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Front Psychol . 2023 Jun 2;14:1089797. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1089797 The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies Andreea Nicolau Andreea Nicolau 1 Faculty of Psychology and Education Sciences, Alexandru Ioan Cuza Universi... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.621 | 0.842 | ["education", "crisis"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.358174 | [
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, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University, Iaşi, Romania Find articles by Octav Sorin Candel 1 , Ticu Constantin Ticu Constantin 1 Faculty of Psychology and Education Sciences, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University, Iaşi, Romania Find articles by Ticu Constantin 1 , Ad Kleingeld Ad Kleingeld 2 Department of Industrial Engineering and ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.559 | 0.698 | ["education", "philosophy", "crisis", "innovation"] | 511 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.358355 | [
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es Copyright and License information 1 Faculty of Psychology and Education Sciences, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University, Iaşi, Romania 2 Department of Industrial Engineering and Innovation Sciences, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, Netherlands Edited by: Rajashi Ghosh, Drexel University, United States Reviewe... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.547 | 0.822 | ["education", "crisis", "innovation", "philosophy"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.358429 | [
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eea Nicolau andreea.c.simion@student.uaic.ro Received 2022 Nov 4; Accepted 2023 May 9; Collection date 2023. Copyright © 2023 Nicolau, Candel, Constantin and Kleingeld. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction i... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.502 | 0.698 | ["innovation"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.358484 | [
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journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. PMC Copyright notice PMCID: PMC10272735 PMID: 37333584 Abstract Background A growing number of studies emphasize executive coaching as an effective developmental too... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.525 | 0.846 | ["management", "philosophy"] | 511 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.358543 | [
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processes and outcomes, lacking clarity on the primary psychological dimensions most impacted. Method Reviewing 20 studies with a rigorous methodological design that used control trials and pre-post tests, we evaluated and compared the relative effects of coaching on different types and sub-types of outcomes by means o... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.436 | 0.85 | ["crisis"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.358594 | [
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ioral outcomes was higher compared to attitudes and person characteristics outcomes, suggesting that behavioral coaching outcomes, especially cognitive behavioral activities, are the most impacted by executive coaching. Moreover, we found significant positive effects for some specific outcomes, such as self-efficacy, p... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.475 | 0.822 | [] | 484 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.358640 | [
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imensions considered relatively stable over time. The results show no moderation effects of the number of sessions. The length of the coaching program was a significant moderator only for the attitudes outcomes. Discussion These findings provide evidence that executive coaching is a powerful instrument for organization... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.635 | 0.832 | ["philosophy"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.358691 | [
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performance, meta-analysis Introduction Rapid changes in and the uncertainty of the economic, political, technological, and social environment require leaders to develop human capital and the capacity to respond to these challenges and achieve strategic organizational goals (Kim et al., 2014 ). This complex context inc... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.614 | 0.834 | ["leadership", "strategy", "crisis", "philosophy"] | 487 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.358741 | [
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conditions for employees and long-term outcomes. Executive coaching is now considered one of the primary methodologies for supporting leaders' development (MacKie, 2014 ). Executive coaching concerns the supported changes in individuals with managerial authority and responsibility in an organization to enhance their pr... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.652 | 0.83 | ["leadership", "management", "career", "philosophy"] | 491 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.358872 | [
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wellbeing change (O'Connor and Cavanagh, 2013 ). It enables long-term solutions by developing new habits, attitudes, and work practices through a systemic approach (Ballesteros-Sánchez et al., 2019 ). Its increased popularity has led to significant financial investment and over 71,000 coach practitioners worldwide (ICF... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.413 | 0.846 | [] | 511 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.358936 | [
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comes can be achieved and where coaching resources should be targeted (MacKie, 2014 ). Executive coaching outcomes for an individual or organization can be manifold because they differ depending on the client's goal and the social context (Athanasopoulou and Dopson, 2018 ). Thus, how executive coaching outcomes are def... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.515 | 0.832 | ["crisis", "education"] | 426 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.358989 | [
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ing it difficult to assess what is most impacted. One of the main limitations of the past research in evaluating coaching effectiveness centers on choosing from various outcomes and their benefits (Leonard-Cross, 2010 ; Graßmann et al., 2020 ). Therefore, previous meta-analyses pointed out the lack of a clear conceptua... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.464 | 0.832 | ["crisis", "salary"] | 425 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.359041 | [
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mportance of having one (Theeboom et al., 2014 ). Although some criteria for classifying coaching outcomes have been proposed and analyzed in previous meta-analyses, they only have been defined based on the criteria measured and applicable to the included studies. Grant ( 2010 ), Theeboom et al. ( 2014 ) suggested that... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.456 | 0.852 | [] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.359083 | [
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benefit practitioners in improving the coaching intervention. We believe that consistency in the definition and use of outcome measures is paramount to obtaining robust insights into the effectiveness of executive coaching. Therefore, we used a systematic framework for coaching outcome classification based on existing ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.468 | 0.838 | ["communication"] | 502 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.359159 | [
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tive coaching on different sub-types of outcomes. Apart from the difficulty in structuring the outcomes, another challenge for consensus on evaluating the effectiveness of executive coaching is the appropriate research designs (De Meuse et al., 2009 ; Theeboom et al., 2014 ; Sonesh et al., 2015 ; Jones et al., 2016 ). ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.625 | 0.696 | ["crisis"] | 466 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.359228 | [
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in-subject research design (Jones et al., 2016 ). In within-subjects designs, the effect sizes represent the differences between measurements before and after the coaching, with time variation between measurements depending on the number of coaching sessions. An alternative design is a between-subjects design where eff... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.569 | 0.686 | [] | 463 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.359302 | [
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groups (Neal et al., 2006 ; Orvis et al., 2009 ). The previous meta-analyses of executive coaching effectiveness (Theeboom et al., 2014 ; Sonesh et al., 2015 ; Jones et al., 2016 ) were based on study selections that include various research designs, such as randomized control trials (RCT) but also quasi-experimental d... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.44 | 0.716 | ["crisis", "education"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.359430 | [
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ger effect sizes than those using an independent-group design, implying that the study design considerably influences the relationship between the coaching intervention and the reported outcomes. These conclusions were supported by the findings of a recent meta-analysis using only randomized control trials (Burt and Ta... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.602 | 0.852 | ["crisis", "networking", "education"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.359534 | [
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red with a medium to large effect size (Theeboom et al., 2014 ) and a very large effect size (De Meuse et al., 2009 ), which was attributed to the difference in methodologies. To our knowledge, just one meta-analysis on executive coaching used only RCT (11 studies; Burt and Talati, 2017 ). However, several RCT studies ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.577 | 0.87 | ["education"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.359698 | [
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luding exclusively RCT studies on executive coaching, where effects are always established compared to a control group in the same circumstances, and source and selection biases are substantially reduced. Thus, to assess the effectiveness of executive coaching, we have included 20 RCT studies in the current meta-analys... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.482 | 0.828 | [] | 425 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.359800 | [
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published meta-analysis (Burt and Talati, 2017 ). Executive coaching is a supportive relationship with clearly defined individual anticipated outcomes. However, there are questions about how many sessions are needed or how long a coaching program should take. As this study will show, a meta-analysis could investigate a... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.428 | 0.83 | ["networking", "education"] | 447 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.359887 | [
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ing effectiveness on different types of outcomes. Thus, the present study aims to evaluate executive coaching effectiveness and assess the relative strength of coaching on different types of outcomes by reviewing and analyzing almost 20 years (2006–2023) of published research using the most rigorous research design. Su... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.481 | 0.848 | ["decision_making", "education", "philosophy"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.359979 | [
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impacted to facilitate more tailor-made and customized individual and organizational development in the current world context (LeBlanc, 2018 ). To our knowledge, our study is the first meta-analysis of the relative strength of coaching among different types of outcomes. The present article differs from previous meta-an... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.49 | 0.85 | ["education"] | 511 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.360069 | [
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nes rather than including studies using different research designs and merely assessing the overall effect of coaching effectiveness. Our meta-analysis of RCT studies aims to (a) provide a way to structure and analyze the coaching outcomes, (b) examine the effects of executive coaching on the overall outcomes studied a... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.475 | 0.834 | [] | 457 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.360137 | [
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e possible conditions for coaching effectiveness. Our hope is that our results contribute to improving the way of structuring and analyzing the coaching outcomes and the decisions on how to allocate coaching resources and support. Theoretical framework Defining executive coaching Executive coaching—also referred to as ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.655 | 0.834 | ["leadership", "decision_making", "education"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.360383 | [
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ve their capabilities, enhance their effectiveness and maximize their personal and professional potential in their organizations (Richardson, 2010 ; Jones et al., 2016 ; Williams and Lowman, 2018 ). Executive coaching is considered a new discipline aimed at enhancing leaders' growth and development (Finn, 2007 ; Moen a... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.461 | 0.846 | ["leadership", "career", "education"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.360439 | [
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enhance effective leadership behavior favoring the company (Elliott, 2011 ; Moen and Federici, 2012 ). It has been suggested that executive coaching developed exponentially in the 1980's. One of the reasons was the volatile economic context, which required leadership development and outplacement, among other needs (Ric... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.643 | 0.852 | ["leadership", "management", "networking", "economy", "philosophy"] | 511 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.360490 | [
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ent who has managerial authority and responsibility in an organization and a professional coach, which focuses on setting mutually defined goals and actions with the aim of improving their professional performance and personal aspirations, and, consequently, the effectiveness of the organization. An executive coach fac... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.523 | 0.842 | ["philosophy", "management", "career", "education"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.360541 | [
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tal transformation (Evers et al., 2006 ; Finn, 2007 ; Fontes and Dello Russo, 2021 ). Despite various approaches and models being available and used, common features of executive coaching interventions include goal-setting, awareness-raising, commitment and accountability, planning, and action (Grant et al., 2009 ; Jon... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.458 | 0.842 | ["strategy", "war_conflict", "philosophy"] | 472 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.360593 | [
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nt and Cavanagh, 2007 ; Spence and Oades, 2011 ). It is primarily concerned with setting goals related to strategic organizational objectives and improving performance at work (Moen and Skaalvik, 2009 ; Athanasopoulou and Dopson, 2018 ). Previous meta-analyses De Meuse et al. ( 2009 ) conducted the first review of stud... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.627 | 0.828 | ["strategy", "philosophy"] | 417 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.360642 | [
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its effectiveness using a meta-analytic approach. Only six of the 12 studies used external coaches and a methodological design that provided pre- and post-data. Their findings point to positive effects of executive coaching, ranging from improved individual skills and behaviors to increased team performance. However, t... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.513 | 0.832 | ["management", "philosophy"] | 450 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.360687 | [
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g due to the specific content area being coached. They suggested that the outcomes may vary based on the context and that there may even be negative outcomes in some situations. Theeboom et al. ( 2014 ), in a subsequent meta-analysis, highlighted the need for defining relevant outcomes dimensions for executive coaching... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.432 | 0.858 | [] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.360730 | [
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nt, which can fit under three main branches: cognitive, affective, and behavioral (Fontes and Dello Russo, 2021 ). Nevertheless, the large effect size they found may have been partly due to the inclusion of different research designs and the shortage of rigorous studies available. For this reason, the same outcomes—per... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.421 | 0.848 | ["philosophy", "crisis"] | 498 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.363117 | [
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17 ) using only randomized control trial studies. It should be noted that, even though the authors refer to executive coaching in their meta-analysis, also studies that used life coaching were included, such as studies conducted by Green et al. ( 2006 ) and Spence and Grant ( 2007 ). Another framework for executive coa... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.499 | 0.862 | ["crisis"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.384101 | [
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nt research designs, indicated that coaching positively affects skill-based, affective, and individual-level outcomes, with a larger effect size ( d = 0.5) for individual-level results. Sonesh et al. ( 2015 ) conducted a meta-analysis that explored a different three-dimension framework, consisting of relationship outco... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.638 | 0.836 | ["networking"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.384556 | [
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specially to improving the coachee outcome related to the behavioral change dimension. Although both meta-analyses reported positive effects of coaching, the results have likely been influenced by the inclusion of correlational design studies (Sonesh et al., 2015 ) and studies that used both internal and external coach... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.449 | 0.846 | ["philosophy"] | 481 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.384673 | [
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yees with whom they do not have formal authority. In contrast, external coaches are engaged by the organization based on a contractual agreement for specific coaching hours with specific employees. Present study To evaluate the relative strength of executive coaching on different types of outcomes—the key aim of our st... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.45 | 0.83 | ["education", "negotiation", "philosophy"] | 411 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.384838 | [
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he taxonomy that Bosco et al. ( 2015 ) developed. This hierarchical variable taxonomy allows to code and analyze the effect sizes (ES) to provide results on the extent to which Cohen's ES benchmarks reflect the omnibus distribution of findings commonly investigated in applied psychology research and which benchmarks va... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.504 | 0.848 | [] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.386232 | [
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d inductively and covers all major areas of industrial–organizational psychology, organizational behavior, and human resource management. In total, the taxonomy includes 4,869 levels nodes (i.e., variable names or category names), 11 first-level nodes (person characteristics, attitudes/evaluations, behaviors, organizat... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.528 | 0.71 | ["management", "crisis"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.386287 | [
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tional characteristics), which branch to second-level nodes, third-level nodes, and so forth It presents what a variable represents rather than how it is used in the studies. An example of hierarchical classification used in the taxonomy developed by Bosco et al. ( 2015 ) is the variable transformative leadership locat... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.56 | 0.864 | ["leadership", "philosophy"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.386314 | [
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“leadership,” and level four is the variable “relations behavior.” The taxonomy offers the possibility to extract effect sizes at many different levels of generality by zooming in on each of the broad categories. Bosco et al.'s ( 2015 ) analyses were based on a database of 1,660 unique articles containing 25,891 variab... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.573 | 0.836 | ["leadership"] | 433 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.386346 | [
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pplied psychology research (Bosco et al., 2015 ). Thus, this study offers information that can be used to understand the relative importance of the effect sizes found in a particular study in relation to others in the same and other domains. We believe that this hierarchical taxonomy of variables, based on 147,328 corr... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.45 | 0.856 | ["education", "philosophy"] | 511 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.386369 | [
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mains, represents a valuable approach to coaching outcomes classification and evaluation of the relative coaching effect on different levels of generality. The increased awareness regarding effect sizes across areas commonly researched in applied psychology allows us to anticipate a typical context-specific ES (e.g., f... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.605 | 0.838 | ["war_conflict", "philosophy"] | 503 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.386387 | [
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ce on Statistical Inference (Wilkinson, 1999 , p. 599) noted, “We must stress again that reporting and interpreting effect sizes in the context of previously reported effects is essential to good research. It enables readers to evaluate the stability of results across samples, designs, and analyses.” Thus, a consistent... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.415 | 0.852 | [] | 497 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.386408 | [
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hierarchical structure is presented in Figure 1 . As an example of hierarchical structure, the first level of coaching outcomes includes five general types: behaviors, attitudes, person characteristics, intentions, and cognitions. The second classification level includes sub-types such as leadership behaviors, organiza... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.459 | 0.836 | ["leadership"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.386429 | [
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omes variables reported in the reviewed studies classified according to the classification in Bosco et al.'s ( 2015 ) taxonomy. An example of a third-level outcomes variable is the goal attainment reported in four studies included in the current meta-analysis (Grant et al., 2009 , 2010 ; Ballesteros-Sánchez et al., 201... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.358 | 0.87 | [] | 510 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.386447 | [
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of outcome are listed in the Appendix . Figure 1. Open in a new tab Executive coaching outcomes classification. Hypotheses The first study hypothesis flows from our classification model indicated in Figure 1 . We expect to be able to show the effect size of executive coaching on overall outcomes. The previous meta-anal... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.429 | 0.868 | ["education"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.386467 | [
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ample similar to the one used in the previous meta-analyses, we expect to find strong evidence of coaching effectiveness. Therefore: Hypothesis 1 . Executive coaching will demonstrate an overall positive significant effect size across all outcomes. Based on the outcome classification proposed, we expected a meta-analys... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.456 | 0.834 | [] | 459 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.386484 | [
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xecutive coaching on different types of outcomes. Past research suggested that executive coaching is related to sustainable positive changes (Grant, 2012 ) and desirable behaviors (Ladegard and Gjerde, 2014 ; McGonagle et al., 2014 ; Nicolau and Constantin, 2021 ). Executive coaching was also associated with changes in... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.506 | 0.842 | [] | 479 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.386505 | [
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core self-evaluations (McGonagle et al., 2014 ). However, attitudes and personality traits have been considered to persist despite attempts at change. A recent review on attitudes change found a small effect size ( d = 0.22) for the attitude change based on interventions or messages delivered at a particular time (Alba... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.418 | 0.862 | [] | 511 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.386523 | [
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ect ( d = 0.37) in a recent systematic review (Roberts et al., 2017 ). Previous meta-analyses indicated that the coachee behavioral change improvements were significantly larger than attitudinal changes (Sonesh et al., 2015 ), and the coaching outcomes represent the translation of learning through to performance benefi... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.516 | 0.856 | ["salary", "education", "philosophy"] | 511 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.386543 | [
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stronger compared to (a) attitude and (b) person characteristics outcomes. Furthermore, executive coaching measurement usually relates to the managers' and organizations' bottom-line performance (Athanasopoulou and Dopson, 2018 ). In our classification, performance behaviors comprised goal attainment outcomes. Several ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.63 | 0.688 | ["philosophy", "management", "war_conflict"] | 511 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.386562 | [
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s-Sánchez et al., 2019 ; Zanchetta et al., 2020 ). Moreover, when the coach guides managers through exploring their potential for development and optimal functioning, these managers usually define specific goals, explore internal and external resources, and find specific actions to achieve them (Schunk, 1995 ; Whitmore... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.558 | 0.85 | ["management", "strategy"] | 501 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.386582 | [
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coaching (Finn, 2007 ; Moen and Federici, 2012 ). The development of the alliance between the coach and coachee may also support behavioral modeling translated into the manager's leadership behaviors, such as openness to consultation and compassion (Kochanowski et al., 2010 ; McGonagle et al., 2020 ). However, executiv... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.508 | 0.688 | ["leadership", "management", "networking", "diplomacy"] | 459 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.386605 | [
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e hierarchical taxonomy developed by Bosco et al. ( 2015 ) based on effect sizes indicates that the performance behaviors (e.g., task performance) as an employee are better predicted than leadership behaviors (e.g., relations or change behaviors). Thus, we expect performance behaviors to be highly impacted in the coach... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.506 | 0.702 | ["leadership", "philosophy"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.386624 | [
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ompared to (a) behavioral leadership and (b) behavioral cognitive activities. Potential moderators Several moderators of coaching effectiveness have been suggested, such as coach background, coaching model, type of coach (external or internal), and the number of coaching sessions. For most of these potential moderators... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.498 | 0.822 | ["leadership"] | 426 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.386793 | [
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nted us from including them in the meta-analysis. For example, regarding coaching methods, we evaluated the methods reported in the included studies, such as positive psychology coaching, Goal-Reality-Options-Will (GROW), and cognitive-behavioral developmental coaching. Several of these methods' components, such as set... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.566 | 0.818 | [] | 459 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.386819 | [
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identifying resources or strengths, and overlap. Therefore, we concluded that there are no clear distinctions among them. Two related aspects of coaching could be included, i.e., the number of coaching sessions and the overall length of the coaching program. Research examining these possible moderators is limited and s... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.491 | 0.846 | [] | 511 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.386837 | [
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nterventions did not significantly impact the executive coaching outcomes (Theeboom et al., 2014 ; Jones et al., 2016 ), while others showed a significant moderating effect of the number of coaching sessions (Sonesh et al., 2015 ). Authors have suggested that even a one-time coaching session is effective (Bright and Cr... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.458 | 0.86 | ["management", "philosophy"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.386873 | [
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g the actions that are needed to increase performance (Moen and Skaalvik, 2009 ; Bright and Crockett, 2012 ; Peláez Zuberbuhler et al., 2020 ). In their meta-analysis, Sonesh et al. ( 2015 ) suggested that the complexity and difficulty of the coaching goals may impact the number of coaching sessions. As participants ac... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.64 | 0.854 | ["crisis", "philosophy"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.386900 | [
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ch, once influenced, continue to increase over time, generating a “prophylactic effect” (Finn, 2007 ; Grant, 2010 ). Given these considerations, we did not expect unambiguous effects of the number of sessions and length of the coaching program on the coaching outcomes, and we did not formulate a hypothesis regarding th... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.618 | 0.856 | ["networking", "career", "education", "philosophy"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.386932 | [
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nship provided by an external professional coach and a manager with authority and responsibility in an organizational context, excluding all other coaching or developmental practices (e.g., life coaching, internal/managerial coaching, and mentoring). To identify relevant published and unpublished studies (including doc... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.458 | 0.83 | ["management", "career"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.386965 | [
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esearch Gate, ProQuest, and ICF Research Portal) using the following keywords: “executive coaching,” “leadership coaching,” “managerial coaching,” “coaching” in combination with “organizational performance.” We additionally manually reviewed the reference lists of all publications identified in the database search and ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.612 | 0.704 | ["leadership", "management", "philosophy"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.386985 | [
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6 ; Burt and Talati, 2017 ) and included the relevant studies. The Preferred Reporting Items guided this extensive literature search for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA; Liberati et al., 2009 , see Figure 2 ). Figure 2. Open in a new tab PRISMA flowchart. We assessed the studies for inclusion based on the ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.617 | 0.864 | [] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.387005 | [
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tive coaching intervention in a one-to-one session in an organizational setting; (c) the published or unpublished study was in English; (d) the study empirically investigated the relationship between the intervention and the executive coaching outcomes for the client; (e) the study used a between-subject design with a ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.622 | 0.686 | ["education", "networking"] | 465 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.387030 | [
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zes, means and standard deviation for each group. The main reason for not including studies that used internal coaches was to control for effects that may contaminate the overall result of coaching effectiveness. Jones et al. ( 2016 ) suggested that the effects of coaching by internal coaches had a stronger effect comp... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.488 | 0.866 | ["philosophy"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.387049 | [
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entor has formal authority over the mentee (Mullen, 1994 ). Thus, we decided to include only studies that used external coaches. The current meta-analysis did not include a study if the data needed to establish effect sizes were unavailable. The first two authors independently selected potentially eligible articles. Th... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.418 | 0.844 | ["decision_making", "education", "philosophy"] | 455 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.387067 | [
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sed an initial screening of titles and abstracts. There was a 95.3% initial interrater agreement for screening full texts. The disagreements about screening and selection were resolved by consensus. The selection process yielded a total of 20 studies that met the selection criteria and were included in the meta-analysi... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.503 | 0.85 | ["negotiation"] | 460 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.387087 | [
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h an asterisk in our list of references. Table 1. Inclusion criteria, outcomes, and moderators in previous meta-analyses and the current study. Meta-analysis Nr of studies included Inclusion criteria Design of the included studies Outcomes Moderators Current meta-analysis 20 - Executive coaching matched Kilburg's ( 199... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.618 | 0.848 | ["leadership", "education", "philosophy"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.387107 | [
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- External coach - Attitudes Organization People Job/Task - Randomized control trial - Person characteristic States Traits - Sufficient statistics reported Burt and Talati ( 2017 ) 11 - Coaching method design equivalent to Grant's ( 2003 ) definition RCT - Attitudes -Participant gende - External coach - Coping - Random... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.589 | 0.684 | ["crisis", "career"] | 435 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.387127 | [
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ing - Sufficient statistics reported Jones et al. ( 2016 ) 17 - Workplace coaching RCT - Affective outcomes - Research design - Within- and between-subjects designs QEF - Skill-based outcomes - Multisource feedback - Report sample sizes WSD - Individual level outcomes - Format of coaching -Reported statistics - Type of... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.583 | 0.692 | ["philosophy"] | 441 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.387146 | [
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level - Number of coaching sessions Sonesh et al. ( 2015 ) 24 - Leadership, business, or executive coaching RCT - Relationship outcomes - Sample type - Empirical studies QEF Generic coach–coachee relationship - Design type WSD Working alliance - Coach background - Coachee outcomes - Coach expertise Goal attainment - Nu... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.621 | 0.7 | ["networking", "leadership", "diplomacy"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.387165 | [
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faction with coaching Cognitive change Task performance - Organization outcomes Theeboom et al. ( 2014 ) 18 - External professional trained coach RCT - Performance/skills - Study design - Studies conducted in a work or educational context QEF - Work attitude - Number of coaching sessions - Coaches belonged to a non-cli... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.623 | 0.706 | ["philosophy", "education", "career"] | 495 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.387185 | [
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eing - Included quantitative data De Meuse et al. ( 2009 ) 12 - Executive coaching QEF - Reactions to coaching - Type of coaching provided (suggested) - External coach WSD - Coaching effectiveness at individual level - Content of the coaching engagement (suggested) - Pre- and post-coaching ratings - Coaching impact at ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.605 | 0.712 | ["crisis", "education"] | 511 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.387206 | [
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ontrol trial; QEF, quasi-experimental field study in which participants were non randomly allocated to experimental and control groups; WSD, within-subjects design without control group, which includes both pre- and post-intervention measures. Research model The statistical model used to conduct the meta-analysis was a... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.508 | 0.698 | ["education", "crisis"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.387224 | [
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ility and differences in the research sample (Hedges and Cooper, 1994 ; Borenstein et al., 2009 ). The classical Cochran Q statistic and the I 2 statistic, as proposed by Higgins and Thompson ( 2002 ), were calculated to test for heterogeneity between studies. The Q statistics provide a test of significance for between... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.326 | 0.856 | ["education"] | 491 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.387244 | [
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n-study heterogeneity (Borenstein et al., 2009 ). When the value for I 2 is close to or above 50%, moderating variables are considered to be present (Higgins and Thompson, 2002 ). Moderator analysis was conducted using sub-group analysis when the moderators were categorical and meta-regression when the moderators were ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.517 | 0.842 | ["negotiation", "education"] | 490 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.387426 | [
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about outcomes coding were resolved by consensus. The categorization of outcomes was conducted in two steps. In the first step, we assigned the studies to one of the following general executive coaching outcomes categories: behaviors, attitudes, person characteristics, cognitions, and intentions. In the second step, we... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.6 | 0.824 | [] | 416 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.387469 | [
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the taxonomy developed by Bosco et al. ( 2015 ). We eliminated two general types of outcomes that could not be tested because of the limited number of studies that included them: cognition and intentions. Several studies selected for the meta-analysis included a broad range of outcomes within the same outcome category ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.36 | 0.862 | ["leadership"] | 510 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.387690 | [
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zes for each category, and an overall effect size per study was included for each outcome category. All reported outcomes in the primary studies are based on self-reports and not on observations of others (e.g., subordinates and peers), test results, or measures of job performance because other measures were either not... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.467 | 0.866 | ["career", "education", "philosophy"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.387717 | [
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length of the coaching program and the number of sessions moderate the effectiveness of executive coaching. Effect sizes, methodology, and database Similar to the previous meta-analyses, the overall weighted effect size was calculated using the Hedges and Olkin ( 1984 ) approach. The post-pre effect size from the contr... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.434 | 0.858 | [] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.387737 | [
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asures of coaching outcomes, the effect sizes of the original studies were transformed to a variation of Cohen's d , the Hedges' g effect size. This conservative approach allows for statistical correction of biases due to small sample sizes, measurement error, and range restriction to avoid overestimates (Hedges, 1981 ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.451 | 0.856 | ["philosophy"] | 498 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.387762 | [
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ificance of effect sizes (Johnson et al., 1995 ). We used Biostat's Comprehensive Meta-Analysis program (CMA) version 2 (Borenstein et al., 2005 ). This application is based on the approach to meta-analysis proposed by Hedges and Olkin ( 1984 ). CMA offers the advantages of handling multiple data entry formats, the det... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.466 | 0.83 | ["resume", "education", "philosophy"] | 429 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.387783 | [
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oach to sensitivity analysis (Borenstein, 2005 ). We described our sampling plan, all data exclusions (if any), all manipulations, and all measures in the study. All data, analysis codes, and research materials are available at: https://osf.io/pz2a6/?view_only=1d4a77d2121b472f86fbd8def20f2def . The study design, hypoth... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.491 | 0.688 | ["education"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.387805 | [
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ontains the weighted effect sizes (aggregated across outcomes) per study. We found an overall moderate weighted effect size for all outcomes, reflecting an advantage of coaching over control groups [Hedges' g = 0.43, 95% CI, 0.35–0.50, p < 0.001 [95% PI (−0.05 to 0.92)]. Hypothesis 1 was clearly supported. The results ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.618 | 0.712 | ["education"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.387825 | [
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ically significant and medium in magnitude ( Q = 100.64; p < 0.001; I 2 = 61.24). Therefore, we continued this analysis by exploring various moderators for the positive effect of executive coaching. Table 2. Weighted effect sizes aggregated over outcomes per study. N Hedges g Standard error 95% CI Z -value p LL CI UL C... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.439 | 0.722 | ["education"] | 469 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.387845 | [
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127 0.24 0.06 −0.18 0.78 1.21 0.226 Evers et al. ( 2006 ) 60 0.26 0.10 0.05 0.46 2.44 0.014 Finn ( 2007 ) 17 0.98 0.29 0.41 1.56 3.36 0.001 Fontes and Dello Russo ( 2021 ) 53 0.44 0.13 0.19 0.70 3.38 0.001 Grant et al. ( 2009 ) 41 0.61 0.20 0.21 1.01 3.00 0.003 Grant et al. ( 2010 ). 44 0.92 0.21 0.52 1.32 4.47 < 0.001... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.513 | 0.672 | [] | 510 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.387862 | [
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) 31 0.38 0.36 −0.32 1.07 1.06 0.287 McGonagle et al. ( 2014 ) 48 0.53 0.15 0.23 0.83 3.44 0.001 McGonagle et al. ( 2020 ) 50 0.38 0.11 0.17 0.59 3.58 < 0.001 Moen and Federici ( 2012 ) 19 1.07 0.24 0.60 1.54 4.46 < 0.001 Moen and Skaalvik ( 2009 ) 108 0.40 0.15 0.10 0.70 2.58 0.010 O'Connor and Cavanagh ( 2013 ) 102 0... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.51 | 0.654 | [] | 483 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.387878 | [
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32 0.57 0.17 0.23 0.92 3.25 0.001 Smither et al. ( 2003 ) 1,229 0.35 0.12 −0.67 0.69 0.03 0.973 Zanchetta et al. ( 2020 ) 70 0.86 0.17 0.52 1.20 4.92 < 0.001 Peláez Zuberbuhler et al. ( 2020 ) 38 0.73 0.19 0.35 1.11 3.77 < 0.001 Random effects model 0.43 0.04 0.35 0.51 11/05 < 0.001 Open in a new tab N , analyzed sampl... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.486 | 0.746 | ["ethics"] | 506 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.387902 | [
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indicate the aggregated results across outcomes. Effect sizes per general type, sub-type, and specific outcome Table 3 presents the effect sizes for coaching interventions on the three general types of outcomes: behaviors, attitudes, and person characteristics. The effect of coaching was significant and positive for al... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.608 | 0.7 | [] | 511 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.387920 | [
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= 0.73, 95% CI, 0.41–1.05, p < 0.001; attitudes: Hedges' g = 0.34, 95% CI, 0.24–0.44, p < 0.001; person characteristics: Hedges' g = 0.51, 95% CI, 0.39–0.64, p < 0.001). We compared the effects between these three categories. The results indicated a significant difference between attitude and behavioral outcomes catego... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.517 | 0.692 | [] | 423 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.387937 | [
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haracteristics categories ( Q = 4.205, p < 0.05). These results supported Hypothesis 2a regarding the relative effect of coaching on behavioral outcomes compared with attitudes and person characteristics outcomes. We also observed low heterogeneity in the results for attitudes and person characteristics (non-significan... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.429 | 0.7 | ["ethics"] | 486 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.387956 | [
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1), which suggested possible moderators. Table 3. Effect sizes for general types outcomes: behaviors, attitudes, and person characteristics. Outcome Samples N Hedges g Standard error 95% CI Z -value p Q I 2 LL CI UL CI Behavior 12 565 0.73 0.16 0.42 1.07 4.53 < 0.001 58.90 *** 81.32 Attitudes 12 1,793 0.34 0.05 0.24 0.... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.535 | 0.718 | [] | 479 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.387972 | [
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types Behavior vs. attitudes 5.16 ** Behavior vs. person characteristics 1.53 Attitudes vs. person characteristics 4.20 ** Open in a new tab N , total sample size in k studies; LLCI, lower limit for the 95% confidence interval for g; ULCI, upper limit for the 95% confidence interval for g; Q, Cochran Q statistic. I 2 ,... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.372 | 0.7 | [] | 437 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.387991 | [
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ect that is due to heterogeneity between studies. *** Indicates that between-study heterogeneity is significant ( p < 0.001). ** Indicates that between-study heterogeneity is significant ( p < 0.05). The results for the relative effects of coaching on behavioral outcome sub-categories yielded a larger effect size for t... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.492 | 0.696 | ["leadership", "education", "philosophy"] | 491 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.388010 | [
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nd leadership activities ( Q = 10.388, p < 0.01). Hypothesis 2a was not supported. Table 4 presents the effect sizes of the coaching intervention on sub-categories. Table 4. Effect sizes for sub-types outcomes. Outcome Samples N Hedges g Standard error 95% CI Z -value p Q I 2 LL CI UL CI Behavior Cognitive activities 3... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.629 | 0.74 | ["leadership", "philosophy"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.388030 | [
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.55 1.68 3.86 < 0.001 11.47 ** 73.85 Between sub-types Cognitive vs. leadership 10.38 ** Cognitive vs. performance 0.23 Performance vs. leadership 3.74 Attitudes Organization 1 44 0.47 0.30 −0.11 1.06 1.58 0.112 0.00 0.00 People 7 1,550 0.30 0.13 0.04 0.57 2.27 < 0.050 8.33 27.97 Job/task 7 382 0.39 0.06 0.26 0.52 5.94... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.584 | 0.728 | ["leadership", "career", "philosophy"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.388048 | [
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aits 7 0.61 0.13 0.34 0.88 4.44 < 0.001 10.92 45.06 Between sub-types States vs. traits 0.47 Open in a new tab N , total sample size in k studies; LLCI, lower limit for the 95% confidence interval for g; ULCI, upper limit for the 95% confidence interval for g; Q, Cochran Q statistic. I 2 , the proportion of total varia... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.354 | 0.722 | ["education"] | 481 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.388069 | [
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n-study heterogeneity is significant ( p < 0.05). We computed a series of analyses for some specific outcomes (see Table 5 ). Although most studies involved the measurement of multiple outcomes, only a few of them were included in a sufficient number of studies to allow us to do meaningful meta-analytic calculations. T... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10272735/ | The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.402 | 0.722 | ["education"] | 512 | Leader as Coach Developing Others | topic | 2026-03-27T02:00:14.388091 | [
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