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f stay on track and make sure the work gets done. For larger goals, set smaller milestones along the way. Ask yourself: When does the goal need to be achieved? What can I realistically do in this timeframe? Can I break this goal up into smaller steps or milestones? Example of a SMART goal General goal: Increase revenue... | https://business.gov.au/planning/business-plans/set-goals-for-your-business | Set goals for your business | business.gov.au | business.gov.au | public_domain | false | 0.506 | 0.842 | [] | 420 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.844325 | [
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On this page Why goals are important Setting SMART goals Example of a SMART goal Achieving your goals Why goals are important Setting goals is an important part of running a successful business. They can help you: focus on what's important motivate employees give you specific targets to work towards track if your busin... | https://business.gov.au/planning/business-plans/set-goals-for-your-business | Set goals for your business | business.gov.au | business.gov.au | public_domain | false | 0.524 | 0.846 | ["motivation", "war_conflict"] | 454 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.844594 | [
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direction and achieve your larger business aims. Setting SMART goals Specific, measurable, achievable, relevant and time-bound (SMART) goals help you focus your efforts and make it more likely you'll achieve those goals. Consider all these aspects when setting your business goals. Specific Be specific about what you wa... | https://business.gov.au/planning/business-plans/set-goals-for-your-business | Set goals for your business | business.gov.au | business.gov.au | public_domain | false | 0.486 | 0.704 | [] | 491 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.844667 | [
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Why is this important? Who needs to be involved? Where will this happen? Measurable Setting measurable targets helps keep you on track and know when you've reached your goal. You can use specific data, such as money saved or number of customers. Or you can measure things like customer sentiment using feedback and surve... | https://business.gov.au/planning/business-plans/set-goals-for-your-business | Set goals for your business | business.gov.au | business.gov.au | public_domain | false | 0.435 | 0.714 | ["philosophy"] | 469 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.844719 | [
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I get the information I need to measure progress? Achievable Your goal needs to be something you can realistically achieve with your time, money and resources. If it's not, try changing the goal to something more achievable. Ask yourself: What do I need to do to achieve this goal? Do I have the right skills? What resou... | https://business.gov.au/planning/business-plans/set-goals-for-your-business | Set goals for your business | business.gov.au | business.gov.au | public_domain | false | 0.465 | 0.718 | ["philosophy"] | 469 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.844764 | [
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l factors that could stop me achieving this goal? Relevant Think about the big picture and make sure your goal is relevant to the direction you want your business to go in. Ask yourself: Does this align with my other efforts? Does it actually help with my broader business aims? Is it the right time to be setting this g... | https://business.gov.au/planning/business-plans/set-goals-for-your-business | Set goals for your business | business.gov.au | business.gov.au | public_domain | false | 0.621 | 0.87 | [] | 459 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.844804 | [
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enue by getting more regular fortnightly clients. Measurable: Get 4 new regular clients without losing any of my current clients Achievable: People keep asking my local nursery to recommend a gardener, showing there is a demand. I have 4 regular spaces available in my fortnightly schedule. Relevant: More regular custom... | https://business.gov.au/planning/business-plans/set-goals-for-your-business | Set goals for your business | business.gov.au | business.gov.au | public_domain | false | 0.513 | 0.852 | ["leadership"] | 472 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.844849 | [
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a. Timely: Achieve this within the next 2 months. Start by putting flyers at the local nursery and shopping centre this week. SMART goal : I will get 4 new fortnightly clients for my gardening business in in next 2 months. I'll do this by putting flyers at the local nursery and shops. This will help me to grow my busin... | https://business.gov.au/planning/business-plans/set-goals-for-your-business | Set goals for your business | business.gov.au | business.gov.au | public_domain | false | 0.44 | 0.882 | ["leadership"] | 495 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.844900 | [
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you need to work out exactly how to achieve them. Here are some things to consider when planning how to achieve a business goal: Actions – Describe the individual actions you'll take to reach your goal. Timeframe – Set a realistic deadline for completing your goal and any milestones along the way. Resources – Detail yo... | https://business.gov.au/planning/business-plans/set-goals-for-your-business | Set goals for your business | business.gov.au | business.gov.au | public_domain | false | 0.476 | 0.872 | ["strategy"] | 507 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.844945 | [
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staff, customers or a group of people you trust. They can help you to stay on track and make sure you're working towards your goal. Review – Decide how you will measure success for your goal. Set time aside to regularly review how you are tracking towards it. Think about actions you can take if you are not on track. Re... | https://business.gov.au/planning/business-plans/set-goals-for-your-business | Set goals for your business | business.gov.au | business.gov.au | public_domain | false | 0.619 | 0.858 | ["war_conflict", "decision_making"] | 433 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.844982 | [
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Rev Public Pers Adm . 2016 Dec 19;38(4):472–493. doi: 10.1177/0734371X16682815 Goal Setting in Teams: Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector Marieke van der Hoek Marieke van der Hoek 1 Leiden University, The Netherlands Find articles by Marieke van der Hoek 1, ✉ , Sandra Groeneveld Sandra Groeneveld 1 L... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.573 | 0.86 | ["education", "management", "philosophy"] | 511 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.983577 | [
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icles by Ben Kuipers 1 Author information Article notes Copyright and License information 1 Leiden University, The Netherlands ✉ Marieke van der Hoek, Institute of Public Administration, Leiden University, Turfmarkt 99, 2511 DP Den Haag, The Netherlands. Email: m.a.van.der.hoek@fgga.leidenuniv.nl Issue date 2018 Dec. ©... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.532 | 0.682 | ["innovation", "education", "philosophy"] | 512 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.983690 | [
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ativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/ ) which permits non-commercial use, reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access page ( https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage ). PMC Copyright notice PMCID: PMC62... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.524 | 0.672 | ["management", "philosophy"] | 469 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.983737 | [
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changed. An output focus has become more common. Other changes include decentralization and managing organizations more horizontally. Setting performance goals and working in teams exemplify these developments. Despite an extensive literature on goal setting, research on goal setting in teams and empirical studies in p... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.434 | 0.844 | ["management", "education", "philosophy"] | 511 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.983791 | [
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under what team conditions clear goals contribute to team performance in the Dutch public sector. Analyses on survey data ( n = 105 teams) show that both goal clarity and self-management positively affect team performance. The effect of goal clarity on team performance is not affected by teamwork though, indicated by i... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.588 | 0.848 | ["management", "philosophy", "communication", "economy", "rhetoric"] | 501 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.983844 | [
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r understand goal setting in public sector teams. Keywords: teamwork, goal setting, self-management, performance, public sector Introduction A specified reduction of patients on waiting lists, the number of articles published in high-ranked academic journals, a higher percentage of students that graduate within three y... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.623 | 0.838 | ["management", "philosophy"] | 482 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.983893 | [
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yees in public organizations are confronted with. A focus on results, on output, and consequently on goals, has become more common in the public sector since the 1980s with the rise of performance management ( Hood, 1991 ; Hughes, 2012 ; Pollitt & Bouckaert, 2011 ). This management practice, adopted from the private se... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.461 | 0.86 | ["management", "philosophy"] | 512 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.983943 | [
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nitoring and assessment of crucial aspects of organizational and individual performance through explicit targets, standards, performance indicators, measurement and control systems” ( Diefenbach, 2009 , p. 894). Steering on results, rather than on input or processes, requires determining what good results are through s... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.603 | 0.828 | ["philosophy"] | 431 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.983994 | [
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012 ; Pollitt & Bouckaert, 2011 ; Rainey, 2014 ). Another trend regarding the management of public organizations is the change of traditional hierarchical organizational structures into decentralized specialized units ( Hood, 1991 ; Hughes, 2012 ; Pollitt & Bouckaert, 2011 ). Rather than controlling the behavior of pub... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.506 | 0.836 | ["management"] | 466 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.984045 | [
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e component structure was stable ( Field, 2013 ). Two PCAs were conducted: one contained all performance items (dependent variables); in the second, all items used to assess the independent and moderating variables were entered to check whether the latent components match the theoretical model. The original seven items... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.525 | 0.828 | ["philosophy", "management"] | 420 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.984095 | [
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ave gained ground ( Groeneveld & Kuipers, 2014 ). Self-managing teams with their own tasks and responsibilities are becoming more common as an effect ( Cohen & Bailey, 1997 ; Kramer, Thayer, & Salas, 2013 ; Rainey, 2014 ; Vashdi, 2013 ). The combination of steering on output and decentralization has changed the organiz... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.371 | 0.85 | ["management", "philosophy"] | 462 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.984142 | [
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se developments contribute to public performance. In the 1990s, Locke and Latham working in the parallel field of organizational psychology developed goal setting theory, explaining an individual’s performance by looking at the goals that are set. The clearer, more specific, and more challenging a goal is, the better o... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.477 | 0.864 | ["philosophy"] | 511 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.984191 | [
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ork ( Latham & Locke, 2013 ; Locke & Latham, 2013 ). Initially, the theory was used to give individual-level explanations. Given the move toward teamwork, testing the theory in a team context has attracted attention as well, albeit to a minor extent ( Kleingeld, Van Mierlo, & Arends, 2011 ; Kramer et al., 2013 ). The l... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.431 | 0.872 | ["management", "philosophy", "war_conflict"] | 511 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.984238 | [
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ficiency ( Kramer et al., 2013 ; West & Anderson, 1996 ). Furthermore, prior research shows a positive effect of organizing work in teams compared with traditional formats ( Delarue, Van Hootegem, Procter, & Burridge, 2008 ; Kuipers & de Witte, 2005 ; Richter, Dawson, & West, 2011 ; West, Brodbeck, & Richter, 2004 ) al... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.489 | 0.876 | ["management", "philosophy"] | 512 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.984275 | [
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in teams focused on the private sector and hospital settings. Despite ongoing debate over the question whether public and private organizations are really different in terms of goals, values, and environments, for instance ( Andersen, 2010 ; Kuipers & Vermeeren, 2013 ; Perry, Mesch, & Paarlberg, 2006 ), conducting a st... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.481 | 0.852 | ["management", "education", "ethics", "philosophy"] | 462 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.984314 | [
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al setting and performance in teams. Perry et al. (2006) point out that goal setting theory is a highly influential theory of motivation that deserves more attention in research in the public sector. Studies by Bronkhorst, Steijn, and Vermeeren (2015) , Latham, Borgogni, and Petitta (2008) , and Wright (2001 , 2004 ) d... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.512 | 0.852 | ["management", "motivation", "philosophy"] | 461 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.984353 | [
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eam level has been overlooked in these endeavors. The purpose of the present study is then to transpose goal setting theory to the team level in a public context and examine to what extent goal setting in public sector teams affects their performance. The rest of this article is structured as follows. In the next secti... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.436 | 0.842 | ["management", "education", "philosophy"] | 434 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.984406 | [
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sed, including hypotheses and a conceptual model. This is followed by an elaboration on the data and methods employed in the empirical part of the study. Subsequently, the actual analyses will be presented and conclusions will be drawn. In the final part, limitations are considered and suggestions for future research a... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.377 | 0.868 | ["management", "communication", "economy", "education", "rhetoric"] | 512 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.984446 | [
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roup,” “work group,” and “work unit” are used as synonyms while in others these are seen as different things ( Delarue et al., 2008 ). A useful definition reads that a team is a collection of individuals who are interdependent in their tasks, who share responsibility for outcomes, who see themselves and who are seen by... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.436 | 0.87 | ["communication", "management", "networking", "rhetoric"] | 512 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.984484 | [
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ge their relationships across organizational boundaries. ( Cohen & Bailey, 1997 , p. 241) This definition clearly distinguishes between teams and groups, for these latter often only temporarily share a common characteristic that is not related to work, goals, and performance, and between teams and work groups, which la... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.353 | 0.844 | ["management", "networking", "philosophy"] | 473 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.984523 | [
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on ( Cheney, Christensen, Zorn, & Ganesh, 2011 ). The definition also shows the inherent link between teams and goals, the topic of this study. Goal setting theory was developed by Locke and Latham to address questions of the effect of goals on performance. This theory explains an individual’s performance by looking at... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.653 | 0.856 | ["philosophy", "communication", "management", "education"] | 433 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.984559 | [
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aim of an action” ( Latham & Locke, 2013 , p. 4). In other words, goals specify the desired outcomes or performance that should be realized, whereas performance refers to what is actually accomplished. The theory is not only used at the individual level, but also at the team level: a team goal concerns the outcome that... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.51 | 0.854 | ["management", "philosophy"] | 462 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.984596 | [
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organizational outcomes and behavioral outcomes. Performance as it is measured in this article concerns the first category: team effectiveness and efficiency as experienced by team members. Effectiveness and efficiency are very common outcome measures in the private sector and are highly appreciated in the light of per... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.373 | 0.826 | ["philosophy", "management", "education"] | 438 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.984632 | [
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f performance seem therefore relevant to examine. According to goal setting theory, an employee performs better if the goals that guide work are clear, specific, and challenging rather than vague, ambiguous, and unchallenging ( Latham et al., 2008 ; Latham & Locke, 2013 ; Rainey & Jung, 2015 ). The theory proposes that... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.53 | 0.856 | ["philosophy", "strategy", "motivation"] | 512 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.984669 | [
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ance, and strategy ( Latham & Locke, 1991 , 2013 ). Put simply, if you know better what is expected of you, the course of action you should take to accomplish the objective becomes clearer and the chances that you will reach the goal increase. This again enhances self-efficacy through positive reinforcement and roused ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.471 | 0.844 | ["strategy", "salary", "philosophy"] | 425 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.984706 | [
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formance ( Bandura, 2012 , 2013 ; Wright, 2001 ). In addition, goal clarity supports employees in knowing what is expected of them and what behavior is functional for goal achievement, lowering role ambiguity ( Davis & Stazyk, 2015 ; Pandey & Wright, 2006 ). If belief in one’s capacities is strong and role ambiguity is... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.6 | 0.862 | ["philosophy"] | 448 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.984740 | [
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; House & Rizzo, 1972 ; Pandey & Wright, 2006 ). Research has shown that these mechanisms and the effect of goal setting also apply to the team level in the private and health care sectors ( Hoegl & Parboteeah, 2003 ; West & Anderson, 1996 ). However, goal clarity is not a given within the public sector. A body of lite... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.449 | 0.884 | ["management", "education"] | 498 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.984786 | [
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Rainey, 2006 ) connects with goal setting theory. This research has focused on goal clarity and its reverse, goal ambiguity. Goal ambiguity is commonly present as public organizations face difficulties in formulating clear and specific goals ( Chun & Rainey, 2005 ; Davis & Stazyk, 2015 ; Jung, 2011 ; Pandey & Rainey, 2... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.462 | 0.874 | ["ethics", "crisis", "philosophy"] | 511 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.984833 | [
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ltiple subgoals that are linked to various values simultaneously, some of which are hard to capture in numbers ( Diefenbach, 2009 ; Hood, 1991 ; Pollitt & Bouckaert, 2011 ; Rainey, 2014 ; Rainey & Jung, 2015 )—think of a goal such as delivering high-quality service to citizens in which values of effectiveness, efficien... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.477 | 0.71 | ["ethics"] | 477 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.984880 | [
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diverse interpretations ( Chun & Rainey, 2005 ). The political and institutional environments of public organizations are a stimulating factor in this respect ( Chun & Rainey, 2005 ). The absence of goal ambiguity and the presence of goal clarity have been found to relate to multiple positive outcomes, including perfor... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.406 | 0.862 | ["philosophy", "motivation"] | 511 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.984928 | [
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isms of clear goals to benefit performance as it fosters role ambiguity, although the interpretive leeway that goal ambiguity presents can be advantageous as well and premature specification can be dysfunctional too ( Davis & Stazyk, 2015 ; Rainey & Jung, 2015 ). However, the focus of this existing work has not been on... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.45 | 0.87 | ["management", "philosophy"] | 512 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.984975 | [
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ill also be the case in teams in the public sector. Hypothesis 1 (H1): Teams with a higher level of goal clarity perform better compared to teams with lower levels of goal clarity. Next to this direct positive effect of having clear goals, there are conditions in which this influence could be reinforced, or the negativ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.58 | 0.87 | ["management", "philosophy"] | 512 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.985049 | [
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irect positive association with performance or a reinforcing effect on the relationship between goals and performance. Two factors that are of interest for this study on teams in the public sector are the level of self-management, because of its role in organizational developments in the public sector, and information ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.481 | 0.86 | ["philosophy", "management", "communication", "networking", "economy"] | 491 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.985104 | [
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at the individual level ( Kramer et al., 2013 ). Self-management has appeared to influence performance: previous research in the private sector and health care found evidence that self-managing and (semi-)autonomous teams often perform better ( Campion, Medsker, & Higgs, 1993 ; Cohen & Bailey, 1997 ; Delarue et al., 20... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.555 | 0.868 | ["management", "philosophy", "agents"] | 471 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.985153 | [
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e case in project teams ( Cohen & Bailey, 1997 ). Self-management refers to the behavior of employees within the provided autonomy to influence decisions and aspects of work themselves, which can also take place at the team level ( Day & Unsworth, 2013 ; Groeneveld & Kuipers, 2014 ; Stewart, Courtright, & Manz, 2011 ).... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.368 | 0.87 | ["management", "decision_making", "war_conflict"] | 512 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.985202 | [
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take decisions rather than actually making those decisions ( Groeneveld & Kuipers, 2014 ). Particularly how work is organized is of interest for self-management ( Stewart et al., 2011 ). Having influence on the division of tasks, being able to decide how and when tasks are executed to accomplish team goals, and looking... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.574 | 0.866 | ["management", "decision_making", "strategy", "war_conflict"] | 507 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.985250 | [
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on team members’ behavior to organize their work. The idea that there is a positive effect on performance when employees are involved in arranging the team’s work connects with goal setting’s underlying motivational mechanisms in the relationship between goal and performance ( Day & Unsworth, 2013 ; Latham & Locke, 199... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.48 | 0.868 | ["management", "philosophy", "motivation", "networking"] | 501 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.985288 | [
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d and which actions have to be taken to that end. This influence supports the motivational mechanisms of direction, effort, persistence, and strategy, stimulating commitment and self-efficacy. The motivation ensuing from the clarity of the team goals will then be stronger so that team members can obtain better results ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.435 | 0.86 | ["management", "motivation", "strategy", "philosophy"] | 512 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.985326 | [
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t of goal ambiguity induced uncertainty on performance: after all, when team members can deliberate and make decisions about how to do their work as a team, commitment to the team goals may rise, stimulating effort and persistence to strive for good results. It follows from this argument that self-management within a t... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.594 | 0.866 | ["management", "philosophy", "decision_making", "networking", "rhetoric"] | 511 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.985362 | [
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ance is amplified if teams have a higher level of self-management, while the negative effect of a lack of goal clarity on team performance is attenuated if teams have a higher level of self-management. In connection with cooperation processes, research has been conducted on information elaboration. Van Knippenberg, De ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.381 | 0.854 | ["management", "philosophy", "communication", "networking", "economy"] | 512 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.985399 | [
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d perspectives, the process of feeding back the results of this individual-level processing into the group, and discussion and integration of its implications” (p. 1011). This process of sharing work-related knowledge and viewpoints can stimulate mutual understanding and cooperation within teams, benefiting performance... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.548 | 0.85 | ["philosophy", "management", "education"] | 512 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.985435 | [
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members how their efforts contribute to expectations and team goals, thus reducing role ambiguity. Absence of such information would then lead to heightened role ambiguity (e.g., House & Rizzo, 1972 ; Pandey & Wright, 2006 ; Rizzo, House, & Lirtzman, 1970 ). Within teamwork cooperation processes, communication, which a... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.372 | 0.856 | ["communication", "management", "philosophy", "economy", "rhetoric"] | 512 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.985472 | [
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ty, a concept referring to “the quality of interactions in teams” ( Hoegl & Gemuenden, 2001 , p. 436; Hoegl & Parboteeah, 2003 ). In situations in which much uncertainty exists, teamwork quality has been found to enhance performance by moderating the relationship between goal setting and performance ( Hoegl & Parboteea... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.583 | 0.834 | ["management", "philosophy", "networking"] | 425 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.985508 | [
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innovative projects, which face such conditions. Sharing perspectives and experiences could then reduce the negative effect of the uncertainty resulting from complexity ( Hoegl & Parboteeah, 2003 ). Considering the complexity of many public sector problems that have to be solved in dynamic environments, which also make... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.422 | 0.83 | ["management"] | 428 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.985545 | [
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ar mechanisms are at work in public sector teams. A moderating effect of information elaboration as a form of communication could then be hypothesized: sharing information and ideas about the team’s work reinforces the underlying motivational mechanisms activated by clear goals and reduces potential role ambiguity beca... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.412 | 0.852 | ["philosophy", "communication", "management", "economy", "rhetoric"] | 512 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.985581 | [
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ty that accompanies goal ambiguity, or a lack of goal clarity, as this team communication helps to create a shared understanding of the team goals and to focus effort toward goal attainment. Team members could gain a better grip on their work following from this clarification, which helps focus on the road to reach the... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.582 | 0.87 | ["management", "philosophy", "communication", "war_conflict"] | 512 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.985617 | [
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d if teams have a higher level of information elaboration, while the negative effect of a lack of goal clarity on team performance is attenuated if teams have a higher level of information elaboration. The hypothesized relationships are exhibited in Figure 1 . Figure 1. Open in a new tab Conceptual model. Method To tes... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.368 | 0.86 | ["management", "philosophy", "communication", "economy", "rhetoric"] | 471 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.985654 | [
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t on high performance teams in the public sector. Data were collected in three rounds (between December 2012 and April 2015). An online questionnaire was sent to public sector teams in the Netherlands that were selected from a database of InternetSpiegel (part of the Ministry of the Interior), recruitment via Erasmus U... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.545 | 0.864 | ["management", "education", "leadership", "philosophy"] | 512 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.985691 | [
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cipate in the study, resulting in complete data for 157 team leaders (86% response rate) and 1,223 team members (53% response rate) of 157 teams. The response per team differed substantially: between one and 27 team members filled in the questionnaire ( M = 7.8, SD = 4.9). Teams that consisted of less than three team m... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.517 | 0.87 | ["management", "leadership", "education"] | 511 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.985727 | [
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ere classified as “management teams” were removed from the data set before running the analyses. Five teams had two team leaders and one team had three team leaders. For nine teams, no team leader had completed the questionnaire. Only work teams, which deliver services or produce goods, were included because the concep... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.343 | 0.868 | ["management", "leadership"] | 512 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.985763 | [
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tor teams, which were also excluded from the analyses. In total, 106 teams with a total of 917 team members were selected for the analysis. Deletion of outliers (see later section) resulted in retention of 914 team members of 105 teams that were analyzed. Measurement The measurement of several concepts is based on prev... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.535 | 0.872 | ["management"] | 512 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.985818 | [
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tally disagree ), 2 ( disagree ), 3 ( neither disagree nor agree ), 4 ( agree ), to 5 ( totally agree ). Except for type of team and team size, all concepts were measured with the team member questionnaire. The question about type of team was answered by the team leaders and information about team size was based on adm... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.534 | 0.858 | ["management", "leadership", "philosophy"] | 422 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.985868 | [
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(Wave 1) or by the team leaders (Waves 2 and 3). Principal component analyses (PCAs) and reliability analyses were conducted to summarize the data and to check the validity and inter-item reliability of the measurement scales. Components were allowed to correlate (oblimin rotation), for it could be assumed on the basis... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.529 | 0.86 | ["leadership", "management", "ethics"] | 491 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.985916 | [
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envalues ≥ 1) and the scree plot ( Field, 2013 ). Decisions of item retention were based on the rotated solution in the pattern matrix, whereby a minimal loading of 0.5 was applied, together with Cronbach’s alpha values and the effect of item deletion. When items were deleted for their weak loading on the expected fact... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.5 | 0.874 | ["ethics", "decision_making"] | 506 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.986127 | [
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, causing cross-loadings with the other concepts. Having evaluated the items in terms of substantial meaning for the concept as well as in terms of pattern of clustering, two items were dropped from the analysis, resulting in a clear three-factor solution with all items loading on the expected component. One item of se... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.338 | 0.864 | ["management", "decision_making"] | 512 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.986202 | [
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owed no improvement if this item would be deleted, and on the substantial importance of this item for inclusion in the scale. Individual PCAs for all scales resulted in clear single components with high item loadings well above 0.6. Based on these analyses, scales were composed on which reliability analyses were perfor... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.522 | 0.844 | ["ethics", "philosophy"] | 446 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.986248 | [
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s higher than .7 and four scales even exceed .8). Therefore, it can be concluded that the instrument provides reliable observations ( Field, 2013 ; Neuman, 2004 ). Team performance The dependent variable, team performance as perceived by the team, is measured with two scales: team effectiveness and team efficiency. Tea... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.418 | 0.844 | ["management", "philosophy"] | 444 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.986290 | [
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s measured with seven items (Cronbach’s α = .88). Team efficiency concerns the use of resources to achieve goals and is based on seven items (Cronbach’s α = .88). The PCA provides a two-factor solution in which each performance variable loads onto its own dimension. The hypothesized relationships are tested on these pe... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.589 | 0.854 | ["management", "philosophy", "networking"] | 492 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.986335 | [
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e clarity of team goals as perceived by the team. This measurement is based on three items derived from Anderson and West (1998) , Poulton and West (1999) , and Tjosvold, Tang, and West (2004) : “We have clear team goals,” “In our team we agree on our goals,” and “We closely cooperate to achieve our goals.” This scale ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.597 | 0.878 | ["management"] | 512 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.986381 | [
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nd evaluates to what extent team members as a team actively shape their own work (Cronbach’s α = .74). The items were derived from previous scales ( Campion et al., 1993 ; Langfred, 2005 ; Leach, Wall, Rogelberg, & Jackson, 2005 ; see also Groeneveld & Kuipers, 2014 ). Example items are “In our team, we divide tasks ou... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.56 | 0.874 | ["management", "communication", "economy", "philosophy", "rhetoric"] | 512 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.986434 | [
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on seven items of the information elaboration scale of Van Dick, Van Knippenberg, Hägele, Guillaume, and Brodbeck (2008) . Two items are “My team members often say things that make me think” and “In my team we often discuss ideas we have about our work.” Cronbach’s α = .88 Control variables To control for team factors ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.548 | 0.874 | ["management", "philosophy", "communication", "economy", "rhetoric"] | 509 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.986481 | [
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am size, expressed by the number of team members. This information was not provided by the team members, but by the teams’ organizations as administrative data (Wave 1) or by the team leader (Waves 2 and 3). Campion et al. (1993) showed that bigger teams are more effective. In other studies, however, it was found that ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.403 | 0.864 | ["management", "philosophy", "leadership"] | 511 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.986519 | [
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als are less cooperative, which can have negative effects on performance ( Hollensbe & Guthrie, 2000 ; Kramer et al., 2013 ; Seijts & Latham, 2000 ). Despite this equivocal relationship, team size is deemed a relevant control variable. Second, the sector in which the team operates is controlled for because the type of ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.406 | 0.87 | ["management", "philosophy", "networking"] | 512 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.986557 | [
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y the researchers based on the organization in which the respondent works. If it was not clear immediately, the Internet was searched to collect information about the organization to inform the coding. Two categories were used: (1) government (national, regional, and local government as well as the water boards) and (0... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.534 | 0.856 | ["governance", "management", "philosophy", "education"] | 512 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.986593 | [
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l team members provide a good account of a phenomenon at the team level. The items in the questionnaire were formulated in such a manner that the concepts refer to, and thus are measured at, the team level (referent-shift composition model; Groeneveld & Kuipers, 2014 ; Van Mierlo, Vermunt, & Rutte, 2009 ). Team scores ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.433 | 0.884 | ["management", "philosophy"] | 512 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.986629 | [
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e as the analyses relate to the team level and involve comparisons between teams rather than between team members. Teams are then the unit of analysis, not individual team members. As the data were collected at the level of the individual employee, these lower level data have to be aggregated. For each scale, intraclas... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.372 | 0.846 | ["management"] | 438 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.986664 | [
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ation of the data to the team level is justified. ICC1 indicates the variance accounted for by group membership and ICC2 signifies the reliability of the group-means ( Bliese, 2000 ; Van Mierlo et al., 2009 ). ANOVAs were performed for both independent and dependent variables. To calculate the ICCs, information about g... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.316 | 0.862 | ["philosophy", "management"] | 463 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.986716 | [
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n be used as an estimate ( Bliese, 1998 , 2000 ). Because group sizes differ considerably in the current data set, ranging from three to 45 members, an estimator for group size was calculated ( Bliese & Halverson, 1998 , p. 168): N g = ( 1 / ( Number of groups − 1 ) ) × ( ∑ Team sizes − ( ∑ Team sizes 2 / ∑ Team sizes ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.324 | 0.834 | ["management", "ethics"] | 492 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.986756 | [
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istically significant (significant F -statistic). For example, 17% of variance in a team member’s score on self-management is caused by team membership ( F = 3.13, p > .01), whereas 12% of variance in information elaboration is due to team membership ( F = 2.47, p > .01). Moreover, the values of ICC2 are fairly reliabl... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.524 | 0.716 | ["management", "communication", "economy", "philosophy", "rhetoric"] | 511 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.986795 | [
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f reliability, aggregation is nevertheless judged to be acceptable as the ICCs are affected by the substantial difference in group sizes, which is caused by basing the calculations on ANOVA (see also Groeneveld & Kuipers, 2014 ). Table 1. Intraclass Correlations ( n = 914). ICC1 a ICC2 b F c Goal clarity .14 .63 2.75 *... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.358 | 0.724 | ["management", "communication", "economy", "philosophy", "rhetoric"] | 480 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.986836 | [
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fficiency .15 .65 2.86 * Open in a new tab Note . ICC = intraclass correlation; MSB = mean square between groups; MSW = mean square within groups; k = (estimated) group size. a ICC1 = (MSB − MSW) / (MSB + ( k − 1) × MSW). b ICC2 = (MSB − MSW) / MSB. c F = MSB / MSW; df (within) = 809; df (between) = 104. * p < .01. Ana... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.351 | 0.642 | ["management", "philosophy"] | 477 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.986874 | [
0.08092357218265533,
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rmance variable using the aggregated team scores. As the model includes moderators, the independent variable and the moderating variables were grand mean centered. Centering enhances interpretability of the beta coefficients when the used scales do not have a meaningful zero-point, which is the case in the present stud... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.343 | 0.832 | ["management", "education"] | 420 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.986909 | [
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score of 0 would denote a team without members). Interpretation after centering is based on the effect of a change of one unit in X1 on Y at the mean value of X2 ( Dalal & Zickar, 2012 ; Field, 2013 ). In addition, interaction terms for the moderated relationships were created with the centered variables. The assumptio... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.339 | 0.866 | ["management", "networking"] | 500 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.986952 | [
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y, independence of errors, and multicollinearity. Initially, some problems with the normality of residuals were detected. Inspection of potential outliers found one team that could be classified as an extreme case for each performance variable based on standardized residuals (even exceeding 3.5). Rerunning the analyses... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.507 | 0.826 | ["management", "philosophy"] | 456 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.986989 | [
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r normality of residuals (no longer significant). Having this case removed from the analyses makes the data suitable for further analysis. Results In total, 105 teams were analyzed, of which 99 were permanent teams and six teams were temporary or project-based. The teams operate in different sectors of the public domai... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.5 | 0.846 | ["management", "governance"] | 461 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.987027 | [
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teams from central government (18 teams, 17.1%). The sample includes five teams (4.8%) from regional government and six teams (5.7%) from water boards. Non-governmental public organizations are also included: 14 teams (13.3%) from education and 10 teams (9.5%) from both security and health care. The remaining seven tea... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.331 | 0.704 | ["management", "governance", "education"] | 508 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.987062 | [
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the theoretical average (3.0) of a 5-point scale. The teams appear to differ relatively most on goal clarity and information elaboration. Table 2. Number of Items, Minimum, Maximum, Mean, Standard Deviation, and Reliability ( n = 105). a Items Minimum Maximum M SD α Goal clarity 3 1.60 4.44 3.37 0.49 .88 Self-managemen... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.398 | 0.73 | ["management", "communication", "economy", "philosophy", "rhetoric"] | 512 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.987100 | [
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.43 4.36 3.43 0.36 .88 Team size 1 3 45 14.80 8.51 N.A. Sector 1 1 2 0.61 b N.A. N.A. Open in a new tab a All values in the table are based on the scores of team members aggregated to the team level, except for the type of team, which is based on the team leaders’ answers, and team size, for which information is provid... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.322 | 0.748 | ["management", "leadership", "ethics", "governance", "philosophy"] | 508 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.987136 | [
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s the percentage of teams scoring 1 (government). To get a first impression of whether the studied variables are linked, bivariate correlations (Pearson’s r ) were calculated ( Table 3 ). As was expected, the correlations of the independent and all dependent variables and between moderating and dependent variables are ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.504 | 0.848 | ["management", "governance"] | 487 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.987192 | [
0.08116746693849564,
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team efficiency (moderate negative correlations). Most correlations are below .7, which shows that multicollinearity is likely not a problem ( Field, 2013 ). Table 3. Bivariate Correlations ( n = 105). (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) 1. Goal clarity 2. Self-management .59 ** 3. Information elaboration .38 ** .70 ** 4. Team eff... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.534 | 0.712 | ["management", "communication", "economy", "philosophy", "rhetoric"] | 442 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.987238 | [
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78 ** 6. Team size −.03 −.19 −.07 −.17 −.26 ** 7. Sector −.06 −.03 −.27 ** −.07 −.24 * .18 Open in a new tab * p < .05, two-tailed. ** p < .01, two-tailed. The results of the regression analyses are presented below. For each performance variable, four models have been tested: model 1 contains only control variables, in... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.361 | 0.726 | ["management", "philosophy"] | 476 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.987286 | [
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s the full model including the interaction terms. Per step, the adjusted R 2 , Δ R 2 , and F -statistics are given. Non-governmental public sector teams are the reference category for sector. In moderated regression analysis, interpretation of standardized betas is problematic ( Dawson, 2014 ; Whisman & McClelland, 200... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.392 | 0.86 | ["management", "governance"] | 482 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.987333 | [
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ess due to an insignificant F -value ( Table 4 ). When goal clarity is added, the explained variance improves significantly (Δ R 2 = .387, Δ F = 67.38, p > .01) to 40.3%. Having clear team goals is found to enhance team effectiveness considerably (β = .40, p < .01), whereas increasing team size reduces effectiveness sl... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.446 | 0.728 | ["management"] | 462 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.987382 | [
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ng to 55.1% (Δ R 2 = .152, Δ F = 17.66, p < .01). After adding self-management and information elaboration to the model to estimate their direct effects, team size turns non-significant. The effect of goal clarity remains statistically significant positive (β = .22, p < .01). In addition, self-management (β = .43, p < ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.566 | 0.692 | ["management", "communication", "economy", "philosophy", "rhetoric"] | 442 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.987431 | [
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of self-management stimulate team effectiveness. The full model, including the interaction terms, is not significantly better than Model 3 (Δ R 2 = .013, Δ F = 1.54, ns ) although the model itself is statistically significant ( F = 19.63, p < .01). Based on this model, it can be concluded that self-management and infor... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.425 | 0.706 | ["management", "communication", "networking", "economy", "philosophy"] | 476 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.987481 | [
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egression Analyses Team Effectiveness ( n = 105). B (95% confidence intervals) SE B β t p Model 1 Constant 3.82 [3.72, 3.92] 0.05 77.99 .000 Team size −0.01 [−0.01, 0.00] 0.00 −.17 −1.76 .081 Sector −0.04 [−0.17, −0.08] 0.06 −.07 −0.68 .501 R 2 adjusted = .015, F = 1.80 ( ns ) Model 2 Constant 3.80 [3.73, 3.88] 0.04 99... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.564 | 0.746 | ["management"] | 511 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.987527 | [
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5 .62 8.21 .000 R 2 adjusted = .403, F = 24.45 ** , R 2 change = .387, F change = 67.38 ** Model 3 Constant 3.80 [3.74, 3.87] 0.03 110.36 .000 Team size −0.00 [−0.01, 0.00] 0.00 −.07 −1.03 .304 Sector −0.02 [−0.11, 0.07] 0.05 −.02 −0.35 .728 Goal clarity 0.22 [0.11, 0.32] 0.05 .33 4.06 .000 Self-management 0.43 [0.23, ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.582 | 0.754 | ["management", "communication", "economy", "philosophy", "rhetoric"] | 512 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.987574 | [
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F change = 17.66 ** Model 4 Constant 3.81 [3.74, 3.88] 0.04 107.90 .000 Team size −0.00 [−0.01, 0.00] 0.00 −1.39 .168 Sector −0.00 [−0.09, 0.09] 0.05 −0.03 .976 Goal clarity 0.20 [0.09, 0.31] 0.05 3.67 .000 Self-management 0.38 [0.17, 0.59] 0.10 3.66 .000 Information elaboration 0.06 [−0.12, 0.25] 0.09 0.69 .493 Intera... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.603 | 0.72 | ["management", "communication", "economy", "philosophy", "rhetoric"] | 512 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.987622 | [
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R 2 adjusted = .556, F = 19.63 ** , R 2 change = .013, F change = 1.54 ( ns ) Open in a new tab † p < .10. * p < .05. ** p < .01. Team Efficiency As table 5 shows, the first model with just control variables and team efficiency as the dependent variable only explains a small portion of the variance ( R 2 adjusted = .10... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.521 | 0.642 | ["management"] | 427 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.987670 | [
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< .05) both have a negative impact on efficiency. This means that larger teams as well as governmental teams perform less on efficiency. Model 2 offers a significantly better explanation for the differences in team efficiency (Δ R 2 = .350, Δ F = 67.15, p < .01), adding up to 47.3% of variance. Both team size (β = −.01... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6207990/ | Goal Clarity and Team Performance in the Public Sector - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.349 | 0.74 | ["management", "governance", "philosophy"] | 495 | most up to date techniques and strategies for smart goal setting | topic | 2026-05-20T16:36:45.987720 | [
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