text stringlengths 4 7.07k | text_hash stringlengths 32 32 | __index_level_0__ int64 1 1.81M |
|---|---|---|
= = White wins = =
| a5c8ed3bf386f1fc892066d3677009e5 | 6,170 |
= = = White wins with 1.e4 = = =
| 891ba70b621bead7c1e68708d1f2c457 | 6,173 |
Although it is very much a minority view , three prominent twentieth @-@ century masters claimed that White 's advantage should or may be decisive with best play . Weaver Adams , then one of the leading American masters , was the best @-@ known proponent of this view , which he introduced in his 1939 book White to Pla... | 4b94886eeb9da7388026967f81787055 | 6,175 |
According to Sveshnikov , Vsevolod Rauzer , a leading Soviet player and theoretician during the 1930s , likewise " claimed in the [ 1930s ] : ' 1.e4 — and White wins ! ' and he managed to prove it quite often " .
| 7a822ca9f6261eccb75c0f0c6aa0b631 | 6,176 |
= = = White wins with 1.d4 = = =
| c537c271adc5b4848378f6f811d6c059 | 6,178 |
More recently , IM Hans Berliner , a former World Champion of Correspondence Chess , claimed in his 1999 book The System that 1.d4 gives White a large , and possibly decisive , advantage . Berliner asserted that with best play White wins against the Grünfeld Defense , the Modern Benoni , the Benko Gambit and other ( u... | 6a5eeb1fe140cead2bb6205ece9e3779 | 6,180 |
Berliner 's thesis , like Adams ' , has been sharply criticized .
| 60d050fc8b4ff34b34cead0e3b4ae12f | 6,181 |
= = Modern perspectives = =
| edb28e3bc31e49c9c50526a806f059e9 | 6,183 |
As explained below , chess theorists in recent decades have continued to debate the size and nature of White 's advantage , if any . Apart from Berliner , they have rejected the idea that White has a forced win from the opening position . Many also reject the traditional paradigm that Black 's objective should be to n... | 4eac2e2f00db61b91a6c5fde20f60f4f | 6,185 |
= = = White has an enduring advantage = = =
| d28ee089a7ba6f1930e99402687c04fb | 6,187 |
In 2004 , GM Larry Kaufman expressed a more nuanced view than Adams and Berliner , arguing that the initiative stemming from the first move can always be transformed into some sort of enduring advantage , albeit not necessarily a decisive one . Kaufman writes , " I don 't believe that White has a forced win in Chess .... | d4c8d0ab429dca3f7ff33a9be6bbda33 | 6,189 |
= = = Black is OK ! = = =
| baeed2134921cdfba577207ec6f69c85 | 6,191 |
Starting in 1988 , Adorján has argued in a series of books and magazine articles that " Black is OK ! " Alone amongst modern writers , Adorján claims that White starts the game with essentially no advantage . He writes , " In my opinion , the only obvious advantage for White is that if he or she plays for a draw , and... | 3ba60a35834b6a2412a171c39673d2d9 | 6,193 |
In one of Adorján 's books , GM Lajos Portisch opined that " at least two @-@ thirds of all ' tested ' openings give White an apparent advantage . " According to Portisch , for Black , " The root of the problem is that very few people know which are the openings where Black is really OK . Those who find these lines ha... | a865ed32e3504cce298e3cc651dc6415 | 6,194 |
= = = Dynamism = = =
| 54c2b01caed6e3560d27a803b016bc6e | 6,196 |
Modern writers often think of Black 's role in more dynamic terms than merely trying to equalize . Rowson writes that " the idea of Black trying to ' equalize ' is questionable . I think it has limited application to a few openings , rather than being an opening prescription for Black in general . " Evans wrote that a... | c769687d59fdffc6e256e007e516bfe1 | 6,198 |
Modern writers also question the idea that White has an enduring advantage . Suba , in his influential 1991 book Dynamic Chess Strategy , rejects the notion that the initiative can always be transformed into an enduring advantage . He contends that sometimes the player with the initiative loses it with no logical expl... | d2217dd6d5a01e755d5bd9a5000eb633 | 6,199 |
= = = Countervailing advantages = = =
| 85804e56e0575fb3b9e8b9396f01300d | 6,201 |
Rowson argues that both White and Black have certain advantages :
| decf487890567abf2b60b994130f656e | 6,203 |
= = = = White 's advantages = = = =
| f68f5d29ab7feda28e554e457e1f769b | 6,205 |
According to Rowson , White 's first advantage is that , " The advantage of the first move has some similarities with the serve in tennis in that White can score an ' ace ' ( for instance with a powerful opening novelty ) , he has more control over the pace and direction of the game , and he has a ' second serve ' in ... | 2f15c6c00f8190fc61f47b08921d2d34 | 6,207 |
Rowson cites as an example of the last phenomenon the well @-@ regarded Zaitsev Variation of the Ruy Lopez . After 1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bb5 a6 4.Ba4 Nf6 5 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 Be7 6.Re1 b5 7.Bb3 0 @-@ 0 8.c3 d6 9.h3 Bb7 10.d4 Re8 ( initiating the Zaitsev Variation ) , White can repeat moves once with 11.Ng5 Rf8 12.Nf3. This put... | bd22727cb2cea438af0f1ce177702b02 | 6,208 |
= = = = Black 's advantages = = = =
| edff05f069cb00d159ce1f0d49d9426a | 6,210 |
Rowson argues that Black also has several advantages . First , " White 's alleged advantage is also a kind of obligation to play for a win , and Black can often use this to his advantage . " Second , " White 's ' extra move ' can be a burden , and sometimes White finds himself in a mild form of zugzwang ( ' Zugzwang L... | cf3ed05be9479a0a0f7c261471ccfcb5 | 6,212 |
Rowson also notes that Black 's chances increase markedly by playing good openings , which tend to be those with flexibility and latent potential , " rather than those that give White fixed targets or that try to take the initiative prematurely . " He also emphasizes that " White has ' the initiative ' , not ' the adv... | f29f567742428c8011abc2e67396e642 | 6,213 |
Lev Polugaevsky – Ľubomír Ftáčnik , Lucerne Olympiad 1982 : 1 . Nf3 Nf6 2 @.@ c4 c5 3 . Nc3 e6 4 @.@ g3 b6 5 . Bg2 Bb7 6 . 0 @-@ 0 Be7 7 @.@ d4 cxd4 8 . Qxd4 d6 9 . Rd1 a6 10 @.@ b3 Nbd7 11 @.@ e4 Qb8 12 . Bb2 0 @-@ 0 Suba wrote of a similar Hedgehog position , " White 's position looks ideal . That 's the naked ... | 89174fabed9ac2d3000eb38d995218db | 6,214 |
An examination of reversed and symmetrical openings illustrates White 's and Black 's respective advantages :
| ffb9d76e496145b78de6aaf5463e0547 | 6,215 |
= = = = = Reversed openings = = = = =
| d4f45b617602a6f7d5e4cc5f269a0a42 | 6,217 |
In a " reversed opening " , White plays an opening typically played by Black , but with colors reversed and thus an extra tempo . Evans writes of such openings , " If a defense is considered good for Black , it must be even better for White with a move in hand . " Former World Champion Mikhail Botvinnik reportedly exp... | 2c12fa8934c724a9c96716e1aad4a4b6 | 6,219 |
Watson also observes , " Similarly , the Dutch Defence looks particularly sterile when White achieves the reversed positions a tempo up ( it turns out that he has nothing useful to do ! ) ; and indeed , many standard Black openings are not very inspiring when one gets them as White , tempo in hand . " GM Alex Yermolin... | 4344c155e6348ca4a7ea1b716d7617c5 | 6,220 |
Yermolinsky also agrees with Alekhine 's criticism of 1.g3 e5 2.Nf3 , a reversed Alekhine 's Defense , in Réti – Alekhine , Baden @-@ Baden 1925 , writing that Alekhine " understood the difference in opening philosophies for White and Black , and realized they just can 't be the same ! White is supposed to try for mor... | e490c51c0af606f039594a41e6e3c8ec | 6,221 |
Watson concludes that ( a ) " most moves have disadvantages as well as advantages , so an extra move is not always an unqualified blessing " ; ( b ) " with his extra information about what White is doing , Black can better react to the new situation " ; and ( c ) because a draw is likely to be more acceptable to Black... | 7b57e74282f10e93d6f137c7a7d8df3a | 6,222 |
= = = = = Symmetrical openings = = = = =
| 19aa25a24752627803836d135483c07d | 6,224 |
Rowson writes that " in general one would assume that whatever advantage White has would be revealed most clearly in symmetrical positions . " Accordingly , Watson , Suba , Evans , and the eminent player and theorist Aron Nimzowitsch ( 1886 – 1935 ) have all argued that it is in Black 's interest to avoid symmetry . N... | 98f32e6716e0d3afd18079293886226d | 6,226 |
It is often difficult for White to prove an advantage in symmetrical opening lines . As GM Bent Larsen wrote , annotating a game that began 1.c4 c5 2.b3 b6 , " In symmetrical openings , White has a theoretical advantage , but in many of them it is only theoretical . " GM Andrew Soltis wrote in 2008 that he hates playi... | 677b23bed135b29718c8e338586a76f8 | 6,227 |
Moreover , symmetrical positions may be disadvantageous to White in that he has to commit himself first . Watson notes that it is even difficult for White to play noncommittally in a symmetrical position , since almost every move has certain drawbacks . Fischer once went so far as to claim that after 1.Nf3 Nf6 2.g3 g6... | 01711df94cb5d30410cf437018289f4c | 6,228 |
Further , a particular extra move is sometimes more of a liability than an asset . For example , Soltis notes that the Exchange French position arising after 1.e4 e6 2.d4 d5 3.exd5 exd5 4.Nf3 Nf6 " is pretty equal . " The same position , but with Black 's knight moved to e4 , arises in Petroff 's Defense after 1.e4 e5... | 135c577455aad7c14b3c63cf9b9823c3 | 6,229 |
Finally , symmetrical positions may be difficult for the white player for psychological reasons . Watson writes that anyone who tries the Exchange French , " even if he thinks he is playing for a win , assume [ s ] a psychological burden . White has already ceded the advantage of the first move , and knows it , wherea... | 44daafb4306573072760c13a51fc14ac | 6,230 |
Rowson gives the following example of Black outplaying White from the Symmetrical Variation of the English Opening . He remarks , " there is something compelling about Black 's strategy . He seems to be saying : ' I will copy all your good moves , and as soon as you make a bad move , I won 't copy you any more ! ' "
| 51081f5bc6a06c713f18b27a54dc46ff | 6,231 |
Hodgson – Arkell , Newcastle 2001 : 1 @.@ c4 c5 2 @.@ g3 g6 3 . Bg2 Bg7 4 . Nc3 Nc6 5 @.@ a3 a6 6 . Rb1 Rb8 7 @.@ b4 cxb4 8 @.@ axb4 b5 9 @.@ cxb5 axb5 Here Rowson remarks , " Both sides want to push their d @-@ pawn and play Bf4 / ... Bf5 , but White has to go first so Black gets to play ... d5 before White can... | 9759d5c591e41e85f106c519932b52c6 | 6,232 |
The opening of the following game between two world @-@ class players , another Symmetrical English , took a similar course :
| cadab8ea5f97354e733ac94f6fa8f2a4 | 6,233 |
Lajos Portisch – Mikhail Tal , Candidates Match 1965 : 1 . Nf3 c5 2 @.@ c4 Nc6 3 . Nc3 Nf6 4 @.@ g3 g6 5 . Bg2 Bg7 6 . 0 @-@ 0 0 @-@ 0 7 @.@ d3 a6 8 @.@ a3 Rb8 9 . Rb1 b5 10 @.@ cxb5 axb5 11 @.@ b4 cxb4 12 @.@ axb4 d6 13 . Bd2 Bd7 Once again , White is on move in a symmetrical position , but it is not obvious w... | 8a1f331534d24313d2188b40640dc4dd | 6,234 |
Tal himself lost a famous game as White from a symmetrical position in Tal – Beliavsky , USSR Championship 1974 .
| 26975bc6d5d2141c78d84ab1af01c60a | 6,235 |
= = Tournament and match play = =
| 8cb73c46cb2e55d13b248c09b7178083 | 6,237 |
In chess tournaments and matches , the frequency with which each player receives white and black is an important consideration . In matches , the players ' colors in the first game are determined by drawing lots , and alternated thereafter . In round robin tournaments with an odd number of players , each player receiv... | 8dc0f48dc62660acff188c707faed3ac | 6,239 |
In Swiss system tournaments , the tournament director tries to ensure that each player receives , as nearly as possible , the same number of games as White and Black , and that the player 's color alternates from round to round . After the first round , the director may deviate from the otherwise prescribed pairings i... | 5163525b360b748a6e58cd4a3185bb3d | 6,240 |
= = Solving chess = =
| 019e6139441b900a3224b7c8053a785f | 6,242 |
Endgame tablebases have solved a very limited area of chess , determining perfect play in a number of endgames , including all non @-@ trivial endgames with no more than six pieces or pawns ( including the two kings ) . Seven @-@ piece endgames were solved in 2012 and released as " Lomonosov tablebases " .
| 30711baf21e74934c9fb1a5d9240b611 | 6,244 |
Jonathan Rowson has speculated that " in principle it should be possible for a machine to ... develop 32 @-@ piece tablebases . This may take decades or even centuries , but unless runaway global warming or nuclear war gets in the way , I think it will eventually happen . " However , information theorist Claude Shanno... | b14ae117743d617f55054c058ca507dd | 6,245 |
With chess it is possible , in principle , to play a perfect game or construct a machine to do so as follows : One considers in a given position all possible moves , then all moves for the opponent , etc . , to the end of the game ( in each variation ) . The end must occur , by the rules of the games after a finite nu... | abe59245c64e490f7130a2f9b07c744d | 6,246 |
It is thus theoretically possible to " solve " chess , determining with certainty whether a perfectly played game should end in a win for White , a draw , or even a win for Black . However , according to Shannon the time frame required puts this possibility beyond the limits of any feasible technology .
| 2fb85ade63e2ec4582ebe644d6892020 | 6,247 |
Hans @-@ Joachim Bremermann , a professor of mathematics and biophysics at the University of California at Berkeley , further argued in a 1965 paper that the " speed , memory , and processing capacity of any possible future computer equipment are limited by certain physical barriers : the light barrier , the quantum b... | 50921bb17678484fa392c016b41361ef | 6,248 |
Recent scientific advances have not significantly changed that assessment . The game of checkers was solved in 2007 , but it has roughly the square root of the number of positions in chess . Jonathan Schaeffer , the scientist who led the effort , said a breakthrough such as quantum computing would be needed before sol... | ca1166d0e76b6cc68a7f532037241648 | 6,249 |
= = Quotation = =
| ee447e14ee15d64306adf4513f78a1b1 | 6,251 |
" You will win with either color if you are the better player , but it takes longer with Black . " – Isaac Kashdan
| d51c0f00596e69947f57abdb830e3c8e | 6,253 |
= Frederick Reines =
| b9a02f0fc019cd68df4863805da5976e | 6,256 |
Frederick Reines ( RYE @-@ ness ) ; ( March 16 , 1918 – August 26 , 1998 ) was an American physicist . He was awarded the 1995 Nobel Prize in Physics for his co @-@ detection of the neutrino with Clyde Cowan in the neutrino experiment . He may be the only scientist in history " so intimately associated with the discov... | 7c7b91189597c24592c63039293efaef | 6,258 |
A graduate of the Stevens Institute of Technology and New York University , Reines joined the Manhattan Project 's Los Alamos Laboratory in 1944 , working in the Theoretical Division in Richard Feynman 's group . He became a group leader there in 1946 . He participated in a number of nuclear tests , culminating in his... | 91d9bbdd84036e040dbf8972996670a5 | 6,259 |
In the early 1950s , working in Hanford and Savannah River Sites , Reines and Cowan developed the equipment and procedures with which they first detected the supposedly undetectable neutrinos in June 1956 . Reines dedicated the major part of his career to the study of the neutrino 's properties and interactions , whic... | ef540851e9a4f7bb19442c745fced9fb | 6,260 |
= = Early life = =
| b536b642460eb47d0633950c6043cf5f | 6,262 |
Frederick Reines was born in Paterson , New Jersey , one of four children of Gussie ( Cohen ) and Israel Reines . His parents were Jewish emigrants from the same town in Russia , but only met in New York City , where they were later married . He had an older sister , Paula , who became a doctor , and two older brother... | 21f63e49a66696a6e11c785585a86457 | 6,264 |
The family moved to Hillburn , New York , where his father ran the general store , and he spent much of his childhood . He was an Eagle Scout . Looking back , Reines said : " My early childhood memories center around this typical American country store and life in a small American town , including Independence Day Jul... | 64eab2024cb8d4a65fe419e9c3078589 | 6,265 |
Reines sang in a chorus , and as a soloist . For a time he considered the possibility of a singing career , and was instructed by a vocal coach from the Metropolitan Opera who provided lessons for free because the family did not have the money for them . The family later moved to North Bergen , New Jersey , residing o... | 6317d915d70d58485f394c4411b888c7 | 6,266 |
From an early age , Reines exhibited an interest in science , and liked creating and building things . He later recalled that :
| f8fa5011128ec9b07d9a243414964c0c | 6,267 |
The first stirrings of interest in science that I remember occurred during a moment of boredom at religious school , when , looking out of the window at twilight through a hand curled to simulate a telescope , I noticed something peculiar about the light ; it was the phenomenon of diffraction . That began for me a fas... | 7ce88e9897b9e7390dac051d35a417a8 | 6,268 |
Ironically , Reines excelled in literary and history courses , but received average or low marks in science and math in his freshman year of high school , though he improved in those areas by his junior and senior years through the encouragement of a teacher who gave him a key to the school laboratory . This cultivate... | 811951ea9eebfee9caf548fb5c2e350c | 6,269 |
Reines was accepted into the Massachusetts Institute of Technology , but chose instead to attend Stevens Institute of Technology in Hoboken , New Jersey , where he earned his Bachelor of Science ( B.S. ) degree in mechanical engineering in 1939 , and his Master of Science ( M.S. ) degree in mathematical physics in 194... | 65ab86c31e32cf1af9616572fdb72e3a | 6,270 |
= = Los Alamos Laboratory = =
| 62af2c7dffee09b0677674ffb2f9be83 | 6,272 |
In 1944 Richard Feynman recruited Reines to work in the Theoretical Division at the Manhattan Project 's Los Alamos Laboratory , where he would remain for the next fifteen years . He joined Feynman 's T @-@ 4 ( Diffusion Problems ) Group , which was part of Hans Bethe 's T ( Theoretical ) Division . Diffusion was an i... | aab5e585226bf42809cb7680463511ff | 6,274 |
Reines participated in a number of nuclear tests , and writing reports on their results . These included Operation Crossroads at Bikini Atoll in 1946 , Operation Sandstone at Eniwetok Atoll in 1948 , and Operation Ranger and Operation Buster – Jangle at the Nevada Test Site . In 1951 he was the director of Operation G... | 3a56afe820d6ebcbf0ddb2d936588498 | 6,275 |
In spite or perhaps because of his role in these nuclear tests , Reines was concerned about the dangers of radioactive pollution from atmospheric nuclear tests , and became an advocate of underground nuclear testing . In the wake of the Sputnik crisis , he participated in John Archibald Wheeler 's Project 137 , which ... | 39b06da78d1617f5b635e18532ac6bf6 | 6,276 |
= = Discovery of the neutrino and the inner workings of stars = =
| 8b37f6cf76b7b2c9ecde627407e59aca | 6,278 |
The neutrino was a subatomic particle first proposed theoretically by Wolfgang Pauli on December 4 , 1930 , to explain undetected energy that escaped during beta decay when neutron decayed into a proton and an electron so that the law of conservation of energy was not violated . Enrico Fermi renamed it the neutrino , ... | 6baa62024e0853f086b77f692ba44846 | 6,280 |
n0 → p + + e − + ν
| ae88b15a337cfdc4158ccef2188112bc | 6,281 |
e
| 16812eaedd5b4164694cc9e16c62278d | 6,282 |
The neutrino accounted for the missing energy , but Fermi 's theory described a particle with little mass and no electric charge that would be difficult to observe directly . In a 1934 paper , Rudolf Peierls and Hans Bethe calculated that neutrinos could easily pass through the Earth , and concluded " there is no prac... | 7c06c930dfa7d1e7cf4bd13fd8ec1220 | 6,283 |
According to Fermi 's theory , there was also a corresponding reverse reaction , in which a neutrino combines with a proton to create a neutron and a positron :
| c46747c92b917f641fd773515c9b1c79 | 6,284 |
ν
| a24d7e40e00abe478105d39402a35919 | 6,285 |
e + p + → n0 + e +
| bc61fabf6226c21f84d6d93667c27ab1 | 6,286 |
The positron would soon be annihilated by an electron and produce two 0 @.@ 51 MeV gamma rays , while the neutron would be captured by a proton and release a 2 @.@ 2 MeV gamma ray . This would produce a distinctive signature that could be detected . They then realised that by adding cadmium salt to their liquid scinti... | 3524b9796cf25b6d355f893a3901af72 | 6,287 |
In 1953 , they made their first attempts using one of the large reactors at the Hanford nuclear site in what is now known as the Cowan – Reines neutrino experiment . Their detector now included 300 litres ( 66 imp gal ; 79 US gal ) of scintillating fluid and 90 photomultiplier tubes , but the effort was frustrated by ... | 6b22eed33aee669b97e3aec762be17f8 | 6,288 |
From then on Reines dedicated the major part of his career to the study of the neutrino ’ s properties and interactions , which work would influence study of the neutrino for future researchers to come . Cowan left Los Alamos in 1957 to teach at George Washington University , ending their collaboration . On the basis ... | 44d8e51c77b0921cf93bdf8a03b39c1c | 6,289 |
In 1966 , Reines took most of his neutrino research team with him when he left for the new University of California , Irvine ( UCI ) , becoming its first dean of physical sciences . At UCI , Reines extended the research interests of some of his graduate students into the development of medical radiation detectors , su... | ec998bf8c701fb597b338d16a8b3788a | 6,290 |
Reines had prepared for the possibility of measuring the distant events of a supernova explosion . Supernova explosions are rare , but Reines thought he might be lucky enough to see one in his lifetime , and be able to catch the neutrinos streaming from it in his specially @-@ designed detectors . During his wait for ... | 9b7577543c90f6f94adc266db63c6b99 | 6,291 |
In 1995 , Reines was honored , along with Martin L. Perl with the Nobel Prize in Physics for his work with Cowan in first detecting the neutrino . Unfortunately , Cowan had died in 1974 , and the Nobel Prize is not awarded posthumously . Reines also received many other awards , including the J. Robert Oppenheimer Memo... | e2e05d8da59993471561b60af876fc6a | 6,292 |
= = Death = =
| 051e29d68f7ca4b2c88d5604a1c1fd5b | 6,294 |
Reines died after a long illness at the University of California , Irvine Medical Center in Orange , California , on August 26 , 1998 . He was survived by his wife and children . His papers are in the UCI Libraries . Reines Hall at UCI was named in his honor .
| fd983932f3fb93fa574c34606ea90031 | 6,296 |
= = Publications = =
| 8dd81103a49b2ce73def56bd4e290f5e | 6,298 |
Reines , F. & C. L. Cowan , Jr . " On the Detection of the Free Neutrino " , Los Alamos National Laboratory ( LANL ) ( through predecessor agency Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory ) , United States Department of Energy ( through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission ) , ( August 6 , 1953 ) .
| f5897254268a91b6336893e969e36f8e | 6,300 |
Reines , F. , Cowan , C. L. Jr . , Carter , R. E. , Wagner , J. J. & M. E. Wyman . " The Free Antineutrino Absorption Cross Section . Part I. Measurement of the Free Antineutrino Absorption Cross Section . Part II . Expected Cross Section from Measurements of Fission Fragment Electron Spectrum " , Los Alamos National ... | 3ebb5b0c71f0f3f30d9657ac1d80c53b | 6,301 |
Reines , F. , Gurr , H. S. , Jenkins , T. L. & J. H. Munsee . " Neutrino Experiments at Reactors " , University of California @-@ Irvine , Case Western Reserve University , United States Department of Energy ( through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission ) , ( September 9 , 1968 ) .
| 7b171db2b33c179e26cc0a3ecf5a68ab | 6,302 |
Roberts , A. , Blood , H. , Learned , J. & F. Reines . " Status and Aims of the DUMAND Neutrino Project : the Ocean as a Neutrino Detector " , Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory ( FNAL ) , United States Department of Energy ( through predecessor agency the Energy Research and Development Administration ) , ( July 1... | 0ffab35257bf30409b59afea50e0f39c | 6,303 |
Reines , F. ( 1991 ) . Neutrinos and Other Matters : Selected Works of Frederick Reines . Teaneck , N.J. : World Scientific . ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 02 @-@ 0392 @-@ 4 .
| d41dde233d14e4319535c845fa4ba1d3 | 6,304 |
= Lock Haven , Pennsylvania =
| 3b8b0bfc5c68037599b5284cbbca7a84 | 6,307 |
The city of Lock Haven is the county seat of Clinton County , in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania . Located near the confluence of the West Branch Susquehanna River and Bald Eagle Creek , it is the principal city of the Lock Haven Micropolitan Statistical Area , itself part of the Williamsport – Lock Haven combined stat... | 5acbcfaf9c326327506ea3521f0736ed | 6,309 |
Built on a site long favored by pre @-@ Columbian peoples , Lock Haven began in 1833 as a timber town and a haven for loggers , boatmen , and other travelers on the river or the West Branch Canal . Resource extraction and efficient transportation financed much of the city 's growth through the end of the 19th century ... | 5814421da2b5f88244d91b77c0508239 | 6,310 |
The city has three sites on the National Register of Historic Places — Memorial Park Site , a significant pre @-@ Columbian archaeological find ; Heisey House , a Victorian @-@ era museum ; and Water Street District , an area with a mix of 19th- and 20th @-@ century architecture . A levee , completed in 1995 , protect... | e46a1469dc7dc31dda11a605726e59f8 | 6,311 |
= = History = =
| fd3fc667e330e6e3944a4f085f9ef39d | 6,313 |
= = = Pre @-@ European = = =
| 5d4c95d30edea30529c1a864591e1c94 | 6,316 |
The earliest settlers in Pennsylvania arrived from Asia between 12000 BCE and 8000 BCE , when the glaciers of the Pleistocene Ice Age were receding . Fluted point spearheads from this era , known as the Paleo @-@ Indian Period , have been found in most parts of the state . Archeological discoveries at the Memorial Par... | d86671cee73575895db23cd8ba6cecaa | 6,318 |
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