4.5 Japanese titles 4.5.1 Exceptions 4.5.1 Exceptions 4.6 Video game jargon 5 Metadata Toggle Metadata subsection 5.1 Article title 5.2 Short description 5.3 Infobox 5.1 Article title 5.2 Short description 5.3 Infobox 6 Section-specific advice Toggle Section-specific advice subsection 6.1 First sentence 6.2 Gameplay 6.3 Genre 6.4 Plot 6.5 Development 6.6 Reception 6.7 Sales 6.8 Awards 6.1 First sentence 6.2 Gameplay 6.3 Genre 6.4 Plot 6.5 Development 6.6 Reception 6.7 Sales 6.8 Awards 7 Screenshots and cover art Toggle Screenshots and cover art subsection 7.1 Cover art 7.2 Screenshots 7.2.1 Exception 7.3 Hardware and physical objects 7.4 Image file formats and names 7.1 Cover art 7.2 Screenshots 7.2.1 Exception 7.2.1 Exception 7.3 Hardware and physical objects 7.4 Image file formats and names 8 Sources 9 Internal links 10 External links 11 See also 12 Notes Wikipedia : Manual of Style/Video games Azərbaycanca Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français 한국어 Italiano Magyar Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Tiếng Việt 粵語 中文 Project page Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item This guideline is a part of the English Wikipedia's Manual of Style . Editors should generally follow it, though exceptions may apply. Substantive edits to this page should reflect consensus . .mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain{float:right;margin:0 0 0 1em;border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);background-color:var(--background-color-base,#fff);padding:0.3em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;text-align:center;font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxleft{float:left;margin:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutlist{display:inline-block;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);margin-bottom:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain ul{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutanchordiv{position:relative;top:-3em}.mw-parser-output li .module-shortcutanchordiv{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mbox-imageright .module-shortcutboxplain{padding:0.4em 1em;line-height:1.3;margin:0;float:initial} Shortcuts .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} WP:MOSVG WP:MOSVG MOS:VG MOS:VG WP:MOSVG WP:MOSVG MOS:VG MOS:VG Manual of Style Content Accessibility Biography Disambiguation pages Organizing by subject Gender identity Hidden text Infoboxes Linking Self-references Words to watch Accessibility Biography Disambiguation pages Organizing by subject Organizing by subject Gender identity Hidden text Infoboxes Linking Self-references Words to watch Formatting Abbreviations Capitalization Dates and numbers Pronunciation Spelling Superscripts and subscripts Text formatting Titles of works Abbreviations Capitalization Dates and numbers Pronunciation Spelling Superscripts and subscripts Text formatting Titles of works Images Captions Image placement Icons Images Captions Image placement Icons Images Layout Layout Lead section Tables Trivia sections Layout Lead section Tables Trivia sections Lists Lists Lists of works Road junctions Stand-alone lists Lists Lists of works Road junctions Stand-alone lists By topic area Arts Anime and manga Comics Film Music Music samples Record charts Stringed instruments Novels Television Video games Visual arts Writing about fiction See also: WikiProject style advice Regional Canada China (and Chinese) France (and French) Hawaii India Indonesia Ireland Japan Korea Malaysia Pakistan Philippines Poland Singapore See also: Naming conventions (geographic names) WikiProject style advice Science and technology Chemistry Compound classes Chemicals References and external links Safety Structure drawing Computer science Mathematics Medicine Taxonomy See also: WikiProject style advice Other Blazons Cue sports ( Snooker ) Islam Latter Day Saints Legal Military history Trademarks See also: WikiProject style advice history legal and cultural religion and education sports and games Arts Anime and manga Comics Film Music Music samples Record charts Stringed instruments Novels Television Video games Visual arts Writing about fiction See also: WikiProject style advice Anime and manga Comics Film Music Music samples Record charts Stringed instruments Music samples Record charts Stringed instruments Novels Television Video games Visual arts Writing about fiction See also: WikiProject style advice Regional Canada China (and Chinese) France (and French) Hawaii India Indonesia Ireland Japan Korea Malaysia Pakistan Philippines Poland Singapore See also: Naming conventions (geographic names) WikiProject style advice Canada China (and Chinese) France (and French) Hawaii India Indonesia Ireland Japan Korea Malaysia Pakistan Philippines Poland Singapore See also: Naming conventions (geographic names) WikiProject style advice Science and technology Chemistry Compound classes Chemicals References and external links Safety Structure drawing Computer science Mathematics Medicine Taxonomy See also: WikiProject style advice Chemistry Compound classes Chemicals References and external links Safety Structure drawing Compound classes Chemicals References and external links Safety Structure drawing Computer science Mathematics Medicine Taxonomy See also: WikiProject style advice Other Blazons Cue sports ( Snooker ) Islam Latter Day Saints Legal Military history Trademarks See also: WikiProject style advice history legal and cultural religion and education sports and games Blazons Cue sports ( Snooker ) Islam Latter Day Saints Legal Military history Trademarks See also: WikiProject style advice history legal and cultural religion and education sports and games history legal and cultural religion and education sports and games Related guidelines Article size Article titles Categories, lists, and navigation templates Categorization Hatnotes Subpages Understandability Article size Article titles Categories, lists, and navigation templates Categorization Hatnotes Subpages Understandability Simplified Contents Tips Simplified Contents Tips .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output 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.navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e The following are guidelines for various aspects of writing article content about video games, established by consensus among Wikipedians. Please discuss them on the talk page if you have ideas or questions. Editors should also be familiar with the main Manual of Style , writing about fiction sub-guidelines , and the general guide to writing better articles . Naming conventions For video game-related naming conventions, see Wikipedia:Naming conventions (video games) . Layout MOS:VGLAYOUT MOS:VGLAYOUT MOS:VGORDER MOS:VGORDER In general, the following sections describe typical ordering of sections used in articles related to video games. These do not necessarily have to correspond to the actual section headers and divisions. Do not try to conform to them if they are not helping to improve the article. For games Infobox : Contents should adhere to the template documentation , see below for further information. Lead section : The name of the game in bold italics, its gameplay genre , release date, platform, and other identifying information go first. Then, a brief summary of the entire article body, which explains why the game is notable and important ; this is the key aspect of the lead section, because it establishes the main idea that will be carried throughout the article. Gameplay : going over the significant parts of how the game works. Remember not to include player's guide or walkthrough material . The gameplay section should come before the plot section, with the exception of when it would help to simplify the discussion of either section. For example, in Assassin's Creed , the player plays the role of a man in the 21st century experiencing the memories of a long-distant ancestor in the Crusades, with several gameplay elements in place to reflect this double-perception. In this case, describing the plot before the gameplay simplifies the content of each, avoiding repetition between sections. Plot : if the plot is not too complex, it can be lumped in with the gameplay; otherwise, put it in its own section. If necessary, the section can have subheadings for the story, setting, and characters. Keep it concise and avoid trivial details. Development : discuss development, design concepts and inspirations, etc. This can easily include several different subsections. It also includes release material, such as the game's marketing, promotional info, and/or release dates. If the release material is large enough, it can be split to its own section. Reception : This should detail how the game was received by critics. Legacy : If the game had a substantial impact on its series, genre, and/or the video game industry, consider making a section dedicated to its legacy. This can either be put under the reception header or, if there is enough information, a separate section. If the only major impact is a sequel or media adaptations, consider instead naming this section "Related media", "Sequels", etc. as appropriate. References : Cite sources ! If you are unsure what to include for references, reviews, interviews, news articles, game instruction booklets, and guides are all good candidates. See this list of sources deemed generally usable or unusable on Wikipedia . External links : When available, list the company and game website(s) if the company website is separate from the game's website. In addition, list all relevant websites for English publications. Other sources that do not qualify as reliable sources may be used if they are not on the list of sites to be avoided . For characters Infobox : Articles on a single character should have a character infobox. Articles on a group of characters should have an infobox omitted. Lead section : The name of the character or series (if a group of characters) in bold italics, name of the company and/or designers that developed them, and other identifying information go first. Then, a brief summary of the article. Finally, why the character(s) is notable and important ; this is the key part of the lead section, because it establishes the main idea that will be carried throughout the article. Concept and design : Going over the process in which the character(s) was created and designed. Appearances : This should list any games or related media that the character appeared in and briefly discuss their role in the game. This section should normally be integrated into the rest of the character section if in a list or article on a group of characters. Merchandise : This section should be included if the likeness of the character(s) has been used extensively on merchandise and marketing material. Types of merchandise should be include and if possible release dates and regions of the merchandise Reception : This should detail how the character(s) was received by critics. Criticism about the game itself should generally be omitted as the character(s) is the subject of the article. References : Cite sources! If you are unsure what to include for references, game instruction booklets, guides, reviews, and interviews are all good candidates. External links : When available, list the game website(s). If it was published in a non-English country first, list both the original country's website; in addition, list all relevant websites for English publications. Other sources that do not qualify as reliable sources may be used if they are not on the list of those to be avoided. For settings Infobox : Most articles on a setting should have an infobox omitted. There are exceptions though. Lead section : The name of the setting or fictional world in bold italics, name of the company and/or designers that developed them, and other identifying information go first. Then, a brief summary of the article. Finally, why the setting is notable and important ; this is the key part of the lead section, because it establishes the main idea that will be carried throughout the article. Concept and design : going over the process in which the setting was created and designed. In-game content : This section should include information about the setting as it applies to the game. Briefly discuss the role in the game and any aspects of the in-game world that is notable and/or an important fact to the game. This section should not contain excessive detail about the game's plot, descriptions about the setting, or game guide information. Reception : This should detail how the setting or aspects of the setting were received by critics. Criticism about the game itself should generally be omitted as the setting is the subject of the article. References : Cite sources! If you are unsure what to include for references, game instruction booklets, guides, reviews, and interviews are all good candidates. External links : When available, list the game website(s). If it was published in a non-English country first, list both the original country's website; in addition, list all relevant websites for English publications. Other sources that do not qualify as reliable sources may be used if they are not on the list of those to be avoided. Article content What is appropriate? MOS:VGCONTENT MOS:VGCONTENT Wikipedia is an encyclopedia. Articles on video games should give an encyclopedic overview of a game and its importance to the industry. Readers should be presented with a concise overview of the game's plot and gameplay. Plot sections, if necessary, should be no more than approximately 700 words, to retain focus. It is important for readers to be able to learn how the game was developed and its commercial and critical reception. Because the encyclopedia will be read by gamers and non-gamers alike, it is important not to clutter an article with a detailed description of how to play it or an excessive amount of non-encyclopedic trivia. A rule of thumb if unsure: if the content only has value to players, it is unsuitable. Video game articles should be comprehensive and readable to non-gamers. Wikipedia commonly has stand-alone articles about notable games, companies, individuals, or hardware. Reliable information about game peripherals, expansions, music, merchandise, or characters can often be merged somewhere more appropriate, and richer in context. Avoid detailed coverage of in-game elements such as items, levels, or setting. If multiple reliable sources describe a game element's importance to a game or series, this can be summarized at the relevant parent article, in context. A separate article for a game element is typically warranted if multiple sources establish its importance outside the game itself, describing its influence on the game industry, history, or a genre. Content that is inappropriate for Wikipedia may be appreciated elsewhere: Codex Gamicus for general info/trivia; an individual game's wiki (such as on Fandom or elsewhere) for detailing a setting, plot, or in-game items; StrategyWiki for walkthrough/strategy/gameplay content; and Wikibooks Electronic games bookshelf . To propose that an article or section be copied to a gaming wiki, use the {{ Copy to gaming wiki }} template. See Help:Transwiki on how to move information to other wikis. To simply tag such information for removal, please add the {{ Game guide }} template to the article in question. Essential content Each video game article should include a minimum set of standard elements: An infobox, completed correctly and appropriately .mw-parser-output div.crossreference{padding-left:0} (see WP:WikiProject Video games/Templates for instructions on how to use the different templates for video game articles) . The {{ WikiProject Video games }} template placed on the article's Talk page. This lets others know that the article is within the scope of WikiProject Video Games. A "Development" or "History" section. To keep a real-world perspective , it is essential to explain how the article subject was made, and not only discuss the fiction. A "Reception" section. This shows the impact that the subject had on the game industry: commercially, artistically, and technologically. For additional guidance see this guideline . When writing about a game, be sure to categorize it by genre, platform, and year (see WP:Categorization ) . If these essential pieces of information cannot be found in reliable sources, then it may be more appropriate to merge this topic into a parent article. Release dates MOS:VGDATE MOS:VGDATE MOS:VGRELEASE MOS:VGRELEASE Release dates for video game should be included as follows: In the {{ Infobox video game }} , release dates should be provided for primarily English-speaking regions, including North America, Europe, and Australia/New Zealand. If the video game is first released in a non-English country, commonly in Japan, then that should also be stated. Region releases (North America, Europe, or even PAL region ) are preferred to specific country releases unless there are significant differences in release dates or the game was preemptively banned or restricted from sale in a specific country within the region. [ a ] Consider using footnotes rather than a separate country release entry in the infobox to keep the information included within it relatively succinct. Releases in non-English countries should otherwise not be included in the infobox, but if determined to be necessary to include, can be discussed further in the article's body. If the game is available for multiple platforms, group release dates first by platform, then by country. Thus, a game that may come out for the Xbox 360 then later for the PlayStation 3 , group all the Xbox 360 release dates under one heading, then all the PlayStation 3 releases under a second. If a remake, remaster or game collection is covered within the same article as its original game, further group release dates by original and remakes, then by console, then by country. However, games re-released through emulated systems, which include the Virtual Console for Nintendo consoles, microconsoles like the Atari Flashback , and some software games like Sega Genesis Collection should not have these emulated re-releases included in the infobox. Games that run through emulation but received a standalone physical release, such as the Wii version of Super Mario All-Stars , are acceptable. If the game is a same-day multi-platform release, it is not necessary to create separate lists for each platform, and these can be grouped accordingly. See the infobox in Grand Theft Auto V for example. Should the number of consoles or remakes become excessively large, consider stating only the first release or primary console within the infobox using the {{ Collapsible list }} template with the {{{title}}} field set to show the top-level information, and summarizing the other release dates within the development section of the article body; See the infobox in Lemmings (video game) for an example. Release dates should be provided using the {{ Video game release }} template, unless the game had a single, simultaneous worldwide release date, in which case the template may be omitted. Do not use flag icons in the infobox , instead, state the region/country by name, one of the limited region codes supported by {{ Video game release }} , or by their ISO 3166-1 alpha-3 country codes. If one set of releases have different regional release dates, while another platform has worldwide release, then stay consistent throughout the infobox with the {{ Video game release }} using the "WW" country code for worldwide releases. Release dates must be consistent with the prevailing prose date format . Region releases (North America, Europe, or even PAL region ) are preferred to specific country releases unless there are significant differences in release dates or the game was preemptively banned or restricted from sale in a specific country within the region. [ a ] Consider using footnotes rather than a separate country release entry in the infobox to keep the information included within it relatively succinct. Releases in non-English countries should otherwise not be included in the infobox, but if determined to be necessary to include, can be discussed further in the article's body. If the game is available for multiple platforms, group release dates first by platform, then by country. Thus, a game that may come out for the Xbox 360 then later for the PlayStation 3 , group all the Xbox 360 release dates under one heading, then all the PlayStation 3 releases under a second. If a remake, remaster or game collection is covered within the same article as its original game, further group release dates by original and remakes, then by console, then by country. However, games re-released through emulated systems, which include the Virtual Console for Nintendo consoles, microconsoles like the Atari Flashback , and some software games like Sega Genesis Collection should not have these emulated re-releases included in the infobox. Games that run through emulation but received a standalone physical release, such as the Wii version of Super Mario All-Stars , are acceptable. However, games re-released through emulated systems, which include the Virtual Console for Nintendo consoles, microconsoles like the Atari Flashback , and some software games like Sega Genesis Collection should not have these emulated re-releases included in the infobox. Games that run through emulation but received a standalone physical release, such as the Wii version of Super Mario All-Stars , are acceptable. If the game is a same-day multi-platform release, it is not necessary to create separate lists for each platform, and these can be grouped accordingly. See the infobox in Grand Theft Auto V for example. Should the number of consoles or remakes become excessively large, consider stating only the first release or primary console within the infobox using the {{ Collapsible list }} template with the {{{title}}} field set to show the top-level information, and summarizing the other release dates within the development section of the article body; See the infobox in Lemmings (video game) for an example. Release dates should be provided using the {{ Video game release }} template, unless the game had a single, simultaneous worldwide release date, in which case the template may be omitted. Do not use flag icons in the infobox , instead, state the region/country by name, one of the limited region codes supported by {{ Video game release }} , or by their ISO 3166-1 alpha-3 country codes. If one set of releases have different regional release dates, while another platform has worldwide release, then stay consistent throughout the infobox with the {{ Video game release }} using the "WW" country code for worldwide releases. Release dates must be consistent with the prevailing prose date format . In the article lead , release dates should be summarized to be as general as possible, avoiding specific mention of platform and region releases unless significant. Whenever possible, the release dates in the lead should be summarized to the year of release, or month and year if further applicable. Examples: A video game released worldwide across all major platforms within a single year but many different dates can be summarized as "released in 2008". If the release period spreads across a year boundary, this can be summarized as "released in 2008 and 2009". A video game with a later port to a different system can be noted as such: "The game first released for the PlayStation 2 in January 2008, and was ported to the Nintendo DS later that year." A video game released worldwide across all major platforms within a single year but many different dates can be summarized as "released in 2008". If the release period spreads across a year boundary, this can be summarized as "released in 2008 and 2009". A video game with a later port to a different system can be noted as such: "The game first released for the PlayStation 2 in January 2008, and was ported to the Nintendo DS later that year." Release dates should be discussed in the body of the article (typically, as a section within "Development" or "Release"), and should include citations published after the game or content has been released to verify that the product came out as expected. Game reviews may be suitable for this, but not pre-release reviews. Care should be taken in citing release dates. Many commercial gaming sites, such as GameSpot , IGN , and 1Up.com , supply accurate dates, as well as retailers such as Amazon or GameStop . For unreleased games, vendor sites should not be used as verifiable sources since their date is likely based on their best estimate of when the game is to be out; always look for corroborating statements from reliable sources to confirm these dates. If a general timeframe ("first quarter", "early") or even month is provided, include this before the year, but do not link these terms (see date formatting in the Manual of Style). Avoid the use of seasonal estimate release dates ("winter", "summer") as these have different meanings in different parts of the world (see WP:SEASON for more). Keep in mind that some publishers may advertise a "release date", while some may advertise an "in-store date", and some may advertise both. ( Metroid Prime 3: Corruption provides an example of both.) Usually, but not always, the release date also happens to be the date on which the publisher ships the game to retailers, resulting in an in-store date of between one and three days later. In some cases, the game is shipped out before the release date – this usually happens with large-scale releases where the publisher intends for everyone in a country or region to have access to it at a specific time (midnight launches, etc.). The "release date" should always be used, and the ship and in-store dates are almost always irrelevant. Early releases such as open beta-testing periods, early access , or other similar mechanics should not be included in the infobox once the game is actually released. While the game is in an early release state, that early release date may be included in the infobox, but it should be indicated as an early release, and in the article prose, the game should be treated as an upcoming video game that has yet to receive a full release for all other purposes. Platforms MOS:VGPLATFORMS MOS:VGPLATFORMS In both the lead and infobox, the list of platforms should only include the name of consoles or operating systems, such as "Game Boy", "iOS", "Windows", "PlayStation 4", "Sega Genesis", "Xbox Series X/S", to which the game was developed for by the developer or publisher. Specific details on the platform can be discussed in the body with appropriate sourcing. The listed platforms should not include storefront names, such as " Steam ", " PlayStation Network ", " Xbox Live Arcade ", " eShop " or " App Store ". In general, storefront names are not required to be mentioned in any part of a game article unless they are relevant to the sourced discussion around the game. The listed platforms should also not include subscription or streaming services that offer games, such as "Apple Arcade", "OnLive", "PlayStation Now" or "Xbox Game Pass". These are not considered ports or the like, and only reoffering the game from an existing platform on a different service. The only exception to this is for Stadia , which has been determined to be a unique platform that developers must build for and offers unique features not offered by the underlying Linux operating system. The only exception to this is for Stadia , which has been determined to be a unique platform that developers must build for and offers unique features not offered by the underlying Linux operating system. The listed platforms should not include platforms on which the game is playable via emulation, whether officially released for that (such as Nintendo's Virtual Console and Nintendo Classics or officially licensed Dotemu rereleases), through middleware solutions such as Proton on Linux-based SteamOS on the Steam Deck , or through third-party/user-made emulation systems like through ScummVM . The platform list should be limited to those platforms which the game was built and compiled for. Often there will be games that are a collection of emulated games, such as Sega Genesis Classics or The Disney Afternoon Collection . The article on the collection of the games should include the new systems the collection is offered for, but those platforms should not be added to the articles on the individual games. Similarly, if a game is emulated for a system but that emulation received a standalone physical release, such as the Wii version of Super Mario All-Stars or most emulated games by Limited Run Games , it is generally considered acceptable to include that platform in the infobox. Similarly, the listed platforms should not include platforms that support backwards compatibility for earlier versions. While several original Xbox games are playable on the Xbox 360 , the Xbox 360 should not be listed as a platform for these games. Similarly, both PlayStation 5 and Xbox Series X and Series S feature both backwards compatibility from the previous generation as well as the capability for optimization patches to improve the performance of the game on the newer consoles; this is also not sufficient to include the newer consoles among a game's platform list. For games which receive official remakes or remasters which are not covered by a separate article, include the platforms the remake was released on, but make sure to distinguish the platforms of the original release and of the remastered release. If the remake has its own article, such as the 2019 Resident Evil 2 remake , do not include the remake's platforms in the original game's article lead and infobox. Unofficial third-party or fan remakes should not be considered in determining a platform list. Avoid listing hardware-specific aspects in the platforms. Do not use "Ouya" or "Nvidia Shield TV" but instead "Android", though exclusivity to these devices can be mentioned in the body. Do not include "Oculus Rift" or "HTC Vive", but instead use "Windows" but clearly indicate the game supports virtual reality, and a list of compatible headsets can be mentioned in the body. For Apple games that require a specific device (such as an iPad over an iPhone), stay to the base operating system (iOS) but mention the limited hardware compatibility in the body. Similarly for operating systems, use the broad category of operating system and not specific versions of releases. A game that requires the operating features of Windows 10 should still only be given in the platform list as "Windows". Use "Unix" or "Linux" to cover the broad classes of various Unix/Linux distribution releases. For Mac OS X/OS X/macOS games, use the name of the operating system used when the game was released. For Mac OS X/OS X/macOS games, use the name of the operating system used when the game was released. If a platform list is very long due to numerous ports, consider highlighting the original platform using collapsed lists or links to a relevant section to give the full list. Avoid repeating long lists of platform names in the lead. For example, for Lemmings , we state Lemmings is...published by Psygnosis for the Amiga in 1991 and later ported for numerous other platforms. rather than an exhaustive list of the twenty-some platforms it had received official ports. Categorizing upcoming games MOS:VGDATECAT MOS:VGDATECAT If an upcoming game has a confirmed release date set for that year and a citation, add it to Category:Upcoming video games scheduled for 2026 and move it to the appropriate year category e.g. Category:2026 video games after release. If in doubt, or there is no date information, add the game to Category:Upcoming video games . If a game's development appears to have stopped but has not officially been cancelled (e.g. Agent or Tekken X Street Fighter ), add it to Category:Vaporware video games . This category can also be used for games that were previously considered vaporware before eventually releasing. Inappropriate content MOS:VGSCOPE MOS:VGSCOPE MOS:GAMECRUFT MOS:GAMECRUFT Below is a list of content that is generally considered beyond the scope of information of Wikipedia articles on video games and related video game topics. .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}} Non-notable articles and spinouts : Avoid creating new articles on non-notable topics. A notable topic must receive significant coverage in reliable sources that are independent of the subject . A smaller article should only be split from a larger topic if the new article would itself be notable. Based on: WP:Notability § General notability guideline , and WP:Summary style § Avoiding unnecessary splits . Numerous short articles : One large article usually provides better organization and context for a topic. Don't create multiple small articles when one larger compilation will do. The ideal article is neither too large nor too small. Based on: Wikipedia:Article size . Detailed instructions : Saying that a character can jump, shoot, and drop bombs is helpful to understand the game, but avoid explaining button combinations or cheat codes. Based on: WP:What Wikipedia is not § Wikipedia is not a manual, guidebook, textbook, or scientific journal . Strategy guides and walkthroughs : Basic strategy concepts are helpful to understand the game, but avoid details about how to solve puzzles and defeat certain foes. Based on: WP:What Wikipedia is not § Wikipedia is not a manual, guidebook, textbook, or scientific journal . Excessive fictional details : A concise plot summary is appropriate to cover a notable game, character, or setting. Information beyond that is unnecessary and should be removed, as articles should focus on the real-world elements of a topic, such as creation and reception. Based on: WP:What Wikipedia is not § Wikipedia is not an indiscriminate collection of information , and WP:Neutral point of view § Undue weight . Lists of characters lacking secondary sourcing : Following from the above, excessive in-game details on characters is strongly discouraged. Standalone lists of video game characters are expected to be (1) written in an out-of-universe style with a focus on their concept, creation, and reception, and (2) cited by independent, secondary sources to verify this information. While character lists can include some plot summary specific to the character, these plots should not be rehashes of the video game(s) in which they appear but instead broad strokes that simplify the plots of individual games. If these requirements cannot be met, it is instead more appropriate to reduce the list to one to three paragraphs of prose within the "Plot" or "Synopsis" section of the game or series article. It is almost never appropriate to create a standalone list of characters that appear within a single video game as these can be described in the game's article. Based on: WP:What Wikipedia is not § Wikipedia is not an indiscriminate collection of information , and WP:Neutral point of view § Undue weight . Lists of gameplay items, weapons, or concepts : Specific point values, achievements and trophies , time-limits, levels (including lists of stadia/sport venues), character moves, character weight classes, unlockable characters, vehicles, and so on are considered inappropriate. Sometimes a concise summary is appropriate if it is essential to understanding the game or its significance in the industry. Based on: WP:What Wikipedia is not § Wikipedia is not an indiscriminate collection of information , § Wikipedia is not a directory , and § Wikipedia is not a manual, guidebook, textbook, or scientific journal ; as well as WP:Neutral point of view § Undue weight . Cost : The purchase cost of games, products, or subscriptions, including point values for online services, should not be included in articles, unless the item's individual cost has attracted substantial coverage in independent reliable sources. Exceptions are generally made for inclusion of the manufacturer's retail price of standardized game hardware and devices, such as game consoles, on articles about that hardware or comparisons with other hardware, a practice in line with other physical product articles on Wikipedia. Based on: WP:What Wikipedia is not § Wikipedia is not a directory . Rumors and speculation : Speculation about future games, rumors about content within a game, or changes in video game developers and publishers should not be included, even if these rumors emerge or are re-reported from reliable sources. Discussion of well-reported, industry-wide rumors from a historical standpoint, well after the time they had or should have happened, may be appropriate to help provide context for a topic. Based on: WP:What Wikipedia is not § Wikipedia is not a crystal ball and § Wikipedia is not a publisher of original thought , as well as WP:No original research . Exhaustive version histories : A list of every version/beta/patch is inappropriate. Consider a summary of development instead. Based on: WP:What Wikipedia is not § Wikipedia is not a directory and § Wikipedia is not an indiscriminate collection of information , as well as WP:Manual of Style/Lists § Embedded lists . Cast lists : Generally speaking, a list of the actors providing voices, likenesses or motion capture acting performances for video game characters is not appropriate. If mention of an actor has received substantial coverage in independent reliable sources, typically the actor will be mentioned in the prose of the development section. (Good examples are: Batman: Arkham Asylum , Portal 2 , and BioShock Infinite ) . Unofficial translations . : Unless they are mentioned by independent reliable sources, unofficial translations should not be mentioned. Summarizing those sources may be appropriate, but avoid linking to a website for an unlicensed fan project in order to reduce any potential copyright violations . If the unofficial translation's website's page is necessary for verification of certain details, it may be used so long as it doesn't link to or host an image file for a commercial game. If it does, use of an archived version from an Internet archive like Wayback Machine is acceptable . Based on: WP:What Wikipedia is not § Wikipedia is not a manual, guidebook, textbook, or scientific journal If the unofficial translation's website's page is necessary for verification of certain details, it may be used so long as it doesn't link to or host an image file for a commercial game. If it does, use of an archived version from an Internet archive like Wayback Machine is acceptable . System requirements : System requirements for a video game should only be mentioned if independent reliable sources have distinguished that game from its peers (e.g., the high system demands of Crysis on its maximum settings). A brief summary of those sources should be mentioned in prose, in a manner that is easily understandable by a reader with no knowledge of the subject. Based on: WP:What Wikipedia is not § Wikipedia is not a manual, guidebook, textbook, or scientific journal Succession boxes may be valid in some cases, but they should not be used for things such as being a bestselling game for a single month in one nation for a single console. Succession order should be based on either obvious information, such as release dates, or information that can be readily and reliably sourced; for example, it is possible to source the narrative chronological order of the games in the Metroid series to information provided by Nintendo directly, but less apparent for series like Assassin's Creed or Call of Duty . Keep in mind that navboxes may be a better form to provide the same sorted information in a more compact form, such as with the {{ Seumas McNally Grand Prize }} navbox. Non-notable soundtracks : Unless the soundtrack or music is the subject of independent commentary (apart from the game): put it in Development rather than its own section, do not include tracklists, [ b ] and do not add non-free soundtrack cover art or audio clips. [ c ] Never upload non-free soundtrack art similar in content to the main infobox's non-free art. If the soundtrack has been released on a widely distributed physical medium, it can be acceptable to include an infobox for the soundtrack alongside discussion in the "Development" section (for example, see Journey (2012 video game) ); non-free cover art must meet the WP:Non-free content guidelines to be included in this infobox. Age and content ratings : Unless the game's age and content rating ( ESRB , PEGI , CERO , etc.) is the subject of independent commentary (such as the case for Left 4 Dead 2 in Australia), do not add it to the article. Release edition tables : Do not add tables featuring a game's many release editions, such as special, limited, collector's, into articles. If a re-release has been the subject of independent reliable sources, a concise summary may be appropriate in prose. Based on: WP:What Wikipedia is not § Wikipedia is not a directory These standards have been developed in accordance with fundamental Wikipedia policies and guidelines and reflect the consensus of the community. All editors should understand and follow these standards, though they should be treated with common sense and the occasional exception. Pop culture citations MOS:VGPOP MOS:VGPOP Video games have been around long enough to have made a mark on popular culture (or pop culture). Recognizing a subject's influence on popular culture can enhance an entry subject's notability on Wikipedia. Usually this can be added to the 'Reception' (sub)section (see Shenmue ), an 'Other media' section (see World of Warcraft § In other media ) or, if notable and influential enough, a separate 'Legacy' section (example: Super Mario Bros. 3 § Legacy ). However, all instances must be documented and follow Wikipedia policies on citing sources and verifiability . Specifically in regards to television citations, a citation to the specific episode using {{ cite episode }} should be included. Any entries not following these guidelines will be marked {{ citation needed }} and eventually removed if a suitable reference is not found. Material should also be presented in the preferred prose format rather than lists of popular culture items. The following guidelines are to be used for judging if content is relevant enough to be included in a pop culture section: Worth mentioning: The entry is directly related to the brand and character. For example, licensed TV shows based upon games, like Pac-Man or Super Mario Bros. Depending on the amount of information, such an entry might be in a separate section. The game or related subject is a literal character in the film. The game is integral to the plot of the work (i.e. it would be named in a well-written plot summary). For example, World of Warcraft is significantly featured in the South Park episode " Make Love, Not Warcraft ", and is allowed to be mentioned within the World of Warcraft article. In references to music, the appearance is worth inclusion when the game or character is integral to the artist, album, or song itself. Examples of worthiness would be where the game or character is part of the song presentation (artwork), song title, album title, or the subject of the song itself. For example, Manilla Road 's song "Defender" and Buckner & Garcia 's Pac-Man Fever album. Multiple notable appearances in a specific medium should be combined and summarized. For example, multiple notable appearances of Pac-Man in the TV show Family Guy can be summarized in one or two sentences. The entry is directly related to the brand and character. For example, licensed TV shows based upon games, like Pac-Man or Super Mario Bros. Depending on the amount of information, such an entry might be in a separate section. The game or related subject is a literal character in the film. The game is integral to the plot of the work (i.e. it would be named in a well-written plot summary). For example, World of Warcraft is significantly featured in the South Park episode " Make Love, Not Warcraft ", and is allowed to be mentioned within the World of Warcraft article. In references to music, the appearance is worth inclusion when the game or character is integral to the artist, album, or song itself. Examples of worthiness would be where the game or character is part of the song presentation (artwork), song title, album title, or the subject of the song itself. For example, Manilla Road 's song "Defender" and Buckner & Garcia 's Pac-Man Fever album. Multiple notable appearances in a specific medium should be combined and summarized. For example, multiple notable appearances of Pac-Man in the TV show Family Guy can be summarized in one or two sentences. Consensus needed: References and parodies in media (film, television, music, etc.) would merit inclusion when the game or character in question plays a significant part of the storyline, dialogue, or scene. With very few exceptions, the film, television show, novel, or other work should meet the relevant Wikipedia:Notability criteria for the appearance to be worth mention. The game or related subject is being played by the major character(s) and is the major subject of the dialog in at least one scene. The game is being played and the game events are an illustration, counterpoint, or ironic commentary on the subject of the discussion—note this must be obvious or sourced to a reliable secondary source , or it will likely be labeled original research . Consider the importance of the dialog or scene to the work as a whole. The second segment of Futurama 's " Anthology of Interest II " episode contains numerous video game references and parodies, some which are more integral to the plot than others. The inclusion of this episode on the specific video game articles would need to be determined by editor consensus. References and parodies in media (film, television, music, etc.) would merit inclusion when the game or character in question plays a significant part of the storyline, dialogue, or scene. With very few exceptions, the film, television show, novel, or other work should meet the relevant Wikipedia:Notability criteria for the appearance to be worth mention. The game or related subject is being played by the major character(s) and is the major subject of the dialog in at least one scene. The game is being played and the game events are an illustration, counterpoint, or ironic commentary on the subject of the discussion—note this must be obvious or sourced to a reliable secondary source , or it will likely be labeled original research . Consider the importance of the dialog or scene to the work as a whole. The second segment of Futurama 's " Anthology of Interest II " episode contains numerous video game references and parodies, some which are more integral to the plot than others. The inclusion of this episode on the specific video game articles would need to be determined by editor consensus. Not worth mentioning: The game or related subject is only mentioned in passing, or is just a source of occasional interruptions during dialog. The game is being played only because the playing of any game is needed for the scene, for example to give the characters something to do or to be distracted by, even if the game is specifically named. The game appears as a background prop. For example, Gears of War is briefly shown in the first few minutes of the movie Live Free or Die Hard but is never referred to by name nor does it appear later; this would not warrant a mention. The entry is not directly related to the brand and character. A sports figure who has adopted the nickname "Pac-Man" because of perceived similarities between the person and the character, or a sports figure nicknamed "Super Mario" whose first name is Mario. Having a brief mention in the midst of a song does not warrant inclusion. The game or related subject is only mentioned in passing, or is just a source of occasional interruptions during dialog. The game is being played only because the playing of any game is needed for the scene, for example to give the characters something to do or to be distracted by, even if the game is specifically named. The game appears as a background prop. For example, Gears of War is briefly shown in the first few minutes of the movie Live Free or Die Hard but is never referred to by name nor does it appear later; this would not warrant a mention. The entry is not directly related to the brand and character. A sports figure who has adopted the nickname "Pac-Man" because of perceived similarities between the person and the character, or a sports figure nicknamed "Super Mario" whose first name is Mario. Having a brief mention in the midst of a song does not warrant inclusion. Exceptions There are always exceptions to these rules. In general, anything can become suitable for coverage in Wikipedia if it is given significant attention by reliable sources. For example: It is usually inappropriate to list all the levels in a game, but Sonic Generations is an exception because its reliance on aspects from prior Sonic games is the basis of the game. It is usually inappropriate to explain strategies, but the "lurking" exploit in Asteroids is an exception because it changed the way developers test their games for exploits . It is usually inappropriate to describe in-game items in detail, but describing the portal gun from Portal is necessary to understand the game, and has significant coverage in reliable sources. It is usually inappropriate to list specific multiplayer servers or worlds in a game, unless they have individual notability and coverage in reliable secondary sources, such as Hypixel , 2b2t , or The Uncensored Library . It is usually inappropriate to mention or list homebrews and fan remakes of games. However, certain specific homebrew games, such as Grid Wars and Armagetron Advanced , have achieved notability because of their far-reaching impact on the game(s) on which they are based. Some fan remakes of games or their engines are independently notable and have their own articles, e.g. OpenMW (see also the "Remakes" section below) . If a short article that has existed for some time is to be merged (per #2 above), merge the content first and only redirect the short article once consensus determines the merge is of sufficient quality. It is usually inappropriate to speculate about games that were never announced. However, certain games such as Chrono Break have been the subject of much debate by independent reliable sources, with the game's developer Square Enix commenting on questions about the future of the Chrono series . Remakes, expansions, and series articles MOS:VGREMAKE MOS:VGREMAKE MOS:VGDLC MOS:VGDLC MOS:VGSERIES MOS:VGSERIES Remakes, expansions (including both expansion packs and downloadable content ), and game series can be handled as either a section in a parent article, or as a separate article. If you can verify enough information to write a non-stub section about the distinct reception of a video game remake, as well as a non-stub section about its distinct game development or design, then the remake will qualify for its own article. However, having a separate article should not endanger the notability of the parent article. If there is not enough distinct information on the remake for a complete article, the few distinct aspects of the remake should be covered in the original game's article. [ d ] Expansions follow similar criteria for when it is appropriate to split out a separate article, taking care to avoid unnecessary splits . Series or franchise articles provide an overview of a continuous intellectual property and a summary of its recurring elements. Generally, there will not be enough shared information for a separate series article until there are at least three related entries. Avoid creating a series article that only repeats what sources say about the individual games, and instead base the article on what reliable sources say about the series as a whole . This broad coverage can take some of the following forms: [ e ] A broad scope: The series article should not merely recap or summarize individual games. It should instead describe the series as a whole in broader terms, such as what the games have in common. This could include general gameplay, and recurring elements such as characters and locations. Development/History: The article should give information on how the series came to be, and follow the thread of its history across multiple releases. This continuity is vital information that would otherwise be lost in articles about the individual games. Reception/Legacy: There should be content that describes the real-world impact of the series. What do critics think of the series as a whole? How did the series effect its creators, the genre, and the wider industry in games and entertainment? Franchise/non-game media: Some series expand beyond the medium of video games. Franchise articles can cover these topics if they do not achieve independent notability on their own. General style MOS:VGSTYLE MOS:VGSTYLE This is an encyclopedia, and articles should be written formally, unlike FAQs, fansites, or player's guides. In addition to the general Manual of Style guidelines, keep these video game-centric style ones in mind. Name formatting Italicize video game series and stand-alone video games. Individual video game levels, chapters, or episodes of a standalone video game should use standard double quotes (for example, " Milkman Conspiracy "). Italicize titles of in-universe fictional works that would be italicized if they were real, e.g. Red Book of Hergest . Similarly, use double quotes for titles of in-universe fictional works that would normally use double quotes if real, such as song names. Common words should not be capitalized ; not in the infobox [ f ] or article body. Terms like first-person shooter , multiplayer , third-person view are written as such. For expansions and downloadable content (DLC), the nature of that content will affect how the names should be presented, though editors should seek consensus for alternatives for specific cases: For a DLC that is a significant add-on story, often handled separately from the main game's story and not integrated into it, the name of the DLC should be italicized, treating it like a stand-alone game. Examples include Grand Theft Auto IV 's The Ballad of Gay Tony and BioShock 2 's Minerva's Den . For DLC that may add additional narrative along with additional content to the main game, integrating that story alongside the existing narrative, the name of the DLC should be quoted. For example: "Dead Money" for Fallout: New Vegas , and "The Bank Job" for Payday 2 . For DLC that mostly adds new content (characters, maps, weapons, vehicles, gameplay modes) but little new narrative, the DLC name should follow standard English capitalization rules but is otherwise left unformatted. For example: Stimulus Package for Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2 , Night Blade Pack for Saints Row III . For games that are presented episodically, such as most releases from Telltale Games , individual episode names should be in double quotation marks, following the approach with television episodes. For example, The Walking Dead: Season One 's "A New Day" and "400 Days". Video game genres and formats or types of gameplay should be presented in standardized style (see Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Capital letters § Musical and literary genres ) : Do not capitalize genres and the like except where a proper name (or abbreviation of one) appears. For example: survival horror , first-person shooter , massively multiplayer , adventure game , GTA clone . An exception is roguelike , typically given in lower-case despite being named after the game Rogue . [ g ] While it is common for gaming publications to over-capitalize (as in First-Person Shooter ), just as music magazines often do with music styles ( Hip-Hop ), this is not done on Wikipedia. Video game platforms and hardware should follow appropriate naming and style for trademarked names. WP:Manual of Style/Trademarks covers this in detail. The short version: do not use typographic tricks to try to mimic logo stylization, including ALL-CAPS or .mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%} SMALL-CAPS ; use plain English, though camel case is permissible, as is letter/number substitution, if consistently treated as the title in reliable sources (e.g., Left 4 Dead ). Italicize (online) magazines, newspapers, news sites, and other publications with original content . In particular, websites whose primary purpose is to deliver original content should be italicized in prose, tables, and references. This includes sites such as Gamasutra , IGN , GameSpot , and Polygon . (see § Sources , below, for more information on citing references properly) . The preferred spelling of electronic sports when abbreviated is "esports", completely in lower-case and without a hyphen. A hyphen may be used, as in "e-sports". Articles should be internally consistent, and editors should respect either variant . Capitalize the "e" as necessary for the guidance on capital letters (for example, capitalizing at the start of a sentence such as Esports is one of the largest growing areas in the video game industry. ) and include a hyphen or an upper-case "s" as necessary for the guidance on trademarks . Neutral point of view MOS:VGPOV MOS:VGPOV Write from a neutral point of view : represent fairly, proportionately, and without editorial bias or original research , all significant views published by reliable sources on the topic. This principle is a pillar of the community . Wikipedia is a tertiary source that paraphrases reliable , independent , secondary sources . It is not a venue for publishing your personal views. Cite vetted publications with reputations for reliability, fact-checking, and editorial control, such as news, reviews, awards, and developer interviews. Avoid press releases, which lack editorial distance from the developer. If sources conflict, include all reputable positions in weight proportional to their coverage. For example: While Retro Gamer reported that Sabre Wulf broke the company's sales records, .mw-parser-output .fakelinks{color:var(--color-progressive,#0645ad);cursor:default}.mw-parser-output .fakelinks:hover{color:var(--color-progressive--hover,#0645ad)} [1] Computer and Video Games wrote that it underperformed prior games, with only 30,000 copies sold by December 1984. [2] Eurogamer reported that 350,000 units were sold in total. [3] Avoid vague statements (weasel words) that sound authoritative but offer no substance. Rephrase Many think the game is great as a verifiable statement: The game received five Game of the Year awards (only count reliable sources). When sources and interviews use flattering or promotional language, maintain your professional prose quality and instead provide more specific and referenced facts about the project so readers can decide for themselves. Rephrase puffery (peacock terms) : The game is the console's best into IGN and GameSpot listed the game as among the console's best . Avoid writing or listing the game's features and mechanics like an advertisement . Wording such as " My Player − NBA 2K15 features a career mode in which you start your career in the draft and working your way up by training your player" is unacceptable (see also Wikipedia:Manual of Style § Second-person pronouns ) . Instead, write out the features in an encyclopedic manner, such as "In NBA 2K15 , there is My Player mode in which players can create their own NBA player and use the created player to raise stats by training and playing out games throughout his career." Naming within articles For systems and games, English terms are preferred over non-English equivalents when the difference would either be confusing to the reader or unimportant within the context of the article. For example, while the Famicom is not quite the same as the NES , the differences are relatively minor for the vast majority of game articles (see also WP:Article titles#Use commonly recognizable names ; while it is part of the article naming policy, we generally refer to things in article prose the same way we do in article titles, to avoid confusing readers) . Verb tense MOS:VGTENSE MOS:VGTENSE Use the present tense when describing a subject that continues to exist. For example, a 1984 video game and console both continue to exist as long as copies of both are in circulation, but both a canceled video game and a discontinued online game exist only in the past tense . The Nintendo Entertainment System is an 8-bit video game console , and Super Mario Bros. is a video game . Sonic X-treme was a platform game in development for the Sega Saturn, but was canceled before release. Glitch was a browser-based massively multiplayer online game launched in 2011 and discontinued the next year. Battleborn was an online hero shooter that was released in 2016. Its servers were shutdown in 2021. However, when describing specific events related to a console or game, such as production, advertising, reviews, use a tense appropriate for the time period in which the event occurred. Avoid phrasing that may confuse past and present tense. The Nintendo Entertainment System is an 8-bit video game console designed by Nintendo. But: It was released in 1983. The PlayStation 5 is currently being sold worldwide. Similarly, use the present tense to describe gameplay and other in-game events. This is logical: even if a game was released decades ago, it still performs the same today as it did on release. Game plots should always be written in present tense, as they happen as the game is played, not in the past. An exception is when an event (fictional or historical) took place prior to the events of the game. For example, Throughout the game, Pac-Man is chased by four ghosts. At the beginning of the game, Niko Bellic arrives in Liberty City , not arrived . The event happens as the player begins the game. Four hundred years prior to the start of the game, the Lefeinish watched their country decline as the Wind Orb went dark. Japanese titles MOS:VGNONENG MOS:VGNONENG MOS:VGJP MOS:VGJP In the first sentence, only include a parenthetical non-English language equivalent when the game/topic is not primarily known by a Latin alphabet title. Move the parenthetical to a footnote if the non-English name is not critical to understanding the topic. It is recommended that unless the Japanese name ( kanji / kana ) is critical to the understanding of the topic, one should place it in a footnote to the official English title. (This only applies to video game-related articles. For other Japan-related articles, see WP:Manual of Style/Japan-related articles .) Even if the Japanese name is important, in some cases there are several Japanese titles, or the fully-utilized nihongo templates are so long they hurt the readability of the lead paragraph; these should also be placed in a footnote. This can be done using {{ efn }} , {{ nihongo foot }} , or other methods as described in Help:Shortened footnotes . This retains the information about the original Japanese title and translation but avoids creating a "busy" first sentence in the article. In games where there is no official English title (such as Osu! Tatakae! Ouendan ), the first sentence should retain the romanized Japanese title while the remaining translation information should be placed in a footnote. If a game was originally titled using the Latin alphabet, there is no need to include its title in any other writing system. Exceptions When the article's title (by common name ) is a transliteration of a language other than English, that language equivalent can be included in the lead sentence, usually in parentheses or a footnote, when it would help the reader understand the title's meaning in the original language. For example: Katamari Damacy ( Japanese : 塊魂 ) is a third-person puzzle-action video game ... Katamari Damacy ( Japanese : 塊魂 ) is a third-person puzzle-action video game ... For stand-alone games, names of franchises, and the first game within a franchise, the full set of English title, Japanese title, and Hepburn romanization (which in this page is called "romaji") should generally be used. For sequels in a franchise that are numbered, the romaji for the original game's title is not required nor is the romaji for the numeral. For series within a franchise, treat the articles on the series and first title as if they are their own franchise. For sequel games that have idiosyncratic subtitles, the romaji for only the subtitle is required if the English name is a literal translation of the Japanese name. In place of the romaji for the original title, include an en dash (–). For sequel games that have idiosyncratic subtitles that are not literal translations from Japanese into English, the third parameter of {{ nihongo }} does not need to be filled at all. For sequels with idiosyncratic subtitles that use English text in the original Japanese title, romaji is not necessary for the English text if the words are read the same in English as they are in the Japanese title. Example: Shin Megami Tensei: Strange Journey ( 真・女神転生 Strange Journey ) is... Shin Megami Tensei: Strange Journey ( 真・女神転生 Strange Journey ) is... For sequels with idiosyncratic subtitles that use English text but are read in a way that they would normally not be in English, the romaji is not necessary, but the fourth parameter of {{ nihongo }} should include the intended reading of the subtitle. Example: Kingdom Hearts 358/2 Days ( キングダム ハーツ 358/2 Days , read as "Three Five Eight Days Over Two" ) is... Kingdom Hearts 358/2 Days ( キングダム ハーツ 358/2 Days , read as "Three Five Eight Days Over Two" ) is... Video game jargon MOS:VGJARGON MOS:VGJARGON Video game jargon is often used in reviews, Internet forums and casual conversation about video games. Like all jargon, the slang words are familiar to those closely involved with the game industry, but tend to be cryptic to others. For example, you would confuse a person you meet on the street by telling them: Ryu's 46-hit combo deathmove absolutely pwns Jin and takes away 85% of Jin's health. They would puzzle over words like "combo", "deathmove", and "85% health", as well as wondering who "Ryu" and "Jin" are, and how somebody can " pwn " somebody else. Linking the words to relevant articles can be considered, but this forces the reader to jump back-and-forth among articles to get a fair sense of the meaning. Furthermore, links serve a better purpose as additional readings for enlightenment, rather than required readings for explanation. Writing the sentences with commonly used terminology and excluding jargon would be a better solution, such as: Among the characters available for players to control, Ryu has an advantage over Jin. He has a super attack technique that deals out a long sequence of hits on Jin and is capable of depleting 85% of Jin's health points. That said, it is still possible to use jargon in an article. This could be of necessity if the game's concept deals closely and often with the jargon. The jargon would, however, have to be clearly explained (simple and clear sentences) before its first use in the article. For example, if an adventure game requires players to gather mana crystals (calling it Shwartz gems) to defeat monsters with spells, one could write, A key concept of the game is magic. Players are required to gather crystals, Shwartz gems, to increase their magic points. Shwartz gems can be collected by defeating monsters, searching through containers, and buying them at a shop. The gems also bestow additional benefits on the players, such as increasing their amount of protection, increasing their speed, and allowing them to teleport to certain places. Players must possess certain Shwartz to kill the large monsters, bosses, guarding the end of each level. Another example, Boogers can fly 60 Starspitzers , of which 55 are unlocked by executing no-hit runs . We can rewrite the bolded jargon to: The protagonist Boogers flies spacecraft called Starspitzers. On starting a game, players choose between five Starspitzers options. When they complete a mission without damaging their spacecraft, a new Starspitzer is added to their choice of spacecrafts. Up to 55 additional Starspitzers can be added in this manner. Be aware of common video game acronyms which may be well known within the field, but not outside it. For example, do not presume everyone recognizes the terms "MMORPG", "HUD" or "CPU"; spell out these terms to avoid confusion. If the term is used frequently within an article, then it is acceptable to spell it out the first time it is used in the body, followed by the initialism or acronym in parentheses. Following this, all subsequent recurrences of the term can use the initialism or acronym. If the term is only used once or twice, this approach may not be necessary. Do not make up initialisms or acronyms just to simplify a phrase, and instead use only those that are commonly used in reliable sources. In summary: Use simpler and common terminology in all instances. Only use jargon if they are crucial or unavoidable in explaining the game to the readers. Explain jargon briefly on their first usage. Link to relevant articles if necessary. Try to get someone unfamiliar with video games to read your article and locate any jargon in it. Metadata Article title Title Wikipedia articles by the subject's common name : The name most commonly used in English-language reliable, secondary sources and best balance of the five naming criteria : recognizability, naturalness, precision, conciseness, and consistency. Secondarily, use Wikipedia:Naming conventions (video games) to reference common formatting and disambiguation terms for video game topics. Short description MOS:VGSHORTDESC MOS:VGSHORTDESC Mainspace pages should be tagged, if possible, with a short description, a brief summary of the topic of the page, which is used as part of the Wikipedia App and aids in how Wikipedia is seen on the semantic web . This is done by using the template {{ short description }} near the top of the page, prior to the lead prose, hatnotes, and infobox templates. The short description should be, as self-evident, short, just enough to help to distinguish the topic from any possible close matches. For video games, a typical format would be "<year of release> video game". For example, for Resident Evil 4 , 2005 video game ; for Super Mario 64 , 1996 video game . If further disambiguation is needed, add the game's primary genre: "<year of release> <genre> video game". Per WP:SDDUPLICATE , "avoid duplicating information that is already in the title (but don't worry too much if you need to repeat a word or two for context)". For example, for the article God of War (2018 video game) , "2018 video game" is already in the title, so use the short description to add the genre instead: Action-adventure game . If an article covers multiple video games and is not a video game series, such as the case with the article Pokémon FireRed and LeafGreen or Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U , the year of the earliest release should be added. The general format should be "<year of release> video games". For those two examples, 2004 video games and 2014 video games should suffice. If further disambiguation is needed, add the game's primary genre: "<year of release> <genre> video game". Per WP:SDDUPLICATE , "avoid duplicating information that is already in the title (but don't worry too much if you need to repeat a word or two for context)". For example, for the article God of War (2018 video game) , "2018 video game" is already in the title, so use the short description to add the genre instead: Action-adventure game . If an article covers multiple video games and is not a video game series, such as the case with the article Pokémon FireRed and LeafGreen or Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U , the year of the earliest release should be added. The general format should be "<year of release> video games". For those two examples, 2004 video games and 2014 video games should suffice. For video game series or franchises, "Video game series" is sufficient. For video game hardware, a short description of the type of hardware. For example, for PlayStation 2 , home video game console ; for Nintendo DS , handheld video game console ; and for DualShock , video game controller . For people in video games, use "<nationality> <primary job function(s)> (born <birthyear>)" for those living and "<nationality> <primary job function(s)> (<birthyear>–<deathyear>)" for those who have died. For example, for Gabe Newell , American businessman (born 1962) , and for Satoru Iwata , Japanese video game executive (1959–2015) . For video game companies, similarly use "<nationality> <primary business type(s)>". For example, Nintendo , Japanese video game company ; for Electronic Arts , American video game company , and for Remedy Entertainment , Finnish video game developer . For any other case, use similar short terminology. The goal is a phrase shorter than 40 characters, specific enough to be clear to identify the topic if searching through a list of closely matched similar terms with these descriptions. Infobox The parameters and style guide for the video game infobox is explained at Template:Infobox video game/doc#Syntax guide . Section-specific advice First sentence MOS:VGLEAD MOS:VGLEAD MOS:VGYEARINLEAD MOS:VGYEARINLEAD Avoid bloat in the first sentence . Restrict it to the most important aspects of the topic. The first sentence should: Include only the primary genre. Exclude themes and concepts relating to said genres. E.g., The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild is a 2017 action-adventure game , not The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild is a 2017 third-person open-world action-adventure game . Include the original release year as part of the introduction to the topic. Other dates, or more specific dates, may appear elsewhere in the lead but should do so only as part of summarizing the topic. Alternatively, the release year or exact release date can be included elsewhere in the lead instead of the first sentence, like right after it. E.g., Super Mario 64 is a platform game developed and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo 64. It was released in Japan and North America in 1996 and PAL regions in 1997. However, do not use both the year in the first sentence and later in the lead. E.g., Super Mario 64 is a 1996 platform game developed and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo 64. It was released in Japan and North America in 1996 and PAL regions in 1997. Label unreleased (if not confirmed to be cancelled or vaporware ), pre-release, and early access games as "upcoming". Alternatively, the release year or exact release date can be included elsewhere in the lead instead of the first sentence, like right after it. E.g., Super Mario 64 is a platform game developed and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo 64. It was released in Japan and North America in 1996 and PAL regions in 1997. However, do not use both the year in the first sentence and later in the lead. E.g., Super Mario 64 is a 1996 platform game developed and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo 64. It was released in Japan and North America in 1996 and PAL regions in 1997. Label unreleased (if not confirmed to be cancelled or vaporware ), pre-release, and early access games as "upcoming". Only use a parenthetical non-English language equivalent when the game/topic is not primarily known by a Latin script title. Move the parenthetical to a footnote if the non-English name is not critical to understanding the topic. Avoid " commonly known as " and " stylized as ", unless the point of abbreviation or stylization has been made by a preponderance of reliable , independent , secondary sources . Wikipedia maintains a formal tone and, like newspapers and magazines outside the gamer niche, uses brief phrases instead of abbreviations. For example, the name Ocarina of Time would be an acceptable shorthand for The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time , but OoT would not. There are some occasions where using the full name of the game is the only appropriate option, such as Team Fortress 2 instead of TF2 . Gameplay MOS:VGGP MOS:VGGP MOS:VGGAMEPLAY MOS:VGGAMEPLAY Write for a general audience . Assume that the reader has heard of a video game but has never played one. Introduce the game in terms of the player's actions and goals. Write a gameplay summary in context with other sections about that game or series. A summary-style encyclopedia article will provide relevant facts about a game's mechanics to also understand its development, release, reception, and/or story. Rephrase jargon . Clarify technical concepts such as " HP ", " level ", " boss ", " combo ", " spawn ", and " game over " with context clues and wikilinks. Refer to the glossary of video games . E.g., The game ends when the player's hearts are fully depleted , not Lose all hit points and the player receives a game over . E.g., The game ends when the player's hearts are fully depleted , not Lose all hit points and the player receives a game over . Similarly, avoid confusing abbreviations. If the term recurs in the article, introduce the acronym alongside its full name. E.g., Downloadable content (DLC), non-player character (NPC), massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG). Avoid second-person pronouns (" you "). In addition to their ambiguity and informal tone, we cannot assume that the reader plans to play the game. Instead, use "the player", "the character", or the name of the player-controlled character. E.g., the player can jump or Mario can jump , not you can jump . See also Wikipedia:Manual of Style#Second-person pronouns . For readability, choose either "the player" (singular) or "players" (plural) and stay consistent throughout the section. Use active voice and avoid passive voice . As with most Wikipedia content, gameplay details must be appropriately verifiable to reliable sources . While secondary sources like reviews are preferred, primary sources like game manuals and game guides are acceptable, though articles should not incorporate too many gameplay-related details, per WP:NOT#GAMEGUIDE . Genre MOS:VGGENRE MOS:VGGENRE For both the lead, infobox, and "gameplay" sections of an article about a video game, make sure to indicate the game's genre or genres. Avoid using more than two genres, or more than one hybrid genre (like "action-adventure") in listing the genres. Simply borrowing parts of a genre does not necessarily make the game of that genre, and instead can be said to be using elements of that genre in the lead and gameplay prose. For example, BioShock is a first-person shooter with role-playing game customization and stealth elements... rather than BioShock is a role-playing , stealth first-person shooter ... Use standard genres (those defined in {{ Video game genre }} ), and avoid developer/publisher-created ones in these sections, though one can subsequently describe how the developer or publisher describes the game. For example, Dead Cells is properly classified as a roguelike - Metroidvania by most sources, but mention is made of the developer's "roguevania" self-description as a mashup of these genres. Do not include narrative genres and gameplay mechanics, such as "science fiction" and " open world ", alongside a game's genre. These can instead be used later in the lead or in the gameplay/plot section. Similarly, unless a game is strictly a first-person shooter (like Doom ) or a third-person shooter (like Gears of War ), these perspectives are not defining genres that should be included, though can be used to describe the gameplay aspects. For example Portal is a puzzle - platform video game ... and not Portal is a first-person puzzle - platform video game ... . Plot MOS:VGPLOT MOS:VGPLOT The article's plot coverage should be proportional to the plot's importance in the game, as determined by its weight in the article's source material. For example, plot is a major aspect of Final Fantasy game reviews but a minor aspect of Mario game reviews. Include the plot within the gameplay section unless there is cause to distinguish it. Straightforward plot summary is assumed to be sourced to the game itself and thus does not require sources . Any conclusions inferred by interpretation, however, do require reliable, secondary sources . Add secondary sources whenever reasonable to (1) reliably verify the cited fact, and (2) prove that the plot detail was sufficiently non-trivial to pass the source's editorial discretion. Primary sources, such as the instruction manual, are of limited use, as a self-published source about itself . The plot should summarise content that every player would be expected to see on a playthrough of a game. Avoid including elements that require the player to follow side quests or visit secret areas, unless that information is deemed critical to understanding the plot. If such information is included, it should be referenced in a way to explain how the player would discover it for verifiability requirements. For example, BioShock Infinite references specific messages from optional collectibles to support plot elements outside the player's frame of observation. For games with divergent narrative paths, including multiple endings, consider how to summarize these to the simplest level of detail. The summary should explain that the narrative branches, but it is not necessary to enumerate exactly how to obtain each branch or events along each. Focus on divergent narratives that have the greatest impact on the story. For example, the plot summary of The Walking Dead (video game) omits many of the possible story choices, but retains the final decision and its consequences the player makes due to its impact on the narrative. The plot should summarise content that every player would be expected to see on a playthrough of a game. Avoid including elements that require the player to follow side quests or visit secret areas, unless that information is deemed critical to understanding the plot. If such information is included, it should be referenced in a way to explain how the player would discover it for verifiability requirements. For example, BioShock Infinite references specific messages from optional collectibles to support plot elements outside the player's frame of observation. For games with divergent narrative paths, including multiple endings, consider how to summarize these to the simplest level of detail. The summary should explain that the narrative branches, but it is not necessary to enumerate exactly how to obtain each branch or events along each. Focus on divergent narratives that have the greatest impact on the story. For example, the plot summary of The Walking Dead (video game) omits many of the possible story choices, but retains the final decision and its consequences the player makes due to its impact on the narrative. Write about story elements from a " real-world perspective ". Do not use a perspective from within the game world (" in-universe ") or describe fiction as fact. E.g., not " It is the end of the Zelda timeline and thousands of years after Link defeated Ganondorf ", but " Breath of the Wild is set at the end of the Zelda timeline, thousands of years after the events of previous games ". To retain focus, generally limit plot summaries to 700 words or fewer. For episodic video games, plot summaries of no more than 300 words per episode should be presented either in the plot section as prose or in a table using {{ Episode table }} and {{ Episode list }} . If appropriate, these articles could instead include a prose plot summary of no more than 700 words per season instead of an episode table, but an article should not have full plot summaries in both an episode table and a plot section. A brief one sentence plot synopsis is permitted in the table for articles with both, such as Tales of Monkey Island . For narrative downloadable content (DLC), plot summaries of no more than 300 words per content should be presented in the main plot section or as an additional sub-section (such as Final Fantasy XV ). If appropriate, larger narrative DLC may be split into its own article if it receives significant independent development and reception coverage, such as The Last of Us: Left Behind . Split articles should follow the main plot guideline of 700 words. For episodic video games, plot summaries of no more than 300 words per episode should be presented either in the plot section as prose or in a table using {{ Episode table }} and {{ Episode list }} . If appropriate, these articles could instead include a prose plot summary of no more than 700 words per season instead of an episode table, but an article should not have full plot summaries in both an episode table and a plot section. A brief one sentence plot synopsis is permitted in the table for articles with both, such as Tales of Monkey Island . For narrative downloadable content (DLC), plot summaries of no more than 300 words per content should be presented in the main plot section or as an additional sub-section (such as Final Fantasy XV ). If appropriate, larger narrative DLC may be split into its own article if it receives significant independent development and reception coverage, such as The Last of Us: Left Behind . Split articles should follow the main plot guideline of 700 words. Development In describing development elements related to the release of a game, it is often easy to fall into the use of proseline on trivial details, repetitive sentences or list items in a form like "On such-and-such date, the company teased the release of their game via a Twitter message." Both proseline and this type of detail are generally inappropriate. Consider what secondary sources state about the game's pre-release information to determine what is appropriate to include. The use of release teasers, trailers, and social media is common throughout the industry, so specific details on these elements are generally unnecessary unless the nature of their presentation is something noted by sources. Exact dates for announcements are rarely necessary and only a rough time estimate is needed: a month/year for most games, or for those unveiled at conferences like E3 or GDC, referring to those conferences. Reception MOS:VGREC MOS:VGREC Organize sections thematically to juxtapose similar comments from reviewers into a coherent narrative. For example, group reviewer comments on gameplay, technical audiovisuals, narrative, and other common themes of the reviews. Signpost each paragraph with a topic sentence. A good opening sentence summarizes the paragraph, helps the reader anticipate what to expect from the paragraph, and has references to directly support the summary. Be careful to not make generalizations not substantiated by the sources . If Reviewers praised the game's art direction , say so, and add the references that support the statement, but avoid Most reviewers praised... and other phrases that make the subject ambiguous unless you have a source that makes a claim about "most". Stack similar claims. When five reviewers write that the controls were clunky, write the claim as a single sentence with multiple refs. If the number of footnote refs following the sentence becomes unwieldy, mention all sources in a single summative footnote. Example: DK Rap ref in Donkey Kong 64 Vary sentence rhythm and avoid "A said B". Successive sentences in this pattern quickly become dull: John Smith opined, "it's the best game of the year". Juana Pérez of Reliable Blog claimed it was "dry and boring" and lacked focus. (Variants include "A of B said C" and "A said that B".) Rephrase and recast sentences whenever possible to keep the content interesting. Try varying sentence length, direct and indirect claims, and types of summary. For more, see Wikipedia:Copyediting reception sections . John Smith opined, "it's the best game of the year". Juana Pérez of Reliable Blog claimed it was "dry and boring" and lacked focus. (Variants include "A of B said C" and "A said that B".) Rephrase and recast sentences whenever possible to keep the content interesting. Try varying sentence length, direct and indirect claims, and types of summary. For more, see Wikipedia:Copyediting reception sections . Minimize direct quotations. Prefer paraphrase whenever possible, both for Wikipedia's emphasis on minimizing use of copyrighted content and to massage the essence of the source into what best suits the section. Almost all reviewer sentiments can be rephrased without using the source's exact words/phrases. Use quotations only to illustrate that which cannot be said better than the source. Reception sections that consist purely of quotations are treated as copyright violations . Reduce clutter by removing reviewer names, publications, and dates when unnecessary to the point at hand. Multiple reader polls ranked the game among the best of all time. [1] [2] [3] , instead of The game was included in multiple top 50 games of all time lists, including that of Famitsu readers in 2006 [1] and IGN readers in 2005 [2] and 2006. [3] Multiple reader polls ranked the game among the best of all time. [1] [2] [3] , instead of The game was included in multiple top 50 games of all time lists, including that of Famitsu readers in 2006 [1] and IGN readers in 2005 [2] and 2006. [3] Metacritic 's qualitative summary often provides a satisfactory summary of a game's overall reception. As in the image to the right, The game received "mixed or average reviews", according to review aggregator [[Metacritic]]. Avoid summative claims that cannot be explicitly verified in reliable, secondary sources. Metacritic gives quotable language to summarize a game's reception. Including the number of reviews that are computed to create the review aggregator score can be helpful, since it gives context and can help the reader understand how the score is averaged. The number can either be listed after Metacritic's qualitative summary in prose or footnoted in {{ Video game reviews }} . Examples: Team Sonic Racing 's reception section Shortcut MOS:VGMIXED MOS:VGMIXED " Mixed-to-positive " and " mixed-to-negative " imprecisely describe reception that skews slightly more positive or negative. "Mixed" means "scattered across the board", not "medium", so reviews cannot be both "mixed" and "positive". For precision, " mixed " alone is sufficient. Supplement with specific reviews to describe various positive and negative aspects. MOS:VGMIXED MOS:VGMIXED Reduce minutiae inappropriate for a general audience. For example, avoid scores and statistics in prose, which are hard for the reader to parse and often impart little qualitative information. These scores should be limited to the {{ Video game reviews }} template, if present. Review aggregator Metacritic gave the PC version a score of 76 out of 100 based on 45 reviews from critics, while the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions received scores of 77 and 79, respectively. ... The first review was published by Official Xbox Magazine , which gave the game a 9.5 out of 10. IGN gave it 8.5. Review aggregator Metacritic gave the PC version a score of 76 out of 100 based on 45 reviews from critics, while the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions received scores of 77 and 79, respectively. ... The first review was published by Official Xbox Magazine , which gave the game a 9.5 out of 10. IGN gave it 8.5. Guidelines for {{ Video game reviews }} : This template is not required. It supplements the reception section; it does not replace it. All reviews must be referenced: Individual reviews should cite their original publication, not the truncated aggregator summary. Every single-site review source should be used within the reception section. The reviews table supports the text. It is not to replicate the function of external review aggregators. Present numeric scores using numerals only (e.g. 3.5/5 or 9/10). Convert star ratings and other number-based scores to the equivalent numerals without changing the scale or the score itself (e.g. use "3/5" for a score printed as , but do not convert it to a ten-point scale such as "6/10"). Aggregators present readers with a quick gauge of the critical consensus. Metacritic is seen as the industry standard. OpenCritic is useful for newer games. Only use OpenCritic's Critics Recommend metric normally. Do not include OpenCritic's Top Critic Average metric in articles that have a Metacritic score. GameRankings is useful for some older games, but is now defunct. Only use GameRankings when a Metacritic score is unavailable. Round aggregator scores to the nearest whole number (e.g., 83.46% → 83% ) (for more, see Template:Video game reviews/doc#Guidelines ) . This template is not required. It supplements the reception section; it does not replace it. All reviews must be referenced: Individual reviews should cite their original publication, not the truncated aggregator summary. Every single-site review source should be used within the reception section. The reviews table supports the text. It is not to replicate the function of external review aggregators. Present numeric scores using numerals only (e.g. 3.5/5 or 9/10). Convert star ratings and other number-based scores to the equivalent numerals without changing the scale or the score itself (e.g. use "3/5" for a score printed as , but do not convert it to a ten-point scale such as "6/10"). Aggregators present readers with a quick gauge of the critical consensus. Metacritic is seen as the industry standard. OpenCritic is useful for newer games. Only use OpenCritic's Critics Recommend metric normally. Do not include OpenCritic's Top Critic Average metric in articles that have a Metacritic score. GameRankings is useful for some older games, but is now defunct. Only use GameRankings when a Metacritic score is unavailable. Round aggregator scores to the nearest whole number (e.g., 83.46% → 83% ) Metacritic is seen as the industry standard. OpenCritic is useful for newer games. Only use OpenCritic's Critics Recommend metric normally. Do not include OpenCritic's Top Critic Average metric in articles that have a Metacritic score. GameRankings is useful for some older games, but is now defunct. Only use GameRankings when a Metacritic score is unavailable. Round aggregator scores to the nearest whole number (e.g., 83.46% → 83% ) (for more, see Template:Video game reviews/doc#Guidelines ) . User reviews and other self-published sources are unreliable unless these are called to attention in secondary sources, such as if a game was review bombed . In such cases, cite the secondary source(s) describing the event, not the user review itself. This includes user scores on aggregators. Sales When documenting sales, avoid creep ; you do not need to document every single sales milestone a game has surpassed. ( By March 2017, the game had sold 3 million copies. By September 2017, the game had sold 5 million copies. etc. ) It is recommended to limit sales information to the debut sales figures, which indicate the game's initial impact, and the cumulative/most recent figures. Awards Shortcut MOS:VGAWARDS MOS:VGAWARDS Noteworthy awards and nominations that contribute to the overall reception should be documented in prose in this section. Individual publications often use awards to distinguish a game's lasting impact. If a game has received more nominations than can comfortably be discussed without proseline (typically four or more), these should be placed in a table. For the table, only include awards where either the awards individually are notable (e.g. Seumas McNally Grand Prize ) or the awards body as a whole is notable (e.g. The Game Awards ); omit individual publication awards and ranked lists from the table. MOS:VGAWARDS MOS:VGAWARDS Awards included in lists should have a Wikipedia article or be vetted by the community to allow for its inclusion to demonstrate notability. Examples of formatting such tables, typically consistent with accolades from film and television, can be found at God of War and Undertale . Tables with a large number of awards or nominations should be moved to a separate article only if the game article is approaching page size concerns . Examples can be seen with The Last of Us and Red Dead Redemption 2 . Screenshots and cover art MOS:VGIMAGES MOS:VGIMAGES Wikipedians, while recognizing that screenshots of video games and box or cover art are generally not free images (there are exceptions related to screenshots, as explained below), assert that their usage are protected under the fair use provision of US copyright law. To notify others of the copyright status of such images, uploaded game cover art should include the template {{ Non-free video game cover }} . Screenshots of a game should include the template {{ Non-free video game screenshot }} . Some screenshots or box covers may be categorized elsewhere, in which case the uploader is still required to provide valid information on the image's source and copyright status. For rendered art or other official graphics that are not screenshots, use the general {{ Non-free character }} , {{ Non-free promotional }} , or {{ Non-free fair use }} template and provide information (see Wikipedia:Non-free content for information on what the requirements are) . Game-company logos may use {{ Non-free logo }} . Do not upload screenshots that have been watermarked . In addition to the above, image use must also satisfy the all points of the core policy: Wikipedia:Non-free content criteria which has greater limitations on the use of non-free images than US law requires. Take particular care that the usage satisfies criterion 8 and criterion 3 as it is on the basis of these criteria that screenshots and box-art images are most likely to be challenged. All non-free images must be accompanied by a fair use rationale for each article in which they appear , explaining why the image is being used in that article. Any such images that do not contain a proper rationale may be deleted in accordance with Wikipedia's deletion policy . {{ Non-free use rationale video game screenshot }} is a simple template that can help in adding rationales to the most common types of images. For each rationale, the following items should always be present in order to provide a strong non-free use rationale: The article name the image is used in ( required ) - this does not need to be linked to the article though it is helpful, but the article name must be clearly present. The source of the image; this can include who owns the copyright (developer and publisher), as well as a URL from which you took the image. If the image is a self-made screenshot, the image is still copyrighted, but identify yourself as the creator of the image. That the image is low resolution or if not, the reasons why it is not low resolution. Low resolution is typically defined as being no larger than around 0.1 megapixels. An image that is 400 x 300 pixels will generally be ok, but a 640 x 480 image will not be. You may reduce the image yourself, or tag it {{ non-free reduce }} and allow a volunteer to do it. If reducing the image removed necessary details to be described in the game, then explain why those details are necessary to use a higher resolution image; if possible, consider cropping the section of the image to only the core details that may be lost at lower resolution. (Reduction of resolution is not required if the screenshot is used as a free image under the exception below) The purpose of the image. This is very important to meet non-free content requirements, and the more details and reasons that can be provided, the better. Video game covers are generally used for identification of the game in its infobox but may be also used to identify characters or other aspects of the game within the game articles. Company logos are used to identify the company in its infobox. Screenshots of video games should be used to identify as many unique or notable elements as possible, and keeping the number of such shots to a minimum. The rationale should explain what elements the screenshot is showing, such as the HUD, a damage meter, or similar visual element. Make sure that these points are further described in the article text. Video game covers are generally used for identification of the game in its infobox but may be also used to identify characters or other aspects of the game within the game articles. Company logos are used to identify the company in its infobox. Screenshots of video games should be used to identify as many unique or notable elements as possible, and keeping the number of such shots to a minimum. The rationale should explain what elements the screenshot is showing, such as the HUD, a damage meter, or similar visual element. Make sure that these points are further described in the article text. The lack of a free replacement. Most non-free images relating to video games lack the ability for a free replacement, and thus this rationale purpose should reiterate this point. Cover art MOS:VGCOVERART MOS:VGCOVERART In most cases, cover art should be used as the identifying artwork in the game's infobox. However, when this is not available, like with digitally distributed games or type-in games, then other forms of identifying art can be used. Other sources of identifying art include: Digital store art - the digital equivalent of a cover, such as an app store icon Instruction manual art - with any information pertaining to the manual itself removed (if possible) Promotional material - advertisements, posters or art accompanying catalogue listings Main title/splash screenshot Photo of the arcade cabinet Photo of the game media - disks, cartridges and other physical media Only one piece of identifying art should be present in the infobox, regardless of platform or regional differences. English-language art is preferred for identification; if no English-language option is available, then use art from the game's native language. If a suitable English-language cover art already exists on the subject page, consider whether it needs replacing with a different version or if the current one is adequate. If the game was released for multiple platforms with a similar cover, art without any platform-related logotypes should be used where possible either from an official source or by editing the cover picture in order to create a platform-neutral picture. The only editing that should be done to the original art to achieve this should be the cropping of platform banners and not the removal of any platform specific logos, publisher logos, 3rd party icons, etc. on the art itself. Covers from PC games are generally considered platform-neutral if they do not feature OS branding (such as a Games for Windows banner). The identifying art should be from the game's original release. If the game was released on other platforms at a later date, the original artwork with its respective platform-related logos should still be used. Exceptions can be made when a later release was significantly more notable than an earlier release. While {{ infobox video game }} offers a |caption= option to caption the cover image, use it if only necessary. The fact that the cover image is being used in the infobox establishes that it is cover art, so it is unnecessary to state this (do not use "Cover art for the game"). It is best to omit the caption if it does not immediately help the reader. Captions can be used in cases where there is significant differences in cover art between release platform or region (beyond logos, labels, and other placement elements), as to identify the specific version being shown. A caption should be used if there is specific discussion of its design as in the case of Ico , or otherwise include information helpful to the reader, for example, cast of characters discussed in the article. For example, the caption on Kingdom Hearts or The World Ends with You identifies multiple central characters in these games. However, it is absolutely not necessary on a cover like Bastion where it is clear the character shown is The Kid as one reads the lead and body. Cover images can only be used in the body of the article if there is significant commentary on the specific cover itself. For example, the Wii cover of Ōkami was noted to contain a watermark as described by the text, so the cover is used to supplement this text. Screenshots Screenshots are used to illustrate the game's graphics and gameplay. They illustrate points that can not be adequately covered by text. As for all non-free content, editors must ask themselves whether each new screenshot adds value to the article that could not be done freely otherwise. It is generally accepted that one non-free screenshot can be used on a video game article to supplement the Gameplay section of the article, where the Gameplay section itself is sourced to third-party or secondary sources. Implicitly, any notable video game will have sourced commentary about its gameplay (this is generally a contributing factor to why a game is notable). Add this sourcing in advance of the non-free screenshot so the text can support its conclusion. Avoid adding screenshots to stub-class articles and wait until the article's gameplay has been expanded and sourced. Proper non-free rationales and licensing must be provided for these images to meet the WP:Non-free content criteria (see commonly used templates ) . Free screenshots are preferred to non-free screenshots, and editors should also consider if a game's screenshot is necessary if the game concepts are straightforward. For example, many first-person shooters or racing games share very common user interface elements and are otherwise unremarkable from each other, so a screenshot for such games could be omitted if there is no significant commentary on the gameplay or art style. Additional screenshots are required to have stronger justification for their use, backed by third-party or secondary sources, regardless of what aspects of a game they show. Exception If the video game itself uses a free license (for example GPL ), that license extends to screenshots produced by the game. If the license is compatible to licenses used by Wikipedia, those images are free images for Wikipedia use, and they can be uploaded to Wikimedia Commons and should use the appropriate free software template instead. They do not need a fair use rationale. Note that it is possible to engage with smaller developers or publishers to request them to provide screenshots and other materials under a free license. Such images can be uploaded directly by the developer to Commons, uploaded to Flickr or other photo-sharing site with appropriate free license terms, or one can following the instructions at WP:CONSENT to secure appropriate license permissions. If you need help, members of the video games WikiProject can help guide on ways to approach these developers. There are cases where permission is made possible outside the above process. For example, the loading screen of Overcooked 2 says "Please feel free to use any video footage or screen captures of the game in whatever way you like.", thereby giving permission to use screenshots of the game in Wikipedia. In such cases, provide proof on Commons in addition to the screenshot. Hardware and physical objects For released hardware and peripherals, freely licensed photographs of the subjects should be used in JPEG format. There is no need for non-free images unless the subject has been cancelled or not yet released. Special hardware with artistic designs cannot be released as free content images. While the item itself, such as the console or a standard controller is acceptable, the artwork is under copyright. Images used and hosted on Commons should be removed and tagged for deletion on their Commons page. Photographs of video game-related toys or promotional materials (such as Amiibo ) which include an artistic design also would be considered copyrighted images, and can only be used with a proper non-free rationale. Freely-licensed photographs of people in video-game related cosplay outfits may be considered free images, despite showing copyrighted design elements. Per Commons , as long as the photograph is not focused on one single facet of the costume (for example, a close-up shot of a cosplayer's mask) and instead takes in the full costume, then the copyrighted elements are considered de minimis and the photograph can be treated as a free license. Image file formats and names For box art, JPEG is acceptable. SVG or PNG are preferred for logos. The file format used for screenshots depends on what type of image it is. JPEGs are usable for most 3D games and some 2D games. Games with a strong emphasis on pixel art or sprites should use PNG. GIFs should only be used for animated images. Provide a descriptive file name when uploading a new image. There's no required format, but including the name of the game/series and appending the type of image is very helpful for understanding the use of an image at a glance, such as File:Halo - Combat Evolved (XBox version - box art).jpg . Sources Articles related to video games must follow the requirements for verifiability and use appropriate reliable sources with inline citations to support the article. A description of what are considered to be reliable sources for video game-related articles and other specific sourcing issues may be found at WP:WikiProject Video games/Sources . There are several considerations for video game-related articles in regards to sourcing: Using sites like GameSpot and IGN as reliable sources for older games (pre-2000) should be carefully considered. While such sites are considered to be reliable sources today, prior to around the turn of the century, they did not necessarily possess this same credibility. Most video games with content pre-dating 2000 should include content from print journals for information released during that time. Gameplay sections should be sourced. This can be sourced using the user's manual for the game, in addition to reviews for the game and other reliable sources. Similarly, plot sections should also be sourced; again, the user's manual and reviews may help here, but one may also find sufficient information contained within strategy guides or FAQs. Often, using quotes from within the game or transcript can help support statements via {{ cite video game }} ; however, take care to keep such quotes short and to the key points. A further complication with video game sources is that most only exist in an online form, and of late, several major reliable gaming sites, like 1UP and Joystiq, have been shuttered by parent companies. Sometimes, the archives of these sites remain, but more often than not, these sites go dark taking previous content with it. Because this can happen with little warning, our reliance on online sources can be problematic. Editors are encouraged to use archiving citations to prevent loss of such articles. This can be done either through using the Wayback Machine at archive.org, which can work for both live sites or sites that have gone dark, or using a Web citation manager such as WebCite to save the contents of the specific page as long as the site is still available. See WP:DEADREF for more information on how to use these tools. Finding critic reviews for older games may be difficult as most publication was done in print gaming magazines before the explosive growth of the Internet. Several project members have kept old copies of certain video game publications. A list of users and notable data is kept at WP:WikiProject Video games/Magazines . If you find something relevant to your article on that page, make an appropriate post (try WT:VG/RS ) to request referencing. If you wish to contribute to the project, please add your username to issues you have or create new issue listings if none currently exist. Please be thorough when checking magazines, and be sure to wikify game titles. Follow the simple table format. If you prefer, add {{ User WPCVGm }} to your user page to generate interest in the project. Cite sources correctly. The titles of websites, newspapers, books, magazines, TV shows, and video games are italicized as creative works with the |work= field. It is not necessary to specify the publisher of a serial publication (including an online one) unless the publisher's and publication's names significantly differ, or the citation would be ambiguous without it. Even in those cases, the |issn= and |oclc= fields (both of which can be identified through WorldCat search) would provide more specificity on the serial. Right : {{ cite web |title=Hands On with the Nintendo Labo | website =[[GameSpot]] |date=...}} Wrong : {{ cite web |title=Hands On with the Nintendo Labo | publisher =[[GameSpot]] |date=...}} Also, sites like Google Books and Internet Archive may host or index the work but are not its publisher. Credit those sources in the |via= parameter of the citation template. Internal links MOS:VGIL MOS:VGIL A "See also" section is not strictly necessary, and many high-quality and comprehensive articles do not have one. As a general rule, the "See also" section should not repeat links that appear in the article's body. [ 1 ] Avoid an indiscriminate list of links to "similar" game articles, instead linking to relevant articles as they are mentioned in the article body. The prose should be written so that readers can easily understand the relevance of the included links, with reference to reliable sources. If there is a link that might be relevant but it is not mentioned in the article body, use editorial judgment and common sense before including it in a list of internal links. External links MOS:VGEL MOS:VGEL External links in video game articles should follow the same convention for external links on Wikipedia in general. Certain links are recommended for video game articles, while other links should be avoided. Specifically, external links should provide information that, barring copyright and technical restrictions, would be part of a Featured Article on Wikipedia. Restricting the type of external links to be added to video game articles helps to avoid the section from becoming a link farm . Please use appropriate external link templates , such as {{ MobyGames }} . Only add templates when they provide additional, or corroborative, encyclopedic information to the article. Appropriate external links : These links should be present if possible in a video game article. A video game's official home page (provided by the developer or publisher) per Wikipedia:External links#What can normally be linked ( WP:ELYES ) #1. Only the English version of the page should be included if there are multiple languages, per WP:External links § Non-English-language content , and § Minimize the number of links ( WP:ELMINOFFICIAL ). If no English version exists, then the official page in the language of the country of first publication should be provided, but indicate that the site is in a non-English language . If the developer and publisher each offer a different site, include both. The developers' and publishers' home pages per § What can normally be linked #1. If, however, the official game site is housed on the developer or publisher's pages that allows for obvious navigation to the main developer/publisher site, these may not be necessary per WP:ELMINOFFICIAL. A download source for games that are freely downloadable and which do not infringe copyright, if such links are completely separate from the game's official website, per WP:ELYES #2, and WP:ELMINOFFICIAL. If the page contains substantial information that is relevant but not necessarily encyclopedic in nature , then a video game's profile page at MobyGames , IMDb , or a dedicated wiki may be added on a case-by-case basis, per WP:ELYES #3, and § Links to be considered ( WP:ELMAYBE ) #4. Wikis should not normally be cited, per WP:External links § Links normally to be avoided ( WP:ELNO ) #12, and WP:Identifying reliable sources#User-generated content . Inappropriate external links : These links should be avoided in video game articles per WP:ELNO , except where either a local consensus has decided a link may be useful, or where the link is for an official page of the article's subject . The video game's profile page at 1UP.com , GameSpot , IGN , GameSpy , GameFAQs , or any other commercial video game news, reviews or walkthrough sites - such links can be seen as promotion of the associated commercial sites. Fan-based sites, including those that may extend from the commercial sites listed above (for example, PlanetQuake ) Forums per WP:ELNO #10 – official ones for the topic of the page may be appropriate per WP:ELYES #1, but take into account WP:ELMINOFFICIAL . Links to fan remakes (homebrew clones) – these are generally included in self-promotion, and may infringe on copyrighted works. Links to storefronts, per WP:ELNO #5 (Steam, Xbox Store, PlayStation Store, Google Play, GOG.com, etc.) Unacceptable external links : These links are never allowed in video game articles and should be deleted without discussion if found. Links to sites that offer copyright-infringing downloads of video games, ROM or ISO images, or other works, per § Restrictions on linking ( WP:ELNEVER ) #1. This includes materials that may be considered abandonware – while the copyright of these works may be in question, policy forbids even questionable links. See also Wikipedia:WikiProject Video games Notes ^ This can include banning of a specific game as well as an entire sub-genre, usually excessively violent or sexually explicit games. ^ For previous consensus discussion about track lists and video game soundtracks, see WT:WikiProject Video games/Archive 106 § Soundtrack listings . ^ For consensus discussion about video game soundtrack cover art, see WT:WikiProject Video games/Archive 100 § Use of soundtrack cover art . ^ It has generally been agreed that Super Mario 64 DS , which is a remake of Super Mario 64 , is an example of the absolute minimum requirement to meet the above criteria. For consensus discussion about remake criteria, see WT:WikiProject Video games/Archive 69 § Guidance on separate articles for remakes / ports of existing games . ^ Adapted from Survey: What are the requirements for series and franchise articles? by User:Panini! based on responses from multiple WP:VG editors. ^ The first letter of an infobox parameter's data is generally capitalized, e.g.: |genre=[[First-person shooter]], [[survival horror]] . This is also common but not required of list items, e.g.: |genre= {{ Unbulleted list |[[First-person shooter]]|[[Survival horror]]|[[Hack and slash]]}} . ^ The first rule of WP:Manual of Style/Capital letters is that "only words and phrases that are consistently capitalized in a substantial majority of independent, reliable sources are capitalized in Wikipedia." ^ The community has rejected past proposals to do away with this guidance. See, for example, this RfC . Wikipedia Manual of Style (arts) Pages using sidebar with the child parameter This page was last edited on 29 December 2025, at 02:41 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Categorizing pages 2 Creating category pages Toggle Creating category pages subsection 2.1 Before creating a new category 2.2 Choosing a name for the category 2.3 Creating the category 2.4 Category description 2.5 Additional considerations 2.1 Before creating a new category 2.2 Choosing a name for the category 2.3 Creating the category 2.4 Category description 2.5 Additional considerations 3 Categorizing articles Toggle Categorizing articles subsection 3.1 Naming conventions 3.1.1 Topic and set categories 3.2 Categorizing articles about people 3.3 Categorizing articles about works 3.4 Categorizing list pages 3.5 Eponymous categories 3.5.1 Articles with eponymous categories 3.1 Naming conventions 3.1.1 Topic and set categories 3.1.1 Topic and set categories 3.2 Categorizing articles about people 3.3 Categorizing articles about works 3.4 Categorizing list pages 3.5 Eponymous categories 3.5.1 Articles with eponymous categories 3.5.1 Articles with eponymous categories 4 Categorizing draft pages 5 Categorizing project pages Toggle Categorizing project pages subsection 5.1 Wikipedia administrative categories 5.2 Files 5.3 Templates 5.4 User pages 5.1 Wikipedia administrative categories 5.2 Files 5.3 Templates 5.4 User pages 6 Categorization using templates Toggle Categorization using templates subsection 6.1 Redirecting categories 6.2 Hiding categories 6.1 Redirecting categories 6.2 Hiding categories 7 Category tree organization Toggle Category tree organization subsection 7.1 Subcategorization 7.2 Diffusing large categories 7.3 Non-diffusing subcategories 7.1 Subcategorization 7.2 Diffusing large categories 7.3 Non-diffusing subcategories 8 Sort keys 9 Inappropriate categorization 10 Category cleanup templates 11 See also Toggle See also subsection 11.1 For browsing 11.2 For maintenance 11.1 For browsing 11.2 For maintenance 12 Notes Wikipedia : Categorization Alemannisch العربية অসমীয়া Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Cebuano Čeština Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Gaelg Galego 贛語 ગુજરાતી 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Interlingua Italiano עברית ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Kernowek Kurdî Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Македонски മലയാളം मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands नेपाली 日本語 Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی پښتو Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Romani čhib Русский Scots Sesotho Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça తెలుగు ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська اردو Vèneto Tiếng Việt 吴语 ייִדיש 粵語 中文 Project page Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Meta-Wiki Wikibooks Wikinews Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wiktionary Wikidata item This page documents an English Wikipedia editing guideline . Editors should generally follow it, though exceptions may apply. Substantive edits to this page should reflect consensus . .mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain{float:right;margin:0 0 0 1em;border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);background-color:var(--background-color-base,#fff);padding:0.3em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;text-align:center;font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxleft{float:left;margin:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutlist{display:inline-block;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);margin-bottom:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain ul{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutanchordiv{position:relative;top:-3em}.mw-parser-output li .module-shortcutanchordiv{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mbox-imageright .module-shortcutboxplain{padding:0.4em 1em;line-height:1.3;margin:0;float:initial} Shortcuts .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} WP:CAT WP:CAT WP:CATEGORY WP:CATEGORY WP:MOSCAT WP:MOSCAT WP:CAT WP:CAT WP:CATEGORY WP:CATEGORY WP:MOSCAT WP:MOSCAT Wikipedia guidelines Guidelines list Policies list Guidelines list Policies list Behavioral Assume good faith Conflict of interest Disruptive editing Don't bite the newcomers Don't disrupt to make a point Etiquette Gaming the system Other behavioral guidelines Discussions Talk page guidelines Signatures Assume good faith Conflict of interest Disruptive editing Don't bite the newcomers Don't disrupt to make a point Etiquette Gaming the system Other behavioral guidelines Assume good faith Conflict of interest Disruptive editing Don't bite the newcomers Don't disrupt to make a point Etiquette Gaming the system Other behavioral guidelines Discussions Talk page guidelines Signatures Talk page guidelines Signatures Content Citing sources External links Reliable sources medicine Fringe theories Naming conventions Non-free content Offensive material Other content guidelines Citing sources External links Reliable sources medicine medicine Fringe theories Naming conventions Non-free content Offensive material Other content guidelines Editing Article size Be bold Understandability Other editing guidelines Categorization Categories, lists, templates Categorization Disambiguation Article size Be bold Understandability Other editing guidelines Article size Be bold Understandability Other editing guidelines Categorization Categories, lists, templates Categorization Disambiguation Categories, lists, templates Categorization Disambiguation Style Manual of Style contents lists tables Manual of Style contents lists tables contents lists tables Notability and Deletion Notability Deletion process Deletion guidelines for administrators Notability Deletion process Deletion guidelines for administrators Project content Project pages WikiProjects Templates User pages User boxes Shortcuts Project pages WikiProjects WikiProjects Templates User pages User boxes User boxes Shortcuts Search .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e The primary purpose of the categorization system on Wikipedia is to provide navigational links within a structured, tree-like hierarchy of categories . By grouping pages according to their essential, defining characteristics, the system allows readers to browse and efficiently locate related topics. Proposals to delete, merge, or rename categories should follow the process outlined at Wikipedia:Categories for discussion . Please use that forum before undertaking extensive re-categorization of existing categories or the mass creation of new ones. Categorizing pages Every Wikipedia page should belong to at least one category, except for talk pages , redirects , and user pages , which may optionally be placed in categories where appropriate. [ 1 ] Important: All categories form part of a tree-like hierarchy . Do not add categories to pages as if they are tags . WP:CATSPECIFIC WP:CATSPECIFIC Each categorized page should be placed only in the most specific categories to which it logically belongs, and subcategories should be categorized under only the most specific parent categories possible. Note: Stub templates categorize stub articles for maintenance purposes into administrative categories , not for user browsing, so they do not count as categorization for the purposes of Wikipedia's categorization policies. An article which has a "stubs" category on it must still be filed in the most appropriate content categories, even if one of them is a direct parent of the stubs category in question. Creating category pages WP:CREATECAT WP:CREATECAT Sometimes proper categorization requires the creation of a new category. Before creating a new category WP:BEFORECAT WP:BEFORECAT Categories are not the only means of allowing users to browse sets of related pages, and have several disadvantages , including: Categories only show the name of each page being categorized. While the category description may provide information about the category in general, individual category members cannot be annotated with descriptions or comments, so they give no context or elaboration for any specific entry. There is no provision for providing references for any given page, making it difficult to verify that a page meets a category's criteria of inclusion. So, consider whether a list would be more appropriate than a category (or in addition to a category) for a grouping of pages. As examples, a list of Nobel laureates could include dates; a list formatted as a table can provide options for sorting the entries. Also consider whether the proposed category might be considered " category clutter ", as described in Wikipedia:Overcategorization . Choosing a name for the category WP:CATNAME WP:CATNAME A good category name is accurate and neutral , and, as much as possible, defines the category's inclusion criteria in the name itself. Important: Moving non-conventionally categorized pages to another category name (see {{ Category redirect }} ) imposes an additional overhead – an edit for every categorized page and subcategory. So, when choosing a name for the category, please be sure a category with a similar name or similar inclusion criteria does not already exist. (See also: WP:OVERLAPCAT .) One way to determine if suitable categories already exist for a particular page is to check the categories on pages concerning similar or related topics. You can also search existing category names as described here (top of page). For example: You might want to add a subcategory for people to Category:Mexicans . By starting at Category:People by nationality , you will discover that Mexicans are placed in Category:Mexican people . Note: Eponymous categories (categories whose name and topic is the same as an article, such as a category named after a person) should only be created if enough directly related articles exist. Creating the category After you have determined an appropriate category name for the category, next try to find a suitable place for the new category. (For example, categories of people should be in the tree of "people" categories .) Please see § Category tree organization for more information on this. Once you have determined where to categorize this new category, you should be ready to create the new category. To create a category: Add a page to the intended category. Do this by editing that page, and add the name of the new category: (e.g. [[Category:New category name]] ) Shortcut MOS:CATORDER MOS:CATORDER Per MOS:ORDER , categories are placed at the end of the wikitext, but before any stub templates, which transclude their own categories. Eponymous categories should appear first. Beyond that, the order in which categories are placed on a page is not governed by any single rule (for example, it does not need to be alphabetical, although partially alphabetical ordering can sometimes be helpful). Normally the most essential, significant categories appear first. Shortcut MOS:CATORDER MOS:CATORDER Per MOS:ORDER , categories are placed at the end of the wikitext, but before any stub templates, which transclude their own categories. MOS:CATORDER MOS:CATORDER Eponymous categories should appear first. Beyond that, the order in which categories are placed on a page is not governed by any single rule (for example, it does not need to be alphabetical, although partially alphabetical ordering can sometimes be helpful). Normally the most essential, significant categories appear first. Save your edit. The as-yet-undefined category name will now appear as a red link in the category list at the bottom of the page. Shortcut WP:CATREDLINK WP:CATREDLINK A page should never be left with a non-existent ( redlinked ) category on it. Either the category should be created, or else the link should be removed or changed to a category that does exist. Shortcut WP:CATREDLINK WP:CATREDLINK A page should never be left with a non-existent ( redlinked ) category on it. Either the category should be created, or else the link should be removed or changed to a category that does exist. WP:CATREDLINK WP:CATREDLINK Next, click on that red link, which brings you to the new category page to create. Finally, at the bottom of the category page, simply add a parent category (e.g. [[Category:Parent category name]] ), which should usually be a hypernym of the subcategory. This will add the new category into the appropriate parent category. (A category can have more than one parent category.) Important: If something goes wrong, double check to see if you followed the steps properly and check if the wikitext is correct. For example, if the category fails to list in the parent category, the wikitext should be [[Category:Parent category name]] , not [[:Category:Parent category name]] . Category description WP:CATDESC WP:CATDESC While it should typically be clear from the name of an existing category which pages it should contain, sometimes, a common-sense guess based on the name of the category is not enough to figure out whether a page should be listed in the category. So, rather than leave the text of a category page empty (other than parent categories), adding a hatnote linking to the main article or another page which describes the topic (see § Articles with eponymous categories ) can help with that. However, only linking to a Wikipedia article explaining the title is often not sufficient as a description for a category. It can be helpful – to both readers and editors – to include a clear description of the category, indicating what pages it should contain, how they should be subcategorized, and so on, and linking to one or more pages as background information. In such cases, the desired contents of the category should be described on the category page, similar to how the list selection criteria are described in a stand-alone list. The category description should make direct statements about the criteria by which pages should be selected for inclusion in (or exclusion from) the category. This description, not the category's name, defines the proper content of the category. Do not leave future editors to guess about what or who should be included from the title of the category. Even if the selection criteria might seem obvious to you, an explicit standard is helpful to others, especially if they are less familiar with the subject. The description can also contain links to other Wikipedia pages, in particular to other related categories that do not appear directly as subcategories or parent categories, and to relevant categories at sister projects , such as Commons . Like disambiguation pages , category pages should contain neither citations nor external links . Various templates have been developed to make it easier to produce category descriptions; see Category namespace templates and Wikipedia:Category classification templates . There are hatnote templates including {{ Category main article }} and {{ Category see also }} ; others are listed at Wikipedia:Hatnote#Categories . Additional considerations Categories may have hundreds or thousands of members, displayed over many pages, with up to 200 entries on a single page. To make navigating large categories easier, a table of contents can be used on the category page. The following templates are some of the ways of doing this: {{ Category TOC }} – adds a complete table of contents (Top, 0–9, A–Z) {{ Large category TOC }} – adds a complete table of contents with five subdivisions for each letter (Aa Ae Aj Ao At) See Wikipedia category table of contents templates for more options. See Wikipedia category table of contents templates for more options. Consider using {{ Automatic category TOC }} , which automatically generates the appropriate TOC for the number of pages in a category. Likewise, a maximum of 200 subcategories are displayed at a time, so some subcategories may not be immediately visible. To display all subcategories at once, add a category tree to the text of the category page, as described at Help:Category § Displaying category trees and page counts . Category pages can have interlanguage links to corresponding categories in other language Wikipedias. Edit these on Wikidata by following the instructions at Help:Interlanguage links . Categorizing articles In general, categories of articles must be: Shortcuts WP:CAT#V WP:CAT#V WP:CATV WP:CATV Verifiable : It should be clear from verifiable information in the article why it was placed in each of its categories. Use the {{ Unreferenced category }} template if you find an article in a category that is not shown by sources to be appropriate or if the article gives no clear indication for inclusion in a category. WP:CAT#V WP:CAT#V WP:CATV WP:CATV Shortcuts WP:CAT#N WP:CAT#N WP:CATPOV WP:CATPOV WP:POVCAT WP:POVCAT Neutral : Categories appear on article pages without annotations or direct citations to justify or explain their addition; editors should be conscious of the need to maintain a neutral point of view when creating categories or adding them to articles. Categorizations should generally be uncontroversial; if the category's topic is likely to spark controversy, then a list article (which can be annotated and referenced) is probably more appropriate. For example, a politician (not convicted of any crime) should not be added to a category for criminals. WP:CAT#N WP:CAT#N WP:CATPOV WP:CATPOV WP:POVCAT WP:POVCAT Shortcuts WP:CAT#D WP:CAT#D WP:CATDEF WP:CATDEF Defining : Defining characteristics of an article's topic are central to categorizing the article. A defining characteristic is one that reliable sources commonly and consistently refer to [ 2 ] in describing the topic, such as the nationality of a person or the geographic location of a place. Articles should normally be included in the categories that are most closely related to the subject's defining characteristics. Categories should not group subjects by trivial characteristics that have little relevance to the topics, unless it can be shown that such a characteristic or grouping is notable. For example, Italian and artist are defining characteristics of Caravaggio , because virtually all reliable sources on the topic mention them, so that article is included in categories such as Category:Italian Baroque painters . However, Category:Italian people with dark eyebrows would likely not be defining, even if it's true. WP:CAT#D WP:CAT#D WP:CATDEF WP:CATDEF For non-defining characteristics , editors should use their judgment to choose which additional categories (if any) to include. For example, Caravaggio is included in the non-defining category of Category:Deaths from sepsis . Naming conventions Standard article naming conventions apply: Generally, category names are based on what the subject is called in verifiable reliable sources (particularly for technical subjects ), so that those sources may be used to support the inclusion of information. When this offers multiple possibilities, editors choose among them by considering several principles : the ideal category name uses words and phrases which precisely identify the subject; it is neutral , short, natural, distinguishable and recognizable; and resembles names for similar categories. Avoid subjective adjectives such as famous , large , or beautiful in category titles. Avoid abbreviations . For example: Category:Military equipment of World War II not Category:Military equipment of WW2 . However, acronyms that have become the official, or generally used, name (such as NATO ) should be used where there are no other conflicts. Exceptions to this should be explained in the category description . Because no two categories can have the same title, it is sometimes necessary to add distinguishing information, often in the form of a description in parentheses after the name. When an article on a topic requires disambiguation , any category named for that topic should include the same form of disambiguation, even if there are no other categories that share the name. A subcategory should generally use the same disambiguation as its parent category, even if the name would not be ambiguous. For example, Washington (state) has the categories Category:Washington (state) and Category:Washington (state) legislative districts (even though there is an article at Washington legislative districts ). Naming guidelines for subcategories of Category:Stub categories are listed at Wikipedia:WikiProject Stub sorting/Naming conventions § Stub categories . Topic and set categories Topic categories are named after a topic (usually corresponding to the name of a Wikipedia article), and should be singular. For example, Category:France contains articles relating to the topic France . Other examples: Category:Law , Category:Hillary Clinton . Set categories are named after a class, and should be plural. A category may be explicitly labeled as such using the {{ Set category }} template. For example, Category:Cities in France contains articles whose subjects are cities in France. Other examples: Category:Writers , Category:Villages in Poland . Note that in some instances a topic category and a set category may have similar names – the topic category name is singular and the set category name is plural. Be careful to choose the right one when categorizing articles. For example, Category:Opera is a topic category (containing all articles relating to the topic), while Category:Operas is a set category (containing articles about specific operas). Sometimes, for convenience, the two types can be combined to create a set-and-topic category. For example, Category:Voivodeships of Poland contains articles about particular voivodeships as well as articles relating to voivodeships in general. Categorizing articles about people WP:SEPARATE WP:SEPARATE For articles about people, categorize by characteristics of the person the article is about, not characteristics of the article : e.g. do not add Category:Biography . Subcategories of Category:Biography (genre) may legitimately contain articles about biographical films or biographical books , but should not contain articles about individual people. The article is a biography; the topic of the article – the person – is not. Keep articles about people separate. Categories with a title indicating that the contents are people should normally only contain biographical articles and lists of people, and perhaps a non-biographical main article, though this can instead be linked in the category description. This is for clarity and ease of use, and to preserve the integrity of the category tree of people articles . Editors should take particular care when categorizing articles about living people . Categorizing articles about works WP:CATWORKS WP:CATWORKS WP:CATFICTION WP:CATFICTION Articles on fictional subjects should not be categorized in a manner that confuses them with real subjects. {{ Category see also }} is useful for interlinking examples of real-world and fictional phenomena. Individual works by a person should not be included in an eponymous category but should instead be in a subcategory such as Category:Novels by Agatha Christie . Works should be placed in categories about works, not in categories for elements of those works. For example, the television series Cow and Chicken should be placed in Category:Television series about chickens , not in Category:Fictional chickens . Categorizing list pages If there are more than a few lists in a particular subject area, it may be appropriate to create a specific subcategory that contains only the list pages and no other types. For example, Category:Countries contains the subcategory Category:Lists of countries , which in turn contains the list pages List of rugby union playing countries and List of countries with multiple capitals . When placing list pages in a lists category, use a sort key to adjust the page title to exclude the starting words "List of", otherwise all lists would appear under "L". For example, when adding List of rugby union playing countries to Category:Lists of countries , using [[Category:Lists of countries|Rugby union]] will sort it in the R section. Eponymous categories WP:EPON WP:EPON WP:EPONYMOUS WP:EPONYMOUS A category that covers exactly the same topic as an article is known as the eponymous category for that article (e.g. New York City and Category:New York City ; Mekong and Category:Mekong River ; Abraham Lincoln and Category:Abraham Lincoln ). An eponymous category is generally named the same as its main article, but exceptions sometimes apply. See § Naming conventions for more information. WP:OCEPON WP:OCEPON Eponymous categories should not be created unless enough directly related articles or subcategories exist. However, this should not be done simply to reduce the number of categories displayed in an article. An eponymous category should have only the categories of its article that are relevant to the category's content. For example: Both New York City and Category:New York City fit well in Category:Cities in New York (state) . The article New York City is in Category:Populated places established in 1624 , but this category is not necessarily relevant to all the contents of Category:New York City , so it should not be used on the eponymous category. Articles with eponymous categories WP:CATMAIN WP:CATMAIN The article itself should be a member of the eponymous category. It should be sorted with a space, so that it appears at the start of the category listing (see § Sort keys below). The article should be linked on the category page as the main article of the category using the {{ Category main article }} template. Articles with an eponymous category may be categorized in the broader categories that would be present if there were no eponymous category (e.g. the article France appears in both Category:France and Category:Countries in Europe , even though the latter category is the parent of the former category). Editors should decide by consensus which solution makes most sense for a category tree. There are three options: Keep both the eponymous category and the main article in the parent category. This is used in Category:Countries in Europe to allow that region's country articles to be navigated together. Keep just the article in the parent category. This is used in Category:British Islands , to prevent a loop . Keep just the eponymous category in the parent category. This is used for Category:Farmers in Category:People by occupation . Such " X by Y " categories sometimes cover a limited navigational set, not a topic (see § Category tree organization below), thus there is no logical article content. Keep both the eponymous category and the main article in the parent category. This is used in Category:Countries in Europe to allow that region's country articles to be navigated together. Keep just the article in the parent category. This is used in Category:British Islands , to prevent a loop . Keep just the eponymous category in the parent category. This is used for Category:Farmers in Category:People by occupation . Such " X by Y " categories sometimes cover a limited navigational set, not a topic (see § Category tree organization below), thus there is no logical article content. If eponymous categories are categorized separately from their articles, it will be helpful to make links between the category page containing the articles and the category page containing the eponymous categories. The template {{ Category see also }} can be used for this. An example of this set-up is the linked categories Category:American politicians and Category:Wikipedia categories named after American politicians . Categorizing draft pages WP:CATDRAFT WP:CATDRAFT WP:DRAFTNOCAT WP:DRAFTNOCAT Drafts, no matter whether in the draft namespace or your userspace , are not articles and thus do not belong in content categories such as Category:Living people or Category:Biologists . If you copy an article from mainspace to draftspace or userspace and it already contains categories, disable those categories. This can be done in any of the following four ways (but only the first two ways are recommended, as a disadvantage of the last two ways is that the categories will not be linked on the page): Wrapping them in {{ Draft categories }} : {{ Draft categories | [[ Category : Living people ]] [[ Category : Biologists ]] }} Inserting a colon character to link to each category (e.g. changing [[ Category : Biologists ]] to [[ :Category : Biologists ]] ). Commenting ( <!--...--> ) them out (e.g. <!--[[Category:Living people]] [[Category:Biologists]]--> ). Wrapping them in <nowiki>...</nowiki> tags (e.g. < nowiki > [[Category:Living people]] [[Category:Biologists]] </ nowiki > ). After you move the draft into article space, remove the leading colons, uncomment out the categories or remove the <nowiki>...</nowiki> tags to re-enable the categories. If you use the draft categories template, the categories will automatically work as normal in mainspace, but the template should be removed. The same system may be used in a new draft to list the categories it may have when moved to mainspace. Two scripts are available to help with these tasks: User:DannyS712/Draft no cat and User:DannyS712/Draft re cat . Categorizing project pages WP:PROJCATS WP:PROJCATS Wikipedia administrative categories A distinction is made between two types of categories: Administrative categories – intended for use by editors or automated tools, based on features of the current state of articles, or used to categorize non-article pages. Content categories – intended as part of the encyclopedia, to help readers find articles, based on features of the subjects of those articles. Administrative categories include stub categories (generally produced by stub templates), maintenance categories (often produced by cleanup templates such as {{ Cleanup }} and {{ Citation needed }} , or those used for maintenance projects), and categories of pages in non-article namespaces , such as WikiProject assessment categories and categories holding Wikipedia policies and guidelines . Article pages should be kept out of administrative categories if possible. For example, the templates that generate WikiProject and assessment categories should be placed on talk pages, not on the articles themselves. If it is unavoidable that an administrative category appears on article pages (usually because it is generated by a maintenance template that is placed on articles), then in most cases the category should be made a hidden category , as described in § Hiding categories below. Maintenance categories should never be added to articles directly. Instead, the categories should be added using templates . There are separate administrative categories for different kinds of non-article pages, such as project page categories, template categories, disambiguation page categories , etc. In some administrative categories, pages may be included regardless of type or namespace. For example, in an error-tracking category, it makes sense to group templates separately, because addressing the errors there may require different skills compared to fixing an ordinary article. For sorting each namespace separately, see § Sort keys below. Files WP:FILECAT WP:FILECAT Category tags should be added to file pages of files that have been uploaded to Wikipedia. When categorized, files are not included in the count of articles in the category, but are displayed in a separate section with a thumbnail and the name for each. A category can mix articles and images, or a separate file/image category can be created. A file category is typically a subcategory of the general category about the same subject, and a subcategory of the wider category for files, Category:Wikipedia files . To categorize a new file when uploading, simply add the category tag to the upload summary . Freely licensed files should be uploaded to, and categorized on, Wikimedia Commons , instead of uploading and categorizing on Wikipedia. Existing freely licensed files should usually be moved from Wikipedia to Commons, with a mirror page automatically remaining on Wikipedia. (For an example of one such mirror page, see here .) Categories should not be added to these Wikipedia mirror pages, because doing so creates a new Wikipedia page that is subject to speedy deletion . Exceptions to this principle are made for mirror pages of images that are nominated as featured pictures and for those that appear on the Wikipedia Main Page in the Did You Know? column. Images that are used in Wikipedia that are non-free or fair use should not appear as thumbnail images in categories. To prevent the thumbnail preview of images from appearing in a category, __NOGALLERY__ should be added to the text of the category. In such cases, the file will still appear in the category, but the image preview will not. Templates WP:CAT#T WP:CAT#T Templates are not articles and thus do not belong in content categories . They should, however, be placed in template categories – subcategories of Category:Wikipedia templates – to assist when looking for templates of a certain type. For example, Template:The Beatles albums is categorized under Category:England rock music group navigational boxes , which is ultimately a subcategory of Category:Music navigational boxes (type), but Template:The Beatles albums should not be categorized under Category:The Beatles or Category:Albums (content). Pages using a template should rarely be placed in the same categories as the template itself. To ensure a template's categories are not applied to a page using the template, template categories should be placed on the template's documentation page , normally after the two pipes in a < includeonly >{{ Sandbox other || ... }}</ includeonly > block. Because template documentation is rarely protected , template categorization can be modified by all editors even when the template code itself is protected from editing by most editors. When there is no documentation page, the categories for the template may be placed at the bottom of the template itself, within a <noinclude>...</noinclude> block. There should be no spaces or new lines between the last part of the template proper and the opening <noinclude> tag. User pages WP:CAT#USER WP:CAT#USER WP:USERNOCAT WP:USERNOCAT User pages are not articles and thus do not belong in content categories such as Category:Living people or Category:Biologists . Similarly, draft versions of articles should be kept out of content categories. Also, do not transclude full articles into your user pages, as this will result in the user page being included in all the article's categories. You also may not leave userspace pages sitting in redlinked categories that don't exist; although it may seem less serious than mixing userspace content with mainspace content in conventional categories, redlinked categories in userspace get picked up by the category cleanup reports just the same as redlinked categories in mainspace, and thus actively disrupt the process of cleaning up mainspace category errors. The sole exception is that you are allowed to file your userpage in Category:Wikipedians with red-linked categories on their user page , a harmless joke category that consensus has deemed a standalone exception to the rule, if you choose — however, you must use that exact category itself, and are not free to use differently-worded or differently-spelled variants of it, and your page cannot be left in any other redlinked categories besides that. However, user pages can optionally be placed in user categories – subcategories of Category:Wikipedians , such as Category:Wikipedian biologists – which assist collaboration between users. Also, certain user sub-pages that are non-article drafts are permitted in project categories , such as Category:User essays . Note also that Wikipedia policy around ownership of content means you may not claim that because a page is in your personal userspace means other editors aren't allowed to touch it. If your page is in categories that it cannot be in under USERNOCAT, then other editors are free to remove it from those categories and do not need to ask you for permission to edit "your" content. A list of article-space categories with user pages is maintained at Wikipedia:Database reports/Polluted categories . Categorization using templates WP:TEMPLATECAT WP:TEMPLATECAT WP:TCAT WP:TCAT Many templates include category declarations in their transcludable text, for the purpose of placing the pages containing those templates into specific categories . This technique is very commonly used for populating certain kinds of administrative categories, including stub categories and maintenance categories. See Template:Infobox roller coaster for an example that only adds a category by manufacturer if it exists, and otherwise uses a hidden category. However, it is recommended that articles not be placed in ordinary content categories using templates in this way. There are many reasons for this: editors cannot see the category in the wikitext; removing or restructuring the category is made more difficult (partly because automated processes will not work); inappropriate articles and non-article pages may get added to the category; sort keys may be unavailable to be customized per category; and ordering of categories on the page is less controllable. When templates are used to populate administrative categories, ensure that the code cannot generate nonsensical or non-existent categories, particularly when the category name depends on a parameter. See Wikipedia:Category suppression for ways of keeping inappropriate pages out of template-generated categories. Category declarations in templates often use {{PAGENAME}} as the sort key, because this overrides any DEFAULTSORT defined on the page. Redirecting categories WP:CATRED WP:CATRED Do not create inter- category redirects by adding #REDIRECT [[Target page]] to a category page. Unlike when renaming articles , categories cannot be redirected using "hard" redirects. Articles added to a redirected category will not show up in the target category. And since redirected categories do not become " red links ", editors will not be aware when they add an article to a redirected category. [ 3 ] Instead, a form of " soft redirect " may be used in limited circumstances. You can create a category redirect by adding {{ Category redirect |target}} to the category page. Bots patrol these categories and move articles to the "target" of the redirect. If you need to add a redirect category to a {{ Category redirect }} , use the template's second parameter. For example: {{ Category redirect | Years of the 19th century in Ceylon | {{ R from category navigation }} {{ R from template-generated category }} }} Category redirects are costly . While placing a page in a category redirect is not a big problem, it is a problem. There are plenty of helpful uses of category redirects , but category redirects are not as cheap as regular redirects . Links to article redirects are not broken : i.e. click on the link and you are automatically redirected to its target. However, links to category redirects are broken and need to be fixed, except when resolved by a template (i.e. the template generates categories using a pattern, and some of the resulting category names are intentionally resolved by the use of {{ Resolve category redirect }} within the template, as in the Ceylon example above). Placing a page into a category redirect makes it show up in the category redirect – not its target – until a bot comes along and fixes the link. WP:DISAMBIGCAT WP:DISAMBIGCAT If a category is renamed because it is ambiguous, and categories exist for two or more meanings, then create a category disambiguation page at the old name, using {{ Category disambiguation }} . See also Category:Disambiguation categories . Note: Usually only do this at an unused category name which is ambiguous, e.g. Category:Lewis . If an ambiguous name is used for an active category because it is clearly the primary topic , and there are only one or two other categories with similar names, use a hatnote like the one at Category:Lewes . For longer lists, we can also create pages such as Category:Bedford (disambiguation) . Hiding categories WP:HIDDENCAT WP:HIDDENCAT In cases where, for technical reasons, administrative categories appear directly on articles rather than talk pages, they should be made into hidden categories , so that they are not displayed to readers. This rule does not apply to stub categories – these are not hidden. To hide a category, add the template {{ Maintenance category |hidden=yes}} to the category page (the template uses the magic word __HIDDENCAT__ ). This also places the page in Category:Hidden categories . A logged-in user may elect to view all hidden categories, by checking "Show hidden categories" in the "Appearance" tab of their Preferences . "Hidden" parent categories are never in fact hidden on category pages (although they are listed separately). Hidden categories are listed at the bottom when previewing. All users of the desktop version can see hidden categories for a page by clicking "Page information" on the right-hand side, or by editing the whole page with the source editor. For more information, see mw:Help:Categories § Hidden categories . Category tree organization WP:CAT#TREE WP:CAT#TREE Categories are organized as overlapping " trees ", formed by creating links between inter-related categories (in mathematics or computer science this structure is called a partially ordered set ). There is one top-level category: Category:Contents . All other categories are subcategorized below this category. A tree structure showing the possible hierarchical organization of an encyclopedia An item may belong to several subcategories of a parent category (as pictured). Subcategorization WP:SUBCAT WP:SUBCAT WP:PARENTCAT WP:PARENTCAT If logical membership of one category implies logical membership of a second category (an is-a relationship), then the first category should be made a subcategory (directly or indirectly) of the second category (the "parent" category). Any category may potentially contain (or "branch into") subcategories. [ 4 ] A is said to be a parent category of B when B is a subcategory of A. When making one category a subcategory of another, ensure that the members of the subcategory really can be expected (with possibly a few exceptions) to belong to the parent also. For example, Cities in France is a subcategory of Populated places in France , which in turn is a subcategory of Geography of France . A subcategory may potentially have two or more parent categories. For example, Category:British writers would be in both Category:Writers by nationality and Category:British people in arts occupations . If two categories are closely related but are not in a subset relation, then links between them can be included in the category description of the category pages. Pages (and subcategories) should not usually be placed in both a given category and any of its subcategories or parent categories. For some exceptions to this, see § Eponymous categories and § Non-diffusing subcategories . For example, the article Paris need only be placed in Category:Cities in France , not also in Category:Populated places in France . Because the first category (cities) is in the second category (populated places), readers are already given the information that Paris is a populated place in France by it being a city in France. WP:CATLOOP WP:CATLOOP Category chains formed by parent–child relationships should never form closed loops; [ 5 ] that is, no category should be contained as a subcategory of one of its own subcategories. There is an exception to this for maintenance purposes. For example, Category:Hidden categories is a direct subcategory of itself and of Category:Wikipedia extended-confirmed-protected pages and Category:Container categories , each of which is a direct subcategory of Category:Hidden categories . Diffusing large categories WP:DIFFUSE WP:DIFFUSE Although there is no limit on the size of categories, a large category will often be broken down ("diffused") into smaller, more specific subcategories. For example, Category:Rivers of Europe contains no articles about specific rivers directly; they are all in subcategories. A category may be diffused using several coexisting schemes; for example, Category:Albums is broken down by artist, by date, by genre, etc. Metacategories may be created as ways of organizing schemes of subcategories. For example, Category:The Beatles albums is not placed directly into Category:Albums but into the metacategory Category:Albums by artist , which itself appears in Category:Albums by person then Category:Albums . (See Category:Categories by parameter .) It is possible for a category to be only partially diffused – some members are placed in subcategories, while others remain in the main category. Information about how a category is diffused may be given on the category page. Categories which are intended to be fully broken down into subcategories can be marked with the {{ Category diffuse }} template, which indicates that any pages which editors might add to the main category should be moved to the appropriate subcategories when sufficient information is available. (If the proper subcategory for an article does not exist yet, either create the subcategory or leave the article in the parent category for the time being. However, avoid creating subcategories for just one article .) To suggest that a category is so large that it ought to be diffused, or substantially diffused, into subcategories, you can add the {{ Overpopulated category }} template to the category page. Non-diffusing subcategories WP:CAT#NON-DIFFUSE WP:CAT#NON-DIFFUSE WP:ALLINCLUDED WP:ALLINCLUDED WP:DUPCAT WP:DUPCAT Not all subcategories serve the "diffusion" function described above; some are simply subsets which have some special characteristic of interest, such as Best Actor Academy Award winners as a subcategory of Film actors . They provide an exception to the general rule that pages are not placed in both a category and its subcategory: there is no need to take pages out of the parent category purely because of their membership of a non-diffusing subcategory. (Of course, if the pages also belong to other subcategories that do cause diffusion, then they will not appear in the parent category directly.) Non-diffusing categories should be identified with a template on the category page: {{ Non-diffusing subcategory }} should be used on non-diffusing subcategories, such as Category:American novelists of Asian descent . {{ Non-diffusing parent category }} can be used on a parent category of a non-diffusing subcategory. {{ All included }} can be used for categories where all child articles of a certain type are in the parent, such as Category:Presidents of the United States . Subcategories defined by gender, ethnicity, religion, and sexuality should almost always be non-diffusing subcategories to prevent othering . The Wikipedia:Categorizing articles about people guideline outlines the rules on these categories in more detail. Note that some categories can be non-diffusing on some parents and diffusing on others. For example, Category:British women novelists is a non-diffusing subcategory of Category:British novelists , but it is a diffusing subcategory of Category:Women novelists by nationality . {{ Diffusing subcategory }} can be used with {{ Non-diffusing subcategory }} to specify which parents the subcategory does and does not diffuse. Sort keys WP:SORTKEY WP:SORTKEY By default, a category page will list its member pages and subcategories alphabetically by their page titles. Sometimes, this is undesirable, so sort keys are needed to produce a better ordering. A sort key can be added to a page using the magic word {{ DEFAULTSORT }} , which will cause the page to be sorted in categories under a different specified title. (Per MOS:ORDER , this is placed just before the list of category declarations.) The page title and DEFAULTSORT can also be overridden for individual categories. For the mechanics, see Help:Category § Sorting category pages . People are usually sorted by last name rather than first name, so "Last name, First name" sort keys are used (e.g. Washington, George for George Washington ). There are many other rules for sorting people's names; for more information, see Wikipedia:Categorization/Sorting names . Other sort key considerations (in no particular order): In English Wikipedia, sort order merges (ignores) case and diacritics . For example, "Baé", "Båf", "BaG" would be sorted in that order. [ 6 ] The main article(s) of a category, if existent, should be sorted with a space as the key so that they appear at the very top of the category (e.g. [[Category:Example| ]] ). Those articles are typically homonymous or at least synonymous to their category. This is generally limited to one or two articles in a category. Other general articles that are highly relevant to the category should be sorted with an asterisk as key so that they also appear near the top of a category but beneath the main articles. Example: [[Category:Example|*]] Those articles are typically called things like "List of example", "Outline of example", "Index of example" or similar. This is generally limited to a few articles in a category, and there may not be any. This is also often used to sort lists categories within relevant parent categories. Use other sort keys beginning with a space (or an asterisk, plus sign, etc.) for any other pages that should appear after the main article and before the ordinary alphabetical listings. The same technique is sometimes used to bring particular subcategories (such as metacategories ) to the start of the list. Sort order of characters before numbers and Latin alphabet (0–9, A–Z) is (partial list): _ - – — , ; : ! ? . ' " ( ) [ ] { } @ * / \ & # % ` ^ + ÷ × < = > | ~ − $ Leading articles – a , an , and the – are among the most common reasons for using sort keys, which are used to transfer the leading article to the end of the key, as in {{DEFAULTSORT:Lady, The}} . Please also apply these sort keys to deliberate misspellings of these words (e.g. da or tha for the ), as well as foreign language leading articles, such as el or der (but beware of non-article words that have the same spelling, e.g. words that translate as at or one ). However, leading articles in foreign-language-derived names which are no longer translated in English are not subject to this rule; e.g. the sort key for El Paso should be left as the default value (i.e. no {{DEFAULTSORT}} required). Spell out abbreviations and characters used in place of words so that they can be found easily in categories. For example, the sort key for Mr. Bean should be {{DEFAULTSORT:Mister Bean}} , and Dungeons & Dragons should be sorted as {{DEFAULTSORT:Dungeons and Dragons}} . An exception is the times sign (×) as in "Men's 4 × 100 metre" relay; use the letter x in this case. Landforms (and similar) that have noun prefixes such as Isle of Mull should have the noun sorted after as {{DEFAULTSORT:Mull, Isle of}} . However, this is not usually done for settlements and administrative divisions; for example, while Isle of Wight uses {{DEFAULTSORT:Wight, Isle of}}, the categories for the county/district are sorted as "Isle of Wight". Similarly, for settlements such as Isle of Wight, Virginia , the prefix is not moved. Hyphens, apostrophes and periods / full stops are the only punctuation marks that should be kept in sort values. The only exception is the apostrophe in names beginning with O ' , which should be removed. For example, Eugene O'Neill is sorted as {{DEFAULTSORT:Oneill, Eugene}} . All other punctuation marks (and punctuation-like diacritics) should be removed. Dashes can be replaced with hyphens. (Commas can be added when re-ordering words, as in the previous example, and other symbols can be added to the start to force the sort earlier, as explained above.) Numbers will sort numerically (e.g. 9 sorts before 12), but some entries containing numbers need special sort keys to ensure proper numerical ordering. It is important to stick to the same system for all similar entries in a given category. [ 7 ] Separators (such as commas or periods) in numbers will interfere with numerical sorting so should be removed in sort keys. For example, 10,000 Maniacs has the sort key 10000 Maniacs . Roman numerals should be written as modern numbers in sort keys so that they sort numerically instead of alphabetically. For example, IX (9) comes before V (5) in alphabetical order, so Pope John V and Pope John IX should use the sort keys John 5 and John 9 , respectively. Separators (such as commas or periods) in numbers will interfere with numerical sorting so should be removed in sort keys. For example, 10,000 Maniacs has the sort key 10000 Maniacs . Roman numerals should be written as modern numbers in sort keys so that they sort numerically instead of alphabetically. For example, IX (9) comes before V (5) in alphabetical order, so Pope John V and Pope John IX should use the sort keys John 5 and John 9 , respectively. Systematic sort keys are also used in other categories where the logical sort order is not alphabetical (for example, individual month articles in year categories such as Category:2004 use sort keys like "*2004-04" for April). Again, such systems must be used consistently within a category. In some categories, sort keys are used to exclude prefixes that are common to all or many of the entries, or are considered unimportant (such as "List of"). For example, in Category:2004 the page 2004 in film would have the sort key Film , and in Category:2004 in Canada the page 2004 Canadian federal budget would have the sort key Federal budget . Sort keys may be prefixed with Greek letters to place entries after the main alphabetical list. The following letters have special meaning by convention: " Σ " (capital sigma) is used to place stub categories at the end of subcategory lists. [ 8 ] " β " (beta, displays as capital, "Β") is for barnstars . " Δ " (capital delta) is for documentation , where sorting by Latin D is undesirable. " ι " (iota, displays as "Ι") is for Wikipedia images . " ρ " (rho, displays as "Ρ") is for portals . " τ " (tau, displays as "Τ") is for templates . Keep in mind, template categories should not be added to content categories per § Templates above. " υ " (upsilon, displays as "Υ") for user templates . " ω " (omega, displays as "Ω") is for WikiProjects . " Σ " (capital sigma) is used to place stub categories at the end of subcategory lists. [ 8 ] " β " (beta, displays as capital, "Β") is for barnstars . " Δ " (capital delta) is for documentation , where sorting by Latin D is undesirable. " ι " (iota, displays as "Ι") is for Wikipedia images . " ρ " (rho, displays as "Ρ") is for portals . " τ " (tau, displays as "Τ") is for templates . Keep in mind, template categories should not be added to content categories per § Templates above. " υ " (upsilon, displays as "Υ") for user templates . " ω " (omega, displays as "Ω") is for WikiProjects . Similar to the handling of Latin letters, if the sort key begins with a lowercase Greek letter, then the capital Greek letter will be displayed in headings on category pages. Several of these resemble Latin letters B, I, P, etc., but they will sort after Z. Note: Not all of these types are suitable for inclusion in content categories . For one-type categories, such as template categories , Greek letter grouping is not useful. Sort keys are sometimes used even where they do not seem necessary – when they are the same as the page name, for example – in order to prevent other editors or automated tools from trying to infer a different default. Inappropriate categorization WP:BADCAT WP:BADCAT Anyone who can edit a page may remove a questionable categorization. If an article has an "incorrect" or "inappropriate" category, remove that category from the article, and replace it (if applicable) with a more correct category. Even if an article may occupy the grey areas of a category's inclusion criteria, that is not a valid reason to keep the article in a category. If a particular article does not fit the inclusion criteria of a category, then the article simply should not be added to it . If categorization of any particular page is disputed , please discuss the categorization on the talk page of the page in question. If the category seems reasonable, but questionable in some cases, consider whether you can solve (part of) the problem by writing a clearer category description . If you have a proposal for a better name for the category or for a wider re-arrangement of the categorization scheme, or if you have a concern that may apply to several members of the category (such as if the category violates one or more sections on this page, Wikipedia:Categorizing articles about people , Wikipedia:Overcategorization , or other Wikipedia policies and guidelines ), you can start or participate in a discussion about the category. Category talk pages are not always widely watched . Consider whether you can invite more potentially interested people to take part in a discussion, such as by discussing it at a relevant WikiProject , or at Wikipedia:WikiProject Categories . Another option could be to nominate the category for discussion at Wikipedia:Categories for discussion , or if the category name has an obvious typographical error, you can list it for speedy renaming at Wikipedia:Categories for discussion/Speedy . See Wikipedia:Categories for discussion/How-to for instructions on how to use the templates for: deletion ( {{ cfd }} ), renaming ( {{ cfr }} ), or merging ( {{ cfm }} ). If you are in a content dispute, see Wikipedia:Dispute resolution for what to do next. Category cleanup templates Article with insufficient categories: {{ Improve categories }} indicates that the article needs additional or more specific categories. It is recommended that this template be placed at the bottom of the page, where readers will look for the categories. {{ Improve categories }} indicates that the article needs additional or more specific categories. It is recommended that this template be placed at the bottom of the page, where readers will look for the categories. Article with too many categories: Use {{ Recategorize }} when there are too many categories. Put this template at the top of articles. Use {{ Recategorize }} when there are too many categories. Put this template at the top of articles. Category unknown: If you're not sure where to categorize a particular page, add the {{ Uncategorized }} template to it, and other editors (such as those monitoring Wikipedia:WikiProject Categories/uncategorized ) will help find appropriate categories for it. If you're not sure where to categorize a particular page, add the {{ Uncategorized }} template to it, and other editors (such as those monitoring Wikipedia:WikiProject Categories/uncategorized ) will help find appropriate categories for it. See also Wikipedia:Categorization dos and don'ts (information page summarizing key points of this guideline) Help:Category Wikipedia:FAQ/Categories Wikipedia:FAQ/Categorization Wikipedia:Category names Wikipedia:Categories, lists, and navigation templates Wikipedia:Categorizing redirects Wikipedia:Category suppression Wikipedia:WikiProject Categories m:Association of Categorist Wikipedians Category:Wikipedia essays about categorization For browsing Wikipedia:PetScan (formerly CatScan) Wikipedia:Category classification templates (category tree jumping) Wikipedia:Category intersection (ability to find articles that are in more than one category) Special:Categories (lists all existing categories alphabetically) Special:CategoryTree Category:Contents Category:Wikipedia categories For maintenance Wikipedia:Maintenance Wikipedia:Categories for discussion Special:MostLinkedCategories Special:UncategorizedFiles Special:UncategorizedPages Special:UnusedCategories Special:WantedCategories Wikipedia:Category combinatorics Wikipedia:Database reports#Categories Template:Category link with count Template:Wikipedia categorization navbox Wikipedia:HotCat commons:Help:Gadget-Cat-a-lot , script for moving subcategories between categories Notes ^ Additionally, the top-level category, Category:Contents , has no parent category. ^ in declarative statements, rather than table or list form ^ For an attempt to fix this issue in MediaWiki , .mw-parser-output div.crossreference{padding-left:0} see T5311 . ^ Mathematically speaking, this means that the system approximates a directed acyclic graph . ^ This condition can be formulated in terms of graph theory as follows: the directed graph that has the categories as vertices and the parent–child relationships as edges should be acyclic . ^ In 2016, English Wikipedia's category collation was changed to "uca-default", which is based on the Unicode collation algorithm (UCA). The most noticeable difference is that UCA groups characters with diacritics with their non-diacritic versions. See Wikipedia talk:Categorization/Archive 16 § OK to switch English Wikipedia's category collation to uca-default? and Wikipedia:Village pump (technical)/Archive 149 § Sorting in categories unreliable for a few days . ^ Previously, zero padding was required to ensure single-digit numbers sorted before double-digit numbers (e.g. "09" for 9). This is no longer necessary. ^ "µ" ( mu ) was previously used, but the capital version "Μ" was confusing. v t e Wikipedia key policies and guidelines (?) v t e Five pillars Ignore all rules Five pillars Ignore all rules Ignore all rules Content (?) 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Events Toggle Events subsection 1.1 January 1.2 February 1.3 March 1.4 April 1.5 May 1.6 June 1.7 July 1.8 August 1.9 September 1.10 October 1.11 November 1.12 December 1.13 Date unknown 1.1 January 1.2 February 1.3 March 1.4 April 1.5 May 1.6 June 1.7 July 1.8 August 1.9 September 1.10 October 1.11 November 1.12 December 1.13 Date unknown 2 Births Toggle Births subsection 2.1 January 2.2 February 2.3 March 2.4 April 2.5 May 2.6 June 2.7 July 2.8 August 2.9 September 2.10 October 2.11 November 2.12 December 2.1 January 2.2 February 2.3 March 2.4 April 2.5 May 2.6 June 2.7 July 2.8 August 2.9 September 2.10 October 2.11 November 2.12 December 3 Deaths Toggle Deaths subsection 3.1 January 3.2 February 3.3 March 3.4 April 3.5 May 3.6 June 3.7 July 3.8 August 3.9 September 3.10 October 3.11 November 3.12 December 3.1 January 3.2 February 3.3 March 3.4 April 3.5 May 3.6 June 3.7 July 3.8 August 3.9 September 3.10 October 3.11 November 3.12 December 4 Nobel Prizes 5 References 6 Further reading 1945 Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն Arpetan Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali বাংলা Banjar 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Български Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deutsch Dolnoserbski Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego ГӀалгӀай 贛語 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Ido Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Коми Kotava Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Кырык мары Latgaļu Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Livvinkarjala La .lojban. Lombard Magyar मैथिली Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Māori मराठी მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu Minangkabau 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Мокшень Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nāhuatl Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Nouormand Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Papiamentu Tok Pisin Plattdüütsch Polski Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Reo tahiti Ripoarisch Română Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sardu Scots Seeltersk Sesotho sa Leboa Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Ślůnski کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Tarandíne Татарча / tatarça တႆး తెలుగు Tetun ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Türkmençe Удмурт Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vahcuengh Vèneto Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon 文言 West-Vlams Winaray ייִדיש 粵語 Zazaki Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 Tolışi Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item Years Millennium 2nd millennium Centuries 19th century 20th century 21st century 19th century 20th century 21st century Decades 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s Years 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e 1945 by topic Subject Animation Archaeology Architecture Art Aviation Awards Comics Film Literature Poetry Meteorology Music Country Jazz Rail transport Radio Science Spaceflight Sports Football Television American British Animation Archaeology Architecture Art Aviation Awards Comics Film Literature Poetry Poetry Meteorology Music Country Jazz Country Jazz Rail transport Radio Science Spaceflight Sports Football Television American American British British By country Afghanistan Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria Canada China Denmark France Germany India Indonesia Ireland Italy Japan Malaya Netherlands New Zealand Norway Palestine Mandate Philippines Portugal South Africa South Korea Soviet Union Spain Sweden Switzerland Thailand Turkey United Kingdom United States Venezuela Afghanistan Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria Canada China Denmark France Germany India Indonesia Ireland Italy Japan Malaya Netherlands New Zealand Norway Palestine Mandate Philippines Portugal South Africa South Korea Soviet Union Spain Sweden Switzerland Thailand Turkey United Kingdom United States Venezuela Lists of leaders Sovereign states Sovereign state leaders Territorial governors Religious leaders Law Sovereign states Sovereign state leaders Territorial governors Religious leaders Law Birth and death categories Births Deaths Births Deaths Establishments and disestablishments categories Establishments Disestablishments Establishments Disestablishments Works category Works Introductions Works Introductions v t e v t e Gregorian calendar 1945 MCMXLV Ab urbe condita 2698 Armenian calendar 1394 ԹՎ ՌՅՂԴ Assyrian calendar 6695 Baháʼí calendar 101–102 Balinese saka calendar 1866–1867 Bengali calendar 1351–1352 Berber calendar 2895 British Regnal year 9 Geo. 6 – 10 Geo. 6 Buddhist calendar 2489 Burmese calendar 1307 Byzantine calendar 7453–7454 Chinese calendar 甲申 年 (Wood Monkey ) 4642 or 4435 — to — 乙酉年 (Wood Rooster ) 4643 or 4436 Coptic calendar 1661–1662 Discordian calendar 3111 Ethiopian calendar 1937–1938 Hebrew calendar 5705–5706 Hindu calendars - Vikram Samvat 2001–2002 - Shaka Samvat 1866–1867 - Kali Yuga 5045–5046 Holocene calendar 11945 Igbo calendar 945–946 Iranian calendar 1323–1324 Islamic calendar 1364–1365 Japanese calendar Shōwa 20 (昭和２０年) Javanese calendar 1875–1876 Juche calendar 34 Julian calendar Gregorian minus 13 days Korean calendar 4278 Minguo calendar ROC 34 民國34年 Nanakshahi calendar 477 Thai solar calendar 2488 Tibetan calendar ཤིང་ཕོ་སྤྲེ་ལོ་ (male Wood- Monkey ) 2071 or 1690 or 918 — to — ཤིང་མོ་བྱ་ལོ་ (female Wood- Bird ) 2072 or 1691 or 919 1945 ( MCMXLV ) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar , the 1945th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 945th year of the 2nd millennium , the 45th year of the 20th century , and the 6th year of the 1940s decade. A turning point [ 1 ] in human history , 1945 marked the end of World War II , ending with the defeat and occupation of Nazi Germany and the Empire of Japan by the United States and the Soviet Union in the world of two superpowers which has led the beginning of the Cold War (1945–1991). It is also the year the Nazi concentration camps were liberated and the only year in which atomic weapons have been used in warfare . Events World War II will be abbreviated as "WWII" January January 1 – WWII: Germany begins Operation Bodenplatte , an attempt by the Luftwaffe to cripple Allied air forces in the Low Countries . [ 2 ] Chenogne massacre : German prisoners are allegedly killed by American forces near the village of Chenogne, Belgium. Germany begins Operation Bodenplatte , an attempt by the Luftwaffe to cripple Allied air forces in the Low Countries . [ 2 ] Chenogne massacre : German prisoners are allegedly killed by American forces near the village of Chenogne, Belgium. January 6 – WWII: A German offensive recaptures Esztergom , Hungary from the Soviets. January 9 – WWII: American and Australian troops land at Lingayen Gulf on western coast of the largest Philippine island of Luzon , occupied by Japan since 1942. January 12 – WWII: The Soviet Union begins the Vistula–Oder Offensive in Eastern Europe, against the German Army . [ 3 ] January 13 – WWII: The Soviet Union begins the East Prussian Offensive , to eliminate German forces in East Prussia . January 16 – WWII: Adolf Hitler takes residence in the Führerbunker in Berlin. [ 4 ] January 17 WWII: The Soviet Union occupies Warsaw , Poland. The Holocaust : Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg , who has saved thousands of Jews, is taken into custody by a Soviet patrol during the Siege of Budapest and is never again seen publicly. [ 5 ] WWII: The Soviet Union occupies Warsaw , Poland. The Holocaust : Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg , who has saved thousands of Jews, is taken into custody by a Soviet patrol during the Siege of Budapest and is never again seen publicly. [ 5 ] January 18 – The Holocaust : The SS begins the evacuation of Auschwitz concentration camp . Nearly 60,000 prisoners, mostly Jews, are forced to march to other locations in Germany; as many as 15,000 die. The 7,000 too sick to move are left without supplies being distributed. January 19 – The Holocaust : Soviet forces liberate the Łódź Ghetto ; only 877 Jews of the initial population of 164,000 remain at this time. [ 6 ] January 20 – Germany begins the Evacuation of East Prussia . January 21 – 22 (night) – At the Grünhagen railroad station, located in East Prussia at this date, two trains, heading for Elbing , collide. At dawn the station is reached by Soviet Army infantry and tanks which destroy the station, killing between 140 and 150 people. January 23 – WWII: Hungary agrees to an armistice with the Allies . German Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz orders the start of Operation Hannibal , the mass evacuation by sea of German troops and civilians from the Courland Pocket , East Prussia and the Polish Corridor , evacuating an estimated 800,000-900,000 German civilians and 350,000 soldiers from advancing Soviet forces. Evacuation of Germans from Grünhagen . Hungary agrees to an armistice with the Allies . German Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz orders the start of Operation Hannibal , the mass evacuation by sea of German troops and civilians from the Courland Pocket , East Prussia and the Polish Corridor , evacuating an estimated 800,000-900,000 German civilians and 350,000 soldiers from advancing Soviet forces. Evacuation of Germans from Grünhagen . January 24 – WWII: AP war correspondent Joseph Morton , nine OSS men, and four SOE agents are executed by the Germans at Mauthausen concentration camp under Hitler's Commando Order of 1942, which stipulates the immediate execution of all captured Allied commandos or saboteurs without trial, even those in proper uniforms. Morton is the only Allied correspondent to be executed by the Axis during the war. January 25 – WWII: Hitler appoints Heinrich Himmler as commander of the hastily formed Army Group Vistula ( Heeresgruppe Weichsel ) to halt the Soviet Red Army 's Vistula–Oder offensive into Pomerania , despite Himmler's lack of military experience. [ 7 ] January 26 – WWII: 19-year-old U.S. Army Staff Sergeant Audie Murphy sees action at Holtzwihr , France, for which is awarded the Medal of Honor . January 27 The Holocaust : The Soviet Red Army liberates the Auschwitz and Birkenau concentration camps. WWII: The Soviet Red Army reaches to Wolf's Lair former Hitler headquarter [ 8 ] The Holocaust : The Soviet Red Army liberates the Auschwitz and Birkenau concentration camps. WWII: The Soviet Red Army reaches to Wolf's Lair former Hitler headquarter [ 8 ] January 30 – WWII: MV Wilhelm Gustloff , with over 10,000 mainly civilian Germans from Gotenhafen ( Gdynia ) is sunk in Gdańsk Bay by three torpedoes from Soviet submarine S-13 in the Baltic Sea ; up to 9,400, 5,000 of whom are children, are thought to have died – the greatest loss of life in a single ship sinking in history. Raid at Cabanatuan : 121 American soldiers and 800 Filipino guerrillas free 813 American prisoners of war from the Japanese-held camp in the city of Cabanatuan , in the Philippines . Adolf Hitler makes his last public speech, on broadcast radio, expressing the belief that Germany will triumph. MV Wilhelm Gustloff , with over 10,000 mainly civilian Germans from Gotenhafen ( Gdynia ) is sunk in Gdańsk Bay by three torpedoes from Soviet submarine S-13 in the Baltic Sea ; up to 9,400, 5,000 of whom are children, are thought to have died – the greatest loss of life in a single ship sinking in history. Raid at Cabanatuan : 121 American soldiers and 800 Filipino guerrillas free 813 American prisoners of war from the Japanese-held camp in the city of Cabanatuan , in the Philippines . Adolf Hitler makes his last public speech, on broadcast radio, expressing the belief that Germany will triumph. January 31 – WWII: The Battle of Hill 170 in the Burma Campaign ends with the British 3rd Commando Brigade defeating the Imperial Japanese Army 54th Division , causing the Japanese Twenty-Eighth Army to withdraw from the Arakan Peninsula. February February – Raymond L. Libby of American Cyanamid 's research laboratories, at Stamford, Connecticut , announces a method of orally administering the antibiotic penicillin . [ 9 ] February 3 – WWII: Battle of Manila : United States forces enter the outskirts of Manila to capture it from the Japanese Imperial Army , starting the battle. On February 4, U.S. Army forces liberate Santo Tomas Internment Camp in the city. The Soviet Union agrees to enter the Pacific War against Japan, once hostilities against Germany are concluded. Battle of Manila : United States forces enter the outskirts of Manila to capture it from the Japanese Imperial Army , starting the battle. On February 4, U.S. Army forces liberate Santo Tomas Internment Camp in the city. The Soviet Union agrees to enter the Pacific War against Japan, once hostilities against Germany are concluded. February 4 – 11 – WWII: President Franklin D. Roosevelt , Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Winston Churchill and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin hold the Yalta Conference . February 7 – WWII: General Douglas MacArthur returns to Manila . February 8 – The Alaska Anti-Discrimination Act of 1945, championed by charismatic native leader Elizabeth Peratrovich , is passed by the territorial Senate, after the legislature defeated a previous bill in 1943. February 9 Walter Ulbricht becomes leader of the German Communists in Moscow. WWII: " Black Friday ": A force of Allied Bristol Beaufighter aircraft suffers heavy casualties in an unsuccessful attack on German destroyer Z33 and escorting vessels sheltering in Førde Fjord , Norway. Walter Ulbricht becomes leader of the German Communists in Moscow. WWII: " Black Friday ": A force of Allied Bristol Beaufighter aircraft suffers heavy casualties in an unsuccessful attack on German destroyer Z33 and escorting vessels sheltering in Førde Fjord , Norway. February 10 – WWII: German troopship SS General von Steuben is sunk by the Soviet submarine S-13 ; 3,608 drown. [ 10 ] February 10 – 20 – WWII: Operation Kita : The Imperial Japanese Navy returns "Completion Force", containing both its Ise -class battleships , safely from Singapore to Kure in Japan despite Allied attacks. February 12 – A devastating tornado outbreak in Mississippi and Alabama kills 45 people and injures 427 others. [ 11 ] February 13 – WWII: The Budapest Offensive and the Siege of Budapest end with Nazi troops surrendering Budapest (Hungary) to Soviet -Romanian forces. Bombing of Dresden (Germany) by the British Royal Air Force and United States Army Air Forces ; 25,000-35,000 are estimated to have died. The Budapest Offensive and the Siege of Budapest end with Nazi troops surrendering Budapest (Hungary) to Soviet -Romanian forces. Bombing of Dresden (Germany) by the British Royal Air Force and United States Army Air Forces ; 25,000-35,000 are estimated to have died. February 16 – WWII: The Bombing of Wesel begins, destroying 97% of the town over three days. American and Filipino ground forces land on Corregidor Island in the Philippines . Combined American and Filipino forces recapture the Bataan Peninsula. Venezuela declares war on Germany. The Bombing of Wesel begins, destroying 97% of the town over three days. American and Filipino ground forces land on Corregidor Island in the Philippines . Combined American and Filipino forces recapture the Bataan Peninsula. Venezuela declares war on Germany. February 18 – March 5 – WWII: American and Brazilian troops kick off Operation Encore in Northern Italy, a successful limited action in the Northern Apennines that prepares for the western portion of the Allied Spring offensive . [ 12 ] February 19 – 20 – 980 (actual figure is disputed) [ 13 ] Japanese soldiers die as a result of being attacked by long saltwater crocodiles in Ramree, Burma . [ 14 ] February 19 – WWII: Battle of Iwo Jima – About 30,000 United States Marines land on Iwo Jima . February 21 – The last V-2 rocket is launched from Peenemünde . February 22 – WWII: Italian Front : The Battle of Monte Castello ends after nearly three months of fighting when the Brazilian Expeditionary Force expels German forces from a pivot point in the (Tuscan) North Apennines where their artillery was impeding the advance of the British Eighth Army toward Bologna . Uruguay declares war on Germany and Japan. Italian Front : The Battle of Monte Castello ends after nearly three months of fighting when the Brazilian Expeditionary Force expels German forces from a pivot point in the (Tuscan) North Apennines where their artillery was impeding the advance of the British Eighth Army toward Bologna . Uruguay declares war on Germany and Japan. February 23 – WWII: Battle of Iwo Jima : A group of United States Marines reach the top of Mount Suribachi on the island, and are photographed raising the American flag . The photo, Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima (taken by Joe Rosenthal ), later wins a Pulitzer Prize . The 11th Airborne Division , with Filipino guerrillas, free the captives of the Los Baños internment camp. The capital of the Philippines , Manila, is liberated by combined American and Filipino ground troops. The suburb of Intramuros is devastated. [ 15 ] The German garrison in Poznań capitulates to Red Army and Polish troops. Bombing of Pforzheim : The heaviest of a series of bombing raids on Pforzheim , Germany by Allied aircraft is carried out by the British Royal Air Force . As many as 17,600 people, or 31.4% of the town's population, are killed in the raid and about 83% of the town's buildings destroyed, two-thirds of its complete area and between 80 and 100% of the inner city. Turkey joins the war on the side of the Allies . Battle of Iwo Jima : A group of United States Marines reach the top of Mount Suribachi on the island, and are photographed raising the American flag . The photo, Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima (taken by Joe Rosenthal ), later wins a Pulitzer Prize . The 11th Airborne Division , with Filipino guerrillas, free the captives of the Los Baños internment camp. The capital of the Philippines , Manila, is liberated by combined American and Filipino ground troops. The suburb of Intramuros is devastated. [ 15 ] The German garrison in Poznań capitulates to Red Army and Polish troops. Bombing of Pforzheim : The heaviest of a series of bombing raids on Pforzheim , Germany by Allied aircraft is carried out by the British Royal Air Force . As many as 17,600 people, or 31.4% of the town's population, are killed in the raid and about 83% of the town's buildings destroyed, two-thirds of its complete area and between 80 and 100% of the inner city. Turkey joins the war on the side of the Allies . February 24 – Egyptian premier Ahmad Mahir Pasha is assassinated in Parliament after declaring war on Germany and Japan. February 27 – The Bombing of Mainz results in 1,209 confirmed dead; 80% of the city is destroyed. February 28 – In Bucharest , a violent demonstration takes place, during which the Bolşevic group opens fire on the army and protesters. In response, Andrei Y. Vishinsky , USSR vice commissioner of foreign affairs and president of the Allied Control Commission for Romania , travels to Bucharest to compel Nicolae Rădescu to resign as premier. March March 1 – President Franklin D. Roosevelt gives what will be his last address to a joint session of the United States Congress , reporting on the Yalta Conference . March 2 Former U.S. vice-president Henry A. Wallace starts his term of office as United States Secretary of Commerce , serving under President Franklin D. Roosevelt . The rocket-propelled Bachem Ba 349 Natter is first test launched at Stetten am kalten Markt . The launch fails and the pilot, Lothar Sieber , dies. [ 16 ] WWII: Allied troops lead by 10th Armored Division captures Trier oldest city in Germany. [ 17 ] Former U.S. vice-president Henry A. Wallace starts his term of office as United States Secretary of Commerce , serving under President Franklin D. Roosevelt . The rocket-propelled Bachem Ba 349 Natter is first test launched at Stetten am kalten Markt . The launch fails and the pilot, Lothar Sieber , dies. [ 16 ] WWII: Allied troops lead by 10th Armored Division captures Trier oldest city in Germany. [ 17 ] March 3 – WWII: Finland declares war on the Axis powers . United States and Filipino troops take Manila , Philippines . Pawłokoma massacre : A Polish Home Army unit massacres between 150 and 500 Ukrainian civilians in the Polish village of Pawłokoma . Bombing of the Bezuidenhout : The British Royal Air Force accidentally bombs the Bezuidenhout neighbourhood in The Hague , Netherlands, killing 511 people. Finland declares war on the Axis powers . United States and Filipino troops take Manila , Philippines . Pawłokoma massacre : A Polish Home Army unit massacres between 150 and 500 Ukrainian civilians in the Polish village of Pawłokoma . Bombing of the Bezuidenhout : The British Royal Air Force accidentally bombs the Bezuidenhout neighbourhood in The Hague , Netherlands, killing 511 people. March 4 In the United Kingdom, Princess Elizabeth (later Queen Elizabeth II), joins the Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS) as a truck driver/mechanic in London. The Swiss cities of Basel and Zürich are accidentally bombed by the United States. [ 18 ] In the United Kingdom, Princess Elizabeth (later Queen Elizabeth II), joins the Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS) as a truck driver/mechanic in London. The Swiss cities of Basel and Zürich are accidentally bombed by the United States. [ 18 ] March 5 – WWII: Brazilian troops take Castelnuovo ( Vergato ), in the last operations of the Allied Operation Encore . March 6 A Communist-led government is formed in Romania under Petru Groza , following Soviet intervention. Resistance fighters accidentally ambush and attempt to execute SS general Hanns Albin Rauter , the arch-persecutor of the Dutch. A Communist-led government is formed in Romania under Petru Groza , following Soviet intervention. Resistance fighters accidentally ambush and attempt to execute SS general Hanns Albin Rauter , the arch-persecutor of the Dutch. March 7 WWII: At the end of Operation Lumberjack , American troops seize the Ludendorff Bridge over the Rhine at Remagen , Germany and begin to cross; in the next 10 days, 25,000 troops with equipment are able to cross. 10th Armored Division captures city of Cologne [ 19 ] WWII: At the end of Operation Lumberjack , American troops seize the Ludendorff Bridge over the Rhine at Remagen , Germany and begin to cross; in the next 10 days, 25,000 troops with equipment are able to cross. 10th Armored Division captures city of Cologne [ 19 ] March 8 Josip Broz Tito forms a Provisional Government of the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia , in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . Nazi authorities kill 117 Dutch men, in reprisal for the attempted murder of Hanns Albin Rauter . Operation Sunrise : Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff meets with Allen Welsh Dulles of the United States Office of Strategic Services at Lucerne , Switzerland, to negotiate the surrender of the Axis forces in Italy to the Allies . Josip Broz Tito forms a Provisional Government of the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia , in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . Nazi authorities kill 117 Dutch men, in reprisal for the attempted murder of Hanns Albin Rauter . Operation Sunrise : Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff meets with Allen Welsh Dulles of the United States Office of Strategic Services at Lucerne , Switzerland, to negotiate the surrender of the Axis forces in Italy to the Allies . March 9 – 10 – WWII: Bombing of Tokyo : USAAF B-29 bombers attack Tokyo, Japan, with incendiary bombs , killing 100,000 citizens in the firebombing. It is the single most destructive conventional air attack of the war. March 11 The Empire of Japan establishes the Empire of Vietnam , a puppet state which will last only until August 23, with Bảo Đại as its ruler. The Sammarinese general election gives San Marino the world's first democratically elected communist government, which will hold power until 1957 . [ 20 ] The Empire of Japan establishes the Empire of Vietnam , a puppet state which will last only until August 23, with Bảo Đại as its ruler. The Sammarinese general election gives San Marino the world's first democratically elected communist government, which will hold power until 1957 . [ 20 ] March 12 – WWII: Swinemünde is destroyed by the USAAF, killing an estimated 8,000 to 23,000 civilians, mostly refugees saved by Operation Hannibal . March 15 – 31 – WWII: The Soviet Red Army carries out the Upper Silesian Offensive . March 15 – The 17th Academy Awards ceremony is held, broadcast via radio in the United States for the first time. Best Picture goes to Going My Way . March 16 – WWII: The Battle of Iwo Jima unofficially ends. The Bombing of Würzburg , as part of the Allied strategic bombing campaign against Nazi Germany, destroys 89% of the city and causes 4,000 deaths. The Battle of Iwo Jima unofficially ends. The Bombing of Würzburg , as part of the Allied strategic bombing campaign against Nazi Germany, destroys 89% of the city and causes 4,000 deaths. March 17 – WWII: Kobe , Japan is fire-bombed by 331 B-29 bombers, killing over 8,000 people. March 18 – WWII: The 40th Infantry Division, spearheaded by the 185th US Infantry Regiment, lands unopposed in Tigbauan forcing the Japanese forces to surrender and General Macario Peralta and Gen. Gen. Eichelberger to declare the Liberation of Panay, Romblon and Guimaras . [ 21 ] 1,250 American bombers attack Berlin. [ 22 ] Battle of Kolberg concludes with the Baltic seaport (designated a key Festung (fortress) by the Germans) taken by Polish and Soviet forces and ethnic Germans evacuated or expelled. [ 23 ] The 40th Infantry Division, spearheaded by the 185th US Infantry Regiment, lands unopposed in Tigbauan forcing the Japanese forces to surrender and General Macario Peralta and Gen. Gen. Eichelberger to declare the Liberation of Panay, Romblon and Guimaras . [ 21 ] 1,250 American bombers attack Berlin. [ 22 ] Battle of Kolberg concludes with the Baltic seaport (designated a key Festung (fortress) by the Germans) taken by Polish and Soviet forces and ethnic Germans evacuated or expelled. [ 23 ] March 19 – WWII: Adolf Hitler issues the " Nero Decree " ordering that all industries, military installations, machine shops, transportation facilities and communications facilities in Germany be destroyed ahead of Allied advances, but Albert Speer , placed in charge of the implementation, deliberately disobeys it. Off the coast of Japan, bombers hit the aircraft carrier USS Franklin , killing about 800 of her crewmen and crippling the ship. Adolf Hitler issues the " Nero Decree " ordering that all industries, military installations, machine shops, transportation facilities and communications facilities in Germany be destroyed ahead of Allied advances, but Albert Speer , placed in charge of the implementation, deliberately disobeys it. Off the coast of Japan, bombers hit the aircraft carrier USS Franklin , killing about 800 of her crewmen and crippling the ship. March 20 – WWII: Hitler dismisses Heinrich Himmler from his military command. [ 3 ] March 21 – WWII: British troops liberate Mandalay , Burma . Bulgarian and Soviet troops successfully defend the north bank of the Drava River , as the Battle of the Transdanubian Hills concludes. British troops liberate Mandalay , Burma . Bulgarian and Soviet troops successfully defend the north bank of the Drava River , as the Battle of the Transdanubian Hills concludes. March 22 The Arab League is formed, with the adoption of a charter in Cairo , Egypt. The Cathedral and the historic centre of Hildesheim in Germany are destroyed in a bombing of the city . The Arab League is formed, with the adoption of a charter in Cairo , Egypt. The Cathedral and the historic centre of Hildesheim in Germany are destroyed in a bombing of the city . March 24 WWII: Operation Varsity – Two airborne divisions capture bridges across the river Rhine to aid the Allied advance. The cartoon character Sylvester the cat debuts in Life with Feathers . WWII: Operation Varsity – Two airborne divisions capture bridges across the river Rhine to aid the Allied advance. The cartoon character Sylvester the cat debuts in Life with Feathers . March 26 – WWII: The Battle of Iwo Jima officially ends, with the destruction of the remaining areas of Japanese resistance, although there are Japanese holdouts here until 1949. March 27 – WWII: The United States Army Air Forces begins Operation Starvation , laying naval mines in many of Japan's seaways. Argentina declares war on Germany and Japan . The United States Army Air Forces begins Operation Starvation , laying naval mines in many of Japan's seaways. Argentina declares war on Germany and Japan . March 29 WWII: The Red Army almost destroys the German 4th Army , in the Heiligenbeil Pocket in East Prussia . WWII: American troops lead by 5th Infantry Division and 6th Armored Division captures city of Frankfurt after three days of battle [ 24 ] The "Clash of Titans": George Mikan and Bob Kurland duel at Madison Square Garden in New York, as Oklahoma State University defeats DePaul 52–44 in basketball . WWII: The Red Army almost destroys the German 4th Army , in the Heiligenbeil Pocket in East Prussia . WWII: American troops lead by 5th Infantry Division and 6th Armored Division captures city of Frankfurt after three days of battle [ 24 ] The "Clash of Titans": George Mikan and Bob Kurland duel at Madison Square Garden in New York, as Oklahoma State University defeats DePaul 52–44 in basketball . March 30 – WWII: The Red Army pushes most of the Axis forces out of Hungary into Austria. American official Alger Hiss is congratulated in Moscow for his part in bringing the positions of the Western powers and the Soviet Union closer to each other, at the Yalta Conference . The Red Army pushes most of the Axis forces out of Hungary into Austria. American official Alger Hiss is congratulated in Moscow for his part in bringing the positions of the Western powers and the Soviet Union closer to each other, at the Yalta Conference . April April 1 – WWII: Battle of Okinawa : The Tenth United States Army lands on Okinawa . April 4 – WWII: American troops liberate their first Nazi concentration camp, Ohrdruf extermination camp in Germany. The Soviet Red Army enters Bratislava and pushes to the outskirts of Vienna , taking it on April 13, after several days of intense fighting. American troops liberate their first Nazi concentration camp, Ohrdruf extermination camp in Germany. The Soviet Red Army enters Bratislava and pushes to the outskirts of Vienna , taking it on April 13, after several days of intense fighting. April 6 – WWII: Sarajevo is liberated from Nazi Germany and the Independent State of Croatia (a fascist puppet state ) by Yugoslav Partisans . The Battle of Slater's Knoll on Bougainville Island concludes with a decisive victory for the Australian Army 's 7th Brigade . Allied forces reach Merkers Salt Mines in Thuringia where gold reserves of the Nazi German Reichsbank and art treasures are stored. Sarajevo is liberated from Nazi Germany and the Independent State of Croatia (a fascist puppet state ) by Yugoslav Partisans . The Battle of Slater's Knoll on Bougainville Island concludes with a decisive victory for the Australian Army 's 7th Brigade . Allied forces reach Merkers Salt Mines in Thuringia where gold reserves of the Nazi German Reichsbank and art treasures are stored. April 7 – WWII: The only flight of the German ramming unit known as Sonderkommando Elbe takes place, resulting in the loss of some 24 B-17s and B-24s of the United States Eighth Air Force . Japanese battleship Yamato and nine other warships take part in Operation Ten-Go , a suicide attack on Allied forces engaged in the Battle of Okinawa. Yamato is sunk by U.S. Navy aircraft in the East China Sea 200 miles (320 km) north of Okinawa with the loss of 2,055 of 2,332 crew, together with five other Japanese warships. Kantarō Suzuki becomes Prime Minister of Japan . The only flight of the German ramming unit known as Sonderkommando Elbe takes place, resulting in the loss of some 24 B-17s and B-24s of the United States Eighth Air Force . Japanese battleship Yamato and nine other warships take part in Operation Ten-Go , a suicide attack on Allied forces engaged in the Battle of Okinawa. Yamato is sunk by U.S. Navy aircraft in the East China Sea 200 miles (320 km) north of Okinawa with the loss of 2,055 of 2,332 crew, together with five other Japanese warships. Kantarō Suzuki becomes Prime Minister of Japan . April 8 – The SS begins to evacuate the Buchenwald concentration camp ; inmates in the Buchenwald Resistance call for American aid, and overpower and kill the remaining guards. April 9 WWII: The Battle of Königsberg , in East Prussia , ends with Soviet forces capturing the city. Abwehr conspirators Wilhelm Canaris , Hans Oster and Hans von Dohnányi are hanged at Flossenberg concentration camp, along with pastor Dietrich Bonhoeffer . Johann Georg Elser , would-be assassin of Adolf Hitler , is executed at Dachau concentration camp . WWII: The Battle of Königsberg , in East Prussia , ends with Soviet forces capturing the city. Abwehr conspirators Wilhelm Canaris , Hans Oster and Hans von Dohnányi are hanged at Flossenberg concentration camp, along with pastor Dietrich Bonhoeffer . Johann Georg Elser , would-be assassin of Adolf Hitler , is executed at Dachau concentration camp . April 10 – WWII: Visoko is liberated by the 7th, 9th and 17th Krajina Brigades from the Tenth Division of Yugoslav Partisan forces. American troops lead by 84th Division captures city of Hanover after thousands of German troops surrenders [ 25 ] Visoko is liberated by the 7th, 9th and 17th Krajina Brigades from the Tenth Division of Yugoslav Partisan forces. American troops lead by 84th Division captures city of Hanover after thousands of German troops surrenders [ 25 ] April 11 – Buchenwald concentration camp is liberated by the United States Army . April 12 Vice President Harry S. Truman becomes the 33rd president of the United States upon the death of President Franklin D. Roosevelt at the Little White House in Warm Springs, Georgia of an intracerebral hemorrhage . President Truman is sworn in later this evening in the White House . A devastating tornado outbreak occurs across the United States, which kills 128 people and injures over 1,000 others. This is heavily overshadowed by the death of President Roosevelt. [ 26 ] WWII: The U.S. Ninth Army under General William H. Simpson crosses the Elbe River astride Magdeburg , and reaches Tangermünde — only 50 miles from Berlin . Richard Strauss completes composition of his Metamorphosen . Vice President Harry S. Truman becomes the 33rd president of the United States upon the death of President Franklin D. Roosevelt at the Little White House in Warm Springs, Georgia of an intracerebral hemorrhage . President Truman is sworn in later this evening in the White House . A devastating tornado outbreak occurs across the United States, which kills 128 people and injures over 1,000 others. This is heavily overshadowed by the death of President Roosevelt. [ 26 ] WWII: The U.S. Ninth Army under General William H. Simpson crosses the Elbe River astride Magdeburg , and reaches Tangermünde — only 50 miles from Berlin . Richard Strauss completes composition of his Metamorphosen . April 14 – WWII: The First Canadian Army assumes military control of the Netherlands, where German forces are trapped in the Atlantic Wall fortifications along the coastline. [ 27 ] Razing of Friesoythe : The 4th Canadian (Armoured) Division deliberately destroys the German town of Friesoythe , on the orders of Major General Christopher Vokes . Bombing of Potsdam The First Canadian Army assumes military control of the Netherlands, where German forces are trapped in the Atlantic Wall fortifications along the coastline. [ 27 ] Razing of Friesoythe : The 4th Canadian (Armoured) Division deliberately destroys the German town of Friesoythe , on the orders of Major General Christopher Vokes . Bombing of Potsdam April 15 – WWII: The Bergen-Belsen concentration camp is liberated by British and Canadian forces. The Canadian First Army reaches the coast in the northern Netherlands , and captures Arnhem . The Bergen-Belsen concentration camp is liberated by British and Canadian forces. The Canadian First Army reaches the coast in the northern Netherlands , and captures Arnhem . April 16 – WWII: The Battle of Berlin begins, opening with the Red Army launching the Battle of the Oder–Neisse and the Battle of the Seelow Heights . Canadian forces take Harlingen and occupy Leeuwarden and Groningen in the Netherlands. MV Goya is sunk by Soviet submarine L-3 in the Baltic Sea while evacuating German troops and civilians as part of Operation Hannibal ; 7,000–8,000 drown. Death marches from Flossenbürg concentration camp begin. The Battle of Berlin begins, opening with the Red Army launching the Battle of the Oder–Neisse and the Battle of the Seelow Heights . Canadian forces take Harlingen and occupy Leeuwarden and Groningen in the Netherlands. MV Goya is sunk by Soviet submarine L-3 in the Baltic Sea while evacuating German troops and civilians as part of Operation Hannibal ; 7,000–8,000 drown. Death marches from Flossenbürg concentration camp begin. April 17 – WWII: Battle of Montese : Brazilian forces liberate the town of Montese , Italy, from German forces. Inundation of the Wieringermeer in the Netherlands by occupying German forces. Battle of Montese : Brazilian forces liberate the town of Montese , Italy, from German forces. Inundation of the Wieringermeer in the Netherlands by occupying German forces. April 18 – American war correspondent Ernie Pyle is killed by Japanese machine gun fire on the island of Ie Shima off Okinawa . April 19 – Rodgers and Hammerstein 's Carousel , a musical play based on Ferenc Molnár 's Liliom , opens on Broadway , and becomes their second long-running stage classic. It includes the standard " You'll Never Walk Alone ". April 20 – WWII: On his 56th birthday, Adolf Hitler leaves his Führerbunker , to decorate a group of Hitler Youth soldiers in Berlin. It will be his last trip to the surface from his underground bunker. The German city of Nuremberg , previously the site of the Nuremberg rallies , is occupied by American troops. American troops lead by 2nd Infantry Division and 69th Infantry Division captures city of Leipzig [ 28 ] " Morotai Mutiny ": members of the Australian First Tactical Air Force based on the island of Morotai in the Dutch East Indies tender their resignations to protest their belief that they are being assigned to missions of no military importance and in which they are not specialists; a subsequent inquiry effectively vindicates them. [ 29 ] On his 56th birthday, Adolf Hitler leaves his Führerbunker , to decorate a group of Hitler Youth soldiers in Berlin. It will be his last trip to the surface from his underground bunker. The German city of Nuremberg , previously the site of the Nuremberg rallies , is occupied by American troops. American troops lead by 2nd Infantry Division and 69th Infantry Division captures city of Leipzig [ 28 ] " Morotai Mutiny ": members of the Australian First Tactical Air Force based on the island of Morotai in the Dutch East Indies tender their resignations to protest their belief that they are being assigned to missions of no military importance and in which they are not specialists; a subsequent inquiry effectively vindicates them. [ 29 ] April 22 – WWII: Heinrich Himmler , through Folke Bernadotte , Count of Wisborg, puts forth an offer of German surrender to the Western Allies, but not the Soviet Union. Adolf Hitler finally concedes that "everything is lost" [ 30 ] at a meeting in the Führerbunker after learning that SS-Obergruppenführer Felix Steiner cannot mobilize enough men to launch a counterattack on the Soviet forces which are surrounding Berlin. Heinrich Himmler , through Folke Bernadotte , Count of Wisborg, puts forth an offer of German surrender to the Western Allies, but not the Soviet Union. Adolf Hitler finally concedes that "everything is lost" [ 30 ] at a meeting in the Führerbunker after learning that SS-Obergruppenführer Felix Steiner cannot mobilize enough men to launch a counterattack on the Soviet forces which are surrounding Berlin. April 23 – WWII: Hermann Göring sends the Göring telegram to Hitler, seeking confirmation that he should take over leadership of Germany, in accordance with the decree of June 29, 1941. Hitler regards this as treason. The main Flossenbürg concentration camp is liberated by the United States Army. Hermann Göring sends the Göring telegram to Hitler, seeking confirmation that he should take over leadership of Germany, in accordance with the decree of June 29, 1941. Hitler regards this as treason. The main Flossenbürg concentration camp is liberated by the United States Army. April 24 – WWII: Battle of Berlin : Red Army troops complete encirclement of Berlin. [ 31 ] Retreating German troops destroy all the bridges over the Adige in Verona , including the historic Ponte di Castelvecchio and Ponte Pietra . Battle of Berlin : Red Army troops complete encirclement of Berlin. [ 31 ] Retreating German troops destroy all the bridges over the Adige in Verona , including the historic Ponte di Castelvecchio and Ponte Pietra . April 25 Founding negotiations for the United Nations begin in San Francisco . WWII – Elbe Day : United States and Soviet troops link up at the river Elbe , cutting Germany in two. Founding negotiations for the United Nations begin in San Francisco . WWII – Elbe Day : United States and Soviet troops link up at the river Elbe , cutting Germany in two. April 25 – 26 – WWII: The last major strategic bombing raid by RAF Bomber Command , the destruction of the oil refinery at Tønsberg in southern Norway, is carried out by 107 Avro Lancasters . April 26 – WWII: Battle of Bautzen : The last "successful" German panzer-offensive in Bautzen ends with the city recaptured. The British 3rd Infantry Division , under General Whistler , captures Bremen. [ 32 ] Nazi surrenders mean the British and Canadians now control the German border with Switzerland, from Basel to Lake Constance . Battle of Bautzen : The last "successful" German panzer-offensive in Bautzen ends with the city recaptured. The British 3rd Infantry Division , under General Whistler , captures Bremen. [ 32 ] Nazi surrenders mean the British and Canadians now control the German border with Switzerland, from Basel to Lake Constance . April 27 The last German formations withdraw from Finland to Norway. The Lapland War and thus, World War II in Finland , comes to an end and the Raising the Flag on the Three-Country Cairn photograph is taken. The provisional government of Austria headed by Karl Renner asserts its independence from Germany. [ 33 ] U.S. Ordnance troops find the coffins of Frederick William I of Prussia , Frederick the Great , Paul von Hindenburg and his wife in a salt mine in Germany. [ 34 ] The last German formations withdraw from Finland to Norway. The Lapland War and thus, World War II in Finland , comes to an end and the Raising the Flag on the Three-Country Cairn photograph is taken. The provisional government of Austria headed by Karl Renner asserts its independence from Germany. [ 33 ] U.S. Ordnance troops find the coffins of Frederick William I of Prussia , Frederick the Great , Paul von Hindenburg and his wife in a salt mine in Germany. [ 34 ] April 28 The bodies of Benito Mussolini , his mistress, Clara Petacci , and other followers are hung by their heels at a gas station in the public square of Milan , Piazzale Loreto, following their execution by Italian partisans after an attempt to flee the country. The Canadian First Army captures Emden and Wilhelmshaven . The bodies of Benito Mussolini , his mistress, Clara Petacci , and other followers are hung by their heels at a gas station in the public square of Milan , Piazzale Loreto, following their execution by Italian partisans after an attempt to flee the country. The Canadian First Army captures Emden and Wilhelmshaven . April 29 At the royal palace in Caserta , Lieutenant-Colonel Viktor von Schweinitz (representing General Heinrich von Vietinghoff ) and SS- Obersturmbannführer Eugen Wenner (representing Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff ) sign an unconditional instrument of surrender for all Axis powers forces in Italy, taking effect on May 2 . Italian General Rodolfo Graziani orders the Esercito Nazionale Repubblicano forces under his command to lay down their arms. [ 35 ] Dachau concentration camp is surrendered to U.S. forces, who kill SS guards at the camp and the nearby hamlet of Webling. [ 36 ] Brazilian forces liberate the commune of Fornovo di Taro , Italy, from German forces. Operation Manna : British Avro Lancaster bombers drop food into the Netherlands to prevent the starvation of the civilian population. Soviet soldiers hoist the Red flag over the Reich Chancellery in Berlin. Adolf Hitler marries his longtime mistress Eva Braun , in a closed civil ceremony in the Berlin Führerbunker , and signs his last will and testament . At the royal palace in Caserta , Lieutenant-Colonel Viktor von Schweinitz (representing General Heinrich von Vietinghoff ) and SS- Obersturmbannführer Eugen Wenner (representing Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff ) sign an unconditional instrument of surrender for all Axis powers forces in Italy, taking effect on May 2 . Italian General Rodolfo Graziani orders the Esercito Nazionale Repubblicano forces under his command to lay down their arms. [ 35 ] Dachau concentration camp is surrendered to U.S. forces, who kill SS guards at the camp and the nearby hamlet of Webling. [ 36 ] Brazilian forces liberate the commune of Fornovo di Taro , Italy, from German forces. Operation Manna : British Avro Lancaster bombers drop food into the Netherlands to prevent the starvation of the civilian population. Soviet soldiers hoist the Red flag over the Reich Chancellery in Berlin. Adolf Hitler marries his longtime mistress Eva Braun , in a closed civil ceremony in the Berlin Führerbunker , and signs his last will and testament . April 30 – WWII: Death of Adolf Hitler : Adolf Hitler and his wife of one day, Eva Braun , commit suicide as the Red Army approaches the Führerbunker in Berlin. Großadmiral Karl Dönitz succeeds Hitler as Reichspräsident (President of Germany) and Joseph Goebbels succeeds as Reichskanzler (Chancellor of Germany) , in accordance with Hitler's political testament the day earlier. American forces enter the Bavarian capital of Munich . Death of Adolf Hitler : Adolf Hitler and his wife of one day, Eva Braun , commit suicide as the Red Army approaches the Führerbunker in Berlin. Großadmiral Karl Dönitz succeeds Hitler as Reichspräsident (President of Germany) and Joseph Goebbels succeeds as Reichskanzler (Chancellor of Germany) , in accordance with Hitler's political testament the day earlier. American forces enter the Bavarian capital of Munich . May May – Interpol (being headquartered in Berlin) effectively ceases to exist (it is recreated on June 3 , 1946 ). May 1 – WWII: Reichssender Hamburg 's Flensburg radio station announces that Hitler has died in battle, "fighting up to his last breath against Bolshevism ." Joseph Goebbels carries out his sole official act as Chancellor of Germany, dictating a letter to the Soviet commander in Berlin advising of Hitler's death and requesting a ceasefire. When the latter is refused, he and his wife Magda kill their six children and commit suicide themselves. Karl Dönitz appoints Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk as the new de facto Chancellor of Germany , in the Flensburg Government . Troops of the Yugoslav 4th Army, together with the Slovene 9th Corpus NOV, enter Trieste . Mass suicide in Demmin : An estimated 700–2,500 suicides take place, after 80% of the town has been destroyed by the Soviets during the past three days. Reichssender Hamburg 's Flensburg radio station announces that Hitler has died in battle, "fighting up to his last breath against Bolshevism ." Joseph Goebbels carries out his sole official act as Chancellor of Germany, dictating a letter to the Soviet commander in Berlin advising of Hitler's death and requesting a ceasefire. When the latter is refused, he and his wife Magda kill their six children and commit suicide themselves. Karl Dönitz appoints Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk as the new de facto Chancellor of Germany , in the Flensburg Government . Troops of the Yugoslav 4th Army, together with the Slovene 9th Corpus NOV, enter Trieste . Mass suicide in Demmin : An estimated 700–2,500 suicides take place, after 80% of the town has been destroyed by the Soviets during the past three days. May 2 – WWII: The Soviet Union announces the fall of Berlin . The famous picture of Raising a Flag over the Reichstag was taken at this date. Lübeck is liberated by the British Army . The surrender of Axis troops in Italy comes into effect. A Holocaust death march from Dachau to the Austrian border is halted under two kilometers west of Waakirchen by the segregated, all- Nisei 522nd Field Artillery Battalion of the U.S. Army in southern Bavaria, saving several hundred prisoners. [ 37 ] Troops of the New Zealand Army 2nd Division enter Trieste a day after the Yugoslavs ; the German Army in Trieste surrenders to the New Zealand Army . Following the death or resignation of the Hitler Cabinet in Germany, the Schwerin von Krosigk cabinet first meets. Neuengamme concentration camp near Hamburg is evacuated at about this date. Expatriate American poet Ezra Pound is arrested by the Italian resistance movement but soon released by them as of no interest; on May 5 he turns himself in to the United States Army and is imprisoned as a traitor. The Soviet Union announces the fall of Berlin . The famous picture of Raising a Flag over the Reichstag was taken at this date. Lübeck is liberated by the British Army . The surrender of Axis troops in Italy comes into effect. A Holocaust death march from Dachau to the Austrian border is halted under two kilometers west of Waakirchen by the segregated, all- Nisei 522nd Field Artillery Battalion of the U.S. Army in southern Bavaria, saving several hundred prisoners. [ 37 ] Troops of the New Zealand Army 2nd Division enter Trieste a day after the Yugoslavs ; the German Army in Trieste surrenders to the New Zealand Army . Following the death or resignation of the Hitler Cabinet in Germany, the Schwerin von Krosigk cabinet first meets. Neuengamme concentration camp near Hamburg is evacuated at about this date. Expatriate American poet Ezra Pound is arrested by the Italian resistance movement but soon released by them as of no interest; on May 5 he turns himself in to the United States Army and is imprisoned as a traitor. May 3 – WWII: The prison ships Cap Arcona (5,000 dead), Thielbek (2,750 dead) and Deutschland (all survive) are sunk by the British Royal Air Force in Lübeck Bay. Rocket scientist Wernher von Braun and 120 members of his team surrender to U.S. forces (later going on to help start the U.S. space program). German Protestant theologian Gerhard Kittel is arrested by the French forces in Tübingen, Germany. Operation Dracula : British troops liberate the Burmese capital of Rangoon from Japanese forces. Capture of Hamburg : British troops of VIII Corps and XII Corps capture city of Hamburg [ 38 ] The prison ships Cap Arcona (5,000 dead), Thielbek (2,750 dead) and Deutschland (all survive) are sunk by the British Royal Air Force in Lübeck Bay. Rocket scientist Wernher von Braun and 120 members of his team surrender to U.S. forces (later going on to help start the U.S. space program). German Protestant theologian Gerhard Kittel is arrested by the French forces in Tübingen, Germany. Operation Dracula : British troops liberate the Burmese capital of Rangoon from Japanese forces. Capture of Hamburg : British troops of VIII Corps and XII Corps capture city of Hamburg [ 38 ] May 4 – WWII: German surrender at Lüneburg Heath : All German armed forces in northwest Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands surrender unconditionally to Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery , effective on May 5 at 08:00 hours British Double (and German) Summer Time. The Netherlands is liberated by British and Canadian troops. [ 39 ] Denmark is liberated. [ 40 ] Admiral Karl Dönitz orders all U-boats to cease offensive operations and return to bases in Norway. [ 41 ] The Holy Crown of Hungary is found in Mattsee , Austria, by the United States Army 86th Infantry Division . The U.S. government keeps the crown in Fort Knox for safekeeping from the Soviets until it is returned to Hungary on January 6 1978 . [ 42 ] German auxiliary cruiser Orion is sunk on her way to Copenhagen carrying refugees, with a loss of over 3,800 lives. American troops captures city of Salzburg [ 43 ] German surrender at Lüneburg Heath : All German armed forces in northwest Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands surrender unconditionally to Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery , effective on May 5 at 08:00 hours British Double (and German) Summer Time. The Netherlands is liberated by British and Canadian troops. [ 39 ] Denmark is liberated. [ 40 ] Admiral Karl Dönitz orders all U-boats to cease offensive operations and return to bases in Norway. [ 41 ] The Holy Crown of Hungary is found in Mattsee , Austria, by the United States Army 86th Infantry Division . The U.S. government keeps the crown in Fort Knox for safekeeping from the Soviets until it is returned to Hungary on January 6 1978 . [ 42 ] German auxiliary cruiser Orion is sunk on her way to Copenhagen carrying refugees, with a loss of over 3,800 lives. American troops captures city of Salzburg [ 43 ] May 5 – WWII: Prague uprising : Prague rises up against occupying Nazi forces, encouraged by radio broadcasts (giving rise to the Battle for Czech Radio ). The US 11th Armored Division liberates the prisoners of Mauthausen concentration camp , including Simon Wiesenthal . Canadian soldiers liberate the city of Amsterdam from Nazi occupation. A Japanese fire balloon kills six people, Elsie Mitchell and five children, near Bly, Oregon , when it explodes as they drag it from the woods. These are the only people killed by an enemy attack on the American mainland during WWII. Prague uprising : Prague rises up against occupying Nazi forces, encouraged by radio broadcasts (giving rise to the Battle for Czech Radio ). The US 11th Armored Division liberates the prisoners of Mauthausen concentration camp , including Simon Wiesenthal . Canadian soldiers liberate the city of Amsterdam from Nazi occupation. A Japanese fire balloon kills six people, Elsie Mitchell and five children, near Bly, Oregon , when it explodes as they drag it from the woods. These are the only people killed by an enemy attack on the American mainland during WWII. May 6 WWII: Mildred Gillars ("Axis Sally") delivers her last propaganda broadcast to Allied troops (the first was on December 11, 1941 ). Holocaust : Ebensee concentration camp in Austria is liberated by troops of the 80th Division (United States) . WWII: American troops of 16th Armored Division reaches city of Plzeň in Czech [ 44 ] WWII: Mildred Gillars ("Axis Sally") delivers her last propaganda broadcast to Allied troops (the first was on December 11, 1941 ). Holocaust : Ebensee concentration camp in Austria is liberated by troops of the 80th Division (United States) . WWII: American troops of 16th Armored Division reaches city of Plzeň in Czech [ 44 ] May 6 – 7 – The government of the Independent State of Croatia , the Nazi-affiliated fascist puppet state established in occupied Yugoslavia , flees Zagreb for a location near Klagenfurt in Austria, but is captured in the Bleiburg repatriations that then leads to mass executions. [ 45 ] May 7 – WWII: At 02:41, General Alfred Jodl signs the unconditional German Instrument of Surrender in SHAEF HQ at Reims , France, to end Germany's participation in the war. Surrender is effective on May 8 at 23:01 hours Central European Time (00:01 hours May 9 German Summer Time). This afternoon Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk , Leading Minister in the rump Flensburg Government , makes a broadcast announcing the German surrender and American journalist Edward Kennedy breaks an Allied embargo on news of the signing. [ 46 ] Numerous RAF Lancasters land in Germany to repatriate British prisoners of war. Some 4,500 ex-POWs are flown back to Great Britain over the next 24 hours. At 02:41, General Alfred Jodl signs the unconditional German Instrument of Surrender in SHAEF HQ at Reims , France, to end Germany's participation in the war. Surrender is effective on May 8 at 23:01 hours Central European Time (00:01 hours May 9 German Summer Time). This afternoon Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk , Leading Minister in the rump Flensburg Government , makes a broadcast announcing the German surrender and American journalist Edward Kennedy breaks an Allied embargo on news of the signing. [ 46 ] Numerous RAF Lancasters land in Germany to repatriate British prisoners of war. Some 4,500 ex-POWs are flown back to Great Britain over the next 24 hours. May 8 – WWII: Victory in Europe Day (VE Day) is observed by the western European powers as Nazi Germany surrenders, marking the end of WWII in Europe. Shortly before midnight (May 9 Moscow time) the final German Instrument of Surrender is signed at the seat of the Soviet Military Administration in Berlin- Karlshorst , attended by Allied representatives. Canadian troops move into Amsterdam , after German troops surrender. The surrender of the Dodecanese is signed in Symi . The Prague uprising ends with a ceasefire. The Eighth British Army , together with Slovene partisan troops and a motorized detachment of the Yugoslav 4th Army, arrives in Carinthia and Klagenfurt . The Croatian Armed Forces of the Independent State of Croatia are ordered by their commanders not to surrender to the Yugoslav Partisans , but to attempt to retreat to Austria and surrender to the British, part of the events leading to the Bleiburg repatriations . Hermann Göring surrenders himself to the United States Army near Radstadt . [ 47 ] Victory in Europe Day (VE Day) is observed by the western European powers as Nazi Germany surrenders, marking the end of WWII in Europe. Shortly before midnight (May 9 Moscow time) the final German Instrument of Surrender is signed at the seat of the Soviet Military Administration in Berlin- Karlshorst , attended by Allied representatives. Canadian troops move into Amsterdam , after German troops surrender. The surrender of the Dodecanese is signed in Symi . The Prague uprising ends with a ceasefire. The Eighth British Army , together with Slovene partisan troops and a motorized detachment of the Yugoslav 4th Army, arrives in Carinthia and Klagenfurt . The Croatian Armed Forces of the Independent State of Croatia are ordered by their commanders not to surrender to the Yugoslav Partisans , but to attempt to retreat to Austria and surrender to the British, part of the events leading to the Bleiburg repatriations . Hermann Göring surrenders himself to the United States Army near Radstadt . [ 47 ] May 8 – 29 – Sétif and Guelma massacre : in Algeria , thousands die as French troops and released Italian POWs kill an estimated 6,000 to 40,000 Algerian citizens. May 9 – WWII: The Soviet Union marks VE Day as the Red Army enters Prague. [ 48 ] Vidkun Quisling and other members of the collaborationist Quisling regime in Norway surrender to the Resistance ( Milorg ) and police at Møllergata 19 in Oslo, as part of the legal purge in Norway after World War II . General Alexander Löhr , Commander of German Army Group E near Topolšica, Slovenia , signs the capitulation of German occupation troops. Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : British forces take the surrender of the occupying troops, with Royal Navy ships HMS Bulldog arriving in St Peter Port , Guernsey , and HMS Beagle in St Helier , Jersey . The Soviet Union marks VE Day as the Red Army enters Prague. [ 48 ] Vidkun Quisling and other members of the collaborationist Quisling regime in Norway surrender to the Resistance ( Milorg ) and police at Møllergata 19 in Oslo, as part of the legal purge in Norway after World War II . General Alexander Löhr , Commander of German Army Group E near Topolšica, Slovenia , signs the capitulation of German occupation troops. Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : British forces take the surrender of the occupying troops, with Royal Navy ships HMS Bulldog arriving in St Peter Port , Guernsey , and HMS Beagle in St Helier , Jersey . May 10 – WWII: Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : Occupation of Sark ends, with British forces taking the surrender of the occupying troops and leaving them under the orders of Dame Sibyl Hathaway . May 12 Argentinian labour leader José Peter declares the Meat Industry Workers Federation dissolved. Rev. W. V. Awdry 's children's book The Three Railway Engines , first of The Railway Series , is published in England. Argentinian labour leader José Peter declares the Meat Industry Workers Federation dissolved. Rev. W. V. Awdry 's children's book The Three Railway Engines , first of The Railway Series , is published in England. May 14 – 15 – WWII: Battle of Poljana : The last battle of the War in Europe is fought at Poljana near Slovenj Gradec , Slovenia . May 15 – WWII: Surrender at Bleiburg – Retreating troops of the Croatian Armed Forces of the former puppet Independent State of Croatia (intermingled with fleeing civilians) attempt to surrender to the British Army at Bleiburg , but are directed to surrender to Yugoslav Partisans , who open fire on them. The remainder, after orders are given by Tito , are force-marched through Croatia and Serbia , interned or massacred, with thousands dying. [ 49 ] May 16 – WWII: Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : Occupation of Alderney ends, with British forces taking the surrender of the occupying troops, the civilian population having been evacuated. May 18 – WWII: Operation Unthinkable – British prime minister Winston Churchill secretly requests his military chiefs of staff to consider a plan for British, American and reactivated German forces to attack the Soviet Red Army on July 1 to preserve the independence of Poland. The operation is ruled militarily unfeasible. [ 50 ] May 23 The Flensburg Government is dissolved by the Allies, and German president Karl Dönitz and German chancellor Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk are arrested by British RAF Regiment personnel at Flensburg . They are respectively the last German head of state and head of government until 1949 . Heinrich Himmler , former head of the Nazi SS , commits suicide in British custody. The Flensburg Government is dissolved by the Allies, and German president Karl Dönitz and German chancellor Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk are arrested by British RAF Regiment personnel at Flensburg . They are respectively the last German head of state and head of government until 1949 . Heinrich Himmler , former head of the Nazi SS , commits suicide in British custody. May 28 – U.S.-born Irish-raised William Joyce (" Lord Haw-Haw ") is captured on the German border. He is later charged in London with high treason for his earlier English-language wartime broadcasts from German radio, convicted, and then hanged in January 1946. May 29 German communists, led by Walter Ulbricht , arrive in Berlin. Dutch painter Han van Meegeren is arrested for collaboration with the Nazis, but the "Dutch Golden Age" paintings he has sold to Hermann Göring (Koch) are later proved to be his own fakes. German communists, led by Walter Ulbricht , arrive in Berlin. Dutch painter Han van Meegeren is arrested for collaboration with the Nazis, but the "Dutch Golden Age" paintings he has sold to Hermann Göring (Koch) are later proved to be his own fakes. May 30 – The Iranian government demands that all Soviet and British troops leave the country. June June 1 – The British take over Lebanon and Syria . June 5 – The Allied Control Council , the military occupation governing body of Germany, formally takes power. June 7 – King Haakon VII of Norway returns to Norway five years to the day after leaving for exile in Britain. June 11 William Lyon Mackenzie King is re-elected as Canadian prime minister. The Franck Committee recommends against a surprise nuclear bombing of Japan. [ 51 ] William Lyon Mackenzie King is re-elected as Canadian prime minister. The Franck Committee recommends against a surprise nuclear bombing of Japan. [ 51 ] June 12 – The Yugoslav Army leaves Trieste , leaving the New Zealand Army in control. June 21 – WWII: The Battle of Okinawa ends, with U.S. occupation of the island until 1972 . June 24 – WWII: A victory parade is held in Red Square in Moscow. June 25 – Seán T. O'Kelly is elected the second president of Ireland . June 26 – The United Nations Charter is signed in San Francisco. June 29 – Czechoslovakia cedes Carpathian Ruthenia to the Soviet Union . June 30 – John von Neumann 's First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC is distributed, containing the first published description of the logical design of a computer, with stored-program and instruction data stored in the same address space within the memory ( von Neumann architecture ). July July 1 WWII: Germany is divided between the Allied occupation forces. WWII: Australian and other Allied forces launch an invasion of the east coast of Japanese-occupied Borneo near Balikpapan . WWII: Germany is divided between the Allied occupation forces. WWII: Australian and other Allied forces launch an invasion of the east coast of Japanese-occupied Borneo near Balikpapan . July 2 – The 1945 Sheikh Bashir rebellion breaks out in Burao and Erigavo in British Somaliland , led by Sheikh Bashir , a Somali religious leader. [ 52 ] July 4 – Brazilian cruiser Bahia is sunk by an accidentally induced explosion, killing more than 300 and stranding the survivors in shark-infested waters. July 5 The 1945 United Kingdom general election is held, though some constituencies delay their polls for local holiday reasons. Counting of votes and declaration of results are delayed until July 26 to allow for voting by the large number of service personnel still overseas. John Curtin , 14th Prime Minister of Australia , dies in office from heart failure at the age of 60. He is briefly replaced by his deputy Frank Forde , who serves as the 15th Prime Minister until a Labor Party leadership election is held to replace Curtin. WWII: The Philippines are declared liberated. The 1945 United Kingdom general election is held, though some constituencies delay their polls for local holiday reasons. Counting of votes and declaration of results are delayed until July 26 to allow for voting by the large number of service personnel still overseas. John Curtin , 14th Prime Minister of Australia , dies in office from heart failure at the age of 60. He is briefly replaced by his deputy Frank Forde , who serves as the 15th Prime Minister until a Labor Party leadership election is held to replace Curtin. WWII: The Philippines are declared liberated. July 6 – 7 – Schio massacre : 54 prisoners, mostly fascist sympathisers, are killed by members of the Italian resistance movement in Schio . July 8 – WWII: Harry S. Truman is informed that Japan will talk peace if it can retain the reign of the Emperor. [ 51 ] July 12 – Ben Chifley is elected leader of the Labor Party , and consequently becomes the 16th Prime Minister of Australia , defeating Frank Forde as well as Norman Makin and H.V. Evatt . As a result, Forde becomes the shortest-serving prime minister in Australian history; nevertheless, he retains his post as deputy leader. July 14 – WWII: Italy declares war on Japan. July 16 The Trinity Test , the first of an atomic bomb , using about six kilograms of plutonium , succeeds in unleashing an explosion equivalent to that of 22 kilotons of TNT. A train collision near Munich , Germany kills 102 war prisoners. The Trinity Test , the first of an atomic bomb , using about six kilograms of plutonium , succeeds in unleashing an explosion equivalent to that of 22 kilotons of TNT. A train collision near Munich , Germany kills 102 war prisoners. July 17 – August 2 – WWII: Potsdam Conference – At Potsdam , the three main Allied leaders hold their final summit of the war. President Truman officially informs Stalin that the U.S. has a powerful new weapon. July 21 – WWII: President Harry S. Truman approves the order for atomic bombs to be used against Japan. [ 51 ] July 23 – WWII: French marshal Philippe Pétain , who headed the Vichy government during WWII, goes on trial for treason. July 26 Winston Churchill resigns as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , after his Conservative Party is soundly defeated by the Labour Party in the 1945 general election . Clement Attlee becomes the new prime minister. It is the first time that Labour has governed Britain with a majority in the House of Commons . [ 53 ] The Potsdam Declaration demands Japan's unconditional surrender; Article 12, permitting Japan to retain the reign of the Emperor, has been deleted by President Truman. [ 51 ] Winston Churchill resigns as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , after his Conservative Party is soundly defeated by the Labour Party in the 1945 general election . Clement Attlee becomes the new prime minister. It is the first time that Labour has governed Britain with a majority in the House of Commons . [ 53 ] The Potsdam Declaration demands Japan's unconditional surrender; Article 12, permitting Japan to retain the reign of the Emperor, has been deleted by President Truman. [ 51 ] July 27 – WWII: Bombing of Aomori – Two USAAF B-29s drop a total of 60,000 leaflets on the city of Aomori , Japan, warning civilians of an air raid and urging them to leave immediately. The city was firebombed the next day, killing more than 1,700 people. July 28 WWII: Japan ambiguously rejects the Potsdam Declaration . [ 51 ] A North American B-25 Mitchell crashes into The Empire State Building , killing 14 people. [ 54 ] WWII: Japan ambiguously rejects the Potsdam Declaration . [ 51 ] A North American B-25 Mitchell crashes into The Empire State Building , killing 14 people. [ 54 ] July 29 The BBC Light Programme radio station is launched in the United Kingdom, aimed at mainstream light entertainment and music . WWII: Bombing of Aomori : The Japanese city of Aomori is firebombed by 63 USAAF B-29 heavy bombers , killing 1,767 civilians and destroying 18,045 homes. The BBC Light Programme radio station is launched in the United Kingdom, aimed at mainstream light entertainment and music . WWII: Bombing of Aomori : The Japanese city of Aomori is firebombed by 63 USAAF B-29 heavy bombers , killing 1,767 civilians and destroying 18,045 homes. July 30 – WWII: Heavy cruiser USS Indianapolis is hit and sunk by torpedoes from the Japanese submarine I-58 in the Philippine Sea . Some 900 survivors jump into the sea and are adrift for up to four days. Nearly 600 die before help arrives. Captain Charles B. McVay III of the cruiser is later court-martialed and convicted; in 2000, he is posthumously exonerated. [ 55 ] August August 6 – WWII: Atomic bombing of Hiroshima : United States Boeing B-29 Superfortress Enola Gay drops a uranium-235 atomic bomb , codenamed " Little Boy ", on the Japanese city of Hiroshima at 8:15 a.m. local time, resulting in between 90,000 and 146,000 deaths. August 7 – U.S. President Harry Truman announces the successful atomic bombing of Hiroshima, while he is returning from the Potsdam Conference aboard the U.S. Navy heavy cruiser USS Augusta (CA-31) , in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean. August 8 The United Nations Charter is ratified by the United States Senate, and this nation becomes the third to join the new international organization. WWII: The Soviet Union declares war on Japan. The United Nations Charter is ratified by the United States Senate, and this nation becomes the third to join the new international organization. WWII: The Soviet Union declares war on Japan. August 9 – WWII: Atomic bombing of Nagasaki : United States B-29 Bockscar drops a plutonium-239 atomic bomb, codenamed " Fat Man ", on the Japanese city of Nagasaki at 11:02 a.m. local time, resulting in between 39,000 and 80,000 deaths. The Soviet–Japanese War opens: The Soviet Union begins its army offensive against Japan, in the northern part of the Japanese-held puppet region of Manchuria including the northern peninsula of Korea that became involved with the 25th Army . [ 56 ] Atomic bombing of Nagasaki : United States B-29 Bockscar drops a plutonium-239 atomic bomb, codenamed " Fat Man ", on the Japanese city of Nagasaki at 11:02 a.m. local time, resulting in between 39,000 and 80,000 deaths. The Soviet–Japanese War opens: The Soviet Union begins its army offensive against Japan, in the northern part of the Japanese-held puppet region of Manchuria including the northern peninsula of Korea that became involved with the 25th Army . [ 56 ] August 10 – WWII: Japan offers to surrender to the Allies, "provided this does not prejudice the sovereignty of the Emperor". August 11 WWII: The Allies reply to the Japanese surrender offer by stating that Emperor Hirohito will be subject to the authority of the Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces . The Holocaust : Kraków pogrom – Róża Berger is shot dead by Polish militia. WWII: The Allies reply to the Japanese surrender offer by stating that Emperor Hirohito will be subject to the authority of the Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces . The Holocaust : Kraków pogrom – Róża Berger is shot dead by Polish militia. August 11 – 25 – Soviet troops complete the occupation of Sakhalin . August 13 – The Zionist World Congress approaches the British government to discuss the founding of the country of Israel . August 14 – WWII: Emperor Hirohito accepts the terms of the Potsdam Declaration . His recorded announcement of this is smuggled out of the Tokyo Imperial Palace . At 19:00 hrs in Washington, D.C. (23:00 GMT ), U.S. president Harry S. Truman announces the Japanese surrender. August 15 WWII: Bombing of Kumagaya , Japan, by the United States using conventional bombs, beginning at 00:23. Hirohito surrender broadcast (Gyokuon-hōsō) : Emperor Hirohito 's announcement of the unconditional surrender of Japan is broadcast on the radio a little after noon (12:00 Japan Standard Time is 03:00 GMT). This is probably the first time an Emperor of Japan has been heard by the common people. Delivered in formal classical Japanese , without directly referring to surrender and following official censorship of the country's weak position, the recorded speech is not immediately easily understood by ordinary people. The Allies call this day Victory over Japan Day (V-J Day). This ends the period of Japanese expansionism , and begins the period of the Occupation of Japan and sets the stage for Korean independence. The August Revolution in Vietnam begins, with the Viet Minh taking over the capital Hanoi , taking advantage of the collapse of Japanese power. The Provisional International Civil Aviation Organization is founded, as a specialized agency of the United Nations . WWII: Bombing of Kumagaya , Japan, by the United States using conventional bombs, beginning at 00:23. Hirohito surrender broadcast (Gyokuon-hōsō) : Emperor Hirohito 's announcement of the unconditional surrender of Japan is broadcast on the radio a little after noon (12:00 Japan Standard Time is 03:00 GMT). This is probably the first time an Emperor of Japan has been heard by the common people. Delivered in formal classical Japanese , without directly referring to surrender and following official censorship of the country's weak position, the recorded speech is not immediately easily understood by ordinary people. The Allies call this day Victory over Japan Day (V-J Day). This ends the period of Japanese expansionism , and begins the period of the Occupation of Japan and sets the stage for Korean independence. Bombing of Kumagaya , Japan, by the United States using conventional bombs, beginning at 00:23. Hirohito surrender broadcast (Gyokuon-hōsō) : Emperor Hirohito 's announcement of the unconditional surrender of Japan is broadcast on the radio a little after noon (12:00 Japan Standard Time is 03:00 GMT). This is probably the first time an Emperor of Japan has been heard by the common people. Delivered in formal classical Japanese , without directly referring to surrender and following official censorship of the country's weak position, the recorded speech is not immediately easily understood by ordinary people. The Allies call this day Victory over Japan Day (V-J Day). This ends the period of Japanese expansionism , and begins the period of the Occupation of Japan and sets the stage for Korean independence. The August Revolution in Vietnam begins, with the Viet Minh taking over the capital Hanoi , taking advantage of the collapse of Japanese power. The Provisional International Civil Aviation Organization is founded, as a specialized agency of the United Nations . August 17 Philippines President José P. Laurel issues an Executive Proclamation putting an end to the Second Philippine Republic , thus ending his term as President of the Philippines. Proclamation of Indonesian Independence : Indonesian nationalists Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declare the independence of the Republic of Indonesia , with Sukarno as president and Mohammad Hatta as vice-president, igniting the Indonesian National Revolution against the Dutch Empire . Philippines President José P. Laurel issues an Executive Proclamation putting an end to the Second Philippine Republic , thus ending his term as President of the Philippines. Proclamation of Indonesian Independence : Indonesian nationalists Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declare the independence of the Republic of Indonesia , with Sukarno as president and Mohammad Hatta as vice-president, igniting the Indonesian National Revolution against the Dutch Empire . August 18 – WWII: Death of Subhas Chandra Bose : Indian nationalist leader Subhas Chandra Bose is killed as a result of his overloaded Japanese plane crashing in Japanese Taiwan . August 19 – Chinese Civil War : Mao Zedong and Chiang Kai-shek meet in Chongqing to discuss an end to hostilities between the Communists and the Nationalists . August 22 – Kim Il Sung as the guerilla fighter returned to the Soviet-occupied capital Pyongyang after the Red Army entered the northern peninsula of Korea . August 23 – Soviet–Japanese War : Joseph Stalin orders the detention of Japanese prisoners of war in the Soviet Union . August 25 – Bảo Đại abdicates as Emperor of Vietnam , ending 2,000 years of dynastic and monarchic rule in the country and 143 years of the Nguyễn dynasty , Paris marked the first anniversary of liberation from Nazi rule by the French Resistance as a momentous event at the Battle of Normandy against Dietrich von Choltitz . August 30 – WWII: Vietnam 's capital Hanoi is taken by the Viet Minh , which ends the French occupation in what becomes North Vietnam , and thus the southern provinces become South Vietnam . This ends the August Revolution . August 31 WWII: Allied troops arrest German field marshal Walther von Brauchitsch . A team at American Cyanamid 's Lederle Laboratories, Pearl River, New York , led by Yellapragada Subbarow , announces they have obtained folic acid in a pure crystalline form. [ 57 ] This vitamin is abundant in green leaf vegetables , liver , kidney , and yeast . [ 58 ] WWII: Allied troops arrest German field marshal Walther von Brauchitsch . A team at American Cyanamid 's Lederle Laboratories, Pearl River, New York , led by Yellapragada Subbarow , announces they have obtained folic acid in a pure crystalline form. [ 57 ] This vitamin is abundant in green leaf vegetables , liver , kidney , and yeast . [ 58 ] September September 2 – World War II ends: Japanese general Tomoyuki Yamashita surrenders to Philippine and American forces at Kiangan, Ifugao . The final official Japanese Instrument of Surrender is accepted by the Supreme Allied Commander, General Douglas MacArthur , and Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz for the United States, and delegates from the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, the Netherlands, China, and others from a Japanese delegation led by Mamoru Shigemitsu , on board the American battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay . General Douglas MacArthur is given the title of Supreme Commander Allied Powers , and is also tasked with the occupation of Japan. [ 59 ] The Democratic Republic of Vietnam is officially established, by Ho Chi Minh . [ 59 ] Japanese general Tomoyuki Yamashita surrenders to Philippine and American forces at Kiangan, Ifugao . The final official Japanese Instrument of Surrender is accepted by the Supreme Allied Commander, General Douglas MacArthur , and Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz for the United States, and delegates from the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, the Netherlands, China, and others from a Japanese delegation led by Mamoru Shigemitsu , on board the American battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay . General Douglas MacArthur is given the title of Supreme Commander Allied Powers , and is also tasked with the occupation of Japan. [ 59 ] The Democratic Republic of Vietnam is officially established, by Ho Chi Minh . [ 59 ] September 4 – WWII: Japanese forces surrender on Wake Island , after hearing word of their country's surrender. September 5 Iva Toguri D'Aquino , a Japanese American suspected of being wartime radio propagandist " Tokyo Rose ", is arrested in Yokohama . Russian code clerk Igor Gouzenko comes forward with numerous documents implicating the Soviet Union in many spy rings in North America, both in the United States and in Canada. Iva Toguri D'Aquino , a Japanese American suspected of being wartime radio propagandist " Tokyo Rose ", is arrested in Yokohama . Russian code clerk Igor Gouzenko comes forward with numerous documents implicating the Soviet Union in many spy rings in North America, both in the United States and in Canada. September 8 U.S. troops arrive in Southern Korea , while the Soviet Union occupies the north , with the dividing line being the 38th parallel of latitude. This arrangement proves to be the indirect beginning of a divided Korea, which will lead to the Korean War when North Korea invades in 1950 . The Afghan government defeats a rebel force at Kunar Khas ; Gerald Crichton, the British Charge de 'affairs in Kabul, later describes the victory as the "turning point" of the Afghan tribal revolts of 1944–1947 . [ 60 ] U.S. troops arrive in Southern Korea , while the Soviet Union occupies the north , with the dividing line being the 38th parallel of latitude. This arrangement proves to be the indirect beginning of a divided Korea, which will lead to the Korean War when North Korea invades in 1950 . The Afghan government defeats a rebel force at Kunar Khas ; Gerald Crichton, the British Charge de 'affairs in Kabul, later describes the victory as the "turning point" of the Afghan tribal revolts of 1944–1947 . [ 60 ] September 9 Chairman of the Nationalist Government of China Chiang Kai-shek officially accepts the Japanese capitulation at Nanking . [ 59 ] Japanese troops in Keijō (present day Seoul ) formally relinquish control over Southern Korea to the United States, effectively ending Japan's 35-year rule of Korea. [ 61 ] Chairman of the Nationalist Government of China Chiang Kai-shek officially accepts the Japanese capitulation at Nanking . [ 59 ] Japanese troops in Keijō (present day Seoul ) formally relinquish control over Southern Korea to the United States, effectively ending Japan's 35-year rule of Korea. [ 61 ] September 10 – Vidkun Quisling is sentenced to death for being a Nazi collaborator in Norway. [ 59 ] September 11 Hideki Tojo , Japanese prime minister during most of World War II, attempts to commit suicide to avoid facing an Allied war crimes tribunal. Radio Republik Indonesia starts broadcasting. The Batu Lintang camp in Sarawak , Borneo is liberated by Australian forces. Hideki Tojo , Japanese prime minister during most of World War II, attempts to commit suicide to avoid facing an Allied war crimes tribunal. Radio Republik Indonesia starts broadcasting. The Batu Lintang camp in Sarawak , Borneo is liberated by Australian forces. September 12 Operation Tiderace : The Japanese Army formally surrenders to the British in Singapore . The office of governor-general of Korea is disbanded by the United States Army Military Government in Korea, formally ending Japan's 35-year rule in Korea. Operation Tiderace : The Japanese Army formally surrenders to the British in Singapore . The office of governor-general of Korea is disbanded by the United States Army Military Government in Korea, formally ending Japan's 35-year rule in Korea. September 18 Typhoon Makurazaki kills 3,746 people in Japan. The Japanese Army in Central China officially surrenders to the Chinese, in Wuhan . Typhoon Makurazaki kills 3,746 people in Japan. The Japanese Army in Central China officially surrenders to the Chinese, in Wuhan . September 20 – Mohandas Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru demand that all British troops depart India. September 24 – Postwar anti-Jewish violence in Slovakia : The Topoľčany pogrom is carried out in Czechoslovakia. October October – Arthur C. Clarke puts forward the idea of a geosynchronous communications satellite , in a Wireless World magazine article. October 1 – 15 – Operation Backfire : Three A4 rockets are launched near Cuxhaven , in a demonstration to Allied forces. October 2 – George Albert Smith becomes president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints . October 4 – The Partizan Belgrade sports club is founded in Belgrade , Serbia . October 5 – Hollywood Black Friday : A strike by the Set Decorator's Union in Hollywood results in a riot. October 8 – 15 – Hadamar Trial: Personnel of the Hadamar Euthanasia Centre , now in the American zone of Allied-occupied Germany , are the first to be tried for systematic extermination in Nazi Germany . October 9 – Former prime minister Pierre Laval is sentenced to death, for collaboration with the Nazis in Vichy France . [ 59 ] October 10 – The Nazi Party is dissolved by the Allied Powers. October 14 – Czechoslovakia : A new provisional national assembly is elected, Kim Il Sung made his first major public appearance in Pyongyang as the celebration of liberation where he was officially introduced to the public by the Soviet authorities as a national hero, a legendary guerrilla fighter and leader. [ 59 ] October 15 – 21 – The Fifth Pan-African Congress is held in Manchester . October 16 – The Food and Agriculture Organization is established at a meeting in Quebec City , as a specialized agency of the United Nations , Syngman Rhee returned to the southern peninsula of Korea as he arrived in Seoul by becoming a prominent figure under the U.S. occupation. October 17 – A massive number of people, headed for the General Confederation of Labour (Argentina) , gather in the Plaza de Mayo in Buenos Aires to demand Juan Perón 's release. This is known to the Peronists as the Día de la lealtad ( Loyalty Day ) and considered the founding day of Peronism . October 18 – Isaías Medina Angarita , president of Venezuela , is overthrown by a military coup . [ 59 ] October 19 – Members of the Indonesian People's Army attack Anglo-Dutch forces in Indonesia . [ 59 ] October 20 – Mongolians vote for independence from China. [ 59 ] October 21 – Women's suffrage : Women are allowed to vote in the French Legislative Election for the first time. October 22 – Rómulo Betancourt is named provisional president of Venezuela . [ 59 ] October 24 The United Nations is founded by ratification of its Charter , by 29 nations such as the United Kingdom , the United States , France , Canada , Egypt , Brazil , Haiti , Luxembourg , Russia (former USSR ) and others. [ 59 ] The International Court of Justice ("World Court") is established by the United Nations Charter . Norwegian Nazi leader Vidkun Quisling is executed by firing squad , for treason against Norway. [ 59 ] The United Nations is founded by ratification of its Charter , by 29 nations such as the United Kingdom , the United States , France , Canada , Egypt , Brazil , Haiti , Luxembourg , Russia (former USSR ) and others. [ 59 ] The International Court of Justice ("World Court") is established by the United Nations Charter . Norwegian Nazi leader Vidkun Quisling is executed by firing squad , for treason against Norway. [ 59 ] October 25 WWII: Japanese armed forces in Taiwan surrender to the Allies. Getúlio Vargas is deposed as president in Brazil; José Linhares is named temporary president. [ 59 ] Osijek prison massacre by Yugoslav secret police. WWII: Japanese armed forces in Taiwan surrender to the Allies. Getúlio Vargas is deposed as president in Brazil; José Linhares is named temporary president. [ 59 ] Osijek prison massacre by Yugoslav secret police. October 27 – November 20 – Indonesian National Revolution : Battle of Surabaya – Pro-independence Indonesian soldiers and militia fight British and British Indian troops in Surabaya . October 29 Getúlio Vargas resigns as president of Brazil. At Gimbels Department Store in New York City, the first ballpoint pens go on sale at $12.50 each. Getúlio Vargas resigns as president of Brazil. At Gimbels Department Store in New York City, the first ballpoint pens go on sale at $12.50 each. October 30 – The undivided country of India joins the United Nations . November November 1 International Labour Organization 's new constitution comes into effect. Telechron introduces the model 8H59 Musalarm, the first clock radio . Australia joins the United Nations . International Labour Organization 's new constitution comes into effect. Telechron introduces the model 8H59 Musalarm, the first clock radio . Australia joins the United Nations . November 5 – Colombia joins the United Nations . November 6 – Indonesians reject an offer of autonomy from the Dutch . [ 59 ] November 7 – South Africa and Mexico both joined the United Nations . November 9 – Soo Bahk Do and Moo Duk Kwan martial arts are founded in Korea . November 10 – Indonesian National Revolution : Battle of Surabaya – Following the killing of British officer Brigadier A. W. S. Mallaby on October 30, the British Indian Army (in support of its allied Dutch colonial administration) begins an advance on Surabaya in the Dutch East Indies against Indonesian nationalists; although most of the city is retaken in 3 days of heavy fighting, the strength of the resistance leads to today being celebrated as Heroes' Day (Hari Pahlawan) in Indonesia. November 11 – 1945 Yugoslavian parliamentary election : Marshal Josip Broz Tito and the People's Front win a decisive majority (90%) in the Yugoslavian Assembly. [ 59 ] November 15 Harry S. Truman , Clement Attlee and Mackenzie King share nuclear information with the U.N. and call for a United Nations Atomic Energy Commission . [ 51 ] [ 59 ] An offensive is begun in Manchuria by the Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalists) against further infiltration by the Chinese Communist Party . [ 59 ] Harry S. Truman , Clement Attlee and Mackenzie King share nuclear information with the U.N. and call for a United Nations Atomic Energy Commission . [ 51 ] [ 59 ] An offensive is begun in Manchuria by the Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalists) against further infiltration by the Chinese Communist Party . [ 59 ] November 16 Charles de Gaulle is unanimously elected president of France by the provisional government . [ 59 ] The United States controversially imports 88 German scientists to help in the production of rocket technology. The foundation of UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) is agreed at a meeting in London. Charles de Gaulle is unanimously elected president of France by the provisional government . [ 59 ] The United States controversially imports 88 German scientists to help in the production of rocket technology. The foundation of UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) is agreed at a meeting in London. November 18 – The Tudeh party starts a bloodless coup, and will form Azerbaijan within days. Soviet troops prevent Iranian troops from getting involved. November 20 – The Nuremberg trials begin: Trials against 22 Nazis for war crimes of World War II start at the Palace of Justice, Nuremberg . [ 59 ] November 26 – U.S. ambassador to China Patrick J. Hurley resigns after he is unable to broker a deal between Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Tse-tung . [ 59 ] November 28 The 1945 Balochistan earthquake causes a tsunami and kills 4,000. British fascist John Amery pleads guilty to treason, and is condemned to death. [ 62 ] The 1945 Balochistan earthquake causes a tsunami and kills 4,000. British fascist John Amery pleads guilty to treason, and is condemned to death. [ 62 ] November 29 The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is declared (this day is celebrated as Republic Day until the 1990s). Marshal Tito is named president. Assembly of the world's first general purpose electronic computer, the Electronic Numerical Integrator Analyzer and Computer ( ENIAC ), is completed in the United States, covering 1,800 square feet (170 m 2 ) of floor space, and the first set of calculations is run on it. The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is declared (this day is celebrated as Republic Day until the 1990s). Marshal Tito is named president. Assembly of the world's first general purpose electronic computer, the Electronic Numerical Integrator Analyzer and Computer ( ENIAC ), is completed in the United States, covering 1,800 square feet (170 m 2 ) of floor space, and the first set of calculations is run on it. December December 1 – German general Anton Dostler is executed by firing squad in Italy for the war crime of ordering the summary execution of captured U.S. commandos. The U.S. military tribunal which has tried him has not accepted his plea of " superior orders ", setting a precedent for future Allied war crimes trials . [ 63 ] December 2 General Eurico Gaspar Dutra is elected president of Brazil. French banks ( Bank of France , BNCI , CNEP , Crédit Lyonnais and Société Générale ) are nationalized. General Eurico Gaspar Dutra is elected president of Brazil. French banks ( Bank of France , BNCI , CNEP , Crédit Lyonnais and Société Générale ) are nationalized. December 3 – Communist demonstrations in Athens presage the Greek Civil War . December 4 – The United States Senate approves the entry of the United States into the United Nations by a vote of 65–7. December 5 – Flight 19 of United States Navy Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bombers disappears on a training exercise from Naval Air Station Fort Lauderdale . December 9 – American General George S. Patton is involved in a car accident in Germany, resulting in his death on December 21. December 21 – Iraq joins the United Nations . December 27 – Twenty-one nations ratify the articles creating the World Bank . [ 64 ] Date unknown A team at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (led by Charles D. Coryell ) discovers chemical element 61, the only one still missing between 1 and 96 on the periodic table , which they will name promethium . [ 65 ] Found by analysis of fission products of irradiated uranium fuel, its discovery is not made public until 1947. The Australian government introduces an Assisted Passage Migration Scheme to encourage the immigration of British subjects, at a fare of £ 10, hence they become known as " Ten Pound Poms ". [ 66 ] The first geothermal milk pasteurization is done in Klamath Falls, Oregon , United States. Births Births January · February · March · April · May · June · July · August · September · October · November · December January January 1 Pietro Grasso , Italian politician Jacky Ickx , Belgian racing driver Pietro Grasso , Italian politician Jacky Ickx , Belgian racing driver January 3 – Stephen Stills , American rock singer-songwriter ( Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young ) January 4 Sima Bina , Iranian vocalist Richard R. Schrock , American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate Sima Bina , Iranian vocalist Richard R. Schrock , American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate January 5 Júlio Isidro , Portuguese television presenter Robert Pindyck , American economist Júlio Isidro , Portuguese television presenter Robert Pindyck , American economist January 7 Shulamith Firestone , Canadian American feminist, writer (d. 2012 ) Raila Odinga , prime minister of Kenya (d. 2025 ) Shulamith Firestone , Canadian American feminist, writer (d. 2012 ) Raila Odinga , prime minister of Kenya (d. 2025 ) January 10 – Sir Rod Stewart , British rock singer January 12 – André Bicaba , Burkinabé sprinter January 14 – Einar Hákonarson , Icelandic painter January 15 Vince Foster , American deputy White House counsel during the first term of President Bill Clinton (d. 1993 ) Princess Michael of Kent , German-born member of the British Royal Family Vince Foster , American deputy White House counsel during the first term of President Bill Clinton (d. 1993 ) Princess Michael of Kent , German-born member of the British Royal Family January 17 – Javed Akhtar , Indian political activist, poet, lyricist and screenwriter January 20 – Robert Olen Butler , American writer January 21 Arthur Beetson , Australian rugby league player and coach (d. 2011 ) Martin Shaw , British actor Arthur Beetson , Australian rugby league player and coach (d. 2011 ) Martin Shaw , British actor January 24 – Subhash Ghai , Indian film director, producer and screenwriter January 25 – Leigh Taylor-Young , American actress January 26 Jacqueline du Pré , English cellist (d. 1987 ) Graham Williams , New Zealand rugby union player (d. 2018 ) Jacqueline du Pré , English cellist (d. 1987 ) Graham Williams , New Zealand rugby union player (d. 2018 ) January 27 – Harold Cardinal , Cree political leader, writer and lawyer (d. 2005 ) January 28 Karen Lynn Gorney , American actress ( Saturday Night Fever ) Chuck Pyle , American country-folk singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) Karen Lynn Gorney , American actress ( Saturday Night Fever ) Chuck Pyle , American country-folk singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) January 29 Jim Nicholson , Northern Irish politician Tom Selleck , American actor ( Magnum, P.I. ) Jim Nicholson , Northern Irish politician Tom Selleck , American actor ( Magnum, P.I. ) January 31 – Joseph Kosuth , American artist February February 1 – Yasuhiro Takai , Japanese professional baseball player (d. 2019 ) February 3 Bob Griese , American football player Philip Waruinge , Kenyan boxer Bob Griese , American football player Philip Waruinge , Kenyan boxer February 4 – John P. Jumper , United States Air Force general February 5 – Sarah Weddington , American attorney (d. 2021 ) February 6 – Bob Marley , Jamaican reggae singer-songwriter and musician (d. 1981 ) February 7 – Gerald Davies , Welsh rugby player February 9 Mia Farrow , American actress Yoshinori Ohsumi , Japanese cell biologist [ 67 ] Mia Farrow , American actress Yoshinori Ohsumi , Japanese cell biologist [ 67 ] February 10 – Koo Bon-moo , South Korean business executive (d. 2018 ) February 12 Luiz Carlos Alborghetti , Italian-Brazilian radio commenter, showman and political figure (d. 2009 ) Maud Adams , Swedish actress David D. Friedman , American economist Luiz Carlos Alborghetti , Italian-Brazilian radio commenter, showman and political figure (d. 2009 ) Maud Adams , Swedish actress David D. Friedman , American economist February 13 – Simon Schama , English historian [ 68 ] February 14 Adiss Harmandian , Lebanese-Armenian pop singer (d. 2019 ) Hans-Adam II, Prince of Liechtenstein Adiss Harmandian , Lebanese-Armenian pop singer (d. 2019 ) Hans-Adam II, Prince of Liechtenstein February 15 – Douglas Hofstadter , American cognitive scientist February 17 – Brenda Fricker , Irish actress [ 69 ] February 18 – Hashem Mahameed , Israeli politician (d. 2018 ) February 22 – Oliver , American singer ( Good Morning Starshine ) (d. 2000 ) February 24 – Barry Bostwick , American actor February 25 – Roy Saari , American swimmer (d. 2008 ) February 26 – Marta Kristen , Norwegian actress ( Lost In Space ) February 27 – Carl Anderson , American singer, actor ( Jesus Christ Superstar ) (d. 2004 ) February 28 Alexey Ekimov , Russian-born chemist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 70 ] Bubba Smith , American football player and actor (d. 2011 ) Alexey Ekimov , Russian-born chemist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 70 ] Bubba Smith , American football player and actor (d. 2011 ) March March 1 – Dirk Benedict , American actor March 3 – George Miller , Australian film director March 4 Dieter Meier , Swiss singer, writer Tommy Svensson , Swedish football manager, player Dieter Meier , Swiss singer, writer Tommy Svensson , Swedish football manager, player March 7 – Arthur Lee , American musician (d. 2006 ) March 8 Micky Dolenz , American actor, director and rock musician ( The Monkees ) Anselm Kiefer , German painter Micky Dolenz , American actor, director and rock musician ( The Monkees ) Anselm Kiefer , German painter March 9 Katja Ebstein , German singer Dennis Rader , American serial killer Katja Ebstein , German singer Dennis Rader , American serial killer March 10 – Nobuhiko Higashikuni , Japanese Imperial prince (d. 2019 ) March 13 Othman Abdullah , Malaysian footballer (d. 2015 ) Anatoly Fomenko , Russian mathematician Othman Abdullah , Malaysian footballer (d. 2015 ) Anatoly Fomenko , Russian mathematician March 14 – Michael Martin Murphey , American country singer-songwriter March 16 – Douglas Ahlstedt , American tenor March 17 Hassan Bechara , Lebanese wrestler (d. 2017 ) Hassan Bechara , Lebanese wrestler (d. 2017 ) March 18 Michael Reagan , American television personality, political commentator and Republican strategist Marta Suplicy , Brazilian politician and psychologist Michael Reagan , American television personality, political commentator and Republican strategist Marta Suplicy , Brazilian politician and psychologist March 20 Jay Ingram , Canadian television host, author and journalist Bobby Jameson , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) Pat Riley , American basketball coach Jay Ingram , Canadian television host, author and journalist Bobby Jameson , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) Pat Riley , American basketball coach March 21 – Charles Greene , American Olympic athlete (d. 2022 ) March 26 – Mikhail Voronin , Russian gymnast (d. 2004 ) March 27 – Władysław Stachurski , Polish football player, manager (d. 2013 ) March 28 Rodrigo Duterte , 16th President of the Philippines Raine Loo , Estonian actress Rodrigo Duterte , 16th President of the Philippines Raine Loo , Estonian actress March 29 Walt Frazier , African-American basketball player Willem Ruis , Dutch game show host (d. 1986 ) Walt Frazier , African-American basketball player Willem Ruis , Dutch game show host (d. 1986 ) March 30 – Eric Clapton , English rock guitarist and singer-songwriter [ 71 ] March 31 Nana Ampadu , Ghanaian musician (d. 2021 ) [ 72 ] Edwin Catmull , American computer scientist, President of Walt Disney Animation Studios [ 73 ] Nana Ampadu , Ghanaian musician (d. 2021 ) [ 72 ] Edwin Catmull , American computer scientist, President of Walt Disney Animation Studios [ 73 ] April April 2 – Linda Hunt , American actress [ 74 ] April 4 – Daniel Cohn-Bendit , French political activist [ 75 ] April 5 Cem Karaca , Turkish musician (d. 2004 ) Tommy Smith , English footballer (d. 2019 ) Cem Karaca , Turkish musician (d. 2004 ) Tommy Smith , English footballer (d. 2019 ) April 12 – Lee Jong-wook , South Korean Director-General of the World Health Organization (d. 2006 ) April 13 Lucha Corpi , Mexican poet Tony Dow , American actor, producer and director (d. 2022 ) Lowell George , American rock musician ( Little Feat ) (d. 1979 ) Lucha Corpi , Mexican poet Tony Dow , American actor, producer and director (d. 2022 ) Lowell George , American rock musician ( Little Feat ) (d. 1979 ) April 14 Ritchie Blackmore , English rock guitarist Tuilaʻepa Saʻilele Malielegaoi , 6th Prime Minister of Samoa Ritchie Blackmore , English rock guitarist Tuilaʻepa Saʻilele Malielegaoi , 6th Prime Minister of Samoa April 20 – Naftali Temu , Kenyan Olympic long-distance runner (d. 2003 ) April 21 – Ana Lúcia Torre , Brazilian actress April 24 – Larry Tesler , American computer scientist (cut, copy, paste) (d. 2020 ) April 25 – Björn Ulvaeus , Swedish rock songwriter ( ABBA ) April 29 – Tammi Terrell , African-American soul singer (d. 1970 ) April 30 – Lara Saint Paul , Eritrean-born Italian singer (d. 2018 ) May May 1 – Rita Coolidge , American pop singer May 2 – Bianca Jagger , Nicaraguan social activist [ 76 ] May 3 – Jeffrey C. Hall , American geneticist and chronobiologist, Nobel Prize laureate May 4 David Magson , Australian-British mathematician and businessman Narasimhan Ram , Indian journalist David Magson , Australian-British mathematician and businessman Narasimhan Ram , Indian journalist May 6 – Bob Seger , American rock singer May 7 – Robin Strasser , American actress May 8 – Keith Jarrett , American musician [ 77 ] May 9 – Jupp Heynckes , German footballer and manager May 11 Mary Cooney , American politician Hilda Pérez Carvajal , Venezuelan biologist Mary Cooney , American politician Hilda Pérez Carvajal , Venezuelan biologist May 13 – Tammam Salam , 34th Prime Minister of Lebanon May 14 – Yochanan Vollach , Israeli footballer and president of Maccabi Haifa, CEO May 15 – Duarte Pio, Duke of Braganza , heir to the Portuguese crown May 17 – Tony Roche , Australian tennis player May 19 – Pete Townshend , English rock guitarist, lyricist ( The Who ) May 20 – Anton Zeilinger , Austrian quantum physicist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 78 ] May 21 Richard Hatch , American actor ( Battlestar Galactica ) (d. 2017 ) Ernst Messerschmid , German physicist, astronaut Richard Hatch , American actor ( Battlestar Galactica ) (d. 2017 ) Ernst Messerschmid , German physicist, astronaut May 22 – Victoria Wyndham , American actress ( Another World ) May 23 Lauren Chapin , American child actress, evangelist Doris Mae Oulton , Canadian community developer Lauren Chapin , American child actress, evangelist Doris Mae Oulton , Canadian community developer May 24 – Priscilla Presley , American actress, businesswoman May 28 Patch Adams , American physician, comedian, social activist, clown and author John Fogerty , American rock singer ( Creedence Clearwater Revival ) Patch Adams , American physician, comedian, social activist, clown and author John Fogerty , American rock singer ( Creedence Clearwater Revival ) May 29 Gary Brooker , English rock keyboardist and singer-songwriter ( Procol Harum ) (d. 2022 ) [ 79 ] Jean-Pierre Van Rossem , Belgian businessman, fraudster and politician (d. 2018 ) Gary Brooker , English rock keyboardist and singer-songwriter ( Procol Harum ) (d. 2022 ) [ 79 ] Jean-Pierre Van Rossem , Belgian businessman, fraudster and politician (d. 2018 ) May 30 Andrea Bronfman , American philanthropist (d. 2006 ) Gladys Horton , American singer ( The Marvelettes ) (d. 2011 ) Andrea Bronfman , American philanthropist (d. 2006 ) Gladys Horton , American singer ( The Marvelettes ) (d. 2011 ) May 31 Rainer Werner Fassbinder , German film director (d. 1982 ) Laurent Gbagbo , President of Côte d'Ivoire Rainer Werner Fassbinder , German film director (d. 1982 ) Laurent Gbagbo , President of Côte d'Ivoire June June 1 – Frederica von Stade , American mezzo-soprano June 2 – Jon Peters , American film producer June 3 – Hale Irwin , American professional golfer June 4 – Anthony Braxton , American composer and musical instrumentalist June 5 John Carlos , American athlete Théophile Georges Kassab , Catholic prelate (d. 2013 ) Nechama Rivlin , Israeli socialite, 10th First lady of Israel (d. 2019 ) John Carlos , American athlete Théophile Georges Kassab , Catholic prelate (d. 2013 ) Nechama Rivlin , Israeli socialite, 10th First lady of Israel (d. 2019 ) June 6 – David Dukes , American actor (d. 2000 ) June 7 – Wolfgang Schüssel , Chancellor of Austria June 9 – Nike Wagner , German woman of the theater June 10 – Benny Gallagher , Scottish singer-songwriter and multi-instrumentalist, half of duo Gallagher and Lyle June 11 – Adrienne Barbeau , American actress, television personality and author ( Maude ) June 12 – Pat Jennings , Northern Irish footballer June 14 – Jörg Immendorff , German painter June 15 Françoise Chandernagor , French writer Miriam Defensor Santiago , Filipino politician (d. 2016 ) Françoise Chandernagor , French writer Miriam Defensor Santiago , Filipino politician (d. 2016 ) June 16 Claire Alexander , Canadian ice hockey player Ivan Lins , Latin Grammy-winning Brazilian musician Claire Alexander , Canadian ice hockey player Ivan Lins , Latin Grammy-winning Brazilian musician June 17 P. D. T. Acharya , Secretary General, Indian Lok Sabha Art Bell , American radio talk show host ( Coast to Coast AM ) (d. 2018 ) Ken Livingstone , British politician Eddy Merckx , Belgian cyclist P. D. T. Acharya , Secretary General, Indian Lok Sabha Art Bell , American radio talk show host ( Coast to Coast AM ) (d. 2018 ) Ken Livingstone , British politician Eddy Merckx , Belgian cyclist June 19 Radovan Karadžić , Serbian politician Aung San Suu Kyi , Myanmar politician and poet, Nobel Peace Prize recipient Radovan Karadžić , Serbian politician Aung San Suu Kyi , Myanmar politician and poet, Nobel Peace Prize recipient June 20 – Anne Murray , Canadian singer June 21 Roberto D'Angelo , Italian slalom canoeist Luis Castañeda Lossio , Peruvian politician Thiagarajan , Indian actor, director and producer Nirmalendu Goon , Bangladeshi poet Marijana Lubej , Slovenian sprinter Roberto D'Angelo , Italian slalom canoeist Luis Castañeda Lossio , Peruvian politician Thiagarajan , Indian actor, director and producer Nirmalendu Goon , Bangladeshi poet Marijana Lubej , Slovenian sprinter June 22 Juma Kapuya , Tanzanian politician Dieter Versen , German football defender (d. 2025 ) Juma Kapuya , Tanzanian politician Dieter Versen , German football defender (d. 2025 ) June 23 Ana Chumachenco , Italian violinist Kim Småge , Norwegian novelist, crime fiction writer, writer of short stories and children's writer Ana Chumachenco , Italian violinist Kim Småge , Norwegian novelist, crime fiction writer, writer of short stories and children's writer June 24 George Pataki , Governor of New York Betty Stöve , Dutch tennis player [ 80 ] Ali Akbar Velayati , Iranian physician, politician George Pataki , Governor of New York Betty Stöve , Dutch tennis player [ 80 ] Ali Akbar Velayati , Iranian physician, politician June 25 Lali Armengol , Spanish playwright, professor and theater director [ 81 ] Mohammed Bakar , Malaysian footballer Carolyn Cheeks Kilpatrick , American politician Baba Gana Kingibe , Nigerian politician Guillermo Mendoza , Mexican cyclist Chaiyasit Shinawatra , commander-in-chief of the Royal Thai Army Lali Armengol , Spanish playwright, professor and theater director [ 81 ] Mohammed Bakar , Malaysian footballer Carolyn Cheeks Kilpatrick , American politician Baba Gana Kingibe , Nigerian politician Guillermo Mendoza , Mexican cyclist Chaiyasit Shinawatra , commander-in-chief of the Royal Thai Army June 26 – Paul Chun , Hong Kong actor June 27 Jose Miguel Arroyo , First Gentleman of the Philippines Ami Ayalon , Israeli politician Norma Kamali , American fashion designer Catherine Lacoste , French amateur golfer Lu Sheng-yen , Taiwanese leader of the True Buddha School Jose Miguel Arroyo , First Gentleman of the Philippines Ami Ayalon , Israeli politician Norma Kamali , American fashion designer Catherine Lacoste , French amateur golfer Lu Sheng-yen , Taiwanese leader of the True Buddha School June 28 Ken Buchanan , Scottish undisputed world lightweight boxing champion (d. 2023 ) Raul Seixas , Brazilian rock singer (d. 1989 ) Ken Buchanan , Scottish undisputed world lightweight boxing champion (d. 2023 ) Raul Seixas , Brazilian rock singer (d. 1989 ) June 29 – Chandrika Kumaratunga , 5th President of Sri Lanka June 30 Kevin Jackman , Australian rules footballer Jerry Kenney , American Major League Baseball infielder Sean Scully , Irish-American-based painter, printmaker James Snyder Jr. , American author, attorney and politician Kevin Jackman , Australian rules footballer Jerry Kenney , American Major League Baseball infielder Sean Scully , Irish-American-based painter, printmaker James Snyder Jr. , American author, attorney and politician July July 1 Jane Cederqvist , Swedish freestyle swimmer Visu , Indian writer, director, stage, actor and talk-show host (d. 2020 ) Billy Rohr , American Major League Baseball player Debbie Harry , American rock singer ( Blondie ) Jane Cederqvist , Swedish freestyle swimmer Visu , Indian writer, director, stage, actor and talk-show host (d. 2020 ) Billy Rohr , American Major League Baseball player Debbie Harry , American rock singer ( Blondie ) July 2 – Linda Warren , American author July 3 – Thomas Mapfumo , Zimbabwean musician July 4 Tiong Thai King , Malaysian politician Steinar Amundsen , Norwegian sprint canoeist Tiong Thai King , Malaysian politician Steinar Amundsen , Norwegian sprint canoeist July 5 Nurul Islam Nahid , Bangladeshi politician Miroslav Mišković , Serbian business magnate, investor Nurul Islam Nahid , Bangladeshi politician Miroslav Mišković , Serbian business magnate, investor July 6 – Burt Ward , American actor ( Batman ) July 7 Heloísa Pinheiro , Brazilian model, businesswoman Moncef Marzouki , Tunisian politician; 4th President of Tunisia Li Chi-an , North Korean football striker Matti Salminen , Finnish bass singer Heloísa Pinheiro , Brazilian model, businesswoman Moncef Marzouki , Tunisian politician; 4th President of Tunisia Li Chi-an , North Korean football striker Matti Salminen , Finnish bass singer July 8 – Micheline Calmy-Rey , Swiss Federal Councilor July 9 Dean Koontz , American writer Mohammad Reza Nematzadeh , Iranian politician, engineer Dean Koontz , American writer Mohammad Reza Nematzadeh , Iranian politician, engineer July 10 Zlatko Tomčić , Croatian politician Daniel Ona Ondo , Gabonese politician Virginia Wade , English professional tennis player Ron Glass , African-American actor (d. 2016 ) Zlatko Tomčić , Croatian politician Daniel Ona Ondo , Gabonese politician Virginia Wade , English professional tennis player Ron Glass , African-American actor (d. 2016 ) July 11 – Richard Wesley , American playwright, screenwriter July 12 Leopoldo Mastelloni , Italian actor, comedian and singer Thor Martinsen , Norwegian ice hockey player Leopoldo Mastelloni , Italian actor, comedian and singer Thor Martinsen , Norwegian ice hockey player July 14 – Antun Vujić , Croatian politician, philosopher, political analyst, lexicographer and author July 15 Hong Ra-hee , South Korean billionaire businesswoman, philanthropist Jürgen Möllemann , German politician (d. 2003 ) Jan-Michael Vincent , American actor (d. 2019 ) Hong Ra-hee , South Korean billionaire businesswoman, philanthropist Jürgen Möllemann , German politician (d. 2003 ) Jan-Michael Vincent , American actor (d. 2019 ) July 16 Victor Sloan , Irish artist Çetin Tekindor , Turkish actor Roy Ho Ten Soeng , Dutch politician Jos Stelling , Dutch film director, screenwriter Victor Sloan , Irish artist Çetin Tekindor , Turkish actor Roy Ho Ten Soeng , Dutch politician Jos Stelling , Dutch film director, screenwriter July 17 Eduardo Olivera , Mexican modern pentathlete Kim Won-hong , North Korean politician, military leader Alexander, Crown Prince of Yugoslavia Eduardo Olivera , Mexican modern pentathlete Kim Won-hong , North Korean politician, military leader Alexander, Crown Prince of Yugoslavia July 19 Oleg Fotin , Russian swimmer Richard Henderson , Scottish molecular biologist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 82 ] Uri Rosenthal , Dutch politician Oleg Fotin , Russian swimmer Richard Henderson , Scottish molecular biologist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 82 ] Uri Rosenthal , Dutch politician July 20 Kim Carnes , American singer-songwriter ( Bette Davis Eyes ) Lothar Koepsel , German sailor Simbarashe Mumbengegwi , Zimbabwean politician and diplomat Kim Carnes , American singer-songwriter ( Bette Davis Eyes ) Lothar Koepsel , German sailor Simbarashe Mumbengegwi , Zimbabwean politician and diplomat July 21 John Lowe , English darts player Barry Richards , South African batsman John Lowe , English darts player Barry Richards , South African batsman July 23 – Edie McClurg , American actress July 24 – Azim Premji , Indian businessman July 26 Helen Mirren , British actress Helen Mirren , British actress July 28 – Jim Davis , American cartoonist ( Garfield ) July 30 Roger Dobkowitz , American producer Patrick Modiano , French novelist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 83 ] David Sanborn , American saxophonist (d. 2024 ) Roger Dobkowitz , American producer Patrick Modiano , French novelist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 83 ] David Sanborn , American saxophonist (d. 2024 ) August August 1 – Douglas Osheroff , American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate August 4 – Alan Mulally , American businessman, CEO of the Ford Motor Company August 5 – Loni Anderson , American actress ( WKRP in Cincinnati ) (d. 2025 ) August 8 – Julie Anne Robinson , British theatre, television, film director and producer August 9 – Posy Simmonds , English cartoonist August 12 Ron Mael , American musician ( Sparks ) [ 84 ] J. D. McClatchy , American poet and literary critic (d. 2018 ) Ron Mael , American musician ( Sparks ) [ 84 ] J. D. McClatchy , American poet and literary critic (d. 2018 ) August 14 Steve Martin , American actor and comedian Valeriy Shmarov , Ukrainian politician (d. 2018 ) Eliana Pittman , Brazilian singer, actress Faustin Twagiramungu , Prime Minister of Rwanda (d. 2023 ) Wim Wenders , German film director, producer Steve Martin , American actor and comedian Valeriy Shmarov , Ukrainian politician (d. 2018 ) Eliana Pittman , Brazilian singer, actress Faustin Twagiramungu , Prime Minister of Rwanda (d. 2023 ) Wim Wenders , German film director, producer August 15 Bobby Treviño , Mexican baseball player (d. 2018 ) Miyuki Matsuhisa , Japanese artistic gymnast Khaleda Zia , Bangladesh politician, Prime Minister of Bangladesh (d. 2025 ) [ 85 ] Bobby Treviño , Mexican baseball player (d. 2018 ) Miyuki Matsuhisa , Japanese artistic gymnast Khaleda Zia , Bangladesh politician, Prime Minister of Bangladesh (d. 2025 ) [ 85 ] August 17 – Katri Helena , Finnish singer August 19 – Ian Gillan , English rock singer ( Deep Purple ) August 22 David Chase , American writer, director and television producer Ron Dante , American rock singer-songwriter and record producer ( The Archies ) David Chase , American writer, director and television producer Ron Dante , American rock singer-songwriter and record producer ( The Archies ) August 24 – Vincent K. "Vince" McMahon , American professional wrestling promoter, chairman and CEO of WWE August 25 – Daniel Hulet , Belgian cartoonist (d. 2011 ) August 26 – Tom Ridge , American politician August 27 – Marianne Sägebrecht , German film actress August 29 Alyosha Abrahamyan , Armenian football player (d. 2018 ) Wyomia Tyus , American Olympic athlete Alyosha Abrahamyan , Armenian football player (d. 2018 ) Wyomia Tyus , American Olympic athlete August 31 Sir Van Morrison , Irish rock musician Itzhak Perlman , Israeli-born American violinist, conductor Sir Van Morrison , Irish rock musician Itzhak Perlman , Israeli-born American violinist, conductor September September 1 – Mustafa Balel , Turkish writer September 5 K. N. T. Sastry , Indian film critic, director and writer (d. 2018 ) Al Stewart , Scottish singer-songwriter ( Year of the Cat ) K. N. T. Sastry , Indian film critic, director and writer (d. 2018 ) Al Stewart , Scottish singer-songwriter ( Year of the Cat ) September 6 – Victor Ramahatra , 5th Prime Minister of Madagascar September 7 – Jacques Lemaire , Canadian ice hockey coach September 8 Ron "Pigpen" McKernan , American musician ( Grateful Dead ) (d. 1973 ) Rogatien Vachon , Canadian ice hockey player Ron "Pigpen" McKernan , American musician ( Grateful Dead ) (d. 1973 ) Rogatien Vachon , Canadian ice hockey player September 10 – José Feliciano , Puerto Rican-American singer (" Feliz Navidad ") September 11 – Franz Beckenbauer , German footballer and manager (d. 2024 ) September 12 – Richard Thaler , American economist September 14 – Benjamin Harjo Jr. , Native American artist September 15 – Jessye Norman , American soprano (d. 2019 ) September 16 – Pat Stevens , American voice actress (d. 2010 ) September 17 Phil Jackson , American basketball coach Bruce Spence , Australian actor Phil Jackson , American basketball coach Bruce Spence , Australian actor September 18 John McAfee , British-American computer programmer and businessman (d. 2021 ) [ 86 ] P. F. Sloan , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) John McAfee , British-American computer programmer and businessman (d. 2021 ) [ 86 ] P. F. Sloan , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) September 19 - Randolph Mantooth , American actor September 21 Shaw Clifton , Northern Ireland-born General of the Salvation Army Kay Ryan , American poet Shaw Clifton , Northern Ireland-born General of the Salvation Army Kay Ryan , American poet September 22 – Gonzaguinha , Brazilian singer, composer (d. 1991 ) September 24 – John Rutter , English choral composer, conductor September 26 – Bryan Ferry , English singer-songwriter and musician ( Roxy Music ) September 27 – Jack Goldstein , Canadian artist (d. 2003 ) September 29 – Nadezhda Chizhova , Russian athlete September 30 Ehud Olmert , 12th Prime Minister of Israel Ralph Siegel , German record producer, songwriter Ehud Olmert , 12th Prime Minister of Israel Ralph Siegel , German record producer, songwriter October October 1 Rod Carew , Panamanian-American baseball player Donny Hathaway , African-American soul singer-songwriter (d. 1979 ) Ram Nath Kovind , 14th President of India Rod Carew , Panamanian-American baseball player Donny Hathaway , African-American soul singer-songwriter (d. 1979 ) Ram Nath Kovind , 14th President of India October 2 Regina Torné , Mexican actress, singer and television presenter Don McLean , American singer-songwriter (" American Pie ") Regina Torné , Mexican actress, singer and television presenter Don McLean , American singer-songwriter (" American Pie ") October 3 – Viktor Saneyev , Soviet athlete and Olympic champion (d. 2022 ) October 6 – Ivan Graziani , Italian singer-songwriter (d. 1997 ) October 9 Vijaya Kumaratunga , Sri Lankan actor and politician (d. 1988 ) Archbishop Nikon of Boston , Albanian bishop (d. 2019 ) Vijaya Kumaratunga , Sri Lankan actor and politician (d. 1988 ) Archbishop Nikon of Boston , Albanian bishop (d. 2019 ) October 12 Aurore Clément , French actress Dusty Rhodes , American wrestler (d. 2015 ) Aurore Clément , French actress Dusty Rhodes , American wrestler (d. 2015 ) October 18 Norio Wakamoto , Japanese voice actor Yıldo , Turkish showman, footballer Norio Wakamoto , Japanese voice actor Yıldo , Turkish showman, footballer October 19 Angus Deaton , Scottish-born economist, recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences John Lithgow , American actor ( Third Rock from the Sun ) Angus Deaton , Scottish-born economist, recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences John Lithgow , American actor ( Third Rock from the Sun ) October 22 – Yvan Ponton , Canadian actor, sportscaster October 23 – Kim Larsen , Danish rock musician (d. 2018 ) October 24 Eugenie Scott , American Executive Director of the National Center for Science Education Sean Solomon , American Principal Investigator of NASA's MESSENGER mission to Mercury and director of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism at the Carnegie Institution for Science Eugenie Scott , American Executive Director of the National Center for Science Education Sean Solomon , American Principal Investigator of NASA's MESSENGER mission to Mercury and director of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism at the Carnegie Institution for Science October 25 Peter Ledger , Australian artist (d. 1994 ) David Schramm , American astrophysicist and educator (d. 1997 ) Keaton Yamada , Japanese voice actor Peter Ledger , Australian artist (d. 1994 ) David Schramm , American astrophysicist and educator (d. 1997 ) Keaton Yamada , Japanese voice actor October 26 Pat Conroy , American author (d. 2016 ) Jaclyn Smith , American actress, businesswoman ( Charlie's Angels ) Pat Conroy , American author (d. 2016 ) Jaclyn Smith , American actress, businesswoman ( Charlie's Angels ) October 27 Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva , 35th President of Brazil Carrie Snodgress , American actress (d. 2004 ) Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva , 35th President of Brazil Carrie Snodgress , American actress (d. 2004 ) October 29 Ching Li , Taiwanese actress (d. 2017 ) Melba Moore , African-American singer, actress Ching Li , Taiwanese actress (d. 2017 ) Melba Moore , African-American singer, actress October 30 – Henry Winkler , American actor, producer and director ( Happy Days ) November November 3 – Gerd Müller , German footballer (d. 2021 ) November 5 – Jacques Lanctôt , Canadian terrorist November 7 Bob Englehart , American editorial cartoonist Waljinah , Javanese singer Bob Englehart , American editorial cartoonist Waljinah , Javanese singer November 8 – Joseph James DeAngelo , American serial killer and serial rapist November 9 – Charlie Robinson , African-American actor (d. 2021 ) November 10 – Madeleine Juneau , Canadian museologist November 11 – Daniel Ortega , 58th and 62nd President of Nicaragua November 12 – Neil Young , Canadian singer-songwriter, musician November 15 – Anni-Frid Lyngstad , Norwegian-born rock singer ( ABBA ) November 17 Elvin Hayes , American basketball player Abdelmadjid Tebboune , President of Algeria Elvin Hayes , American basketball player Abdelmadjid Tebboune , President of Algeria November 18 Wilma Mankiller , Chief of the Cherokee Nation (d. 2010 ) Mahinda Rajapaksa , Sri Lankan politician, 6th President of Sri Lanka Wilma Mankiller , Chief of the Cherokee Nation (d. 2010 ) Mahinda Rajapaksa , Sri Lankan politician, 6th President of Sri Lanka November 21 – Goldie Hawn , American actress Kalervo Kummola – Finnish ice hockey executive, businessman, and politician Kalervo Kummola – Finnish ice hockey executive, businessman, and politician November 22 – Kari Tapio , Finnish singer (d. 2010 ) November 23 – Dennis Nilsen , Scottish serial killer (d. 2018 ) [ 87 ] November 24 – Nuruddin Farah , Somali novelist November 25 – Mary Jo Deschanel , American actress November 26 – John McVie , English rock musician ( Fleetwood Mac ) November 27 Barbara Anderson , American actress James Avery , African-American actor (d. 2013 ) Barbara Anderson , American actress James Avery , African-American actor (d. 2013 ) November 30 Roger Glover , English rock musician ( Deep Purple ) Radu Lupu , Romanian classical pianist (d. 2022 ) Roger Glover , English rock musician ( Deep Purple ) Radu Lupu , Romanian classical pianist (d. 2022 ) December December 1 Lyle Bien , American vice admiral [ 88 ] Bette Midler , American actress, comedian and singer Lyle Bien , American vice admiral [ 88 ] Bette Midler , American actress, comedian and singer December 2 – Tex Watson , American multiple murderer, 'Manson Family' member December 3 – Bozhidar Dimitrov , Bulgarian historian, politician and polemicist (d. 2018 ) December 4 – Geoff Emerick , English recording engineer (d. 2018 ) December 7 – Clive Russell , English actor December 8 – Julie Heldman , American tennis player [ 89 ] December 10 – John Ankerberg , American Christian television host, author and speaker December 11 – Sharafuddin of Selangor , Sultan of Selangor December 12 René Pétillon , French satirical, political cartoonist (d. 2018 ) Portia Simpson-Miller , 2-time Prime Minister of Jamaica Kathy Garver , American actress, author and online radio hostess Donald Pandiangan , Indonesian archery athlete (d. 2008 ) Heather North , American actress (d. 2017 ) René Pétillon , French satirical, political cartoonist (d. 2018 ) Portia Simpson-Miller , 2-time Prime Minister of Jamaica Kathy Garver , American actress, author and online radio hostess Donald Pandiangan , Indonesian archery athlete (d. 2008 ) Heather North , American actress (d. 2017 ) December 15 Michael King , New Zealand popular historian, author and biographer (d. 2004 ) Thaao Penghlis , Australian actor Michael King , New Zealand popular historian, author and biographer (d. 2004 ) Thaao Penghlis , Australian actor December 16 – Patti Deutsch , American voice actress (d. 2017 ) December 17 – Ernie Hudson , African-American actor December 18 – Carolyn Wood , American professional swimmer December 19 – Elaine Joyce , American actress, game show panelist December 20 Peter Criss , American rock drummer ( KISS ) Sivakant Tiwari , senior legal officer of the Singapore Legal Service (d. 2010 ) Peter Criss , American rock drummer ( KISS ) Sivakant Tiwari , senior legal officer of the Singapore Legal Service (d. 2010 ) December 21 – Mari Lill , Estonian actress December 22 – Diane Sawyer , American news journalist December 23 – Donald A. Ritchie , American historian December 24 Lemmy , British singer, bassist ( Motörhead ) (d. 2015 ) [ 90 ] Nicholas Meyer , American screenwriter, producer, director and novelist Sharafuddin of Selangor , Sultan of Selangor Steve Smith , Canadian actor, comedian and writer Lemmy , British singer, bassist ( Motörhead ) (d. 2015 ) [ 90 ] Nicholas Meyer , American screenwriter, producer, director and novelist Sharafuddin of Selangor , Sultan of Selangor Steve Smith , Canadian actor, comedian and writer December 25 – Noel Redding , English musician (d. 2003 ) [ 91 ] December 29 – Birendra of Nepal , King of Nepal (d. 2001 ) December 30 – Davy Jones , English-born pop singer, actor ( The Monkees ) (d. 2012 ) December 31 Barbara Carrera , Nicaraguan-American actress Vernon Wells , Australian actor [ 92 ] Connie Willis , American fiction writer Barbara Carrera , Nicaraguan-American actress Vernon Wells , Australian actor [ 92 ] Connie Willis , American fiction writer Deaths January January 2 – Sir Bertram Ramsay , British admiral (b. 1883 ) January 3 – Edgar Cayce , American mystic (b. 1877 ) January 4 – Ricardo Jiménez Oreamuno , 3-time President of Costa Rica (b. 1859 ) January 6 Josefa Llanes Escoda , Filipino women's suffrage advocate, founder of the Girl Scouts of the Philippines (b. 1898 ) Edith Frank , German-Dutch mother of Anne Frank (b. 1900 ) [ 93 ] Herbert Lumsden , British general (killed in action) (b. 1897 ) [ 94 ] Vladimir Vernadsky , Soviet mineralogist, geochemist (b. 1863 ) Josefa Llanes Escoda , Filipino women's suffrage advocate, founder of the Girl Scouts of the Philippines (b. 1898 ) Edith Frank , German-Dutch mother of Anne Frank (b. 1900 ) [ 93 ] Herbert Lumsden , British general (killed in action) (b. 1897 ) [ 94 ] Vladimir Vernadsky , Soviet mineralogist, geochemist (b. 1863 ) January 7 Alexander Stirling Calder , American sculptor (b. 1870 ) Thomas McGuire , American World War II fighter ace (killed in action) (b. 1920 ) Prince Rainer of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) Alexander Stirling Calder , American sculptor (b. 1870 ) Thomas McGuire , American World War II fighter ace (killed in action) (b. 1920 ) Prince Rainer of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) January 9 – Jüri Uluots , 8th Prime Minister of Estonia (b. 1890 ) January 10 – Pēteris Juraševskis , 8th Prime Minister of Latvia (b. 1872 ) January 12 – Teresio Olivelli , Italian Roman Catholic soldier and venerable (b. 1916 ) January 15 – Pedro Abad Santos , Filipino politician, brother of José Abad Santos (b. 1876 ) January 16 – José Fabella , Filipino physician (b. 1888 ) January 19 Petar Bojović , Serbian field marshal (b. 1858 ) Gustave Mesny , French Army general (b. 1886 ) Petar Bojović , Serbian field marshal (b. 1858 ) Gustave Mesny , French Army general (b. 1886 ) January 20 – Federico Pedrocchi , Italian artist, writer (killed on active service) (b. 1907 ) January 21 Francisco Moreno Fernández , Spanish admiral (b. 1883 ) [ 95 ] Sir Archibald Murray , British Army general (b. 1860 ) Francisco Moreno Fernández , Spanish admiral (b. 1883 ) [ 95 ] Sir Archibald Murray , British Army general (b. 1860 ) January 22 – Else Lasker-Schüler , German poet, author (b. 1869 ) January 23 Eugen Bolz , German politician, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1881 ) Nikolaus Gross , German Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1898 ) Newton E. Mason , United States Navy rear admiral (b. 1850 ) Eugen Bolz , German politician, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1881 ) Nikolaus Gross , German Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1898 ) Newton E. Mason , United States Navy rear admiral (b. 1850 ) January 29 – Hans Conrad Leipelt , Austrian member of the White Rose resistance movement in Nazi Germany (executed) (b. 1921 ) January 30 Sir William Goodenough , British admiral (b. 1867 ) Pedro Paulet , Peruvian scientist (b. 1874 ) Sir William Goodenough , British admiral (b. 1867 ) Pedro Paulet , Peruvian scientist (b. 1874 ) January 31 – Eddie Slovik , American soldier (executed for desertion) (b. 1920 ) [ 96 ] February February (or March) – Anne Frank , German-born Jewish diarist, writer (typhus in Bergen-Belsen concentration camp ) (b. 1929 ) [ 97 ] February 1 Ivan Bagryanov , 30th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1891 ) Dobri Bozhilov , 29th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1884 ) Bogdan Filov , Bulgarian archaeologist, historian and politician, 28th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1883 ) Petar Gabrovski , acting Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1898 ) Johan Huizinga , Dutch cultural historian (b. 1872 ) Prince Kiril of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1895 ) Ivan Bagryanov , 30th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1891 ) Dobri Bozhilov , 29th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1884 ) Bogdan Filov , Bulgarian archaeologist, historian and politician, 28th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1883 ) Petar Gabrovski , acting Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1898 ) Johan Huizinga , Dutch cultural historian (b. 1872 ) Prince Kiril of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1895 ) February 2 Adolf Brand , German campaigner for homosexuality (air raid victim) (b. 1874 ) Alfred Delp , German Jesuit priest and philosopher of the German Resistance, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1907 ) Carl Friedrich Goerdeler , German politician, civil servant, executive and economist, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1884 ) Gustav Heistermann von Ziehlberg , German general, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1898 ) Joe Hunt , American tennis champion (military aircraft crash) (b. 1919 ) Adolf Brand , German campaigner for homosexuality (air raid victim) (b. 1874 ) Alfred Delp , German Jesuit priest and philosopher of the German Resistance, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1907 ) Carl Friedrich Goerdeler , German politician, civil servant, executive and economist, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1884 ) Gustav Heistermann von Ziehlberg , German general, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1898 ) Joe Hunt , American tennis champion (military aircraft crash) (b. 1919 ) February 3 – Roland Freisler , Nazi German judge (air raid victim) (b. 1893 ) February 5 Denise Bloch , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1916 ) Lilian Rolfe , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1914 ) Violette Szabo , French/British World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1921 ) Denise Bloch , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1916 ) Lilian Rolfe , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1914 ) Violette Szabo , French/British World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1921 ) February 6 – Robert Brasillach , French writer (executed) (b. 1909 ) [ 98 ] February 8 – Robert Mallet-Stevens , French architect, designer (b. 1886 ) February 11 – Al Dubin , Swiss-born American songwriter (b. 1891 ) February 13 – Maria Orosa , Filipino technologist, chemist, humanitarian and WWII heroine (air raid victim) (b. 1893 ) February 16 – Otto Kittel , German fighter ace (killed in action) (b. 1917 ) [ 99 ] February 18 – Ivan Chernyakhovsky , Soviet general (died of wounds) (b. 1906 ) February 19 – John Basilone , American war hero (killed in action) (b. 1916 ) February 21 – Eric Liddell , British Olympic athlete (in internment camp) (b. 1902 ) February 22 – Sara Josephine Baker , American physician (b. 1873 ) February 23 José María Moncada , 19th President of Nicaragua (b. 1870 ) Aleksei Nikolaevich Tolstoy , Russian writer (b. 1883 ) [ 100 ] José María Moncada , 19th President of Nicaragua (b. 1870 ) Aleksei Nikolaevich Tolstoy , Russian writer (b. 1883 ) [ 100 ] February 24 – Josef Mayr-Nusser , Italian Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1910 ) February 25 – Mário de Andrade , Brazilian writer, photographer (b. 1893 ) February 26 – Millard Harmon , American general (b. 1888 ) [ 101 ] March March 2 – Emily Carr , Canadian painter (b. 1871 ) March 3 Gheorghe Avramescu , Romanian general (in custody) (b. 1884 ) Aleksandra Samusenko , Soviet WWII tank commander (died of wounds) (b. 1922 ) Gheorghe Avramescu , Romanian general (in custody) (b. 1884 ) Aleksandra Samusenko , Soviet WWII tank commander (died of wounds) (b. 1922 ) March 4 Harry Chauvel , Australian Army general (b. 1865 ) [ 102 ] Lucille La Verne , American actress (b. 1872 ) [ 103 ] Mark Sandrich , American film director (b. 1900 ) Harry Chauvel , Australian Army general (b. 1865 ) [ 102 ] Lucille La Verne , American actress (b. 1872 ) [ 103 ] Mark Sandrich , American film director (b. 1900 ) March 5 – George Alan Vasey , Australian general (killed in military aircraft accident) (b. 1895 ) March 12 – Friedrich Fromm , German Nazi official (executed) (b. 1888 ) March 14 – Francisco Braga , Brazilian composer (b. 1868 ) March 15 – Sava Caracaș , Romanian general (b. 1890 ) March 18 – William Grover-Williams , British/French racing driver, war hero (executed) (b. 1903 ) [ 104 ] March 19 – Marcel Callo , French Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (in concentration camp) (b. 1921 ) March 20 – Lord Alfred Douglas , English poet (b. 1870 ) March 22 Enrico Caviglia , Italian marshal (b. 1862 ) Heinrich Maier , Austrian Roman Catholic priest and blessed (b. 1908 ) Takeichi Nishi , Japanese equestrian gold medalist (1932), tank commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1902 ) Enrico Caviglia , Italian marshal (b. 1862 ) Heinrich Maier , Austrian Roman Catholic priest and blessed (b. 1908 ) Takeichi Nishi , Japanese equestrian gold medalist (1932), tank commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1902 ) March 23 – Élisabeth de Rothschild , French WWII heroine (b. 1902 ) March 26 David Lloyd George , British politician and statesman, 51st Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1863 ) Tadamichi Kuribayashi , Imperial Japanese Army general, commander of the battle of Iwo Jima (probably killed in action) (b. 1891 ) Boris Shaposhnikov , Soviet military leader, Marshal of the Soviet Union (b. 1882 ) Ichimaru Toshinosuke , Japanese naval aviator, commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1891 ) David Lloyd George , British politician and statesman, 51st Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1863 ) Tadamichi Kuribayashi , Imperial Japanese Army general, commander of the battle of Iwo Jima (probably killed in action) (b. 1891 ) Boris Shaposhnikov , Soviet military leader, Marshal of the Soviet Union (b. 1882 ) Ichimaru Toshinosuke , Japanese naval aviator, commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1891 ) March 27 – Halid Ziya Uşaklıgil , Turkish author (b. 1867 ) March 29 – Ferenc Csik , Hungarian swimmer (air raid victim) (b. 1913 ) March 30 – Maurice Rose , American general (killed in action) (b. 1899 ) [ 105 ] March 31 Hans Fischer , German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (suicide) (b. 1881 ) Torgny Segerstedt , Swedish newspaper editor, publicist (b. 1876 ) Maria Skobtsova , Soviet Orthodox nun and saint (killed by poison) (b. 1891 ) Natalia Tulasiewicz , Polish teacher and Roman Catholic blessed (murdered in concentration camp) (b. 1906 ) Hans Fischer , German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (suicide) (b. 1881 ) Torgny Segerstedt , Swedish newspaper editor, publicist (b. 1876 ) Maria Skobtsova , Soviet Orthodox nun and saint (killed by poison) (b. 1891 ) Natalia Tulasiewicz , Polish teacher and Roman Catholic blessed (murdered in concentration camp) (b. 1906 ) April April 7 Seiichi Itō , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1890 ) Aruga Kōsaku , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1897 ) Seiichi Itō , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1890 ) Aruga Kōsaku , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1897 ) April 9 Dietrich Bonhoeffer , German theologian (executed) (b. 1906 ) Wilhelm Canaris , German admiral, head of the Abwehr (executed) (b. 1887 ) Hans von Dohnanyi , Hungarian-born German lawyer, member of the German Resistance, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1902 ) Georg Elser , German carpenter and attempted assassin of Adolf Hitler (executed) (b. 1903 ) [ 106 ] Dietrich Bonhoeffer , German theologian (executed) (b. 1906 ) Wilhelm Canaris , German admiral, head of the Abwehr (executed) (b. 1887 ) Hans von Dohnanyi , Hungarian-born German lawyer, member of the German Resistance, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1902 ) Georg Elser , German carpenter and attempted assassin of Adolf Hitler (executed) (b. 1903 ) [ 106 ] April 10 Gloria Dickson , American actress (fire victim) (b. 1917 ) Hendrik Nicolaas Werkman , Dutch artist and printer (b. 1882 ) [ 107 ] Gloria Dickson , American actress (fire victim) (b. 1917 ) Hendrik Nicolaas Werkman , Dutch artist and printer (b. 1882 ) [ 107 ] April 11 – Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard , British colonial administrator (b. 1858 ) April 12 – Franklin D. Roosevelt , American political leader and statesman, 32nd President of the United States (b. 1882 ) April 13 – Ernst Cassirer , German philosopher (b. 1874 ) April 15 – Joachim Albrecht Eggeling , German SS general (suicide) (b. 1884 ) April 18 Sir Ambrose Fleming , British electrical engineer and physicist (b. 1849 ) Ernie Pyle , American journalist (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm, Prince of Albania (b. 1876 ) Sir Ambrose Fleming , British electrical engineer and physicist (b. 1849 ) Ernie Pyle , American journalist (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm, Prince of Albania (b. 1876 ) April 21 Pavle Đurišić , Montenegrin Serb army commander (b. 1909 ) [ citation needed ] Walter Model , German field marshal (suicide) (b. 1891 ) Pavle Đurišić , Montenegrin Serb army commander (b. 1909 ) [ citation needed ] Walter Model , German field marshal (suicide) (b. 1891 ) April 22 – Käthe Kollwitz , German artist (b. 1867 ) April 23 – Klaus Bonhoeffer , German resistance fighter, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1901 ) April 24 – Ernst-Robert Grawitz , German SS Reichsphysician (suicide) (b. 1899 ) April 28 Executed: Hermann Fegelein , German SS general (b. 1906 ) Benito Mussolini , Italian politician, journalist, 27th Prime Minister of Italy and Duce of Fascism (b. 1883 ) Clara Petacci , mistress of Benito Mussolini (b. 1912 ) Nicola Bombacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1879 ) Roberto Farinacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1892 ) Alessandro Pavolini , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1903 ) Executed: Hermann Fegelein , German SS general (b. 1906 ) Benito Mussolini , Italian politician, journalist, 27th Prime Minister of Italy and Duce of Fascism (b. 1883 ) Clara Petacci , mistress of Benito Mussolini (b. 1912 ) Nicola Bombacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1879 ) Roberto Farinacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1892 ) Alessandro Pavolini , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1903 ) Hermann Fegelein , German SS general (b. 1906 ) Benito Mussolini , Italian politician, journalist, 27th Prime Minister of Italy and Duce of Fascism (b. 1883 ) Clara Petacci , mistress of Benito Mussolini (b. 1912 ) Nicola Bombacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1879 ) Roberto Farinacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1892 ) Alessandro Pavolini , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1903 ) April 29 – Achille Starace , Italian Fascist politician (executed) (b. 1889 ) April 30 Luisa Ferida , Italian actress (executed) (b. 1914 ) Adolf Hitler , Austrian-born German politician, Führer of Germany (suicide) (b. 1889 ) Eva Braun , wife of Adolf Hitler (suicide) (b. 1912 ) Luisa Ferida , Italian actress (executed) (b. 1914 ) Adolf Hitler , Austrian-born German politician, Führer of Germany (suicide) (b. 1889 ) Eva Braun , wife of Adolf Hitler (suicide) (b. 1912 ) May May 1 Joseph Goebbels , Chancellor of Germany for 1 day and Reich Minister of Propaganda (suicide) (b. 1897 ) Magda Goebbels , wife of Joseph Goebbels (suicide) (b. 1901 ) Joseph Goebbels , Chancellor of Germany for 1 day and Reich Minister of Propaganda (suicide) (b. 1897 ) Magda Goebbels , wife of Joseph Goebbels (suicide) (b. 1901 ) May 2 Martin Bormann , Nazi Party leader and private secretary to Adolf Hitler (presumed suicide) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm Burgdorf , German general (suicide) (b. 1895 ) Hans Krebs , German general (suicide) (b. 1898 ) Prince Waldemar of Prussia (haemophilia) (b. 1889 ) Martin Bormann , Nazi Party leader and private secretary to Adolf Hitler (presumed suicide) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm Burgdorf , German general (suicide) (b. 1895 ) Hans Krebs , German general (suicide) (b. 1898 ) Prince Waldemar of Prussia (haemophilia) (b. 1889 ) May 3 – Mario Blasich , Italian physician, politician (b. 1878 ) May 4 – Fedor von Bock , German field marshal (killed in action) (b. 1880 ) [ 108 ] May 6 – Xhem Hasa , Albanian nationalist (assassinated) (b. 1908 ) May 7 – Vladimir Boyarsky , Soviet army officer (executed) (b. 1901 ) May 8 Francis Bruguière , American photographer (b. 1875 ) Julius Hirsch , German footballer (killed in Auschwitz concentration camp) (b. 1892 ) [ 109 ] Wilhelm Rediess , SS and Police Leader of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1900 ) Bernhard Rust , education minister of Nazi Germany (presumed suicide) (b. 1883 ) Josef Terboven , Reichskommissar of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1898 ) Francis Bruguière , American photographer (b. 1875 ) Julius Hirsch , German footballer (killed in Auschwitz concentration camp) (b. 1892 ) [ 109 ] Wilhelm Rediess , SS and Police Leader of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1900 ) Bernhard Rust , education minister of Nazi Germany (presumed suicide) (b. 1883 ) Josef Terboven , Reichskommissar of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1898 ) May 9 – Gustav Becking , German musicologist (b. 1894 ) May 10 – Konrad Henlein , Sudeten German Nazi leader (suicide) (b. 1898 ) May 11 Kiyoshi Ogawa , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1922 ) Seizō Yasunori , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1924 ) [ 110 ] Kiyoshi Ogawa , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1922 ) Seizō Yasunori , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1924 ) [ 110 ] May 14 Joseph Barthélemy , French jurist, politician and journalist (b. 1874 ) Heber J. Grant , 7th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b. 1856 ) Joseph Barthélemy , French jurist, politician and journalist (b. 1874 ) Heber J. Grant , 7th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b. 1856 ) May 15 Kenneth J. Alford , British soldier and composer (b. 1881 ) [ 111 ] Charles Williams , British author (b. 1886 ) Kenneth J. Alford , British soldier and composer (b. 1881 ) [ 111 ] Charles Williams , British author (b. 1886 ) May 16 – Kaju Sugiura , Japanese admiral (killed in action) (b. 1896 ) May 18 – William Joseph Simmons , American founder of the second Ku Klux Klan (b. 1880 ) May 19 – Philipp Bouhler , German Nazi leader and general (suicide) (b. 1899 ) May 21 – Prince Kan'in Kotohito , Japanese prince, member of the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office (b. 1865 ) May 23 – Heinrich Himmler , German politician, Reichsführer-SS (suicide) (b. 1900 ) May 24 – Robert Ritter von Greim , German field marshal (suicide) (b. 1892 ) May 25 Rafael Estrella Ureña , Dominican lawyer and politician, acting president of the Dominican Republic (b. 1889 ) Ishii Kikujirō , Japanese diplomat and politician (killed in bombing raid) (b. 1866 ) [ 112 ] Rafael Estrella Ureña , Dominican lawyer and politician, acting president of the Dominican Republic (b. 1889 ) Ishii Kikujirō , Japanese diplomat and politician (killed in bombing raid) (b. 1866 ) [ 112 ] May 31 Odilo Globocnik , Austrian Nazi leader (suicide) (b. 1904 ) Curt von Gottberg , German SS general (suicide) (b. 1896 ) Odilo Globocnik , Austrian Nazi leader (suicide) (b. 1904 ) Curt von Gottberg , German SS general (suicide) (b. 1896 ) June June 4 – Georg Kaiser , German dramatist (b. 1878 ) June 7 – Kitaro Nishida , Japanese philosopher (b. 1870 ) June 8 Robert Desnos , French poet, resistance fighter (typhoid) (b. 1900 ) Karl Hanke , German Nazi general and last Reichsführer-SS (killed) (b. 1903 ) Robert Desnos , French poet, resistance fighter (typhoid) (b. 1900 ) Karl Hanke , German Nazi general and last Reichsführer-SS (killed) (b. 1903 ) June 11 – Lurana W. Sheldon , American author and editor (b. 1862 ) June 13 – Minoru Ōta , Japanese admiral (suicide) (b. 1891 ) June 15 Carl Gustaf Ekman , Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1872 ) Amélie Rives Troubetzkoy , American author (b. 1863 ) Aris Velouchiotis , Greek World War II resistance leader (suicide) (b. 1905 ) Carl Gustaf Ekman , Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1872 ) Amélie Rives Troubetzkoy , American author (b. 1863 ) Aris Velouchiotis , Greek World War II resistance leader (suicide) (b. 1905 ) June 16 Nikolai Berzarin , Soviet Red Army general (b. 1904 ) Nils Edén , 15th Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1871 ) Nikolai Berzarin , Soviet Red Army general (b. 1904 ) Nils Edén , 15th Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1871 ) June 18 Florence Bascom , American geologist and educator (b. 1862 ) Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr. , American general (killed in action on Okinawa ) (b. 1886 ) Friedrich, Prince of Wied , German prince (b. 1872 ) Florence Bascom , American geologist and educator (b. 1862 ) Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr. , American general (killed in action on Okinawa ) (b. 1886 ) Friedrich, Prince of Wied , German prince (b. 1872 ) June 20 Robert Crewe-Milnes, 1st Marquess of Crewe , British politician (b. 1858 ) Luís Fernando de Orleans y Borbón , Spanish prince (b. 1888 ) Robert Crewe-Milnes, 1st Marquess of Crewe , British politician (b. 1858 ) Luís Fernando de Orleans y Borbón , Spanish prince (b. 1888 ) June 22 Isamu Chō , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1895 ) Mitsuru Ushijima , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) Isamu Chō , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1895 ) Mitsuru Ushijima , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) June 24 – José Gutiérrez Solana , Spanish painter (b. 1886 ) June 27 – Emil Hácha , 3rd President of Czechoslovakia , State President of Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (b. 1872 ) June 30 Germogen (Maximov) , Russian Orthodox Metropolitan (b. 1861 ) Gabriel El-Registan , Soviet poet (b. 1899 ) Germogen (Maximov) , Russian Orthodox Metropolitan (b. 1861 ) Gabriel El-Registan , Soviet poet (b. 1899 ) July July 1 – Félix Evaristo Mejía , Dominican diplomat, educator and writer (b. 1866 ) July 2 – Óscar R. Benavides , Peruvian field marshal, diplomat, politician and President of Peru (b. 1876 ) July 5 – John Curtin , 14th Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1885 ) July 7 – Peter To Rot , Papuan Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1912 ) July 9 – Luigi Aldrovandi Marescotti , Italian politician, diplomat (b. 1876 ) July 12 Boris Galerkin , Russian mathematician (b. 1871 ) [ 113 ] Wolfram von Richthofen , German field marshal (brain tumor) (b. 1895 ) Boris Galerkin , Russian mathematician (b. 1871 ) [ 113 ] Wolfram von Richthofen , German field marshal (brain tumor) (b. 1895 ) July 13 – Alla Nazimova , Russian-born American actress (b. 1879 ) July 17 – Ernst Busch , German field marshal, as prisoner of war (b. 1885 ) July 20 – Paul Valéry , French poet (b. 1871 ) July 24 – Arnold von Winckler , German general (b. 1856 ) July 25 – Malin Craig , United States Army general (b. 1875 ) July 28 – Margot Asquith, Countess of Oxford and Asquith (b. 1864 ) July 29 – Maria Pierina De Micheli , Italian Roman Catholic religious sister, mystic and blessed (b. 1890 ) July 31 – Artemio Ricarte , Filipino general (b. 1866 ) August August 1 – Blas Cabrera Felipe , Spanish physicist (b. 1878 ) August 2 – Pietro Mascagni , Italian composer (b. 1863 ) August 3 – Roman Kochanowski , Polish painter, illustrator (b. 1857 ) August 4 – Gerhard Gentzen , German mathematician and logician (starvation in prison camp) (b. 1909 ) August 5 – Nat Jaffe , American swing jazz pianist (b. 1918 ) August 7 – Jacques Vaillant de Guélis , British/French WWII hero (injuries received in automobile accident) (b. 1907 ) August 8 – Joseph Pujol, Le Pétomane , French flatulist (b. 1857 ) August 9 Harry Hillman , American track athlete (b. 1881 ) [ 114 ] Jun Tosaka , Japanese philosopher (in prison) (b. 1900 ) Harry Hillman , American track athlete (b. 1881 ) [ 114 ] Jun Tosaka , Japanese philosopher (in prison) (b. 1900 ) August 10 – Robert H. Goddard , American rocket scientist (b. 1882 ) August 12 – Karl Leisner , German Roman Catholic priest and blessed (b. 1915 ) August 15 Korechika Anami , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) Matome Ugaki , Japanese admiral (killed in action) (b. 1890 ) Korechika Anami , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) Matome Ugaki , Japanese admiral (killed in action) (b. 1890 ) August 16 – Takijirō Ōnishi , Japanese admiral (ritual suicide) (b. 1891 ) August 18 Subhas Chandra Bose , Leader of Indian National Army (Third-degree burns from aircrash) (b. 1897 ) [ 115 ] Sarala Devi Chaudhurani , Indian educationist (b. 1872 ) Subhas Chandra Bose , Leader of Indian National Army (Third-degree burns from aircrash) (b. 1897 ) [ 115 ] Sarala Devi Chaudhurani , Indian educationist (b. 1872 ) August 24 – Shizuichi Tanaka , Japanese general (suicide) (b. 1887 ) August 25 – Willis Augustus Lee , American admiral, Olympic shooter (b. 1888 ) August 26 Pio Collivadino , Argentinian painter (b. 1869 ) Franz Werfel , Austrian writer (b. 1890 ) Pio Collivadino , Argentinian painter (b. 1869 ) Franz Werfel , Austrian writer (b. 1890 ) August 27 – Blessed María Pilar Izquierdo Albero , Spanish Roman Catholic religious professed (b. 1906 ) August 29 – Fritz Pfleumer , German engineer, inventor (b. 1881 ) August 30 – Florencio Harmodio Arosemena , 6th President of Panama (b. 1872 ) August 31 Stefan Banach , Polish mathematician (b. 1892 ) Pope Macarius III of Alexandria , Egyptian patriarch, saint (b. 1872 ) Stefan Banach , Polish mathematician (b. 1892 ) Pope Macarius III of Alexandria , Egyptian patriarch, saint (b. 1872 ) September September 6 Witold Leon Czartoryski , Polish nobleman (b. 1864 ) John S. McCain Sr. , American admiral (b. 1884 ) Witold Leon Czartoryski , Polish nobleman (b. 1864 ) John S. McCain Sr. , American admiral (b. 1884 ) September 9 – Aage Bertelsen , Danish painter (b. 1873 ) September 12 – Hajime Sugiyama , Japanese general (suicide) (b. 1880 ) September 15 Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer , German physician and bacteriologist (b. 1858 ) [ 116 ] André Tardieu , 3-time prime minister of France (b. 1876 ) Anton Webern , Austrian composer (b. 1883 ) Zhang Mingqi , Qing dynasty politician (b. 1875 ) Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer , German physician and bacteriologist (b. 1858 ) [ 116 ] André Tardieu , 3-time prime minister of France (b. 1876 ) Anton Webern , Austrian composer (b. 1883 ) Zhang Mingqi , Qing dynasty politician (b. 1875 ) September 16 – John McCormack , Irish tenor (b. 1884 ) September 18 José Agripino Barnet , Cuban politician and diplomat, acting president of Cuba (b. 1864 ) Blind Willie Johnson , American gospel blues singer (b. 1897 ) José Agripino Barnet , Cuban politician and diplomat, acting president of Cuba (b. 1864 ) Blind Willie Johnson , American gospel blues singer (b. 1897 ) September 20 Augusto Tasso Fragoso , Brazilian soldier, statesman and interim president of Brazil (b. 1869 ) Eduard Wirths , German doctor, chief SS doctor at Auschwitz concentration camp (suicide) (b. 1909 ) Augusto Tasso Fragoso , Brazilian soldier, statesman and interim president of Brazil (b. 1869 ) Eduard Wirths , German doctor, chief SS doctor at Auschwitz concentration camp (suicide) (b. 1909 ) September 24 – Hans Geiger , German physicist, inventor (b. 1882 ) September 26 Béla Bartók , Hungarian composer (b. 1881 ) [ 117 ] Leonhard Kaupisch , German general (b. 1878 ) [ 118 ] Kiyoshi Miki , Japanese philosopher (b. 1897 ) Béla Bartók , Hungarian composer (b. 1881 ) [ 117 ] Leonhard Kaupisch , German general (b. 1878 ) [ 118 ] Kiyoshi Miki , Japanese philosopher (b. 1897 ) October October 1 – Walter Bradford Cannon , American physiologist (b. 1871 ) [ 119 ] October 6 – Leonardo Conti , German physician, Nazi officer (suicide) (b. 1900 ) October 8 – Felix Salten , Austrian author (b. 1869 ) [ 120 ] October 10 – Joseph Darnand , Vichy French politician (executed) (b. 1897 ) October 12 – Dmytro Antonovych , Soviet politician (b. 1877 ) October 13 – Milton S. Hershey , American chocolate tycoon (b. 1857 ) October 15 – Pierre Laval , French politician, 2-time Prime Minister of France (executed) (b. 1883 ) [ 59 ] October 18 – Frederick Hovey , American tennis player (b. 1868 ) October 19 Plutarco Elías Calles , Mexican general, politician and 40th President of Mexico (b. 1877) N. C. Wyeth , American illustrator (b. 1882 ) Plutarco Elías Calles , Mexican general, politician and 40th President of Mexico (b. 1877) N. C. Wyeth , American illustrator (b. 1882 ) October 21 Henry Armetta , Italian actor (b. 1888 ) Felicija Bortkevičienė , Lithuanian politician and publisher (b. 1873 ) [ 121 ] Henry Armetta , Italian actor (b. 1888 ) Felicija Bortkevičienė , Lithuanian politician and publisher (b. 1873 ) [ 121 ] October 24 Franklin Carmichael , Canadian landscape painter and graphic designer (b. 1890 ) [ 122 ] Vidkun Quisling , Norwegian Nazi collaborator (executed) (b. 1887 ) Franklin Carmichael , Canadian landscape painter and graphic designer (b. 1890 ) [ 122 ] Vidkun Quisling , Norwegian Nazi collaborator (executed) (b. 1887 ) October 25 – Robert Ley , German Nazi politician (suicide) (b. 1890 ) October 26 Adolf von Brudermann , Austro-Hungarian general (b. 1854 ) Paul Pelliot , French explorer (b. 1878 ) Adolf von Brudermann , Austro-Hungarian general (b. 1854 ) Paul Pelliot , French explorer (b. 1878 ) October 30 – Xian Xinghai , Chinese composer (b. 1905 ) October 31 Henry Ainley , British actor (b. 1879 ) Ignacio Zuloaga , Basque Spanish painter (b. 1870 ) Henry Ainley , British actor (b. 1879 ) Ignacio Zuloaga , Basque Spanish painter (b. 1870 ) November November 8 – August von Mackensen , German field marshal (b. 1849 ) November 11 – Jerome Kern , American composer (b. 1885 ) [ 123 ] November 13 – Sir Edwyn Alexander-Sinclair , British admiral (b. 1865 ) [ 124 ] November 16 – Sigurður Eggerz , Minister for Iceland during World War I and 2nd Prime Minister of Iceland (b. 1875 ) November 17 – Frederick Francis IV, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (b. 1882 ) November 20 – Francis William Aston , British chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1877 ) November 21 Robert Benchley , American humorist, theater critic and actor (b. 1889 ) [ 125 ] Ellen Glasgow , American novelist (b. 1873 ) [ 126 ] Alexander Patch , United States Army lieutenant general, World War II army commander (b. 1889 ) Jimmy Quinn , Scottish footballer (b. 1878 ) [ 127 ] Robert Benchley , American humorist, theater critic and actor (b. 1889 ) [ 125 ] Ellen Glasgow , American novelist (b. 1873 ) [ 126 ] Alexander Patch , United States Army lieutenant general, World War II army commander (b. 1889 ) Jimmy Quinn , Scottish footballer (b. 1878 ) [ 127 ] November 23 – Charles Coborn , British singer (b. 1852 ) November 27 – Josep Maria Sert , Spanish Catalan muralist (b. 1874 ) November 28 – Dwight F. Davis , American tennis player (b. 1879 ) November 30 – Shigeru Honjō , Japanese general (suicide) (b. 1876 ) December December 1 – Anton Dostler , German general (executed) (b. 1891 ) December 4 Thomas Hunt Morgan , American biologist, geneticist, embryologist and Nobel Prize in Physiology recipient (b. 1866 ) Richárd Weisz , Hungarian Olympic champion wrestler (b. 1879 ) [ 128 ] Thomas Hunt Morgan , American biologist, geneticist, embryologist and Nobel Prize in Physiology recipient (b. 1866 ) Richárd Weisz , Hungarian Olympic champion wrestler (b. 1879 ) [ 128 ] December 5 – Cosmo Gordon Lang , Archbishop of Canterbury (b. 1864 ) December 8 – Gabriellino D'Annunzio , Italian actor, director and screenwriter (b. 1886 ) December 12 – Prince Frederick of Schaumburg-Lippe (b. 1868 ) December 13 Johanna Bormann , German Nazi concentration camp guard (executed) (b. 1893 ) Henri Dentz , French general (b. 1881 ) Irma Grese , German camp guard at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1923 ) Josef Kramer , German commandant of Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1906 ) Elisabeth Volkenrath , German supervisor at Nazi concentration camps (executed) (b. 1919 ) Johanna Bormann , German Nazi concentration camp guard (executed) (b. 1893 ) Henri Dentz , French general (b. 1881 ) Irma Grese , German camp guard at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1923 ) Josef Kramer , German commandant of Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1906 ) Elisabeth Volkenrath , German supervisor at Nazi concentration camps (executed) (b. 1919 ) December 14 – Forrester Harvey , Irish actor (b. 1884 ) December 16 Giovanni Agnelli , Italian entrepreneur, founder of Fiat (b. 1866 ) Fumimaro Konoe , Japanese general, politician, and 23rd Prime Minister of Japan (suicide) (b. 1891 ) Giovanni Agnelli , Italian entrepreneur, founder of Fiat (b. 1866 ) Fumimaro Konoe , Japanese general, politician, and 23rd Prime Minister of Japan (suicide) (b. 1891 ) December 19 – Leonard F. Wing , American general and politician (b. 1893 ) [ 129 ] December 21 – George S. Patton , American general (injuries from automobile accident) (b. 1885 ) [ 130 ] December 22 – Otto Neurath , Austrian philosopher, political economist (b. 1892 ) December 26 Duy Tân , Emperor of Vietnam (b. 1900 ) Roger Keyes, 1st Baron Keyes , British admiral (b. 1872 ) Duy Tân , Emperor of Vietnam (b. 1900 ) Roger Keyes, 1st Baron Keyes , British admiral (b. 1872 ) December 28 – Theodore Dreiser , American novelist (b. 1871 ) [ 131 ] Nobel Prizes Physics – Wolfgang Pauli Chemistry – Artturi Ilmari Virtanen Physiology or Medicine – Sir Alexander Fleming , Ernst Chain , Howard Florey Literature – Gabriela Mistral Peace – Cordell Hull References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "What Was 1945 a Turning Point - 1377 Words | Bartleby" . ^ Girbig, Werner (1975). Six Months to Oblivion: The Eclipse of the Luftwaffe Fighter Force Over the Western Front, 1944/45 . Schiffer Publishing . p. 74. ISBN 978-0-88740-348-4 . ^ a b Duffy, Christopher (1991). Red Storm on the Reich: The Soviet March on Germany, 1945 . Routledge. ISBN 0-415-22829-8 . ^ "Life in the Führerbunker: Hitler's final days" . Sky HISTORY TV channel . Retrieved September 2, 2025 . ^ Si (July 22, 2025). "Raoul Wallenberg – World War II hero" . sweden.se . Retrieved September 27, 2025 . ^ Abraham J. Peck (1997). "The Agony of the Łódź Ghetto, 1941–1944" . The Chronicle of the Łódź Ghetto, 1941–1944 by Lucjan Dobroszycki , and The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum , Washington D.C . The Simon Wiesenthal Center . Retrieved March 25, 2015 . ^ Kershaw, Ian (2008). Hitler: A Biography . New York: Norton. p. 891. ISBN 978-0-393-06757-6 . ^ Wolf's Lair from Battlefields WW2 ^ "Penicillin Pills May Replace Injection" . The Milwaukee Sentinel . February 16, 1945 . Retrieved May 22, 2012 . [ permanent dead link ] ^ "SS General von Steuben [+1945]" . WreckSite . Retrieved December 6, 2010 . ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (1993). Significant tornadoes, 1680–1991: A Chronology and Analysis of Events . St. Johnsbury, Vermont: Environmental Films. pp. 922– 925. ISBN 1-879362-03-1 . ^ Ernest F. Fisher Jr., The Mediterranean Theater of Operations: Cassino to the Alps (Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, 1977), p. 425–434 ^ "Guinness World Records Website" . guinnessworldrecords.com . December 13, 2016. ^ Guinness Book of World Records . 2008. p. 137. ^ Battle of Manila Footnotes: Battle for Manila by Richard Connaughton , John Pimlott and Duncan Anderson (2002) Presidio Press ISBN 0-89141-771-0 pp 164–7 ^ Year by Year – 1945 . History International . ^ After The Battle #176 – The Allied Capture Of Trier ^ Air University Review . Department of the Air Force. 1976. p. 20. ^ 6. 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British Journal of Haematology . 113 (3): 579– 589. doi : 10.1046/j.1365-2141.2001.02822.x . PMID 11380441 . S2CID 22925228 . ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u Jessup, John E. (1989). A Chronology of Conflict and Resolution, 1945-1985 . New York: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-24308-5 . ^ Crichton, Gerald (February 1, 1946). "Review of events in Afghanistan, July-December 1945" . Foreign Office . ^ Myers, Brian Reynolds (December 16, 2023). "The Power to Mystify" . Sthele Press . Archived from the original on January 14, 2024 . Retrieved January 14, 2024 . Assertion that the emperor's surrender 'abruptly' ended Japan's occupation of the peninsula, which in fact continued in the southern part for more than three weeks? ^ "Amery sentenced to death: "A self-confessed traitor." ". The Times . No. 50312. November 29, 1945. p. 2. ^ Brennan, J. G.; Green, L. C. (1997). "The Case of General Dostler" . Naval War College Review . 50 (4): 115– 117. ISSN 0028-1484 . 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Quartet. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-7043-0145-0 . ^ "Profile of highlife legend Nana Ampadu" . GhanaWeb . September 30, 2021. Archived from the original on October 19, 2022 . Retrieved October 5, 2021 . ^ Avery, Laura (2004). Newsmakers . Gale Research. p. 61. ISBN 978-0-7876-6806-8 . ISSN 0899-0417 . OCLC 17977680 . ^ Bauer, Pat (March 29, 2022). "Linda Hunt" . Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved February 21, 2023 . ^ Encyclopedia of Contemporary German Culture . Taylor & Francis. 2013. ISBN 9781136816109 . ^ Events, Chase's Calendar of; McGraw-Hill (2007). "Birthday: Bianca Jagger" . Chase's Calendar of Events . McGraw Hill Professional. ISBN 9780071468183 . Retrieved August 5, 2025 . At the time of her marriage to Mick Jagger in 1971 it was reported that she was born in 1945, which is cited as her birth year by most published sources. The charitable organisations with which she has been associated have used 1950. ^ Colin Larkin , ed. (1997). The Virgin Encyclopedia of Popular Music (Concise ed.). Virgin Books . p. 666/7. ISBN 1-85227-745-9 . ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 2022" . Nobel Prize (Press release). The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences . October 4, 2022 . Retrieved October 6, 2022 . ^ Ruggieri, Melissa. "Procol Harum singer Gary Brooker, the voice of 'A Whiter Shade of Pale,' dies at 76" . USA Today . Retrieved February 23, 2022 . ^ "Betty Stöve" . Women's Tennis Association. ^ Dagnino, Maruja. "Lali Armengol Argemi". In Transparencia Venezuela (ed.). 20 mujeres venezolanas del siglo XX (PDF) . pp. 68– 71. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 6, 2021 . Retrieved June 12, 2022 . ^ Anon (2017). "Henderson, Dr Richard" . Who's Who (online Oxford University Press ed.). Oxford: A & C Black. doi : 10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.19818 . (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) ^ "Patrick Modiano" . Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved February 4, 2022 . ^ Easlea, Daryl (April 7, 2010). 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Archived from the original on January 12, 2022. ^ Maxwell Taylor Kennedy (November 3, 2009). Danger's Hour: The Story of the USS Bunker Hill and the Kamikaze Pilot Who Crippled Her . Simon and Schuster. p. 257. ISBN 978-0-7432-6081-7 . ^ "AAFA Bio - Kenneth J. Alford" . ^ "Ishii Kikujiro | Biography & Facts | Britannica" . www.britannica.com . March 15, 2024. ^ "Boris Galerkin" . TheFreeDictionary.com . ^ Harry Hillman Taken by Death, Cumberland News , August 10, 1945 ^ Firoz Alam (October 1, 2009). Subhas Chandra Bose . Sahni Publications. p. 121. ISBN 978-81-7564-242-3 . ^ Fildes, P. (February 13, 1956). "Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer, 1858-1945" . Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society . 2 (2): 237– 247. doi : 10.1098/rsbm.1956.0016 . S2CID 73380545 . ^ .mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)} Stevens, Halsey. 2018. " Béla Bartók: Hungarian Composer ". Encyclopædia Britannica online (accessed 27 September 2018). ^ "Kaupisch, Leonhard" (in German). lexikon-der-wehrmacht.de . Retrieved September 7, 2025 . ^ "Dr. W.B. Cannon, 73, Neurologist, Dead. Harvard Psychology Professor for 36 Years Noted for His Work on Traumatic Shock Became Professor in 1906" . New York Times . October 2, 1945 . Retrieved October 5, 2010 . ^ "Felix Salten | Austrian novelist | Britannica" . www.britannica.com . September 2, 2023. ^ "Felicija Bortkevičienė" . www.vle.lt . ^ Franklin Carmichael ^ Hugh Fordin, Stephen Sondheim (1995). Getting to Know Him: A Biography of Oscar Hammerstein II . Da Capo Press. p. 237. ISBN 0-306-80668-1 . [ permanent dead link ] ^ [Sinclair, Sir Edwyn Sinclair Alexander-, of Freswick (1865–1945)] ^ Billy Altman, Laughter's Gentle Soul: The Life of Robert Benchley . (New York City: W. W. Norton , 1997. ISBN 0-393-03833-5 ) Pages 352–362 ^ Inge, Tonette Bond. Encyclopedia of Southern Culture , ed. Charles Reagan Wilson and William R. Ferris. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989. Page 884. ^ FC, Celtic. "Jimmy Quinn" . Celtic FC . ^ Siegman, Joseph (2020). Jewish Sports Legends: The International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame . U of Nebraska Press. ISBN 9781496222121 . ^ Wing, Leonard Fish ^ Axelrod, Alan (2006), Patton: A Biography , London : Palgrave Macmillan , pp. 168– 9, ISBN 978-1-4039-7139-5 ^ Theodore Dreiser Recalled . Clemson University Press. 2017. p. 311. ISBN 9781942954446 . Further reading Ian Buruma . Year Zero: A History of 1945 (Penguin Press; 2013) 368 pages; covers liberation, revenge, decolonization, and the rise of the United Nations. excerpt International News Service, It Happened In 1945 The Essential Year Book (1946) Keith Lowe. Savage Continent: Europe in the Aftermath of World War II (2012) excerpt and text search McDannald, A. H. ed. The Americana Annual 1946 (1946) events of 1945 online ; encyclopedia yearbook global coverage in 950pp Walter Yust, ed. 10 Eventful Years, 1937 – 1946 Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 1947, 4 vol., encyclopedia yearbook online v t e Events by month v t e 1949 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1948 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1947 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1946 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1945 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1944 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1943 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1942 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1941 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1940 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Authority control databases National United States Czech Republic Israel United States Czech Republic Israel Other Yale LUX Yale LUX 1945 All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from May 2022 Articles with permanently dead external links CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown CS1 Polish-language sources (pl) CS1 maint: location missing publisher Articles with dead external links from February 2023 CS1 Spanish-language sources (es) Articles with dead external links from March 2025 CS1 German-language sources (de) Use mdy dates from August 2019 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Commons category link from Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2026 This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 01:14 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Description 2 Distribution 3 Habits 4 Habitat Toggle Habitat subsection 4.1 Landscape-scale habitat characteristics 4.2 Soil 4.3 Home range and population density 4.4 Cover requirements 4.1 Landscape-scale habitat characteristics 4.2 Soil 4.3 Home range and population density 4.4 Cover requirements 5 Diet 6 Social organization Toggle Social organization subsection 6.1 Dispersal 6.2 Hearing 6.3 Communication 6.1 Dispersal 6.2 Hearing 6.3 Communication 7 Reproduction and development Toggle Reproduction and development subsection 7.1 Mating 7.2 Reproductive success 7.3 Gestation period and litter size 7.4 Development 7.1 Mating 7.2 Reproductive success 7.3 Gestation period and litter size 7.4 Development 8 Mortality Toggle Mortality subsection 8.1 Predators 8.1 Predators 9 Ecological role and threats 10 Conservation status 11 Interactions with domestic livestock 12 Pet trade 13 References 14 Further reading 15 External links Black-tailed prairie dog العربية Asturianu বাংলা Български Català Cebuano Čeština Deutsch Diné bizaad Español Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Gaeilge 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Kotava Lëtzebuergesch Magyar مصرى Nederlands Polski Русский کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikispecies Wikidata item Black-tailed prairie dog At Copenhagen Zoo Conservation status Least Concern ( IUCN 3.1 ) [ 1 ] Apparently Secure ( NatureServe ) [ 2 ] Scientific classification Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Rodentia Family: Sciuridae Genus: Cynomys Species: C. ludovicianus Binomial name Cynomys ludovicianus ( Ord , 1815) Black-tailed prairie dog range [ 1 ] The black-tailed prairie dog ( Cynomys ludovicianus ) is a rodent of the family Sciuridae (the squirrels) found in the Great Plains of North America from about the United States–Canada border to the United States–Mexico border. [ 3 ] Unlike some other prairie dogs , these animals do not truly hibernate . The black-tailed prairie dog can be seen above ground in midwinter. A black-tailed prairie dog town in Texas was reported to cover 25,000 mi 2 (64,000 km 2 ) and included 400,000,000 individuals. [ 4 ] Prior to habitat destruction , the species may have been the most abundant prairie dog in central North America. It was one of two prairie dogs described by the Lewis and Clark Expedition in the journals and diaries of their expedition. Description Black-tailed prairie dogs are generally tan in color, with lighter-colored bellies. They may have color variation in their pelt, such as dark fur on their back in black and brown tones. Their tails have black tips, from which their name is derived. Adults can weigh from 1.5 to 3.0 lb (0.68 to 1.36 kg), males are typically heavier than females. Body length is normally from 14 to 17 in (36 to 43 cm), with a 3-to-4-inch (7.6 to 10.2 cm) tail. The black-tailed have black long claws used for digging in the ground. The body of the black-tailed prairie dog is compact, and the ears are quite small and close to the head. Distribution The historic range of the black-tailed prairie dog was from southern Saskatchewan and Alberta to Chihuahua , Mexico, [ 5 ] and included portions of Montana , North Dakota , South Dakota , Wyoming , Colorado , Nebraska , Kansas , Oklahoma , Texas , Arizona , and New Mexico . [ 6 ] As of 2007, [update] black-tailed prairie dogs occur across most of their historic range, excluding Arizona; [ 7 ] [ 8 ] however, their occupied acreage and populations are well below historic levels. [ 9 ] Habits Black-tailed prairie dogs are diurnal. [ 7 ] [ 10 ] [ 11 ] Above-ground activity is reduced when rain or snow is falling and during days when the temperature exceeds 100 °F (38 °C). [ 10 ] [ 11 ] During the winter months, black-tailed prairie dogs do not fully hibernate. They continue to leave the burrow to forage, but will enter a state of torpor at night to conserve energy. Torpor is categorized by a drop in metabolism, heart rate and respiration similar to hibernation, but is involuntary and shorter in duration. On average, black-tailed prairie dogs will lose twenty percent of their body weight during the fall and winter seasons when they go through bouts of torpor. As winter progresses, the amount of time spent in torpor increases. Between different colonies the overall time spent in torpor varies, independent of prairie dog body mass. This may be due to weather during the previous growing season. As black-tailed prairie dogs receive most of their water from their diet, in years with poor rainfall, the black-tailed prairie dogs spend more time in torpor. [ 12 ] Habitat Black-tailed prairie dogs are native to grassland habitats in North America. They inhabit shortgrass prairie, [ 8 ] [ 13 ] [ 14 ] mixed-grass prairie, [ 8 ] [ 15 ] [ 16 ] [ 17 ] [ 18 ] [ 19 ] sagebrush steppe , [ 13 ] [ 20 ] and desert grassland. [ 5 ] [ 21 ] Habitat preferences for the black-tailed prairie dog are influenced by vegetative cover type, slope, soil type, and amount of rainfall. [ 22 ] Their foraging and burrowing activities influence environmental heterogeneity , hydrology, nutrient cycling , biodiversity, landscape architecture, and plant succession in grassland habitats. [ 10 ] [ 11 ] [ 16 ] [ 18 ] [ 23 ] [ 24 ] Landscape-scale habitat characteristics Black-tailed prairie dogs inhabit grasslands, including short- and mixed-grass prairie, sagebrush steppe, and desert grasslands. Shortgrass prairies dominated by buffalo grass ( Buchloe dactyloides ), blue grama ( Bouteloua gracilis ), and western wheatgrass ( Pascopyron smithii ), [ 10 ] [ 11 ] [ 15 ] [ 25 ] and mixed-grass prairies [ 8 ] [ 15 ] [ 16 ] [ 17 ] [ 18 ] [ 19 ] that have been grazed by native and non-native herbivores are their preferred habitat. [ 11 ] [ 20 ] Slopes of 2% to 5% and vegetation heights between 3 and 5 in (8 and 13 cm) are optimal for detecting predators and facilitating communication. [ 10 ] [ 11 ] [ 15 ] In the Great Plains region, black-tailed prairie dog colonies commonly occur near rivers and creeks. [ 11 ] Of 86 colonies located in Mellette County, South Dakota, 30 were located on benches or terraces adjacent to a creek or floodplain , 30 occurred in rolling hills with a slope more than 5°, 20 were in flat areas, and six were in badland areas. [ 26 ] The slopes of playa lakes in the Texas Panhandle and surrounding regions are used as habitat for the black-tailed prairie dog. [ 27 ] Colonies in Phillips County, Montana, were often associated with reservoirs, cattle salting grounds, and other areas affected by humans. [ 22 ] Black-tailed prairie dogs tolerate "high degrees" of disturbance over long periods of time. New colonies are rarely created on rangeland in "good" to "excellent" condition; however, continuously, long-term, heavily grazed land reduces habitat quality due to soil erosion. [ 28 ] Black-tailed prairie dogs may colonize heavily grazed sites, but do not necessarily specialize in colonizing overgrazed areas. Overgrazing may occur subsequent to their colonization. [ 29 ] Black-tailed prairie dogs were associated with areas intensively grazed by livestock and/or areas where topsoil had been disturbed by human activities in sagebrush-grassland habitat on the Charles M. Russell National Wildlife Refuge and Fort Belknap Agency, Montana . Roads and cattle trails were found in 150 of 154 black-tailed prairie dog colonies, and colonies were located significantly closer to livestock water developments and homestead sites than randomly located points. [ 20 ] Soil Black-tailed prairie dog distribution is not limited by soil type, but by indirect effects of soil texture on moisture and vegetation. Colonies occur in many types of soil, including deep, alluvial soils with medium to fine textures, and occasionally gravel. Soil not prone to collapsing or flooding is preferred. [ 11 ] Though they do not select specific types of soil to dig burrows, [ 10 ] silty loam clay soils are best for tunnel construction. [ 11 ] Surface soil textures in colonies near Fort Collins, Colorado, varied from sandy loam to sandy clay loam in the top 6 in (15 cm), with a sandy clay loam subsoil. In northern latitudes, colonies commonly occur on south aspects due to the dominance of grasses over shrubs and increased solar radiation during winter. Burrows usually occur on slopes more than 10°. [ 11 ] Black-tailed prairie dogs mix the soil horizons by raising soil from deeper layers to the surface. This may significantly affect the texture and composition of soil at different layers. Their feces, urine, and carcasses also affect soil characteristics. [ 11 ] Home range and population density The home range and territorial boundaries of black-tailed prairie dogs are determined by the area occupied by an individual coterie. Coteries typically occupy about 1 acre (0.40 ha). [ 11 ] Population density and growth are influenced by habitat quality [ 10 ] and are restricted by topographic barriers, soil structure, tall vegetation, and social conditions. [ 10 ] [ 11 ] Urbanization and other types of human development may restrict colony size and spatial distribution. Most plains habitats support at least 13 black-tailed prairie dogs/ha. [ 11 ] Cover requirements Burrows created by black-tailed prairie dogs serve as refuges from the external environment and are one of the most important features of their colonies. Burrows are used for breeding, rearing young, and hiding from predators, and are maintained from generation to generation, and serve as stabilizers on the physical and social aspects of the colony. [ 10 ] Black-tailed prairie dog nests are located underground in burrows and are composed of fine, dried grass. Nest material is collected throughout the year by both sexes and all age classes. [ 7 ] [ 10 ] Tunnel depths in central Oklahoma were typically 50–60 in (1,270–1,524 mm) deep. [ 30 ] Most colonies contain 20 to 57 burrows/acre. [ 10 ] [ 11 ] The three types of burrow entrances are: dome mounds, rimmed crater mounds, and entrances without structures around them. Entrance features may prevent flooding and/or aid in ventilation. [ 7 ] [ 10 ] [ 11 ] Dome mounds consist of loosely packed subterranean soil spread widely around the entrance of the burrow, and tend to be vegetated by prostrate forbs . Rimmed crater mounds are cone-shaped and constructed of humus, litter, uprooted vegetation, and mineral soil. Black-tailed prairie dogs compact the soil of these mounds with their noses, creating poor sites for seedling establishment. [ 17 ] Rimmed crater mounds may be used as wallowing sites for American bison. Burrow entrances without structures around them are usually located on slopes more than 10°. [ 10 ] The density of burrow openings depends on both substrate and duration of occupation of an area. [ 11 ] Vegetation heights between 3 and 5 in (8 and 13 cm) and a slope of 2° to 5° are optimal for detecting predators and facilitating communication among black-tailed prairie dogs. [ 10 ] [ 11 ] [ 15 ] Grazing cattle keep vegetation short in the vicinity of colonies, reducing susceptibility to predators and potentially expanding colony size. [ 10 ] [ 11 ] [ 21 ] [ 25 ] Black-tailed prairie dogs were rarely seen feeding more than 16 ft (5 m) from colony edges in Wind Cave National Park. [ 18 ] Diet Black-tailed prairie dogs are selective opportunists, preferring certain phenological stages or types of vegetation according to their needs. [ 10 ] [ 15 ] [ 31 ] When forage is stressed by grazing, drought, or herbicides, they change their diets quickly. Grasses are preferred over forbs, [ 11 ] [ 25 ] and may comprise more than 75% of their diets, especially during summer. [ 25 ] [ 31 ] Western wheatgrass , buffalo grass , blue grama [ 10 ] [ 11 ] [ 31 ] and sedges ( Carex spp.) are preferred during spring and summer. Scarlet globemallow ( Sphaeralcea coccinea ) [ 10 ] [ 16 ] [ 25 ] [ 31 ] and Russian thistle ( Salsola kali ) [ 32 ] are preferred during late summer and fall, but are sought out during every season. [ 11 ] [ 16 ] [ 25 ] During winter, plains prickly pear ( Opuntia polyacantha ), Russian thistle, and underground roots are preferred. [ 10 ] [ 31 ] Shrubs such as rabbitbrush ( Chrysothamnus spp.), winterfat ( Krascheninnikovia lanata ), saltbush ( Atriplex spp.), and sagebrush ( Artemisia spp.) are also commonly eaten. [ 32 ] Water, which is generally not available on the short-grass prairie, is obtained from vegetation such as plains prickly pear. [ 31 ] Koford [ 11 ] estimated one black-tailed prairie dog eats about 7 lb (3 kg) of herbage per month during summer. [ 32 ] Cutworms, [ 32 ] grasshoppers, [ 11 ] and old or fresh American bison scat are occasionally eaten. [ 7 ] For a detailed list of foods eaten by black-tailed prairie dogs by month, and ratings of those foods' forage value to cattle and sheep, see. [ 32 ] For a complete list of vegetation preferred by the black-tailed prairie dog, see. [ 33 ] Social organization Black-tailed prairie dogs live in colonies. Colony size may range from five to thousands of individuals, and may be subdivided into two or more wards, based on topographic features, such as hills. Wards are usually subdivided into two or more coteries, which are composed of aggregates of highly territorial, harem-polygynous social groups. [ 10 ] [ 11 ] Individuals within coteries are amicable with each other and hostile towards outside individuals. At the beginning of the breeding season, a coterie is typically composed of one adult male, three to four adult females, and several yearlings and juveniles of both sexes. After the breeding season and prior to dispersal of juveniles, coterie size increases. [ 10 ] Dispersal Reasons for dispersal include new vegetative growth at colony peripheries, shortage of unrelated females in a coterie, harassment of females by juveniles, and probably an innate genetic mechanism responding to increased density within a colony. Males typically leave the natal territory 12 to 14 months after weaning, during May and June, [ 34 ] but dispersal may occur throughout the year. Females generally remain in their natal coterie territories for their lifetimes. Intercolony dispersers moved an average distance of 1.5 mi (2.4 km) from their natal site. [ 34 ] Roads and trails may facilitate black-tailed prairie dog dispersal. [ 11 ] Hearing Black-tailed prairie dogs have sensory adaptions for avoiding predators. Black-tailed prairie dogs have very sensitive hearing at low frequencies that allows them to detect predators early, especially while in their burrows. Black-tailed prairie dog hearing can range from 29 Hz to 26 kHz, and can hear as low as 4 Hz. [ 35 ] Communication Constantine Slobodchikoff and others assert that prairie dogs use a sophisticated system of vocal communication to describe specific predators. [ 36 ] According to them, prairie dog calls contain specific information as to what the predator is, how big it is, and how fast it is approaching. [ 36 ] These have been described as a form of grammar. According to Slobodchikoff, these calls, with their individuality in response to a specific predator, imply prairie dogs have highly developed cognitive abilities. [ 36 ] He also asserts prairie dogs have calls for things that are not predators to them. This is cited as evidence that the animals have a very descriptive language and have calls for any potential threat. [ 36 ] Debate exists over whether the alarm calling of prairie dogs is selfish or altruistic. Prairie dogs possibly alarm others to the presence of a predator so they can protect themselves. However, the calls possibly are meant to cause confusion and panic in the groups and cause the others to be more conspicuous to the predator than the caller. Studies of black-tailed prairie dogs suggest alarm calling is a form of kin selection, as a prairie dog's call alerts both offspring and kin of indirect descent, such as cousins, nephews, and nieces. [ 37 ] Prairie dogs with kin close by called more often than those without. In addition, the caller may be trying to make itself more noticeable to the predator. [ 37 ] However, a predator seems to have difficulty determining which prairie dog is making the call due to its " ventriloquistic " nature. [ 37 ] Also, when a prairie dog makes a call, the others seem not to run into the burrows, but stand on the mounds to see where the predator is, making themselves visible to the predator. [ 37 ] Perhaps the most conspicuous prairie dog communication is the territorial call or "jump-yip" display. A prairie dog will stretch the length of its body vertically and throw its forefeet into the air while making a call. [ 38 ] A jump-yip from one prairie dog causes others nearby to do the same. [ 39 ] The instigator of the jump-yip 'wave' uses the jump-yip to assess the vigilance or watchfulness of others in the colony - a longer jump-yip wave indicates watchful neighbors and leads to increased foraging by the instigator. [ 40 ] Reproduction and development Age of first reproduction, pregnancy rate, litter size, juvenile growth rate, and first-year survival of the black-tailed prairie dog vary depending on food availability. [ 18 ] Mating Minimum breeding age for the black-tailed prairie dog is usually two years, [ 7 ] [ 10 ] [ 11 ] but yearlings may breed if space and food are abundant. [ 10 ] [ 11 ] In Wind Cave National Park, South Dakota, 40% (213 individuals) of yearling females copulated and 9% successfully weaned a litter. [ 41 ] The mating season occurs from late February through April, but varies with latitude and site location of the colony. [ 10 ] [ 11 ] Estrus occurs for only one day during the breeding season. [ 41 ] Reproductive success In Wind Cave National Park, the mean percentage of adult females that weaned a litter each year was 47% ± 14%. [ 34 ] Reproductive success and survival may be greater in young colonies that have space for expansion. In a young colony (five years) with space for expansion, in Wind Cave National Park, 88% females were pregnant and 81% of young weaned, compared to an old colony (30 years) with no room for expansion, where 90% of females were pregnant and 41% of young were weaned. [ 18 ] Gestation period and litter size Black-tailed prairie dog gestation is 34 days. [ 7 ] [ 10 ] Parturition occurs underground. Information about litter size at time of birth is unavailable, but the mean litter size observed above ground ranges from 3.0 to 4.9 young/litter. [ 10 ] [ 11 ] [ 41 ] [ 34 ] Only one litter is produced each year. [ 41 ] [ 34 ] Development In captivity, black-tailed prairie dog pups open their eyes at 30 days old. [ 10 ] Pups are altricial and remain below ground for up to seven weeks to nurse. [ 10 ] [ 11 ] [ 41 ] Maturity is complete at 15 months old. [ 10 ] Lifespan of the black-tailed prairie dog in the wild is unknown, but males more than 3 years old experience high mortality. Females may live longer than males. [ 10 ] According to Hoogland and others, [ 34 ] lifespan is about 5 years for males and 7 years for females. Mortality Major mortality factors include predation, disease, infanticide, habitat loss, poisoning, trapping, and shooting. [ 7 ] [ 41 ] [ 13 ] [ 34 ] Survival for the first year was 54% for females and less than 50% for males in Wind Cave National Park . Primary causes of death were predation and infanticide. [ 41 ] Infanticide partially or totally eliminated 39% (361 individuals) of all litters. Lactating females were the most common killers. [ 41 ] Mortality of young was highest due to heavy predation during the winter and early spring following birth. [ 10 ] Mortality increases with dispersal from a colony or coterie. [ 11 ] Sylvatic plague , caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis , can quickly eliminate entire black-tailed prairie dog colonies. Once infected, death occurs within a few days. [ 7 ] [ 13 ] Black-tailed prairie dogs are also susceptible to diseases transmitted by introduced animals. [ 42 ] Predators The most common predators of black-tailed prairie dogs are coyotes ( Canis latrans ), [ 7 ] [ 10 ] [ 18 ] [ 43 ] American badgers ( Taxidea taxus ), [ 7 ] [ 11 ] [ 18 ] [ 43 ] bobcats ( Lynx rufus ), [ 7 ] [ 10 ] [ 43 ] golden eagles ( Aquila chrysaetos ), [ 7 ] [ 10 ] [ 11 ] [ 43 ] ferruginous hawks ( Buteo regalis ), [ 7 ] [ 43 ] red-tailed hawks ( Buteo jamaicensis ), [ 10 ] and prairie rattlesnakes ( Crotalus viridis ). [ 10 ] [ 11 ] [ 43 ] Although now very rare, black-footed ferrets ( Mustela nigripes ) were once a major predator of the black-tailed prairie dog. [ 43 ] Ecological role and threats Black-tailed prairie dogs have been called "ecosystem engineers" due to their influence on the biotic and abiotic characteristics of their habitat, landscape architecture, and ecosystem structure and function. [ 5 ] [ 44 ] Research suggests black-tailed prairie dogs are a keystone species [ 5 ] [ 41 ] [ 44 ] in some, but not all, geographic areas. [ 5 ] Black-tailed prairie dogs enhance the diversity of vegetation, vertebrates, and invertebrates through their foraging and burrowing activities and by their presence as prey items. [ 5 ] [ 30 ] [ 44 ] [ 45 ] Grasslands inhabited by black-tailed prairie dogs support higher biodiversity than grasslands not occupied by them. Hundreds of species of vertebrates [ 8 ] [ 46 ] and invertebrates [ 30 ] are associated with black-tailed prairie dog colonies. Vertebrate species richness on their colonies increases with colony size and density. [ 22 ] West of the Missouri River in Montana, 40% (100 species) of all vertebrate fauna in prairie habitats rely on black-tailed prairie dog colonies for food, nesting, and/or denning. Rare and declining species, such as the black-footed ferret , [ 8 ] [ 43 ] [ 46 ] swift fox ( Vulpes velox ), mountain plover ( Charadrius montanus ), [ 22 ] and burrowing owl ( Athene cunicularia ) [ 7 ] are associated with colonies. [ 8 ] Because their foraging activities keep plant development in a suppressed vegetative state with higher nutritional qualities, [ 21 ] [ 46 ] herbivores, including American bison , pronghorn ( Antilocapra americana ), and domestic cattle often prefer foraging in black-tailed prairie dog colonies. [ 7 ] [ 10 ] [ 11 ] [ 16 ] [ 20 ] [ 23 ] [ 25 ] [ 45 ] [ 46 ] Animals that depend on herbaceous cover in sagebrush habitat, such as mule deer ( Odocoileus hemionus ) and sage grouse ( Centrocercus spp.), may be deterred by the decreased vegetative cover on black-tailed prairie dog colonies. [ 19 ] For a list of vertebrate species associated with black-tailed prairie dog colonies, see. [ 47 ] Biodiversity in shortgrass prairies may be at risk due to the reductions in distribution and occurrence of black-tailed prairie dog. Threats include fragmentation and loss of habitat , unregulated eradication or control efforts, and sylvatic plague. [ 8 ] [ 9 ] As a result of habitat fragmentation and prairie dog eradication programs, colonies are now smaller and more fragmented than in presettlement times. Agriculture, livestock use, and other development have reduced habitat to 2% of its former range. [ 8 ] Fragmented colonies are more susceptible to extirpation, primarily by sylvatic plague. The effect of roads on black-tailed prairie dogs is debatable. Roads may either facilitate or hinder their movement, depending on the landscape setting. Roads may be easy routes for dispersal, but those with heavy automobile use may increase mortality. [ 13 ] [ 20 ] Roads, streams, and lakes may serve as barriers to sylvatic plague. [ 13 ] Conservation status Black-tailed prairie dogs are frequently exterminated from ranchland , being viewed as pests . Their habitat has been fragmented , and their numbers have been greatly reduced. Additionally, they are remarkably susceptible to plague . [ 48 ] In 2006, all eight appearances of plague in black-tailed prairie dog colonies resulted in total colony loss. Studies in 1961 estimated only 364,000 acres (1,470 km 2 ) of occupied black-tailed prairie dog habitat in the United States. A second study in 2000 showed 676,000 acres (2,740 km 2 ). However, a comprehensive study between 10 states and various tribes in 2004 estimated 1,842,000 acres (7,450 km 2 ) in the United States, plus an additional 51,589 acres (208.77 km 2 ) in Mexico and Canada. Based on the 2004 studies, the US Fish and Wildlife Service removed the black-tailed prairie dog from the Endangered Species Act Candidate Species List in August 2004. [ 49 ] Interactions with domestic livestock While black-tailed prairie dogs are often regarded as competitors with livestock for available forage, evidence of impacts on rangelands are mixed. Some research suggests they have either neutral or beneficial effects on rangeland used by livestock; [ 11 ] [ 16 ] [ 25 ] [ 45 ] however, their effects on rangelands are not uniform. [ 19 ] [ 23 ] In Cimarron National Grassland in southwest Kansas and adjacent private lands in Baca County, Colorado , some vegetational differences were detected between areas colonized by black-tailed prairie dogs and uncolonized areas, although not all differences were consistent between sample years. Species richness and diversity indices did not differ among colonized and uncolonized sites in either year, nor did the amount of bare ground. The authors conclude while prairie dogs alter shortgrass prairie such that the vegetation of colonies tends to be distinct from adjacent uncolonized areas, "prairie dogs do not substantially alter the essential character of shortgrass vegetation". [ 24 ] Cattle neither significantly preferred nor avoided black-tailed prairie dog colonies in a study in the shortgrass steppe of northeastern Colorado. Cattle used colonies in proportion to the colony's availability, and grazed as intensively on colonies as on areas not occupied by black-tailed prairie dogs. [ 14 ] Competitive interactions between black-tailed prairie dogs and domestic livestock for preferred forage species are unclear. Several studies suggest black-tailed prairie dogs avoid eating many plants that livestock prefer, and prefer many plants livestock avoid. [ 23 ] [ 45 ] Conversely, on shortgrass prairie in Colorado, cattle and black-tailed prairie dogs had a 64% similarity in annual diets. [ 25 ] Some changes in plant composition brought about by black-tailed prairie dogs may benefit livestock by encouraging an increase in plants more tolerant of grazing, such as needleleaf sedge ( Carex duriuscula ), sixweeks grass ( Vulpia octoflora ), and scarlet globemallow. [ 16 ] [ 46 ] Grazing by black-tailed prairie dogs may also improve the nutritional qualities of some plants. [ 21 ] [ 46 ] On a shortgrass prairie near Fort Collins, Colorado, plant species diversity was greater inside black-tailed prairie dog colonies than outside of colonies, and perennial grasses such as buffalo grass and forbs increased. [ 16 ] While black-tailed prairie dog colonies at Wind Cave National Park typically had lower levels of plant biomass and were dominated by forbs, plants growing on prairie dog colonies had higher leaf nitrogen concentrations than plants in mixed-grass prairie outside colonies. Foraging by black-tailed prairie dogs does not significantly affect steer weights. [ 25 ] [ 45 ] While forage availability and use by cattle decreased in black-tailed prairie dog foraging areas, steer weight was not reduced significantly in either of two years of study at the USDA's Southern Great Plains Experimental Range near Woodward, Oklahoma. Nutrient cycling, increased soil fertility, and subsequent changes in forage quality partly compensated for reduced forage availability. [ 45 ] Pet trade Black-tailed prairie dogs were the most common prairie dog species collected in the wild for sale as exotic pets, until this trade was banned in 2003 by the United States federal government. The ban was officially lifted on September 8, 2008. [ 50 ] References This article incorporates public domain material from .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Cynomys ludovicianus . 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Bibcode : 1983Oecol..56....1C . doi : 10.1007/BF00378210 . JSTOR 4216853 . PMID 28310762 . S2CID 23797752 . ^ a b Winter, Stephen L.; Cully, Jack F.; Pontius, Jeffrey S. (2002). "Vegetation of prairie dog colonies and non-colonized shortgrass prairie" (PDF) . Journal of Range Management . 55 (5): 502– 508. doi : 10.2307/4003230 . hdl : 10150/643691 . JSTOR 4003230 . Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-08-23. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Hansen, Richard M.; Gold, Ilyse K. (1977). "Black-tailed prairie dogs, desert cottontails and cattle trophic relations on shortgrass range". Journal of Range Management . 30 (3): 210– 214. doi : 10.2307/3897472 . hdl : 10150/646845 . JSTOR 3897472 . ^ Hillman, Conrad N.; Linder, Raymond L.; Dahlgren, Robert B. (1979). "Prairie dog distribution in areas inhabited by black-footed ferrets". American Midland Naturalist . 102 (1): 185– 187. Bibcode : 1979AMNat.102..185H . doi : 10.2307/2425083 . JSTOR 2425083 . ^ Pruett, Alison L.; Boal, Clint W.; Wallace, Mark C.; Whitlaw, Heather; Ray, Jim. 2004. Playa lakes as habitat reserves for black-tailed prairie dogs. In: Wallace, Mark C.; Britton, Carlton, eds. Research Highlights – 2004: Range, wildlife, and fisheries management. Volume 35. Lubbock, TX: Texas Tech University: 17. ^ Rickel, Bryce. (2005). Chapter 3: "Small mammals, reptiles, and amphibians". In: Finch, Deborah M., ed. Assessment of grassland ecosystem conditions in the southwestern United States: wildlife and fish . Vol. 2. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-135-vol. 2. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 35–69 ^ Stobodchikoff, C. N.; Robinson, Anthony; Schaack, Clark. (1988). "Habitat use by Gunnison's prairie dogs". In: Szaro, Robert C.; Severson, Kieth E.; Patton, David R., technical coordinators. Management of amphibians, reptiles, and small mammals in North America: Proceedings of the symposium ; 1988 July 19–21; Flagstaff, AZ. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-166. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: pp. 403–408. ^ a b c Wilcomb, Maxwell Jeffers Jr. (1954). A study of prairie dog burrow systems and the ecology of their arthropod inhabitants in central Oklahoma . Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma. Dissertation. ISBN 9781258355432 ^ a b c d e f Fagerstone, K. A.; Tietjen, H. P.; Williams, O. (1981). "Seasonal variation in the diet of black-tailed prairie dogs". Journal of Mammalogy . 62 (4): 820– 824. doi : 10.2307/1380605 . JSTOR 1380605 . ^ a b c d e Kelso, Leon H. (1939). "Food habits of prairie dogs" . Circ. No. 529. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture. pp. 1–15 ^ Roe, Kelly A.; Roe, Christopher M (2003). "Habitat selection guidelines for black-tailed prairie dog relocations". Wildlife Society Bulletin . 31 (4): 1246– 1253. JSTOR 3784475 . ^ a b c d e f g Hoogland, John L.; Angell, Diane K.; Daley, James G.; Radcliffe, Matthew C. (1988). "Demography and population dynamics of prairie dogs". In: Uresk, Daniel W.; Schenbeck, Greg L.; Cefkin, Rose, tech coords. 8th Great Plains wildlife damage control workshop proceedings ; 1987 April 28–30; Rapid City, SD. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-154. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment station: 18–22. doi : 10.2737/RM-GTR-154 ^ Heffner, R. S.; Heffner, H. E.; Contos, C; Kearns, D (1994). "Hearing in prairie dogs: Transition between surface and subterranean rodents". Hearing Research . 73 (2): 185– 9. doi : 10.1016/0378-5955(94)90233-x . PMID 8188546 . S2CID 4763545 . ^ a b c d Slobodchikoff, C. N. (2002) "Cognition and Communication in Prairie Dogs", pp. 257–264 in The Cognitive Animal , M. Beckoff, C. Allen, and G. M. Burghardt (eds) Cambridge: A Bradford Book. doi : 10.7551/mitpress/1885.003.0037 ISBN 9780262268028 ^ a b c d Hoogland, J.L. (1995) The Black- tailed Prairie Dog: Social Life of a Burrowing Mammal , Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press ^ Examples of Jump-Yip type behavior in prairie dogs on YouTube ^ Hoogland J (1996). " Cynomys ludovicianus " (PDF) . Mammalian Species (535): 1– 10. doi : 10.2307/3504202 . JSTOR 3504202 . ^ Crew, Bec. "Catch the Wave: Decoding the Prairie Dog's Contagious Jump-Yip" . Scientific American Blog Network . Retrieved 2018-08-09 . ^ a b c d e f g h i Hoogland, John L (2001). "Black-tailed, Gunnison's, and Utah prairie dogs reproduce slowly" . Journal of Mammalogy . 82 (4): 917– 927. doi : 10.1644/1545-1542(2001)082<0917:BTGSAU>2.0.CO;2 . JSTOR 1383470 . ^ Brown, David E.; Davis, Russell. (1998). "Terrestrial bird and mammal distribution changes in the American Southwest, 1890–1990". In: Tellman, Barbara; Finch, Deborah M.; Edminster, Carl; Hamre, Robert, eds. The future of arid grasslands: identifying issues, seeking solutions: Proceedings ; 1996 October 9–13; Tucson, AZ. Proceedings RMRS-P-3. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: pp. 47–64. ^ a b c d e f g h Hillman, Conrad N. (1968). Life history and ecology of the black-footed ferret in the wild . Brookings, SD: South Dakota State University. Thesis. ^ a b c Ceballos, G; Pacheco, Jesús; List, Rurik (1999). "Influence of prairie dogs ( Cynomys ludovicianus ) on habitat heterogeneity and mammalian diversity in Mexico". Journal of Arid Environments . 41 (2): 161– 172. Bibcode : 1999JArEn..41..161C . doi : 10.1006/jare.1998.0479 . ^ a b c d e f O'Meilia, M. E.; Knopf, F. L.; Lewis, J. C. (1982). "Some consequences of competition between prairie dogs and beef cattle". Journal of Range Management . 35 (5): 580– 585. doi : 10.2307/3898641 . JSTOR 3898641 . ^ a b c d e f Sharps, Jon C.; Uresk, Daniel W (1990). "Ecological review of black-tailed prairie dogs and associated species in western South Dakota" (PDF) . The Great Basin Naturalist . 50 (4): 339– 344. ^ Campbell, Thomas M. III; Clark, Tim W (1981). "Colony characteristics and vertebrate associates of white-tailed and black-tailed prairie dogs in Wyoming". The American Midland Naturalist . 105 (2): 269– 276. doi : 10.2307/2424745 . JSTOR 2424745 . ^ Webb, C. T.; Brooks, C. P.; Gage, K. L.; Antolin, M. F. (2006). "Classic flea-borne transmission does not drive plague epizootics in prairie dogs" . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . 103 (16): 6236– 6241. Bibcode : 2006PNAS..103.6236W . doi : 10.1073/pnas.0510090103 . PMC 1434514 . PMID 16603630 . ^ Black-tailed prairie dog Archived 2007-05-09 at the Wayback Machine United States Fish and Wildlife Service ^ "Federal Register: Control of Communicable Diseases; Restrictions on African Rodents, prairie dogs, and Certain Other Animals" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-02-25 . Retrieved 2008-11-03 . Further reading Prairie Dogs Are A Keystone Species Of The Great Plains Desert USA: Prairie Dogs External links Arkive – images and movies of the prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus) Prairie Dogs Archived 2011-07-28 at the Wayback Machine -Biodiversity Conservation Alliance .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Living species of tribe Marmotini (ground squirrels) v t e Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Rodentia Suborder: Sciuromorpha Family: Sciuridae Subfamily: Xerinae Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Rodentia Suborder: Sciuromorpha Family: Sciuridae Subfamily: Xerinae Ammospermophilus (antelope squirrels) Harris's antelope squirrel (A. harrisii) Espíritu Santo antelope squirrel (A. insularis) Texas antelope squirrel (A. interpres) White-tailed antelope squirrel (A. leucurus) San Joaquin antelope squirrel (A. nelsoni) Harris's antelope squirrel (A. harrisii) Espíritu Santo antelope squirrel (A. insularis) Texas antelope squirrel (A. interpres) White-tailed antelope squirrel (A. leucurus) San Joaquin antelope squirrel (A. nelsoni) Callospermophilus (golden-mantled ground squirrels) Golden-mantled ground squirrel (C. lateralis) Sierra Madre ground squirrel (C. madrensis) Cascade golden-mantled ground squirrel (C. saturatus) Golden-mantled ground squirrel (C. lateralis) Sierra Madre ground squirrel (C. madrensis) Cascade golden-mantled ground squirrel (C. saturatus) Cynomys (prairie dogs) Gunnison's prairie dog (C. gunnisoni) White-tailed prairie dog (C. leucurus) Black-tailed prairie dog (C. ludovicianus) Mexican prairie dog (C. mexicanus) Utah prairie dog (C. parvidens) Gunnison's prairie dog (C. gunnisoni) White-tailed prairie dog (C. leucurus) Black-tailed prairie dog (C. ludovicianus) Mexican prairie dog (C. mexicanus) Utah prairie dog (C. parvidens) Eutamias Siberian chipmunk (E. sibiricus) Siberian chipmunk (E. sibiricus) Ictidomys (little ground squirrels) Mexican ground squirrel (I. mexicanus) Rio Grande ground squirrel (I. parvidens ) Thirteen-lined ground squirrel (I. tridecemlineatus) Mexican ground squirrel (I. mexicanus) Rio Grande ground squirrel (I. parvidens ) Thirteen-lined ground squirrel (I. tridecemlineatus) Marmota (marmots) Subgenus Marmota : Gray marmot (M. baibacina) Bobak marmot (M. bobak) Alaska marmot (M. broweri) Black-capped marmot (M. camtschatica) Long-tailed marmot (M. caudata) Himalayan marmot (M. himalayana) Alpine marmot (M. marmota) Menzbier's marmot (M. menzbieri) Groundhog or woodchuck (M. monax) Tarbagan marmot (M. sibirica) Subgenus Petromarmota : Hoary marmot (M. caligata) Yellow-bellied marmot (M. flaviventris) Olympic marmot (M. olympus) Vancouver Island marmot (M. vancouverensis) Bobak marmot (M. bobak) Alaska marmot (M. broweri) Black-capped marmot (M. camtschatica) Long-tailed marmot (M. caudata) Himalayan marmot (M. himalayana) Alpine marmot (M. marmota) Menzbier's marmot (M. menzbieri) Groundhog or woodchuck (M. monax) Tarbagan marmot (M. sibirica) Subgenus Petromarmota : Hoary marmot (M. caligata) Yellow-bellied marmot (M. flaviventris) Olympic marmot (M. olympus) Vancouver Island marmot (M. vancouverensis) Neotamias (western chipmunks) Alpine chipmunk (N. alpinus) Yellow-pine chipmunk (N. amoenus) Buller's chipmunk (N. bulleri) Gray-footed chipmunk (N. canipes) Gray-collared chipmunk (N. cinereicollis) Cliff chipmunk (N. dorsalis) Durango chipmunk (N. durangae) Merriam's chipmunk (N. merriami) Least chipmunk (N. minimus) California chipmunk (N. obscurus) Yellow-cheeked chipmunk (N. ochrogenys) Palmer's chipmunk (N. palmeri) Panamint chipmunk (N. panamintinus) Long-eared chipmunk (N. quadrimaculatus) Colorado chipmunk (N. quadrivittatus) Red-tailed chipmunk (N. ruficaudus) Hopi chipmunk (N. rufus) Allen's chipmunk (N. senex) Siskiyou chipmunk (N. siskiyou) Sonoma chipmunk (N. sonomae) Lodgepole chipmunk (N. speciosus) Townsend's chipmunk (N. townsendii) Uinta chipmunk (N. umbrinus) Alpine chipmunk (N. alpinus) Yellow-pine chipmunk (N. amoenus) Buller's chipmunk (N. bulleri) Gray-footed chipmunk (N. canipes) Gray-collared chipmunk (N. cinereicollis) Cliff chipmunk (N. dorsalis) Durango chipmunk (N. durangae) Merriam's chipmunk (N. merriami) Least chipmunk (N. minimus) California chipmunk (N. obscurus) Yellow-cheeked chipmunk (N. ochrogenys) Palmer's chipmunk (N. palmeri) Panamint chipmunk (N. panamintinus) Long-eared chipmunk (N. quadrimaculatus) Colorado chipmunk (N. quadrivittatus) Red-tailed chipmunk (N. ruficaudus) Hopi chipmunk (N. rufus) Allen's chipmunk (N. senex) Siskiyou chipmunk (N. siskiyou) Sonoma chipmunk (N. sonomae) Lodgepole chipmunk (N. speciosus) Townsend's chipmunk (N. townsendii) Uinta chipmunk (N. umbrinus) Notocitellus Tropical ground squirrel (N. adocetus) Ring-tailed ground squirrel (N. annulatus) Tropical ground squirrel (N. adocetus) Ring-tailed ground squirrel (N. annulatus) Otospermophilus (rock squirrels) Baja California rock squirrel (O. atricapillus) California ground squirrel (O. beecheyi) Douglas ground squirrel (O. douglasii) Rock squirrel (O. variegatus) Baja California rock squirrel (O. atricapillus) California ground squirrel (O. beecheyi) Douglas ground squirrel (O. douglasii) Rock squirrel (O. variegatus) Poliocitellus Franklin's ground squirrel (P. franklinii) Franklin's ground squirrel (P. franklinii) Sciurotamias (Asian rock squirrels) Père David's rock squirrel (S. davidianus) Forrest's rock squirrel (S. forresti) Père David's rock squirrel (S. davidianus) Forrest's rock squirrel (S. forresti) Spermophilus sensu stricto (Old World ground squirrels) Alashan ground squirrel (S. alashanicus) Brandt’s ground squirrel ( S. brevicauda ) European ground squirrel (S. citellus) Daurian ground squirrel (S. dauricus) Red-cheeked ground squirrel (S. erythrogenys) Yellow ground squirrel (S. fulvus) Russet ground squirrel (S. major) Caucasian mountain ground squirrel (S. musicus) Tian Shan ground squirrel (S. nilkaensis) Pallid ground squirrel ( S. pallidicauda ) Little ground squirrel (S. pygmaeus) Relict ground squirrel ( S. relictus ) Speckled ground squirrel (Spermophilus suslicus) Taurus ground squirrel (Spermophilus taurensis) Asia Minor ground squirrel (Spermophilus xanthoprymnus) Alashan ground squirrel (S. alashanicus) Brandt’s ground squirrel ( S. brevicauda ) European ground squirrel (S. citellus) Daurian ground squirrel (S. dauricus) Red-cheeked ground squirrel (S. erythrogenys) Yellow ground squirrel (S. fulvus) Russet ground squirrel (S. major) Caucasian mountain ground squirrel (S. musicus) Tian Shan ground squirrel (S. nilkaensis) Pallid ground squirrel ( S. pallidicauda ) Little ground squirrel (S. pygmaeus) Relict ground squirrel ( S. relictus ) Speckled ground squirrel (Spermophilus suslicus) Taurus ground squirrel (Spermophilus taurensis) Asia Minor ground squirrel (Spermophilus xanthoprymnus) Tamias Eastern chipmunk (T. striatus) Eastern chipmunk (T. striatus) Urocitellus (Holarctic ground squirrels) Uinta ground squirrel (U. armatus) Belding's ground squirrel (U. beldingi) Northern Idaho ground squirrel (U. brunneus) Merriam's ground squirrel (U. canus) Columbian ground squirrel (U. columbianus) Wyoming ground squirrel (U. elegans) Southern Idaho ground squirrel (U. endemicus) Piute ground squirrel (U. mollis) Arctic ground squirrel (U. parryii) Richardson's ground squirrel (U. richardsonii) Townsend's ground squirrel (U. townsendii) Long-tailed ground squirrel (U. undulatus) Washington ground squirrel (U. washingtoni) Uinta ground squirrel (U. armatus) Belding's ground squirrel (U. beldingi) Northern Idaho ground squirrel (U. brunneus) Merriam's ground squirrel (U. canus) Columbian ground squirrel (U. columbianus) Wyoming ground squirrel (U. elegans) Southern Idaho ground squirrel (U. endemicus) Piute ground squirrel (U. mollis) Arctic ground squirrel (U. parryii) Richardson's ground squirrel (U. richardsonii) Townsend's ground squirrel (U. townsendii) Long-tailed ground squirrel (U. undulatus) Washington ground squirrel (U. washingtoni) Xerospermophilus (pygmy ground squirrels) Mohave ground squirrel (X. mohavensis) Perote ground squirrel (X. perotensis) Spotted ground squirrel (X. spilosoma) Round-tailed ground squirrel (X. tereticaudus) Mohave ground squirrel (X. mohavensis) Perote ground squirrel (X. perotensis) Spotted ground squirrel (X. spilosoma) Round-tailed ground squirrel (X. tereticaudus) Category Taxon identifiers Cynomys ludovicianus Wikidata : Q247142 Wikispecies : Cynomys ludovicianus ADW : Cynomys_ludovicianus BOLD : 64750 EoL : 311548 EPPO : KYMSLU FEIS: cylu GBIF : 2437232 iNaturalist : 46179 IRMNG : 10201461 ITIS : 180186 IUCN : 6091 MDD : 1001716 MSW : 12400916 NatureServe : 2.100941 NBN : NHMSYS0021109663 NCBI : 45480 Observation.org : 20927 Open Tree of Life : 580345 Paleobiology Database : 45497 TSA : 5620 Xeno-canto : Cynomys-ludovicianus Wikidata : Q247142 Wikispecies : Cynomys ludovicianus ADW : Cynomys_ludovicianus BOLD : 64750 EoL : 311548 EPPO : KYMSLU FEIS: cylu GBIF : 2437232 iNaturalist : 46179 IRMNG : 10201461 ITIS : 180186 IUCN : 6091 MDD : 1001716 MSW : 12400916 NatureServe : 2.100941 NBN : NHMSYS0021109663 NCBI : 45480 Observation.org : 20927 Open Tree of Life : 580345 Paleobiology Database : 45497 TSA : 5620 Xeno-canto : Cynomys-ludovicianus Authority control databases National Israel Israel Other Yale LUX Yale LUX IUCN Red List least concern species NatureServe apparently secure species Prairie dogs Rodents of Canada Rodents of Mexico Rodents of the United States Fauna of the Great Plains Mammals described in 1815 Taxa named by George Ord Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles with 'species' microformats Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2007 All articles containing potentially dated statements Wikipedia articles incorporating text from public domain works of the United States Government Commons link from Wikidata Taxonbars with 20–24 taxon IDs This page was last edited on 15 January 2026, at 19:19 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early life 2 Journalism and non-fiction 3 Fiction Toggle Fiction subsection 3.1 Romantic novels series 3.2 The Rutshire Chronicles 3.3 Little Mabel series 3.1 Romantic novels series 3.2 The Rutshire Chronicles 3.3 Little Mabel series 4 Personal life 5 Death and tributes 6 Honours, awards and recognition 7 Film and television productions Toggle Film and television productions subsection 7.1 Screenwriting and appearances 7.2 Adaptations 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 7.1 Screenwriting and appearances 7.2 Adaptations 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 8 Analysis 9 List of works Toggle List of works subsection 9.1 Fiction 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.2 Non-fiction 9.1 Fiction 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.2 Non-fiction 10 References 11 External links Jilly Cooper العربية Български Cymraeg Deutsch Español فارسی Français کٲشُر مصرى Polski Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska Türkçe Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item Dame Jilly Cooper DBE Cooper in 1974 Born Jill Sallitt ( 1937-02-21 ) 21 February 1937 Hornchurch , Essex, England Died 5 October 2025 (2025-10-05) (aged 88) Gloucester , England Occupation Author Genre Erotic , romance Notable works Rutshire Chronicles Spouse .mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-inline{display:inline} Leo Cooper ( m. 1961; died 2013) Children 2 Website jillycooper .co .uk Dame Jilly Cooper (born Jill Sallitt ; 21 February 1937 – 5 October 2025) was an English author and journalist, best known for her long-running Rutshire Chronicles series. She began her career in journalism and published several works of non-fiction, including books on class, animals and marriage, before turning to fiction. Her first book was How to Stay Married , which was published in 1969. She published several collections of journalism, alongside other non-fiction volumes throughout much of her career. Cooper's first novel to be published was the romance , Emily , which appeared in 1975 and was followed by five more, as well as a volume of short stories. Cooper was also an anthologist and wrote the Little Mabel series of children's books. Cooper went on to become a prominent figure in British popular literature, noted for her witty social commentary and depictions of upper-middle-class life. Her best-known works are the Rutshire Chronicles of which the 1985 novel Riders was the first; it was followed by ten more volumes with the latest installment Tackle! published in 2023. The series is known for its humour, sexuality and depictions of upper-class life; several of the volumes feature the character Rupert Campbell-Black as a key protagonist. Whilst Riders alone sold over one million copies, and her romance novels compared to those of Nancy Mitford and Barbara Cartland , not all reviews were positive. Private Eye lampooned Cooper and gave her the nickname 'Super Cooper', which she later used as a title for one of her own books. Nevertheless Cooper is recognised as one of the key writers of the bonkbuster novel, along with Jackie Collins , Shirley Conran and Judith Krantz . Whilst few academics have analysed her work, those that have, recognise her ability to portray large cast of characters and her focus on pleasure as a literary theme. Academic Ian Patterson compared her to Anthony Trollope and Charles Dickens . In 2025, the Jilly Cooper Prize was established as part of the Comedy Women in Print Awards to honour her contribution to comic fiction. After Cooper's death in the same year, Queen Camilla described her as a "wonderfully witty and compassionate friend". Cooper had received several honours during her lifetime, including that of Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2024 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity. Several of her works were adapted for television and radio, including the second Rutshire Chronicles volume, Rivals , which was adapted by Disney+ and released in 2024. It starred David Tennant and Aidan Turner . Early life Jill Sallitt was born in Hornchurch , Essex, on 21 February 1937 to Mary Elaine ( née Whincup) and Brigadier W. B. Sallitt. [ 1 ] She grew up in Ilkley , Yorkshire, and in Surrey . Cooper was educated at Moorfield School in Ilkley and Godolphin School in Salisbury , Wiltshire. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] She subsequently learnt to type in Oxford. [ 3 ] Journalism and non-fiction Aged 20, Cooper became a junior reporter for The Middlesex Independent , based in Brentford . [ 3 ] She worked for the paper from 1957 to 1959. Subsequently, she worked as an account executive, copywriter , publisher's reader and receptionist . [ 4 ] Her break came with a chance meeting at a dinner party with Godfrey Smith , the editor of The Sunday Times Magazine , who asked her to write a feature about her experiences as a young married woman. [ 4 ] This led to a column in which Cooper wrote about marriage , sex and housework . [ 3 ] That column ran from 1969 to 1982, when she moved to The Mail on Sunday , where she worked as a columnist for a further five years. [ 3 ] In parallel to her journalism, Cooper wrote several humorous and satirical books: her earliest columns led to the publication of her first book, the satirical How to Stay Married , in 1969, which was quickly followed by another satirical guide to working life, How to Survive from Nine to Five , in 1970. [ 5 ] Further satirical works were Men and Super Men , published in 1972, [ 6 ] and Women and Super Women , published in 1974. [ 7 ] The former has mixed reviews, with the Liverpool Daily Post describing the puns as bad, but that Cooper's writing had a "knowing adolescence". [ 6 ] In contrast the Evening Dispatch instructed all its readers to immediately buy it, as a guide to "men and sex". [ 8 ] Women and Super Women was reviewed positively by Clive James in The Observer , [ 9 ] whereas other reviews described the book as cruel (if funny) in its discussions of a wide range of women. [ 7 ] Cooper's journalism was first collected into a single volume, Jolly Super , in 1971. [ 5 ] That collection took its title from the nickname given to Cooper by Private Eye . [ 10 ] A further collection Jolly Super Too was published in 1973. [ 11 ] The Birmingham Evening Mail compared Cooper to Mick McManus as someone the public loved to hate, and stated that the book would deliver "a snigger a minute" to readers. [ 12 ] Jolly Superlative was published in 1975 and largely included pieces from The Sunday Times , but also Vogue , and was praised by The Daily Telegraph for its "limitless comic invention". [ 13 ] In 1977 another collection of journalism, Super Jilly, was reviewed by Clive James in the The Observer as "another breathless year-book by the Sunday Times' head-girl". [ 14 ] The same year How to Stay Married and How to Survive from Nine to Five were republished together in a single volume in 1977 under the revised title How To Survive Work and Wedlock. [ 15 ] The combined volume had mixed reviews from "saucy, but relevant" according to the Sydney Morning Herald , [ 16 ] to the Evening Standard describing how "Women's Lib must hate her insouciant approach to the woman's world". [ 17 ] The theme of class dominated much of her writing and her non-fiction with her work written from an explicitly upper-middle-class British perspective, with emphasis on the relationships between men and women and matters of social class in contemporary Britain. [ 2 ] Upon the publication of 1979's book Class , Ralf Dahrendorf reviewed it for the London Review of Books , describing the work as one where "the characters are fun, the observations acute". [ 18 ] Published in 2000 David Cannadine 's Class in Britain assessed Cooper's book, pointing out that Cooper herself had felt that it did not fully describe the intricacies of the British class system. [ 19 ] Another republication during this period was 1980's Super Cooper , which was a volume of excerpts from her earlier books Men and Super Men and Women and Super Women. [ 20 ] This was described the Sydney Morning Herald as a "brilliant guide to the sexes" and by the Liverpool as a volume "that never disappoints the reader". [ 20 ] [ 21 ] Jolly Marsupial another volume of journalism, this time focussing on Cooper's 1980 tour of Australia to promote the book Class , was published in 1982. [ 22 ] In 1981 Cooper published Intelligent and Loyal , which is a book about mongrels . [ 23 ] In it Cooper created her own humorous typology for mongrels. [ 24 ] To gather stories about mongrels for the book, Cooper put an advert in newspapers asking people to share stories about their pets for the book. [ 23 ] [ 25 ] As a result of the book's success Cooper and her dogs subsequently made public appearances, including on The Animals Roadshow in 1989. [ 26 ] In 1983 she published Animals in War , a book that recorded the contributions a variety of species made to the military. [ 27 ] Public response to the book led to a campaign, supported by Cooper, to establish the Animals in War Memorial . [ 28 ] [ 29 ] Cooper edited an anthology of prose and poetry entitled The British in Love . [ 30 ] With Tom Hartman she also co-edited a dictionary of quotations purely sourced from women entitled Violets and Vinegar . [ 31 ] In 2020, some of her writings on sex and marriage from the 1970s were republished as Between the Covers and praised for their honesty . [ 32 ] Fiction Cooper has been described as "the queen of the bonkbuster ", [ 33 ] however her first novels were romances. [ 34 ] [ 35 ] These were followed by the Rutshire Chronicles series, where dogs and horses featured heavily. [ 36 ] Cooper described the research she undertook for each novel as "like studying for an A-level". [ 37 ] Quoted in the Evening Standard in 1994, Cooper stated that she thought that product placement in literary works was acceptable and discussed how she had received thank you gifts as a result of unsolicited mentions in her novels. [ 38 ] Romantic novels series Cooper was encouraged to write romantic fiction by the editor Desmond Elliott , who had read the short stories she had written previously for teenage magazines. [ 34 ] At the time she was working in publicity for HarperCollins ; Elliott commissioned her with a six-book contract and the paperback rights were subsequently sold to Corgi Books . [ 34 ] The series sold in the 100,000s. [ 34 ] The contract was for Cooper to publish a novel every six months. [ 39 ] The first novel in the series was Emily , which was published in 1975. [ 40 ] Set on a remote Scottish island, its storyline follows Emily who moves to the island after a short courtship and marriage to a volatile artist. [ 41 ] Reviews were complimentary, [ 42 ] [ 43 ] although Auberon Waugh noted similarity between Emily and Devil's Cub by Georgette Heyer . [ 44 ] The work was compared to that of Nancy Mitford and Barbara Cartland . [ 39 ] Emily was followed by Harriet and then Bella , both published in 1976. [ 45 ] [ 46 ] In Harriet , the titular character becomes pregnant whilst at university and subsequently works as a nanny for an irascible screenwriter so she can take the baby with her. [ 47 ] In review, Barbara Cartland disliked the novel. [ 48 ] The novel Bella ' s storyline revolves around an actress whose fiancé is super-wealthy, but his family do not approve of Bella. [ 49 ] The novel mixes romance and mystery, as Bella is kidnapped. [ 49 ] Auberon Waugh praised the emotional engagement of the novel, but The Guardian described disappointment since good jokes were lost in the prose. [ 44 ] [ 50 ] In October 1993, seven years after Private Eye had pointed out the similarities, Cooper admitted that sections of Emily and Bella were plagiarised from The Dud Avocado (1958) by Elaine Dundy , but said that it was not deliberate. [ 51 ] The next novel in the series was Octavia , which was published in 1977, set in Britain during the 1970s. [ 52 ] Reviews were less positive than the previous novels, but Cooper's word-play continued to be praised. [ 53 ] In a review Auberon Waugh expressed frustration with the novel as he felt Cooper could write much better than the text. [ 54 ] Octavia was followed by the novel Prudence , which was set in the Lake District in England during a house party. [ 55 ] [ 56 ] The novel had a mixed reception upon publication, including from one reviewer who hoped it was the last in the series. [ 57 ] In response, Cooper's publisher, Desmond Elliott, wrote to the paper announcing that the next novel, Imogen , was due that same year and it too was likely to be enjoyed by hundreds of thousands of readers. [ 57 ] The final novel in the series is Imogen , which was published in 1978. [ 58 ] At the time of publication, the preceding five novels had sold 340,000 copies. [ 59 ] Set between Yorkshire and the south of France, it follows Imogen as she is seduced by a tennis player, who takes her on holiday, but ultimately falls in love with his best friend. [ 58 ] The novel was mostly received favourably, [ 60 ] although the character of Imogen was described in one review as "spineless". [ 61 ] It is cited as an example in academic texts on a variety of themes, including the allure of the French Riviera for Anglo-American culture, [ 62 ] and a cultural analysis of cohabitation in the 1970s. [ 63 ] Also grouped in the romance series is the short story collection Lisa & Co ; each story is based on some of Cooper's earliest writings for women's magazines in the 1960s. [ 64 ] [ 65 ] In 2017 in her book The Gender Games , transgender writer Juno Dawson described how her obsession with the "ultra-glam" covers of these romances as a child gave her a sense that she was not "very good at being a boy". [ 66 ] The Rutshire Chronicles The best-known of Cooper's works, each book of the Rutshire Chronicles is set in a glamorous and wealthy milieu , such as the worlds of show jumping or classical music . [ 67 ] [ 68 ] These books were noted for the luxurious lifestyles portrayed, the proliferation of animals and their wit. [ 69 ] The first in the series was Riders (1985), an international bestseller, which sold over one million copies. [ 70 ] The first version of Riders was written by 1970, but shortly after Cooper had finished it, she took it with her into the West End of London , but left the manuscript on a bus. The London Evening Standard put out an appeal, but it was never found. She was, she says, "devastated" and it took her more than a decade to start it again. [ 71 ] Set in the world of show-jumping, the novel is the first appearance of Cooper's ongoing central character Rupert Campbell-Black . [ 72 ] The novel centres on his rivalry with fellow show-jumper Jake Lovell and the novel's denouement is set in the Los Angeles Olympics . [ 73 ] The follow-up novel to Riders was Rivals , set in the world of commercial television. [ 74 ] Still featuring Campbell-Black, he joins forces with television presenter Declan O'Hara and other characters to take over the local television station. [ 75 ] [ 76 ] Despite some initial scepticism from her publisher about the setting, [ 77 ] the novel debuted at #2 on the Sunday Times bestseller list for hardback fiction on June 12, 1988. [ 78 ] The next novel in the series was Polo , published in 1991, and was a return to the horse-focussed settings that Cooper became known for. [ 79 ] Cooper researched the book by travelling to Palm Beach and to Argentina, meeting polo players there. [ 80 ] [ 81 ] The novel went to number 1 in the UK hardback bestseller list, on its first entry. [ 82 ] Based on a rivalry between British polo player Ricky France-Lynch and an American millionaire Bart Alderton, the novel follows the teams associated with the two figures as they compete around the world. [ 83 ] It also features Rupert Campbell-Black's illegitimate daughter Perdita as a key protagonist. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] [ 86 ] Following Polo , the next novel in the series was The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous , which followed the life of Lysander Hawkley, a man who rich women employed to encourage their unfaithful husbands to return to their marriages. [ 87 ] It was the first novel to feature Roberto Rannaldini, a conductor and sworn enemy of Rupert Campbell-Black. [ 88 ] The novel received a range of reviews, but was praised for its "plain" heroine and a sub-plot relating to miscarriage. [ 89 ] [ 90 ] The next in the series was Appassionata , which was based in the world of classical music and followed the career of soloist, then conductor, Abigail Rosen. [ 91 ] Cooper spent three years researching the novel and travelled on tour to Spain, twice, with the Royal Scottish National Orchestra (RSNO). [ 91 ] The novel was a bestseller, and a soundtrack to the novel was released in parallel to the book. [ 92 ] [ 93 ] Reviews were mixed, with praise for Cooper's research [ 93 ] balanced by suggestions that the cast of characters was too large and contrived plots. [ 94 ] [ 95 ] Cooper remained largely in the world of classical music for her next novel, Score! , but this time focussing on a production of the opera Don Carlos . [ 86 ] In it Rannaldini is directing a film of the production, but is murdered on set, leading to a police investigation. [ 96 ] The novel was a Number 1 bestseller upon its release. The book received mixed reviews, [ 97 ] [ 86 ] as well as the accusation that at some moments the book seemed to suggest "that the death of a dog is rather more grief-worthy than the death of a human". [ 98 ] Her following novel Pandora was set in the art world, [ 99 ] and followed the Belvedon family of dealers and artists, based in the neighbouring county of Larkshire. [ 100 ] Reviewing the novel in The Observer , Robert Macfarlane described how it depicted and lampooned Britart , conceptual art and the Turner Prize . [ 99 ] This theme was continued by the New Statesman , where a reviewer described one scene where a woman who is raped is also menstruating as "very Jake and Dinos Chapman ". [ 101 ] The next volume in the series was Wicked! which was published in 2006 and was set in a boarding school, going to No. 1 in the fiction charts on its release. [ 102 ] [ 103 ] The novel had mixed reviews with some writers sharing unease at the depictions of teenage sex and romance. [ 104 ] [ 86 ] The Guardian stated that running at over 800 pages, the book needed a thorough edit since it was "as long as Anna Karenina and that, surely, is a mistake". [ 105 ] Returning to the world of horses, the ninth novel Jump! was released in 2010. [ 106 ] It features characters from the Rutshire Chronicles in the world of National Hunt steeplechase racing and tells the transformation of a mutilated horse (Mrs Wilkinson) into a successful racehorse. [ 106 ] After publication, it was revealed that Cooper had named a goat in the book (Chisolm) in order to hit back at the critic Anne Chisholm. [ 107 ] The tenth novel in the series Jump! was set in the world of flat racing . [ 108 ] Whilst Cooper's descriptions of the Cotswolds and her descriptions of racing were praised, some reviewers criticised the characterisation and "depraved and ridiculous" sex scenes. [ 109 ] [ 110 ] [ 111 ] The eleventh book in the series was Tackle! , published in 2023 it was set in the world of football. [ 112 ] It was named by The Week as one of the best novels of 2023. [ 113 ] The novel features Rupert Campbell-Black becoming the director of a local football club, based on Cooper's local side Forest Green Rovers . [ 114 ] [ 115 ] The sexual content of the novel received mixed reviews, with praise for the oral sex featured, but dismay that other scenes felt "lacklustre". [ 116 ] Little Mabel series Cooper also wrote a series of four children's books based on the misadventures of a young mongrel puppy called Mabel. [ 117 ] The Little Mabel series comprised Little Mabel, Little Mabel's Great Escape, Little Mabel Wins and Little Mabel Saves the Day. [ 117 ] When interviewed in 2013 to discuss the inclusion of a new class for mongrels at Crufts , Cooper described her book Little Mabel Wins as "prophetic" since it featured a protest against mongrel discrimination at that dog show. [ 118 ] Two of the books featured in the British children's television series Jackanory , read by Victoria Wood and Liza Goddard . [ 119 ] [ 120 ] Personal life In 1961, she married Leo Cooper , a publisher of military history books. [ 121 ] The couple had met when she was aged eight and Cooper aged 10, although they did not marry until she was 24 and he was 27. [ 122 ] [ 3 ] The couple adopted two children and had five grandchildren. [ 123 ] [ 124 ] In 1982, the couple left Putney , south-west London, for an old manor house near Stroud , Gloucestershire. [ 121 ] [ 125 ] As she told The Field in 2002, "I loved London, but I used to cry because I missed the countryside. We did the usual married run: Earl’s Court ; Fulham ; Putney ; Move To The Country." [ 126 ] The Coopers' marriage was greatly disrupted in 1990 when publisher Sarah Johnson revealed that she and Leo had had an affair for several years. [ 127 ] [ 128 ] Leo was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease in 2002. He died on 29 November 2013, at the age of 80. [ 121 ] In 2010, Cooper [ which? ] suffered a minor stroke. [ 129 ] Cooper was a passenger in one of the derailed carriages in the Ladbroke Grove rail crash of 1999, in which 31 people died, [ 123 ] and crawled through a window to escape. She later spoke of feeling that her "number was up". [ 3 ] Cooper was a supporter of the Conservative Party , [ 130 ] and was also in favour of the Iraq War (2003 to 2011). [ 131 ] In a 2007 interview with The Guardian she said, "I loved Mrs Thatcher , I adored her, she was very very nice to me". [ 132 ] By 2012, however, she had grown disillusioned with the Conservatives, telling The Spectator that she was "disappointed with this government" and that the party was "full of terrible people now". [ 133 ] In 2018 Cooper said that because of the #MeToo movement , young men and women no longer feel free to flirt with one another and that she enjoyed being the subject of wolf whistles . [ 134 ] Cooper stated that she was a football fan and supported Leeds United when she lived in Yorkshire. [ 135 ] She was also a Manchester City fan. [ 136 ] Cooper campaigned for the preservation of limestone grasslands in Gloucestershire with the Trust for Nature Conservation. [ 137 ] Death and tributes On 4 October 2025, Cooper was attended to by paramedics after suffering a fall at her home in Bisley , Gloucestershire, which caused a fatal head injury. She was transported to Gloucestershire Royal Hospital , where her condition deteriorated. She died there on 5 October, aged 88, surrounded by family. [ 138 ] Queen Camilla , a long-term friend, led the tributes to Cooper, describing her as a legend and a "wonderfully witty and compassionate friend to me and so many", adding: "May her hereafter be filled with impossibly handsome men and devoted dogs." [ 139 ] The official spokesman of the prime minister, Keir Starmer , said: "Dame Jilly Cooper was a literary force whose wit, warmth and wisdom shaped British culture for over half a century and brought joy to millions." Famously a fan of Cooper's novels, former prime minister Rishi Sunak wrote on X : "Sad to hear of the passing of Dame Jilly Cooper, a storyteller whose wit and love of character brought joy to millions. My thoughts are with her family and fellow readers." [ 140 ] Others paying tribute to Cooper included comedian Helen Lederer , who wrote on X: "Trail blazer, wit, optimist and the giver of the greatest summer parties – you made it look simple." Broadcaster Gyles Brandreth wrote that she was "simply adorable". [ 141 ] Television presenter Kirstie Allsopp said Cooper was "a British institution, funny, enthusiastic and self deprecating, we don't see enough of it these days". [ 142 ] Piers Morgan posted: "Such a fabulously fun, mischievous, warm-hearted lady. If she was in a room, everyone would feel instantly cheerier." [ 142 ] Fellow broadcaster Russell Grant wrote on X: "Jilly was one of the most kind, courteous, generous, warm-hearted and smiley people I ever met when I worked on breakfast and morning TV." [ 143 ] Actress Dame Joanna Lumley , who starred in Cooper's early 1970s sitcom It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling , told BBC News: "She was entirely generous, hugely talented, prolific, enthusiastic, meticulous and wholly loveable: a darling friend and a brilliant person." [ 144 ] A number of authors have also recognised her and her legacy, including Jill Mansell who credited Cooper for inspiring her to be a writer. The Australian-British author Kathy Lette said: "A twinkle has gone out of the world." [ 144 ] Author and former doctor Adam Kay recalled being Cooper's "perhaps unlikely penpal", adding: "We have lost one of the greats." [ 139 ] Honours, awards and recognition Cooper was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2004 Birthday Honours for services to literature, Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2018 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity and Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2024 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity. [ 145 ] On 13 November 2009, Cooper was awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Letters by the University of Gloucestershire at a ceremony in Gloucester Cathedral . [ 146 ] In 2011, She was also awarded an Honorary Doctor of Letters at Anglia Ruskin University . [ 147 ] In 2024 she was named Harper's Bazaar ' s Author of the Year. [ 148 ] In 1997 local councillors in Ilkley , West Yorkshire, rejected a housing developers' proposal to name a street after Cooper. [ 149 ] Located on the site of the tennis courts of Ilkley Hall, where Cooper spent some of her childhood, the street was ultimately named after Thomas Maufe , who was awarded a Victoria Cross . Cooper stated that "[Maufe] is much more deserving than me." [ 149 ] A racehorse was named after Cooper, but it had to be euthanised in 2024 after a racing accident. [ 150 ] [ 151 ] In 2025, the Jilly Cooper Prize was established as part of the Comedy Women in Print Awards to honour her contribution to comic fiction. [ 152 ] The prize recognises works of fiction by women and non-binary authors that demonstrate a distinctive sense of humour, irreverence, and comic narrative voice. The award was introduced following Cooper’s death in 2024, with the intention of acknowledging her influence on contemporary comic fiction and her long-standing reputation for comedic prose, romantic satire, and portrayals of British high society. [ 153 ] The inaugural winner of the prize was Sara Pascoe , who received the award in 2025 for her novel Weirdo . [ 154 ] Film and television productions Screenwriting and appearances In 1971 Cooper wrote the comedy series It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling with Christopher Bond , about four posh young women sharing a flat in London, featuring Joanna Lumley and airing on BBC1 . [ 155 ] [ 156 ] In the 1980s she was a regular guest on the BBC television programme What's My Line? [ 157 ] According to a 2016 interview with Cooper, she was also the subject of a Spitting Image puppet, whose only line was "Sex sex sex sex sex sex". [ 5 ] Adaptations Romance series Emily was adapted by Eleanor Bron for Thames Television in 1976 as part of a six-part romance series. [ 158 ] [ 159 ] Directed by Alastair Reid , [ 160 ] it was broadcast on 6 April 1977. [ 161 ] Prudence was adapted for radio in 1979 by Capital Radio , starring Felicity Kendal as Prudence, [ 162 ] alongside Nigel Davenport and Gerald Harper . [ 163 ] In 2007 a television adaptation of four of the romance novels was proposed. [ 164 ] This was suggested as one of a four-part series focusing on Harriet , Bella , Octavia and one unspecified; the only episode to be filmed was Octavia . [ 164 ] The screenplay was written by Jonathan Harvey . [ 165 ] As of 2009 there was no date for its screening. [ 166 ] In 2013 The Telegraph reported that Harriet was being adapted into a musical by Eva Rice, novelist and daughter of Tim Rice . [ 167 ] Rutshire Chronicles Television adaptations of Cooper's novels were produced for ITV and Disney+. Other productions include the television mini-series The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous , starring Hugh Bonneville , produced by Sarah Lawson ; Riders ; [ 168 ] and, in 2024, Rivals , starring David Tennant , Aidan Turner and Alex Hassell , produced by Eliza Mellor. [ 169 ] The latter was renewed for a second series, which is expected to be released in 2026. [ 170 ] Analysis Cooper has been identified as one of the key writers of the bonkbuster novel, along with Jackie Collins , Shirley Conran and Judith Krantz . [ 70 ] Riders in particular is seen as a key text for the genre, embodying its themes of sex (sometimes coercive) and romance (sometimes unfulfilled). [ 70 ] Indeed, academic Emma Parker has described how the novel "exemplified" the genre. [ 171 ] Ian Patterson , writing for the London Review of Books is one of the few academics to seriously consider Cooper's literary oeuvre. [ 172 ] In his critique of her work, Patterson described how Cooper had a "propensity for subplots worthy of Trollope or Dickens". [ 97 ] Moreover, that her books are "worth thinking about" because they cover "pleasure, that most ticklish of subjects". [ 97 ] Patterson goes on to describe the themes of pleasure that Cooper deals with: "pleasure delayed and deferred, guilty pleasure, the pleasure of repetition and the problems of it", as well as "good pleasures, in various degrees, wrong but permissible pleasures, and unequivocally bad pleasures". [ 97 ] He praised Cooper's use of language, in particular "puns and other forms of verbal humour", which give the reader the impression that Cooper, as writer, is never far away. [ 97 ] On the Romance series, Patterson described the novels as "tightly structured, agreeably predictable wish-fulfilment narratives named for their heroines". [ 97 ] Beyond Cooper's novels, Patterson praised her portrait of Margaret Thatcher, and her Sunday Times columns. [ 97 ] Patterson compared Cooper to Ali Smith since in their writing they share a "fondness for both wordplay and wise children". [ 97 ] Cooper's use of humour as part of erotic writing has been discussed by Tim Miles, who described how there was "is little or no separation" of the two, especially in Riders. [ 173 ] In his analysis of the career of Mary Ward , academic Alan Deyermond describes how she was described as "the Jilly Cooper of her day", which became part of her professional denigration. [ 174 ] Cooper's use of horses as a repeated trope across many of her novels has been considered by academic Gail Cunningham, who described how Riders and Polo provided "women readers with an adult version of the pony book ". [ 175 ] List of works Fiction The Rutshire Chronicles Riders (1985) [ 176 ] Rivals (1988; also known as Players ) [ 177 ] Polo (1991) [ 178 ] The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous (1993) [ 179 ] Appassionata (1996) [ 180 ] Score! (1999) [ 181 ] Pandora (2002) [ 182 ] Wicked! (2006) [ 183 ] Jump! (2010) [ 184 ] Mount! (2016) [ 185 ] Tackle! (2023) [ 186 ] Romances Emily (1975) [ 187 ] Bella (1976) [ 188 ] Harriet (1976) [ 189 ] Octavia (1977) [ 190 ] Prudence (1978) [ 191 ] Imogen (1978) [ 192 ] Lisa & Co . (1981) [ 193 ] "Little Mabel" series Little Mabel (1980) [ 194 ] Little Mabel's Great Escape (1981) [ 195 ] Little Mabel Wins (1982) [ 196 ] Little Mabel Saves the Day (1985) [ 197 ] Other Araminta's Wedding (1993) [ 198 ] Non-fiction How to Stay Married (1969) [ 199 ] How To Survive from Nine To Five (1970) [ 200 ] Jolly Super (1971) [ 201 ] Men and Super Men (1972) [ 202 ] Jolly Super Too (1973) [ 203 ] Women and Super Women (1974) [ 204 ] Jolly Superlative (1975) [ 205 ] Supermen and Superwomen (1976) [ 206 ] How to Survive Work and Wedlock (1977); republication of earlier works [ 207 ] Superjilly (1977) [ 208 ] The British in Love (1979) [ 209 ] Class: A View from Middle England (1979) [ 210 ] Supercooper (1980) [ 211 ] Violets and Vinegar: An Anthology of Women's Writings and Sayings (1980) [ 212 ] Intelligent and Loyal (1981) [ 213 ] Jolly Marsupial (1982) [ 214 ] Animals in War (1983) [ 215 ] The Common Years (1984) [ 216 ] On Rugby (1984; with Leo Cooper ) [ 217 ] On Cricket (1985; with Leo Cooper) [ 218 ] Hotfoot to Zabriskie Point (1985; with Patrick Lichfield ) [ 219 ] Horse Mania! (1986; with Leo Cooper) [ 220 ] How To Survive Christmas (1986) [ 221 ] Turn Right at the Spotted Dog (1987) [ 222 ] Angels Rush In (1990) [ 223 ] Between the Covers (2020) [ 32 ] References ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Biography with magazine quotations" . Archived from the original on 21 February 2008 . Retrieved 27 August 2004 . ^ a b "Dame Jilly Cooper: Undisputed queen of the joyous British bonkbuster" . BBC News . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ a b c d e f Sherratt, Adrian (6 October 2025). "Dame Jilly Cooper obituary: Sunday Times columnist and prolific author" . The Times . Archived from the original on 6 October 2025. ^ a b Rose, Hilary (24 October 2020). "Between the Covers: The World According to Jilly Cooper" . The Times . ^ a b c Flood, Alison (10 September 2016). "The books interview" . The Guardian . pp. A13 . Retrieved 14 October 2025 . ^ a b Sellers, Sue (12 October 1972). "It's Jolly Sooper to be a girl" . Liverpool Daily Post (Merseyside ed.) . p. 6 . Retrieved 13 December 2025 . ^ a b "Jilly and her scorpion pen" . Hull Daily Mail . 5 November 1974. p. 10 . Retrieved 13 December 2025 . ^ Rosindell, Vincent (22 December 1972). "Some meaty paperbacks" . Evening Despatch . p. 6 . Retrieved 13 December 2025 . ^ James, Clive (8 December 1974). "Grinning and bearing it" . The Observer . p. 28 . Retrieved 13 December 2025 . ^ Randal, Linda (3 January 1975). "Columnist Cooper makes mornings madly meandering" . The Expositor . p. 5 . Retrieved 14 October 2025 . ^ Reynolds, Stanley (29 November 1973). "Barrels of pun" . The Guardian . p. 16 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 October 2011). Men and Supermen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0813-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 October 2011). Men and Supermen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0813-8 . ^ James, Clive (11 December 1977). "Loads of laughter" . The Observer . p. 28 . Retrieved 9 December 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Work and wedlock . Internet Archive. London : Magnum Books. Title page. ISBN 978-0-417-01820-1 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: publisher location ( link ) ^ MacPhee, Maggie (24 June 1978). "Paperbacks" . The Sydney Morning Herald . p. 17 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Hern, Anthony (2 September 1977). "What's in a name?" . Evening Standard . p. 26 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Dahrendorf, Ralf (11 October 2024). "Ralf Dahrendorf · Our Sort and Their Sort" . London Review of Books . Vol. 01, no. 5. Archived from the original on 11 October 2024 . Retrieved 2 May 2025 . ^ Cannadine, David (30 March 2000). Class in Britain . Penguin Books Limited. ISBN 978-0-14-024954-5 . ^ a b "Paperbacks" . The Sydney Morning Herald . 23 October 1976. p. 14 . Retrieved 13 December 2025 . ^ O'Hara, Monica (17 October 1981). "Pablo ... the master" . Liverpool Echo . p. 5 . Retrieved 12 December 2025 . ^ Walton, Mike (5 June 1983). "Journalism's hyena priestess at prowl" . The Toronto Star . p. 94 . Retrieved 13 December 2025 . ^ a b "Why our mongrels are a dying breed" . Sunday Telegraph . 3 March 2013. p. 21 . Retrieved 3 July 2025 . ^ Bradley, Fay (4 November 1983). "Jilly's loyal best friends" . Southall Gazette . p. 11 . Retrieved 5 July 2025 . ^ O'Hara, Monica (29 October 1983). "Paperbacks" . Liverpool Echo . p. 20 . Retrieved 5 July 2025 . ^ Patmore, Angela (1984). Your Obedient Servant: The Story of Man's Best Friend . Hutchinson. ISBN 978-0-09-155310-4 . ^ Jack, Sybil (8 November 2020). "Some reflections on the employment of animals in war" . ISAA Review . 15 (1): 55– 59. ^ Larsen, Ruth; Whitehead, Ian (6 November 2017). Popular Experience and Cultural Representation of the Great War, 1914–1918 . Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 33. ISBN 978-1-5275-0526-1 . ^ Sharp, Lesley A. (6 November 2018). Animal Ethos: The Morality of Human–Animal Encounters in Experimental Lab Science . Univ of California Press. p. 118. ISBN 978-0-520-29925-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). The British in Love . Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-005650-1 . ^ "Violets And Vinegar by Jilly Cooper" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ a b Cooke, Rachel (27 October 2020). "Between the Covers by Jilly Cooper review – as fresh as ever" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 14 December 2025 . ^ Moses, Claire (17 October 2024). "Jilly Cooper on Adapting Her Naughty Romance, 'Rivals,' for Disney+" . The New York Times . Retrieved 22 January 2025 . ^ a b c d "Desmond Elliott" . The Daily Telegraph . 30 August 2003. p. 29 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Harrison, Bernice (25 May 2013). "Jilly the filly buster" . The Irish Times . ^ "Jilly Cooper loved Hay so much she wants to base her next novel in Wales" . Hay Festival. 31 May 2018. ^ Matthews, Rachel (15 February 2020). "Mount! author Jilly Cooper: 'When I was younger, I ricocheted from one unsuitable man to another' " . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 15 February 2020 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ Fendley, Alison (9 March 1994). "And, after the break, Chapter Four..." Evening Standard . p. 191 . Retrieved 7 July 2025 . ^ a b King, Francis (16 November 1975). "Jungle warfare in the block" . Sunday Telegraph . p. 14 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Salutes to her". Evening Standard . 30 December 1975. p. 15. ^ "Emily by Jilly Cooper" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Archived from the original on 21 May 2025 . Retrieved 12 August 2025 . ^ Berridge, Elizabeth (6 November 1975). "Recent Fiction" . The Daily Telegraph . p. 13. Archived from the original on 22 June 2025 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Butler, Tony (12 November 1976). "Cooking ... for the love of it!" . Evening Herald . p. 13 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ a b Waugh, Auberon (6 July 1976). "Bella won't let you down!" . Evening Standard . p. 18 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper: Harriet" . The Bookseller . 10 July 1976. p. 7. ^ Monks, John (23 July 1976). "Jolly hockey sticks, it's Jilly" . Western Daily Press . p. 8. Archived from the original on 21 June 2025 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ "Harriet by Jilly Cooper" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Archived from the original on 21 May 2025 . Retrieved 12 August 2025 . ^ Cartland, Barbara (25 November 1976). "Could this be love? Don't be such a Silly Jilly" . Daily Express . p. 4. ^ a b "Bella by Jilly Cooper" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Archived from the original on 21 June 2025 . Retrieved 12 August 2025 . ^ "In brief" . The Observer . 11 July 1976. p. 23. Archived from the original on 21 June 2025 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ Boggan, Steve (26 October 1993). "Jilly falls at old hurdle" . The Independent . p. 3. ^ Conlan, Tara (19 July 2007). "ITV rides high with Cooper" . The Guardian . ^ "In brief" . The Observer . 28 August 1977. p. 24. Archived from the original on 20 June 2025 . Retrieved 20 June 2025 . ^ Waugh, Auberon (30 July 1977). "Glib Jilly in turgid mood about love". Liverpool Daily Post (Welsh Edition) . p. 4. ^ "Pru's problems" . The Bolton News . 11 March 1978. p. 6. Archived from the original on 21 June 2025 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ "High drama at sea" . Burton Observer and Chronicle . 1 December 1978. p. 9 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ a b Elliott, Desmond (28 March 1978). "Just a rumour" . Liverpool Daily Post (Merseyside ed.) . p. 2. Archived from the original on 21 June 2025 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ a b Cooper, Jilly (1978). Imogen . Corgi Books. pp. frontispiece. ^ "New in paperback". The Bookseller . 7 July 1979. p. 84. ^ "Novels in brief" . The Observer . 31 December 1978. p. 25 . Retrieved 8 June 2025 . ^ "Books of the Times" . Wokingham Times . 18 October 1979. p. 33. Archived from the original on 7 June 2025 . Retrieved 7 June 2025 . ^ Dark Allure of the Côte d'Azur: Beauty, Leisure and Violence on the French Riviera since the Eighteenth Century . Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. 27 January 2025. ISBN 978-3-11-145132-9 . Archived from the original on 17 July 2025 . Retrieved 12 August 2025 . ^ Probert, Rebecca (6 September 2012). The Changing Legal Regulation of Cohabitation: From Fornicators to Family, 1600–2010 . Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-02084-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). "Introduction". Lisa & Co (PDF) . Corgi. p. 13. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 May 2024 . Retrieved 2 August 2025 . ^ "Frothy romance" . Manchester Evening News . 5 November 1981. p. 14 . Retrieved 30 June 2025 . ^ Dawson, Juno (1 June 2017). The Gender Games: The Problem With Men and Women, From Someone Who Has Been Both . John Murray Press. ISBN 978-1-4736-4861-6 . ^ "BBC Radio 4 - Radio 4 in Four - Why we all adore Jilly Cooper" . BBC . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ Loughrey, Clarisse (30 January 2019). "Jilly Cooper says #MeToo movement has 'diminished' men" . The Independent . Retrieved 4 May 2023 . ^ Risbridger, Ella (28 October 2025). "Could there ever be another Jilly?" . The Bookseller . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ a b c Burge, Amy; McAlister, Jodi; Ireland, Charlotte (31 August 2023). " "Prince Charming with an Erection": The Sensational Pleasures of the Bonkbuster" . Contemporary Women's Writing . 17 (2): 137– 155. doi : 10.1093/cww/vpae002 . ISSN 1754-1484 . ^ Day, Elizabeth (24 April 2011). "Jilly Cooper: 'I'm a reasonable writer but I'm much too colloquial' " . The Guardian . Retrieved 4 May 2023 . ^ Saltzer, Bernice (1 May 1993). "Riders' Rivalry Reaches Boiling Point ." Hartlepool Mail . p. 11. ^ Laing, Olivia (10 November 2023). " 'Sex, puns and labradors': How Olivia Laing fell for Jilly Cooper's bonkbusters" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 14 November 2025 . ^ "Why you should read Rivals as literary fiction" . Varsity Online . Retrieved 15 May 2025 . ^ "Aidan Turner based Rivals character on his dad" . Yahoo News . 15 October 2024 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Venn, Lydia (18 October 2024). "What a Gen Z writer thought reading Jilly Cooper's Rivals for the first time" . Cosmopolitan . 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"5 (slightly naughty) reasons we're overexcited about Jilly Cooper's new book" . Horse & Hound . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ "A love letter to Jilly Cooper" . Red Online . 7 August 2018. Archived from the original on 31 January 2025 . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ a b c d Flood, Alison (9 August 2010). "Jilly Cooper: Queen of the bonkbuster" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ Walter, Natascha (22 May 1993). "The art of coarse litrutshire" . The Independent . Archived from the original on 7 July 2022 . Retrieved 27 May 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). The Man who Made Husbands Jealous . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15639-4 . ^ Oates, Quentin (30 April 1993). "Jilly goes solo – super". The Bookseller . p. 46. ^ Agg, Jennie (9 February 2023). Life, Almost: Miscarriage, Misconceptions and a Search for Answers from the Brink of Motherhood . Random House. ISBN 978-1-5291-9294-0 . ^ a b "Classical Music: Sex, Chopin and subterfuge - Music, Arts & Entertainment - The Independent" . Independent.co.uk . 26 December 2010. Archived from the original on 26 December 2010 . Retrieved 13 April 2025 . ^ Rasmussen, Sonja. "24 May 1996". Aberdeen Evening Express . p. 25. ^ a b Morley, Christopher (11 April 1996). "A wild tale of sex and drugs and barcarolles". Birmingham Daily Post . p. 14. ^ Campbell-Alexander, Melanie (25 April 1996). "Appassionata". Country Life . p. 85. ^ Ryan, Liz (19 April 1996). "Pointless orchestra tale is the pits". Evening Herald . p. 22. ^ Roberts, Gabriel (14 May 1999). "Jolly Jilly scores with new bonkbuster". Gloucester Citizen . p. 11. ^ a b c d e f g h Patterson, Ian (17 May 2017). "Miss Dior, Prodigally Applied" . London Review of Books . Vol. 39, no. 10. ISSN 0260-9592 . Retrieved 14 October 2025 . ^ Barker, Christine (15 May 1999). "True blue Jilly scores another winner". Birmingham Daily Post . p. 60. ^ a b MacFarlane, Robert (5 May 2002). "Laughing all the way to the bonk" . The Observer . ISSN 0029-7712 . Retrieved 15 April 2025 . ^ Letts, Quentin (11 April 2012). "Fumbling for right touch in Larkshire" . The Standard . Archived from the original on 22 April 2025 . Retrieved 15 April 2025 . ^ Holden, Wendy (13 May 2002). "Foreskin Saga". New Statesman . Vol. 131, no. 4587. ISSN 1364-7431 . ^ Elliott, Giles. "Da Vinci doubles up: Dan Brown's novel takes the top two spots in the chart with sales of his books set to pass 10 million in the UK this week." The Bookseller , no. 5230, 19 May 2006, p. 17. ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 April 2006). "Jilly Cooper goes back to school" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 7 July 2016 . Retrieved 16 April 2025 . ^ Martin, Tim (20 May 2006). "Wicked! by Jilly Cooper" . The Independent . Retrieved 16 April 2025 . ^ Briscoe, Joanna (13 May 2006). "Larks with toffs and oiks!" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . 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"Bonk hard and start a business! 10 life lessons I learned from Jilly Cooper" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ "The best novels of 2023" . The Week . 10 February 2023 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Thorp, Clare. "From Riders to Tackle! – how Britain loves Jilly Cooper's raunchy novels" . www.bbc.com . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Silver, Madeleine (20 April 2024). " 'Bonkbuster' queen Jilly Cooper to swap horses for football" . Horse & Hound . Archived from the original on 20 April 2024 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Cooke, Rachel (12 November 2023). "Tackle! review – Jilly Cooper takes on the beautiful game" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ a b "Jilly's age of anxiety" . The Gloucestershire Echo . 13 December 1993. p. 9 . Retrieved 23 August 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Williamson, Charlotte (3 March 2013). "Why our mongrels are a dying breed" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 23 March 2021 . Retrieved 23 August 2025 . ^ "Leafing through the history of Jackanory on World Book Day" . BBC . Archived from the original on 18 August 2025 . Retrieved 18 August 2025 . ^ St Claire, Lynne (23 January 1987). "24 hour TV" . Evening Post . p. 2 . Retrieved 23 August 2025 . ^ a b c Obituary: Leo Cooper , The Daily Telegraph , 2 December 2013. ^ "About Jilly" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ a b Cooper, Jilly (17 September 2010). "Jilly Cooper interview" . The Daily Telegraph . Interviewed by Grice, Elizabeth. Archived from the original on 29 March 2019 . Retrieved 15 January 2026 . ^ Barber, Richard (7 April 2017). "Jilly Cooper: 'My books are my babies' " . The Guardian . Retrieved 29 March 2019 . ^ Horwell, Veronica (6 October 2025). "Dame Jilly Cooper obituary" . The Guardian . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "A Sporting Life – Dame Jilly Cooper" . The Field . 14 October 2024 . Retrieved 8 October 2025 . ^ Barber, Michael (3 December 2013). "Leo Cooper obituary: Publisher of military history books and husband of Jilly Cooper" . The Guardian . Retrieved 7 May 2020 . ^ Davies, Karin (2 September 1990). "Fiction into fact" . UPI . ^ Kennedy, Philippa (26 September 2010). "Jilly Cooper is still riding high" . The National . ^ "Women and gender in the Conservative party archive" . 24 November 2015. ^ Cooper, Jilly (16 February 2003). "Cover story: The voices for and against war" . The Sunday Times . Archived from the original on 5 March 2016 . Retrieved 29 February 2016 . ^ Pool, Hannah; Pool, Hannah Azieb (26 April 2007). "Question time" . The Guardian . ^ "The end is neigh: even Jilly Cooper has dumped Dave" . 3 December 2012. ^ Butterworth, Benjamin (29 July 2018). "Jilly Cooper says she loves being wolf-whistled as she criticises #MeToo movement" . The i Paper . Retrieved 28 February 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper: why I will write just one more novel" . Yorkshire Post . 25 October 2016 [8 October 2016]. Archived from the original on 4 May 2023 . Retrieved 4 May 2023 . ^ Glancy, Josh (28 July 2024). "Jilly Cooper: 'Upper classes are unbelievable, they just love sex' " . The Times . Archived from the original on 28 July 2024 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Clegg, Harry (24 June 1991). "Novelist is riding to rescue of wildlife heritage" . The Citizen . p. 8 . Retrieved 8 July 2025 . ^ De la Mare, Tess (11 November 2025). "Jilly Cooper died from head injury, says coroner" . BBC News . Retrieved 11 November 2025 . ^ a b "Jilly Cooper: Best-selling author of Rivals and Riders dies at 88" . BBC News . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "Camilla's tribute to 'legend' Dame Jilly Cooper after author's death aged 88" . The Independent . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "Author Jilly Cooper has passed away at 88" . Euro Weekly News . 6 October 2025. ^ a b "Queen pays tribute to 'legend' Jilly Cooper after author dies aged 88 – live updates" . BBC News . ^ Grant, Russell (6 October 2025). "Jilly was one of the most kind, courteous, generous, warm-hearted and smiley people I ever met when I worked on breakfast and morning TV" . X . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ a b "Tributes pour in from Rivals cast in honour of Dame Jilly Cooper" . The Independent . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "No. 64269" . The London Gazette (Supplement). 30 December 2023. p. N9. ^ University Announces Honorary Awards Archived 19 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine University of Gloucestershire ^ "Dame Jilly Cooper (1937-2025) - ARU" . www.aru.ac.uk . Retrieved 11 November 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper is our author of the year" . Harper's BAZAAR . 5 December 2024 . Retrieved 6 June 2025 . ^ a b Oldham, Nick (17 January 1997). "Jilly's Street? It's not such a novel idea" . Telegraph and Argus . p. 3 . Retrieved 7 June 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper (IRE) | Race Record & Form" . Racing Post . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper (IRE) | Horse Profile" . Sky Sports . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Kerridge, Jake (12 July 2019). "Jilly Cooper on the Comedy Women in Print Prize: 'Men are funnier than women? Rubbish!' " . The Telegraph . ISSN 0307-1235 . Retrieved 11 November 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper honoured with Comedy Women In Print prize" . Irish Independent . 10 July 2019 . Retrieved 9 November 2025 . ^ Loffhagen, Emma (4 November 2025). "Sara Pascoe's novel wins inaugural Jilly Cooper award" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 9 November 2025 . ^ "It's Awfully Bad For Your Eyes, Darling (Production)" . www.phill.co.uk . Archived from the original on 8 October 2025 . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ Storah, Peter (18 November 1971). "Jilly gets her own laugh show". Lancashire Telegraph . No. 23646. p. 2. ^ "You're a glamorous lot, says author Jilly ..." Western Daily Press . 22 February 1985. p. 7. Archived from the original on 8 July 2025 . Retrieved 8 July 2025 . ^ Macdonald, Keith (6 April 1977). "Eleanor misses out on Romance" . Manchester Evening News . p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Mitchell, Linton (17 February 1977). "Return to romance" . Reading Evening Post . p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Things go so wrong for Emily" . Evening Sentinel . 6 April 1977. p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Television and radio" . Scunthorpe Evening Telegraph . 6 April 1977. p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Drama for the 80s" . The Observer . 2 September 1979. p. 35 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ Howard, Geoffrey (31 August 1979). "Highlights on radio" . Ealing and Acton Gazette . p. 15 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ a b Richardson, Anna (27 July 2007). "Jilly romps to ITV" . The Bookseller . p. 34. ^ Coming Up Archived 28 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine thecustard.tv ^ Dowell, Ben (12 February 2009). "ITV delays single dramas in downturn" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 28 April 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper sets the stage for her West End debut" . The Daily Telegraph . 19 October 2018. Archived from the original on 19 October 2018 . Retrieved 17 May 2025 . ^ "Riders (1993)" . Archived from the original on 21 September 2019 . Retrieved 21 September 2019 . ^ Cormack, Morgan. "David Tennant, Aidan Turner to star in Jilly Cooper adaptation Rivals | Radio Times" . www.radiotimes.com . Retrieved 25 October 2025 . ^ Garden, House & (8 October 2024). "Rivals season 2: Hayley Atwell and Rupert Everett join the cast of the Disney+ adaptation of Jilly Cooper's novel" . House & Garden . Retrieved 25 October 2025 . ^ Parker, Emma (1 December 2006). "Sex Changes: The Politics of Pleasure in the Novels of Michèle Roberts" . Lit: Literature Interpretation Theory . 17 ( 3– 4): 325– 351. doi : 10.1080/10436920601000336 . ISSN 1043-6928 . ^ "Jilly Cooper compared to Charles Dickens and Anthony Trollope by Cambridge academic" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 13 May 2017 . Retrieved 14 October 2025 . ^ Miles, Tim (2011). "Sex, pies and Jilly Cooper: An online, cooperative analysis of humour and the erotic" . Comedy Studies . 2 (1): 63– 71. doi : 10.1386/cost.2.1.63_1 . ISSN 2040-610X . ^ Deyermond, Alan (2004). "Mary Ward, or the Incremental Denigration of a Hispanist" . Hispanic Research Journal . 5 (2): 177– 179. doi : 10.1179/hrj.2004.5.2.177 . ISSN 1468-2737 . ^ Cunningham G. 'Seizing the reins: women, girls and horses' in: Sceats, S. and Cunnigham, G. 2014. Image and Power : Women in Fiction in the Twentieth Century [Online]. Taylor & Francis. ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Riders . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15617-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Rivals . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15637-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (11 March 2025). Polo . Grand Central Publishing. ISBN 978-1-5387-7355-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). The Man who Made Husbands Jealous . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15639-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Appassionata. Jilly Cooper . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15638-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2000). Score! . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14579-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Pandora . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15640-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Wicked! . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15156-6 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2010). Jump! . Bantam Press. ISBN 978-0-593-06153-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (25 October 2016). Mount! . National Geographic Books. ISBN 978-0-593-07291-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2001). Tackle! . Ulverscroft, Charnwood. ISBN 978-1-4448-5217-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Emily . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15249-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Bella: A Deliciously Upbeat and Laugh-out-loud Romance from the Inimitable Multimillion-copy Bestselling Jilly Cooper . Transworld Publishers Limited. ISBN 978-0-552-15250-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Harriet . Transworld Publishers Limited. ISBN 978-0-552-15251-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Octavia: A light-hearted and hilarious romcom from the Sunday Times bestselling author of Rivals . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3218-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Prudence: The feel-good romance from the Sunday Times bestselling author of Rivals . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3228-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1979). Imogen . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11149-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1982). Lisa & Co . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-12041-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1980). Little Mabel . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11158-6 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Little Mabel's Great Escape . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11160-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1982). Little Mabel Wins . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11159-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1985). Little Mabel Saves the Day . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-12291-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (30 June 2012). Araminta's Wedding . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-5252-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 September 2011). How To Stay Married . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4464-9798-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 February 2012). How To Survive From Nine To Five . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0772-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Jolly Super . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11751-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 October 2011). Men and Supermen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0813-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1973). Jolly Super Too . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-30530-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 January 2012). Women And Superwomen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-3505-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Jolly Superlative . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11801-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Super Men and Super Women, by Jilly Cooper . ISBN 978-0-417-05370-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Work and Wedlock . London: Magnum Books. ISBN 978-0417018201 . Retrieved 9 October 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Superjilly . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-38620-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). The British in Love . Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-005650-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1999). Class: A View from Middle England . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14662-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Supercooper . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11832-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Hartman, Tom (1982). Violets and Vinegar: An Anthology of Women's Writings and Sayings . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11869-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Intelligent and Loyal: A Celebration of the Mongrel . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-48000-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 February 2012). Jolly Marsupial . Transworld. ISBN 978-1-4481-0902-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Animals In War . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3190-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1999). The Common Years . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14663-0 . ^ Cooper, Leo; Cooper, Jilly (1984). Leo & Jilly Cooper on Rugby . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2411-6 . ^ Cooper, Leo (1985). Leo & Jilly Cooper on Cricket . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2537-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Lichfield, Patrick (1985). Hotfoot to Zabriskie Point . Constable. ISBN 978-0-09-466760-0 . ^ Cooper, Leo; Cooper, Jilly (1986). Horse Mania! . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2665-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1986). How to Survive Christmas: An Xmasochist's Guide to the Darkest Days of the Year . Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-59780-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1988). Turn Right at the Spotted Dog: And Other Diversions . Chivers. ISBN 978-0-7451-0744-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (24 April 2012). Angels Rush In . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0810-7 . External links Official website Jilly Cooper at IMDb Jilly Cooper at the British Film Institute Portraits of Jilly Cooper at the National Portrait Gallery, London "The queen of chick lit" article , The Guardian , 15 June 2004 An interview with Cooper recorded in 2000 by meettheauthor.co.uk .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Jilly Cooper v t e Fiction Rutshire Chronicles Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Romance series Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Short stories Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Children's stories Little Mabel (series) Rutshire Chronicles Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Romance series Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Short stories Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Children's stories Little Mabel (series) Little Mabel (series) Non-fiction How to Stay Married How To Survive From Nine To Five Jolly Super Jolly Super Too Jolly Superlative Class Violets and Vinegar Intelligent and Loyal Jolly Marsupial Animals in War The Common Years How To Survive Christmas Turn Right at the Spotted Dog Angels Rush In Between the Covers How to Stay Married How To Survive From Nine To Five Jolly Super Jolly Super Too Jolly Superlative Class Violets and Vinegar Intelligent and Loyal Jolly Marsupial Animals in War The Common Years How To Survive Christmas Turn Right at the Spotted Dog Angels Rush In Between the Covers Adaptations It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling Riders The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Rivals It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling Riders The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Rivals Fictional characters Rupert Campbell-Black Rupert Campbell-Black Related Leo Cooper Leo Cooper Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Greece Poland Israel United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Greece Poland Israel Academics CiNii CiNii Artists MusicBrainz MusicBrainz People Trove Trove Other IdRef Open Library Yale LUX IdRef Open Library Yale LUX 1937 births 2025 deaths 20th-century English non-fiction writers 20th-century English novelists 20th-century English women writers 21st-century English non-fiction writers 21st-century English novelists 21st-century English women writers Accidental deaths from falls in the United Kingdom Accidental deaths in England British Book Award winners British women romantic fiction writers British women columnists Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire English romantic fiction writers English women journalists English women non-fiction writers English women novelists People educated at Godolphin School People from Hornchurch Survivors of railway accidents or incidents 21st-century British women novelists 20th-century British women novelists British children's writers British women children's writers Deaths from head injury CS1 maint: publisher location Pages containing London Gazette template with parameter supp set to y Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Use British English from October 2016 All Wikipedia articles written in British English Use dmy dates from October 2025 All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from January 2026 Commons category link from Wikidata National Portrait Gallery (London) person ID same as Wikidata This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 06:20 (UTC) . 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Pendhapa Owahan anyar Warta anyar Kaca anyar Kaca sembarang Kaca mirunggan Angkringan Paguyuban Pitulung Cithakan Bab Wikipédia Bak wedhi Nyumbang dana Gawé akun Mlebu log Nyumbang dana Gawé akun Mlebu log Wikipédia : Artikel pethingan Адыгабзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch Алтай тил አማርኛ Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى অসমীয়া Asturianu Авар Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Башҡортса Basa Bali Boarisch Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Betawi Български भोजपुरी বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Basa Ugi Català 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Нохчийн Cebuano کوردی Qırımtatarca Čeština Чӑвашла Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Nordfriisk Frysk 贛語 Galego گیلکی गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni Gaelg 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Hornjoserbsce Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia ГӀалгӀай Ido Íslenska Italiano ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut 日本語 Patois ქართული Қазақша ភាសាខ្មែរ ಕನ್ನಡ 한국어 Перем коми Къарачай-малкъар Ripoarisch Kurdî Коми Кыргызча Latina Ladino Лезги Limburgs Ligure Ladin Lombard Lingála ລາວ Lietuvių Latgaļu Latviešu Madhurâ मैथिली Мокшень Олык марий Minangkabau Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Кырык мары Bahasa Melayu Malti Mirandés مازِرونی Nāhuatl Napulitano Plattdüütsch Nedersaksies नेपाली Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Diné bizaad Occitan Livvinkarjala ଓଡ଼ିଆ Polski پنجابی Ποντιακά پښتو Português Runa Simi Română Русский संस्कृतम् Саха тыла Sardu Sicilianu Scots سنڌي Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Soomaaliga Shqip Српски / srpski Seeltersk Sunda Svenska Ślůnski தமிழ் తెలుగు Тоҷикӣ ไทย ትግርኛ Tagalog Toki pona Türkçe Xitsonga Татарча / tatarça Тыва дыл Удмурт Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt West-Vlams Volapük 吴语 Хальмг მარგალური ייִדיש Yorùbá Zeêuws 中文 文言 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí 粵語 IsiZulu Kaca proyèk Parembugan Waca Deleng sumber Deleng sajarah Waca Deleng sumber Deleng sajarah Pranala mréné Owahan magepokan Unggah Pranala permanèn Katerangan kaca URL cekak Undhuh kodhe QR Switch to legacy parser Gawé buku Undhuh dadi PDF Vèrsi cithak Méta-Wiki Wikispésies Wikidata Wiji Wikidata .mw-parser-output .wp-ap{padding:1em;border:1px solid #A3B1BF;background-color:#E6F2FF}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .wp-ap{border:1px solid #8599AC;background-color:#082849}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .wp-ap{border:1px solid #8599AC;background-color:#082849}} Lintang iki merlambangaké artikel pethingan Wikipédia. Artikel pethingan yakuwi artikel-artikel paling apik ing Wikipédia, kang ditemtokaké déning paguyuban. Sadurungé mlebu jroning pratélan iki, artikel-artikel kasebut dipriksa lan dirembug ing Wikipedia:Artikel pilihan/Usul artikel pilihan , kanggo mesthèkaké kaakuratan, kanetralan, jangkep orané, lan gaya panulisan, adhedhasar Wikipedia:Artikel pilihan/Kriteria artikel pilihan . Artikel kang kasil ngéntukaké status artikel pethingan, bakal diwènèhi tandha gambar lintang ( ) ing pojok tengen dhuwuré. Saliyané kuwi, yèn sawijining artikel minangka artikel pethingan ing Wikipedia basa liya, bakal diwènèhi tandha lintang ing pranala interwiki, ing sisih kiwa ngisor artikel. Resiki cache .mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain{float:right;margin:0 0 0 1em;border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);background-color:var(--background-color-base,#fff);padding:0.3em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;text-align:center;font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxleft{float:left;margin:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutlist{display:inline-block;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);margin-bottom:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain ul{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutanchordiv{position:relative;top:-3em}.mw-parser-output li .module-shortcutanchordiv{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mbox-imageright .module-shortcutboxplain{padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 1em;line-height:1.3;margin:0} Sidhatan : WP:AP Artikel pilihan : Kriteria artikel pilihan Usul artikel pilihan Arsip usulan Jadwal artikel pilihan Usul jadwal artikel pilihan Slot artikel pilihan Mantan artikel pilihan Gambar pilihan Usul gambar pilihan Arsip gambar pilihan Lintang iki merlambangaké artikel pethingan Wikipédia. Artikel pethingan yakuwi artikel-artikel paling apik ing Wikipédia, kang ditemtokaké déning paguyuban. Sadurungé mlebu jroning pratélan iki, artikel-artikel kasebut dipriksa lan dirembug ing Wikipedia:Artikel pilihan/Usul artikel pilihan , kanggo mesthèkaké kaakuratan, kanetralan, jangkep orané, lan gaya panulisan, adhedhasar Wikipedia:Artikel pilihan/Kriteria artikel pilihan . Artikel kang kasil ngéntukaké status artikel pethingan, bakal diwènèhi tandha gambar lintang ( ) ing pojok tengen dhuwuré. Saliyané kuwi, yèn sawijining artikel minangka artikel pethingan ing Wikipedia basa liya, bakal diwènèhi tandha lintang ing pranala interwiki, ing sisih kiwa ngisor artikel. Resiki cache Artikel kang kasil ngéntukaké status artikel pethingan, bakal diwènèhi tandha gambar lintang ( ) ing pojok tengen dhuwuré. Saliyané kuwi, yèn sawijining artikel minangka artikel pethingan ing Wikipedia basa liya, bakal diwènèhi tandha lintang ing pranala interwiki, ing sisih kiwa ngisor artikel. Resiki cache .mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain{float:right;margin:0 0 0 1em;border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);background-color:var(--background-color-base,#fff);padding:0.3em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;text-align:center;font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxleft{float:left;margin:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutlist{display:inline-block;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);margin-bottom:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain ul{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutanchordiv{position:relative;top:-3em}.mw-parser-output li .module-shortcutanchordiv{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mbox-imageright .module-shortcutboxplain{padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 1em;line-height:1.3;margin:0} Sidhatan : WP:AP Artikel pilihan : Kriteria artikel pilihan Usul artikel pilihan Arsip usulan Jadwal artikel pilihan Usul jadwal artikel pilihan Slot artikel pilihan Mantan artikel pilihan Gambar pilihan Usul gambar pilihan Arsip gambar pilihan WP:AP Artikel pilihan : Kriteria artikel pilihan Usul artikel pilihan Arsip usulan Arsip usulan Jadwal artikel pilihan Usul jadwal artikel pilihan Slot artikel pilihan Usul jadwal artikel pilihan Slot artikel pilihan Mantan artikel pilihan Gambar pilihan Usul gambar pilihan Arsip gambar pilihan Pratélan artikel pethingan Agama, mistik, lan mitologi Asmaaulhusna (September 2008) - 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Prambanan - Alas tropis (Oktober 2009) - Jenéwa (April 2013) - Bordeaux (Juni 2013) - Kabupatèn Blora (Desember 2014) - Istanbul (April 2016) - Le Havre (Januari 2025) Geologi, geofisika, lan meteorologi Pamanasan global (Januari 2009) Hukum Gègèr Pacinan (Oktober 2012) Kulawarga raja, bangsawan, lan lambang Praja Mangkunagaran (November 2008) - Gajah Mada (Februari 2013) Kimia lan mineralogi Komputer Panganan lan ombènan Roti (Desember 2012) Matématika Matématika (Maret 2014, Maret-April 2016) - Kalkulus (Sèptember 2016) Media Ensiklopedhi - Si Unyil (April 2012) - Titanic (Mei 2012) - Slumdog Millionaire (September 2012) Militèr Perang Enem Dinten (Juni 2008) - Perang Yom Kippur (Oktober 2008) Musik JKT48 (Agustus 2014) Olahraga lan dolanan UEFA Euro 2008 (Juli 2008) - Bal-balan (Januari 2015) Pendhidhikan Universitas Indonésia (Mei 2013) Penghargaan lan tandha jasa Perhubungan Titanic (Mei 2012) Pulitik lan pamaréntahan Etiopia (Januari 2008) - Yunani (Juli 2009) - Jawa Tengah (Juni 2009) - 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Harun Yahya (Desember 2015) - Abu Hanifah (sastrawan) (Mèi 2016) - Jost Gippert (Juni-Agustus 2016) Pratélan artikel pethingan Agama, mistik, lan mitologi Asmaaulhusna (September 2008) - Buddha (Mei 2009) Agama, mistik, lan mitologi Asmaaulhusna (September 2008) - Buddha (Mei 2009) Basa lan linguistik Aksara Bali (Februari 2011) - Basa Sangskreta (Juli 2011) - Basa Jawa (Pebruari 2015) - Aksara Tamil (Januari 2016) - Aksara Siddhaṃ (Pèbruari 2016) Basa lan linguistik Aksara Bali (Februari 2011) - Basa Sangskreta (Juli 2011) - Basa Jawa (Pebruari 2015) - Aksara Tamil (Januari 2016) - Aksara Siddhaṃ (Pèbruari 2016) Biologi lan kedokteran Badhak Jawa (Maret 2008) - Kucing - Lele - Singa - DNA (Maret 2009) - Tetanduran ngembang (September 2009) - Sèl (biologi) (Maret 2010) - Pantun (April 2010) - Kembang Kemboja (November 2012, November 2014) - Influenza (Oktober 2012, Oktober 2013, Oktober 2014) - Anafilaksis (Februari 2014) - Ati (Mei 2014) - Lara gorokan streptokokus (Juli 2014) Biologi lan kedokteran Badhak Jawa (Maret 2008) - Kucing - Lele - Singa - DNA (Maret 2009) - Tetanduran ngembang (September 2009) - Sèl (biologi) (Maret 2010) - Pantun (April 2010) - Kembang Kemboja (November 2012, November 2014) - Influenza (Oktober 2012, Oktober 2013, Oktober 2014) - Anafilaksis (Februari 2014) - Ati (Mei 2014) - Lara gorokan streptokokus (Juli 2014) Bisnis, ekonomi, lan keuangan Euro (Januari 2013) Bisnis, ekonomi, lan keuangan Euro (Januari 2013) Budaya lan masyarakat Cemara Natal - Rontal - Wayang - Natal (Desember 2009) - Tiyang Minang (Juli 2012) - Gègèr Pacinan (Oktober 2012) Budaya lan masyarakat Cemara Natal - Rontal - Wayang - Natal (Desember 2009) - Tiyang Minang (Juli 2012) - Gègèr Pacinan (Oktober 2012) Filsafat Globalisasi (Mei 2008) Filsafat Globalisasi (Mei 2008) Fisika lan astronomi Kalèndher Jawa (Mei 2010) - Tata Surya (Maret 2013) - Atom (Juli 2013) - Proxima Centauri (Agustus 2013) - Banyu (Desember 2013) - Srengéngé (April 2014) Fisika lan astronomi Kalèndher Jawa (Mei 2010) - Tata Surya (Maret 2013) - Atom (Juli 2013) - Proxima Centauri (Agustus 2013) - Banyu (Desember 2013) - Srengéngé (April 2014) Geografi lan panggonan Bengawan Solo - Candhi Sukuh - Prambanan - Alas tropis (Oktober 2009) - Jenéwa (April 2013) - Bordeaux (Juni 2013) - Kabupatèn Blora (Desember 2014) - Istanbul (April 2016) - Le Havre (Januari 2025) Geografi lan panggonan Bengawan Solo - Candhi Sukuh - Prambanan - Alas tropis (Oktober 2009) - Jenéwa (April 2013) - Bordeaux (Juni 2013) - Kabupatèn Blora (Desember 2014) - Istanbul (April 2016) - Le Havre (Januari 2025) Geologi, geofisika, lan meteorologi Pamanasan global (Januari 2009) Geologi, geofisika, lan meteorologi Pamanasan global (Januari 2009) Hukum Gègèr Pacinan (Oktober 2012) Hukum Gègèr Pacinan (Oktober 2012) Kulawarga raja, bangsawan, lan lambang Praja Mangkunagaran (November 2008) - Gajah Mada (Februari 2013) Kulawarga raja, bangsawan, lan lambang Praja Mangkunagaran (November 2008) - Gajah Mada (Februari 2013) Kimia lan mineralogi Kimia lan mineralogi Komputer Komputer Panganan lan ombènan Roti (Desember 2012) Panganan lan ombènan Roti (Desember 2012) Matématika Matématika (Maret 2014, Maret-April 2016) - Kalkulus (Sèptember 2016) Matématika Matématika (Maret 2014, Maret-April 2016) - Kalkulus (Sèptember 2016) Media Ensiklopedhi - Si Unyil (April 2012) - Titanic (Mei 2012) - Slumdog Millionaire (September 2012) Media Ensiklopedhi - Si Unyil (April 2012) - Titanic (Mei 2012) - Slumdog Millionaire (September 2012) Militèr Perang Enem Dinten (Juni 2008) - Perang Yom Kippur (Oktober 2008) Militèr Perang Enem Dinten (Juni 2008) - Perang Yom Kippur (Oktober 2008) Musik JKT48 (Agustus 2014) Musik JKT48 (Agustus 2014) Olahraga lan dolanan UEFA Euro 2008 (Juli 2008) - Bal-balan (Januari 2015) Olahraga lan dolanan UEFA Euro 2008 (Juli 2008) - Bal-balan (Januari 2015) Pendhidhikan Universitas Indonésia (Mei 2013) Pendhidhikan Universitas Indonésia (Mei 2013) Penghargaan lan tandha jasa Penghargaan lan tandha jasa Perhubungan Titanic (Mei 2012) Perhubungan Titanic (Mei 2012) Pulitik lan pamaréntahan Etiopia (Januari 2008) - Yunani (Juli 2009) - Jawa Tengah (Juni 2009) - Indonesia (Agustus 2009) - Pasarékatan Bangsa-Bangsa (November 2009) - Dewan Kaamanan PBB (Februari 2010)- Gègèr Pacinan (Oktober 2012) Pulitik lan pamaréntahan Etiopia (Januari 2008) - Yunani (Juli 2009) - Jawa Tengah (Juni 2009) - Indonesia (Agustus 2009) - Pasarékatan Bangsa-Bangsa (November 2009) - Dewan Kaamanan PBB (Februari 2010)- Gègèr Pacinan (Oktober 2012) Sastra Hanacaraka (Agustus 2008) - Kakawin Ramayana - Kakawin Sutasoma - Kidung Sundha - Bebungah Sastra Rancagé (Juni 2012) Sastra Hanacaraka (Agustus 2008) - Kakawin Ramayana - Kakawin Sutasoma - Kidung Sundha - Bebungah Sastra Rancagé (Juni 2012) Sajarah Gègèr Pacinan (Oktober 2012) Sajarah Gègèr Pacinan (Oktober 2012) Seni, arsitektur, lan arkeologi Doctor Who (November 2013) - Upin lan Ipin (Agustus 2015) - Gapura Brandenburg (Oktober 2015) Seni, arsitektur, lan arkeologi Doctor Who (November 2013) - Upin lan Ipin (Agustus 2015) - Gapura Brandenburg (Oktober 2015) Tèknik lan tèknologi Tèknologi informasi (Juni 2014, Juni 2015) Tèknik lan tèknologi Tèknologi informasi (Juni 2014, Juni 2015) Tokoh Cleopatra (Februari 2008) - Johannes Jacobus Ras - Kartini (April 2008) - Eva Peron (Desember 2008) - Pramoedya Ananta Toer (Februari 2009, Juli 2015) - Adolf Hitler (April 2009) - Albert Camus (Januari 2010) - Julian Assange (Januari 2011) - Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (Maret 2011) - Florence Nightingale (April 2011) - Gesang Martohartono (Mei 2011) - Gajah Mada (Februari 2013) - Thích Quảng Đức (Januari 2014) - Revo Arka Giri Soekatno (September 2014) - Albertus Soegijapranata (September 2015) - Franz Kafka (Nopember 2015) - Harun Yahya (Desember 2015) - Abu Hanifah (sastrawan) (Mèi 2016) - Jost Gippert (Juni-Agustus 2016) Tokoh Cleopatra (Februari 2008) - Johannes Jacobus Ras - Kartini (April 2008) - Eva Peron (Desember 2008) - Pramoedya Ananta Toer (Februari 2009, Juli 2015) - Adolf Hitler (April 2009) - Albert Camus (Januari 2010) - Julian Assange (Januari 2011) - Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (Maret 2011) - Florence Nightingale (April 2011) - Gesang Martohartono (Mei 2011) - Gajah Mada (Februari 2013) - Thích Quảng Đức (Januari 2014) - Revo Arka Giri Soekatno (September 2014) - Albertus Soegijapranata (September 2015) - Franz Kafka (Nopember 2015) - Harun Yahya (Desember 2015) - Abu Hanifah (sastrawan) (Mèi 2016) - Jost Gippert (Juni-Agustus 2016) Uga delengen Mirunggan:Kaca dawa Uga delengen Mirunggan:Kaca dawa Wikipedia Kaca iki pungkasan diowah nalika 14.21, 24 Fèbruari 2025. Halaman di- rènder menggunakan Parsoid . Tèks iki cumepak kanthi Lisènsi Atribusi-DumSaèmper Creative Commons ; paugeran tambahan bokmanawa uga lumaku. Wacaa Paugeran Panganggo kanggo rerincèné. Niti privasi Bab Wikipédia Sélakan Kodhe Ètik Juru pangembang Setatistik Pranyatan kuki Praèn punsèl
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Sources 2 Early life Toggle Early life subsection 2.1 In the East 2.2 In the West 2.1 In the East 2.2 In the West 3 Reign Toggle Reign subsection 3.1 Maxentius's rebellion 3.2 Maximian's rebellion 3.3 Civil wars 3.3.1 War against Maxentius 3.3.2 Milvian Bridge 3.3.3 In Rome 3.3.4 Wars against Licinius 3.4 Later rule 3.4.1 Foundation of Constantinople 3.4.2 Religion and religious policy 3.4.3 Administrative reforms 3.4.4 Monetary reforms 3.4.5 Executions of Crispus and Fausta 3.4.6 Later campaigns 3.4.7 Illness and death 3.1 Maxentius's rebellion 3.2 Maximian's rebellion 3.3 Civil wars 3.3.1 War against Maxentius 3.3.2 Milvian Bridge 3.3.3 In Rome 3.3.4 Wars against Licinius 3.3.1 War against Maxentius 3.3.2 Milvian Bridge 3.3.3 In Rome 3.3.4 Wars against Licinius 3.4 Later rule 3.4.1 Foundation of Constantinople 3.4.2 Religion and religious policy 3.4.3 Administrative reforms 3.4.4 Monetary reforms 3.4.5 Executions of Crispus and Fausta 3.4.6 Later campaigns 3.4.7 Illness and death 3.4.1 Foundation of Constantinople 3.4.2 Religion and religious policy 3.4.3 Administrative reforms 3.4.4 Monetary reforms 3.4.5 Executions of Crispus and Fausta 3.4.6 Later campaigns 3.4.7 Illness and death 4 Assessment and legacy Toggle Assessment and legacy subsection 4.1 Veneration as a saint 4.2 Historiography 4.3 Donation of Constantine 4.4 Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia 4.1 Veneration as a saint 4.2 Historiography 4.3 Donation of Constantine 4.4 Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia 5 Family tree 6 See also 7 Notes 8 Citations Toggle Citations subsection 8.1 Bibliography 8.1.1 Ancient sources 8.1.2 Modern sources 8.1 Bibliography 8.1.1 Ancient sources 8.1.2 Modern sources 8.1.1 Ancient sources 8.1.2 Modern sources 9 Further reading 10 External links Constantine the Great Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն অসমীয়া Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Limburgs Lingua Franca Nova Lombard Magyar Madhurâ Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी მარგალური مصرى Bahasa Melayu Mirandés Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی پښتو Piemontèis Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sakizaya संस्कृतम् Sardu Scots Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça తెలుగు ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt 文言 Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki Žemaitėška 中文 Betawi Batak Mandailing Yerwa Kanuri ရခိုင် Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Wikidata item Constantine I Head of the Colossus of Constantine , Capitoline Museums Roman emperor Reign 25 July 306 – 22 May 337 (alone from 19 September 324) Predecessor Constantius I (in the West) Successor .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Co-rulers .mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal} See list Galerius (306–311) [ a ] Severus II (306–307) [ b ] Maxentius (306–312) [ c ] Maximian (306–308, 310) [ c ] Licinius (308–324) [ d ] Maximinus II (310–313) [ a ] Valens (316–317) [ e ] Martinian (324) [ e ] Galerius (306–311) [ a ] Severus II (306–307) [ b ] Maxentius (306–312) [ c ] Maximian (306–308, 310) [ c ] Licinius (308–324) [ d ] Maximinus II (310–313) [ a ] Valens (316–317) [ e ] Martinian (324) [ e ] Born Flavius Constantinus 27 February 272 Naissus , Moesia Superior , Roman Empire Died 22 May 337 (aged 65) Achyron, Nicomedia , Bithynia , Roman Empire Burial Church of the Holy Apostles , Constantinople (remains now lost) Spouses Minervina [ f ] Fausta Minervina [ f ] Fausta Issue Detail Crispus Constantine II Constantius II Constantina Constans I Helena Crispus Constantine II Constantius II Constantina Constans I Helena Names Flavius Valerius Constantinus Regnal name Imperator Caesar Flavius Valerius Constantinus Augustus Names Flavius Valerius Constantinus Regnal name Imperator Caesar Flavius Valerius Constantinus Augustus Dynasty Constantinian Father Constantius Chlorus Mother Helena Religion Ancient Roman religion (until 312) Christianity (from 312) Ancient Roman religion (until 312) Christianity (from 312) Constantine I [ g ] (27 February 272 – 22 May 337), also known as Constantine the Great , or known mononymously as Constantine , was Roman emperor from AD 306 to 337 and the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity . [ h ] He played a pivotal role in elevating the status of Christianity in Rome, the Edict of Milan decriminalising Christian practice and ceasing Christian persecution . This was a turning point in the Christianisation of the Roman Empire . He founded the city of Constantinople (now Istanbul ) and made it the capital of the Empire, which it remained for over a millennium. Born in Naissus , a city located in the province of Moesia Superior (now Niš , Serbia), Constantine was the son of Flavius Constantius , a Roman army officer from Moesia Superior, who would become one of the four emperors of the Tetrarchy . His mother, Helena , was a woman of low birth, probably from Bithynia . Later canonised as a saint , she is credited for the conversion of her son in some traditions, though others believe that Constantine converted her. He served with distinction under emperors Diocletian and Galerius . He began his career by campaigning in the eastern provinces against the Persians , before being recalled to the west in AD 305 to fight with his father in the province of Britannia . After his father's death in 306, Constantine was proclaimed as augustus (emperor) by his army at Eboracum ( York , England). He eventually emerged victorious in Civil wars of the Tetrarchy against the emperors Maxentius and Licinius to become the sole ruler of the Roman Empire by 324. Upon his accession, Constantine enacted many reforms to strengthen the empire. He restructured the government, separating civil and military authorities. To combat inflation, he introduced the solidus , a new gold coin that became the standard for Byzantine and European currencies for more than a thousand years. The Roman army was reorganised to consist of mobile units ( comitatenses ), often around the emperor, to serve on campaigns against external enemies or Roman rebels, and frontier-garrison troops ( limitanei ) which were capable of countering barbarian raids, but less and less capable of countering full-scale barbarian invasions . Constantine pursued campaigns against the tribes on the Roman frontiers —such as the Franks , the Alemanni , the Goths , and the Sarmatians —and resettled territories abandoned by his predecessors during the Crisis of the Third Century with citizens of Roman society. Although Constantine lived much of his life as a pagan , he later became a catechumen , as he began to favour Christianity in 312, finally being baptised by Eusebius of Nicomedia , an Arian bishop. He played an influential role in the proclamation of the Edict of Milan in 313, which legalized Christianity in the Roman Empire. He convoked the First Council of Nicaea in 325, which produced the Christian statement of belief known as the Nicene Creed . On his orders, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was built at the site claimed to be the tomb of Jesus in Jerusalem and was deemed the holiest place in Christendom . He has historically been referred to as the "First Christian Emperor" but while he did favour the Christian Church, some modern scholars debate his beliefs and even his comprehension of Christianity. [ i ] He is venerated as a saint in Eastern Christianity , and he did much to push Christianity towards the mainstream of Roman culture. The age of Constantine marked a distinct epoch in the history of the Roman Empire and a pivotal moment in the evolution from classical antiquity to the Middle Ages . He built a new imperial residence in the city of Byzantium , which was officially renamed New Rome , while also taking on the name Constantinople in his honour. It subsequently served as the capital of the empire for more than a thousand years—with the Eastern Roman Empire for most of that period commonly referred to retrospectively as the Byzantine Empire in English. In leaving the empire to his sons and other members of the Constantinian dynasty , Constantine's immediate political legacy was the replacement of Diocletian's Tetrarchy with the principle of dynastic succession . His memory was held in high regard during the lifetime of his children and for centuries after his reign. The medieval church held him up as a paragon of virtue, while secular rulers invoked him as a symbol of imperial legitimacy. The rediscovery of anti-Constantinian sources in the early Renaissance engendered more critical appraisals of his reign, with modern and contemporary scholarship often seeking to balance the extremes of earlier accounts. Sources Constantine was a ruler of major importance and has always been a controversial figure. [ 4 ] The fluctuations in his reputation reflect the nature of the ancient sources for his reign. These are abundant and detailed, but they have been strongly influenced by the official propaganda of the period and are often one-sided. [ 5 ] No contemporaneous histories or biographies dealing with his life and rule have survived; the nearest alternative is Eusebius 's Vita Constantini , which offers a mixture of eulogy and hagiography [ 6 ] written between 335 and 339 [ 7 ] to extol Constantine's moral and religious virtues. [ 8 ] The Vita creates a contentiously positive image of Constantine, [ 9 ] and modern historians have frequently challenged its reliability. [ 10 ] The fullest secular life of Constantine is the anonymous Origo Constantini , a work of uncertain date which focuses on military and political events to the neglect of cultural and religious matters. [ 11 ] Lactantius ' De mortibus persecutorum , a political Christian pamphlet on the reigns of Diocletian and the Tetrarchy , provides valuable but tendentious detail on Constantine's predecessors and early life. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] The ecclesiastical histories of Socrates , Sozomen , and Theodoret describe the ecclesiastic disputes of Constantine's later reign. Written during the reign of Theodosius II (r. 402–450), a century after Constantine's reign, these ecclesiastical historians obscure the events and theologies of the Constantinian period through misdirection, misrepresentation, and deliberate obscurity. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] [ 14 ] The contemporary writings of the orthodox Christian Athanasius of Alexandria and the ecclesiastical history of the Arian Philostorgius also survive, though their biases are no less firm. [ 15 ] The epitomes of Aurelius Victor ( De Caesaribus ), Eutropius ( Breviarium ), Festus ( Breviarium ), and the anonymous author of the Epitome de Caesaribus offer compressed secular political and military histories of the period. Although not Christian, the epitomes paint a favourable image of Constantine but omit reference to Constantine's religious policies. [ 12 ] [ 16 ] The Panegyrici Latini , a collection of panegyrics from the late 3rd and early 4th centuries, provides valuable information on the politics and ideology of the tetrarchic period and the early life of Constantine. [ 12 ] [ 17 ] In addition, contemporary architecture—such as the Arch of Constantine in Rome and palaces in Gamzigrad and Córdoba [ 18 ] — epigraphic remains, and the coinage of the era complement the literary sources. [ 12 ] [ 17 ] Early life Constantine was born on 27 February 272. [ 19 ] While his official birthday is recorded in sources, his year of birth is not, and scholars have given several estimates between 271 and 280, with most leaning for 272 or 273. However, the evidence points to 272 being the correct year. [ 19 ] [ j ] He was born inside the city of Naissus, during a time when the unity of the Empire was threatened by the breakaway wars of the Palmyrene Empire . The city (modern Niš , Serbia) was located in Dardania within the province of Moesia Superior . [ 21 ] [ 22 ] His father was Flavius Constantius , [ k ] an Illyrian [ 26 ] [ 27 ] [ 23 ] [ l ] or, according to his nephew, Julian The Apostate , a Thracian . [ 29 ] His original full name, as well as that of his father, is not known. [ 30 ] [ 31 ] His praenomen is variously given as Lucius , Marcus and Gaius . [ 31 ] [ m ] Whatever the case, praenomina had already disappeared from most public records by this time. [ 33 ] He also adopted the name "Valerius", the nomen of emperor Diocletian , following his father's ascension as caesar . [ 31 ] [ 30 ] Constantine probably spent little time with his father [ 34 ] who was an officer in the Roman army, part of Emperor Aurelian 's imperial bodyguard. Being described as a tolerant and politically skilled man, [ 35 ] [ 36 ] Constantius advanced through the ranks, earning the governorship of Dalmatia from Emperor Diocletian, another of Aurelian's companions from Illyricum , in 284 or 285. [ 37 ] Constantine's mother was Helena , a woman of low social standing, possibly from Drepanum (later renamed Helenopolis ) of Bithynia , which would likely have made her a Greek -speaker. [ 38 ] [ 39 ] [ 40 ] It is uncertain whether she was legally married to Constantius or merely his concubine . [ 41 ] Constantine's own language was Latin , and during his public speeches in the church councils, which were held in Greek, he needed Greek translators. [ 42 ] In April 286 Diocletian declared Maximian , another colleague from Illyricum, his co-emperor. Each emperor would have his own court, his own military and administrative faculties, and each would rule with a separate praetorian prefect as chief lieutenant. [ 43 ] Maximian ruled in the West, from his capitals at Mediolanum ( Milan , Italy) or Augusta Treverorum ( Trier , Germany), while Diocletian ruled in the East, from Nicomedia ( İzmit , Turkey). The division was merely pragmatic: the empire was called "indivisible" in official panegyric, and both emperors could move freely throughout the empire. [ 44 ] In 288, Maximian appointed Constantius to serve as his praetorian prefect in Gaul . Constantius left Helena to marry Maximian's stepdaughter Theodora in 288 or 289. [ 45 ] Diocletian divided the empire again in 293, appointing two caesars to rule over further subdivisions of East and West. Each would be subordinate to his respective augustus but would act with supreme authority in his assigned lands. This system would later be called the Tetrarchy. Diocletian's first appointee for the office of Caesar was Constantius ; his second was Galerius , a native of Felix Romuliana . According to Lactantius , Galerius was a brutal, animalistic man. Although he shared the paganism of Rome's aristocracy, he seemed to them an alien figure, a semi-barbarian. [ 46 ] On 1 March, Constantius was promoted to the office of Caesar , and dispatched to Gaul to fight the rebels Carausius and Allectus . In spite of meritocratic overtones, the Tetrarchy retained vestiges of hereditary privilege, and Constantine became the prime candidate for future appointment as Caesar as soon as his father took the position. Constantine went to the court of Diocletian, where he lived as his father's heir presumptive . [ 47 ] In the East Constantine received a formal education at Diocletian's court, where he learned Latin literature, Greek, and philosophy. [ 48 ] The cultural environment in Nicomedia was open, fluid, and socially mobile; in it, Constantine could mix with intellectuals both pagan and Christian. He may have attended the lectures of Lactantius, a Christian scholar of Latin in the city. [ 49 ] Because Diocletian did not completely trust Constantius—none of the Tetrarchs fully trusted their colleagues—Constantine was held as something of a hostage, a tool to ensure Constantius' best behavior. Constantine was nonetheless a prominent member of the court: he fought for Diocletian and Galerius in Asia and served in a variety of tribunates ; he campaigned against barbarians on the Danube in 296 and fought the Persians under Diocletian in Syria in 297, as well as under Galerius in Mesopotamia in 298–299. [ 50 ] [ 51 ] By late 305, according to some, he had become a tribune of the first order, a tribunus ordinis primi . [ 51 ] [ 52 ] Constantine had returned to Nicomedia from the eastern front by the spring of 303, in time to witness the beginnings of Diocletian's " Great Persecution ", the most severe persecution of Christians in Roman history. [ 53 ] [ 54 ] In late 302, Diocletian and Galerius sent a messenger to the oracle of Apollo at Didyma with an inquiry about Christians. [ 55 ] [ 56 ] Constantine could recall his presence at the palace when the messenger returned and Diocletian accepted the imperial court's demands for universal persecution. [ 57 ] [ 58 ] On 23 February 303, Diocletian ordered the destruction of Nicomedia s new church, condemned its scriptures to the flames, and had its treasures seized. In the months that followed, churches and scriptures were destroyed, Christians were deprived of official ranks, and priests were imprisoned. [ 59 ] It is unlikely that Constantine played any role in the persecution. [ 60 ] In his later writings, he attempted to present himself as an opponent of Diocletian's "sanguinary edicts" against the "Worshippers of God", [ 61 ] [ 62 ] but nothing indicates that he opposed it effectively at the time. Although no contemporary Christian challenged Constantine for his inaction during the persecutions, it remained a political liability throughout his life. [ 63 ] On 1 May 305 Diocletian, as a result of a debilitating sickness taken in the winter of 304–305, announced his resignation. In a parallel ceremony in Milan , Maximian did the same. [ 64 ] Lactantius states that Galerius manipulated the weakened Diocletian into resigning and forced him to accept Galerius' allies in the imperial succession. According to Lactantius, the crowd listening to Diocletian's resignation speech believed, until the last moment, that Diocletian would choose Constantine and Maxentius (Maximian's son) as his successors. [ 65 ] [ 66 ] It was not to be: Constantius and Galerius were promoted to augusti , while Severus and Maximinus , Galerius' nephew, were appointed their caesars respectively. Constantine and Maxentius were ignored. [ 67 ] Some of the ancient sources detail plots that Galerius made on Constantine's life in the months following Diocletian's abdication. They assert that Galerius assigned Constantine to lead an advance unit in a cavalry charge through a swamp on the middle Danube, made him enter into single combat with a lion, and attempted to kill him in hunts and wars. Constantine always emerged victorious: the lion emerged from the contest in a poorer condition than Constantine; Constantine returned to Nicomedia from the Danube with a Sarmatian captive to drop at Galerius' feet. [ 68 ] [ 69 ] It is uncertain how much these tales can be trusted. [ 70 ] In the West Constantine recognised the implicit danger in remaining at Galerius' court, where he was held as a virtual hostage. His career depended on being rescued by his father in the West. Constantius was quick to intervene. In the late spring or early summer of 305, Constantius requested leave for his son to help him campaign in Britain. After a long evening of drinking, Galerius granted the request. Constantine's later propaganda describes how he fled the court in the night, before Galerius could change his mind. He rode from post-house to post-house at high speed, hamstringing every horse in his wake. By the time Galerius awoke the following morning, Constantine had fled too far to be caught. Constantine joined his father in Gaul , at Bononia ( Boulogne ) before the summer of 305. [ 71 ] From Bononia they crossed the English Channel to Britain and made their way to Eboracum ( York ), capital of the province of Britannia Secunda and home to a large military base. Constantine was able to spend a year in northern Britain at his father's side, campaigning against the Picts beyond Hadrian's Wall in the summer and autumn. [ 72 ] Constantius' campaign, like that of Septimius Severus before it, probably advanced far into the north without achieving great success. [ 73 ] Constantius had become severely sick over the course of his reign and died on 25 July 306 in Eboracum. Before dying, he declared his support for raising Constantine as emperor. The Alamannic king Chrocus , a barbarian taken into service under Constantius, then proclaimed Constantine as augustus. The troops loyal to Constantius' memory followed him in acclamation. Gaul and Britain quickly accepted his rule; [ 74 ] Hispania , which had been in his father's domain for less than a year, rejected it. [ 75 ] Constantine sent Galerius an official notice of Constantius' death and his own acclamation. Along with the notice, he included a portrait of himself in the robes of an Augustus. [ 74 ] The portrait was wreathed in bay . [ 76 ] He requested recognition as heir to his father's throne and passed off responsibility for his unlawful ascension on his army, claiming they had "forced it upon him". [ 77 ] Galerius was put into a fury by the message; he almost set the portrait and messenger on fire. [ 78 ] His advisers calmed him and argued that outright denial of Constantine's claims would mean certain war. [ 79 ] Galerius was compelled to compromise: he granted Constantine the title "caesar" rather than "augustus" (the latter office went to Severus instead). Wishing to make it clear that he alone gave Constantine legitimacy, Galerius personally sent Constantine the emperor's traditional purple robes . Constantine accepted the decision, knowing that it would remove doubts as to his legitimacy. [ 80 ] Reign Constantine's share of the empire consisted of Britain, Gaul, and Spain, and he commanded one of the largest Roman armies which was stationed along the important Rhine frontier. [ 81 ] He remained in Britain after his promotion to emperor, driving back the tribes of the Picts and securing his control in the northwestern dioceses. He completed the reconstruction of military bases begun under his father's rule, and he ordered the repair of the region's roadways. [ 82 ] He then left for Augusta Treverorum ( Trier ) in Gaul, the Tetrarchic capital of the northwestern Roman Empire. [ 83 ] The Franks learned of Constantine's acclamation and invaded Gaul across the lower Rhine over the winter of 306–307. [ 84 ] He drove them back beyond the Rhine and captured kings Ascaric and Merogais ; the kings and their soldiers were fed to the beasts of Trier Amphitheater in the adventus (arrival) celebrations which followed. [ 85 ] Constantine began a major expansion of Trier. He strengthened the circuit wall around the city with military towers and fortified gates, and he began building a palace complex in the northeastern part of the city. To the south of his palace, he ordered the construction of a large formal audience hall and a massive imperial bathhouse. He sponsored many building projects throughout Gaul during his tenure as emperor of the West, especially in Augustodunum ( Autun ) and Arelate ( Arles ). [ 88 ] According to Lactantius, Constantine followed a tolerant policy towards Christianity, although he was not yet a Christian. He probably judged it a more sensible policy than open persecution [ 89 ] and a way to distinguish himself from the "great persecutor" Galerius. [ 90 ] He decreed a formal end to persecution and returned to Christians all that they had lost under the first of the persecuting edicts. [ 91 ] Constantine was largely untried and had a hint of illegitimacy about him; he relied on his father's reputation in his early propaganda, which gave as much coverage to his father's deeds as to his. [ 92 ] His military skill and building projects, however, soon gave the panegyrist the opportunity to comment favourably on the similarities between father and son, and Eusebius remarked that Constantine was a "renewal, as it were, in his own person, of his father's life and reign". [ 93 ] Constantinian coinage, sculpture, and oratory also show a tendency for disdain towards the "barbarians" beyond the frontiers. He minted a coin issue after his victory over the Alemanni which depicts weeping and begging Alemannic tribesmen, "the Alemanni conquered" beneath the phrase "Romans' rejoicing". [ 94 ] There was little sympathy for these enemies; as his panegyrist declared, "It is a stupid clemency that spares the conquered foe." [ 95 ] Maxentius's rebellion Following Galerius's recognition of Constantine as caesar, Constantine's portrait was brought to Rome, as was customary. Maxentius mocked the portrait's subject as the son of a harlot and lamented his own powerlessness. [ 96 ] Maxentius, envious of Constantine's authority, [ 97 ] seized the title of emperor on 28 October 306. Galerius refused to recognise him but failed to unseat him. Severus was sent against Maxentius in April 307, [ 98 ] but during the campaign, Severus' armies, previously under command of Maxentius' father Maximian, defected, and Severus was seized and imprisoned. [ 99 ] Maximian, brought out of retirement by his son's rebellion, left for Gaul to confer with Constantine. He offered to marry his daughter Fausta to Constantine and elevate him to augustan rank. In return, Constantine would reaffirm the old family alliance between Maximian and Constantius and offer support to Maxentius' cause in Italy. Constantine accepted and married Fausta in Trier in summer 307. [ n ] Constantine gave Maxentius his meagre support, offering Maxentius political recognition. [ 103 ] Constantine remained aloof from the Italian conflict, however. Over the spring and summer of 307 he had left Gaul for Britain to avoid any involvement in the Italian turmoil; [ 104 ] now, instead of giving Maxentius military aid, he sent his troops against Germanic tribes along the Rhine. In 308, he raided the territory of the Bructeri and made a bridge across the Rhine at Colonia Agrippinensium ( Cologne ). In 310, he marched to the northern Rhine and fought the Franks. When not campaigning, he toured his lands advertising his benevolence and supporting the economy and the arts. His refusal to participate in the war increased his popularity among his people and strengthened his power base in the West. [ 105 ] Maximian returned to Rome in the winter of 307–308 but soon fell out with his son. In early 308, after a failed attempt to usurp Maxentius' title, Maximian returned to Constantine's court. [ 106 ] On 11 November 308 Galerius called a general council at the military city of Carnuntum ( Petronell-Carnuntum , Austria) to resolve the instability in the western provinces. In attendance were Diocletian, briefly returned from retirement, Galerius, and Maximian. Maximian was forced to abdicate again and Constantine was again demoted to caesar. Licinius , one of Galerius' old military companions, was appointed augustus in the western regions. The new system did not last long: Constantine refused to accept the demotion and continued to style himself as augustus on his coinage, even as other members of the Tetrarchy referred to him as a caesar on theirs. Maximinus was frustrated that he had been passed over for promotion while the newcomer Licinius had been raised to the office of augustus and demanded that Galerius promote him. Galerius offered to call both Maximinus and Constantine "sons of the augusti", [ 107 ] but neither accepted the new title. By the spring of 310, Galerius was referring to both men as augusti. [ 108 ] Maximian's rebellion In 310 a dispossessed Maximian rebelled against Constantine while Constantine was away campaigning against the Franks. Maximian had been sent south to Arles with a contingent of Constantine's army, in preparation for any attacks by Maxentius in southern Gaul. He announced that Constantine was dead and took up the imperial purple. In spite of a large donative pledge to any who would support him as emperor, most of Constantine's army remained loyal to their emperor, and Maximian was soon compelled to leave. When Constantine heard of the rebellion, he abandoned his campaign against the Franks and marched his army up the Rhine. [ 110 ] At Cabillunum ( Chalon-sur-Saône ), he moved his troops onto waiting boats to row down the slow waters of the Saône to the quicker waters of the Rhone . He disembarked at Lugdunum ( Lyon ). [ 111 ] Maximian fled to Massilia ( Marseille ), a town better able to withstand a long siege than Arles. It made little difference, however, as loyal citizens opened the rear gates to Constantine. Maximian was captured and reproved for his crimes. Constantine granted some clemency but strongly encouraged his suicide. In July 310, Maximian hanged himself . [ 110 ] In spite of the earlier rupture in their relations, Maxentius was eager to present himself as his father's devoted son after his death. [ 112 ] He began minting coins with his father's deified image, proclaiming his desire to avenge Maximian's death. [ 113 ] Constantine initially presented the suicide as an unfortunate family tragedy. By 311, however, he was spreading another version. According to this, after Constantine had pardoned him, Maximian planned to murder Constantine in his sleep. Fausta learned of the plot and warned Constantine, who put a eunuch in his own place in bed. Maximian was apprehended when he killed the eunuch and was offered suicide, which he accepted. [ 114 ] Along with using propaganda, Constantine instituted a damnatio memoriae on Maximian, destroying all inscriptions referring to him and eliminating any public work bearing his image. [ 115 ] The death of Maximian required a shift in Constantine's public image. He could no longer rely on his connection to the elder Emperor Maximian and needed a new source of legitimacy. [ 116 ] In a speech delivered in Gaul on 25 July 310, the anonymous orator reveals a previously unknown dynastic connection to Claudius II , a 3rd-century emperor famed for defeating the Goths and restoring order to the empire. Breaking away from tetrarchic models, the speech emphasises Constantine's ancestral prerogative to rule, rather than principles of imperial equality. The new ideology expressed in the speech made Galerius and Maximian irrelevant to Constantine's right to rule. [ 117 ] Indeed, the orator emphasises ancestry to the exclusion of all other factors: "No chance agreement of men, nor some unexpected consequence of favour, made you emperor," the orator declares to Constantine. [ 118 ] The oration also moves away from the religious ideology of the Tetrarchy, with its focus on twin dynasties of Jupiter and Hercules . Instead, the orator proclaims that Constantine experienced a divine vision of Apollo and Victory granting him laurel wreaths of health and a long reign. In the likeness of Apollo, Constantine recognised himself as the saving figure to whom would be granted "rule of the whole world", [ 119 ] as the poet Virgil had once foretold. [ 120 ] The oration's religious shift is paralleled by a similar shift in Constantine's coinage. In his early reign, the coinage of Constantine advertised Mars as his patron. From 310 on, Mars was replaced by Sol Invictus , a god conventionally identified with Apollo. [ 121 ] There is little reason to believe that either the dynastic connection or the divine vision are anything other than fiction, but their proclamation strengthened Constantine's claims to legitimacy and increased his popularity among the citizens of Gaul. [ 122 ] Civil wars War against Maxentius .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Battles of Constantine I v t e Civil wars of the Tetrarchy Segusio Turin Brescia Verona Milvian Bridge Cibalae Mardia Adrianople Hellespont Byzantium Chrysopolis German and Sarmatian campaigns Segusio Turin Brescia Verona Milvian Bridge Cibalae Mardia Adrianople Hellespont Byzantium Chrysopolis By the middle of 310 Galerius had become too ill to involve himself in imperial politics. [ 123 ] His final act survives: a letter to provincials posted in Nicomedia on 30 April 311, proclaiming an end to the persecutions, and the resumption of religious toleration. [ 124 ] Eusebius maintains "divine providence [...] took action against the perpetrator of these crimes" and gives a graphic account of Galerius' demise: "Without warning suppurative inflammation broke out round the middle of his genitals, then a deep-seated fistula ulcer; these ate their way incurably into his innermost bowels. From them came a teeming indescribable mass of worms, and a sickening smell was given off, for the whole of his hulking body, thanks to over eating, had been transformed even before his illness into a huge lump of flabby fat, which then decomposed and presented those who came near it with a revolting and horrifying sight." [ 125 ] Galerius died soon after the edict's proclamation, [ 126 ] destroying what little remained of the Tetrarchy. [ 127 ] Maximinus mobilised against Licinius and seized Asia Minor . A hasty peace was signed on a boat in the middle of the Bosphorus . [ 128 ] While Constantine toured Britain and Gaul, Maxentius prepared for war. [ 129 ] He fortified northern Italy and strengthened his support in the Christian community by allowing it to elect Eusebius as bishop of Rome . [ 130 ] Maxentius' rule was nevertheless insecure. His early support dissolved in the wake of heightened tax rates and depressed trade; riots broke out in Rome and Carthage ; [ 132 ] and Domitius Alexander was able to briefly usurp his authority in Africa. [ 133 ] By 312, he was a man barely tolerated, not one actively supported, [ 134 ] even among Christian Italians. [ 135 ] In the summer of 311, Maxentius mobilised against Constantine while Licinius was occupied with affairs in the East. He declared war on Constantine, vowing to avenge his father's "murder". [ 136 ] To prevent Maxentius from forming an alliance against him with Licinius, [ 137 ] Constantine forged his own alliance with Licinius over the winter of 311–312 and offered him his sister Constantia in marriage. Maximinus considered Constantine's arrangement with Licinius an affront to his authority. In response, he sent ambassadors to Rome, offering political recognition to Maxentius in exchange for a military support, which Maxentius accepted. [ 138 ] According to Eusebius, inter-regional travel became impossible, and there was military buildup everywhere. There was "not a place where people were not expecting the onset of hostilities every day". [ 139 ] Constantine's advisers and generals cautioned against preemptive attack on Maxentius; [ 140 ] even his soothsayers recommended against it, stating that the sacrifices had produced unfavourable omens. [ 141 ] Constantine, with a spirit that left a deep impression on his followers, inspiring some to believe that he had some form of supernatural guidance, [ 142 ] ignored all these cautions. [ 143 ] Early in the spring of 312, [ 144 ] Constantine crossed the Cottian Alps with a quarter of his army, a force numbering about 40,000. [ 145 ] The first town his army encountered was Segusium ( Susa , Italy), a heavily fortified town that shut its gates to him. Constantine ordered his men to set fire to its gates and scale its walls. He took the town quickly. Constantine ordered his troops not to loot the town and advanced into northern Italy. [ 144 ] At the approach to the west of the important city of Augusta Taurinorum ( Turin , Italy), Constantine met a large force of heavily armed Maxentian cavalry. [ 146 ] In the ensuing Battle of Turin Constantine's army encircled Maxentius' cavalry, flanked them with his own cavalry, and dismounted them with blows from his soldiers' iron-tipped clubs. Constantine's armies emerged victorious. [ 147 ] Turin refused to give refuge to Maxentius' retreating forces, opening its gates to Constantine instead. [ 148 ] Other cities of the north Italian plain sent Constantine embassies of congratulation for his victory. He moved on to Milan, where he was met with open gates and jubilant rejoicing. Constantine rested his army in Milan until mid-summer 312, when he moved on to Brixia ( Brescia ). [ 149 ] Brescia's army was easily dispersed, [ 150 ] and Constantine quickly advanced to Verona where a large Maxentian force was camped. [ 151 ] Ruricius Pompeianus , general of the Veronese forces and Maxentius' praetorian prefect, [ 152 ] was in a strong defensive position since the town was surrounded on three sides by the Adige . Constantine sent a small force north of the town in an attempt to cross the river unnoticed. Ruricius sent a large detachment to counter Constantine's expeditionary force but was defeated. Constantine's forces successfully surrounded the town and laid siege. [ 153 ] Ruricius gave Constantine the slip and returned with a larger force to oppose Constantine. Constantine refused to let up on the siege and sent only a small force to oppose him. In the desperately fought encounter that followed, Ruricius was killed and his army destroyed. [ 154 ] Verona surrendered soon afterwards, followed by Aquileia , [ 155 ] Mutina ( Modena ), [ 156 ] and Ravenna . [ 157 ] The road to Rome was now wide open to Constantine. [ 158 ] Maxentius prepared for the same type of war he had waged against Severus and Galerius: he occupied Rome and prepared for a siege. [ 159 ] He still controlled Rome's Praetorian Guard , was well-stocked with African grain, and was surrounded on all sides by the seemingly impregnable Aurelian Walls . He ordered all bridges across the Tiber cut, reportedly on the counsel of the gods, [ 160 ] and left the rest of central Italy undefended; Constantine secured that region's support without challenge. [ 161 ] Constantine progressed slowly [ 162 ] along the Via Flaminia , [ 163 ] allowing the weakness of Maxentius to draw his regime further into turmoil. [ 162 ] Maxentius' support continued to weaken: at chariot races on 27 October, the crowd openly taunted Maxentius, shouting that Constantine was invincible. [ 164 ] Maxentius, no longer certain that he would emerge from a siege victorious, built a temporary boat bridge across the Tiber in preparation for a field battle against Constantine. [ 165 ] On 28 October 312, the sixth anniversary of his reign, he approached the keepers of the Sibylline Books for guidance. The keepers prophesied that, on that very day, "the enemy of the Romans" would die. Maxentius advanced north to meet Constantine in battle. [ 166 ] Milvian Bridge Maxentius' forces were still twice the size of Constantine's, and he organised them in long lines facing the battle plain with their backs to the river. [ 167 ] Constantine's army arrived on the field bearing unfamiliar symbols on their standards and their shields. [ 168 ] According to Lactantius "Constantine was directed in a dream to cause the heavenly sign to be delineated on the shields of his soldiers, and so to proceed to battle. He did as he had been commanded, and he marked on their shields the letter Χ, with a perpendicular line drawn through it and turned round thus at the top, being the cipher of Christ. Having this sign (☧), his troops stood to arms." [ 169 ] Eusebius describes a vision that Constantine had while marching at midday in which "he saw with his own eyes the trophy of a cross of light in the heavens, above the sun, and bearing the inscription, In Hoc Signo Vinces " ("In this sign thou shalt conquer"). [ 170 ] In Eusebius' account, Constantine had a dream the following night in which Christ appeared with the same heavenly sign and told him to make an army standard in the form of the labarum . [ 171 ] Eusebius is vague about when and where these events took place, [ 172 ] but it enters his narrative before the war begins against Maxentius. [ 173 ] He describes the sign as Chi (Χ) traversed by Rho (Ρ) to form ☧, representing the first two letters of the Greek word ΧΡΙΣΤΟΣ (Christos). [ 174 ] [ 175 ] A medallion was issued at Ticinum in 315 which shows Constantine wearing a helmet emblazoned with the Chi Rho , [ 176 ] and coins issued at Siscia in 317/318 repeat the image. [ 177 ] The figure was otherwise rare and is uncommon in imperial iconography and propaganda before the 320s. [ 178 ] It was not completely unknown, however, being an abbreviation of the Greek word chrēston (good), having previously appeared on the coins of Ptolemy III Euergetes in the 3rd century BC. Following Constantine, centuries of Christians invoked the miraculous or the supernatural when justifying or describing their warfare. [ 179 ] Constantine deployed his own forces along the whole length of Maxentius' line. He ordered his cavalry to charge, and they broke Maxentius' cavalry. He then sent his infantry against Maxentius' infantry, pushing many into the Tiber where they were slaughtered and drowned. [ 167 ] The battle was brief, [ 180 ] and Maxentius' troops were broken before the first charge. [ 181 ] His horse guards and praetorians initially held their position, but they broke under the force of a Constantinian cavalry charge; they also broke ranks and fled to the river. Maxentius rode with them and attempted to cross the bridge of boats ( Ponte Milvio ), but he was pushed into the Tiber and drowned by the mass of his fleeing soldiers. [ 182 ] In Rome Constantine entered Rome on 29 October 312 [ 184 ] [ 185 ] and staged a grand adventus in the city which was met with jubilation. [ 186 ] Maxentius' body was fished out of the Tiber and decapitated, and his head was paraded through the streets for all to see. [ 187 ] After the ceremonies, the disembodied head was sent to Carthage, and Carthage offered no further resistance. [ 188 ] Unlike his predecessors, Constantine neglected to make the trip to the Capitoline Hill and perform customary sacrifices at the Temple of Jupiter . [ 189 ] However, he did visit the Senatorial Curia Julia , [ 190 ] and he promised to restore its ancestral privileges and give it a secure role in his reformed government; there would be no revenge against Maxentius' supporters. [ 191 ] In response, the Senate decreed him "title of the first name", which meant that his name would be listed first in all official documents, [ 192 ] and they acclaimed him as "the greatest augustus". [ 193 ] He issued decrees returning property that was lost under Maxentius, recalling political exiles, and releasing Maxentius' imprisoned opponents. [ 194 ] An extensive propaganda campaign followed, during which Maxentius' image was purged from all public places. He was written up as a "tyrant" and set against an idealised image of Constantine the "liberator". Eusebius is the best representative of this strand of Constantinian propaganda. [ 195 ] Maxentius' rescripts were declared invalid, and the honours that he had granted to leaders of the Senate were also invalidated. [ 196 ] Constantine also attempted to remove Maxentius' influence on Rome's urban landscape. All structures built by him were rededicated to Constantine, including the Temple of Romulus and the Basilica of Maxentius . [ 197 ] At the focal point of the basilica, a stone statue was erected of Constantine holding the Christian labarum in its hand. Its inscription bore the message which the statue illustrated: "By this sign, Constantine had freed Rome from the yoke of the tyrant." [ 198 ] Constantine also sought to upstage Maxentius' achievements. For example, the Circus Maximus was redeveloped so that its seating capacity was 25 times larger than that of Maxentius' racing complex on the Via Appia . [ 199 ] Maxentius' strongest military supporters were neutralised when Constantine disbanded the Praetorian Guard and Imperial Horse Guard . [ 200 ] The tombstones of the Imperial Horse Guard were ground up and used in a basilica on the Via Labicana , [ 201 ] and their former base was redeveloped into the Lateran Basilica on 9 November 312—barely two weeks after Constantine captured the city. [ 202 ] The Legio II Parthica was removed from Albano Laziale , [ 196 ] and the remainder of Maxentius' armies were sent to do frontier duty on the Rhine. [ 203 ] Wars against Licinius In the following years, Constantine gradually consolidated his military superiority over his rivals in the crumbling Tetrarchy. In 313, he met Licinius in Milan to secure their alliance by the marriage of Licinius and Constantine's half-sister Constantia. During this meeting, the emperors agreed on the so-called Edict of Milan , [ 204 ] officially granting full tolerance to Christianity and all religions in the empire. [ 205 ] The document had special benefits for Christians, legalising their religion and granting them restoration for all property seized during Diocletian's persecution. It repudiates past methods of religious coercion and used only general terms to refer to the divine sphere—"Divinity" and "Supreme Divinity", summa divinitas . [ 206 ] The conference was cut short, however, when news reached Licinius that his rival Maximinus had crossed the Bosporus and invaded European territory. Licinius departed and eventually defeated Maximinus, gaining control over the entire eastern half of the Roman Empire. Relations between the two remaining emperors deteriorated, as Constantine suffered an assassination attempt at the hands of a character that Licinius wanted elevated to the rank of Caesar; [ 207 ] Licinius, for his part, had Constantine's statues in Emona destroyed. [ 208 ] In either 314 or 316 the two augusti fought against one another at the Battle of Cibalae , with Constantine being victorious. They clashed again at the Battle of Mardia in 317 and agreed to a settlement in which Constantine's sons Crispus and Constantine II , and Licinius' son Licinius Junior were made caesars . [ 209 ] After this arrangement, Constantine ruled the dioceses of Pannonia and Macedonia and took residence at Sirmium , whence he could wage war on the Goths and Sarmatians in 322, and on the Goths in 323, defeating and killing their leader Rausimod . [ 207 ] In 320 Licinius allegedly reneged on the religious freedom promised by the Edict of Milan and began to oppress Christians anew, [ 210 ] generally without bloodshed, but resorting to confiscations and sacking of Christian office-holders. [ 211 ] Although this characterisation of Licinius as anti-Christian is somewhat doubtful, the fact is that he seems to have been far less open in his support of Christianity than Constantine. Therefore, Licinius was prone to see the Church as a force more loyal to Constantine than to the Imperial system in general, [ 212 ] as the explanation offered by the Church historian Sozomen . [ 213 ] This dubious arrangement eventually became a challenge to Constantine in the West, climaxing in the great civil war of 324. Constantine's Christian eulogists present the war as a battle between Christianity and paganism; Licinius, aided by Gothic mercenaries, represented the past and ancient paganism, while Constantine and his Franks marched under the standard of the labarum . [ citation needed ] Outnumbered but fired by their zeal, Constantine's army emerged victorious in the Battle of Adrianople . Licinius fled across the Bosphorus and appointed Martinian , his magister officiorum , as nominal augustus in the West, but Constantine next won the Battle of the Hellespont and finally the Battle of Chrysopolis on 18 September 324. [ 214 ] Licinius and Martinian surrendered to Constantine at Nicomedia on the promise their lives would be spared: they were sent to live as private citizens in Thessalonica and Cappadocia respectively, but in 325 Constantine accused Licinius of plotting against him and had them both arrested and hanged; Licinius' son (the son of Constantine's half-sister) was killed in 326. [ 215 ] Thus Constantine became the sole emperor of the Roman Empire. [ 216 ] Later rule Foundation of Constantinople Diocletian had chosen Nicomedia in the East as his capital during the Tetrarchy [ 218 ] —not far from Byzantium, well situated to defend Thrace, Asia, and Egypt, all of which had required his military attention. [ 219 ] Constantine had recognised the shift of the empire from the remote and depopulated [ why? ] West to the richer cities of the East, and the military strategic importance of protecting the Danube from barbarian excursions and Asia from a hostile Persia in choosing his new capital [ 220 ] as well as being able to monitor shipping traffic between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. [ 221 ] Licinius' defeat came to represent the defeat of a rival centre of pagan and Greek-speaking political activity in the East, as opposed to the Christian and Latin-speaking Rome, and it was proposed that a new Eastern capital should represent the integration of the East into the Roman Empire as a whole, as a centre of learning, prosperity, and cultural preservation for the whole of the Eastern Roman Empire. [ 222 ] Among the various locations proposed for this alternative capital, Constantine appears to have toyed earlier with Serdica (present-day Sofia ), as he was reported saying that " Serdica is my Rome ". [ 223 ] Sirmium and Thessalonica were also considered. [ 224 ] Eventually, however, Constantine decided to work on the Greek city of Byzantium , which offered the advantage of having already been extensively rebuilt on Roman patterns of urbanism during the preceding century by Septimius Severus and Caracalla , who had already acknowledged its strategic importance. [ 225 ] The city was thus founded in 324, [ 226 ] dedicated on 11 May 330 [ 226 ] and renamed Constantinopolis ("Constantine's City" or Constantinople in English). Special commemorative coins were issued in 330 to honour the event. The new city was later protected by the relics of the True Cross , the Rod of Moses and other holy relics, though a cameo now at the Hermitage Museum also represented Constantine crowned by the tyche of the new city. [ 227 ] The figures of old gods were either replaced or assimilated into a framework of Christian symbolism . Generations later there was the story that a divine vision led Constantine to this spot, and an angel no one else could see led him on a circuit of the new walls. [ 228 ] The capital would often be compared to the 'old' Rome as Nova Roma Constantinopolitana , the "New Rome of Constantinople". [ 216 ] [ 229 ] Religion and religious policy Saint Constantine the Great Mosaic in the Hagia Sophia , section: Maria as patroness of Constantinople, detail: donor portrait of Emperor Constantine I with a model of the city Emperor and Equal to the Apostles Resting place Constantinople Venerated in Eastern Orthodoxy Eastern Catholicism Oriental Orthodoxy Anglican Communion Lutheran Church Eastern Orthodoxy Eastern Catholicism Oriental Orthodoxy Anglican Communion Lutheran Church Major shrine Church of the Holy Apostles , Constantinople Feast 21 May Constantine was the first emperor to stop the persecution of Christians and to legalise Christianity, along with all other religions and cults in the Roman Empire. In February 313, he met with Licinius in Milan and developed the Edict of Milan, which stated that Christians should be allowed to follow their faith without oppression. [ 230 ] This removed penalties for professing Christianity, under which many had been martyred previously , and it returned confiscated Church property. The edict protected all religions from persecution, not only Christianity, allowing anyone to worship any deity that they chose. A similar edict had been issued in 311 by Galerius, senior emperor of the Tetrarchy, which granted Christians the right to practise their religion but did not restore any property to them. [ 231 ] The Edict of Milan included several clauses which stated that all confiscated churches would be returned, as well as other provisions for previously persecuted Christians. Some scholars think that Helena adopted Christianity as an adult, and according to Eusebius she was converted by Constantine, [ 232 ] but other historians debate whether Constantine adopted his mother Helena's Christianity in his youth or whether he adopted it gradually over the course of his life. [ 233 ] Constantine possibly retained the title of pontifex maximus which emperors bore as heads of the ancient Roman religion until Gratian renounced the title. [ 234 ] [ 235 ] According to Christian writers, Constantine was over 40 years old when he finally declared himself a Christian, making it clear that he owed his successes only to the protection of the Christian God. [ 236 ] Despite these declarations of being a Christian, he waited to be baptised until on his deathbed, believing that the baptism would release him of any sins he committed in the course of carrying out his policies while emperor. [ 237 ] He supported the Church financially, built basilicas, granted privileges to clergy (such as exemption from certain taxes), promoted Christians to high office, and returned property confiscated during the long period of persecution. [ 238 ] His most famous building projects include the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and Old St. Peter's Basilica . In constructing the Old St. Peter's Basilica, Constantine went to great lengths to erect the basilica on top of St. Peter 's resting place, so much so that it even affected the design of the basilica, including the challenge of erecting it on the hill where St. Peter rested, making its complete construction time over 30 years from the date Constantine ordered it to be built. Constantine might not have patronised Christianity alone. A triumphal arch was built in 315 to celebrate his victory in the Battle of the Milvian Bridge which was decorated with images of the goddess Victoria , and sacrifices were made to pagan gods at its dedication, including Apollo , Diana , and Hercules . Absent from the arch are any depictions of Christian symbolism. However, the arch was commissioned by the Senate, so the absence of Christian symbols may reflect the role of the Curia at the time as a pagan redoubt. [ 239 ] In 321, he legislated that the venerable Sunday should be a day of rest for all citizens. [ 240 ] In 323, he issued a decree banning Christians from participating in state sacrifices. [ 241 ] After the pagan gods had disappeared from his coinage, Christian symbols appeared as Constantine's attributes, the chi rho between his hands or on his labarum, [ 242 ] as well on the coinage. [ 243 ] The reign of Constantine established a precedent for the emperor to have great influence and authority in the early Christian councils, most notably the dispute over Arianism. Constantine disliked the risks to societal stability that religious disputes and controversies brought with them, preferring to establish an orthodoxy. [ 244 ] His influence over the Church councils was to enforce doctrine, root out heresy, and uphold ecclesiastical unity; the Church's role was to determine proper worship, doctrines, and dogma. [ 245 ] North African bishops struggled with Christian bishops who had been ordained by Donatus in opposition to Caecilian from 313 to 316. The African bishops could not come to terms, and the Donatists asked Constantine to act as a judge in the dispute. Three regional Church councils and another trial before Constantine all ruled against Donatus and the Donatism movement in North Africa. In 317, Constantine issued an edict to confiscate Donatist church property and to send Donatist clergy into exile. [ 246 ] More significantly, in 325 he summoned the First Council of Nicaea, most known for its dealing with Arianism and for instituting the Nicene Creed . [ 247 ] He enforced the council's prohibition against celebrating the Lord's Supper on the day before the Jewish Passover , which marked a definite break of Christianity from the Judaic tradition. From then on, the solar Julian calendar was given precedence over the lunisolar Hebrew calendar among the Christian churches of the Roman Empire. [ 248 ] Constantine made some new laws regarding the Jews; some of them were unfavourable towards Jews, although they were not harsher than those of his predecessors. [ 249 ] It was made illegal for Jews to seek converts or to attack other Jews who had converted to Christianity. [ 249 ] They were forbidden to own Christian slaves or to circumcise their slaves. [ 250 ] [ 251 ] On the other hand, Jewish clergy were given the same exemptions as Christian clergy. [ 249 ] [ 252 ] Administrative reforms Beginning in the mid-3rd century, the emperors began to favour members of the equestrian order over senators, who had a monopoly on the most important offices of the state. Senators were stripped of the command of legions and most provincial governorships, as it was felt that they lacked the specialised military upbringing needed in an age of acute defense needs; [ 253 ] such posts were given to equestrians by Diocletian and his colleagues, following a practice enforced piecemeal by their predecessors. The emperors, however, still needed the talents and the help of the very rich, who were relied on to maintain social order and cohesion by means of a web of powerful influence and contacts at all levels. Exclusion of the old senatorial aristocracy threatened this arrangement. In 326 Constantine reversed this pro-equestrian trend, raising many administrative positions to senatorial rank and thus opening these offices to the old aristocracy; at the same time, he elevated the rank of existing equestrian office-holders to senator, degrading the equestrian order in the process (at least as a bureaucratic rank). [ 254 ] The title of perfectissimus was granted only to mid- or low-level officials by the end of the 4th century. By the new Constantinian arrangement, one could become a senator by being elected praetor or by fulfilling a function of senatorial rank. [ 255 ] From then on, holding actual power and social status were melded together into a joint imperial hierarchy. Constantine gained the support of the old nobility with this, [ 256 ] as the Senate was allowed to elect praetors and quaestors in place of the usual practice of the emperors directly creating magistrates ( adlectio ). An inscription in honour of city prefect Ceionius Rufus Albinus states that Constantine had restored the Senate "the auctoritas it had lost at Caesar's time". [ 257 ] The Senate as a body remained devoid of any significant power; nevertheless, the senators had been marginalised as potential holders of imperial functions during the 3rd century but could dispute such positions alongside more upstart bureaucrats. [ 258 ] Some modern historians see in those administrative reforms an attempt by Constantine at reintegrating the senatorial order into the imperial administrative elite to counter the possibility of alienating pagan senators from a Christianised imperial rule; [ 259 ] however, such an interpretation remains conjectural, given the fact that we do not have the precise numbers about pre-Constantine conversions to Christianity in the old senatorial milieu. Some historians suggest that early conversions among the old aristocracy were more numerous than previously supposed. [ 260 ] Constantine's reforms had to do only with the civilian administration. The military chiefs had risen from the ranks since the Crisis of the Third Century [ 261 ] but remained outside the Senate, in which they were included only by Constantine's children. [ 262 ] Monetary reforms In the 3rd century the production of fiat money to pay for public expenses resulted in runaway inflation , and Diocletian tried unsuccessfully to re-establish trustworthy minting of silver coins, as well as silver-bronze " billon " coins (the term "billon" meaning an alloy of precious and base metals that is mostly base metal). Silver currency was overvalued in terms of its actual metal content and therefore could only circulate at much discounted rates. Constantine stopped minting the Diocletianic "pure" silver argenteus soon after 305, while the "billon" currency continued to be used until the 360s. From the early 300s on, Constantine forsook any attempts at restoring the silver currency, preferring instead to concentrate on minting large quantities of the gold solidus , 72 of which made a pound of gold. New and highly debased silver pieces continued to be issued during his later reign and after his death, in a continuous process of retariffing, until this "billon" minting ceased in 367, and the silver piece was continued by various denominations of bronze coins, the most important being the centenionalis . [ 263 ] These bronze pieces continued to be devalued, assuring the possibility of keeping fiduciary minting alongside a gold standard. The author of De Rebus Bellicis held that the rift widened between classes because of this monetary policy; the rich benefited from the stability in purchasing power of the gold piece, while the poor had to cope with ever-degrading bronze pieces. [ 264 ] Later emperors such as Julian the Apostate insisted on trustworthy mintings of the bronze currency. [ 265 ] Constantine's monetary policies were closely associated with his religious policies; increased minting was associated with the confiscation of all gold, silver, and bronze statues from pagan temples between 331 and 336 which were declared to be imperial property. Two imperial commissioners for each province had the task of getting the statues and melting them for immediate minting, with the exception of a number of bronze statues that were used as public monuments in Constantinople. [ 266 ] Executions of Crispus and Fausta Constantine had his eldest son Crispus seized and put to death by "cold poison" at Pola ( Pula , Croatia) sometime between 15 May and 17 June 326. [ 267 ] In July, he had his wife Empress Fausta (stepmother of Crispus) killed in an overheated bath. [ 268 ] Their names were wiped from the face of many inscriptions, references to their lives were eradicated from the literary record, and their memory was condemned. Eusebius, for example, edited out any praise of Crispus from later copies of Historia Ecclesiastica , and his Vita Constantini contains no mention of Fausta or Crispus. [ 269 ] Few ancient sources are willing to discuss possible motives for the events, and the few that do are of later provenance and are generally unreliable. [ 270 ] At the time of the executions it was commonly believed that Empress Fausta was either in an illicit relationship with Crispus or was spreading rumours to that effect. A popular myth arose, modified to allude to the Hippolytus – Phaedra legend, with the suggestion that Constantine killed Crispus and Fausta for their immoralities; [ 271 ] the largely fictional Passion of Artemius explicitly makes this connection. [ 272 ] The myth rests on slim evidence as an interpretation of the executions; only late and unreliable sources allude to the relationship between Crispus and Fausta, and there is no evidence for the modern suggestion that Constantine's "godly" edicts of 326 and the irregularities of Crispus are somehow connected. [ 271 ] Although Constantine created his apparent heirs "caesars", following a pattern established by Diocletian, he gave his creations a hereditary character, alien to the tetrarchic system: Constantine's caesars were to be kept in the hope of ascending to empire and entirely subordinated to their augustus, as long as he was alive. [ 273 ] Adrian Goldsworthy speculates an alternative explanation for the execution of Crispus was Constantine's desire to keep a firm grip on his prospective heirs, this—and Fausta's desire for having her sons inheriting instead of their half-brother—being reason enough for killing Crispus; the subsequent execution of Fausta, however, was probably meant as a reminder to her children that Constantine would not hesitate in "killing his own relatives when he felt this was necessary". [ 274 ] Later campaigns Constantine considered Constantinople his capital and permanent residence. He lived there for a good portion of his later life. In 328, construction was completed on Constantine's Bridge at Sucidava , (today Celei in Romania ) [ 275 ] in hopes of reconquering Dacia , a province that had been abandoned under Aurelian. In the late winter of 332, Constantine campaigned with the Sarmatians against the Goths . The weather and lack of food reportedly cost the Goths dearly before they submitted to Rome. In 334, after Sarmatian commoners had overthrown their leaders, Constantine led a campaign against the tribe. He won a victory in the war and extended his control over the region, as remains of camps and fortifications in the region indicate. [ 276 ] Constantine resettled some Sarmatian exiles as farmers in Illyrian and Roman districts and conscripted the rest into the army. Constantine reconquered the South of Dacia and the new frontier in Dacia was along the wall and ditch called Brazda lui Novac line supported by new castra . [ 277 ] Constantine took the title Dacicus maximus in 336. [ 278 ] In the last years of his life, Constantine made plans for a campaign against Persia . In a letter written to the king of Persia, Shapur , Constantine had asserted his patronage over Persia's Christian subjects and urged Shapur to treat them well. [ 279 ] The letter is undatable. In response to border raids, Constantine sent Constantius to guard the eastern frontier in 335. In 336, Prince Narseh invaded Armenia (a Christian kingdom since 301) and installed a Persian client on the throne. Constantine then resolved to campaign against Persia. He treated the war as a Christian crusade, calling for bishops to accompany the army and commissioning a tent in the shape of a church to follow him everywhere. Constantine planned to be baptised in the Jordan River before crossing into Persia. Persian diplomats came to Constantinople over the winter of 336–337, seeking peace, but Constantine turned them away. The campaign was called off, however, when Constantine became sick in the spring of 337. [ 280 ] Illness and death From his recent illness, Constantine knew death would soon come. Within the Church of the Holy Apostles , which he had built in Constantinople, Constantine had secretly prepared a final resting-place for himself. [ 281 ] It came sooner than he had expected. Soon after the Feast of Easter 337, Constantine fell seriously ill. [ 282 ] He left Constantinople for the hot baths near his mother's city of Helenopolis ( Altınova ), on the southern shores of the Gulf of Nicomedia (present-day Gulf of İzmit ). Once in Helenopolis, in a church he had built in honour of Lucian the Martyr , he began to pray and offer supplications for God. He soon felt that his life was ending and desired to seek purification of the sins he had committed through baptism. Making his way to the suburbs of Nicomedia, where he summoned the local bishops. [ 283 ] He then told them of his hope to be baptised in the Jordan River , where Christ was baptised, yet praises God, knowing that it is fitting for him to receive the blessing here instead. He then professed the desire to live the rest of his life united with the people of God and His Church. The bishops, Eusebius records, "the prelates performed the sacred ceremonies in the usual manner". [ 284 ] He chose the Arian bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia , bishop of the city where he lay dying, as his baptiser. [ 285 ] It has been thought that Constantine put off baptism as long as he did to be absolved from as much of his sin as possible. [ 286 ] Constantine died soon after at a suburban villa called Achyron, on the last day of the fifty-day festival of Pentecost directly following Pascha (or Easter ), on 22 May 337. [ 287 ] Although Constantine's death follows the conclusion of the Persian campaign in Eusebius's account, most other sources report his death as occurring in its middle. Emperor Julian (a nephew of Constantine), writing in the mid-350s, observes that the Sassanians escaped punishment for their ill-deeds, because Constantine died "in the middle of his preparations for war". [ 288 ] Similar accounts are given in the Origo Constantini , an anonymous document composed while Constantine was still living, which has Constantine dying in Nicomedia ; [ 289 ] the Historiae abbreviatae of Sextus Aurelius Victor , written in 361, which has Constantine dying at an estate near Nicomedia called Achyrona while marching against the Persians; [ 290 ] and the Breviarium of Eutropius , a handbook compiled in 369 for the Emperor Valens , which has Constantine dying in a nameless state villa in Nicomedia . [ 291 ] From these and other accounts, some have concluded that Eusebius's Vita was edited to defend Constantine's reputation against what Eusebius saw as a less congenial version of the campaign. [ 292 ] Following his death, his body was transferred to Constantinople and buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles, [ 293 ] in a porphyry sarcophagus that was described in the 10th century by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in the De Ceremoniis . [ 294 ] His body survived the plundering of the city during the Fourth Crusade in 1204 but was destroyed at some point afterwards. [ 295 ] A fragment of a sarcophagus that is believed to be Constantine's is currently on display at the Istanbul Archaeology Museums . Constantine was succeeded by his three sons born of Fausta, Constantine II, Constantius II and Constans . His sons, along with his nephew Dalmatius , had already received one division of the empire each to administer as caesars; Constantine may have intended his successors to resume a structure akin to Diocletian's Tetrarchy. [ 296 ] A number of relatives were killed by followers of Constantius, notably Constantine's nephews Dalmatius (who held the rank of caesar) and Hannibalianus , presumably to eliminate possible contenders to an already complicated succession. He also had two daughters, Constantina and Helena , wife of Emperor Julian. [ 297 ] Assessment and legacy Constantine reunited the empire under one emperor, and he won major victories over the Franks and Alamanni in 306–308, the Franks again in 313–314, the Goths in 332, and the Sarmatians in 334. By 336, he had reoccupied most of the long-lost province of Dacia which Aurelian had been forced to abandon in 271. At the time of his death, he was planning a great expedition to end raids on the eastern provinces from the Persian Empire. [ 298 ] In the cultural sphere, Constantine revived the clean-shaven face fashion of earlier emperors, originally introduced among the Romans by Scipio Africanus (236–183 BC) and changed into the wearing of the beard by Hadrian (r. 117–138). With some departures, such as Julian the Apostate (r. 360–363), this new Roman imperial fashion lasted until the reign of Phocas (r. 602–610) in the 7th century. [ 299 ] [ 300 ] [ better source needed ] The Holy Roman Empire reckoned Constantine among the venerable figures of its tradition. In the later Byzantine state, it became a great honour for an emperor to be hailed as a "new Constantine"; ten emperors carried the name, including the last emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire. [ 301 ] Charlemagne used monumental Constantinian forms in his court to suggest that he was Constantine's successor and equal. Charlemagne, Henry VIII , Philip II of Spain , Godfrey of Bouillon , the House of Capet , the House of Habsburg , the House of Stuart , the Macedonian dynasty and the Phokas family claimed descent from Constantine. [ 302 ] [ 303 ] [ 304 ] Geoffrey of Monmouth embroidered a tale that the legendary king of Britain, King Arthur , was also a descendant of Constantine. [ 305 ] Constantine acquired a mythic role as a hero and warrior against heathens. His reception as a saint seems to have spread within the Byzantine empire during wars against the Sasanian Persians and the Muslims in the late 6th and 7th century. [ 306 ] The motif of the Romanesque equestrian, the mounted figure in the posture of a triumphant Roman emperor, became a visual metaphor in statuary in praise of local benefactors. The name "Constantine" enjoyed renewed popularity in western France in the 11th and 12th centuries. [ 307 ] During the Fascist period in Italy in the 20th century , parallels between Constantine and Mussolini became especially popular after the signing of the Lateran Pacts by the Italian State and the Catholic Church in 1929. Mussolini's perceived role in bringing about the historic agreement was sometimes even explicitly compared to Constantine's Edict of Milan. For example, the archbishop of Milan, Cardinal Ildefonso Schuster , claimed that, after sixteen centuries, a second March on Rome had occurred and a second 'religious pact' had been established, linking Mussolini to the spiriti magni of both Constantine and Augustus . [ 308 ] The Niš Constantine the Great Airport is named in honour of him. A large cross was planned to be built on a hill overlooking Niš, but the project was cancelled. [ 309 ] In 2012, a memorial was erected in Niš in his honour. The Commemoration of the Edict of Milan was held in Niš in 2013. [ 310 ] Constantine is sometimes associated with the religiopolitical ideology known as Caesaropapism , which epitomises the unity of church and state. However, his association with this ideology has been debated. [ 311 ] Veneration as a saint Constantine is commemorated annually as a saint by most, if not all, Eastern Christian Churches . The Eastern Orthodox Churches and the Greek Catholic Churches venerate Saint Constantine (Άγιος Κωνσταντίνος) as isapostolos (ισαπόστολος Κωνσταντίνος)—an equal of the Apostles . [ 312 ] He and his mother, Saint Helena, are commemorated on 21 May, [ 313 ] with liturgical propers composed for the Horologion (e.g., Great Vespers ) [ 314 ] and Divine Liturgy . [ 315 ] Several Orthodox monasteries, shrines and churches claim to have first-class relics of Constantine. [ 316 ] The Coptic Orthodox Church commemorates Saint Constantine on 28 Parmouti . [ 317 ] The Armenian Apostolic Church commemorates Saint Constantine and Saint Helena on the Tuesday of the fourth week after Pentecost. [ 318 ] The Armenian Catholic Church commemorates both on 1 July. Constantine is not recognized officially as a saint in the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church , although he had been referred to as piissimi Imperatoris (most pious Emperor) in editions of the Martyrologium Romanum up until the 1956 edition. Historiography During Constantine's lifetime, Praxagoras of Athens and Libanius , pagan authors, showered Constantine with praise, presenting him as a paragon of virtue. His nephew and son-in-law Julian the Apostate, however, wrote the satire Symposium, or the Saturnalia in 361, after the last of his sons died; it denigrated Constantine, calling him inferior to the great pagan emperors, and given over to luxury and greed. [ 319 ] Following Julian, Eunapius began – and Zosimus continued – a historiographic tradition that blamed Constantine for weakening the empire through his indulgence to the Christians. [ 320 ] During the Middle Ages , European and Near-East Byzantine writers presented Constantine as an ideal ruler, the standard against which any king or emperor could be measured. [ 320 ] The Renaissance rediscovery of anti-Constantinian sources prompted a re-evaluation of his career. German humanist Johannes Leunclavius discovered Zosimus' writings and published a Latin translation in 1576. In its preface, he argues that Zosimus' picture of Constantine offered a more balanced view than that of Eusebius and the Church historians. [ 321 ] Cardinal Caesar Baronius criticised Zosimus, favouring Eusebius' account of the Constantinian era. Baronius' Life of Constantine (1588) presents Constantine as the model of a Christian prince. [ 322 ] Edward Gibbon aimed to unite the two extremes of Constantinian scholarship in his work The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776–1789) by contrasting the portraits presented by Eusebius and Zosimus. [ 323 ] He presents a noble war hero who transforms into an Oriental despot in his old age, "degenerating into a cruel and dissolute monarch". [ 324 ] Modern interpretations of Constantine's rule begin with Jacob Burckhardt 's The Age of Constantine the Great (1853, rev. 1880). Burckhardt's Constantine is a scheming secularist, a politician who manipulates all parties in a quest to secure his own power. [ 325 ] Henri Grégoire followed Burckhardt's evaluation of Constantine in the 1930s, suggesting that Constantine developed an interest in Christianity only after witnessing its political usefulness. Grégoire was skeptical of the authenticity of Eusebius's Vita , and postulated a pseudo-Eusebius to assume responsibility for the vision and conversion narratives of that work. [ 326 ] Otto Seeck 's Geschichte des Untergangs der antiken Welt (1920–1923) and André Piganiol 's L'empereur Constantin (1932) go against this historiographic tradition. Seeck presents Constantine as a sincere war hero whose ambiguities were the product of his own naïve inconsistency. [ 327 ] Piganiol's Constantine is a philosophical monotheist, a child of his era's religious syncretism. [ 328 ] Related histories by Arnold Hugh Martin Jones ( Constantine and the Conversion of Europe , 1949) and Ramsay MacMullen ( Constantine , 1969) give portraits of a less visionary and more impulsive Constantine. [ 329 ] These later accounts were more willing to present Constantine as a genuine convert to Christianity. Norman H. Baynes began a historiographic tradition with Constantine the Great and the Christian Church (1929) which presents Constantine as a committed Christian, reinforced by Andreas Alföldi 's The Conversion of Constantine and Pagan Rome (1948), and Timothy Barnes 's Constantine and Eusebius (1981) is the culmination of this trend. Barnes' Constantine experienced a radical conversion which drove him on a personal crusade to convert his empire. [ 330 ] Charles Matson Odahl's Constantine and the Christian Empire (2004) takes much the same tack. [ 331 ] In spite of Barnes' work, arguments continue over the strength and depth of Constantine's religious conversion. [ 332 ] Certain themes in this school reached new extremes in T. G. Elliott's The Christianity of Constantine the Great (1996), which presented Constantine as a committed Christian from early childhood. [ 333 ] Paul Veyne 's 2007 work Quand notre monde est devenu chrétien holds a similar view which does not speculate on the origin of Constantine's Christian motivation, but presents him as a religious revolutionary who fervently believed that he was meant "to play a providential role in the millenary economy of the salvation of humanity". [ 334 ] Peter Heather argues that it is most plausible that Constantine had been a Christian considerably before 312 – possibly even for his entire life – with the public timeline of events instead reflecting his "coming out" as Christian in stages as doing so became politically viable. As a parallel illustrating the cogency of this interpretation, Heather gestures to the later conversion of Constantine's nephew Julian from Christianity to Hellenism, after which he practiced in secret for a decade. [ 335 ] Donation of Constantine Latin Christians considered it inappropriate that Constantine was baptised only on his death bed by an unorthodox bishop, and a legend emerged by the early 4th century that Pope Sylvester I had cured the pagan emperor from leprosy. According to this legend, Constantine was baptised and began the construction of a church in the Lateran Basilica . [ 336 ] [ 337 ] The Donation of Constantine appeared in the 8th century, most likely during the pontificate of Pope Stephen II , in which the freshly converted Constantine gives "the city of Rome and all the provinces, districts, and cities of Italy and the Western regions" to Sylvester and his successors. [ 338 ] In the High Middle Ages , [ 339 ] [ 340 ] this document was used and accepted as the basis for the pope's temporal power , though it was denounced as a forgery by Emperor Otto III [ 341 ] and lamented as the root of papal worldliness by Dante Alighieri . [ 342 ] Philologist and Catholic priest Lorenzo Valla proved in 1440 that the document was indeed a forgery. [ 343 ] Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia During the medieval period, Britons regarded Constantine as a king of their own people, particularly associating him with Caernarfon in Gwynedd . While some of this is owed to his fame and his proclamation as emperor in Britain , there was also confusion of his family with Magnus Maximus 's supposed wife Elen and her son, another Constantine ( Welsh : Custennin ) . In the 12th century Henry of Huntingdon included a passage in his Historia Anglorum that the Emperor Constantine's mother was a Briton, making her the daughter of King Cole of Colchester . [ 344 ] Geoffrey of Monmouth expanded this story in his highly fictionalised Historia Regum Britanniae , an account of the supposed Kings of Britain from their Trojan origins to the Anglo-Saxon invasion . [ 345 ] According to Geoffrey, Cole was King of the Britons when Constantius, here a senator, came to Britain. Afraid of the Romans, Cole submits to Roman law so long as he retains his kingship. However, he dies only a month later, and Constantius takes the throne himself, marrying Cole's daughter Helena. They have their son Constantine, who succeeds his father as King of Britain before becoming Roman emperor. Historically, this series of events is extremely improbable. Constantius had already left Helena by the time he left for Britain. [ 45 ] Additionally, no earlier source mentions that Helena was born in Britain, let alone that she was a princess. Henry's source for the story is unknown, though it may have been a lost hagiography of Helena. [ 345 ] Family tree v t e CONSTANTINIAN DYNASTY detailed family tree v t e Afranius Hannibalianus Eutropia Maximian Western emperor Theodora Constantius I Chlorus Western emperor 250-305-306 Helena 250–330 Maxentius Western emperor Constantia 293–330 ∞ Licinius 250-308-324-325 Flavius Dalmatius censor 1. Galla Julius Constantius d. 337 ∞ 2.Basilina Anastasia Eutropia Fausta 289–326 Constantine I the Great 272-306-337 Minervina Dalmatius caesar Hannibalianus (1) Constantius Gallus (2) Julian 331-360-363 Helena d. 360 Constantina ∞ 1. Hannibalianus 2. Constantius Gallus Constantius II 317-337-361 ∞ Faustina Constantine II Western emperor 316-337-340 Constans I Western emperor 320-337-350 (daughter) ∞ Justus Crispus d. 326 Jovian 331-363-364 Marina Severa Valentinian I Western emperor VALENTINIANIC DYNASTY Justina Constantia 361–383 Gratian Western emperor 359-367-383 Galla Theodosius I Eastern emperor THEODOSIAN DYNASTY Afranius Hannibalianus Eutropia Maximian Western emperor Theodora Constantius I Chlorus Western emperor 250-305-306 Helena 250–330 Maxentius Western emperor Constantia 293–330 ∞ Licinius 250-308-324-325 Flavius Dalmatius censor 1. Galla Julius Constantius d. 337 ∞ 2.Basilina Anastasia Eutropia Fausta 289–326 Constantine I the Great 272-306-337 Minervina Dalmatius caesar Hannibalianus (1) Constantius Gallus (2) Julian 331-360-363 Helena d. 360 Constantina ∞ 1. Hannibalianus 2. Constantius Gallus Constantius II 317-337-361 ∞ Faustina Constantine II Western emperor 316-337-340 Constans I Western emperor 320-337-350 (daughter) ∞ Justus Crispus d. 326 Jovian 331-363-364 Marina Severa Valentinian I Western emperor VALENTINIANIC DYNASTY Justina Constantia 361–383 Gratian Western emperor 359-367-383 Galla Theodosius I Eastern emperor THEODOSIAN DYNASTY Family of Constantine the Great Emperors are shown with a rounded-corner border with their dates as Augusti , names with a thicker border appear in both sections 1: Constantine's parents and half-siblings Claudius Gothicus 268–270 fabricated ancestry Julia Helena Constantius I 305–306 Maximiana Theodora Constantine I 306–337 Flavius Dalmatius Hannibalianus Flavia Julia Constantia Licinius 308–324 Anastasia Bassianus Galla Julius Constantius Basilina Licinius II Eutropia Virius Nepotianus Hannibalianus Constantina Constantius Gallus Julian 360–363 Helena Nepotianus 2: Constantine's children Minervina Constantine I 306–337 Fausta Crispus Constantine II 337–340 Constans 337–350 Hannibalianus Constantina Constantius Gallus Faustina Constantius II 337–361 Helena Julian 360–363 Gratian 367–383 Constantia Emperors are shown with a rounded-corner border with their dates as Augusti , names with a thicker border appear in both sections 1: Constantine's parents and half-siblings Claudius Gothicus 268–270 fabricated ancestry Claudius Gothicus 268–270 fabricated ancestry Julia Helena Constantius I 305–306 Constantius I 305–306 Maximiana Theodora Constantine I 306–337 Constantine I 306–337 Flavius Dalmatius Hannibalianus Flavia Julia Constantia Licinius 308–324 Licinius 308–324 Anastasia Bassianus Galla Julius Constantius Basilina Licinius II Eutropia Virius Nepotianus Hannibalianus Constantina Constantius Gallus Julian 360–363 Julian 360–363 Helena Nepotianus 2: Constantine's children Minervina Constantine I 306–337 Constantine I 306–337 Fausta Crispus Constantine II 337–340 Constantine II 337–340 Constans 337–350 Constans 337–350 Hannibalianus Constantina Constantius Gallus Faustina Constantius II 337–361 Constantius II 337–361 Helena Julian 360–363 Julian 360–363 Gratian 367–383 Gratian 367–383 Constantia See also Byzantine Empire portal Saints portal Bronze colossus of Constantine Colossus of Constantine Fifty Bibles of Constantine German and Sarmatian campaigns of Constantine Life of Constantine List of Byzantine emperors List of people known as the great Notes ^ a b Emperor of the East ^ Emperor of the West ^ a b In the West; unrecognised outside Italy ^ Originally emperor of the West; became emperor of the East after 313. ^ a b In the East; nominal emperor of the West. ^ Minervina may have been his concubine . ^ / ˈ k ɒ n s t ən t aɪ n , - t iː n / KON -stən-tyne, -teen ; Latin : Flāvius Valerius Cōnstantīnus , .mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%} Classical Latin : [konstanˈtiːnus] ; Koine Greek : Κωνσταντῖνος , romanized: Kōnstantînos ^ With the possible exception of Philip the Arab ( r. 244–249 ). See Philip the Arab and Christianity . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] ^ Constantine was not baptised until just before his death. [ 3 ] ^ Constantine's age at the time of his death was 65 years and 3 months, as recorded by Eustathius . Socrates , Sozomen , Zonaras , Skoutariotes , Theophanes , Symeon and Kedrenos all record 65 years. Eutropius and Jerome ( c. 380) give 66 years, as Latin writers often used inclusive counting . Aurelius Victor gives 62, likely a corruption of .mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%} lxvi into lxii , and his epitomer further corrupts the number into 63 ( lxiii ), while also computing his regnal years wrong. [ 19 ] [ 20 ] ^ The claim that Constantius descended from Claudius Gothicus , and thus also from the Flavian dynasty , is most certainly a fabrication. [ 23 ] [ 24 ] His family probably adopted the name "Flavius" after being granted citizenship by one of the Flavian emperors, as it was common for "new Romans" to adopt the names of their benefactors. [ 25 ] ^ On the other hand, Timothy Barnes argues that when ancient writers used the words Illyricum and Thrace / Thracians to describe where Constantius came from, they were speaking of broad geographic terms rather than precise origins. [ 28 ] ^ Constantius' regnal name is attested as both "Gaius Flavius Constantius" and "Marcus Flavius Constantius". However, the latter is almost certainly the correct form, as it was also the praenomen of his adopted father Maximian. [ 32 ] ^ The event is the focus of the Panegyrici Latini VI. The exact chronology of events is uncertain. Constantine and Fausta's wedding is sometimes dated to 31 March, but this is probably a mistake. It probably took place in September 307. [ 100 ] [ 101 ] [ 102 ] Citations ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Shahîd, Irfan (1984). "The First Christian Roman Emperor: Philip or Constantine?" . Rome and the Arabs . Dumbarton Oaks . pp. 65– 93. ^ Pohlsander, Hans A. (1980). "Philip the Arab and Christianity" . Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte . 29 (4): 463– 473. ISSN 0018-2311 . JSTOR 4435734 . ^ Harris, Jonathan (2017). Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium (2nd ed.). Bloomsbury. p. 38. ISBN 978-1-4742-5467-0 . ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 272. ^ Lenski et al. , pp. 2–3, 14, 23–25; Southern 2001 , p. 169; Cameron 2005 , pp. 90–91. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 265–268. ^ Drake 1988 . ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.11; cited in Odahl 2001 , p. 3 ^ Lenski et al. , p. 5; Storch 1971 . ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 265–271; Cameron 2005 , pp. 90–92; Elliott 1996 , pp. 162–171. ^ Lieu & Montserrat 1996 , pp. 39–40; Odahl 2001 , p. 3; Lenski et al. , p. 26. ^ a b c d e Lenski et al. , pp. 14–32; Odahl 2001 , pp. 6–14. ^ a b Barnes 1981 , pp. 12–14; MacKay 1999 , p. 207. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 225. ^ Odahl 2001 , pp. 6, 10. ^ Lieu & Montserrat 1996 , pp. 2–6; Warmington 1999 , pp. 166–167. ^ a b Wienand 2012 , pp. 26–86. ^ Lenski et al. , pp. 20–21, 288–291; Odahl 2001 , pp. 8–11. ^ a b c Doležal 2022 , pp. 221–237. ^ Bernard 2019 , p. 543. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 3, 39–42; Elliott 1996 , p. 17; Odahl 2001 , pp. 15–16; Pohlsander 2004b ; Southern 2001 , p. 169, 341; Barnes 1982 , pp. 39–42; Jones 1978 , pp. 13–14; Lenski et al. , p. 59; Pohlsander 2004a , p. 14; Rodgers 1989 ; Wright 1987 . ^ Wilkes, John (2012). "Dardani" . In Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (eds.). The Oxford Classical Dictionary . Oxford University Press. p. 414. ISBN 978-0-19-954556-8 . ^ a b Kazhdan 1991 , pp. 524–525. ^ Jones, Martindale & Morris , p. 223. ^ Salway, Benet (1994). "What's in a Name? A Survey of Roman Onomastic Practice from c. 700 B.C. to A.D. 700" (PDF) . Journal of Roman Studies . 84 : 124– 145. doi : 10.2307/300873 . ISSN 0075-4358 . JSTOR 300873 . S2CID 162435434 . Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 April 2020. ^ Stanislav Doležal, The Reign of Constantine, 306–337. Continuity and Change in the Late Roman Empire . Palgrave Macmillan Cham, 2022; pp. 2–3: "In a sense, this book is dedicated to the " Illyrian Emperors ", i.e. those emperors who were born in the Western Balkans and saved, stabilised, and reformed the empire. This line begins with Claudius II (268— 270) and then moves on to Quintillus (270), Aurelian (270—275), and Probus (276—282).3 After a brief interruption by the reigns of Carus and his two sons (282—284), whose birthplace we do not know, the Illyr-ians continued their run with Diocletian (284—305) and three of his colleagues: Maximian (285—305), Constantius (293—306), and Galerius (293—311). A 4th-century historian said of them: "Illyricum was actually the native land of all of them: so although they were deficient in culture, they had nevertheless been sufficiently schooled by the hardships of the countryside and of military service to be the best men for the state". 4 This is not the end of the Illyrian Emperors: Severus (305—307), Maximinus Daia (305—313), Licinius (308—324), and Constantine himself (306—337) can also be counted among them." ^ Odahl 2001 , pp. 36-41 . ^ Barnes 2011 , p. 30 . ^ Tougher, Shaun (2007). Julian the Apostate . Edinburgh University Press. doi : 10.1515/9781474473286 . ISBN 9780748618873 . ^ a b Otto Seeck : " Constantius 1 " (in German) . In: Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft (RE). Vol. IV,1, Stuttgart, 1900, col. 1013–1026. ^ a b c Conrad Benjamin: " Constantinus 2 " (in German) . In: Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft (RE). Vol. IV,1, Stuttgart, 1900, col. 1013–1026. ^ Barnes 1982 , p. 5. ^ Wilson, Steven (2003). The Means Of Naming: A Social History . Routledge . p. 47. ISBN 978-1-135-36836-4 . ^ MacMullen 1969 , p. 21. ^ Panegyrici Latini 8(5), 9(4); Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 8.7; Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.13.3 ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 13, 290. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 3; Lenski et al. , pp. 59–60; Odahl 2001 , pp. 16–17. ^ Hillner, Julia (2023). Helena Augusta: Mother of the Empire . Oxford University Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-19-087529-9 . ^ Drijvers, Jan Willem (1991). Helena Augusta . BRILL. pp. 9– 17. ISBN 978-90-04-24676-8 . ^ Stanton, Andrea L. (2012). Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia . SAGE. p. 25. ISBN 978-1-4129-8176-7 . Constantine's mother, Helena, was a Greek from Asia Minor and also a devoted Christian who seemed to have influenced his choices. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 3, 39–42; Barnes 1982 , p. 39–40; Elliott 1996 , p. 17; Lenski et al. , pp. 59, 83; Odahl 2001 , p. 16; Pohlsander 2004a , p. 14. ^ Tejirian, Eleanor H.; Simon, Reeva Spector (2012). Conflict, conquest, and conversion: two thousand years of Christian missions in the Middle East . New York: Columbia University Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-231-51109-4 . ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 8–14; Lenski et al. , pp. 46–50; Treadgold 1997 , pp. 14–15. ^ Bowman 2005 , p. 70; Potter 2004 , p. 283. ^ a b Barnes 1981 , p. 3; Elliott 1996 , p. 20; Lenski et al. , pp. 59–60; Odahl 2001 , pp. 47, 299; Pohlsander 2004a , p. 14. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 7.1; cited in Barnes 1981 , pp. 13, 290 ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 3, 8–9; Lenski et al. , pp. 40–43, 54; Elliott 1996 , p. 20; Odahl 2001 , pp. 46–47, 56–57; Pohlsander 2004a , pp. 8–9, 14; Treadgold 1997 , p. 17. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 73–74; Lenski et al. , pp. 60; Odahl 2001 , pp. 72, 301. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 73–74; Fowden 1988 , pp. 175–176. ^ Constantine, Oratio ad Sanctorum Coetum , 16.2 ^ a b Elliott 1996 , pp. 29–30; Lenski et al. , p. 60; Odahl 2001 , pp. 72–74. ^ Pohlsander 2004a , p. 15. ^ Constantine, Oratio ad Sanctorum Coetum 25 ^ Elliott 1996 , p. 30; Odahl 2001 , p. 73. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 10.6–11 ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 21; Elliott 1996 , pp. 35–36; MacMullen 1969 , p. 24; Odahl 2001 , p. 67; Potter 2004 , p. 338. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 2.49–52 ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 21; Odahl 2001 , pp. 67, 73, 304; Potter 2004 , p. 338. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 22–25; MacMullen 1969 , pp. 24–30; Odahl 2001 , pp. 67–69; Potter 2004 , p. 337. ^ MacMullen 1969 , pp. 24–25. ^ Oratio ad Sanctorum Coetum 25 ^ Odahl 2001 , p. 73. ^ Elliott 1987 , pp. 425–426; Lenski et al. , p. 126. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 25–27; Lenski et al. , p. 60; Odahl 2001 , pp. 69–72; Pohlsander 2004a , p. 15; Potter 2004 , pp. 341–342. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 19.2–6 ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 26; Potter 2004 , p. 342. ^ Lenski et al. , pp. 60–61; Odahl 2001 , pp. 72–74; Pohlsander 2004a , p. 15. ^ Origo 4; Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 24.3–9; Praxagoras fr. 1.2; Aurelius Victor 40.2–3; Epitome de Caesaribus 41.2; Zosimus 2.8.3; Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.21 ^ Lenski et al. , p. 61; MacMullen 1969 , p. 32; Odahl 2001 , p. 73. ^ Lenski et al. , p. 61. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 27; Elliott 1987 , pp. 39–40; Lenski et al. , p. 61; Odahl 2001 , p. 75–77; Pohlsander 2004a , pp. 15–16; Potter 2004 , pp. 344–345; Southern 2001 , pp. 169–170, 341; MacMullen 1969 , p. 32. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 27, 298; Elliott 1996 , p. 39; Odahl 2001 , p. 77–78, 309; Pohlsander 2004a , pp. 15–16. ^ Alföldi 1948 , pp. 233–234; Southern 2001 , pp. 170, 341. ^ a b Barnes 1981 , pp. 27–29; Jones 1978 , p. 59; Lenski et al. , pp. 61–62; Odahl 2001 , pp. 78–80. ^ Jones 1978 , p. 59. ^ Jones 1978 , p. 59; MacMullen 1969 , p. 39. ^ Treadgold 1997 , p. 28. ^ Gibbon, Edward (2018). History of The Decline and Fall of The Roman Empire . [Otbebookpublishing]. ISBN 978-3-96272-518-1 . OCLC 1059411020 . ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 28–29; Rees 2002 , p. 160; Lenski et al. , p. 62; Odahl 2001 , pp. 78–80. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 29; Elliott 1996 , p. 41; Jones 1978 , p. 41; MacMullen 1969 , p. 39; Odahl 2001 , pp. 79–80. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 16–17. ^ Odahl, 80–81. ^ Odahl, 81. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 39; Odahl, 81–82. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 29; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 41; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 63; MacMullen, Constantine , 39–40; Odahl, 81–83. ^ Odahl, 82–83. ^ "Detail :: Last Statues of Antiquity" . laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk . ^ Odahl, 82–83. See also: William E. Gwatkin, Jr. Roman Trier ." The Classical Journal 29 (1933): 3–12. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 24.9; Barnes, "Lactantius and Constantine", 43–46; Odahl, 85, 310–311. ^ Odahl, 86. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 28. ^ Rodgers, 236. ^ Panegyrici Latini 7(6)3.4; Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.22, qtd. and tr. Odahl, 83; Rodgers, 238. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 40. ^ Qtd. in MacMullen, Constantine , 40. ^ Zosimus, 2.9.2; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62; MacMullen, Constantine , 39. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 29; Odahl, 86; Potter, 346. ^ Barnes, New Empire , 5. Galerius and Maximinus ceased to be recognized as consuls at this time. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 30–31; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 41–42; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62–63; Odahl, 86–87; Potter, 348–349. ^ Nixon, C. E. V.; Rodgers, Barbara S. (2023). In Praise of Later Roman Emperors: The Panegyrici Latini . University of California Press. pp. 180– 185. ISBN 978-0-520-34282-8 . The ceremony took place after 25 July, as there are coins that refer to Constantine as caesar while also commemorating his dies imperii . ^ Rees 2002 , p. 165 . ^ Sang, J. C. (1979). Panegyrici Latini, VI and VII: Translated with Introductions and Commentary . University of Cape Town. pp. 6– 14, favouring late April/early May instead. ISBN 978-0-19-924918-3 . ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 31; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 64; Odahl, 87–88; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 15–16. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 30; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62–63; Odahl, 86–87. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 34; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 63–65; Odahl, 89; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 15–16. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 32; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 64; Odahl, 89, 93. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 32–34; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 42–43; Jones, 61; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 65; Odahl, 90–91; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 17; Potter, 349–350; Treadgold, 29. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 33; Jones, 61. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 36–37. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 34–35; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 43; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 65–66; Odahl, 93; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 17; Potter, 352. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 34. ^ Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 43; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 20. ^ Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 45; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 30.1; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 40–41, 305. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68. ^ Potter, 352. ^ Panegyrici Latini 6(7); Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 35–37, 301; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 66; Odahl, 94–95, 314–315; Potter, 352–353. ^ Panegyrici Latini 6(7)1. Qtd. in Potter, 353. ^ Panegyrici Latini 6(7).21.5. ^ Virgil, Ecologues 4.10. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 36–37; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 67; Odahl, 95. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 36–37; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 50–53; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 66–67; Odahl, 94–95. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 31–35; Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 8.16; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 43; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; Odahl, 95–96, 316. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 34; Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 8.17; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 304; Jones, 66. ^ Eusebius (1965). The History of the Church . Penguin Classics. p. 278. ISBN 0-14-044535-8 . ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 39; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 43–44; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; Odahl, 95–96. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 45; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 69; Odahl, 96. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 39–40; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 44; Odahl, 96. ^ Odahl, 96. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 38; Odahl, 96. ^ Hillner, Julia (2017). "Constantia, half-sister of Constantine and wife of Licinius". Constantia . Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics. doi : 10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.8065 . ISBN 978-0-19-938113-5 . ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 37; Curran, 66; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; MacMullen, Constantine , 62. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 37. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 37–39. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 38–39; MacMullen, Constantine , 62. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 40; Curran, 66. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 44–45; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 69; Odahl, 96. ^ Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 8.15.1–2, qtd. and tr. in MacMullen, Constantine , 65. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; MacMullen, Constantine , 71. ^ Panegyrici Latini 12(9)2.5; Curran, 67. ^ Curran, 67. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 70–71. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Odahl, 101. ^ Panegyrici Latini 12(9)5.1–3; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 101. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Jones, 70; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 101–102. ^ Panegyrici Latini 12(9)5–6; 4(10)21–24; Jones, 70–71; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 102, 317–318. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Jones, 71; Odahl, 102. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41–42; Odahl, 103. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Jones, 71; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 103. ^ Jones, 71; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 103. ^ Jones, 71; Odahl, 103. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Jones, 71; Odahl, 103. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Jones, 71; Odahl, 103–104. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Jones, 71; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 69; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 104. ^ Jones, 71; MacMullen, Constantine , 71. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 71. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Curran, 67; Jones, 71. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Jones, 71; Odahl, 105. ^ Jones, 71. ^ Odahl, 104. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 72; Odahl, 107. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Curran, 67; Jones, 71–72; Odahl, 107–108. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42–43; MacMullen, Constantine , 78; Odahl, 108. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 44.8; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43; Curran, 67; Jones, 72; Odahl, 108. ^ a b Odahl, 108. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43; Digeser, 122; Jones, 72; Odahl, 106. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 44.4–6, tr. J. L. Creed, Lactantius: De Mortibus Persecutorum (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984), qtd. in Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 71. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.28, tr. Odahl, 105. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43; Drake, "Impact of Constantine on Christianity" (CC), 113; Odahl, 105. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.27–29; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43, 306; Odahl, 105–106, 319–320. ^ Drake, "Impact of Constantine on Christianity" (CC), 113. ^ Cameron and Hall, 208. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 306; MacMullen, Constantine , 73; Odahl, 319. ^ Cameron and Hall, 206–207; Drake, "Impact of Constantine on Christianity" (CC), 114; Nicholson, 311. ^ Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 71, citing Roman Imperial Coinage 7 Ticinum 36. ^ R. Ross Holloway, Constantine and Rome (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004), 3, citing Kraft, "Das Silbermedaillon Constantins des Grosses mit dem Christusmonogram auf dem Helm", Jahrbuch für Numismatik und Geldgeschichte 5–6 (1954/55): 151–178. ^ Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 71. ^ Rowley, Matthew; Hodgson, Natasha R., eds. (2022). Miracles, political authority and violence in medieval and early modern history . Themes in medieval and early modern history. London New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN 978-0-367-76728-0 . ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43; Curran, 68. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 78. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43; Curran, 68; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 70; MacMullen, Constantine , 78; Odahl, 108. ^ Head of the bronze colossus , Capitoline Museums ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 44 . ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 81; Odahl, 108. ^ Cameron, 93; Curran, 71–74; Odahl, 110. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 44; Curran, 72; Jones, 72; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 70; MacMullen, Constantine , 78; Odahl, 108. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 44–45. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 44; MacMullen, Constantine , 81; Odahl, 111. Cf. also Curran, 72–75. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 45; Curran, 72; MacMullen, Constantine , 81; Odahl, 109. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 45–46; Odahl, 109. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 46; Odahl, 109. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 46. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 44. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 45–47; Cameron, 93; Curran, 76–77; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 70. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 45. ^ Curran, 80–83. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 47. ^ Curran, 83–85. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 45; Curran, 76; Odahl, 109. ^ Curran, 101. ^ Krautheimer, Corpus Basilicarum Christianarum Romanorum , 5.90, cited in Curran, 93–96. ^ Odahl, 109. ^ The term is a misnomer as the act of Milan was not an edict, while the subsequent edicts by Licinius—of which the edicts to the provinces of Bythinia and Palestine are recorded by Lactantius and Eusebius, respectively—were not issued in Milan. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 25. ^ Drake, "Impact", 121–123. ^ a b Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain , 229. ^ Byfield, Ted, ed. The Christians: Their First Two Thousand Years . vol. III. p. 148. "The sign in the sky that changed history" . Archived from the original on 19 January 2016 . Retrieved 5 February 2016 . ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , pp. 38–39. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , pp. 41–42. ^ Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain , pp. 229–230. ^ Timothy E. Gregory, A History of Byzantium . Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 2010, ISBN 978-1-4051-8471-7 , p. 54. ^ Philip Schaff, ed., Nicene and Post-nicene Fathers: Second Series . New York: Cosimo, 2007, ISBN 978-1-60206-508-6 , p. 418, footnote 6. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 42–43. ^ Scarre, Chronicle of the Roman Emperors , 215. ^ a b MacMullen, Constantine . ^ The Early Reception and Appropriation of the Apostle Peter (60-800 CE): The Anchors of the Fisherman . BRILL. 17 March 2020. p. 36. ISBN 978-90-04-42568-2 . ^ Sherrard, ed. Krieger, Byzantium , Silver Burdett Company, Morristown, New Jersey, 1966 p. 15. ^ Sinnigen & Boak, A History of Rome to A.D. 565 , 6th ed., Macmillan, New York, 1977 pp. 409–310. ^ Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries , Penguin Books, Middlesex, 1988, p. 40. ^ Sherrard, ed. Krieger, Byzantium , Silver Burdett Company, Morristown, New Jersey, 1966 p. 18. ^ Gilbert Dagron, Naissance d'une Capitale , 24. ^ Petrus Patricius excerpta Vaticana , 190: Κωνσταντίνος εβουλεύσατο πρώτον εν Σαρδική μεταγαγείν τά δημόσια· φιλών τε τήν πόλιν εκείνην συνεχώς έλεγεν "η εμή Ρώμη Σαρδική εστι." ^ Ramsey MacMullen, Constantine , Routledge ed., 1987, 149. ^ Dagron, Naissance d'une Capitale , 15/19. ^ a b "Constantinople" in The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium , Oxford University Press , Oxford, 1991, p. 508. ISBN 0-19-504652-8 ^ Sardonyx cameo depicting constantine the great crowned by Constantinople, 4th century AD Archived 16 March 2006 at the Wayback Machine at "The Road to Byzantium: Luxury Arts of Antiquity". The Hermitage Rooms at Somerset House (30 March 2006 – 3 September 2006). ^ Philostorgius, Historia Ecclesiastica 2.9. ^ According to the Reallexikon für Antike und Christentum , vol. 164 (Stuttgart: A. Hiersemann, 2005), column 442, there is no evidence for the tradition that Constantine officially dubbed the city "New Rome" ( Nova Roma or Nea Rhome ). Commemorative coins that were issued during the 330s already refer to the city as Constantinopolis (Michael Grant, The Climax of Rome (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1968), 133). It is possible that the emperor called the city "Second Rome" ( Deutera Rhome ) by official decree, as reported by the 5th-century church historian Socrates of Constantinople. ^ Bowder, Diana (1987). The Age of Constantine and Julian . Barnes & Noble Books. p. 28. ISBN 978-0-06-490601-2 . ^ See Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 34–35. ^ Young 2006 , p. 6 and n. 24. ^ R. Gerberding and J. H. Moran Cruz, Medieval Worlds (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004) p. 55. ^ " Gratian " Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 3 February 2008. ^ Pontifex Maximus Archived 3 March 2013 at the Wayback Machine Livius article by Jona Lendering retrieved 21 August 2011. ^ Peter Brown , The Rise of Christendom 2nd edition (Oxford, Blackwell Publishing, 2003) p. 60. ^ Drake 2000 , p. 395. ^ R. Gerberding and J. H. Moran Cruz, Medieval Worlds (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004) pp. 55–56. ^ Robin Lane Fox, apud Jonathan Bardill, Constantine, Divine Emperor of the Christian Golden Age . Cambridge University Press, 2011, ISBN 978-0-521-76423-0 , p. 307, note 27. ^ Codex Justinianeus 3.12.2. ^ Codex Theodosianus 16.2.5. ^ Cf. Paul Veyne, Quand notre monde est devenu chrétien , 163. ^ R. MacMullen, "Christianizing The Roman Empire A.D. 100–400, Yale University Press, 1984, p. 44, ISBN 0-300-03642-6 ^ Richards, Jeffrey. The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476–752 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) 14–15; The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476–752 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) 15. ^ Richards, Jeffrey. The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476–752 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) pp. 15–16. ^ Frend, W. H. C., "The Donatist Church; A Movement of Protest in Roman North Africa," (1952 Oxford), pp. 156–162. ^ Norwich, John Julius (1996). Byzantium (First American ed.). New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 54– 57. ISBN 0-394-53778-5 . OCLC 18164817 . ^ "Church Fathers: Life of Constantine, Book III (Eusebius), chapter 18" . New Advent . ^ a b c Cf. Adrian Goldsworthy, How Rome Fell , 187. ^ Stemberger, Gunter (1999). Jews and Christians in the Holy Land . A&C Black. pp. 37– 38. ISBN 978-0-567-23050-8 . If a Jew has bought and circumcised a Christian slave or one belonging to any other religious community, he may under no circumstances keep the circumcised person in slavery; rather, whoever suffers such a thing shall obtain the privilege of freedom. ^ Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World . Routledge. p. 182. ISBN 978-1-134-40317-2 . Constantine forbade the circumcision of Christian slaves, and declared any slave circumcised despite this prohibition a free man ^ Cameron, 107. ^ Christol & Nony, Rome et son Empire , 241. ^ As equestrian order refers to people of equestrian census that had an actual position in the state bureaucracy, thousands of whom had no state function; cf. Claude Lepelley , "Fine delle' ordine equestre: le tappe delle'unificazione dela classe dirigente romana nel IV secolo", IN Giardina, ed., Società romana e impero tardoantico , Bari: Laterza, 1986, V. 1, quoted by Carrié & Rouselle, p. 660. ^ Christol & Nony, Rome et son Empire , 247; Carrié & Rousselle L'Empire Romain , 658. ^ Carrié & Rousselle L'Empire Romain , 658–659. ^ Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae , archived from the original on 20 July 2012 , retrieved 5 February 2016 ; Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain , p. 659 ^ Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain , 660. ^ Cf. Arnhein, The Senatorial Aristocracy in the Later Roman Empire , quoted by Perry Anderson, Passages from Antiquity to Feudalism , 101. ^ Carrié & Rousselle, p.657 citing T. D. Barnes, "Statistics and the Conversion of the Roman Aristocracy", Journal of Roman Studies , 85, 1995. ^ Cf. Paul Veyne, L'Empire Gréco-Romain , 49. ^ Christol & Nony, Rome et son Empire , 247. ^ Walter Scheidel, "The Monetary Systems of the Han and Roman Empires", 174/175. ^ De Rebus Bellicis , 2. ^ Sandro Mazzarino, according to Christol & Nony, Rome et son Empire , 246. ^ Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain , 245–246. ^ Guthrie, 325–326. ^ Guthrie, 326; Woods, "Death of the Empress", 70–72. ^ Guthrie, 326; Woods, "Death of the Empress", 72. ^ Encyclopedia of Roman Empire . MobileReference.com. 2008. ISBN 978-1-60501-314-5 . Retrieved 5 October 2014 . ^ a b Guthrie, 326–327. ^ Art. Pass 45; Woods, "Death of the Empress", 71–72. ^ Christol & Nony, Rome et son Empire , 237/238. ^ Cf. Adrian Goldsworthy, How Rome Fell , 189 & 191. ^ Madgearu, Alexandru (2008). Istoria Militară a Daciei Post Romane 275–376. Cetatea de Scaun. ISBN 978-973-8966-70-3 , pp. 64–126. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 250. ^ Madgearu, Alexandru(2008). Istoria Militară a Daciei Post Romane 275–376. Cetatea de Scaun. ISBN 978-973-8966-70-3 , pp. 64–126. ^ Odahl, 261. ^ Eusebius, VC 4.9ff, cited in Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 259. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 258–259. See also: Fowden, "Last Days", 146–148, and Wiemer, 515. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.58–60; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 259. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.61; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 259. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.62. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.62.4. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 75–76; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 82. ^ Amerise, Marilena (2005). Il battesimo di Costantino il Grande: storia di una scomoda eredità [ The baptism of Constantine the Great: The story of an uncomfortable legacy ]. Hermes: Bulletin for Classical Philology , supplements (in Italian). Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag. ISBN 978-3-515-08721-6 . ISSN 0341-0064 . OCLC 61029662 . ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.64; Fowden, "Last Days of Constantine", 147; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 82. ^ Julian, Orations 1.18.b. ^ Origo Constantini 35. ^ Sextus Aurelius Victor, Historiae abbreviatae XLI.16. ^ Eutropius, Breviarium X.8.2. ^ Fowden, "Last Days of Constantine", 148–149. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 75–76. ^ A. A. Vasiliev (1848). "Imperial Porphyry Sarcophagi in Constantinople" (PDF) . Dumbarton Oaks Papers . 4 : 1+3–26. doi : 10.2307/1291047 . JSTOR 1291047 . Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 December 2019. ^ Majeska, George P (1984). Russian Travelers to Constantinople in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries . Dumbarton Oaks. ISBN 978-0-88402-101-8 . Retrieved 15 April 2017 – via Google Knihy. ^ Edward J. Watts (2020). The Final Pagan Generation: Rome's Unexpected Path to Christianity . University of California Press. p. 83. 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"Viewing Rome in the Latin Literature of the Ventennio Fascista : Francesco Giammaria's Capitolium Novum " . Fascism . 8 (2). Brill: 172. doi : 10.1163/22116257-00802002 . hdl : 10852/76385 . ISSN 2211-6249 . ^ "Niš: Vinik osta pusto brdo" . NOVOSTI . ^ "Edict of Milan celebration to begin in Niš" . 17 January 2013. ^ Averil Cameron, "Introduction", in Constantine: History, Historiography, and Legend , ed. Samuel N. C. Lieu and Dominic Montserrat (New York: Routledge, 1998), 3; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 91 ^ Lieu, "Constantine in Legendary Literature" (CC), 305. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 92–93. ^ "Holy Great Rulers Constantine and Helen, Equal to the Apostles: Great Vespers" (PDF) . Liturgical Texts and Music: Part of the Royal Doors Family . Retrieved 9 August 2025 . ^ "Holy Great Rulers Constantine and Helen, Equal to the Apostles: Divine Liturgy" (PDF) . Liturgical Texts and Music: Part of the Royal Doors Family . Retrieved 9 August 2025 . ^ "530 - Λεἰψανα του Μεγάλου Κωνσταντίνου" . Η ΛΕΙΨΑΝΟΘΗΚΗ (in Greek) . Retrieved 9 August 2025 . ^ "Commemorations for Baramhat 28" . CopticChurch.Net . Retrieved 9 August 2025 . ^ Findikyan, Bishop Daniel. "Liturgical Year of the Armenian Apostolic Church" . Armenian Apostolic Church of Holy Resurrection . Retrieved 9 August 2025 . ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 272–223. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 273. ^ Johannes Leunclavius , Apologia pro Zosimo adversus Evagrii, Nicephori Callisti et aliorum acerbas criminationes ( Defence of Zosimus against the Unjustified Charges of Evagrius, Nicephorus Callistus, and Others ) (Basel, 1576), cited in Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 273, and Odahl, 282. ^ Caesar Baronius, Annales Ecclesiastici 3 (Antwerp, 1623), cited in Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 274, and Odahl, 282. ^ Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire Chapter 18, cited in Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 274, and Odahl, 282. See also Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 6–7. ^ Gibbon, Decline and Fall , 1.256; David P. Jordan, "Gibbon's 'Age of Constantine' and the Fall of Rome", History and Theory 8:1 (1969): 71–96. ^ Jacob Burckhardt, Die Zeit Constantins des Grossen (Basel, 1853; revised edition, Leipzig, 1880), cited in Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 274; Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 7. ^ Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 7. ^ Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 7–8. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 274. ^ Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 8. ^ Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 8–9; Odahl, 283. ^ Odahl, 283; Mark Humphries, "Constantine", review of Constantine and the Christian Empire , by Charles Odahl, Classical Quarterly 56:2 (2006), 449. ^ Averil Cameron, "Introduction", in Constantine: History, Historiography, and Legend , ed. Samuel N. C. Lieu and Dominic Montserrat (New York: Routledge, 1998), 3. ^ Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 10. ^ Quand notre monde est devenu chretien , Fabian E. Udoh, review, Theological Studies , June 2008. ^ Peter Heather, Christendom (London: Allen Lane, 2022), pp. 11–20. ^ Canella, Tessa. Gli Actus Silvestri fra Oriente e Occidente: Storia e diffusione di una leggenda Costantiniana . Academia. pp. 243– 244 . Retrieved 10 May 2021 . ^ Lieu, "Constantine in Legendary Literature" (CC), 298–301. ^ Constitutum Constantini 17, qtd. in Lieu, "Constantine in Legendary Literature" (CC), 301–303. ^ Gregory, A History of Byzantium , 49. ^ Van Dam, Remembering Constantine at the Milvian Bridge , 30. ^ Henry Charles Lea, "The 'Donation of Constantine'". The English Historical Review 10: 37 (1895), 86–87. ^ Inferno 19.115; Paradisio 20.55; cf. De Monarchia 3.10. ^ Fubini, 79–86; Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 6. ^ Henry of Huntingdon, Historia Anglorum , Book I, ch. 37. ^ a b Greenway, Diana (Ed.); Henry of Huntingdon (1996). Historia Anglorum: The History of the English People . Oxford University Press. p. civ. ISBN 978-0-19-822224-8 . 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ISBN 0-14-044535-8 McGiffert, Arthur Cushman, trans. Church History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 28 September 2009. Oratio de Laudibus Constantini ( Oration in Praise of Constantine , sometimes the Tricennial Oration ) 336. Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Oration in Praise of Constantine . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 16 August 2009. Vita Constantini ( The Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine ) c. 336 –339. Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Life of Constantine . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine . 2009. Reprint of Bagster edition [1845]. Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-93-0 . Cameron, Averil and Stuart Hall, trans. Life of Constantine . 1999. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814924-7 . Historia Ecclesiastica ( Church History ) first seven books c. 300 , eighth and ninth book c. 313 , tenth book c. 315 , epilogue c. 325 . Williamson, G. A., trans. Church History . London: Penguin, 1989. ISBN 0-14-044535-8 McGiffert, Arthur Cushman, trans. Church History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 28 September 2009. Williamson, G. A., trans. Church History . London: Penguin, 1989. ISBN 0-14-044535-8 McGiffert, Arthur Cushman, trans. Church History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 28 September 2009. Oratio de Laudibus Constantini ( Oration in Praise of Constantine , sometimes the Tricennial Oration ) 336. Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Oration in Praise of Constantine . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 16 August 2009. Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Oration in Praise of Constantine . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 16 August 2009. Vita Constantini ( The Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine ) c. 336 –339. Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Life of Constantine . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine . 2009. Reprint of Bagster edition [1845]. Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-93-0 . Cameron, Averil and Stuart Hall, trans. Life of Constantine . 1999. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814924-7 . Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Life of Constantine . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine . 2009. Reprint of Bagster edition [1845]. Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-93-0 . Cameron, Averil and Stuart Hall, trans. Life of Constantine . 1999. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814924-7 . Eutropius , Breviarium ab Urbe Condita ( Abbreviated History from the City's Founding ) c. 369 . Watson, John Henry, trans. Justin, Cornelius Nepos and Eutropius . London: George Bell & Sons, 1886. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 28 September 2009. Watson, John Henry, trans. Justin, Cornelius Nepos and Eutropius . London: George Bell & Sons, 1886. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 28 September 2009. Rufus Festus , Breviarium Festi ( The Abbreviated History of Festus ) c. 370 . Banchich, Thomas M., and Jennifer A. Meka, trans. Breviarium of the Accomplishments of the Roman People . Canisius College Translated Texts 2. Buffalo, New York: Canisius College, 2001. Online at De Imperatoribus Romanis . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Banchich, Thomas M., and Jennifer A. Meka, trans. Breviarium of the Accomplishments of the Roman People . Canisius College Translated Texts 2. Buffalo, New York: Canisius College, 2001. Online at De Imperatoribus Romanis . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Jerome , Chronicon ( Chronicle ) c. 380 . Pearse, Roger, et al. ., trans. The Chronicle of St. Jerome , in Early Church Fathers: Additional Texts . Tertullian, 2005. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 14 August 2009. Pearse, Roger, et al. ., trans. The Chronicle of St. Jerome , in Early Church Fathers: Additional Texts . Tertullian, 2005. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 14 August 2009. Jordanes , De origine actibusque Getarum [ Getica ] ( The Origin and Deeds of the Goths ) c. 551 . Mierow, Charles C. , trans. The Origins and Deeds of the Goths . Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1915. Online at the University of Calgary . Retrieved 28 September 2009. The Gothic History of Jordanes . 2006. Reprint of 1915 edition. Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-77-0 . The Christian Roman Empire series Mierow, Charles C. , trans. The Origins and Deeds of the Goths . Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1915. Online at the University of Calgary . Retrieved 28 September 2009. The Gothic History of Jordanes . 2006. Reprint of 1915 edition. Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-77-0 . The Christian Roman Empire series Online at the University of Calgary . Retrieved 28 September 2009. The Gothic History of Jordanes . 2006. Reprint of 1915 edition. Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-77-0 . The Christian Roman Empire series Lactantius , De mortibus persecutorum ( On the Deaths of the Persecutors ) c. 313–315 . Fletcher, William, trans. Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died . From Ante-Nicene Fathers , Vol. 7. Edited by Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1886. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Fletcher, William, trans. Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died . From Ante-Nicene Fathers , Vol. 7. Edited by Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1886. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Libanius , Orationes ( Orations ) c. 362 –365. Optatus , Libri VII de Schismate Donatistarum ( Seven Books on the Schism of the Donatists ) first edition c. 365 –367, second edition c. 385 . Vassall-Phillips, O. R., trans. The Work of St. Optatus Against the Donatists . London: Longmans, Green, & Co., 1917. Transcribed at The Tertullian Project by Roger Pearse, 2006. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Optatus (1997). Edwards, Mark (ed.). Optatus: Against the Donatists . Translated by Edwards, Mark. doi : 10.3828/978-0-85323-752-5 (inactive 1 July 2025). ISBN 978-0-85323-752-5 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 ( link ) Vassall-Phillips, O. R., trans. The Work of St. Optatus Against the Donatists . London: Longmans, Green, & Co., 1917. Transcribed at The Tertullian Project by Roger Pearse, 2006. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Optatus (1997). Edwards, Mark (ed.). Optatus: Against the Donatists . Translated by Edwards, Mark. doi : 10.3828/978-0-85323-752-5 (inactive 1 July 2025). ISBN 978-0-85323-752-5 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 ( link ) Origo Constantini Imperiatoris ( The Lineage of the Emperor Constantine ) c. 340 –390. Rolfe, J. C., trans. Excerpta Valesiana , in vol. 3 of Rolfe's translation of Ammianus Marcellinus' History . Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1952. Online at LacusCurtius . Retrieved 16 August 2009. Rolfe, J. C., trans. Excerpta Valesiana , in vol. 3 of Rolfe's translation of Ammianus Marcellinus' History . Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1952. Online at LacusCurtius . Retrieved 16 August 2009. Orosius , Historiarum Adversum Paganos Libri VII ( Seven Books of History Against the Pagans ) c. 417 . XII Panegyrici Latini ( Twelve Latin Panegyircs ) relevant panegyrics dated 289, 291, 297, 298, 307, 310, 311, 313 and 321. Philostorgius , Historia Ecclesiastica ( Church History ) c. 433 . Walford, Edward, trans. Epitome of the Ecclesiastical History of Philostorgius, Compiled by Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople . London: Henry G. Bohn, 1855. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Walford, Edward, trans. Epitome of the Ecclesiastical History of Philostorgius, Compiled by Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople . London: Henry G. Bohn, 1855. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Praxagoras of Athens , Historia ( History of Constantine the Great ) c. 337 . [Fragmentary] Socrates of Constantinople (Scholasticus), Historia Ecclesiastica ( Church History ) c. 443 . Zenos, A. C., trans. Ecclesiastical History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 2. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 14 August 2009. Zenos, A. C., trans. Ecclesiastical History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 2. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 14 August 2009. Sozomen , Historia Ecclesiastica ( Church History ) c. 445 . Hartranft, Chester D. Ecclesiastical History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 2. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Hartranft, Chester D. Ecclesiastical History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 2. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Theodoret , Historia Ecclesiastica ( Church History ) c. 448 . Jackson, Blomfield, trans. Ecclesiastical History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 3. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Jackson, Blomfield, trans. Ecclesiastical History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 3. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Zosimus , Historia Nova ( New History ) c. 500 . Unknown, trans. The History of Count Zosimus . London: Green and Champlin, 1814. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Unknown, trans. The History of Count Zosimus . London: Green and Champlin, 1814. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Modern sources Alföldi, Andreas (1948) [1948]. The conversion of Constantine and pagan Rome . Translated by Harold Mattingly. Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814356-7 . {{ cite book }} : ISBN / Date incompatibility ( help ) CS1 maint: ref duplicates default ( link ) Anderson, Perry (2013) [1974]. Passages from Antiquity to Feudalism . Verso Books. ISBN 978-1-78168-008-7 . Armstrong, Gregory T. (1964). "Church and State Relations: The Changes Wrought by Constantine". Journal of the American Academy of Religion . XXXII : 1– 7. doi : 10.1093/jaarel/XXXII.1.1 . Armstrong, Gregory T. (1974). "Constantine's Churches: Symbol and Structure". Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians . 33 (1): 5– 16. doi : 10.2307/988835 . JSTOR 988835 . Barnes, T. D. (1973). "Lactantius and Constantine". Journal of Roman Studies . 63 : 29– 46. doi : 10.2307/299163 . JSTOR 299163 . S2CID 163051414 . Barnes, Timothy D. (1981). Constantine and Eusebius . Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-16531-1 . Barnes, Timothy D. (1982). The New Empire of Diocletian and Constantine . doi : 10.4159/harvard.9780674280670 . ISBN 978-0-674-28067-0 . S2CID 162343436 . Barnes, T. D. (1985). "Constantine and the Christians of Persia". Journal of Roman Studies . 75 : 126– 136. doi : 10.2307/300656 . JSTOR 300656 . S2CID 162744718 . Barnes, Timothy (2011). Constantine: Dynasty, Religion and Power in the Later Roman Empire . Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-1727-2 . Bernard, Outtier; et al. (2019). Armenia between Byzantium and the Orient . BRILL. pp. 230– 580. ISBN 978-90-04-39774-3 . Bowman, Alan K. (2005). "Diocletian and the first tetrarchy, a.d. 284–305". The Cambridge Ancient History . pp. 67– 89. doi : 10.1017/CHOL9780521301992.004 . ISBN 978-1-139-05392-1 . Cameron, Averil (2005). "The Reign of Constantine, a.d. 306–337" . The Cambridge Ancient History . Vol. 12. pp. 90– 109. doi : 10.1017/CHOL9780521301992.005 . ISBN 978-1-139-05392-1 . Carrié, Jean-Michel; Rouselle, Aline (1999). L'Empire Romain en mutation- des Sévères à Constantin, 192–337 . Paris: Seuil. ISBN 2-02-025819-6 . Christol, Michel ; Nony, D. (2003). Rome et son Empire . Paris: Hachette. ISBN 2-02-025819-6 . Corcoran, Simon (1996). The Empire of the Tetrarchs: Imperial Pronouncements and Government, AD 284–324 . Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-815304-X . Curran, John (2000). Pagan City and Christian Capital (Hardcover ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-815278-7 . Paperback ISBN 0-19-925420-6 Dagron, Gilbert (1984). Naissance d'une Capitale: Constantinople et ses institutions de 330 a 451 . Paris: Presses Universitaires de France. ISBN 2-13-038902-3 . Digeser, Elizabeth DePalma (2000). The Making of A Christian Empire: Lactantius and Rome . London: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-3594-3 . Doležal, Stanislav (2022). The Reign of Constantine, 306–337: Continuity and Change in the Late Roman Empire . Springer Nature. ISBN 978-3-030-97464-0 . Downey, Glanville (1957). "Education in the Christian Roman Empire: Christian and Pagan Theories under Constantine and His Successors". Speculum . 32 (1): 48– 61. doi : 10.2307/2849245 . JSTOR 2849245 . S2CID 161904593 . Drake, H. A. (1988). "What Eusebius Knew: The Genesis of the "Vita Constantini" ". Classical Philology . 83 : 20– 38. doi : 10.1086/367077 . S2CID 162370910 . Drake, H. A. (1995). "Constantine and Consensus". Church History . 64 (1): 1– 15. doi : 10.2307/3168653 . JSTOR 3168653 . S2CID 163129848 . Drake, H. A. (1996). "Lambs into Lions: Explaining Early Christian Intolerance". Past & Present (153): 3– 36. doi : 10.1093/past/153.1.3 . Drake, H. A. (2000). Constantine and the Bishops: The Politics of Intolerance . Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-6218-3 . Elliott, T. G. (1987). "Constantine's Conversion: Do We Really Need It?". Phoenix . 41 (4): 420– 438. doi : 10.2307/1088714 . JSTOR 1088714 . Elliott, T. G. (1991). "Eusebian Frauds in the "Vita Constantini" ". Phoenix . 45 (2): 162– 171. doi : 10.2307/1088553 . JSTOR 1088553 . Elliott, T. G. (1996). The Christianity of Constantine the Great . Scranton, Pennsylvania: University of Scranton Press. ISBN 0-940866-59-5 . Fowden, Garth (1988). "Between Pagans and Christians". Journal of Roman Studies . 78 : 173– 182. doi : 10.2307/301456 . JSTOR 301456 . S2CID 163374397 . Fowden, Garth (1994). "The Last Days of Constantine: Oppositional Versions and their Influence". Journal of Roman Studies . 84 : 146– 170. doi : 10.2307/300874 . JSTOR 300874 . S2CID 161959828 . Fubini, Riccardo (1996). "Humanism and Truth: Valla Writes Against the Donation of Constantine". Journal of the History of Ideas . 57 : 79– 86. doi : 10.1353/jhi.1996.0004 . S2CID 170927536 . Gibbon, Edward (1952) [1789]. Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire . Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. in 2 volumes. Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). How Rome Fell . Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-13719-4 . Grant, Robert M. (1975). "Religion and Politics at the Council at Nicaea". The Journal of Religion . 55 : 1– 12. doi : 10.1086/486406 . S2CID 170410226 . Guthrie, Patrick (1966). "The Execution of Crispus". Phoenix . 20 (4): 325– 331. doi : 10.2307/1087057 . JSTOR 1087057 . Helgeland, John (1974). "Christians and the Roman Army A.D. 173–337". Church History . 43 (2): 149– 163. doi : 10.2307/3163949 . JSTOR 3163949 . S2CID 162376477 . Jones, A. H. M. ; J. R. Martindale & J. Morris (1971). Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire . Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-07233-6 . Jordan, David P. (1969). "Gibbon's "Age of Constantine" and the Fall of Rome". History and Theory . 8 (1): 71– 96. doi : 10.2307/2504190 . JSTOR 2504190 . Kazhdan, Alexander P. , ed. (1991). Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium . Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6 . Jones, A. H. M. (1978) [1948]. Constantine and the Conversion of Europe . Buffalo: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-6369-4 . Lenski, Noel; et al. (2006). The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine . New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-52157-4 . Lieu, Samuel N. C. ; Montserrat, Dominic (1996). From Constantine to Julian: Pagan and Byzantine Views; A Source History . New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-09335-4 . MacKay, Christopher S. (1999). "Lactantius and the Succession to Diocletian". Classical Philology . 94 (2): 198– 209. doi : 10.1086/449431 . S2CID 161141658 . MacMullen, Ramsay (1969). Constantine . New York: Dial Press. ISBN 0-7099-4685-6 . Mattingly, David . An Imperial Possession: Britain in the Roman Empire . London: Penguin, 2007. ISBN 978-0-14-014822-0 McLay, Denis (2015), "An Examination of the Role of Ossius, Bishop of Córdoba, in the Arian Controversy" , Dissertation – Durham University Nicholson, Oliver (2000). "Constantine's Vision of the Ecross". Vigiliae Christianae . 54 (3): 309– 323. doi : 10.1163/157007200X00189 . Odahl, Charles M. (2001). Constantine and the Christian Empire . London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-17485-5 . Pears, Edwin (1909). "The Campaign against Paganism A.D. 824". The English Historical Review . XXIV (XCIII): 1– 17. doi : 10.1093/ehr/XXIV.XCIII.1 . Vaudour, Catherine (1984). "La céramique normande". Études Normandes . 33 (2): 79– 106. doi : 10.3406/etnor.1984.2597 . Pohlsander, Hans (2004a). The Emperor Constantine . London & New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-31937-4 . Paperback ISBN 0-415-31938-2 Pohlsander, Hans (2004b). "Constantine I (306–337)" . De Imperatoribus Romanis . Archived from the original on 2 April 2022. Potter, David S. (2004). The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395 (Hardcover ed.). New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10057-7 . Paperback ISBN 0-415-10058-5 Rees, Roger (2002). Layers of Loyalty in Latin Panegyric . doi : 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199249183.001.0001 . ISBN 978-0-19-924918-3 . Rodgers, Barbara Saylor (1989). "The Metamorphosis of Constantine". The Classical Quarterly . 39 : 233– 246. doi : 10.1017/S0009838800040611 . S2CID 170720156 . Scheidel, Walter. "The Monetary Systems of the Han and Roman Empires". In Scheidel, ed., Rome and China: Comparative Perspectives on Ancient World Empires . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010, ISBN 978-0-19-975835-7 Seidel, Linda (1976). "Constantine 'and' Charlemagne". Gesta . 15 (1/2): 237– 239. doi : 10.2307/766771 . JSTOR 766771 . S2CID 193434433 . Southern, Pat. (2001). The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine . New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-23944-3 . Storch, Rudolph H. (1971). "The 'Eusebian Constantine' ". Church History . 40 (2): 145– 155. doi : 10.2307/3162367 . JSTOR 3162367 . S2CID 162937055 . Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society . Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-2630-6 . Udoh, Fabian E. "Quand notre monde est devenu chretien", review, Theological Studies , June 2008 Veyne, Paul . L'Empire Gréco-Romain , Paris: Seuil, 2005. ISBN 2-02-057798-4 Veyne, Paul . Quand notre monde est devenu chrétien , Paris: Albin Michel, 2007. ISBN 978-2-226-17609-7 Warmington, Brian (1999). "Some Constantinian References in Ammianus" . In Drijvers, J.W. (ed.). The Late Roman World and its Historian: Interpreting Ammianus Marcellinus . Routledge. pp. 166– 167. ISBN 0-415-20271-X . Weiss, Peter (2003). "The vision of Constantine". Journal of Roman Archaeology . 16 : 237– 259. doi : 10.1017/S1047759400013088 . S2CID 162396067 . Wiemer, Hans-Ulrich (1994). "Libanius on Constantine". The Classical Quarterly . 44 (2): 511– 524. doi : 10.1017/S0009838800043962 . S2CID 170876695 . Wienand, Johannes (2012). Der Kaiser als Sieger . doi : 10.1524/9783050059044 . ISBN 978-3-05-005904-4 . Wienand, Johannes (ed.). Contested Monarchy. Integrating the Roman Empire in the Fourth Century AD . Oxford: Oxford University Press 2015. Williams, Stephen (1997). Diocletian and the Roman Recovery . New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-91827-8 . Woods, David (1998). "On the Death of the Empress Fausta" . Greece and Rome . 45 : 70– 86. doi : 10.1093/gr/45.1.70 . Woods, D. (1997). "Where Did Constantine I Die?". The Journal of Theological Studies . 48 (2): 531– 535. doi : 10.1093/jts/48.2.531 . Wright, David H. (1987). "The True Face of Constantine the Great". Dumbarton Oaks Papers . 41 : 493– 507. doi : 10.2307/1291584 . JSTOR 1291584 . Young, Frances M. (2006). "Prelude: Jesus Christ, Foundation of Christianity". In Mitchell, Margaret M.; Young, Frances M. (eds.). Origins to Constantine . The Cambridge History of Christianity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1– 34. ISBN 978-1-107-42361-9 . Further reading Arjava, Antii. Women and Law in Late Antiquity . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. ISBN 0-19-815233-7 Barbero, Alessandro (2016). Costantino il vincitore [Constantine the victor]. Rome: Salerno, ISBN 978-88-6973-138-9 . Baynes, Norman H. (1930). Constantine the Great and the Christian Church . London: Milford. Burckhardt, Jacob (1949). The Age of Constantine the Great . London: Routledge. Cameron, Averil (1993). The later Roman empire: AD 284–430 . London: Fontana Press. ISBN 978-0-00-686172-0 . Cowan, Ross (2016). Milvian Bridge AD 312: Constantine's Battle for Empire and Faith . Oxford: Osprey Publishing. Demandt, Alexander ; Engemann, Josef (eds) (2006). Konstantin der Große. Geschichte – Archäologie – Rezeption [Constantine the Great. History – Archaeology – Reception]. Trier: Rheinisches Landesmuseum, ISBN 3-923319-67-3 . Doležal, Stanislav (2022). The Reign of Constantine, 306–337: Continuity and Change in the Late Roman Empire. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan. Eadie, John W., ed. (1971). The conversion of Constantine . New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. ISBN 978-0-03-083645-9 . Fourlas, Benjamin (2020). "St Constantine and the Army of Heroic Men Raised by Tiberius II Constantine in 574/575. Some Thoughts on the Historical Significance of the Early Byzantine Silver Hoard at Karlsruhe". Jahrbuch des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums 62, 2015 [published 2020], 341–375. doi : 10.11588/jrgzm.2015.1.77142 Girardet, Klaus Martin (2010). Der Kaiser und sein Gott. Das Christentum im Denken und in der Religionspolitik Konstantins des Großen [The Emperor and his God. Christianity in the Thought and Religious Policy of Constantine the Great]. Berlin/New York: De Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-022788-8 . Goltz, Andreas; Schlange-Schöningen, Heinrich (eds) (2008). Konstantin der Große. Das Bild des Kaisers im Wandel der Zeiten [Constantine the Great. The image of the emperor through the ages]. Köln: Böhlau, ISBN 978-3-412-20192-0 . Harries, Jill. Law and Empire in Late Antiquity . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004. Hardcover ISBN 0-521-41087-8 Paperback ISBN 0-521-42273-6 Hartley, Elizabeth. Constantine the Great: York's Roman Emperor . York: Lund Humphries, 2004. ISBN 978-0-85331-928-3 . Heather, Peter J. " Foedera and Foederati of the Fourth Century." In From Roman Provinces to Medieval Kingdoms , edited by Thomas F. X. Noble, 292–308. New York: Routledge, 2006. Hardcover ISBN 0-415-32741-5 Paperback ISBN 0-415-32742-3 Leithart, Peter J. Defending Constantine: The Twilight of an Empire and the Dawn of Christendom. Downers Grove: IL, InterVarsity Press 2010 MacMullen, Ramsay. Christianizing the Roman Empire A.D. 100–400 . New Haven, Connecticut; London: Yale University Press, 1984. ISBN 978-0-300-03642-8 MacMullen, Ramsay. Christianity and Paganism in the Fourth to Eighth Centuries . New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-300-07148-5 Pelikán, Jaroslav (1987). The excellent empire: the fall of Rome and the triumph of the church . San Francisco: Harper & Row. ISBN 978-0-06-254636-4 . Velikov, Yuliyan (2013). Imperator et Sacerdos . Veliko Turnovo University Press. ISBN 978-954-524-932-7 (in Bulgarian) External links Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Complete chronological list of Constantine's extant writings (archived 19 February 2013) Firth, John B. "Constantine the Great, the Reorganisation of the Empire and the Triumph of the Church" . Archived from the original on 15 March 2012 . Retrieved 19 February 2016 . Letters of Constantine: Book 1 , Book 2 , & Book 3 Encyclopædia Britannica, Constantine I Henry Stuart Jones (1911). " Constantine (emperors) ". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica . 6. (11th ed.), Cambridge University Press. pp. 988–992. Charles George Herbermann and Georg Grupp (1908). " Constantine the Great ". In Catholic Encyclopedia . 4. New York: Robert Appleton Company. BBC North Yorkshire's site on Constantine the Great Constantine's time in York on the 'History of York' Commemorations Roman Legionary AD 284–337: The Age of Diocletian and Constantine the Great Milvian Bridge AD 312: Constantine's Battle for Empire and Faith Constantine the Great Constantinian dynasty Born: 27 February 272 Died: 22 May 337 Regnal titles Preceded by Constantius Chlorus Roman emperor 306–337 With: Galerius , Severus II , Maxentius , Maximian , Licinius , Maximinus II , Valerius Valens & Martinian Succeeded by Constantine II Constantius II Constans Political offices Preceded by Constantius Chlorus Galerius Roman consul 307 with Maximian Succeeded by Diocletian Galerius Preceded by Galerius Maximinus Roman consul II–III 312–313 with Licinius Maximinus Succeeded by C. Ceionius Rufius Volusianus Petronius Annianus Preceded by C. 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Diadumenian ) Elagabalus Severus Alexander Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus (w. Diadumenian ) Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–284 Maximinus I Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip I (w. Philip II ) Decius (w. Herennius Etruscus ) Trebonianus Gallus (w. Hostilian & Volusianus ) Aemilianus Silbannacus (?) Valerian Gallienus (w. Saloninus ) Claudius II Quintillus Aurelian Tacitus Florianus Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Maximinus I Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip I (w. Philip II ) Decius (w. Herennius Etruscus ) Trebonianus Gallus (w. Hostilian & Volusianus ) Aemilianus Silbannacus (?) Valerian Gallienus (w. Saloninus ) Claudius II Quintillus Aurelian Tacitus Florianus Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Later Roman Empire 284–641 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus II Constantine I Maxentius Licinius Maximinus II Valerius Valens Martinian Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Nepotianus Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I Valens Procopius Gratian Theodosius I Valentinian II Magnus Maximus (w. Victor ) Eugenius Western Empire 395–476 Honorius Constantine III (w. Constans II ) Priscus Attalus Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Severus III Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern Empire 395–641 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus (w. Marcus ) Anastasius I Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice (w. Theodosius ) Phocas Heraclius Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus II Constantine I Maxentius Licinius Maximinus II Valerius Valens Martinian Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Nepotianus Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I Valens Procopius Gratian Theodosius I Valentinian II Magnus Maximus (w. Victor ) Eugenius Western Empire 395–476 Honorius Constantine III (w. Constans II ) Priscus Attalus Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Severus III Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Honorius Constantine III (w. Constans II ) Priscus Attalus Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Severus III Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern Empire 395–641 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus (w. Marcus ) Anastasius I Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice (w. Theodosius ) Phocas Heraclius Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus (w. Marcus ) Anastasius I Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice (w. Theodosius ) Phocas Heraclius Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 641–1453 Constantine III Heraclonas (w. Tiberius ) Constans II Constantine IV (w. Heraclius & Tiberius ) Justinian II Leontius Tiberius III Justinian II (w. Tiberius ) Philippicus Anastasius II Theodosius III Leo III Constantine V Artabasdos (w. Nikephoros ) Leo IV Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe (w. Theophylact & Staurakios ) Leo V (w. Constantine ) Michael II Theophilos (w. Constantine ) Michael III (w. Thekla ) Basil I (w. Constantine ) Leo VI Alexander Constantine VII Romanos I Lekapenos (w. Christopher , Romanos (?), Stephen & Constantine Lekapenos ) Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoe Romanos III Argyros Michael IV Michael V Constantine IX Monomachos Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Eudokia Makrembolitissa Romanos IV Diogenes (w. Leo & Nikephoros ) Michael VII Doukas (w. Andronikos , Konstantios & Constantine Doukas ) Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos (w. Constantine Doukas ) John II Komnenos (w. Alexios ) Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos (w. John ) Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Alexios V Doukas Theodore I Laskaris (w. Nicholas ) John III Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos (w. Irene ) Michael IX Palaiologos Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos (w. Anna ) John VI Kantakouzenos (w. Matthew ) Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos (w. Andronikos V ) Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Constantine III Heraclonas (w. Tiberius ) Constans II Constantine IV (w. Heraclius & Tiberius ) Justinian II Leontius Tiberius III Justinian II (w. Tiberius ) Philippicus Anastasius II Theodosius III Leo III Constantine V Artabasdos (w. Nikephoros ) Leo IV Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe (w. Theophylact & Staurakios ) Leo V (w. Constantine ) Michael II Theophilos (w. Constantine ) Michael III (w. Thekla ) Basil I (w. Constantine ) Leo VI Alexander Constantine VII Romanos I Lekapenos (w. Christopher , Romanos (?), Stephen & Constantine Lekapenos ) Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoe Romanos III Argyros Michael IV Michael V Constantine IX Monomachos Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Eudokia Makrembolitissa Romanos IV Diogenes (w. Leo & Nikephoros ) Michael VII Doukas (w. Andronikos , Konstantios & Constantine Doukas ) Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos (w. Constantine Doukas ) John II Komnenos (w. Alexios ) Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos (w. John ) Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Alexios V Doukas Theodore I Laskaris (w. Nicholas ) John III Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos (w. Irene ) Michael IX Palaiologos Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos (w. Anna ) John VI Kantakouzenos (w. Matthew ) Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos (w. Andronikos V ) Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos See also Gallic emperors (260–274) Palmyrene emperors (271–273) Britannic emperors (286–296) Trapezuntine emperors (1204–1461) Thessalonian emperors (1224–1242) Empresses Augustae Usurpers Classical Eastern Gallic emperors (260–274) Palmyrene emperors (271–273) Britannic emperors (286–296) Trapezuntine emperors (1204–1461) Thessalonian emperors (1224–1242) Empresses Augustae Usurpers Classical Eastern Classical Eastern Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, underlining indicates an emperor variously regarded as either legitimate or a usurper Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF 2 3 4 5 6 7 GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF 2 3 4 5 6 7 2 3 4 5 6 7 GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Japan Italy Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Croatia Greece Korea Sweden Poland Vatican Israel Finland Catalonia Belgium United States France BnF data Japan Italy Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Croatia Greece Korea Sweden Poland Vatican Israel Finland Catalonia Belgium Artists ULAN ULAN People Trove Deutsche Biographie DDB Trove Deutsche Biographie DDB Other IdRef Open Library SNAC Te Papa (New Zealand) RISM Yale LUX IdRef Open Library SNAC Te Papa (New Zealand) RISM Yale LUX Constantine the Great 272 births 337 deaths 3rd-century births 4th-century Christian saints 4th-century Roman consuls 4th-century Roman emperors Ancient Romans in Britain Angelic visionaries Burials at the Church of the Holy Apostles Byzantine royal saints City founders Constantinian dynasty Converts to Christianity from ancient Roman religions Deified Roman emperors Eastern Orthodox saints Filicides Flavii Gothicus Maximus Illyrian emperors Illyrian people Participants in the First Council of Nicaea People from Niš Sons of Roman emperors Tetrarchy Valerii Articles containing Latin-language text Pages with Classical Latin IPA Articles containing Koine Greek-language text Articles with German-language sources (de) Webarchive template wayback links CS1 Italian-language sources (it) CS1 Greek-language sources (el) Articles containing German-language text Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages Use British English from July 2022 All Wikipedia articles written in British English Use dmy dates from September 2025 Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2021 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from July 2024 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images All articles lacking reliable references Articles lacking reliable references from May 2025 Articles containing French-language text Articles containing Welsh-language text CS1 Latin-language sources (la) CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 CS1 errors: ISBN date CS1 maint: ref duplicates default Commons link is locally defined CS1: unfit URL This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 08:54 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Measures 2 See also 3 External links Wikipedia : Build content to endure Español සිංහල Project page Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item This is an essay . It contains the advice or opinions of one or more Wikipedia contributors. This page is not an encyclopedia article or a Wikipedia policy , as it has not been reviewed by the community and may reflect various opinions. .mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain{float:right;margin:0 0 0 1em;border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);background-color:var(--background-color-base,#fff);padding:0.3em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;text-align:center;font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxleft{float:left;margin:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutlist{display:inline-block;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);margin-bottom:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain ul{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutanchordiv{position:relative;top:-3em}.mw-parser-output li .module-shortcutanchordiv{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mbox-imageright .module-shortcutboxplain{padding:0.4em 1em;line-height:1.3;margin:0;float:initial} Shortcuts .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} WP:ENDURE WP:ENDURE WP:DURABLE WP:DURABLE WP:DECAY WP:DECAY WP:ENDURE WP:ENDURE WP:DURABLE WP:DURABLE WP:DECAY WP:DECAY This page in a nutshell: Take steps to ensure that content you write will not degrade or become outdated over time. Most content on Wikipedia naturally improves over time . However, this is not always the case, particularly for featured content , and none of us will be around forever to defend the pages we care most about. As a general principle, when building something on Wikipedia, envision it 10 years or even 50 or 100 years in the future. This doesn't mean every system must be entirely maintenance free (which would be impossible), but if maintenance is so complicated or tedious that only you would reasonably do it, it's sure to eventually fail. Overall, Wikipedia is a long-term endeavor, and contributions that survive will have a far greater impact than those that don't. By following these best practices, you will increase the likelihood that pages will endure and retain their quality into the future. Measures This section lists measures that can be taken to help prevent content from degrading over time. Use hidden text comments and edit notices to warn against tempting but undesirable edits. For instance, set specific criteria for lists that might otherwise accrue cruft , or note next to a controversial element that there is consensus to include it. One way to identify these temptations is to note repeatedly reverted edits or talk page suggestions. Include enough information to guide unfamiliar editors, but otherwise keep the notices as limited and short as possible to avoid banner blindness . Avoid language likely to become outdated , such as "recently", "currently", "so far", and "soon". Use templates such as {{ As of }} and {{ Update after }} to mark statements that should be updated in the future. Sometimes, code can be employed to help keep content updated — for instance, when noting the contemporary value of a historical monetary figure, use {{ Inflation }} rather than just writing out the conversion for the current year. Clearly establish the article's style of English through templates like {{ use dmy dates }} and {{ use American English }} so that it can be retained for consistency. Selectively transclude duplicate content instead of copying and pasting it. This ensures that updates or improvements to it will be synced with the page. Migrate information to Wikidata , where it can be more easily updated via bulk imports or by a non-English contributor. Document templates and other complex pieces of code thoroughly to make them easier to maintain and to revive if they break. Use full citations rather than bare URLs to guard against link rot . Add incoming links, redirects, and categories to make pages (particularly in the project and template spaces) easy to find so that they are less likely to be recreated by someone unaware of them. Ensure that sectioning reflects due weight , since once a section is added, it tends to get filled out over time. Criticism or controversy sections are particularly dangerous, since they are a magnet for recentist news coverage that is unlikely to be notable long-term. Use summary style and keep article scopes sufficiently broad. The more content there is, the more work it is to maintain, and for evolving topics that get limited editor attention, this can lead to degradation. Even if you think your article could survive an AfD, it may still be wise to upmerge it. Avoid obscure or dated templates if more common or modern alternatives are available, since those are more likely to be maintained. Do not tag articles with {{ nobots }} , which hinders future maintenance. Keep the protection level as low as possible to allow as many editors as possible to keep articles up to date, while balancing out the need to protect articles from disruption. See also Wikipedia:Recentism – explanatory supplement about imbalanced focus on recent events Wikipedia:Nothing is in stone – essay about inevitability of change Wikipedia:Article half-life – essay about article degradation Wikipedia:There is a deadline – essay about preserving cultural heritage Wikipedia:Avoid instruction creep – essay about overlong instruction pages Wikipedia:Wikipedia is a work in progress – essay Wikipedia:Notability does not degrade over time – essay meta:Eventualism – editing philosophy External links File:Averting Ozymandias’s featured article.pdf – slide presentation at WikiConference North America 2024 based off this essay .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Wikipedia essays (?) v t e Essays on building, editing, and deleting content Philosophy Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Article construction 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles Writing article content Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Removing or deleting content Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Essays on building, editing, and deleting content Philosophy Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Article construction 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles Writing article content Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Removing or deleting content Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Philosophy Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Article construction 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles Writing article content Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Removing or deleting content Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Essays on civility The basics Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Philosophy A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent Dos Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Don'ts Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE WikiRelations WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace Essays on civility The basics Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Philosophy A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent Dos Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Don'ts Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE WikiRelations WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace The basics Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Philosophy A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent Dos Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Don'ts Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE WikiRelations WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace Essays on neutrality Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Essays on neutrality Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Essays on notability Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Essays on notability Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Humorous essays Adminitis Ain't no rules says a dog can't play basketball Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to edit warring ANI flu Anti-Wikipedian Anti-Wikipedianism Articlecountitis Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using the preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense Barnstaritis Before they were notable Be the fun police BOLD, revert, revert, revert cycle Boston Tea Party Butterfly effect CaPiTaLiZaTiOn MuCh? Case against LLM-generated articles Complete bollocks Counting forks Counting juntas Crap Delete the main page Diffusing conflict Don't stuff beans up your nose Don't-give-a-fuckism Don't abbreviate "Wikipedia" as "Wiki"! Don't delete the main page Editcountitis Edits Per Day Editsummarisis Editing under the influence Embrace Stop Signs Emerson Fart Five Fs of Wikipedia Seven Ages of Editor, by Will E. Spear-Shake Go ahead, vandalize How many Wikipedians does it take to change a lightbulb? How to get away with UPE How to put up a straight pole by pushing it at an angle How to vandalize correctly How to win a citation war Ignore all essays Ignore all user warnings Ignore every single rule Is that even an essay? Keep beating the horse List of really, really, really stupid article ideas that you really, really, really should not create Mess with the templates My local pond Newcomers are delicious, so go ahead and bite them Legal vandalism List of jokes about Wikipedia LTTAUTMAOK No climbing the Reichstag dressed as Spider-Man No episcopal threats No one cares about your garage band No one really cares No, really No self attacks Notability is not eternal Oops Defense Play the game Please be a giant dick, so we can ban you Please bite the newbies Please do not murder the newcomers Pledge of Tranquility Project S.C.R.A.M. R-e-s-p-e-c-t Requests for medication Requirements for adminship Rouge admin Rouge editor Sarcasm is really helpful Sausages for tasting Spaling Muich? Template madness The Night Before Wikimas The first rule of Wikipedia The Five Pillars of Untruth Things that should not be surprising The WikiBible Watchlistitis We are deletionist! Why is BFDI on Wikipedia? Why you shouldn't write articles with ChatGPT, according to ChatGPT Wikipedia is an MMORPG WTF? OMG! TMD TLA. ARG! Yes, falsely Yes legal threats Yes personal attacks You don't have to be mad to work here, but You should not write meaningless lists Humorous essays Adminitis Ain't no rules says a dog can't play basketball Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to edit warring ANI flu Anti-Wikipedian Anti-Wikipedianism Articlecountitis Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using the preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense Barnstaritis Before they were notable Be the fun police BOLD, revert, revert, revert cycle Boston Tea Party Butterfly effect CaPiTaLiZaTiOn MuCh? Case against LLM-generated articles Complete bollocks Counting forks Counting juntas Crap Delete the main page Diffusing conflict Don't stuff beans up your nose Don't-give-a-fuckism Don't abbreviate "Wikipedia" as "Wiki"! Don't delete the main page Editcountitis Edits Per Day Editsummarisis Editing under the influence Embrace Stop Signs Emerson Fart Five Fs of Wikipedia Seven Ages of Editor, by Will E. Spear-Shake Go ahead, vandalize How many Wikipedians does it take to change a lightbulb? How to get away with UPE How to put up a straight pole by pushing it at an angle How to vandalize correctly How to win a citation war Ignore all essays Ignore all user warnings Ignore every single rule Is that even an essay? Keep beating the horse List of really, really, really stupid article ideas that you really, really, really should not create Mess with the templates My local pond Newcomers are delicious, so go ahead and bite them Legal vandalism List of jokes about Wikipedia LTTAUTMAOK No climbing the Reichstag dressed as Spider-Man No episcopal threats No one cares about your garage band No one really cares No, really No self attacks Notability is not eternal Oops Defense Play the game Please be a giant dick, so we can ban you Please bite the newbies Please do not murder the newcomers Pledge of Tranquility Project S.C.R.A.M. R-e-s-p-e-c-t Requests for medication Requirements for adminship Rouge admin Rouge editor Sarcasm is really helpful Sausages for tasting Spaling Muich? Template madness The Night Before Wikimas The first rule of Wikipedia The Five Pillars of Untruth Things that should not be surprising The WikiBible Watchlistitis We are deletionist! Why is BFDI on Wikipedia? Why you shouldn't write articles with ChatGPT, according to ChatGPT Wikipedia is an MMORPG WTF? OMG! TMD TLA. ARG! Yes, falsely Yes legal threats Yes personal attacks You don't have to be mad to work here, but You should not write meaningless lists Adminitis Ain't no rules says a dog can't play basketball Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to edit warring ANI flu Anti-Wikipedian Anti-Wikipedianism Articlecountitis Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using the preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense Barnstaritis Before they were notable Be the fun police BOLD, revert, revert, revert cycle Boston Tea Party Butterfly effect CaPiTaLiZaTiOn MuCh? Case against LLM-generated articles Complete bollocks Counting forks Counting juntas Crap Delete the main page Diffusing conflict Don't stuff beans up your nose Don't-give-a-fuckism Don't abbreviate "Wikipedia" as "Wiki"! Don't delete the main page Editcountitis Edits Per Day Editsummarisis Editing under the influence Embrace Stop Signs Emerson Fart Five Fs of Wikipedia Seven Ages of Editor, by Will E. Spear-Shake Go ahead, vandalize How many Wikipedians does it take to change a lightbulb? How to get away with UPE How to put up a straight pole by pushing it at an angle How to vandalize correctly How to win a citation war Ignore all essays Ignore all user warnings Ignore every single rule Is that even an essay? Keep beating the horse List of really, really, really stupid article ideas that you really, really, really should not create Mess with the templates My local pond Newcomers are delicious, so go ahead and bite them Legal vandalism List of jokes about Wikipedia LTTAUTMAOK No climbing the Reichstag dressed as Spider-Man No episcopal threats No one cares about your garage band No one really cares No, really No self attacks Notability is not eternal Oops Defense Play the game Please be a giant dick, so we can ban you Please bite the newbies Please do not murder the newcomers Pledge of Tranquility Project S.C.R.A.M. R-e-s-p-e-c-t Requests for medication Requirements for adminship Rouge admin Rouge editor Sarcasm is really helpful Sausages for tasting Spaling Muich? Template madness The Night Before Wikimas The first rule of Wikipedia The Five Pillars of Untruth Things that should not be surprising The WikiBible Watchlistitis We are deletionist! Why is BFDI on Wikipedia? 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Start and end dates 2 Background Toggle Background subsection 2.1 Aftermath of World War I 2.2 Germany and Italy 2.3 European treaties 2.4 Asia 2.1 Aftermath of World War I 2.2 Germany and Italy 2.3 European treaties 2.4 Asia 3 Pre-war events Toggle Pre-war events subsection 3.1 Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) 3.2 Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) 3.3 Japanese invasion of China (1937) 3.4 Soviet–Japanese border conflicts 3.5 European occupations and agreements 3.1 Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) 3.2 Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) 3.3 Japanese invasion of China (1937) 3.4 Soviet–Japanese border conflicts 3.5 European occupations and agreements 4 Course of the war Toggle Course of the war subsection 4.1 War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) 4.2 Western Europe (1940–1941) 4.3 Mediterranean (1940–1941) 4.4 Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) 4.5 War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) 4.6 Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) 4.7 Pacific (1942–1943) 4.8 Eastern Front (1942–1943) 4.9 Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) 4.10 Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) 4.11 Allies Offensives (1944) 4.12 Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) 4.1 War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) 4.2 Western Europe (1940–1941) 4.3 Mediterranean (1940–1941) 4.4 Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) 4.5 War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) 4.6 Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) 4.7 Pacific (1942–1943) 4.8 Eastern Front (1942–1943) 4.9 Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) 4.10 Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) 4.11 Allies Offensives (1944) 4.12 Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) 5 Aftermath 6 Impact Toggle Impact subsection 6.1 Casualties and war crimes 6.2 Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour 6.3 Occupation 6.4 Home fronts and production 6.5 Advances in technology and its application 6.1 Casualties and war crimes 6.2 Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour 6.3 Occupation 6.4 Home fronts and production 6.5 Advances in technology and its application 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References Toggle References subsection 9.1 Sources 9.1 Sources 10 Further reading 11 External links World War II Адыгэбзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ Ænglisc العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Bislama Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Chavacano de Zamboanga Chi-Chewa ChiShona Corsu Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deitsch Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Diné bizaad Dolnoserbski डोटेली Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gàidhlig Galego 贛語 گیلکی ગુજરાતી 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Hausa Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Ido Igbo Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Коми Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Ladin Ladino Лакку ລາວ Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingua Franca Nova Livvinkarjala La .lojban. Lombard Magyar Madhurâ मैथिली Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Malti Māori मराठी მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu Minangkabau 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Mirandés Мокшень Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाली नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano ߒߞߏ Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Pälzisch پنجابی ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ Papiamentu پښتو Patois ភាសាខ្មែរ Picard Piemontèis Plattdüütsch Polski Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Ripoarisch Română Rumantsch Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sakizaya Gagana Samoa संस्कृतम् ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Sardu Scots Seeltersk Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ Ślůnski Soomaaliga کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Taclḥit Taqbaylit Tarandíne Татарча / tatarça తెలుగు ไทย Thuɔŋjäŋ Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Türkmençe Tyap Тыва дыл Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vahcuengh Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon 文言 West-Vlams Winaray Wolof 吴语 ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 Batak Mandailing Jaku Iban Yerwa Kanuri Tolışi Toki pona Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikinews Wikiquote Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wikidata item This article contains one or more duplicated citations . 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( January 2026 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) (refs: 141, 198) World War II .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti 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("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} German Stuka dive bombers on the Eastern Front , 1943 British Matilda II tanks during the North African campaign , 1941 US atomic bombing of Nagasaki in Japan, 1945 Soviet troops at the Battle of Stalingrad , 1943 Soviet soldier raising a flag over the Reichstag after the Battle of Berlin , 1945 US warships in Lingayen Gulf in the Philippines , 1945 German Stuka dive bombers on the Eastern Front , 1943 British Matilda II tanks during the North African campaign , 1941 US atomic bombing of Nagasaki in Japan, 1945 Soviet troops at the Battle of Stalingrad , 1943 Soviet soldier raising a flag over the Reichstag after the Battle of Berlin , 1945 US warships in Lingayen Gulf in the Philippines , 1945 Date 1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945 [ a ] (6 years, 1 day) Location Global Result .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Allied victory Date 1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945 [ a ] (6 years, 1 day) Location Global Result .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Allied victory Allied victory Participants Allies Axis Commanders and leaders Main Allied leaders : Joseph Stalin Franklin D. Roosevelt Winston Churchill Chiang Kai-shek Joseph Stalin Franklin D. Roosevelt Winston Churchill Chiang Kai-shek Main Axis leaders : Adolf Hitler Hirohito Benito Mussolini Adolf Hitler Hirohito Benito Mussolini Casualties and losses 60 million to over 75 million deaths (military and civilian) .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Theatres of World War II v t e Europe Poland Soviet invasion Phoney War Saar Offensive Finland Winter War Karelia Lapland Weserübung Denmark Norway Western Front Luxembourg Netherlands Belgium France Alps 1944–1945 Britain Eastern Front Barbarossa Leningrad Crimea Rzhev Case Blue Stalingrad Kursk Dnieper–Carpaths Bagration Romania Hungary Vistula–Oder Berlin Liberation of France Overlord Dragoon Siegfried Line Market Garden Bulge Western Germany Asia-Pacific China Marco Polo Bridge Shanghai Taiyuan Nanjing Xuzhou and Taierzhuang Wuhan Winter Offensive Hundred Regiments Offensive Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Ichi-Go 1945 Hunan Burma 1941–1942 1942–1943 1944 1944–1945 South-East Asia Indochina Franco-Thai War Thailand Hong Kong Malaya and Singapore South West Pacific Philippines 1941–1942 1944–1945 Dutch East Indies Borneo 1945 Coral Sea Solomon Islands Guadalcanal New Georgia Bougainville New Guinea Kokoda Track Salamaua–Lae Markham, Ramu and Finisterre Huon Peninsula New Britain Admiralty Islands Western New Guinea Pacific Ocean Midway Gilberts and Marshalls Mariana and Palau Volcano and Ryukyu Soviet-Japanese War(Mainland) Manchuria and Northern Korea pre-war border conflicts Japan Volcano and Ryukyu South Sakhalin Kurils Mediterranean and Middle East Balkans Greco-Italian War Greece Crete Albania Yugoslavia Mediterranean Sea Adriatic Malta Dodecanese East Africa Guerrilla war Middle East Iraq Syria–Lebanon Iran North Africa Libya-Egypt Morocco-Algeria Tunisia Italy Sicily Mainland Italy Winter Line Gothic Line Spring Offensive Other campaigns Air warfare Strategic bombing Americas Aleuts Antarctica Atlantic Australia Arctic French West Africa Indian Ocean 1940–1945 Madagascar Coups Uruguay Norway Baltic Nations Yugoslavia Romania 1941 Iraq Italy Argentina Germany Croatia Romania 1944 Bulgaria Hungary French Indochina Japan Matsue Slovak National Uprising Resistance movements Albanian resistance Baltic states Belgian Resistance Czechoslovak Resistance Danish resistance Dutch resistance Ethiopian resistance French Resistance Greek resistance Italian Resistance Malayan resistance Norwegian resistance Filipino resistance Polish resistance Romanian resistance Slovak partisans Soviet partisans Free Thai Movement Yugoslav Partisans Poland Soviet invasion Soviet invasion Phoney War Saar Offensive Saar Offensive Finland Winter War Karelia Lapland Winter War Karelia Lapland Weserübung Denmark Norway Denmark Norway Western Front Luxembourg Netherlands Belgium France Luxembourg Netherlands Belgium France Alps 1944–1945 1944–1945 Britain Eastern Front Barbarossa Leningrad Crimea Rzhev Case Blue Stalingrad Kursk Dnieper–Carpaths Bagration Romania Hungary Vistula–Oder Berlin Barbarossa Leningrad Crimea Rzhev Case Blue Stalingrad Kursk Dnieper–Carpaths Bagration Romania Hungary Vistula–Oder Berlin Liberation of France Overlord Dragoon Siegfried Line Market Garden Bulge Western Germany Overlord Dragoon Siegfried Line Market Garden Bulge Western Germany China Marco Polo Bridge Shanghai Taiyuan Nanjing Xuzhou and Taierzhuang Wuhan Winter Offensive Hundred Regiments Offensive Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Ichi-Go 1945 Hunan Marco Polo Bridge Shanghai Taiyuan Nanjing Xuzhou and Taierzhuang Wuhan Winter Offensive Hundred Regiments Offensive Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Ichi-Go 1945 Hunan Burma 1941–1942 1942–1943 1944 1944–1945 1941–1942 1942–1943 1944 1944–1945 South-East Asia Indochina Franco-Thai War Thailand Hong Kong Malaya and Singapore Indochina Franco-Thai War Thailand Hong Kong Malaya and Singapore South West Pacific Philippines 1941–1942 1944–1945 1944–1945 Dutch East Indies Borneo 1945 Borneo 1945 Coral Sea Solomon Islands Guadalcanal New Georgia Bougainville Guadalcanal New Georgia Bougainville New Guinea Kokoda Track Salamaua–Lae Markham, Ramu and Finisterre Huon Peninsula New Britain Admiralty Islands Western New Guinea Kokoda Track Salamaua–Lae Markham, Ramu and Finisterre Huon Peninsula New Britain Admiralty Islands Western New Guinea Pacific Ocean Midway Gilberts and Marshalls Mariana and Palau Volcano and Ryukyu Midway Gilberts and Marshalls Mariana and Palau Volcano and Ryukyu Soviet-Japanese War(Mainland) Manchuria and Northern Korea pre-war border conflicts Manchuria and Northern Korea pre-war border conflicts Japan Volcano and Ryukyu South Sakhalin Kurils Volcano and Ryukyu South Sakhalin Kurils Balkans Greco-Italian War Greece Crete Albania Yugoslavia Greco-Italian War Greece Crete Crete Albania Yugoslavia Mediterranean Sea Adriatic Malta Dodecanese Adriatic Malta Dodecanese East Africa Guerrilla war Guerrilla war Middle East Iraq Syria–Lebanon Iran Iraq Syria–Lebanon Iran North Africa Libya-Egypt Morocco-Algeria Tunisia Libya-Egypt Morocco-Algeria Tunisia Italy Sicily Mainland Italy Winter Line Gothic Line Spring Offensive Sicily Mainland Italy Winter Line Gothic Line Spring Offensive Air warfare Strategic bombing Strategic bombing Americas Aleuts Aleuts Antarctica Atlantic Australia Arctic French West Africa Indian Ocean 1940–1945 Madagascar Madagascar Uruguay Norway Baltic Nations Yugoslavia Romania 1941 Iraq Italy Argentina Germany Croatia Romania 1944 Bulgaria Hungary French Indochina Japan Matsue Slovak National Uprising Albanian resistance Baltic states Belgian Resistance Czechoslovak Resistance Danish resistance Dutch resistance Ethiopian resistance French Resistance Greek resistance Italian Resistance Malayan resistance Norwegian resistance Filipino resistance Polish resistance Romanian resistance Slovak partisans Soviet partisans Free Thai Movement Yugoslav Partisans World War II Navigation Campaigns Countries Equipment Timeline Outline Lists Historiography Category Bibliography Campaigns Countries Equipment Campaigns Countries Equipment Timeline Outline Lists Historiography Timeline Outline Lists Historiography Category Bibliography Category Bibliography v t e v t e World War II [ b ] or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a global conflict between two coalitions : the Allies and the Axis powers . Nearly all of the world's countries participated, with many nations mobilising their resources in pursuit of total war . Tanks and aircraft played major roles , enabling the strategic bombing of cities and delivery of the first and only nuclear weapons ever used in war. World War II is the deadliest conflict in history, causing the death of over 60 million people. Millions died in genocides , including the Holocaust , and by massacres, starvation, and disease. After the Allied victory, Germany , Austria , Japan , and Korea were occupied, and German and Japanese leaders were put on trial for war crimes . The causes of World War II included unresolved tensions in the aftermath of World War I , the rise of fascism in Europe and militarism in Japan . Key events preceding the war included Japan's invasion of Manchuria in 1931, the Spanish Civil War , the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, and Germany's annexations of Austria and the Sudetenland . World War II is generally considered to have begun on 1 September 1939, when Nazi Germany , under Adolf Hitler , invaded Poland , after which the United Kingdom and France declared war on Germany. Poland was also invaded by the Soviet Union in mid-September, and was partitioned between Germany and the Soviet Union under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact . In 1940, the Soviet Union annexed the Baltic states and parts of Finland and Romania , while Germany conquered Norway , Belgium , Luxembourg and the Netherlands . After the fall of France in June 1940, the war continued mainly between Germany, now assisted by Fascist Italy , and the British Empire / British Commonwealth , with fighting in the Balkans , Mediterranean, and Middle East , East Africa , the aerial Battle of Britain and the Blitz , and the naval Battle of the Atlantic . By mid-1941 Yugoslavia and Greece had also been defeated by Axis countries. In June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union , opening the Eastern Front and initially making large territorial gains along with Axis allies. In December 1941, Japan attacked American and British territories in Asia and the Pacific , including Pearl Harbor in Hawaii , leading the United States to enter the war against the Axis. Japan conquered much of coastal China and Southeast Asia , but its advances in the Pacific were halted in June 1942 at the Battle of Midway . In early 1943, Axis forces were defeated in North Africa and at Stalingrad in the Soviet Union. An Allied invasion of Italy in July resulted in the fall of its fascist regime , and Allied offensives in the Pacific and the Soviet Union forced the Axis to retreat on all fronts. In 1944, the Western Allies invaded France at Normandy , and the Soviet Union advanced into Central Europe. During the same period, Japan suffered major setbacks, including the crippling of its navy by the United States, the loss of key Western Pacific islands, and defeats in South-Central China and Burma . The war in Europe concluded with the liberation of German-occupied territories and the invasion of Germany by the Allies which culminated in the fall of Berlin to Soviet troops, and Germany's unconditional surrender on 8 May 1945 . On 6 and 9 August, the US dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan. Faced with an imminent Allied invasion , the prospect of further atomic bombings, and a Soviet declaration of war and invasion of Manchuria , Japan announced its unconditional surrender on 15 August, and signed a surrender document on 2 September 1945 . World War II transformed the political, economic, and social structures of the world, and established the foundation of international relations for the rest of the 20th century and into the 21st century. The United Nations was created to foster international cooperation and prevent future conflicts, with the victorious great powers—China, France, the Soviet Union, the UK, and the US—becoming the permanent members of its security council . The Soviet Union and the US emerged as rival superpowers , setting the stage for the half-century Cold War . In the wake of Europe's devastation, the influence of its great powers waned, triggering the decolonisation of Africa and of Asia . Many countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery and expansion . Start and end dates Timelines of World War II Chronological Prelude Events ( in Asia in Europe ) Aftermath Events ( in Asia in Europe ) Aftermath 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Aftermath 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Aftermath By topic Causes ( Diplomacy ) Declarations of war Battles Operations Causes ( Diplomacy ) Causes ( Diplomacy ) Declarations of war Battles Operations Battles Operations By theatre Battle of Europe air operations Eastern Front Manhattan Project United Kingdom home front Surrender of the Axis armies Battle of Europe air operations Eastern Front Manhattan Project Eastern Front Manhattan Project United Kingdom home front Surrender of the Axis armies v t e v t e Most historians agree that World War II began with the German invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939 [ 1 ] [ 2 ] and the United Kingdom and France 's declaration of war on Germany two days later. Dates for the beginning of the Pacific War include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, [ 3 ] [ 4 ] or the earlier Japanese invasion of Manchuria , on 18 September 1931. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Other proposed starting dates for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. [ 7 ] The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939. [ 8 ] Others view the Spanish Civil War as the start or prelude to World War II. [ 9 ] [ 10 ] The exact date of the war's end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 15 August 1945 ( V-J Day ), rather than with the formal surrender of Japan on 2 September 1945, which officially ended the war in Asia . A peace treaty between Japan and the Allies was signed in 1951. [ 11 ] A 1990 treaty regarding Germany's future allowed the reunification of East and West Germany to take place. [ 12 ] No formal peace treaty between Japan and the Soviet Union was ever signed, [ 13 ] although the state of war between the two countries was terminated by the Soviet–Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956 , which also restored full diplomatic relations between them. [ 14 ] Background Aftermath of World War I World War I had radically altered the political European map with the defeat of the Central Powers —including Austria-Hungary, Germany, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire —and the 1917 Bolshevik seizure of power in Russia , which led to the founding of the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, the victorious Allies of World War I , such as France, Belgium, Italy, Romania, and Greece, gained territory, and new nation-states were created out of the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian , Ottoman , and Russian Empires . [ 15 ] [ failed verification ] To prevent a future world war, the League of Nations was established in 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference . The organisation's primary goals were to prevent armed conflict through collective security, military, and naval disarmament , as well as settling international disputes through peaceful negotiations and arbitration. [ 16 ] Despite strong pacifist sentiment after World War I , [ 17 ] irredentist and revanchist nationalism had emerged in several European states. These sentiments were especially pronounced in Germany due to the significant territorial, colonial, and financial losses imposed by the Treaty of Versailles . Under the treaty, Germany lost around 13 percent of its home territory and all its overseas possessions , while German annexation of other states was prohibited, reparations were imposed, and limits were placed on the size and capability of the country's armed forces . [ 18 ] Germany and Italy The German Empire was dissolved in the German revolution of 1918–1919 , and a democratic government, later known as the Weimar Republic , was created. The interwar period saw strife between supporters of the new republic and hardline opponents on both the political right and left. Italy, as an Entente ally, had made some post-war territorial gains; however, Italian nationalists were angered that the promises made by the United Kingdom and France to secure Italian entrance into the war were not fulfilled in the peace settlement. From 1922 to 1925, the fascist movement led by Benito Mussolini seized power in Italy with a nationalist, totalitarian , and class collaborationist agenda that abolished representative democracy , repressed socialist, left-wing, and liberal forces, and pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy aimed at making Italy a world power, promising the creation of a "New Roman Empire". [ 19 ] Adolf Hitler , after an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German government in 1923, eventually became the chancellor of Germany in 1933 when President Paul von Hindenburg and the Reichstag appointed him. Following Hindenburg's death in 1934, Hitler proclaimed himself Führer of Germany and abolished democracy, espousing a radical, racially motivated revision of the world order , and soon began a massive rearmament campaign . [ 20 ] France, seeking to secure its alliance with Italy, allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia , which Italy desired as a colonial possession. The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when the Territory of the Saar Basin was legally reunited with Germany, and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of Versailles, accelerated his rearmament programme, and introduced conscription. [ 21 ] European treaties The United Kingdom, France and Italy formed the Stresa Front in April 1935 in order to contain Germany, a key step towards military globalisation ; however, that June, the United Kingdom made an independent naval agreement with Germany, easing prior restrictions. The Soviet Union, concerned by Germany's goals of capturing vast areas of Eastern Europe , drafted a treaty of mutual assistance with France. Before taking effect, though, the Franco-Soviet pact was required to go through the bureaucracy of the League of Nations, which rendered it essentially toothless. [ 22 ] The United States, concerned with events in Europe and Asia, passed the Neutrality Act in August of the same year. [ 23 ] Hitler defied the Versailles and Locarno Treaties by remilitarising the Rhineland in March 1936, encountering little opposition due to the policy of appeasement . [ 24 ] In October 1936, Germany and Italy formed the Rome–Berlin Axis . A month later, Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact , which Italy joined the following year. [ 25 ] Asia The Kuomintang party in China launched a unification campaign against regional warlords and nominally unified China in the mid-1920s, but was soon embroiled in a civil war against its former Chinese Communist Party (CCP) allies [ 26 ] and new regional warlords . In 1931, an increasingly militaristic Empire of Japan , which had long sought influence in China [ 27 ] as the first step of what its government saw as the country's right to rule Asia , staged the Mukden incident as a pretext to invade Manchuria and establish the puppet state of Manchukuo . [ 28 ] China appealed to the League of Nations to stop the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations after being condemned for its incursion into Manchuria. The two nations then fought several battles, in Shanghai , Rehe , and Hebei , until the Tanggu Truce was signed in 1933. Thereafter, Chinese volunteer forces continued the resistance to Japanese aggression in Manchuria , and Chahar and Suiyuan . [ 29 ] After the 1936 Xi'an Incident , the Kuomintang and CCP forces agreed on a ceasefire to present a united front to oppose Japan. [ 30 ] Pre-war events Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) The Second Italo-Ethiopian War was a colonial war that began in October 1935 and ended in May 1936. The war began with the invasion of the Ethiopian Empire (also known as Abyssinia ) by the armed forces of the Kingdom of Italy ( Regno d'Italia ), which was launched from Italian Somaliland and Eritrea . [ 31 ] The war resulted in the military occupation of Ethiopia and its annexation into the newly created colony of Italian East Africa ( Africa Orientale Italiana ); in addition it exposed the weakness of the League of Nations as a force to preserve peace. Both Italy and Ethiopia were member nations, but the League did little when the former clearly violated Article X of the League's Covenant . [ 32 ] The United Kingdom and France supported imposing sanctions on Italy for the invasion, but the sanctions were not fully enforced and failed to end the Italian invasion. [ 33 ] Italy subsequently dropped its objections to Germany's goal of absorbing Austria . [ 34 ] Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) When civil war broke out in Spain, Hitler and Mussolini lent military support to the Nationalist rebels , led by General Francisco Franco . Italy supported the Nationalists to a greater extent than the Nazis: Mussolini sent more than 70,000 ground troops, 6,000 aviation personnel, and 720 aircraft to Spain. [ 35 ] The Soviet Union supported the existing government of the Spanish Republic . More than 30,000 foreign volunteers, known as the International Brigades , also fought against the Nationalists. Both Germany and the Soviet Union used this proxy war as an opportunity to test in combat their most advanced weapons and tactics. The Nationalists won the civil war in April 1939; Franco, now dictator, remained officially neutral during World War II but generally favoured the Axis . [ 36 ] His greatest collaboration with Germany was the sending of volunteers to fight on the Eastern Front . [ 37 ] Japanese invasion of China (1937) In July 1937, Japan captured the former Chinese imperial capital of Peking after instigating the Marco Polo Bridge incident , which culminated in the Japanese campaign to invade all of China following years of tension and low-level conflicts . [ 38 ] The Soviets quickly signed a non-aggression pact with China to lend materiel support, effectively ending China's prior cooperation with Germany . [ 39 ] From September to November, the Japanese attacked Taiyuan , engaged the Kuomintang Army around Xinkou , [ 40 ] fought Communist forces in Pingxingguan [ 41 ] [ 42 ] , and wrestled control over China's northern railway network. [ 43 ] Nationalist Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek deployed his best army to defend Shanghai , but after three months of heavy fighting, Shanghai fell. The Japanese continued to push Chinese forces back, capturing the capital Nanking in December 1937. [ 44 ] [ 45 ] [ 46 ] In March 1938, Nationalist Chinese forces won their first major victory at Taierzhuang , but ultimately lost control of the city of Xuzhou in May. [ 47 ] In June 1938, Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance by flooding the Yellow River ; buying time for the Chinese to prepare their defences at Wuhan at heavy cost to the local civilian population, but the city was taken by October after heavy fighting along the Yangtze River. [ 48 ] Japanese military victories did not destroy Chinese resistance; instead, the Chinese government relocated inland to Chongqing and continued the war. [ 49 ] [ 50 ] Aiming to break Chinese morale, Japanese aircraft began striking cities in the Sichuan basin in a bombing campaign, killing tens of thousands of civilians. [ 51 ] [ 52 ] Soviet–Japanese border conflicts In the mid-to-late 1930s, Japanese forces in Manchukuo had sporadic border clashes with the Soviet Union and Mongolia . The Japanese doctrine of Hokushin-ron , which emphasised Japan's expansion northward, was favoured by the Imperial Army during this time. This policy would prove difficult to maintain in light of the Japanese defeat at Khalkin Gol in 1939, the ongoing Second Sino-Japanese War [ 53 ] and ally Nazi Germany pursuing neutrality with the Soviets. Japan and the Soviet Union eventually signed a Neutrality Pact in April 1941, and Japan adopted the doctrine of Nanshin-ron , promoted by the Navy, which took its focus southward and eventually led to war with the United States and the Western Allies. [ 54 ] [ 55 ] European occupations and agreements In Europe, Germany and Italy were becoming more aggressive. In March 1938, Germany annexed Austria , again provoking little response from other European powers. [ 56 ] Encouraged, Hitler began pressing German claims on the Sudetenland , an area of Czechoslovakia with a predominantly ethnic German population. Soon the United Kingdom and France followed the appeasement policy of British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and conceded this territory to Germany in the Munich Agreement , which was made against the wishes of the Czechoslovak government, in exchange for a promise of no further territorial demands. [ 57 ] Soon afterwards, Germany and Italy forced Czechoslovakia to cede additional territory to Hungary, and Poland annexed the Trans-Olza region of Czechoslovakia. [ 58 ] Although all of Germany's stated demands had been satisfied by the agreement, privately Hitler was furious that British interference had prevented him from seizing all of Czechoslovakia in one operation. In subsequent speeches Hitler attacked British and Jewish "war-mongers" and in January 1939 secretly ordered a major build-up of the German navy to challenge British naval supremacy. In March 1939, Germany invaded the remainder of Czechoslovakia and subsequently split it into the German Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and a pro-German client state , the Slovak Republic . [ 59 ] Hitler also delivered an ultimatum to Lithuania on 20 March 1939, forcing the concession of the Klaipėda Region , formerly the German Memelland . [ 60 ] Greatly alarmed and with Hitler making further demands on the Free City of Danzig , the United Kingdom and France guaranteed their support for Polish independence ; when Italy conquered Albania in April 1939, the same guarantee was extended to the Kingdoms of Romania and Greece . [ 61 ] Shortly after the Franco - British pledge to Poland, Germany and Italy formalised their own alliance with the Pact of Steel . [ 62 ] Hitler accused the United Kingdom and Poland of trying to "encircle" Germany and renounced the Anglo-German Naval Agreement and the German–Polish declaration of non-aggression . [ 63 ] The situation became a crisis in late August as German troops continued to mobilise against the Polish border. On 23 August the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact with Germany, [ 64 ] after tripartite negotiations for a military alliance between France, the United Kingdom, and Soviet Union had stalled. [ 65 ] This pact had a secret protocol that defined German and Soviet "spheres of influence" (western Poland and Lithuania for Germany; eastern Poland , Finland, Estonia , Latvia and Bessarabia for the Soviet Union), and raised the question of continuing Polish independence. [ 66 ] The pact neutralised the possibility of Soviet opposition to a campaign against Poland and assured that Germany would not have to face the prospect of a two-front war, as it had in World War I . Immediately afterwards, Hitler ordered the attack to proceed on 26 August, but upon hearing that the United Kingdom had concluded a formal mutual assistance pact with Poland and that Italy would maintain neutrality, he decided to delay it. [ 67 ] In response to British requests for direct negotiations to avoid war, Germany made demands on Poland, which served as a pretext to worsen relations. [ 68 ] On 29 August, Hitler demanded that a Polish plenipotentiary immediately travel to Berlin to negotiate the handover of Danzig , and to allow a plebiscite in the Polish Corridor in which the German minority would vote on secession. [ 68 ] The Poles refused to comply with the German demands, and on the night of 30–31 August in a confrontational meeting with the British ambassador Nevile Henderson , Ribbentrop declared that Germany considered its claims rejected. [ 69 ] Course of the war War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland after having staged several false flag border incidents as a pretext to initiate the invasion. [ 71 ] The first German attack of the war came against the Polish defences at Westerplatte . [ 72 ] The United Kingdom responded with an ultimatum for Germany to cease military operations, and on 3 September, after the ultimatum was ignored, Britain and France declared war on Germany. [ c ] During the Phoney War period, the alliance provided no direct military support to Poland, outside of a cautious French probe into the Saarland . [ 73 ] The Western Allies also began a naval blockade of Germany , which aimed to damage the country's economy and war effort. [ 74 ] Germany responded by ordering U-boat warfare against Allied merchant and warships, which would later escalate into the Battle of the Atlantic . [ 75 ] On 8 September, German troops reached the suburbs of Warsaw . The Polish counter-offensive to the west halted the German advance for several days, but it was outflanked and encircled by the Wehrmacht . Remnants of the Polish army broke through to besieged Warsaw . On 17 September 1939, two days after signing a cease-fire with Japan , the Soviet Union invaded Poland [ 76 ] under the supposed pretext that the Polish state had ceased to exist. [ 77 ] On 27 September, the Warsaw garrison surrendered to the Germans, and the last large operational unit of the Polish Army surrendered on 6 October . Despite the military defeat, Poland never surrendered; instead, it formed the Polish government-in-exile and a clandestine state apparatus remained in occupied Poland. [ 78 ] A significant part of Polish military personnel evacuated to Romania and Latvia; many of them later fought against the Axis in other theatres of the war. [ 79 ] Germany annexed western Poland and occupied central Poland ; the Soviet Union annexed eastern Poland . Small shares of Polish territory were transferred to Lithuania and Slovakia . On 6 October, Hitler made a public peace overture to the United Kingdom and France but said that the future of Poland was to be determined exclusively by Germany and the Soviet Union. The proposal was rejected [ 69 ] and Hitler ordered an immediate offensive against France, [ 80 ] which was postponed until the spring of 1940 due to bad weather. [ 81 ] [ 82 ] [ 83 ] After the outbreak of war in Poland, Stalin threatened Estonia , Latvia , and Lithuania with military invasion, forcing the three Baltic countries to sign pacts allowing the creation of Soviet military bases in these countries; in October 1939, significant Soviet military contingents were moved there. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] [ 86 ] Finland refused to sign a similar pact and rejected ceding part of its territory to the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union invaded Finland in November 1939, [ 87 ] and was subsequently expelled from the League of Nations for this crime of aggression. [ 88 ] Despite overwhelming numerical superiority, Soviet military success during the Winter War was modest, and the Finno–Soviet war ended in March 1940 with some Finnish concessions of territory . [ 89 ] In June 1940, the Soviet Union occupied the entire territories of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, [ 85 ] as well as the Romanian regions of Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and the Hertsa region . In August 1940, Hitler imposed the Second Vienna Award on Romania which led to the transfer of Northern Transylvania to Hungary. [ 90 ] In September 1940, Bulgaria demanded Southern Dobruja from Romania with German and Italian support, leading to the Treaty of Craiova . [ 91 ] The loss of one-third of Romania's 1939 territory caused a coup against King Carol II , turning Romania into a fascist dictatorship under Marshal Ion Antonescu , with a course set towards the Axis in the hopes of a German guarantee. [ 92 ] Meanwhile, German–Soviet political relations and economic co-operation [ 93 ] [ 94 ] gradually stalled, [ 95 ] [ 96 ] and both states began preparations for war. [ 97 ] Western Europe (1940–1941) In April 1940, Germany invaded Denmark and Norway to protect shipments of iron ore from Sweden , which the Allies were attempting to cut off . [ 98 ] Denmark capitulated after six hours , and despite Allied support , Norway was conquered within two months. [ 99 ] British discontent over the Norwegian campaign led to the resignation of Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain , who was replaced by Winston Churchill on 10 May 1940. [ 100 ] On the same day, Germany launched an offensive against France . To circumvent the strong Maginot Line fortifications on the Franco-German border, Germany directed its attack at the neutral nations of Belgium , the Netherlands , and Luxembourg . [ 101 ] The Germans carried out a flanking manoeuvre through the Ardennes region, [ 102 ] which was mistakenly perceived by the Allies as an impenetrable natural barrier against armoured vehicles. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] By successfully implementing new Blitzkrieg tactics, the Wehrmacht rapidly advanced to the Channel and cut off the Allied forces in Belgium, trapping the bulk of the Allied armies in a cauldron on the Franco-Belgian border near Lille. The United Kingdom was able to evacuate a significant number of Allied troops from the continent by early June, although they had to abandon almost all their equipment. [ 105 ] On 10 June, Italy invaded France , declaring war on both France and the United Kingdom. [ 106 ] The Germans turned south against the weakened French army, and Paris fell to them on 14 June. Eight days later France signed an armistice with Germany ; it was divided into German and Italian occupation zones , [ 107 ] and an unoccupied rump state under the Vichy Regime , which, though officially neutral, was generally aligned with Germany. France kept its fleet, which the United Kingdom attacked on 3 July in an attempt to prevent its seizure by Germany. [ 108 ] The air Battle of Britain [ 109 ] began in early July with Luftwaffe attacks on shipping and harbours . [ 110 ] The German campaign for air superiority started in August but its failure to defeat RAF Fighter Command forced the indefinite postponement of the proposed German invasion of Britain . The German strategic bombing offensive intensified with night attacks on London and other cities in the Blitz , but largely ended in May 1941 [ 111 ] after failing to significantly disrupt the British war effort. [ 110 ] Using newly captured French ports, the German Navy enjoyed success against an over-extended Royal Navy , using U-boats against British shipping in the Atlantic . [ 112 ] The British Home Fleet scored a significant victory on 27 May 1941 by sinking the German battleship Bismarck . [ 113 ] In November 1939, the United States was assisting China and the Western Allies, and had amended the Neutrality Act to allow " cash and carry " purchases by the Allies. [ 114 ] In 1940, following the German capture of Paris, the size of the United States Navy was significantly increased . In September the United States further agreed to a trade of American destroyers for British bases . [ 115 ] Still, a large majority of the American public continued to oppose any direct military intervention in the conflict well into 1941. [ 116 ] In December 1940, President Franklin D. Roosevelt accused Hitler of planning world conquest and ruled out any negotiations as useless, calling for the United States to become an " arsenal of democracy " and promoting Lend-Lease programmes of military and humanitarian aid to support the British war effort; Lend-Lease was later extended to the other Allies, including the Soviet Union after it was invaded by Germany. [ 117 ] The United States started strategic planning to prepare for a full-scale offensive against Germany. [ 118 ] At the end of September 1940, the Tripartite Pact formally united Japan, Italy, and Germany as the Axis powers . The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any country—with the exception of the Soviet Union—that attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three. [ 119 ] The Axis expanded in November 1940 when Hungary , Slovakia , and Romania joined. [ 120 ] Romania and Hungary later made major contributions to the Axis war against the Soviet Union, in Romania's case partially to recapture territory ceded to the Soviet Union . [ 121 ] Mediterranean (1940–1941) In early June 1940, the Italian Regia Aeronautica attacked and besieged Malta , a British possession. From late summer to early autumn, Italy conquered British Somaliland and made an incursion into British-held Egypt . In October, Italy attacked Greece , but the attack was repulsed with heavy Italian casualties; the campaign ended within months with minor territorial changes. [ 122 ] To assist Italy and prevent Britain from gaining a foothold, Germany prepared to invade the Balkans, which would threaten Romanian oil fields and strike against British dominance of the Mediterranean. [ 123 ] In December 1940, British Empire forces began counter-offensives against Italian forces in Egypt and Italian East Africa . [ 124 ] The offensives were successful; by early February 1941, Italy had lost control of eastern Libya, and large numbers of Italian troops had been taken prisoner. The Italian Navy also suffered significant defeats, with the Royal Navy putting three Italian battleships out of commission after a carrier attack at Taranto , and neutralising several more warships at the Battle of Cape Matapan . [ 125 ] Italian defeats prompted Germany to deploy an expeditionary force to North Africa; at the end of March 1941, Rommel 's Afrika Korps launched an offensive which drove back Commonwealth forces. [ 126 ] In less than a month, Axis forces advanced to western Egypt and besieged the port of Tobruk . [ 127 ] By late March 1941, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia signed the Tripartite Pact ; however, the Yugoslav government was overthrown two days later by pro-British nationalists. Germany and Italy responded with simultaneous invasions of both Yugoslavia and Greece , commencing on 6 April 1941 with a massive bombing of Belgrade ; both nations were forced to surrender within the month. [ 128 ] The airborne invasion of the Greek island of Crete at the end of May completed the German conquest of the Balkans. [ 129 ] Partisan warfare subsequently broke out against the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia , which continued until the end of the war. [ 130 ] In the Middle East in May, Commonwealth forces quashed an uprising in Iraq which had been supported by German aircraft from bases within Vichy-controlled Syria . [ 131 ] Between June and July, British-led forces invaded and occupied the French possessions of Syria and Lebanon , assisted by the Free French . [ 132 ] Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) With the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable, Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union made preparations for war. With the Soviets wary of mounting tensions with Germany, and the Japanese planning to take advantage of the European War by seizing resource-rich European possessions in Southeast Asia , the two powers signed the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact in April 1941. [ 133 ] By contrast, the Germans were steadily making preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union, massing forces on the Soviet border. [ 134 ] Hitler believed that the United Kingdom's refusal to end the war was based on the hope that the United States and the Soviet Union would enter the war against Germany. [ 135 ] On 31 July 1940, Hitler decided that the Soviet Union should be eliminated and aimed for the conquest of Ukraine , the Baltic states and Byelorussia . [ 136 ] However, other senior German officials like Ribbentrop saw an opportunity to create a Euro-Asian bloc against the British Empire by inviting the Soviet Union into the Tripartite Pact. [ 137 ] In November 1940, negotiations took place to determine if the Soviet Union would join the pact. The Soviets showed some interest but asked for concessions from Finland, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Japan that Germany considered unacceptable. On 18 December 1940, Hitler issued the directive to prepare for an invasion of the Soviet Union. [ 138 ] On 22 June 1941, Germany, supported by Italy and Romania, invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa , with Germany accusing the Soviets of plotting against them ; they were joined shortly by Finland and Hungary. [ 139 ] The primary targets of this surprise offensive [ 140 ] were the Baltic region , Moscow and Ukraine, with the ultimate goal of ending the 1941 campaign near the Arkhangelsk–Astrakhan line —from the Caspian to the White Seas . Hitler's objectives were to eliminate the Soviet Union as a military power, exterminate communism , generate Lebensraum ("living space") [ 141 ] by dispossessing the native population , [ 142 ] and guarantee access to the strategic resources needed to defeat Germany's remaining rivals. [ 143 ] Although the Red Army was preparing for strategic counter-offensives before the war, [ 144 ] Operation Barbarossa forced the Soviet supreme command to adopt strategic defence . During the summer, the Axis made significant gains into Soviet territory, inflicting immense losses in both personnel and materiel, mainly in massive encirclements around Minsk , Smolensk , and Uman .. Nazi policy entailed that Wehrmacht subject Soviet POWs to murderous treatment, executing all Jewish and Communist POWs immediately per the Commissar Order , and subjecting the remainder to forced marches to open-air concentration camps, where they were to be deliberately starved to death . By the end of the winter of 1941, 2.8 million Soviet POWs had died in German captivity. Some 3.3 million Soviet POWs would die in German captivity by the war's end in total, a nearly 60% mortality rate. [ 145 ] By mid-August, however, the German Army High Command decided to suspend the offensive of a considerably depleted Army Group Centre , and to divert the 2nd Panzer Group to reinforce troops advancing towards central Ukraine and Leningrad. [ 146 ] The Kiev offensive was overwhelmingly successful, resulting in encirclement and elimination of four Soviet armies, and made possible further advance into Crimea and industrially-developed eastern Ukraine (the First Battle of Kharkov ). [ 147 ] The diversion of three-quarters of the Axis troops and the majority of their air forces from France and the central Mediterranean to the Eastern Front [ 148 ] prompted the United Kingdom to reconsider its grand strategy . [ 149 ] In July, the UK and the Soviet Union formed a military alliance against Germany [ 150 ] and in August, the United Kingdom and the United States jointly issued the Atlantic Charter , which outlined British and American goals for the post-war world. [ 151 ] In late August the British and Soviets invaded neutral Iran to secure the Persian Corridor , Iran's oil fields , and preempt any Axis advances through Iran toward the Baku oil fields or India. [ 152 ] By October, Axis powers had achieved operational objectives in Ukraine and the Baltic region, with only the sieges of Leningrad [ 153 ] and Sevastopol continuing. [ 154 ] A major offensive against Moscow was renewed; after two months of fierce battles in increasingly harsh weather, the German army almost reached the outer suburbs of Moscow, where the exhausted troops [ 155 ] were forced to suspend the offensive. [ 156 ] Large territorial gains were made by Axis forces, but their campaign had failed to achieve its main objectives: two key cities remained in Soviet hands, the Soviet capability to resist was not broken, and the Soviet Union retained a considerable part of its military potential. The blitzkrieg phase of the war in Europe had ended. [ 157 ] By early December, freshly mobilised reserves [ 158 ] allowed the Soviets to achieve numerical parity with Axis troops. [ 159 ] This, as well as intelligence data which established that a minimal number of Soviet troops in the East would be sufficient to deter any attack by the Japanese Kwantung Army , [ 160 ] allowed the Soviets to begin a massive counter-offensive that started on 5 December all along the front and pushed German troops 100–250 kilometres (62–155 mi) west. [ 161 ] War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) Following the Japanese false flag Mukden incident in 1931, the Japanese shelling of the American gunboat USS Panay in 1937, and the 1937–1938 Nanjing Massacre , Japanese-American relations deteriorated . In 1939, the United States notified Japan that it would not be extending its trade treaty and American public opinion opposing Japanese expansionism led to a series of economic sanctions—the Export Control Acts —which banned US exports of chemicals, minerals and military parts to Japan, and increased economic pressure on the Japanese regime. [ 117 ] [ 162 ] [ 163 ] During 1939 Japan launched its first attack against Changsha , but was repulsed by late September. [ 164 ] Despite several offensives by both sides, by 1940 the war between China and Japan was at a stalemate. To increase pressure on China by blocking supply routes, and to better position Japanese forces in the event of a war with the Western powers, Japan invaded and occupied northern Indochina in September 1940. [ 165 ] Chinese nationalist forces launched a large-scale counter-offensive in early 1940. In August, Chinese communists launched an offensive in Central China ; [ 166 ] in retaliation, Japanese armies in North China implemented the Three Alls Policy , a massive scorched earth initiative to depopulate regions deemed hostile to Japanese occupation.. [ 167 ] [ 168 ] Continued antipathy between Chinese communist and nationalist forces culminated in armed clashes in January 1941 , effectively ending their co-operation. [ 169 ] In March, the Japanese 11th army attacked the headquarters of the nationalist Chinese 19th army but was repulsed during the Battle of Shanggao . [ 170 ] In September, Japan attempted to take the city of Changsha again and clashed with Chinese nationalist forces. [ 171 ] German successes in Europe prompted Japan to increase pressure on European governments in Southeast Asia . The Dutch government agreed to provide Japan with oil supplies from the Dutch East Indies , but negotiations for additional access to their resources ended in failure in June 1941. [ 172 ] In July 1941 Japan sent troops to southern Indochina, threatening British and Dutch possessions in the Far East. The United States, the United Kingdom, and other Western governments reacted to this move with a freeze on Japanese assets and a total oil embargo . [ 173 ] [ 174 ] At the same time, Japan was planning an invasion of the Soviet Far East , intending to take advantage of the German invasion in the west, but abandoned the operation after the sanctions. [ 175 ] Since early 1941, the United States and Japan had been engaged in negotiations in an attempt to improve their strained relations and end the war in China. Japan advanced a number of proposals which were dismissed by the Americans as inadequate. [ 176 ] At the same time the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands engaged in secret discussions for the joint defence of their territories, in the event of a Japanese attack against any of them. [ 177 ] Roosevelt reinforced the Philippines (an American protectorate scheduled for independence in 1946) and warned Japan that the United States would react to Japanese attacks against any "neighboring countries". [ 177 ] Frustrated at the lack of progress and pressured by American–British–Dutch sanctions, especially in oil, Japan prepared for war. Emperor Hirohito , after initial hesitation about Japan's chances of victory, [ 178 ] began to favour Japan's entry into the war. [ 179 ] As a result, Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe resigned. [ 180 ] [ 181 ] Hirohito refused the recommendation to appoint Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni in his place, choosing War Minister Hideki Tojo instead. [ 182 ] On 3 November, Nagano explained in detail the plan of the attack on Pearl Harbor to the Emperor. [ 183 ] On 5 November, Hirohito approved in imperial conference the operations plan for the war. [ 184 ] On 20 November, the new government presented an interim proposal as its final offer. It called for the end of American aid to China and for lifting the embargo on the supply of oil and other resources to Japan. In exchange, Japan promised not to launch any attacks in Southeast Asia and to withdraw its forces from southern Indochina. [ 176 ] The American counter-proposal of 26 November required that Japan evacuate all of China without conditions and conclude non-aggression pacts with all Pacific powers. [ 185 ] That meant Japan was essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions in China, or seizing the natural resources it needed in the Dutch East Indies by force; [ 186 ] [ 187 ] the Japanese military did not consider the former an option, and many officers considered the oil embargo an unspoken declaration of war. [ 188 ] Japan planned to seize European colonies in Asia to create a large defensive perimeter stretching into the Central Pacific. The Japanese would then be free to exploit the resources of Southeast Asia while exhausting the over-stretched Allies by fighting a defensive war. [ 189 ] To prevent American intervention while securing the perimeter, it was further planned to neutralise the United States Pacific Fleet and the American military presence in the Philippines from the outset. [ 190 ] On 7 December 1941 (8 December in Asian time zones), Japan attacked British and American holdings with near-simultaneous offensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific . [ 191 ] These included an attack on the American fleets at Pearl Harbor and the Philippines , as well as invasions of Guam , Wake Island , Malaya , [ 191 ] Thailand , and Hong Kong . [ 192 ] These attacks led the United States , United Kingdom , China, Australia, and several other states to formally declare war on Japan, whereas the Soviet Union, being heavily involved in large-scale hostilities with European Axis countries, maintained its neutrality agreement with Japan. [ 193 ] Germany, followed by the other Axis states, declared war on the United States [ 194 ] in solidarity with Japan, citing as justification the American attacks on German war vessels that had been ordered by Roosevelt. [ 139 ] [ 195 ] Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) On 1 January 1942, the Allied Big Four [ 196 ] —the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, and the United States—and 22 smaller or exiled governments issued the Declaration by United Nations , thereby affirming the Atlantic Charter [ 197 ] and agreeing not to sign a separate peace with the Axis powers. [ 198 ] During 1942, Allied officials debated on the appropriate grand strategy to pursue. All agreed that defeating Germany was the primary objective. The Americans favoured a straightforward, large-scale attack on Germany through France. The Soviets demanded a second front. The British argued that military operations should target peripheral areas to wear out German strength, leading to increasing demoralisation, and bolstering resistance forces ; Germany itself would be subject to a heavy bombing campaign. An offensive against Germany would then be launched primarily by Allied armour, without using large-scale armies. [ 199 ] Eventually, the British persuaded the Americans that a landing in France was infeasible in 1942 and they should instead focus on driving the Axis out of North Africa. [ 200 ] At the Casablanca Conference in early 1943, the Allies reiterated the statements issued in the 1942 Declaration and demanded the unconditional surrender of their enemies. The British and Americans agreed to continue to press the initiative in the Mediterranean by invading Sicily to fully secure the Mediterranean supply routes. [ 201 ] Although the British argued for further operations in the Balkans to bring Turkey into the war, in May 1943, the Americans extracted a British commitment to limit Allied operations in the Mediterranean to an invasion of the Italian mainland, and to invade France in 1944. [ 202 ] Pacific (1942–1943) By the end of April 1942, Japan and its ally Thailand had almost conquered Burma , Malaya , the Dutch East Indies , Singapore , and Rabaul , inflicting severe losses on Allied troops and taking a large number of prisoners. Japanese advances were accompanied by numerous atrocities, including the Sook Ching Massacre in Singapore. [ 203 ] Despite stubborn resistance by Filipino and US forces , the Philippine Commonwealth was eventually captured in May 1942, forcing its government into exile. Following the capture of Bataan, Japanese armies forced some 75,000 Filipino and American prisoners on a 42km death march , resulting in thousands of deaths. [ 204 ] On 16 April, in Burma, 7,000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during the Battle of Yenangyaung and rescued by the Chinese 38th Division. [ 205 ] Japanese forces achieved naval victories in the South China Sea , Java Sea , and Indian Ocean , [ 206 ] and bombed the Allied naval base at Darwin , Australia. In January 1942, the only Allied success against Japan was a Chinese victory at Changsha . [ 207 ] These easy victories over the unprepared US and European opponents left Japan overconfident, and overextended. [ 208 ] In early May 1942, Japan initiated operations to capture Port Moresby by amphibious assault and thus sever communications and supply lines between the United States and Australia. The planned invasion was thwarted when an Allied task force, centred on two American fleet carriers, fought Japanese naval forces to a draw in the Battle of the Coral Sea . [ 209 ] Japan's next plan, motivated by the earlier Doolittle Raid , was to seize Midway Atoll and lure American carriers into battle to be eliminated; as a diversion, Japan would also send forces to occupy the Aleutian Islands in Alaska. [ 210 ] In mid-May, Japan started the Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign in China, with the goal of inflicting retribution on the Chinese who aided the surviving American airmen in the Doolittle Raid by destroying Chinese air bases and fighting against the Chinese 23rd and 32nd Army Groups. [ 211 ] [ 212 ] In early June, Japan put its operations into action, but the Americans had broken Japanese naval codes in late May and were fully aware of the plans and order of battle, and used this knowledge to achieve a decisive victory at Midway over the Imperial Japanese Navy . [ 213 ] With its capacity for aggressive action greatly diminished as a result of the Midway battle, Japan attempted to capture Port Moresby by an overland campaign in the Territory of Papua . [ 214 ] The Americans planned a counterattack against Japanese positions in the southern Solomon Islands , primarily Guadalcanal , as a first step towards capturing Rabaul , the main Japanese base in Southeast Asia. [ 215 ] Both plans started in July, but by mid-September, the Battle for Guadalcanal took priority for the Japanese, and troops in New Guinea were ordered to withdraw from the Port Moresby area to the northern part of the island , where they faced Australian and United States troops in the Battle of Buna–Gona . [ 216 ] Guadalcanal soon became a focal point for both sides with heavy commitments of troops and ships in the battle for Guadalcanal, with Japanese forces suffering massive losses in the attrition, especially amongst their elite pilots. [ 217 ] By the start of 1943, the Japanese were defeated on the island and withdrew their troops . [ 218 ] In Burma, Commonwealth forces mounted two operations. The first was a disastrous offensive into the Arakan region in late 1942 that forced a retreat back to India by May 1943. [ 219 ] The second was the insertion of irregular forces behind Japanese frontlines in February which, by the end of April, had achieved mixed results. [ 220 ] Eastern Front (1942–1943) Despite considerable losses, in early 1942 Germany and its allies stopped a major Soviet offensive in central and southern Russia , keeping most territorial gains they had achieved during the previous year. [ 221 ] In May, the Germans defeated Soviet offensives in the Kerch Peninsula and at Kharkov . [ 222 ] The fortress city of Sevastopol, which the Red Army had held out against Axis siege for nearly 250 days, was finally seized with the use of massive artillery bombardments and poison gas. [ 223 ] In June 1942 launched their main summer offensive against southern Russia, to seize the oil fields of the Caucasus and occupy the Kuban steppe , while maintaining positions on the northern and central areas of the front. The Germans split Army Group South into two groups: Army Group A advanced to the lower Don River and struck south-east to the Caucasus, while Army Group B headed towards the Volga River . The Soviets decided to make their stand at Stalingrad on the Volga. [ 224 ] By mid-November, the Germans had nearly taken Stalingrad in bitter street fighting . The Soviets began their second winter counter-offensive, starting with an encirclement of the German Sixth Army at Stalingrad , [ 225 ] and an assault on the Rzhev salient near Moscow , though the latter failed. [ 226 ] By early February 1943, the German army had taken tremendous losses; German troops at Stalingrad had been defeated, [ 227 ] and the front-line had been pushed back beyond its position before the summer offensive. In mid-February, after the Soviet push had tapered off, the Germans launched another attack on Kharkov , creating a salient in their front line around the Soviet city of Kursk . [ 228 ] Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) Exploiting poor American naval command decisions, the German navy ravaged Allied shipping off the American Atlantic coast . [ 229 ] By November 1941, Commonwealth forces had launched a counter-offensive in North Africa, Operation Crusader , and reclaimed all the gains the Germans and Italians had made. [ 230 ] The Germans also launched a North African offensive in January, pushing the British back to positions at the Gazala line by early February, [ 231 ] followed by a temporary lull in combat which Germany used to prepare for their upcoming offensives. [ 232 ] Concerns that the Japanese might use bases in Vichy-held Madagascar caused the British to invade the island in early May 1942. [ 233 ] An Axis offensive in Libya forced an Allied retreat deep inside Egypt until Axis forces were stopped at El Alamein . [ 234 ] On the Continent, raids of Allied commandos on strategic targets, culminating in the failed Dieppe Raid , [ 235 ] demonstrated the Western Allies' inability to launch an invasion of continental Europe without much better preparation, equipment, and operational security. [ 236 ] In August 1942, the Allies succeeded in repelling a second attack against El Alamein [ 237 ] and, at a high cost, managed to deliver desperately needed supplies to the besieged Malta . [ 238 ] A few months later, the Allies commenced an attack of their own in Egypt, dislodging the Axis forces and beginning a drive west across Libya. [ 239 ] This attack was followed up shortly after by Anglo-American landings in French North Africa , which resulted in the region joining the Allies. [ 240 ] Hitler responded to the French colony's defection by ordering the occupation of Vichy France ; [ 240 ] although Vichy forces did not resist this violation of the armistice, they managed to scuttle their fleet to prevent its capture by German forces. [ 240 ] [ 241 ] Axis forces in Africa withdrew into Tunisia , which was conquered by the Allies in May 1943. [ 240 ] [ 242 ] In June 1943, the British and Americans began a strategic bombing campaign against Germany with a goal to disrupt the war economy, reduce morale, and " de-house " the civilian population. [ 243 ] The firebombing of Hamburg was among the first attacks in this campaign, inflicting significant casualties and considerable losses on infrastructure of this important industrial centre. [ 244 ] Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) After the Guadalcanal campaign, the Allies initiated several operations against Japan in the Pacific. In May 1943, Canadian and US forces were sent to eliminate Japanese forces from the Aleutians . [ 245 ] Soon after, the United States, with support from Australia, New Zealand and Pacific Islander forces, began major ground, sea and air operations to isolate Rabaul by capturing surrounding islands , and breach the Japanese Central Pacific perimeter at the Gilbert and Marshall Islands . [ 246 ] By the end of March 1944, the Allies had completed both of these objectives and had also neutralised the major Japanese base at Truk in the Caroline Islands . In April, the Allies launched an operation to retake Western New Guinea . [ 247 ] In the Soviet Union, both the Germans and the Soviets spent the spring and early summer of 1943 preparing for large offensives in central Russia . On 5 July 1943, Germany attacked Soviet forces around the Kursk Bulge . Within a week, German forces had exhausted themselves against the Soviets' well-constructed defences, [ 248 ] and for the first time in the war, Hitler cancelled an operation before it had achieved tactical or operational success. [ 249 ] This decision was partially affected by the Western Allies' invasion of Sicily launched on 9 July, which, combined with previous Italian failures, resulted in the ousting and arrest of Mussolini later that month. [ 250 ] On 12 July 1943, the Soviets launched their own counter-offensives , thereby nearly completely dispelling any chance of German victory or even stalemate in the east. The Soviet victory at Kursk marked the end of German superiority, [ 251 ] giving the Soviet Union the initiative on the Eastern Front. [ 252 ] [ 253 ] The Germans tried to stabilise their eastern front along the hastily fortified Panther–Wotan line , but the Soviets broke through it at Smolensk and the Lower Dnieper Offensive . [ 254 ] On 3 September 1943, the Western Allies invaded the Italian mainland , following Italy's armistice with the Allies and the ensuing German occupation of Italy. [ 255 ] Germany, with the help of the fascists, responded to the armistice by disarming Italian forces that were in many places without superior orders, seizing military control of Italian areas, [ 256 ] and creating a series of defensive lines. [ 257 ] German special forces then rescued Mussolini , who then soon established a new client state in German-occupied Italy named the Italian Social Republic , [ 258 ] causing an Italian civil war . The Western Allies fought through several lines until reaching the main German defensive line in mid-November. [ 259 ] German operations in the Atlantic also suffered. By May 1943, as Allied counter-measures became increasingly effective , the resulting sizeable German submarine losses forced a temporary halt of the German Atlantic naval campaign. [ 260 ] In November 1943, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill met with Chiang Kai-shek in Cairo and then with Joseph Stalin in Tehran . [ 261 ] The former conference determined the post-war return of Japanese territory [ 262 ] and the military planning for the Burma campaign , [ 263 ] while the latter included agreement that the Western Allies would invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months of Germany's defeat. [ 264 ] From November 1943, during the seven-week Battle of Changde , the Chinese awaited Allied relief as they forced Japan to fight a costly war of attrition. [ 265 ] [ 266 ] [ 267 ] In January 1944, the Allies launched a series of attacks in Italy against the line at Monte Cassino and tried to outflank it with landings at Anzio . [ 268 ] On 27 January 1944, Soviet troops launched a major offensive that expelled German forces from the Leningrad region , thereby ending the most lethal siege in history . [ 269 ] The following Soviet offensive was halted on the pre-war Estonian border by the German Army Group North aided by Estonians hoping to re-establish national independence . This delay slowed subsequent Soviet operations in the Baltic Sea region. [ 270 ] By late May 1944, the Soviets had liberated Crimea , largely expelled Axis forces from Ukraine , and made incursions into Romania , which were repulsed by the Axis troops. [ 271 ] The Allied offensives in Italy had succeeded and, at the cost of allowing several German divisions to retreat, Rome was captured on 4 June. [ 272 ] The Allies had mixed success in mainland Asia. In March 1944, the Japanese launched the first of two invasions, an operation against Allied positions in Assam, India , [ 273 ] and soon besieged Commonwealth positions at Imphal and Kohima . [ 274 ] In May 1944, British and Indian forces mounted a counter-offensive that drove Japanese troops back to Burma by July, [ 274 ] and Chinese forces that had invaded northern Burma in late 1943 besieged Japanese troops in Myitkyina . [ 275 ] The second Japanese invasion of China aimed to destroy China's main fighting forces, secure railways between Japanese-held territory and capture Allied airfields. [ 276 ] By June, the Japanese had conquered the province of Henan and begun a new attack on Changsha . [ 277 ] Allies Offensives (1944) On 6 June 1944 (commonly known as D-Day ), after three years of Soviet pressure, [ 278 ] the Western Allies invaded northern France . After reassigning several Allied divisions from Italy, they also attacked southern France . [ 279 ] These landings were successful and led to the defeat of the German Army units in France . Paris was liberated on 25 August by the local resistance assisted by the Free French Forces , both led by General Charles de Gaulle , [ 280 ] and the Western Allies continued to push back German forces in western Europe during the latter part of the year. An attempt to advance into northern Germany spearheaded by a major airborne operation in the Netherlands failed. [ 281 ] After that, the Western Allies slowly pushed into Germany, but failed to cross the Roer river . In Italy, the Allied advance slowed due to the last major German defensive line . [ 282 ] On 22 June, the Soviets launched a strategic offensive in Belarus that nearly destroyed the German Army Group Centre . [ 283 ] Soon after that, another Soviet strategic offensive forced German troops from Western Ukraine and Eastern Poland. The Soviet Red Army however halted in the Praga district on the other side of the Vistula as the Germans quelled the Warsaw Uprising initiated by the Home Army (the main faction of the Polish resistance , loyal to the non-communist government-in exile), killing over 150,000 Poles. [ 284 ] [ 285 ] The national uprising in Slovakia was also quelled by the Germans. [ 286 ] The Soviet Red Army 's strategic offensive in eastern Romania cut off and destroyed the considerable German troops there and triggered a successful coup d'état in Romania and in Bulgaria , followed by those countries' shift to the Allied side. [ 287 ] In September 1944, Soviet troops advanced into Yugoslavia and forced the rapid withdrawal of German Army Groups E and F in Greece , Albania , and Yugoslavia to rescue them from being cut off. [ 288 ] By this point, the communist-led Partisans under Marshal Josip Broz Tito , who had led an increasingly successful guerrilla campaign against the occupation since 1941, controlled much of the territory of Yugoslavia and engaged in delaying efforts against German forces further south. In northern Serbia , the Soviet Red Army , with limited support from Bulgarian forces, assisted the Partisans in a joint liberation of the capital city of Belgrade on 20 October. A few days later, the Soviets launched a massive assault against German-occupied Hungary that lasted until the fall of Budapest in February 1945. [ 289 ] Unlike rapid Soviet victories in the Balkans, bitter Finnish resistance to the Soviet offensive in the Karelian Isthmus denied the Soviets occupation of Finland and led to a Soviet-Finnish armistice on relatively mild conditions, [ 290 ] although Finland was obligated to fight their German former allies . [ 291 ] By the start of July 1944, Commonwealth forces in Southeast Asia had repelled the Japanese sieges in Assam , pushing the Japanese back to the Chindwin River [ 292 ] while the Chinese captured Myitkyina. In September 1944, Chinese forces captured Mount Song and reopened the Burma Road . [ 293 ] In China, the Japanese had more successes, having finally captured Changsha in mid-June and the city of Hengyang by early August. [ 294 ] Soon after, they invaded the province of Guangxi , winning major engagements against Chinese forces at Guilin and Liuzhou by the end of November [ 295 ] and successfully linking up their forces in China and Indochina by mid-December. [ 296 ] In the Pacific, US forces continued to push back the Japanese perimeter. In mid-June 1944, they began their offensive against the Mariana and Palau islands and decisively defeated Japanese forces in the Battle of the Philippine Sea . These defeats led to the resignation of the Japanese Prime Minister, Hideki Tojo , and provided the United States with air bases to launch intensive heavy bomber attacks on the Japanese home islands. In late October, American forces invaded the Filipino island of Leyte ; soon after, Allied naval forces scored another large victory in the Battle of Leyte Gulf , one of the largest naval battles in history. [ 297 ] Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) On 16 December 1944, Germany made a last attempt to split the Allies on the Western Front by using most of its remaining reserves to launch a massive counter-offensive in the Ardennes and along the French-German border , hoping to encircle large portions of Western Allied troops and prompt a political settlement after capturing their primary supply port at Antwerp . By 16 January 1945, this offensive had been repulsed with no strategic objectives fulfilled. [ 298 ] In Italy, the Western Allies remained stalemated at the German defensive line. In mid-January 1945, the Red Army attacked in Poland, pushing from the Vistula to the Oder river in Germany, and overran East Prussia . [ 299 ] On 4 February Soviet, British, and US leaders met for the Yalta Conference . They agreed on the occupation of post-war Germany, and on when the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan. [ 300 ] In February, the Soviets entered Silesia and Pomerania , while the Western Allies entered western Germany and closed to the Rhine river. By March, the Western Allies crossed the Rhine north and south of the Ruhr , encircling the German Army Group B . [ 301 ] In early March, in an attempt to protect its last oil reserves in Hungary and retake Budapest, Germany launched its last major offensive against Soviet troops near Lake Balaton . Within two weeks, the offensive had been repulsed, the Soviets advanced to Vienna , and captured the city. In early April, Soviet troops captured Königsberg , while the Western Allies finally pushed forward in Italy and swept across western Germany capturing Hamburg and Nuremberg . American and Soviet forces met at the Elbe river on 25 April, leaving unoccupied pockets in southern Germany and around Berlin. Soviet troops stormed and captured Berlin in late April. [ 302 ] In Italy, German forces surrendered on 29 April, while the Italian Social Republic capitulated two days later. On 30 April, the Reichstag was captured, signalling the military defeat of Nazi Germany. [ 303 ] Major changes in leadership occurred on both sides during this period. On 12 April, President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by his vice president, Harry S. Truman . [ 304 ] Benito Mussolini was killed by Italian partisans on 28 April. [ 305 ] On 30 April, Hitler committed suicide in his headquarters , and was succeeded by Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz (as President of the Reich ) and Joseph Goebbels (as Chancellor of the Reich ). Goebbels also committed suicide on the following day and was replaced by Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk , in what would later be known as the Flensburg Government . Total and unconditional surrender in Europe was signed on 7 and 8 May , to be effective by the end of 8 May . [ 306 ] German Army Group Centre resisted in Prague until 11 May. [ 307 ] On 23 May all remaining members of the German government were arrested by Allied forces in Flensburg . On 5 June all German political and military institutions were placed under Allied control through the Berlin Declaration . [ 308 ] In the Pacific theatre, American forces accompanied by the forces of the Philippine Commonwealth advanced in the Philippines , clearing Leyte by the end of April 1945. They landed on Luzon in January 1945 and recaptured Manila in March, during which Japanese forces killed 100,000 Filipino civilians in the city. Fighting continued on Luzon, Mindanao , and other islands of the Philippines until the end of the war . [ 309 ] Meanwhile, the United States Army Air Forces launched a massive firebombing campaign of strategic cities in Japan in an effort to destroy Japanese war industry and civilian morale. A devastating bombing raid on Tokyo of 9–10 March was the deadliest conventional bombing raid in history. [ 310 ] In May 1945, Australian troops landed in Borneo , overrunning the oilfields there. British, American, and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northern Burma in March, and the British pushed on to reach Rangoon by 3 May. [ 311 ] Chinese forces started a counterattack in the Battle of West Hunan that occurred between 6 April and 7 June 1945. American naval and amphibious forces also moved towards Japan, taking Iwo Jima by March, and Okinawa by the end of June. [ 312 ] At the same time, a naval blockade by submarines was strangling Japan's economy and drastically reducing its ability to supply overseas forces. [ 313 ] [ 314 ] On 11 July, Allied leaders met in Potsdam, Germany . They confirmed earlier agreements about Germany, [ 315 ] and the American, British and Chinese governments reiterated the demand for unconditional surrender of Japan, specifically stating that " the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction ". [ 316 ] During this conference, the United Kingdom held its general election , and Clement Attlee replaced Churchill as Prime Minister. [ 317 ] The call for unconditional surrender was rejected by the Japanese government, which believed it would be capable of negotiating for more favourable surrender terms. [ 318 ] In early August, the United States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . Between the two bombings, the Soviets, pursuant to the Yalta agreement, declared war on Japan , invaded Japanese-held Manchuria and quickly defeated the Kwantung Army , which was the largest Japanese fighting force. [ 319 ] These two events persuaded previously adamant Imperial Army leaders to accept surrender terms. [ 320 ] The Red Army also captured the southern part of Sakhalin Island and the Kuril Islands . On the night of 9–10 August 1945, Emperor Hirohito announced his decision to accept the terms demanded by the Allies in the Potsdam Declaration . [ 321 ] On 15 August, the Emperor communicated this decision to the Japanese people through a speech broadcast on the radio ( Gyokuon-hōsō , literally "broadcast in the Emperor's voice"). [ 322 ] On 15 August 1945, Japan surrendered , with the surrender documents finally signed at Tokyo Bay on the deck of the American battleship USS Missouri on 2 September 1945, ending the war. [ 323 ] Aftermath The Allies established occupation administrations in Austria and Germany , both initially divided between western and eastern occupation zones controlled by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union, respectively. However, their paths soon diverged. In Germany, the western and eastern occupation zones officially ended in 1949, with the respective zones becoming separate countries, West Germany and East Germany . [ 324 ] In Austria, however, occupation continued until 1955, when a joint settlement between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union permitted the reunification of Austria as a democratic state officially non-aligned with any political bloc (although in practice having better relations with the Western Allies). A denazification program in Germany led to the prosecution of Nazi war criminals in the Nuremberg trials and the removal of ex-Nazis from power, although this policy moved towards amnesty and re-integration of ex-Nazis into West German society. [ 325 ] Germany lost a quarter of its pre-war (1937) territory. Among the eastern territories, Silesia , Neumark and most of Pomerania were taken over by Poland, [ 326 ] and East Prussia was divided between Poland and the Soviet Union, followed by the expulsion to Germany of the nine million Germans from these provinces, [ 327 ] [ 328 ] as well as three million Germans from the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia. By the 1950s, one-fifth of West Germans were refugees from the east. The Soviet Union also took over the Polish provinces east of the Curzon Line , [ 329 ] from which two million Poles were expelled . [ 328 ] [ 330 ] North-east Romania, [ 331 ] [ 332 ] parts of eastern Finland, [ 333 ] and the Baltic states were annexed into the Soviet Union . [ 334 ] [ 335 ] Italy lost its monarchy , colonial empire , and some European territories . [ 336 ] In an effort to maintain world peace , [ 337 ] the Allies formed the United Nations , [ 338 ] which officially came into existence on 24 October 1945, [ 339 ] and adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 as a common standard for all member nations . [ 340 ] The great powers that were the victors of the war—France, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and the United States—became the permanent members of the UN's Security Council . [ 341 ] The five permanent members remain so to the present, although there have been two seat changes, between the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China in 1971, and between the Soviet Union and its successor state , the Russian Federation , following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. The alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had begun to deteriorate even before the war was over. [ 342 ] Besides Germany, the rest of Europe was also divided into Western and Soviet spheres of influence . [ 343 ] Most eastern and central European countries fell into the Soviet sphere , which led to the establishment of Communist-led regimes, with full or partial support of the Soviet occupation authorities. As a result, East Germany , [ 344 ] Poland , Hungary , Romania , Bulgaria , Czechoslovakia , and Albania [ 345 ] became Soviet satellite states . Communist Yugoslavia conducted a fully independent policy , causing tension with the Soviet Union . [ 346 ] A communist uprising in Greece was put down with Anglo-American support and the country remained aligned with the West. [ 347 ] Post-war division of the world was formalised by two international military alliances, the United States-led NATO and the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact . [ 348 ] The long period of political tensions and military competition between them—the Cold War —would be accompanied by an unprecedented arms race and number of proxy wars throughout the world. [ 349 ] In Asia, the United States led the occupation of Japan and administered Japan's former islands in the Western Pacific, while the Soviets annexed South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands . [ 350 ] Korea , formerly under Japanese colonial rule , was divided and occupied by the Soviet Union in the North and the United States in the South between 1945 and 1948. Separate republics emerged on both sides of the 38th parallel in 1948, each claiming to be the legitimate government for all of Korea, which led ultimately to the Korean War . [ 351 ] In China, nationalist and communist forces resumed the civil war in June 1946. Communist forces prevailed and established the People's Republic of China on the mainland, while nationalist forces retreated to Taiwan in 1949. [ 352 ] In the Middle East, the Arab rejection of the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine and the creation of Israel marked the escalation of the Arab–Israeli conflict . While European powers attempted to retain some or all of their colonial empires , their losses of prestige and resources during the war rendered this unsuccessful, leading to decolonisation . [ 353 ] [ 354 ] The global economy suffered heavily from the war, although participating nations were affected differently. The United States emerged much richer than any other nation, leading to a baby boom , and by 1950 its gross domestic product per person was much greater than that of any of the other powers, and it dominated the world economy. [ 355 ] The Allied occupational authorities pursued a policy of industrial disarmament in Western Germany from 1945 to 1948. [ 356 ] Due to international trade interdependencies, this policy led to an economic stagnation in Europe and delayed European recovery from the war for several years. [ 357 ] [ 358 ] At the Bretton Woods Conference in July 1944, the Allied nations drew up an economic framework for the post-war world. The agreement created the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), which later became part of the World Bank Group . The Bretton Woods system lasted until 1973. [ 359 ] Recovery began with the mid-1948 currency reform in West Germany , and was sped up by the liberalisation of European economic policy that the US Marshall Plan economic aid (1948–1951) both directly and indirectly caused. [ 360 ] [ 361 ] The post-1948 West German recovery has been called the German economic miracle . [ 362 ] Italy also experienced an economic boom [ 363 ] and the French economy rebounded . [ 364 ] By contrast, the United Kingdom was in a state of economic ruin, [ 365 ] and although receiving a quarter of the total Marshall Plan assistance, more than any other European country, [ 366 ] it continued in relative economic decline for decades. [ 367 ] The Soviet Union, despite enormous human and material losses, also experienced rapid increases in production in the immediate post-war era, [ 368 ] having seized and transferred most of Germany's industrial plants and exacted war reparations from its satellite states. [ d ] [ 369 ] Japan recovered much later. [ 370 ] China returned to its pre-war industrial production by 1952. [ 371 ] Impact Casualties and war crimes An estimated 60 million to more than 75 million people died in the war including at least 20 million who died from deprivation, famine and disease. [ 372 ] [ 373 ] [ 374 ] [ 375 ] The majority of these deaths were on the Eastern Front and the Chinese Theatre . [ 376 ] The Soviet Union lost around 27 million people [ 377 ] including 8.7 million military and 19 million civilian deaths. [ 378 ] A quarter of the Soviet population were wounded or killed. [ 379 ] Germany sustained 5.3 million military losses, mostly on the Eastern Front and during the final battles in Germany. [ 380 ] An estimated 11 [ 381 ] to 17 million [ 382 ] civilians died as a direct or as an indirect result of Hitler's racist policies , including mass killing of around 6 million Jews , along with Roma , homosexuals , at least 1.9 million ethnic Poles [ 383 ] [ 384 ] and millions of other Slavs (including Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians), and other ethnic and minority groups . [ 385 ] [ 382 ] Between 1941 and 1945, more than 1,200,000 Yugoslavians died. [ 386 ] 200,000 were ethnic Serbs , along with Roma and Jews, were persecuted and killed by the Axis-aligned Croatian Ustaše in Yugoslavia . [ 387 ] Concurrently, Muslims and Croats were persecuted and killed by Serb nationalist Chetniks , [ 388 ] with an estimated 50,000–68,000 victims (of which 41,000 were civilians). [ 389 ] Also, more than 100,000 Poles were massacred by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army in the Volhynia massacres , between 1943 and 1945. [ 390 ] At the same time, about 10,000–15,000 Ukrainians were killed by the Polish Home Army and other units in reprisal attacks. [ 391 ] The number of deaths resulting from the war in Asia and the Pacific is contested. Estimates of Chinese deaths range from 8 million to over 20 million. [ e ] Arne Westad estimates 14 million Chinese died directly from war, of which 2 million were soldiers and the rest civilians. [ 394 ] Rana Mitter considers Westad's figures conservative. [ 398 ] An estimated 500,000 died as a result of Nationalist forces flooding the Yellow River . [ 399 ] In the Nanking Massacre , between 100,000 and 200,000 Chinese civilians and POWs were killed by Japanese forces, while another 20,000 were raped. [ 44 ] Another 2.7 million Chinese civilians were killed by Japanese forces during the Three Alls policy . [ 400 ] Japanese forces killed between 5 million and 10 million civilians in Southeast Asia. [ 401 ] [ 402 ] At least a million civilians died in Indochina , while as many as 4 million died in the Dutch East Indies, 3 million of which died on Java from famine. Between 500,000 and 1,000,000 Filipino civilians died during the Japanese occupation and American liberation. [ 403 ] [ 404 ] Estimates of the number of people killed by Japanese forces in all theatres are as high as 30 million. [ 405 ] Axis forces employed biological and chemical weapons . The Imperial Japanese Army used a variety of such weapons during its invasion and occupation of China ( see Unit 731 ) [ 406 ] [ 407 ] and in early conflicts against the Soviets . [ 408 ] Both the Germans and the Japanese tested such weapons against civilians, [ 409 ] and sometimes on prisoners of war . [ 410 ] The Soviet Union was responsible for the Katyn massacre of 22,000 Polish officers, [ 411 ] and the imprisonment or execution of hundreds of thousands of political prisoners by the NKVD secret police, along with mass civilian deportations to Siberia , in the Baltic states and eastern Poland annexed by the Red Army. [ 412 ] Soviet soldiers committed mass rapes in occupied territories, especially in Germany . [ 413 ] [ 414 ] The exact number of German women and girls raped by Soviet troops during the war and occupation is uncertain, but historians estimate their numbers are likely in the hundreds of thousands, and possibly as many as two million, [ 415 ] while figures for women raped by German soldiers in the Soviet Union go as far as ten million. [ 416 ] [ 417 ] The mass bombing of cities in Europe and Asia has often been called a war crime, although no positive or specific customary international humanitarian law with respect to aerial warfare existed before or during World War II. [ 418 ] The USAAF bombed a total of 67 Japanese cities , killing 393,000 civilians, including the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki , and destroying 65% of built-up areas. [ 419 ] Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour Nazi Germany , under the dictatorship of Adolf Hitler, was responsible for killing about 6 million Jews in what is now known as the Holocaust . They also killed an additional 4 million others who were deemed " unworthy of life " (including the disabled and mentally ill , Soviet prisoners of war , Romani , homosexuals , Freemasons , and Jehovah's Witnesses ) as part of a program of deliberate extermination, in effect becoming a " genocidal state". [ 420 ] Soviet POWs were kept in especially unbearable conditions , and 3.6 million Soviet POWs out of 5.7 million died in Nazi camps during the war. [ 421 ] [ 422 ] In addition to concentration camps , death camps were created in Nazi Germany to exterminate people on an industrial scale. Nazi Germany extensively used forced labourers ; about 12 million Europeans from German-occupied countries were abducted and used as a slave work force in German industry, agriculture and war economy. [ 423 ] The Soviet Gulag became a de facto system of deadly camps during 1942–1943, when wartime privation and hunger caused numerous deaths of inmates, [ 425 ] including foreign citizens of Poland and other countries occupied in 1939–1940 by the Soviet Union, as well as Axis POWs . [ 426 ] By the end of the war, most Soviet POWs liberated from Nazi camps and many repatriated civilians were detained in special filtration camps where they were subjected to NKVD evaluation, and 226,127 were sent to the Gulag as real or perceived Nazi collaborators. [ 427 ] Japanese prisoner-of-war camps , many of which were used as labour camps, also had high death rates. The International Military Tribunal for the Far East found the death rate of Western prisoners was 27 percent (for American POWs, 37 percent), [ 428 ] seven times that of POWs under the Germans and Italians. [ 429 ] While 37,583 prisoners from the UK, 28,500 from the Netherlands, and 14,473 from the United States were released after the surrender of Japan , the number of Chinese released was only 56. [ 430 ] At least five million Chinese civilians from northern China and Manchukuo were enslaved between 1935 and 1941 by the East Asia Development Board , or Kōain , for work in mines and war industries. After 1942, the number reached 10 million. [ 431 ] In Java , between 4 and 10 million rōmusha (Japanese: "manual labourers"), were forced to work by the Japanese military. About 270,000 of these Javanese labourers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in Southeast Asia, and only 52,000 were repatriated to Java. [ 432 ] Occupation In Europe, occupation came under two forms. In Western, Northern, and Central Europe (France, Norway, Denmark, the Low Countries, and the annexed portions of Czechoslovakia ) Germany established economic policies through which it collected roughly 69.5 billion reichsmarks (27.8 billion US dollars) by the end of the war; this figure does not include the plunder of industrial products, military equipment, raw materials and other goods. [ 433 ] Thus, the income from occupied nations was over 40 percent of the income Germany collected from taxation, a figure which increased to nearly 40 percent of total German income as the war went on. [ 434 ] In the East, the intended gains of Lebensraum were never attained as fluctuating front-lines and Soviet scorched earth policies denied resources to the German invaders. [ 435 ] Unlike in the West, the Nazi racial policy encouraged extreme brutality against what it considered to be the " inferior people " of Slavic descent; most German advances were thus followed by mass atrocities and war crimes . [ 436 ] The Nazis killed an estimated 2.8 million ethnic Poles in addition to Polish-Jewish victims of the Holocaust . [ 437 ] Although by 1942 resistance groups formed in most occupied territories, [ 438 ] the assessments of the effectiveness of Soviet partisans [ 439 ] and French Resistance [ 440 ] suggests that they did not significantly hamper German operations until late 1943. In Asia, Japan termed nations under its occupation as being part of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere , essentially a Japanese hegemony which it claimed was for purposes of liberating colonised peoples. [ 441 ] Although Japanese forces were sometimes welcomed as liberators from European domination, Japanese war crimes frequently turned local public opinion against them. [ 442 ] During Japan's initial conquest, it captured 4,000,000 barrels (640,000 m 3 ) of oil (~550,000 tonnes) left behind by retreating Allied forces; and by 1943, was able to get production in the Dutch East Indies up to 50 million barrels (7,900,000 m 3 ) of oil (~6.8 million tonnes), 76 percent of its 1940 output rate. [ 442 ] Home fronts and production In the 1930s, Britain and the United States together controlled almost 75% of world mineral output—essential for projecting military power. [ 443 ] In Europe, before the outbreak of the war, the Allies had significant advantages in both population and economics. In 1938, the Western Allies (United Kingdom, France, Poland and the British Dominions) had a 30 percent larger population and a 30 percent higher gross domestic product than the European Axis powers (Germany and Italy); including colonies, the Allies had more than a 5:1 advantage in population and a nearly 2:1 advantage in GDP. [ 444 ] In Asia at the same time, China had roughly six times the population of Japan but only an 89 percent higher GDP; this reduces to three times the population and only a 38 percent higher GDP if Japanese colonies are included. [ 444 ] The United States produced about two-thirds of all munitions used by the Allies in World War II, including warships, transports, warplanes, artillery, tanks, trucks, and ammunition. [ 445 ] Although the Allies' economic and population advantages were largely mitigated during the initial rapid blitzkrieg attacks of Germany and Japan, they became the decisive factor by 1942, after the United States and Soviet Union joined the Allies and the war evolved into one of attrition . [ 446 ] While the Allies' ability to out-produce the Axis was partly due to more access to natural resources, other factors, such as Germany and Japan's reluctance to employ women in the labour force , [ 447 ] Allied strategic bombing , [ 448 ] and Germany's late shift to a war economy [ 449 ] contributed significantly. Additionally, neither Germany nor Japan planned to fight a protracted war, and had not equipped themselves to do so. [ 450 ] To improve their production, Germany and Japan used millions of slave labourers ; [ 451 ] Germany enslaved about 12 million people, mostly from Eastern Europe, [ 423 ] while Japan used more than 18 million people in Far East Asia. [ 431 ] [ 432 ] Advances in technology and its application Aircraft were used for reconnaissance , as fighters , bombers , and ground-support , and each role developed considerably. Innovations included airlift (the capability to quickly move limited high-priority supplies, equipment, and personnel); [ 452 ] and strategic bombing (the bombing of enemy industrial and population centres to destroy the enemy's ability to wage war). [ 453 ] Anti-aircraft weaponry also advanced, including defences such as radar and surface-to-air artillery, in particular the introduction of the proximity fuze . The use of the jet aircraft was pioneered and led to jets becoming standard in air forces worldwide. [ 454 ] Advances were made in nearly every aspect of naval warfare , most notably with aircraft carriers and submarines . Although aeronautical warfare had relatively little success at the start of the war, actions at Taranto , Pearl Harbor , and the Coral Sea established the carrier as the dominant capital ship (in place of the battleship). [ 455 ] [ 456 ] [ 457 ] In the Atlantic, escort carriers became a vital part of Allied convoys, increasing the effective protection radius and helping to close the Mid-Atlantic gap . [ 458 ] Carriers were also more economical than battleships due to the relatively low cost of aircraft [ 459 ] and because they are not required to be as heavily armoured. [ 460 ] Submarines, which had proved to be an effective weapon during the First World War , [ 461 ] were expected by all combatants to be important in the second. The British focused development on anti-submarine weaponry and tactics, such as sonar and convoys, while Germany focused on improving its offensive capability, with designs such as the Type VII submarine and wolfpack tactics. [ 462 ] Gradually, improving Allied technologies such as the Leigh Light , Hedgehog , Squid , and homing torpedoes proved effective against German submarines. [ 463 ] Land warfare changed from the static frontlines of trench warfare of World War I, which had relied on improved artillery that outmatched the speed of both infantry and cavalry , to increased mobility and combined arms . The tank , which had been used predominantly for infantry support in the First World War, had evolved into the primary weapon. [ 464 ] In the late 1930s, tank design was considerably more advanced than it had been during World War I, [ 465 ] and advances continued throughout the war with increases in speed, armour and firepower. [ 466 ] [ 467 ] At the start of the war, most commanders thought enemy tanks should be met by tanks with superior specifications. [ 468 ] This idea was challenged by the poor performance of the relatively light early tank guns against armour, and German doctrine of avoiding tank-versus-tank combat. This, along with Germany's use of combined arms, were among the key elements of their highly successful blitzkrieg tactics across Poland and France. [ 464 ] Many means of destroying tanks , including indirect artillery , anti-tank guns (both towed and self-propelled ), mines , short-ranged infantry antitank weapons, and other tanks were used. [ 468 ] Even with large-scale mechanisation, infantry remained the backbone of all forces, [ 469 ] and throughout the war, most infantry were equipped similarly to World War I. [ 470 ] The portable machine gun spread, a notable example being the German MG 34 , and various submachine guns which were suited to close combat in urban and jungle settings. [ 470 ] The assault rifle , a late war development incorporating many features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the standard post-war infantry weapon for most armed forces. [ 471 ] Most major belligerents attempted to solve the problems of complexity and security involved in using large codebooks for cryptography by designing ciphering machines, the most well-known being the German Enigma machine . [ 472 ] Development of SIGINT ( sig nals int elligence) and cryptanalysis enabled the countering process of decryption. Notable examples were the Allied decryption of Japanese naval codes [ 473 ] and British Ultra , a pioneering method for decoding Enigma that benefited from information given to the United Kingdom by the Polish Cipher Bureau , which had been decoding early versions of Enigma before the war. [ 474 ] Another component of military intelligence was deception , which the Allies used to great effect in operations such as Mincemeat and Bodyguard . [ 473 ] [ 475 ] Other technological and engineering feats achieved during, or as a result of, the war include the world's first programmable computers ( Z3 , Colossus , and ENIAC ), guided missiles and modern rockets , the Manhattan Project 's development of nuclear weapons , operations research , the development of artificial harbours , and oil pipelines under the English Channel . [ 476 ] [ 477 ] Although penicillin was discovered before the war, the development ] of industrial production technology as well as the mass production and use began during the war. [ 478 ] See also Greatest Generation – Cohort born from 1901 to 1927 Opposition to World War II World War III – Hypothetical future global conflict Notes ^ While various other dates have been proposed as the date on which World War II began or ended, this is the period most frequently cited. ^ Often abbreviated as WWII or WW2 ^ The UK declared war on Germany at 11 am. France followed 6 hours later at 5 pm. ^ Reparations were exacted from East Germany , Hungary , Romania , and Bulgaria using Soviet-dominated joint enterprises. The Soviet Union also instituted trading arrangements deliberately designed to favour the country. Moscow controlled the Communist parties that ruled the satellite states, and they followed orders from the Kremlin. Historian Mark Kramer concludes: "The net outflow of resources from eastern Europe to the Soviet Union was approximately $15 billion to $20 billion in the first decade after World War II, an amount roughly equal to the total aid provided by the United States to western Europe under the Marshall Plan ." ^ Multiple sources: [ 392 ] [ 393 ] [ 394 ] [ 395 ] [ 396 ] [ 397 ] References ^ Weinberg 2005 , p. 6. ^ Wells, Anne Sharp (2014) Historical Dictionary of World War II: The War against Germany and Italy . Rowman & Littlefield . p. 7. ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Ferris, John; Mawdsley, Evan (2015). 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Past & Present (258): 246– 281. doi : 10.1093/pastj/gtab042 . ISSN 0031-2746 . also see online review Archived 4 May 2024 at the Wayback Machine Gerlach, Christian (2024). Conditions of Violence . Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. ISBN 978-3-1115-6873-7 . External links Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Travel information from Wikivoyage West Point Maps of the European War . Archived 23 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine . West Point Maps of the Asian-Pacific War . Archived 23 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine . Atlas of the World Battle Fronts (July 1943 – August 1945) v t e World War II v t e Outline Battles Operations Leaders Allied Axis Commanders Casualties Conferences Outline Battles Operations Operations Leaders Allied Axis Commanders Allied Axis Commanders Casualties Conferences General Topics Air warfare of World War II In Europe Blitzkrieg Comparative military ranks Cryptography Declarations of war Diplomacy Governments in exile Home front Australian United Kingdom United States Lend-Lease Manhattan Project British contribution Military awards Military equipment Military production Naval history Nazi plunder Opposition Technology Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Total war Strategic bombing Puppet states Women Art and World War II Music in World War II Weather events during World War II Theaters Asia and Pacific China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean Europe Western Front Eastern Front Mediterranean and Middle East North Africa East Africa Italy West Africa Atlantic timeline Americas Aftermath Chinese Civil War Cold War Decolonization Division of Korea First Indochina War Expulsion of Germans Greek Civil War Indonesian National Revolution Keelhaul Marshall Plan Occupation of Germany Occupation of Japan Osoaviakhim Paperclip Soviet occupations Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Territorial changes of Germany Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany United Nations War crimes Allied war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes German war crimes forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials Italian war crimes Japanese war crimes Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Croatian war crimes Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Romanian war crimes Sexual violence German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate Topics Air warfare of World War II In Europe Blitzkrieg Comparative military ranks Cryptography Declarations of war Diplomacy Governments in exile Home front Australian United Kingdom United States Lend-Lease Manhattan Project British contribution Military awards Military equipment Military production Naval history Nazi plunder Opposition Technology Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Total war Strategic bombing Puppet states Women Art and World War II Music in World War II Weather events during World War II Air warfare of World War II In Europe In Europe Blitzkrieg Comparative military ranks Cryptography Declarations of war Diplomacy Governments in exile Home front Australian United Kingdom United States Australian United Kingdom United States Lend-Lease Manhattan Project British contribution British contribution Military awards Military equipment Military production Naval history Nazi plunder Opposition Technology Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Total war Strategic bombing Puppet states Women Art and World War II Music in World War II Weather events during World War II Theaters Asia and Pacific China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean Europe Western Front Eastern Front Mediterranean and Middle East North Africa East Africa Italy West Africa Atlantic timeline Americas Asia and Pacific China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean Europe Western Front Eastern Front Western Front Eastern Front Mediterranean and Middle East North Africa East Africa Italy North Africa East Africa Italy West Africa Atlantic timeline timeline Americas Aftermath Chinese Civil War Cold War Decolonization Division of Korea First Indochina War Expulsion of Germans Greek Civil War Indonesian National Revolution Keelhaul Marshall Plan Occupation of Germany Occupation of Japan Osoaviakhim Paperclip Soviet occupations Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Territorial changes of Germany Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany United Nations Chinese Civil War Cold War Decolonization Division of Korea First Indochina War Expulsion of Germans Greek Civil War Indonesian National Revolution Keelhaul Marshall Plan Occupation of Germany Occupation of Japan Osoaviakhim Paperclip Soviet occupations Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Territorial changes of Germany Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany United Nations War crimes Allied war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes German war crimes forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials Italian war crimes Japanese war crimes Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Croatian war crimes Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Romanian war crimes Sexual violence German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate Allied war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes German war crimes forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials Italian war crimes Japanese war crimes Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Croatian war crimes Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Romanian war crimes Sexual violence German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate Participants Allies Algeria Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria ( from September 1944 ) Canada China Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Ethiopia Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) Finland ( from September 1944 ) France Free France Greece India ( Indian Army ) Italy ( from September 1943 ) Liberia Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Newfoundland New Zealand Norway Philippines Poland Romania ( from August 1944 ) Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Soviet Union Tuva United Kingdom British Empire United States Puerto Rico Yugoslavia Axis Albania protectorate Bulgaria (until September 1944) State of Burma Republic of China (Wang Jingwei) Independent State of Croatia Finland (until September 1944) German Reich Hungary Azad Hind Iraq Italy (until September 1943) Italian Social Republic Empire of Japan Manchukuo Mengjiang Philippines Romania (until August 1944) Slovak Republic Thailand Vichy France Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Collaboration Neutral Afghanistan Andorra Bhutan Ireland Liechtenstein Monaco Portugal San Marino Saudi Arabia Spain Sweden Switzerland Tibet Turkey Vatican City Yemen Resistance Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech lands Denmark Dutch East Indies Estonia Ethiopia France Germany Greece Hong Kong Italy Japan Jews Korea Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malaya Netherlands Northeast China Norway Philippines Poland Romania Thailand Soviet Union Slovakia Western Ukraine Vietnam Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Yugoslavia POWs Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union German prisoners Soviet Union Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union Japanese prisoners Soviet Union German atrocities against Polish POWs Soviet prisoners Finland atrocities by Germans Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union Allies Algeria Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria ( from September 1944 ) Canada China Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Ethiopia Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) Finland ( from September 1944 ) France Free France Greece India ( Indian Army ) Italy ( from September 1943 ) Liberia Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Newfoundland New Zealand Norway Philippines Poland Romania ( from August 1944 ) Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Soviet Union Tuva United Kingdom British Empire United States Puerto Rico Yugoslavia Algeria Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria ( from September 1944 ) Canada China Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Ethiopia Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) Finland ( from September 1944 ) France Free France Greece India ( Indian Army ) Italy ( from September 1943 ) Liberia Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Newfoundland New Zealand Norway Philippines Poland Romania ( from August 1944 ) Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Soviet Union Tuva United Kingdom British Empire British Empire United States Puerto Rico Puerto Rico Yugoslavia Axis Albania protectorate Bulgaria (until September 1944) State of Burma Republic of China (Wang Jingwei) Independent State of Croatia Finland (until September 1944) German Reich Hungary Azad Hind Iraq Italy (until September 1943) Italian Social Republic Empire of Japan Manchukuo Mengjiang Philippines Romania (until August 1944) Slovak Republic Thailand Vichy France Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Collaboration Albania protectorate Bulgaria (until September 1944) State of Burma Republic of China (Wang Jingwei) Independent State of Croatia Finland (until September 1944) German Reich Hungary Azad Hind Iraq Italy (until September 1943) Italian Social Republic Italian Social Republic Empire of Japan Manchukuo Mengjiang Philippines Romania (until August 1944) Slovak Republic Thailand Vichy France Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Collaboration Neutral Afghanistan Andorra Bhutan Ireland Liechtenstein Monaco Portugal San Marino Saudi Arabia Spain Sweden Switzerland Tibet Turkey Vatican City Yemen Afghanistan Andorra Bhutan Ireland Liechtenstein Monaco Portugal San Marino Saudi Arabia Spain Sweden Switzerland Tibet Turkey Vatican City Yemen Resistance Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech lands Denmark Dutch East Indies Estonia Ethiopia France Germany Greece Hong Kong Italy Japan Jews Korea Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malaya Netherlands Northeast China Norway Philippines Poland Romania Thailand Soviet Union Slovakia Western Ukraine Vietnam Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Yugoslavia Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech lands Denmark Dutch East Indies Estonia Ethiopia France Germany Greece Hong Kong Italy Japan Jews Korea Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malaya Netherlands Northeast China Norway Philippines Poland Romania Thailand Soviet Union Slovakia Western Ukraine Vietnam Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Yugoslavia POWs Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union German prisoners Soviet Union Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union Japanese prisoners Soviet Union German atrocities against Polish POWs Soviet prisoners Finland atrocities by Germans Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union German prisoners Soviet Union Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Soviet Union Azerbaijan Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union Japanese prisoners Soviet Union Soviet Union German atrocities against Polish POWs Soviet prisoners Finland atrocities by Germans Finland atrocities by Germans Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union Timeline Prelude Africa Second Italo-Ethiopian War Asia Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Europe Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania 1939 Invasion of Poland Battle of the Atlantic Phoney War First Battle of Changsha Battle of South Guangxi Winter War 1939–1940 Winter Offensive 1940 Norwegian campaign German invasion of Denmark Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang German invasion of Luxembourg German invasion of the Netherlands German invasion of Belgium Battle of France Dunkirk evacuation Battle of Britain Battle of the Mediterranean North Africa West Africa British Somaliland Hundred Regiments Offensive Baltic states Eastern Romania Japanese invasion of French Indochina Italian invasion of Greece Compass 1941 Battle of South Henan Battle of Shanggao Invasion of Yugoslavia German invasion of Greece Battle of Crete Anglo-Iraqi War Battle of South Shanxi Syria–Lebanon campaign East African campaign Invasion of the Soviet Union Summer War Finland ( Silver Fox ) Lithuania Battle of Kiev Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran Second Battle of Changsha Siege of Leningrad Battle of Moscow Bombing of Gorky Siege of Sevastopol Attack on Pearl Harbor Niʻihau incident Japanese invasion of Thailand Fall of Hong Kong Fall of the Philippines Battle of Guam Battle of Wake Island Malayan campaign Battle of Borneo Japanese invasion of Burma Third Battle of Changsha Greek famine of 1941–1944 1942 Fall of Singapore Battle of the Java Sea St Nazaire Raid Battle of Christmas Island Battle of the Coral Sea Battle of Madagascar Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign Battle of Gazala Battle of Dutch Harbor Battle of Midway Aleutian Islands campaign Kiska Attu Blue First Battle of El Alamein Battle of Stalingrad Kokoda Track campaign Rzhev Jubilee Second Battle of El Alamein Guadalcanal campaign Torch Chinese famine of 1942–1943 1943 Black May Tunisian campaign Battle of West Hubei Battle of Attu Bombing of Gorky Battle of Kursk Allied invasion of Sicily Smolensk Solomon Islands campaign Cottage Battle of the Dnieper Allied invasion of Italy Armistice of Cassibile Burma Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Changde Second Battle of Kiev Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign Tarawa Makin Bengal famine of 1943 1944 Tempest Monte Cassino / Anzio Korsun–Cherkassy Narva U-Go Imphal Ichi-Go Kohima Overlord Neptune Mariana and Palau Bagration Western Ukraine Second Battle of Guam Tannenberg Line Warsaw Uprising Eastern Romania Liberation of Paris Dragoon Gothic Line Belgrade offensive Battle of San Marino Lapland Market Garden Estonia Crossbow Pointblank Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945 Philippines (1944–1945) Leyte Syrmian Front Hungary Budapest Burma (1944–1945) Ardennes Bodenplatte Dutch famine of 1944–1945 1945 Vistula–Oder Battle of Manila Battle of Iwo Jima Indochina Vienna offensive Project Hula Western invasion of Germany Bratislava–Brno offensive Battle of Okinawa Second Guangxi campaign West Hunan Italy (Spring 1945) Battle of Berlin Prague offensive Surrender of Germany document Borneo Taipei Naval bombardment of Japan Manchuria Atomic bombings Debate South Sakhalin Kuril Islands Shumshu Surrender of Japan Potsdam Declaration document End of World War II in Asia Prelude Africa Second Italo-Ethiopian War Asia Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Europe Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania Africa Second Italo-Ethiopian War Second Italo-Ethiopian War Asia Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Europe Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania 1939 Invasion of Poland Battle of the Atlantic Phoney War First Battle of Changsha Battle of South Guangxi Winter War 1939–1940 Winter Offensive Invasion of Poland Battle of the Atlantic Phoney War First Battle of Changsha Battle of South Guangxi Winter War 1939–1940 Winter Offensive 1940 Norwegian campaign German invasion of Denmark Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang German invasion of Luxembourg German invasion of the Netherlands German invasion of Belgium Battle of France Dunkirk evacuation Battle of Britain Battle of the Mediterranean North Africa West Africa British Somaliland Hundred Regiments Offensive Baltic states Eastern Romania Japanese invasion of French Indochina Italian invasion of Greece Compass Norwegian campaign German invasion of Denmark Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang German invasion of Luxembourg German invasion of the Netherlands German invasion of Belgium Battle of France Dunkirk evacuation Battle of Britain Battle of the Mediterranean North Africa West Africa British Somaliland Hundred Regiments Offensive Baltic states Eastern Romania Japanese invasion of French Indochina Italian invasion of Greece Compass 1941 Battle of South Henan Battle of Shanggao Invasion of Yugoslavia German invasion of Greece Battle of Crete Anglo-Iraqi War Battle of South Shanxi Syria–Lebanon campaign East African campaign Invasion of the Soviet Union Summer War Finland ( Silver Fox ) Lithuania Battle of Kiev Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran Second Battle of Changsha Siege of Leningrad Battle of Moscow Bombing of Gorky Siege of Sevastopol Attack on Pearl Harbor Niʻihau incident Japanese invasion of Thailand Fall of Hong Kong Fall of the Philippines Battle of Guam Battle of Wake Island Malayan campaign Battle of Borneo Japanese invasion of Burma Third Battle of Changsha Greek famine of 1941–1944 Battle of South Henan Battle of Shanggao Invasion of Yugoslavia German invasion of Greece Battle of Crete Battle of Crete Anglo-Iraqi War Battle of South Shanxi Syria–Lebanon campaign East African campaign Invasion of the Soviet Union Summer War Summer War Finland ( Silver Fox ) Lithuania Battle of Kiev Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran Second Battle of Changsha Siege of Leningrad Battle of Moscow Bombing of Gorky Siege of Sevastopol Attack on Pearl Harbor Niʻihau incident Niʻihau incident Japanese invasion of Thailand Fall of Hong Kong Fall of the Philippines Battle of Guam Battle of Wake Island Malayan campaign Battle of Borneo Japanese invasion of Burma Third Battle of Changsha Greek famine of 1941–1944 1942 Fall of Singapore Battle of the Java Sea St Nazaire Raid Battle of Christmas Island Battle of the Coral Sea Battle of Madagascar Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign Battle of Gazala Battle of Dutch Harbor Battle of Midway Aleutian Islands campaign Kiska Attu Blue First Battle of El Alamein Battle of Stalingrad Kokoda Track campaign Rzhev Jubilee Second Battle of El Alamein Guadalcanal campaign Torch Chinese famine of 1942–1943 Fall of Singapore Battle of the Java Sea St Nazaire Raid Battle of Christmas Island Battle of the Coral Sea Battle of Madagascar Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign Battle of Gazala Battle of Dutch Harbor Battle of Midway Aleutian Islands campaign Kiska Attu Kiska Attu Blue First Battle of El Alamein Battle of Stalingrad Kokoda Track campaign Rzhev Jubilee Second Battle of El Alamein Guadalcanal campaign Torch Chinese famine of 1942–1943 1943 Black May Tunisian campaign Battle of West Hubei Battle of Attu Bombing of Gorky Battle of Kursk Allied invasion of Sicily Smolensk Solomon Islands campaign Cottage Battle of the Dnieper Allied invasion of Italy Armistice of Cassibile Burma Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Changde Second Battle of Kiev Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign Tarawa Makin Bengal famine of 1943 Black May Tunisian campaign Battle of West Hubei Battle of Attu Bombing of Gorky Battle of Kursk Allied invasion of Sicily Smolensk Solomon Islands campaign Cottage Battle of the Dnieper Allied invasion of Italy Armistice of Cassibile Armistice of Cassibile Burma Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Changde Second Battle of Kiev Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign Tarawa Makin Tarawa Makin Bengal famine of 1943 1944 Tempest Monte Cassino / Anzio Korsun–Cherkassy Narva U-Go Imphal Ichi-Go Kohima Overlord Neptune Mariana and Palau Bagration Western Ukraine Second Battle of Guam Tannenberg Line Warsaw Uprising Eastern Romania Liberation of Paris Dragoon Gothic Line Belgrade offensive Battle of San Marino Lapland Market Garden Estonia Crossbow Pointblank Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945 Philippines (1944–1945) Leyte Syrmian Front Hungary Budapest Burma (1944–1945) Ardennes Bodenplatte Dutch famine of 1944–1945 Tempest Monte Cassino / Anzio Korsun–Cherkassy Narva U-Go Imphal Ichi-Go Kohima Overlord Neptune Mariana and Palau Bagration Western Ukraine Second Battle of Guam Tannenberg Line Warsaw Uprising Eastern Romania Liberation of Paris Dragoon Gothic Line Belgrade offensive Battle of San Marino Lapland Market Garden Estonia Crossbow Pointblank Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945 Philippines (1944–1945) Leyte Syrmian Front Hungary Budapest Budapest Burma (1944–1945) Ardennes Bodenplatte Bodenplatte Dutch famine of 1944–1945 1945 Vistula–Oder Battle of Manila Battle of Iwo Jima Indochina Vienna offensive Project Hula Western invasion of Germany Bratislava–Brno offensive Battle of Okinawa Second Guangxi campaign West Hunan Italy (Spring 1945) Battle of Berlin Prague offensive Surrender of Germany document Borneo Taipei Naval bombardment of Japan Manchuria Atomic bombings Debate South Sakhalin Kuril Islands Shumshu Surrender of Japan Potsdam Declaration document End of World War II in Asia Vistula–Oder Battle of Manila 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Dimensions and planes of existence Toggle Dimensions and planes of existence subsection 1.1 Matter/Object — Physical sciences 1.2 Life/Organism — Biological sciences 1.3 Mind/Animal — (Basic) psychological sciences 1.4 Culture/Person — Human social sciences 1.1 Matter/Object — Physical sciences 1.2 Life/Organism — Biological sciences 1.3 Mind/Animal — (Basic) psychological sciences 1.4 Culture/Person — Human social sciences 2 Theoretical joint points Toggle Theoretical joint points subsection 2.1 Quantum gravity 2.2 The modern synthesis 2.3 Behavioral investment theory 2.4 Justification systems theory 2.1 Quantum gravity 2.2 The modern synthesis 2.3 Behavioral investment theory 2.4 Justification systems theory 3 The "problem of psychology" Toggle The "problem of psychology" subsection 3.1 Solution 3.1 Solution 4 Consciousness and human behavior 5 Toward the integration of human knowledge 6 See also 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 External links Tree of knowledge system العربية Español فارسی Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page . ( Learn how and when to remove these messages ) A major contributor to this article appears to have a close connection with its subject. It may require cleanup to comply with Wikipedia's content policies, particularly neutral point of view . Please discuss further on the talk page . See our advice if the article is about you and read our scam warning in case someone asks for money to edit this article. ( October 2020 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines . Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references . ( September 2022 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) A major contributor to this article appears to have a close connection with its subject. It may require cleanup to comply with Wikipedia's content policies, particularly neutral point of view . Please discuss further on the talk page . See our advice if the article is about you and read our scam warning in case someone asks for money to edit this article. ( October 2020 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines . Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references . ( September 2022 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) The tree of knowledge ( ToK ) system is a new [ when? ] map of Big History that traces cosmic evolution across four different planes of existence, identified as Matter, Life, Mind and Culture that are mapped respectively by the physical, biological, psychological and social domains of science. The Tree of Knowledge (ToK) System was developed by Gregg Henriques , who is a professor and core faculty member in the Combined-Integrated Doctoral Program in Clinical and School Psychology at James Madison University . [ 1 ] The ToK System is part of a larger Unified Theory of Knowledge that Henriques describes as a consilient scientific humanistic philosophy for the 21st Century. The official Unified Theory of Knowledge website describes the ToK System as: [ 2 ] [A] theory of scientific knowledge that defines the human knower in relation to the known. It achieves this novel accomplishment by solving the problem of psychology and giving rise to a truly consilient view of the scientific landscape. It accomplishes this via dividing the evolution of behavioral complexity into four different planes of existence...The ToK also characterizes modern empirical natural science as a kind of justification system that functions to map complexity and change. [A] theory of scientific knowledge that defines the human knower in relation to the known. It achieves this novel accomplishment by solving the problem of psychology and giving rise to a truly consilient view of the scientific landscape. It accomplishes this via dividing the evolution of behavioral complexity into four different planes of existence...The ToK also characterizes modern empirical natural science as a kind of justification system that functions to map complexity and change. The outline of the ToK System was first published in 2003 in Review of General Psychology . [ 3 ] Two special issues of the Journal of Clinical Psychology in December 2004 [ 4 ] and January 2005 [ 5 ] were devoted to the elaboration and evaluation of the model. In 2008, a special issue of Theory & Psychology [ 6 ] was devoted to the ToK System. In 2011, Henriques published A New Unified Theory of Psychology . That same year he also launched the blog Theory of Knowledge: A Unified Approach to Psychology and Philosophy on Psychology Today , which remains active. There is also a Theory Of Knowledge Society and discussion listserve that is devoted to discussing Henriques' work and other big picture viewpoints. In some ways, the ToK System reflects a fairly common hierarchy of nature and of the sciences that has been represented in one way or another since the time of Auguste Comte , who in the 19th century used a hierarchical conception of nature to argue for the existence of sociology. It also has clear parallels with Aristotle's conception of the scales of nature and the first four levels of the Great Chain of Being . Despite some overlap with a number of traditional schemes, the ToK System is properly thought of as a new theory of both ontic reality and our scientific knowledge of that reality. One of the most important and salient features of the Tree of Knowledge is how it represents reality as consisting of four different planes of existence. The theory is that, following Matter, Life, Mind and Culture each represent complex adaptive landscapes that are organized and mediated by novel emergent information processing and communication systems. Specifically, DNA/RNA store information that is processed by cells which then engage in intercellular communication to create the plane of existence called Life. Similarly, the brain and nervous system store and process information in animals which then engage in communication networks on the complex adaptive plane called Mind. Finally, linguistic storage and processing and communication between human beings generates the emergence of the Culture-Person plane of existence. The separable planes of existence or dimension of complexity argument is one of the most crucial aspects of the system. Many have argued nature is hierarchically leveled; for example, a list of such levels might be subatomic particles , atoms , molecules , cells , organ structures, multi-celled organisms, consciousness , and society is common. The ToK System embraces a view of nature as levels, but adds the notion that there are also separable dimensions of complexity . The difference becomes particularly clear in the extension of the ToK System into the Periodic Table of Behavior . The Periodic Table of Behavior (PTB) shows that natural science can be arranged in terms of the four fundamental dimensions (i.e., matter, life, mind, and culture) and three fundamental levels of analysis (i.e., part, whole, group). The PTB also demonstrates that behavior is a central concept in science. Epistemologically, natural scientists view the world via a third person behavioral lens. Ontologically, science is about mapping different kinds of behaviors that take place in nature at various levels and dimensions of analysis. The second central insight of the ToK System is that it shows how natural science is a particular kind of justification system that emerges out of Culture based on novel methods and specific epistemological commitments and assumptions (i.e., an exterior view point, quantification and experimentation). This epistemology and methodology functions to justify scientific ontology, which in turn maps the ontic reality. Specifically, the domains of the physical, biological, (basic) psychological and social sciences map the ontic dimensions of matter, life, mind and culture. The Periodic Table of Behavior further shows how science is a justification system that is arranged to map behavioral frequencies at different dimensions of complexity and levels of analysis. Dimensions and planes of existence This section relies largely or entirely on a single source . Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page . Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources at this section. ( April 2024 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) Matter/Object — Physical sciences The dimension of matter refers to the set of material objects and their behaviors through time. In accordance with modern cosmology , matter is theorized to have emerged from a pure energy singularity at the Big Bang . Space and time were also born at such a point. Nonliving material objects range in complexity from subatomic particles to large organic molecules. The physical sciences (i.e., physics , chemistry , geology, astronomy ) describe the behavior of material objects. [ 3 ] Life/Organism — Biological sciences The dimension of life refers to organisms and their behaviors through time. Living objects are considered a unique subset of material objects. Just as quantum particles form the fundamental units of material complexity, genes are the fundamental units of living information. Although many questions about the emergence of life remain unanswered, in accordance with modern biology, the ToK posits that natural selection operating on genetic combinations through time is the unified theory of biology and forms the foundational understanding for the emergence of organic complexity. [ 3 ] Mind/Animal — (Basic) psychological sciences Mind/cognition in the ToK system refers to the set of mental behaviors. Mental behaviors are behaviors of animals mediated by the nervous system that produce a functional effect on the animal-environment relationship. As such, Mind/cognition is essentially synonymous with what behavioral psychologists have meant when they use the term behavior. Thus, a fly avoiding a fly swatter, a rat pushing a bar or a human getting a drink of water are all mental behaviors. Mind is not synonymous with sentience or the capacity for mental experience, although such processes are presumed to emerge in the mental/cognitive dimension. Cognition , in the broad sense of the term is meaning bodily-neuro-social information processing, as in EEEE Cognition: Embodied, Embedded, Enactive, Extended. While cognitive science stands for naturalist study of mind, psychology is an approach grounded in the tradition of humanities, especially philosophy. Thus, by defining mind as mental behavior, Henriques argues that the ToK System provides a way to bridge the epistemological differences between cognitive and behavioral science . [ 3 ] Henriques argues that comparative psychology , ethology, and (animal) cognitive behavioral neuroscience should all be thought of as parts of the discipline that maps the animal-mental domain. Culture/Person — Human social sciences Culture in the ToK system refers to the set of sociolinguistic behaviors, which range from large scale nation states to individual human justifications for particular actions. Just as genetic information processing is associated with the Life dimension and neuronal information processing associated with the Mind dimension, symbolic information processing emerges with the Cultural dimension. [ 3 ] Henriques argues that human cognitive science, human psychology and the social sciences (i.e., anthropology, sociology, political science, and economics) work to map this domain. Theoretical joint points Quantum gravity Quantum gravity refers to the imagined merger between the twin pillars of physical science which are quantum mechanics , the study of the microscopic (e.g., electrons), and general relativity , the science of the macroscopic (e.g., galaxies ). Currently, these two great domains of science cannot be effectively interwoven into a single, physical Theory of Everything , yet progress is being made, most notably through string theory , loop quantum gravity , black hole thermodynamics and the study of the early universe. Some of the difficulties combining these two pillars of physical science are philosophical in nature and it is possible that the macro view of knowledge offered by the ToK may eventually aid in the construction of a coherent theory of quantum gravity. The reason the ToK might help is that it locates scientific knowledge in relationship to the physical universe. The modern synthesis The modern synthesis refers to the merger of genetics with natural selection which occurred in the 1930s and 1940s and offers a reasonably complete framework for understanding the emergence of biological complexity. Although there remain significant gaps in biological knowledge surrounding questions such as the origin of life and the emergence of sexual reproduction, the modern synthesis represents the most complete and well-substantiated joint point. Behavioral investment theory Behavioral investment theory (BIT) is a metatheoretical formulation for the mind, brain and animal behavioral sciences. Henriques proposes that it enables the merger of the selection science of behaviorism with the information science of cognitive neuroscience that has conceptual parallels with the modern synthesis. BIT posits that the nervous system evolved as an increasingly flexible computational control system that coordinates the behavioral expenditure of energy of the animal as a whole. Expenditure of behavioral energy is theorized to be computed on an investment value system built evolutionarily through natural selection operating on genetic combinations and ontogenetically through behavioral selection operating on neural combinations. As such, the current behavioral investments of the animal are conceptualized as the joint product of the two vectors of phylogeny and ontogeny . A unique element of BIT is that it finds a core of agreement and builds bridges between five brain-behavior paradigms: (1) cognitive science ; (2) behavioral science ; (3) evolutionary theory and genetics; (4) neuroscience; and (5) cybernetics / systems theory . David C. Geary noted the similarities between his "motive-to-control" hypothesis and Henriques' Behavioral Investment Theory, which were developed independently of each other. Furthermore, Geary suggested that his model "seem[ed] to fill in many of the proximate mechanisms and evolutionary pressures that define the life-mind joint point, and provided a framework for further development of the mind-culture joint point." [ 7 ] Justification systems theory The justification systems theory (JUST; formerly known as the justification hypothesis) posits that the evolution of language reached a tipping point with emergence of propositional claims. Specifically, propositional claims can be questioned, which generates the "question-answer" dynamic. This creates the problem of justification, which Henriques argues drives both the design of the human self-consciousness system as a mental organ of justification and gives rise to the evolution of the Culture-Person plane of existence. JUST is a novel proposal that allows for both the understanding of the evolution of culture and for identifying what makes humans distinct animals. A basic initial claim of JUST is that the process of justification is a crucial component of human mental behavior at both the individual and societal level. Unlike all other animals, humans everywhere ask for and give explanations for their actions. Arguments, debates, moral dictates, rationalizations, and excuses all involve the process of explaining why one's claims, thoughts or actions are warranted. In virtually every form of social exchange, from warfare to politics to family struggles to science, humans are constantly justifying their behavioral investments to themselves and others. JUST consists of three key postulates: The first is that the evolution of propositional language must have created the problem of justification, which involves three interlocking problems of deciphering what is (1) analytically true and what is (2) good for the group and (3) good for the individual. The second postulate is that the structure and functional design of human consciousness can be understood as a solution to the problem of justification. Specifically, the three domains of human consciousness that Henriques identifies in the Updated Tripartite Model of the (1) experiential; (2) private narrator; and (3) public narrator are directly consistent with adaptive pressures that arise from the logic of the problem of justification. This analysis deepens when one considers the dynamic relationships and filtering that takes place between these three domains. The third postulate is that culture can be understood as large scale justification systems that coordinate the behavior of human populations. Cultural systems are seen to evolve much in the same way as organisms do in biological evolution: there is a process of variation, selection and retention of belief systems. The "problem of psychology" The ToK System emerged as a consequence of Henriques wrestling with what he calls "the problem of psychology". Henriques argues that the most difficult problem in psychology as a discipline is that while there is incredible diversity offered by different approaches to psychology, and there is no consensus model of what psychology actually is. [ 8 ] [ 9 ] Specifically, Henriques argues that the field lacks a clear definition, an agreed upon subject matter, and a coherent conceptual framework . The problem has been long standing, identified as the "crisis" by Lev Vygotsky in the mid 1920s. Henriques further argues that the patent tendency of psychology has been toward theoretical and substantial fragmentation and increasing insularity among the "specialties." In other words, the discipline has fragmented into different schools of thought and methodology, with no overall framework to interpret and integrate the research of different areas. At its best, the different approaches are a strength of psychology; different approaches lead to novel ideas, and prevent psychologists from clinging to a paradigm that fails to explain a phenomenon. At its worst, adherents of one particular school cling to their beliefs concerning the relative importance of their research and disregard or are ignorant of different approaches. In most cases, individual psychologists have to determine for themselves which elements of which perspective to apply, and how to integrate them into their overall understanding. Henriques argues that the problem of psychology is a central feature of modern knowledge systems. In A New Unified Theory of Psychology , he described it as follows: The problem of psychology is the joint observation that the field cannot be coherently defined and yet it connects more deeply than any other discipline to the three great branches of learning. Taken together, these observations suggest that the problem of psychology is a profound problem in academia at large. This conclusion is bolstered by the fact that as psychology has lumbered along acquiring findings but not foundational clarity, the fragmentation of human knowledge has grown exponentially. All of this suggests that the question, "What is psychology?" is profoundly important, one of the central questions in all of philosophy. Asking the right questions is often the most important step in getting the right answer. My interest in psychotherapy integration ultimately led me to ask the question, "What is psychology?”. Although I had no idea at the time, it turns out that this is the right question. And, as startling as it sounds, because psychology connects to so many different domains, the correct answer to it opens up a whole new vision for integrating human knowledge. The problem of psychology is the joint observation that the field cannot be coherently defined and yet it connects more deeply than any other discipline to the three great branches of learning. Taken together, these observations suggest that the problem of psychology is a profound problem in academia at large. This conclusion is bolstered by the fact that as psychology has lumbered along acquiring findings but not foundational clarity, the fragmentation of human knowledge has grown exponentially. All of this suggests that the question, "What is psychology?" is profoundly important, one of the central questions in all of philosophy. Asking the right questions is often the most important step in getting the right answer. My interest in psychotherapy integration ultimately led me to ask the question, "What is psychology?”. Although I had no idea at the time, it turns out that this is the right question. And, as startling as it sounds, because psychology connects to so many different domains, the correct answer to it opens up a whole new vision for integrating human knowledge. The reason for psychology's fragmentation, according to the ToK System, is that there has been no meta-theoretical frame that allows scholars to agree on the basic questions that need to be addressed. As such, the different schools of thought in psychology are like the blind men who each grab a part of the elephant and proclaim they have discovered its true nature. With its novel depiction of evolving dimensions of complexity, the ToK allows scholars finally to see the elephant. In his 2003 Review of General Psychology paper, [ 8 ] Henriques used the ToK System with the attempt to clarify and align the views of B.F. Skinner and Sigmund Freud . These luminaries were chosen because when one considers their influence and historical opposition, it can readily be argued that they represent two schools of thought that are the most difficult to integrate. Henriques used the meta-perspective offered by the ToK to argue how one can retain the key insights from each school of thought, identify errors and points of confusion, and integrate the insights into a coherent whole. Cultural and personality psychologist, Michael Katzko, [ 10 ] however critiques Henriques' position on "the problem of psychology": There is a very good reason for skepticism regarding the repeated claims that the one unique problem of psychology, applicable across the entire discipline, has been identified and that the ToK System solves it. The reason is given by the detail with which alternatives have been worked out, be they historical studies of institutional development or critical commentaries on the rhetorical structure of psychology's literature. [ 11 ] There is a very good reason for skepticism regarding the repeated claims that the one unique problem of psychology, applicable across the entire discipline, has been identified and that the ToK System solves it. The reason is given by the detail with which alternatives have been worked out, be they historical studies of institutional development or critical commentaries on the rhetorical structure of psychology's literature. [ 11 ] Solution The problem of psychology, according to the ToK, is its conceptual incoherence, which Henriques identifies by the following: When the various conceptions of psychology (e.g., behavioral, humanistic, cognitive) are viewed through the lens of the ToK System, psychology spans two different dimensions of complexity: the mental and the cultural. In other words, the discipline has historically spanned two fundamentally separate problems: If, as previously thought, nature simply consisted of levels of complexity, psychology would not be crisply defined in relationship to biology or the social sciences. And, indeed, it is frequently suggested that psychology exists in an amorphous space between biology and the social sciences. However, with its dimension of complexity depiction, the ToK System suggests that psychology can be crisply defined as the science of mind, which is the third dimension of complexity. Furthermore, because human behavior exists in the fourth dimension, psychology must be divided into two broad scientific domains of Psychological formalism is defined as the science of mind and corresponds to the behavior of animal objects. Human psychology is considered to be a unique subset of psychological formalism that deals with human behavior at the level of the individual. Because human behavior is immersed in the larger socio-cultural context (level four in the ToK System), human psychology is considered a hybrid discipline that merges the pure science of psychology with the social sciences. It is important to point out that there are other disciplines the ToK System would classify as “hybrids.” Molecular genetics, for example, is a hybrid between chemistry and biology and neuroscience is a hybrid between biology and psychology. As with Henriques' proposed conception of human psychology, both of these disciplines adopt an object level perspective (molecular and cellular, respectively) on phenomena that simultaneously exist as part of meta-level system processes (life and mind, respectively). [ 9 ] Though David A. F. Haaga "congratulate[d] Dr. Henriques' ambitious, scholarly, provocative paper", and "found the Tree of Knowledge taxonomy, the theoretical joint points, the evolutionary history, and the levels of emergent properties highly illuminating", he asks the rhetorical questions, If it is so difficult to define terms such as 'psychology' with such precision, why bother? Why not just agree that we all have at least a rough idea of what psychology is, and take the rest of the afternoon off? After all, if theoretical or empirical work improves our understanding of some aspect of the world or our fellow people, or improves our ability to help people enhance their physical or emotional well being, what difference does it make whether this work is considered a part of psychology, of cognitive science, of behavioral neuroscience, of public health, or what have you? This raises the question of what definitions in general are good for. [ 12 ] If it is so difficult to define terms such as 'psychology' with such precision, why bother? Why not just agree that we all have at least a rough idea of what psychology is, and take the rest of the afternoon off? After all, if theoretical or empirical work improves our understanding of some aspect of the world or our fellow people, or improves our ability to help people enhance their physical or emotional well being, what difference does it make whether this work is considered a part of psychology, of cognitive science, of behavioral neuroscience, of public health, or what have you? This raises the question of what definitions in general are good for. [ 12 ] In a similar vein, Scott O. Lilienfeld, who described Henriques' effort as "thoughtful", contended that psychology is "an inherently fuzzy concept that resists precise definition" and that "attempts to define psychology [would be] likely to hamper rather than foster consilience across disciplines". Lilienfield went on further to suggest that the scientist-practitioner gap in psychology lies not in definitional issues, but in different "epistemic attitudes" between these two groups. He stated that scientists have an epistemic attitude of empiricism , (where questions regarding human nature are settled by scientific evidence), and that practitioners have an epistemic attitude of romanticism , (where questions of human nature are settled by intuition). Lilienfeld suggested that the solution to the scientist-practitioner gulf isn't definitional, but in "train[ing] future clinical scientists to appreciate the proper places of romanticism and empiricism within science". [ 13 ] Consciousness and human behavior A frequent question and point of confusion in the ToK System is the definition and meaning of consciousness . As mentioned above, mind is not synonymous with consciousness. And, to understand consciousness from a ToK vantage point, it is crucial to recognize that the term is often ambiguous in its meaning. Two primary meanings are sentience , which is the capacity for mental experience and self-awareness , which is the capacity to be aware of one's awareness. Sentience is conceptualized as a "level 3" phenomenon, possessed by many animals other than humans and is defined as a "perceived" electro-neuro-chemical representation of animal-environment relations. The ingredient of neurological behavior that allows for the emergence of mental experience is considered the "hard" problem of consciousness and the ToK System does not address this question explicitly. In contrast, through the Justification Hypothesis (see below), the ToK System involves a very direct analysis of the other issue of consciousness, that of self-awareness . Another frequent question that is raised is "Where does individual human behavior fall on the ToK?" To analyze human behavior from the context of the ToK, one uses the ToK like a prism to separate the dimensions of behavior into physiochemical, biogenetic, neuropsychological and sociolinguistic. Thus if we imagine a conversation between a husband and wife as follows: Wife: “You are late again.” Husband: “Please, not now. It was a stressful day, traffic was bad, and you know that if work needs to be done, I can’t just leave it.” Wife: “You are late again.” Husband: “Please, not now. It was a stressful day, traffic was bad, and you know that if work needs to be done, I can’t just leave it.” The words represent the sociolinguistic dimension and are understood as a function of justification. Justification systems are seen both at the level of individual, micro-social and societal (i.e., the context of justification in which men work and women stay at home). The actions of the husband and wife in terms of facial expression , body movement, etc. are seen as the mental dimension and are understood as a function of behavioral investment. The physiological make up of the organ systems and cells of each body is seen as the biogenetic dimension. Finally, the position, temperature, molecular make up is seen as the physiochemical dimension. Each of the more basic dimensions represent conditions of possibility that allow for the emergence of the higher dimension of process. Thus, insufficient oxygen disrupts organic processes which in turn renders neuropsychological and sociolinguistic processes impossible. Toward the integration of human knowledge As stated above, the ToK System proposes a new epistemology with the goal of moving academic knowledge toward what E.O. Wilson termed consilience . Consilience is the interlocking of fact and theory into a coherent, holistic view of knowledge. Henriques argues that the ToK affords new perspectives on how knowledge is obtained because it depicts how science emerges from culture and that the four dimensions of complexity correspond to four broad classes of science: the physical, biological, psychological and social sciences. Henriques further argues that developing such a system for integrating knowledge is not just an academic enterprise. He suggests that in an increasingly complex world, the fragmented state of knowledge can be seen as one of the most pressing social problems of our time. Henriques also believes that history seems to attest that the absence of a collective worldview ostensibly condemns humanity to an endless series of conflicts that inevitably stem from incompatible, partially correct, locally situated justification systems. Thus, from Henriques' perspective, there are good reasons for believing that if there was a shared, general background of explanation, humanity might be able to achieve much greater levels of harmonious relations. In a 2008 article on the ToK, [ 14 ] Henriques cites Oliver Reiser 's 1958 call for unifying scientific knowledge that Henriques implies is similar in theme to the ToK: With its depiction of the dimensions of complexity and interlocking theoretical joint points, Henriques' believes that his ToK System offers new avenues that might allow scholars to meet Reiser’s call for academic synthesis. Henriques, like Reiser, believes that with a shared sense of purpose and a common background of explanation, people might yet be able to integrate bodies of knowledge into a unified interpretation of humanity, with humanity's place in nature and its potentialities for creating the good society. See also Tree of knowledge (philosophy) by René Descartes Tinbergen's four questions Behavioral repertoire Consilience Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge – 1998 book by E.O. Wilson Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge – 1998 book by E.O. Wilson Descriptive psychology General System Theory Psychological behaviorism Social meaning-making The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution – 1959 book by C. P. Snow Unified theory of cognition Unity of science Metasystem transition References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} " "About Me" section of the ToK System website" . Archived from the original on 5 December 2008 . Retrieved 3 January 2009 . ^ " "The Tree of Knowledge System" section of the 8 key ideas in the Unified Theory of Knowledge website" . Archived from the original on 2 July 2022 . Retrieved 2 July 2022 . ^ a b c d e Henriques, G.R. (2003). The Tree of Knowledge System and the Theoretical Unification of Psychology. Archived 25 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine Review of General Psychology, 7, 150–182. ^ "Defining Psychology: Articles and Commentaries on a New Unified Theory (Part 1): Journal of Clinical Psychology: Vol 60, No 12" . Archived from the original on 3 March 2011 . Retrieved 30 July 2021 – via Wiley Online Library. ^ "Defining Psychology: Articles and Commentaries on a New Unified Theory (Part 2): Journal of Clinical Psychology: Vol 61, No 1" . Archived from the original on 16 December 2012 . Retrieved 30 July 2021 – via Wiley Online Library. ^ "Theory & Psychology - Volume 18, Number 6, Dec 01, 2008" . Sage Journals . ^ Geary, D. C. (2005). The motivation to control and the origin of mind: Exploring the life-mind joint point in the tree of knowledge. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 21–46. ^ a b Henriques, G.R. (2003). The tree of knowledge system and the theoretical unification of psychology. Archived 25 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine Review of General Psychology, 7, 150–182. ^ a b Henriques, G.R. (2004). Psychology Defined Archived 10 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine . Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1207–1221. ^ Homepage of Michael Katzko ^ Katzko, M. W. (2008). Pruning the Tree of Knowledge. Theory & Psychology , 18, 817–828. Abstract ^ Haaga, D.A.F. (2004). Defining psychology: What can it do for us? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1227–1230. ^ Lilienfeld, S.O. (2004). Defining psychology: Is it worth the trouble? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1249–1253. ^ Henriques, G.R. (2008). The problem of psychology and the integration of human knowledge: Contrasting Wilson's Consilience with the Tree of Knowledge System. Theory & Psychology, 18, 731–755. Final draft ^ Reiser, O.L. (1958). The integration of human knowledge. Boston: Porter Sargent. Bibliography Anchin, J.C. (2008). The critical role of the dialectic in viable metatheory: A commentary on Henriques' Tree of Knowledge System for integrating human knowledge. Theory & Psychology, 18, 801–816. Full text Calhoun, L.G. (2004). The unification of psychology: A noble quest. Journal of Clinical Psychology , 60, 1283–1289. Abstract Geary, D. C. (2005). The motivation to control and the origin of mind: Exploring the life-mind joint point in the tree of knowledge. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 21–46. Full text Gilbert, P. (2004). A much needed macro level view: A commentary on Henriques’ psychology defined. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1223–1226. Full text Goertzen, J.R. (2008). On the possibility of unification: The reality and nature of the crisis in psychology. Theory & Psychology, 18, 829–852. Full text Haaga, D.A.F. (2004). Defining psychology: What can it do for us? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1227–1230. Full text Hayes, S.C. (2004). Taxonomy as a contextualist views it. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1231–1236. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2008). The problem of psychology and the integration of human knowledge: Contrasting Wilson's Consilience with the Tree of Knowledge System. Theory & Psychology, 18, 731–755. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2005). A new vision for the field: Introduction to the second special issue on the unified theory. Journal of Clinical Psychology , 61, 3–6. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2005). Toward a useful mass movement. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 121–139. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2004). Psychology Defined. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1207–1221. Full text Archived 10 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine Henriques, G.R. (2004). The development of the unified theory and the future of psychotherapy. Psychotherapy Bulletin, 39, 16–21. Final draft Henriques, G.R., & Cobb, H.C. (2004). Introduction to the special issues on the unified theory. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1203–1205. Full text Henriques, G.R., & Sternberg, R. J. (2004). Unified professional psychology: Implications for combined-integrated doctoral training programs. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1051–1063. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2003). The Tree of Knowledge System and the Theoretical Unification of Psychology. Review of General Psychology, 7, 150–182. Full text Archived 25 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine . Henriques, G.R. (2002). The harmful dysfunction analysis and the differentiation between mental disorder and disease. Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice , 1, 157–173. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2000). Depression: Disease or behavioral shutdown mechanism? Journal of Science and Health Policy, 1, 152–165. Full text Jones, R. (2005). From that dirty little science grows a Tree of Knowledge. The Madison, 1, 36–45. Full text Katzko, M.W. (2008). Pruning the Tree of Knowledge. Theory & Psychology, 18, 817–828. Full text Katzko, M.W. (2004). Psychology's dilemma: An institutional neurosis? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1237–1242. Full text Kihlstrom, J.F. (2004). Unity within psychology, and unity between science and practice. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1243–1247. Full text Lilienfeld, S.O. (2004). Defining psychology: Is it worth the trouble? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1249–1253. Full text Mayer, J.D. (2004). How does psychotherapy influence personality? A theoretical integration. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1291–1315. Full text Presbury, J. (2004). Rooting the tree of knowledge: A response to Henriques’ psychology defined. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1255–1258. Full text Quackenbush, S.W. (2008). Theoretical unification as a practical project: Kant and the Tree of Knowledge System. Theory & Psychology, 18, 757–777. Full text Quackenbush, S.W. (2005). Remythologizing culture: Narrativity, justification, and the politics of personalization. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 67–80. Full text Archived 16 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine Rand, K.L., & Ilardi, S.S. (2005). Toward a consilient science of psychology. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 7–20. Full text Shaffer, L.S. (2008). Religion as a large-scale justification system: Does the Justification Hypothesis explain animistic attribution? Theory & Psychology, 18, 779–799. Full text Shaffer, L.S. (2006). Durkheim's aphorism, the Justification Hypothesis, and the nature of social facts. Sociological Viewpoints, fall issue, 57–70. Full text Shaffer, L.S. (2005). From mirror self-recognition to the looking glass self: Exploring the justification hypothesis. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 47–65 . Full text Shealy, C.N. (2005). Justifying the justification hypothesis: Scientific-humanism, Equilintegration (EI) Theory, and the Beliefs, Events, and Values Inventory (BEVI). Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 81–106. Full text Slife, B. (2005). Testing the limits of Henriques' proposal: Wittgensteinian lessons and hermenuetic dialogue. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 107–120. Full text Stam, H.J. (2004). Unifying psychology: Epistemological act or disciplinary maneuver? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1259–1262. Full text Stanovich, K.E. (2004). Metarepresentation and the great cognitive divide: A commentary on Henriques' "Psychology Defined". Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1263–1266. Full text Stricker, G. (2004). The unification of psychology and psychological organizations. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1267–1269. Full text Vazire, S., & Robins, R.W. (2004). Beyond the Justification Hypothesis: A Broader Theory of the Evolution of Self-Consciousness. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1271–1273. Full text Viney, W. (2004). Pluralism in the sciences is not easily dismissed. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1275–1278. Full text Yanchar, S.C. (2004). Some discontents with theoretical unification. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1279–1281. Full text External links The Official Tree of Knowledge Website Archived 6 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine Tree of Knowledge System/Expert article by Gregg Henriques at the Psychology Wiki This page uses content from the English-language version of Psychology Wiki . The original article was at Tree of Knowledge System/Expert article by Gregg Henriques . The list of authors can be seen in the page history . The text of both The Psychology Wiki and Wikipedia is available under the GNU Free Documentation License . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early life 2 1522–24 voyage to North America 3 Later life and death 4 Legacy Toggle Legacy subsection 4.1 Commemorations 4.1 Commemorations 5 Notes 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Giovanni da Verrazzano العربية Aragonés Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge 한국어 Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Kotava Latina Lietuvių Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan پنجابی Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Page version status This is an accepted version of this page Giovanni da Verrazzano Born 1491 Val di Greve , Republic of Florence (present-day Tuscany, Italy) Died 1528 (aged 42–43) Unclear; possibly Guadeloupe (uncolonized) Other names .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} Janus Verrazanus Jehan de Verrazane Janus Verrazanus Jehan de Verrazane Occupation Explorer Parents .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Frosino da Verrazzano (father) Lisabetta Daffi (mother) Frosino da Verrazzano (father) Lisabetta Daffi (mother) Signature Giovanni da Verrazzano ( / ˌ v ɛr ə ˈ z ɑː n oʊ , - ə t ˈ s ɑː -/ VERR -ə- ZAH -noh, -ət- SAH - , [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] .mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%} Italian: [dʒoˈvanni da (v)verratˈtsaːno] ; often misspelled Verrazano in English; [ 5 ] 1491–1528) was an Italian explorer from the Republic of Florence , [ 6 ] [ 7 ] best known for his expedition to North America . He led most of his later missions, including the one to America, in the service of King Francis I of France . He is renowned as the first European to ever explore the Atlantic coast of North America between Florida and New Brunswick in 1524, including New York Bay and Narragansett Bay . [ 8 ] Early life Verrazzano was born in Val di Greve (now Greve in Chianti ), south of Florence , the capital and main city of the Republic of Florence . [ 9 ] [ 10 ] [ 11 ] [ 12 ] [ 13 ] Recent archival research indicates he was born on July 20, 1491 to Frosino di Lodovico di Cece da Verrazzano and Lisabetta di Leonardo Daffi. [ 14 ] An older hypothesis identified him with a son born in 1485 to Piero Andrea di Bernardo da Verrazzano and Fiammetta Cappelli. Other theories, now obsolete, [ 14 ] postulated that Verrazzano was born in Lyon , France, the son of Alessandro di Bartolommeo da Verrazano and Giovanna Guadagni. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] As Ronald S. Love stated, "Verrazzano always considered himself to be Florentine," [ 17 ] and he was considered a Florentine by his contemporaries as well. [ 18 ] He signed documents employing a Latin version of his name, " Janus Verrazanus ", [ note 1 ] and he called himself "Jehan de Verrazane" in his will dated 11 May 1526 in Rouen , France (preserved at the Archives départementales de la Seine-Maritime). [ 19 ] In contrast to his detailed account of his voyages to North America, little is definitively known about his personal life. After 1506, he settled in the port of Dieppe , Kingdom of France , where he began his career as a navigator. [ 20 ] He embarked for the American coast probably in 1508 in the company of captain Thomas Aubert , on the ship La Pensée , equipped by the owner, Jean Ango . [ 20 ] He explored the region of Newfoundland , possibly during a fishing trip, and possibly the St. Lawrence River in Canada; on other occasions, he made numerous voyages to the eastern Mediterranean . [ 21 ] [ 22 ] 1522–24 voyage to North America In September 1522, the surviving members of the Magellan expedition returned to Spain, having circumnavigated the globe. Competition in trade was becoming urgent, especially with Portugal. French merchants and financiers urged King Francis I of France to establish new trade routes. In 1523, the king asked Verrazzano to explore on France's behalf an area between Florida and Newfoundland , intending to find a sea route to the Pacific Ocean . The expedition was funded by a consortium of Florentine merchants based in Lyon and Rouen , including the Gondi, Rucellai, Nasi, and Albizzi families. Over 20,000 écus were raised, with Verrazzano himself contributing as both captain and investor. [ 14 ] Within months, four ships set sail due west for the Grand Banks of Newfoundland , but a violent storm and rough seas caused the loss of two ships. The remaining two damaged ships, La Dauphine and La Normande , were forced to return to Brittany. [ 23 ] Repairs were completed in the final weeks of 1523, and the ships set sail again. This time, the ships headed south toward calmer waters under hostile Spanish and Portuguese control. After a stop in Madeira , complications forced La Normande back to home port, but Verrazzano's ship La Dauphine departed on January 17, 1524, piloted by Antoine de Conflans, and headed once more for the North American continent. [ 24 ] It neared the area of Cape Fear on March 21, 1524 [ 25 ] and, after a short stay, reached the Pamlico Sound lagoon of modern North Carolina . In a letter to Francis I, described by historians as the Cèllere Codex , Verrazzano wrote that he was convinced that the Sound was the beginning of the Pacific Ocean from which access could be gained to China. [ 26 ] [ 27 ] Continuing to explore the coast further northwards, Verrazzano and his crew came into contact with Native Americans living on the coast. However, he did not notice the entrances to the Chesapeake Bay or the mouth of the Delaware River . [ 28 ] In New York Bay , he encountered the Lenape in about 30 Lenape canoes and observed what he deemed to be a large lake, really the entrance to the Hudson River . He then sailed along Long Island and entered Narragansett Bay , where he received a delegation of Wampanoag and Narragansett people . The words "Norman villa" are found on the 1527 map by Visconte Maggiolo identifying the site. The historian Samuel Eliot Morison writes that "this occurs at Angouleme (New York) rather than Refugio (Newport). It was probably intended to compliment one of Verrazzano's noble friends. There are several places called 'Normanville' in Normandy, France. The main one is located near Fécamp and another important one near Évreux , which would naturally be it. West of it, conjecturally on the Delaware or New Jersey coast, is a Longa Villa , which Verrazzano certainly named after François d'Orléans, duc de Longueville ." [ 28 ] He stayed there for two weeks and then moved northwards. [ 29 ] He discovered Cape Cod Bay , his claim being proved by a map of 1529 that clearly outlined Cape Cod. [ 29 ] He named the cape after a general, calling it Pallavicino. [ 30 ] He then followed the coast up to modern Maine , southeastern Nova Scotia , and Newfoundland , and he then returned to France by 8 July 1524. Verrazzano named the region that he explored Francesca in honour of the French king, but his brother's map labelled it Nova Gallia ( New France ). [ 31 ] Later life and death Verrazzano arranged a second voyage, with financial support from Jean Ango and Philippe de Chabot , which departed from Dieppe with four ships early in 1527. One ship was separated from the others in a gale near the Cape Verde Islands . Still, Verrazzano reached the coast of Brazil with two ships and harvested a cargo of brazilwood before returning to Dieppe in September. The third ship returned later, also with a cargo of brazilwood. [ 32 ] The partial success did not find the desired passage to the Pacific Ocean, but it inspired Verrazzano's final voyage, which left Dieppe in early 1528. [ 33 ] There are conflicting accounts of Verrazzano's demise. In one version, during his third voyage to North America in 1528, after he had explored Florida, the Bahamas , and the Lesser Antilles , Verrazzano anchored out to sea and rowed ashore, probably on the island of Guadeloupe . He was allegedly killed and eaten by the native Caribs . [ 34 ] The fleet of two or three ships was anchored out of gunshot range, and no one could respond in time. [ 35 ] Some earlier historians hypothesized that Verrazzano was the same person as the corsair Jean Fleury , who was executed for piracy by the Spanish. [ 36 ] [ 37 ] This theory has been definitively rejected by historians, notably Prospero Peragallo , who demonstrated that the two were distinct individuals. [ 14 ] After evaluating the evidence for the various versions of Verrazzano's death, Lawrence C. Wroth concluded that his cannibalization by Caribs may well be true, while the hypothesis that he was hanged as Fleury is highly implausible. [ 38 ] Legacy The geographic information derived from this voyage significantly influenced sixteenth-century cartographers. [ 40 ] Despite his discoveries, Verrazzano's reputation did not proliferate as much as other explorers of that era. For example, Verrazzano gave the European name Francesca to the new land that he had seen, in accordance with contemporary practices, after the French king in whose name he sailed. That and other names he bestowed on features he discovered have not survived. He had the misfortune of making significant discoveries shortly after the years (1519 to 1521) that the dramatic Conquest of the Aztec Empire and the first circumnavigation of the world occurred. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, there was a great debate in the United States about the authenticity of the letters that Verrazzano ostensibly wrote to Francis I to describe the geography, flora, fauna, and native population of the east coast of North America. [ 41 ] Others thought that they were authentic, in particular since the discovery of the Cèllere Codex in 1909. This is the most widely held opinion nowadays, [ 42 ] particularly after the discovery of a letter signed by Francis I, which referred to Verrazzano's letter. [ 43 ] Verrazzano's reputation was particularly obscure in New York City , where the 1609 voyage of Henry Hudson on behalf of the Dutch Republic came to be regarded as the de facto start of European exploration of New York ( Estêvão Gomes 's trip of 1524 was likewise forgotten). It was only by a great effort by the Italian-American community in 1909 [ 14 ] and then in the 1940s and 1950s that Verrazzano's name and reputation were established as the European discoverer of the harbour, culminating in an initiative to name the newly built Narrows Bridge after him. [ 44 ] Commemorations This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. ( January 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) In 1909, during the Hudson-Fulton Celebration , a bronze statue of Verrazzano by Ettore Ximenes was installed in Battery Park in Manhattan . [ 45 ] There are numerous commemorations of the explorer on Staten Island . The Verrazzano–Narrows Bridge , spanning The Narrows that separate Staten Island from Brooklyn , is perhaps the best known. Until October 2018, it was known as the "Verrazano–Narrows Bridge" with one "z". [ 46 ] [ 47 ] A Staten Island Ferry boat that served New York from the 1950s to the 1990s was also named for Verrazzano. The ferry was named the "Verrazzano", while the bridge was named "Verrazano". [ 48 ] A Little League team on Staten Island is also named for him. [ 49 ] The Verrazzano–Narrows Bridge , spanning The Narrows that separate Staten Island from Brooklyn , is perhaps the best known. Until October 2018, it was known as the "Verrazano–Narrows Bridge" with one "z". [ 46 ] [ 47 ] A Staten Island Ferry boat that served New York from the 1950s to the 1990s was also named for Verrazzano. The ferry was named the "Verrazzano", while the bridge was named "Verrazano". [ 48 ] A Little League team on Staten Island is also named for him. [ 49 ] The Jamestown Verrazzano Bridge in Narragansett Bay , Rhode Island, is named for him, as is Maryland's Verrazano Bridge . [ 50 ] A vessel of the Regia Marina , a destroyer of the Navigatori class , was named after Verrazzano. She was launched in 1930 and sunk by a British submarine in 1942. There is a statue of him in the town of Greve in Chianti , Italy. [ 51 ] There is a monument commemorating him in Rehoboth Beach, Delaware ; it states on its south face: In Commemoration of Verrazzano's Voyage to America erected by the Delaware Commission on Italian Heritage and Culture 2008 [ 52 ] In Commemoration of Verrazzano's Voyage to America erected by the Delaware Commission on Italian Heritage and Culture 2008 [ 52 ] A native of Val Di Greve in the Tuscany region of Italy, he studied navigation as a young man and became a master mariner. He was engaged by the King of France to lead a voyage to North America in 1524. The purpose of Verrazzano's journey was to learn more about the continent. Traveling in a small ship known as the Dauphine, he explored coastal areas from the present-day State of North Carolina to Canada, observing the natural abundance of the land and the vibrant culture of its native peoples. His voyage is the earliest documented European exploration of this part of the Atlantic Coast. This monument rests upon stone from Castello di Verrazzano, the explorer's ancestral home. [ 52 ] A native of Val Di Greve in the Tuscany region of Italy, he studied navigation as a young man and became a master mariner. He was engaged by the King of France to lead a voyage to North America in 1524. The purpose of Verrazzano's journey was to learn more about the continent. Traveling in a small ship known as the Dauphine, he explored coastal areas from the present-day State of North Carolina to Canada, observing the natural abundance of the land and the vibrant culture of its native peoples. His voyage is the earliest documented European exploration of this part of the Atlantic Coast. This monument rests upon stone from Castello di Verrazzano, the explorer's ancestral home. [ 52 ] Notes ^ The Christian name is considered nonstandard, being of another name . The typical Latinization of "John" is " 'Jo(h)annes ". References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Verrazano" . The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (5th ed.). HarperCollins . Retrieved 28 August 2019 . ^ "Verrazano" . Collins English Dictionary . HarperCollins . Retrieved 28 August 2019 . ^ "Verrazano, Giovanni da" . Lexico US English Dictionary . Oxford University Press . [ dead link ] ^ "Verrazano" . Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary . Merriam-Webster . Retrieved 28 August 2019 . ^ Fitzsimmons, Emma G. (14 June 2016), "Some See the Verrazano Bridge. Others See a Big Typo." , The New York Times ^ "Giovanni da Verrazzano | Italian navigator" . Encyclopædia Britannica . 29 January 2016 . Retrieved 22 February 2017 . ^ Parmentola, Sergio. "Verrazzano, Giovanni da" . Enciclopedia dei ragazzi . Treccani . Retrieved 22 February 2017 . ^ Greene, George Washington (1837). The Life and Voyages of Verrazzano . Cambridge University: Folsom, Wells, and Thurston. p. 13 . Retrieved 18 August 2017 – via Internet Archive. He made several excursions up Narragansett Bay, and examined it with considerable attention. ^ Morison, Samuel Eliot (1971). The European Discovery of America: The Northern Voyages . New York: Oxford University Press. p. 283 . ISBN 0-19-215941-0 . ^ Giovanni Da Verrazzano, "Life" – Centro Studi Da Verrazzano. Archived 2012-01-15 at the Wayback Machine ^ Henry C. Murphy, The Voyage of The Verrazzano , Kessinger Publishing, 2004, p. 90. – Google Books ^ Dale Anderson et al., Explorers and Exploration , Marshall Cavendish Corporation, 2005, p. 765: "Giovanni da Verrazzano was born into a wealthy family in the Castle of Verrazzano, on a hilltop overlooking the Greve valley, a wine-producing area thirty miles south of Florence, in central Italy." – Google Books ^ "Verrazano, Giovanni da" entry in David Buisseret, The Oxford Companion to World Exploration , vol. 2, Oxford University Press, 2007, p. 332: "Thirty miles south of Florence, in the Tuscan town of Greve, explorer Giovanni da Verrazano (sometimes spelt Verrazzano) was born." – Google Books ^ a b c d e Bruscoli, Francesco Guidi (2025). "Giovanni da Verrazzano e i suoi tre viaggi oceanici". Giovanni da Verrazzano. Studi per il cinquecentenario (in Italian). Firenze: Polistampa. pp. 19– 43. ISBN 978-88-596-2481-3 . ^ Habert, Jacques (1964). La vie et les voyages de Jean de Verrazane . Montréal & Ottawa: Cercle du livre de France. p. 182. ^ Boucher, Alain (2006). Jean de Verrazane : un lyonnais découvre le site de New-York . Lyon: University Claude Bernard Lyon-1. ^ Ronald S. Love, [ Maritime exploration in the age of discovery, 1415–1800 , Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006, p. 133: "Giovanni da Verrazano was probably born to an aristocratic family from Greve in Tuscany, Italy, though he might also have been born to Italian parents living in Lyon, France. Whatever the case, Verrazano always considered himself to be Florentine". – Google Books ^ Richard Di Giacomo, The New Man and the New World: The Influence of Renaissance Humanism on the Explorers of the Italian Era of Discovery [Perfect Paperback], Magnifico Publications, 2002: "he was considered a Florentine by his contemporaries, and his association with the Florentine colony of merchants and bankers living in Lyons proved to be of great benefit to his career as an explorer." – Google Books ^ Ballesteros-Gaibrois, Manuel (1968). La Découverte de l'Amérique . Paris: Librairie Philosophique J. Vrin. p. 51. ISBN 978-2-7116-0172-1 . ^ a b Morison, Samuel Eliot (1971). The European Discovery of America: The Northern Voyages . New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 260–261 . ^ "Carolana Explorers – Giovanni Da Verrazzano" . www.carolana.com . Retrieved 15 August 2020 . ^ "French Explorers | History of Western Civilization II" . courses.lumenlearning.com . Retrieved 15 August 2020 . ^ Marcel Trudel , The Beginnings of New France 1524–1663 (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1973), p. 4. ^ Shaw, Edward Richard (1900). Discoverers and Explorers . American Book Company. p. 103 . ISBN 1-4353-8990-5 . Verrazzano january 17. {{ cite book }} : ISBN / Date incompatibility ( help ) ^ Verrazano's Voyage Along the Atlantic Coast of North America, 1524 , translation of letters by Giovanni da Verrazzano (University of the State of New York, 1916) p.6 ("The XXIIII day of February we suffered a tempest as severe as ever a man who has navigated suffered... In XXV more days we asailed more than 400 leagues where there appeared to us a new land.") ^ "Verrazano Expedition" . www.ncpedia.org . Retrieved 15 August 2020 . ^ Knecht, R. J. (1984). Francis I . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 331. ISBN 978-0-52127-887-4 . ^ a b Morison, Samuel Eliot (1971). The European Discovery of America: The Northern Voyages . New York: Oxford University Press. p. 490 . ISBN 0-19-215941-0 . ^ a b History of Barnstable County, Massachusetts . 1890. p. 950 . Retrieved 27 February 2017 . ^ D'Epiro, Peter; Pinkowish, Mary Desmond (2001). "Twenty-four: A new world beckons: Columbus, Cabot, Vespucci, Verrazano". Sprezzatura: 50 Ways Italian Genius Shaped the World . New York: Anchor Books. p. 180. ISBN 0-385-72019-X . ^ Morison, Samuel Eliot (1971). The European Discovery of America: The Northern Voyages . New York: Oxford University Press. p. 323 . ISBN 0-19-215941-0 . ^ Morison, Samuel Eliot (1971). The European Discovery of America: The Northern Voyages . New York: Oxford University Press. p. 314 . ISBN 0-19-215941-0 . ^ "Giovanni da Verrazzano, Italian navigator" . Encyclopaedia Britannica . 1 January 2019 . Retrieved 18 January 2019 . His final voyage began in the spring of 1528, when he sailed with his brother, Girolamo, from Dieppe with two or three ships. ^ Wroth, Lawrence C. (1970). The Voyages of Giovanni da Verrazzano, 1524–1528 . New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 237 . ISBN 0-300-01207-1 . ^ Morison, Samuel Eliot (1971). The European Discovery of America: The Northern Voyages . New York: Oxford University Press. p. 315 . ISBN 0-19-215941-0 . ^ Murphy, Henry Cruse (1875). The Voyage of Verrazzano: A Chapter in the Early History of Maritime Discovery in America . New York: Press of J. Munsell. p. 149 . ^ Chester, Alden (1925). Courts and lawyers of New York: a history, 1609–1925, Volume 3 . New York: The American Historical Society Inc. p. 23. ^ Wroth 1970 , pp. 255–262. ^ "16th Century Pennsylvania Maps" . www.mapsofpa.com . ^ Castelnovi Michele, Rotta verso la Cina: "les Indes en Kathaye" obiettivo della prima spedizione di Verrazzano, tra illusione e catacresi, in “Miscellanea di Storia delle Esplorazioni” XLII, Genova, Bozzi, 2017, pp. 45–78 ^ Thrower, Norman (2003) "Verrazzano, Giovanni Da", in: Speake, Jennifer (ed.) Literature of Travel and Exploration: An Encyclopedia , Vol. 3, New York; London: Fitzroy Dearborn, ISBN 1-57958-247-8 ^ Wroth 1970 , pp. 3–5. ^ Thrower, Norman (1979). "New Light on the 1524 Voyage of Verrazzano". Terrae Incognitae . 11 (11): 59– 65. doi : 10.1179/tin.1979.11.1.59 . ^ Adler, Jerry. "The History of the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge, 50 Years After Its Construction" . Smithsonian Magazine . Retrieved 15 August 2020 . ^ "The Battery – Giovanni da Verrazzano" . New York City Department of Parks & Recreation . ^ Campanile, Carl. "Cuomo Finally Fixes a 50-Year-Old Typo" . Retrieved 1 October 2018 . ^ Rivoli, Dan (1 October 2018). "Verrazzano Bridge finally gets name corrected, decades later" . New York Daily News . Retrieved 2 October 2018 . ^ Wang, Vivian (7 June 2018). "How Do You Solve a Problem Like the Verrazano? With an Extra Z" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved 15 August 2020 . ^ "Verrazano Babe Ruth League" . New York Sports Connection . Archived from the original on 6 December 2021 . Retrieved 15 August 2020 . ^ "Jamestown Bridge aces spelling bee" . www.jamestownpress.com . 7 July 2016 . Retrieved 15 August 2020 . ^ "Greve in Chianti" . www.caftours.com . Retrieved 15 August 2020 . ^ a b "Giovanni Da Verrazzano Historical Marker" . Hmdb.org . Retrieved 22 February 2017 . Further reading Codignola, Luca (1999). "Another Look at Verrazzano's Voyage, 1524" . Acadiensis . 29 (1): 29– 42. ISSN 0044-5851 . JSTOR 30303228 . Masini, Giancarlo ; Gori, Iacopo (1999). How Florence Invented America , New York, Marsilio Publishers. Castelnovi Michele (2005), Luoghi e tempi di un errore cartografico: l’istmo di Verrazzano (1524–1593), in Luoghi e tempo nella cartografia, Atti del Convegno nazionale dell’Associazione Italiana di Cartografia Trieste aprile 2005, a cura di C. Donato, in “Bollettino dell’Associazione Italiana di Cartografia”, nn. 123–124, Trieste, 2005, pp. 295–306. External links Verrazzano Centre for Historical Studies Authority control databases International ISNI 2 VIAF GND FAST WorldCat ISNI 2 2 VIAF GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Italy Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Poland Vatican Israel United States France BnF data Italy Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Poland Vatican Israel People Italian People Italian People Other IdRef Open Library SNAC Yale LUX IdRef Open Library SNAC Yale LUX 1485 births 1528 deaths People from Greve in Chianti Italian explorers of North America 16th-century people from the Republic of Florence 16th-century Italian explorers Explorers of Canada Cannibalised people Explorers of Florida All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from September 2022 Webarchive template wayback links CS1 Italian-language sources (it) CS1 errors: ISBN date Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from October 2021 Wikipedia pending changes protected pages Biography with signature Articles with hCards Pages using infobox person with deprecated parameters Pages with Italian IPA Articles needing additional references from January 2017 All articles needing additional references This page was last edited on 11 January 2026, at 16:03 (UTC) . 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No Festival de Cannes , Un Simple Accident ganha a Palma de Ouro , enquanto brasileiros Kleber Mendonça Filho e Wagner Moura conquistam prêmios de Melhor Diretor e Melhor Ator , respectivamente, por suas participações em O Agente Secreto . 23 de maio de 2025 - Sebastião Salgado , fotógrafo e jornalista brasileiro, morre aos 81 anos. 21 de maio de 2025 - Nicușor Dan eleito presidente da Romênia . 19 de maio de 2025 - Coligação PPD/PSD.CDS-PP , liderada pelo primeiro-ministro Luís Montenegro , elege o maior número de deputados nas eleições legislativas em Portugal . 18 de maio de 2025 - Áustria , representada pelo cantor JJ com a música " Wasted Love ", vence Festival Eurovisão da Canção . 13 de maio de 2025 - José Mujica , ex- presidente do Uruguai , morre aos 89 anos de idade. 8 de maio de 2025 - Conclave da Igreja Católica elege cardeal Robert Francis Prevost como Papa Leão XIV , o primeiro nascido na América do Norte . 7 de maio de 2025 - Índia e Paquistão trocam ataques militares após atentado terrorista no território indiano de Jamu e Caxemira . 6 de maio de 2025 - Mensageiro instantâneo Skype é oficialmente descontinuado pela Microsoft . 30 de abril de 2025 - Partido Liberal do Canadá , liderado pelo primeiro-ministro Mark Carney , vence as eleições legislativas no Canadá . 28 de abril de 2025 - Apagão de grandes proporções afeta Portugal , Espanha , Andorra e sudoeste da França , causando pelo menos oito mortes. 28 de abril de 2025 - Ataque com veículo a festival em Vancouver , Canadá deixa 11 mortos e mais de 20 feridos. 25 de abril de 2025 - Ex- presidente do Brasil Fernando Collor de Mello é preso para o cumprimento imediato de sua pena por corrupção e lavagem de dinheiro . 24 de abril de 2025 - Militantes atacam um grupo de turistas na Caxemira, região administrada pela Índia , matando 28 pessoas. 21 de abril de 2025 - Papa Francisco , primeiro papa jesuíta e nascido no continente americano , morre aos 88 anos. 20 de abril de 2025 - Hugo Calderano vence a Copa do Mundo de Tênis de Mesa de 2025, em Macau , e se torna o primeiro campeão não europeu ou asiático. 14 de abril de 2025 - Daniel Noboa é reeleito presidente do Equador . 11 de abril de 2025 - Desabamento do teto de boate mata mais de 200 pessoas em São Domingos , capital da República Dominicana . 6 de abril de 2025 - Corte Constitucional da Coreia do Sul destitui Yoon Suk-yeol do cargo de presidente por sua declaração ilegal de lei marcial . 3 de abril de 2025 - Presidente dos Estados Unidos , Donald Trump , anuncia tarifas comerciais globais . 29 de março de 2025 - Sismo de magnitude 7,7 deixa mais de 4 mil mortos em Myanmar e Tailândia . 29 de março de 2025 - Forças Armadas do Sudão libertam a capital Cartum após quase dois anos de batalha em meio à guerra civil . 29 de março de 2025 - Protestos nacionais irrompem na Indonésia contra aprovação de lei que amplia papel das forças armadas no governo. 28 de março de 2025 - Masaki Kashiwara recebe Prêmio Abel por contribuições para análise algébrica e teoria de representação . 28 de março de 2025 - Incêndios florestais deixam pelo menos 27 mortos na Coreia do Sul . 28 de março de 2025 - Arqueólogos anunciam descoberta do Tesouro de Melsonby , coleção de artefatos da Idade do Ferro , num campo em North Yorkshire , Inglaterra . 26 de março de 2025 - Protestos contra o governo eclodem em toda a Turquia após a detenção do prefeito de Istambul , Ekrem İmamoğlu , pela polícia nacional. 26 de março de 2025 - Ataques israelenses na Faixa de Gaza matam mais de 500 pessoas, pondo fim ao cessar-fogo da Guerra Israel-Hamas . 22 de março de 2025 - Kirsty Coventry é eleita presidente do Comitê Olímpico Internacional , a primeira mulher e pessoa de origem africana a ocupar o cargo. 16 de março de 2025 - Pelo menos 59 pessoas morrem e mais de 152 ficam feridas em incêndio em boate durante concerto em Kočani , Macedônia do Norte . 14 de março de 2025 - Mark Carney torna-se primeiro-ministro do Canadá , sucedendo a Justin Trudeau . 11 de março de 2025 - Portugal antecipa eleições após queda do governo de Luís Montenegro . 11 de março de 2025 - No Paquistão , sequestro de trem pelo Exército de Libertação do Baluchistão deixa pelo menos 64 mortos. 12 de março de 2025 - Rodrigo Duterte , ex- presidente das Filipinas , é preso por acusações do Tribunal Penal Internacional de crimes contra a humanidade durante a guerra contra o narcotráfico no país . 12 de março de 2025 - Espaçonave IM-2 da Intuitive Machines pousa na Lua num ângulo incorreto e não consegue completar sua missão. 12 de março de 2025 - Andrew Barto e Richard S. Sutton recebem Prêmio Turing pelo seu trabalho sobre aprendizagem por reforço . 9 de março de 2025 - Centenas de civis alauitas são massacrados pelas Forças Armadas no oeste da Síria . 7 de março de 2025 - Incêndio florestal na prefeitura de Iwate , no Japão , torna-se o maior do país em pelo menos cinco décadas. 7 de março de 2025 - Chinês Liu Jiakun conquista Prêmio Pritzker de arquitetura . 7 de março de 2025 - Estados Unidos impõem — e mais tarde adiam parcialmente — tarifas aduaneiras a Canadá e México e aumentam tarifas sobre a China . 7 de março de 2025 - Blue Ghost M1 da Firefly Aerospace aterrisa na Lua como parte do programa Commercial Lunar Payload Services da NASA . 3 de março de 2025 - No Oscar , Anora ganha cinco prêmios, incluindo Melhor Filme , enquanto Ainda Estou Aqui conquista categoria de Melhor Filme Internacional , o primeiro filme representando um país lusófono a conseguir tal feito. 26 de fevereiro de 2025 - Apagão generalizado afeta maior parte do Chile . 24 de fevereiro de 2025 - CDU/CSU , liderada por Friedrich Merz , conquista na eleição federal alemã o maior número de assentos no Bundestag . 21 de fevereiro de 2025 - Colapso do teto de shopping center em Trujillo , no Peru , mata oito pessoas e deixa mais de 80 feridos. 21 de fevereiro de 2025 - Arqueólogos anunciam que túmulo vazio Wadi C-4 , perto de Luxor , no Egito , é do faraó Tutemés II . 19 de fevereiro de 2025 - Nos BAFTA 2025 , Conclave ganha quatro prêmios, incluindo Melhor Filme . 19 de fevereiro de 2025 - Mahamoud Ali Youssouf eleito Presidente da Comissão da União Africana . 19 de fevereiro de 2025 - Klaus Iohannis renuncia do cargo de presidente da Romênia e é substituído interinamente por Ilie Bolojan . 12 de fevereiro de 2025 - Acidente de ônibus na Cidade da Guatemala mata 56 pessoas e fere outras nove. 11 de fevereiro de 2025 - No futebol americano , Philadelphia Eagles derrota Kansas City Chiefs e ganha o Super Bowl . 8 de fevereiro de 2025 - Avião King Air F90 cai e explode na Avenida Marquês de São Vicente em São Paulo , Brasil , matando duas pessoas e ferindo outras seis. 7 de fevereiro de 2025 - Desabamento de teto da Igreja e Convento de São Francisco , um Patrimônio da Humanidade localizado em Salvador , Brasil , causa a morte de uma pessoa e deixa outras cinco feridas. 5 de fevereiro de 2025 - Onze pessoas são assassinadas e outras doze são feridas durante tiroteio em massa numa escola em Örebro , na Suécia , e o autor do crime é encontrado morto. 4 de fevereiro de 2025 - Nos Grammy Awards , " Not Like Us ", de Kendrick Lamar , ganha prêmio de Gravação do Ano , enquanto Cowboy Carter , de Beyoncé , ganha como Álbum do Ano . 4 de fevereiro de 2025 - Avião Learjet 55 cai e colide contra vários edifícios e casas em Filadélfia , Estados Unidos , matando sete pessoas e ferindo outras 22. 2 de fevereiro de 2025 - Ahmed al-Shar’a nomeado presidente do governo de transição da Síria . 30 de janeiro de 2025 - Colisão aérea envolvendo aeronave comercial e helicóptero militar causa 67 mortes em Washington D.C. , Estados Unidos . 29 de janeiro de 2025 - Movimento 23 de Março , apoiado por Ruanda , captura cidade de Goma , capital da província de Quivu do Norte , na República Democrática do Congo . 28 de janeiro de 2025 - Aleksandr Lukashenko eleito para sétimo mandato consecutivo como presidente de Belarus . 26 de janeiro de 2025 - Tailândia se torna primeiro país do Sudeste Asiático a reconhecer casamento entre pessoas do mesmo sexo . 24 de janeiro de 2025 - Micheál Martin retorna ao cargo de Taoiseach da República da Irlanda . 24 de janeiro de 2025 - Incêndio em hotel da estação de esqui Kartalkaya , na Turquia , deixa, pelo menos, 79 mortos e 51 feridos. 21 de janeiro de 2025 - Série de ataques do Exército de Libertação Nacional na região do Catatumbo , na Colômbia , causa morte de mais de cem pessoas. 21 de janeiro de 2025 - Donald Trump empossado o 47.º presidente dos Estados Unidos . 21 de janeiro de 2025 - Nintendo Switch 2 , sucessor do Nintendo Switch , é anunciado oficialmente. 18 de janeiro de 2025 - Acordo de cessar-fogo interrompe a Guerra Israel-Hamas . 18 de janeiro de 2025 - Cineasta americano David Lynch morre aos 78 anos de idade. 18 de janeiro de 2025 - Presidente sul-coreano Yoon Suk-yeol é preso após ter declarado lei marcial . 18 de janeiro de 2025 - Joseph Aoun eleito presidente do Líbano . 13 de janeiro de 2025 - Enchentes e deslizamentos de terra no Vale do Aço , em Minas Gerais , Brasil , causam pelo menos dez mortes. 11 de janeiro de 2025 - Incêndios florestais no sul da Califórnia , Estados Unidos , deixa pelo menos 29 mortos e força a evacuação de quase 180 mil pessoas. 11 de janeiro de 2025 - Nicolás Maduro toma posse para seu terceiro mandato como presidente da Venezuela . 8 de janeiro de 2025 - Sismo de magnitude 7,1 no Tibete deixa mais de 126 pessoas mortas e centenas de feridos. 7 de janeiro de 2025 - Justin Trudeau anuncia sua intenção de renunciar ao cargo de primeiro-ministro do Canadá . 6 de janeiro de 2025 - Fernanda Torres vence o Globo de Ouro de melhor atriz em filme dramático por sua atuação no filme Ainda Estou Aqui . 1 de janeiro de 2025 - Atentado durante as celebrações de Ano-Novo em Nova Orleans , Estados Unidos , deixa pelo menos 16 pessoas mortas. Mais eventos... Tópicos recentes 1 de janeiro de 2026 - Bulgária adota o euro , tornando-se o 21.º membro da Zona Euro . 30 de dezembro de 2025 - Brigitte Bardot , atriz francesa e ativista dos direitos dos animais, morre aos 91 anos. 27 de dezembro de 2025 - Israel torna-se o primeiro país a reconhecer a Somalilândia como um Estado independente. 25 de dezembro de 2025 - Nasry Asfura eleito presidente de Honduras . 23 de dezembro de 2025 - Fatafehi Fakafānua eleito primeiro-ministro de Tonga pela Assembleia Legislativa . 18 de dezembro de 2025 - Paris Saint-Germain derrota o Flamengo na final da Copa Intercontinental da FIFA . 15 de dezembro de 2025 - José Antonio Kast eleito presidente do Chile . 15 de dezembro de 2025 - Ataque terrorista durante celebração de Chanucá na praia de Bondi , em Sydney , Austrália , causa a morte de 16 pessoas, incluindo um atirador. 12 de dezembro de 2025 - Clair Obscur: Expedition 33 vence em nove categorias no The Game Awards , incluindo Jogo do Ano . 7 de dezembro de 2025 - No automobilismo , Lando Norris sagra-se campeão mundial de Fórmula 1 pela primeira vez, enquanto McLaren ganha seu décimo Campeonato Mundial de Construtores . 30 de novembro de 2025 - Flamengo derrota o Palmeiras na final da Copa Libertadores da América , tornando-se o primeiro clube brasileiro tetracampeão da competição. 28 de novembro de 2025 - Incêndio em complexo de apartamentos em Hong Kong deixa ao menos 159 mortos. 26 de novembro de 2025 - Horta Inta-A Na Man assume governo de transição da Guiné-Bissau após a prisão do ex-presidente Umaro Sissoco Embaló e a suspensão das eleições em meio a um golpe militar . 25 de novembro de 2025 - Mais de 300 estudantes sequestrados em Papiri, no estado de Níger , Nigéria . 22 de novembro de 2025 - Ex- presidente brasileiro Jair Bolsonaro preso preventivamente pela Polícia Federal em Brasília . 21 de novembro de 2025 - Sheikh Hasina , ex-primeira-ministra de Bangladesh , é condenada à morte por crimes contra a humanidade . 14 de novembro de 2025 - Acidente com o Lockheed C-130 da Força Aérea Turca próximo à fronteira Azerbaijão–Geórgia deixa todos os 20 ocupantes mortos. 8 de novembro de 2025 - Tornado classificado como F4 atinge o município brasileiro de Rio Bonito do Iguaçu , no Paraná , deixando sete mortos e centenas de feridos. 6 de novembro de 2025 - Voo UPS Airlines 2976 cai em Louisville , Estados Unidos , deixando ao menos quatorze mortos. 5 de novembro de 2025 - Dick Cheney , ex- vice-presidente dos Estados Unidos na administração de George W. Bush , morre aos 84 anos. 4 de novembro de 2025 - Lô Borges , músico brasileiro e fundador do Clube da Esquina , morre aos 73 anos. 4 de novembro de 2025 - Protestos na Tanzânia deixam ao menos dez mortos após a declaração de vitória da presidente Samia Suluhu nas eleições gerais. 2 de novembro de 2025 - Furacão Melissa deixa mais de 40 mortos pelo Caribe . 28 de outubro de 2025 - Operação policial nos complexos do Alemão e da Penha , contra a facção criminosa Comando Vermelho , deixa 121 mortos no Rio de Janeiro , Brasil . 26 de outubro de 2025 - Timor-Leste junta-se à ASEAN como seu 11.º membro . 25 de outubro de 2025 - Catherine Connolly é eleita presidente da Irlanda . 24 de outubro de 2025 - Francisco Pinto Balsemão , ex- primeiro-ministro de Portugal e fundador da SIC , morre aos 88 anos. 21 de outubro de 2025 - Sanae Takaichi torna-se a primeira mulher nomeada primeira-ministra do Japão . 20 de outubro de 2025 - Parte das joias da Coroa Francesa é roubada durante assalto ao Louvre . 20 de outubro de 2025 - Rodrigo Paz Pereira é eleito presidente da Bolívia . 16 de outubro de 2025 - Michael Randrianirina torna-se presidente de Madagáscar após Andry Rajoelina deixar o país em meio a protestos em massa e um golpe militar . 14 de outubro de 2025 - Microsoft encerra suporte ao Windows 10 uma década após o seu lançamento. 14 de outubro de 2025 - Hamas e Israel iniciam cessar-fogo e libertam reféns e prisioneiros como parte do plano de paz para Gaza . 14 de outubro de 2025 - Joel Mokyr , Philippe Aghion e Peter Howitt são laureados com o Prêmio de Ciências Econômicas em Memória de Alfred Nobel por seus trabalhos sobre o crescimento econômico impulsionado pela inovação . 10 de outubro de 2025 - María Corina Machado é laureada com o Prêmio Nobel da Paz por seu ativismo pró-democracia na Venezuela . 10 de outubro de 2025 - José Jerí empossado presidente do Peru após Dina Boluarte ser destituída do cargo por um processo de impeachment . 10 de outubro de 2025 - László Krasznahorkai , romancista e roteirista húngaro, é laureado com o Prêmio Nobel de Literatura . 10 de outubro de 2025 - Frederick J. Ramsdell , Mary E. Brunkow e Shimon Sakaguchi são laureados com o Prêmio Nobel de Medicina por suas descobertas sobre a tolerância imunológica periférica . 10 de outubro de 2025 - John Clarke , Michel Devoret e John Martinis são laureados com o Prêmio Nobel de Física por seu trabalho sobre fenômenos quânticos macroscópicos . 10 de outubro de 2025 - Ana Paula Tavares , historiadora e poetisa angolana, vence o Prémio Camões de 2025. 4 de outubro de 2025 - Guilherme V sucede seu pai, Henrique , como Grão-Duque de Luxemburgo após a abdicação deste último . 4 de outubro de 2025 - Sarah Mullally é nomeada Arcebispa da Cantuária , tornando-se a primeira mulher a liderar a Igreja da Inglaterra e a Comunhão Anglicana nessa função. 2 de outubro de 2025 - Ataque terrorista em sinagoga de Manchester , no Reino Unido , durante o Yom Kippur , causa três mortos e três feridos graves. 2 de outubro de 2025 - Jane Goodall , primatologista britânica conhecida pelo estudo das interações sociais de chimpanzés , morre aos 91 anos. 2 de outubro de 2025 - Sismo de magnitude 6,9 atinge Cebu , Filipinas , deixando mais de 72 mortos. 2 de outubro de 2025 - Protestos em Madagáscar resultam em saques, mortes e na dissolução do governo do primeiro-ministro Christian Ntsay . 29 de setembro de 2025 - Ponte do Cânion Huajiang , a mais alta do mundo, com 625 metros de altura, é inaugurada na província de Guizhou , China . 29 de setembro de 2025 - Ataque numa capela de A Igreja de Jesus Cristo dos Santos dos Últimos Dias de Grand Blanc , Michigan , Estados Unidos , deixa cinco mortos e oito feridos durante culto e homenagem póstuma ao presidente da Igreja , Russell M. Nelson . 29 de setembro de 2025 - Peter Mutharika eleito presidente do Malawi . 28 de setembro de 2025 - Em uma iniciativa liderada pela França , vários países ocidentais reconhecem a soberania do Estado da Palestina . 25 de setembro de 2025 - Brasileiro Sandro Dias quebra recorde mundial ao descer a maior rampa de skate do mundo feita no Centro Administrativo Fernando Ferrari , em Porto Alegre , Brasil . 23 de setembro de 2025 - Acidente aéreo mata quatro pessoas no município pantaneiro de Aquidauana , Mato Grosso do Sul , Brasil , incluindo o arquiteto chinês Kongjian Yu , criador do conceito de " cidade-esponja ". 21 de setembro de 2025 - Referendo na Guiné é realizado, permitindo o estabelecimento de uma nova constituição após o golpe de Estado em 2021 . 21 de setembro de 2025 - Arábia Saudita e Paquistão assinam um acordo para se defenderem mutuamente contra ataques. 12 de setembro de 2025 - Supremo Tribunal Federal condena ex-presidente do Brasil Jair Bolsonaro a 27 anos e 3 meses de prisão por tentativa de golpe de Estado . 11 de setembro de 2025 - Protestos em massa no Nepal provocam incêndios em prédios públicos, mortes e a renúncia do primeiro-ministro Khadga Prasad Oli , substituído interinamente por Sushila Karki . 11 de setembro de 2025 - Charlie Kirk , ativista político americano, é assassinado durante evento na Universidade do Vale de Utah em Orem , Estados Unidos . 12 de setembro de 2025 - Sébastien Lecornu empossado primeiro-ministro da França . 10 de setembro de 2025 - Forças de Israel realizam ataque aéreo contra liderança do Hamas no Catar . 9 de setembro de 2025 - Tiroteio em massa em Jerusalém deixa oito mortos e 21 feridos. 7 de setembro de 2025 - Carlo Acutis canonizado pelo Papa Leão XIV , sendo o primeiro santo millennial . 6 de setembro de 2025 - Irfaan Ali reeleito presidente da Guiana para um segundo mandato consecutivo. 5 de setembro de 2025 - Giorgio Armani , estilista italiano, morre aos 91 anos. 3 de setembro de 2025 - Descarrilamento do Elevador da Glória em Lisboa , Portugal , deixa 16 mortes e 23 feridos. 1 de setembro de 2025 - Sismo de magnitude 6,0 atinge o Afeganistão , causando mais de 1 400 mortes. 3 de setembro de 2025 - Deslizamento de terra destrói a aldeia de Tarasin, no Sudão , matando centenas de pessoas. 1 de setembro de 2025 - Ataques da Força Aérea Israelense matam ministros do governo liderado pelos Hutis em Saná , Iêmen , incluindo o primeiro-ministro Ahmed al-Rahawi . 25 de agosto de 2025 - Acidente rodoviário envolvendo um ônibus com migrantes deportados do Irã mata pelo menos 79 pessoas em Herate , Afeganistão . 15 de agosto de 2025 - Explosão na fábrica de explosivos Enaex mata nove pessoas na Região Metropolitana de Curitiba , Brasil . 11 de agosto de 2025 - Miguel Uribe Turbay , senador e pré-candidato à presidência da Colômbia , morre dois meses após ser baleado em atentado . 8 de agosto de 2025 - Azerbaijão e Armênia assinam declaração para formalizar futuro tratado de paz para pôr fim ao conflito do Alto Carabaque . 4 de agosto de 2025 - Jair Bolsonaro , ex- presidente do Brasil , tem prisão domiciliar decretada após descumprir medidas cautelares. 3 de agosto de 2025 - Brasil derrota Colômbia na disputa por pênaltis na Copa América Feminina de 2025 e vence a competição pela nona vez. 30 de julho de 2025 - Sismo de magnitude 8,8 M w atinge a Península de Camecháteca , na Rússia , gerando alerta de tsunami no Oceano Pacífico . 2 de agosto de 2025 - Greve de taxistas e manifestações , devido ao aumento no preço dos combustíveis em Angola , resulta em 22 mortos, 197 feridos e mais de mil presos. 28 de julho de 2025 - Inglaterra derrota Espanha no Campeonato Europeu de Futebol Feminino de 2025 e torna-se bicampeã. 28 de julho de 2025 - Avião Antonov An-24RV cai na região de Amur , Rússia , matando todas as 48 pessoas a bordo. 22 de julho de 2025 - Ozzy Osbourne , cantor, compositor e vocalista da banda britânica Black Sabbath , morre aos 76 anos. 21 de julho de 2025 - Aeronave de caça FT-7BGI cai em Daca , Bangladesh , matando 34 pessoas e ferindo outras 173. 16 de julho de 2025 - Jennifer Simons torna-se presidente do Suriname , sendo a primeira mulher a ocupar o cargo. 13 de julho de 2025 - Muhammadu Buhari , ex- presidente da Nigéria , morre aos 82 anos. 13 de julho de 2025 - Chelsea vence o Mundial de Clubes FIFA . 8 de julho de 2025 - Tribunal Penal Internacional emite mandados de prisão contra Hibatullah Akhundzada e Abdul Hakim Haqqani , líderes do Talibã , por crime contra a humanidade . 6 de julho de 2025 - Enchentes repentinas no Texas , Estados Unidos , matam mais de 120 pessoas. 5 de julho de 2025 - Astrônomos anunciam a descoberta do 3I/ATLAS , um objeto interestelar que passa pelo Sistema Solar . 3 de julho de 2025 - Diogo Jota , futebolista português do Liverpool , e seu irmão André Silva morrem em acidente de automóvel. 30 de junho de 2025 - Observatório Vera C. Rubin , no Chile , divulga primeiras imagens captadas pelo seu novo telescópio de 8,4 metros. 22 de junho de 2025 - Israel e Irã trocam ataques aéreos por conta do programa nuclear iraniano , enquanto Estados Unidos bombardeiam instalações nucleares iranianas. 21 de junho de 2025 - Balão de ar quente pega fogo e cai em Praia Grande , Santa Catarina , Brasil , matando oito dos 21 ocupantes a bordo. 15 de junho de 2025 - Robert Kubica , Ye Yifei e Philip Hanson , da AF Corse , vencem as 24 Horas de Le Mans . 12 de junho de 2025 - Voo Air India 171 cai em Amedabade , Índia , matando 279 pessoas. 9 de junho de 2025 - Miguel Uribe , senador e pré-candidato a presidente da Colômbia , sofre tentativa de assassinato em Bogotá . 3 de junho de 2025 - Lee Jae-myung eleito presidente da Coreia do Sul . 3 de junho de 2025 - Karol Nawrocki eleito presidente da Polônia . 1 de junho de 2025 - Paris Saint-Germain vence a Liga dos Campeões da UEFA . 1 de junho de 2025 - Espanhol Álex Palou vence as 500 Milhas de Indianápolis . 1 de junho de 2025 - No Festival de Cannes , Un Simple Accident ganha a Palma de Ouro , enquanto brasileiros Kleber Mendonça Filho e Wagner Moura conquistam prêmios de Melhor Diretor e Melhor Ator , respectivamente, por suas participações em O Agente Secreto . 23 de maio de 2025 - Sebastião Salgado , fotógrafo e jornalista brasileiro, morre aos 81 anos. 21 de maio de 2025 - Nicușor Dan eleito presidente da Romênia . 19 de maio de 2025 - Coligação PPD/PSD.CDS-PP , liderada pelo primeiro-ministro Luís Montenegro , elege o maior número de deputados nas eleições legislativas em Portugal . 18 de maio de 2025 - Áustria , representada pelo cantor JJ com a música " Wasted Love ", vence Festival Eurovisão da Canção . 13 de maio de 2025 - José Mujica , ex- presidente do Uruguai , morre aos 89 anos de idade. 8 de maio de 2025 - Conclave da Igreja Católica elege cardeal Robert Francis Prevost como Papa Leão XIV , o primeiro nascido na América do Norte . 7 de maio de 2025 - Índia e Paquistão trocam ataques militares após atentado terrorista no território indiano de Jamu e Caxemira . 6 de maio de 2025 - Mensageiro instantâneo Skype é oficialmente descontinuado pela Microsoft . 30 de abril de 2025 - Partido Liberal do Canadá , liderado pelo primeiro-ministro Mark Carney , vence as eleições legislativas no Canadá . 28 de abril de 2025 - Apagão de grandes proporções afeta Portugal , Espanha , Andorra e sudoeste da França , causando pelo menos oito mortes. 28 de abril de 2025 - Ataque com veículo a festival em Vancouver , Canadá deixa 11 mortos e mais de 20 feridos. 25 de abril de 2025 - Ex- presidente do Brasil Fernando Collor de Mello é preso para o cumprimento imediato de sua pena por corrupção e lavagem de dinheiro . 24 de abril de 2025 - Militantes atacam um grupo de turistas na Caxemira, região administrada pela Índia , matando 28 pessoas. 21 de abril de 2025 - Papa Francisco , primeiro papa jesuíta e nascido no continente americano , morre aos 88 anos. 20 de abril de 2025 - Hugo Calderano vence a Copa do Mundo de Tênis de Mesa de 2025, em Macau , e se torna o primeiro campeão não europeu ou asiático. 14 de abril de 2025 - Daniel Noboa é reeleito presidente do Equador . 11 de abril de 2025 - Desabamento do teto de boate mata mais de 200 pessoas em São Domingos , capital da República Dominicana . 6 de abril de 2025 - Corte Constitucional da Coreia do Sul destitui Yoon Suk-yeol do cargo de presidente por sua declaração ilegal de lei marcial . 3 de abril de 2025 - Presidente dos Estados Unidos , Donald Trump , anuncia tarifas comerciais globais . 29 de março de 2025 - Sismo de magnitude 7,7 deixa mais de 4 mil mortos em Myanmar e Tailândia . 29 de março de 2025 - Forças Armadas do Sudão libertam a capital Cartum após quase dois anos de batalha em meio à guerra civil . 29 de março de 2025 - Protestos nacionais irrompem na Indonésia contra aprovação de lei que amplia papel das forças armadas no governo. 28 de março de 2025 - Masaki Kashiwara recebe Prêmio Abel por contribuições para análise algébrica e teoria de representação . 28 de março de 2025 - Incêndios florestais deixam pelo menos 27 mortos na Coreia do Sul . 28 de março de 2025 - Arqueólogos anunciam descoberta do Tesouro de Melsonby , coleção de artefatos da Idade do Ferro , num campo em North Yorkshire , Inglaterra . 26 de março de 2025 - Protestos contra o governo eclodem em toda a Turquia após a detenção do prefeito de Istambul , Ekrem İmamoğlu , pela polícia nacional. 26 de março de 2025 - Ataques israelenses na Faixa de Gaza matam mais de 500 pessoas, pondo fim ao cessar-fogo da Guerra Israel-Hamas . 22 de março de 2025 - Kirsty Coventry é eleita presidente do Comitê Olímpico Internacional , a primeira mulher e pessoa de origem africana a ocupar o cargo. 16 de março de 2025 - Pelo menos 59 pessoas morrem e mais de 152 ficam feridas em incêndio em boate durante concerto em Kočani , Macedônia do Norte . 14 de março de 2025 - Mark Carney torna-se primeiro-ministro do Canadá , sucedendo a Justin Trudeau . 11 de março de 2025 - Portugal antecipa eleições após queda do governo de Luís Montenegro . 11 de março de 2025 - No Paquistão , sequestro de trem pelo Exército de Libertação do Baluchistão deixa pelo menos 64 mortos. 12 de março de 2025 - Rodrigo Duterte , ex- presidente das Filipinas , é preso por acusações do Tribunal Penal Internacional de crimes contra a humanidade durante a guerra contra o narcotráfico no país . 12 de março de 2025 - Espaçonave IM-2 da Intuitive Machines pousa na Lua num ângulo incorreto e não consegue completar sua missão. 12 de março de 2025 - Andrew Barto e Richard S. Sutton recebem Prêmio Turing pelo seu trabalho sobre aprendizagem por reforço . 9 de março de 2025 - Centenas de civis alauitas são massacrados pelas Forças Armadas no oeste da Síria . 7 de março de 2025 - Incêndio florestal na prefeitura de Iwate , no Japão , torna-se o maior do país em pelo menos cinco décadas. 7 de março de 2025 - Chinês Liu Jiakun conquista Prêmio Pritzker de arquitetura . 7 de março de 2025 - Estados Unidos impõem — e mais tarde adiam parcialmente — tarifas aduaneiras a Canadá e México e aumentam tarifas sobre a China . 7 de março de 2025 - Blue Ghost M1 da Firefly Aerospace aterrisa na Lua como parte do programa Commercial Lunar Payload Services da NASA . 3 de março de 2025 - No Oscar , Anora ganha cinco prêmios, incluindo Melhor Filme , enquanto Ainda Estou Aqui conquista categoria de Melhor Filme Internacional , o primeiro filme representando um país lusófono a conseguir tal feito. 26 de fevereiro de 2025 - Apagão generalizado afeta maior parte do Chile . 24 de fevereiro de 2025 - CDU/CSU , liderada por Friedrich Merz , conquista na eleição federal alemã o maior número de assentos no Bundestag . 21 de fevereiro de 2025 - Colapso do teto de shopping center em Trujillo , no Peru , mata oito pessoas e deixa mais de 80 feridos. 21 de fevereiro de 2025 - Arqueólogos anunciam que túmulo vazio Wadi C-4 , perto de Luxor , no Egito , é do faraó Tutemés II . 19 de fevereiro de 2025 - Nos BAFTA 2025 , Conclave ganha quatro prêmios, incluindo Melhor Filme . 19 de fevereiro de 2025 - Mahamoud Ali Youssouf eleito Presidente da Comissão da União Africana . 19 de fevereiro de 2025 - Klaus Iohannis renuncia do cargo de presidente da Romênia e é substituído interinamente por Ilie Bolojan . 12 de fevereiro de 2025 - Acidente de ônibus na Cidade da Guatemala mata 56 pessoas e fere outras nove. 11 de fevereiro de 2025 - No futebol americano , Philadelphia Eagles derrota Kansas City Chiefs e ganha o Super Bowl . 8 de fevereiro de 2025 - Avião King Air F90 cai e explode na Avenida Marquês de São Vicente em São Paulo , Brasil , matando duas pessoas e ferindo outras seis. 7 de fevereiro de 2025 - Desabamento de teto da Igreja e Convento de São Francisco , um Patrimônio da Humanidade localizado em Salvador , Brasil , causa a morte de uma pessoa e deixa outras cinco feridas. 5 de fevereiro de 2025 - Onze pessoas são assassinadas e outras doze são feridas durante tiroteio em massa numa escola em Örebro , na Suécia , e o autor do crime é encontrado morto. 4 de fevereiro de 2025 - Nos Grammy Awards , " Not Like Us ", de Kendrick Lamar , ganha prêmio de Gravação do Ano , enquanto Cowboy Carter , de Beyoncé , ganha como Álbum do Ano . 4 de fevereiro de 2025 - Avião Learjet 55 cai e colide contra vários edifícios e casas em Filadélfia , Estados Unidos , matando sete pessoas e ferindo outras 22. 2 de fevereiro de 2025 - Ahmed al-Shar’a nomeado presidente do governo de transição da Síria . 30 de janeiro de 2025 - Colisão aérea envolvendo aeronave comercial e helicóptero militar causa 67 mortes em Washington D.C. , Estados Unidos . 29 de janeiro de 2025 - Movimento 23 de Março , apoiado por Ruanda , captura cidade de Goma , capital da província de Quivu do Norte , na República Democrática do Congo . 28 de janeiro de 2025 - Aleksandr Lukashenko eleito para sétimo mandato consecutivo como presidente de Belarus . 26 de janeiro de 2025 - Tailândia se torna primeiro país do Sudeste Asiático a reconhecer casamento entre pessoas do mesmo sexo . 24 de janeiro de 2025 - Micheál Martin retorna ao cargo de Taoiseach da República da Irlanda . 24 de janeiro de 2025 - Incêndio em hotel da estação de esqui Kartalkaya , na Turquia , deixa, pelo menos, 79 mortos e 51 feridos. 21 de janeiro de 2025 - Série de ataques do Exército de Libertação Nacional na região do Catatumbo , na Colômbia , causa morte de mais de cem pessoas. 21 de janeiro de 2025 - Donald Trump empossado o 47.º presidente dos Estados Unidos . 21 de janeiro de 2025 - Nintendo Switch 2 , sucessor do Nintendo Switch , é anunciado oficialmente. 18 de janeiro de 2025 - Acordo de cessar-fogo interrompe a Guerra Israel-Hamas . 18 de janeiro de 2025 - Cineasta americano David Lynch morre aos 78 anos de idade. 18 de janeiro de 2025 - Presidente sul-coreano Yoon Suk-yeol é preso após ter declarado lei marcial . 18 de janeiro de 2025 - Joseph Aoun eleito presidente do Líbano . 13 de janeiro de 2025 - Enchentes e deslizamentos de terra no Vale do Aço , em Minas Gerais , Brasil , causam pelo menos dez mortes. 11 de janeiro de 2025 - Incêndios florestais no sul da Califórnia , Estados Unidos , deixa pelo menos 29 mortos e força a evacuação de quase 180 mil pessoas. 11 de janeiro de 2025 - Nicolás Maduro toma posse para seu terceiro mandato como presidente da Venezuela . 8 de janeiro de 2025 - Sismo de magnitude 7,1 no Tibete deixa mais de 126 pessoas mortas e centenas de feridos. 7 de janeiro de 2025 - Justin Trudeau anuncia sua intenção de renunciar ao cargo de primeiro-ministro do Canadá . 6 de janeiro de 2025 - Fernanda Torres vence o Globo de Ouro de melhor atriz em filme dramático por sua atuação no filme Ainda Estou Aqui . 1 de janeiro de 2025 - Atentado durante as celebrações de Ano-Novo em Nova Orleans , Estados Unidos , deixa pelo menos 16 pessoas mortas. Mais eventos... 1 de janeiro de 2026 - Bulgária adota o euro , tornando-se o 21.º membro da Zona Euro . 30 de dezembro de 2025 - Brigitte Bardot , atriz francesa e ativista dos direitos dos animais, morre aos 91 anos. 27 de dezembro de 2025 - Israel torna-se o primeiro país a reconhecer a Somalilândia como um Estado independente. 25 de dezembro de 2025 - Nasry Asfura eleito presidente de Honduras . 23 de dezembro de 2025 - Fatafehi Fakafānua eleito primeiro-ministro de Tonga pela Assembleia Legislativa . 18 de dezembro de 2025 - Paris Saint-Germain derrota o Flamengo na final da Copa Intercontinental da FIFA . 15 de dezembro de 2025 - José Antonio Kast eleito presidente do Chile . 15 de dezembro de 2025 - Ataque terrorista durante celebração de Chanucá na praia de Bondi , em Sydney , Austrália , causa a morte de 16 pessoas, incluindo um atirador. 12 de dezembro de 2025 - Clair Obscur: Expedition 33 vence em nove categorias no The Game Awards , incluindo Jogo do Ano . 7 de dezembro de 2025 - No automobilismo , Lando Norris sagra-se campeão mundial de Fórmula 1 pela primeira vez, enquanto McLaren ganha seu décimo Campeonato Mundial de Construtores . 30 de novembro de 2025 - Flamengo derrota o Palmeiras na final da Copa Libertadores da América , tornando-se o primeiro clube brasileiro tetracampeão da competição. 28 de novembro de 2025 - Incêndio em complexo de apartamentos em Hong Kong deixa ao menos 159 mortos. 26 de novembro de 2025 - Horta Inta-A Na Man assume governo de transição da Guiné-Bissau após a prisão do ex-presidente Umaro Sissoco Embaló e a suspensão das eleições em meio a um golpe militar . 25 de novembro de 2025 - Mais de 300 estudantes sequestrados em Papiri, no estado de Níger , Nigéria . 22 de novembro de 2025 - Ex- presidente brasileiro Jair Bolsonaro preso preventivamente pela Polícia Federal em Brasília . 21 de novembro de 2025 - Sheikh Hasina , ex-primeira-ministra de Bangladesh , é condenada à morte por crimes contra a humanidade . 14 de novembro de 2025 - Acidente com o Lockheed C-130 da Força Aérea Turca próximo à fronteira Azerbaijão–Geórgia deixa todos os 20 ocupantes mortos. 8 de novembro de 2025 - Tornado classificado como F4 atinge o município brasileiro de Rio Bonito do Iguaçu , no Paraná , deixando sete mortos e centenas de feridos. 6 de novembro de 2025 - Voo UPS Airlines 2976 cai em Louisville , Estados Unidos , deixando ao menos quatorze mortos. 5 de novembro de 2025 - Dick Cheney , ex- vice-presidente dos Estados Unidos na administração de George W. Bush , morre aos 84 anos. 4 de novembro de 2025 - Lô Borges , músico brasileiro e fundador do Clube da Esquina , morre aos 73 anos. 4 de novembro de 2025 - Protestos na Tanzânia deixam ao menos dez mortos após a declaração de vitória da presidente Samia Suluhu nas eleições gerais. 2 de novembro de 2025 - Furacão Melissa deixa mais de 40 mortos pelo Caribe . 28 de outubro de 2025 - Operação policial nos complexos do Alemão e da Penha , contra a facção criminosa Comando Vermelho , deixa 121 mortos no Rio de Janeiro , Brasil . 26 de outubro de 2025 - Timor-Leste junta-se à ASEAN como seu 11.º membro . 25 de outubro de 2025 - Catherine Connolly é eleita presidente da Irlanda . 24 de outubro de 2025 - Francisco Pinto Balsemão , ex- primeiro-ministro de Portugal e fundador da SIC , morre aos 88 anos. 21 de outubro de 2025 - Sanae Takaichi torna-se a primeira mulher nomeada primeira-ministra do Japão . 20 de outubro de 2025 - Parte das joias da Coroa Francesa é roubada durante assalto ao Louvre . 20 de outubro de 2025 - Rodrigo Paz Pereira é eleito presidente da Bolívia . 16 de outubro de 2025 - Michael Randrianirina torna-se presidente de Madagáscar após Andry Rajoelina deixar o país em meio a protestos em massa e um golpe militar . 14 de outubro de 2025 - Microsoft encerra suporte ao Windows 10 uma década após o seu lançamento. 14 de outubro de 2025 - Hamas e Israel iniciam cessar-fogo e libertam reféns e prisioneiros como parte do plano de paz para Gaza . 14 de outubro de 2025 - Joel Mokyr , Philippe Aghion e Peter Howitt são laureados com o Prêmio de Ciências Econômicas em Memória de Alfred Nobel por seus trabalhos sobre o crescimento econômico impulsionado pela inovação . 10 de outubro de 2025 - María Corina Machado é laureada com o Prêmio Nobel da Paz por seu ativismo pró-democracia na Venezuela . 10 de outubro de 2025 - José Jerí empossado presidente do Peru após Dina Boluarte ser destituída do cargo por um processo de impeachment . 10 de outubro de 2025 - László Krasznahorkai , romancista e roteirista húngaro, é laureado com o Prêmio Nobel de Literatura . 10 de outubro de 2025 - Frederick J. Ramsdell , Mary E. Brunkow e Shimon Sakaguchi são laureados com o Prêmio Nobel de Medicina por suas descobertas sobre a tolerância imunológica periférica . 10 de outubro de 2025 - John Clarke , Michel Devoret e John Martinis são laureados com o Prêmio Nobel de Física por seu trabalho sobre fenômenos quânticos macroscópicos . 10 de outubro de 2025 - Ana Paula Tavares , historiadora e poetisa angolana, vence o Prémio Camões de 2025. 4 de outubro de 2025 - Guilherme V sucede seu pai, Henrique , como Grão-Duque de Luxemburgo após a abdicação deste último . 4 de outubro de 2025 - Sarah Mullally é nomeada Arcebispa da Cantuária , tornando-se a primeira mulher a liderar a Igreja da Inglaterra e a Comunhão Anglicana nessa função. 2 de outubro de 2025 - Ataque terrorista em sinagoga de Manchester , no Reino Unido , durante o Yom Kippur , causa três mortos e três feridos graves. 2 de outubro de 2025 - Jane Goodall , primatologista britânica conhecida pelo estudo das interações sociais de chimpanzés , morre aos 91 anos. 2 de outubro de 2025 - Sismo de magnitude 6,9 atinge Cebu , Filipinas , deixando mais de 72 mortos. 2 de outubro de 2025 - Protestos em Madagáscar resultam em saques, mortes e na dissolução do governo do primeiro-ministro Christian Ntsay . 29 de setembro de 2025 - Ponte do Cânion Huajiang , a mais alta do mundo, com 625 metros de altura, é inaugurada na província de Guizhou , China . 29 de setembro de 2025 - Ataque numa capela de A Igreja de Jesus Cristo dos Santos dos Últimos Dias de Grand Blanc , Michigan , Estados Unidos , deixa cinco mortos e oito feridos durante culto e homenagem póstuma ao presidente da Igreja , Russell M. Nelson . 29 de setembro de 2025 - Peter Mutharika eleito presidente do Malawi . 28 de setembro de 2025 - Em uma iniciativa liderada pela França , vários países ocidentais reconhecem a soberania do Estado da Palestina . 25 de setembro de 2025 - Brasileiro Sandro Dias quebra recorde mundial ao descer a maior rampa de skate do mundo feita no Centro Administrativo Fernando Ferrari , em Porto Alegre , Brasil . 23 de setembro de 2025 - Acidente aéreo mata quatro pessoas no município pantaneiro de Aquidauana , Mato Grosso do Sul , Brasil , incluindo o arquiteto chinês Kongjian Yu , criador do conceito de " cidade-esponja ". 21 de setembro de 2025 - Referendo na Guiné é realizado, permitindo o estabelecimento de uma nova constituição após o golpe de Estado em 2021 . 21 de setembro de 2025 - Arábia Saudita e Paquistão assinam um acordo para se defenderem mutuamente contra ataques. 12 de setembro de 2025 - Supremo Tribunal Federal condena ex-presidente do Brasil Jair Bolsonaro a 27 anos e 3 meses de prisão por tentativa de golpe de Estado . 11 de setembro de 2025 - Protestos em massa no Nepal provocam incêndios em prédios públicos, mortes e a renúncia do primeiro-ministro Khadga Prasad Oli , substituído interinamente por Sushila Karki . 11 de setembro de 2025 - Charlie Kirk , ativista político americano, é assassinado durante evento na Universidade do Vale de Utah em Orem , Estados Unidos . 12 de setembro de 2025 - Sébastien Lecornu empossado primeiro-ministro da França . 10 de setembro de 2025 - Forças de Israel realizam ataque aéreo contra liderança do Hamas no Catar . 9 de setembro de 2025 - Tiroteio em massa em Jerusalém deixa oito mortos e 21 feridos. 7 de setembro de 2025 - Carlo Acutis canonizado pelo Papa Leão XIV , sendo o primeiro santo millennial . 6 de setembro de 2025 - Irfaan Ali reeleito presidente da Guiana para um segundo mandato consecutivo. 5 de setembro de 2025 - Giorgio Armani , estilista italiano, morre aos 91 anos. 3 de setembro de 2025 - Descarrilamento do Elevador da Glória em Lisboa , Portugal , deixa 16 mortes e 23 feridos. 1 de setembro de 2025 - Sismo de magnitude 6,0 atinge o Afeganistão , causando mais de 1 400 mortes. 3 de setembro de 2025 - Deslizamento de terra destrói a aldeia de Tarasin, no Sudão , matando centenas de pessoas. 1 de setembro de 2025 - Ataques da Força Aérea Israelense matam ministros do governo liderado pelos Hutis em Saná , Iêmen , incluindo o primeiro-ministro Ahmed al-Rahawi . 25 de agosto de 2025 - Acidente rodoviário envolvendo um ônibus com migrantes deportados do Irã mata pelo menos 79 pessoas em Herate , Afeganistão . 15 de agosto de 2025 - Explosão na fábrica de explosivos Enaex mata nove pessoas na Região Metropolitana de Curitiba , Brasil . 11 de agosto de 2025 - Miguel Uribe Turbay , senador e pré-candidato à presidência da Colômbia , morre dois meses após ser baleado em atentado . 8 de agosto de 2025 - Azerbaijão e Armênia assinam declaração para formalizar futuro tratado de paz para pôr fim ao conflito do Alto Carabaque . 4 de agosto de 2025 - Jair Bolsonaro , ex- presidente do Brasil , tem prisão domiciliar decretada após descumprir medidas cautelares. 3 de agosto de 2025 - Brasil derrota Colômbia na disputa por pênaltis na Copa América Feminina de 2025 e vence a competição pela nona vez. 30 de julho de 2025 - Sismo de magnitude 8,8 M w atinge a Península de Camecháteca , na Rússia , gerando alerta de tsunami no Oceano Pacífico . 2 de agosto de 2025 - Greve de taxistas e manifestações , devido ao aumento no preço dos combustíveis em Angola , resulta em 22 mortos, 197 feridos e mais de mil presos. 28 de julho de 2025 - Inglaterra derrota Espanha no Campeonato Europeu de Futebol Feminino de 2025 e torna-se bicampeã. 28 de julho de 2025 - Avião Antonov An-24RV cai na região de Amur , Rússia , matando todas as 48 pessoas a bordo. 22 de julho de 2025 - Ozzy Osbourne , cantor, compositor e vocalista da banda britânica Black Sabbath , morre aos 76 anos. 21 de julho de 2025 - Aeronave de caça FT-7BGI cai em Daca , Bangladesh , matando 34 pessoas e ferindo outras 173. 16 de julho de 2025 - Jennifer Simons torna-se presidente do Suriname , sendo a primeira mulher a ocupar o cargo. 13 de julho de 2025 - Muhammadu Buhari , ex- presidente da Nigéria , morre aos 82 anos. 13 de julho de 2025 - Chelsea vence o Mundial de Clubes FIFA . 8 de julho de 2025 - Tribunal Penal Internacional emite mandados de prisão contra Hibatullah Akhundzada e Abdul Hakim Haqqani , líderes do Talibã , por crime contra a humanidade . 6 de julho de 2025 - Enchentes repentinas no Texas , Estados Unidos , matam mais de 120 pessoas. 5 de julho de 2025 - Astrônomos anunciam a descoberta do 3I/ATLAS , um objeto interestelar que passa pelo Sistema Solar . 3 de julho de 2025 - Diogo Jota , futebolista português do Liverpool , e seu irmão André Silva morrem em acidente de automóvel. 30 de junho de 2025 - Observatório Vera C. Rubin , no Chile , divulga primeiras imagens captadas pelo seu novo telescópio de 8,4 metros. 22 de junho de 2025 - Israel e Irã trocam ataques aéreos por conta do programa nuclear iraniano , enquanto Estados Unidos bombardeiam instalações nucleares iranianas. 21 de junho de 2025 - Balão de ar quente pega fogo e cai em Praia Grande , Santa Catarina , Brasil , matando oito dos 21 ocupantes a bordo. 15 de junho de 2025 - Robert Kubica , Ye Yifei e Philip Hanson , da AF Corse , vencem as 24 Horas de Le Mans . 12 de junho de 2025 - Voo Air India 171 cai em Amedabade , Índia , matando 279 pessoas. 9 de junho de 2025 - Miguel Uribe , senador e pré-candidato a presidente da Colômbia , sofre tentativa de assassinato em Bogotá . 3 de junho de 2025 - Lee Jae-myung eleito presidente da Coreia do Sul . 3 de junho de 2025 - Karol Nawrocki eleito presidente da Polônia . 1 de junho de 2025 - Paris Saint-Germain vence a Liga dos Campeões da UEFA . 1 de junho de 2025 - Espanhol Álex Palou vence as 500 Milhas de Indianápolis . 1 de junho de 2025 - No Festival de Cannes , Un Simple Accident ganha a Palma de Ouro , enquanto brasileiros Kleber Mendonça Filho e Wagner Moura conquistam prêmios de Melhor Diretor e Melhor Ator , respectivamente, por suas participações em O Agente Secreto . 23 de maio de 2025 - Sebastião Salgado , fotógrafo e jornalista brasileiro, morre aos 81 anos. 21 de maio de 2025 - Nicușor Dan eleito presidente da Romênia . 19 de maio de 2025 - Coligação PPD/PSD.CDS-PP , liderada pelo primeiro-ministro Luís Montenegro , elege o maior número de deputados nas eleições legislativas em Portugal . 18 de maio de 2025 - Áustria , representada pelo cantor JJ com a música " Wasted Love ", vence Festival Eurovisão da Canção . 13 de maio de 2025 - José Mujica , ex- presidente do Uruguai , morre aos 89 anos de idade. 8 de maio de 2025 - Conclave da Igreja Católica elege cardeal Robert Francis Prevost como Papa Leão XIV , o primeiro nascido na América do Norte . 7 de maio de 2025 - Índia e Paquistão trocam ataques militares após atentado terrorista no território indiano de Jamu e Caxemira . 6 de maio de 2025 - Mensageiro instantâneo Skype é oficialmente descontinuado pela Microsoft . 30 de abril de 2025 - Partido Liberal do Canadá , liderado pelo primeiro-ministro Mark Carney , vence as eleições legislativas no Canadá . 28 de abril de 2025 - Apagão de grandes proporções afeta Portugal , Espanha , Andorra e sudoeste da França , causando pelo menos oito mortes. 28 de abril de 2025 - Ataque com veículo a festival em Vancouver , Canadá deixa 11 mortos e mais de 20 feridos. 25 de abril de 2025 - Ex- presidente do Brasil Fernando Collor de Mello é preso para o cumprimento imediato de sua pena por corrupção e lavagem de dinheiro . 24 de abril de 2025 - Militantes atacam um grupo de turistas na Caxemira, região administrada pela Índia , matando 28 pessoas. 21 de abril de 2025 - Papa Francisco , primeiro papa jesuíta e nascido no continente americano , morre aos 88 anos. 20 de abril de 2025 - Hugo Calderano vence a Copa do Mundo de Tênis de Mesa de 2025, em Macau , e se torna o primeiro campeão não europeu ou asiático. 14 de abril de 2025 - Daniel Noboa é reeleito presidente do Equador . 11 de abril de 2025 - Desabamento do teto de boate mata mais de 200 pessoas em São Domingos , capital da República Dominicana . 6 de abril de 2025 - Corte Constitucional da Coreia do Sul destitui Yoon Suk-yeol do cargo de presidente por sua declaração ilegal de lei marcial . 3 de abril de 2025 - Presidente dos Estados Unidos , Donald Trump , anuncia tarifas comerciais globais . 29 de março de 2025 - Sismo de magnitude 7,7 deixa mais de 4 mil mortos em Myanmar e Tailândia . 29 de março de 2025 - Forças Armadas do Sudão libertam a capital Cartum após quase dois anos de batalha em meio à guerra civil . 29 de março de 2025 - Protestos nacionais irrompem na Indonésia contra aprovação de lei que amplia papel das forças armadas no governo. 28 de março de 2025 - Masaki Kashiwara recebe Prêmio Abel por contribuições para análise algébrica e teoria de representação . 28 de março de 2025 - Incêndios florestais deixam pelo menos 27 mortos na Coreia do Sul . 28 de março de 2025 - Arqueólogos anunciam descoberta do Tesouro de Melsonby , coleção de artefatos da Idade do Ferro , num campo em North Yorkshire , Inglaterra . 26 de março de 2025 - Protestos contra o governo eclodem em toda a Turquia após a detenção do prefeito de Istambul , Ekrem İmamoğlu , pela polícia nacional. 26 de março de 2025 - Ataques israelenses na Faixa de Gaza matam mais de 500 pessoas, pondo fim ao cessar-fogo da Guerra Israel-Hamas . 22 de março de 2025 - Kirsty Coventry é eleita presidente do Comitê Olímpico Internacional , a primeira mulher e pessoa de origem africana a ocupar o cargo. 16 de março de 2025 - Pelo menos 59 pessoas morrem e mais de 152 ficam feridas em incêndio em boate durante concerto em Kočani , Macedônia do Norte . 14 de março de 2025 - Mark Carney torna-se primeiro-ministro do Canadá , sucedendo a Justin Trudeau . 11 de março de 2025 - Portugal antecipa eleições após queda do governo de Luís Montenegro . 11 de março de 2025 - No Paquistão , sequestro de trem pelo Exército de Libertação do Baluchistão deixa pelo menos 64 mortos. 12 de março de 2025 - 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Sutton recebem Prêmio Turing pelo seu trabalho sobre aprendizagem por reforço . 9 de março de 2025 - Centenas de civis alauitas são massacrados pelas Forças Armadas no oeste da Síria . 7 de março de 2025 - Incêndio florestal na prefeitura de Iwate , no Japão , torna-se o maior do país em pelo menos cinco décadas. 7 de março de 2025 - Chinês Liu Jiakun conquista Prêmio Pritzker de arquitetura . 7 de março de 2025 - Estados Unidos impõem — e mais tarde adiam parcialmente — tarifas aduaneiras a Canadá e México e aumentam tarifas sobre a China . 7 de março de 2025 - Blue Ghost M1 da Firefly Aerospace aterrisa na Lua como parte do programa Commercial Lunar Payload Services da NASA . 3 de março de 2025 - No Oscar , Anora ganha cinco prêmios, incluindo Melhor Filme , enquanto Ainda Estou Aqui conquista categoria de Melhor Filme Internacional , o primeiro filme representando um país lusófono a conseguir tal feito. 26 de fevereiro de 2025 - Apagão generalizado afeta maior parte do Chile . 24 de fevereiro de 2025 - 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Aleksandr Lukashenko eleito para sétimo mandato consecutivo como presidente de Belarus . 26 de janeiro de 2025 - Tailândia se torna primeiro país do Sudeste Asiático a reconhecer casamento entre pessoas do mesmo sexo . 24 de janeiro de 2025 - Micheál Martin retorna ao cargo de Taoiseach da República da Irlanda . 24 de janeiro de 2025 - Incêndio em hotel da estação de esqui Kartalkaya , na Turquia , deixa, pelo menos, 79 mortos e 51 feridos. 21 de janeiro de 2025 - Série de ataques do Exército de Libertação Nacional na região do Catatumbo , na Colômbia , causa morte de mais de cem pessoas. 21 de janeiro de 2025 - Donald Trump empossado o 47.º presidente dos Estados Unidos . 21 de janeiro de 2025 - Nintendo Switch 2 , sucessor do Nintendo Switch , é anunciado oficialmente. 18 de janeiro de 2025 - Acordo de cessar-fogo interrompe a Guerra Israel-Hamas . 18 de janeiro de 2025 - Cineasta americano David Lynch morre aos 78 anos de idade. 18 de janeiro de 2025 - Presidente sul-coreano Yoon Suk-yeol é preso após ter declarado lei marcial . 18 de janeiro de 2025 - Joseph Aoun eleito presidente do Líbano . 13 de janeiro de 2025 - Enchentes e deslizamentos de terra no Vale do Aço , em Minas Gerais , Brasil , causam pelo menos dez mortes. 11 de janeiro de 2025 - Incêndios florestais no sul da Califórnia , Estados Unidos , deixa pelo menos 29 mortos e força a evacuação de quase 180 mil pessoas. 11 de janeiro de 2025 - Nicolás Maduro toma posse para seu terceiro mandato como presidente da Venezuela . 8 de janeiro de 2025 - Sismo de magnitude 7,1 no Tibete deixa mais de 126 pessoas mortas e centenas de feridos. 7 de janeiro de 2025 - Justin Trudeau anuncia sua intenção de renunciar ao cargo de primeiro-ministro do Canadá . 6 de janeiro de 2025 - Fernanda Torres vence o Globo de Ouro de melhor atriz em filme dramático por sua atuação no filme Ainda Estou Aqui . 1 de janeiro de 2025 - Atentado durante as celebrações de Ano-Novo em Nova Orleans , Estados Unidos , deixa pelo menos 16 pessoas mortas. 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early history Toggle Early history subsection 1.1 Timeline of early development 1.1 Timeline of early development 2 Early commercial instruments 3 Sound-powered telephones Toggle Sound-powered telephones subsection 3.1 Principle of operation 3.2 Applications 3.1 Principle of operation 3.2 Applications 4 Digital telephones and voice over IP 5 Cordless telephones Toggle Cordless telephones subsection 5.1 Base station 5.1 Base station 6 Mobile phones Toggle Mobile phones subsection 6.1 Smartphones 6.2 Mobile phone usage 6.1 Smartphones 6.2 Mobile phone usage 7 Satellite phones 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links Telephone Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ अंगिका Ænglisc العربية Aragonés ܐܪܡܝܐ Armãneashti অসমীয়া Asturianu Atikamekw Avañe'ẽ Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Čeština ChiShona Cymraeg Dagbanli Dansk الدارجة Deitsch Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Français Frysk Gaeilge Gaelg Gàidhlig Galego 贛語 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Igbo Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue Iñupiatun IsiXhosa Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Қазақша Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Ladino ລາວ Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Limburgs Lingála Lingua Franca Nova Livvinkarjala La .lojban. Lombard Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu Minangkabau 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाली नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano ߒߞߏ Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Nouormand Occitan Олык марий Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Pälzisch پنجابی پښتو Patois ភាសាខ្មែរ Piemontèis Plattdüütsch Polski Português Qırımtatarca Ripoarisch Română Rumantsch Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sakizaya Gagana Samoa संस्कृतम् Sängö Scots Seediq Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Soomaaliga کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Taclḥit Татарча / tatarça తెలుగు ไทย Thuɔŋjäŋ Тоҷикӣ Tsetsêhestâhese Türkçe Twi Українська اردو Vahcuengh Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon 文言 Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki Žemaitėška 中文 Bajau Sama Yerwa Kanuri ရခိုင် Toki pona Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikivoyage Wikidata item A telephone , commonly shortened to phone , is a telecommunications device that enables two or more users to conduct a conversation when they are too far apart to be easily heard directly. A telephone converts sound , typically and most efficiently the human voice , into electronic signals that are transmitted via cables and other communication channels to another telephone which reproduces the sound to the receiving user. The term is derived from Ancient Greek : τῆλε , romanized : tēle , lit. ' far ' and φωνή ( phōnē , voice ), together meaning distant voice . [ 1 ] In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell was the first to be granted a United States patent for a device that produced clearly intelligible replication of the human voice at a second device. [ 2 ] This instrument was further developed by many others, and became rapidly indispensable in business , government , and in households . The essential elements of a telephone are a microphone ( transmitter ) to speak into and an earphone ( receiver ) which reproduces the voice at a distant location. [ 3 ] The receiver and transmitter are usually built into a handset which is held up to the ear and mouth during conversation. The transmitter converts the sound waves to electrical signals which are sent through the telecommunications system to the receiving telephone, which converts the signals into audible sound in the receiver or sometimes a loudspeaker . Telephones permit transmission in both directions simultaneously. Most telephones also contain an alerting feature, such as a ringer or a visual indicator, to announce an incoming telephone call. Telephone calls are initiated most commonly with a keypad or dial, affixed to the telephone, to enter a telephone number , which is the address of the call recipient's telephone in the telecommunications system, but other methods existed in the early history of the telephone. The first telephones were directly connected to each other from one customer's office or residence to another customer's location. Being impractical beyond just a few customers, these systems were quickly replaced by manually operated centrally located switchboards . These exchanges were soon connected together, eventually forming an automated, worldwide public switched telephone network . For greater mobility, various radio systems were developed in the mid-20th century for transmission between mobile stations on ships and in automobiles. Handheld mobile phones were introduced for personal service starting in 1973. In later decades, the analog cellular system evolved into digital networks with greater capability and lower cost. Convergence in communication services has provided a broad spectrum of capabilities in cell phones, including mobile computing, giving rise to the smartphone , the dominant type of telephone in the world today. Modern telephones exist in various forms and are implemented through different systems, including fixed-line , cellular , satellite , and Internet-based devices, all of which are integrated into the public switched telephone network (PSTN). This interconnected system allows any telephone, regardless of its underlying technology or geographic location, to reach another through a unique telephone number. While mobile and landline services are fully integrated into the global telecommunication network, some Internet-based services, such as VoIP , may not always be directly connected to the PSTN, though they still allow communication across different systems when a connection is made. Early history Before the development of the electric telephone, the term telephone was applied to other inventions, and not all early researchers of the electrical device used the term. Perhaps the earliest use of the word for a communications system was the telephon created by Gottfried Huth in 1796. Huth proposed an alternative to the optical telegraph of Claude Chappe in which the operators in the signaling towers would shout to each other by means of what he called "speaking tubes", but would now be called giant megaphones . [ 6 ] A communication device for sailing vessels, called telephone , was invented by Captain John Taylor in 1844. This instrument used four air horns to communicate with vessels in foggy weather. [ 7 ] [ 8 ] Johann Philipp Reis used the term in reference to his invention, commonly known as the Reis telephone , in c. 1860. His device appears to be the first device based on the conversion of sound into electrical impulses. The term telephone was adopted into the vocabulary of many languages. It is derived from the Greek : τῆλε , tēle , "far" and φωνή, phōnē , "voice", together meaning "distant voice". Credit for the invention of the electric telephone is frequently disputed. As with other influential inventions such as radio , television , the light bulb , and the computer , several inventors pioneered experimental work on voice transmission over a wire and improved on each other's ideas. New controversies over the issue still arise from time to time. Charles Bourseul , Antonio Meucci , Johann Philipp Reis , Alexander Graham Bell , and Elisha Gray , amongst others, have all been credited with the invention of the telephone. [ 9 ] [ 10 ] Alexander Graham Bell was the first to be awarded a patent for the electric telephone by the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) in March 1876. [ 11 ] Before Bell's patent, the telephone transmitted sound in a way that was similar to the telegraph. This method used vibrations and circuits to send electrical pulses, but was missing key features. Bell found that this method produced a sound through intermittent currents, but in order for the telephone to work, a fluctuating current reproduced sounds the best. The fluctuating currents became the basis for the working telephone, creating Bell's patent. [ 12 ] That first patent by Bell was the master patent of the telephone, from which other patents for electric telephone devices and features flowed. [ 13 ] In 1876, shortly after Bell's patent application, Hungarian engineer Tivadar Puskás proposed the telephone switch, which allowed for the formation of telephone exchanges , and eventually networks. [ 14 ] In the United Kingdom, the blower is used as a slang term for a telephone. The term came from navy slang for a speaking tube . [ 15 ] In the U.S., a somewhat dated slang term refers to the telephone as "the horn," as in "I couldn't get him on the horn," or "I'll be off the horn in a moment." [ 16 ] Timeline of early development 1844: Innocenzo Manzetti first mooted the idea of a "speaking telegraph" or telephone. Use of the "speaking telegraph" and "sound telegraph" monikers would eventually be replaced by the newer, distinct name, "telephone". 1849: Antonio Meucci developed a voice-communication apparatus that several sources credit as the first telephone. [ 21 ] 26 August 1854: Charles Bourseul published an article in the magazine L'Illustration (Paris): "Transmission électrique de la parole" (electric transmission of speech), describing a "make-and-break" type telephone transmitter later created by Johann Reis. 26 October 1861: Johann Philipp Reis (1834–1874) publicly demonstrated the Reis telephone before the Physical Society of Frankfurt. [ 10 ] It was the first device to transmit a voice via electronic signals and for that the first modern telephone. [ 22 ] [ 20 ] Reis also coined the term. [ 23 ] He used his telephone to transmit the phrase "Das Pferd frisst keinen Gurkensalat" ("The horse does not eat cucumber salad"). 22 August 1865, La Feuille d'Aoste reported "It is rumored that English technicians to whom Manzetti illustrated his method for transmitting spoken words on the telegraph wire intend to apply said invention in England on several private telegraph lines". [ citation needed ] However, telephones would not be demonstrated there until 1876, with a set of telephones from Bell. 28 December 1871: Antonio Meucci files patent caveat No. 3335 in the U.S. Patent Office, titled "Sound Telegraph", describing communication of voice between two people by wire. A patent caveat was not an invention patent award, but only an unverified notice filed by an individual that he or she intends to file a patent application in the future. 1874: Meucci, after having renewed the caveat for two years does not renew it again, and the caveat lapses. 6 April 1875: Bell's U.S. Patent 161,739 "Transmitters and Receivers for Electric Telegraphs" is granted. This uses multiple vibrating steel reeds in make-break circuits. 11 February 1876: Elisha Gray invents a liquid transmitter for use with the telephone but does not build one. 14 February 1876: Gray files a patent caveat for transmitting the human voice through a telegraphic circuit. 14 February 1876: Alexander Graham Bell applies for the patent "Improvements in Telegraphy", for electromagnetic telephones using what is now called amplitude modulation (oscillating current and voltage) but which he referred to as "undulating current". 19 February 1876: Gray is notified by the U.S. Patent Office of an interference between his caveat and Bell's patent application. Gray decides to abandon his caveat. 7 March 1876: Bell's U.S. patent 174,465 "Improvement in Telegraphy" is granted, covering "the method of, and apparatus for, transmitting vocal or other sounds telegraphically…by causing electrical undulations, similar in form to the vibrations of the air accompanying the said vocal or other sound." 10 March 1876: The first successful telephone transmission of clear speech using a liquid transmitter when Bell spoke into his device, "Mr. Watson, come here, I want to see you." and Watson heard each word distinctly. 30 January 1877: Bell's U.S. patent 186,787 is granted for an electromagnetic telephone using permanent magnets, iron diaphragms, and a call bell. 27 April 1877: Thomas Edison files a patent application for a carbon (graphite) transmitter. It was published as No. 474,230 on 3 May 1892, after a 15-year delay because of litigation. Edison was granted patent 222,390 for a carbon granules transmitter in 1879. Early commercial instruments Early telephones were technically diverse. Some used a water microphone , some had a metal diaphragm that induced current in an electromagnet wound around a permanent magnet, and some were dynamic – their diaphragm vibrated a coil of wire in the field of a permanent magnet or the coil vibrated the diaphragm. The sound-powered dynamic variants survived in small numbers through the 20th century in military and maritime applications, where its ability to create its own electrical power was crucial. Most, however, used the Edison/Berliner carbon transmitter , which was much louder than the other kinds, even though it required an induction coil which was an impedance matching transformer to make it compatible with the impedance of the line. The Edison patents kept the Bell monopoly viable into the 20th century, by which time the network was more important than the instrument. Early telephones were locally powered, using either a dynamic transmitter or by the powering of a transmitter with a local battery. One of the jobs of outside plant personnel was to visit each telephone periodically to inspect the battery. During the 20th century, telephones powered from the telephone exchange over the same wires that carried the voice signals became common. Early telephones used a single wire for the subscriber's line, with ground return used to complete the circuit (as used in telegraphs ). The earliest dynamic telephones also had only one port opening for sound, with the user alternately listening and speaking (or rather, shouting) into the same hole. Sometimes the instruments were operated in pairs at each end, making conversation more convenient but also more expensive. At first, the benefits of a telephone exchange were not exploited. Instead, telephones were leased in pairs to a subscriber , who had to arrange for a telegraph contractor to construct a line between them, for example, between a home and a shop. Users who wanted the ability to speak to several different locations would need to obtain and set up three or four pairs of telephones. Western Union , already using telegraph exchanges, quickly extended the principle to its telephones in New York City and San Francisco , and Bell was not slow in appreciating the potential. Signalling began in an appropriately primitive manner. The user alerted the other end, or the exchange operator , by whistling into the transmitter. Exchange operation soon resulted in telephones being equipped with a bell in a ringer box , first operated over a second wire, and later over the same wire, but with a condenser ( capacitor ) in series with the bell coil to allow the AC ringer signal through while still blocking DC (keeping the phone " on hook "). Telephones connected to the earliest Strowger switch automatic exchanges had seven wires, one for the knife switch , one for each telegraph key , one for the bell, one for the push-button and two for speaking. Large wall telephones in the early 20th century usually incorporated the bell, and separate bell boxes for desk phones dwindled away in the middle of the century. Rural and other telephones that were not on a common battery exchange had a magneto hand-cranked generator to produce a high voltage alternating signal to ring the bells of other telephones on the line and to alert the operator. Some local farming communities that were not connected to the main networks set up barbed wire telephone lines that exploited the existing system of field fences to transmit the signal. In the 1890s a new smaller style of telephone was introduced, packaged in three parts. The transmitter stood on a stand, known as a " candlestick " for its shape. When not in use, the receiver hung on a hook with a switch in it, known as a "switchhook". Previous telephones required the user to operate a separate switch to connect either the voice or the bell. With the new kind, the user was less likely to leave the phone "off the hook". In phones connected to magneto exchanges, the bell, induction coil, battery and magneto were in a separate bell box or " ringer box ". [ 24 ] In phones connected to common battery exchanges, the ringer box was installed under a desk, or other out-of-the-way place, since it did not need a battery or magneto. Cradle designs were also used at this time, having a handle with the receiver and transmitter attached, now called a handset , separate from the cradle base that housed the magneto crank and other parts. They were larger than the "candlestick" and more popular. Disadvantages of single-wire operation such as crosstalk and hum from nearby AC power wires had already led to the use of twisted pairs and, for long-distance telephones, four-wire circuits . Users at the beginning of the 20th century did not place long-distance calls from their own telephones but made an appointment and were connected with the assistance of a telephone operator. [ 25 ] What turned out to be the most popular and longest-lasting physical style of telephone was introduced in the early 20th century, including Bell's 202-type desk set. A carbon granule transmitter and electromagnetic receiver were united in a single molded plastic handle, which when not in use was secured in a cradle in the base unit. The circuit diagram of the model 202 shows the direct connection of the transmitter to the line, while the receiver was inductively coupled. In local battery configurations, when the local loop was too long to provide sufficient current from the exchange, the transmitter was powered by a local battery and inductively coupled, while the receiver was included in the local loop. [ 26 ] The coupling transformer and the ringer were mounted in a separate enclosure, called the subscriber set. The dial switch in the base interrupted the line current by repeatedly but very briefly disconnecting the line one to ten times for each digit, and the hook switch (in the center of the circuit diagram) disconnected the line and the transmitter battery while the handset was on the cradle. In the 1930s, telephone sets were developed that combined the bell and induction coil with the desk set, obviating a separate ringer box. The rotary dial becoming commonplace in the 1930s in many areas enabled customer-dialed service, but some magneto systems remained even into the 1960s. The village of Bryant Pond, Maine is believed to be the last telephone exchange in the U.S. to convert from magneto to direct-dial service on October 11, 1983. [ 27 ] After World War II, the telephone networks saw rapid expansion and more efficient telephone sets, such as the model 500 telephone in the United States, were developed that permitted larger local networks centered around central offices. A breakthrough new technology was the introduction of Touch-Tone signaling using push-button telephones by American Telephone & Telegraph Company (AT&T) in 1963. [ 28 ] Ericsson DBH 1001 (ca. 1931), the first combined telephone made with a Bakelite housing and handset. Telephone used by American soldiers (WWII, Minalin, Pampanga , Philippines ) Video shows the operation of an Ericofon One type of mobile phone , called a cell phone Sound-powered telephones A sound-powered telephone is a telephone which transmits voice communication by wire, powered by the energy of the sound waves of the operator speaking. Principle of operation A moving-coil microphone converts the sound waves into an electrical signal, which is then converted back into sound waves at the receiver's end. Similar to early regular landline telephones, operators of sound-powered telephones generally alert the receiver of a call using a hand-cranked generator (magneto), which generates an electrical current which activates a buzzer at the receiver's end, sometimes known as a howler or growler. Some telephone systems can use external electrical power to operate ringers or amplifiers, but will revert to sound-powered communications in the event of failure of the external power supply. [ 29 ] Stations are usually connected via twisted pair wires to reduce electrical interference, and can be positioned at considerable distances from each other in the order of several kilometers. Using 1mm core diameter twisted-pair wiring, some sound-powered telephone systems can operate a pair of handsets positioned up to 48 km (30 miles) apart. [ 30 ] Applications Because sound-powered telephones do not require external electrical power, they are used where reliable communications are vital even in event of loss of power. They are often used for communications in airports, railways and public utilities, mining, ski slopes, bridges, sporting arenas and shipyards. Because they operate at low voltages, they are suitable for use in situations where there is a risk of explosions or fire, such as chemical plants, oil and gas works, arsenals, mines and quarries. [ 31 ] They are frequently used aboard ships, especially naval vessels, and in land military communications. Aboard naval vessels, sound-powered telephones generally have auxiliary wiring circuits routed through the ship, to reduce the likelihood that all circuits will be rendered inoperable by battle damage. [ 32 ] Digital telephones and voice over IP The invention of the transistor in 1947 dramatically changed the technology used in telephone systems and in the long-distance transmission networks over the next several decades. With the development of stored program control and MOS integrated circuits for electronic switching systems , and new transmission technologies such as pulse-code modulation (PCM), telephony gradually evolved towards digital telephony , which improved the capacity, quality, and cost of the network. [ 33 ] Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) was launched in the 1980's, providing businesses and consumers with access to digital telephony services such as data, voice, video , and fax services. [ 34 ] The development of digital data communications methods made it possible to digitize voice and transmit it as real-time data across computer networks and the Internet , giving rise to the field of Internet Protocol (IP) telephony, also known as voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP). VoIP has proven to be a disruptive technology that is rapidly replacing traditional telephone network infrastructure. [ 35 ] By January 2005, up to 10% of telephone subscribers in Japan and South Korea had switched to this digital telephone service. A January 2005 Newsweek article suggested that Internet telephony may be "the next big thing." [ 36 ] The technology has spawned a new industry comprising many VoIP companies that offer services to consumers and businesses . The reported global VoIP market in October 2021 was $85.2 billion with a projection of $102.5 billion by 2026. [ 37 ] IP telephony uses high-bandwidth Internet connections and specialized customer premises equipment to transmit telephone calls via the Internet, or any modern private data network. The customer equipment may be an analog telephone adapter (ATA) which translates the signals of a conventional analog telephone; an IP Phone , a dedicated standalone device; or a computer softphone application, utilizing the microphone and headset devices of a personal computer or smartphone. [ 38 ] In recent years, VoIP technology has evolved to integrate with mobile networks , including Voice over LTE ( VoLTE ) and Voice over 5G ( Vo5G ), enabling seamless voice communication over mobile data networks. These advancements have made VoIP not only a primary method for Internet-based communication but also a central feature of modern mobile communication infrastructure. [ 39 ] While traditional analog telephones are typically powered from the central office through the telephone line, digital telephones require a local power supply. [ 40 ] Internet-based digital service also requires special provisions to provide the service location to the emergency services when an emergency telephone number is called. [ 41 ] Cordless telephones A cordless telephone or portable telephone consists of a base station unit and one or more portable cordless handsets . The base station connects to a telephone line, or provides service by voice over IP (VOIP). The handset communicates with the base station via radio frequency signals. A handset's operational range is limited, usually to within the same building or within a short distance from the base station. Base station Base stations include a radio transceiver which enables full-duplex, outgoing and incoming signals and speech with the handsets. The base station often includes a microphone, audio amplifier , and a loudspeaker to enable hands-free speakerphone conversations, without needing to use a handset. The base station may also have a numeric keypad for dialing, and a display for caller ID . In addition, answering machine function may be built in. [ 42 ] The cordless handset contains a rechargeable battery , which the base station recharges when the handset rests in its cradle. Muilt-handset systems generally also have additional charging stands. A cordless telephone typically requires a constant electricity supply to power the base station and charger units by means of a DC transformer which plugs into a wall AC power outlet. [ 42 ] Mobile phones A mobile phone or cellphone or hand phone is a handheld telephone which connects via radio transmissions to a cellular telephone network . The cellular network consists of a network of ground based transmitter/receiver stations with antennas – which are usually located on towers or on buildings – and infrastructure connecting to the global telecommunications network. [ 43 ] Analog cellular networks first appeared in 1979, followed by the introduction of digital cellular networks in the early 1990s, marking the beginning of the GSM standard. [ 44 ] Over time, these networks evolved, with each new generation ( 2G , 3G , 4G , and beyond) offering improved data transmission capabilities and more advanced features for mobile communication . Mobile phones require a SIM card to be inserted into the phone. The SIM card is a small PVC card containing a small integrated circuit which stores the user's international mobile subscriber identity (IMSI) number and its related key, which are used to identify and authenticate subscribers to the cellular network. Mobile phones generally incorporate an LCD or OLED display, with some types, such as smartphones, having touch screens. Since the 1990s, mobile phones have gained other features which are not directly related to their primary function as telephones. These include text messaging, calendars, alarm clocks, personal schedulers, cameras, music players, games and later, internet access and smartphone functionality. Nearly all mobile phones have the ability to send text messages to other users via the SMS (Short Message Service) protocol. The multimedia messaging service (MMS) protocol enables users to send and receive multimedia content, such as photos, audio files and video files. As their functionality has increased over the years, many types of mobile phone, notably smartphones, require an operating system to run. Popular mobile phone operating systems in the past have included Symbian , Palm OS , BlackBerry OS and mobile phone versions of Windows . As of 2022, the most used operating systems are Google's Android and Apple's iOS . [ 45 ] [ 46 ] Before the era of smartphones, mobile phones were generally manufactured by companies specializing in telecommunications equipment, such as Nokia , Motorola , and Ericsson . Since the advent of smartphones, mobile phone manufacturers have also included consumer electronics companies, such as Apple , Samsung and Xiaomi . [ 46 ] Smartphones As of 2022, most mobile phones are smartphones, being a combination of a mobile phone and a personal computing device in the same unit. Most smartphones are primarily operated using a graphical user interface and a touch screen. Many phones have a secondary voice user interface, such as Siri on Apple iPhones , which can operate many of the device's functions, as well as enabling users to use spoken commands to interact with the internet. Typically alphanumeric text input is accomplished via an on-screen virtual keyboard, although some smartphones have a small physical keyboard. Smartphones offer the ability to access internet data through the cellular network and via wi-fi, and usually allow direct connectivity to other devices via Bluetooth or a wired interface, such as USB or Lightning connectors. Smartphones, being able to run apps , have vastly expanded functionality compared to previous mobile phones. Having internet access and built in cameras, smartphones have made video calling readily accessible via IP connections. Smartphones also have access to a large number of web services and web apps, giving them functionality similar to traditional computers, although smartphones are often limited by their relatively small screen size and the size of their keyboards. Typically, smartphones feature such tools as cameras, media players, web browsers, email clients, interactive maps, satellite navigation and a variety of sensors, such as a compass , accelerometers and GPS receivers . In addition to voice calls, smartphone users commonly communicate using a wide variety of messaging formats, including SMS, MMS, email, and various proprietary messaging services, such as iMessage and various social media platforms. Mobile phone usage In 2002, only 10% of the world's population used mobile phones and by 2005 that percentage had risen to 46%. [ 47 ] By the end of 2009, there were a total of nearly 6 billion mobile and fixed-line telephone subscribers worldwide. This included 1.26 billion fixed-line subscribers and 4.6 billion mobile subscribers. [ 48 ] Satellite phones A satellite telephone, or satphone, is a type of mobile phone that connects to other phones or the telephone network by radio link through satellites orbiting the Earth instead of terrestrial cell sites , as cellphones do. Therefore, they can work in most geographic locations on the Earth's surface, as long as open sky and the line-of-sight between the phone and the satellite is provided. Depending on the architecture of a particular system, coverage may include the entire Earth or only specific regions. Satellite phones provide similar functionality to terrestrial mobile telephones; voice calling , text messaging , and low-bandwidth Internet access are supported through most systems. The advantage of a satellite phone is that it can be used in such regions where local terrestrial communication infrastructures, such as landline and cellular networks, are not available. Satellite phones are popular on expeditions into remote locations, hunting, fishing, maritime sector, humanitarian missions, business trips, and mining in hard-to-reach areas, where there is no reliable cellular service. [ 49 ] Satellite telephones rarely get disrupted by natural disasters on Earth or human actions such as war, so they have proven to be dependable communication tools in emergency situations, when the local communications system can be compromised. [ 50 ] See also Telephones portal Bell System – American telephone service monopoly (1877–1984) Bell Telephone Memorial – Monument in Brantford, Ontario, Canada Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Cellular network – Telecommunications networks transmitted by radio waves Cordless telephone – Portable telephone that connects to a landline Harvard sentences – Test phrases for voice recording Index of telephone-related articles Jipp curve – Graph that plots density of telephones against GDP List of telephone operating companies Mobile operating system – Operating system that operates a mobile device Multimedia messaging service ( MMS ) – Standard way to send messages Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Party line (telephony) – Type of shared telephone line Phone hacking – Surveillance or computer investigation Radiotelephone – Communications system for transmission of speech over radio Satellite phone – Type of mobile phone SIM card – Integrated circuit card for mobile devices Spamming – Unsolicited electronic messages, especially advertisements Telephone jack and plug – Connectors for wiring of telephone equipment Telephone keypad – Keypad that appears on some telephones Telephone tapping – Third-party monitoring of electronic communications Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Tip and ring – Conductors of a telephone line Videophone – Real-time video communication Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Etymology of the word "phone" " . 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Further reading Brooks, John (1976). Telephone: The first hundred years . HarperCollins. Bruce, Robert V. (1990). Bell: Alexander Graham Bell and the Conquest of Solitude . Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-9691-2 . Casson, Herbert Newton. (1910) The history of the telephone online . Coe, Lewis (1995). The Telephone and Its Several Inventors: A History. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co. Evenson, A. Edward (2000). The Telephone Patent Conspiracy of 1876: The Elisha Gray – Alexander Bell Controversy. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co. Fischer, Claude S. (1994) America calling: A social history of the telephone to 1940 (Univ of California Press, 1994) Huurdeman, Anton A. (2003). The Worldwide History of Telecommunications Hoboken: NJ: Wiley-IEEE Press. John, Richard R. (2010). Network Nation: Inventing American Telecommunications. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. MacDougall, Robert. The People's Network: The Political Economy of the Telephone in the Gilded Age. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Mueller, Milton. (1993) "Universal service in telephone history: A reconstruction." Telecommunications Policy 17.5 (1993): 352–69. Todd, Kenneth P. (1998), A Capsule History of the Bell System . American Telephone & Telegraph Company (AT&T). External links Early U.S. Telephone Industry Data "Telephone" . New International Encyclopedia . 1905. Kempe, Harry Robert; Garcke, Emile (1911). "Telephone" . Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 26 (11th ed.). pp. 547– 557. Virtual museum of early telephones The Telephone, 1877 The short film "Now You're Talking (1927)" is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive . The short film "Communication (1928)" is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive . The short film "Telephone Memories (Reel 1 of 2) (1931)" is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive . The short film "Telephone Memories (Reel 2 of 2) (1931)" is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive . The short film "Far Speaking (ca. 1935)" is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive . "US 174,465" . pdfpiw.uspto.gov . Archived from the original on 2020-12-15 . Retrieved 2017-08-15 . — Telegraphy (Bell's first telephone patent)—Alexander Graham Bell US 186,787 — Electric Telegraphy (permanent magnet receiver)—Alexander Graham Bell US 474,230 — Speaking Telegraph (graphite transmitter)—Thomas Edison US 203,016 — Speaking Telephone (carbon button transmitter)—Thomas Edison US 222,390 — Carbon Telephone (carbon granules transmitter)—Thomas Edison US 485,311 — Telephone (solid back carbon transmitter)—Anthony C. White (Bell engineer) This design was used until 1925 and installed phones were used until the 1940s. US 3,449,750 — Duplex Radio Communication and Signalling Apparatus —G. H. Sweigert US 3,663,762 — Cellular Mobile Communication System —Amos Edward Joel (Bell Labs) US 3,906,166 — Radio Telephone System (DynaTAC cell phone )—Martin Cooper et al. (Motorola) .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Telecommunications v t e History Beacon Broadcasting Cable protection system Cable TV Communications satellite Computer network Data compression audio DCT image video Digital media Internet video online video platform social media streaming Drums Edholm's law Electrical telegraph Fax Heliographs Hydraulic telegraph Information Age Information revolution Internet Mass media Mobile phone Smartphone Optical telecommunication Optical telegraphy Pager Photophone Prepaid mobile phone Radio Radiotelephone Satellite communications Semaphore Phryctoria Semiconductor device MOSFET transistor Smoke signals Telecommunications history Telautograph Telegraphy Teleprinter (teletype) Telephone The Telephone Cases Television digital streaming Undersea telegraph line Videotelephony Whistled language Wireless revolution Beacon Broadcasting Cable protection system Cable TV Communications satellite Computer network Data compression audio DCT image video audio DCT image video Digital media Internet video online video platform social media streaming Internet video online video platform social media streaming Drums Edholm's law Electrical telegraph Fax Heliographs Hydraulic telegraph Information Age Information revolution Internet Mass media Mobile phone Smartphone Smartphone Optical telecommunication Optical telegraphy Pager Photophone Prepaid mobile phone Radio Radiotelephone Satellite communications Semaphore Phryctoria Phryctoria Semiconductor device MOSFET transistor device MOSFET transistor Smoke signals Telecommunications history Telautograph Telegraphy Teleprinter (teletype) Telephone The Telephone Cases Television digital streaming digital streaming Undersea telegraph line Videotelephony Whistled language Wireless revolution Pioneers Nasir Ahmed Edwin Howard Armstrong Mohamed M. 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Atalla John Logie Baird Paul Baran John Bardeen Alexander Graham Bell Emile Berliner Tim Berners-Lee Francis Blake Jagadish Chandra Bose Charles Bourseul Walter Houser Brattain Vint Cerf Claude Chappe Yogen Dalal Donald Davies Daniel Davis Jr. Amos Dolbear Thomas Edison Philo Farnsworth Reginald Fessenden Lee de Forest Elisha Gray Oliver Heaviside Robert Hooke Erna Schneider Hoover Harold Hopkins Gardiner Greene Hubbard Bob Kahn Dawon Kahng Charles K. Kao Narinder Singh Kapany Hedy Lamarr Roberto Landell Innocenzo Manzetti Guglielmo Marconi Robert Metcalfe Antonio Meucci Samuel Morse Jun-ichi Nishizawa Charles Grafton Page Radia Perlman Alexander Stepanovich Popov Tivadar Puskás Johann Philipp Reis Claude Shannon Almon Brown Strowger Henry Sutton Charles Sumner Tainter Nikola Tesla Camille Tissot Alfred Vail Thomas A. Watson Charles Wheatstone Vladimir K. 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Usage 2 Alternative 3 Notes 4 Shortcuts 5 See also Template : Inappropriate person অসমীয়া বাংলা भोजपुरी فارسی Bahasa Indonesia ქართული Bahasa Melayu සිංහල Simple English 中文 Template Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item This article uses first-person ( I , we ) or second-person ( you ) inappropriately . Please help rewrite it to use a more formal, encyclopedic tone . ( January 2026 ) This template should not be substituted . Usage This template is added to indicate that an article or section is written in first-person or second-person. See WP:PRONOUNS . This template has three optional fields: article or section , i , we , first-person (for both we and I ), you , or second-person (same as "you"), and an adverb (like inappropriately or excessively ). For instance, {{inappropriate person|section|i|excessively}} results in: This section uses first-person ( I ) excessively . Please help rewrite it to use a more formal, encyclopedic tone . ( January 2026 ) Leaving the arguments undefined is acceptable; the template will show the default text listed on this page. Alternative If the problem is correctable with the skills you already possess, consider being bold and fixing it yourself, rather than applying this tag and leaving it for someone else to clean up. Notes This template will add tagged articles to dated subcategories of Category:Wikipedia articles with style issues by month , Category:All articles with style issues , and Category:Wikipedia articles needing copy edit . This template is a self-reference . Shortcuts {{ you |article}} for {{inappropriate person|article|second-person|inappropriately}} ; or simply {{ you }} for the default. See also {{ how-to }} Wikipedia:Template messages/Cleanup Tone cleanup templates Article message templates Wikipedia never-substituted templates This page was last edited on 15 July 2025, at 01:58 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
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Products and Services All Products and Services ClinicalTrials.gov Digital Collections LocatorPlus Catalog Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) MedlinePlus PubMed/MEDLINE Unified Medical Language System (UMLS) All Products and Services ClinicalTrials.gov Digital Collections LocatorPlus Catalog Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) MedlinePlus PubMed/MEDLINE Unified Medical Language System (UMLS) Resources for You For Researchers For Publishers For Librarians For Educators/Trainers For Health care Professionals For the Public For Researchers For Publishers For Librarians For Educators/Trainers For Health care Professionals For the Public Explore NLM About the Library Visit the Library History of Medicine NLM by Organization Spotlights and Events About the Library Visit the Library History of Medicine NLM by Organization Spotlights and Events Grants and Research NLM Extramural Programs NLM Division of Intramural Research National Center for Biotechnology Information Lister Hill National Center for Biomedical Communications NLM Extramural Programs NLM Division of Intramural Research National Center for Biotechnology Information Lister Hill National Center for Biomedical Communications Home MeSH Download MeSH Data Download MeSH Data Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) is a hierarchically-organized terminology for indexing and cataloging of biomedical information. It is used for the indexing of PubMed and other NLM databases. These records can be searched either via the MeSH Browser or the MeSH Entrez Database . Please see the Terms and Conditions for more information regarding the use and re-use of MeSH. MeSH Download Formats NLM produces MeSH for download in XML, ASCII, MARC 21, and RDF formats. XML Format ASCII Format MARC 21 Format RDF Format Access MeSH Data via API E-utilities Quickstart E-utilities In-Depth MeSH RDF API About MeSH MeSH Home Learn about MeSH MeSH Browser MeSH RDF Resource Page MeSH in MARC Format ASCII MeSH Conversion to XML MeSH MeSH DTDs 2026 Production Year DTDs. MeSH Descriptor DTD 01-01-2026 MeSH Qualifier DTD 01-01-2026 MeSH SCR DTD 01-01-2026 2025 Production Year DTDs. MeSH Descriptor DTD 01-01-2025 MeSH Qualifier DTD 01-01-2025 MeSH SCR DTD 01-01-2025 MeSH Data News December 4, 2023: Release of 2024 MeSH XML and ASCII Datasets Production year 2024 MeSH in XML and ASCII have been released and are available for download from NLM. These include the 2024 Descriptors, Qualifiers and SCRs. NLM has already released the 2024 MeSH DTDs, all of which have a file name ending in “recordset_20240101.dtd”. As always, we recommend you reference and use the production year DTD with the same production year dataset. The DTDs can be found at the bottom of the left column of the Download MeSH Data page on NLM’s Data Distribution. An announcement will be made when the 2024 MeSH MARC and RDF files are released. Subscribe to NLM MeSH Data Announcements to receive an email when the files are posted. Information regarding changes and updates to MeSH can be found at What's New in MeSH . December 2, 2022: Release of 2023 MeSH XML and ASCII Datasets Production year 2023 MeSH in XML and ASCII have been released and are available for download from NLM. These include the 2023 Descriptors, Qualifiers and SCRs. NLM has already released the 2023 MeSH DTDs, all of which have a file name ending in “recordset_20230101.dtd”. There are two DTD changes from 2022 to 2023 for both the Descriptor and SCR DTDs (there are no changes for Qualifiers): Added SCRClass 5 - Population group Added SCRClass 6 - Anatomy As always, we recommend you reference and use the production year DTD with the same production year dataset. The DTDs can be found at the bottom of the left column of the Download MeSH Data page on NLM’s Data Distribution. An announcement will be made when the 2023 MeSH MARC and RDF files are released. Subscribe to NLM MeSH Data News (in the "Sign up" box above) to receive an email when the files are posted. Information regarding changes and updates to MeSH can be found at What's New in MeSH . December 1, 2021: Availability of MeSH MARC files for 2022 MeSH The October, November and December 2021 monthly MeSH MARC files are now available. There is no file for September 2021. These monthly files include the Descriptors and Qualifiers for the 2022 Production Year. The October file contains a republishing of the entire file to include the MeSH RDF URI in the 024 field of every record. It is recommended that the October full file is loaded followed by the November and December updates. Information regarding changes and updates to MeSH can be found at What's New in MeSH . December 1, 2021: Release of 2022 MeSH XML and ASCII Datasets Production year 2022 MeSH in XML and ASCII have been released and are available for download from NLM. 2022 MeSH RDF will be available December 6, 2021. Information regarding changes and updates to MeSH can be found at What's New in MeSH . December 7, 2020: Release of 2021 MeSH Datasets Production year 2021 MeSH in XML and ASCII have been released and are available for download from NLM. MeSH RDF and MARC21 will be released in January 2020 - a notice at time of posting will posted here as well. Information regarding changes and updates to MeSH can be found at What's New in MeSH . Additional information regarding Year End Processing of PubMed citations using MeSH 2021 terminology can be found: MEDLINE/PubMed Year-End Processing Activities for 2021 . November 17, 2020: Planning for Release of 2021 MeSH Datasets NLM is planning for a December 3, 2020 release of the 2021 Production Year MeSH XML datasets. These include the 2021 Descriptors, Qualifiers and SCRs. NLM had already released the 2021 MeSH DTDs all of which have a file name of 01-01-2021. While there is not a change in the structure of the 2021 DTD from the 2020 DTD we recommends you reference and use the production year DTD with the same production year dataset. The DTDs can be at the bottom of the left column of this page. An announcement will be made when the 2021 MeSH files are released. Subscribe to NLM Data News (above) to receive an email when the files are posted. December 16, 2019: 2020 MeSH MARC 21 Files Available for Download There has been a slight change to the naming convention for the MeSH-MARC files. The files are prefixed with the posting date in YearMonthDate form, followed by the filename which now includes the MeSH vocabulary year the file contains. The December files are named: 2019_marc_full2020.bin 2019_marc_change 2020.bin The January files will be named as follows: 20200101_marc_full2020.bin 20200101_marc_change2020.bin NLM hopes this change will make it clearer to users of MeSH-MARC the data they are receiving. December 10, 2019: Production Year 2020 MeSH Available for Download in: XML, RDF and ASCII Formats. MeSH and MeSH RDF Survey Still Open Production year 2020 MeSH in XML, RDF and ASCII have been release and are available for download from NLM. MeSH MARC21 will be release in January 2020. Information regarding changes and updates to MeSH can be found at What's New in MeSH . MeSH and MeSH RDF is still interested in your feedback regarding our products. Please answer a few questions about how you use MeSH data. The survey is easy to complete in about four minutes. Your responses will be very useful in helping the NLM MeSH and MeSH RDF teams continue to improve how MeSH works for you. Please click here to access the survey . OMB Control Number: 0925-0648OMB Expiration Date: 05/31/2021 Public reporting burden for this collection of information is estimated to average 4 minutes per response, including the time for reviewing instructions, searching existing data sources, gathering and maintaining the data needed, and completing and reviewing the collection of information. An agency may not conduct or sponsor, and a person is not required to respond to, a collection of information unless it displays a current valid OMB control number. Send comments regarding this burden estimate or any other aspect of this collection of information, including suggestions for reducing this burden, to NIH, Project Clearance Branch, 6705 Rockledge Drive, MSC 7974, Bethesda, MD 20892-7974, ATTN: PRA (0925-0648). Do not return the completed form to this address. November 5, 2019: Survey Extended: The National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) and MeSH RDF Survey Request Dear Colleagues, The National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) and MeSH RDF teams need your help. Please answer a few questions about how you use MeSH data. The survey is easy to complete in about four minutes. Your responses will be very useful in helping the NLM MeSH and MeSH RDF teams continue to improve how MeSH works for you. Thank you in advance for your feedback. Please click here to access the survey . OMB Control Number: 0925-0648OMB Expiration Date: 05/31/2021 Public reporting burden for this collection of information is estimated to average 4 minutes per response, including the time for reviewing instructions, searching existing data sources, gathering and maintaining the data needed, and completing and reviewing the collection of information. An agency may not conduct or sponsor, and a person is not required to respond to, a collection of information unless it displays a current valid OMB control number. Send comments regarding this burden estimate or any other aspect of this collection of information, including suggestions for reducing this burden, to NIH, Project Clearance Branch, 6705 Rockledge Drive, MSC 7974, Bethesda, MD 20892-7974, ATTN: PRA (0925-0648). Do not return the completed form to this address. September 25, 2019: The National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) and MeSH RDF Survey Request Dear Colleagues, The National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) and MeSH RDF teams need your help. Please answer a few questions about how you use MeSH data. The survey is easy to complete in about four minutes. Your responses will be very useful in helping the NLM MeSH and MeSH RDF teams continue to improve how MeSH works for you. Thank you in advance for your feedback. Please click here to access the survey . OMB Control Number: 0925-0648OMB Expiration Date: 05/31/2021 Public reporting burden for this collection of information is estimated to average 4 minutes per response, including the time for reviewing instructions, searching existing data sources, gathering and maintaining the data needed, and completing and reviewing the collection of information. An agency may not conduct or sponsor, and a person is not required to respond to, a collection of information unless it displays a current valid OMB control number. Send comments regarding this burden estimate or any other aspect of this collection of information, including suggestions for reducing this burden, to NIH, Project Clearance Branch, 6705 Rockledge Drive, MSC 7974, Bethesda, MD 20892-7974, ATTN: PRA (0925-0648). Do not return the completed form to this address. October 31, 2018: Downloading MeSH data files now available through NLM Data Distribution program and retirement of existing Memorandum of Understanding Beginning November 1, 2018, the distribution of MeSH data files along with the accompanying documentation will be handled through the NLM Data Distribution program. This will allow users of the MeSH dataset, which is often used in coordination with other datasets distributed through this program (HSRProj, PubMed, etc.), to have a central and consistent location to find downloadable NLM data, review documentation and receive alerts and notifications regarding the data. In addition, NLM has retired the existing Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) and has implemented a simplified Terms and Conditions statement covering the use/reuse and appropriate acknowledgement of the MESH data. Last Reviewed: December 2, 2025 Connect with NLM National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville Pike Bethesda, MD 20894 Web Policies FOIA HHS Vulnerability Disclosure NLM Support Center Accessibility Careers NLM | NIH | HHS | USA.gov
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Terminology and usage 2 In Islamic scripture Toggle In Islamic scripture subsection 2.1 Qur'an 2.2 During Muhammad's lifetime 2.3 Hadith 2.3.1 Shape and extent according to hadiths 2.3.1.1 In prayer 2.1 Qur'an 2.2 During Muhammad's lifetime 2.3 Hadith 2.3.1 Shape and extent according to hadiths 2.3.1.1 In prayer 2.3.1 Shape and extent according to hadiths 2.3.1.1 In prayer 2.3.1.1 In prayer 3 Dress code in sharia Toggle Dress code in sharia subsection 3.1 Sunni 3.2 Shia 3.3 Modern approaches 3.1 Sunni 3.2 Shia 3.3 Modern approaches 4 History Toggle History subsection 4.1 Pre-Islamic veiling practices 4.2 Later pre-modern history 4.3 Modern history 4.1 Pre-Islamic veiling practices 4.2 Later pre-modern history 4.3 Modern history 5 Contemporary practice 6 Around the world Toggle Around the world subsection 6.1 Legal enforcement 6.2 Legal bans 6.2.1 Muslim world 6.2.2 Europe 6.2.3 India 6.2.4 China 6.3 Unofficial pressure to wear hijab 6.4 Unofficial pressure against wearing the hijab 6.5 Workplace discrimination against hijab-wearing women 6.1 Legal enforcement 6.2 Legal bans 6.2.1 Muslim world 6.2.2 Europe 6.2.3 India 6.2.4 China 6.2.1 Muslim world 6.2.2 Europe 6.2.3 India 6.2.4 China 6.3 Unofficial pressure to wear hijab 6.4 Unofficial pressure against wearing the hijab 6.5 Workplace discrimination against hijab-wearing women 7 World Hijab Day 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References Toggle References subsection 10.1 Citations 10.2 Sources 10.1 Citations 10.2 Sources 11 External links Hijab Afrikaans العربية অসমীয়া Azərbaycanca বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Български Brezhoneg Català Cebuano Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Gaeilge 한국어 Hausa Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Қазақша Kiswahili Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Madhurâ Македонски മലയാളം मराठी მარგალური Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Нохчийн Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پښتو ភាសាខ្មែរ Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Simple English سنڌي Slovenščina Soomaaliga کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça ไทย Türkçe Türkmençe Українська اردو Vèneto Tiếng Việt 吴语 粵語 中文 Kumoring Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikinews Wikiquote Wikidata item Hijab ( Arabic : حجاب , romanized : ḥijāb , .mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%} pronounced [ħɪˈdʒaːb] ) refers to head coverings worn by Muslim women . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] Similar to the mitpaḥat/ tichel or snood worn by religiously observing married Jewish women, certain headcoverings worn by some Christian women , such as the hanging veil , apostolnik and kapp , [ 3 ] [ 4 ] and the dupatta favored by many North Indian Hindu and Sikh women, [ 5 ] [ 6 ] [ 7 ] the hijab comes in various forms. The term describes a scarf that is wrapped around the head, covering the hair, neck, and ears while leaving the face visible. [ 8 ] [ 9 ] The use of the hijab, voluntarily and involuntarily, has grown globally since the 1970s, with religious Muslims viewing it as a symbol of modesty and faith; it is also worn as a form of adornment. [ 8 ] [ 10 ] There is consensus among mainstream Islamic religious scholars that covering the head is required, [ 11 ] [ 12 ] [ 13 ] [ 14 ] although Islamic modernists argue it is not an Islamic obligation. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] [ 17 ] [ 18 ] [ 19 ] [ 20 ] [ 21 ] The term ḥijāb was originally used to denote a partition and was sometimes used for Islamic rules of modesty . [ 8 ] [ 22 ] The Qur'an never uses the word hijab (lit. 'barrier') to refer to women's clothing, but rather discusses the attire of women using other terms Jilbāb (long and loose-fit outer garment) and khimār (generic headscarf). [ 23 ] [ 8 ] [ 24 ] [ 22 ] [ 25 ] [ 26 ] Scholars differ as to whether hijab mandates covering everything except the face and hands, [ 27 ] [ 28 ] or to cover the whole body, including the face and hands, via niqab . [ 29 ] The specific guidelines are found in texts of hadith and fiqh . [ 14 ] [ 30 ] Islamic veiling practices vary globally based on local laws and customs . In some regions, the hijab is mandated by law, while in others, its use is subject to restrictions or bans. [ 31 ] [ 32 ] Muslim women face persecution in various countries for wearing the hijab—and, as in some Islamic countries, for not wearing it. [ 33 ] [ 34 ] [ 35 ] [ 36 ] This issue has the potential to be a deeply controversial topic not only from a human rights perspective but also from an international legal perspective, as it undermines the principle of impartiality, such as judging by individuals who wear clothing that also carries religious symbolism . [ 37 ] Terminology and usage The Arabic word hijab ( Arabic : حجاب ) (lit. 'curtain, cloth barrier') is the verbal noun originating from the verb ﺣَﺠَﺐَ (hajaba), from the triliteral root ح ج ب (H-J-B), which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of hide, conceal, block. [ 38 ] [ 39 ] The term ḥijāb was originally used to denote a partition and was sometimes later used for Islamic rules of modesty . [ 8 ] [ 22 ] While one usage in the Quran refers to the curtain separating Muhammad's wives from visitors, [ 18 ] [ 40 ] other usages refers to a metaphysical barrier separating man or the world from God. [ 28 ] The Quran does not use the word hijab for women's clothing, but uses other terms such as jilbab (as an outer garment recommendation) and khimar (for discussions see below) in various contexts. [ 23 ] [ 8 ] [ 24 ] [ 22 ] [ 25 ] [ 26 ] The word in Turkish expresses an emotional state, shame, that is not related to clothing. [ 41 ] In Islamic scripture Qur'an A verse in the Surah Al-A'raf -26 gives the simplest and most fundamental purpose of dressing as covering one's ugly parts and emphasizes that fear of God is more important than covering oneself. There are seven verses in the Quran that refer in some way to women's clothing, and the two discussed below are ostensibly related to the form of clothing; [ 42 ] The clearest verses on this topic are Surah An-Nur 24:30-31 , telling both men and women to dress and act modestly, with more detail on women's position. [ 43 ] [ 44 ] And tell the believing women to lower their gaze and guard their chastity, and not to reveal their ornaments except what normally appears. Let them draw their veils over their chests, and not reveal their ˹hidden˺ adornments except to their husbands, their fathers, their fathers-in-law, their sons, their stepsons, their brothers, their brothers’ sons or sisters’ sons, their fellow women, those ˹bondwomen˺ in their possession, male attendants with no desire, or children who are still unaware of women’s nakedness......... And tell the believing women to lower their gaze and guard their chastity, and not to reveal their ornaments except what normally appears. Let them draw their veils over their chests, and not reveal their ˹hidden˺ adornments except to their husbands, their fathers, their fathers-in-law, their sons, their stepsons, their brothers, their brothers’ sons or sisters’ sons, their fellow women, those ˹bondwomen˺ in their possession, male attendants with no desire, or children who are still unaware of women’s nakedness......... Part of a series on Islamic female dress Types Abaya Boshiya Burkini Burqa Çarşaf Chador Haik Hijab Jilbāb Kimeshek Kurkhars Niqaab Paranja Safseri Shayla Tudong Yashmak Abaya Boshiya Burkini Burqa Çarşaf Chador Haik Hijab Jilbāb Kimeshek Kurkhars Niqaab Paranja Safseri Shayla Tudong Yashmak Practices by country Australia Europe Britain France Turkey Egypt Iran Saudi Arabia Australia Europe Britain France Turkey Britain France Turkey Egypt Iran Saudi Arabia Concepts Andaruni Awrah Fahisha Feminist Gender segregation Haya Purdah Zenana Andaruni Awrah Fahisha Feminist Gender segregation Haya Purdah Zenana Other Hijabophobia Hujum Kashf-e hijab My Stealthy Freedom Wimple World Hijab Day Hijabophobia Hujum Kashf-e hijab My Stealthy Freedom Wimple World Hijab Day .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e The "ornaments" in the verse has been interpreted and presented by some scholars as the parts that are adorned, and by others as the female body, with the potential to encompass the entire body. Meanwhile modesty is exalted in the Islamic understanding, [ 45 ] the opposite behavior is despised as fahisha by Islamic scholars alike as emblematic of a state of spiritual ignorance Jahiliyyah . In Luxenberg's Syro-Aramaic Reading analysis on Qur'an, the part "Let them draw their veils over their chests" means literally as "snap their belts around their waists", an idiom , the belt was a symbol for chastity [ 46 ] and does not order any organ to be covered with cloth. According to him, the meanings of the words in the relevant part of the verse are as follows: خِمار Khimar; cummerbund, جيب jyb; [ note 1 ] sinus, sac, وَلْيَضْرِبْنَ ; "let them hit." [ note 2 ] (See also: Revisionist school of Islamic studies ) A statement ın Al-Aḥzāb : 59 is as follows; O Prophet, tell your wives, your daughters, and the women of the believers to draw their cloaks (the plural form of jilbab ( جَلَـٰبِيبِهِنَّ )) over themselves. That is more suitable "so that they will be recognized and not be harmed". And Allah is ever Forgiving and Merciful. O Prophet, tell your wives, your daughters, and the women of the believers to draw their cloaks (the plural form of jilbab ( جَلَـٰبِيبِهِنَّ )) over themselves. That is more suitable "so that they will be recognized and not be harmed". And Allah is ever Forgiving and Merciful. This was a statement that tells women to wear their "outer garments" when going out for various needs (such as defecation), interpreted by some as a command [ 44 ] and by others as a recommendation of protective measures against sexual harassment in Medina . [ 51 ] [ note 3 ] Those who perceived the statement as a command were also divided into two; while most scholars consider it won't to include face, a small group arguing that "the purpose of the veil is to prevent women from being recognized", hence the face is included. [ 53 ] The statement in question is as follows: ( ذَٰلِكَ أَدْنَىٰٓ أَن يُعْرَفْنَ فَلَا يُؤْذَيْنَ ) literally "so that they will be recognized and not be harmed." [ 54 ] In order to understand the expression, some narrations can give clues about the sociological infrastructure of the period. It is reported that Umar prohibited female slaves from resembling free women by covering their hair, [ 55 ] no different from earlier social practices in which noble women who could wear ornate female headdresses were easily distinguished from slaves as in Mesopotamia, Assyria and ancient Greece. [ 56 ] [ 22 ] [ 57 ] According to well-known explanation of the verse, by Al-Qurtubi the verse was an expression directed towards free and Muslim women, not slaves or non-Muslim women, for which Tabari cites Ibn Abbas . Ibn Kathir states that the jilbab was distinguishing free Muslim women from those of Jahiliyyah , so other men know they are free women and not slaves or prostitutes , [ 19 ] so they are not harassed. Some later scholars like Ibn Hayyan , Ibn Hazm and Muhammad Nasiruddin al-Albani questioned the quoted explanation. Their reasons were that slaves were not explicitly excluded in the verse or hadith, and that they could attract lust more easily, and that the prohibition of adultery and molestation should also apply to slaves. [ 58 ] : 114 What is said about the dimensions of the Jilbab varies; While Qurtubi reports that jilbab covers the whole body, Ibn Arabi considered that excessive covering would make impossible for a woman to be recognised, which the verse mentions. [ 58 ] : 111–113 During Muhammad's lifetime The word ḥijāb in the Qur'an refers not to women's clothing but to a spatial partition or curtain as in other early Islamic texts in literal usage [ 22 ] [ 59 ] while in other cases the word denotes separation between deity and mortals (42:51), wrongdoers and righteous (7:46, 41:5), believers and unbelievers (17:45), and light from darkness (38:32). [ 22 ] Available evidence suggests that veiling was not introduced into Arabia by Muhammad , but already existed there, particularly in the towns, although it was probably not as widespread as in the neighbouring countries such as Syria and Palestine. [ 60 ] Similarly to the practice among Greeks, Byzantines, Jews, and Assyrians, its use was associated with high social status . [ 60 ] [ note 4 ] The Quran in Sura 33:53 which is believed to have been revealed in 627; [ 61 ] states, "And when you ask [his wives] for something, ask them from behind a hijab (partition). That is purer for your hearts and their hearts". [ 62 ] As Muhammad's influence increased, he entertained more and more visitors in the mosque, which was then his home. Often, these visitors stayed the night only feet away from his wives' apartments. It is commonly understood that this verse was intended to protect his wives from these strangers. [ 63 ] Leila Ahmed adds that Muhammad's concubines did not wear veils, while his wives did, and emphasizes that the term "darabat'ül hijab" was used among Muslims over time to mean "she entered among Muhammad's wives ." [ 64 ] This is understood as not requiring slave women to wear veils and is supported by tradition. [ 55 ] Some have also offered different interpretations of this barrier; A visual barrier between Muhammad's family and the surrounding community, a physical barrier is used to create a space that provides comfort and privacy for individuals, and an ethical barrier, such as in the expression purity of hearts in reference to Muhammad's wives and the Muslim men to make something forbidden. [ 42 ] Hadith The Hadiths sources specify the details of hijab for men and women, exegesis of the Qur'anic verses attributed to the sahabah , and are a major source which Muslim legal scholars used to derive rulings. [ 65 ] [ 66 ] [ 67 ] Sahih al-Bukhari records Aisha saying: ` Umar bin Al-Khattab used to say to Allah's Messenger "Let your wives be veiled" But he did not do so. The wives of the Prophet used to go out to answer the call of nature at night only at Al-Manasi.' Once Sauda , the daughter of Zam`a, went out and she was a tall woman. `Umar bin Al-Khattab saw her while he was in a gathering, and said, "I have recognized you, O Sauda!" He said so as he was anxious for some Divine orders regarding the veil. So Allah revealed the Verse of veiling. [ 68 ] [ 69 ] ` Umar bin Al-Khattab used to say to Allah's Messenger "Let your wives be veiled" But he did not do so. The wives of the Prophet used to go out to answer the call of nature at night only at Al-Manasi.' Once Sauda , the daughter of Zam`a, went out and she was a tall woman. `Umar bin Al-Khattab saw her while he was in a gathering, and said, "I have recognized you, O Sauda!" He said so as he was anxious for some Divine orders regarding the veil. So Allah revealed the Verse of veiling. [ 68 ] [ 69 ] Aisha also reported that when Quran 24:31 was revealed, ...the men of Ansar went to the women of Ansar and recited to them the words Allah had revealed. Each man recited to his wife, his daughter, his sister and other female relatives. Each woman among them got up, took her decorated wrapper and wrapped herself up in it out of faith and belief in what Allah had revealed. They appeared behind the Messenger of Allah wrapped up, as if there were crows on their heads. [ 70 ] [ 58 ] : 118 ...the men of Ansar went to the women of Ansar and recited to them the words Allah had revealed. Each man recited to his wife, his daughter, his sister and other female relatives. Each woman among them got up, took her decorated wrapper and wrapped herself up in it out of faith and belief in what Allah had revealed. They appeared behind the Messenger of Allah wrapped up, as if there were crows on their heads. [ 70 ] [ 58 ] : 118 Although these narrations imply black clothing, other narrations indicate wives of Muhammad also wore other colored-clothes like yellow or rose. [ 71 ] [ 58 ] : 124 Shape and extent according to hadiths Safiya bint Shaiba , said that 'A'ishah mentioned the women of Ansar, praised them and said good words about them. She then said: When Surat an-Nur came down, they took the curtains, tore them and made head covers (veils) of them. 32:4091 . This hadith is often translated as "...and covered their heads and faces with the cut pieces of cloth," [ 72 ] Some commentators, such as Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani in Fatḥ al-Bārī , claimed that covering also covers the face, based on the word (Arabic: فَاخْتَمَرْنَ ) in the text of this hadith. According to some hadiths from Bukhari, Abu Dawud and Nasai, during the time of Muhammad, male and female Muslims were performing ablution from the same water bowl. "We used to perform ablution collectively, men and women, by lowering and dipping our hands into the same bowl." indicating that women could perform ablution in the presence of men. In this case, the arms up to the elbows, feet, face and the part of the head that are essential for ablution and wiping can be considered as free zones. [ 73 ] In prayer Yahya related to me from Malik from Muhammad ibn Zayd ibn Qunfudh that his mother asked Umm Salama, the wife of the Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, "What clothes can a woman wear in prayer?" She said, "She can pray in the khimār and the diri' (Arabic: الدِّرْعِ , lit. ' shield, armature ' , transl. 'a woman's garment' ) that reaches down and covers the top of her feet." [ 74 ] Aishah narrated that Allah's Messenger said: "The Salat of a woman who has reached the age of menstruation is not accepted without a khimār." [ 75 ] Dress code in sharia Classical fiqh have differed as how to understand Qur'anic verses on clothing; Sunni [ 76 ] [ 77 ] .mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)} ^ and Shia [ 78 ] scholars say hijab is mandatory, while Ismaili, accounting for ~0.25% of all Muslims, do not. [ 79 ] Besides that traditional scholars had different opinions on covering the hands and face. Muslim scholars usually require women to cover everything but their hands and face in public, [ 28 ] but do not require the niqab (a face covering worn by some Muslim women). In nearly all Muslim cultures, pre-pubescent girls are not required to wear a hijab. [ 80 ] In private, and in the presence of close relatives ( mahrams ), rules on dress relax. However, in the presence of the husband, most scholars stress the importance of mutual freedom and pleasure of the husband and wife. [ 81 ] Some scholars argue that beyond the body of a woman, her voice is also a part of her "awrah" and should not be heard by men outside her immediate family. They cite some hadiths citing women's voices as a source of temptation and fitna (charmingness, attractiveness) and should be kept private and some verse interpretations. [ 82 ] Sunni In Sunni tradition, scholarly consensus ( ijma ') has discerned hijab is mandatory. [ 83 ] [ 84 ] The four major Sunni schools of thought ( Hanafi , Shafi'i , Maliki and Hanbali ) believe that it is obligatory for free women to cover their hair, [ 85 ] and the entire body except her face and hands, while in the presence of people of the opposite sex other than close family members . [ 86 ] [ 87 ] [ 88 ] According to Hanafis, these requirements extend to being around non-Muslim women as well, for fear that they may describe her physical features to unrelated men. [ 89 ] The Sunni Permanent Committee for Islamic Research and Issuing Fatwas in Saudi Arabia, [ 90 ] and Muhammad ibn Adam Al-Kawthari [ 91 ] also believe women should cover their head. Men must cover from their belly buttons to their knees, though the schools differ on whether this includes covering the navel and knees or only what is between them. [ 92 ] [ 93 ] [ 94 ] [ 95 ] Shia In Shia jurisprudence, by consensus, it is obligatory for women to cover their hair, and the entire body except her hands and face, while in the presence of people of the opposite sex other than close family members. [ 13 ] [ 96 ] [ 97 ] The major and most important Shia hadith collections such as Nahj Al-Balagha and Kitab Al-Kafi for the most part do not give any details about hijab requirements. However a quotation from the Shia Fiqh book Man La Yahduruhu al-Faqih Musa al-Kadhim in reply to his brother makes reference to female hijab requirements during the salat (prayer), stating "She covers her body and head with it then prays. And if her feet protrude from beneath, and she doesn't have the means to prevent that, there is no harm". [ 98 ] Modern approaches Modern approaches to this issue emerge under the influence of a series of social and intellectual developments, from the re-evaluation of religious sources and the questioning of sources that establish a androcentric / misogynist religious understanding [ 99 ] to the protection of women's individual dignity, freedom and rights . Notable Muslim scholars who do not believe the hijab is an obligation include Khaled Abou El Fadl , Javed Ahmad Ghamidi , Abdullah bin Bayyah , Ahmad Ghabel , and Nasr Abu Zayd . Like these scholars, others like Zaki Badawi and Gamal al-Banna have also adopted positions in stark contrast to the current mainstream position. [ 15 ] Clothing does not play a key role in Quranism . All Quranist movements agree that Islam has no sets of traditional clothing, except for the rules described in the Quran. Therefore, beards and the hijab are not necessary. [ 19 ] Modernist thinkers including Karen Armstrong , Reza Aslan and Leila Ahmed , believe the requirements of the hijab were initially intended solely for Muhammad's wives, serving to preserve their sanctity. This was because Muhammad conducted religious and civic matters in the mosque next to his home. [ 18 ] Leila Ahmed further explains that Muhammad aimed at fostering a sense of privacy and protecting the intimate space of his wives from the constant presence of the bustling community at their doorstep. They argue that the term darabat al-hijab ('taking the veil') was used synonymously and interchangeably with ‘becoming Prophet Muhammad's wife’ and that during Muhammad's life no other Muslim woman wore the hijab. Aslan suggests that Muslim women started to wear the hijab to emulate Muhammad's wives, who are revered as "Mothers of the Believers" in Islam. [ 18 ] Khaled Abou El Fadl argues that all Islamic moderates agree that, in all cases, the decision whether to wear the hijab should be a woman's autonomous decision and that her choice must be respected because the moderate pro-choice position is based on the Quranic teachings that there ought to be no compulsion in religion. [ 100 ] Some traditionalist Muslim scholars accept the contemporary views and arguments as those hadith sources are not sahih and ijma would no longer be applicable if it is argued by scholars (even if it is argued by only one scholar). Notable examples of traditionalist Muslim scholars who accept these contemporary views include the Indonesian scholar Quraish Shihab . [ 17 ] History Pre-Islamic veiling practices Veiling did not originate with the advent of Islam. Statuettes depicting veiled priestesses date back as far as 2500 BC. [ 101 ] Elite women in ancient Mesopotamia and in the Byzantine, Greek, and Persian empires wore the veil as a sign of respectability and high status. [ 56 ] In ancient Mesopotamia, Assyria had explicit sumptuary laws detailing which women must veil and which women must not, depending upon the woman's class, rank, and occupation in society. [ 56 ] Female slaves and prostitutes were forbidden to veil and faced harsh penalties if they did so. [ 22 ] Veiling was thus not only a marker of aristocratic rank, but also served to "differentiate between 'respectable' women and those who were publicly available". [ 22 ] [ 56 ] Strict seclusion and the veiling of matrons were also customary in ancient Greece. Between 550 and 323 BCE, prior to Christianity, respectable women in classical Greek society were expected to seclude themselves and wear clothing that concealed them from the eyes of strange men. [ 57 ] Roman pagan custom included the practice of the head covering worn by the priestesses of Vesta ( Vestal Virgins ). [ 102 ] It is not clear whether the Hebrew Bible contains prescriptions with regard to veiling, but rabbinic literature presents it as a question of modesty ( tzniut ). [ 102 ] Modesty became an important rabbinic virtue in the early Roman period, and it may have been intended to distinguish Jewish women from their non-Jewish counterparts in Babylonian and later in Greco-Roman society. [ 102 ] According to rabbinical precepts, married Jewish women have to cover their hair (cf. Mitpaḥat ). The surviving representations of veiled Jewish women may reflect general Roman customs rather than particular Jewish practices. [ 102 ] According to Fadwa El Guindi , at the inception of Christianity, Jewish women were veiling their heads and faces. [ 22 ] The best-known view on Christian headcovering is delineated in the Bible within the passage in 1 Corinthians 11 :4–7, which states that "every woman who prays or prophesies with her head uncovered dishonors her head". [ 102 ] The early Church Fathers , including Tertullian of Carthage , Clement of Alexandria , Hippolytus of Rome , John Chrysostom and Augustine of Hippo attested in their writings that Christian women should wear a headcovering, while men should pray with their heads uncovered. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] There is archaeological evidence demonstrating that headcovering was observed as an ordinance by women in early Christianity, [ 105 ] [ 102 ] and the practice of Christian headcovering continues among female adherents of many Christian denominations today, especially among Anabaptist Christians , as well as among certain Eastern Orthodox Christians , Oriental Orthodox Christians and Reformed Christians , among others. [ 106 ] [ 104 ] In the Indian subcontinent , some Hindu women cover their heads and face with a veil in a practice known as ghoonghat . [ 107 ] [ 108 ] Intermixing of populations resulted in a convergence of the cultural practices of Greek, Persian, and Mesopotamian empires and the Semitic peoples of the Middle East. [ 22 ] Veiling and seclusion of women appear to have established themselves among Jews and Christians before spreading to urban Arabs of the upper classes and eventually among the urban masses. [ 22 ] In the rural areas it was common to cover the hair, but not the face. [ 22 ] According to Leila Ahmed, the rigid norms pertaining to veiling and seclusion of women found in Christian Byzantine literature had been influenced by ancient Persian traditions, and there is evidence to suggest that they differed significantly from actual practice. [ 109 ] Leila Ahmed argues that "Whatever the cultural source or sources, a fierce misogyny was a distinct ingredient of Mediterranean and eventually Christian thought in the centuries immediately preceding the rise of Islam." [ 110 ] Later pre-modern history During the history of slavery in the Muslim world , it is known that female slaves did show themselves unveiled. Slave women were visually identified by their way of dress. While Islamic law dictated that a free Muslim woman should veil herself entirely, except for her face and hands, in order to hide her awrah (intimate parts) and avoid sexual harassment, the awrah of slave women were defined differently, and she was only to cover between her navel and her knee. [ 111 ] This difference became even more prominent during the Abbasid Caliphate , when free Muslim women, in particular those of the upper classes, were subjected to even more sex segregation and harem seclusion, in contrast to the qiyan slave artists, who performed unveiled in male company. [ 112 ] The practice of veiling was borrowed from the elites of the Byzantine and Persian empires, where it was a symbol of respectability and high social status, during the Arab conquests of those empires. [ 113 ] Reza Aslan argues that "The veil was neither compulsory nor widely adopted until generations after Muhammad's death, when a large body of male scriptural and legal scholars began using their religious and political authority to regain the dominance they had lost in society as a result of the Prophet's egalitarian reforms". [ 63 ] Because Islam identified with the monotheistic religions of the conquered empires, the practice was adopted as an appropriate expression of Qur'anic ideals regarding modesty and piety. [ 114 ] Veiling gradually spread to upper-class Arab women, and eventually it became widespread among Muslim women in cities throughout the Middle East. Veiling of Arab Muslim women became especially pervasive under Ottoman rule as a mark of rank and exclusive lifestyle, and Istanbul of the 17th century witnessed differentiated dress styles that reflected geographical and occupational identities. [ 22 ] Women in rural areas were much slower to adopt veiling because the garments interfered with their work in the fields. [ 115 ] Since wearing a veil was impractical for working women, "a veiled woman silently announced that her husband was rich enough to keep her idle." [ 116 ] By the 19th century, upper-class urban Muslim and Christian women in Egypt wore a garment which included a head cover and a burqa ( muslin cloth that covered the lower nose and the mouth). [ 22 ] The name of this garment, harabah , derives from early Christian and Judaic religious vocabulary, which may indicate the origins of the garment itself. [ 22 ] Up to the first half of the twentieth century, rural women in the Maghreb and Egypt put on a form of niqab when they visited urban areas, "as a sign of civilization". [ 117 ] Modern history Western clothing largely dominated fashion in Muslim countries in the 1960s and 1970s. [ 118 ] [ 119 ] For example, in Pakistan , Afghanistan and Iran, some women wore short skirts, flower printed hippie dresses, or flared trousers. [ 120 ] This changed following the military dictatorship in Pakistan, and Iranian revolution of 1979, when traditional conservative attire including the abaya , jilbab and niqab made a comeback. [ 121 ] [ 122 ] There were demonstrations in Iran in March 1979 after the hijab law, decreeing that women in Iran would have to wear scarves to leave the house, was brought in. [ 123 ] However, this phenomenon did not happen in all countries with a significant Muslim population; in Turkey there has been a decline on women wearing the hijab in recent years, [ 124 ] although under Erdoğan Turkey is becoming more conservative and Islamic, as Turkey repeals the 1982 headscarf ban in public sector , [ 125 ] and the founding of new fashion companies catering to women who want to dress more conservatively. [ 126 ] Egyptian leader President Gamal Abdel Nasser claimed that, in 1953, he was told by the leader of the Muslim Brotherhood organization that they wanted to enforce the wearing of the hijab, to which Nasser responded, "Sir, I know you have a daughter in college, and she doesn't wear a headscarf or anything! Why don't you make her wear the headscarf? So you can't make one girl, your own daughter, wear it, and yet you want me to go and make ten million women wear it?" [ 127 ] The late-twentieth century saw a resurgence of the hijab in Egypt after a long period of decline as a result of westernization. Already in the mid-1970s some college aged Muslim men and women began a movement meant to reunite and rededicate themselves to the Islamic faith. [ 128 ] [ 129 ] This movement was named the Sahwah , [ 130 ] or awakening, and sparked a period of heightened religiosity that began to be reflected in the dress code. [ 128 ] The uniform adopted by the young female pioneers of this movement was named al-Islāmī (Islamic dress) and was made up of an "al-jilbāb—an unfitted, long-sleeved, ankle-length gown in austere solid colors and thick opaque fabric—and al-khimār, a head cover resembling a nun's wimple that covers the hair low to the forehead, comes under the chin to conceal the neck, and falls down over the chest and back". [ 128 ] In addition to the basic garments that were mostly universal within the movement, additional measures of modesty could be taken depending on how conservative the followers wished to be. Some women choose to also utilize a face covering (niqāb) that leaves only eye slits for sight, as well as both gloves and socks in order to reveal no visible skin. [ 131 ] Soon this movement expanded outside of the youth realm and became a more widespread Muslim practice. Women viewed this way of dress as a way to both publicly announce their religious beliefs as well as a way to simultaneously reject Western influences of dress and culture that were prevalent at the time. Despite many criticisms of the practice of hijab being oppressive and detrimental to women's equality, [ 129 ] many Muslim women view the way of dress to be a positive thing. It is seen as a way to avoid harassment and unwanted sexual advances in public and works to desexualize women in the public sphere in order to instead allow them to enjoy equal rights of complete legal, economic, and political status. This modesty was not only demonstrated by their chosen way of dress but also by their serious demeanor which worked to show their dedication to modesty and Islamic beliefs. [ 128 ] Controversy erupted over the practice. Many people, both men and women from backgrounds of both Islamic and non-Islamic faith questioned the hijab and what it stood for in terms of women and their rights . There was questioning of whether in practice the hijab was truly a female choice or if women were being coerced or pressured into wearing it. [ 128 ] As the awakening movement gained momentum, its goals matured and shifted from promoting modesty towards more of a political stance in terms of retaining support for Pan-Islamism and a symbolic rejection of Western culture and norms. Today the hijab means many different things for different people. For Islamic women who choose to wear the hijab it allows them to retain their modesty, morals and freedom of choice. [ 129 ] After the September 11 attacks , the discussion and discourse on the hijab in Western nations intensified as Islamic traditions and theology came under greater scrutiny, with Hijabis facing extensive discrimination. [ 133 ] According to the Harvard University Pluralism Project: "Some Muslim women cover their head only during prayer in the mosque; other Muslim women wear the hijab; still others may cover their head with a turban or a loosely draped scarf." [ 134 ] Contemporary practice The styles and practices of hijab vary widely across the world. An opinion poll conducted in 2014 by The University of Michigan 's Institute for Social Research asked residents of seven Muslim-majority countries (Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon, Tunisia, Turkey, Pakistan, and Saudi Arabia) which style of women's dress they considered to be most appropriate in public. [ 135 ] The survey found that the headscarf (in its tightly- or loosely-fitting form) was chosen by the majority of respondents in Egypt, Iraq, Tunisia and Turkey. The response rate for people of Turkey was just about 60%. [ 135 ] In Saudi Arabia, 63% gave preference to the niqab face veil; in Pakistan the niqab , the full-length chador robe and the headscarf, received about a third of the votes each; while in Lebanon half of the respondents in the sample (which included Christians and Druze) opted for no head covering at all. [ 135 ] [ 136 ] The survey found "no significant difference" in the preferences between surveyed men and women, except in Pakistan, where more men favoured conservative women's dress. [ 136 ] However, women more strongly support women's right to choose how to dress. [ 136 ] People with university education are less conservative in their choice than those without one, and more supportive of women's right to decide their dress style, except in Saudi Arabia. [ 136 ] Some fashion-conscious women have been turning to non-traditional forms of hijab such as turbans. [ 137 ] [ 138 ] While some regard turbans as a proper head cover, others argue that it cannot be considered a proper Islamic veil if it leaves the neck exposed. [ 137 ] In Iran, where wearing the hijab is legally required, many women push the boundaries of the state-mandated dress code, risking a fine or a spell in detention. [ 139 ] The former Iranian president Hassan Rouhani had vowed to rein in the morality police and their presence on the streets has decreased since he took office, but the powerful conservative forces in the country have resisted his efforts, and the dress codes are still being enforced, especially during the summer months. [ 140 ] After Ebrahim Raisi became president, he started imposing hijab laws strictly, announcing use of facial recognition in public transport to enforce hijab law. [ 141 ] An Iranian woman, Mahsa Amini , died in custody of 'morality police' after they arrested her on new stricter hijab laws, which led to widespread protests . [ 142 ] Women's resistance in Iran is gaining traction as an increasing number of women challenge the mandatory wearing of the hijab. Smith (2017) addressed the progress that Iranian women have made in her article, "Iran surprises by realizing Islamic dress code for women," [ 143 ] published by The Times , a news organization based in the UK. The Iranian government has enforced their penal dress codes less strictly and instead of imprisonment as a punishment have implemented mandatory reform classes in the liberal capital, Tehran. General Hossein Rahimi, the Tehran's police chief stated, "Those who do not observe the Islamic dress code will no longer be taken to detention centers, nor will judicial cases be filed against them" (Smith, 2017). The remarks of Tehran's recent police chief in 2017 reflect political progress in contrast with the remarks of Tehran's 2006 police chief. [ 143 ] [ 144 ] Iranian women activists have made a headway since 1979 relying on fashion to enact cultural and political change. In Turkey the hijab was formerly banned in private and state universities and schools. The ban applied not to the scarf wrapped around the neck, traditionally worn by Anatolian villager women, but to the head covering pinned neatly at the sides, called türban in Turkey, which has been adopted by a growing number of educated urban women since the 1980s. As of the mid-2000s, over 60% of Turkish women covered their head outside home. However the majority of those wear a traditional, non-Islamic head covering and only 11% wore a türban . [ 145 ] [ 146 ] [ 147 ] [ 148 ] The ban was lifted from universities in 2008, [ 149 ] from government buildings in 2013, [ 150 ] and from schools in 2014. [ 151 ] The hijab is also a common cultural practice for Muslims in the West. For example, in a 2016 Environics poll, a large majority (73%) of Canadian Muslim women reported wearing some sort of head-covering in public (58% wear the hijab, 13% wear the chador and 2% wear the niqab ). Wearing a head covering in public had increased since the 2006 survey. [ 152 ] Women who wear the Hijab may be called " hijabi ". Meanwhile, in a Pew Research Center poll from 2011, most Muslim American women also reported wearing hijab, 36% indicating they wore hijab whenever they were in public, with an additional 24% saying they wore it most or some of the time; 40% said they never wore hijab. [ 153 ] Around the world Some governments encourage and even oblige women to wear the hijab, while others have banned it in at least some public settings. In many parts of the world women also experience informal pressure for or against wearing the hijab, including physical attacks. Legal enforcement In Gaza , there was a campaign by religious conservatives such as Hamas to impose the hijab on women during the First Intifada . In 1990, the Unified National Leadership of the Uprising (UNLU) declared that it rejected the imposition of a hijab policy for women, and targeted those who seek to impose the hijab, but that declaration was argued to have come too late, as many women had already yielded to the pressure in order to avoid harassment. [ 154 ] After assuming the government in the Gaza Strip in June 2007, Hamas sought to enforce Islamic law, imposing the hijab on women at courts, institutions and schools. [ 155 ] [ 156 ] Iran transitioned from banning veils in 1936 to mandating Islamic dress for women following the 1979 Islamic Revolution. [ 157 ] By 1980, veiling was required in government and educational settings, with the 1983 penal code imposing 74 lashes for not adhering to the hijab, though the exact requirements were unclear. [ 157 ] [ 158 ] [ 159 ] This led to public tensions and vigilante actions regarding proper hijab. [ 157 ] [ 158 ] Subsequent regulations in 1984 and 1988 clarified dress-code standards, and the current penal code prescribes fines or prison terms for failing to observe hijab, without detailing its specific form. [ 157 ] [ 160 ] [ 161 ] The enforcement of the dress code in Iran has fluctuated between strict and relaxed over the years, leading to ongoing debate between conservatives and reformists like Hassan Rouhani . [ 160 ] [ 162 ] The United Nations Human Rights Council has urged Iran to uphold the rights of those advocating for dress code reforms. [ 163 ] The government officially promotes stricter veiling, citing both Islamic principles and pre-Islamic Iranian culture. [ 164 ] Ruhollah Khomeini maintained that women do not have to wear a full-body cover. He stated that women can choose any kind of attire they like so long as it covers them properly and they have a hijab. His successor, Ali Khamenei , stated that the hijab does not hinder participation in social, political, or academic activities. [ 13 ] In 2024, the former president of Iran Hassan Rouhani criticised the reinstatement of Iran's morality police and the implementation of the "Noor plan" by law enforcement authorities. He expressed shock over the hijab law approved by the Guardian Council which prescribed severe punishment for those violating it, saying that it "aligns neither with the Constitution , nor with justice, nor with the Qur'an and Islamic culture ." [ 165 ] [ 166 ] The Indonesian province of Aceh encourages Muslim women to wear hijab in public. [ 167 ] [ 168 ] Indonesia's central government granted Aceh's local government the right to impose Sharia in 2001, although that no local regulations should conflict with Indonesian national laws, in a deal aiming to put an end to the separatist movement in the province. [ 168 ] Saudi Arabia formally required women to cover their hair and wear a full-body garment, though enforcement varies. [ 169 ] [ 170 ] [ 171 ] Saudi women typically wear the abaya, while foreigners may choose long coats. [ 32 ] Regulations are enforced by religious police, which once faced criticism for their role in a fire rescue where schoolgirls' lack of hijabs was reportedly a factor, leading to 15 deaths. [ 172 ] During the Taliban regime in Afghanistan , the wearing of the hijab is mandated for women. The requirement extends to covering not only their heads but also their faces, as it was believed that doing so would prevent any perceived impropriety and maintain modesty in society. [ 33 ] Legal bans Muslim world The tradition of veiling hair in Persian culture has ancient pre-Islamic origins, [ 173 ] but the widespread custom was ended by Reza Shah 's government in 1936, as the hijab was considered to be incompatible with modernization and he ordered "unveiling" act or Kashf-e hijab . In some cases the police arrested women who wore the veil and would forcibly remove it. These policies had popular support but outraged the Shi'a clerics, to whom appearing in public without their cover was tantamount to nakedness. Some women refused to leave the house out of fear of being assaulted by Reza Shah's police. [ 174 ] In 1941, the compulsory element in the policy of unveiling was abandoned. Turkey had a ban on headscarves at universities in the 80s. In 2008, the Turkish government attempted to lift a ban on Muslim headscarves at universities, but were overturned by the country's Constitutional Court. [ 175 ] In December 2010, however, the Turkish government ended the headscarf ban in universities and schools. [ 176 ] The ban on civil servants remained in effect for a few more years. [ 176 ] [ 177 ] The current situation regarding the headscarf, which is problematic in terms of the principle of neutrality due to its religious symbolism , [ 178 ] is revealed by Recep Tayyip Erdoğan 's words at an initial appointment ceremony attended by headscarf-wearing judge and prosecutor candidates also: "Regarding our headscarf-wearing judicial members… It may take some time, there may be some difficulty in accepting it, but God willing, everyone will accept the new Turkey where freedoms are applied equally to everyone." [ 179 ] In Tunisia , women were banned from wearing the hijab in state offices in 1981; in the 1980s and 1990s, more restrictions were put in place. [ 180 ] In June 2024, Tajikistan's parliament passed a bill banning "foreign clothing" and religious celebrations for children during the Islamic holidays of Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha . The upper house, Majlisi Milli, approved the legislation on 19 June, following approval by the lower house, Majlisi Namoyandagon, on 8 May. The bill specifically targets the hijab, a traditional Islamic headscarf. This formalization of restrictions comes after years of Tajikistan unofficially discouraging Islamic attire, including headscarves and bushy beards. [ 181 ] In 2007, the Ministry of Education banned both Islamic clothing and Western-style miniskirts in schools, a policy later extended to all public institutions. Minister of Culture Shamsiddin Orumbekzoda told Radio Free Europe that Islamic dress was "really dangerous". Under previous laws, women wearing hijabs are already banned from entering the country's government offices. [ 182 ] [ 183 ] Europe In the former Soviet Union , a broad atheistic Sovietization campaign was undertaken by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union to remove all manifestations of gender inequality within the Union Republics of Central Asia , targeting prevalent practices among Soviet Muslims , such as female veiling practices . [ 184 ] On 15 March 2004, France passed a law banning "symbols or clothes through which students conspicuously display their religious affiliation" in public primary schools, middle schools, and secondary schools. In the Belgian city of Maaseik , the niqāb has been banned since 2006. [ 185 ] On 13 July 2010, France's lower house of parliament overwhelmingly approved a bill that would ban wearing the Islamic full veil in public. It became the first European country to ban the full-face veil in public places, [ 186 ] followed by Belgium, Latvia, Bulgaria, Austria, Denmark and some cantons of Switzerland in the following years. Belgium banned the full-face veil in 2011 in places like parks and on the streets. In September 2013, electors of the Swiss canton of Ticino voted in favour of a ban on face veils in public areas. [ 187 ] In 2016, Latvia and Bulgaria banned the burqa in public places. [ 188 ] [ 189 ] In October 2017, wearing a face veil became also illegal in Austria. This ban also includes scarves, masks and clown paint that cover faces to avoid discriminating against Muslim dress. [ 186 ] In 2016, Bosnia-Herzegovina's supervising judicial authority upheld a ban on wearing Islamic headscarves in courts and legal institutions, despite protests from the Muslim community that constitutes 40% of the country. [ 190 ] [ 191 ] In 2017, the European Court of Justice ruled that companies were allowed to bar employees from wearing visible religious symbols, including the hijab. However, if the company has no policy regarding the wearing of clothes that demonstrate religious and political ideas, a customer cannot ask employees to remove the clothing item. [ 192 ] In 2018, the Danish parliament passed a law banning the full-face veil in public places. [ 193 ] In 2016, more than 20 French towns banned the use of the burqini , a style of swimwear intended to accord with rules of hijab. [ 194 ] [ 195 ] [ 196 ] Dozens of women were subsequently issued fines, with some tickets citing not wearing "an outfit respecting good morals and secularism", and some were verbally attacked by bystanders when they were confronted by the police. [ 194 ] [ 197 ] [ 198 ] [ 199 ] Enforcement of the ban also hit beachgoers wearing a wide range of modest attire besides the burqini. [ 194 ] [ 199 ] Media reported that in one case the police forced a woman to remove part of her clothing on a beach in Nice. [ 197 ] [ 198 ] [ 199 ] The Nice mayor's office denied that she was forced to do so and the mayor condemned what he called the "unacceptable provocation" of wearing such clothes in the aftermath of the Nice terrorist attack . [ 194 ] [ 199 ] A team of psychologists in Belgium have investigated, in two studies of 166 and 147 participants, whether the Belgians' discomfort with the Islamic hijab, and the support of its ban from the country's public sphere, is motivated by the defence of the values of autonomy and universalism (which includes equality), or by xenophobia/ethnic prejudice and by anti-religious sentiments. The studies have revealed the effects of subtle prejudice/racism, values (self-enhancement values and security versus universalism), and religious attitudes (literal anti-religious thinking versus spirituality), in predicting greater levels of anti-veil attitudes beyond the effects of other related variables such as age and political conservatism. [ 200 ] In 2019, Austria banned the hijab in schools for children up to ten years of age. The ban was motivated by the equality between men and women and improving social integration with respect to local customs. Parents who sent their child to school with a headscarf would be fined 440 euro. [ 201 ] The ban was overturned in 2020 by the Austrian Constitutional Court . [ 202 ] In 2019, Staffanstorp Municipality in Sweden banned all veils for school pupils up to sixth grade. [ 203 ] India In India, Muslim women are allowed to wear the hijab and/or burqa anytime, anywhere. [ 204 ] [ 205 ] [ 206 ] However, in January 2022, a number of colleges in the South Indian state of Karnataka stopped female students wearing the hijab from entering the campus, following which the state government issued a circular banning 'religious clothes' in educational institutions where uniforms are prescribed. [ 207 ] On 15 March 2022, the Karnataka High Court, in a verdict, upheld the hijab ban in educational institutions where uniforms are prescribed, arguing that the practice is non-essential in Islam. [ 208 ] The hijab ban was condemned inside India and abroad by officials in countries including the United States , Bahrain and Pakistan , as well as by Human Rights Watch , and by figures like Malala Yousafzai . [ 209 ] [ 210 ] A study published by human rights body People's Union for Civil Liberties reported that the move to ban hijab has widened the social divide and increased fear among Muslims in Karnataka. [ 211 ] China In Xinjiang province, the Chinese government has banned women from wearing veils as part of a major crackdown on what it sees as religious extremism from Muslim Uyghurs . [ 212 ] Unofficial pressure to wear hijab In Srinagar , the capital of the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir, a previously unknown militant group calling itself Lashkar-e-Jabbar claimed responsibility for a series of acid attacks on women who did not wear the burqa in 2001, threatening to punish women who do not adhere to their vision of Islamic dress. Women of Kashmir, most of whom are not fully veiled, defied the warning, and the attacks were condemned by prominent militant and separatist groups of the region. [ 213 ] [ 214 ] Some women in Jordan have reported unofficial pressure to wear a hijab in 2018. [ 215 ] Unofficial pressure against wearing the hijab In recent years, women wearing the hijab have been subjected to verbal and physical attacks worldwide, particularly following terrorist attacks. [ 216 ] [ 34 ] [ 217 ] Louis A. Cainkar writes that the data suggest that women in hijab rather than men are the predominant target of anti-Muslim attacks, not because they are more easily identifiable as Muslims, but because they are seen to represent a threat to the local moral order that the attackers are seeking to defend. [ 34 ] Some women stop wearing the hijab out of fear or following perceived pressure from their acquaintances, but many refuse to stop wearing it out of religious conviction, even when they are urged to do so for self-protection. [ 34 ] Kazakhstan has no official ban on wearing the hijab, but those who wear it have reported that authorities use a number of tactics to discriminate against them. [ 218 ] In 2015, authorities in Uzbekistan organized a "deveiling" campaign in the capital city Tashkent , during which women wearing the hijab were detained and taken to a police station. Those who agreed to remove their hijab were released "after a conversation", while those who refused were transferred to the counterterrorism department and given a lecture. Their husbands or fathers were then summoned to convince the women to obey the police. This followed an earlier campaign in the Fergana Valley . [ 219 ] After the election of Shavkat Mirziyoyev as President of Uzbekistan in December 2016, Muslims were given the opportunity to openly express their religious identity, which manifested itself in the wider spread of hijabs in Uzbekistan. In July 2021, the state allowed the wearing of the hijab in public places. [ 220 ] In Kyrgyzstan in 2016, the government sponsored street banners aiming to dissuade women from wearing the hijab. [ 221 ] Workplace discrimination against hijab-wearing women Discrimination against Muslims often affects women more due to the hijab making them more visible, leading to workplace prejudice , particularly after the rise of Islamophobia post-9/11. [ 222 ] Hijab-wearing Muslim women face both overt and covert discrimination in job applications and workplace environments, with covert bias often resulting in more hostile treatment. [ 223 ] Perceived discrimination can harm well-being, [ 224 ] but may also be overcome by religious pride and community; studies show hijab-wearing women often find greater strength and belonging despite challenges. [ 225 ] The issue of discrimination against Muslims affects Muslim women more due to the hijab making them more identifiable compared to Muslim men. Particularly after the September 11 attacks and the coining of the term Islamophobia , some of Islamophobia's manifestations are seen within the workplace. [ 222 ] Women wearing the hijab are at risk of discrimination in their workplace because the hijab helps identify them for anyone who may hold Islamophobic attitudes. [ 226 ] [ 227 ] Their association with the Islamic faith automatically projects any negative stereotyping of the religion onto them. [ 228 ] As a result of the heightened discrimination, some hijab-wearing Muslim women in the workplace resort to taking off their hijab in hopes to prevent any further prejudice acts. [ 229 ] A number of hijab-wearing women who were interviewed expressed that perceived discrimination also poses a problem for them. [ 230 ] To be specific, Muslim women shared that they chose not to wear the headscarf out of fear of future discrimination. [ 230 ] The discrimination hijab-wearing Muslim women face goes beyond affecting their work experience; it also interferes with their decision to uphold religious obligations. As a result, hijab-wearing Muslim women in the United States have worries regarding their ability to follow their religion, because it might mean they are rejected employment. [ 231 ] A study by Ali et al. (2015) [ 232 ] found a relationship between the discrimination Muslims face at work and their job satisfaction. In other words, the discrimination hijab-wearing Muslim women face at work is associated with their overall feeling of contentment of their jobs, especially compared to other religious groups. [ 233 ] Hijab-wearing Muslim women not only experience discrimination whilst in their job environment; they also experience discrimination in their attempts to get a job. An experimental study conducted on potential hiring discrimination among Muslims found that in terms of overt discrimination there were no differences between Muslim women who wore traditional Islamic clothing and those who did not. However, covert discrimination was noted towards Muslim who wore the hijab, and as a result were dealt with in a hostile and rude manner. [ 223 ] While observing hiring practices among 4,000 employers in the U.S., experimenters found that employers who self-identified as Republican tended to avoid making interviews with candidates who appeared Muslim on their social network pages. [ 234 ] One instance that some view as hijab discrimination in the workplace that gained public attention and made it to the Supreme Court was EEOC v. Abercrombie & Fitch . The U.S Equal Employment Opportunity Commission took advantage of its power granted by Title VII and made a case for a young hijabi female who applied for a job, but was rejected due to her wearing a headscarf which violated Abercrombie & Fitch's pre-existing and longstanding policy against head coverings and all black garments. [ 235 ] Discrimination levels differ depending on geographical location; for example, South Asian Muslims in the United Arab Emirates do not perceive as much discrimination as their South Asian counterparts in the U.S. [ 236 ] Although, South Asian Muslim women in both locations are similar in describing discrimination experiences as subtle and indirect interactions. [ 236 ] The same study also reports differences among South Asian Muslim women who wear the hijab, and those who do not. For non-hijabis, they reported to have experienced more perceived discrimination when they were around other Muslims. [ 236 ] Perceived discrimination is detrimental to well-being, both mentally and physically. [ 224 ] However, perceived discrimination may also be related to more positive well-being for the individual. [ 225 ] A study in New Zealand concluded that while Muslim women who wore the headscarf did in fact experience discrimination, these negative experiences were overcome by much higher feelings of religious pride, belonging, and centrality. [ 225 ] World Hijab Day The World Hijab Day (WHD), which is an annual event founded by Bangladeshi American Nazma Khan in 2013, [ 237 ] takes place on 1 February each year in 140 countries worldwide. [ 238 ] See also Islam portal Fashion portal World Hijab Day Types of hijab Purdah Islamic scarf controversy in France Muslim feminist views on hijab Iranian compulsory hijab protests Violence against women#Dress List of religious headgear Hijab emoji Covering variants: cowl , paranja , purdah , tagelmust (worn by men), tudong , yashmak Non-Muslim religious coverings: ghoonghat (Hindu), Christian headcovering , religious habit , tichel Notes ^ Google Translate gives similar pronunciations of this word with the same meaning in many languages; For example Turkish, Persian, Urdu, Greek, Pashto, Somali, Hungarian, Albanian, Georgian…. ^ One of the biggest difficulties in understanding the Quran for those who do not know its language may be shifts in linguistic usage over the centuries. Studies involving understanding, interpreting and translating the Quran can contain individual tendencies, reflections and even distortions [ 47 ] [ 48 ] caused by the region, sect , [ 49 ] education, religious ideology [ 50 ] and knowledge of the people who made them. ^ Beyza Bilgin states that the expression 'let them put their outer coverings over themselves' in the 59th verse of Al-Aḥzāb was revealed because they harassed women under the conditions of that day, considering them to be concubines, and commented as follows: [ 52 ] "In other words, veiling is a security issue that arose according to the needs of that period. These are not taken into consideration at all and are reflected as God's command. Women have been called God's command for a thousand years. Women said the same thing to their daughters and daughters-in-law." She said the following about covering herself in prayer : "They tell me; 'Do you cover yourself while praying?' Of course, I cover up when I'm in congregation. I am obliged not to disturb the peace. But I also pray with my head uncovered in my own home. Because the Quran's requirement for prayer is not covering up, but ablution and turning towards the qibla. This is a thousand year old issue. It's so ingrained in us. But this should definitely not be underestimated. Because people do it thinking it is God's command. But on the other hand, we should not declare a person who does not cover up as a bad woman . " [ 52 ] "In other words, veiling is a security issue that arose according to the needs of that period. These are not taken into consideration at all and are reflected as God's command. Women have been called God's command for a thousand years. Women said the same thing to their daughters and daughters-in-law." "In other words, veiling is a security issue that arose according to the needs of that period. These are not taken into consideration at all and are reflected as God's command. Women have been called God's command for a thousand years. Women said the same thing to their daughters and daughters-in-law." "They tell me; 'Do you cover yourself while praying?' Of course, I cover up when I'm in congregation. I am obliged not to disturb the peace. But I also pray with my head uncovered in my own home. Because the Quran's requirement for prayer is not covering up, but ablution and turning towards the qibla. This is a thousand year old issue. It's so ingrained in us. But this should definitely not be underestimated. Because people do it thinking it is God's command. But on the other hand, we should not declare a person who does not cover up as a bad woman . " [ 52 ] "They tell me; 'Do you cover yourself while praying?' Of course, I cover up when I'm in congregation. I am obliged not to disturb the peace. But I also pray with my head uncovered in my own home. Because the Quran's requirement for prayer is not covering up, but ablution and turning towards the qibla. This is a thousand year old issue. It's so ingrained in us. But this should definitely not be underestimated. Because people do it thinking it is God's command. But on the other hand, we should not declare a person who does not cover up as a bad woman . " [ 52 ] ^ It is reported that Umar prohibited female slaves from resembling free women by covering their hair. [ 55 ] References Citations ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Piela, Anna (6 April 2022). 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Christian Science Monitor . 8 February 2022. ^ "Karnataka's hijab row: A fragile regime's latest assault on right to choice" . The News Minute . ^ "Hijab ban: Karnataka high court upholds government order on headscarves" . BBC News. ^ Ganguly, Meenakshi (15 February 2022). "India's Hijab Debate Fueled by Divisive Communal Politics" . Human Rights Watch . Retrieved 25 August 2022 . ^ Special Correspondent (9 February 2022). "Nobel laureate Malala Yousafzai comments on hijab controversy in Karnataka" . The Hindu . Retrieved 25 August 2022 . ^ Roy, Taniya (12 September 2022). " 'Very Frightening' to Enter Campus Alone: Muslim Students Recount Hijab Ban's Impact" . The Wire . Retrieved 15 September 2022 . ^ "China bans veils and beards in the western province of Xinjiang" . NBC News . April 2017. ^ Popham, Peter (in Delhi) (30 August 2001). "Kashmir women face threat of acid attacks from militants" . The Independent . Archived from the original on 28 August 2016 . Retrieved 20 April 2013 . ^ "Kashmir women face acid attacks" . BBC News. 10 August 2001. Archived from the original on 31 January 2013 . Retrieved 20 April 2013 . ^ Bergenfeld, Irina; Clark, Cari Jo; Sandhu, Seema; Yount, Kathryn M.; Essaid, Aida A.; Sajdi, Jude; Abu Taleb, Rand; Robbin, Zoe; Batayeh, Brian; Zwooqar, Ahad; Spencer, Rachael A. (2022). " "There Is Always an Excuse to Blame the Girl": Perspectives on Sexual Harassment at a Jordanian University". Violence Against Women . 28 (14): 3457– 3481. doi : 10.1177/10778012221079373 . ISSN 1077-8012 . PMID 35200046 . ^ Basia Spalek (2013). Basia Spalek (ed.). Muslim women's safety talk and their experience of victimisation . Vol. Islam, Crime and Criminal Justice. Routledge. pp. 63– 64. ISBN 9781134032839 . ^ Kirk Semple (25 November 2015). " 'I'm Frightened': After Attacks in Paris, New York Muslims Cope With a Backlash" . New York Times . Archived from the original on 5 December 2018 . Retrieved 27 February 2017 . ^ Farangis Najibullah (20 March 2011). "Hijab Now A Hot Topic In Kazakhstan" . Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Archived from the original on 20 September 2016 . Retrieved 22 August 2016 . ^ Bruce Pannier, Farruh Yusupov (14 June 2015). " 'Deveiling' Drive Moves To Uzbekistan's Capital" . Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Archived from the original on 20 September 2016 . Retrieved 22 August 2016 . ^ Malikov A. and Djuraeva D. 2021. Women, Islam, and politics in Samarkand (1991–2021), International Journal of Modern Anthropology. 2 (16): 563. DOI: 10.4314/ijma.v2i16.2 ^ BBC Trending (13 August 2016). "Kyrgyzstan president: 'Women in mini skirts don't become suicide bombers' " . BBC News. Archived from the original on 25 October 2017 . Retrieved 21 July 2018 . ^ a b Tahmincioglu, Eve (12 September 2010). "Muslims face growing bias in the workplace" . NBC News . Archived from the original on 25 July 2019 . Retrieved 2 January 2023 . ^ a b Ahmad, A. S., King, E. B.(2010). An experimental field study of interpersonal discrimination toward Muslim job applicants. Personnel Psychology , 63 (4), 881–906 ^ a b Pascoe, E. A., & Smart Richman, L. (2009). Perceived discrimination and health: a meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin , 135 (4), 531 ^ a b c Jasperse, Marieke Lyniska (2009). Persevere in Adversity: Perceived Religious Discrimination and Islamic Identity as Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing in Muslim Women in New Zealand (PDF) . Core.ac.uk (thesis). New Zealand: Victoria University of Wellington. doi : 10.26686/wgtn.16967146.v1 . hdl : 10063/1005 . Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 September 2017 . Retrieved 28 September 2018 . ^ Ali, Saba Rasheed; Liu, William Ming; Humedian, Majeda (2004). "Islam 101: Understanding the Religion and Therapy Implications". Professional Psychology: Research and Practice . 35 (6): 635– 642. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.569.7436 . doi : 10.1037/0735-7028.35.6.635 . ^ Council on American-Islamic Relations. (2008). The status of Muslim civil rights in the United States Archived 11 December 2010 at the Wayback Machine . [DX Reader version]. ^ Ghumman, S., & Jackson, L. (2010). The downside of religious attire: the Muslim headscarf and expectations of obtaining employment. Journal of Organizational Behavior , 31 (1), 4-23 ^ Cole, Darnell; Ahmadi, Shafiqa (2003). "Perspectives and Experiences of Muslim Women Who Veil on College Campuses". Journal of College Student Development . 44 : 47– 66. doi : 10.1353/csd.2003.0002 . S2CID 145659665 . ^ a b Reeves, T., Mckinney, A., & Azam, L. (2012). Muslim women's workplace experiences: Implications for strategic diversity initiatives. Equality, Diversity and Inclusion , 32 (1), 49-67. ^ Hamdani, D. (March 2005). Triple jeopardy: Muslim women's experience of discrimination. Canadian Council of Muslim Women Archived 16 August 2018 at the Wayback Machine ^ Ali, S., Yamada, T., & Mahmood, A. (2015). Relationships of the practice of Hijab, workplace discrimination, social class, job stress, and job satisfaction among Muslim American women. Journal of Employment Counseling , 52 (4), 146-157 ^ Younis, Mohamed (2 March 2009). "Muslim Americans Exemplify Diversity, Potential" . Gallup. Archived from the original on 21 December 2011 . Retrieved 2 January 2023 . ^ Acquisti, Alessandro; Fong, Christina M. (17 July 2015). "An Experiment in Hiring Discrimination Via Online Social Networks" . Management Science . Rochester, NY: Social Sciences Research Network. doi : 10.2139/ssrn.2031979 . S2CID 142425660 . SSRN 2031979 . Retrieved 4 October 2024 . ^ Harrison, A. K. (2016). Hiding under the veil of "dress policy": Muslim women, hijab, and employment discrimination in the United States. Georgetown Journal of Gender and the Law , 17 (3), 831 ^ a b c Pasha-Zaidi, N. (2015). Judging by appearances: Perceived discrimination among South Asian Muslim women in the US and the UAE. Journal of International Women's Studies,16 (2), 70-97 ^ "World Hijab Day - Better Awareness. Greater Understanding. Peaceful World" . Archived from the original on 6 October 2016 . Retrieved 13 September 2016 . ^ Participating Countries. "Worldwide Support" . World Hijab Day. Archived from the original on 10 March 2016 . Retrieved 6 March 2016 . Sources Anwar, Etin (2006). Gender and Self in Islam . Routledge. p. 170. ISBN 978-1-135-99353-5 . Bukhārī, Muḥammad ibn Ismāʻīl (1997). Ṣaḥīḥ Al-Bukhārī: The Translation of the Meanings of Sahih Al-Bukhari : Arabic-English (in Arabic). Darussalam Pub. & Distr. ISBN 9960-717-32-1 . Ahmed, Leila (1992). Women and Gender in Islam: Historical Roots of a Modern Debate . New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-05583-2 . Aslan, Reza , No god but God: The Origins, Evolution, and Future of Islam , Random House, 2005 Bloom, Jonathan; Blair, Sheila (2002). Islam: A Thousand Years of Faith and Power . Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-09422-0 . El Guindi, Fadwa (1999). Veil: Modesty, Privacy, and Resistance . Oxford: Berg. ISBN 978-1-85973-929-7 . Elver, Hilal. The Headscarf Controversy: Secularism and Freedom of Religion (Oxford University Press; 2012); 265 pages; Criticizes policies that serve to exclude pious Muslim women from the public sphere in Turkey, France, Germany, and the United States. Esposito, John (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam . Oxford University Press . ISBN 978-0-19-512558-0 . Yurdakul, Gökce and Anna C. Korteweg. The Headscarf Debates: Conflicts of National Belonging Archived 3 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine (Stanford University Press; 2014) Media debates on stigmatizing Muslim women and how Muslim women respond to these critics for the country cases of Germany, Turkey, the Netherlands and France. External links " In graphics: Muslim veils ." BBC . - Drawings of different types of Islamic women's clothing ReOrienting the Veil - Website discussing global hijab usage by the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill v t e Hats and caps v t e List of hat styles List of headgear List of fur headgear List of hat styles List of headgear List of fur headgear Western culture Formal Cartwheel Cloche Cocktail Doll Draped turban Eugénie Fascinator Half Halo Juliet Mushroom lampshade Picture peach Pillbox Tam Top opera Semi-formal Homburg Anthony Eden Boater Bowler Buntal Informal Cabbage-tree Chupalla Fedora trilby Flat coppola newsboy Panama Pork pie Smoking Wideawake Uniforms Aviator Bearskin Bell-boy hat Bicorne Black Boonie Budenovka Busby Campaign Cap comforter Cappello Alpino Casquette d'Afrique Caubeen Cavalry Stetson Czapka Doctoral Feather bonnet Forage karvalakki Fur wedge Hardee Jeep Kepi Mazepynka Nurse's Maintenance / Chapeau Military beret / Uniform beret black blue green maroon red tan Patrol Peaked mariner's sailor Printer's Rogatywka Shako Side titovka triglavka Ski Slouch Sou'wester Student faluche Square academic Tricorne Utility cover Religious Christian Western Biretta Canterbury Camauro Capirote Cappello romano Capuchon Christening cap Galero Head covering for Christian women Easter bonnet mantilla wimple Mitre papal tiara Pilgrim's Salvation Army bonnet Shovel Zucchetto Eastern Klobuk epanokalimavkion kalimavkion koukoulion Skufia Jewish Jewish Head covering for Jewish women Tichel Kashket Kippah Kolpik Spodik Shtreimel Casual Animal Ascot Barretina Beanie Beret Bobble Breton Bucket Chilote Cowboy Boss of the Plains Fruit Knit Monmouth Legionnaire Party Shower Tin foil Umbrella Whoopee Sports Cricket baggy green Balaclava facekini Baseball trucker Bicycle clip Casquette Deerstalker Horse racing Mounteere Rally Sports visor green eyeshade Stormy Kromer Swimming Water polo Historical Attifet Apex Beaver Bergère Boudoir Boyar Bycocket Capotain Cavalier Coal scuttle bonnet Coif Dolly Varden Dunce Fontange French hood Phrygian Gable hood Hennin Kausia Kokoshnik Miner's Mob Modius Pamela Petasos Pileus Poke bonnet Pudding Toque Witch Gediminas' Cap Formal Cartwheel Cloche Cocktail Doll Draped turban Eugénie Fascinator Half Halo Juliet Mushroom lampshade Picture peach Pillbox Tam Top opera Cartwheel Cloche Cocktail Doll Draped turban Eugénie Fascinator Half Halo Juliet Mushroom lampshade lampshade Picture peach peach Pillbox Tam Top opera opera Semi-formal Homburg Anthony Eden Boater Bowler Buntal Homburg Anthony Eden Anthony Eden Boater Bowler Buntal Informal Cabbage-tree Chupalla Fedora trilby Flat coppola newsboy Panama Pork pie Smoking Wideawake Cabbage-tree Chupalla Fedora trilby trilby Flat coppola newsboy coppola newsboy Panama Pork pie Smoking Wideawake Uniforms Aviator Bearskin Bell-boy hat Bicorne Black Boonie Budenovka Busby Campaign Cap comforter Cappello Alpino Casquette d'Afrique Caubeen Cavalry Stetson Czapka Doctoral Feather bonnet Forage karvalakki Fur wedge Hardee Jeep Kepi Mazepynka Nurse's Maintenance / Chapeau Military beret / Uniform beret black blue green maroon red tan Patrol Peaked mariner's sailor Printer's Rogatywka Shako Side titovka triglavka Ski Slouch Sou'wester Student faluche Square academic Tricorne Utility cover Aviator Bearskin Bell-boy hat Bicorne Black Boonie Budenovka Busby Campaign Cap comforter Cappello Alpino Casquette d'Afrique Caubeen Cavalry Stetson Czapka Doctoral Feather bonnet Forage karvalakki karvalakki Fur wedge Hardee Jeep Kepi Mazepynka Nurse's Maintenance / Chapeau Military beret / Uniform beret black blue green maroon red tan black blue green maroon red tan Patrol Peaked mariner's sailor mariner's sailor Printer's Rogatywka Shako Side titovka triglavka titovka triglavka Ski Slouch Sou'wester Student faluche faluche Square academic Tricorne Utility cover Religious Christian Western Biretta Canterbury Camauro Capirote Cappello romano Capuchon Christening cap Galero Head covering for Christian women Easter bonnet mantilla wimple Mitre papal tiara Pilgrim's Salvation Army bonnet Shovel Zucchetto Eastern Klobuk epanokalimavkion kalimavkion koukoulion Skufia Jewish Jewish Head covering for Jewish women Tichel Kashket Kippah Kolpik Spodik Shtreimel Christian Western Biretta Canterbury Camauro Capirote Cappello romano Capuchon Christening cap Galero Head covering for Christian women Easter bonnet mantilla wimple Mitre papal tiara Pilgrim's Salvation Army bonnet Shovel Zucchetto Eastern Klobuk epanokalimavkion kalimavkion koukoulion Skufia Western Biretta Canterbury Camauro Capirote Cappello romano Capuchon Christening cap Galero Head covering for Christian women Easter bonnet mantilla wimple Mitre papal tiara Pilgrim's Salvation Army bonnet Shovel Zucchetto Biretta Canterbury Canterbury Camauro Capirote Cappello romano Capuchon Christening cap Galero Head covering for Christian women Easter bonnet mantilla wimple Easter bonnet mantilla wimple Mitre papal tiara papal tiara Pilgrim's Salvation Army bonnet Shovel Zucchetto Eastern Klobuk epanokalimavkion kalimavkion koukoulion Skufia Klobuk epanokalimavkion kalimavkion koukoulion epanokalimavkion kalimavkion koukoulion Skufia Jewish Jewish Head covering for Jewish women Tichel Kashket Kippah Kolpik Spodik Shtreimel Jewish Head covering for Jewish women Tichel Head covering for Jewish women Tichel Tichel Kashket Kippah Kolpik Spodik Shtreimel Casual Animal Ascot Barretina Beanie Beret Bobble Breton Bucket Chilote Cowboy Boss of the Plains Fruit Knit Monmouth Legionnaire Party Shower Tin foil Umbrella Whoopee Sports Cricket baggy green Balaclava facekini Baseball trucker Bicycle clip Casquette Deerstalker Horse racing Mounteere Rally Sports visor green eyeshade Stormy Kromer Swimming Water polo Animal Ascot Barretina Beanie Beret Bobble Breton Bucket Chilote Cowboy Boss of the Plains Boss of the Plains Fruit Knit Monmouth Monmouth Legionnaire Party Shower Tin foil Umbrella Whoopee Sports Cricket baggy green Balaclava facekini Baseball trucker Bicycle clip Casquette Deerstalker Horse racing Mounteere Rally Sports visor green eyeshade Stormy Kromer Swimming Water polo Cricket baggy green baggy green Balaclava facekini facekini Baseball trucker trucker Bicycle clip Casquette Deerstalker Horse racing Mounteere Rally Sports visor green eyeshade green eyeshade Stormy Kromer Swimming Water polo Historical Attifet Apex Beaver Bergère Boudoir Boyar Bycocket Capotain Cavalier Coal scuttle bonnet Coif Dolly Varden Dunce Fontange French hood Phrygian Gable hood Hennin Kausia Kokoshnik Miner's Mob Modius Pamela Petasos Pileus Poke bonnet Pudding Toque Witch Gediminas' Cap Attifet Apex Beaver Bergère Boudoir Boyar Bycocket Capotain Cavalier Coal scuttle bonnet Coif Dolly Varden Dunce Fontange French hood Phrygian Gable hood Hennin Kausia Kokoshnik Miner's Mob Modius Pamela Petasos Pileus Poke bonnet Pudding Toque Witch Gediminas' Cap Folk Arakhchin Asian conical Aso Oke Astrakhan (hat) Ayam Balmoral bonnet Bell-boy Beonggeoji Bhadgaunle Topi Birke topi Blangkon Blue bonnet Chapan Chullo Coloured Coonskin Cork Dhaka topi Doppa Dutch Energy dome Fez Four Winds Fujin Fulani Futou Gandhi Gat Glengarry Icelandic tail Jaapi Jeongjagwan Jobawi Kalpak Karakul Kasa Kashket Keffiyeh Kofia Kufi Kuma Labbadeh Lika Malahai Montenegrin Montera picona Mooskappe Nambawi Nón quai thao Ochipok Paag Pahlavi Pakol Papakha Pashteen Pungcha Qeleshe Qing Rastacap Šajkača Salako Salakot Senufo bird Shyade Šibenik Sidara Sindhi Siung Sombrero sombrero calañés sombrero cordobés sombrero de catite sombrero vueltiao Song Songkok Stormy Kromer cap Straw Šubara Sun Tam o' shanter Tang Tanggeon Tantour Taqiyah Tembel Tokin Topor Tsunokakushi Tubeteika Tuque Tyrolean Upe Ushanka Welsh Yanggwan Arakhchin Asian conical Aso Oke Astrakhan (hat) Ayam Balmoral bonnet Bell-boy Beonggeoji Bhadgaunle Topi Birke topi Blangkon Blue bonnet Chapan Chullo Coloured Coonskin Cork Dhaka topi Doppa Dutch Energy dome Fez Four Winds Fujin Fulani Futou Gandhi Gat Glengarry Icelandic tail Jaapi Jeongjagwan Jobawi Kalpak Karakul Kasa Kashket Keffiyeh Kofia Kufi Kuma Labbadeh Lika Malahai Montenegrin Montera picona Mooskappe Nambawi Nón quai thao Ochipok Paag Pahlavi Pakol Papakha Pashteen Pungcha Qeleshe Qing Rastacap Šajkača Salako Salakot Senufo bird Shyade Šibenik Sidara Sindhi Siung Sombrero sombrero calañés sombrero cordobés sombrero de catite sombrero vueltiao sombrero calañés sombrero cordobés sombrero de catite sombrero vueltiao Song Songkok Stormy Kromer cap Straw Šubara Sun Tam o' shanter Tang Tanggeon Tantour Taqiyah Tembel Tokin Topor Tsunokakushi Tubeteika Tuque Tyrolean Upe Ushanka Welsh Yanggwan Wrapped headwear Apostolnik Bashlyk Birrus Bonnet Boshiya Caul Chador Chaperon Cornette Dastar Do-rag Dumalla Emamah Għonnella Gook Gugel Gulle Hogeon Hood Jang-ot Khăn vấn Litham Mysore peta Muslim head covering Burqa Haredi burqa sect Hijab Niqāb Pagri Paranja Pheta Puneri Pagadi Roach Snood Sudra Tudong Turban Veil Yashmak Apostolnik Bashlyk Birrus Bonnet Boshiya Caul Chador Chaperon Cornette Dastar Do-rag Dumalla Emamah Għonnella Gook Gugel Gulle Hogeon Hood Jang-ot Khăn vấn Litham Mysore peta Muslim head covering Burqa Haredi burqa sect Hijab Niqāb Burqa Haredi burqa sect Hijab Niqāb Pagri Paranja Pheta Puneri Pagadi Roach Snood Sudra Tudong Turban Veil Yashmak Hat parts Agal Aigrette Brim Bumper brim Campaign cord Cointoise Gamsbart Hackle Lappet Plume Sarpech Visor Agal Aigrette Brim Bumper brim Campaign cord Cointoise Gamsbart Hackle Lappet Plume Sarpech Visor Accessories Cockade Feathers Hat box Hatpin Cockade Feathers Hat box Hatpin v t e Ruhollah Khomeini v t e Politics 1963 demonstrations in Iran Life in exile 1978 Qom protest 1978 Tabriz protests Neauphle-le-Château Return to Iran Iranian Revolution Aftermath of the Iranian Revolution Cultural Revolution Supreme Council Council of the Islamic Revolution Islamic Revolutionary Court Interim Government 1979 Referendum 1981–1982 Iran Massacres Engagement with Jimmy Carter Iranian Revolution conspiracy theory America can't do a damn thing against us Supreme Leader of Iran Iran–Iraq War Israeli support The Satanic Verses controversy 1963 demonstrations in Iran Life in exile 1978 Qom protest 1978 Tabriz protests Neauphle-le-Château 1978 Qom protest 1978 Tabriz protests Neauphle-le-Château Return to Iran Iranian Revolution Aftermath of the Iranian Revolution Cultural Revolution Supreme Council Council of the Islamic Revolution Islamic Revolutionary Court Interim Government 1979 Referendum 1981–1982 Iran Massacres Engagement with Jimmy Carter Iranian Revolution conspiracy theory America can't do a damn thing against us Aftermath of the Iranian Revolution Cultural Revolution Supreme Council Council of the Islamic Revolution Islamic Revolutionary Court Interim Government 1979 Referendum 1981–1982 Iran Massacres Engagement with Jimmy Carter Iranian Revolution conspiracy theory America can't do a damn thing against us Supreme Leader of Iran Iran–Iraq War Israeli support The Satanic Verses controversy Iran–Iraq War Israeli support Israeli support The Satanic Verses controversy Positions American Islam Anti-Zionism Shiite clericalism Death to America Great Satan Little Satan Sex segregation compulsory hijab Islamic democracy Imam's Line Letter to Gorbachev Khomeini's 8-article command American Islam Anti-Zionism Shiite clericalism Death to America Great Satan Little Satan Sex segregation compulsory hijab compulsory hijab Islamic democracy Imam's Line Letter to Gorbachev Khomeini's 8-article command Books Islamic Government: Governance of the Jurist (Velayat-e faqih) Tahrir al-Wasilah Kashf al-Asrar Forty Hadith of Ruhullah Khomeini Islam and Revolution The Greatest Jihad Islamic Government: Governance of the Jurist (Velayat-e faqih) Tahrir al-Wasilah Kashf al-Asrar Forty Hadith of Ruhullah Khomeini Islam and Revolution The Greatest Jihad Family Khadijeh Saqafi (wife) Mostafa Khomeini (son) Zahra Mostafavi Khomeini (daughter) Farideh Mostafavi Khomeini (daughter) Ahmad Khomeini (son) Hussein Khomeini (grandson) Hassan Khomeini (grandson) Zahra Eshraghi (granddaughter) Seyyed Ahmad Musavi Hindi (grandfather) Khadijeh Saqafi (wife) Mostafa Khomeini (son) Zahra Mostafavi Khomeini (daughter) Farideh Mostafavi Khomeini (daughter) Ahmad Khomeini (son) Hussein Khomeini (grandson) Hassan Khomeini (grandson) Zahra Eshraghi (granddaughter) Seyyed Ahmad Musavi Hindi (grandfather) Related Jamaran Hussainiya Mausoleum Death and state funeral Alef-Laam Khomeini Fajr decade Refah School Homafaran Allegiance Imam Khomeini International Airport Execution of Imam Khomeini's Order Jamaran Hussainiya Mausoleum Death and state funeral Alef-Laam Khomeini Fajr decade Refah School Homafaran Allegiance Imam Khomeini International Airport Execution of Imam Khomeini's Order Category Authority control databases International FAST FAST National United States France BnF data Czech Republic Spain Israel United States France BnF data Czech Republic Spain Israel Other IdRef İslâm Ansiklopedisi IdRef İslâm Ansiklopedisi Hijab Arabic words and phrases in Sharia Modesty in Islam Islamic fundamentalism Misogyny Islamic feminism CS1 errors: generic name CS1 Indonesian-language sources (id) Webarchive template wayback links All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from August 2024 Articles with permanently dead external links CS1 Turkish-language sources (tr) CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 Swedish-language sources (sv) CS1: long volume value Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from April 2023 Use Oxford spelling from September 2022 All Wikipedia articles written in British English with Oxford spelling Articles containing Arabic-language text Pages with Arabic IPA CS1 Arabic-language sources (ar) Commons link from Wikidata Articles containing video clips This page was last edited on 6 January 2026, at 02:15 (UTC) . 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