text_chunk
stringlengths
202
3k
In insurance claims , a total loss or write-off is a situation where the lost value, repair cost or salvage cost of a damaged property exceeds its insured value , and simply replacing the old property with a new equivalent is more cost-effective. ] ] Such a loss may be an "actual total loss" or a "constructive total lo...
cleanup costs. ] Much of this section only relates to the insurance industry in North America. Other jurisdictions, for example Australia, have their own regulations. About one in seven car accident claims results in a "total". ] Except in extreme circumstances, a vehicle that has been written off will not be completel...
value and provide this coverage direct to their consumers. In Canada, in order to recuperate the lost value after an accident, a person needs to retain legal counsel and order an acceleration depreciation report on their car for the court's use. In marine insurance, conventional marine insurers such as Lloyds will issu...
Guaranteed Asset Protection (GAP) insurance (also known as GAPS ) was established in the North American financial industry . GAP insurance protects the borrower if the car is written off or totalled by paying the remaining difference between the actual cash value of a vehicle and the balance still owed on the financing...
A write-off is a reduction of the recognized value of something. In accounting , this is a recognition of the reduced or zero value of an asset. In income tax statements, this is a reduction of taxable income, as a recognition of certain expenses required to produce the income. In income tax calculation, a write-off is...
of an impaired asset . The value of an asset may change due to fundamental changes in technology or markets. One example is when one company purchases another and pays more than the net fair value of its assets and liabilities . The excess purchase price is recorded on the buying company's accounts as goodwill . If it ...
In insurance claims , a total loss or write-off is a situation where the lost value, repair cost or salvage cost of a damaged property exceeds its insured value , and simply replacing the old property with a new equivalent is more cost-effective. ] ] Such a loss may be an "actual total loss" or a "constructive total lo...
cleanup costs. ] Much of this section only relates to the insurance industry in North America. Other jurisdictions, for example Australia, have their own regulations. About one in seven car accident claims results in a "total". ] Except in extreme circumstances, a vehicle that has been written off will not be completel...
value and provide this coverage direct to their consumers. In Canada, in order to recuperate the lost value after an accident, a person needs to retain legal counsel and order an acceleration depreciation report on their car for the court's use. In marine insurance, conventional marine insurers such as Lloyds will issu...
Financial risk is any of various types of risk associated with financing , including financial transactions that include company loans in risk of default . ] ] Often it is understood to include only downside risk , meaning the potential for financial loss and uncertainty about its extent. ] ] Modern portfolio theory in...
When a currency appreciates or depreciates, a firm can be at risk depending on where they are operating and what currency denominations they are holding. The fluctuation in currency markets can have effects on both the imports and exports of an international firm. For example, if the euro depreciates against the dollar...
statements and analyzes the company's decision making when it comes to financial choices. Furthermore, credit risks management analyzes where and how the loan will be utilized and when the expected repayment of the loan is as well as the reason behind the company's need to borrow the loan. Expected Loss (EL) is a conce...
is then broad, and can also include other classes of risks, such as fraud , security , privacy protection , legal risks , physical (e.g. infrastructure shutdown) or environmental risks. Operational risks similarly may impact broadly, in that they can affect client satisfaction, reputation and shareholder value, all whi...
same risk and return characteristics as the market as a whole, which many investors see as an attractive prospect, so that index funds have been developed that invest in equities in proportion to the weighting they have in some well-known index such as the FTSE. However, history shows that even over substantial periods...
contract to buy or sell an underlying asset between two independent parties at an agreed price, quantity and date. Option contract The Option contract is a contract gives the buyer (the owner or holder of the option) the right, but not the obligation, to buy or sell an underlying asset or instrument at a specified stri...
An actuary is a professional with advanced mathematical skills who deals with the measurement and management of risk and uncertainty. ] These risks can affect both sides of the balance sheet and require asset management , liability management, and valuation skills. ] Actuaries provide assessments of financial security ...
annuities , pensions, short and long term disability insurance , health insurance, health savings accounts , and long-term care insurance. ] In addition to these risks, social insurance programs are influenced by public opinion, politics, budget constraints, changing demographics , and other factors such as medical tec...
and work products. ] As an outgrowth of their more traditional roles, actuaries also work in the fields of risk management and enterprise risk management for both financial and non-financial corporations. ] Actuaries in traditional roles study and use the tools and data previously in the domain of finance. ] The Basel ...
charitable operations in Rome supported 1,500 suffering people. ] Charitable protection remains an active form of support in the modern era, ] but receiving charity is uncertain and often accompanied by social stigma . ] Elementary mutual aid agreements and pensions did arise in antiquity. ] Early in the Roman empire ,...
Dodson's death in 1757, Edward Rowe Mores took over the leadership of the group that eventually became the Society for Equitable Assurances. It was he who specified that the chief official should be called an actuary . ] Previously, the use of the term had been restricted to an official who recorded the decisions, or a...
paid for the services they render. ] ] The actuarial profession has been consistently ranked for decades as one of the most desirable. Actuaries work comparatively reasonable hours, in comfortable conditions, without the need for physical exertion that may lead to injury, are well paid, and the profession consistently ...
that "the CAS shall use no predetermined pass ratio as a guideline for setting the pass mark for any examination. If the CAS determines that 70% of all candidates have demonstrated sufficient grasp of the syllabus material, then those 70% should pass. Similarly, if the CAS determines that only 30% of all candidates hav...
This is an accepted version of this page Insurance is a means of protection from financial loss in which, in exchange for a fee, a party agrees to compensate another party in the event of a certain loss, damage, or injury. It is a form of risk management , primarily used to protect against the risk of a contingent or u...
principle of marine insurance established on the island of Rhodes in approximately 1000 to 800 BC, plausibly by the Phoenicians during the proposed Dorian invasion and emergence of the purported Sea Peoples during the Greek Dark Ages (c. 1100–c. 750). ] ] ] The law of general average is the fundamental principle that u...
effects of the fire converted the development of insurance "from a matter of convenience into one of urgency, a change of opinion reflected in Sir Christopher Wren 's inclusion of a site for "the Insurance Office" in his new plan for London in 1667." ] A number of attempted fire insurance schemes came to nothing, but i...
Otto von Bismarck introduced old age pensions, accident insurance and medical care that formed the basis for Germany's welfare state . ] ] In Britain more extensive legislation was introduced by the Liberal government in the National Insurance Act 1911 . This gave the British working classes the first contributory syst...
the insurance carrier would defend and pay a claim on behalf of the insured who would not be out of pocket for anything. Most modern liability insurance is written on the basis of "pay on behalf" language, which enables the insurance carrier to manage and control the claim. Under an "indemnification" policy, the insura...
hazard to refer to the increased loss due to unintentional carelessness and insurance fraud to refer to increased risk due to intentional carelessness or indifference. ] Insurers attempt to address carelessness through inspections, policy provisions requiring certain types of maintenance, and possible discounts for los...
ratio of less than 100% indicates an underwriting profit, while anything over 100 indicates an underwriting loss. A company with a combined ratio over 100% may nevertheless remain profitable due to investment earnings. Insurance companies earn investment profits on "float". Float, or available reserve, is the amount of...
(and if so, the reasonable monetary value of the claim), and authorizes payment. Policyholders may hire their own public adjusters to negotiate settlements with the insurance company on their behalf. For policies that are complicated, where claims may be complex, the insured may take out a separate insurance-policy add...
claims against the owner, and even a small amount of coverage for medical expenses of guests who are injured on the owner's property. Business insurance can take a number of different forms, such as the various kinds of professional liability insurance, also called professional indemnity (PI), which are discussed below...
In that sense, they are the complement of life insurance and, from an underwriting perspective, are the mirror image of life insurance. Certain life insurance contracts accumulate cash values, which may be taken by the insured if the policy is surrendered or which may be borrowed against. Some policies, such as annuiti...
verdict. Liability policies typically cover only the negligence of the insured, and will not apply to results of wilful or intentional acts by the insured. Often a commercial insured's liability insurance program consists of several layers. The first layer of insurance generally consists of primary insurance, which pro...
Ageing (or aging in American English ) is the process of becoming older . The term refers mainly to humans , many other animals , and fungi, whereas for example, bacteria, perennial plants and some simple animals are potentially biologically immortal . ] In a broader sense, ageing can refer to single cells within an or...
to produce new individuals and could itself become disposable with respect to the survival of its species. ] This classic biological idea has however been perturbed recently by the discovery that the bacterium E. coli may split into distinguishable daughter cells, which opens the theoretical possibility of "age classes...
the lens of the eye becomes cloudy, making vision blurry; it eventually causes blindness if untreated. ] They develop over time and are seen most often with those that are older. Cataracts can be treated through surgery. Glaucoma is another common visual disease that appears in older adults. Glaucoma is caused by damag...
] Factors causing errors or damage include internal and environmental events that induce cumulative deterioration in one or more organs . ] One 2013 review assessed ageing through the lens of the damage theory, proposing nine metabolic "hallmarks" of ageing in various organisms but especially mammals: ] There are three...
and early death. ] ] The major contributors to mortality risk reduction appear to be a higher consumption of vegetables, fish, fruits, nuts and monounsaturated fatty acids, such as by consuming olive oil. ] As of 2021, there is insufficient clinical evidence that calorie restriction or any dietary practice affects the ...
of international human rights instruments and their translation into national laws and regulations and affirmative measures that challenge age discrimination and recognise older people as autonomous subjects". ] Older people's music participation contributes to the maintenance of interpersonal relationships and promoti...
liabilities. ] In most developed countries an older workforce is somewhat inevitable. In the United States for instance, the Bureau of Labor Statistics estimates that one in four American workers will be 55 or older by 2020. ] needs update ] Among the most urgent concerns of older persons worldwide is income security. ...
faced by the elderly, may have both positive and negative consequences. ] As cyborgs currently are on the rise ] some theorists argue there is a need to develop new definitions of ageing and for instance a bio-techno-social definition of ageing has been suggested. ] There is a current debate as to whether or not the pu...
United States decreased elderly spending on home health care by 12.5% per year between 1996 and 2000. ] Beauty standards have evolved over time, and as scientific research in cosmeceuticals, cosmetic products seen to have medicinal benefits like anti-ageing creams, has increased, the industry has also expanded; the kin...
ageing process. ] ] One way to help younger people experience what it feels like to be older is through an ageing suit . There are several different kinds of suits including the GERT (named as a reference to gerontology ), the R70i exoskeleton, and the AGNES (Age Gain Now Empathy Suit) suits. ] ] ] These suits create t...
successful ageing have emphasized absence of physical and cognitive disabilities. ] In their 1987 article, Rowe and Kahn characterized successful ageing as involving three components: a) freedom from disease and disability, b) high cognitive and physical functioning, and c) social and productive engagement. ] The study...
Gender includes the social, psychological, cultural and behavioral aspects of being a man , woman , or other gender identity . ] ] Depending on the context, this may include sex -based social constructs (i.e. gender roles ) as well as gender expression . ] ] ] Most cultures use a gender binary , in which gender is divi...
also genre sexuel ) and is related to the Greek root gen- (to produce), appearing in gene , genesis , and oxygen . The Oxford Etymological Dictionary of the English Language of 1882 defined gender as kind, breed, sex , derived from the Latin ablative case of genus , like genere natus , which refers to birth. ] The firs...
cause was unknown, disputed, or actually an interaction between the two. ] In 1993, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) started to use gender instead of sex to avoid confusion with sexual intercourse . ] Later, in 2011, the FDA reversed its position and began using sex as the biological classification and gender ...
sex and gender in feminist theory , ] ] although this interpretation is contested by many feminist theorists, including Sara Heinämaa. ] ] Controversial sexologist John Money coined the term gender role , ] ] and was the first to use it in print in a scientific trade journal in 1955. ] ] In the seminal 1955 paper, he d...
people belong to therefore provide members with the definition of who they are and how they should behave within their social sphere. ] Categorizing males and females into social roles creates a problem for some individuals who feel they have to be at one end of a linear spectrum and must identify themselves as man or ...
up and exhibited by them is as per the agreed upon norms of the society and the personal opinion of the person is not taken into the primary consideration of assignment of gender and imposition of gender roles as per the assigned gender. ] The assignment of gender involves taking into account the physiological and biol...
and Correll define "social relational contexts" as "any situation in which individuals define themselves in relation to others in order to act." ] They also point out that in addition to social relational contexts, cultural beliefs plays a role in the gender system. The coauthors argue that daily people are forced to a...
the term gender role in 1955. The term gender role is defined as the actions or responses that may reveal their status as boy, man, girl or woman, respectively. ] Elements surrounding gender roles include clothing, speech patterns, movement, occupations, and other factors not limited to biological sex. In contrast to t...
The Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) and the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ). ] Both instruments categorize individuals as either being sex typed (males report themselves as identifying primarily with masculine traits, females report themselves as identifying primarily with feminine traits), cross sex-typed (males...
causation from the biological— genetic and hormonal —to the behavioral has been broadly demonstrated and accepted, Money is careful to also note that understanding of the causal chains from biology to behavior in sex and gender issues is very far from complete. ] Money had previously stated that in the 1950s, American ...
is a "difficult, if not impossible, question to answer", as this would require "judgements about what constitutes femininity or masculinity in any given species". Nonetheless, she asserts that "non-human animals do experience femininity and masculinity to the extent that any given species' behaviour is gender segregate...
The European Court of Justice ( ECJ ), formally just the Court of Justice ( French : Cour de Justice ), is the supreme court of the European Union in matters of European Union law . As a part of the Court of Justice of the European Union , it is tasked with interpreting EU law and ensuring its uniform application acros...
to refer to the Court as the European Court of Justice. The Court of First Instance was renamed as the "General Court", and the term "Court of Justice of the European Union" now officially designates the two courts, as along with its specialised tribunals, taken together. ] The Court of Justice consists of 27 Judges wh...
which is limited to the particular matters at hand. The opinions of the Advocates General are advisory and do not bind the Court, but they are nonetheless very influential and are followed in the majority of cases. ] In a 2016 study, Arrebola and Mauricio measured the influence of the Advocate General on the judgments ...
decision rather than unanimity is never suggested. ] It is the responsibility of the Court of Justice to ensure that the law is observed in the interpretation and application of the Treaties of the European Union . ] To enable it to carry out its duties, the Court has broad jurisdiction to hear various types of action....
void under Article 264 (ex Article 231) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union . Under Article 265 (ex Article 232) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union , the Court of Justice and the General Court may also review the legality of a failure to act on the part of a Union institution, bod...
Petitions to the Court of Justice for a preliminary ruling are described in Article 267 (ex Article 234) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union . A reference for a preliminary ruling may also seek review of the legality of an act of Union law. The Court of Justice's reply is not merely an opinion, but t...
must choose an official language of that member state, unless the parties agree otherwise. ] However, the working language of the court is the language of the case being heard with French being the common language for discussion, and it is in this language that the judges deliberate, pleadings and written legal submiss...
framed, confer rights on individuals which national courts are bound to protect. ] The principle of direct effect would have had little impact if Union law did not supersede national law. Without supremacy the Member States could simply ignore EU rules. In Costa v ENEL (1964), the court ruled that member states had def...
Life insurance (or life assurance , especially in the Commonwealth of Nations ) is a contract between an insurance policy holder and an insurer or assurer , where the insurer promises to pay a designated beneficiary a sum of money upon the death of an insured person. Depending on the contract, other events such as term...
Allen . ] ] Each member made an annual payment per share on one to three shares with consideration to age of the members being twelve to fifty-five. At the end of the year a portion of the "amicable contribution" was divided among the wives and children of deceased members, in proportion to the number of shares the hei...
payments for a policy is the policy owner, while the insured is the person whose death will trigger payment of the death benefit. The owner and insured may or may not be the same person. For example, if Joe buys a policy on his own life, he is both the owner and the insured. But if Jane, his wife, buys a policy on Joe'...
can provide for greater or lesser than the face amount. The policy matures when the insured dies or reaches a specified age (such as 100 years old). The insurance company calculates the policy prices (premiums) at a level sufficient to fund claims, cover administrative costs, and provide a profit. The cost of insurance...
25-year-old males with a $100,000 policy, all of average health, a life insurance company would have to collect approximately $50 a year from each participant to cover the relatively few expected claims. (0.35 to 0.66 expected deaths in each year × $100,000 payout per death = $35 per policy.) Other costs, such as admin...
regular installments for either a specified period or for the beneficiary's lifetime . ] Death benefits are the primary feature of life insurance policies, and they provide a lump sum payment to the beneficiaries of the policyholder in the event of the policyholder's death. The amount of the death benefit is typically ...
the underwriter considers the size, turnover, and financial strength of the group. Contract provisions will attempt to exclude the possibility of adverse selection . Group life insurance often allows members exiting the group to maintain their coverage by buying individual coverage. The underwriting is carried out for ...
death. Typical maturities are ten, fifteen, or twenty years up to a certain age limit. Some policies also pay out in the case of critical illness. Policies are typically traditional with-profits or unit-linked (including those with unitized with-profits funds). Endowments can be cashed in early (or surrendered) and the...
policies are limited-premium whole life policies that are usually purchased by older applicants, though they are available to everyone. This type of insurance is designed to cover specific funeral expenses that the applicant has designated in a contract with a funeral home . The policy's death benefit is initially base...
individuals (Indian citizens) or Hindu Undivided Family (HUF). Apart from tax benefit under section 80C, in India, a policy holder is entitled for a tax exemption on the death benefit received. ] The received amount is fully exempt from Income Tax under Section 10(10D). Where the life insurance is provided through a su...
reason, insurance policies can be legal and legitimate tax shelter wherein savings can increase without taxation until the owner withdraws the money from the policy. In flexible-premium policies, large deposits of premiums could cause the contract to be considered a modified endowment contract by the Internal Revenue S...
Pass Plus Scheme commonly referred to as Pass Plus is a scheme run in the United Kingdom aimed at new drivers who have recently passed the standard driving test , which helps to give drivers the confidence to drive on their own and to increase experience on the road. ] Pass plus is an optional course introduced by DVSA...
Telematics is an interdisciplinary field encompassing telecommunications , vehicular technologies ( road transport , road safety , etc.), electrical engineering (sensors, instrumentation, wireless communications , etc.), and computer science ( multimedia , Internet , etc.). Telematics can involve any of the following: ...
include increased security and the possibility to reschedule the container transport movements based on accurate information about its location. According to Berg Insight, the installed base of tracking units in the intermodal shipping container segment reached 190,000 at the end of 2013. ] Growing at a compound annual...
their existing fleet management reporting systems. As such, the standard was primarily intended to facilitate importation of these data elements into enterprise software systems such as those used by many medium-to-large construction contractors. Prior to the standard, end users had few options for integrating this dat...
previously), greatly reducing integration development costs. ] The current draft version of the AEMP Telematics Data Standard is now called the AEM/AEMP Draft Telematics API Standard, which expands the original standard Version 1.2 to include 19 data fields (with fault code capability). This new draft standard is a col...
and speeds of vehicles over short-range radio links . This may involve temporary ad hoc wireless local area networks. Wireless units are often installed in vehicles and fixed locations, such as near traffic signals and emergency call boxes along the road. Sensors in vehicles and at fixed locations, as well as in possib...
operating in conjunction with computer-controlled devices and radio transceivers to provide precision repeatability functions (such as in robotics artificial intelligence systems) emergency warning validation performance reconstruction. Intelligent vehicle technologies commonly apply to car safety systems and self-cont...
due to prior work in the commercial insurance sectors. ] Trials conducted by Norwich Union in 2005 found that young drivers (18- to 23-year-olds) signing up for telematics auto insurance have had a 20% lower accident rate than average. ] In 2007, theoretical economic research on the social welfare effects of Progressiv...
An odometer or odograph is an instrument used for measuring the distance traveled by a vehicle, such as a bicycle or car. The device may be electronic, mechanical, or a combination of the two ( electromechanical ). The noun derives from ancient Greek ὁδόμετρον , hodómetron , from ὁδός , hodós ("path" or "gateway") and ...
gear with holes along the circumference , where pebbles ( calculus ) were located, that were to drop one by one into a box. The distance traveled would thus be given simply by counting the number of pebbles. ] Whether this instrument was ever built at the time is disputed. Leonardo da Vinci later tried to build it hims...
Ma Jun (200–265, see also differential gear). As recorded in the Song Shi of the Song Dynasty (960-1279 AD), the odometer and south-pointing chariot were combined into one wheeled device by engineers of the 9th century, 11th century, and 12th century. The Sunzi Suanjing (Master Sun's Mathematical Manual), dated from th...
"turning-like-the-wind wheel" (hsuan feng lun) which has (only) 3 cogs, the distance between these being 1.2 inches. (This turns the following one.) In the middle is a horizontal wheel, 4 ft in diameter, and 12 ft circumference, with 100 cogs, the distance between these cogs being the same as on the "turning-like-the-w...
attached to a wagon used by American settlers heading west. ] It recorded the distance traveled each day by the wagon trains . The Roadometer used two gears and was an early example of an odometer with pascaline-style gears in actual use. ] In 1895, Curtis Hussey Veeder invented the Cyclometer . ] ] The Cyclometer was ...
on the vehicle. The resale value of a vehicle is often strongly influenced by the total distance shown on the odometer, yet odometers are inherently insecure because they are under the control of their owners. Many jurisdictions have chosen to enact laws which penalize people who are found to commit odometer fraud . In...
Usage-based insurance ( UBI ), also known as pay as you drive ( PAYD ), pay how you drive ( PHYD ) and mile-based auto insurance , is a type of vehicle insurance whereby the costs are dependent upon type of vehicle used, measured against time, distance, behavior and place. This differs from traditional insurance, which...
In June 2010, Progressive Auto Insurance filed a patent infringement lawsuit against Liberty Mutual over one of Progressive's Pay As You Drive auto insurance patents. ] In September 2010 Progressive Auto Insurance filed a declaratory judgment lawsuit against Hughes Telematics to have several its patents covering OBDII ...
Odometer fraud , also referred to as "busting miles" (United States) or "clocking" (UK, Ireland and Canada), is the illegal practice of rolling back odometers to make it appear that vehicles have lower mileage than they actually do. Odometer fraud occurs when the seller of a vehicle falsely represents the actual mileag...
The Progressive Corporation is an American insurance company. In late 2022, Progressive became the largest motor insurance carrier in the U.S. ] The company was co-founded in 1937 by Jack Green and Joseph M. Lewis, and is headquartered in Mayfield, Ohio . ] The company insures passenger vehicles, motorcycles, RVs, trai...
many of Progressive's television advertisements have featured a woman named Flo (played by actress Stephanie Courtney ), who explains the benefits of Progressive Insurance. ] ] In December 2010, the company introduced the "Messenger", as a complementary campaign. He was played by John Jenkinson. ] The Flo universe also...
Progressive uses that information to calculate the rate. After 30 days, customers find out if they're eligible for a discount based on that 30-day "snapshot" of their driving habits. At the end of a six-month policy period, Progressive calculates the customer's renewal discount and customers return the device to Progre...
settled with the State of Georgia in a class action lawsuit over diminished value claims brought by policyholders. ] Five years later, the company apologized after it was revealed they hired private investigators to infiltrate a church group and pose as congregation members to collect information on litigants seeking r...
The Global Positioning System ( GPS ), originally Navstar GPS , ] is a satellite-based radio navigation system owned by the United States government and operated by the United States Space Force . ] It is one of the global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) that provide geolocation and time information to a GPS receiv...
to about 5 meters (16 ft). GPS receivers that use the L5 band have much higher accuracy of 30 centimeters (12 in), while those for high-end applications such as engineering and land surveying are accurate to within 2 cm ( 3 ⁄ 4 in) and can even provide sub-millimeter accuracy with long-term measurements. ] ] ] Consumer...
location, given the satellite's. (At the time, the Navy was developing the submarine-launched Polaris missile, which required them to know the submarine's location.) This led them and APL to develop the TRANSIT system. ] In 1959, ARPA (renamed DARPA in 1972) also played a role in TRANSIT. ] ] ] TRANSIT was first succes...
see in GPS" ] and promised increased accuracy for Air Force bombers as well as ICBMs. Updates from the Navy TRANSIT system were too slow for the high speeds of Air Force operation. The Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) continued making advances with their Timation (Time Navigation) satellites, first launched in 1967, sec...
done by Australian space scientist Elizabeth Essex-Cohen at AFGRL in 1974. She was concerned with the curving of the paths of radio waves ( atmospheric refraction ) traversing the ionosphere from NavSTAR satellites. ] After Korean Air Lines Flight 007 , a Boeing 747 carrying 269 people, was shot down by a Soviet interc...