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coordinate federal departments and agencies on matters concerning the GPS and related systems. ] The executive committee is chaired jointly by the Deputy Secretaries of Defense and Transportation. Its membership includes equivalent-level officials from the Departments of State, Commerce, and Homeland Security, the Joint Chiefs of Staff and NASA . Components of the executive office of the president participate as observers to the executive committee, and the FCC chairman participates as a liaison. The U.S. Department of Defense is required by law to "maintain a Standard Positioning Service (as defined in the federal radio navigation plan and the standard positioning service signal specification) that will be available on a continuous, worldwide basis" and "develop measures to prevent hostile use of GPS and its augmentations without unduly disrupting or degrading civilian uses". USA-203 from Block IIR-M is unhealthy ] For a more complete list, see List of GPS satellites On February 10, 1993, the National Aeronautic Association selected the GPS Team as winners of the 1992 Robert J. Collier Trophy , the US's most prestigious aviation award. This team combines researchers from the Naval Research Laboratory, the USAF, the Aerospace Corporation , Rockwell International Corporation, and IBM Federal Systems Company. The citation honors them "for the most significant development for safe and efficient navigation and surveillance of air and spacecraft since the introduction of radio navigation 50 years ago". Two GPS developers received the National Academy of Engineering Charles Stark Draper Prize for 2003: GPS developer Roger L. Easton received the National Medal of Technology on February 13, 2006. ] Francis X. Kane (Col. USAF, ret.) was inducted into the U.S. Air Force Space and Missile Pioneers Hall of Fame at Lackland A.F.B., San Antonio, Texas, March 2, 2010, for his role in space technology development and the engineering design concept of GPS conducted as part of Project 621B. In 1998, GPS technology was inducted into the Space Foundation Space Technology Hall of Fame . ] On October 4, 2011, the International Astronautical Federation (IAF) awarded the Global Positioning System (GPS) its 60th Anniversary Award, nominated by IAF member, the American Institute for Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA). The IAF Honors and Awards Committee recognized the uniqueness of the GPS program and the exemplary role it has played in building international collaboration for the benefit of humanity. ] On December 6, 2018, Gladys West was inducted into the Air Force Space and Missile Pioneers Hall of Fame in recognition of her work on an extremely accurate geodetic Earth model, which was ultimately used to determine the orbit of the GPS constellation. ] On February 12, 2019, four founding members of the project were awarded the Queen Elizabeth Prize for Engineering with the chair of the awarding board stating: "Engineering is the foundation of civilisation; there is no
four founding members of the project were awarded the Queen Elizabeth Prize for Engineering with the chair of the awarding board stating: "Engineering is the foundation of civilisation; there is no other foundation; it makes things happen. And that's exactly what today's Laureates have done – they've made things happen. They've re-written, in a major way, the infrastructure of our world." ] The GPS satellites carry very stable atomic clocks that are synchronized with one another and with the reference atomic clocks at the ground control stations; any drift of the clocks aboard the satellites from the reference time maintained on the ground stations is corrected regularly. ] Since the speed of radio waves ( speed of light ) ] is constant and independent of the satellite speed, the time delay between when the satellite transmits a signal and the ground station receives it is proportional to the distance from the satellite to the ground station. With the distance information collected from multiple ground stations, the location coordinates of any satellite at any time can be calculated with great precision. Each GPS satellite carries an accurate record of its own position and time, and broadcasts that data continuously. Based on data received from multiple GPS satellites , an end user's GPS receiver can calculate its own four-dimensional position in spacetime ; However, at a minimum, four satellites must be in view of the receiver for it to compute four unknown quantities (three position coordinates and the deviation of its own clock from satellite time). ] Each GPS satellite continually broadcasts a signal ( carrier wave with modulation ) that includes: Conceptually, the receiver measures the TOAs (according to its own clock) of four satellite signals. From the TOAs and the TOTs, the receiver forms four time of flight (TOF) values, which are (given the speed of light) approximately equivalent to receiver-satellite ranges plus time difference between the receiver and GPS satellites multiplied by speed of light, which are called pseudo-ranges. The receiver then computes its three-dimensional position and clock deviation from the four TOFs. In practice the receiver position (in three dimensional Cartesian coordinates with origin at the Earth's center) and the offset of the receiver clock relative to the GPS time are computed simultaneously, using the navigation equations to process the TOFs. The receiver's Earth-centered solution location is usually converted to latitude , longitude and height relative to an ellipsoidal Earth model. The height may then be further converted to height relative to the geoid , which is essentially mean sea level. These coordinates may be displayed, such as on a moving map display , or recorded or used by some other system, such as a vehicle guidance system. Although usually not formed explicitly in the receiver processing, the conceptual time differences of arrival (TDOAs) define the measurement geometry. Each TDOA
such as a vehicle guidance system. Although usually not formed explicitly in the receiver processing, the conceptual time differences of arrival (TDOAs) define the measurement geometry. Each TDOA corresponds to a hyperboloid of revolution (see Multilateration ). The line connecting the two satellites involved (and its extensions) forms the axis of the hyperboloid. The receiver is located at the point where three hyperboloids intersect. ] ] It is sometimes incorrectly said that the user location is at the intersection of three spheres. While simpler to visualize, this is the case only if the receiver has a clock synchronized with the satellite clocks (i.e., the receiver measures true ranges to the satellites rather than range differences). There are marked performance benefits to the user carrying a clock synchronized with the satellites. Foremost is that only three satellites are needed to compute a position solution. If it were an essential part of the GPS concept that all users needed to carry a synchronized clock, a smaller number of satellites could be deployed, but the cost and complexity of the user equipment would increase. The description above is representative of a receiver start-up situation. Most receivers have a track algorithm , sometimes called a tracker , that combines sets of satellite measurements collected at different times—in effect, taking advantage of the fact that successive receiver positions are usually close to each other. After a set of measurements are processed, the tracker predicts the receiver location corresponding to the next set of satellite measurements. When the new measurements are collected, the receiver uses a weighting scheme to combine the new measurements with the tracker prediction. In general, a tracker can (a) improve receiver position and time accuracy, (b) reject bad measurements, and (c) estimate receiver speed and direction. The disadvantage of a tracker is that changes in speed or direction can be computed only with a delay, and that derived direction becomes inaccurate when the distance traveled between two position measurements drops below or near the random error of position measurement. GPS units can use measurements of the Doppler shift of the signals received to compute velocity accurately. ] More advanced navigation systems use additional sensors like a compass or an inertial navigation system to complement GPS. GPS requires four or more satellites to be visible for accurate navigation. The solution of the navigation equations gives the position of the receiver along with the difference between the time kept by the receiver's on-board clock and the true time-of-day, thereby eliminating the need for a more precise and possibly impractical receiver based clock. Applications for GPS such as time transfer , traffic signal timing, and synchronization of cell phone base stations , make use of this cheap and highly accurate timing. Some GPS applications use this time for display, or, other than
transfer , traffic signal timing, and synchronization of cell phone base stations , make use of this cheap and highly accurate timing. Some GPS applications use this time for display, or, other than for the basic position calculations, do not use it at all. Although four satellites are required for normal operation, fewer apply in special cases. If one variable is already known, a receiver can determine its position using only three satellites. For example, a ship on the open ocean usually has a known elevation close to 0m , and the elevation of an aircraft may be known. ] Some GPS receivers may use additional clues or assumptions such as reusing the last known altitude, dead reckoning , inertial navigation , or including information from the vehicle computer, to give a (possibly degraded) position when fewer than four satellites are visible. ] ] ] The current GPS consists of three major segments. These are the space segment, a control segment, and a user segment. ] The U.S. Space Force develops, maintains, and operates the space and control segments. GPS satellites broadcast signals from space, and each GPS receiver uses these signals to calculate its three-dimensional location (latitude, longitude, and altitude) and the current time. ] The space segment (SS) is composed of 24 to 32 satellites, or Space Vehicles (SV), in medium Earth orbit , and also includes the payload adapters to the boosters required to launch them into orbit. The GPS design originally called for 24 SVs, eight each in three approximately circular orbits , ] but this was modified to six orbital planes with four satellites each. ] The six orbit planes have approximately 55° inclination (tilt relative to the Earth's equator ) and are separated by 60° right ascension of the ascending node (angle along the equator from a reference point to the orbit's intersection). ] The orbital period is one-half of a sidereal day , i.e. , 11 hours and 58 minutes, so that the satellites pass over the same locations ] or almost the same locations ] every day. The orbits are arranged so that at least six satellites are always within line of sight from everywhere on the Earth's surface (see animation at right). ] The result of this objective is that the four satellites are not evenly spaced (90°) apart within each orbit. In general terms, the angular difference between satellites in each orbit is 30°, 105°, 120°, and 105° apart, which sum to 360°. ] Orbiting at an altitude of approximately 20,200 km (12,600 mi); orbital radius of approximately 26,600 km (16,500 mi), ] each SV makes two complete orbits each sidereal day , repeating the same ground track each day. ] This was very helpful during development because even with only four satellites, correct alignment means all four are visible from one spot for a few hours each day. For military operations, the ground track repeat can be used to ensure good coverage in combat zones. As of February 2019 ] , ] there are 31 satellites in the GPS
one spot for a few hours each day. For military operations, the ground track repeat can be used to ensure good coverage in combat zones. As of February 2019 ] , ] there are 31 satellites in the GPS constellation , 27 of which are in use at a given time with the rest allocated as stand-bys. A 32nd was launched in 2018, but as of July 2019 is still in evaluation. More decommissioned satellites are in orbit and available as spares. The additional satellites improve the precision of GPS receiver calculations by providing redundant measurements. With the increased number of satellites, the constellation was changed to a nonuniform arrangement. Such an arrangement was shown to improve accuracy but also improves reliability and availability of the system, relative to a uniform system, when multiple satellites fail. ] With the expanded constellation, nine satellites are usually visible at any time from any point on the Earth with a clear horizon, ensuring considerable redundancy over the minimum four satellites needed for a position. The control segment (CS) is composed of: The MCS can also access Satellite Control Network (SCN) ground antennas (for additional command and control capability) and NGA ( National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency ) monitor stations. The flight paths of the satellites are tracked by dedicated U.S. Space Force monitoring stations in Hawaii, Kwajalein Atoll , Ascension Island , Diego Garcia , Colorado Springs, Colorado and Cape Canaveral , along with shared NGA monitor stations operated in England, Argentina, Ecuador, Bahrain, Australia and Washington DC. ] The tracking information is sent to the MCS at Schriever Space Force Base 25 km (16 mi) ESE of Colorado Springs, which is operated by the 2nd Space Operations Squadron (2 SOPS) of the U.S. Space Force. Then 2 SOPS contacts each GPS satellite regularly with a navigational update using dedicated or shared (AFSCN) ground antennas (GPS dedicated ground antennas are located at Kwajalein , Ascension Island , Diego Garcia , and Cape Canaveral ). These updates synchronize the atomic clocks on board the satellites to within a few nanoseconds of each other, and adjust the ephemeris of each satellite's internal orbital model. The updates are created by a Kalman filter that uses inputs from the ground monitoring stations, space weather information, and various other inputs. ] When a satellite's orbit is being adjusted, the satellite is marked unhealthy , so receivers do not use it. After the maneuver, engineers track the new orbit from the ground, upload the new ephemeris, and mark the satellite healthy again. The operation control segment (OCS) currently serves as the control segment of record. It provides the operational capability that supports GPS users and keeps the GPS operational and performing within specification. OCS successfully replaced the legacy 1970s-era mainframe computer at Schriever Air Force Base in September 2007. After installation, the system helped enable upgrades
performing within specification. OCS successfully replaced the legacy 1970s-era mainframe computer at Schriever Air Force Base in September 2007. After installation, the system helped enable upgrades and provide a foundation for a new security architecture that supported U.S. armed forces. OCS will continue to be the ground control system of record until the new segment, Next Generation GPS Operation Control System ] (OCX), is fully developed and functional. The US Department of Defense has claimed that the new capabilities provided by OCX will be the cornerstone for revolutionizing GPS's mission capabilities, enabling U.S. Space Force to greatly enhance GPS operational services to U.S. combat forces, civil partn
Telematics is an interdisciplinary field encompassing telecommunications , vehicular technologies ( road transport , road safety , etc.), electrical engineering (sensors, instrumentation, wireless communications , etc.), and computer science ( multimedia , Internet , etc.). Telematics can involve any of the following: Telematics is a translation of the French word télématique, which was first coined by Simon Nora and Alain Minc in a 1978 report to the French government on the computerization of society. It referred to the transfer of information over telecommunications and was a portmanteau blending the French words télécommunications (" telecommunications ") and informatique (" computing science "). The original broad meaning of telematics continues to be used in academic fields, but in commerce it now generally means vehicle telematics . ] Telematics can be described as thus: Vehicle telematics can help improve the efficiency of an organization. ] Vehicle tracking is monitoring the location, movements, status, and behavior of a vehicle or fleet of vehicles. This is achieved through a combination of a GPS ( GNSS ) receiver and an electronic device (usually comprising a GSM GPRS modem or SMS sender) installed in each vehicle, communicating with the user (dispatching, emergency, or co-ordinating unit) and PC-based or web-based software. The data is turned into information by management reporting tools in conjunction with a visual display on computerized mapping software. Vehicle tracking systems may also use odometry or dead reckoning as an alternative or complementary means of navigation. citation needed ] GPS tracking is usually accurate to around 10–20 meters, ] but the European Space Agency has developed the EGNOS technology to provide accuracy to 1.5 meters. ] Trailer tracking refers to the tracking of movements and position of an articulated vehicle's trailer unit through the use of a location unit fitted to the trailer and a method of returning the position data via mobile communication network, IOT (Internet of things), or geostationary satellite communications for use through either PC- or web-based software. citation needed ] Cold-store freight trailers that deliver fresh or frozen foods are increasingly incorporating telematics to gather time-series data on the temperature inside the cargo container, both to trigger alarms and record an audit trail for business purposes. An increasingly sophisticated array of sensors, many incorporating RFID technology, is being used to ensure the cold chain . citation needed ] Freight containers can be tracked by GPS using a similar approach to that used for trailer tracking (i.e. a battery-powered GPS device communicating its position via mobile phone or satellite communications). Benefits of this approach include increased security and the possibility to reschedule the container transport movements based on accurate information about its location. According to Berg Insight, the installed base of
include increased security and the possibility to reschedule the container transport movements based on accurate information about its location. According to Berg Insight, the installed base of tracking units in the intermodal shipping container segment reached 190,000 at the end of 2013. ] Growing at a compound annual growth rate of 38.2 percent, the installed base reached 960,000 units at the end of 2018. citation needed ] Fleet management is the management of a company's fleet and includes the management of ships and/or motor vehicles such as cars, vans, and trucks. Fleet (vehicle) management can include a range of functions, such as vehicle financing, vehicle maintenance, vehicle telematics (tracking and diagnostics), driver management, fuel management, health and safety management, and dynamic vehicle scheduling. Fleet management is a function which allows companies that rely on transport in their business to remove or minimize the risks associated with vehicle investment, improving efficiency and productivity while reducing overall transport costs and ensuring compliance with government legislation and Duty of Care obligations. These functions can either be dealt with by an in-house fleet management department or an outsourced fleet management provider. ] The Association of Equipment Management Professionals (AEMP) ] developed the industry's first telematics standard. citation needed ] In 2008, AEMP brought together the major construction equipment manufacturers and telematics providers in the heavy equipment industry to discuss the development of the industry's first telematics standard. ] Following agreement from Caterpillar , Volvo CE, Komatsu , and John Deere Construction & Forestry to support such a standard, the AEMP formed a standards development subcommittee chaired by Pat Crail CEM to develop the standard. ] This committee consisted of developers provided by the Caterpillar/Trimble joint venture known as Virtual Site Solutions, Volvo CE, and John Deere. This group worked from February 2009 through September 2010 to develop the industry's first standard for the delivery of telematics data. ] The result, the AEMP Telematics Data Standard V1.1, ] was released in 2010 and officially went live on October 1, 2010. As of November 1, 2010, Caterpillar, Volvo CE, John Deere Construction & Forestry, OEM Data Delivery, and Navman Wireless are able to support customers with delivery of basic telematics data in a standard xml format. Komatsu, Topcon , and others are finishing beta testing and have indicated their ability to support customers in the near future. ] The AEMP's telematics data standard was developed to allow end users to integrate key telematics data (operating hours, location, fuel consumed , and odometer reading where applicable) into their existing fleet management reporting systems. As such, the standard was primarily intended to facilitate importation of these data elements into enterprise software systems such as those used
their existing fleet management reporting systems. As such, the standard was primarily intended to facilitate importation of these data elements into enterprise software systems such as those used by many medium-to-large construction contractors. Prior to the standard, end users had few options for integrating this data into their reporting systems in a mixed-fleet environment consisting of multiple brands of machines and a mix of telematics-equipped machines and legacy machines (those without telematics devices where operating data is still reported manually via pen and paper). One option available to machine owners was to visit multiple websites to manually retrieve data from each manufacturer's telematics interface and then manually enter it into their fleet management program's database. This option was cumbersome and labor-intensive. ] A second option was for the end user to develop an API ( Application Programming Interface ), or program, to integrate the data from each telematics provider into their database. This option was quite costly as each telematics provider had different procedures for accessing and retrieving the data and the data format varied from provider to provider. This option automated the process, but because each provider required a unique, custom API to retrieve and parse the data, it was an expensive option. In addition, another API had to be developed any time another brand of machine or telematics device was added to the fleet. ] A third option for mixed-fleet integration was to replace the various factory-installed telematics devices with devices from a third party telematics provider. Although this solved the problem of having multiple data providers requiring unique integration methods, this was by far the most expensive option. In addition to the expense, many third-party devices available for construction equipment are unable to access data directly from the machine's electronic control modules (ECMs), or computers, and are more limited than the device installed by the OEM (Cat, Volvo, Deere, Komatsu, etc.) in the data they are able to provide. In some cases, these devices are limited to location and engine runtime, although they are increasingly able to accommodate a number of add-on sensors to provide additional data. ] The AEMP Telematics Data Standard provides a fourth option. By concentrating on the key data elements that drive the majority of fleet management reports (hours, miles, location, fuel consumption), making those data elements available in a standardized xml format, and standardizing the means by which the document is retrieved, the standard enables the end user to use one API to retrieve data from any participating telematics provider (as opposed to the unique API for each provider that was required previously), greatly reducing integration development costs. ] The current draft version of the AEMP Telematics Data Standard is now called the AEM/AEMP Draft Telematics API Standard, which expands
previously), greatly reducing integration development costs. ] The current draft version of the AEMP Telematics Data Standard is now called the AEM/AEMP Draft Telematics API Standard, which expands the original standard Version 1.2 to include 19 data fields (with fault code capability). This new draft standard is a collaborative effort of AEMP and the Association of Equipment Manufacturers (AEM), working on behalf of their members and the industry. This Draft API replaces the current version 1.2 and does not currently cover some types of equipment, e.g., agriculture equipment, cranes, mobile elevating work platforms, air compressors, and other niche products. In addition to the new data fields, the AEM/AEMP Draft Telematics API Standard changes how data is accessed in an effort to make it easier to consume and integrate with other systems and processes. It includes standardized communication protocols for the ability to transfer telematics information in mixed-equipment fleets to end user business enterprise systems, enabling the end user to employ their own business software to collect and then analyze asset data from mixed-equipment fleets without the need to work across multiple telematics provider applications. To achieve a globally recognized standard for conformity worldwide, the AEM/AEMP Draft Telematics API Standard will be submitted for acceptance by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Final language is dependent upon completion of the ISO acceptance process. Satellite navigation in the context of vehicle telematics is the technology of using a GPS and electronic mapping tool to enable a driver to locate a position, plan a route, and navigate a journey. ] Mobile data is the use of wireless data communications using radio waves to send and receive real-time computer data to, from, and between devices used by field-based personnel. These devices can be fitted solely for use while in the vehicle (Fixed Data Terminal) or for use in and out of the vehicle (Mobile Data Terminal). See mobile Internet . The common methods for mobile data communication for telematics were based on private vendors' RF communication infrastructure. During the early 2000s, manufacturers of mobile data terminals/AVL devices moved to try cellular data communication to offer cheaper ways to transmit telematics information and wider range based on cellular provider coverage. Since then, as a result of cellular providers offering low GPRS (2.5G) and later UMTS (3G) rates, mobile data is almost totally offered to telematics customers via cellular communication. Wireless vehicle safety communications telematics aid in car safety and road safety. It is an electronic subsystem in a vehicle used for exchanging safety information about road hazards and the locations and speeds of vehicles over short-range radio links . This may involve temporary ad hoc wireless local area networks. Wireless units are often installed in vehicles and fixed locations, such
and speeds of vehicles over short-range radio links . This may involve temporary ad hoc wireless local area networks. Wireless units are often installed in vehicles and fixed locations, such as near traffic signals and emergency call boxes along the road. Sensors in vehicles and at fixed locations, as well as in possible connections to wider networks, provide information displayed to drivers . The range of the radio links can be extended by forwarding messages along multi-hop paths. Even without fixed units, information about fixed hazards can be maintained by moving vehicles by passing it backwards. It also seems possible for traffic lights, which one can expect to become smarter, to use this information to reduce the chance of collisions. In the future, it may connect directly to the adaptive cruise control or other vehicle control aids. Cars and trucks with the wireless system connected to their brakes may move in convoys to save fuel and space on the roads. When a column member slows down, those behind it will automatically slow also. Certain scenarios may required less engineering effort, such as when a radio beacon is connected to a brake light. In fall 2008, network ideas were tested in Europe, where radio frequency bandwidth had been allocated. The 30 MHz allocated is at 5.9 GHz, and unallocated bandwidth at 5.4 GHz may also be used. The standard is IEEE 802.11p, a low-latency form of the Wi-Fi local area network standard. Similar efforts are underway in Japan and the USA. ] Telematics technologies are self-orientating open network architecture structures of variable programmable intelligent beacons developed for application in the development of intelligent vehicles with the intent to accord (blend or mesh) warning information with surrounding vehicles in the vicinity of travel, intra-vehicle, and infrastructure. Emergency warning systems for vehicle telematics are developed particularly for international harmonization and standardization of vehicle-to-vehicle, infrastructure-to-vehicle, and vehicle-to-infrastructure real-time Dedicated Short-Range Communication ( DSRC ) systems. Telematics most commonly relate to computerized systems that update information at the same rate they receive data, enabling them to direct or control a process such as an instantaneous autonomous warning notification in a remote machine or group of machines. In the use of telematics relating to intelligent vehicle technologies, instantaneous direction travel cognizance of a vehicle may be transmitted in real-time to surrounding vehicles traveling in the local area of vehicles equipped (with EWSV) to receive said warning signals of danger. Telematics comprise electronic, electromechanical, and electromagnetic devices—usually silicon micro-machined components operating in conjunction with computer-controlled devices and radio transceivers to provide precision repeatability functions (such as in robotics artificial intelligence systems) emergency warning
operating in conjunction with computer-controlled devices and radio transceivers to provide precision repeatability functions (such as in robotics artificial intelligence systems) emergency warning validation performance reconstruction. Intelligent vehicle technologies commonly apply to car safety systems and self-contained autonomous electromechanical sensors generating warnings that can be transmitted within a specified targeted area of interest, i.e. within 100 meters of the emergency warning system for the vehicle's transceiver. In ground applications, intelligent vehicle technologies are utilized for safety and commercial communications between vehicles or between a vehicle and a sensor along the road. On November 3, 2009, the most advanced Intelligent Vehicle concept car was demonstrated in New York City when a 2010 Toyota Prius became the first LTE connected car . The demonstration was provided by the NG Connect project, a collaboration of automotive telematic technologies designed to exploit in-car 4G wireless network connectivity. ] Telematics technology has enabled the emergence of carsharing services such as Local Motion, Uber, Lyft, Car2Go , Zipcar worldwide, or City Car Club in the UK . Telematics-enabled computers allow organizers to track members' usage and bill them on a pay-as-you-drive basis. Some systems show users where to find an idle vehicle. ] Car Clubs such as Australia's Charter Drive use telematics to monitor and report on vehicle use within predefined geofence areas to demonstrate the reach of their transit media car club fleet. The general idea of telematics auto insurance is that a driver's behavior is monitored directly while the person drives and this information is transmitted to an insurance company. The insurance company then assesses the risk of that driver having an accident and charges insurance premiums accordingly. A driver who drives less responsibly will be charged a higher premium than a driver who drives smoothly and with less calculated risk of claim propensity. Other benefits can be delivered to end users with Telematics2.0 -based telematics as customer engagement can be enhanced with direct customer interaction. Telematics auto insurance was independently invented and patented ] by a major U.S. auto insurance company, Progressive Auto Insurance U.S. patent 5,797,134 , and a Spanish independent inventor, Salvador Minguijon Perez ( European Patent EP0700009B1 ). The Perez patents cover monitoring the car's engine control computer to determine distance driven, speed, time of day, braking force, etc. Progressive is currently developing the Perez technology in the U.S. and European auto insurer Norwich Union is developing the Progressive technology for Europe. Both patents have since been overturned in courts due to prior work in the commercial insurance sectors. ] Trials conducted by Norwich Union in 2005 found that young drivers (18- to 23-year-olds) signing up for telematics auto insurance have had a
due to prior work in the commercial insurance sectors. ] Trials conducted by Norwich Union in 2005 found that young drivers (18- to 23-year-olds) signing up for telematics auto insurance have had a 20% lower accident rate than average. ] In 2007, theoretical economic research on the social welfare effects of Progressive's telematics technology business process patents questioned whether the business process patents are pareto efficient for society. Preliminary results suggested that it was not, but more work is needed. ] ] In April 2014, Progressive patents were overturned by the U.S. legal system on the grounds of "lack of originality." The smartphone as the in-vehicle device for insurance telematics has been discussed in great detail ] and the instruments are available for the design of smartphone-driven insurance telematics. Several universities provide two-year Telematics Master of Science programs: In 2007, a project entitled the European Automotive Digital Innovation Studio (EADIS) was awarded 400,000 Euros from the European commission under its Leonardo da Vinci program . EADIS used a virtual work environment called the Digital Innovation Studio to train and develop professional designers in the automotive industry in the impact and application of vehicle telematics so they could integrate new technologies into future products within the automotive industry. Funding ended in 2013. ]
Usage-based insurance ( UBI ), also known as pay as you drive ( PAYD ), pay how you drive ( PHYD ) and mile-based auto insurance , is a type of vehicle insurance whereby the costs are dependent upon type of vehicle used, measured against time, distance, behavior and place. This differs from traditional insurance, which attempts to differentiate and reward "safe" drivers, giving them lower premiums and/or a no-claims bonus. However, conventional differentiation is a reflection of history rather than present patterns of behaviour. This means that it may take a long time before safer (or more reckless) patterns of driving and changes in lifestyle feed through into premiums. The simplest form of usage-based insurance bases the insurance costs simply on distance driven. However, the general concept of pay as you drive includes any scheme where the insurance costs may depend not just on how much you drive but how, where, and when one drives. ] Pay as you drive (PAYD) means that the insurance premium is calculated dynamically, typically according to the amount driven. There are three types of usage-based insurance: The formula can be a simple function of the number of miles driven, or can vary according to the type of driving or the identity of the driver. Once the basic scheme is in place, it is possible to add further details, such as an extra risk premium if someone drives too long without a break, uses their mobile phone while driving, or travels at an excessive speed. Telematic usage-based insurance (i.e. the latter two types, in which vehicle information is automatically transmitted to the system) provides a much more immediate feedback loop to the driver, ] by changing the cost of insurance dynamically with a change of risk. This means drivers have a stronger incentive to adopt safer practices. For example, if a commuter switches to public transport or to working at home, this immediately reduces the risk of rush hour accidents. With usage-based insurance, this reduction would be immediately reflected in the cost of car insurance for that month. citation needed ] The smartphone as measurement probe for insurance telematics has been surveyed ] Another form of usage-based insurance is PHYD (Pay How You Drive). Similar to PAYD, but also brings in additional sensors like accelerometer to monitor driving behavior. ] There are several issued patents ] and pending patent applications that have been filed worldwide on various inventions related to telematic auto insurance. These include: In order to make sure that patents did not hinder its Pay as You Drive development program, Norwich Union purchased the UK version of EP0700009 and obtained an exclusive license to any EU patents that may emerge from Progressive's EU patent applications. citation needed ] In June 2010, Progressive Auto Insurance filed a patent infringement lawsuit against Liberty Mutual over one of Progressive's Pay As You Drive auto insurance patents. ] In September 2010 Progressive
In June 2010, Progressive Auto Insurance filed a patent infringement lawsuit against Liberty Mutual over one of Progressive's Pay As You Drive auto insurance patents. ] In September 2010 Progressive Auto Insurance filed a declaratory judgment lawsuit against Hughes Telematics to have several its patents covering OBDII mounted wireless data loggers declared invalid. Progressive uses these devices from a competitive supplier, Xirgo Technologies . ] Telematics have been proposed or utilised in order to detect distracted driving . The use of telematics to detect drunk driving and Texting while driving has been proposed. ] A US patent application combining this technology with a usage based insurance product was open for public comment on peer to patent . ]
Usage-based insurance ( UBI ), also known as pay as you drive ( PAYD ), pay how you drive ( PHYD ) and mile-based auto insurance , is a type of vehicle insurance whereby the costs are dependent upon type of vehicle used, measured against time, distance, behavior and place. This differs from traditional insurance, which attempts to differentiate and reward "safe" drivers, giving them lower premiums and/or a no-claims bonus. However, conventional differentiation is a reflection of history rather than present patterns of behaviour. This means that it may take a long time before safer (or more reckless) patterns of driving and changes in lifestyle feed through into premiums. The simplest form of usage-based insurance bases the insurance costs simply on distance driven. However, the general concept of pay as you drive includes any scheme where the insurance costs may depend not just on how much you drive but how, where, and when one drives. ] Pay as you drive (PAYD) means that the insurance premium is calculated dynamically, typically according to the amount driven. There are three types of usage-based insurance: The formula can be a simple function of the number of miles driven, or can vary according to the type of driving or the identity of the driver. Once the basic scheme is in place, it is possible to add further details, such as an extra risk premium if someone drives too long without a break, uses their mobile phone while driving, or travels at an excessive speed. Telematic usage-based insurance (i.e. the latter two types, in which vehicle information is automatically transmitted to the system) provides a much more immediate feedback loop to the driver, ] by changing the cost of insurance dynamically with a change of risk. This means drivers have a stronger incentive to adopt safer practices. For example, if a commuter switches to public transport or to working at home, this immediately reduces the risk of rush hour accidents. With usage-based insurance, this reduction would be immediately reflected in the cost of car insurance for that month. citation needed ] The smartphone as measurement probe for insurance telematics has been surveyed ] Another form of usage-based insurance is PHYD (Pay How You Drive). Similar to PAYD, but also brings in additional sensors like accelerometer to monitor driving behavior. ] There are several issued patents ] and pending patent applications that have been filed worldwide on various inventions related to telematic auto insurance. These include: In order to make sure that patents did not hinder its Pay as You Drive development program, Norwich Union purchased the UK version of EP0700009 and obtained an exclusive license to any EU patents that may emerge from Progressive's EU patent applications. citation needed ] In June 2010, Progressive Auto Insurance filed a patent infringement lawsuit against Liberty Mutual over one of Progressive's Pay As You Drive auto insurance patents. ] In September 2010 Progressive
In June 2010, Progressive Auto Insurance filed a patent infringement lawsuit against Liberty Mutual over one of Progressive's Pay As You Drive auto insurance patents. ] In September 2010 Progressive Auto Insurance filed a declaratory judgment lawsuit against Hughes Telematics to have several its patents covering OBDII mounted wireless data loggers declared invalid. Progressive uses these devices from a competitive supplier, Xirgo Technologies . ] Telematics have been proposed or utilised in order to detect distracted driving . The use of telematics to detect drunk driving and Texting while driving has been proposed. ] A US patent application combining this technology with a usage based insurance product was open for public comment on peer to patent . ]
Usage-based insurance ( UBI ), also known as pay as you drive ( PAYD ), pay how you drive ( PHYD ) and mile-based auto insurance , is a type of vehicle insurance whereby the costs are dependent upon type of vehicle used, measured against time, distance, behavior and place. This differs from traditional insurance, which attempts to differentiate and reward "safe" drivers, giving them lower premiums and/or a no-claims bonus. However, conventional differentiation is a reflection of history rather than present patterns of behaviour. This means that it may take a long time before safer (or more reckless) patterns of driving and changes in lifestyle feed through into premiums. The simplest form of usage-based insurance bases the insurance costs simply on distance driven. However, the general concept of pay as you drive includes any scheme where the insurance costs may depend not just on how much you drive but how, where, and when one drives. ] Pay as you drive (PAYD) means that the insurance premium is calculated dynamically, typically according to the amount driven. There are three types of usage-based insurance: The formula can be a simple function of the number of miles driven, or can vary according to the type of driving or the identity of the driver. Once the basic scheme is in place, it is possible to add further details, such as an extra risk premium if someone drives too long without a break, uses their mobile phone while driving, or travels at an excessive speed. Telematic usage-based insurance (i.e. the latter two types, in which vehicle information is automatically transmitted to the system) provides a much more immediate feedback loop to the driver, ] by changing the cost of insurance dynamically with a change of risk. This means drivers have a stronger incentive to adopt safer practices. For example, if a commuter switches to public transport or to working at home, this immediately reduces the risk of rush hour accidents. With usage-based insurance, this reduction would be immediately reflected in the cost of car insurance for that month. citation needed ] The smartphone as measurement probe for insurance telematics has been surveyed ] Another form of usage-based insurance is PHYD (Pay How You Drive). Similar to PAYD, but also brings in additional sensors like accelerometer to monitor driving behavior. ] There are several issued patents ] and pending patent applications that have been filed worldwide on various inventions related to telematic auto insurance. These include: In order to make sure that patents did not hinder its Pay as You Drive development program, Norwich Union purchased the UK version of EP0700009 and obtained an exclusive license to any EU patents that may emerge from Progressive's EU patent applications. citation needed ] In June 2010, Progressive Auto Insurance filed a patent infringement lawsuit against Liberty Mutual over one of Progressive's Pay As You Drive auto insurance patents. ] In September 2010 Progressive
In June 2010, Progressive Auto Insurance filed a patent infringement lawsuit against Liberty Mutual over one of Progressive's Pay As You Drive auto insurance patents. ] In September 2010 Progressive Auto Insurance filed a declaratory judgment lawsuit against Hughes Telematics to have several its patents covering OBDII mounted wireless data loggers declared invalid. Progressive uses these devices from a competitive supplier, Xirgo Technologies . ] Telematics have been proposed or utilised in order to detect distracted driving . The use of telematics to detect drunk driving and Texting while driving has been proposed. ] A US patent application combining this technology with a usage based insurance product was open for public comment on peer to patent . ]
The Progressive Corporation is an American insurance company. In late 2022, Progressive became the largest motor insurance carrier in the U.S. ] The company was co-founded in 1937 by Jack Green and Joseph M. Lewis, and is headquartered in Mayfield, Ohio . ] The company insures passenger vehicles, motorcycles, RVs, trailers, boats, PWC, and commercial vehicles. Progressive also provides home , life , pet , and other insurance through select companies. Additionally, Progressive offers auto insurance in Australia . The company ranked #88 on the 2023 Fortune 500 list of the top American corporations. ] Progressive was formed in 1937 by Joseph Lewis and Jack Green as Progressive Mutual Insurance Company. ] In 1956, the company found a niche by insuring more risky drivers. In 1965, Peter B. Lewis , son of Joseph Lewis, and his mother borrowed $2.5 million, pledging their majority stake as collateral, and completed a leveraged buyout of Progressive. ] ] In 1987, the sum of the company's written premiums surpassed $1 billion, and by 2016 that number reached $20 billion. ] ] Progressive boasts being the first auto insurance company to have a website and to allow customers to purchase policies via that site. Later, Progressive would pioneer the use of mobile browsers and smartphone apps for rating and managing policies. ] It was also the first to offer 24/7 claims reporting. ] The company operates in three segments: personal lines, commercial auto, and other indemnity . ] Progressive is one of the largest auto insurers in the United States, with over 13 million policies in force, ] along with State Farm , Allstate , GEICO , Nationwide Mutual Insurance Company , Farmers Insurance Group , and USAA . Progressive primarily offers its services through the internet, by telephone or through independent insurance agents. ] Progressive’s Agency business sells insurance through more than 30,000 independent insurance agents ] and progressiveagent.com where customers can quote their own policies and then contact an agent to complete the sale. In December 2009, Progressive announced it was selling car insurance in Australia . ] Initially called Progressive Direct, it rebranded as Progressive in 2011, and later rebranded as PD Insurance in 2019. ] Progressive's marketing campaign is known for offering quotes of its competitors along with its own quote. It was the first major insurer to offer auto policies through the phone and through its web site. In September 2007 Progressive began to offer Pet Injury coverage, which provides coverage for dogs and cats that are injured in a crash and is included at no additional cost with Collision coverage. ] Immediate Response Vehicles (IRVs) used by Progressive are specially modified Ford Explorers and Ford Escapes . ] Since 2008, many of Progressive's television advertisements have featured a woman named Flo (played by actress Stephanie Courtney ), who explains the benefits of Progressive Insurance. ] ] In December 2010, the
many of Progressive's television advertisements have featured a woman named Flo (played by actress Stephanie Courtney ), who explains the benefits of Progressive Insurance. ] ] In December 2010, the company introduced the "Messenger", as a complementary campaign. He was played by John Jenkinson. ] The Flo universe also includes Jamie ( Jim Cashman ), an awkward fellow Progressive employee; and Bill and Tom, rival insurance salesmen from the figurative straw man "A. Nother Insurance Company". Bill and Tom were largely discontinued after Allstate filed a claim with the Better Business Bureau alleging that Progressive was making a false claim that they offered discounts that Allstate and other insurance providers did not. ] In 2012, Progressive introduced another character, a personified box (voiced by Chris Parnell ) representing the company's products. It is portrayed as having an entourage (including a personal trainer). ] Progressive later added more characters like Flobot, Mara ( Natalie Palamides ), Dr. Rick , and Motaur to its advertising series. In 2019, Progressive began the At Home with Baker Mayfield ad campaign during the National Football League season. The campaign featured the Cleveland Browns quarterback living with his wife in FirstEnergy Stadium . ] After he was traded to the Carolina Panthers in the 2022 offseason, Mayfield stated that the advertisements will end, calling it a "missed opportunity". ] ] In 2022, Jon Hamm appeared in several TV commercials, as himself, unsuccessfully pursuing a romantic relationship with spokesperson Flo. ] According to a February 2011 Wall Street Journal article, Progressive has a leg up on its rivals in Pay As You Drive insurance, a form of vehicle insurance also generically known as usage-based insurance. ] Progressive has seven U.S. patents covering usage-based insurance methods and systems, with more patents pending. citation needed ] needs update ] Progressive began working on the concept in the mid-1990s and continues to refine the concept and bring it to the mass market. Snapshot is Progressive's Pay As You Drive , or usage-based insurance program. Snapshot is a voluntary discount program where drivers can save money on their car insurance by sharing their driving habits with Progressive. According to Progressive, Snapshot is best for people who drive less, in safer ways and during safer times of day. ] Snapshot customers can make changes to their driving habits that will lead to bigger discounts by checking their driving data and projected discount on progressive.com over the course of their initial policy period. ] Drivers plug a device the size of a garage door opener into the on-board diagnostic (OBD) port of their car. The device records and sends the driving data to Progressive, and Progressive uses that information to calculate the rate. After 30 days, customers find out if they're eligible for a discount based on that 30-day "snapshot" of their driving habits. At the end of a
Progressive uses that information to calculate the rate. After 30 days, customers find out if they're eligible for a discount based on that 30-day "snapshot" of their driving habits. At the end of a six-month policy period, Progressive calculates the customer's renewal discount and customers return the device to Progressive. The company doesn't take into account how fast the car goes although it does take into account how fast and frequently the vehicle operator brakes. Snapshot is voluntary and customers can opt out at any time. The customer is charged up to $50.00 if they do not return the snapshot device to Progressive should they decide not to engage in the program after receiving it. ] Snapshot is currently available in 45 states plus the District of Columbia. Because insurance is regulated at the state level, Snapshot is currently not available in Alaska, California, Hawaii, and North Carolina. ] On December 13, 2006, the company said earnings rose 58 percent in November as the company retained more of the premiums it collected because of comparisons to a month affected by Hurricane Katrina claims. ] In 1999, Progressive Auto Insurance was the title sponsor of the Super Bowl XXXIII halftime show . ] In January 2008, Jacobs Field in Cleveland, Ohio , home of the Cleveland Guardians , was renamed Progressive Field . Progressive signed a 16-year contract for the naming rights, as well as sponsorship rights to become the Official Auto Insurer of the Cleveland Indians. The agreement costs around $3.6 million per year. ] ( Mayfield Village, Ohio , where the company is based, is a suburb of Cleveland.) In March 2008, Progressive announced its title sponsorship of the Progressive Insurance Automotive X PRIZE and their funding of the $10 million prize purse. The Progressive Automotive X PRIZE is an international competition designed to inspire a new generation of viable, super fuel-efficient vehicles. The competition is open to teams from around the world that can design, build, and bring to market 100 MPGe (miles per gallon energy equivalent) vehicles. ] On December 14, 2010, the Gator Bowl Association announced that Progressive Insurance would become the title sponsor for the 2011 Gator Bowl ] college football bowl game. On September 24, 2019, Progressive became the official sponsor of Friday Night SmackDown broadcast on Fox. ] Starting in 2020, Progressive sponsored Roush Fenway Racing 's Ryan Newman car at races at Atlanta and Pocono. Starting in 2021, Progressive sponsored Sesame Street on PBS Kids replacing Blue Lizard Australian Sunscreen. Progressive has been the Title Sponsor of the National Marine Manufacturers Association (NMMA) boat shows since 2012, and will maintain title sponsorship through at least 2022. ] In 2002, the company settled with the State of Georgia in a class action lawsuit over diminished value claims brought by policyholders. ] Five years later, the company apologized after it was revealed they hired private
settled with the State of Georgia in a class action lawsuit over diminished value claims brought by policyholders. ] Five years later, the company apologized after it was revealed they hired private investigators to infiltrate a church group and pose as congregation members to collect information on litigants seeking redress from the company. Another lawsuit was filed by the litigants over the affair against the company for invasion of privacy and fraud . ] In 2009, Progressive was sued for allegedly deceiving policyholders by employing illegally operated, unlicensed body shops to make repairs on vehicles for their clients in order to save money. ] The court ruled in the company's favor on two of the counts and the other four were dropped, pending appeal . ] In 2012, the company was widely criticized online for how it handled the claims filed by the family of Kaitlynn Fisher. The 24-year-old died when the car she was driving was hit by another that had run a red light in Baltimore . Progressive fought to avoid paying out the claim to Fisher's estate. Fisher's insurance policy with Progressive included coverage in the event of an accident with an underinsured driver. The underinsured driver was found to be negligent in a jury trial brought by the Fisher family, in which the Fisher family contended that Progressive provided legal assistance to the defense. ] ] ] In two followup statements, Progressive explained that they did not "serve as the attorney for the defendant in this case" ] and then clarified that "s a defendant in this case, Progressive participated in the trial procedures on our own behalf." ] The company's position was that fault for the accident had not been clearly established, since three witnesses (the driver of the other car, that car's passenger, and Ms. Fisher's passenger) believed that Fisher had run a red light, and filed a motion to intervene to assert that she had been at fault, and therefore was not liable to pay the underinsured motorist claim. The lawyer for the Fisher family countered by noting that two of the three witnesses were not independent, saying "I have an issue with how they examined the evidence to abandon their insured" and introduced the idea the state insurance commissioner could find Progressive had acted in bad faith. As noted, Progressive lost the case and was ordered to pay the underinsured motorist claim in addition to a separate settlement with the Fisher family "to avoid a hearing before the state insurance commissioner". ]
On-board diagnostics ( OBD ) is a term referring to a vehicle's self-diagnostic and reporting capability. In the United States, this capability is a requirement to comply with federal emissions standards to detect failures that may increase the vehicle tailpipe emissions to more than 150% of the standard to which it was originally certified. ] ] OBD systems give the vehicle owner or repair technician access to the status of the various vehicle sub-systems. The amount of diagnostic information available via OBD has varied widely since its introduction in the early 1980s versions of onboard vehicle computers. Early versions of OBD would simply illuminate a tell-tale light if a problem was detected, but would not provide any information as to the nature of the problem. Modern OBD implementations use a standardized digital communications port to provide real-time data and diagnostic trouble codes which allow malfunctions within the vehicle to be rapidly identified. GM's ALDL (Assembly Line Diagnostic Link) is sometimes referred to as a predecessor to, or a manufacturer's proprietary version of, an OBD-I diagnostic starting in 1981. This interface was made in different varieties and changed with power train control modules (aka PCM, ECM, ECU). Different versions had slight differences in pin-outs and baud rates. Earlier versions used a 160 baud rate, while later versions went up to 8192 baud and used bi-directional communications to the PCM. ] ] The regulatory intent of OBD-I was to encourage auto manufacturers to design reliable emission control systems that remain effective for the vehicle's "useful life". ] The hope was that by forcing annual emissions testing for California starting in 1988, ] and denying registration to vehicles that did not pass, drivers would tend to purchase vehicles that would more reliably pass the test. OBD-I was largely unsuccessful, as the means of reporting emissions-specific diagnostic information was not standardized. Technical difficulties with obtaining standardized and reliable emissions information from all vehicles led to an inability to implement the annual testing program effectively. ] The Diagnostic Trouble Codes (DTC's) of OBD-I vehicles can usually be found without an expensive scan tool. Each manufacturer used their own Diagnostic Link Connector (DLC), DLC location, DTC definitions, and procedure to read the DTC's from the vehicle. DTC's from OBD-I cars are often read through the blinking patterns of the 'Check Engine Light' (CEL) or 'Service Engine Soon' (SES) light. By connecting certain pins of the diagnostic connector, the 'Check Engine' light will blink out a two-digit number that corresponds to a specific error condition. The DTC's of some OBD-I cars are interpreted in different ways, however. Cadillac petrol fuel-injected vehicles are equipped with actual onboard diagnostics, providing trouble codes, actuator tests and sensor data through the new digital Electronic Climate Control display. Holding
petrol fuel-injected vehicles are equipped with actual onboard diagnostics, providing trouble codes, actuator tests and sensor data through the new digital Electronic Climate Control display. Holding down 'Off' and 'Warmer' for several seconds activates the diagnostic mode without the need for an external scan tool. Some Honda engine computers are equipped with LEDs that light up in a specific pattern to indicate the DTC. General Motors, some 1989–1995 Ford vehicles (DCL), and some 1989–1995 Toyota/Lexus vehicles have a live sensor data stream available; however, many other OBD-I equipped vehicles do not. OBD-I vehicles have fewer DTC's available than OBD-II equipped vehicles. OBD 1.5 refers to a partial implementation of OBD-II which General Motors used on some vehicles in 1994, 1995, & 1996. (GM did not use the term OBD 1.5 in the documentation for these vehicles — they simply have an OBD and an OBD-II section in the service manual.) For example, the 1994–1995 model year Corvettes have one post-catalyst oxygen sensor (although they have two catalytic converters ), and have a subset of the OBD-II codes implemented. ] This hybrid system was present on GM B-body cars (the Chevrolet Caprice, Impala, and Buick Roadmaster) for 1994–1995model years, H-body cars for 1994–1995, W-body cars (Buick Regal, Chevrolet Lumina (for 1995 only), Chevrolet Monte Carlo (1995 only), Pontiac Grand Prix, Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme) for 1994–1995, L-body (Chevrolet Beretta/Corsica) for 1994–1995, Y-body (Chevrolet Corvette) for 1994–1995, on the F-body (Chevrolet Camaro and Pontiac Firebird) for 1995 and on the J-Body (Chevrolet Cavalier and Pontiac Sunfire) and N-Body (Buick Skylark, Oldsmobile Achieva, Pontiac Grand Am) for 1995 and 1996 and also for North American delivered 1994–1995 Saab vehicles with the naturally aspirated 2.3. The pinout for the ALDL connection on these cars is as follows: For ALDL connections, pin 9 is the data stream, pins 4 and 5 are ground, and pin 16 is the battery voltage. An OBD 1.5 compatible scan tool is required to read codes generated by OBD 1.5. Additional vehicle-specific diagnostic and control circuits are also available on this connector. For instance, on the Corvette there are interfaces for the Class 2 serial data stream from the PCM, the CCM diagnostic terminal, the radio data stream, the airbag system, the selective ride control system, the low tire pressure warning system, and the passive keyless entry system. ] An OBD 1.5 has also been used in the Ford Scorpio since 95. ] OBD-II is an improvement over OBD-I in both capability and standardization. The OBD-II standard specifies the type of diagnostic connector and its pinout, the electrical signalling protocols available, and the messaging format. It also provides a candidate list of vehicle parameters to monitor along with how to encode the data for each. There is a pin in the connector that provides power for the scan tool from the vehicle battery, which eliminates the
list of vehicle parameters to monitor along with how to encode the data for each. There is a pin in the connector that provides power for the scan tool from the vehicle battery, which eliminates the need to connect a scan tool to a power source separately. However, some technicians might still connect the scan tool to an auxiliary power source to protect data in the unusual event that a vehicle experiences a loss of electrical power due to a malfunction. Finally, the OBD-II standard provides an extensible list of DTCs. As a result of this standardization, a single device can query the on-board computer(s) in any vehicle. This OBD-II came in two models OBD-IIA and OBD-IIB. OBD-II standardization was prompted by emissions requirements, and though only emission-related codes and data are required to be transmitted through it, most manufacturers have made the OBD-II Data Link Connector the only one in the vehicle through which all systems are diagnosed and programmed. OBD-II Diagnostic Trouble Codes are 4-digit, preceded by a letter: P for powertrain (engine and transmission), B for body, C for chassis, and U for network. The OBD-II specification provides for a standardized hardware interface — the female 16-pin (2x8) J1962 connector , where type A is used for 12-volt vehicles and type B for 24-volt vehicles. Unlike the OBD-I connector, which was sometimes found under the bonnet of the vehicle, the OBD-II connector is required to be within 2 feet (0.61 m) of the steering wheel (unless an exemption is applied for by the manufacturer, in which case it is still somewhere within reach of the driver). SAE J1962 defines the pinout of the connector as: GM: J2411 GMLANSingle-Wire CAN. Audi: Switched +12 to tell a scan tool whether the ignition is on. VW: Switched +12 to tell a scan tool whether the ignition is on. Mercedes ] (K-Line): Ignition control (EZS), air-conditioner (KLA), PTS, safety systems (Airbag, SRS, AB) and some other. GM: 8192 baud ALDL where fitted. BMW: RPM signal. Toyota: RPM signal. Mercedes (K-Line): ABS, ASR, ESP, ETS, BAS diagnostic. SAE J1850 PWM and VPW SAE J1850 PWM only (not SAE 1850 VPW) Ethernet TX+ (Diagnostics over IP) Ford DCL(+) Argentina, Brazil (pre OBD-II) 1997–2000, USA, Europe, etc. Chrysler CCD Bus(+) Mercedes (TNA): TD engine rotation speed. Ethernet TX- (Diagnostics over IP) Ford DCL(-) Argentina, Brazil (pre OBD-II) 1997–2000, USA, Europe, etc. Chrysler CCD Bus(-) Mercedes (K-Line): Gearbox and other transmission components (EGS, ETC, FTC). Ethernet RX+ (Diagnostics over IP) Mercedes (K-Line): All activity module (AAM), Radio (RD), ICS (and more) Ethernet RX- (Diagnostics over IP) Ford: FEPS – Programming PCM voltage Mercedes (K-Line): AB diagnostic – safety systems. (ISO 15765-4 and SAE J2284) (ISO 15765-4 and SAE J2284) (ISO 9141-2 and ISO 14230-4) (ISO 9141-2 and ISO 14230-4) Activate Ethernet (Diagnostics over IP) Many BMWs: A second K-line for non OBD-II (BodyInfotainment) systems. Mercedes: Ignition (+12 Volt
(ISO 9141-2 and ISO 14230-4) (ISO 9141-2 and ISO 14230-4) Activate Ethernet (Diagnostics over IP) Many BMWs: A second K-line for non OBD-II (BodyInfotainment) systems. Mercedes: Ignition (+12 Volt for type A connector) (+24 Volt for type B connector) The assignment of unspecified pins is left to the vehicle manufacturer's discretion. ] The European on-board diagnostics (EOBD) regulations are the European equivalent of OBD-II, and apply to all passenger cars of category M1 (with no more than 8 passenger seats and a Gross Vehicle Weight rating of 2,500 kg, 5,500 lb or less) first registered within EU member states since January 1, 2001 for petrol -engined cars and since January 1, 2004 for diesel engined cars. ] For newly introduced models, the regulation dates applied a year earlier – January 1, 2000 for petrol and January 1, 2003, for diesel. For passenger cars with a Gross Vehicle Weight rating of greater than 2500 kg and for light commercial vehicles, the regulation dates applied from January 1, 2002, for petrol models, and January 1, 2007, for diesel models. The technical implementation of EOBD is essentially the same as OBD-II, with the same SAE J1962 diagnostic link connector and signal protocols being used. With Euro V and Euro VI emission standards, EOBD emission thresholds are lower than previous Euro III and IV. Each of the EOBD fault codes consists of five characters: a letter, followed by four numbers. ] The letter refers to the system being interrogated e.g. Pxxxx would refer to the powertrain system. The next character would be a 0 if complies to the EOBD standard. So it should look like P0xxx. The next character would refer to the sub system. The following two characters would refer to the individual fault within each subsystem. ] The term "EOBD2" is marketing speak used by some vehicle manufacturers to refer to manufacturer-specific features that are not actually part of the OBD or EOBD standard. In this case "E" stands for Enhanced. JOBD is a version of OBD-II for vehicles sold in Japan. The ADR 7901 – Emission Control for Light Vehicles) 2005) standard is the Australian equivalent of OBD-II. It applies to all vehicles of category M1 and N1 with a Gross Vehicle Weight rating of 3,500 kg (7,700 lb) or less, registered from new within Australia and produced since January 1, 2006 for petrol -engined cars and since January 1, 2007 for diesel -engined cars. ] For newly introduced models, the regulation dates applied a year earlier – January 1, 2005 for petrol and January 1, 2006, for diesel. The ADR 7902 standard which imposed tighter emissions restrictions, applicable to all vehicles of class M1 and N1 with a Gross Vehicle Weight rating of 3500 kg or less, from July 1, 2008, for new models, July 1, 2010, for all models. ] The technical implementation of this standard is essentially the same as OBD-II, with the same SAE J1962 diagnostic link connector and signal protocols being used. In North America, EMD and EMD+ are on-board
implementation of this standard is essentially the same as OBD-II, with the same SAE J1962 diagnostic link connector and signal protocols being used. In North America, EMD and EMD+ are on-board diagnostic systems that were used on vehicles with a gross vehicle weight rating of 14,000 lb (6,400 kg) or more between the 2007 and 2012 model years if those vehicles did not already implement OBD-II. EMD was used on California emissions vehicles between model years 2007 and 2009 that did not already have OBD-II. EMD was required to monitor fuel delivery, exhaust gas recirculation, the diesel particulate filter (on diesel engines), and emissions-related powertrain control module inputs and outputs for circuit continuity, data rationality, and output functionality. EMD+ was used on model year 2010-2012 California and Federal petrol-engined vehicles with a gross vehicle weight rating of over 14,000 lb (6,400 kg), it added the ability to monitor nitrogen oxide catalyst performance. EMD and EMD+ are similar to OBD-I in logic but use the same SAE J1962 data connector and CAN bus as OBD-II systems. ] Five signaling protocols are permitted with the OBD-II interface. Most vehicles implement only one of the protocols. It is often possible to deduce the protocol used based on which pins are present on the J1962 connector: ] All OBD-II pinouts use the same connector, but different pins are used with the exception of pin 4 (battery ground) and pin 16 (battery positive). OBD-II provides access to data from the engine control unit (ECU) and offers a valuable source of information when troubleshooting problems inside a vehicle. The SAE J1979 standard defines a method for requesting various diagnostic data and a list of standard parameters that might be available from the ECU. The various available parameters are addressed by "parameter identification numbers" or PID s which are defined in J1979. For a list of basic PIDs, their definitions, and the formula to convert raw OBD-II output to meaningful diagnostic units, see OBD-II PIDs . Manufacturers are not required to implement all PIDs listed in J1979 and they are allowed to include proprietary PIDs that are not listed. The PID request and data retrieval system gives access to real time performance data as well as flagged DTCs. For a list of generic OBD-II DTCs suggested by the SAE, see Table of OBD-II Codes . Individual manufacturers often enhance the OBD-II code set with additional proprietary DTCs. Here is a basic introduction to the OBD communication protocol according to ISO 15031. In SAE J1979 these "modes" were renamed to "services", starting in 2003. Various tools are available that plug into the OBD connector to access OBD functions. These range from simple generic consumer level tools to highly sophisticated OEM dealership tools to vehicle telematic devices. A range of rugged hand-held scan tools is available. Mobile device applications allow mobile devices such as cell phones and tablets to display and
OEM dealership tools to vehicle telematic devices. A range of rugged hand-held scan tools is available. Mobile device applications allow mobile devices such as cell phones and tablets to display and manipulate the OBD-II data accessed via USB adaptor cables or Bluetooth adapters plugged into the car's OBD II connector. Newer devices on the market are equipped with GPS sensors and the ability to transmit vehicle location and diagnostics data over a cellular network. Modern OBD-II devices can therefore nowadays be used to for example locate vehicles, monitor driving behavior in addition to reading Diagnostics Trouble Codes (DTC). Even more advanced devices allow users to reset engine DTC codes, effectively turning off engine lights in the dashboard; however, resetting the codes does not address the underlying issues and can in worst-case scenarios even lead to engine breakage where the source issue is serious and left unattended for long periods. ] ] An OBD-II software package when installed in a computer ( Windows , Mac , or Linux ) can help diagnose the onboard system, read and erase DTCs, turn off MIL, show real-time data, and measure vehicle fuel economy. ] To use OBD-II software, one needs to have an OBD-II adapter (commonly using Bluetooth , Wi-Fi or USB ) ] plugged in the OBD-II port to enable the vehicle to connect with the computer where the software is installed. ] A PC-based OBD analysis tool that converts the OBD-II signals to serial data (USB or serial port) standard to PCs or Macs. The software then decodes the received data to a visual display. Many popular interfaces are based on the ELM327 or STN ] OBD Interpreter ICs, both of which read all five generic OBD-II protocols. Some adapters now use the J2534 API allowing them to access OBD-II Protocols for both cars and trucks. In addition to the functions of a hand-held scan tool, the PC-based tools generally offer: The extent that a PC tool may access manufacturer or vehicle-specific ECU diagnostics varies between software products ] as it does between hand-held scanners. Data loggers are designed to capture vehicle data while the vehicle is in normal operation, for later analysis. Data logging uses include: Analysis of vehicle black box data may be performed periodically, automatically transmitted wirelessly to a third party or retrieved for forensic analysis after an event such as an accident, traffic infringement or mechanical fault. In the United States, many states now use OBD-II testing instead of tailpipe testing in OBD-II compliant vehicles (1996 and newer). Since OBD-II stores trouble codes for emissions equipment, the testing computer can query the vehicle's onboard computer and verify there are no emission related trouble codes and that the vehicle is in compliance with emission standards for the model year it was manufactured. In the Netherlands, 2006 and later vehicles get a yearly EOBD emission check. ] Driver's supplementary vehicle instrumentation is instrumentation
standards for the model year it was manufactured. In the Netherlands, 2006 and later vehicles get a yearly EOBD emission check. ] Driver's supplementary vehicle instrumentation is instrumentation installed in a vehicle in addition to that provided by the vehicle manufacturer and intended for display to the driver during normal operation. This is opposed to scanners used primarily for active fault diagnosis, tuning, or hidden data logging. Auto enthusiasts have traditionally installed additional gauges such as manifold vacuum, battery current etc. The OBD standard interface has enabled a new generation of enthusiast instrumentation accessing the full range of vehicle data used for diagnostics, and derived data such as instantaneous fuel economy. Instrumentation may take the form of dedicated trip computers , ] carputer or interfaces to PDAs , ] smartphones, or a Garmin navigation unit. As a carputer is essentially a PC, the same software could be loaded as for PC-based scan tools and vice versa, so the distinction is only in the reason for use of the software. These enthusiast systems may also include some functionality similar to the other scan tools. OBD II information is commonly used by vehicle telematics devices that perform fleet tracking, monitor fuel efficiency, prevent unsafe driving, as well as for remote diagnostics and by Pay-As-You-Drive insurance. Although originally not intended for the above purposes, commonly supported OBD II data such as vehicle speed, RPM, and fuel level allow GPS-based fleet tracking devices to monitor vehicle idling times, speeding, and over-revving. By monitoring OBD II DTCs a company can know immediately if one of its vehicles has an engine problem and by interpreting the code the nature of the problem. It can be used to detect reckless driving in real time based on the sensor data provided through the OBD port. ] This detection is done by adding a complex events processor (CEP) to the backend and on the client's interface. OBD II is also monitored to block mobile phones when driving and to record trip data for insurance purposes. ] OBD-II diagnostic trouble codes ( DTCs ) ] ] are five characters long, with the first letter indicating a category, and the remaining four being a hexadecimal number. ] The first character, representing category can only be one of the following four letters, given here with their associated meanings. (This restriction in number is due to how only two bits of memory are used to indicate the category when DTCs are stored and transmitted). ] The second character is a number in the range of 0–3. (This restriction is again due to memory storage limitations). ] The third character may denote a particular vehicle system that the fault relates to. ] Finally the fourth and fifth characters define the exact problem detected. Researchers at the University of Washington and University of California examined the security around OBD and found that they were able to gain control over many
define the exact problem detected. Researchers at the University of Washington and University of California examined the security around OBD and found that they were able to gain control over many vehicle components via the interface. Furthermore, they were able to upload new firmware into the engine control units . Their conclusion is that vehicle embedded systems are not designed with security in mind. ] ] ] There have been reports of thieves using specialist OBD reprogramming devices to enable them to steal cars without the use of a key. ] The primary causes of this vulnerability lie in the tendency for vehicle manufacturers to extend the bus for purposes other than those for which it was designed, and the lack of authentication and authorization in the OBD specifications, which instead rely largely on security through obscurity . ]
Metromile, Inc. is a San Francisco -based technology start-up that offers pay-per-mile car insurance , licenses a digital insurance platform to insurance companies around the world, and provides a digitally native offering featuring smart driving features, automated claims, and vehicle information. In July 2022, Lemonade, Inc. acquired the company. Pay-per-mile insurance is a type of usage-based insurance where the user pays a base rate along with a fixed rate per mile. The billing model is intended for low-mileage drivers and does not take driving style or behaviour into account (for determining rates or discounts). ] To measure mileage, the Metromile Pulse device is plugged into the onboard diagnostic (OBD-II) port of the car. The OBD-II port is the same port that mechanics use to diagnose issues that trigger a car’s “check engine” light. The device then transmits mileage data to servers. ] Metromile provides a full customer service team and 24/7 claims team. ] Metromile began underwriting its own policies in September 2016. ] Per-mile insurance through Metromile is currently available in Arizona , California , Illinois , New Jersey , Oregon , Pennsylvania , Virginia , and Washington . ] ] ] ] Drivers in other states can add themselves to a waitlist to be notified as additional states become available. Metromile is only offering personal car insurance policies at this time. The Pulse device provided to per-mile insurance customers also collects data about trips and car health. Metromile visualizes this information in an app to give drivers insights that can simplify car ownership. Features include street sweeping alerts, where the driver is notified if their car is parked in a street sweeping zone, ] and a car health monitor. ] The car locator feature shows where a car is parked, and some users have recovered their stolen vehicles by knowing their car’s location. ] The app is currently available for both Apple iOS and Google Android phones. ] In June 2015, the Metromile Tag was introduced to give non-insurance customers a way to also use the driving app. ] The Tag wirelessly connects to smartphones via Apple iBeacon technology. Metromile was founded in Redwood City, California , in 2011 by David Friedberg and Steve Pretre. ] David Friedberg currently sits as the chairman of the board, and the company is led by CEO Dan Preston. In 2013, the company moved its headquarters to San Francisco and in April 2015 added a second office space. ] A new location was opened in Boston in April 2015 and in Tempe in May 2015. ] ] In September 2016 they announced a new round of $192 million in funding and acquired a carrier which enabled them to start underwriting their own policies. ] The company became publicly-listed in February 2021 in a reverse merger deal, ] supported by Betsy Z. Cohen who also joined the company’s board of directors. ] ] On 8 November 2021, Lemonade, Inc. announced that it would fully acquire Metromile in an all-stock transaction which
supported by Betsy Z. Cohen who also joined the company’s board of directors. ] ] On 8 November 2021, Lemonade, Inc. announced that it would fully acquire Metromile in an all-stock transaction which implies a fully diluted equity value of approximately $500 million, or around $200 million net of cash. ] The acquisition completed on 28 July 2022. Following the acquisition, Lemonade laid off 20% of Metromile's staff. ]
Nonintrusive load monitoring ( NILM ), nonintrusive appliance load monitoring ( NIALM ), ] or energy disaggregation ] is a process for analyzing changes in the voltage and current going into a house and deducing what appliances are used in the house as well as their individual energy consumption. Electric meters with NILM technology are used by utility companies to survey the specific uses of electric power in different homes. NILM is considered a low-cost alternative to attaching individual monitors on each appliance. It does, however, present privacy concerns. Nonintrusive load monitoring was invented by George W. Hart , Ed Kern and Fred Schweppe of MIT in the early 1980s with funding from the Electric Power Research Institute . ] ] The basic process is described in U.S. patent 4,858,141 . As shown in figure 1 from the patent, a digital AC monitor is attached to the single-phase power going into a residence. Changes in the voltage and current are measured (i.e. admittance measurement unit), normalized (scaler) and recorded (net change detector unit). A cluster analysis is then performed to identify when different appliances are turned on and off. If a 60-watt bulb is turned on, for example, followed by a 100-watt bulb being turned on, followed by the 60-watt bulb being turned off followed by the 100-watt bulb being turned off, the NIALM unit will match the on and off signals from the 60-watt bulb and the on and off signals from the 100-watt bulb to determine how much power was used by each bulb and when. The system is sufficiently sensitive that individual 60-watt bulbs can be discriminated due to the normal variations in actual power draw of bulbs with the same nominal rating (e.g. one bulb might draw 61 watts, another 62 watts). The system can measure both reactive power and real power . Hence two appliances with the same total power draw can be distinguished by differences in their complex impedance . As shown in figure 8 from the patent, for example, a refrigerator electric motor and a pure resistive heater can be distinguished in part because the electric motor has significant changes in reactive power when it turns on and off, whereas the heater has almost none. NILM systems can also identify appliances with a series of individual changes in power draw. These appliances are modeled as finite state machines . A dishwasher, for example, has heaters and motors that turn on and off during a typical dish washing cycle. These will be identified as clusters, and power draw for the entire cluster will be recorded. Hence “dishwasher” power draw can be identified as opposed to “resistor heating unit” and “electric motor”. NILM can detect what types of appliances people have and their behavioral patterns. Patterns of energy use may indicate behavior patterns, such as routine times that nobody is at home, or embarrassing or illegal behavior of residents. It could, for example, reveal when the occupants of a house are using the shower, or when
patterns, such as routine times that nobody is at home, or embarrassing or illegal behavior of residents. It could, for example, reveal when the occupants of a house are using the shower, or when individual lights are turned on and off. ] If the NILM is running remotely at a utility or by a third party, the homeowner may not know that their behavior is being monitored and recorded. A stand-alone in-home system, under the control of the user, can provide feedback about energy use, without revealing information to others. Drawing links between their behavior and energy consumption may help reduce energy consumption, improve efficiency, flatten peak loads, save money, or balance appliance use with green energy availability. However the use of a stand-alone system does not protect one from remote monitoring. The accuracy and capability of this technology is still developing and is not 100% reliable in near-real-time, such that complete information is accumulated and analyzed over periods ranging from minutes to hours.
Drunk driving (or drink-driving in British English ] ) is the act of driving under the influence of alcohol . A small increase in the blood alcohol content increases the relative risk of a motor vehicle crash. ] In the United States , alcohol is involved in 32% of all traffic fatalities . ] ] In the United States, most states have generalized their criminal offense statutes to driving under the influence (DUI). These DUI statutes generally cover intoxication by any drug, including alcohol. Such laws may also apply to operating boats, aircraft, farm machinery , horse-drawn carriages, and bicycles . Specific terms used to describe alcohol-related driving offenses include "drinking and driving", "drunk driving", and "drunken driving". Most DUI offenses are alcohol-related so the terms are used interchangeably in common language, and "drug-related DUI" is used to distinguish. In the United Kingdom, there are two separate offences to do with alcohol and driving. The first is "Driving or attempting to drive with excess alcohol" (legal code DR10), the other is known as "In charge of a vehicle with excess alcohol" (legal code DR40) or "drunk in charge" due to the wording of the Licensing Act 1872 . ] ] In relation to motor vehicles, the Road Safety Act 1967 created a narrower offense of driving (or being in charge of) a vehicle while having breath, blood, or urine alcohol levels above the prescribed limits (colloquially called "being over the limit"). ] These provisions were re-enacted in the Road Traffic Act 1988 . A separate offense in the 1988 Act applies to bicycles. While the 1872 Act is mostly superseded, the offense of being "drunk while in charge ... of any carriage, horse, cattle, or steam engine" is still in force; "carriage" has sometimes been interpreted as including mobility scooters . ] Depending on the jurisdiction, a drunk driver's level of intoxication may be measured by police using three methods: blood, breath, or urine, resulting in a blood alcohol concentration , breath alcohol concentration (BrAC), or urine result. For law enforcement purposes, breath analysis using a breathalyzer is the preferred method, since results are available almost instantaneously. A measurement in excess of the specific threshold level, such as a BAC of 0.08% (8 basis points ), defines the criminal offense with no need to prove impairment. ] In some jurisdictions, there is an aggravated category of the offense at a higher BAC level, such as 0.12%, 0.15%, or 0.25%. In many jurisdictions, police officers can conduct field tests of suspects to look for signs of intoxication. ] There have been cases in Canada where officers have come upon a suspect who is unconscious after a crash and officers have taken a blood sample. citation needed ] With the advent of a scientific test for BAC, law enforcement regimes moved from field sobriety testing (e.g., asking the suspect to stand on one leg) to having more than a prescribed amount of blood alcohol content while
test for BAC, law enforcement regimes moved from field sobriety testing (e.g., asking the suspect to stand on one leg) to having more than a prescribed amount of blood alcohol content while driving. However, this does not preclude the simultaneous existence and use of the older subjective tests in which police officers measure the intoxication of the suspect by asking them to do certain activities or by examining their eyes and responses. ] The validity of the testing equipmentblood alcohol and intoxication levels have been criticized. ] Improper testing and equipment calibration is often used in defense of a DUI or DWI. citation needed ] Alcohol is a depressant, which mainly affects the function of the brain. Alcohol first affects the most vital components of the brain and "when the brain cortex is released from its functions of integrating and control, processes related to judgment and behavior occur in a disorganized fashion and the proper operation of behavioral tasks becomes disrupted." ] Alcohol weakens a variety of skills that are necessary to perform everyday tasks. Drinking enough alcohol to cause a blood alcohol concentration (BAC) of 0.03–0.12% typically causes a flushed, red appearance in the face and impaired judgment and fine muscle coordination. A BAC of 0.09% to 0.25% causes lethargy , sedation , balance problems, and blurred vision. A BAC from 0.18% to 0.30% causes profound confusion, impaired speech (e.g., slurred speech), staggering, dizziness, and vomiting. A BAC from 0.25% to 0.40% causes stupor , unconsciousness, anterograde amnesia , vomiting, and respiratory depression (potentially life-threatening). A BAC from 0.35% to 0.80% causes a coma (unconsciousness), life-threatening respiratory depression, and possibly fatal alcohol poisoning . There are a number of factors that affect the time in which BAC will reach or exceed 0.08, including weight, the time since one's recent drinking, and whether and what one ate within the time of drinking. A 170lb male can drink more than a 135lb female, before being over the BAC level. ] One of the main effects of alcohol is severely impairing a person's ability to shift attention from one thing to another, "without significantly impairing sensory motor functions." ] This indicates that people who are intoxicated are not able to properly shift their attention without affecting the senses. People that are intoxicated also have a much more narrow area of usable vision than people who are sober. The information the brain receives from the eyes "becomes disrupted if eyes must be turned to the side to detect stimuli, or if eyes must be moved quickly from one point to another." ] Research shows an exponential increase of the relative risk for a crash with a linear increase of BAC. ] NHTSA reports that the following blood alcohol levels (BAC) in a driver will have the following predictable effects on his or her ability to drive safely: (1) A BAC of .02 will result in a "ecline in visual functions
the following blood alcohol levels (BAC) in a driver will have the following predictable effects on his or her ability to drive safely: (1) A BAC of .02 will result in a "ecline in visual functions (rapid tracking of a moving target), a decline in the ability to perform two tasks at the same time (divided attention)"; (2) A BAC of .05 will result in "educed coordination, reduced ability to track moving objects, difficulty steering, reduced response to emergency driving situations"; (3) A BAC of .08 will result in "oncentration, short-term memory loss, speed control, reduced information processing capability (e.g., signal detection, visual search), impaired perception"; (4) A BAC of .10 will result in "educed ability to maintain lane position and brake appropriately"; and (5) A BAC of .15 will result in "ubstantial impairment in vehicle control, attention to driving task, and in necessary visual and auditory information processing." ] Several testing mechanisms are used to gauge a person's ability to drive, which indicate levels of intoxication. One of these is referred to as a tracking task, testing hand–eye coordination, in which "the task is to keep an object on a prescribed path by controlling its position through turning a steering wheel. Impairment of performance is seen at BACs of as little as 0.7 mg/mL (0.066%)." ] Another form of tests is a choice reaction task, which deals more primarily with cognitive function. In this form of testing both hearing and vision are tested and drivers must give a "response according to rules that necessitate mental processing before giving the answer." ] This is a useful gauge because in an actual driving situation drivers must divide their attention "between a tracking task and surveillance of the environment." ] It has been found that even "very low BACs are sufficient to produce significant impairment of performance" in this area of thought process. ] A 1964 paper by Robert Frank Borkenstein studied data from Grand Rapids , Michigan . ] The main finding of the Grand Rapids study was that for higher values of BAC, the collision risk increases steeply; for a BAC of 0.15%, the risk is 25 times higher than for zero blood alcohol. The BAC limits in Germany and many other countries were set based on this Grand Rapids study. Subsequent research showed that all extra collisions caused by alcohol were due to at least 0.06% BAC, 96% of them due to BAC above 0.08%, and 79% due to BAC above 0.12%. ] One surprising aspect of the study was that, in the main analysis, a BAC of 0.01–0.04% was associated with a lower risk of collisions than a BAC of 0%, a feature referred to as the Grand Rapids Effect or Grand Rapids Dip . ] ] A 1995 Würzburg University study of German data similarly found that the risk of collisions appeared to be lower for drivers with a BAC of 0.04% or less than for drivers with a BAC of 0%. ] Studies of alcohol impairment on tests of driving ability have found that impairment starts as soon as
to be lower for drivers with a BAC of 0.04% or less than for drivers with a BAC of 0%. ] Studies of alcohol impairment on tests of driving ability have found that impairment starts as soon as alcohol is detectable. Thus, the literature has for the most part treated the Grand Rapids Dip as a statistical effect, similar to Simpson's paradox . ] The analysis in the Grand Rapids paper relied primarily on univariate statistics, which could not isolate the effects of age, gender, and drinking practices from the effects of other variables. ] In particular, when the data is re-analyzed by constructing separate BAC-crash rate graphs for each drinking frequency, there are no J-shapes in any of the graphs and collision rates increase starting from 0% BAC. The analysis of the Grand Rapids study was biased by including drivers younger than 25 and older than 55 that did not drink often but had significantly higher crash rates even when not drinking alcohol. ] A newer study using data from 1997-1999 replicated the Grand Rapids dip but found that adjusting for covariates using logistic regression made the dip disappear. ] A direct effect of alcohol on a person's brain is an overestimation of how quickly their body is recovering from the effects of alcohol. A study, discussed in the article "Why drunk drivers may get behind the wheel", was done with college students in which the students were tested with "a hidden maze learning task as their BAC both rose and fell over an 8-hour period." ] The researchers found through the study that as the students became more drunk there was an increase in their mistakes "and the recovery of the underlying cognitive impairments that lead to these errors is slower, and more closely tied to the actual blood alcohol concentration, than the more rapid reduction in participants' subjective feeling of drunkenness." ] The participants believed that they were recovering from the adverse effects of alcohol much more quickly than they actually were. This feeling of perceived recovery is a plausible explanation of why so many people feel that they are able to safely operate a motor vehicle when they are not yet fully recovered from the alcohol they have consumed, indicating that the recovery rates do not coincide. This thought process and brain function that is lost under the influence of alcohol is a very key element in regards to being able to drive safely, including "making judgments in terms of traveling through intersections or changing lanes when driving." ] These essential driving skills are lost while a person is under the influence of alcohol. Drunk driving is one of the largest risk factors that contribute to traffic collisions . As of 2015, for people in Europe between the age of 15 and 29, driving under the influence of alcohol has been one of the main causes of mortality. ] According to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, alcohol-related crashes cause approximately $37 billion in damages annually. ] DUI and
has been one of the main causes of mortality. ] According to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, alcohol-related crashes cause approximately $37 billion in damages annually. ] DUI and alcohol-related crashes have produced an estimated $45 billion in damages every year. The combined costs of towing and storage fees, attorney fees, bail fees, fines, court fees, ignition interlock devices, traffic school fees and DMV fees mean that a first-time DUI charge could cost thousands to tens of thousands of dollars. ] Traffic collisions are predominantly caused by driving under the influence for people in Europe between the age of 15 and 29, it is one of the main causes of mortality. ] According to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, alcohol-related collisions cause approximately $37 billion in damages annually. ] Every 51 minutes someone dies from an alcohol-related collision. When it comes to risk-taking there is a large male predominance, as personality traits, anti-social behaviour , and risk-taking are taken into consideration as they all are involved in DUI's. ] Over 7.7 million underage people ages 12–20 claim to drink alcohol, and on average, for every 100,000 underage Americans, 1.2 died in drunk-driving traffic crashes. ] Although situations differ and each person is unique, some common traits have been identified among drunk drivers. In the study "personality traits and mental health of severe drunk drivers in Sweden", 162 Swedish DUI offenders of all ages were studied to find links in psychological factors and characteristics. There are a wide variety of characteristics common among DUI offenders which are discussed, including: "anxiety, depression, inhibition, low assertiveness, neuroticism and introversion". ] There is also a more specific personality type found, typically more antisocial, among repeat DUI offenders. It is not uncommon for them to actually be diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder ( ASPD ) and exhibit some of the following personality traits: "low social responsiveness, lack of self-control, hostility, poor decision-making lifestyle, low emotional adjustment, aggression, sensation seeking and impulsivity". ] It is also common for offenders to use drinking as a coping mechanism, not necessarily for social or enjoyment reasons, when they are antisocial in nature and have a father with a history of alcoholism. Offenders who begin drinking at an earlier age for thrills and "fun" are more likely to be antisocial later in their lives. The majority of the sample, 72%, came from what is considered more "normal" circumstances. This group was older when they began drinking, came from families without a history of alcoholism, were relatively well-behaved as children, were not as physically and emotionally affected by alcohol when compared with the rest of the study, and had the less emotional complications, such as anxiety and depression. The smaller portion of the sample, 28%, comes from what is
affected by alcohol when compared with the rest of the study, and had the less emotional complications, such as anxiety and depression. The smaller portion of the sample, 28%, comes from what is generally considered less than desirable circumstances, or "not normal". They tended to start drinking heavily earlier in life and "exhibited more premorbid risk factors, had a more severe substance abuse and psychosocial impairment." ] Various characteristics associated with drunk drivers were found more often in one gender than another. Females were more likely to be affected by both mental and physical health problems, have family and social problems, have a greater drug use, and were frequently unemployed. However, the females tended to have less legal issues than the typical male offender. Some specific issues females dealt with were that "almost half of the female alcoholics had previously attempted to commit suicide, and almost one-third had suffered from anxiety disorder." In contrast with females, males were more likely to have in-depth problems and more involved complications, such as "a more complex problem profile, i.e. more legal, psychological, and work-related problems when compared with female alcoholics." ] In general the sample, when paralleled with control groups, was tested to be much more impulsive in general. Another commonality among the whole group was that the DUI offenders were more underprivileged when compared with the general population of drivers. A correlation has been found between lack of conscientiousness and accidents, meaning that "low conscientiousness drivers were more often involved in driving accidents than other drivers." When tested the drivers scored very high in the areas of "depression, vulnerability (to stress), gregariousness , modesty, tender mindedness", but significantly lower in the areas of "ideas (intellectual curiosity), competence, achievement striving and self-discipline." ] The sample also tested considerably higher than the norm in " somatization , obsessions–compulsions , interpersonal sensitivity, depression, anxiety, hostility, phobic anxiety, paranoia , psychoticism ", especially in the area of depression. Through this testing a previously overlooked character trait of DUI offenders was uncovered by the "low scores on the openness to experience domain." ] This area "includes intellectual curiosity, receptivity to the inner world of fantasy and imagination, appreciation of art and beauty, openness to inner emotions, values, and active experiences." In all these various factors, there is only one which indicates relapses for driving under the influence: depression. ] Not only can personality traits of DUI offenders be dissimilar from the rest of the population, but so can their thought processes, or cognitive processes. They are unique in that "they often drink despite the severity of legal and financial sanctions imposed on them by society." ] In addition to these societal restraints, DUI
or cognitive processes. They are unique in that "they often drink despite the severity of legal and financial sanctions imposed on them by society." ] In addition to these societal restraints, DUI offenders ignore their own personal experience, including both social and physical consequences. The study "Cognitive Predictors of Alcohol Involvement and Alcohol consumption-Related Consequences in a Sample of Drunk-Driving Offenders" was performed in Albuquerque, New Mexico on the cognitive , or mental, factors of DUI offenders. Characteristics such as gender, marital status, and age of these DWI offenders were similar to those in other populations. Approximately 25% of female and 21% of male offenders had received "a lifetime diagnosis of alcohol abuse" and 62% of females and 70% of males "received a diagnosis of alcohol dependence." ] All of the offenders had at least one DWI and males were more likely to have multiple citations. In terms of drinking patterns approximately 25% stated that "they had drunk alcohol with in the past day, while an additional 32% indicated they had drunk within the past week." ] In regards to domestic drinking, "25% of the sample drank at least once per week in their own homes." ] Different items were tested to see if they played a role in the decision to drink alcohol, which includes socializing, the expectation that drinking is enjoyable, financial resources to purchase alcohol, and liberation from stress at the work place. The study also focused on two main areas, " intrapersonal cues", or internal cues, that are reactions "to internal psychological or physical events" and " interpersonal cues" that result from "social influences in drinking situations." ] The two largest factors between tested areas were damaging alcohol use and its correlation to "drinking urges/triggers." ] Once again different behaviors are characteristic of male and female. Males are "more likely to abuse alcohol, be arrested for DWI offenses, and report more adverse alcohol-related consequences." However, effects of alcohol on females vary because the female metabolism processes alcohol significantly when compared to males, which increases their chances for intoxication. ] The largest indicator for drinking was situational cues which comprised "indicators tapping psychological (e.g. letting oneself down, having an argument with a friend, and getting angry at something), social (e.g. relaxing and having a good time), and somatic cues (e.g. how good it tasted, passing by a liquor store, and heightened sexual enjoyment)." ] It may be that internal forces are more likely to drive DWI offenders to drink than external, which is indicated by the fact that the brain and body play a greater role than social influences. This possibility seems particularly likely in repeat DWI offenders, as repeat offences (unlike first-time offences) are not positively correlated with the availability of alcohol. ] Another cognitive factor may be that of using alcohol to
in repeat DWI offenders, as repeat offences (unlike first-time offences) are not positively correlated with the availability of alcohol. ] Another cognitive factor may be that of using alcohol to cope with problems. It is becoming increasingly apparent that the DWI offenders do not use proper coping mechanisms and thus turn to alcohol for the answer. Examples of such issues "include fights, arguments, and problems with people at work, all of which imply a need for adaptive coping strategies to help the high-risk drinker to offset pressures or demands." ] DWI offenders would typically prefer to turn to alcohol than more healthy coping mechanisms and alcohol can cause more anger which can result in a vicious circle of drinking more alcohol to deal with alcohol-related issues. This is a not the way professionals tell people how to best deal with the struggles of everyday life and calls for "the need to develop internal control and self-regulatory mechanisms that attenuate stress, mollify the influence of relapse-based cues, and dampen urges to drink as part of therapeutic interventions." ] To attempt to determine whether a suspect is impaired, police officers in the United States usually will administer field sobriety tests to determine whether the officer has probable cause to arrest an individual for suspicion of driving under the influence (DUI). The Preliminary Breath Test (PBT) or Preliminary Alcohol Screening test (PAS) is sometimes categorized as part of field sobriety testing , although it is not part of the series of performance tests. Commercial drivers are subject to PBT testing in some US states as a "drug screening" requirement. The laws relating to drunk driving vary significantly between countries, particularly the BAC limit before a person is charged with a crime. Thresholds range from the limit of detection (zero-tolerance) to 0.08%. Some countries have no limits or laws on blood alcohol content. ] Some jurisdictions have multiple levels of BAC for different categories of drivers. In some jurisdictions, impaired drivers who injure or kill another person while driving may face heavier penalties. Some jurisdictions have judicial guidelines requiring a mandatory minimum sentence for certain situations. DUI convictions may result in multi-year jail terms and other penalties ranging from fines and other financial penalties to forfeiture of one's license plates and vehicle. In many jurisdictions, a judge may also order the installation of an ignition interlock device . Some jurisdictions require that drivers convicted of DUI offenses use special license plates that are easily distinguishable from regular plates, known in popular parlance as "party plates" ] or "whiskey plates". Criminologist Hung‐En Sung has concluded in 2016 that with regards to reducing drunk driving, law enforcement has not generally proven to be effective. Worldwide, the majority of those driving under the influence do not end up arrested. At least two thirds of
to reducing drunk driving, law enforcement has not generally proven to be effective. Worldwide, the majority of those driving under the influence do not end up arrested. At least two thirds of alcohol‐involved fatalities involve repeat drinking drivers. Sung, commenting on measures for controlling drunk driving and alcohol‐related accidents, noted that the ones that have proven effective include "lowering legal blood alcohol concentrations, controlling liquor outlets, nighttime driving curfews for minors, educational treatment programs combined with license suspension for offenders, and court monitoring of high‐risk offenders." ] There are laws in place to protect citizens from drunk drivers, called implied consent laws. Drivers of any motor vehicle automatically consent to these laws, which include the associated testing, when they begin driving. In most jurisdictions (with the notable exception of a few, such as Brazil), refusing consent is a different crime than a DWI itself and has its own set of consequences. There have been cases where drivers were "acquitted of the DWI offense and convicted of the refusal (they are separate offenses), often with significant consequences (usually license suspension)". ] A driver must give their full consent to comply with testing because "anything short of an unqualified, unequivocal assent to take the Breathalyzer test constitutes a refusal." ] It has also been ruled that defendants are not allowed to request testing after they have already refused in order to aid officers' jobs "to remove intoxicated drivers from the roadways" and ensure that all results are accurate. ] The United States has extensive case law and law enforcement programs related to drunk driving. Studies have shown that there are various methods to help reduce alcohol consumption: One tool used to separate drinking from driving is an ignition interlock device which requires the driver to blow into a mouthpiece on the device before starting or continuing to operate the vehicle. ] This tool is used in rehabilitation programmes and for school buses. ] Studies have indicated that ignition interlock devices can reduce drunk driving offences by between 35% and 90%, including 60% for a Swedish study, 67% for the CDCP, and 64% for the mean of several studies. ] The US may require monitoring systems to stop intoxicated drivers in new vehicles as early as 2026. ] A designated driver programme helps to separate driving from drinking in social places such as restaurants, discos, pubs, bars. In such a programme, a group chooses who will be the drivers before going to a place where alcohol will be consumed; the drivers abstain from alcohol. Members of the group who do not drive would be expected to pay for a taxi when it is their turn. ] Reduction of legal limit from 0.8 gL reduced fatal crashes by 2% in some European countries; while similar results were obtained in the United States ] Lower legal limit (0.1 gL in Australia and the United States)
limit from 0.8 gL reduced fatal crashes by 2% in some European countries; while similar results were obtained in the United States ] Lower legal limit (0.1 gL in Australia and the United States) have helped to reduce fatalities among young drivers. However, in Scotland, lowering the legal limit of blood alcohol content from 0.08% to 0.05% did not result in fewer road traffic collisions in two years after the introducing the new law. One possible explanation is that this might be due the poor publicity and enforcement of the new law and the lack of random breath testing. ] ] Enforcing the legal limit for alcohol consumption is the usual method to reduce drunk driving. Experience shows that: Education programmes used to reduce drunk driving levels include: In the United States, local law enforcement agencies made 1,467,300 arrests nationwide for driving under the influence of alcohol in 1996, compared to 1.9 million such arrests during the peak year in 1983. ] In 1997 an estimated 513,200 DWI offenders were in prison or jail , down from 593,000 in 1990 and up from 270,100 in 1986. ] In the United States, DUI and alcohol-related collisions produce an estimated $45 billion in damages every year. ] In Europe, about 25% of all road fatalities are alcohol-related, while very few Europeans drive under the influence of alcohol. According to estimates, 3.85% of drivers in European Union drive with a BAC of 0.2 gL and higher. For alcohol in combination with drugs and medicines, the rates are respectively 0.35% and 0.16%. ] Notes Further reading
The Peer To Patent project is an initiative that seeks to assist patent offices in improving patent quality by gathering public input in a structured, productive manner. Peer To Patent is the first social-software project directly linked to decision-making by the federal government. ] An initial pilot project in collaboration with the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) was completed June 15, 2009. ] That pilot examined more than 220 patent applications in the fields of software and business methods. The Peer To Patent project has issued two anniversary reports from the initial pilot ( ] and ] ), and a final report from the initial pilot is pending. Following the conclusion of the initial pilot the USPTO undertook an evaluation of Peer To Patent assisted by students from Worcester Polytechnic Institute. That evaluation concluded that the program had merit and should be continued. ] On October 19, 2010, the USPTO and New York Law School jointly announced a new pilot program commencing October 25, 2010, and continuing through September 30, 2011 (with the review period extending through December 31, 2011). ] This new pilot will not only include patent applications covering subject matter included in the initial pilot, it will now include telecommunications, speech recognition, translation, biotechnology, bioinformatics and biopharmaceuticals. ] Other patent offices involved in pilot programs include IP Australia , ] the Japan Patent Office , ] and the Korean Intellectual Property Office . ] The UK Intellectual Property Office announced on November 4, 2010, that it would commence a pilot in 2011 ] and the pilot commenced on 1 June 2011. ] Patents go to the heart of invention , a key driver of technological progress and economic vitality. When the patent system functions correctly, it rewards only meritorious inventions—those that are useful, novel , and not obvious . This in turn encourages more people to exercise their ingenuity and effort to create new inventions. However, for a proper balance to be struck, the system must avoid awarding patents to discourage inventions that lack merit. When the system becomes inconsistent in recognizing true invention, inappropriately issued patents become obstacles for innovation in that technology area. This raises, directly or indirectly, the costs of doing business in that particular area. The number of patents in the most active jurisdictions (including the ones piloting Peer-to-Patent) has grown over the past few decades. The rise in patent applications has also placed stress on the patent offices themselves. For example, the USPTO October 31, 2010 had a backlog of about 700,000 patent applications, which is one and a half times the highest number of applications the USPTO has processed in any given year. ] Peer To Patent is focused on helping patent offices perform high-quality examinations of pending patent applications by enlisting the public to help find and explain prior art . Prior art
year. ] Peer To Patent is focused on helping patent offices perform high-quality examinations of pending patent applications by enlisting the public to help find and explain prior art . Prior art are references that predate the date of conception of at least some of the features of a given claimed invention. Prior art can include earlier patents, academic papers, magazine articles, web pages, and even physical examples. Patent examiners compare a claimed invention with the prior art to determine if a given invention is both new (i.e. novel ) and not obvious to a person of ordinary skill and creativity of the invention. Prior to the initiation of Peer To Patent, U.S. patent examiners had the sole responsibility for searching for prior art. Patent examiners have a time budget of a few hours in which to conduct such searches. Peer To Patent attempts to improve the patent process by markedly expanding the prior art search. The reasoning behind the project is that if prior art exists for an invention, particularly non-patent prior art, someone in the world knows about it. This knowledgeable person may be a competitor in the same field, a student or professor, or the owner of an earlier embodiment of the invention. Peer To Patent encourages such people to submit examples of prior art and creates communities of people worldwide who are interested in discovering prior art. Peer To Patent uses social software features to facilitate discussion amongst groups of volunteer experts. Users can upload prior art references, participate in discussion forums, rate other user submissions, add research references, invite others, and more. This helps the examiners focus their attention on the submission(s) of prior art that have the highest relevance to an application. An understanding of Peer To Patent's philosophical basis is valuable in order to comprehend its operation. The project also has a technological basis, lying in the potential for Internet technologies to structure public input into government processes much more effectively than agencies and legislators have done in the past. Thus, Peer to Patent is more than an intervention into the patent system; it serves as a demonstration of the potential to bring the public more fully into its own governance. Attempts to involve the public in government decision-making (other than voting and referendums, which are frequently powerful, but are also intermittent and very restrictive of the public's capacity for subtle, expressive input) previously fell into two categories, both usually of minimal impact: The paradigm underlying Peer To Patent is relatively novel, and involves clear goals, direction, and structure. The model is related, however, to many notions of civil society , particularly the theories deliberative democracy , communicative action ( Jürgen Habermas ), and strong democracy ( Benjamin Barber ). The more immediate underpinnings are best described in a series of papers by the creator of Peer to
democracy , communicative action ( Jürgen Habermas ), and strong democracy ( Benjamin Barber ). The more immediate underpinnings are best described in a series of papers by the creator of Peer to Patent, Beth Simone Noveck of New York Law School . Relevant papers include: The promise of Peer To Patent also draws on the success of various other movements that have created effective, productive communities on the Internet from far-flung individuals: free software and open-source software development, peer-to-peer systems for the collaborative sharing of data and computer processing, and Wikipedia . The process described in this section is that used for the USPTO pilot. The USPTO pilot, officially announced in the USPTO's Official Gazette of 26 June 2007, ] was initially restricted to patent applications from Technology Center 2100 (Computer Architecture, Software and Information Security) that are voluntarily submitted to the project by the owner/assignee. The extended pilot has expanded to include so-called Business Methods patents (class 705) that fall under Technology Center 3600. To be eligible for Peer To Patent review, a patent application must be filed during the period covered by the pilot. Furthermore, the USPTO tries to provide a representative sample of current patents by limiting the number of applications from any given applicant. Incentives for submitting an application to the project include: ] Applicants follow a procedure described on the project's web site to submit patent applications for review. ] After a patent is published on the Peer To Patent web site, the public can post not only instances of possible prior art, but other useful comments such as common industry terms that might describe the patent. These terms, or Folksonomy tags, are useful to help other experts find prior art. The review process emphasizes and supports group collaboration in the following ways. ] The role of the patent examiner in Peer To Patent remains the same as with traditional applications, except that Peer to Patent applications move to the head of the queue, to reward patent applicants who participate, and the patent examiner is forwarded the ten highest rated submissions of prior art from the Peer To Patent community to aid in their examination. The Peer To Patent project is an independent project set up by New York Law School and operated through the school's Center for Patent Innovations. ] An agreement between the USPTO and Peer To Patent allows the project to submit prior art to USPTO examiners. The steering committee includes patent attorneys from major patent-holding companies. The computer industry provides most of the steering committee members, since the initial pilot focused on Technology Center 2100. Peer To Patent is funded by project sponsors and by the USPTO. The sponsors include: ] Except where noted, content on the site is available for noncommercial use through a Creative Commons license. A description of the technology used on
and by the USPTO. The sponsors include: ] Except where noted, content on the site is available for noncommercial use through a Creative Commons license. A description of the technology used on the site is stated in their first anniversary report, The success of the initial pilot will likely lead to a gradual expansion of Peer To Patent to cover more and more categories of patents; for example the second U.S. pilot has been expanded to include speech recognition, telecommunications, biotechnology, and bioinformatics. ] Channels, standards, and protocols will be created to let inventors and other participants in the process integrate their own data and work flows. One feature of the Peer To Patent site allows participants to rate each other's comments, just as they now rate each other's prior art submissions. A future stage of the project may allow patent examiners to consult the public during the office action, so that the public not only submits prior art but helps examiners better understand the relevant subject matter. More broadly, Peer To Patent shows how the public can become more self-governing by interacting in an organized manner with government officials. Elements of this interaction include: As of November 24, 2010, there had been 557,560 page views from 114,395 unique viewers in 173 countries or territories. More than 2, 800 people signed up to be reviewers. Up-to-date statistics about the number of patent applications submitted to Peer To Patent, the number of community participants searching for prior art, and the amount of discussion around each patent can be obtained from the Peer To Patent web site. ] Some highlights from the First Anniversary report: Criticism of the Peer to Patent project range from its goals to its likelihood of success to its unintended consequences . For instance, criticisms can be found in comments posted to two articles favorable to Peer To Patent on the well-known Patently Obvious (Patently-O) blog : articles about the announced launch and the actual launch of the pilot. Here is a sampling of objections aired in various forums: Bestor, Daniel R.; Hamp, Eric (November 2010). "Peer to Patent: A cure for Our Ailing Patent Examination System" . Northwestern Journal of Technology and Intellectual Property . 9 (2): 16–28. Noveck, Beth Simone (2006). " "Peer to Patent": Collective Intelligence, Open Review, and Patent Reform" (PDF) . Harvard Journal of Law & Technology . 20 (1): 123–162.
Behavior-based safety ( BBS ) is the "application of science of behavior change to real world safety problems". ] or "A process that creates a safety partnership between management and employees that continually focuses people's attentions and actions on theirs, and others, daily safety behavior." ] BBS "focuses on what people do, analyzes why they do it, and then applies a research-supported intervention strategy to improve what people do". ] At its very core BBS is based on a larger scientific field called organizational behavior management . citation needed ] In a safety management system based upon the hierarchy of hazard control , BBS may be applied to internalise hazard avoidance strategies or administrative controls (including use of personal protective equipment ), but should not be used in preference to the implementation of reasonably practicable safety measures further up the hierarchy. To be successful a BBS program must include all employees, from the CEO to the front line workers including hourly, salary, union employees, contractors and sub-contractors. To achieve changes in behavior, a change in policy, procedures and/or systems most assuredly will also need some change. Those changes cannot be done without buy-in and support from all involved in making those decisions. BBS is not based on assumptions, personal feeling, and/or common knowledge . To be successful, the BBS program used must be based on scientific knowledge .
Telematics is an interdisciplinary field encompassing telecommunications , vehicular technologies ( road transport , road safety , etc.), electrical engineering (sensors, instrumentation, wireless communications , etc.), and computer science ( multimedia , Internet , etc.). Telematics can involve any of the following: Telematics is a translation of the French word télématique, which was first coined by Simon Nora and Alain Minc in a 1978 report to the French government on the computerization of society. It referred to the transfer of information over telecommunications and was a portmanteau blending the French words télécommunications (" telecommunications ") and informatique (" computing science "). The original broad meaning of telematics continues to be used in academic fields, but in commerce it now generally means vehicle telematics . ] Telematics can be described as thus: Vehicle telematics can help improve the efficiency of an organization. ] Vehicle tracking is monitoring the location, movements, status, and behavior of a vehicle or fleet of vehicles. This is achieved through a combination of a GPS ( GNSS ) receiver and an electronic device (usually comprising a GSM GPRS modem or SMS sender) installed in each vehicle, communicating with the user (dispatching, emergency, or co-ordinating unit) and PC-based or web-based software. The data is turned into information by management reporting tools in conjunction with a visual display on computerized mapping software. Vehicle tracking systems may also use odometry or dead reckoning as an alternative or complementary means of navigation. citation needed ] GPS tracking is usually accurate to around 10–20 meters, ] but the European Space Agency has developed the EGNOS technology to provide accuracy to 1.5 meters. ] Trailer tracking refers to the tracking of movements and position of an articulated vehicle's trailer unit through the use of a location unit fitted to the trailer and a method of returning the position data via mobile communication network, IOT (Internet of things), or geostationary satellite communications for use through either PC- or web-based software. citation needed ] Cold-store freight trailers that deliver fresh or frozen foods are increasingly incorporating telematics to gather time-series data on the temperature inside the cargo container, both to trigger alarms and record an audit trail for business purposes. An increasingly sophisticated array of sensors, many incorporating RFID technology, is being used to ensure the cold chain . citation needed ] Freight containers can be tracked by GPS using a similar approach to that used for trailer tracking (i.e. a battery-powered GPS device communicating its position via mobile phone or satellite communications). Benefits of this approach include increased security and the possibility to reschedule the container transport movements based on accurate information about its location. According to Berg Insight, the installed base of
include increased security and the possibility to reschedule the container transport movements based on accurate information about its location. According to Berg Insight, the installed base of tracking units in the intermodal shipping container segment reached 190,000 at the end of 2013. ] Growing at a compound annual growth rate of 38.2 percent, the installed base reached 960,000 units at the end of 2018. citation needed ] Fleet management is the management of a company's fleet and includes the management of ships and/or motor vehicles such as cars, vans, and trucks. Fleet (vehicle) management can include a range of functions, such as vehicle financing, vehicle maintenance, vehicle telematics (tracking and diagnostics), driver management, fuel management, health and safety management, and dynamic vehicle scheduling. Fleet management is a function which allows companies that rely on transport in their business to remove or minimize the risks associated with vehicle investment, improving efficiency and productivity while reducing overall transport costs and ensuring compliance with government legislation and Duty of Care obligations. These functions can either be dealt with by an in-house fleet management department or an outsourced fleet management provider. ] The Association of Equipment Management Professionals (AEMP) ] developed the industry's first telematics standard. citation needed ] In 2008, AEMP brought together the major construction equipment manufacturers and telematics providers in the heavy equipment industry to discuss the development of the industry's first telematics standard. ] Following agreement from Caterpillar , Volvo CE, Komatsu , and John Deere Construction & Forestry to support such a standard, the AEMP formed a standards development subcommittee chaired by Pat Crail CEM to develop the standard. ] This committee consisted of developers provided by the Caterpillar/Trimble joint venture known as Virtual Site Solutions, Volvo CE, and John Deere. This group worked from February 2009 through September 2010 to develop the industry's first standard for the delivery of telematics data. ] The result, the AEMP Telematics Data Standard V1.1, ] was released in 2010 and officially went live on October 1, 2010. As of November 1, 2010, Caterpillar, Volvo CE, John Deere Construction & Forestry, OEM Data Delivery, and Navman Wireless are able to support customers with delivery of basic telematics data in a standard xml format. Komatsu, Topcon , and others are finishing beta testing and have indicated their ability to support customers in the near future. ] The AEMP's telematics data standard was developed to allow end users to integrate key telematics data (operating hours, location, fuel consumed , and odometer reading where applicable) into their existing fleet management reporting systems. As such, the standard was primarily intended to facilitate importation of these data elements into enterprise software systems such as those used
their existing fleet management reporting systems. As such, the standard was primarily intended to facilitate importation of these data elements into enterprise software systems such as those used by many medium-to-large construction contractors. Prior to the standard, end users had few options for integrating this data into their reporting systems in a mixed-fleet environment consisting of multiple brands of machines and a mix of telematics-equipped machines and legacy machines (those without telematics devices where operating data is still reported manually via pen and paper). One option available to machine owners was to visit multiple websites to manually retrieve data from each manufacturer's telematics interface and then manually enter it into their fleet management program's database. This option was cumbersome and labor-intensive. ] A second option was for the end user to develop an API ( Application Programming Interface ), or program, to integrate the data from each telematics provider into their database. This option was quite costly as each telematics provider had different procedures for accessing and retrieving the data and the data format varied from provider to provider. This option automated the process, but because each provider required a unique, custom API to retrieve and parse the data, it was an expensive option. In addition, another API had to be developed any time another brand of machine or telematics device was added to the fleet. ] A third option for mixed-fleet integration was to replace the various factory-installed telematics devices with devices from a third party telematics provider. Although this solved the problem of having multiple data providers requiring unique integration methods, this was by far the most expensive option. In addition to the expense, many third-party devices available for construction equipment are unable to access data directly from the machine's electronic control modules (ECMs), or computers, and are more limited than the device installed by the OEM (Cat, Volvo, Deere, Komatsu, etc.) in the data they are able to provide. In some cases, these devices are limited to location and engine runtime, although they are increasingly able to accommodate a number of add-on sensors to provide additional data. ] The AEMP Telematics Data Standard provides a fourth option. By concentrating on the key data elements that drive the majority of fleet management reports (hours, miles, location, fuel consumption), making those data elements available in a standardized xml format, and standardizing the means by which the document is retrieved, the standard enables the end user to use one API to retrieve data from any participating telematics provider (as opposed to the unique API for each provider that was required previously), greatly reducing integration development costs. ] The current draft version of the AEMP Telematics Data Standard is now called the AEM/AEMP Draft Telematics API Standard, which expands
previously), greatly reducing integration development costs. ] The current draft version of the AEMP Telematics Data Standard is now called the AEM/AEMP Draft Telematics API Standard, which expands the original standard Version 1.2 to include 19 data fields (with fault code capability). This new draft standard is a collaborative effort of AEMP and the Association of Equipment Manufacturers (AEM), working on behalf of their members and the industry. This Draft API replaces the current version 1.2 and does not currently cover some types of equipment, e.g., agriculture equipment, cranes, mobile elevating work platforms, air compressors, and other niche products. In addition to the new data fields, the AEM/AEMP Draft Telematics API Standard changes how data is accessed in an effort to make it easier to consume and integrate with other systems and processes. It includes standardized communication protocols for the ability to transfer telematics information in mixed-equipment fleets to end user business enterprise systems, enabling the end user to employ their own business software to collect and then analyze asset data from mixed-equipment fleets without the need to work across multiple telematics provider applications. To achieve a globally recognized standard for conformity worldwide, the AEM/AEMP Draft Telematics API Standard will be submitted for acceptance by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Final language is dependent upon completion of the ISO acceptance process. Satellite navigation in the context of vehicle telematics is the technology of using a GPS and electronic mapping tool to enable a driver to locate a position, plan a route, and navigate a journey. ] Mobile data is the use of wireless data communications using radio waves to send and receive real-time computer data to, from, and between devices used by field-based personnel. These devices can be fitted solely for use while in the vehicle (Fixed Data Terminal) or for use in and out of the vehicle (Mobile Data Terminal). See mobile Internet . The common methods for mobile data communication for telematics were based on private vendors' RF communication infrastructure. During the early 2000s, manufacturers of mobile data terminals/AVL devices moved to try cellular data communication to offer cheaper ways to transmit telematics information and wider range based on cellular provider coverage. Since then, as a result of cellular providers offering low GPRS (2.5G) and later UMTS (3G) rates, mobile data is almost totally offered to telematics customers via cellular communication. Wireless vehicle safety communications telematics aid in car safety and road safety. It is an electronic subsystem in a vehicle used for exchanging safety information about road hazards and the locations and speeds of vehicles over short-range radio links . This may involve temporary ad hoc wireless local area networks. Wireless units are often installed in vehicles and fixed locations, such
and speeds of vehicles over short-range radio links . This may involve temporary ad hoc wireless local area networks. Wireless units are often installed in vehicles and fixed locations, such as near traffic signals and emergency call boxes along the road. Sensors in vehicles and at fixed locations, as well as in possible connections to wider networks, provide information displayed to drivers . The range of the radio links can be extended by forwarding messages along multi-hop paths. Even without fixed units, information about fixed hazards can be maintained by moving vehicles by passing it backwards. It also seems possible for traffic lights, which one can expect to become smarter, to use this information to reduce the chance of collisions. In the future, it may connect directly to the adaptive cruise control or other vehicle control aids. Cars and trucks with the wireless system connected to their brakes may move in convoys to save fuel and space on the roads. When a column member slows down, those behind it will automatically slow also. Certain scenarios may required less engineering effort, such as when a radio beacon is connected to a brake light. In fall 2008, network ideas were tested in Europe, where radio frequency bandwidth had been allocated. The 30 MHz allocated is at 5.9 GHz, and unallocated bandwidth at 5.4 GHz may also be used. The standard is IEEE 802.11p, a low-latency form of the Wi-Fi local area network standard. Similar efforts are underway in Japan and the USA. ] Telematics technologies are self-orientating open network architecture structures of variable programmable intelligent beacons developed for application in the development of intelligent vehicles with the intent to accord (blend or mesh) warning information with surrounding vehicles in the vicinity of travel, intra-vehicle, and infrastructure. Emergency warning systems for vehicle telematics are developed particularly for international harmonization and standardization of vehicle-to-vehicle, infrastructure-to-vehicle, and vehicle-to-infrastructure real-time Dedicated Short-Range Communication ( DSRC ) systems. Telematics most commonly relate to computerized systems that update information at the same rate they receive data, enabling them to direct or control a process such as an instantaneous autonomous warning notification in a remote machine or group of machines. In the use of telematics relating to intelligent vehicle technologies, instantaneous direction travel cognizance of a vehicle may be transmitted in real-time to surrounding vehicles traveling in the local area of vehicles equipped (with EWSV) to receive said warning signals of danger. Telematics comprise electronic, electromechanical, and electromagnetic devices—usually silicon micro-machined components operating in conjunction with computer-controlled devices and radio transceivers to provide precision repeatability functions (such as in robotics artificial intelligence systems) emergency warning
operating in conjunction with computer-controlled devices and radio transceivers to provide precision repeatability functions (such as in robotics artificial intelligence systems) emergency warning validation performance reconstruction. Intelligent vehicle technologies commonly apply to car safety systems and self-contained autonomous electromechanical sensors generating warnings that can be transmitted within a specified targeted area of interest, i.e. within 100 meters of the emergency warning system for the vehicle's transceiver. In ground applications, intelligent vehicle technologies are utilized for safety and commercial communications between vehicles or between a vehicle and a sensor along the road. On November 3, 2009, the most advanced Intelligent Vehicle concept car was demonstrated in New York City when a 2010 Toyota Prius became the first LTE connected car . The demonstration was provided by the NG Connect project, a collaboration of automotive telematic technologies designed to exploit in-car 4G wireless network connectivity. ] Telematics technology has enabled the emergence of carsharing services such as Local Motion, Uber, Lyft, Car2Go , Zipcar worldwide, or City Car Club in the UK . Telematics-enabled computers allow organizers to track members' usage and bill them on a pay-as-you-drive basis. Some systems show users where to find an idle vehicle. ] Car Clubs such as Australia's Charter Drive use telematics to monitor and report on vehicle use within predefined geofence areas to demonstrate the reach of their transit media car club fleet. The general idea of telematics auto insurance is that a driver's behavior is monitored directly while the person drives and this information is transmitted to an insurance company. The insurance company then assesses the risk of that driver having an accident and charges insurance premiums accordingly. A driver who drives less responsibly will be charged a higher premium than a driver who drives smoothly and with less calculated risk of claim propensity. Other benefits can be delivered to end users with Telematics2.0 -based telematics as customer engagement can be enhanced with direct customer interaction. Telematics auto insurance was independently invented and patented ] by a major U.S. auto insurance company, Progressive Auto Insurance U.S. patent 5,797,134 , and a Spanish independent inventor, Salvador Minguijon Perez ( European Patent EP0700009B1 ). The Perez patents cover monitoring the car's engine control computer to determine distance driven, speed, time of day, braking force, etc. Progressive is currently developing the Perez technology in the U.S. and European auto insurer Norwich Union is developing the Progressive technology for Europe. Both patents have since been overturned in courts due to prior work in the commercial insurance sectors. ] Trials conducted by Norwich Union in 2005 found that young drivers (18- to 23-year-olds) signing up for telematics auto insurance have had a
due to prior work in the commercial insurance sectors. ] Trials conducted by Norwich Union in 2005 found that young drivers (18- to 23-year-olds) signing up for telematics auto insurance have had a 20% lower accident rate than average. ] In 2007, theoretical economic research on the social welfare effects of Progressive's telematics technology business process patents questioned whether the business process patents are pareto efficient for society. Preliminary results suggested that it was not, but more work is needed. ] ] In April 2014, Progressive patents were overturned by the U.S. legal system on the grounds of "lack of originality." The smartphone as the in-vehicle device for insurance telematics has been discussed in great detail ] and the instruments are available for the design of smartphone-driven insurance telematics. Several universities provide two-year Telematics Master of Science programs: In 2007, a project entitled the European Automotive Digital Innovation Studio (EADIS) was awarded 400,000 Euros from the European commission under its Leonardo da Vinci program . EADIS used a virtual work environment called the Digital Innovation Studio to train and develop professional designers in the automotive industry in the impact and application of vehicle telematics so they could integrate new technologies into future products within the automotive industry. Funding ended in 2013. ]
Usage-based insurance ( UBI ), also known as pay as you drive ( PAYD ), pay how you drive ( PHYD ) and mile-based auto insurance , is a type of vehicle insurance whereby the costs are dependent upon type of vehicle used, measured against time, distance, behavior and place. This differs from traditional insurance, which attempts to differentiate and reward "safe" drivers, giving them lower premiums and/or a no-claims bonus. However, conventional differentiation is a reflection of history rather than present patterns of behaviour. This means that it may take a long time before safer (or more reckless) patterns of driving and changes in lifestyle feed through into premiums. The simplest form of usage-based insurance bases the insurance costs simply on distance driven. However, the general concept of pay as you drive includes any scheme where the insurance costs may depend not just on how much you drive but how, where, and when one drives. ] Pay as you drive (PAYD) means that the insurance premium is calculated dynamically, typically according to the amount driven. There are three types of usage-based insurance: The formula can be a simple function of the number of miles driven, or can vary according to the type of driving or the identity of the driver. Once the basic scheme is in place, it is possible to add further details, such as an extra risk premium if someone drives too long without a break, uses their mobile phone while driving, or travels at an excessive speed. Telematic usage-based insurance (i.e. the latter two types, in which vehicle information is automatically transmitted to the system) provides a much more immediate feedback loop to the driver, ] by changing the cost of insurance dynamically with a change of risk. This means drivers have a stronger incentive to adopt safer practices. For example, if a commuter switches to public transport or to working at home, this immediately reduces the risk of rush hour accidents. With usage-based insurance, this reduction would be immediately reflected in the cost of car insurance for that month. citation needed ] The smartphone as measurement probe for insurance telematics has been surveyed ] Another form of usage-based insurance is PHYD (Pay How You Drive). Similar to PAYD, but also brings in additional sensors like accelerometer to monitor driving behavior. ] There are several issued patents ] and pending patent applications that have been filed worldwide on various inventions related to telematic auto insurance. These include: In order to make sure that patents did not hinder its Pay as You Drive development program, Norwich Union purchased the UK version of EP0700009 and obtained an exclusive license to any EU patents that may emerge from Progressive's EU patent applications. citation needed ] In June 2010, Progressive Auto Insurance filed a patent infringement lawsuit against Liberty Mutual over one of Progressive's Pay As You Drive auto insurance patents. ] In September 2010 Progressive
In June 2010, Progressive Auto Insurance filed a patent infringement lawsuit against Liberty Mutual over one of Progressive's Pay As You Drive auto insurance patents. ] In September 2010 Progressive Auto Insurance filed a declaratory judgment lawsuit against Hughes Telematics to have several its patents covering OBDII mounted wireless data loggers declared invalid. Progressive uses these devices from a competitive supplier, Xirgo Technologies . ] Telematics have been proposed or utilised in order to detect distracted driving . The use of telematics to detect drunk driving and Texting while driving has been proposed. ] A US patent application combining this technology with a usage based insurance product was open for public comment on peer to patent . ]
Vehicle insurance (also known as car insurance , motor insurance , or auto insurance ) is insurance for cars , trucks , motorcycles , and other road vehicles. Its primary use is to provide financial protection against physical damage or bodily injury resulting from traffic collisions and against liability that could also arise from incidents in a vehicle. Vehicle insurance may additionally offer financial protection against theft of the vehicle, and against damage to the vehicle sustained from events other than traffic collisions, such as vandalism , weather or natural disasters , and damage sustained by colliding with stationary objects. The specific terms of vehicle insurance vary with legal regulations in each region. Widespread use of the motor car began after the First World War in urban areas. Cars were relatively fast and dangerous by that stage, yet there was still no compulsory form of car insurance anywhere in the world. This meant that injured victims would rarely get any compensation in a crash, and drivers often faced considerable costs for damage to their car and property. A compulsory car insurance scheme was introduced in the United Kingdom with the Road Traffic Act 1930 . This ensured that all vehicle owners and drivers had to be insured for their liability for injury or death to third parties while their vehicle was being used on a public road. ] Ireland replicated the obligation via the Road Traffic Act, 1933. ] Germany enacted similar legislation in 1939 called the "Act on the Implementation of Compulsory Insurance for Motor Vehicle Owners". ] The EU required mandatory insurance cover be mandated by all member states, from 2009. ] In many jurisdictions, it is compulsory to have vehicle insurance before using or keeping a motor vehicle on public roads. Most jurisdictions relate insurance to both the car and the driver; however, the degree of each varies greatly. Several jurisdictions have experimented with a "pay-as-you-drive" insurance plan which utilizes either a tracking device in the vehicle or vehicle diagnostics. This could address issues of uninsured motorists by providing additional options and also charge based on the distance driven, which could theoretically increase the efficiency of the insurance, through streamlined collection. ] In Australia , every state has its own Compulsory Third-Party (CTP) insurance scheme. CTP covers only personal injury liability in a vehicle crash. Comprehensive and Third-Party Property Damage, with or without Fire and Theft insurance, are sold separately. CTP insurance is compulsory in every state in Australia and is paid as part of vehicle registration. It covers the vehicle owner and any person who drives the vehicle against claims for liability for death or injury to people caused by the fault of the vehicle owner or driver. CTP may include any kind of physical harm, bodily injuries and may cover the cost of all reasonable medical treatment for injuries received in the crash, loss of
fault of the vehicle owner or driver. CTP may include any kind of physical harm, bodily injuries and may cover the cost of all reasonable medical treatment for injuries received in the crash, loss of wages, cost of care services and, in some cases, compensation for pain and suffering. Each state in Australia has a different scheme. Third-Party Property insurance or Comprehensive insurance covers the third party with the repairing cost of the vehicle, any property damage or medication expenses as a result of a crash by the insured. They are not to be confused with Compulsory Third-Party insurance, which is for injuries or death of someone in a motor crash. In New South Wales , each vehicle must be insured before it can be registered. It is often called a 'greenslip', ] because of its colour. There are five licensed CTP insurers in New South Wales. Suncorp holds licences for GIO and AAMI and Allianz holds one licence. The remaining two licences are held by QBE and NRMA Insurance (NRMA). APIA and Shannons and InsureMyRide insurance also supply CTP insurance licensed by GIO. A privately provided scheme also applies in the Australian Capital Territory through AAMI, APIA, GIO and NRMA. Vehicle owners pay for CTP as part of their vehicle registration. In Queensland , CTP is included in the registration fee for a vehicle. There is a choice of private insurer – Allianz, QBE and Suncorp and price is government controlled. ] In South Australia , since July 2016, CTP is no longer provided by the Motor Accident Commission . The government has now licensed four private insurers – AAMI, Allianz, QBE and SGIC – to offer CTP insurance SA. Since July 2019, vehicle owners can choose their own CTP insurer and new insurers may also enter the market. ] There are three states and one territory that do not have a private CTP scheme. In Victoria , the Transport Accident Commission provides CTP through a levy in the vehicle registration fee, known as the TAC charge. A similar scheme exists in Tasmania through the Motor Accidents Insurance Board . ] A similar scheme applies in Western Australia , through the Insurance Commission of Western Australia (ICWA). The Northern Territory scheme is managed through Territory Insurance Office (TIO). For all types of motor insurance policies in Bangladesh , the limit of liability has been fixed by the law. Currently, the limits are too low to compensate the victims. In respect of Act Only Liability Motor Vehicle Insurance, the compensation for personal injuries and property damage to third parties is ৳ 20,000 (US$170) BDT 20,000 for death, ৳ 10,000 (US$85) for severe injury, ৳ 5,000 (US$43) for injury, and ৳ 50,000 (US$425) for property damage. citation needed ] The limits are under review by the governmental bodies. citation needed ] Several Canadian provinces ( British Columbia , Saskatchewan , Manitoba and Quebec ) provide a public auto insurance system while in the rest of the country insurance is provided privately. The
] Several Canadian provinces ( British Columbia , Saskatchewan , Manitoba and Quebec ) provide a public auto insurance system while in the rest of the country insurance is provided privately. The third-party insurance is privatized in Quebec and is mandatory. The province covers everything but the vehicle(s). ] Basic auto insurance is mandatory throughout Canada (with some exceptions, such as government vehicles ] ) with each province's government determining which benefits are included as minimum required auto insurance coverage and which benefits are options available for those seeking additional coverage. Accident benefits coverage is mandatory everywhere except for Newfoundland and Labrador . ] All provinces in Canada have some form of no-fault insurance available to crash victims. The difference from province to province is the extent to which tort or no-fault is emphasized. International drivers entering Canada are permitted to drive any vehicle their licence allows for the three-month period for which they are allowed to use their international licence. International laws provide visitors to the country with an International Insurance Bond (IIB) until this three-month period is over in which the international driver must provide themselves with Canadian Insurance. The IIB is reinstated every time the international driver enters the country. Damage to the driver's own vehicle is optional – one notable exception to this is in Saskatchewan , where SGI provides collision coverage (less than a $1000 deductible , such as a collision damage waiver ) as part of its basic insurance policy. ] In Saskatchewan , residents have the option to have their auto insurance through a tort system but less than 0.5% of the population have taken this option. ] Facility insurance policies are offered by the "facility association residual market" (or "FARM"), as a last resort since auto insurance is mandatory in Canada, for private and commercial high-risk drivers who cannot buy a policy in the voluntary market (regular auto insurance). ] Traffic Compulsory Insurance provides protection in the event of third party injuries, third party property losses, etc. The minimum liability cover is RMB180,000 (US$27,907) for death and injury/per crash, RMB18,000 (US$2,791) for medical expense, and RMB2,000 (US$310) for physical loss. ] Additional 3rd Party Liability Insurance also known as Commercial Motor Insurance provides extra cover up to RMB10,000,000 (US$1,550,388) excluding the driver and passengers. citation needed ] Driver and Passenger insurance covers the driver and passengers, whilst Vehicle Damage and Theft Insurance covers vehicle damage and the objects contained inside. ] Excess Waiver Insurance is an additional option that waives any deductibles. Some differences apply in different regions: According to section 4(1) of the Motor Vehicles Insurance (Third-Party Risks) Ordinance (Cap. 272 of the Laws of Hong Kong), all users of a car, include its permitted
apply in different regions: According to section 4(1) of the Motor Vehicles Insurance (Third-Party Risks) Ordinance (Cap. 272 of the Laws of Hong Kong), all users of a car, include its permitted users, must have insurance or some other security with respect to third-party risks. Third party insurance protects the policyholder against liability of death or bodily injury to third party up to HK$ 100 million ( US$ 12.87 million) and/or damage to third party property up to HK$ 2 million ( US$ 257,400.26) as a result of crash arising out of the use of the insured vehicle. ] Comprehensive Motor Insurance is also available. The mandatory minimum legal requirement Third Party Liability ("TPL") Cover is MOP1,500,000 per crash and MOP30,000,000 per year, protecting against the legal liability arising from a traffic crash causing loss and damages to any third party. citation needed ] . Comprehensive Motor Insurance is also available. In the European Union , from the introduction of Directive 2009EC, insurance cover is mandatory, with the statutory minimum cover being revised every five years, the most recent revision, via Directive (EU) 2021/2118 (the ‘‘Motor Insurance Directive’’ or ‘‘MID’’ ) requires: ] In some European languages, comprehensive non-mandatory insurance is known as casco (Casualty and Collision). ] ] ] ] Since 1939, it has been compulsory to have third-party personal insurance before keeping a motor vehicle in all federal states of Germany . ] In addition, every vehicle owner is free to take out a comprehensive insurance policy. All types of car insurance are provided by several private insurers. The amount of insurance contribution is determined by several criteria, like the region, the type of car or the personal way of driving. The minimum coverage defined by German law for car liability insurance fortune loss which is in no direct or indirect coherence with bodily injury or property damage. ] Insurance companies usually offer all-infortune loss (usually with a bodily injury coverage limitation of €8–15,000,000 for each bodily injured person). Third party vehicle insurance is mandatory for all vehicles in Hungary . No exemption is possible by money deposit. The premium covers all damage up to HUF 500m (about €1.8m) per crash without deductible. The coverage is extended to HUF 1,250m (about €4.5m) in case of personal injuries. Vehicle insurance policies from all EU countries and some non-EU countries are valid in Hungary based on bilateral or multilateral agreements. Visitors with vehicle insurance not covered by such agreements are required to buy a monthly, renewable policy at the border. citation needed ] The Road Traffic Act, 1933 requires all drivers of mechanically propelled vehicles in public places to have at least third-party insurance, or to have obtained exemption – generally by depositing a (large) sum of money to the High Court as a guarantee against claims. In 1933, this figure was set at £ 15,000. ] The Road Traffic Act,
or to have obtained exemption – generally by depositing a (large) sum of money to the High Court as a guarantee against claims. In 1933, this figure was set at £ 15,000. ] The Road Traffic Act, 1961 ] (which is currently in force) repealed the 1933 act but replaced these sections with functionally identical sections. From 1968, those making deposits require the consent of the Minister for Transport to do so, with the sum specified by the Minister. Those not exempted from obtaining insurance must obtain a certificate of insurance from their insurance provider, and display a portion of this (an insurance disc ) on their vehicles' windscreen (if fitted). ] The certificate in full must be presented to a police station within ten days if requested by an officer. Proof of having insurance or an exemption must also be provided to pay for the motor tax . ] Those injured or suffering property damage/loss due to uninsured drivers can claim against the Motor Insurance Bureau of Ireland's uninsured drivers fund, as can those injured (but not those suffering damage or loss) from hit and run offences. The law 990/1969 requires that each motor vehicle or trailer standing or moving on a public road have third-party insurance (called RCA, Responsabilità civile per gli autoveicoli ). Historically, a part of the certificate of insurance must be displayed on the windscreen of the vehicle. This latter requirement was revoked in 2015, when a national database of insured vehicles was built by the Insurance Company Association (ANIA, Associazione Nazionale Imprese Assicuratrici ) and the National Transportation Authority ( Motorizzazione Civile ) to verify (by private citizens and public authorities) if a vehicle is insured. There is no exemption policy to this law disposition. Driving without the necessary insurance for that vehicle is an offence that can be prosecuted by the police and fines range from 841 to 3,287 euros. Police forces also have the power to seize a vehicle that does not have the necessary insurance in place, until the owner of the vehicle pays a fine and signs a new insurance policy. The same provision is applied when the vehicle is standing on a public road. Minimal insurance policies cover only third parties (including the insured person and third parties carried with the vehicle, but not the driver, if the two do not coincide). Third parties, fire and theft is a common insurance policy, while the all-inclusive policies ( kasko policy) which include also damages of the vehicle causing the crash or the injuries. It is also common to include a renounce clause of the insurance company to compensate the damages against the insured person in some cases (usually in case of DUI or other infringement of the law by the driver). The victims of crashes caused by non-insured vehicles could be compensated by the Road's Victim Warranty Fund ( Fondo garanzia vittime della strada ), which is covered by a fixed amount (2.5%, as 2015) of each RCA insurance premium.
non-insured vehicles could be compensated by the Road's Victim Warranty Fund ( Fondo garanzia vittime della strada ), which is covered by a fixed amount (2.5%, as 2015) of each RCA insurance premium. Third-party vehicle insurance is a mandatory requirement for every vehicle in the Netherlands . ] This obligation is mandatory based on article 2 of the Wet aansprakelijkheidsverzekering motorrijtuigen . ] When a vehicle is not insured the owner will receive a fine from the RDW ( Netherlands Vehicle Authority nl ] ). ] The third-party vehicle insurance is called a WA verzekering where WA stands for Wettelijke aansprakelijkheid which means legal liability. In general there are three types of auto insurance in the Netherlands: WA verzekering (liability insurance), WA beperkt casco (limited frame coverage), and WA vollledig casco (full frame coverage). Limited frame and full frame coverage will provide more coverage against certain additional risks which are not covered by the mandatory legal third-party coverage. For example limited frame coverage will provide coverage against damage caused by the weather such as storm and flooding. Also fire damage and theft of the car is covered. Full frame coverage will provide coverage against all risks mentioned plus damage to the car caused by the driver himself. citation needed ] Each motor vehicle on a public road is required to have third party insurance (called Seguro de responsabilidad civil ). Police forces have the power to seize vehicles that do not have the necessary insurance in place, until the owner of the vehicle pays the fine and signs a new insurance policy. Driving without the necessary insurance for that vehicle is an offence that will be prosecuted by the police and will receive a penalty. The same provision is applied when the vehicle is standing on a public road. The minimum insurance policy covers only third parties (including the insured person and third parties carried with the vehicle, but not the driver, if the two do not coincide). Third parties, fire and theft is a common insurance policy. Victims of accidents caused by non-insured vehicles may be compensated by a Warranty Fund, which is covered by a fixed amount for each insurance premium. Since 2013 it is possible to contract an insurance by days as is possible in countries such as Germany and the UK. ] Third-party vehicle insurance is a mandatory requirement in Indonesia and each individual car and motorcycle must be insured or the vehicle will not be considered legal; this compulsory auto insurance is legally called the Road Traffic Accidents Compulsory Coverage Fund ( Indonesian : Dana Pertanggungan Wajib Kecelakaan Lalu Lintas Jalan , DPWKLLJ ). Therefore, a motorist cannot drive the vehicle until it is insured. DPWKLLJ was introduced in 1964 and merely covers body injuries, and is operated by a SOE called PT Jasa Raharja (Persero) id ] . ] DPWKLLJ is included, through an annual premium called the Compulsory Donation to the Road
in 1964 and merely covers body injuries, and is operated by a SOE called PT Jasa Raharja (Persero) id ] . ] DPWKLLJ is included, through an annual premium called the Compulsory Donation to the Road Traffic Accident Fund ( Indonesian : Sumbangan Wajib Dana Kecelakaan Lalu Lintas Jalan , SWDKLLJ ), ] in the annual vehicle tax which is paid to the local Samsat ( Sistem Administrasi Manunggal di bawah Satu Atap ), which is responsible for cars and roads. ] Auto insurance in India covers the loss of or damage caused to the automobile or its parts due to natural and man-made calamities. It provides accident cover for individual owners of the vehicle while driving and also for passengers and third party legal liability . There are certain general insurance companies who also offer online insurance service for the vehicle. Auto insurance is a compulsory requirement for all new vehicles used whether for commercial or personal use. Insurance companies have tie-ups with leading automobile manufacturers. They offer their customers instant auto quotes. Premiums are determined by a number of factors and the amount of premium increases with the rise in the price of the vehicle. The claims of the auto insurance in India can be accidental, theft claims or third party claims. Certain documents are required for claiming auto insurance, like duly signed claim form, Registration Certificate copy of the vehicle, driving license copy, First information report copy, original estimate and policy copy. There are different types of auto insurance in India: Auto insurance generally includes: Auto insurance generally does not include: Third party insurance cover is mandatory under the Motor Vehicles Act, 1988. This cover cannot be used for personal damages. This is offered at low premiums and allows for third party claims under "no-fault liability". The premium is calculated through the rates provided by the Tariff Advisory Committee. This is a branch of the IRDA (Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority of India). It covers bodily injury/accidental death and property damage. citation needed ] In Malaysia, renewing car insurances is a very common thing. In general, there are four types of car insurance available for Malaysians: This is the minimum cover corresponding to the terms of the Road Transport Act 1987. The insurance concerns the legal liability for death or physical injury to the third party (not include the passengers), so it is hardly ever written by insurers. This type is compulsory to buy for every vehicle so it is the most basic and common car insurance, which insures you against claims for the injury or damage to the third party or its property in a crash. In addition to third-party coverage, this policy also provides insurance for your own vehicle due to fire, crash or theft. This policy provides the widest coverage, i.e. the third party's physical injury and death, third party's vehicle damage and your own vehicle's damage caused by fire, theft or a
fire, crash or theft. This policy provides the widest coverage, i.e. the third party's physical injury and death, third party's vehicle damage and your own vehicle's damage caused by fire, theft or a crash. This type of insurance is usually designed for luxury vehicles. Within New Zealand , the Accident Compensation Corporation (ACC) provides nationwide no-fault personal injury insurance. ] Injuries involving motor vehicles operating on public roads are covered by the Motor Vehicle Account, for which premiums are collected through levies on petrol and through vehicle licensing fees. ] In Norway , the vehicle owner must provide the minimum liability insurance for his/her vehicle(s) – of any kind. Otherwise, the vehicle is illegal to use. If a person drives a vehicle belonging to someone else and has a crash, the insurance will cover for damage done. Note that the policy carrier can choose to limit the coverage to only apply for family members or persons over a certain age. Romanian law mandates Răspundere Auto Civilă , a motor-vehicle liability insurance for all vehicle owners to cover damages to third parties. ] Motor vehicle liability insurance is mandatory for all owners in Russian legislation. Insurance of the vehicle itself is technically voluntary, but may be mandated in some circumstances, e.g. if the car is leased. South Africa allocates a percentage of the money from fuel into the Road Accident Fund , which goes towards compensating third parties in crashes. ] ] When buying car insurance in the United Arab Emirates , the traffic department requires a 13-month insurance certificate each time a person registers or renews a vehicle registration. In Dubai, vehicle insurance is compulsory as per the UAE RTA law. ] There are two types of motor insurance policies in Dubai, Third-Party Liability Insurance and Comprehensive Motor Insurance. citation needed ] It is mandatory to have third-party liability insurance for every individual vehicle owner in Dubai . This insurance policy is the most basic form of vehicle insurance Dubai as it covers the third-party property damage or bodily injuries caused by the insured vehicle. citation needed ] Policyholder's own vehicle damage such as fire, theft, and accidental collision is not covered under the third-party liability insurance policy. citation needed ] The Road Traffic Act 1930 , of the UK Government , introduced a law that required every person who used a vehicle on the road to have at least third-party personal injury insurance. Today, this law is contained in the Road Traffic Act 1988 (generally referred to as the RTA 1988 as amended). Section 143 of that Act requires that motorists be insured against liability for injuries to others (including passengers) and for damage to other persons' property, resulting from use of a vehicle on a public road or in other public places. ] The regulations were last revised via the THE MOTOR VEHICLES (COMPULSORY INSURANCE) REGULATIONS 2016 No. 1193, the
resulting from use of a vehicle on a public road or in other public places. ] The regulations were last revised via the THE MOTOR VEHICLES (COMPULSORY INSURANCE) REGULATIONS 2016 No. 1193, the amendment increased the minimum guaranteed property cover to £1,200,000 (US$1,643,836) per accident, personal injury cover remains unlimited. ] Failure to insure a vehicle can result in the vehicle being seized, the driver finned a minimum of £300 (US$411) and issued with six to eight penalty driving points (IN10) . ] The regulations for vehicle insurance differ with each of the 50 US states and other territories, with each U.S. state having its own mandatory minimum coverage requirements ( see separate main article ). 48 U.S. states and the District of Columbia require drivers to have insurance coverage for both bodily injury and property damage, with New Hampshire and Virginia being the exception, but the minimum amount of coverage required by law varies by state. For example, minimum bodily injury liability coverage requirements range from $30,000 in Arizona ] to $100,000 in Alaska and Maine , ] while minimum property damage liability requirements range from $5,000 to $25,000 in most states. Vehicle insurance can cover some or all of the following items: Different policies specify the circumstances under which each item is covered. For example, a vehicle can be insured against theft, fire damage, or crash damage independently. If a vehicle is declared a total loss and the vehicle's market value is less than the amount that is still owed to the bank that is financing the vehicle, GAP insurance may cover the difference. Not all auto insurance policies include GAP insurance. GAP insurance is often offered by the finance company at time the vehicle is purchased. An excess payment, also known as a deductible , is a fixed contribution that must be paid each time a car is repaired with the charges billed to an automotive insurance policy. Normally this payment is made directly to the crash repair "garage" (the term "garage" refers to an establishment where vehicles are serviced and repaired) when the owner collects the car. If one's car is declared to be a " write-off " (or " totaled "), then the insurance company will deduct the excess agreed on the policy from the settlement payment it makes to the owner. If the crash was the other driver's fault, and this fault is accepted by the third party's insurer, then the vehicle owner may be able to reclaim the excess payment from the other person's insurance company. The excess itself can also be protected by a motor excess insurance policy. citation needed ] A compulsory excess is the minimum excess payment the insurer will accept on the insurance policy. Minimum excesses vary according to the personal details, driving record and the insurance company. For example, young or inexperienced drivers and types of incident can incur additional compulsory excess charges. To reduce the insurance premium, the insured party
record and the insurance company. For example, young or inexperienced drivers and types of incident can incur additional compulsory excess charges. To reduce the insurance premium, the insured party may offer to pay a higher excess (deductible) than the compulsory excess demanded by the insurance company. The voluntary excess is the extra amount, over and above the compulsory excess, that is agreed to be paid in the event of a claim on the policy. As a bigger excess reduces the financial risk carried by the insurer, the insurer is able to offer a significantly lower premium. Depending on the jurisdiction, the insurance premium can be either mandated by the government or determined by the insurance company, in accordance with a framework of regulations set by the government. Often, the insurer will have more freedom to set the price on physical damage coverages than on mandatory liability coverages. When the premium is not mandated by the government, it is usually derived from the calculations of an actuary , based on statistical data. The premium can vary depending on many factors that are believed to affect the expected cost of future claims . ] Those factors can include the car characteristics, the coverage selected ( deductible , limit, covered perils), the profile of the driver ( age , gender , driving history) and the usage of the car (commute to work or not, predicted annual distance driven). ] The address of the owner can affect the premiums. Areas with high crime rates generally lead to higher costs of insurance. ] ] Because male drivers, especially younger ones, are on average often regarded as tending to drive more aggressively, the premiums charged for policies on vehicles whose primary driver is male are often higher. This discrimination may be dropped if the driver is past a certain age. citation needed ] On 1 March 2011, the European Court of Justice decided insurance companies who used gender as a risk factor when calculating insurance premiums were breaching EU equality laws. ] The Court ruled that car-insurance companies were discriminating against men. ] However, in some places, such as the UK, companies have used the standard practice of discrimination based on profession to still use gender as a factor, albeit indirectly. Professions which are more typically practised by men are deemed as being more risky even if they had not been prior to the Court's ruling while the converse is applied to professions predominant among women. ] Another effect of the ruling has been that, while the premiums for men have been lowered, they have been raised for women. This equalisation effect has also been seen in other types of insurance for individuals, such as life insurance . ] Teenage drivers who have no driving record will have higher car insurance premiums. However, young drivers are often offered discounts if they undertake further driver training on recognized courses, such as the Pass Plus scheme in the UK, or if they install a
insurance premiums. However, young drivers are often offered discounts if they undertake further driver training on recognized courses, such as the Pass Plus scheme in the UK, or if they install a telematics device to monitor their driving style. In the US many insurers offer a good-grade discount to students with a good academic record and resident-student discounts to those who live away from home. Generally insurance premiums tend to become lower at the age of 25. Some insurance companies offer "stand alone" car insurance policies specifically for teenagers with lower premiums. By placing restrictions on teenagers' driving (forbidding driving after dark, or giving rides to other teens, for example), these companies effectively reduce their risk. citation needed ] Senior drivers are often eligible for retirement discounts, reflecting the lower average miles driven by this age group. However, rates may increase for senior drivers after age 65, due to increased risk associated with much older drivers. Typically, the increased risk for drivers over 65 years of age is associated with slower reflexes, reaction times, and being more injury-prone. citation needed ] In most U.S. states, moving violations, including running red lights and speeding, assess points on a driver's driving record. Since more points indicate an increased risk of future violations, insurance companies periodically review drivers' records, and may raise premiums accordingly. Rating practices, such as debit for a poor driving history, are not dictated by law. Many insurers allow one moving violation every three to five years before increasing premiums. Crashes affect insurance premiums similarly. Depending on the severity of the crash and the number of points assessed, rates can increase by as much as twenty to thirty percent. citation needed ] Any motoring convictions should be disclosed to insurers, as the driver is assessed by risk from prior experiences while driving on the road. Statistics show that married drivers average fewer crashes than the rest of the population so policy owners who are married often receive l
A piston is a component of reciprocating engines , reciprocating pumps , gas compressors , hydraulic cylinders and pneumatic cylinders , among other similar mechanisms. It is the moving component that is contained by a cylinder and is made gas-tight by piston rings . In an engine, its purpose is to transfer force from expanding gas in the cylinder to the crankshaft via a piston rod and/or connecting rod . In a pump, the function is reversed and force is transferred from the crankshaft to the piston for the purpose of compressing or ejecting the fluid in the cylinder. In some engines, the piston also acts as a valve by covering and uncovering ports in the cylinder. An internal combustion engine is acted upon by the pressure of the expanding combustion gases in the combustion chamber space at the top of the cylinder. This force then acts downwards through the connecting rod and onto the crankshaft . The connecting rod is attached to the piston by a swivelling gudgeon pin (US: wrist pin). This pin is mounted within the piston: unlike the steam engine, there is no piston rod or crosshead (except big two stroke engines). The typical piston design is on the picture. This type of piston is widely used in car diesel engines . According to purpose, supercharging level and working conditions of engines the shape and proportions can be changed. High-power diesel engines work in difficult conditions. Maximum pressure in the combustion chamber can reach 20 MPa and the maximum temperature of some piston surfaces can exceed 450 °C. It is possible to improve piston cooling by creating a special cooling cavity. Injector supplies this cooling cavity «A» with oil through oil supply channel «B». For better temperature reduction construction should be carefully calculated and analysed. Oil flow in the cooling cavity should be not less than 80% of the oil flow through the injector. The pin itself is of hardened steel and is fixed in the piston, but free to move in the connecting rod. A few designs use a 'fully floating' design that is loose in both components. All pins must be prevented from moving sideways and the ends of the pin digging into the cylinder wall, usually by circlips . Gas sealing is achieved by the use of piston rings . These are a number of narrow iron rings, fitted loosely into grooves in the piston, just below the crown. The rings are split at a point in the rim, allowing them to press against the cylinder with a light spring pressure. Two types of ring are used: the upper rings have solid faces and provide gas sealing; lower rings have narrow edges and a U-shaped profile, to act as oil scrapers. There are many proprietary and detail design features associated with piston rings. Pistons are usually cast or forged from aluminium alloys . For better strength and fatigue life, some racing pistons ] may be forged instead. Billet pistons are also used in racing engines because they do not rely on the size and architecture of available forgings, allowing
and fatigue life, some racing pistons ] may be forged instead. Billet pistons are also used in racing engines because they do not rely on the size and architecture of available forgings, allowing for last-minute design changes. Although not commonly visible to the naked eye, pistons themselves are designed with a certain level of ovality and profile taper, meaning they are not perfectly round, and their diameter is larger near the bottom of the skirt than at the crown. ] Early pistons were of cast iron , but there were obvious benefits for engine balancing if a lighter alloy could be used. To produce pistons that could survive engine combustion temperatures, it was necessary to develop new alloys such as Y alloy and Hiduminium , specifically for use as pistons. A few early gas engines ] had double-acting cylinders , but otherwise effectively all internal combustion engine pistons are single-acting . During World War II , the US submarine Pompano ] was fitted with a prototype of the infamously unreliable H.O.R. double-acting two-stroke diesel engine. Although compact, for use in a cramped submarine, this design of engine was not repeated. Media related to Internal combustion engine pistons at Wikimedia Commons Trunk pistons are long relative to their diameter. They act both as a piston and cylindrical crosshead . As the connecting rod is angled for much of its rotation, there is also a side force that reacts along the side of the piston against the cylinder wall. A longer piston helps to support this. Trunk pistons have been a common design of piston since the early days of the reciprocating internal combustion engine. They were used for both petrol and diesel engines, although high speed engines have now adopted the lighter weight slipper piston . A characteristic of most trunk pistons, particularly for diesel engines, is that they have a groove for an oil ring below the gudgeon pin , in addition to the rings between the gudgeon pin and crown. The name 'trunk piston' derives from the ' trunk engine ', an early design of marine steam engine . To make these more compact, they avoided the steam engine's usual piston rod with separate crosshead and were instead the first engine design to place the gudgeon pin directly within the piston. Otherwise these trunk engine pistons bore little resemblance to the trunk piston; they were extremely large diameter and double-acting. Their 'trunk' was a narrow cylinder mounted in the centre of the piston. Media related to Trunk pistons at Wikimedia Commons Large slow-speed Diesel engines may require additional support for the side forces on the piston. These engines typically use crosshead pistons. The main piston has a large piston rod extending downwards from the piston to what is effectively a second smaller-diameter piston. The main piston is responsible for gas sealing and carries the piston rings. The smaller piston is purely a mechanical guide. It runs within a small cylinder as a trunk guide and also
piston. The main piston is responsible for gas sealing and carries the piston rings. The smaller piston is purely a mechanical guide. It runs within a small cylinder as a trunk guide and also carries the gudgeon pin. Lubrication of the crosshead has advantages over the trunk piston as its lubricating oil is not subject to the heat of combustion : the oil is not contaminated by combustion soot particles, it does not break down owing to the heat and a thinner, less viscous oil may be used. The friction of both piston and crosshead may be only half of that for a trunk piston. ] Because of the additional weight of these pistons, they are not used for high-speed engines. Media related to Crosshead pistons at Wikimedia Commons A slipper piston is a piston for a petrol engine that has been reduced in size and weight as much as possible. In the extreme case, they are reduced to the piston crown, support for the piston rings, and just enough of the piston skirt remaining to leave two lands so as to stop the piston rocking in the bore. The sides of the piston skirt around the gudgeon pin are reduced away from the cylinder wall. The purpose is mostly to reduce the reciprocating mass, thus making it easier to balance the engine and so permit high speeds. ] In racing applications, slipper piston skirts can be configured to yield extremely light weight while maintaining the rigidity and strength of a full skirt. ] Reduced inertia also improves mechanical efficiency of the engine: the forces required to accelerate and decelerate the reciprocating parts cause more piston friction with the cylinder wall than the fluid pressure on the piston head. ] A secondary benefit may be some reduction in friction with the cylinder wall, since the area of the skirt, which slides up and down in the cylinder is reduced by half. However, most friction is due to the piston rings , which are the parts which actually fit the tightest in the bore and the bearing surfaces of the wrist pin, and thus the benefit is reduced. Media related to Slipper pistons at Wikimedia Commons Deflector pistons are used in two-stroke engines with crankcase compression, where the gas flow within the cylinder must be carefully directed in order to provide efficient scavenging . With cross scavenging , the transfer (inlet to the cylinder) and exhaust ports are on directly facing sides of the cylinder wall. To prevent the incoming mixture passing straight across from one port to the other, the piston has a raised rib on its crown. This is intended to deflect the incoming mixture upwards, around the combustion chamber . ] Much effort, and many different designs of piston crown, went into developing improved scavenging. The crowns developed from a simple rib to a large asymmetric bulge, usually with a steep face on the inlet side and a gentle curve on the exhaust. Despite this, cross scavenging was never as effective as hoped. Most engines today use Schnuerle porting instead. This places a pair of transfer
on the inlet side and a gentle curve on the exhaust. Despite this, cross scavenging was never as effective as hoped. Most engines today use Schnuerle porting instead. This places a pair of transfer ports in the sides of the cylinder and encourages gas flow to rotate around a vertical axis, rather than a horizontal axis. ] Media related to Deflector pistons at Wikimedia Commons In racing engines, piston strength and stiffness is typically much higher than that of a passenger car engine, while the weight is much less, to achieve the high engine RPM necessary in racing. ] Hydraulic cylinders can be both single-acting or double-acting . A hydraulic actuator controls the movement of the piston back and/or forth. Guide rings guides the piston and rod and absorb the radial forces that act perpendicularly to the cylinder and prevent contact between sliding the metal parts. Steam engines are usually double-acting (i.e. steam pressure acts alternately on each side of the piston) and the admission and release of steam is controlled by slide valves , piston valves or poppet valves . Consequently, steam engine pistons are nearly always comparatively thin discs: their diameter is several times their thickness. (One exception is the trunk engine piston, shaped more like those in a modern internal-combustion engine.) Another factor is that since almost all steam engines use crossheads to translate the force to the drive rod, there are few lateral forces acting to try and "rock" the piston, so a cylinder-shaped piston skirt isn't necessary. Piston pumps can be used to move liquids or compress gases . There are two special type of pistons used in air cannons : close tolerance pistons and double pistons. In close tolerance pistons O-rings serve as a valve, but O-rings are not used in double piston types. citation needed ]
A valve is a device or natural object that regulates, directs or controls the flow of a fluid (gases, liquids, fluidized solids, or slurries ) by opening, closing, or partially obstructing various passageways. Valves are technically fittings , but are usually discussed as a separate category. In an open valve, fluid flows in a direction from higher pressure to lower pressure. The word is derived from the Latin valva , the moving part of a door, in turn from volvere , to turn, roll. The simplest, and very ancient, valve is simply a freely hinged flap which swings down to obstruct fluid (gas or liquid) flow in one direction, but is pushed up by the flow itself when the flow is moving in the opposite direction. This is called a check valve , as it prevents or "checks" the flow in one direction. Modern control valves may regulate pressure or flow downstream and operate on sophisticated automation systems. Valves have many uses, including controlling water for irrigation , industrial uses for controlling processes, residential uses such as on/off and pressure control to dish and clothes washers and taps in the home. Valves are also used in the military and transport sectors. In HVAC ductwork and other near-atmospheric air flows, valves are instead called dampers . In compressed air systems, however, valves are used with the most common type being ball valves. Valves are found in virtually every industrial process, including water and sewage processing, mining, power generation, processing of oil, gas and petroleum, food manufacturing, chemical and plastic manufacturing and many other fields. People in developed nations use valves in their daily lives, including plumbing valves, such as taps for tap water , gas control valves on cookers, small valves fitted to washing machines and dishwashers , safety devices fitted to hot water systems , and poppet valves in car engines. In nature, there are valves, for example one-way valves in veins controlling the blood circulation , and heart valves controlling the flow of blood in the chambers of the heart and maintaining the correct pumping action. Valves may be operated manually, either by a handle or grip, lever , pedal or wheel. Valves may also be automatic, driven by changes in pressure, temperature , or flow. These changes may act upon a diaphragm or a piston which in turn activates the valve, examples of this type of valve found commonly are safety valves fitted to hot water systems or boilers . More complex control systems using valves requiring automatic control based on an external input (i.e., regulating flow through a pipe to a changing set point) require an actuator . An actuator will stroke the valve depending on its input and set-up, allowing the valve to be positioned accurately, and allowing control over a variety of requirements. Valves vary widely in form and application. Sizes ambiguous ] typically range from 0.1 mm to 60 cm. Special valves can have a diameter exceeding 5 meters. which? ]
over a variety of requirements. Valves vary widely in form and application. Sizes ambiguous ] typically range from 0.1 mm to 60 cm. Special valves can have a diameter exceeding 5 meters. which? ] Valve costs range from simple inexpensive disposable valves to specialized valves which cost thousands of dollars (US) per inch of the diameter of the valve. Disposable valves may be found in common household items including mini-pump dispensers and aerosol cans . A common use of the term valve refers to the poppet valves found in the vast majority of modern internal combustion engines such as those in most fossil fuel powered vehicles which are used to control the intake of the fuel-air mixture and allow exhaust gas venting. Valves are quite diverse and may be classified into a number of basic types. Valves may also be classified by how they are actuated: The main parts of the most usual type of valve are the body and the bonnet. These two parts form the casing that holds the fluid going through the valve. The valve's body is the outer casing of most or all of the valve that contains the internal parts or trim . The bonnet is the part of the encasing through which the stem (see below) passes and that forms a guide and seal for the stem. The bonnet typically screws into or is bolted to the valve body. Valve bodies are usually metallic or plastic . Brass , bronze , gunmetal , cast iron , steel , alloy steels and stainless steels are very common. ] Seawater applications, like desalination plants, often use duplex valves, as well as super duplex valves, due to their corrosion resistant properties, particularly against warm seawater. Alloy 20 valves are typically used in sulphuric acid plants, whilst monel valves are used in hydrofluoric acid (HF Acid) plants. Hastelloy valves are often used in high temperature applications, such as nuclear plants, whilst inconel valves are often used in hydrogen applications. Plastic bodies are used for relatively low pressures and temperatures. PVC , PP , PVDF and glass-reinforced nylon are common plastics used for valve bodies. citation needed ] A bonnet acts as a cover on the valve body. It is commonly semi-permanently screwed into the valve body or bolted onto it. During manufacture of the valve, the internal parts are put into the body and then the bonnet is attached to hold everything together inside. To access internal parts of a valve, a user would take off the bonnet, usually for maintenance. Many valves do not have bonnets; for example, plug valves usually do not have bonnets. Many ball valves do not have bonnets since the valve body is put together in a different style, such as being screwed together at the middle of the valve body. Ports are passages that allow fluid to pass through the valve. Ports are obstructed by the valve member or disc to control flow. Valves most commonly have 2 ports, but may have as many as 20. The valve is almost always connected at its ports to pipes or other components. Connection
by the valve member or disc to control flow. Valves most commonly have 2 ports, but may have as many as 20. The valve is almost always connected at its ports to pipes or other components. Connection methods include threadings , compression fittings , glue , cement , flanges , or welding . A handle is used to manually control a valve from outside the valve body. Automatically controlled valves often do not have handles, but some may have a handle (or something similar) anyway to manually override automatic control, such as a stop-check valve . An actuator is a mechanism or device to automatically or remotely control a valve from outside the body. Some valves have neither handle nor actuator because they automatically control themselves from inside; for example, check valves and relief valves may have neither. A disc, also known as a valve member, is a movable obstruction inside the stationary body that adjustably restricts flow through the valve. Although traditionally disc-shaped, discs come in various shapes. Depending on the type of valve, a disc can move linearly inside a valve, or rotate on the stem (as in a butterfly valve ), or rotate on a hinge or trunnion (as in a check valve). A ball is a round valve member with one or more paths between ports passing through it. By rotating the ball, flow can be directed between different ports. Ball valves use spherical rotors with a cylindrical hole drilled as a fluid passage. Plug valves use cylindrical or conically tapered rotors called plugs. ambiguous ] Other round shapes for rotors are possible as well in rotor valves, as long as the rotor can be turned inside the valve body. However, not all round or spherical discs are rotors; for example, a ball check valve uses the ball to block reverse flow, but is not a rotor because operating the valve does not involve rotation of the ball. The "seat" is the interior surface of the body which contacts the disc to form a leak-tight seal. In discs that move linearly or swing on a hinge or trunnion, the disc comes into contact with the seat only when the valve is shut. In disks that rotate, the seat is always in contact with the disk, but the area of contact changes as the disc is turned. The seat always remains stationary relative to the body. Seats are classified by whether they are cut directly into the body, or if they are made of a different material: A closed soft seated valve is much less liable to leak when shut while hard seated valves are more durable. Gate, globe, and check valves are usually hard seated while butterfly, ball, plug, and diaphragm valves are usually soft seated. The stem transmits motion from the handle or controlling device to the disc. The stem typically passes through the bonnet when present. In some cases, the stem and the disc can be combined in one piece, or the stem and the handle are combined in one piece. The motion transmitted by the stem may be a linear force , a rotational torque , or some combination of these (Angle
be combined in one piece, or the stem and the handle are combined in one piece. The motion transmitted by the stem may be a linear force , a rotational torque , or some combination of these (Angle valve using torque reactor pin and Hub Assembly). The valve and stem can be threaded such that the stem can be screwed into or out of the valve by turning it in one direction or the other, thus moving the disc back or forth inside the body. ambiguous ] Packing is often used between the stem and the bonnet to maintain a seal. Some valves have no external control and do not need a stem as in most check valves. Valves whose disc is between the seat and the stem and where the stem moves in a direction into the valve to shut it are normally-seated or front seated . Valves whose seat is between the disc and the stem and where the stem moves in a direction out of the valve to shut it are reverse-seated or back seated . These terms don't apply to valves with no stem or valves using rotors. Gaskets are the mechanical seals, or packings, used to prevent the leakage of a gas or fluids from valves. A valve ball is also used for severe duty, high-pressure, high-tolerance applications. They are typically made of stainless steel, titanium , Stellite , Hastelloy, brass, or nickel . They can also be made of different types of plastic, such as ABS , PVC, PP or PVDF. Many valves have a spring for spring-loading, to normally shift the disc into some position by default but allow control to reposition the disc. Relief valves commonly use a spring to keep the valve shut, but allow excessive pressure to force the valve open against the spring-loading. Coil springs are normally used. Typical spring materials include zinc plated steel , stainless steel, and for high temperature applications Inconel X750. The internal elements of a valve are collectively referred to as a valve's trim . According to API Standards 600, "Steel Gate Valve-Flanged and Butt-welding Ends, Bolted Bonnets", the trim consists of stem, seating surface in the body, gate seating surface, bushing or a deposited weld for the backseat and stem hole guide, and small internal parts that normally contact the service fluid, excluding the pin that is used to make a stem-to-gate connection (this pin shall be made of an austenitic stainless steel material). Valve positions are operating conditions determined by the position of the disc or rotor in the valve. Some valves are made to be operated in a gradual change between two or more positions. Return valves and non-return valves allow fluid to move in 2 or 1 directions respectively. Operating positions for 2-port valves can be either shut (closed) so that no flow at all goes through, fully open for maximum flow, or sometimes partially open to any degree in between. Many valves are not designed to precisely control intermediate degree of flow; such valves are considered to be either open or shut. Some valves are specially designed to regulate varying amounts of flow.
valves are not designed to precisely control intermediate degree of flow; such valves are considered to be either open or shut. Some valves are specially designed to regulate varying amounts of flow. Such valves have been called by various names such as regulating , throttling , metering , or needle valves . For example, needle valves have elongated conically tapered discs and matching seats for fine flow control. For some valves, there may be a mechanism to indicate by how much the valve is open, but in many cases other indications of flow rate are used, such as separate flow meters . In plants with remote-controlled process operation, such as oil refineries and petrochemical plants, some 2-way valves can be designated as normally closed (NC) or normally open (NO) during regular operation. Examples of normally-closed valves are sampling valves , which are only opened while a sample is taken. Other examples of normally-closed valves are emergency shutdown valves , which are kept open when the system is in operation and will automatically shut by taking away the power supply. This happens when there is a problem with a unit or a section of a fluid system such as a leak in order to isolate the problem from the rest of the system. Examples of normally-open valves are purge-gas supply valves or emergency-relief valves. When there is a problem these valves open (by switching them 'off') causing the unit to be flushed and emptied. Although many 2-way valves are made in which the flow can go in either direction between the two ports, when a valve is placed into a certain application, flow is often expected to go from one certain port on the upstream side of the valve, to the other port on the downstream side. Pressure regulators are variations of valves in which flow is controlled to produce a certain downstream pressure, if possible. They are often used to control flow of gas from a gas cylinder . A back-pressure regulator is a variation of a valve in which flow is controlled to maintain a certain upstream pressure, if possible. Valves with three ports serve many different functions. A few of the possibilities are listed here. Three-way ball valves come with T- or L-shaped fluid passageways inside the rotor. The T valve might be used to permit connection of one inlet to either or both outlets or connection of the two outlets. The L valve could be used to permit disconnection of both or connection of either but not both of two inlets to one outlet. Shuttle valves automatically connect the higher pressure inlet to the outlet while (in some configurations) preventing flow from one inlet to the other. Single handle mixer valves produce a variable mixture of hot and cold water at a variable flow rate under control of a single handle. Thermostatic mixing valves mix hot and cold water to produce a constant temperature in the presence of variable pressures and temperatures on the two input ports. A 4-port valve is a valve whose body has four ports equally
mix hot and cold water to produce a constant temperature in the presence of variable pressures and temperatures on the two input ports. A 4-port valve is a valve whose body has four ports equally spaced round the body and the disc has two passages to connect adjacent ports. It is operated with two positions. It can be used to isolate and to simultaneously bypass a sampling cylinder installed on a pressurized water line. It is useful to take a fluid sample without affecting the pressure of a hydraulic system and to avoid degassing (no leak, no gas loss or air entry, no external contamination).... Many valves are controlled manually with a handle attached to the stem. If the handle is turned ninety degrees between operating positions, the valve is called a quarter-turn valve. Butterfly, ball valves, and plug valves are often quarter-turn valves. If the handle is circular with the stem as the axis of rotation in the center of the circle, then the handle is called a handwheel. Valves can also be controlled by actuators attached to the stem. They can be electromechanical actuators such as an electric motor or solenoid , pneumatic actuators which are controlled by air pressure , or hydraulic actuators which are controlled by the pressure of a liquid such as oil or water. Actuators can be used for the purposes of automatic control such as in washing machine cycles, remote control such as the use of a centralised control room , or because manual control is too difficult such as when the valve is very large. Pneumatic actuators and hydraulic actuators need pressurised air or liquid lines to supply the actuator: an inlet line and an outlet line. Pilot valves are valves which are used to control other valves. Pilot valves in the actuator lines control the supply of air or liquid going to the actuators. The fill valve in a toilet water tank is a liquid level-actuated valve. When a high water level is reached, a mechanism shuts the valve which fills the tank. In some valve designs, the pressure of the flow fluid itself or pressure difference of the flow fluid between the ports automatically controls flow through the valve. Valves are typically rated for maximum temperature and pressure by the manufacturer. The wetted materials in a valve are usually identified also. Some valves rated at very high pressures are available. When a designer, engineer, or user decides to use a valve for an application, he23/EC (PED). ] Some fluid system designs, especially in chemical or power plants, are schematically represented in piping and instrumentation diagrams. In such diagrams, different types of valves are represented by certain symbols. Valves in good condition should be leak-free. However, valves may eventually wear out from use and develop a leak, either between the inside and outside of the valve or, when the valve is shut to stop flow, between the disc and the seat. A particle trapped between the seat and disc could also cause such leakage.
Vehicle insurance (also known as car insurance , motor insurance , or auto insurance ) is insurance for cars , trucks , motorcycles , and other road vehicles. Its primary use is to provide financial protection against physical damage or bodily injury resulting from traffic collisions and against liability that could also arise from incidents in a vehicle. Vehicle insurance may additionally offer financial protection against theft of the vehicle, and against damage to the vehicle sustained from events other than traffic collisions, such as vandalism , weather or natural disasters , and damage sustained by colliding with stationary objects. The specific terms of vehicle insurance vary with legal regulations in each region. Widespread use of the motor car began after the First World War in urban areas. Cars were relatively fast and dangerous by that stage, yet there was still no compulsory form of car insurance anywhere in the world. This meant that injured victims would rarely get any compensation in a crash, and drivers often faced considerable costs for damage to their car and property. A compulsory car insurance scheme was introduced in the United Kingdom with the Road Traffic Act 1930 . This ensured that all vehicle owners and drivers had to be insured for their liability for injury or death to third parties while their vehicle was being used on a public road. Ireland replicated the obligation via the Road Traffic Act, 1933. Germany enacted similar legislation in 1939 called the "Act on the Implementation of Compulsory Insurance for Motor Vehicle Owners". The EU required mandatory insurance cover be mandated by all member states, from 2009. In many jurisdictions, it is compulsory to have vehicle insurance before using or keeping a motor vehicle on public roads. Most jurisdictions relate insurance to both the car and the driver; however, the degree of each varies greatly. Several jurisdictions have experimented with a "pay-as-you-drive" insurance plan which utilizes either a tracking device in the vehicle or vehicle diagnostics. This could address issues of uninsured motorists by providing additional options and also charge based on the distance driven, which could theoretically increase the efficiency of the insurance, through streamlined collection. In Australia , every state has its own Compulsory Third-Party (CTP) insurance scheme. CTP covers only personal injury liability in a vehicle crash. Comprehensive and Third-Party Property Damage, with or without Fire and Theft insurance, are sold separately. CTP insurance is compulsory in every state in Australia and is paid as part of vehicle registration. It covers the vehicle owner and any person who drives the vehicle against claims for liability for death or injury to people caused by the fault of the vehicle owner or driver. CTP may include any kind of physical harm, bodily injuries and may cover the cost of all reasonable medical treatment for injuries received in the crash, loss of wages,
the vehicle owner or driver. CTP may include any kind of physical harm, bodily injuries and may cover the cost of all reasonable medical treatment for injuries received in the crash, loss of wages, cost of care services and, in some cases, compensation for pain and suffering. Each state in Australia has a different scheme. Third-Party Property insurance or Comprehensive insurance covers the third party with the repairing cost of the vehicle, any property damage or medication expenses as a result of a crash by the insured. They are not to be confused with Compulsory Third-Party insurance, which is for injuries or death of someone in a motor crash. In New South Wales , each vehicle must be insured before it can be registered. It is often called a 'greenslip', because of its colour. There are five licensed CTP insurers in New South Wales. Suncorp holds licences for GIO and AAMI and Allianz holds one licence. The remaining two licences are held by QBE and NRMA Insurance (NRMA). APIA and Shannons and InsureMyRide insurance also supply CTP insurance licensed by GIO. A privately provided scheme also applies in the Australian Capital Territory through AAMI, APIA, GIO and NRMA. Vehicle owners pay for CTP as part of their vehicle registration. In Queensland , CTP is included in the registration fee for a vehicle. There is a choice of private insurer – Allianz, QBE and Suncorp and price is government controlled. In South Australia , since July 2016, CTP is no longer provided by the Motor Accident Commission . The government has now licensed four private insurers – AAMI, Allianz, QBE and SGIC – to offer CTP insurance SA. Since July 2019, vehicle owners can choose their own CTP insurer and new insurers may also enter the market. There are three states and one territory that do not have a private CTP scheme. In Victoria , the Transport Accident Commission provides CTP through a levy in the vehicle registration fee, known as the TAC charge. A similar scheme exists in Tasmania through the Motor Accidents Insurance Board . A similar scheme applies in Western Australia , through the Insurance Commission of Western Australia (ICWA). The Northern Territory scheme is managed through Territory Insurance Office (TIO). For all types of motor insurance policies in Bangladesh , the limit of liability has been fixed by the law. Currently, the limits are too low to compensate the victims. In respect of Act Only Liability Motor Vehicle Insurance, the compensation for personal injuries and property damage to third parties is ৳ 20,000 (US$170) BDT 20,000 for death, ৳ 10,000 (US$85) for severe injury, ৳ 5,000 (US$43) for injury, and ৳ 50,000 (US$425) for property damage. The limits are under review by the governmental bodies. Several Canadian provinces ( British Columbia , Saskatchewan , Manitoba and Quebec ) provide a public auto insurance system while in the rest of the country insurance is provided privately. The third-party insurance is privatized in Quebec and is
Saskatchewan , Manitoba and Quebec ) provide a public auto insurance system while in the rest of the country insurance is provided privately. The third-party insurance is privatized in Quebec and is mandatory. The province covers everything but the vehicle(s). Basic auto insurance is mandatory throughout Canada (with some exceptions, such as government vehicles ) with each province's government determining which benefits are included as minimum required auto insurance coverage and which benefits are options available for those seeking additional coverage. Accident benefits coverage is mandatory everywhere except for Newfoundland and Labrador . All provinces in Canada have some form of no-fault insurance available to crash victims. The difference from province to province is the extent to which tort or no-fault is emphasized. International drivers entering Canada are permitted to drive any vehicle their licence allows for the three-month period for which they are allowed to use their international licence. International laws provide visitors to the country with an International Insurance Bond (IIB) until this three-month period is over in which the international driver must provide themselves with Canadian Insurance. The IIB is reinstated every time the international driver enters the country. Damage to the driver's own vehicle is optional – one notable exception to this is in Saskatchewan , where SGI provides collision coverage (less than a $1000 deductible , such as a collision damage waiver ) as part of its basic insurance policy. In Saskatchewan , residents have the option to have their auto insurance through a tort system but less than 0.5% of the population have taken this option. Facility insurance policies are offered by the "facility association residual market" (or "FARM"), as a last resort since auto insurance is mandatory in Canada, for private and commercial high-risk drivers who cannot buy a policy in the voluntary market (regular auto insurance). Traffic Compulsory Insurance provides protection in the event of third party injuries, third party property losses, etc. The minimum liability cover is RMB180,000 (US$27,907) for death and injuryor damage to third party property up to HK$ 2 million ( US$ 257,400.26) as a result of crash arising out of the use of the insured vehicle. Comprehensive Motor Insurance is also available. The mandatory minimum legal requirement Third Party Liability ("TPL") Cover is MOP1,500,000 per crash and MOP30,000,000 per year, protecting against the legal liability arising from a traffic crash causing loss and damages to any third party. . Comprehensive Motor Insurance is also available. In the European Union , from the introduction of Directive 2009EC, insurance cover is mandatory, with the statutory minimum cover being revised every five years, the most recent revision, via Directive (EU) 2021 third-party personal insurance is €7,500,000 for bodily injury (damage to people), €500,000 for property damage
cover being revised every five years, the most recent revision, via Directive (EU) 2021 third-party personal insurance is €7,500,000 for bodily injury (damage to people), €500,000 for property damage and €50,000 for financialcombined single limit insurance policies of €50,000,000 or €100,000,000 (about €141,000,000) for bodily injury, property damage and other financialloss due to uninsured drivers can claim against the Motor Insurance Bureau of Ireland's uninsured drivers fund, as can those injured (but not those suffering damage or loss) from hit and run offences. The law 990accidental death and property damage. In Malaysia, renewing car insurances is a very common thing. In general, there are four types of car insurance available for Malaysians: This is the minimum cover corresponding to the terms of the Road Transport Act 1987. The insurance concerns the legal liability for death or physical injury to the third party (not include the passengers), so it is hardly ever written by insurers. This type is compulsory to buy for every vehicle so it is the most basic and common car insurance, which insures you against claims for the injury or damage to the third party or its property in a crash. In addition to third-party coverage, this policy also provides insurance for your own vehicle due to fire, crash or theft. This policy provides the widest coverage, i.e. the third party's physical injury and death, third party's vehicle damage and your own vehicle's damage caused by fire, theft or a crash. This type of insurance is usually designed for luxury vehicles. Within New Zealand , the Accident Compensation Corporation (ACC) provides nationwide no-fault personal injury insurance. Injuries involving motor vehicles operating on public roads are covered by the Motor Vehicle Account, for which premiums are collected through levies on petrol and through vehicle licensing fees. In Norway , the vehicle owner must provide the minimum liability insurance for his/her vehicle(s) – of any kind. Otherwise, the vehicle is illegal to use. If a person drives a vehicle belonging to someone else and has a crash, the insurance will cover for damage done. Note that the policy carrier can choose to limit the coverage to only apply for family members or persons over a certain age. Romanian law mandates Răspundere Auto Civilă , a motor-vehicle liability insurance for all vehicle owners to cover damages to third parties. Motor vehicle liability insurance is mandatory for all owners in Russian legislation. Insurance of the vehicle itself is technically voluntary, but may be mandated in some circumstances, e.g. if the car is leased. South Africa allocates a percentage of the money from fuel into the Road Accident Fund , which goes towards compensating third parties in crashes. When buying car insurance in the United Arab Emirates , the traffic department requires a 13-month insurance certificate each time a person registers or renews a vehicle registration. In Dubai, vehicle
buying car insurance in the United Arab Emirates , the traffic department requires a 13-month insurance certificate each time a person registers or renews a vehicle registration. In Dubai, vehicle insurance is compulsory as per the UAE RTA law. There are two types of motor insurance policies in Dubai, Third-Party Liability Insurance and Comprehensive Motor Insurance. It is mandatory to have third-party liability insurance for every individual vehicle owner in Dubai . This insurance policy is the most basic form of vehicle insurance Dubai as it covers the third-party property damage or bodily injuries caused by the insured vehicle. Policyholder's own vehicle damage such as fire, theft, and accidental collision is not covered under the third-party liability insurance policy. The Road Traffic Act 1930 , of the UK Government , introduced a law that required every person who used a vehicle on the road to have at least third-party personal injury insurance. Today, this law is contained in the Road Traffic Act 1988 (generally referred to as the RTA 1988 as amended). Section 143 of that Act requires that motorists be insured against liability for injuries to others (including passengers) and for damage to other persons' property, resulting from use of a vehicle on a public road or in other public places. The regulations were last revised via the THE MOTOR VEHICLES (COMPULSORY INSURANCE) REGULATIONS 2016 No. 1193, the amendment increased the minimum guaranteed property cover to £1,200,000 (US$1,643,836) per accident, personal injury cover remains unlimited. Failure to insure a vehicle can result in the vehicle being seized, the driver finned a minimum of £300 (US$411) and issued with six to eight penalty driving points (IN10) . The regulations for vehicle insurance differ with each of the 50 US states and other territories, with each U.S. state having its own mandatory minimum coverage requirements ( see separate main article ). 48 U.S. states and the District of Columbia require drivers to have insurance coverage for both bodily injury and property damage, with New Hampshire and Virginia being the exception, but the minimum amount of coverage required by law varies by state. For example, minimum bodily injury liability coverage requirements range from $30,000 in Arizona to $100,000 in Alaska and Maine , while minimum property damage liability requirements range from $5,000 to $25,000 in most states. Vehicle insurance can cover some or all of the following items: Different policies specify the circumstances under which each item is covered. For example, a vehicle can be insured against theft, fire damage, or crash damage independently. If a vehicle is declared a total loss and the vehicle's market value is less than the amount that is still owed to the bank that is financing the vehicle, GAP insurance may cover the difference. Not all auto insurance policies include GAP insurance. GAP insurance is often offered by the finance company at time the vehicle
that is financing the vehicle, GAP insurance may cover the difference. Not all auto insurance policies include GAP insurance. GAP insurance is often offered by the finance company at time the vehicle is purchased. An excess payment, also known as a deductible , is a fixed contribution that must be paid each time a car is repaired with the charges billed to an automotive insurance policy. Normally this payment is made directly to the crash repair "garage" (the term "garage" refers to an establishment where vehicles are serviced and repaired) when the owner collects the car. If one's car is declared to be a " write-off " (or " totaled "), then the insurance company will deduct the excess agreed on the policy from the settlement payment it makes to the owner. If the crash was the other driver's fault, and this fault is accepted by the third party's insurer, then the vehicle owner may be able to reclaim the excess payment from the other person's insurance company. The excess itself can also be protected by a motor excess insurance policy. A compulsory excess is the minimum excess payment the insurer will accept on the insurance policy. Minimum excesses vary according to the personal details, driving record and the insurance company. For example, young or inexperienced drivers and types of incident can incur additional compulsory excess charges. To reduce the insurance premium, the insured party may offer to pay a higher excess (deductible) than the compulsory excess demanded by the insurance company. The voluntary excess is the extra amount, over and above the compulsory excess, that is agreed to be paid in the event of a claim on the policy. As a bigger excess reduces the financial risk carried by the insurer, the insurer is able to offer a significantly lower premium. Depending on the jurisdiction, the insurance premium can be either mandated by the government or determined by the insurance company, in accordance with a framework of regulations set by the government. Often, the insurer will have more freedom to set the price on physical damage coverages than on mandatory liability coverages. When the premium is not mandated by the government, it is usually derived from the calculations of an actuary , based on statistical data. The premium can vary depending on many factors that are believed to affect the expected cost of future claims . Those factors can include the car characteristics, the coverage selected ( deductible , limit, covered perils), the profile of the driver ( age , gender , driving history) and the usage of the car (commute to work or not, predicted annual distance driven). The address of the owner can affect the premiums. Areas with high crime rates generally lead to higher costs of insurance. Because male drivers, especially younger ones, are on average often regarded as tending to drive more aggressively, the premiums charged for policies on vehicles whose primary driver is male are often higher. This discrimination may be
ones, are on average often regarded as tending to drive more aggressively, the premiums charged for policies on vehicles whose primary driver is male are often higher. This discrimination may be dropped if the driver is past a certain age. On 1 March 2011, the European Court of Justice decided insurance companies who used gender as a risk factor when calculating insurance premiums were breaching EU equality laws. The Court ruled that car-insurance companies were discriminating against men. However, in some places, such as the UK, companies have used the standard practice of discrimination based on profession to still use gender as a factor, albeit indirectly. Professions which are more typically practised by men are deemed as being more risky even if they had not been prior to the Court's ruling while the converse is applied to professions predominant among women. Another effect of the ruling has been that, while the premiums for men have been lowered, they have been raised for women. This equalisation effect has also been seen in other types of insurance for individuals, such as life insurance . Teenage drivers who have no driving record will have higher car insurance premiums. However, young drivers are often offered discounts if they undertake further driver training on recognized courses, such as the Pass Plus scheme in the UK, or if they install a telematics device to monitor their driving style. In the US many insurers offer a good-grade discount to students with a good academic record and resident-student discounts to those who live away from home. Generally insurance premiums tend to become lower at the age of 25. Some insurance companies offer "stand alone" car insurance policies specifically for teenagers with lower premiums. By placing restrictions on teenagers' driving (forbidding driving after dark, or giving rides to other teens, for example), these companies effectively reduce their risk. Senior drivers are often eligible for retirement discounts, reflecting the lower average miles driven by this age group. However, rates may increase for senior drivers after age 65, due to increased risk associated with much older drivers. Typically, the increased risk for drivers over 65 years of age is associated with slower reflexes, reaction times, and being more injury-prone. In most U.S. states, moving violations, including running red lights and speeding, assess points on a driver's driving record. Since more points indicate an increased risk of future violations, insurance companies periodically review drivers' records, and may raise premiums accordingly. Rating practices, such as debit for a poor driving history, are not dictated by law. Many insurers allow one moving violation every three to five years before increasing premiums. Crashes affect insurance premiums similarly. Depending on the severity of the crash and the number of points assessed, rates can increase by as much as twenty to thirty percent. Any motoring convictions should
insurance premiums similarly. Depending on the severity of the crash and the number of points assessed, rates can increase by as much as twenty to thirty percent. Any motoring convictions should be disclosed to insurers, as the driver is assessed by risk from prior experiences while driving on the road. Statistics show that married drivers average fewer crashes than the rest of the population so policy owners who are married often receive lower premiums than single persons. The profession of the driver may be used as a factor to determine premiums. Certain professions may be deemed more likely to result in damages if they regularly involve more travel or the carrying of expensive equipment or stock or if they are predominant either among women or among men. Two of the most important factors that go into determining the underwriting risk on motorized vehicles are: performance capability and retail cost. The most commonly available providers of auto insurance have underwriting restrictions against vehicles that are either designed to be capable of higher speeds and performance levels, or vehicles that retail above a certain dollar amount. Vehicles that are commonly considered luxury automobiles usually carry more expensive physical damage premiums because they are more expensive to replace. Vehicles that can be classified as high performance autos will carry higher premiums generally because there is greater opportunity for risky driving behavior. Motorcycle insurance may carry lower property-damage premiums because the risk of damage to other vehicles is minimal, yet have higher liability or personal-injury premiums, because motorcycle riders face different physical risks while on the road. Risk classification on automobiles also takes into account the statistical analysis of reported theft, accidents, and mechanical malfunction on every given year, make, and model of auto. Some car insurance plans do not differentiate in regard to how much the car is used. There are however low-mileage discounts offered by some insurance providers. Other methods of differentiation would include over-road distance between the ordinary residence of a subject and their ordinary, daily destinations. Another important factor in determining car insurance premiums involves the annual mileage put on the vehicle, and for what reason. Driving to and from work every day at a specified distance, especially in urban areas where common traf
1 Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority of India NOTIFICATION Hyderabad, the ….. 2024 INSURANCE REGULATORY AND DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITY OF INDIA (RURAL, SOCIAL SECTOR AND MOTOR THIRD PARTY OBLIGATIONS ) REGULATIONS, 2024 F. No. IRDAI .- In exercise of the powers conferre d by Section 114A(2)(id) and (ie) read with Sections 32B , 32C and 32 D of the Insurance Act, 1938 and Section 14(2)(p) read with Section 26 of the Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority Act, 1999, the Insur ance Regulatory and Development Authority of India, in consultation with the Insurance Advisory Committee, hereby make s the following Regulations. CHAPTER -I PRELIMINARY 1. Short Title, Applicability and Commencement a) These Regulations may be called the Insur ance Regulatory and Development Authority of India (Rural, Social Sector and Motor Third Party Obligations ) Regulations , 202 4. b) They shall come into force from the date of their publication in the Official Gazette and shall supersede the Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority of India (Obligations of Insurers to Rural and Social Sectors) Regulations, 2015 and the Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority of India (Obligations of Insurer in respect of Motor Third Party Insurance Business ) Regulations, 2015 including all other circulars prescriptions issued thereunder . c) These Regulations are effective from 1st April, 2024 and shall remain in force for a period of 3 (three ) years thereafter unless reviewed or repealed earlier . 2. Objective and Principle The objective of these Regulations is to specify minimum rural and social sector business that the insurers are required to underwrite under section 32B and 32C of the Insurance Act, 1938 and minimum third party motor insurance business that the insurer carrying on general insurance business is required to underwrite under section 32D of the Insurance Act, 1938. 3. Definitions In these Regulations, unless the context otherwise requires — (a) “Act” means the Insurance Act, 1938 (4 of 1938); (b) “Authority” means the Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority of India established under the provisions of section 3 of the Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority Act, 1999. (c) “Economically Vulnerable or Backward Classes” means persons who live below the poverty line; (d) “Gram Panchayat” is as defined under Article 243B of the Constitution of India . (e) “Informal Sector” includes small scale, self -employed workers typically at a low level of organisation and technology, with the primary objective of generating employment and income, with heterogeneous activities like retail trade, transport, repair and maintenance, construction, personal and domestic services and manufacturing, with the work mostly labour intensive, having often unwritten and informal employer -employee relationship; (f) “Lead Insurer” means an insurer designated as Lead for the State / Union Territory by the Authority; (g) “Motor Third Party Insurance
often unwritten and informal employer -employee relationship; (f) “Lead Insurer” means an insurer designated as Lead for the State / Union Territory by the Authority; (g) “Motor Third Party Insurance Business” consists of motor insurance liability only policies as well as liabilit y portion of package policies ; (h) “Other Categories of Persons” includes persons with disability as defined in the Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights, and Full Participation) Act, 1995 and 2 who may not be gainfully employed; a nd also includes guardians who need insurance to protect spastic persons or persons with disability; (i) “Rural Sector” means the places or areas classified as “rural” as per the latest available decennial population census (Census of India); (j) “Social Sector” i ncludes Unorganised Sector, Informal Sector, Economically Vulnerable or Backward Classes and Other Categories of Persons, residing in both rural and urban areas; (k) “Unorganised Sector” is as defined in Unorganised Workers Social Security Act, 2008; (l) All wor ds and expressions used herein and not defined herein but define d in the Insurance Act, 1938 (4 of 1938) as amended from time to time, or in the Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority Act, 1999 as amended from time to time or in the Insurance Rules, 1939 or any other Regulations issued there under shall have the meanings respectively assigned to them in those Acts or Rules or Regulations. CHAPTER II PART 1 Obligations with respect to Rural and Social Sector 4. Every insurer, shall ensure that it undertakes obligations set out by the Authority during the f inancial years indicated herein – (A) Rural Sector (a) Life Insurance – Every Life Insurer shall insure the following minimum number of lives in a gram panchayat under individual insurance policies and / or under group insurance policies in 3 years: Sr. No Financial year following notification of Regulations Minimum number of lives to be covered by all life insurers in all gram pancha yats in the country i First year 30% of lives in each gram panchayat subject to minimum of 25,000 gram panchayats driven by Lead Insurer ii Second year 40% of lives in each gram panchayat subject to minimum of 50,000 gram panchayats driven by Lead Insurer iii Third year 50% of lives in each gram panchayat subject to minimum of 75,000 gram panchayats driven by Lead Insurer (b) General Insurance – Every General Insurer ( other than stand -alone health insurer s and ECGC) shall insure the following minimum number of a) dwellings under fire insurance and b) vehicles under motor insurance in gram panchayats in 3 years: Sr. No Financial year following notifica tion of Regulations Minimum number of dwellings to be covered under Property insurance by all general insurers in all gram panchayats in the country Minimum number of vehicles to be covered under motor insurance (Comprehensive and TP) by all genera l insurers in all gram panchayats in the country i
insurers in all gram panchayats in the country Minimum number of vehicles to be covered under motor insurance (Comprehensive and TP) by all genera l insurers in all gram panchayats in the country i First year 30% dwellings in each gram panchayat subject to minimum of 25,000 gram panchayats driven by Lead Insurer 30% of vehicles in each gram panchayat subject to minimum of 25,000 gram panchayats dr iven by Lead Insurer ii Second year 40% dwellings in each gram panchayat subject to minimum of 50,000 gram panchayats driven by Lead Insurer 40% of vehicles in each gram panchayat subject to minimum of 50,000 gram panchayats driven by Lead Insurer iii Third year 50% dwellings in each gram panchayat subject to minimum of 75,000 gram panchayats driven by Lead Insurer 50% of vehicles in each gram panchayat subject to minimum of 75,000 gram panchayats driven by Lead Insurer 3 (c) Health Insurance - Every General Insurer including stand -alone Health Insurer ( other than ECGC) shall underwrite the following minimum number of lives under individual policies and partial premium is paid by the Governmen t, with beneficiaries covered shall be considered for the rural and social sector ob ligations. For the avoidance of doubt, it is hereby clarified that schemes promoted by the Central and Beneficiary recognized by the Authority would qualify for Social Sector Obligation . e) Micro insurance policies issued are eligible to be reckoned f or Social Sector obligations . Where a micro insurance policy is issued in a rural area, such micro insurance polic y may be reckoned for both Rural Sector and Social Sector obligations separately. f) Insurance policies sold by Bima Vahak s will count towards ru ral and social sector obligations. g) The allocation of the gram panchayats , number of lives, dwellings, vehicles amongst the insurers shall be specified in the Master Circular. 4 PART II Obligations with respect to Motor Third Party Business 6. Manner for arriving at the Obligations a) Every General Insurer ( other than stand -alone health insurer s and ECGC) shall underwrite the following minimum percentage of statutory Motor Third Party Liability insurance of Goods Carrying and Passenger Carrying Vehicles in 3 years : S. No Financial Year following notification of Regulations Minimum percentage of statutory Motor Third Party Liability insurance number of Goods Carrying & Passenger Carrying Vehicles i. First Year 20% increase over total number of goods carrying & passenger carrying vehicles covered in last financial year or 10,000 vehicles in each category, whichever is higher ii Second Year 20% increase over total number of goods carrying & passenger carrying veh icles covered in last financial year or 10,000 vehicles in each category, whichever is higher iii Third Year 20% increase over total number of goods carrying & passenger carrying vehicles covered in last financial year or 10,000 vehicles in each category, whichever is higher b) Coverage of new Goods Carrying
increase over total number of goods carrying & passenger carrying vehicles covered in last financial year or 10,000 vehicles in each category, whichever is higher b) Coverage of new Goods Carrying and Passenger Carrying vehicles shall not be counted towards Motor TP obligations . Motor TP obligation fulfilment shall be contributed by renewal of the existing veh icles and uninsured vehicles that are insured provided the gap in insurance is at least 30 days. c) Every new insurer granted certificate of registration shall underwrite a minimum of 10,000 goods carrying and 10,000 passenger carrying vehicles in the first financial year of its operations. d) The number of vehicles to be covered by every insurer in first, second and third year shall be as prescribed from time to time . e) These regulations are not applicable to Stand Alone Health Insurers, Reinsurers including Foreign Reinsurance Branches, Agriculture Insurance Co. of India, E xport Credit Guarantee Corporation of India. f) At no instance an insurer carrying on general insurance business shall refuse to underwrite the “liability only” motor policy covering motor third party insurance risk to any prospective policyholder . CHAPTER III PROCEDURE FOR IMPLEMENTATION AND OTHER PROVISIONS 7. Option to fulfil the obligations a) For the purpose of these obligations, first year shall be recko ned as the year in which these Regulations come into force. Provided that in cases where an Insurer commences operations in the second half of the financial year: (i) no rural, social sector and motor TP obligations shall be applicable for the said period, and (ii) the annual obligations as indicated in the Regulation shall be reckoned from the next financial year which shall be considered as the first year of operations for the purpose of compliance with this Regulation. 5 However, in cases where an Insurer commences operations in the first half of the financial year, that financial year shall be treated as the first year of operations and the applicable obligations for the first year shall be half of the percentage prescribed for the first year. b) An insurer may sell rural, social sector and motor TP obligations to one or more insurers who has/ve been unable to complete its targets. An insurer may buy from one or more insurers rural, social sector and motor TP obligations to complete its obligations. Provided that the buying and selling of the obligations shall not exceed 20% of an insurer’s target. Provided further that the seller insurer can sell only that portion of the obligations which is in excess of its target. Provided further that the insurer who has sold the obligations will continue to be the insurer and shall be responsible for servicing the insurance policy and settling claim under it. The selling of the obligations is only for the purpose of achieving the obligations by the buyer and the original policy in the name of the original insurer continues to remain valid. c) The Authority may from
of the obligations is only for the purpose of achieving the obligations by the buyer and the original policy in the name of the original insurer continues to remain valid. c) The Authority may from time to time prescribe or revise the obligations specified in these Regulations and may prescribe changes or amendments to the percentages prescribed for obligat ions of an Insurer for the Rural Sector and the Social Sector . 8. Submission of Returns a) Every Insurer shall submit a return in the manner as prescribed in the Master Circular from time to time. Every Insurer shall furnish an annual certificate by the Chief Executive Officer within sixty days from the end of the financial year submitting the summary details of the obligations fulfilled towards these Regulation. 9. Action in Case of Default: a) The Authority may, at any time, by an order in writing, cause an inspect ion of any Insurer to be undertaken and who shall submit a report on the compliance of these Regulations. b) Any default noticed in the compliance of these regulations shall be dealt with as per the procedure prescribed in the Act. 10. Repeal and Savings Clause a) These Regulations shall repeal Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority of India (Obligation of Insurer in Respect of Motor Third Party Insurance Business) Regulations, 2015 and Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority of India ( Obligation of Insurer to Rural and Social sector) Regulations, 2015 from the date these Regulations come into force. b) Notwithstanding such repeal, anything done or any action taken or purported to have been done or taken under the repealed Regulations, prio r to such repeal, shall be valid.
Asian Journal of Marketing Management, 2024, Vol (3), Issue (2), 59-79 1Department of Commerce, University of Sri Jayewardenepura 2 Finance and Administration, Colombo Stock Exchange Key Determinants to Drive Motor Insurance Customer Acquisition in Western Province, Sri Lanka: A Focus on the Marketing Mix Weerakkody M.1 and Nissanka K.2 Asian Journal of Marketing Management Copyright © University of Sri Jayewardenepura Sri Lanka ISSN: 2820 -2031 (Printed) ISSN: 2820 -2082 (Online) ABSTRACT Purpose : There is a significant need for a comprehensive insurance policy for all vehicle owners, especially considering the growing emphasis on health and safety, and public protection. The substantial preference for 3rd party insurance over comprehensive policy covers has created a hurdle for insurance companies, both in terms of acquiring new customers and retaining existing ones. This prevailing trend has presented a significant challenge to the growth potential of general insurance firms in the market. The main purpose of this study is to investigate how factors such as product, price, promotion, and distribution network influence the customer purchase intention towards motor insurance. Designapproach : This was a cross -sectional study using a deductive research approach. Data were gathered from 412 policy holders in Sri Lanka using a self -administered structured questionnaire. Multiple regression analysis was used to determine the most influencing factor among product, price, promotion and distribution network influencing customer purchase intention towards motor insurance. Findings: Based on the analysis, the insurance service , insurance premium , promotion and distribution network have a significant relationship with the customer purchase intention towards motor insurance policies in Sri Lanka. Among the factors test ed, distribution network and insurance service have the most significant impact on customer purchase intention with reference to motor insurance segment. Originality: This study provides a unique contribution by highlighting the critical role of the distribution network, particularly the combination of Place and People elements, in driving motor insurance customer acquisition in Sri Lanka. Unlike prior studies that emph asize price and promotional strategies, this research focuses on the integrated influence of accessibility and personalized service. The findings demonstrate that a well -established distribution network outweighs traditional marketing factors in influencin g purchase decisions, offering a new perspective on consumer behavior in the Sri Lankan motor insurance industry. Implications : The findings of this study will pave the way for a paradigm shift where, insurance firms could understand and develop relevant strategies to improve services provided to the existing and potential motor insurance customers. By analyzing what truly matters to Sri Lankan drivers, both insurance service providers as well as regulatory
to improve services provided to the existing and potential motor insurance customers. By analyzing what truly matters to Sri Lankan drivers, both insurance service providers as well as regulatory authorities can ally DOI: 10.31357/ajmm.v3i2.7464.g5411 Received June 2024 Revised September 2024 Accepted September 2024 Keywords: Consumer Behavior , Insurance Service , Marketing Mix , Motor Insurance , Sri Lanka Weerakkody M. & Nissanka K. AJMM 2023, Vol ( 3), Issue (2), 59-79 60 Introduction People use insurance as a means of managing risks from a loss of some kind. Insurance could be a contract in which an entity or individual receives financial protection against losses from specific contingencies or perils (Kagan, 2021). The insurance sector is a crucial component of a country’s economic development, directly contributing approximately 2% to the GDP and providing numerous empl oyment opportunities (Bogamuwa & Ranathunga, 2018). In Sri Lanka, there are 28 insurance companies being licensed to offer insurance services (IRCSL, 2021). Broadly, insurance can be categorized into Life Insurance and General Insurance (Sreedharan & Saha, 2019), in which the latter includes anything other than life, i.e., motor insurance, home insurance, fire & burglary insurance, etc. (IFFCO -Tokio, 2020). Today the insurance companies have to face the toughest competi tion ever. Hence, all the firms are willing to provide additional services to serve for customers’ delight and to create a relationship (IBSL, 2012). People are overlooking insurance, making it complicated for the companies to acquire as well as retain cus tomers (Mohammed, 2018). As per the studies, more than two thirds of the vehicle owners have opted to obtain 3rd party insurance cover instead of a comprehensive cover and that has hindered the growth potential of general insurance firms. This shift towards 3rd party insurance ind icates a prevailing tendency among vehicle owners to prioritize minimal coverage, potentially driven by factors such as cost considerations or a perceived lack of understanding regarding the benefits of comprehensive coverage. Consequently, the landscape o f the insurance market is characterized by a substantial portion of vehicle owners who may be inadequately protected against a broader range of risks. Wellawatta (2021) breaks down this market issue and according to him, the impact of this choice is multifaceted. Firstly, insurance companies face the challenge of overcoming the prevailing mindset among consumers that favours minimal coverage. This requir es a strategic re -evaluation of communication and educational initiatives to highlight the advantages and necessity of comprehensive insurance in safeguarding against various potential risks. and develop a holistic insurance policy that comprehensively covers all aspects of vehicle ownership, filling the void in the current market. According to the findings, it can be advised that the insurance corporations should focus more
that comprehensively covers all aspects of vehicle ownership, filling the void in the current market. According to the findings, it can be advised that the insurance corporations should focus more on providing a prod uct with more unique features and invest in creating a solid network of branches across the country which are fortified with skilled and service -oriented personnel who could persuade the customers in buying comprehensive insurance covers. Future researcher s can also focus on income and educational level as moderators since both of which have an impact on consumer behavior as suggested in prior literature. Also, there is a possibility of widening their scopes by considering other types of insurance products and expand the geographical area as well. Weerakkody M. & Nissanka K. AJMM 2023, Vol ( 3), Issue (2), 59-79 61 Secondly, the dominance of 3rd party insurance choices complicates the customer acquisition process for insurance firms. Marketing efforts need to be adapted to address the specific concerns and preferences of this majority, emphasizing the value propositi on of comprehensive coverage. Moreover, the general insurance market is experiencing negative outcomes due to rising claim severity, fierce competition, regulations, inflation, an increase in auto thefts, and ineffective fraud management, all of which are significantly hurting insurers ' bottom lines (Das & Rao, 2017). On the basis of this assumption, an effort has been made in this research paper to determine the negative aspects in the motor insurance market and how to profit from this portfolio -in-distress. According to Taye (2021), devising a sound strategy is key to remain in the competitive environment, grab the untapped market segments as well as to cope up with the customer demands. Ayanda & Tunbosun (2012) see strategy as model of resource allocation buying behavior, actions of competitors, and the capabilities of marketing intermediates. (Armstrong et al., 1999) highlight the importance of marketing strategy for an organization’s success saying it is the vehicle by which the business tool to predict customer buying process. Generally, an extensive marketing analysis should take place in order to find out the predominant factors to be deliberated (Mustapha, 2017) when constructing a suitable market strategy for a firm. Kotler (1999) in his book - “How to Create, Win & Dominate Markets” says usually, a marketing mix is designed using mechanisms under the elements such as product, price, place, promotion, people, physical evidence and finally, process. Shafiq et al. (2011) suggested that the purchasing process is affected by vario us factors such as price, quality, product design, knowledge about the product, etc. With reference to insurance being a service, (Lovelock & Wright, 1999; Che Rusuli et al., 2019) emphasized the importance of the extended marketing mix namely, people, phy sical evidence and process as antecedents of customer purchase intention. A
& Wright, 1999; Che Rusuli et al., 2019) emphasized the importance of the extended marketing mix namely, people, phy sical evidence and process as antecedents of customer purchase intention. A different approach was followed by (Al -Debi & Al -waely, 2015; Kalaimani, 2010) acknowledging all 7P’s in their respective literature. Although there is empirical evidence on the effect of marketing strategies for the performance of developed sectors, much attention has not been given in relation to the motor insurance segment (Gidhagen, 2008). The prior studies on the relationship Weerakkody M. & Nissanka K. AJMM 2023, Vol ( 3), Issue (2), 59-79 62 between customer purchase intention and motor insurance policies have been mainly conducted targeting the Southeast Asian and African economies (Chiguvi & Dube, 2018; Magunga & Nairobi, 2010; Ajemunigbohun & Oreshile, 2014). In the Sri Lankan context, not many have done research about this particular field of study. As Taye (2021) insists, in order to address this research gap and to generalize the findings across different cultures, it would be of both theoretical and managerial interest to replicate the s tudy in different cultural contexts. The substantial preference for 3rd party insurance has created a hurdle for insurance companies, both in terms of acquiring new customers and retaining existing ones. Furthermore, the challenge extends beyond the initial acquisition phase, as retaining customers becomes equally intricate. The industry must devise innovative strategies to enhance customer loyalty, possibly through tailored services, competitive pricing models, or additional benefits that incentivize policyholders to transition towards compre hensive coverage. A marketing strategy should be identified as a means by to access motorpolicy holders, looking at for insurance, also referred as automotive operator of the vehicle may damage to property/ or persons as a result of an accident (Campbell, 2021). Chen (2000) concludes that motor users are exposed to some fundamental risks; “(i) cost Weerakkody M. & Nissanka K. AJMM 2023, Vol ( 3), Issue (2), 59-79 63 of repairing the vehicle following an accident; (ii) cost of procuring a new vehicle if stolen or damaged above economic repair; and (iii) legal liability claims against the driver or owner of the vehicle due to injury or damage to the third -party”. Increa se in risks therefore raises the demand for insurance as educated individuals are likely to be much risk aware and managing (Jiaying, 2020). A number of studies gave divergent contributions into risk factors for road accidents thus highlighting the import ance of having a comprehensive insurance cover to mitigate the losses. These include, drivers’ recklessness tiredness (Asogwa, 1980), mechanical defects in vehicles, poor road conditions, carelessness of the pedestrians (Oyemade, 1973), inappr opriate driving standards (Bener et al., 2004; Laberge -Nadeau et al., 1996). Customer Purchase Intention
in vehicles, poor road conditions, carelessness of the pedestrians (Oyemade, 1973), inappr opriate driving standards (Bener et al., 2004; Laberge -Nadeau et al., 1996). Customer Purchase Intention Purchase intention is a vital phase of a customer’s decision -making process that studies the reason to buy a particular product (Shahet et al., 2012). This applies when a customer is most to purchase perception about it. Therefore, purchase to meet the changing group and other dynamics of the marketing environment. According to the study conducted by Amelia et Weerakkody M. & Nissanka K. AJMM 2023, Vol ( 3), Issue (2), 59-79 64 al. (2009), factors namely; product, price, promotion, distribution channel, staff, process, and physical evidence act predominantly to influence the demand for motor insurance (Sayasonti, 2001). Further, he explained that the level of existing competition in the industry also has a say towards the customer buying behavior (Porter et al., 1974). Product A product can be anything offered to the customers for attention, acquisition to meet their expectations (Muala & Qurneh, 2012). According to Affran & Asare (2010), this could be any market offering ranging from ideas, physical objects, people, places, ser vices to organizations. A service product is defined as the extent offer to satisfy ahead of the competition, a firm should build augmented products around their core product and actual product. Here actual product refers to product parts, design, features, service quality, etc. whilst core produ ct is the service of problem solving or the core benefit received by the customer by purchasing the product. Further, from an insurer’s perspective, by linking additional aspects such as after-sales service, ‘no claim’ bonus, road -side assistance, etc., an augmented product can be generated which would be of high value in a customer’s mind. Kip’ngetich et al. (2018) identify product as one of the key elements whereby service providers can differentiate themselves by including unique features. Moreover, cust omer acceptance is based on the product benefits and the design that suits them. Therefore, pre - and post-sales contribute toperformance (Suleiman Aburoub et al., 2011 ). H1: Product purchase product Price The formulation of pricing strategy becomes important, with a view of influencing the target market. Pricing in insurance is of premium element in the marketing mix that can be viewed income (Boone & Kurtz, 1996) and is viewed as a very sensitive coverage rises, the number of drivers who purchase/ insurance declines. Studies demonstrate that customers reflect upon whether they received a value for money service from the insurance provider before renewal of policies (Parasuraman & Grewal, 2000). From a different perspective, Schoenbachler et al. (2004) observed that a loyal customer whose buying intention is insensitive to pricing shows their loyalty by giving positive recommendations about the company’s servi ces. Weerakkody M.
et al. (2004) observed that a loyal customer whose buying intention is insensitive to pricing shows their loyalty by giving positive recommendations about the company’s servi ces. Weerakkody M. & Nissanka K. AJMM 2023, Vol ( 3), Issue (2), 59-79 65 H2: Priceinformation & guidance; persuading customers to experience a desired characteristic of the product; and encouraging to exist between the levels of intention (Kolade & Abiodun, 2020). H3: Promotion significantly affects customer purchase intention towards motor insurance product Distribution Network Taye (2021) combined the aspects of both insurance personnel and the branch network of the firm as distribution network in his study. According to Hartline & Ferrell (1996), similar to any other financial service, insurance also involves personal interacti ons between employees and customers which in turn lead to influence customer perception about the service quality. Neelima & Chandra Rao (2016) found that psychological factors have more influence on a customer’s purchase intention towar ds any financial service. (Suleiman Aburoub et al., 2011) comments that the work done by insurance agents and other personnel is invaluable because sometimes customer satisfaction solely depends on their ability to deliver the service (Khanwalker, 2021). O n the other hand, without the cooperation of personnel agents who have a good knowledge about human behavior and are good with people skills because they are the ones who interact/ with customers on behalf of the firm. Having a strategically formed branch network is all about making products and services available to customers (Armstrong et al., 1999). Berman (1999) in his studies on customer channels discussed that a product should always be available to the customer in the right place at the right time. Effective distribution of products through various channels is key for an organization’s success (Kalaimani, 2012). Given the similar nature Weerakkody M. & Nissanka K. AJMM 2023, Vol ( 3), Issue (2), 59-79 66 of the insurance services across the market, having a solid network of customer -friendly branches can be a form of differentiation (Taye, 2021). It is revealed that companies with more branches have more leverage in terms of sales performance compared to t he rest (Kuehn, 2018). An insurance marketer should pay attention on the right time and place, and also the correct channel through which the service could be delivered by minimizing both time and cost (Borden, 1965). H4: Distribution network including the insurance personnel and branch network significantly affects customer purchase intention towards motor insurance product. It is evident that there is a lack of consistency among the research findings and most of these studies are conducted in Southeast Asian (e.g., Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand) and African countries (e.g., Kenya, Ethiopia, Namibia). Therefore, this study int ends to identify which factors are significant in determining customer
Asian (e.g., Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand) and African countries (e.g., Kenya, Ethiopia, Namibia). Therefore, this study int ends to identify which factors are significant in determining customer purchase intention, with special reference to the motor insurance sector in Sri Lanka. Methodology Since the main purpose of this study is to identify the influence of product, price, promotion and distribution network on customer purchase intention towards motor insurance with reference to the Western province, Sri Lanka, by forming hypotheses based on theory and then testing them over a large number of sample entities, this study represents the deductive approach. This design was chosen to draw definitive conclusions about the interaction between marketing mix components and consumer purchase intention s in the Sri Lankan motor insurance industry (Kalahewithana and Wickramasinghe, 2023). In order to achieve the research represents the connections/ amongst the above factors and customer purchase intention is developed, followed by the hypotheses. The scope of this study includes motor insurance policyholders in Sri Lanka. To carry out this study, Western province was selected as it has the highest vehicle density in Sri Lanka. With 1,525,388 active vehicles on the road, Western province solely accounts for more than 20% of the total number of vehicles registered under the Dep artment of Motor Traffic (Department of Census & Statistics, 2021). According to Sekaran & Bougie, (2016), the sample size for the given target population is 384. By considering the non -respondent rate the author selected 446 respondents from Western prov ince. The sampling technique used for this study is convenience, which is a non –probability sampling where the researchers choose the sample which is convenient for them. Convenience sampling is more favorable for this study because it is unable access th e whole population at once. Operationalization The measurement items for each dimension must be recognized in order to test the hypotheses, and these are based on the established scales from the literature. Table 1 Weerakkody M. & Nissanka K. AJMM 2023, Vol ( 3), Issue (2), 59-79 67 displays the measurement items associated with each variables investigated in this research together with the related literature sources. Table 1 Operationalization of the Variables Variable Measurement Items Source Customer Purchase Intention I am familiar with this insurance company and its employees. I am satisfied with the response of the staff satisfied with the service objectives were guaranteed at the time purchase. The company to revise the policy when gives attention to service my expectation. Price The price matches the quality service. The premium premium is reasonable when compared to the service. Promotion The insurance company advertises logo aggressively. The company uses different events to promote utilizes my personal contact (phone, email, mail…) to inform updated services. The

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