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elopment plans, self-guided learning activities). Instructor-Led Activities Of the 94 respondents, 49 (52%) indicated that they participated in instructor-led activities during the CaLI experience. Examples of instructor-led activities reported by study participants included degree programs, courses, seminars, computer... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8506892/ | Leading Organizational Change: Improved Leadership Behaviors Among Public Health Leaders After Receiving Multirater Feedback and Coaching - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.402 | 0.818 | ["education", "leadership", "management"] | 470 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.071470 | [
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ool workshop series called the Bookshelf Leaders. I’ve participated in several of these workshops and they are truly amazing. Turn Your Ship Around was about how you empower your people to really build loyalty; people want to be empowered to make decisions and build strong, healthy teams. Experiential Activities Thirty... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8506892/ | Leading Organizational Change: Improved Leadership Behaviors Among Public Health Leaders After Receiving Multirater Feedback and Coaching - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.403 | 0.826 | ["leadership", "management", "decision_making"] | 432 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.071571 | [
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periential activities during the CaLI experience. Examples of experiential activities described by study participants included on-the-job training through detail assignments and team projects. A Team Lead shared the following comment, I had two [staff] that I looked at bringing them up in levels—even though one of them... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8506892/ | Leading Organizational Change: Improved Leadership Behaviors Among Public Health Leaders After Receiving Multirater Feedback and Coaching - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.409 | 0.856 | ["management", "career", "education"] | 495 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.071631 | [
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lly lead large field staff meetings on their own. I modelled the behavior for them and taught them to look for synergy [within] the team. My coach worked with me on engagement models for these two staff. The reluctant one still stresses, but independently works with two health districts in conflict resolution and actio... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8506892/ | Leading Organizational Change: Improved Leadership Behaviors Among Public Health Leaders After Receiving Multirater Feedback and Coaching - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.591 | 0.836 | ["leadership", "management", "war_conflict"] | 417 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.071690 | [
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te-wide workforce development session next month. Developmental Relationships All respondents (100%) indicated that they participated in developmental relationships, assessment, and feedback activities during the CaLI experience. Examples of developmental relationships reported by study participants include coaching, m... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8506892/ | Leading Organizational Change: Improved Leadership Behaviors Among Public Health Leaders After Receiving Multirater Feedback and Coaching - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.581 | 0.838 | ["networking", "management", "education"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.071749 | [
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bout is how I can best build meaningful connections with other people or professionals … so networking basically. He helped me think about the types of opportunities I should look for to build connections with people outside my typical workday environment. I have incorporated that into a lot of work. For example, getti... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8506892/ | Leading Organizational Change: Improved Leadership Behaviors Among Public Health Leaders After Receiving Multirater Feedback and Coaching - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.418 | 0.868 | ["networking", "career", "philosophy"] | 496 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.071806 | [
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be a useful way for me to build my relationships. The coach helped me to use the strength-based assessment to align staff with jobs [in] which they would perform better. Job descriptions were more centered on the individual’s strengths; work plans were created based on strengths and staff excelled in that environment. ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8506892/ | Leading Organizational Change: Improved Leadership Behaviors Among Public Health Leaders After Receiving Multirater Feedback and Coaching - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.608 | 0.844 | ["career", "networking", "philosophy"] | 476 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.072025 | [
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d feedback activities during the CaLI experience. Examples of assessment and feedback activities reported by study participants include use of assessment tools and 360-degree feedback. A Team Lead shared the following comment, The 360 Assessment was great. Despite me coming in at a disadvantage, it was really good havi... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8506892/ | Leading Organizational Change: Improved Leadership Behaviors Among Public Health Leaders After Receiving Multirater Feedback and Coaching - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.346 | 0.858 | ["management", "education"] | 501 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.072083 | [
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ort should be able to evaluate their supervisors. It is not a retaliation thing, it a nice way to tell your supervisor how they are doing. Many people don’t feel comfortable, and the 360 was great for that reason. Self-Development Activities Twenty-five (27%) respondents indicated that they had participated in self-dev... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8506892/ | Leading Organizational Change: Improved Leadership Behaviors Among Public Health Leaders After Receiving Multirater Feedback and Coaching - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.433 | 0.844 | ["education", "leadership", "philosophy"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.072136 | [
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learning accounts, and promotion to higher leadership positions. A Branch Chief shared the following comment, I do think that the ongoing training for leaders including mandatory supervisory trainings, was really helpful. It was good to be able to discuss with other people who are going through very similar experiences... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8506892/ | Leading Organizational Change: Improved Leadership Behaviors Among Public Health Leaders After Receiving Multirater Feedback and Coaching - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.484 | 0.856 | ["leadership", "education"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.072205 | [
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PM Leading Change competencies among first- and mid-level leaders in a public health agency. Participants reported improvements in three of four OPM Leading Change competencies—creativity and innovation, flexibility, and resilience. Team leads and branch chiefs reported enhanced leadership skills, increased self-confid... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8506892/ | Leading Organizational Change: Improved Leadership Behaviors Among Public Health Leaders After Receiving Multirater Feedback and Coaching - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.633 | 0.83 | ["leadership", "innovation", "management", "war_conflict"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.072268 | [
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and increased self-awareness regarding leading change in challenging environments. These findings were consistent with other studies regarding the value of leadership coaching and how it influenced the ability of mangers to lead change and gain an increased ability to influence creativity, innovation, flexibility, and ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8506892/ | Leading Organizational Change: Improved Leadership Behaviors Among Public Health Leaders After Receiving Multirater Feedback and Coaching - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.666 | 0.83 | ["leadership", "innovation", "war_conflict"] | 431 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.072348 | [
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ran et al., 2008 ; Matthew, 2009 ; Thach, 2002 ). The majority of CaLI participants reported that they were already trained in demonstrating external awareness. OPM defines external awareness as staying “up-to-date on local, national, and international policies and trends that affect the organization and shape stakehol... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8506892/ | Leading Organizational Change: Improved Leadership Behaviors Among Public Health Leaders After Receiving Multirater Feedback and Coaching - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.346 | 0.86 | ["war_conflict", "governance"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.072401 | [
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as employees, comply with various federal laws, regulations, and policies in order to exercise the highest level of scientific integrity” ( CDC, 2019 ). External awareness was vital for achieving CDC’s mission of saving lives and protecting against public health threats ( CDC, 2019 ). NCHHSTP has eight core values that... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8506892/ | Leading Organizational Change: Improved Leadership Behaviors Among Public Health Leaders After Receiving Multirater Feedback and Coaching - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.376 | 0.83 | ["ethics", "innovation", "governance", "war_conflict"] | 444 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.072483 | [
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arency, equity, and innovation ( NCHHSTP, 2015 ). Transparency, by which staff were encouraged to “keep the public, partners, and staff informed about our programs, policy, and science,” aligned with OPM’s definition of external awareness ( CDC, 2019 ). The results of this study indicated multiple benefits can result f... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8506892/ | Leading Organizational Change: Improved Leadership Behaviors Among Public Health Leaders After Receiving Multirater Feedback and Coaching - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.617 | 0.826 | ["leadership", "innovation", "salary", "war_conflict", "education"] | 421 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.072545 | [
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ehaviors among leaders in a public health agency. Throughout the interview, participants often described a renewed self-confidence for leading change among their team members and, where possible, throughout the larger organization. Changes in increased motivation, self-awareness, and self-efficacy were also reported by... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8506892/ | Leading Organizational Change: Improved Leadership Behaviors Among Public Health Leaders After Receiving Multirater Feedback and Coaching - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.631 | 0.834 | ["leadership", "war_conflict", "management", "motivation", "interview"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.072598 | [
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s of self-awareness, self-efficacy, resilience, hope, and goal attainment among leaders ( Grover & Furnham, 2016 ; Kombarakaran et al., 2008 ). Increased self-efficacy aligned with existing research, which indicated that leaders who were more self-confident might be more likely to adopt leading change competencies earl... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8506892/ | Leading Organizational Change: Improved Leadership Behaviors Among Public Health Leaders After Receiving Multirater Feedback and Coaching - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.607 | 0.856 | ["leadership", "career", "war_conflict"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.072646 | [
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ined to influence change over time ( Leedham, 2005 ). Participants described a diverse list of tools, resources, and activities provided by the leadership coach that were helpful to learning to lead change in the organization, including instructor-led, self-development, and experiential activities; developmental relati... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8506892/ | Leading Organizational Change: Improved Leadership Behaviors Among Public Health Leaders After Receiving Multirater Feedback and Coaching - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.492 | 0.83 | ["leadership", "networking", "career", "education"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.072701 | [
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relationships, 360-degree feedback assessments, book and journal article readings, and role playing) can assist with the early adoption of leading change competencies ( Wasylyshyn, 2003 ). Challenging work experiences paired with feedback assessments and stretch assignments can prove more effective for some leaders who... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8506892/ | Leading Organizational Change: Improved Leadership Behaviors Among Public Health Leaders After Receiving Multirater Feedback and Coaching - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.484 | 0.692 | ["leadership", "networking", "education"] | 493 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.072751 | [
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beneficial for others ( Grover & Furnham, 2016 ). The ability of leaders to participate in a combination of these activities can best facilitate behavior improvement ( OPM, 2015 ). A strength of this study is that it added to existing research literature regarding leader and leadership development. It provided informat... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8506892/ | Leading Organizational Change: Improved Leadership Behaviors Among Public Health Leaders After Receiving Multirater Feedback and Coaching - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.683 | 0.856 | ["leadership", "education", "philosophy"] | 496 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.072806 | [
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ng leadership capacity in a public health agency. Another strength is that the focus of this study was on first- and mid-level leaders rather than senior executives, with a purpose of providing resources for expanding leadership skills earlier in participants’ career. Although leadership coaches were external to the pu... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8506892/ | Leading Organizational Change: Improved Leadership Behaviors Among Public Health Leaders After Receiving Multirater Feedback and Coaching - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.466 | 0.836 | ["leadership", "career", "education"] | 483 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.072860 | [
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eficial resources and problem-solving activities. This was regarded as a strength and a preference among CaLI participants. Our study included several limitations. One limitation was the amount of time that transpired between the coaching sessions and the second in-depth interviews. A few participants indicated that th... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8506892/ | Leading Organizational Change: Improved Leadership Behaviors Among Public Health Leaders After Receiving Multirater Feedback and Coaching - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.419 | 0.84 | ["interview", "leadership", "education", "philosophy"] | 500 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.072909 | [
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iences that occurred while participating in CaLI. Also, some respondents participated in other leadership programs and had difficulty distinguishing if certain outcomes were a result of CaLI or other leadership programs that they participated in after completing the coaching sessions. Another limitation was that partic... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8506892/ | Leading Organizational Change: Improved Leadership Behaviors Among Public Health Leaders After Receiving Multirater Feedback and Coaching - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.446 | 0.83 | ["leadership", "crisis"] | 489 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.072959 | [
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ement more effective Leading Change competencies. Self-reported information can be subject to bias (e.g., social desirability) and result in measurement error. Respondents viewed CaLI as a leadership development program designed for first- and mid-level leaders within a federal agency, and consequently, some might have... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8506892/ | Leading Organizational Change: Improved Leadership Behaviors Among Public Health Leaders After Receiving Multirater Feedback and Coaching - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.484 | 0.84 | ["leadership", "crisis", "philosophy"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.073010 | [
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e on the use of coaching and leadership development programs for first- and mid-level leaders in public organizations. Leadership development programs might benefit from the inclusion of instructor-led and experiential activities as an additional component of a comprehensive leadership development program. Application ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8506892/ | Leading Organizational Change: Improved Leadership Behaviors Among Public Health Leaders After Receiving Multirater Feedback and Coaching - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.674 | 0.83 | ["leadership", "strategy", "career", "resume"] | 489 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.073089 | [
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ission, vision, and goals of their organizations. They do so by encouraging new ideas, adapting rapidly to new information, and remaining optimistically persistent during challenging times. Leadership development interventions, such as coaching and multirater assessments, are essential skill-building tools that can be ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8506892/ | Leading Organizational Change: Improved Leadership Behaviors Among Public Health Leaders After Receiving Multirater Feedback and Coaching - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.493 | 0.816 | ["leadership", "strategy", "philosophy"] | 434 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.073149 | [
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e any organizational mission and strategic goals. These interventions are effective in producing well-developed leaders who are more prepared to lead organizational change with creativity, innovation, flexibility, and resilience. Future studies that examine leading change might be beneficial for organizations when crea... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8506892/ | Leading Organizational Change: Improved Leadership Behaviors Among Public Health Leaders After Receiving Multirater Feedback and Coaching - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.629 | 0.802 | ["leadership", "innovation", "strategy"] | 412 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.073201 | [
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romote organizational success and sustainability. Organizations with an interest in developing first- and mid-level leaders might consider implementing the CaLI framework to expand leadership capacity and to better prepare leaders for leading organizational change effectively. Funding The author(s) received no financia... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8506892/ | Leading Organizational Change: Improved Leadership Behaviors Among Public Health Leaders After Receiving Multirater Feedback and Coaching - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.432 | 0.834 | ["leadership", "education"] | 511 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.073259 | [
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study, managed Workforce Development and Capacity Building initiatives at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention and led the Coaching and Leadership Initiative (CaLI). She is currently a Management Analyst at the National Center for Environ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8506892/ | Leading Organizational Change: Improved Leadership Behaviors Among Public Health Leaders After Receiving Multirater Feedback and Coaching - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.594 | 0.848 | ["leadership", "education", "management"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.073310 | [
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and Capacity Building initiatives at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention and assisted in evaluation efforts for the Coaching and Leadership Initiative (CaLI). She is currently an Epidemiologist in the Office of Health Equity at the Natio... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8506892/ | Leading Organizational Change: Improved Leadership Behaviors Among Public Health Leaders After Receiving Multirater Feedback and Coaching - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.588 | 0.854 | ["leadership", "education"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.073368 | [
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rked on Workforce Development and Capacity Building initiatives at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention and assisted in evaluation efforts for the Coaching and Leadership Initiative (CaLI). She is currently a medical student at Duke Unive... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8506892/ | Leading Organizational Change: Improved Leadership Behaviors Among Public Health Leaders After Receiving Multirater Feedback and Coaching - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.586 | 0.854 | ["education", "leadership"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.073417 | [
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ity Building initiatives at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention and assisted in the evaluation efforts for the Coaching and Leadership Initiative (CaLI). She is currently a medical student at Medical College of Georgia. Michelle Ivy-Knud... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8506892/ | Leading Organizational Change: Improved Leadership Behaviors Among Public Health Leaders After Receiving Multirater Feedback and Coaching - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.58 | 0.854 | ["leadership", "education"] | 511 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.073471 | [
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ease Control and Prevention’s National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention. She is currently a contractor at the Center for Preparedness and Response where she coordinates operations for the COVID-19 Responder Training Team. Hazel D. Dean, ScD, MPH, when the study was ongoing, was deputy direct... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8506892/ | Leading Organizational Change: Improved Leadership Behaviors Among Public Health Leaders After Receiving Multirater Feedback and Coaching - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.53 | 0.854 | ["management", "education"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.073523 | [
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eports, and other publications on topics about infectious and chronic diseases, public health surveillance, applied epidemiologic methods, social and structural determinants of health, and public health workforce development. Footnotes Declaration of Conflicting Interests The author(s) declared no potential conflicts o... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8506892/ | Leading Organizational Change: Improved Leadership Behaviors Among Public Health Leaders After Receiving Multirater Feedback and Coaching - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.489 | 0.818 | ["war_conflict"] | 456 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.073662 | [
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rastination following an example case, (3) practice in identifying dysfunctional cognitions and behaviors, and (4) theoretical input and practice in goal setting. The second training session included (1) a review of the previous session, (2) theoretical input and practice in replacing the dysfunctional cognitions and b... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.552 | 0.692 | ["management", "motivation"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.327369 | [
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e management techniques and motivation, and (4) practice in using immediate gratification to maintain motivation. The third included (1) a review of the previous session, (2) an explanation of obstacles that can impede goal attainment and (3) practice in the use of time management techniques presented in the previous s... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.546 | 0.706 | ["management", "motivation"] | 493 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.327572 | [
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ttainment and trainees’ feedback on the training. Measures 5 Effectiveness Measures Satisfaction was assessed with the Coaching-Outcome-Short Scale (Schmidt and Thamm, 2008, Unpublished). Six items were adapted to measure participants’ satisfaction with the coach, contact person, or trainer 6 (“How satisfied were you w... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.59 | 0.83 | [] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.327639 | [
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ing?”), goal attainment (“How satisfied are you with the progress toward achieving your goals?”), outcome (“How satisfied are you in general with the coaching/self-coaching/training outcome?”), personal change (“How satisfied are you with the personal change through coaching/self-coaching/training/goal setting?”), and ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.583 | 0.656 | ["war_conflict"] | 452 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.327706 | [
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.75) did not significantly differ from the control group ( p = 0.117). Thus, Hypothesis 1.1 is partly supported. Hypothesis 1.2 posited that the level of satisfaction would be higher among participants in the individual coaching and group training conditions than among participants in the self-coaching condition. Parti... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.452 | 0.698 | [] | 503 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.327757 | [
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0.243) and self-coaching conditions ( p = 0.116). Thus, hypothesis 3.2 is partly supported and Hypothesis 3.3 is not supported. Procrastination In Hypothesis 4.1, we predicted that participants in the intervention groups would reduce procrastination more than participants in the control group. A one-way ANOVA revealed ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.407 | 0.678 | [] | 416 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.327803 | [
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tination, F (3,80) = 3.17, p = 0.029, η 2 = 0.11. Post hoc analysis indicated that individual coaching ( M = 0.80, SD = 0.60, p = 0.003) reduced procrastination significantly more than no intervention (control group; M = 0.23, SD = 0.72) and group training ( M = 0.57, SD = 0.58, p = 0.060) reduced procrastination margi... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.589 | 0.734 | [] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.327864 | [
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oup in the reduction of procrastination ( p = 0.155), which partly supports Hypothesis 4.1. Our next hypotheses stated that participants in the individual coaching condition would reduce procrastination more than participants in the self-coaching or training condition (Hypothesis 4.2) and participants in the group trai... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.583 | 0.668 | [] | 435 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.327957 | [
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gy, Department of Psychology, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria Find articles by Eva Traut-Mattausch 1 , Maximilian D Mühlberger Maximilian D Mühlberger 1 Division of Economic and Organizational Psychology, Department of Psychology, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria Find articles by Maximilian D Mühlber... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.559 | 0.695 | ["education", "strategy", "philosophy"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.328039 | [
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by Eva Jonas 2 Author information Article notes Copyright and License information 1 Division of Economic and Organizational Psychology, Department of Psychology, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria 2 Division of Social Psychology, Department of Psychology, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria Edited by: Anna... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.55 | 0.686 | ["education", "strategy", "philosophy"] | 511 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.328095 | [
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ersity of Rome, Italy ✉ *Correspondence: Sabine Losch, sabine.losch@sbg.ac.at This article was submitted to Organizational Psychology, a section of the journal Frontiers in Psychology Received 2015 Nov 4; Accepted 2016 Apr 14; Collection date 2016. Copyright © 2016 Losch, Traut-Mattausch, Mühlberger and Jonas. This is ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.551 | 0.82 | ["innovation"] | 423 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.328178 | [
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oaching conversations ( Grant, 2012 ) and there is evidence that coaching increases goal attainment and performance (e.g., Grant, 2003 , 2014 ; Green et al., 2006 ; Ianiro et al., 2013 ). Second, the problem-solving process characteristic for coaching involves helping the coachees to reflect on their thoughts, feelings... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.642 | 0.832 | ["philosophy"] | 428 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.328237 | [
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Front Psychol . 2016 May 3;7:629. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00629 Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference Sabine Losch Sabine Losch 1 Division of Economic and Organizational Psychology, Department of Psychology, University of Salzburg, Sal... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.658 | 0.834 | ["leadership", "strategy", "education"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.328290 | [
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the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction i... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.498 | 0.85 | ["innovation"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.328343 | [
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used a randomized controlled design to evaluate the impact of coaching, and there are even fewer that have compared coaching with other interventions. In the current field study, we investigated the relative effectiveness of coaching as an intervention to reduce procrastination. In a randomized controlled study, partic... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.598 | 0.834 | ["education"] | 442 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.328394 | [
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, a group training, or a control group condition. Results indicate that individual coaching and group training were effective in reducing procrastination and facilitating goal attainment. Individual coaching created a high degree of satisfaction and was superior in helping participants attaining their goals, whereas gr... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.449 | 0.838 | ["education", "philosophy"] | 511 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.328453 | [
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performing exercises without being supported by a coach is not sufficient for high goal attainment. Moreover, mediation analysis show that a coach’s transformational and transactional leadership behavior influenced participants’ perceived autonomy support and intrinsic motivation, resulting in beneficial coaching outco... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.526 | 0.838 | ["philosophy", "leadership", "motivation"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.328528 | [
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re employees to perform on specific tasks, group training seems appropriate due to lower costs. However, when certain aspects of working conditions or individual development goals are paramount, coaching might be indicated. However, further research is needed to compare the relative effectiveness of coaching with other... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.558 | 0.826 | ["leadership", "philosophy"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.328577 | [
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leadership, autonomy support, intrinsic motivation Introduction In today’s fast-changing economy, the growth, productivity, and continuity of an organization are determined by employees’ professional and personal qualifications ( Kauffeld, 2010 ; Salas et al., 2012 ). Consequently, the demand for increasing employees’ ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.476 | 0.836 | ["leadership", "motivation", "career", "resume", "economy"] | 493 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.328626 | [
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performance is training ( Arthur et al., 2003 ). The Industry Report ( Training, 2014 ) stated that U.S. companies with 100 or more employees invested $62 billion in training in 2014. Indeed, there is a large body of literature on the effectiveness of organizational training suggesting that this investment is justified... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.545 | 0.696 | ["economy", "philosophy"] | 420 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.328676 | [
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3 ; Keith and Frese, 2008 ; Salas et al., 2008 ). Over the past decade, however, organizations have increasingly relied on workplace and executive coaching, which has grown into a mainstream developmental activity ( Grant et al., 2010 ). According to the International Coach Federation (ICF) 1 , a total of 2,100 profess... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.49 | 0.868 | ["career"] | 502 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.328730 | [
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evenue from coaching was said to be $707 million. Yet, in terms of the impact of coaching on organizations, the picture is less clear than what is known about training outcomes. Although an abundance of coaching literature exists, the majority of the published empirical papers consist of contextual or survey-based rese... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.516 | 0.842 | ["philosophy"] | 465 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.328786 | [
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an about coaching effectiveness ( Grant, 2013a ). Two quantitative reviews have summarized the research on the effectiveness of coaching. In one meta-analysis, De Meuse et al. (2009) examined executive coaching outcomes by estimates of return on investment. In another, Theeboom et al. (2014) shed light on the beneficia... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.437 | 0.83 | ["philosophy"] | 462 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.328833 | [
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ork attitudes, and goal-directed self-regulation. These reviews show how coaching affects individual and organizational development. However, as empirical evidence is still scarce and the literature provides mixed results, there remains reasonable doubt if the individual and organizational benefits of coaching can outw... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.505 | 0.838 | ["salary", "philosophy"] | 497 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.328885 | [
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ractice is gaining ground ( Grant et al., 2010 ). Overall, the figures presented demonstrate the willingness of organizations to spend vast sums of money on personnel and executive development ( Bozer and Sarros, 2012 ). But how does one know what method is appropriate to attain certain organizational and personal goal... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.633 | 0.828 | [] | 418 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.328934 | [
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rch on different coaching approaches and methods. For example, in one study, researchers examined the relative effectiveness of external coaching, peer coaching, and self-coaching for improving the performance of participants in two master of business administration programs ( Sue-Chan and Latham, 2004 ). External coac... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.481 | 0.84 | ["management", "education", "philosophy"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.328985 | [
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external coaching was most effective in enhancing performance and satisfaction. Another study compared professional and peer life coaching and found that professional coaching was more effective than peer coaching or no coaching (control group) for enhancing engagement in the coaching process, goal commitment and goal ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.493 | 0.858 | ["career", "education", "philosophy"] | 511 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.329041 | [
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ness of coaching in comparison to the more well established practice of training. Therefore, we sought to explore the relative effectiveness of coaching compared to other forms of personnel and executive development, such as training and education interventions. The differentiation of coaching and the more established ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.573 | 0.854 | ["philosophy", "education"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.329088 | [
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easing in recent years, only a few empirical studies have used a randomized controlled design to evaluate the impact of coaching ( Grant et al., 2010 ). Drawing on a solid theoretical framework, our empirical investigation of coaching effectiveness further enhances the quality of coaching outcome research and contribut... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.622 | 0.856 | [] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.329135 | [
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n if coaching is effective, but also may provide evidence of the inherent beneficial effects and limitations of the methods compared. Functional and Structural Differentiation of Coaching and Training Coaching can be defined as a collaborative helping relationship, where coach and client (“coachee”) engage in a systema... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.649 | 0.702 | ["networking", "economy", "education"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.329185 | [
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h of the coachee ( Grant and Stober, 2006 ; Grant, 2013b ). The coachee’s responsibility is to implement action steps to achieve defined goals, while the coach keeps the coachee on track by managing the complex goal attainment process ( Grant, 2013b ). The coach’s function includes making explicit the difference betwee... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.467 | 0.852 | ["management", "negotiation", "philosophy"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.329254 | [
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sibilities, and co-creating a supportive working relationship, as well as eliciting a thought-provoking and creative process through active listening and challenging questions ( Grant, 2013b ; “International Coach Federation,” 2015) 2 In contrast, traditional training is a planned and systematic process that promotes t... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.489 | 0.686 | ["innovation", "networking", "education", "philosophy"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.329309 | [
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s’ performance ( Salas and Cannon-Bowers, 2001 ; Salas et al., 2012 ). From these descriptions, significant differences regarding the role of coach and trainer during the process become apparent: A trainer follows a predetermined agenda and structure, providing instructions for achieving performance on relevant job or ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.458 | 0.856 | ["philosophy", "career"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.329357 | [
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ual solutions tailored to the coachee’s specific needs ( Grant, 2001 ). Therefore, coaching should be more effective in enhancing a clients’ work-related performance. In line with recent research finding that one of a coach’s core competencies is the ability to lead the client through the coaching process ( Mühlberger ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.509 | 0.836 | ["leadership", "philosophy"] | 433 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.329412 | [
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ehavior is a crucial factor for coaching success. As Kemp (2009) has stated, the interaction of coach and coachee is similar to the relationship between a leader and an employee, with the aim of the coach or leader being to facilitate and guide the follower’s development and performance. Accordingly, there are signific... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.646 | 0.862 | ["leadership", "networking", "philosophy"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.329463 | [
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h/leader asserts influence on the achievement of goals ( Von Rosenstiel, 2006 ), the creation of solutions, and the development of the motivation and competencies of their clients/followers ( Grant and Stober, 2006 ; Bass and Bass, 2008 ). However, there are also differences. In the leader–follower relationship, the le... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.457 | 0.836 | ["leadership", "motivation", "networking"] | 442 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.329513 | [
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supports them in attaining organizational goals. In contrast, the coaching relationship is one of equals ( Rauen and Eversmann, 2014 ) and the coach helps the coachee attain his or her personal goals ( Mühlberger and Traut-Mattausch, 2015 ). Mühlberger and Traut-Mattausch (2015) suggested applying the concept of transa... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.463 | 0.832 | ["leadership", "networking", "philosophy"] | 426 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.329565 | [
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, 1993 ; Bass, 1998 ) in the context of coaching. One particular transactional leadership strategy—the contingent reward component, characterized by setting clear basic expectations and goals ( Felfe, 2006 )—is part of the coach’s role. For example, a coach shows contingent reward behavior by communicating that the coa... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.447 | 0.832 | ["leadership", "war_conflict", "strategy"] | 440 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.329616 | [
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ainment ( Mühlberger and Traut-Mattausch, 2015 ). There are also certain overlaps between coaching and transformational leadership in practices that facilitate personal growth and motivate followers to perform beyond expectations ( Bass, 1999 ). Some of the strategies transformational leaders use—individualized conside... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.661 | 0.802 | ["leadership", "motivation", "philosophy"] | 431 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.329678 | [
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—correspond to characteristic coaching behaviors. Coaches show individualized consideration by acknowledging the needs and goals of the coachees and supporting his or her personal strengths. Coaches provide intellectual stimulation by encouraging the coachees to consider issues from new perspectives and by doing so, th... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.459 | 0.84 | ["motivation", "strategy", "crisis"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.329731 | [
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c vision for their future ( Mühlberger and Traut-Mattausch, 2015 ). Recent research demonstrated that transactional and transformational leadership behavior can indeed be transferred to the coaching context ( Mühlberger and Traut-Mattausch, 2015 ). In an experimental study, undergraduates who obtained group or dyadic c... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.488 | 0.826 | ["leadership", "strategy", "education", "philosophy"] | 458 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.329778 | [
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d goal self-efficacy compared to a control group. Undergraduates in the dyadic coaching setting, compared to those in the group coaching setting, showed higher increases in goal attainment, intrinsic motivation, and goal-related self-reflection. These effects were mediated by transactional and transformational coaching... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.456 | 0.84 | ["leadership", "philosophy", "motivation", "education"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.329845 | [
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nsactional and transformational leadership behavior in a real coaching setting. Furthermore, leadership research focuses on investigating the mechanisms by which effective leaders exert influence on followers’ behaviors and performance (e.g., Kark et al., 2003 , 2015 ; Piccolo and Colquitt, 2006 ). When investigating t... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.572 | 0.842 | ["leadership", "philosophy"] | 511 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.329902 | [
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to gain insight into how these coaching behaviors affect coachees’ behavior and performance. So far, however, it remains unclear how coaches’ leadership behavior is linked to coaching success. A further aim of the current study was, therefore, to extend the research on coachs’ transactional and transformational leaders... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.534 | 0.84 | ["leadership", "education", "philosophy"] | 489 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.329952 | [
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o examine the relative effectiveness of coaching. For this purpose, we designed several interventions aimed at reducing procrastination, as this topic is relevant in academic and organizational contexts. Procrastination is defined as “the voluntary delay of an intended and necessary and/or [personally] important activi... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.467 | 0.846 | ["education"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.330002 | [
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, up to 70% of students stated that they procrastinate ( Schouwenburg et al., 2004 ), and another study reported that 50% procrastinate chronically, causing severe consequences ( Day et al., 2000 ). Even in the general population, procrastination is a common phenomenon with prevalence rates of 20 to 25% ( Ferrari et al... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.536 | 0.72 | ["management", "education"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.330051 | [
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coaching (e.g., Karas and Spada, 2009 ; Schmidt and Thamm, 2008, Unpublished) interventions are commonly used. There also exist a great number of self-help publications that give advice on how to cope with this problem (e.g., Ellis and Knaus, 1977 ; Fiore, 2007 ; Neenan and Dryden, 2013 ; Taylor, 2014 ). This raises th... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.6 | 0.85 | [] | 452 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.330111 | [
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orted by a coach is sufficient to gain a benefit. To investigate which method is more effective and why, we compared individual coaching with self-coaching, group training, and no intervention (control group). Following Kirkpatrick’s (1959/1994 ) four-level model of training and learning evaluation, we asked participan... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.619 | 0.844 | ["education"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.330162 | [
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0.028736... | ||
l attainment, and state procrastination ( behavior ). Considering the characteristic features of individual coaching, self-coaching, and group training, we hypothesized that there would be a difference in the effectiveness of interventions on the different evaluation criteria. The reaction criteria represent participan... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.44 | 0.842 | [] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.330208 | [
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with a coach providing feedback and support as important and beneficial, leading to higher client satisfaction ratings as opposed to those in self-coaching ( Offermanns, 2004 ; Sue-Chan and Latham, 2004 ). As training is also characterized by immediate feedback between a trainer and clients ( Salas and Cannon-Bowers, 2... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.599 | 0.864 | ["leadership"] | 511 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.330260 | [
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cts on clients’ satisfaction ratings for training. Therefore we expected that the level of satisfaction among participants in the three intervention groups (individual coaching, self-coaching, group training) would be higher than among participants in the control group (Hypothesis 1.1). However, we expected that the su... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.5 | 0.85 | [] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.330305 | [
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training conditions than among participants in the self-coaching condition (Hypothesis 1.2.). The learning criteria were the learning outcomes of the intervention that are usually assessed by paper-and-pencil tests ( Arthur et al., 2003 ). Unlike for individual coaching or self-coaching, training is content based rathe... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.429 | 0.702 | ["education"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.330386 | [
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procrastination, the mechanisms of self-control and motivation, and time management techniques, helping participants overcome procrastination. We therefore hypothesized that participants in the group training condition would score higher on a multiple choice test on content-related knowledge than participants in the in... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.441 | 0.832 | ["management", "decision_making", "motivation", "education", "philosophy"] | 511 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.330449 | [
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n participants’ actual performance ( Arthur et al., 2003 ). In the three intervention groups (individual coaching, self-coaching, group training), participants set goals and performed the same self-reflection and action-planning tasks designed to reduce procrastination. We hypothesized that participants in the three in... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.599 | 0.814 | ["philosophy", "strategy"] | 428 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.330503 | [
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rticipants in the control group (Hypothesis 3.1). For the tasks performed, the trainer provided instructions and exercises for overcoming procrastination, whereas the role of the coach was to monitor the coachees’ goal-attainment process and help them create individual solutions. Some important differences between the ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.455 | 0.85 | ["philosophy"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.330556 | [
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f coachees’ metacognitive skills ( Grant, 2001 ). Metacognitive skills have been shown to be crucial to improving task-relevant performance ( Zimmermann and Schunk, 2011 ). Third, group settings like the traditional training entail the advantage of shared experiences and support from peers ( Nicholas and Twaddell, 2008... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.523 | 0.854 | ["philosophy", "networking"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.330609 | [
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t al., 2012 ) that enables more individualized support and attention from the coach to meet the very specific developmental needs of the client ( Rauen, 2005 ; Nicholas and Twaddell, 2008 ). With regard to the self-coaching condition, participants did not receive the support of a coach or from peers. Thus, we assumed t... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4853380/ | Comparing the Effectiveness of Individual Coaching, Self-Coaching, and Group Training: How Leadership Makes the Difference - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.554 | 0.862 | ["leadership", "motivation", "war_conflict"] | 511 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:13.330666 | [
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0.0352... |
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