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its varied topography, and perhaps even its emergence above the waves, to the dynamic boundary it straddles between the Pacific and Indo-Australian Plates . ] New Zealand is part of Zealandia , a microcontinent nearly half the size of Australia that gradually submerged after breaking away from the Gondwanan supercontinent. ] ] About 25 million years ago, a shift in plate tectonic movements began to contort and crumple the region. This is now most evident in the Southern Alps, formed by compression of the crust beside the Alpine Fault . Elsewhere, the plate boundary involves the subduction of one plate under the other, producing the Puysegur Trench to the south, the Hikurangi Trough east of the North Island, and the Kermadec and Tonga Trenches ] further north. ] New Zealand, together with Australia, is part of a wider region known as Australasia . ] It also forms the southwestern extremity of the geographic and ethnographic region called Polynesia . ] Oceania is a wider region encompassing the Australian continent , New Zealand, and various island countries in the Pacific Ocean that are not included in the seven-continent model. ] New Zealand's climate is predominantly temperate maritime ( Köppen : Cfb), with mean annual temperatures ranging from 10 °C (50 °F) in the south to 16 °C (61 °F) in the north. ] Historical maxima and minima are 42.4 °C (108.32 °F) in Rangiora , Canterbury and −25.6 °C (−14.08 °F) in Ranfurly , Otago . ] Conditions vary sharply across regions from extremely wet on the West Coast of the South Island to semi-arid in Central Otago and the Mackenzie Basin of inland Canterbury and subtropical in Northland . ] ] Of the seven largest cities, Christchurch is the driest, receiving on average only 618 millimetres (24.3 in) of rain per year and Wellington the wettest, receiving almost twice that amount. ] Auckland, Wellington and Christchurch all receive a yearly average of more than 2,000 hours of sunshine. The southern and southwestern parts of the South Island have a cooler and cloudier climate, with around 1,400–1,600 hours; the northern and northeastern parts of the South Island are the sunniest areas of the country and receive about 2,400–2,500 hours. ] The general snow season is early June until early October, though cold snaps can occur outside this season. ] Snowfall is common in the eastern and southern parts of the South Island and mountain areas across the country. ] New Zealand's geographic isolation for 80 million years ] and island biogeography has influenced evolution of the country's species of animals , fungi and plants . Physical isolation has caused biological isolation, resulting in a dynamic evolutionary ecology with examples of distinctive plants and animals as well as populations of widespread species. ] ] The flora and fauna of New Zealand were originally thought to have originated from New Zealand's fragmentation off from Gondwana, however more recent evidence postulates species resulted from dispersal. ]
and fauna of New Zealand were originally thought to have originated from New Zealand's fragmentation off from Gondwana, however more recent evidence postulates species resulted from dispersal. ] About 82% of New Zealand's indigenous vascular plants are endemic , covering 1,944 species across 65 genera . ] ] The number of fungi recorded from New Zealand, including lichen-forming species, is not known, nor is the proportion of those fungi which are endemic, but one estimate suggests there are about 2,300 species of lichen-forming fungi in New Zealand ] and 40% of these are endemic. ] The two main types of forest are those dominated by broadleaf trees with emergent podocarps , or by southern beech in cooler climates. ] The remaining vegetation types consist of grasslands, the majority of which are tussock . ] Before the arrival of humans, an estimated 80% of the land was covered in forest, with only high alpine , wet, infertile and volcanic areas without trees. ] Massive deforestation occurred after humans arrived, with around half the forest cover lost to fire after Polynesian settlement. ] Much of the remaining forest fell after European settlement, being logged or cleared to make room for pastoral farming, leaving forest occupying only 23% of the land. ] The forests were dominated by birds , and the lack of mammalian predators led to some like the kiwi , kākāpō , weka and takahē evolving flightlessness . ] The arrival of humans, associated changes to habitat, and the introduction of rats , ferrets and other mammals led to the extinction of many bird species, including large birds like the moa and Haast's eagle . ] ] Other indigenous animals are represented by reptiles ( tuatara , skinks and geckos ), frogs , ] such as the protected endangered Hamilton's Frog , spiders , ] insects ( wētā ), ] and snails. ] Some, such as the tuatara, are so unique that they have been called living fossils . ] Three species of bats ( one since extinct) were the only sign of native land mammals in New Zealand until the 2006 discovery of bones from a unique, mouse-sized land mammal at least 16 million years old. ] ] Marine mammals, however, are abundant, with almost half the world's cetaceans (whales, dolphins, and porpoises ) and large numbers of fur seals reported in New Zealand waters. ] Many seabirds breed in New Zealand, a third of them unique to the country. ] More penguin species are found in New Zealand than in any other country, with 13 of the world's 18 penguin species. ] Since human arrival, almost half of the country's vertebrate species have become extinct, including at least fifty-one birds, three frogs, three lizards, one freshwater fish, and one bat. Others are endangered or have had their range severely reduced. ] However, New Zealand conservationists have pioneered several methods to help threatened wildlife recover, including island sanctuaries, pest control, wildlife translocation, fostering, and ecological restoration of islands and other
have pioneered several methods to help threatened wildlife recover, including island sanctuaries, pest control, wildlife translocation, fostering, and ecological restoration of islands and other protected areas . ] ] ] ] New Zealand is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary democracy , ] although its constitution is not codified . ] Charles III is the King of New Zealand ] and thus the head of state . ] The king is represented by the governor-general , whom he appoints on the advice of the prime minister . ] The governor-general can exercise the Crown 's prerogative powers , such as reviewing cases of injustice and making appointments of ministers , ambassadors, and other key public officials, ] and in rare situations, the reserve powers (e.g. the power to dissolve Parliament or refuse the royal assent of a bill into law). ] The powers of the monarch and the governor-general are limited by constitutional constraints, and they cannot normally be exercised without the advice of ministers. ] The New Zealand Parliament holds legislative power and consists of the king and the House of Representatives . ] It also included an upper house, the Legislative Council , until this was abolished in 1950. ] The supremacy of parliament over the Crown and other government institutions was established in England by the Bill of Rights 1689 and has been ratified as law in New Zealand. ] The House of Representatives is democratically elected, and a government is formed from the party or coalition with the majority of seats. If no majority is formed, a minority government can be formed if support from other parties during confidence and supply votes is assured. ] The governor-general appoints ministers under advice from the prime minister, who is by convention the parliamentary leader of the governing party or coalition. ] Cabinet , formed by ministers and led by the prime minister, is the highest policy-making body in government and responsible for deciding significant government actions. ] Members of Cabinet make major decisions collectively and are therefore collectively responsible for the consequences of these decisions. ] The 42nd and current prime minister, since 27 November 2023, is Christopher Luxon . ] A parliamentary general election must be called no later than three years after the previous election. ] Almost all general elections between 1853 and 1993 were held under the first-past-the-post voting system. ] Since the 1996 election , a
The Accident Compensation Corporation ( ACC ) ( Māori : Te Kaporeihana Āwhina Hunga Whara ) is the New Zealand Crown entity responsible for administering the country's no-fault accidental injury compensation scheme, commonly referred to as the ACC scheme. The scheme provides financial compensation and support to citizens, residents, and temporary visitors who have suffered personal injuries. The corporation was founded as the Accident Compensation Commission on 1 April 1974 as a result of the Accident Compensation Act 1972. Its principal governing act today is the Accident Compensation Act 2001. ] As a Crown entity, ACC is governed by a board that is responsible to the Minister for ACC. Unlike most other Crown entities, it has its own dedicated ministerial portfolio, which since November 2023 has been held by Matt Doocey . citation needed ] The ACC has its origins in the Workers' Compensation for Accidents Act 1900, which established a limited compensation scheme for workers who had suffered injuries where there was no directly responsible party. In 1966, a New Zealand Royal Commission , chaired by High Court judge Owen Woodhouse , was established. In 1967 the Royal Commission recommended extending this compensation to cover all injuries on a no-fault basis. ] Following this report, the New Zealand Parliament passed the Accident Compensation Act 1972, later amended in 1973. The Accident Compensation Commission was established from 1 April 1974. In 1992, the commission was renamed the Accident Compensation Corporation (ACC). ] The Act was later replaced by the Injury Prevention, Rehabilitation and Compensation Act 2001, which was in 2010 renamed the Accident Compensation Act 2001. The Commission's annual report for 1989/90 ] proposed that the distinction between accidents—which are covered ] —and "illness"—which is not—should be dropped. This proposal was not taken up by the government. From 1 July 1999, the fourth National government allowed private insurance operators to provide work-related accident insurance, and ACC was briefly exposed to competition. The fifth Labour government (elected in November 1999) repealed this change, and as of 1 July 2000 re-instated ACC as the sole provider of accident insurance coverage. ACC is the sole and compulsory provider of accident insurance in New Zealand for all work and non-work related injuries. The corporation administers the ACC Scheme on a no-fault basis, so that anyone, regardless of the way in which they suffered an injury, has coverage under the scheme. Due to the scheme's no-fault basis, people who have suffered personal injury do not have the right to sue an at-fault party, except for exemplary damages . ] The scheme provides a range of entitlements to injured people, however 93.5 percent of new claims in 2011 to 2012 were for treatment costs only. Other entitlements include weekly compensation for lost earnings (paid at a rate of 80% of a person's pre-injury earnings) and the cost of home or
in 2011 to 2012 were for treatment costs only. Other entitlements include weekly compensation for lost earnings (paid at a rate of 80% of a person's pre-injury earnings) and the cost of home or vehicle modifications for the seriously injured. The scheme offers entitlements subject to various eligibility criteria. ACC works with partners and communities on initiatives to prevent injuries. These initiatives include "RugbySmart" with New Zealand Rugby , ] "Ride Forever", ] "Mates and Dates", ] and "Make Your Home a Safety Zone" with Safekids Aotearoa. ] It is claimed that the system encourages clinicians to report mistakes. The cost of litigation to the health system is considerably less than in some other countries. ] ACC has been criticised for providing funding for several alternative therapies that are unsupported by scientific evidence, including acupuncture , osteopathy and chiropractic interventions. ] ACC is primarily funded through a combination of levies and government contributions. Income collected from each source goes into predetermined accounts based on the source. Costs relating to an injury are paid from one of these accounts based on the type and cause of the injury. The four main accounts are: Work, Earners, Non-Earners, and Motor Vehicle. There is also a fifth account: Treatment Injury (formerly Medical Misadventure), that draws on both the Earners and Non-Earners accounts. ] Levy rates were most recently approved by Cabinet in November 2021 after a final recommendation from ACC Minister Carmel Sepuloni , for the 202224 and 2024/25 levy periods. Levy periods run from the 1st of April to the 31st of March the following year. ] ] ACC initially had a "fully funded" model whereby sufficient levies were collected to cover the lifetime cost of each injury, which might require compensation over a period of 30 years or more. The scheme was shifted to a "pay-as-you-go" funding model, where the scheme collects enough levies during a year to cover the cost of claims for that particular year, in 1982. ] The “fully funded” model was restored in 1999. ] However, getting ACC onto a strong financial footing was not easy and in 2009, ACC posted a $4.8 billion loss—at the time described as the biggest corporate loss in New Zealand's history. This cost escalation is thought to have been due to an increase in the number of claims, a widening of entitlements and increased costs of meeting the claims. ] Another factor was physiotherapy services being made free at the point of delivery leading to over-servicing of clients. ] Between 2000 and 2008 this appears to have contributed to an increase in physiotherapy costs of 214%. ] The 100% reimbursement scheme for physiotherapist services was ended, and ACC levies on wages and motorists were increased. ] ACC chairman John Judge told the Sunday Star-Times that it was going to take a "hard-nosed" approach to get ACC into a sustainable position. This would require "substantial" levy increases and
] ACC chairman John Judge told the Sunday Star-Times that it was going to take a "hard-nosed" approach to get ACC into a sustainable position. This would require "substantial" levy increases and "legislative change to get people off the scheme and back to work quicker". ] By 2012, ACC had made good progress towards its 2019-goal (of being fully funded), and was $4.5 billion short of matching liabilities ($28.5b) with its assets ($24b). ] Towards the end of 2012, ACC Minister Judith Collins announced that Government would not cut ACC levies for the 2013–14 year. While the ACC Board and Ministry of Business Innovation and Employment had recommended reducing the levies by between 12 and 17 per cent, Collins stated that the government's decision was motivated by the uncertain economic conditions and a desire to ensure that reductions to the levy were sustainable. Andrew Little , the Labour Party's ACC spokesman, criticised this decision, claiming that it was driven by the government's attempt to bring the budget into surplus and reducing the levy would provide a boost to the economy. ] In the 2013 budget, Collins announced a $1.3 billion cut in ACC levies over the next two years. Collins said the Earners and Workers accounts were now fully funded after the Corporation reduced the number of long term ACC claimants from 14,000 to less than 11,000. ] In 2015/16, ACC's outstanding claims liability (OCL) increased by $6.4 billion, which lead to a net deficit of $3.4 billion. The OCL measures the future cost of all existing ACC claims. That year also saw 1.93 million claims accepted; a 5.2% increase from the previous year. $3.5 billion was paid out to all new and existing claims. ] There has been some conjecture over whether or not ACC staff were paid incentives to remove long term clients off weekly compensation. This was refuted by Ex-CEO Ralph Stewart in 2012. That year there were 10,400 long-term claimants registered with ACC—down by over 1,000. ] In 2019 ACC posted a record $8.7 billion loss. ACC invests the premium it collects in various ventures. It has a portfolio of $40b and its investment manager was believed to be the highest paid public servant in New Zealand. ] Of its top 50 investments, 47 are listed companies in NZ and overseas. Notable exceptions include a 22% shareholding in Kiwibank and the consortiums building Transmission Gully Motorway and the Puhoi to Wellsford Motorway . ] ACC has attracted controversy at several junctures since its establishment due to the nature of some its investment decisions. In 2003 Green Party MP Sue Bradford revealed that ACC held investments in brewery industry giants DB Breweries and Lion Nathan, which she claimed contravened ACC's legal obligation to engage in ethical investments to protect New Zealand's global reputation. ] In 2016 ACC admitted it had indirectly invested in six companies on its own exclusion list, including weapons manufacturer Lockheed Martin and British Tobacco. ] ACC's ethical
global reputation. ] In 2016 ACC admitted it had indirectly invested in six companies on its own exclusion list, including weapons manufacturer Lockheed Martin and British Tobacco. ] ACC's ethical investment policy was drawn into question again in 2019, when Green Party MP Chlöe Swarbrick publicly criticised the Crown Entity for continued investment in fossil fuels, arguing that in light of the climate emergency this investment was unethical and that divestment should take place according to the precedent set by its exclusion of investment in tobacco companies. ] ACC CoverPlus Extra was introduced by ACC to provide cover for self-employed workers and business owners that would fail to otherwise be covered adequately by the standard ACC CoverPlus policy. It works by paying an agreed level of compensation, in the event of an injury resulting in time off from work. ] With this cover already agreed upon, any business would not have to prove loss of income and has certainty on their amount of cover in the event of an accident-related injury. The ACC CoverPlus policy was designed to cover employees at 80% of their net taxable income. With ACC CoverPlus Extra, a self-employed contractor would get 100% of the pre-agreed compensation paid until they were fit to return to full-time work. A business owner would be able to get compensation under ACC CoverPlus Extra even if the business continued to earn income whilst the business owner could not work because of injury. This would not be possible with the standard policy. ] ACC allows certain companies to manage and fund the claims of its employees who are injured at work. In return, they are given a large discount in ACC premium. ACC says this provides companies with a financial incentive to have good health and safety practices at work. ] More than 140 New Zealand employers participate in this programme. ACC Futures Coalition and Green Party criticize this programme because creates a conflict interest for employers to wrongly deny claims and say it should be cancelled. ] ACC clients have occasionally threatened or attempted to harm ACC staff. In 1999, a staff member was fatally stabbed by a claimant at an ACC office in Henderson . ] In 2010, ACC logos were removed from company vehicles after several staff had their cars rammed or were "driven off the road by other drivers". The following year a threat against former chief executive Ralph Stewart led to a decision for security staff to be posted outside his home. There have been at least two threats to blow up a car bomb outside ACC offices and police have had to be called on several other occasions. In 2012, there were a total of 134 recorded threats made against staff—the majority against case managers "making difficult decisions". ] In 2013, it was reported that 64 people have been convicted of defrauding ACC of a total of more than $10 million over the past four years. This includes clients claiming they were "injured" but who kept working while
that 64 people have been convicted of defrauding ACC of a total of more than $10 million over the past four years. This includes clients claiming they were "injured" but who kept working while receiving ACC benefits and medical practitioners who billed ACC for more treatment than they actually provided. Another category of ACC fraudster includes widows who continued claiming payments after their (injured) partners have subsequently died. Sometimes these payments went on for nearly 30 years before the fraud came to light, with one woman having received nearly $150,000 after her husband had died. ] ACC staff have defrauded the corporation on a number of occasions. Jeffrey Chapman, former ACC chief executive from 1985 to 1992, was imprisoned for defrauding ACC and other government agencies; Gavin Robins, his successor from 1993 to 1997, was also charged with fraud but was acquitted. ] In 2011, a senior manager was convicted of dishonesty offences involving property leased to ACC by private business interests. ] In late 2012, Jonathan Wright, an ACC-contracted medical assessor, was convicted of dishonestly obtaining over $18,000 in falsified travel expenses from ACC. ] A treatment injury is one caused in the course of treatment by a registered health professional, and are not a necessary part or ordinary consequence of the treatment. ] Until 2005, these were called "medical misadventure" claims. ACC has had a number of breaches of privacy relating to claimants. The most significant occurred in 2011 after the release of details of 6700 claimants to an ACC claimant, Bronwyn Pullar. Pullar had been battling ACC since suffering a head injury in 2002—and had 45 separate complaints against the agency—only one of which was about the privacy breaches. ] In 2011 she and former National Party president Michelle Boag , had a meeting with two senior ACC managers to discuss her concerns. ACC referred the matter to the police claiming Pullar had threatened to go to the media about the privacy breaches if she didn't get what she wanted. The police listened to a tape recording of the meeting and decided there was no case to answer. ] In March 2012, ACC Minister Nick Smith resigned from Cabinet after it was revealed that he had written letters on behalf of Pullar, who was a personal friend of his, while he was ACC Minister. ] ACC chairman John Judge continued to insist his version of events was correct and as a result ACC Minister Judith Collins did not renew his tenure on the ACC Board. The chief executive of ACC, Ralph Stewart, also resigned the next day. ] Three other board members—Murray Hilder, Rob Campbell, and John McCliskie—also resigned. ] The fallout from the affair continued in May 2012, when Collins sued Labour MPs Trevor Mallard and Andrew Little for defamation over comments they made on Radio New Zealand broadcasts linking her to the leak of an email from Michelle Boag following the release of the files. ] The case was settled after a High Court
defamation over comments they made on Radio New Zealand broadcasts linking her to the leak of an email from Michelle Boag following the release of the files. ] The case was settled after a High Court hearing in November 2012. ] An independent review of ACC was conducted toward the end of 2012; it found the organisation "lacked a comprehensive strategy for protecting and managing claimants' information" and said ACC had an "almost cavalier" attitude toward its clients. The review showed that the culture within ACC enabled its staff to target clients involved in privacy breaches and complaints rather than demonstrating respect for claimants. In 2013, a "training academy" for staff was mooted, with an "emphasis on a client-centred approach". ] The following ministers have held responsibility for the Accident Compensation Corporation. ] Ministerial responsibility was held prior by the Minister of Labour . .mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{} Labour National
in Europe (green and dark grey) Norway ( Bokmål : Norge , Nynorsk : Noreg ), officially the Kingdom of Norway , ] is a Nordic country in Northern Europe , situated on the Scandinavian Peninsula with a population of 5.5 million as of 2024. ] The remote Arctic island of Jan Mayen and the archipelago of Svalbard also form part of the Kingdom of Norway. ] Bouvet Island , located in the Subantarctic , is a dependency , and not a part of the Kingdom; Norway also claims the Antarctic territories of Peter I Island and Queen Maud Land . The capital and largest city in Norway is Oslo . Norway has a total area of 385,207 square kilometres (148,729 sq mi). ] The country shares a long eastern border with Sweden , and is bordered by Finland and Russia to the northeast. Norway has an extensive coastline facing the Skagerrak strait, the North Atlantic Ocean, and the Barents Sea . Harald V of the House of Glücksburg is the current King of Norway . Jonas Gahr Støre has been Prime Minister of Norway since 2021. As a unitary state with a constitutional monarchy , Norway divides state power between the parliament , the cabinet , and the supreme court , as determined by the 1814 constitution . The unified kingdom of Norway was established in 872 as a merger of petty kingdoms and has existed continuously for 1,151–1,152 years. From 1537 to 1814, Norway was part of Denmark–Norway , and, from 1814 to 1905, it was in a personal union with Sweden. Norway was neutral during the First World War , and in the Second World War until April 1940 when it was invaded and occupied by Nazi Germany until the end of the war. Norway has both administrative and political subdivisions on two levels: counties and municipalities . The Sámi people have a certain amount of self-determination and influence over traditional territories through the Sámi Parliament and the Finnmark Act . Norway maintains close ties with the European Union and the United States . Norway is a founding member of the United Nations , NATO , the European Free Trade Association , the Council of Europe , the Antarctic Treaty , and the Nordic Council ; a member of the European Economic Area , the WTO , and the OECD ; and a part of the Schengen Area . The Norwegian dialects share mutual intelligibility with Danish and Swedish . Norway maintains the Nordic welfare model with universal health care and a comprehensive social security system, and its values are rooted in egalitarian ideals. ] The Norwegian state has large ownership positions in key industrial sectors, having extensive reserves of petroleum, natural gas, minerals, lumber, seafood, and fresh water. The petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the country's gross domestic product (GDP). ] On a per-capita basis, Norway is the world's largest producer of oil and natural gas outside of the Middle East. ] ] The country has the fourth- and eighth-highest per-capita income in the world on the World Bank 's and IMF 's list, respectively. ] It has the world's
and natural gas outside of the Middle East. ] ] The country has the fourth- and eighth-highest per-capita income in the world on the World Bank 's and IMF 's list, respectively. ] It has the world's largest sovereign wealth fund , with a value of US$1.3 trillion. ] ] Norway has two official names: Norge in Bokmål and Noreg in Nynorsk . The English name Norway comes from the Old English word Norþweg mentioned in 880, meaning "northern way" or "way leading to the north", which is how the Anglo-Saxons referred to the coastline of Atlantic Norway. ] ] ] The Anglo-Saxons of Britain also referred to the kingdom of Norway in 880 as Norðmanna land . ] ] There is some disagreement about whether the native name of Norway originally had the same etymology as the English form. According to the traditional dominant view, the first component was originally norðr , a cognate of English north , so the full name was Norðr vegr , "the way northwards", referring to the sailing route along the Norwegian coast, and contrasting with suðrvegar "southern way" (from Old Norse suðr ) for (Germany), and austrvegr "eastern way" (from austr ) for the Baltic . ] The earliest traces of human occupation in Norway are found along the coast, where the huge ice shelf of the last ice age first melted between 11,000 and 8000 BC. The oldest finds are stone tools dating from 9500 to 6000 BC, discovered in Finnmark ( Komsa culture ) in the north and Rogaland ( Fosna culture ) in the southwest. Theories about the two cultures being separate were deemed obsolete in the 1970s. ] Between 3000 and 2500 BC, new settlers ( Corded Ware culture ) arrived in eastern Norway . They were Indo-European farmers who grew grain and kept livestock, and gradually replaced the hunting-fishing population of the west coast. From about 1500 BC, bronze was gradually introduced. Burial cairns built close to the sea as far north as Harstad and also inland in the south are characteristic of this period, with rock carving motifs that differ from those of the Stone Age , depicting ships resembling the Hjortspring boat , while large stone burial monuments known as stone ships were also erected. ] There is little archaeological evidence dating to the early Iron Age (the last 500 years BC). The dead were cremated, and their graves contained few goods. During the first four centuries AD, the people of Norway were in contact with Roman-occupied Gaul ; about 70 Roman bronze cauldrons, often used as burial urns, have been found. Contact with countries farther south brought a knowledge of runes ; the oldest known Norwegian runic inscription dates from the third century. By the time of the first historical records of Scandinavia, about the 8th century, several small political entities existed in Norway. It has been estimated that there were nine petty realms in Western Norway during the early Viking Age . ] Archaeologist Bergljot Solberg on this basis estimates that there would have been at least 20 in the whole country.
that there were nine petty realms in Western Norway during the early Viking Age . ] Archaeologist Bergljot Solberg on this basis estimates that there would have been at least 20 in the whole country. ] In the Viking period, Norwegian Viking explorers discovered Iceland by accident in the ninth century when heading for the Faroe Islands , and eventually came across Vinland , known today as Newfoundland , in Canada. The Vikings from Norway were most active in the northern and western British Isles and eastern North America isles . ] According to tradition, Harald Fairhair unified them into one in 872 after the Battle of Hafrsfjord in Stavanger , thus becoming the first king of a united Norway. ] Harald's realm was mainly a South Norwegian coastal state. Fairhair ruled with a strong hand and according to the sagas, many Norwegians left the country to live in Iceland, the Faroe Islands , Greenland , and parts of Britain and Ireland. ] Haakon I the Good was Norway's first Christian king, in the mid-10th century, though his attempt to introduce the religion was rejected. Norse traditions were replaced slowly by Christian ones in the late 10th and early 11th centuries. This is largely attributed to the missionary kings Olaf I Tryggvasson and Olaf II Haraldsson (St. Olaf). Olaf Tryggvasson conducted raids in England, including attacking London. Arriving back in Norway in 995, Olaf landed in Moster where he built a church which became the first Christian church in Norway. From Moster, Olaf sailed north to Trondheim where he was proclaimed King of Norway by the Eyrathing in 995. ] One of the most important sources for the history of the 11th century Vikings is the treaty between the Icelanders and Olaf II Haraldsson, king of Norway circa 1015 to 1028. ] Feudalism never really developed in Norway or Sweden, as it did in the rest of Europe. However, the administration of government took on a very conservative feudal character. The Hanseatic League forced royalty to cede to them greater and greater concessions over foreign trade and the economy, because of the loans the Hansa had made to the royals and the large debt the kings were carrying. The League's monopolistic control over the economy of Norway put pressure on all classes, especially the peasantry, to the degree that no real burgher class existed in Norway. ] From the 1040s to 1130, the country was at peace. ] In 1130, the civil war era broke out on the basis of unclear succession laws , which allowed the king's sons to rule jointly. The Archdiocese of Nidaros was created in 1152 and attempted to control the appointment of kings. ] The church inevitably had to take sides in the conflicts. The wars ended in 1217 with the appointment of Håkon IV Håkonsson , who introduced clear laws of succession. ] From 1000 to 1300, the population increased from 150,000 to 400,000, resulting both in more land being cleared and the subdivision of farms. While in the Viking Age farmers owned their own land, by 1300,
1000 to 1300, the population increased from 150,000 to 400,000, resulting both in more land being cleared and the subdivision of farms. While in the Viking Age farmers owned their own land, by 1300, seventy per cent of the land was owned by the king, the church, or the aristocracy, and about twenty per cent of yields went to these landowners. ] The 14th century is described as Norway's golden age , with peace and increase in trade, especially with the British Islands, although Germany became increasingly important towards the end of the century. Throughout the High Middle Ages , the king established Norway as a sovereign state with a central administration and local representatives. ] In 1349, the Black Death spread to Norway and within a year killed a third of the population. Later plagues reduced the population to half the starting point by 1400. Many communities were entirely wiped out, resulting in an abundance of land, allowing farmers to switch to more animal husbandry . The reduction in taxes weakened the king's position, ] and many aristocrats lost the basis for their surplus. High tithes to church made it increasingly powerful and the archbishop became a member of the Council of State . ] The Hanseatic League took control over Norwegian trade during the 14th century and established a trading centre in Bergen . In 1380, Olaf Haakonsson inherited both the Norwegian (as Olaf IV) and Danish thrones (as Olaf II), creating a union between the two countries. ] In 1397, under Margaret I , the Kalmar Union was created between the three Scandinavian countries. She waged war against the Germans, resulting in a trade blockade and higher taxation on Norwegian goods, which led to a rebellion . However, the Norwegian Council of State was too weak to pull out of the union. ] Margaret pursued a centralising policy which inevitably favoured Denmark because of its greater population. ] Margaret also granted trade privileges to the Hanseatic merchants of Lübeck in Bergen in return for recognition of her rule, and these hurt the Norwegian economy. The Hanseatic merchants formed a state within a state in Bergen for generations. ] The " Victual Brothers " launched three devastating pirate raids on the port (the last in 1427). ] Norway slipped ever more to the background under the Oldenburg dynasty (established 1448). There was one revolt under Knut Alvsson in 1502. ] Norway took no part in the events which led to Swedish independence from Denmark in the 1520s. ] Upon the death of King Haakon V in 1319, Magnus Eriksson , at just three years old, inherited the throne as King Magnus VII. A simultaneous movement to make Magnus King of Sweden proved successful (he was a grandson of King Magnus Ladulås of Sweden), and both the kings of Sweden and of Denmark were elected to the throne by their respective nobles. Thus Sweden and Norway were united under King Magnus VII. ] In 1349, the Black Death killed between 50% and 60% of Norway's population ] and led to a period
to the throne by their respective nobles. Thus Sweden and Norway were united under King Magnus VII. ] In 1349, the Black Death killed between 50% and 60% of Norway's population ] and led to a period of social and economic decline. ] Although the death rate was comparable with the rest of Europe, economic recovery took much longer because of the small, scattered population. ] Even before the plague, the population was only about 500,000. ] After the plague, many farms lay idle while the population slowly increased. ] However, the few surviving farms' tenants found their bargaining positions with their landlords greatly strengthened. ] King Magnus VII ruled Norway until 1350, when his son, Haakon, was placed on the throne as Haakon VI . ] In 1363, Haakon married Margaret , daughter of King Valdemar IV of Denmark . ] Upon the death of Haakon in 1379, his 10-year-old son Olaf IV acceded to the throne. ] As Olaf had already been elected to the throne of Denmark in 1376, ] Denmark and Norway entered a personal union . ] Olaf's mother and Haakon's widow, Queen Margaret, managed the foreign affairs of Denmark and Norway during Olaf's minority. ] Margaret was on the verge of achieving a union of Sweden with Denmark and Norway when Olaf IV suddenly died. ] Denmark made Margaret temporary ruler on the death of Olaf. On 2 February 1388, Norway followed suit and crowned Margaret. ] Queen Margaret knew that her power would be more secure if she were able to find a king to rule in her place. She settled on Eric of Pomerania , grandson of her sister. Thus at an all-Scandinavian meeting held at Kalmar, Erik of Pomerania was crowned king of all three Scandinavian countries, bringing the thrones of Norway, Denmark, and Sweden under the control of Queen Margaret when the country entered into the Kalmar Union . After Sweden broke out of the Kalmar Union in 1521, Norway tried to follow suit, citation needed ] but the subsequent rebellion was defeated, and Norway remained in a union with Denmark until 1814. This period was by some referred to as the "400-Year Night", since all of the kingdom's intellectual and administrative power was centred in Copenhagen . With the introduction of Protestantism in 1536, the archbishopric in Trondheim was dissolved; Norway lost its independence and effectually became a colony of Denmark. The Church's incomes and possessions were instead redirected to the court in Copenhagen. Norway lost the steady stream of pilgrims to the relics of St. Olav at the Nidaros shrine, and with them, much of the contact with cultural and economic life in the rest of Europe. Eventually restored as a kingdom (albeit in legislative union with Denmark) in 1661, Norway saw its land area decrease in the 17th century with the loss of the provinces Båhuslen , Jemtland , and Herjedalen to Sweden, as the result of a number of disastrous wars with Sweden. In the north, its territory was increased by the acquisition of the northern provinces of Troms and Finnmark ,
, and Herjedalen to Sweden, as the result of a number of disastrous wars with Sweden. In the north, its territory was increased by the acquisition of the northern provinces of Troms and Finnmark , at the expense of Sweden and Russia. The famine of 1695–1696 killed roughly 10% of Norway's population. ] The harvest failed in Scandinavia at least nine times between 1740 and 1800, with great loss of life. ] After Denmark–Norway was attacked by the United Kingdom at the 1807 Battle of Copenhagen , it entered into an alliance with Napoleon , with the war leading to dire conditions and mass starvation in 1812. As the Danish kingdom was on the losing side in 1814, it was forced by the Treaty of Kiel to cede Norway to Sweden, while the old Norwegian provinces of Iceland, Greenland, and the Faroe Islands remained with the Danish crown. ] Norway took this opportunity to declare independence, adopted a constitution based on American and French models, and elected the Crown Prince of Denmark and Norway, Christian Frederick , as king on 17 May 1814 – celebrated as the Syttende mai (Seventeenth of May) holiday. Norwegian opposition to the decision to link Norway with Sweden caused the Norwegian–Swedish War to break out as Sweden tried to subdue Norway by military means. As Sweden's military was not strong enough to defeat the Norwegian forces outright, and Norway's treasury was not large enough to support a protracted war, and as British and Russian navies blockaded the Norwegian coast, ] the belligerents were forced to negotiate the Convention of Moss . Christian Frederik abdicated the Norwegian throne and authorised the Parliament of Norway to make the necessary constitutional amendments to allow for the personal union that Norway was forced to accept. On 4 November 1814, the Parliament (Storting) elected Charles XIII of Sweden as king of Norway, thereby establishing the union with Sweden . ] Under this arrangement, Norway kept its liberal constitution and its own independent institutions, though it shared a monarch and foreign policy with Sweden. Following the recession caused by the Napoleonic Wars , economic development of Norway remained slow until 1830. ] This period also saw the rise of Norwegian romantic nationalism , as Norwegians sought to define and express a distinct national character. The movement covered all branches of culture, including literature ( Henrik Wergeland , Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson , Peter Christen Asbjørnsen , Jørgen Moe ), painting ( Hans Gude , Adolph Tidemand ), music ( Edvard Grieg ), and even language policy, where attempts to define a native written language for Norway led to today's two official written forms for Norwegian: Bokmål and Nynorsk . King Charles III John came to the throne of Norway and Sweden in 1818 and reigned to 1844. He protected the constitution and liberties of Norway and Sweden during the age of Metternich . neutrality is disputed ] As such, he was regarded as a liberal monarch. However, he was ruthless in
He protected the constitution and liberties of Norway and Sweden during the age of Metternich . neutrality is disputed ] As such, he was regarded as a liberal monarch. However, he was ruthless in his use of paid informers, secret police and restrictions on the freedom of the press to put down public movements for reform—especially the Norwegian national independence movement. ] The Romantic Era that followed the reign of Charles III John brought some significant social and political reforms. In 1854, women won the right to inherit property. In 1863, the last trace of keeping unmarried women in the status of minors was removed. Furthermore, women were eligible for different occupations, particularly the common school teacher. ] By mid-century, Norway's democracy was limited; voting was limited to officials, property owners, leaseholders and burghers of incorporated towns. ] Norway remained a conservative society. Life in Norway (especially economic life) was "dominated by the aristocracy of professional men who filled most of the important posts in the central government". ] There was no strong bourgeois class to demand a breakdown of this aristocratic control. ] Thus, even while revolution swept over most of the countries of Europe in 1848, Norway was largely unaffected. ] Marcus Thrane was a Utopian socialist who in 1848 organised a labour society in Drammen . In just a few months, this society had a membership of 500 and was publishing its own newspaper. Within two years, 300 societies had been organised all over Norway, with a total membership of 20,000 drawn from the lower classes of both urban and rural areas. ] In the end, the revolt was easily crushed; Thrane was captured and jailed. ] In 1898, all men were granted universal suffrage , followed by all women in 1913. Christian Michelsen , Prime Minister of Norway from 1905 to 1907, played a central role in the peaceful separation of Norway from Sweden on 7 June 1905. A national referendum confirmed the people's preference for a monarchy over a republic. However, no Norwegian could legitimately claim the throne, since none of Norway's noble families could claim royal descent . The government then offered the throne of Norway to Prince Carl of Denmark, a prince of the Dano-German royal house of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg and a distant relative of Norway's medieval kings. Following the plebiscite, he was unanimously elected king by the Norwegian Parliament ; he took the name Haakon VII . Throughout the First World War , Norway remained neutral; however, diplomatic pressure from the British government meant that it heavily favoured the Allies . During the war, Norway exported fish to both Germany and Britain, until an ultimatum from the British government and anti-German sentiments as a result of German submarines targeting Norwegian merchantmen led to a termination of trade with Germany. 436 Norwegian merchantmen were sunk by the Kaiserliche Marine , with 1,150 Norwegian sailors
a result of German submarines targeting Norwegian merchantmen led to a termination of trade with Germany. 436 Norwegian merchantmen were sunk by the Kaiserliche Marine , with 1,150 Norwegian sailors killed. ] disputed – discuss ] Norway once more proclaimed its neutrality during the Second World War , but was invaded by German forces on 9 April 1940. Although Norway was unprepared for the German surprise attack (see: Battle of Drøbak Sound , Norwegian Campaign , and Invasion of Norway ), military and naval resistance lasted for two months. Norwegian armed forces in the north launched an offensive against the German forces in the Battles of Narvik , but were forced to surrender on 10 June after losing British support which had been diverted to France during the German invasion of France . King Haakon and the Norwegian government escaped to Rotherhithe in London. Throughout the war they sent radio speeches and supported clandestine military actions against the Germans. On the day of the invasion, the leader of the small National-Socialist party Nasjonal Samling , Vidkun Quisling , tried to seize power, but was forced by the German occupiers to step aside. Real power was wielded by the leader of the German occupation authority, Josef Terboven . Quisling, as minister president , later formed a collaborationist government under German control . Up to 15,000 Norwegians volunteered to fight in German units, including the Waffen-SS . ] Many Norwegians and persons of Norwegian descent joined the Allied forces as well as the Free Norwegian Forces . In June 1940, a small group had left Norway following their king to Britain. This group included 13 ships, five aircraft, and 500 men from the Royal Norwegian Navy. By the end of the war, the force had grown to 58 ships and 7,500 men in service in the Royal Norwegian Navy, 5 squadrons of aircraft in the newly formed Norwegian Air Force, and land forces including the Norwegian Independent Company 1 and 5 Troop as well as No. 10 Commandos . citation needed ] During German occupation , Norwegians built a resistance movement which incorporated civil disobedience and armed resistance including the destruction of Norsk Hydro 's heavy water plant and stockpile of heavy water at Vemork , which crippled the German nuclear programme . More important to the Allied war effort, however, was the role of the Norwegian Merchant Marine , the fourth-largest merchant marine fleet in the world. It was led by the Norwegian shipping company Nortraship under the Allies throughout the war and took part in every war operation from the evacuation of Dunkirk to the Normandy landings . Every December Norway gives a Christmas tree to the United Kingdom as thanks for the British assistance during the war. ] Svalbard was not occupied by German troops, but Germany secretly established a meteorological station there in 1944. ] From 1945 to 1962, the Labour Party held an absolute majority in the parliament. The government, led by prime minister
but Germany secretly established a meteorological station there in 1944. ] From 1945 to 1962, the Labour Party held an absolute majority in the parliament. The government, led by prime minister Einar Gerhardsen , embarked on a programme inspired by Keynesian economics , emphasising state financed industrialisation and co-operation between trade unions and employers' organisations . Many measures of state control of the economy imposed during the war were continued, although the rationing of dairy products was lifted in 1949, while price controls and rationing of housing and cars continued until 1960. The wartime alliance with the United Kingdom and the United States continued in the post-war years. Although pursuing the goal of a socialist economy, the Labour Party distanced itself from the Communists, especially after the Communists' seizure of power in Czechoslovakia in 1948, and strengthened its foreign policy and defence policy ties with the US. Norway received Marshall Plan aid from the United States starting in 1947, joined the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) one year later, and became a founding member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1949. Oil was discovered at the small Balder field in 1967, but production only began in 1999. ] In 1969, the Phillips Petroleum Company discovered petroleum resources at the Ekofisk field west of Norway. In 1973, the Norwegian government founded the State oil company, Statoil (now Equinor ). Oil production did not provide net income until the early 1980s because of the large capital investment required. Around 1975, both the proportion and absolute number of workers in industry peaked. Since then labour-intensive industries and services like factory mass production and shipping have largely been outsourced. Norway was a founding member of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). Norway was twice invited to join the European Union , but ultimately declined after referendums that failed by narrow margins in 1972 and 1994 . ] In 1981, a Conservative Party government led by Kåre Willoch replaced the Labour Party with a policy of stimulating the stagflated economy with tax cuts, economic liberalisation, deregulation of markets, and measures to curb record-high inflation (13.6% in 1981). Norway's first female prime minister Gro Harlem Brundtland of the Labour Party continued many of the reforms, while backing traditional Labour concerns such as social security , high taxes, the industrialisation of nature, and feminism. By the late 1990s, Norway had paid off its foreign debt and had started accumulating a sovereign wealth fund . Since the 1990s, a divisive question in politics has been how much of the income from petroleum production the government should spend, and how much it should save. In 2011, Norway suffered two terrorist attacks by Anders Behring Breivik which struck the government quarter in Oslo and a summer camp of the Labour party's youth movement at
how much it should save. In 2011, Norway suffered two terrorist attacks by Anders Behring Breivik which struck the government quarter in Oslo and a summer camp of the Labour party's youth movement at Utøya island, resulting in 77 deaths and 319 wounded. ] Jens Stoltenberg led Norway as prime minister for eight years from 2005 to 2013. ] The 2013 Norwegian parliamentary election brought a more conservative government to power, with the Conservative Party and the Progress Party winning 43% of the electorate's votes. ] In the Norwegian parliamentary election 2017 the centre-right government of Prime Minister Erna Solberg won re-election. ] The 2021 Norwegian parliamentary election saw a big win for the left-wing opposition in an election fought on climate change, inequality, and oil; ] Labour leader Jonas Gahr Støre was sworn in as prime minister. ] Norway's core territory comprises the western and northernmost portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula ; the remote island of Jan Mayen and the archipelago of Svalbard are also included. ] The Antarctic Peter I Island and the sub-Antarctic Bouvet Island are dependent territories and thus not considered part of the Kingdom. Norway also claims a section of Antarctica known as Queen Maud Land . ] Norwegian possessions in the North Atlantic, Faroe Islands , Greenland , and Iceland , remained Danish when Norway was passed to Sweden at the Treaty of Kiel . ] Norway also comprised Bohuslän until 1658, Jämtland an
Civil Auto Liability ( Romanian : Răspundere Civilă Auto ) is a Romanian motor-vehicle liability insurance policy that covers damages caused to third parties. ] This insurance is legally mandatory for any motor vehicle owner in Romania. ] The insurance policy Romanian : Răspundere Civilă Auto it is also known as RCA. ] In case of an accident this insurance policy covers repair costs incurred by the party determined to not be at fault. ] Governed by Ordinance CSA no. 11/2007, RCA insurance is issued as a certificate confirming payment and coverage period rather than a traditional contract. The policy is mandatory and must include a vignette and international insurance document (Green Card). Effective from January 1, 2008, the vignette must be displayed on the upper right corner of the windshield. RCA policies are valid for six or twelve months and also for vehicles with temporary registration plates. ] The insurance coverage includes a maximum compensation limit for material damages of up to €150,000 in 2008 and €300,000 in 2009, and up to €750,000 for bodily injuries and deaths in 2008 and €1,500,000 in 2009. Coverage starts 48 hours after payment, with exceptions for newly purchased vehicles or policy renewals. Since 2007, premiums are also applicable for trailers and semi-trailers. ]
South Africa , officially the Republic of South Africa ( RSA ), is the southernmost country in Africa . Its nine provinces are bounded to the south by 2,798 kilometres (1,739 miles) of coastline that stretches along the South Atlantic and Indian Ocean ; ] ] ] to the north by the neighbouring countries of Namibia , Botswana , and Zimbabwe ; and to the east and northeast by Mozambique and Eswatini . It also completely enclaves Lesotho . ] It is the southernmost country on the mainland of the Old World and the second-most populous country located entirely south of the equator, after Tanzania . With over 62 million people , the country is the world's 23rd-most populous nation and the 24th largest country in the world covers an area of 1,221,037 square kilometres (471,445 square miles). Pretoria is the administrative capital, while Cape Town , as the seat of Parliament , is the legislative capital. Bloemfontein has traditionally been regarded as the judicial capital. ] The largest and most-populous city is Johannesburg , followed by Cape Town and the largest port city in sub Saharan Africa, Durban . Archaeological findings suggest that various hominid species existed in South Africa about 2.5 million years ago and modern humans inhabited the region over 100,000 years ago. The first known people were the indigenous Khoisan , and Bantu-speaking peoples from West and Central Africa later settled in the region in the early centuries CE . In 1652, the Dutch established the first European settlement at Table Bay , and in 1795 and 1806, the British occupied it. Diamonds and gold were discovered in the 19th century, bringing a shift towards industrialisation and urbanisation. The Union of South Africa was created in 1910 out of the former Cape , Natal , Transvaal , and Orange River colonies. Though a system of non-racial franchise had existed in the Cape, it was gradually eroded, and the vast majority of Black South Africans were not enfranchised until 1994. During the 20th century, the black majority sought to claim more rights from the dominant white minority, which played a large role in the country's recent history and politics. The National Party imposed apartheid in 1948, institutionalising previous racial segregation . After a largely non-violent struggle by the African National Congress and other anti-apartheid activists both inside and outside the country, the repeal of discriminatory laws began in the mid-1980s. Universal elections took place in 1994 , following which, all racial groups have held political representation in the country's liberal democracy , which comprises a parliamentary republic and nine provinces . According to the V-Dem Democracy Indices , it is ranked the 53rd electoral democracy worldwide and the third in Africa . ] Today, about 80% of the population are Black South Africans . ] The remaining population consists of Africa's largest communities of multiracial, European, and Asian ancestry ( Coloured , White , Indian , and
80% of the population are Black South Africans . ] The remaining population consists of Africa's largest communities of multiracial, European, and Asian ancestry ( Coloured , White , Indian , and Chinese South Africans , respectively). South Africa is a multi-ethnic society encompassing a wide variety of cultures , languages , and religions . Its pluralistic makeup is reflected in the Constitution 's recognition of 12 official languages, the fourth-highest number in the world. ] According to the 2022 census , the two most-spoken first languages are Zulu (24.4%) and Xhosa (16.3%), which are both of the Nguni branch . The third and fifth are of European origin: Afrikaans (10.6%), developed from Dutch , serves as the first language of most Coloured and White South Africans, while English (8.7%) reflects the legacy of British colonialism and is commonly used in public and commercial life. South Africa is often referred to as the " rainbow nation " to describe the country's multicultural diversity, especially in the wake of apartheid. ] South Africa is a middle power in international affairs; it maintains significant regional influence and is a member of BRICS , the African Union , SADC , SACU , the Commonwealth of Nations , and the G20 . ] ] A developing , newly industrialised country , South Africa has the largest economy in Africa and the 38th largest in the world by nominal GDP ; ] ] it ranks 110th on the Human Development Index , the 7th highest on the continent. South Africa is the only African nation to legislate same-sex marriage . ] It is tied with Ethiopia for the most UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Africa, ] and is a biodiversity hotspot , with unique biomes , plant and animal life. Since the end of apartheid , government accountability and quality of life have substantially improved. ] However, crime , poverty, and inequality remain widespread, with about 40% of the total population being unemployed as of 2021 ] , ] while some 60% of the population lived below the poverty line and a quarter lived below $2.15 a day. ] ] ] Having the highest Gini coefficient of 63.0, South Africa is considered to be one of, if not the most, unequal countries in the world. ] ] The name "South Africa" is derived from the country's geographic location at the southern tip of Africa. Upon formation, the country was named the Union of South Africa in English and Unie van Zuid-Afrika in Dutch , reflecting its origin from the unification of four British colonies. Since 1961, the long formal name in English has been the "Republic of South Africa" and Republiek van Suid-Afrika in Afrikaans . The country has an official name in 12 official languages . ] ] Mzansi , derived from the Xhosa noun uMzantsi meaning "south", is a colloquial name for South Africa, ] ] while some Pan-Africanist political parties prefer the term " Azania ". ] South Africa contains some of the oldest archaeological and human-fossil sites in the world. ] ] ] Archaeologists have recovered extensive
political parties prefer the term " Azania ". ] South Africa contains some of the oldest archaeological and human-fossil sites in the world. ] ] ] Archaeologists have recovered extensive fossil remains from a series of caves in Gauteng Province. The area, a UNESCO World Heritage Site , has been branded "the Cradle of Humankind ". The sites include Sterkfontein , one of the richest sites for hominin fossils in the world, as well as Swartkrans , Gondolin Cave , Kromdraai , Cooper's Cave and Malapa . Raymond Dart identified the first hominin fossil discovered in Africa, the Taung Child (found near Taung ) in 1924. Other hominin remains have come from the sites of Makapansgat in Limpopo Province; Cornelia and Florisbad in Free State Province ; Border Cave in KwaZulu-Natal Province; Klasies River Caves in Eastern Cape Province; and Pinnacle Point , Elandsfontein and Die Kelders Cave in Western Cape Province. ] These finds suggest that various hominid species existed in South Africa from about three million years ago, starting with Australopithecus africanus , ] followed by Australopithecus sediba , Homo ergaster , Homo erectus , Homo rhodesiensis , Homo helmei , Homo naledi and modern humans ( Homo sapiens ). Modern humans have inhabited Southern Africa for at least 170,000 years. Various researchers have located pebble tools within the Vaal River valley. ] ] Settlements of Bantu-speaking peoples , who were iron-using agriculturists and herdsmen , were present south of the Limpopo River (now the northern border with Botswana and Zimbabwe ) by the 4th or 5th century CE. They displaced, conquered, and absorbed the original Khoisan , Khoikhoi and San peoples. The Bantu slowly moved south. The earliest ironworks in modern-day KwaZulu-Natal Province are believed to date from around 1050. The southernmost group was the Xhosa people , whose language incorporates certain linguistic traits from the earlier Khoisan people. The Xhosa reached the Great Fish River , in today's Eastern Cape Province. As they migrated, these larger Iron Age populations displaced or assimilated earlier peoples. In Mpumalanga Province, several stone circles have been found along with a stone arrangement that has been named Adam's Calendar , and the ruins are thought to be created by the Bakone , a Northern Sotho people. ] ] In 1487, the Portuguese explorer Bartolomeu Dias led the first European voyage to land in southern Africa. ] On 4 December, he landed at Walfisch Bay (now known as Walvis Bay in present-day Namibia). This was south of the furthest point reached in 1485 by his predecessor, the Portuguese navigator Diogo Cão ( Cape Cross , north of the bay). Dias continued down the western coast of southern Africa. After 8 January 1488, prevented by storms from proceeding along the coast, he sailed out of sight of land and passed the southernmost point of Africa without seeing it. He reached as far up the eastern coast of Africa as, what he called, Rio do Infante , probably the
coast, he sailed out of sight of land and passed the southernmost point of Africa without seeing it. He reached as far up the eastern coast of Africa as, what he called, Rio do Infante , probably the present-day Groot River , in May 1488. On his return he saw the cape, which he named Cabo das Tormentas ('Cape of Storms'). King John II renamed the point Cabo da Boa Esperança , or Cape of Good Hope , as it led to the riches of the East Indies . ] Dias' feat of navigation was immortalised in Luís de Camões ' 1572 epic poem Os Lusíadas . By the early 17th century, Portugal's maritime power was starting to decline, and English and Dutch merchants competed to oust Portugal from its lucrative monopoly on the spice trade . ] Representatives of the British East India Company sporadically called at the cape in search of provisions as early as 1601 but later came to favour Ascension Island and Saint Helena as alternative ports of refuge. ] Dutch interest was aroused after 1647, when two employees of the Dutch East India Company were shipwrecked at the cape for several months. The sailors were able to survive by obtaining fresh water and meat from the natives. ] They also sowed vegetables in the fertile soil. ] Upon their return to Holland, they reported favourably on the cape's potential as a "warehouse and garden" for provisions to stock passing ships for long voyages. ] In 1652, a century and a half after the discovery of the cape sea route, Jan van Riebeeck established a victualling station at the Cape of Good Hope, at what would become Cape Town , on behalf of the Dutch East India Company. ] ] In time, the cape became home to a large population of vrijlieden , also known as vrijburgers ( lit. ' free citizens ' ), former company employees who stayed in Dutch territories overseas after serving their contracts. ] Dutch traders also brought thousands of enslaved people to the fledgling colony from Indonesia , Madagascar , and parts of eastern Africa. ] Some of the earliest mixed race communities in the country were formed between vrijburgers , enslaved people, and indigenous peoples. ] This led to the development of a new ethnic group, the Cape Coloureds , most of whom adopted the Dutch language and Christian faith. ] The eastward expansion of Dutch colonists ushered in a series of wars with the southwesterly migrating Xhosa tribe, known as the Xhosa Wars , as both sides competed for the pastureland near the Great Fish River, which the colonists desired for grazing cattle. ] Vrijburgers who became independent farmers on the frontier were known as Boers , with some adopting semi-nomadic lifestyles being denoted as trekboers . ] The Boers formed loose militias , which they termed commandos , and forged alliances with Khoisan peoples to repel Xhosa raids. ] Both sides launched bloody but inconclusive offensives, and sporadic violence, often accompanied by livestock theft, remained common for several decades. ] Great Britain occupied Cape Town between 1795 and
launched bloody but inconclusive offensives, and sporadic violence, often accompanied by livestock theft, remained common for several decades. ] Great Britain occupied Cape Town between 1795 and 1803 to prevent it from falling under the control of the French First Republic , which had invaded the Low Countries . ] After briefly returning to Dutch rule under the Batavian Republic in 1803, the cape was occupied again by the British in 1806. ] Following the end of the Napoleonic Wars , it was formally ceded to Great Britain and became an integral part of the British Empire . ] British emigration to South Africa began around 1818, subsequently culminating in the arrival of the 1820 Settlers . ] The new colonists were induced to settle for a variety of reasons, namely to increase the size of the European workforce and to bolster frontier regions against Xhosa incursions. ] In the first two decades of the 19th century, the Zulu people grew in power and expanded their territory under their leader, Shaka . ] Shaka's warfare indirectly led to the Mfecane ('crushing'), in which one to two million people were killed and the inland plateau was devastated and depopulated in the early 1820s. ] ] An offshoot of the Zulu, the Matabele people created a larger empire that included large parts of the highveld under their king Mzilikazi . During the early 19th century, many Dutch settlers departed from the Cape Colony , where they had been subjected to British control, in a series of migrant groups who came to be known as Voortrekkers , meaning "pathfinders" or "pioneers". They migrated to the future Natal , Free State, and Transvaal regions. The Boers founded the Boer republics : the South African Republic , the Natalia Republic , and the Orange Free State . ] The discovery of diamonds in 1867 and gold in 1884 in the interior started the Mineral Revolution and increased economic growth and immigration. This intensified British subjugation of the indigenous people. The struggle to control these important economic resources was a factor in relations between Europeans and the indigenous population and also between the Boers and the British. ] On 16 May 1876, President Thomas François Burgers of the South African Republic declared war against the Pedi people . King Sekhukhune managed to defeat the army on 1 August 1876. Another attack by the Lydenburg Volunteer Corps was also repulsed. On 16 February 1877, the two parties signed a peace treaty at Botshabelo . ] The Boers' inability to subdue the Pedi led to the departure of Burgers in favour of Paul Kruger and the British annexation of the South African Republic. In 1878 and 1879 three British attacks were successfully repelled until Garnet Wolseley defeated Sekhukhune in November 1879 with an army of 2,000 British soldiers, Boers and 10,000 Swazis. The Anglo-Zulu War was fought in 1879 between the British and the Zulu Kingdom . Following Lord Carnarvon 's successful introduction of federation in Canada , it was
Boers and 10,000 Swazis. The Anglo-Zulu War was fought in 1879 between the British and the Zulu Kingdom . Following Lord Carnarvon 's successful introduction of federation in Canada , it was thought that similar political effort, coupled with military campaigns, might succeed with the African kingdoms, tribal areas and Boer republics in South Africa. In 1874, Henry Bartle Frere was sent to South Africa as the British High Commissioner to bring such plans into being. Among the obstacles were the presence of the independent states of the Boers, and the Zululand army. The Zulu nation defeated the British at the Battle of Isandlwana . Eventually Zululand lost the war, resulting in the termination of the Zulu nation's independence. ] The Boer republics successfully resisted British encroachments during the First Boer War (1880–1881) using guerrilla warfare tactics, which were well-suited to local conditions. The British returned with greater numbers, more experience, and new strategy in the Second Boer War (1899–1902) and, although suffering heavy casualties due to Boer attrition warfare , they were ultimately successful due in part to scorched earth tactics such as concentration camps , in which 27,000 Boer civilians died due to a combination of disease and neglect. ] South Africa's urban population grew rapidly from the end of the 19th century onward. After the devastation of the wars, Dutch-descendant Boer farmers fled into cities from the devastated Transvaal and Orange Free State territories to become the class of the white urban poor. ] Anti-British policies among white South Africans focused on independence. During the Dutch and British colonial years, racial segregation was mostly informal, though some legislation was enacted to control the settlement and movement of indigenous people, including the Native Location Act of 1879 and the system of pass laws . ] ] ] ] ] Eight years after the end of the Second Boer War and after four years of negotiation, the South Africa Act 1909 granted nominal independence while creating the Union of South Africa on 31 May 1910. The union was a dominion that included the former territories of the Cape, Transvaal and Natal colonies, as well as the Orange Free State republic. ] The Natives' Land Act of 1913 severely restricted the ownership of land by blacks; at that stage they controlled only 7% of the country. The amount of land reserved for indigenous peoples was later marginally increased. ] In 1931, the union became fully sovereign from the United Kingdom with the passage of the Statute of Westminster , which abolished the last powers of the Parliament of the United Kingdom to legislate in the country. Only three other African countries—Liberia, Ethiopia, and Egypt—had been independent prior to that point. In 1934, the South African Party and National Party merged to form the United Party , seeking reconciliation between Afrikaners and English-speaking whites. In 1939, the party split over the entry of the
the South African Party and National Party merged to form the United Party , seeking reconciliation between Afrikaners and English-speaking whites. In 1939, the party split over the entry of the union into World War II, as an ally of the United Kingdom, a move which National Party followers opposed. ] In 1948, the National Party was elected to power. It strengthened the racial segregation begun under Dutch and British colonial rule. Taking Canada's Indian Act as a framework, ] the nationalist government classified all peoples into three races ( Whites, Blacks, Indians and Coloured people (people of mixed race) ) and developed rights and limitations for each. The white minority (less than 20%) ] controlled the vastly larger black majority. The legally institutionalised segregation became known as apartheid . While whites enjoyed the highest standard of living in all of Africa, comparable to First World Western nations, the black majority remained disadvantaged by almost every standard, including income, education, housing, and life expectancy. ] The Freedom Charter , adopted in 1955 by the Congress Alliance , demanded a non-racial society and an end to discrimination. On 31 May 1961, the country became a republic following a referendum (only open to white voters) which narrowly passed; ] the British-dominated Natal province largely voted against the proposal. Elizabeth II lost the title Queen of South Africa , and the last Governor-General , Charles Robberts Swart , became state president . As a concession to the Westminster system , the appointment of the president remained an appointment by parliament and was virtually powerless until P. W. Botha 's Constitution Act of 1983 , which eliminated the office of prime minister and instated a unique "strong presidency" responsible to parliament . Pressured by other Commonwealth of Nations countries, South Africa withdrew from the organisation in 1961 and rejoined it in 1994. Despite opposition to apartheid both within and outside the country, the government legislated for a continuation of apartheid. The security forces cracked down on internal dissent, and violence became widespread, with anti-apartheid organisations such as the African National Congress (ANC), the Azanian People's Organisation , and the Pan-Africanist Congress carrying out guerrilla warfare ] and urban sabotage. ] The three rival resistance movements also engaged in occasional inter-factional clashes as they jockeyed for domestic influence. ] Apartheid became increasingly controversial, and several countries began to boycott business with the South African government because of its racial policies. These measures were later extended to international sanctions and the divestment of holdings by foreign investors. ] ] The Mahlabatini Declaration of Faith , signed by Mangosuthu Buthelezi and Harry Schwarz in 1974, enshrined the principles of peaceful transition of power and equality for all, the first of such agreements by black and
of Faith , signed by Mangosuthu Buthelezi and Harry Schwarz in 1974, enshrined the principles of peaceful transition of power and equality for all, the first of such agreements by black and white political leaders in South Africa. Ultimately, F.W. de Klerk opened bilateral discussions with Nelson Mandela in 1993 for a transition of policies and government. In 1990, the National Party government took the first step towards dismantling discrimination when it lifted the ban on the ANC and other political organisations. It released Nelson Mandela from prison after 27 years of serving a sentence for sabotage. A negotiation process followed. With approval from the white electorate in a 1992 referendum , the government continued negotiations to end apartheid. South Africa held its first universal elections in 1994 , which the ANC won by an overwhelming majority. It has been in power ever since. The country rejoined the Commonwealth of Nations and became a member of the Southern African Development Community . ] In post-apartheid South Africa, unemployment remained high. While many blacks have risen to middle or upper classes, the overall unemployment rate of black people worsened between 1994 and 2003 by official metrics but declined significantly using expanded definitions. ] Poverty among whites, which was previously rare, increased. ] The government struggled to achieve the monetary and fiscal discipline to ensure both redistribution of wealth and economic growth. The United Nations Human Development Index rose steadily until the mid-1990s ] then fell from 1995 to 2005 before recovering its 1995 peak in 2013. ] The fall is in large part attributable to the South African HIV/AIDS pandemic which saw South African life expectancy fall from a high point of 62 years in 1992 to a low of 53 in 2005, ] and the failure of the government to take steps to address the pandemic in its early years. ] In May 2008, riots left over 60 people dead. ] The Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions estimated that over 100,000 people were driven from their homes. ] The targets were mainly legal and illegal migrants , and refugees seeking asylum, but a third of the victims were South African citizens. ] In a 2006 survey, the South African Migration Project concluded that South Africans are more opposed to immigration than any other national group. ] The UN High Commissioner for Refugees in 2008 reported over 200,000 refugees applied for asylum in South Africa, almost four times as many as the year before. ] These people were mainly from Zimbabwe , though many also come from Burundi , Democratic Republic of the Congo , Rwanda , Eritrea , Ethiopia and Somalia . ] Competition over jobs, business opportunities, public services and housing has led to tension between refugees and host communities. ] While xenophobia in South Africa is still a problem, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees in 2011 reported that recent violence had not been as widespread as initially
communities. ] While xenophobia in South Africa is still a problem, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees in 2011 reported that recent violence had not been as widespread as initially feared. ] Nevertheless, as South Africa continues to grapple with racial issues, one of the proposed solutions has been to pass legislation, such as the pending Hate Crimes and Hate Speech Bill , to uphold South Africa's ban on racism and commitment to equality. ] ] On 14 February 2018, Jacob Zuma resigned the presidency. Since 15 February, ANC president Cyril Ramaphosa has been President of South Africa. On 16 March 2018, just over a month after President Jacob Zuma resigned from the presidency, National Director of Public Prosecutions Shaun Abrahams announced that Zuma would again face prosecution on 16 criminal charges – 12 charges of fraud, two of corruption, and one each of racketeering and money laundering, just as in the 2006 indictment. A warrant was issued for his arrest in February 2020 after he failed to appear in court. In 2021 he was found guilty of contempt of court and sentenced to 15 months' imprisonment. In response, supporters of Zuma engaged in protests which led to riots, looting, vandalism and widespread violence, leaving 354 people dead. ] South Africa has been undergoing a period of intense political and economic crisis since 2020 with growing numbers of international institutions, businesses and political figures warning that the country risks collapsing into a failed state due to high unemployment, low economic growth, low business investment, rising levels of violent crime, disorder, political corruption, and state capture . ] ] ] ] ] The country been undergoing an energy crisis since 2007, resulting in routine rolling electricity blackouts due to loadshedding . ] According to the International Monetary Fund , South Africa is suffering from "massive corruption" and state capture. ] The Zondo Commission , established in 2018 in order to investigate allegations of corruption and state capture released its findings in 2022. It found rampant corruption at every level of government, including Transnet , Eskom , and Denel , as well as law enforcement , intelligence agencies , and the civil service . It documented evidence of systemic corruption , fraud , racketeering , bribery , money laundering , and state capture. It investigated the African National Congress party and Jacob Zuma, whom it concluded were complicit in state capture through their direct assistance to the Gupta family . ] ] "The Commission estimated the total amount of money spent by the state which was 'tainted' by state capture to be around R57 billion. More than 97% of the R57 billion came from Transnet and Eskom. Out of these funds, the Gupta enterprise received at least R15 billion. The total loss to the state is difficult to quantify, but would far exceed that R15 billion." ] South Africa has maintained a position of neutrality in regards to the Russia invasion
R15 billion. The total loss to the state is difficult to quantify, but would far exceed that R15 billion." ] South Africa has maintained a position of neutrality in regards to the Russia invasion of Ukraine in 2022 and the ongoing war . On 29 December 2023, South Africa formally submitted its case to the International Court of Justice regarding Israel 's conduct in the Gaza Strip as part of the Israel–Hamas war , alleging that Israel had committed and was committing genocide against Palestinians in the Gaza Strip. South Africa has repeatedly hosted senior leaders of Hamas , the group responsible for the October 7th massacre in Israe
The Road Accident Fund ( RAF ) is a South African state insurer that provides liability and collision insurance coverage to all drivers in South Africa. ] ] ] RAF does not cover property damage (such as damage to vehicles, buildings, and the contents of a vehicle). The RAF issues settlements by assigning the claimant a percentage of responsibility for the accident and paying the claimant the percentage of a full settlement that was determined not to be their responsibility. Road Accident Fund collects insurance premiums through a levy on motor vehicle fuel. The RAF provides compulsory social insurance cover to all users of South African roads, both citizens and foreigners, against injuries sustained or death arising from accidents involving motor vehicles within the borders of South Africa. This cover is in the form of indemnity insurance to persons who cause the accident, as well as personal injury and death insurance to victims of motor vehicle accidents and their families. The RAF's mandate is to rehabilitate and compensate persons injured as a result of the negligent driving of motor vehicles and to promote road safety in South Africa. The RAF was established by the Road Accident Fund Act, 1996 and started operation on 1 May 1997. It assumed the rights, obligations, assets and liabilities of the Multilateral Motor Vehicle Accidents Fund. Before 1997, the system of compulsory motor vehicle accident insurance was governed by the following legislation: The South African Government 's oversight over the RAF includes: The National Assembly has legislative powers and maintains oversight of the National Executive Authority and the RAF as an organ of State. In addition, Parliament oversees the Executive Authority who is required to provide Parliament with full and regular reports concerning matters under his control. Parliament exercises oversight of the RAF through the Transport Portfolio Committee and through SCOPA. The Portfolio Committee oversees service delivery and performance in accordance with the mandate of the RAF and its corporate strategy. It reviews financial and non-financial information, such as efficiency and effectiveness measures in delivering services against corporate goals. The Minister of Transport is the Executive Authority of the RAF and is concerned with the financial viability and risks of the organization, as well as policy-making and monitoring of policy implementation to ensure that the RAF effectively delivers on its mandate. The board of directors acts as the Accounting Authority of the RAF and is accountable to the Executive Authority for the performance and affairs of the entity. The RAF's Board is responsible for determining the overall direction of the RAF, formulating and implementing policies that are necessary to achieve the RAF's strategic goals, and maintaining good corporate governance. The RAF can obtain its funding from several sources as outlined as fuel levy income, government grants paid by National
achieve the RAF's strategic goals, and maintaining good corporate governance. The RAF can obtain its funding from several sources as outlined as fuel levy income, government grants paid by National Treasury when there is a pressing need such as an acute cash shortage, and borrowings which are an allowed source of funding according to the RAF Act, and investment income acquired from invested funds that occasionally result when the RAF's operational capacity prevents it from paying out all its funds. The primary source of income for the RAF compensation scheme is a levy raised on fuel. The levy is measured in terms of cents per litre on petrol and diesel fuel sold in South Africa and forms part of the general fuel tax regulated by government. The fuel levy per litre is set by National Treasury on a yearly basis, whereas total fuel sales are influenced by a number of macro-economic factors. On an annual basis, the RAF requests National Treasury for an increase in the RAF Fuel Levy, based on a financial model and a calculation of its costs during the coming year. The full extent of the RAF Fuel Levy requested is seldom granted. This is because National Treasury has historically set the levy on the basis of a pay-as-you-go principle rather than with the purpose of establishing a fully funded position for the RAF. During the 2012 financial year the RAF Fuel Levy was set at 80 cents per litre. The RAF is not involved in the collection of its fuel levy. The South African Revenue Service ("SARS") administers the collection of the fuel levy and pays it to the RAF, in accordance with provisions of the Customs and Excise Act, 1964 and the RAF Act. The two main variables that determine the income of the RAF are the volume of petrol and diesel sold per annum and the rate of the levy. The RAF Fuel Levy can be viewed as a compulsory contribution to social security benefits which is used only for the specific purposes as provided for in legislation. The RAF is affected by general economic conditions and other environmental factors, and by the extent to which it manages its costs effectively. The nexus of all these factors is road activity in South Africa: The road accident fund has struggled with inability to get on top of mounting claims, financial deficit and exorbitant claims. An investigation by the Special Investigating Unit (SIU) pointed to multiple failures including corruption. Opportunistic and fraudulent claims are being investigated. Problems identified include procurement and tender irregularities, duplicate claims, overpricing of services and fraudulent claims. ] The head office is in Centurion . Other offices are in Menlyn, Pretoria , Johannesburg , East London , Durban , and Cape Town .
in the Arabian Peninsula The United Arab Emirates ] ( UAE ), or simply the Emirates , ] is a country in West Asia , in the Middle East , at the eastern end of the Arabian Peninsula . It is a federal , elective monarchy composed of seven emirates , with Abu Dhabi as its capital. ] It shares land borders with Oman to the east and northwest, and with Saudi Arabia to the southwest; as well as maritime borders in the Persian Gulf with Qatar and Iran , and with Oman in the Gulf of Oman . As of 2024 ] , the UAE has an estimated population of over 10 million, of which 11% are Emiratis; Dubai , is the most populous city, and is an international hub. ] ] Islam is the official religion and Arabic is the official language, while English is the most spoken language and the language of business. ] The United Arab Emirates' oil and natural gas reserves are the world's seventh and seventh-largest , respectively. ] ] Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan , ruler of Abu Dhabi and the country's first president, oversaw the development of the Emirates by investing oil revenues into healthcare, education, and infrastructure. ] The country has the most diversified economy among the members of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). ] In the 21st century, the UAE has become less reliant on oil and gas and is economically focusing on tourism and business. The UAE is considered a middle power . It is also a member of the United Nations , Arab League , Organisation of Islamic Cooperation , OPEC , Non-Aligned Movement , World Trade Organization , and BRICS . The UAE is also a dialogue partner of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation . Human rights organisations consider the UAE substandard on human rights, ranking only 6.06 in the human freedom index , citing reports of government critics being imprisoned and tortured, families harassed by the state security apparatus, and cases of forced disappearances . ] Individual rights such as the freedoms of assembly , association , expression , and the freedom of the press are severely repressed. ] Stone tools recovered reveal a settlement of people from Africa some 127,000 years ago and a stone tool used for butchering animals discovered on the Arabian coast suggests an even older habitation from 130,000 years ago. ] In time lively trading links developed with civilisations in Mesopotamia , Iran and the Harappan culture of the Indus Valley. This contact persisted and became wider, probably motivated by the trade in copper from the Hajar Mountains , which commenced around 3,000 BCE. ] Sumerian sources talk of the Magan civilisation, which has been identified as encompassing the modern UAE and Oman. ] There are six periods of human settlement with distinctive behaviours in the region before Islam, which include the Hafit period from 3,200 to 2,600 BCE, the Umm Al Nar culture from 2,600 to 2,000 BCE, and the Wadi Suq culture from 2,000 to 1,300 BCE. From 1,200 BCE to the advent of Islam in Eastern Arabia, through three distinctive Iron Ages and the
the Umm Al Nar culture from 2,600 to 2,000 BCE, and the Wadi Suq culture from 2,000 to 1,300 BCE. From 1,200 BCE to the advent of Islam in Eastern Arabia, through three distinctive Iron Ages and the Mleiha period, the area was variously occupied by the Achaemenids and other forces, and saw the construction of fortified settlements and extensive husbandry thanks to the development of the falaj irrigation system. The spread of Islam to the northeastern tip of the Arabian Peninsula is thought to have followed directly from a letter sent by the Islamic prophet Muhammad to the rulers of Oman in 630 CE. This led to a group of rulers travelling to Medina , converting to Islam and subsequently driving a successful uprising against the unpopular Sassanids , who dominated the coast at the time. ] Following the death of Muhammad, the new Islamic communities south of the Persian Gulf threatened to disintegrate, with insurrections against the Muslim leaders . Caliph Abu Bakr sent an army from the capital Medina which completed its reconquest of the territory ( the Ridda Wars ) with the Battle of Dibba in which 10,000 lives are thought to have been lost. ] This assured the integrity of the Caliphate and the unification of the Arabian Peninsula under the newly emerging Rashidun Caliphate . In 637, Julfar (in the area of today's Ras Al Khaimah ) was an important port that was used as a staging post for the Islamic invasion of the Sasanian Empire . ] The area of the Al Ain / Buraimi Oasis was known as Tu'am and was an important trading post for camel routes between the coast and the Arabian interior. ] The earliest Christian site in the UAE was first discovered in the 1990s, an extensive monastic complex on what is now known as Sir Bani Yas Island and which dates back to the seventh century. Thought to be Nestorian and built in 600 CE, the church appears to have been abandoned peacefully in 750 CE. ] It forms a rare physical link to a legacy of Christianity, which is thought to have spread across the peninsula from 50 to 350 CE following trade routes. Certainly, by the fifth century, Oman had a bishop named John – the last bishop of Oman being Etienne, in 676 CE. ] The harsh desert environment led to the emergence of the "versatile tribesman", nomadic groups who subsisted due to a variety of economic activities, including animal husbandry, agriculture and hunting. The seasonal movements of these groups led not only to frequent clashes between groups but also to the establishment of seasonal and semi-seasonal settlements and centres. These formed tribal groupings whose names are still carried by modern Emiratis, including the Bani Yas and Al Bu Falah of Abu Dhabi , Al Ain, Liwa , and the west coast; the Dhawahir , Awamir, Al Ali , and Manasir of the interior; the Sharqiyin of the east coast; and the Qawasim to the north. ] With the expansion of European colonial empires , Portuguese, English and Dutch forces appeared in the Persian Gulf region. By the 18th
Sharqiyin of the east coast; and the Qawasim to the north. ] With the expansion of European colonial empires , Portuguese, English and Dutch forces appeared in the Persian Gulf region. By the 18th century, the Bani Yas confederation was the dominant force in most of the area now known as Abu Dhabi, ] ] ] while the Northern Al Qawasim (Al Qasimi) dominated maritime commerce. The Portuguese maintained an influence over the coastal settlements, building forts in the wake of the bloody 16th-century conquests of coastal communities by Albuquerque and the Portuguese commanders who followed him – particularly on the east coast at Muscat , Sohar and Khor Fakkan . ] The southern coast of the Persian Gulf was known to the British as the " Pirate Coast ", ] ] as boats of the Al Qawasim federation harassed British-flagged shipping from the 17th century into the 19th. ] The charge of piracy is disputed by modern Emirati historians, including the current ruler of Sharjah, Sheikh Sultan Al Qasimi , in his 1986 book The Myth of Arab Piracy in the Gulf . ] British expeditions to protect their Indian trade routes led to campaigns against Ras Al Khaimah and other harbours along the coast, including the Persian Gulf campaign of 1809 and the more successful campaign of 1819 . The following year, Britain and a number of local rulers signed a maritime truce , giving rise to the term Trucial States , which came to define the status of the coastal emirates. A further treaty was signed in 1843 and, in 1853 the Perpetual Maritime Truce was agreed. To this was added the 'Exclusive Agreements', signed in 1892, which made the Trucial States a British protectorate. ] Under the 1892 treaty, the trucial sheikhs agreed not to dispose of any territory except to the British and not to enter into relationships with any foreign government other than the British without their consent. In return, the British promised to protect the Trucial Coast from all aggression by sea and to help in case of land attack. British maritime policing meant that pearling fleets could operate in relative security. However, the British prohibition of the slave trade meant an important source of income was lost to some sheikhs and merchants. ] In 1869, the Qubaisat tribe settled at Khor Al Adaid and tried to enlist the support of the Ottomans. Khor Al Adaid was claimed by Abu Dhabi at that time, a claim supported by the British. In 1906, the British Political Resident, Percy Cox , confirmed in writing to the ruler of Abu Dhabi, Zayed bin Khalifa Al Nahyan ('Zayed the Great') that Khor Al Adaid belonged to his sheikhdom. ] During the 19th and early 20th centuries, the pearling industry thrived, providing both income and employment to the people of the Persian Gulf. ] The First World War had a severe impact on the industry, but it was the economic depression of the late 1920s and early 1930s, coupled with the invention of the cultured pearl , that wiped out the trade. The remnants of the trade eventually
the industry, but it was the economic depression of the late 1920s and early 1930s, coupled with the invention of the cultured pearl , that wiped out the trade. The remnants of the trade eventually faded away shortly after the Second World War , when the newly independent Government of India imposed heavy taxation on imported pearls. The decline of pearling resulted in extreme economic hardship in the Trucial States. ] In 1922, the British government secured undertakings from the rulers of the Trucial States not to sign concessions with foreign companies without their consent. Aware of the potential for the development of natural resources such as oil, following finds in Persia (from 1908) and Mesopotamia (from 1927), a British-led oil company, the Iraq Petroleum Company (IPC), showed an interest in the region. The Anglo-Persian Oil Company (APOC, later to become British Petroleum , or BP) had a 23.75% share in IPC. From 1935, onshore concessions to explore for oil were granted by local rulers, with APOC signing the first one on behalf of Petroleum Concessions Ltd (PCL), an associate company of IPC. ] APOC was prevented from developing the region alone because of the restrictions of the Red Line Agreement , which required it to operate through IPC. A number of options between PCL and the trucial rulers were signed, providing useful revenue for communities experiencing poverty following the collapse of the pearl trade. However, the wealth of oil which the rulers could see from the revenues accruing to surrounding countries remained elusive. The first bore holes in Abu Dhabi were drilled by IPC's operating company, Petroleum Development (Trucial Coast) Ltd (PDTC) at Ras Sadr in 1950, with a 13,000-foot-deep (4,000-metre) bore hole taking a year to drill and turning out dry, at the tremendous cost at the time of £1 million. The British set up a development office that helped in some small developments in the emirates. The seven sheikhs of the emirates then decided to form a council to coordinate matters between them and took over the development office. In 1952, they formed the Trucial States Council, ] and appointed Adi Al Bitar , Dubai's Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum 's legal advisor, as secretary general and legal advisor to the council. The council was terminated once the United Arab Emirates was formed. ] The tribal nature of society and the lack of definition of borders between emirates frequently led to disputes, settled either through mediation or, more rarely, force. The Trucial Oman Scouts was a small military force used by the British to keep the peace. In 1953, a subsidiary of BP , D'Arcy Exploration Ltd, obtained an offshore concession from the ruler of Abu Dhabi. BP joined with Compagnie Française des Pétroles (later Total ) to form operating companies, Abu Dhabi Marine Areas Ltd (ADMA) and Dubai Marine Areas Ltd (DUMA). A number of undersea oil surveys were carried out, including one led by the famous marine explorer Jacques
operating companies, Abu Dhabi Marine Areas Ltd (ADMA) and Dubai Marine Areas Ltd (DUMA). A number of undersea oil surveys were carried out, including one led by the famous marine explorer Jacques Cousteau . ] ] In 1958, a floating platform rig was towed from Hamburg , Germany , and positioned over the Umm Shaif pearl bed, in Abu Dhabi waters, where drilling began. In March, it struck oil in the Upper Thamama rock formation. This was the first commercial discovery of the Trucial Coast, leading to the first exports of oil in 1962. ADMA made further offshore discoveries at Zakum and elsewhere, and other companies made commercial finds such as the Fateh oilfield off Dubai and the Mubarak field off Sharjah (shared with Iran). ] Meanwhile, onshore exploration was hindered by territorial disputes. In 1955, the United Kingdom represented Abu Dhabi and Oman in their dispute with Saudi Arabia over the Buraimi Oasis . ] A 1974 agreement between Abu Dhabi and Saudi Arabia seemed to have settled the Abu Dhabi-Saudi border dispute , but this has not been ratified. ] The UAE's border with Oman was ratified in 2008. ] PDTC continued its onshore exploration away from the disputed area, drilling five more bore holes that were also dry. However, on 27 October 1960, the company discovered oil in commercial quantities at the Murban No. 3 well on the coast near Tarif. ] In 1962, PDTC became the Abu Dhabi Petroleum Company . As oil revenues increased, the ruler of Abu Dhabi, Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan , undertook a massive construction program, building schools, housing, hospitals and roads. When Dubai's oil exports commenced in 1969, Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum , the ruler of Dubai, was able to invest the revenues from the limited reserves found to spark the diversification drive that would create the modern global city of Dubai. ] By 1966, it had become clear the British government could no longer afford to administer and protect the Trucial States , what is now the United Arab Emirates. British Members of Parliament (MPs) debated the preparedness of the Royal Navy to defend the sheikhdoms . On 24 January 1968, British Prime Minister Harold Wilson announced the government's decision, reaffirmed in March 1971 by Prime Minister Edward Heath , to end the treaty relationships with the seven trucial sheikhdoms. Days after the announcement, the ruler of Abu Dhabi, Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan , fearing vulnerability, tried to persuade the British to honour the protection treaties by offering to pay the full costs of keeping the British Armed Forces in the Emirates. The British Labour government rejected the offer. ] After Labour MP Goronwy Roberts informed Sheikh Zayed of the news of British withdrawal, the nine Persian Gulf sheikhdoms attempted to form a union of Arab emirates, but by mid-1971 they were still unable to agree on terms of union even though the British treaty relationship was to expire in December of that year. ] Fears of vulnerability were
of Arab emirates, but by mid-1971 they were still unable to agree on terms of union even though the British treaty relationship was to expire in December of that year. ] Fears of vulnerability were realised the day before independence. An Iranian destroyer group broke formation from an exercise in the lower Gulf, sailing to the Tunb islands . The islands were taken by force, civilians and Arab defenders alike allowed to flee. A British warship stood idle during the course of the invasion. ] A destroyer group approached the island of Abu Musa as well. But there, Sheikh Khalid bin Mohammed Al Qasimi had already negotiated with the Iranian shah, and the island was quickly leased to Iran for $3 million a year. Meanwhile, Saudi Arabia laid claim to swathes of Abu Dhabi. ] Originally intended to be part of the proposed Federation of Arab Emirates, Bahrain became independent in August, and Qatar in September 1971. When the British-Trucial Sheikhdoms treaty expired on 1 December 1971, both emirates became fully independent. ] On 2 December 1971, six of the emirates (Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Dubai, Fujairah, Sharjah and Umm Al Quwain) agreed to enter into a union named the United Arab Emirates. Ras al-Khaimah joined later, on 10 January 1972. ] ] In February 1972, the Federal National Council (FNC) was created; it was a 40-member consultative body appointed by the seven rulers. The UAE joined the Arab League on 6 December 1971 and the United Nations on 9 December. ] It was a founding member of the Gulf Cooperation Council in May 1981, with Abu Dhabi hosting the first GCC summit . The UAE supported military operations by the US and other coalition states engaged in the war against the Taliban in Afghanistan (2001) and Saddam Hussein in Ba'athist Iraq (2003) as well as operations supporting the Global War on Terror for the Horn of Africa at Al Dhafra Air Base located outside of Abu Dhabi. The air base also supported Allied operations during the 1991 Persian Gulf War and Operation Northern Watch . The country had already signed a military defence agreement with the U.S. in 1994 and one with France in 1995. ] ] In January 2008, France and the UAE signed a deal allowing France to set up a permanent military base in the emirate of Abu Dhabi. ] The UAE joined international military operations in Libya in March 2011. On 2 November 2004, the UAE's first president, Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan , died. Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan was elected as the president of the UAE . Sheikh Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan succeeded Sheikh Khalifa as crown prince of Abu Dhabi. ] In January 2006, Sheikh Maktoum bin Rashid Al Maktoum , the prime minister of the UAE and the ruler of Dubai, died, and Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum assumed both roles. The first ever national elections were held on 16 December 2006. A number of voters chose half of the members of the Federal National Council . The UAE has largely escaped the Arab Spring , which other countries have
elections were held on 16 December 2006. A number of voters chose half of the members of the Federal National Council . The UAE has largely escaped the Arab Spring , which other countries have experienced; however, 60 Emirati activists from Al Islah were apprehended for an alleged coup attempt and the attempt of the establishment of an Islamist state in the UAE. ] ] ] Mindful of the protests in nearby Bahrain, in November 2012 the UAE outlawed online mockery of its government or attempts to organise public protests through social media. ] On 29 January 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic was confirmed to have reached the UAE . ] Two months later, in March, the government announced the closure of shopping malls, schools, and places of worship, in addition to imposing a 24-hour curfew, and suspending all Emirates passenger flights. ] ] This resulted in a major economic downturn, which eventually led to the merger of more than 50% of the UAE's federal agencies . ] On 29 August 2020, the UAE established normal diplomatic relations with Israel and with the help of the United States , they signed the Abraham Accords with Bahrain . ] On 9 February 2021, the UAE achieved a historic milestone when its probe, named Hope , successfully reached Mars 's orbit. The UAE became the first country in the Arab world to reach Mars, the fifth country to successfully reach Mars, and the second country, after an Indian probe , to orbit Mars on its maiden attempt. On 14 May 2022, Sheikh Mohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyan was elected as the UAE's new president after the death of Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan . ] The United Arab Emirates is situated in the Middle East , bordering the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf , between Oman and Saudi Arabia ; it is in a strategic location slightly south of the Strait of Hormuz , a vital transit point for world crude oil . ] The UAE lies between 22°30' and 26°10' north latitude and between 51° and 56°25′ east longitude. It shares a 530-kilometre (330 mi) border with Saudi Arabia on the west, south, and southeast, and a 450-kilometre (280 mi) border with Oman on the southeast and northeast. The land border with Qatar in the Khor Al Adaid area is about nineteen kilometres (12 miles) in the northwest; however, it is a source of ongoing dispute . ] Following Britain's military departure from the UAE in 1971, and its establishment as a new state, the UAE laid claim to Iranian-occupied islands of Abu Musa and the Greater and the Lesser Tunbs, when Iran captured them during the British rule, resulting in disputes with Iran that remain unresolved. ] The UAE also disputes claim on other islands against the neighboring state of Qatar. ] The largest emirate, Abu Dhabi , accounts for 87% of the UAE's total area, ] 67,340 square kilometres (26,000 sq mi). ] The smallest emirate, Ajman , encompasses only 259 km 2 (100 sq mi). ] The UAE coast stretches for nearly 650 km (404 mi) along the southern shore of the Persian Gulf , briefly interrupted by an
] The smallest emirate, Ajman , encompasses only 259 km 2 (100 sq mi). ] The UAE coast stretches for nearly 650 km (404 mi) along the southern shore of the Persian Gulf , briefly interrupted by an isolated outcrop of the Sultanate of Oman. Six of the emirates are situated along the Persian Gulf, and the seventh, Fujairah is on the eastern coast of the peninsula with direct access to the Gulf of Oman. ] Most of the coast consists of salt pans that extend 8–10 km (5.0–6.2 mi) inland. ] The largest natural harbor is at Dubai, although other ports have been dredged at Abu Dhabi, Sharjah, and elsewhere. ] Numerous islands are found in the Persian Gulf, and the ownership of some of them has been the subject of international disputes with both Iran and Qatar . The smaller islands, as well as many coral reefs and shifting sandbars, are a menace to navigation. Strong tides and occasional windstorms further complicate ship movements near the shore. The UAE also has a stretch of the Al Bāţinah coast of the Gulf of Oman. The Musandam Peninsula , the very tip of Arabia by the Strait of Hormuz, and Madha are exclaves of Oman separated by the UAE. ] South and west of Abu Dhabi, vast, rolling sand dunes merge into the Rub al-Khali (Empty Quarter) of Saudi Arabia. ] The desert area of Abu Dhabi includes two important oases with adequate underground water for permanent settlements and cultivation. The extensive Liwa Oasis is in the south near the undefined border with Saudi Arabia. About 100 km (62 mi) to the northeast of Liwa is the Al-Buraimi oasis, which extends on both sides of the Abu Dhabi-Oman border. Lake Zakher in Al Ain is a human-made lake near the border with Oman that was created from treated waste water. ] Prior to withdrawing from the area in 1971, Britain delineated the internal borders among the seven emirates in order to preempt territorial disputes that might hamper formation of the federation. In general, the rulers of the emirates accepted the British interventions, but in the case of boundary disputes between Abu Dhabi and Dubai, and also between Dubai and Sharjah, conflicting claims were not resolved until after the UAE became independent. The most complicated borders were in the Western Hajar Mountains , where five of the emirates contested jurisdiction over more than a dozen enclaves. The UAE contains the following terrestrial ecoregions: Al Hajar montane woodlands and shrublands, Gulf of Oman desert and semi-desert , and Al-Hajar foothill xeric woodlands and shrublands . ] The oases grow date palms , acacia and eucalyptus trees. In the desert, the flora is very sparse and consists of grasses and thorn bushes. The indigenous fauna had come close to extinction because of intensive hunting, which has led to a conservation program on Sir Bani Yas Island initiated by Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan in the 1970s, resulting in the survival of, for example, Arabian Oryx , Arabian camel and leopards . Coastal fish and mammals consist mainly of
Island initiated by Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan in the 1970s, resulting in the survival of, for example, Arabian Oryx , Arabian camel and leopards . Coastal fish and mammals consist mainly of mackerel , perch , and tuna , as well as sharks and whales. The climate of the UAE is subtropical-arid with hot summers and warm winters. The climate is categorized as desert climate. The hottest months are July and August, when average maximum temperatures reach above 45 °C (113 °F) on the coastal plain . In the Hajar Mountains, temperatures are considerably lower, a result of increased elevation. ] Average minimum temperatures in January and February are between 10 and 14 °C (50 and 57 °F). ] During the late summer months, a humid southeastern wind known as Sharqi (i.e. "Easterner") makes the coastal region especially unpleasant. The average annual rainfall in the coastal area is less than 120 mm (4.7 in), but in some mountainous areas annual rainfall often reaches 350 mm (13.8 in). Rain in the coastal region falls in short, torrential bursts during the winter months, sometimes resulting in floods in ordinarily dry wadi beds. ] The region is prone to occasional, violent dust storms , which can severely reduce visibility. On 28 December 2004, snow was recorded in the UAE for the first time, in the Jebel Jais mountain cluster in Ras al-Khaimah. ] A few years later, there were more sightings of snow and hail. ] ] The Jebel Jais mountain cluster has experienced snow only twice since records began. ] The United Arab Emirates is a federal constitutional monarchy made up from a federation of seven hereditary tribal monarchy -styled political units called Sheikhdoms . It is governed by a Federal Supreme Council made up of the ruling Sheikhs of Abu Dhabi , Ajman , Fujairah , Sharjah , Dubai , Ras Al Khaimah and Umm Al Quwain . All responsibilities not granted to the federal government are reserved to the individual emirate. ] A percentage quantify ] of revenues from each emirate is allocated to the UAE's central budget. ] The UAE uses the title Sheikh instead of Emir to refer to the rulers of individual emirates. The title is used due to the sheikhdom styled governing system in adherence to the culture of tribes of Arabia , where Sheikh means leader, elder, or the tribal chief of the clan who partakes in shared decision making with his followers. The president and vice president are elected by the Federal Supreme Council . Usually, the Head of the Al Nahyan family, who are based in Abu Dhabi, holds the presidency and the Head of the Al Maktoum family, based in Dubai, the prime ministership. All prime ministers but one have served concurrently as vice president. The federal government is composed of three branches: The UAE e-Government is the extension of the UAE federal government in its electronic form. ] The UAE's Council of Ministers ( Arabic : مجلس الوزراء ) is the chief executive branch of the government presided over by the prime minister. The prime
federal government in its electronic form. ] The UAE's Council of Ministers ( Arabic : مجلس الوزراء ) is the chief executive branch of the government presided over by the prime minister. The prime minister, who is appointed by the Federal Supreme Council , appoints the ministers. The Council of Ministers is made up of 22 members and manages all internal and foreign affairs of the federation under its constitutional and federal law. ] In December 2019, ] the UAE became the only Arab country, and one of only five countries in the world, to attain gender parity in a national legislative body, with its lower house 50 per cent women. ] ] The UAE is the only country in the world that has a Ministry of Tolerance, ] a Ministry of Happiness, ] and a Ministry of Artificial Intelligence. ] The UAE also has a virtual ministry called the Ministry of Possibilities, designed to find solutions to challenges and improve quality of life. ] ] The UAE also has a National Youth Council , which is represented in the UAE cabinet by the Minister of Youth. ] ] The UAE legislative body is the Federal National Council which convenes nationwide elections every four years. The FNC consists of 40 members drawn from all the emirates. Each emirate is allocated specific seats to ensure full representation. Half are appointed by the rulers of the constituent emirates, and the other half are elected. By law, the council members have to be equally divided between males and females. The FNC is restricted to a largely consultative role. ] ] ] The United Arab Emirates is an authoritarian federal monarchy . ] ] ] ] According to the New York Times , the UAE is "an autocracy with the sheen of a progressive, modern state". ] The UAE has been described as a "tribal autocracy" where the seven constituent monarchies are led by tribal rulers in an autocratic fashion. ] The
Dubai ] is the most populous city in the United Arab Emirates and the capital of the Emirate of Dubai , the most populated of the country's seven emirates . ] ] ] The city has a population of around 3.6 million (as of 2022), ] more than 90% of which are expatriates . ] Dubai was founded in the 19th century as a fishing village. Beginning in the early 20th century, it has developed into a significant regional and international trade hub, with a particular emphasis on tourism and luxury. ] Dubai has been a center for regional and international trade since the early 20th century, and its economy relies on revenues from trade, tourism, aviation, real estate, and financial services. ] ] ] ] Oil revenue helped accelerate the development of the city. However, oil production contributed less than 1 percent to the emirate's GDP in 2018. ] Dubai has the second-most five-star hotels in the world ] and the tallest building in the world , the Burj Khalifa , which is 828 metres (2,717 ft) tall. Located in the eastern Arabian Peninsula , on the coast of the Persian Gulf , ] it is a major global transportation hub for passengers and cargo. ] In 2023, Dubai was the third most-visited city in the world . ] Many theories have been proposed as to the origin of the word "Dubai". One theory suggests the word used to be the souq in Ba. ] An Arabic proverb says " Daba Dubai " ( Arabic : دبا دبي ), meaning "They came with a lot of money." ] According to Fedel Handhal, a scholar on the UAE's history and culture, the word Dubai may have come from the word dabba ( Arabic : دب ) (a past tense derivative of yadub ( Arabic : يدب ), which means "to creep"), referring to the slow flow of Dubai Creek inland. The poet and scholar Ahmad Mohammad Obaid traces it to the same word, but to its alternative meaning of "baby locust " ( Arabic : جراد ) due to the abundance of locusts in the area before settlement. ] The history of human settlement in the area now defined by the United Arab Emirates is complex and extensive. It points to extensive trading links between the civilisations of the Indus Valley and Mesopotamia , and even as far afield as the Levant . ] Archaeological finds in the emirate of Dubai, particularly at Al-Ashoosh , Al Sufouh and the notably rich trove from Saruq Al Hadid ] show settlement through the Ubaid and Hafit periods, the Umm Al Nar and Wadi Suq periods and the three Iron Ages in the UAE. The area was known to the Sumerians as Magan and was a source of metallic goods, notably copper and bronze. ] The area was covered with sand about 5,000 years ago as the coast retreated inland, becoming part of the city's present coastline. ] Pre-Islamic ceramics have been found from the 3rd and 4th centuries. ] Prior to the introduction of Islam to the area, the people in this region worshiped Bajir (or Bajar ). ] After the spread of Islam in the region, the Umayyad Caliph of the eastern Islamic world conquered south-east Arabia and drove out the Sassanians . Excavations by
worshiped Bajir (or Bajar ). ] After the spread of Islam in the region, the Umayyad Caliph of the eastern Islamic world conquered south-east Arabia and drove out the Sassanians . Excavations by the Dubai Museum in the region of Al-Jumayra ( Jumeirah ) found several artefacts from the Umayyad period. ] An early mention of Dubai in 1095 is in the Book of Geography by the Andalusian - Arab geographer Abu Abdullah al-Bakri . citation needed ] The Venetian pearl merchant Gasparo Balbi visited the area in 1580 and mentioned Dubai ( Dibei ) for its pearling industry. ] Dubai is thought to have been established as a fishing village in the early 18th century ] and was, by 1822, a town of some 700–800 members of the Bani Yas tribe and subject to the rule of Sheikh Tahnun bin Shakhbut of Abu Dhabi . ] In 1822, a British naval surveyor noted that Dubai was at that time populated with a thousand people living in an oval-shaped town surrounded by a mud wall, scattered with goats and camels. The main footpath out of the village led to a reedy creek while another trailed off into the desert and merged into caravan routes. ] : 17 In 1833, following tribal feuding, members of the Al Bu Falasah tribe seceded from Abu Dhabi and established themselves in Dubai. The exodus from Abu Dhabi was led by Obeid bin Saeed and Maktoum bin Butti , who became joint leaders of Dubai until Ubaid died in 1836, leaving Maktoum to establish the Maktoum dynasty . ] Dubai signed the General Maritime Treaty of 1820 with the British government along with other Trucial States , following the British campaign in 1819 against the Ras Al Khaimah . This led to the 1853 Perpetual Maritime Truce . Dubai also – like its neighbours on the Trucial Coast – entered into an exclusivity agreement in which the United Kingdom took responsibility for the emirate's security in 1892 . In 1841, a smallpox epidemic broke out in the Bur Dubai locality, forcing residents to relocate east to Deira . ] In 1896, fire broke out in Dubai, a disastrous occurrence in a town where many family homes were still constructed from barasti – palm fronds. The conflagration consumed half the houses of Bur Dubai, while the district of Deira was said to have been totally destroyed. The following year more fires broke out. A female slave was caught in the act of starting one such blaze and was subsequently put to death. ] In 1901, Maktoum bin Hasher Al Maktoum established Dubai as a free port with no taxation on imports or exports and also gave merchants parcels of land and guarantees of protection and tolerance. These policies saw a movement of merchants not only directly from Lingeh, ] but also those who had settled in Ras Al Khaimah and Sharjah (which had historical links with Lingeh through the Al Qawasim tribe) to Dubai. An indicator of the growing importance of the port of Dubai can be gained from the movements of the steamer of the Bombay and Persia Steam Navigation Company, which from 1899 to 1901 paid five visits
An indicator of the growing importance of the port of Dubai can be gained from the movements of the steamer of the Bombay and Persia Steam Navigation Company, which from 1899 to 1901 paid five visits annually to Dubai. In 1902 the company's vessels made 21 visits to Dubai and from 1904 on, ] the steamers called fortnightly – in 1906, trading 70,000 tones of cargo. ] The frequency of these vessels only helped to accelerate Dubai's role as an emerging port and trading hub of preference. Lorimer notes the transfer from Lingeh "bids fair to become complete and permanent", ] and also that the town had by 1906 supplanted Lingeh as the chief entrepôt of the Trucial States. ] The "great storm" of 1908 struck the pearling boats of Dubai and the coastal emirates towards the end of the pearling season that year, resulting in the loss of a dozen boats and over 100 men. The disaster was a major setback for Dubai, with many families losing their breadwinners and merchants facing financial ruin. These losses came at a time when the tribes of the interior were also experiencing poverty. In a letter to the Sultan of Muscat in 1911, Butti laments, "Misery and poverty are raging among them, with the result that they are struggling, looting and killing among themselves." ] In 1910, in the Hyacinth incident the town was bombarded by HMS Hyacinth , with 37 people killed. Dubai's geographical proximity to Iran made it an important trade location. The town of Dubai was an important port of call for foreign tradesmen, chiefly those from Iran, many of whom eventually settled in the town. By the beginning of the 20th century, it was an important port. ] At that time, Dubai consisted of the town of Dubai and the nearby village of Jumeirah , a collection of some 45 areesh (palm leaf) huts. ] By the 1920s, many Iranians settled in Dubai permanently, moving across the Persian Gulf. By then, amenities in the town grew and a modern quarter was established, Al Bastakiya . ] : 21–23 Dubai was known for its pearl exports until the 1930s; the pearl trade was damaged irreparably by the 1929 Great Depression and the innovation of cultured pearls . With the collapse of the pearling industry, Dubai fell into a deep depression and many residents lived in poverty or migrated to other parts of the Persian Gulf. ] In 1937 an oil exploration contract was signed which guaranteed royalty rights for Dubai and concessionary payments to Sheikh Saeed bin Maktoum . However, due to World War II , oil would not be struck until 1966. ] : 36–37 In the early days since its inception, Dubai was constantly at odds with Abu Dhabi . In 1947, a border dispute between Dubai and Abu Dhabi on the northern sector of their mutual border escalated into war. ] Arbitration by the British government resulted in a cessation of hostilities. ] Despite a lack of oil, Dubai's ruler from 1958, Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum , used revenue from trading activities to build infrastructure. Private companies were
a cessation of hostilities. ] Despite a lack of oil, Dubai's ruler from 1958, Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum , used revenue from trading activities to build infrastructure. Private companies were established to build and operate infrastructure, including electricity, telephone services and both the ports and airport operators. ] An airport of sorts (a runway built on salt flats) was established in Dubai in the 1950s and, in 1959, the emirate's first hotel, the Airlines Hotel, was constructed. This was followed by the Ambassador and Carlton Hotels in 1968. ] Sheikh Rashid commissioned John Harris from British architectural construction firm Halcrow , to create the city's first master plan in 1959. Harris imagined a Dubai that would rise from the historic centre on Dubai Creek, with an extensive road system, organised zones, and a town centre, all of which could feasibly be built with the limited financial resources at the time. ] 1959 saw the establishment of Dubai's first telephone company, 51% owned by IAL (International Aeradio Ltd) and 49% by Sheikh Rashid and local businessmen and in 1961 both the electricity company and telephone company had rolled out operational networks. ] The water company (Sheikh Rashid was chairman and majority shareholder) constructed a pipeline from wells at Awir and a series of storage tanks and, by 1968, Dubai had a reliable supply of piped water. ] On 7 April 1961, the Dubai-based MV Dara , a five thousand ton British flagged vessel that plied the route between Basra (Iraq), Kuwait and Bombay (India), was caught in unusually high winds off Dubai. Early the next morning in heavy seas off Umm al-Quwain, an explosion tore out the second class cabins and started fires. The captain gave the order to abandon ship but two lifeboats capsized and a second explosion occurred. A flotilla of small boats from Dubai, Sharjah , Ajman and Umm al-Quwain picked up survivors, but 238 of the 819 persons on board were lost in the disaster. ] The construction of Dubai's first airport was started on the northern edge of the town in 1959 and the terminal building opened for business in September 1960. The airport was initially serviced by Gulf Aviation (flying Dakotas , Herons and Viscounts ) but Iran Air commenced services to Shiraz in 1961. ] In 1962 the British Political Agent noted that "Many new houses and blocks of offices and flats are being built... the Ruler is determined, against advice to press on with the construction of a jet airport... More and more European and Arab firms are opening up and the future looks bright." ] In 1962, with expenditure on infrastructure projects already approaching levels some thought imprudent, Sheikh Rashid approached his brother-in-law, the Ruler of Qatar , for a loan to build the first bridge crossing Dubai Creek . This crossing was finished in May 1963 and was paid for by a toll levied on the crossing from the Dubai side of the creek to the Deira side. ] BOAC was originally reluctant to
crossing Dubai Creek . This crossing was finished in May 1963 and was paid for by a toll levied on the crossing from the Dubai side of the creek to the Deira side. ] BOAC was originally reluctant to start regular flights between Bombay and Dubai, fearing a lack of demand for seats. However, by the time the asphalt runway of Dubai Airport was constructed in 1965, opening Dubai to both regional and long haul traffic, a number of foreign airlines were competing for landing rights. ] In 1970 a new airport terminal building was constructed which included Dubai's first duty-free shops . ] Throughout the 1960s Dubai was the centre of a lively gold trade, with 1968 imports of gold at some £56 million. This gold was, in the vast majority, re-exported – mainly to customers who took delivery in international waters off India . The import of gold to India had been banned and so the trade was characterized as smuggling, although Dubai's merchants were quick to point out that they were making legal deliveries of gold and that it was up to the customer where they took it. ] In 1966, more gold was shipped from London to Dubai than almost anywhere else in the world (only France and Switzerland took more), at 4 million ounces. Dubai also took delivery of over $15 million worth of watches and over 5 million ounces of silver. The 1967 price of gold was $35 an ounce but its market price in India was $68 an ounce – a healthy markup. Estimates at the time put the volume of gold imports from Dubai to India at around 75% of the total market. ] After years of exploration following large finds in neighbouring Abu Dhabi , oil was eventually discovered in territorial waters off Dubai in 1966, albeit in far smaller quantities. The first field was named "Fateh" or "good fortune". This led to an acceleration of Sheikh Rashid's infrastructure development plans and a construction boom that brought a massive influx of foreign workers, mainly Asians and Middle Easterners. Between 1968 and 1975 the city's population grew by over 300%. ] As part of the infrastructure for pumping and transporting oil from the Fateh field, located offshore of the Jebel Ali area of Dubai, two 500,000-gallon storage tanks were built, known locally as "Kazzans", ] by welding them together on the beach and then digging them out and floating them to drop onto the seabed at the Fateh field. These were constructed by the Chicago Bridge & Iron Company , which gave the beach its local name (Chicago Beach), which was transferred to the Chicago Beach Hotel, which was demolished and replaced by the Jumeirah Beach Hotel in the late 1990s. The Kazzans were an innovative oil storage solution which meant supertankers could moor offshore even in bad weather and avoided the need to pipe oil onshore from Fateh, which is some 60 miles out to sea. ] Dubai had already embarked on a period of infrastructural development and expansion. Oil revenue flowing from 1969 onwards supported a period of growth with Sheikh Rashid
some 60 miles out to sea. ] Dubai had already embarked on a period of infrastructural development and expansion. Oil revenue flowing from 1969 onwards supported a period of growth with Sheikh Rashid embarking on a policy of building infrastructure and a diversified trading economy before the emirate's limited reserves were depleted. Oil accounted for 24% of GDP in 1990 but had fallen to 7% of GDP by 2004. ] Critically, one of the first major projects Sheikh Rashid embarked upon when oil revenue started to flow was the construction of Port Rashid , a deep-water free port constructed by British company Halcrow. Originally intended to be a four-berth port, it was extended to sixteen berths as construction was ongoing. citation needed ] The project was an outstanding success, with shipping queuing to access the new facilities. The port was inaugurated on 5 October 1972, although its berths were each pressed into use as soon as they had been built. Port Rashid was to be further expanded in 1975 to add a further 35 berths before the larger port of Jebel Ali were constructed. ] Port Rashid was the first of a swath of projects designed to create a modern trading infrastructure, including roads, bridges, schools and hospitals. ] Dubai and the other " Trucial States " had long been a British protectorate where the British government took care of foreign policy and defence, as well as arbitrating between the rulers of the Eastern Gulf, the result of a treaty signed in 1892 named the "Exclusive Agreement". This was to change with PM Harold Wilson 's announcement, on 16 January 1968, that all British troops were to be withdrawn from "East of Aden". The decision was to pitch the coastal emirates, together with Qatar and Bahrain , into fevered negotiations to fill the political vacuum that the British withdrawal would leave behind. ] The principle of union was first agreed upon between the ruler of Abu Dhabi, Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan , and Sheikh Rashid of Dubai on 18 February 1968 meeting in an encampment at Argoub Al Sedirah, near Al Semeih, a desert stop between the two emirates. ] The two agreed to work towards bringing the other emirates, including Qatar and Bahrain, into the union. Over the next two years, negotiations and meetings of the rulers followed—often stormy—as a form of union was thrashed out. The nine-state union was never to recover from the October 1969 meeting where British intervention against aggressive activities by two of the Emirates resulted in a walk-out by Bahrain and Qatar. They dropped out of talks, leaving six of the seven "trucial" emirates to agree on union on 18 July 1971. ] On 2 December 1971, Dubai, together with Abu Dhabi, Sharjah , Ajman , Umm al-Quwain and Fujairah joined in the Act of Union to form the United Arab Emirates . The seventh emirate, Ras Al Khaimah, joined the UAE on 10 February 1972, following Iran 's annexation of the RAK-claimed Tunbs islands. ] In 1973, Dubai joined the other emirates to adopt a
. The seventh emirate, Ras Al Khaimah, joined the UAE on 10 February 1972, following Iran 's annexation of the RAK-claimed Tunbs islands. ] In 1973, Dubai joined the other emirates to adopt a uniform currency: the UAE dirham . ] In that same year, the prior monetary union with Qatar was dissolved and the UAE dirham was introduced throughout the Emirates. ] Throughout the 1970s, Dubai experienced continued growth fueled by revenues generated from oil and trade, even as the city witnessed an influx of immigrants fleeing the Lebanese civil war . ] Border disputes between the emirates persisted even after the formation of the UAE; it was only in 1979 that a formal compromise was reached, putting an end to disagreements. ] In 1979, the establishment of the Jebel Ali port, a deep-water port accommodating larger ships, marked a significant development. Initially facing challenges, Sheikh Mohammed initiated the JAFZA ( Jebel Ali Free Zone ) around the port in 1985, facilitating unrestricted import of labour and export of capital for foreign companies. ] Simultaneously, Dubai airport and the aviation industry continued their expansion. The Gulf War in early 1991 had a negative financial impact on the city, with depositors and traders withdrawing money and trade. However, Dubai rebounded in a changing political climate and prospered. In the late 1990s, various foreign trading communities—initially from Kuwait , during the Gulf War, and later from Bahrain , amidst the Shia unrest—relocated their businesses to Dubai. ] Dubai served as refuelling base for allied forces at the Jebel Ali Free Zone during the Gulf War and again during the 2003 Invasion of Iraq . Subsequent significant increases in oil prices prompted Dubai to maintain its focus on free trade and tourism. ] Dubai is situated on the Persian Gulf coast of the United Arab Emirates and is roughly at sea level (16 m or 52 ft above). The emirate of Dubai shares borders with Abu Dhabi in the south, Sharjah in the northeast, and the Sultanate of Oman in the southeast. Hatta , a minor exclave of the emirate, is surrounded on three sides by Oman and by the emirates of Ajman (in the west) and Ras Al Khaimah (in the north). The Persian Gulf borders the western coast of the emirate. Dubai is positioned at WikiMiniAtlas 25°16′11″N 55°18′34″E 25.2697; 55.3095 and covers an area of 1,588 sq mi (4,110 km 2 ), which represents a significant expansion beyond its initial 1,500 sq mi (3,900 km 2 ) designation due to land reclamation from the sea . citation needed ] Dubai lies directly within the Arabian Desert . However, the topography of Dubai is significantly different from that of the southern portion of the UAE in that much of Dubai's landscape is highlighted by sandy desert patterns, while gravel deserts dominate much of the southern region of the country. ] The sand consists mostly of crushed shell and coral and is fine, clean and white. East of the city, the salt-crusted coastal plains, known as sabkha ,
much of the southern region of the country. ] The sand consists mostly of crushed shell and coral and is fine, clean and white. East of the city, the salt-crusted coastal plains, known as sabkha , give way to a north–south running line of dunes. Farther east, the dunes grow larger and are tinged red with iron oxide . ] The flat sandy desert gives way to the Western Hajar Mountains , which run alongside Dubai's border with Oman at Hatta. The Western Hajar chain has an arid, jagged and shattered landscape, whose mountains rise to about 1,300 metres (4,265 feet) in some places. Dubai has no natural river bodies or oases; however, Dubai does have a natural inlet, Dubai Creek , which has been dredged to make it deep enough for large vessels to pass through. Dubai also has multiple gorges and waterholes, which dot the base of the Western Al Hajar mountains. A vast sea of sand dunes covers much of southern Dubai and eventually leads into the desert known as The Empty Quarter . Seismically , Dubai is in a very stable zone—the nearest seismic fault line, the Zagros Fault, is 200 kilometres (124 miles) from the UAE and is unlikely to have any seismic impact on Dubai. ] Experts also predict that the possibility of a tsunami in the region is minimal because the Persian Gulf waters are not deep enough to trigger a tsunami. ] The sandy desert surrounding the city supports wild grasses and occasional date palms. Desert hyacinths grow in the sabkha plains east of the city, while acacia and ghaf trees grow in the flat plains within the proximity of the Western Al Hajar mountains. Several indigenous trees such as the date palm and neem as well as imported trees such as the eucalyptus grow in Dubai's natural parks. The MacQueen's bustard , striped hyena , caracal , desert fox , falcon and Arabian oryx are common in Dubai's desert. Dubai is on the migration path between Europe, Asia and Africa, and more than 320 migratory bird species pass through the emirate in spring and autumn. The waters of Dubai are home to more than 300 species of fish, including the hammour . The typical marine life off the Dubai coast includes tropical fish, jellyfish, coral, dugong , dolphins, whales and sharks. Various types of turtles can also be found in the area including the hawksbill turtle and green turtle , which are listed as endangered species. ] ] Dubai features a tropical , ] hot desert climate ( Köppen BWh). Summers in Dubai are extremely hot, prolonged, windy, and humid, with an average high around 40 °C (104 °F) and overnight lows around 30 °C (86 °F) in the hottest month, August. Most days are sunny throughout the year. Winters are mild to warm, with an average high of 24 °C (75 °F) and overnight lows of 14 °C (57 °F) in January, the coolest month. Dubai summers are also known for the very high humidity level, which can make it very uncomfortable for many with exceptionally high dew points, which can exceed 30 °C (86 °F) in summer. Heat index values can reach over 60 °C
for the very high humidity level, which can make it very uncomfortable for many with exceptionally high dew points, which can exceed 30 °C (86 °F) in summer. Heat index values can reach over 60 °C (140 °F) at the height of summer. ] The highest recorded temperature in Dubai is 49.0 °C (120.2 °F). Very dry, Dubai's average annual precipitation is 79.2 mm (3.12 in). However, precipitation has been increasing in the last few decades, with accumulated rain reaching 110.7 mm (4.36 in) per year. ] Record-setting flooding inundated Dubai in April 2024, demonstrating a lack of appropriate drainage to deal with the immense challenges precipitated by climate change . ] Dubai has been ruled by the Al Maktoum family since 1833; the emirate is an absolute monarchy . Dubai citizens participate in the electoral college to vote representatives to the Federal National Council of the 'UAE'. The ruler, His Highness Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum , is also the vice-president and Prime Minister of the United Arab Emirates and member of the Supreme Council of the Union (SCU). Dubai appoints 8 members in two-term periods to the Federal National Council (FNC) of the UAE, the supreme federal legislative body. ] The Dubai Municipality (DM) was established by the then ruler of Dubai, Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum , in 1954 for purposes of city planning, citizen services and upkeep of local facilities. ] It has since then evolved into an autonomous subnational authority, collectively known as the Government of Dubai which is responsible for both the city of Dubai and the greater emirate. ] The Government of Dubai has over 58 governmental departments responsible for security, economic policy, education, transportations, immigration, and is only one of the three emirates to have a separate judicial system independent from the federal judiciary of the UAE. ] The Ruler of Dubai is the head of government and emir (head of state) and laws, decrees, and court judgements are issued in his name, however, since 2003, executive authority of managing and overseeing Dubai Governmental agencies has been delegated to the Dubai Executive Council , led by Crown Prince of Dubai Hamdan bin Mohammed Al Maktoum . Although no legislative assembly exists, the traditional open majlis (council) where citizens and representatives of the Ruler meet are often used for feedback on certain domestic issues. ] ] The Dubai Police Force , founded in 1956 in the locality of Naif , has law enforcement jurisdiction over the emirate. The force is under direct command of Mohammed bin Rashid al Maktoum. ] Dubai and Ras al Khaimah are the only emirates that do not conform to the federal judicial system of the United Arab Emirates. ] The emirate's judicial courts comprise the Court of First Instance, the Court of Appeal, and the Court of Cassation. The Court of First Instance consists of the Civil Court, which hears all civil claims; the Criminal Court, which hears claims originating from police complaints;
Appeal, and the Court of Cassation. The Court of First Instance consists of the Civil Court, which hears all civil claims; the Criminal Court, which hears claims originating from police complaints; and Sharia Court, which is responsible for matters between Muslims. Non-Muslims do not appear before the Sharia Court. The Court of Cassation is the supreme court of the emirate and hears disputes on matters of law only. ] Alcohol sale and consumption, though legal, is regulated. Adult non-Muslims are allowed to consume alcohol in licensed venues, typically within hotels, or at home with the possession of an alcohol license. Places other than hotels, clubs, and specially designated areas are typically not permitted to sell alcohol. ] In 2024, Dubai authorities charged an Irish woman for consuming alcohol. ] ] As in other parts of the world, drinking and driving is illegal, with 21 being the legal drinking age in the Emirate of Dubai . ] Dubai has one of the world's lowest violent crime rates, ] and in 2019 was ranked the seventh-safest city in the world. ] ] ] The Security Industry Regulatory Agency classified the crimes into six categories. ] These crimes include theft, forced robbery, domestic burglary, fraud, sexual assault and abuse, and criminal damages. ] As per Gulf News , Dubai Police stated that the crime in Dubai was reduced by fifteen percent during 2017. However, the cases of drugs operation increased by eight per cent. Major-General Abdullah Khalifa Al Merri, Commander-in-Chief of Dubai Police, hailed the force which solved 86 per cent of criminal cases. ] Dubai is a notorious global centre and sanctuary for money launderers, drug lords, corrupt political figures and sanctioned businessmen. ] It has been called a 'gangster's paradise'. ] This includes money laundering by major crime syndicates. This state of affairs has been enabled by a complex range of factors: the lack of extradition treaties with many countries, banking secrecy, liberal visa policies, low taxes, a large expatriate community in which shady figures are easily absorbed and welcomed, a non-transparent real estate market that readily enables money laundering, and not least, the monarchical dictatorship of the Maktoum family which facilitates it through deliberately lax legislation and policy. ] ] Examples include Amit Gupta, who bribed Nauru politicians in an attempt to stage a coup that would give him control of that island's mining rights ] and Ahmed Al Hamza, a transnational crime figure and one of Melbourne's most powerful gangsters. ] Dubai’s Role in Facilitating Corruption and Global Illicit Financial Flows , a 2020 report from influential Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, stated: "part of what underpins Dubai’s prosperity is a steady stream of illicit proceeds borne from corruption and crime...Meanwhile, both Emirati leaders and the international community continue to turn a blind eye to the problematic behaviours, administrative loopholes, and weak
borne from corruption and crime...Meanwhile, both Emirati leaders and the international community continue to turn a blind eye to the problematic behaviours, administrative loopholes, and weak enforcement practices that make Dubai
Charles III William, Prince of Wales Charles III ( King-in-Council ) Starmer ministry ( L ) Keir Starmer ( L ) Angela Rayner ( L ) ( King-in-Parliament ) Charles III The Lord Reed The Lord Hodge Andrew Bailey Monetary Policy Committee The government of the United Kingdom (formally His Majesty's Government , abbreviated to HM Government ) is the central executive authority of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland . ] ] The government is led by the prime minister (currently Keir Starmer since 5 July 2024) who selects all the other ministers . The country has had a Labour government since 2024. The prime minister Keir Starmer and his most senior ministers belong to the supreme decision-making committee, known as the Cabinet . ] Ministers of the Crown are responsible to the House in which they sit; they make statements in that House and take questions from members of that House. For most senior ministers this is usually the elected House of Commons rather than the House of Lords . The government is dependent on Parliament to make primary legislation , ] and general elections are held every five years (at most) to elect a new House of Commons, unless the prime minister advises the monarch to dissolve Parliament , in which case an election may be held sooner. After an election, the monarch selects as prime minister the leader of the party most likely to command the confidence of the House of Commons, usually by possessing a majority of MPs. ] Under the uncodified British constitution , executive authority lies with the sovereign, although this authority is exercised only after receiving the advice of the Privy Council . ] The prime minister, the House of Lords, the Leader of the Opposition, and the police and military high command serve as members and advisers of the monarch on the Privy Council. In most cases the cabinet exercise power directly as leaders of the government departments , though some Cabinet positions are sinecures to a greater or lesser degree (for instance Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster or Lord Privy Seal ). The government is sometimes referred to by the metonym " Westminster " or " Whitehall ", as many of its offices are situated there. These metonyms are used especially by members of the Scottish Government , Welsh Government and Northern Ireland Executive to differentiate their government from His Majesty's Government. The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy in which the reigning monarch (that is, the king or queen who is the head of state at any given time) does not make any open political decisions. All political decisions are taken by the government and Parliament. This constitutional state of affairs is the result of a long history of constraining and reducing the political power of the monarch, beginning with Magna Carta in 1215. Since the start of Edward VII 's reign in 1901, by convention, the prime minister has been an elected member of Parliament (MP) and thus answerable to the House of
beginning with Magna Carta in 1215. Since the start of Edward VII 's reign in 1901, by convention, the prime minister has been an elected member of Parliament (MP) and thus answerable to the House of Commons, although there were two weeks in 1963 when Alec Douglas-Home was first a member of the House of Lords and then of neither house. A similar convention applies to the position of chancellor of the exchequer , as it would probably now be politically unacceptable for the budget speech to be given in the House of Lords, with members of Parliament unable to question the Chancellor directly. The last chancellor of the exchequer to be a member of the House of Lords was Lord Denman , who served for one month in 1834. ] The British monarch is the head of state and the sovereign , but not the head of government . The monarch takes little direct part in governing the country and remains neutral in political affairs. However, the authority of the state that is vested in the sovereign, known as the Crown , remains the source of executive power exercised by the government. In addition to explicit statutory authority , the Crown also possesses a body of powers in certain matters collectively known as the royal prerogative . These powers range from the authority to issue or withdraw passports to declarations of war. By long-standing convention, most of these powers are delegated from the sovereign to various ministers or other officers of the Crown, who may use them without having to obtain the consent of Parliament. The prime minister also has weekly meetings with the monarch. What is said in these meetings is strictly private; however, they generally involve government and political matters which the monarch has a "right and a duty" to comment on. ] Such comments are non-binding however and the King must ultimately abide by decisions of the government. ] Royal prerogative powers include, but are not limited to, the following: While no formal documents set out the prerogatives, the government published the above list in October 2003 to increase transparency, as some of the powers exercised in the name of the monarch are part of the royal prerogative . ] However, the complete extent of the royal prerogative powers has never been fully set out, as many of them originated in ancient custom and the period of absolute monarchy , or were modified by later constitutional practice. As of 2019, there are around 120 government ministers ] supported by 560,000 ] civil servants and other staff working in the 25 ministerial departments ] and their executive agencies . There are also an additional 20 non-ministerial departments with a range of further responsibilities. In theory, a government minister does not have to be a member of either House of Parliament. In practice, however, the convention is that ministers must be members of either the House of Commons or the House of Lords to be accountable to Parliament. From time to time, prime ministers appoint
In practice, however, the convention is that ministers must be members of either the House of Commons or the House of Lords to be accountable to Parliament. From time to time, prime ministers appoint non-parliamentarians as ministers. In recent years such ministers have been appointed to the House of Lords. ] The government is required by convention and for practical reasons to maintain the confidence of the House of Commons. It requires the support of the House of Commons for the maintenance of supply (by voting through the government's budgets) and to pass primary legislation . By convention, if a government loses the confidence of the House of Commons it must either resign or a general election is held. The support of the Lords, while useful to the government in getting its legislation passed without delay, is not vital. A government is not required to resign even if it loses the confidence of the Lords and is defeated in key votes in that House. The House of Commons is thus the responsible house . The prime minister is held to account during Prime Minister's Questions (PMQs) which provides an opportunity for MPs from all parties to question the PM on any subject. There are also departmental questions when ministers answer questions relating to their specific departmental brief. Unlike PMQs, both the cabinet ministers for the department and junior ministers within the department may answer on behalf of the government, depending on the topic of the question. During debates on legislation proposed by the government, ministers—usually with departmental responsibility for the bill —will lead the debate for the government and respond to points made by MPs or Lords. Committees ] of both the House of Commons and House of Lords hold the government to account, scrutinise its work and examine in detail proposals for legislation. Ministers appear before committees to give evidence and answer questions. Government ministers are also required by convention and the Ministerial Code , ] when Parliament is sitting, to make major statements regarding government policy or issues of national importance to Parliament. This allows MPs or Lords to question the government on the statement. When the government instead chooses to make announcements first outside Parliament, it is often the subject of significant criticism from MPs and the speaker of the House of Commons . ] The prime minister is based at 10 Downing Street in Westminster , London. Cabinet meetings also take place here. Most government departments have their headquarters nearby in Whitehall . The government's powers include general executive and statutory powers , delegated legislation , and numerous powers of appointment and patronage. However, some powerful officials and bodies, (e.g. HM judges, local authorities , and the charity commissions) are legally more or less independent of the government, and government powers are legally limited to those retained by the Crown under common law or granted
authorities , and the charity commissions) are legally more or less independent of the government, and government powers are legally limited to those retained by the Crown under common law or granted and limited by act of Parliament. Both substantive and procedural limitations are enforceable in the courts by judicial review . Nevertheless, magistrates and mayors can still be arrested and put on trial for corruption, and the government has powers to insert commissioners into a local authority to oversee its work, and to issue directives that must be obeyed by the local authority if the local authority is not abiding by its statutory obligations. ] By contrast, as in European Union (EU) member states, EU officials cannot be prosecuted for any actions carried out in pursuit of their official duties, and foreign country diplomats (though not their employees) and foreign members of the European Parliament ] are immune from prosecution in EU states under any circumstance. As a consequence, neither EU bodies nor diplomats have to pay taxes, since it would not be possible to prosecute them for tax evasion. When the UK was a member of the EU, this caused a dispute when the US ambassador to the UK claimed that London's congestion charge was a tax, and not a charge (despite the name), and therefore he did not have to pay it—a claim the Greater London Authority disputed. Similarly, the monarch is immune from criminal prosecution and may only be sued with his permission (this is known as sovereign immunity ). The sovereign, by law, is not required to pay income tax, but Queen Elizabeth II voluntarily paid it from 1993 until the end of her reign in 2022, and also paid local rates voluntarily. However, the monarchy also received a substantial grant from the government, the Sovereign Support Grant , and Queen Elizabeth II's inheritance from her mother, Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother , was exempt from inheritance tax . In addition to legislative powers, His Majesty's Government has substantial influence over local authorities and other bodies set up by it, through financial powers and grants. Many functions carried out by local authorities, such as paying out housing benefits and council tax benefits, are funded or substantially part-funded by the central government. Neither the central government nor local authorities are permitted to sue anyone for defamation . Individual politicians are allowed to sue people for defamation in a personal capacity and without using government funds, but this is relatively rare (although George Galloway , who was a backbench MP for a quarter of a century, has sued or threatened to sue for defamation several times). However, it is a criminal offence to make a false statement about any election candidate during an election, to reduce the number of votes they receive (as with libel, opinions do not count). While the government is the current group of ministers (the British Government frontbench ), the government is also
to reduce the number of votes they receive (as with libel, opinions do not count). While the government is the current group of ministers (the British Government frontbench ), the government is also sometimes seen more broadly as including people or organisations that work for the ministers. The civil service , while 'independent of government', ] is sometimes described as being part of the government, ] ] ] ] due to the closeness of its working with ministers, in advising them, supporting them, and implementing their executive decisions. Some individuals who work for ministers even have the word 'Government' in their titles, such as the Government Actuary and the Government Chief Scientific Adviser , as do civil service organisations such as the Government Statistical Service , the Government Legal Profession , and the Government Office for Science . Companies owned by the government can also be seen as parts of the government, such as UK Government Investments ] and HS2 Ltd . ] Similarly, Parliamentary Private Secretaries are not ministers and so not part of the government. ] However, they are bound by parts of the ministerial code , are part of the payroll vote , and can be seen as being on the 'first rung of the ministerial ladder'. ] ] They are sometimes described as being part of the government. ] ] ] Since 1999, certain areas of central government have been devolved to accountable governments in Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland . These are not part of His Majesty's Government, and are directly accountable to their institutions, with their authority under the Crown; in contrast, there is no devolved government in England. Up to three layers of elected local authorities (such as county, district and parish Councils ) exist throughout all parts of the United Kingdom, in some places merged into unitary authorities . They have limited local tax-raising powers. Many other authorities and agencies also have statutory powers, generally subject to some central government supervision.
The Road Traffic Act 1988 (c. 52) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom , concerning licensing of vehicles, insurance and road regulation. Part I contains a number of traffic offences including causing death by dangerous driving , driving under the influence of alcohol or drugs (including police powers to arrest, administer tests, etc.), as well as requirements to wear seat belts and motorcycle helmets . Part II is concerned with regulating the construction and use of motor vehicles, and includes powers to test, inspect and prohibit vehicles that do not meet standards. Part III sets out the law on driving tests , the requirements for issuing driving licences , and the process for disqualifying drivers. Part IV deals with the licences required for driving large goods vehicles and passenger-carrying vehicles (buses and coaches). Part V concerns the registration, licensing and examination of driving instructors. Part VI contains provisions concerning compulsory vehicle insurance against third-party risks . Part VII contains miscellaneous provisions.
UK driving licences may be endorsed by order of the courts if the driver has been convicted of an offence concerned with driving or operating a vehicle . ] An endorsement may also be accompanied by a number of points which can remain on the licence for up to 11 years. ] If the total number of points on a licence equals or exceeds 12, the courts must ban the driver for a period of time, usually six months. ] New drivers (those who passed their first driving test within the past two years) are subject to a lower threshold of six points, which when reached results in the full licence being revoked; the driver is not banned but must restart the provisional licence process from scratch. ] The list below does not apply to Northern Ireland ; see the website below. However, 'Mutual Recognition' (MR) codes have been included, as these are added to the driving record if one is disqualified whilst driving in Northern Ireland, the Isle of Man , or the Republic of Ireland . The disqualification period will also be valid in GB and will stay on the record for 4 years from the date of conviction. Where a licence is endorsed for an inchoate offence , the endorsement code has the same letters and first digit as above, but with the final digit replaced by:
In the United States , a state is a constituent political entity , of which there are 50. Bound together in a political union , each state holds governmental jurisdiction over a separate and defined geographic territory where it shares its sovereignty with the federal government . Due to this shared sovereignty , Americans are citizens both of the federal republic and of the state in which they reside . ] State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states , except for persons restricted by certain types of court orders (such as paroled convicts and children of divorced spouses who share child custody ). State governments in the U.S. are allocated power by the people (of each respective state) through their individual state constitutions . All are grounded in republican principles (this being required by the federal constitution), and each provides for a government, consisting of three branches, each with separate and independent powers : executive , legislative , and judicial . ] States are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local governmental authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state, and states also create other local governments . States, unlike U.S. territories , possess many powers and rights under the United States Constitution . States and their citizens are represented in the United States Congress , a bicameral legislature consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives . Each state is also entitled to select a number of electors (equal to the total number of representatives and senators from that state) to vote in the Electoral College , the body that directly elects the president of the United States . Additionally, each state has the opportunity to ratify constitutional amendments , and, with the consent of Congress, two or more states may enter into interstate compacts with one another. The police power of each state is also recognized. Historically, the tasks of local law enforcement , public education , public health , intrastate commerce regulation, and local transportation and infrastructure , in addition to local, state, and federal elections , have generally been considered primarily state responsibilities, although all of these now have significant federal funding and regulation as well. Over time, the Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation , with the federal government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a continuing debate over states' rights , which concerns the extent and nature of the states' powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government and the rights of individuals. The Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776
to the federal government and the rights of individuals. The Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776 by the Thirteen Colonies , the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50. Each new state has been admitted on an equal footing with the existing states. ] While the Constitution does not explicitly discuss the issue of whether states have the power to secede from the Union, shortly after the Civil War (1861–1865), the U.S. Supreme Court , in Texas v. White , held that a state cannot unilaterally do so. ] ] The 50 U.S. states, in alphabetical order, along with each state's flag: The 13 original states came into existence in July 1776 during the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), as the successors of the Thirteen Colonies , upon agreeing to the Lee Resolution ] and signing the United States Declaration of Independence . ] Prior to these events each state had been a British colony ; ] each then joined the first Union of states between 1777 and 1781, upon ratifying the Articles of Confederation , the first U.S. constitution. ] ] Also during this period, the newly independent states developed their own individual state constitutions , among the earliest written constitutions in the world. ] Although different in detail, these state constitutions shared features that would be important in the American constitutional order: they were republican in form, and separated power among three branches, most had bicameral legislatures, and contained statements, or a bill, of rights. ] Later, from 1787 to 1790, each of the states also ratified a new federal frame of government in the Constitution of the United States . ] In relation to the states, the U.S. Constitution elaborated concepts of federalism . ] Under U.S. constitutional law, the 50 individual states and the United States as a whole are each sovereign jurisdictions. ] The states are not administrative divisions of the country; the Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution reserves to the states or to the people all powers of government not delegated to the federal government. Consequently, each of the 50 states reserves the right to organize its individual government in any way (within the broad parameters set by the U.S. Constitution and the Republican Guarantee enforced by Congress) deemed appropriate by its people, and to exercise all powers of government not delegated to the federal government by the Constitution. ] A state, unlike the federal government, has un-enumerated police power , that is, the right to generally make all necessary laws for the welfare of its people. ] As a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance. No two state governments are identical. The government of each state is structured in accordance with its individual constitution, all of which are written
greatly with regard to form and substance. No two state governments are identical. The government of each state is structured in accordance with its individual constitution, all of which are written constitutions. Many of these documents are more detailed and more elaborated than their federal counterpart. For example, before its revision in 2022, the Constitution of Alabama , contained 310,296 words, which is more than 40 times as many as the U.S. Constitution . ] In practice, each state has adopted a three-branch frame of government: executive, legislative, and judicial (even though doing so has never been required). ] ] Early in American history, four state governments differentiated themselves from the others in their first constitutions by choosing to self-identify as Commonwealths rather than as states : Virginia , in 1776; ] Pennsylvania , in 1777; Massachusetts , in 1780; and Kentucky , in 1792. Consequently, while these four are states like the other states, each is formally a commonwealth because the term is contained in its constitution. ] The term, commonwealth , which refers to a state in which the supreme power is vested in the people , was first used in Virginia during the Interregnum , the 1649–60 period between the reigns of Charles I and Charles II during which parliament's Oliver Cromwell as Lord Protector established a republican government known as the Commonwealth of England . Virginia became a royal colony again in 1660, and the word was dropped from the full title; it went unused until reintroduced in 1776. ] In each state, the chief executive is called the governor, who serves as both head of state and head of government . All governors are chosen by statewide direct election . The governor may approve or veto bills passed by the state legislature, as well as recommend and work for the passage of bills, usually supported by their political party. In 44 states, governors have line item veto power. ] Most states have a plural executive , meaning that the governor is not the only government official in the state responsible for its executive branch . In these states, executive power is distributed amongst other officials, ] elected by the people independently of the governor—such as the lieutenant governor , attorney general , comptroller , secretary of state , and others. Elections of officials in the United States are generally for a fixed term of office. The constitutions of 19 states allow for citizens to remove and replace an elected public official before the end of their term of office through a recall election . ] Each state follows its own procedures for recall elections, and sets its own restrictions on how often, and how soon after a general election , they may be held. In all states, the legislatures can remove state executive branch officials, including governors, who have committed serious abuses of their power from office. The process of doing so includes impeachment (the bringing of specific charges), and a
executive branch officials, including governors, who have committed serious abuses of their power from office. The process of doing so includes impeachment (the bringing of specific charges), and a trial , in which legislators act as a jury. ] The primary responsibilities of state legislatures are to enact state laws and appropriate money for the administration of public policy. ] In all states, if the governor vetoes a bill (or a portion of one), it can still become law if the legislature overrides the veto (repasses the bill), which in most states requires a two-thirds vote in each chamber. ] In 49 of the 50 states the legislature consists of two chambers: a lower house (variously called the House of Representatives, State Assembly, General Assembly or House of Delegates) and a smaller upper house, in all states called the Senate. The exception is the unicameral Nebraska Legislature , meaning it has only a single chamber. ] Most states have a part-time legislature (traditionally called a citizen legislature ). Ten state legislatures are considered full-time ; these bodies are more similar to the U.S. Congress than are the others. ] Members of each state's legislature are chosen by direct election. In Baker v. Carr (1962) and Reynolds v. Sims (1964), the U.S. Supreme Court held that all states are required to elect their legislatures in such a way as to afford each citizen the same degree of representation (the one person, one vote standard). In practice, most states elect legislators from single-member districts , each of which has approximately the same population. Some states, such as Maryland and Vermont, divide the state into single- and multi-member districts. In this case, multi-member districts must have proportionately larger populations, e.g., a district electing two representatives must have approximately twice the population of a district electing just one. The voting systems used across the nation are: first-past-the-post in single-member districts, and multiple non-transferable vote in multi-member districts. In 2013, there were a total of 7,383 legislators in the 50 state legislative bodies. They earned from $0 annually (New Mexico) to $90,526 (California). There were various per diem and mileage compensation. ] States can also organize their judicial systems differently from the federal judiciary , as long as they protect the federal constitutional right of their citizens to procedural due process . Most have a trial-level court, generally called a district court , superior court or circuit court , a first-level appellate court , generally called a court of appeal (or appeals), and a supreme court . Oklahoma and Texas have separate highest courts for criminal appeals. Uniquely, in New York State, the trial court is called the Supreme Court ; appeals go up first to the Supreme Court's Appellate Division , and from there to its highest court, the New York Court of Appeals . State court systems exercise broad, plenary, and general
Court ; appeals go up first to the Supreme Court's Appellate Division , and from there to its highest court, the New York Court of Appeals . State court systems exercise broad, plenary, and general jurisdiction, in contrast to the federal courts, which are courts of limited jurisdiction. The overwhelming majority of criminal and civil cases in the United States are heard in state courts. Each year, roughly 30 million new cases are filed in state courts and the total number of judges across all state courts is about 30,000—for comparison, 1 million new cases are filed each year in federal courts, which have about 1,700 judges. ] Most states base their legal system on English common law (with substantial statutory changes and incorporation of certain civil law innovations), with the notable exception of Louisiana, a former French colony , which draws large parts of its legal system from French civil law . Only a few states choose to have the judges on the state's courts serve for life terms. In most states, the judges, including the justices of the highest court in the state, are either elected or appointed for terms of a limited number of years and are usually eligible for re-election or reappointment. All states are unitary states , not federations or aggregates of local governments . Local governments within them are created by and exist by virtue of state law, and local governments within each state are subject to the central authority of that particular state. State governments commonly delegate some authority to local units and channel policy decisions down to them for implementation. ] In a few states, local units of government are permitted a degree of home rule over various matters. The prevailing legal theory of state preeminence over local governments, referred to as Dillon's Rule , holds that, A municipal corporation possesses and can exercise the following powers and no others: First, those granted in express words; second, those necessarily implied or necessarily incident to the powers expressly granted; third, those absolutely essential to the declared objects and purposes of the corporation—not simply convenient but indispensable; fourth, any fair doubt as to the existence of power is resolved by the courts against the corporation—against the existence of the powers. ] Each state defines for itself what powers it will allow local governments. Generally, four categories of power may be given to local jurisdictions: Each state admitted to the Union by Congress since 1789 has entered it on an equal footing with the original states in all respects. ] With the growth of states' rights advocacy during the antebellum period , the Supreme Court asserted, in Lessee of Pollard v. Hagan (1845), that the Constitution mandated admission of new states on the basis of equality. ] With the consent of Congress, states may enter into interstate compacts , agreements between two or more states. Compacts are frequently used to manage a shared
new states on the basis of equality. ] With the consent of Congress, states may enter into interstate compacts , agreements between two or more states. Compacts are frequently used to manage a shared resource, such as transportation infrastructure or water rights. ] Under Article IV of the Constitution , which outlines the relationship between the states, each state is required to give full faith and credit to the acts of each other's legislatures and courts, which is generally held to include the recognition of most contracts and criminal judgments, and before 1865, slavery status. Under the Extradition Clause , a state must extradite people located there who have fled charges of "treason, felony, or other crimes" in another state if the other state so demands. The principle of hot pursuit of a presumed felon and arrest by the law officers of one state in another state are often permitted by a state. ] The full faith and credit expectation does have exceptions, some legal arrangements, such as professional licensure and marriages, may be state-specific, and until recently states have not been found by the courts to be required to honor such arrangements from other states. ] Such legal acts are nevertheless often recognized state-to-state according to the common practice of comity . States are prohibited from discriminating against citizens of other states with respect to their basic rights , under the Privileges and Immunities Clause . Under Article IV, each state is guaranteed a form of government that is grounded in republican principles, such as the consent of the governed . ] This guarantee has long been at the forefront of the debate about the rights of citizens vis-à-vis the government. States are also guaranteed protection from invasion, and, upon the application of the state legislature (or executive, if the legislature cannot be convened), from domestic violence. This provision was discussed during the 1967 Detroit riot but was not invoked. The Supremacy Clause ( Article VI, Clause 2 ) establishes that the Constitution , federal laws made pursuant to it, and treaties made under its authority, constitute the supreme law of the land. ] It provides that state courts are bound by the supreme law; in case of conflict between federal and state law, the federal law must be applied. Even state constitutions are subordinate to federal law. ] States' rights are understood mainly with reference to the Tenth Amendment . The Constitution delegates some powers to the national government, and it forbids some powers to the states. The Tenth Amendment reserves all other powers to the states, or to the people. Powers of the U.S. Congress are enumerated in Article I, Section 8 , for example, the power to declare war. Making treaties is one power forbidden to the states, being listed among other such powers in Article I, Section 10 . Among the Article I enumerated powers of Congress is the power to regulate commerce. Since the early 20th century, the
to the states, being listed among other such powers in Article I, Section 10 . Among the Article I enumerated powers of Congress is the power to regulate commerce. Since the early 20th century, the Supreme Court's interpretation of this " Commerce Clause " has, over time, greatly expanded the scope of federal power , at the expense of powers formerly considered purely states' matters. The Cambridge Economic History of the United States says, "On the whole, especially after the mid-1880s, the Court construed the Commerce Clause in favor of increased federal power." ] In 1941, the Supreme Court in U.S. v. Darby upheld the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 , holding that Congress had the power under the Commerce Clause to regulate employment conditions. ] Then, one year later, in Wickard v. Filburn , the Court expanded federal power to regulate the economy by holding that federal authority under the commerce clause extends to activities which may appear to be local in nature but in reality effect the entire national economy and are therefore of national concern. ] For example, Congress can regulate railway traffic across state lines, but it may also regulate rail traffic solely within a state, based on the reality that intrastate traffic still affects interstate commerce. Through such decisions, argues law professor David F. Forte, "the Court turned the commerce power into the equivalent of a general regulatory power and undid the Framers' original structure of limited and delegated powers." Subsequently, Congress invoked the Commerce Clause to expand federal criminal legislation, as well as for social reforms such as the Civil Rights Act of 1964 . Only within the past couple of decades, through decisions in cases such as those in U.S. v. Lopez (1995) and U.S. v. Morrison (2000), has the Court tried to limit the Commerce Clause power of Congress. ] Another enumerated congressional power is its taxing and spending power . ] An example of this is the system of federal aid for highways, which include the Interstate Highway System . The system is mandated and largely funded by the federal government and serves the interests of the states. By threatening to withhold federal highway funds, Congress has been able to pressure state legislatures to pass various laws. ] An example is the nationwide legal drinking age of 21, enacted by each state, brought about by the National Minimum Drinking Age Act . Although some objected that this infringes on states' rights, the Supreme Court upheld the practice as a permissible use of the Constitution's Spending Clause in South Dakota v. Dole 483 U.S. 203 (1987). As prescribed by Article I of the Constitution, which establishes the U.S. Congress, each state is represented in the Senate (irrespective of population size) by two senators, and each is guaranteed at least one representative in the House. Both senators and representatives are chosen in direct popular elections in the various states. (Prior to 1913, senators
two senators, and each is guaranteed at least one representative in the House. Both senators and representatives are chosen in direct popular elections in the various states. (Prior to 1913, senators were elected by state legislatures.) There are presently 100 senators, who are elected at-large to staggered terms of six years, with one-third of them being chosen every two years. Representatives are elected at large or from single-member districts to terms of two years (not staggered). The size of the House—presently 435 voting members—is set by federal statute . Seats in the House are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census . ] The borders of these districts are established by the states individually through a process called redistricting , and within each state all districts are required to have approximately equal populations. ] Citizens in each state plus those in the District of Columbia indirectly elect the president and vice president . When casting ballots in presidential elections they are voting for presidential electors , who then, using procedures provided in the 12th amendment , elect the president and vice president. ] There were 538 electors for the most recent presidential election in 2020 ; the allocation of electoral votes was based on the 2010 census . ] Each state is entitled to a number of electors equal to the total number of representatives and senators from that state; the District of Columbia is entitled to three electors. ] While the Constitution does set parameters for the election of federal officials, state law, not federal, regulates most aspects of elections in the U.S., including primaries, the eligibility of voters (beyond the basic constitutional definition), the running of each state's electoral college, as well as the running of state and local elections. All elections—federal, state, and local—are administered by the individual states, and some voting rules and procedures may differ among them. ] Article V of the Constitution accords states a key role in the process of amending the U.S. Constitution. Amendments may be proposed either by Congress with a two-thirds vote in both the House and the Senate, or by a constitutional convention called for by two-thirds of the state legislatures. ] To become part of the Constitution, an amendment must be ratified by either—as determined by Congress—the legislatures of three-quarters of the states or state ratifying conventions in three-quarters of the states. ] The vote in each state (to either ratify or reject a proposed amendment) carries equal weight, regardless of a state's population or length of time in the Union. U.S. states are not sovereign in the Westphalian sense in international law which says that each State has sovereignty over its territory and domestic affairs, to the exclusion of all external powers, on the principle of non-interference in another State's domestic affairs, and that each
each State has sovereignty over its territory and domestic affairs, to the exclusion of all external powers, on the principle of non-interference in another State's domestic affairs, and that each State (no matter how large or small) is equal in international law. ] Additionally, the 50 U.S. states do not possess international legal sovereignty, meaning that they are not recognized by other sovereign States such as, for example, France, Germany or the United Kingdom. ] The federal government is responsible for international relations , but state and local government leaders do occasionally travel to other countries and form economic and cultural relationships. Article IV also grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50. Each new state has been admitted on an equal footing with the existing states. ] Article IV also forbids the creation of new states from parts of existing states without the consent of both the affected states and Congress. This caveat was designed to give Eastern states that still had Western land claims (including Georgia, North Carolina, and Virginia), to have a veto over whether their western counties could become states, ] and has served this same function since, whenever a proposal to partition an existing state or states in order that a region within might either join another state or to create a new state has come before Congress. Most of the states admitted to the Union after the original 13 were formed from an organized territory established and governed by Congress in accord with its plenary power under Article IV, Section 3, Clause 2 . ] The outline for this process was established by the Northwest Ordinance (1787), which predates the ratification of the Constitution. In some cases, an entire territory has become a state; in others some part of a territory has. When the people of a territory make their desire for statehood known to the federal government, Congress may pass an enabling act authorizing the people of that territory to organize a constitutional convention to write a state constitution as a step toward admission to the Union. Each act details the mechanism by which the territory will be admitted as a state following ratification of their constitution and election of state officers. Although the use of an enabling act is a traditional historic practice, a number of territories have drafted constitutions for submission to Congress absent an enabling act and were subsequently admitted. Upon acceptance of that constitution and meeting any additional congressional stipulations, Congress has always admitted that territory as a state. In addition to the original 13, six subsequent states were never an organized territory of the federal government, or part of one, before being admitted to the Union. Three were set off from an already existing state, two entered the Union after
states were never an organized territory of the federal government, or part of one, before being admitted to the Union. Three were set off from an already existing state, two entered the Union after having been sovereign states , and one was established from unorganized territory : Congress is under no obligation to admit states, even in those areas whose population expresses a desire for statehood. Such has been the case numerous times during the nation's history. In one instance, Mormon pioneers in Salt Lake City sought to establish the state of Deseret in 1849. It existed for slightly over two years and was never approved by the United States Congress . In another, leaders of the Five Civilized Tribes (Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole) in Indian Territory proposed to establish the state of Sequoyah in 1905, as a means to retain control of their lands. ] The proposed constitution ultimately failed in the U.S. Congress. Instead, the Indian Territory and Oklahoma Territory were both incorporated into the new state of Oklahoma in 1907. The first instance occurred while the nation still operated under the Articles of Confederation. The State of Franklin existed for several years, not long after the end of the American Revolution, but was never recognized by the Confederation Congress, which ultimately recognized North Carolina 's claim of sovereignty over the area. The territory comprising Franklin later became part of the Southwest Territory, and ultimately of the state of Tennessee. Additionally, the entry of several states into the Union was delayed due to distinctive complicating factors. Among them, Michigan Territory , which petitioned Congress for statehood in 1835, was not admitted to the Union until 1837, due to a boundary dispute with the adjoining state of Ohio. The Republic of Texas requested annexation to the United States in 1837, but fears about potential conflict with Mexico delayed the admission of Texas for nine years. ] Statehood for Kansas Territory was held up for several years (1854–61) due to a series of internal violent conflicts involving anti-slavery and pro-slavery factions. West Virginia's bid for statehood was also delayed over slavery and was settled when it agreed to adopt a gradual abolition plan. ] Puerto Rico , an unincorporated U.S. territory , refers to itself as the " Commonwealth of Puerto Rico" in the English version of its constitution , and as "Estado Libre Asociado" (literally, Associated Free Sta
This is an accepted version of this page Arizona ( ⓘ ARR -iz- OH -nə ; Navajo : Hoozdo Hahoodzo ] ; ] O'odham : Alĭ ṣonak ] ) ] is a state in the Southwestern region of the United States , sharing the Four Corners region of the western United States with Colorado , New Mexico , and Utah . Its other neighboring states are Nevada to the northwest and California to the west. It also shares an international border with the Mexican states of Sonora and Baja California to the south and southwest. It is the 6th-largest and the 14th-most-populous of the 50 states. Its capital and largest city is Phoenix , which is the most populous state capital in the United States. Arizona is the 48th state and last of the contiguous states to be admitted to the Union, achieving statehood on February 14, 1912. Historically part of the territory of Alta California and Nuevo México in New Spain , it became part of independent Mexico in 1821. After being defeated in the Mexican–American War , Mexico ceded much of this territory to the United States in 1848, where the area became part of the territory of New Mexico . The southernmost portion of the state was acquired in 1853 through the Gadsden Purchase . Southern Arizona is known for its desert climate, with very hot summers and mild winters. Northern Arizona features forests of pine, Douglas fir , and spruce trees; the Colorado Plateau ; mountain ranges (such as the San Francisco Mountains ); as well as large, deep canyons , with much more moderate summer temperatures and significant winter snowfalls. There are ski resorts in the areas of Flagstaff , Sunrise , and Tucson . In addition to the internationally known Grand Canyon National Park , which is one of the world's seven natural wonders , there are several national forests , national parks , and national monuments . Arizona is home to a diverse population. About one-quarter of the state ] ] is made up of Indian reservations that serve as the home of 27 federally recognized Native American tribes , including the Navajo Nation , the largest in the state and the country, with more than 300,000 citizens. Since the 1980s, the proportion of Hispanics has grown significantly owing to migration from Mexico and Central America. A substantial portion of the population are followers of the Roman Catholic Church and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints . Arizona's population and economy have grown dramatically since the 1950s because of inward migration, and the state is now a major hub of the Sun Belt . Cities such as Phoenix and Tucson have developed large, sprawling suburban areas. Many large companies, such as PetSmart and Circle K , ] have headquarters in the state, and Arizona is home to major universities, including the University of Arizona , Arizona State University , and Northern Arizona University . The state is known for a history of conservative politicians such as Barry Goldwater and John McCain , though it has become a swing state since the 1990s. The
, and Northern Arizona University . The state is known for a history of conservative politicians such as Barry Goldwater and John McCain , though it has become a swing state since the 1990s. The state's name appears to originate from an earlier Spanish name, Arizonac , derived from the O'odham name alĭ ṣonak , meaning ' small spring ' . Initially this term was applied by Spanish colonists only to an area near the silver mining camp of Planchas de Plata, Sonora . ] ] ] ] To the European settlers, the O'odham pronunciation sounded like Arissona . ] The area is still known as alĭ ṣonak in the O'odham language. ] Another possible origin is the Basque phrase haritz ona ' the good oak ' , as there were numerous Basque sheepherders in the area. ] ] ] A native-born Mexican of Basque ancestry established the ranchería ( small rural settlement ) of Arizona between 1734 and 1736 in the current Mexican state of Sonora . It became notable after a significant discovery of silver there around 1737. ] The misconception that the state's name purportedly originated from the Spanish term Árida Zona ' Arid Zone ' is considered a case of folk etymology . ] For thousands of years before the modern era, Arizona was home to many ancient Native American civilizations. Hohokam , Mogollon , and Ancestral Puebloan cultures were among those that flourished throughout the state. Many of their pueblos, cliffside dwellings, rock paintings and other prehistoric treasures have survived and attract thousands of tourists each year. citation needed ] In 1539, Marcos de Niza , a Spanish Franciscan , became the first European to contact Native Americans. He explored parts of the present state and made contact with native inhabitants, probably the Sobaipuri . The expedition of Spanish explorer Coronado entered the area in 1540–1542 during its search for Cíbola . ] Few Spanish settlers migrated to Arizona. One of the first settlers in Arizona was José Romo de Vivar . ] Father Kino was the next European in the region. A member of the Society of Jesus (" Jesuits "), he led the development of a chain of missions in the region. He converted many of the Indians to Christianity in the Pimería Alta (now southern Arizona and northern Sonora ) in the 1690s and early 18th century. Spain founded presidios ("fortified towns") at Tubac in 1752 and Tucson in 1775. ] When Mexico achieved its independence from the Kingdom of Spain and its Spanish Empire in 1821, what is now Arizona became part of its Territory of Nueva California , ("New California"), also known as Alta California ("Upper California"). ] Descendants of ethnic Spanish and mestizo settlers from the colonial years still lived in the area at the time of the arrival of later European-American migrants from the United States. citation needed ] During the Mexican–American War (1847–1848), the U.S. Army occupied the national capital of Mexico City and pursued its claim to much of northern Mexico, including what later became Arizona Territory
During the Mexican–American War (1847–1848), the U.S. Army occupied the national capital of Mexico City and pursued its claim to much of northern Mexico, including what later became Arizona Territory in 1863 and later the State of Arizona in 1912. ] The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) specified that, in addition to language and cultural rights of the existing inhabitants of former Mexican citizens being considered as inviolable, the sum of $15 million in compensation (equivalent to $528,230,769.23 in 2023) be paid to the Republic of Mexico. ] In 1853, the U.S. acquired the land south below the Gila River from Mexico in the Gadsden Purchase along the southern border area as encompassing the best future southern route for a transcontinental railway. ] What is now the state of Arizona was administered by the United States government as part of the Territory of New Mexico from 1850 until the southern part of that region seceded from the Union to form the Territory of Arizona . ] This newly established territory was formally organized by the federal government of the Confederate States on Saturday, January 18, 1862, when President Jefferson Davis approved and signed An Act to Organize the Territory of Arizona , ] marking the first official use of the name "Territory of Arizona". The Southern territory supplied the Confederate government with men, horses, and equipment. Formed in 1862, Arizona scout companies served with the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War . Arizona has the westernmost military engagement on record during the Civil War with the Battle of Picacho Pass (1862). ] The Federal government declared a new U.S. Arizona Territory, consisting of the western half of earlier New Mexico Territory, in Washington, D.C. , on February 24, 1863. ] These new boundaries would later form the basis of the state. The first territorial capital, Prescott, was founded in 1864 following a gold rush to central Arizona. ] The capital was later moved to Tucson, back to Prescott, and then to its final location in Phoenix in a series of controversial moves as different regions of the territory gained and lost political influence with the growth and development of the territory. ] Although names including "Gadsonia", "Pimeria", "Montezuma" and "Arizuma" had been considered for the territory, ] when 16th President Abraham Lincoln signed the final bill, it read "Arizona", and that name was adopted. ( Montezuma was not derived from the Aztec emperor, but was the sacred name of a divine hero to the Pima people of the Gila River Valley . It was probably considered – and rejected – for its sentimental value before Congress settled on the name "Arizona".) citation needed ] Brigham Young , leader of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Salt Lake City in Utah , sent Mormons to Arizona in the mid- to late 19th century. They founded Mesa , Snowflake , Heber , Safford , and other towns. They also settled in the Phoenix Valley (or "Valley of
Lake City in Utah , sent Mormons to Arizona in the mid- to late 19th century. They founded Mesa , Snowflake , Heber , Safford , and other towns. They also settled in the Phoenix Valley (or "Valley of the Sun"), Tempe , Prescott , and other areas. The Mormons settled what became northern Arizona and northern New Mexico. At the time these areas were in a part of the former New Mexico Territory . During the nineteenth century, a series of gold and silver rushes occurred in the territory, the best known being the 1870s stampede to the silver bonanzas of Tombstone, Arizona , in southeast Arizona, also known for its legendary outlaws and lawmen. ] By the late 1880s, copper production eclipsed the precious metals with the rise of copper camps like Bisbee, Arizona , and Jerome, Arizona . ] ] The boom and bust economy of mining also left hundreds of ghost towns across the territory, but copper mining continued to prosper with the territory producing more copper than any other state by 1907, which earned Arizona the nickname "the Copper State" at the time of statehood. ] ] During the first years of statehood the industry experienced growing pains and labor disputes with the Bisbee Deportation of 1917 the result of a copper miners' strike. ] During the Mexican Revolution from 1910 to 1920, several battles were fought in the Mexican towns just across the border from Arizona settlements. Throughout the revolution, many Arizonans enlisted in one of the several armies fighting in Mexico. Only two significant engagements took place on U.S. soil between U.S. and Mexican forces: Pancho Villa 's 1916 Columbus Raid in New Mexico and the Battle of Ambos Nogales in 1918 in Arizona. After Mexican federal troops fired on U.S. soldiers, the American garrison launched an assault into Nogales, Mexico . The Mexicans eventually surrendered after both sides sustained heavy casualties. A few months earlier, just west of Nogales, an Indian War battle had occurred, considered the last engagement in the American Indian Wars , which lasted from 1775 to 1918. U.S. soldiers stationed on the border confronted Yaqui Indians who were using Arizona as a base to raid the nearby Mexican settlements, as part of their wars against Mexico. citation needed ] Arizona became a U.S. state on February 14, 1912, coinciding with Valentine's Day . Arizona was the 48th state admitted to the U.S. and the last of the contiguous states to be admitted. citation needed ] Cotton farming and copper mining, two of Arizona's most important statewide industries, suffered heavily during the Great Depression . ] But during the 1920s and even the 1930s, tourism began to develop as the important Arizonan industry it is today. Dude ranches, such as the K L Bar and Remuda in Wickenburg, along with the Flying V and Tanque Verde in Tucson, gave tourists the chance to take part in the flavor and activities of the "Old West". Several upscale hotels and resorts opened during this period, some of which are still top
Tanque Verde in Tucson, gave tourists the chance to take part in the flavor and activities of the "Old West". Several upscale hotels and resorts opened during this period, some of which are still top tourist draws. They include the Arizona Biltmore Hotel in central Phoenix (opened 1929) and the Wigwam Resort on the west side of the Phoenix area (opened 1936). ] ] Arizona was the site of German prisoner of war camps during World War II and Japanese American internment camps . ] Because of wartime fears of a Japanese invasion of the U.S. West Coast (which in fact materialized in the Aleutian Islands Campaign in June 1942), from 1942 to 1945, persons of Japanese descent were forced to reside in internment camps built in the interior of the country. Many lost their homes and businesses. The camps were abolished after World War II. ] The Phoenix-area POW camp site for Germans was purchased after the war by the Maytag family (of major home appliance fame). It was developed as the site of the Phoenix Zoo . A Japanese-American internment camp was on Mount Lemmon , just outside the state's southeastern city of Tucson. Another POW camp was near the Gila River in eastern Yuma County . Arizona was also home to the Phoenix Indian School , one of several federal Indian boarding schools designed to assimilate Native American children into mainstream European-American culture. Children were often enrolled in these schools against the wishes of their parents and families. Attempts to suppress native identities included forcing the children to cut their hair, to take and use English names, to speak only English, and to practice Christianity rather than their native religions. ] Numerous Native Americans from Arizona fought for the United States during World War II. Their experiences resulted in a rising activism in the postwar years to achieve better treatment and civil rights after their return to the state. After Maricopa County did not allow them to register to vote, in 1948 veteran Frank Harrison and Harry Austin, of the Mojave-Apache Tribe at Fort McDowell Indian Reservation , brought a legal suit, Harrison and Austin v. Laveen , to challenge this exclusion. The Arizona Supreme Court ruled in their favor. ] Arizona's population grew tremendously with residential and business development after World War II, aided by the widespread use of air conditioning , which made the intensely hot summers more comfortable. According to the Arizona Blue Book (published by the Arizona Secretary of State 's office each year), the state population in 1910 was 294,353. By 1970, it was 1,752,122. The percentage growth each decade averaged about 20% in the earlier decades, and about 60% each decade thereafter. citation needed ] In the 1960s, retirement communities were developed. These age-restricted subdivisions catered exclusively to the needs of senior citizens and attracted many retirees who wanted to escape the harsh winters of the Midwest and the Northeast . Sun City ,
These age-restricted subdivisions catered exclusively to the needs of senior citizens and attracted many retirees who wanted to escape the harsh winters of the Midwest and the Northeast . Sun City , established by developer Del Webb and opened in 1960, was one of the first such communities. Green Valley , south of Tucson, was another such community, designed as a retirement subdivision for Arizona's teachers. Many senior citizens from across the United States and Canada come to Arizona each winter and stay only during the winter months; they are referred to as snowbirds . citation needed ] In March 2000, Arizona was the site of the first legally binding election ever held over the internet to nominate a candidate for public office. ] In the 2000 Arizona Democratic Primary, under worldwide attention, Al Gore defeated Bill Bradley . Voter turnout in this state primary increased more than 500% over the 1996 primary. In the 21st century, Arizona has frequently garnered national attention for its efforts to quell illegal immigration into the state. In 2004, voters passed Proposition 200 , requiring proof of citizenship to register to vote. The Supreme Court of the United States struck this restriction down in 2013. ] In 2010, Arizona enacted SB 1070 which required all immigrants to carry immigration papers at all times, but the Supreme Court also invalidated parts of this law in Arizona v. United States in 2012. ] On January 8, 2011, a gunman shot congresswoman Gabby Giffords and 18 others at a gathering in Tucson. Giffords was critically wounded. The incident sparked national attention regarding incendiary political rhetoric. ] Three ships named USS Arizona have been christened in honor of the state, although only USS Arizona (BB-39) was so named after statehood was achieved. Arizona is in the Southwestern United States as one of the Four Corners states. Arizona is the sixth largest state by area , ranked after New Mexico and before Nevada . Of the state's 113,998 square miles (295,000 km 2 ), approximately 15% is privately owned. The remaining area is public forest and parkland, state trust land and Native American reservations. There are 24 National Park Service maintained sites in Arizona, including the three national parks of Grand Canyon National Park , Saguaro National Park , and the Petrified Forest National Park . ] Arizona is well known for its desert Basin and Range region in the state's southern portions, which is rich in a landscape of xerophyte plants such as the cactus . This region's topography was shaped by prehistoric volcanism , followed by the cooling-off and related subsidence . Its climate has exceptionally hot summers and mild winters. The state is less well known for its pine-covered north-central portion of the high country of the Colorado Plateau (see Arizona Mountains forests ). Like other states of the Southwest United States, Arizona is marked by high mountains, the Colorado plateau, and mesas. Despite the state's
of the Colorado Plateau (see Arizona Mountains forests ). Like other states of the Southwest United States, Arizona is marked by high mountains, the Colorado plateau, and mesas. Despite the state's aridity, 27% of Arizona is forest, ] a percentage comparable to modern-day Romania or Greece. ] The world's largest stand of ponderosa pine trees is in Arizona. ] The Mogollon Rim ( ), a 1,998-foot (609 m) escarpment , cuts across the state's central section and marks the southwestern edge of the Colorado Plateau. In 2002, this was an area of the Rodeo–Chediski Fire , the worst fire in state history until 2011. Located in northern Arizona, the Grand Canyon is a colorful, deep, steep-sided gorge, carved by the Colorado River . The canyon is one of the Seven Natural Wonders of the World and is largely contained in the Grand Canyon National Park – one of the first national parks in the United States. President Theodore Roosevelt was a major proponent of designating the Grand Canyon area as a National Park, often visiting to hunt mountain lion and enjoy the scenery. The canyon was created by the Colorado River cutting a channel over millions of years, and is about 277 miles (446 km) long, ranges in width from 4 to 18 miles (6 to 29 km) and attains a depth of more than 1 mile (1.6 km). Nearly two billion years of the Earth 's history have been exposed as the Colorado River and its tributaries cut through layer after layer of sediment as the Colorado Plateau uplifted. Arizona is home to one of the most well-preserved meteorite impact sites in the world. Created around 50,000 years ago, the Barringer Meteorite Crater (better known simply as " Meteor Crater ") is a gigantic hole in the middle of the high plains of the Colorado Plateau, about 25 miles (40 km) west of Winslow . ] A rim of smashed and jumbled boulders, some of them the size of small houses, rises 150 feet (46 m) above the level of the surrounding plain. The crater itself is nearly a mile (1.6 kilometers) wide and 570 feet (170 m) deep. Arizona is one of two U.S. states, along with Hawaii, that does not observe Daylight Saving Time , though the large Navajo Nation in the state's northeastern region does. Due to its large area and variations in elevation, the state has a wide variety of localized climate conditions. In the lower elevations the climate is primarily desert, with mild winters and extremely hot summers. Typically, from late fall to early spring, the weather is mild, averaging a minimum of 60 °F (16 °C). November through February are the coldest months, with temperatures typically ranging from 40 to 75 °F (4 to 24 °C), with occasional frosts. ] About midway through February, the temperatures start to rise, with warm days, and cool, breezy nights. The summer months of June through September bring a dry heat from 90 to 120 °F (32 to 49 °C), with occasional high temperatures exceeding 125 °F (52 °C) having been observed in the desert area. ] Arizona's all-time record high is 128 °F (53
bring a dry heat from 90 to 120 °F (32 to 49 °C), with occasional high temperatures exceeding 125 °F (52 °C) having been observed in the desert area. ] Arizona's all-time record high is 128 °F (53 °C) recorded at Lake Havasu City on June 29, 1994, and July 5, 2007; the all-time record low of −40 °F (−40 °C) was recorded at Hawley Lake on January 7, 1971. ] Due to the primarily dry climate, large diurnal temperature variations occur in less-developed areas of the desert above 2,500 ft (760 m). The swings can be as large as 83 °F (46 °C) in the summer months. In the state's urban centers, the effects of local warming result in much higher measured night-time lows than in the recent past. Arizona has an average annual rainfall of 12.7 in (323 mm), ] which comes during two rainy seasons, with cold fronts coming from the Pacific Ocean during the winter and a monsoon in the summer. ] The monsoon season occurs toward the end of summer. In July or August, the dewpoint rises dramatically for a brief period. During this time, the air contains large amounts of water vapor . Dewpoints as high as 81 °F (27 °C) ] have been recorded during the Phoenix monsoon season. This hot moisture brings lightning , thunderstorms , wind, and torrential, if usually brief, downpours. These downpours often cause flash floods , which can turn deadly. In an attempt to deter drivers from crossing flooding streams, the Arizona Legislature enacted the Stupid Motorist Law . It is rare for tornadoes or hurricanes to occur in Arizona. Arizona's northern third is a plateau at significantly higher altitudes than the lower desert, and has an appreciably cooler climate, with cold winters and mild summers, though the climate remains semiarid to arid. Extremely low temperatures are not unknown; cold air systems from the northern states and Canada occasionally push into the state, bringing temperatures below 0 °F (−18 °C) to the state's northern parts. ] Indicative of the variation in climate, Arizona is the state which has both the metropolitan area with the most days over 100 °F (38 °C) ( Phoenix ), and the metropolitan area in the lower 48 states with the most days with a low temperature below freezing ( Flagstaff ). ] Phoenix , in Maricopa County , is Arizona's capital and largest city. Other prominent cities in the Phoenix metro area include Mesa (Arizona's third largest city), Chandler (Arizona's fourth largest city), Glendale , Peoria , Buckeye , Sun City , Sun City West , Fountain Hills , Surprise , Gilbert , El Mirage , Avondale , Tempe , Tolleson and Scottsdale , with a total metropolitan population of just over 4.7 million. ] The average high temperature in July, 106 °F (41 °C), is one of the highest of any metropolitan area in the United States, offset by an average January high temperature of 67 °F (19 °C), the basis of its winter appeal. Tucson , with a metro population of just over one million, is the state's second-largest city. Located in Pima County , approximately 110
temperature of 67 °F (19 °C), the basis of its winter appeal. Tucson , with a metro population of just over one million, is the state's second-largest city. Located in Pima County , approximately 110 miles (180 km) southeast of Phoenix, it was incorporated in 1877, making it the oldest incorporated city in Arizona. It is home to the University of Arizona . Major incorporated suburbs of Tucson include Oro Valley and Marana northwest of the city, Sahuarita south of the city, and South Tucson in an enclave south of downtown. It has an average July temperature of 100 °F (38 °C) and winter temperatures averaging 65 °F (18 °C). Saguaro National Park , just west of the city in the Tucson Mountains , is the site of the world's largest collection of Saguaro cacti. The Prescott metropolitan area includes the cities of Prescott, Cottonwood , Camp Verde and many other towns in the 8,123 square miles (21,000 km 2 ) of Yavapai County area. With 212,635 residents, this cluster of towns is the state's third largest metropolitan area. The city of Prescott (population 41,528) lies approximately 100 miles (160 km) northwest of the Phoenix metropolitan area. Situated in pine tree forests at an elevation of about 5,500 feet (1,700 m), Prescott enjoys a much cooler climate than Phoenix, with average summer highs around 88 °F (31 °C) and winter temperatures averaging 50 °F (10 °C). Yuma is the center of the fourth-largest metropolitan area in Arizona. Located in Yuma County , it is near the borders of California and Mexico. It is one of the hottest cities in the United States, with an average July high of 107 °F (42 °C). For comparison, the same month's average in Death Valley is 115 °F (46 °C). The city features sunny days about 90% of the year. The Yuma Metropolitan Statistical Area has a population of 160,000. Yuma attracts many winter visitors from all over the United States. Flagstaff , in Coconino County , is the largest city in northern Arizona, and is at an elevation of nearly 7,000 feet (2,100 m). With its large Ponderosa pine forests, snowy winter weather and picturesque mountains, it is a stark contrast to the desert regions typically associated with Arizona. It is sited at the base of the San Francisco Peaks , the highest mountain range in the state of Arizona, which contains Humphreys Peak , the highest point in Arizona at 12,633 feet (3,851 m). Flagstaff has a strong tourism sector, due to its proximity to numerous tourist attractions including: Grand Canyon National Park , Sedona , and Oak Creek Canyon . Historic U.S. Route 66 is the main east–west street in the town. The Flagstaff metropolitan area is home to 134,421 residents and the main campus of Northern Arizona University . Lake Havasu City , in Mohave County , known as "Arizona's playground", was developed on the Colorado River and is named after Lake Havasu. Lake Havasu City has a population of about 57,000 people. It is famous for huge spring break parties, sunsets and the London Bridge ,
developed on the Colorado River and is named after Lake Havasu. Lake Havasu City has a population of about 57,000 people. It is famous for huge spring break parties, sunsets and the London Bridge , relocated from London, England. Lake Havasu City was founded by real estate developer Robert P. McCulloch in 1963. ] It has two colleges, Mohave Community College and ASU Colleges in Lake Havasu City. ] The United States Census Bureau records Arizona's population as 7,151,502 in the 2020 census, ] a 12% increase since the 2010 United States census . ] Arizona remained sparsely settled for most of the 19th century. ] The 1860 census reported the population of "Arizona County" to be 6,482, of whom 4,040 were listed as "Indians", 21 as "free colored", and 2,421 as "white". ] ] Arizona's continued population growth has put an enormous stress on the state's water supply. ] As of 2011 ] , 61% of Arizona's children under age one belonged to racial groups of color. ] The population of metropolitan Phoenix increased by 45% from 1991 through 2001, helping to make Arizona the second fastest-growing state in the U.S. in the 1990s (the fastest was Nevada ). ] According to the 2010 United States census, Arizona had a population of 6,392,017. In 2010, illegal immigrants constituted an estimated 8% of the population. This was the second highest percentage of any state in the U.S. ] ] Metropolitan Phoenix (4.7 million) and Tucson (1.0 million) are home to about five-sixths of Arizona's people (as of the 2010 cen
Alaska ( ⓘ ə- LASS -kə ) is a non-contiguous U.S. state on the northwest extremity of North America . It is in the Western United States region. The only other non-contiguous U.S. state is Hawaii . Alaska is also considered to be the northernmost, westernmost, and easternmost (the Aleutian Islands cross the 180th meridian into the eastern hemisphere) state in the United States. It borders the Canadian territory of Yukon and the province of British Columbia to the east. It shares a western maritime border, in the Bering Strait , with Russia's Chukotka Autonomous Okrug . The Chukchi and Beaufort Seas of the Arctic Ocean lie to the north, and the Pacific Ocean lies to the south. Technically, it is a semi-exclave of the U.S., and is the largest exclave in the world. Alaska is the largest U.S. state by area, comprising more total area than the following three largest states of Texas , California , and Montana combined, and is the sixth-largest subnational division in the world . It is the third-least populous and most sparsely populated U.S. state, but is, with a population of 736,081 as of 2020 , the continent's most populous territory located mostly north of the 60th parallel , with more than quadruple the combined populations of Northern Canada and Greenland . ] The state contains the four largest cities in the United States by area , including the state capital of Juneau . The state's most populous city is Anchorage , and approximately half of Alaska's residents live within its metropolitan area . Indigenous people have lived in Alaska for thousands of years, and it is widely believed that the region served as the entry point for the initial settlement of North America by way of the Bering land bridge . The Russian Empire was the first to actively colonize the area beginning in the 18th century, eventually establishing Russian America , which spanned most of the current state and promoted and maintained a native Alaskan Creole population. ] The expense and logistical difficulty of maintaining this distant possession prompted its sale to the U.S. in 1867 for US$7.2 million (equivalent to $157 million in 2023). The area went through several administrative changes before becoming organized as a territory on May 11, 1912. It was admitted as the 49th state of the U.S. on January 3, 1959. ] Abundant natural resources have enabled Alaska— with one of the smallest state economies—to have one of the highest per capita incomes , with commercial fishing , and the extraction of natural gas and oil, dominating Alaska's economy . U.S. Armed Forces bases and tourism also contribute to the economy; more than half of the state is federally-owned land containing national forests , national parks , and wildlife refuges . It is among the most irreligious states , one of the first to legalize recreational marijuana , and is known for its libertarian-leaning political culture, generally supporting the Republican Party in national elections. The Indigenous population of
first to legalize recreational marijuana , and is known for its libertarian-leaning political culture, generally supporting the Republican Party in national elections. The Indigenous population of Alaska is proportionally the second highest of any U.S. state, at over 15 percent, after only Hawaii. ] The name "Alaska" ( .mw-parser-output .tfd-dated{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .tfd-default{border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);clear:both;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tfd-tiny{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .tfd-inline{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1)}.mw-parser-output .tfd-sidebar{border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);text-align:center;position:relative}@media(min-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .tfd-sidebar{clear:right;float:right;width:22em}} ‹See Tfd› Russian : Аля́ска , romanized : Aljáska ) was introduced in the Russian colonial period when it was used to refer to the Alaska Peninsula . It was derived from an Aleut-language idiom , alaxsxaq , meaning "the mainland" or, more literally, "the object towards which the action of the sea is directed". ] ] ] Numerous indigenous peoples occupied Alaska for thousands of years before the arrival of European peoples to the area. Linguistic and DNA studies done here have provided evidence for the settlement of North America by way of the Bering land bridge . ] ] At the Upward Sun River site in the Tanana Valley in Alaska, remains of a six-week-old infant were found. The baby's DNA showed that she belonged to a population that was genetically separate from other native groups present elsewhere in the New World at the end of the Pleistocene . Ben Potter, the University of Alaska Fairbanks archaeologist who unearthed the remains at the Upward Sun River site in 2013, named this new group Ancient Beringian . ] The Tlingit people developed a society with a matrilineal kinship system of property inheritance and descent in what is today Southeast Alaska, along with parts of British Columbia and the Yukon . Also in Southeast were the Haida , now well known for their unique arts. The Tsimshian people came to Alaska from British Columbia in 1887, when President Grover Cleveland , and later the U.S. Congress, granted them permission to settle on Annette Island and found the town of Metlakatla, Alaska . All three of these peoples, as well as other indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast , experienced smallpox outbreaks from the late 18th through the mid- 19th century , with the most devastating epidemics occurring in the 1830s and 1860s, resulting in high fatalities and social disruption. ] Some researchers believe the first Russian settlement in Alaska was established in the 17th century. ] According to this hypothesis, in 1648 several koches of Semyon Dezhnyov 's expedition came ashore in Alaska by storm and founded this settlement. This hypothesis is based on the testimony of Chukchi geographer Nikolai Daurkin, who had visited Alaska in
of Semyon Dezhnyov 's expedition came ashore in Alaska by storm and founded this settlement. This hypothesis is based on the testimony of Chukchi geographer Nikolai Daurkin, who had visited Alaska in 1764–1765 and who had reported on a village on the Kheuveren River, populated by "bearded men" who "pray to the icons ". Some modern researchers associate Kheuveren with Koyuk River . ] The first European vessel to reach Alaska is generally held to be the St. Gabriel under the authority of the surveyor M. S. Gvozdev and assistant navigator I. Fyodorov on August 21, 1732, during an expedition of Siberian Cossack A. F. Shestakov and Russian explorer Dmitry Pavlutsky (1729–1735). ] Another European contact with Alaska occurred in 1741, when Vitus Bering led an expedition for the Russian Navy aboard the St. Peter . After his crew returned to Russia with sea otter pelts judged to be the finest fur in the world, small associations of fur traders began to sail from the shores of Siberia toward the Aleutian Islands. The first permanent European settlement was founded in 1784. Between 1774 and 1800, Spain sent several expeditions to Alaska to assert its claim over the Pacific Northwest. In 1789, a Spanish settlement and fort were built in Nootka Sound . These expeditions gave names to places such as Valdez , Bucareli Sound , and Cordova . Later, the Russian-American Company carried out an expanded colonization program during the early-to-mid-19th century. Sitka , renamed New Archangel from 1804 to 1867, on Baranof Island in the Alexander Archipelago in what is now Southeast Alaska , became the capital of Russian America . It remained the capital after the colony was transferred to the United States. The Russians never fully colonized Alaska, and the colony was never very profitable. Evidence of Russian settlement in names and churches survives throughout southeastern Alaska. In 1867, William H. Seward , the United States Secretary of State under President Andrew Johnson , negotiated the Alaska Purchase (referred to pejoratively as Seward's Folly) with the Russians for $7.2 million. ] Russia's contemporary ruler Tsar Alexander II , the Emperor of the Russian Empire , King of Poland and Grand Duke of Finland , also planned the sale; ] the purchase was made on March 30, 1867. Six months later the commissioners arrived in Sitka and the formal transfer was arranged; the formal flag-raising took place at Fort Sitka on October 18, 1867. In the ceremony, 250 uniformed U.S. soldiers marched to the governor's house at "Castle Hill", where the Russian troops lowered the Russian flag and the U.S. flag was raised. This event is celebrated as Alaska Day , a legal holiday on October 18. Alaska was loosely governed by the military initially and was administered as a district starting in 1884, with a governor appointed by the United States president. A federal district court was headquartered in Sitka. For most of Alaska's first decade under the United States flag, Sitka was
in 1884, with a governor appointed by the United States president. A federal district court was headquartered in Sitka. For most of Alaska's first decade under the United States flag, Sitka was the only community inhabited by American settlers. They organized a "provisional city government", which was Alaska's first municipal government, but not in a legal sense. ] Legislation allowing Alaskan communities to legally incorporate as cities did not come about until 1900, and home rule for cities was extremely limited or unavailable until statehood took effect in 1959. Starting in the 1890s and stretching in some places to the early 1910s, gold rushes in Alaska and the nearby Yukon Territory brought thousands of miners and settlers to Alaska. From 1879 to 1920, Alaska produced a cumulative total of over $460,000,000 ($6,691,927,500 inflation-adjusted) of mineral production. ] Alaska was officially incorporated as an organized territory in 1912. Alaska's capital, which had been in Sitka until 1906, was moved north to Juneau . Construction of the Alaska Governor's Mansion began that same year. European immigrants from Norway and Sweden also settled in southeast Alaska, where they entered the fishing and logging industries. During World War II , the Aleutian Islands Campaign focused on Attu , Agattu and Kiska , all of which were occupied by the Empire of Japan . ] During the Japanese occupation, an American civilian and two United States Navy personnel were killed at Attu and Kiska respectively, and nearly a total of 50 Aleut civilians and eight sailors were interned in Japan. About half of the Aleuts died during the period of internment. ] Unalaska / Dutch Harbor and Adak became significant bases for the United States Army , United States Army Air Forces and United States Navy. The United States Lend-Lease program involved flying American warplanes through Canada to Fairbanks and then Nome ; Soviet pilots took possession of these aircraft, ferrying them to fight the German invasion of the Soviet Union . The construction of military bases contributed to the population growth of some Alaskan cities. Statehood for Alaska was an important cause of James Wickersham early in his tenure as a congressional delegate. Decades later, the statehood movement gained its first real momentum following a territorial referendum in 1946. The Alaska Statehood Committee and Alaska's Constitutional Convention would soon follow. Statehood supporters also found themselves fighting major battles against political foes, mostly in the U.S. Congress but also within Alaska. Statehood was approved by the U.S. Congress on July 7, 1958; Alaska was officially proclaimed a state on January 3, 1959. On March 27, 1964, the massive Good Friday earthquake killed 133 people and destroyed several villages and portions of large coastal communities, mainly by the resultant tsunamis and landslides. It was the fourth-most-powerful earthquake in recorded history, with a moment magnitude of 9.2
villages and portions of large coastal communities, mainly by the resultant tsunamis and landslides. It was the fourth-most-powerful earthquake in recorded history, with a moment magnitude of 9.2 (more than a thousand times as powerful as the 1989 San Francisco earthquake ). ] The time of day (5:36 pm), time of year (spring) and location of the epicenter were all cited as factors in potentially sparing thousands of lives, particularly in Anchorage. Alaska suffered a more severe megathrust earthquake on July 11, 1585, estimated at magnitude 9.25, which remains the most powerful earthquake recorded in North American history, and the second most powerful earthquake recorded in world history. The Good Friday earthquake lasted 4 minutes and 38 seconds. Six hundred miles (970 km) of fault ruptured at once and moved up to 60 ft (18 m), releasing about 500 years of stress buildup. Soil liquefaction , fissures, landslides, and other ground failures caused major structural damage in several communities and much damage to property. Anchorage sustained great destruction or damage to many inadequately earthquake-engineered houses, buildings, and infrastructure (paved streets, sidewalks, water and sewer mains, electrical systems, and other human-made equipment), particularly in the several landslide zones along Knik Arm . Two hundred miles (320 km) southwest, some areas near Kodiak were permanently raised by 30 feet (9 m). Southeast of Anchorage, areas around the head of Turnagain Arm near Girdwood and Portage dropped as much as 8 feet (2.4 m), requiring reconstruction and fill to raise the Seward Highway above the new high tide mark. In Prince William Sound , Port Valdez suffered a massive underwater landslide, resulting in the deaths of 32 people between the collapse of the Valdez city harbor and docks, and inside the ship that was docked there at the time. Nearby, a 27-foot (8.2 m) tsunami destroyed the village of Chenega , killing 23 of the 68 people who lived there; survivors out-ran the wave, climbing to high ground. Post-quake tsunamis severely affected Whittier , Seward , Kodiak, and other Alaskan communities, as well as people and property in British Columbia, Washington , Oregon , and California . ] Tsunamis also caused damage in Hawaii and Japan . Evidence of motion directly related to the earthquake was also reported from Florida and Texas . Alaska had never experienced a major disaster in a highly populated area before and had very limited resources for dealing with the effects of such an event. In Anchorage, at the urging of geologist Lidia Selkregg , the City of Anchorage and the Alaska State Housing Authority appointed a team of 40 scientists, including geologists, soil scientists, and engineers, to assess the damage done by the earthquake to the city. ] The team, called the Engineering and Geological Evaluation Group, was headed by Ruth A. M. Schmidt , a geology professor at the University of Alaska Anchorage . The team of scientists came
city. ] The team, called the Engineering and Geological Evaluation Group, was headed by Ruth A. M. Schmidt , a geology professor at the University of Alaska Anchorage . The team of scientists came into conflict with local developers and downtown business owners who wanted to immediately rebuild; the scientists wanted to identify future dangers to ensure that the rebuilt infrastructure would be safe. ] The team produced a report on May 8, 1964, just a little more than a month after the earthquake. ] ] The United States military, which has a large active presence in Alaska, also stepped in to assist within moments of the end of the quake. The U.S. Army rapidly re-established communications with the lower 48 states, deployed troops to assist the citizens of Anchorage, and dispatched a convoy to Valdez. ] On the advice of military and civilian leaders, President Lyndon B. Johnson declared all of Alaska a major disaster area the day after the quake. The U.S. Navy and U.S. Coast Guard deployed ships to isolated coastal communities to assist with immediate needs. Bad weather and poor visibility hampered air rescue and observation efforts the day after the quake, but on Sunday the 29th the situation improved and rescue helicopters and observation aircraft were deployed. ] A military airlift immediately began shipping relief supplies to Alaska, eventually delivering 2,570,000 pounds (1,170,000 kg) of food and other supplies. ] Broadcast journalist, Genie Chance , assisted in recovery and relief efforts, staying on the KENI air waves over Anchorage for more than 24 continuous hours as the voice of calm from her temporary post within the Anchorage Public Safety Building. ] She was effectively designated as the public safety officer by the city's police chief. ] Chance provided breaking news of the catastrophic events that continued to develop following the magnitude 9.2 earthquake, and she served as the voice of the public safety office, coordinating response efforts, connecting available resources to needs around the community, disseminating information about shelters and prepared food rations, passing messages of well-being between loved ones, and helping to reunite families. ] In the longer term, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers led the effort to rebuild roads, clear debris, and establish new townsites for communities that had been completely destroyed, at a cost of $110 million. ] The West Coast and Alaska Tsunami Warning Center was formed as a direct response to the disaster. Federal disaster relief funds paid for reconstruction as well as financially supporting the devastated infrastructure of Alaska's government, spending hundreds of millions of dollars that helped keep Alaska financially solvent until the discovery of massive oil deposits at Prudhoe Bay . At the order of the U.S. Defense Department , the Alaska National Guard founded the Alaska Division of Emergency Services to respond to any future disasters. ] The 1968 discovery of oil at Prudhoe
. At the order of the U.S. Defense Department , the Alaska National Guard founded the Alaska Division of Emergency Services to respond to any future disasters. ] The 1968 discovery of oil at Prudhoe Bay and the 1977 completion of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System led to an oil boom. Royalty revenues from oil have funded large state budgets from 1980 onward. Oil production was not the only economic value of Alaska's land. In the second half of the 20th century, Alaska discovered tourism as an important source of revenue. Tourism became popular after World War II when military personnel stationed in the region returned home praising its natural splendor. The Alcan Highway , built during the war, and the Alaska Marine Highway System , completed in 1963, made the state more accessible than before. Tourism has become increasingly important in Alaska, and today over 1.4 million people visit the state each year. ] With tourism more vital to the economy, environmentalism also rose in importance. The Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act (ANILCA) of 1980 added 53.7 million acres (217,000 km 2 ) to the National Wildlife Refuge system , parts of 25 rivers to the National Wild and Scenic Rivers system , 3.3 million acres (13,000 km 2 ) to National Forest lands , and 43.6 million acres (176,000 km 2 ) to National Park land . Because of the Act, Alaska now contains two-thirds of all American national parklands. Today, more than half of Alaskan land is owned by the Federal Government . ] In 1989, the Exxon Valdez hit a reef in the Prince William Sound, spilling more than 11 million gallons (42 megalitres) of crude oil over 1,100 miles (1,800 km) of coastline. Today, the battle between philosophies of development and conservation is seen in the contentious debate over oil drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge and the proposed Pebble Mine . Located at the northwest corner of North America , Alaska is the northernmost and westernmost state in the United States, but also has the most easterly longitude in the United States because the Aleutian Islands extend into the Eastern Hemisphere . ] Alaska is the only non- contiguous U.S. state on continental North America; about 500 miles (800 km) of Canadian territory consisting of British Columbia (in Canada ) separates Alaska from Washington . It is technically part of the continental U.S. , but is not usually included in the colloquial use of the term; Alaska is not part of the contiguous U.S. , often called " the Lower 48 ". The capital city, Juneau , is situated on the mainland of the North American continent but is not connected by road to the rest of the North American highway system. The largest lake in Alaska is Lake Illiamna . The state is bordered by Canada's Yukon and British Columbia to the east (making it the only state to border only a Canadian territory ); the Gulf of Alaska and the Pacific Ocean to the south and southwest; the Bering Sea , Bering Strait , and Chukchi Sea to the west;
(making it the only state to border only a Canadian territory ); the Gulf of Alaska and the Pacific Ocean to the south and southwest; the Bering Sea , Bering Strait , and Chukchi Sea to the west; and the Arctic Ocean to the north. Alaska's territorial waters touch Russia's territorial waters in the Bering Strait, as the Russian Big Diomede Island and Alaskan Little Diomede Island are only 3 miles (4.8 km) apart. Alaska has a longer coastline than all the other U.S. states combined. ] At 663,268 square miles (1,717,856 km 2 ) in total area, Alaska is by far the largest state in the United States. Alaska is more than twice the size of the second-largest U.S. state (Texas), and it is larger than the next three largest states (Texas, California, and Montana) combined. Alaska is the seventh largest subnational division in the world . If it was an independent nation, it would be the 18th largest country in the world; almost the same size as Iran . With its myriad of islands, Alaska has nearly 34,000 miles (55,000 km) of tidal shoreline. The Aleutian Islands chain extends west from the southern tip of the Alaska Peninsula . Many active volcanoes are found in the Aleutians and in coastal regions. Unimak Island , for example, is home to Mount Shishaldin , which is an occasionally smoldering volcano that rises to 10,000 feet (3,000 m) above the North Pacific. The chain of volcanoes extends to Mount Spurr , west of Anchorage on the mainland. Geologists have identified Alaska as part of Wrangellia , a large region consisting of multiple states and Canadian provinces in the Pacific Northwest , which is actively undergoing continent building . One of the world's largest tides occurs in Turnagain Arm , just south of Anchorage, where tidal differences can be more than 35 feet (10.7 m). ] Alaska has more than 409,000 natural lakes at least one hectare or bigger. ] Marshlands and wetland permafrost cover 188,320 square miles (487,700 km 2 ) (mostly in northern, western and southwest flatlands). Glacier ice covers about 28,957 square miles (75,000 km 2 ) of Alaska. ] The Bering Glacier is the largest glacier in North America, covering 2,008 square miles (5,200 km 2 ) alone. ] There are no officially defined borders demarcating the various regions of Alaska, but there are five/six regions that the state is most commonly broken up into: The most populous region of Alaska contains Anchorage , the Matanuska-Susitna Valley and the Kenai Peninsula . Rural, mostly unpopulated areas south of the Alaska Range and west of the Wrangell Mountains also fall within the definition of South Central, as do the Prince William Sound area and the communities of Cordova and Valdez . ] Also referred to as the Panhandle or Inside Passage , this is the region of Alaska closest to the contiguous states. As such, this was where most of the initial non-indigenous settlement occurred in the years following the Alaska Purchase . The region is dominated by the Alexander Archipelago as well as
states. As such, this was where most of the initial non-indigenous settlement occurred in the years following the Alaska Purchase . The region is dominated by the Alexander Archipelago as well as the Tongass National Forest , the largest national forest in the United States. It contains the state capital Juneau , the former capital Sitka , and Ketchikan , at one time Alaska's largest city. ] The Alaska Marine Highway provides a vital surface transportation link throughout the area and country, as only three communities ( Haines , Hyder and Skagway ) enjoy direct connections to the contiguous North American road system. ] The Interior is the largest region of Alaska; much of it is uninhabited wilderness. Fairbanks is the only large city in the region. Denali National Park and Preserve is located here. Denali , formerly Mount McKinley, is the highest mountain in North America and is also located here. The North Slope is mostly tundra peppered with small villages. The area is known for its massive reserves of crude oil and contains both the National Petroleum Reserve–Alaska and the Prudhoe Bay Oil Field . ] The city of Utqiaġvik , formerly known as Barrow, is the northernmost city in the United States and is located here. The Northwest Arctic area , anchored by Kotzebue and also containing the Kobuk River valley, is often considered part of this region. The respective Inupiat of the North Slope and of the Northwest Arctic seldom consider themselves to be one people. ] Southwest Alaska is a sparsely inhabited region stretching some 500 miles (800 km) inland from the Bering Sea. Most of the population lives along the coast. Kodiak Island is also located in the Southwest. The massive Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta , one of the largest river deltas in the world, is here. Portions of the Alaska Peninsula are considered part of the Southwest, with the Aleutian Islands often (but not always) being grouped in as well. While primarily part of Southwest Alaska when grouped economically, the Aleutian islands are sometimes recognized as an alternate group from the rest of the region due to the geographic separation from the continent. More than 300 small volcanic islands make up this chain, which stretches more than 1,200 miles (1,900 km) into the Pacific Ocean. Some of these islands fall in the Eastern Hemisphere, but the International Date Line was drawn west of 180° to keep the whole state, and thus the entire North American continent, within the same legal day. Two of the islands, Attu and Kiska , were occupied by Japanese forces during World War II. According to an October 1998 report by the United States Bureau of Land Management , approximately 65% of Alaska is owned and managed by the U.S. federal government as public lands, including a multitude of national forests , national parks, and national wildlife refuges . ] Of these, the Bureau of Land Management manages 87 million acres (35 million hectares), or 23.8% of the state. The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge
, national parks, and national wildlife refuges . ] Of these, the Bureau of Land Management manages 87 million acres (35 million hectares), or 23.8% of the state. The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge is managed by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service . It is the world's largest wildlife refuge, comprising 16 million acres (6.5 million hectares). Of the remaining land area, the state of Alaska owns 101 million acres (41 million hectares), its entitlement under the Alaska Statehood Act . A portion of that acreage is occasionally ceded to the organized boroughs presented above, under the statutory provisions pertaining to newly formed boroughs. Smaller portions are set aside for rural subdivisions and other homesteading-related opportunities. These are not very popular due to the often remote and roadless locations. The University of Alaska , as a land grant university , also owns substantial acreage which it manages independently. Another 44 million acres (18 million hectares) are owned by 12 regional, and scores of local, Native corporations created under the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) of 1971. Regional Native corporation Doyon, Limited often promotes itself as the largest private landowner in Alaska in advertisements and other communications. Provisions of ANCSA allowing the corporations' land holdings to be sold on the open market starting in 1991 were repealed before they could take effect. Effectively, the corporations hold title (including subsurface title in many cases, a privilege denied to individual Alaskans) but cannot sell the land. Individual Native allotments are sold on the open market. Various private interests own the remaining land, totaling about one percent of the state.
Maine ( ⓘ MAYN ) ] is a state in the New England region of the United States , and the northeasternmost state in the Lower 48 . It borders New Hampshire to the west, the Gulf of Maine to the southeast, and the Canadian provinces of New Brunswick and Quebec to the northeast and northwest, and shares a maritime border with Nova Scotia . Maine is the largest state in New England by total area, nearly larger than the combined area of the remaining five states. Of the 50 U.S. states , it is the 12th-smallest by area , the 9th-least populous , the 13th-least densely populated , and the most rural. ] Maine's capital is Augusta , and its most populous city is Portland , with a total population of 68,408, as of the 2020 census . The territory of Maine has been inhabited by Indigenous populations ] for about 12,000 years, ] after the glaciers retreated during the last ice age . At the time of European arrival, several Algonquian -speaking nations governed the area and these nations are now known as the Wabanaki Confederacy . The first European settlement in the area was by the French in 1604 on Saint Croix Island , founded by Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Mons . The first English settlement was the short-lived Popham Colony , established by the Plymouth Company in 1607. A number of English settlements were established along the coast of Maine in the 1620s, although the rugged climate and conflict with the local Indigenous people caused many to fail. As Maine entered the 18th century, only a half dozen European settlements had survived. Loyalist and Patriot forces contended for Maine's territory during the American Revolution . During the War of 1812 , the largely undefended eastern region of Maine was occupied by British forces with the goal of annexing it to Canada via the Colony of New Ireland , but returned to the United States following failed British offensives on the northern border, mid-Atlantic and south which produced a peace treaty that restored the pre-war boundaries. Maine was part of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts until 1820 when it voted to secede from Massachusetts to become a separate state. On March 15, 1820, under the Missouri Compromise , Maine was admitted to the Union as the 23rd state. Today, Maine is known for its jagged, rocky Atlantic Ocean and bayshore coastlines, mountains, heavily forested interior, and its cuisine, particularly wild lowbush blueberries and seafood such as lobster and clams . Coastal and Down East Maine have emerged as important centers for the creative economy , ] especially in the vicinity of Portland , which has also brought gentrification to the city and its metropolitan area. ] The earliest known inhabitants of the territory that is now Maine were Algonquian-speaking Wabanaki peoples, including the Passamaquoddy , Maliseet , Penobscot , Androscoggin , and Kennebec. During the later King Philip's War , many of these peoples would merge in one form or another to become the Wabanaki Confederacy , aiding the
, Maliseet , Penobscot , Androscoggin , and Kennebec. During the later King Philip's War , many of these peoples would merge in one form or another to become the Wabanaki Confederacy , aiding the Wampanoag of Massachusetts and the Mahican of New York . Afterwards, many of these people were driven from their natural territories, but most of Maine's tribes continued, unchanged, until the American Revolution . Before this point, however, most of these people were considered separate nations. Many had adapted to living in permanent, Iroquois -inspired settlements, while those along the coast tended to move from summer villages to winter villages on a yearly cycle. They would usually winter inland and head to the coasts by summer. ] ] European contact with what is now called Maine may have started around 1200 CE when Vikings are believed to have interacted with the native Penobscot in present-day Hancock County , most likely through trade. If confirmed, this would make Maine the site of the earliest European discovery in the entire US. About 200 years earlier, from the settlements in Iceland and Greenland , the Norse first identified America and attempted to settle areas such as Newfoundland , but failed to establish a permanent settlement. Archeological evidence suggests that Vikings in Greenland returned to North America for several centuries after the initial discovery to trade and collect timber, with the most relevant evidence being the Maine Penny , an 11th-century Norwegian coin found at a Native American dig site in 1954. ] The first European confirmed settlement in modern-day Maine was in 1604 on Saint Croix Island , led by French explorer Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Mons . His party included Samuel de Champlain , noted as an explorer. The French named the entire area Acadia , including the portion that later became the state of Maine. The Plymouth Company established the first English settlement in Maine at the Popham Colony in 1607, the same year as the settlement at Jamestown, Virginia . The Popham colonists returned to Britain after 14 months. ] The French established two Jesuit missions: one on Penobscot Bay in 1609, and the other on Mount Desert Island in 1613. The same year, Claude de La Tour established Castine . In 1625, Charles de Saint-Étienne de la Tour erected Fort Pentagouet to protect Castine. The coastal areas of eastern Maine first became the Province of Maine in a 1622 land patent. The part of western Maine north of the Kennebec River was more sparsely settled and was known in the 17th century as the Territory of Sagadahock . A second settlement was attempted in 1623 by English explorer and naval Captain Christopher Levett at a place called York , where he had been granted 6,000 acres (24 km 2 ) by King Charles I of England. ] It also failed. The 1622 patent of the Province of Maine was split at the Piscataqua River into the Province of New Hampshire to the south and New Somersetshire to the north. A disputed 1630 patent split
failed. The 1622 patent of the Province of Maine was split at the Piscataqua River into the Province of New Hampshire to the south and New Somersetshire to the north. A disputed 1630 patent split off the area around present-day Saco as Lygonia . Justifying its actions with a 1652 geographic survey that showed an overlapping patent, the Massachusetts Bay Colony had seized New Somersetshire and Lygonia by force by 1658. The Territory of Sagadahock between the Kennebec River and St. Croix River notionally became Cornwall County, Province of New York under a 1664 grant from Charles II of England to his brother James , at the time the Duke of York . Some of this land was claimed by New France as part of Acadia . All of the English settlements in the Massachusetts Bay Colony and the Province of New York became part of the Dominion of New England in 1686. All of present-day Maine was unified as York County, Massachusetts under a 1691 royal patent for the Province of Massachusetts Bay . Central Maine was formerly inhabited by the Androscoggin tribe of the Abenaki nation , also known as Arosaguntacook. They were driven out of the area in 1690 during King William's War . They were relocated to St. Francis , Canada, which was destroyed by Rogers' Rangers in 1759, and is now Odanak . The other Abenaki tribes suffered several severe defeats, particularly during Dummer's War , with the capture of Norridgewock in 1724 and the defeat of the Pequawket in 1725, which significantly reduced their numbers. They finally withdrew to Canada , where they were settled at Bécancour and Sillery , and later at St. Francis, along with other refugee tribes from the south. ] Maine was much fought over by the French , English, and allied natives during the 17th and 18th centuries. These natives conducted raids against settlers and each other, taking captives for ransom or, in some cases, kidnapped for adoption by Native American tribes. A notable example was the early 1692 Abenaki raid on York , where about 100 English settlers were killed and another estimated 80 taken hostage. ] The Abenaki took captives taken during raids of Massachusetts in Queen Anne's War of the early 1700s to Kahnewake , a Catholic Mohawk village near Montreal , where some were adopted and others ransomed. ] ] After the British defeated the French in Acadia in the 1740s, the territory from the Penobscot River east fell under the nominal authority of the Province of Nova Scotia , and together with present-day New Brunswick formed the Nova Scotia county of Sunbury , with its court of general sessions at Campobello. American and British forces contended for Maine's territory during the American Revolution and the War of 1812, with the British occupying eastern Maine in both conflicts via the Colony of New Ireland . ] ] The territory of Maine was confirmed as part of Massachusetts when the United States was formed following the Treaty of Paris ending the revolution, although the final border with British
. ] ] The territory of Maine was confirmed as part of Massachusetts when the United States was formed following the Treaty of Paris ending the revolution, although the final border with British North America was not established until the Webster–Ashburton Treaty of 1842. Maine was physically separate from the rest of Massachusetts. Longstanding disagreements over land speculation and settlements led to Maine residents and their allies in Massachusetts proper forcing an 1807 vote in the Massachusetts Assembly on permitting Maine to secede; the vote failed. Secessionist sentiment in Maine was stoked during the War of 1812 when Massachusetts pro-British merchants opposed the war and refused to defend Maine from British invaders. In 1819, Massachusetts agreed to permit secession, sanctioned by voters of the rapidly growing region the following year. Formal secession from Massachusetts and admission of Maine as the 23rd state occurred on March 15, 1820, as part of the Missouri Compromise , which geographically restricted the spread of slavery and enabled the admission to statehood of Missouri the following year, keeping a balance between slave and free states. ] ] ] Maine's original state capital was Portland, Maine's largest city, until it was moved to the more central Augusta in 1832. The principal office of the Maine Supreme Judicial Court remains in Portland. The 20th Maine Volunteer Infantry Regiment , under the command of Colonel Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain , prevented the Union Army from being flanked at Little Round Top by the Confederate Army during the Battle of Gettysburg . Four U.S. Navy ships have been named USS Maine , most famously the armored cruiser USS Maine (ACR-1) , whose sinking by an explosion on February 15, 1898, precipitated the Spanish–American War . To the south and east is the Gulf of Maine , and to the west is the state of New Hampshire . The Canadian province of New Brunswick is to the north and northeast, and the province of Quebec is to the northwest. Maine is the northernmost and largest state in New England, accounting for almost half of the region's entire land area. Maine is the only state to border exactly one other American state. Approximately half the area of Maine lies on each side of the 45th parallel north in latitude . Maine is the easternmost state in the Contiguous United States both in its extreme points and its geographic center. The town of Lubec is the easternmost organized settlement in the United States. Its Quoddy Head Lighthouse is also the closest place in the United States to Africa and Europe. Estcourt Station is Maine's northernmost point, as well as the northernmost point in New England. (For more information see extreme points of the United States ) Maine's Moosehead Lake is the largest lake wholly in New England, since Lake Champlain is located between Vermont , New York , and Quebec . A number of other Maine lakes, such as South Twin Lake , are described by Thoreau in The Maine Woods
wholly in New England, since Lake Champlain is located between Vermont , New York , and Quebec . A number of other Maine lakes, such as South Twin Lake , are described by Thoreau in The Maine Woods (1864). Mount Katahdin is the northern terminus of the Appalachian Trail , which extends southerly to Springer Mountain , Georgia , and the southern terminus of the new International Appalachian Trail which, when complete, will run to Belle Isle , Newfoundland and Labrador . Machias Seal Island and North Rock , off the state's Downeast coast, are claimed by both Canada and the Maine town of Cutler , and are within one of four areas between the two countries whose sovereignty is still in dispute , but it is the only one of the disputed areas containing land. Also in this easternmost area in the Bay of Fundy is the Old Sow , the largest tidal whirlpool in the Western Hemisphere . Maine is the least densely populated state east of the Mississippi River . It is called the Pine Tree State due to its largest distribution and presence of pine , including Pinus strobus and Pinus resinosa . Over 80% of its total area is forested or unclaimed, ] the most forest cover of any U.S. state . In the wooded areas of the interior lies much uninhabited land, some of which does not have formal political organization into local units (a rarity in New England). The Northwest Aroostook unorganized territory in the northern part of the state, for example, has an area of 2,668 square miles (6,910 km 2 ) and a population of 10, or one person for every 267 square miles (690 km 2 ). Maine is in the temperate broadleaf and mixed forests biome . The land near the southern and central Atlantic coast is covered by the mixed oaks of the Northeastern coastal forests . The remainder of the state, including the North Woods , is covered by the New England–Acadian forests . ] Maine has almost 230 miles (400 km) of ocean coastline (and 3,500 miles (5,600 km) of tidal coastline). ] ] West Quoddy Head in Lubec is the easternmost point of land in the 48 contiguous states. Along the famous rock-bound coast of Maine are lighthouses, beaches, fishing villages, and thousands of offshore islands, including the Isles of Shoals which straddle the New Hampshire border. There are jagged rocks and cliffs and many bays and inlets. Inland are lakes, rivers, forests, and mountains. This visual contrast of forested slopes sweeping down to the sea has been summed up by American poet Edna St. Vincent Millay of Rockland and Camden , in "Renascence": ] All I could see from where I stood Was three long mountains and a wood; I turned and looked the other way, And saw three islands in a bay. Geologists describe this type of landscape as a "drowned coast", where a rising sea level has invaded former land features, creating bays out of valleys and islands out of mountain tops. ] A rise in land elevation due to the melting of heavy glacier ice caused a slight rebounding effect of underlying rock; this land rise,
creating bays out of valleys and islands out of mountain tops. ] A rise in land elevation due to the melting of heavy glacier ice caused a slight rebounding effect of underlying rock; this land rise, however, was not enough to eliminate all the effect of the rising sea level and its invasion of former land features. Much of Maine's geomorphology was created by extended glacial activity at the end of the last ice age . Prominent glacial features include Somes Sound and Bubble Rock, both part of Acadia National Park on Mount Desert Island. Carved by glaciers, Somes Sound reaches depths of 175 feet (50 m). The extreme depth and steep drop-off allow large ships to navigate almost the entire length of the sound. These features also have made it attractive for boat builders, such as the prestigious Hinckley Yachts . Bubble Rock, a glacial erratic , is a large boulder perched on the edge of Bubble Mountain in Acadia National Park . By analyzing the type of granite, geologists discovered that glaciers carried Bubble Rock to its present location from near Lucerne , 30 miles (48 km) away. The Iapetus Suture runs through the north and west of the state, being underlain by the ancient Laurentian terrane , and the south and east underlain by the Avalonian terrane . Acadia National Park is the only national park in New England. Areas under the protection and management of the National Park Service include: ] Lands under the control of the state of Maine include: Maine has a humid continental climate ( Köppen climate classification Dfb ), with warm and sometimes humid summers, and long, cold and very snowy winters. Winters are especially severe in the northern and western parts of Maine, while coastal areas are moderated slightly by the Atlantic Ocean , resulting in marginally milder winters and cooler summers than inland regions. Daytime highs are generally in the 75–85 °F (24–29 °C) range throughout the state in July, with overnight lows in the high 50s °F (around 15 °C). January temperatures range from highs near 30 °F (−1 °C) on the southern coast to overnight lows averaging below 0 °F (−18 °C) in the far north. ] The state's record high temperature is 105 °F (41 °C), set in July 1911, at North Bridgton. ] Precipitation in Maine is evenly distributed year-round, but with a slight summer maximum in northern/northwestern Maine and a slight late-fall or early-winter maximum along the coast due to " nor'easters " or intense cold-season rain and snowstorms. In coastal Maine, the late spring and summer months are usually driest—a rarity across the Eastern United States. Maine has fewer days of thunderstorms than any other state east of the Rockies , with most of the state averaging fewer than twenty days of thunderstorms a year. Tornadoes are rare in Maine, with the state averaging two per year, although this number is increasing. Most severe thunderstorms and tornadoes occur in the southwestern interior portion of the state, ] where summer temperatures are
the state averaging two per year, although this number is increasing. Most severe thunderstorms and tornadoes occur in the southwestern interior portion of the state, ] where summer temperatures are often the warmest and the atmosphere is thus more unstable compared to northern and coastal areas. ] Maine rarely sees the direct landfall of tropical cyclones , as they tend to recurve out to sea or are rapidly weakening by the time they reach the cooler waters of Maine. In January 2009, a new record low temperature for the state was set at Big Black River of −50 °F (−46 °C), tying the New England record. ] Annual precipitation varies from 35.8 in (909 mm) in Presque Isle to 56.7 in (1,441 mm) in Acadia National Park. ] Maine exhibits a diverse range of flora and fauna across its varied landscapes, including forests, coastline, and wetlands. Forested areas consist primarily of coniferous and deciduous trees, such as balsam fir , sugar maple , and its state tree, the Eastern white pine . ] Coastal regions are characterized by hardy sea milkwort , sea-blight , bayberry , and the invasive rugosa rose . ] Maine's terrestrial fauna comprises mammals such as moose , black bears , and white-tailed deer , along with smaller species like red squirrels , snowshoe hares , and raccoons . Maine has the largest populations of moose and black bears in the contiguous United States. ] Avian diversity is evident with migratory birds like piping plovers , American oystercatcher , and northern harrier , as well as resident species like black-capped chickadees , blue jays , and barred owls . Wetlands provide habitat for amphibians such as spotted salamanders , wood frogs , and toads. Freshwater habitats support fish species like brook trout , landlocked salmon , and multiple gamefish , while marine life in offshore waters includes Atlantic puffins , harbor seals , minke whales , and lobster . Maine's abundance of lobster makes the state the largest producer of lobster in the United States. ] ] The U.S. Census Bureau estimates that the population of Maine was 1,344,212 on July 1, 2019, a 1.19% increase since the 2010 United States census . ] At the 2020 census , 1,362,359 people lived in the state. The state's population density is 41.3 people per square mile, making it the least densely populated state east of the Mississippi River . As of 2010, Maine was also the most rural state in the Union, with only 38.7% of the state's population living within urban areas. ] As explained in detail under "Geography", there are large tracts of uninhabited land in some remote parts of the interior of the state, particularly in the North Maine Woods . The mean population center of Maine is located in Kennebec County , just east of Augusta. ] The Greater Portland metropolitan area is the most densely populated with nearly 40% of Maine's population. ] This area spans three counties and includes many farms and wooded areas; the 2016 population of Portland proper was 66,937. ] Maine has
most densely populated with nearly 40% of Maine's population. ] This area spans three counties and includes many farms and wooded areas; the 2016 population of Portland proper was 66,937. ] Maine has experienced a very slow rate of population growth since the 1990 census; its rate of growth (0.57%) since the 2010 census ranks 45th of the 50 states. ] In 2021 and 2022, however, Maine had the highest proportion of arriving residents to departing residents of any state in the country, with 1.8 arrivals for every departure. ] The modest population growth in the state has been concentrated in the southern coastal counties; with more diverse populations slowly moving into these areas of the state. However, the northern, more rural areas of the state have experienced a slight decline in population from 2010 to 2016. ] As of 2020, Maine has the highest population age 65 or older in the United States. ] According to the 2010 census , Maine has the highest percentage of non-Hispanic White of any state, at 94.4% of the total population. In 2011, 89.0% of all births in the state were to non-Hispanic White parents. ] Maine also has the second-highest residential senior population. ] According to HUD 's 2022 Annual Homeless Assessment Report , there were an estimated 4,411 homeless people in Maine. ] ] The table below shows the racial composition of Maine's population as of 2016. According to the 2016 American Community Survey , 1.5% of Maine's population were of Hispanic or Latino origin (of any race): Mexican (0.4%), Puerto Rican (0.4%), Cuban (0.1%), and other Hispanic or Latino origin (0.6%). ] The six largest ancestry groups were: English (20.7%), Irish (17.3%), French (15.7%), German (8.1%), American (7.8%) and French Canadian (7.7%). ] People citing that they are American are of overwhelmingly English descent, but have ancestry that has been in the region for so long (often since the 17th century) that they choose to identify simply as Americans. ] ] ] ] ] ] excessive citations ] Maine has the highest percentage of French Americans of any state. Most of them are of Canadian origin, but in some cases have been living there since prior to the American Revolutionary War . There are particularly high concentrations in the northern part of Maine in Aroostook County , which is part of a cultural region known as Acadia that goes over the border into New Brunswick . Along with the Acadian population in the north, many French-Canadians came from Quebec as immigrants between 1840 and 1930. The upper Saint John River valley area was once part of the so-called Republic of Madawaska , before the frontier was decided in the Webster-Ashburton Treaty of 1842. Over a quarter of the population of Lewiston, Waterville , and Biddeford are Franco-American. Most of the residents of the Mid Coast and Down East sections are chiefly of British heritage. Smaller numbers of various other groups, including Irish , Italian , Swedish ] and Polish , have settled throughout the state
of the Mid Coast and Down East sections are chiefly of British heritage. Smaller numbers of various other groups, including Irish , Italian , Swedish ] and Polish , have settled throughout the state since the late 19th and early 20th century immigration waves. Today there are four federally recognized tribes in Maine, including the Mi'kmaq Nation . In 2020, 7,885 identified as being Native American alone, and 25,617 did in combination with one or more other races. ] Note: Births in table do not sum to 100% because Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race. In 2018, The top countries of origin for Maine's immigrants were Canada , the Philippines , Germany , India and Korea . ] Maine does not have an official language, ] but the most widely spoken language in the state is English. The 2010 census reported 92.91% of Maine residents aged five and older spoke only English at home. French-speakers are the state's chief linguistic minority; census figures show that Maine has the highest percentage of people speaking French at home of any state: 3.93% of Maine households are French-speaking, compared with 3.45% (including Cajun and Creole ) in Louisiana , which is the second highest state. ] Spanish is the third-most-common language in Maine, after English and French. ] Religious self-identification, per Public Religion Research Institute 's 2022 American Values Survey ] According to the Pew Research Center in 2014, the religious affiliations of Maine were: Protestant 37% (in particular: Evangelical Protestant 14%, Mainline Protestant 21%, Historical Black Protestant 2%), Atheism or Agnosticism 6%, Nothing in Particular 26%, Roman Catholic Church 21%, other Christians 5%, non-Christian religions including Hinduism , Islam , Buddhism and Baháʼí 7%, and Pagans and Unitarians 5%. In 2014, the Roman Catholic Church was the largest religious denomination and the Baptists (7% Evangelical and 5% Mainline) were the state's largest Protestant denomination, followed by the Methodists (6%) and the Congregationalists (5%). The atheists and the agnostics are only 6% of the state, but 26% of Mainers said that they "Believe in God but they are Unaffiliated." Eighty-one percent of Mainers believed in God, while 3% did not know and 16% did not believe in God. Thirty-four percent of Mainers thought that religion was "very important" and 29% said that it was "important", while 21% said that religion was not important. ] According to a survey through the Public Religion Research Institute in 2020, approximately 62% of the population were Christian; the religiously unaffiliated slightly increased to 33% from the separate 2014 study by the Pew Research Center. ] In a 2022 study by the Public Religion Research Institute, 63% of the population were Christian, and 30% were religiously unaffiliated. Among the non-Christian population in 2022, 1% were Unitarian Universalist , 5% Jewish , and 1% New Ager . According to the Association of Religion Data
and 30% were religiously unaffiliated. Among the non-Christian population in 2022, 1% were Unitarian Universalist , 5% Jewish , and 1% New Ager . According to the Association of Religion Data Archives in 2020, with Christianity as the dominant faith, the largest denominations by number of adherents were Catholicism (219,233 members), non-denominational Protestantism (45,364), and United Methodists (19,686). ] According to the same study, there were an estimated 16,894 Muslims in the state. Total employment (May 2024): Total employer establishments (2021): Maine's total gross state product was $91.1 billion in 2023. ] The state's per capita personal income for 2023 was $63,117, ranking 30th in the nation, and its median gross income was $69,543. ] ] As of September 2022 ] , Maine's unemployment r

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