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There was , however , a bitter consequence of the awards , rooted in Howe 's official dispatch to the Admiralty concerning the battle , which according to some accounts was actually written by Curtis . Howe had appended a list to his report containing the names of officers whom he believed merited special reward for t... | da3ad553f324c9341ae17332faac0743 | 7,110 |
Bitterest of all was the whispering campaign directed at Anthony Molloy , captain of HMS Caesar . Molloy was accused of cowardice by fellow officers for his failure to follow Howe 's orders on both 29 May and 1 June . Molloy 's request for an official court @-@ martial to clear his name failed , and although his perso... | 888d533d8f7f6d467df9b90d3928634b | 7,111 |
Of the captured ships , several were purchased and enjoyed long careers in the Royal Navy , in particular the two 80 @-@ gun ships HMS Sans Pareil which was decommissioned in 1802 but not broken up until 1842 , and HMS Juste , which was a popular command until her decommissioning in 1802 at the Peace of Amiens . Of th... | 7f7df9a32fb003cdb2e72e5e53fede6d | 7,112 |
= New York State Route 368 =
| 5d7b07a1403a056146a4e58d2c77f2a5 | 7,115 |
New York State Route 368 ( NY 368 ) was a state highway in Onondaga County , New York , in the United States . It was one of the shortest routes in the county , extending for only 1 @.@ 69 miles ( 2 @.@ 72 km ) between NY 321 and NY 5 in the town of Elbridge . NY 368 was known as Halfway Road for the hamlet it served ... | 8f802abc5e5abdf229d3b8754049f700 | 7,117 |
= = Route description = =
| 492dd728c7998b12b26ca6c56c46440f | 7,119 |
NY 368 began at an intersection with NY 321 adjacent to the Carpenter 's Brook Fish Hatchery in the town of Elbridge . The route headed north as Halfway Road , passing by farmland as it headed through a rural area of Onondaga County to the small hamlet of Halfway . Here , NY 368 served a small number of homes as it cr... | 37ad3d22c887bad2845d11f969439a32 | 7,121 |
= = History = =
| fd3fc667e330e6e3944a4f085f9ef39d | 7,123 |
NY 368 was assigned in the 1930s as a connector between NY 321 and NY 5 in the town of Elbridge by way of the hamlet of Halfway . It remained unchanged until April 1 , 1980 , when ownership and maintenance of the route was transferred from the state of New York to Onondaga County as part of a highway maintenance swap ... | 19049463095a7b8ee476975a65b60c5a | 7,125 |
= = Major intersections = =
| 758ae1495b9ccb2712446fb9e200ddfc | 7,127 |
The entire route was in Elbridge , Onondaga County .
| 02a8cae74f1aa6816289b05b2c7155cd | 7,129 |
= M @-@ 122 ( Michigan highway ) =
| 752274753da300442e85381e9d63bcfa | 7,132 |
M @-@ 122 was a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan entirely in the city of St. Ignace . The highway connected US Highway 2 ( US 2 ) to the State Highway Ferry Dock used before the Mackinac Bridge was built . It was retired and the road returned to local control in 1957 .
| f1cac65b4bb796d84c2de6a160dcc3f7 | 7,134 |
= = Route description = =
| 492dd728c7998b12b26ca6c56c46440f | 7,136 |
Prior to the opening of the Mackinac Bridge , travelers wishing to venture from St. Ignace to Mackinaw City had to do so via ferry . M @-@ 122 began at US 2 ( now Business Loop Interstate 75 ) near Straits State Park and traveled through town along Ferry Road where it ran southeasterly from the main highway . East of ... | de773d60f1b94b27d2c619ae561db925 | 7,138 |
= = History = =
| fd3fc667e330e6e3944a4f085f9ef39d | 7,140 |
M @-@ 122 was initially assumed into the state highway system in 1929 as a connector between US 31 and Straits State Park . In 1936 , US 2 was routed into St. Ignace and US 31 was scaled back to end in the Lower Peninsula in Mackinaw City . M @-@ 122 now provided a connection between US 2 and the new docks on the sout... | 821a46b47209806b936863e9dc979fce | 7,142 |
= = Major intersections = =
| 758ae1495b9ccb2712446fb9e200ddfc | 7,144 |
The entire highway was in St. Ignace , Mackinac County .
| 0d6a0e07617f41910da48d6a2b0f2ca1 | 7,146 |
= Tupolev Tu @-@ 12 =
| 38946cf0a4d6324306bc8c85cd87214a | 7,149 |
The Tupolev Tu @-@ 12 ( development designation Tu @-@ 77 ) was an experimental Soviet jet @-@ powered medium bomber developed from the successful piston @-@ engined Tupolev Tu @-@ 2 bomber after the end of World War II . It was designed as a transitional aircraft to familiarize Tupolev and the VVS with the issues inv... | acde2a71be71226b7d91750e18e77de5 | 7,151 |
= = Development = =
| 424802451cd24f59c8607c235508ad76 | 7,153 |
The Tupolev Tu @-@ 73 jet @-@ engined bomber project was suffering delays in early 1947 and Tupolev suggested re @-@ engining the Tu @-@ 2 medium bomber with imported British Rolls @-@ Royce Nene jet engines to produce a jet bomber as quickly as possible . Design work began well before official approval was received o... | 2d50b029ec785bdaae64cc014c67ad54 | 7,155 |
Changes from the standard Tu @-@ 2 were minimized to speed production and they consisted of the following :
| fa0b1ef9dd6daa17fa06dd97087d289b | 7,156 |
Two Nene jet engines replaced the standard Shvetsov ASh @-@ 82FN radial engines .
| 8ea400b505e4f83a8735191a4101e0b4 | 7,157 |
The wing dihedral was reduced to 3 ° from 6 ° .
| 362f7f4c163a88752a01bfd3d9353fdc | 7,158 |
The fuselage was lengthened 400 mm ( 16 in ) and the rear fuselage was heightened by 300 mm ( 12 in ) .
| d88c47a60a6a581d1943b2c84e2b9400 | 7,159 |
A new tricycle undercarriage was fitted , with the main gear units retracting into the engine nacelles .
| 9d0f458f8bb11d7945fae70a27ba1fe2 | 7,160 |
Additional fuel tanks were fitted and the design of the tanks was changed to accommodate the change from gasoline to kerosene .
| 52fbfdbd71b45228c4218bd3552591b5 | 7,161 |
The control system was revised and trim tabs were fitted to the elevators .
| b2afd2d70a95afe088abdc5642c43986 | 7,162 |
The wing and tail were reinforced .
| 686abde9b00c3a23e75c1df8fd459500 | 7,163 |
The 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) ShVAK cannon were removed from the wing roots and a 23 mm ( 0 @.@ 91 in ) Nudelman @-@ Suranov NS @-@ 23 cannon was mounted in an external fairing on the starboard side of the nose .
| 99147a8106cc74e8f7f90d4f172efe5d | 7,164 |
= = = Testing and evaluation = = =
| 25afb4e767c12f33da78336089182dc8 | 7,166 |
The prototype was completed in July and was first flown on 27 July 1947 . Two aircraft were shown at the Tushino Aviation Day Display on 3 August 1947 . It completed its manufacturer 's trials in September and underwent the State acceptance trials from 4 October 1947 to 27 February 1948 where it was redesignated as th... | 778abb412c217fa6bbb90ab451cfdb6d | 7,168 |
The trials conducted by the NII VVS included engagements between the Tu @-@ 12 and the Soviet MiG @-@ 9 and Yak @-@ 23 jet fighters which were very useful in evaluating the offensive armament of the fighters , the defensive armament of the bomber and the proper tactics involved for both types of aircraft . The tests d... | 18092e18350ed06d8cd91733ed256199 | 7,169 |
The five aircraft modified by the factory were given the Klimov RD @-@ 45 engine , the Soviet unlicensed copy of the Nene engine , and all six aircraft , used by the VVS for aircrew familiarization and training . The aircraft completed were later relegated to test duties . One aircraft was used for drone tests and ano... | b5fc5b90c5ad2b93b3fdf5abc8700e50 | 7,170 |
= = Operators = =
| 081088771c4cc7aec3bc4fcc79299126 | 7,172 |
Soviet Union
| 8fd7112164727d0248d9e28cc8c5ab10 | 7,174 |
Soviet Air Force
| 00242a1f98c4fdc8057ac7c1dec0437c | 7,175 |
= = Specifications ( Tu @-@ 12 ) = =
| 7f07d44c82303a12bc8d49f146dfef12 | 7,177 |
Data from Gunston , Tupolev Aircraft since 1922
| 69a40ee8236ff6f3ad7fd924e5c1aca4 | 7,179 |
General characteristics
| 54953b634f25e00b0676bdc0aacb0b10 | 7,180 |
Crew : 5
| 8177fbd918dbe545d45652ed5c2fa1b5 | 7,181 |
Length : 16 @.@ 45 m ( 53 ft 11 ½ in )
| 5ee530cb492f5a620d33fdf7aca4c2b2 | 7,182 |
Wingspan : 18 @.@ 86 m ( 61 ft 10 ½ in )
| f5c09e296ead6637e8069b9ea878b199 | 7,183 |
Wing area : 48 @.@ 80 m2 ( 525 @.@ 30 ft2 )
| 9208f5fd59e47a70f867b4f34b25b83e | 7,184 |
Empty weight : 8993 kg ( 19 @,@ 826 lb )
| 0a823f0bdf9bf57aeebf5257a4c35e3c | 7,185 |
Gross weight : 15 @,@ 720 kg ( 34 @,@ 657 lb )
| 4f290b9075e0176c1274853519a0fe79 | 7,186 |
Powerplant : 2 × Rolls @-@ Royce Nene I turbojet , 22 kN ( 5 @,@ 000 lbf ) thrust each each
| d6eae35253559feb65880f158eda8160 | 7,187 |
Performance
| f3081e094d07fcb0bb30e8df430407a0 | 7,188 |
Maximum speed : 783 km / h ( 487 mph )
| f64a7010504567456b2956847377c156 | 7,189 |
Range : 2 @,@ 200 km ( 1 @,@ 367 miles )
| e11aad283937ab5d23d0736c40742858 | 7,190 |
Service ceiling : 11 @,@ 370 m ( 37 @,@ 305 ft )
| eca1e4486eff72782962df607847b423 | 7,191 |
Armament
| 9c00a2faece8ffc4433df3a4bca216f1 | 7,192 |
1 × 23 mm NS @-@ 23 cannon
| fc5c0e55b5e7663b39736aec0569f25e | 7,193 |
2 × 12 @.@ 7 mm Berezin UBT machine @-@ guns
| 92ff1d8cf783e06115af32c7c1f44e58 | 7,194 |
3 @,@ 000 kg ( 6 @,@ 614 lb ) of bombs
| 541d47f4b0c5e0ca1a465c49df2b92a7 | 7,195 |
= Civilian Public Service =
| e20000688b8a4e7e1533aca6cc557481 | 7,198 |
The Civilian Public Service ( CPS ) was a program of the United States government that provided conscientious objectors with an alternative to military service during World War II . From 1941 to 1947 , nearly 12 @,@ 000 draftees , willing to serve their country in some capacity but unwilling to perform any type of mil... | 098c845bab7d5c7cb91b6a49041854a3 | 7,200 |
The CPS men served without wages and minimal support from the federal government . The cost of maintaining the CPS camps and providing for the needs of the men was the responsibility of their congregations and families . CPS men served longer than regular draftees and were not released until well after the end of the ... | 8ffdb356606f41e1d941f9253ac48f36 | 7,201 |
= = Background = =
| d514b18e9690308b2ac67a227be74a70 | 7,203 |
Conscientious objectors ( COs ) refuse to participate in military service because of belief or religious training . During wartime , this stance conflicts with conscription efforts . Those willing to accept non @-@ combatant roles , such as medical personnel , are accommodated . There are few legal options for draftee... | 3d41ab702c6281f007831941b31d8ae9 | 7,205 |
= = = Experiences of World War I = = =
| 43633e3acdcf3b1517ac52a393343bd3 | 7,207 |
The conscription law of World War I provided for noncombatant service for members of a religious organization whose members were forbidden from participating in war of any form . This exemption effectively limited conscientious objector status to members of the historic peace churches : Mennonites ( and other Anabapti... | c9380b94a254037f5539463614d07fae | 7,209 |
Conscientious objectors who refused noncombatant service during World War I were imprisoned in military facilities such as Fort Lewis ( Washington ) , Alcatraz Island ( California ) and Fort Leavenworth ( Kansas ) . The government assumed that COs could be converted into soldiers once they were exposed to life in thei... | 71f4eb00559af11cbe98ad1c393e9337 | 7,210 |
= = = Preparation for World War II = = =
| 3ce385e51b62fc9f37220b670a1bf81f | 7,212 |
After World War I , and with another European war looming , leaders from the historic peace churches met to strategize about how to cooperate with the government to avoid the difficulties of World War I. Holding a common view that any participation in military service was not acceptable , they devised a plan of civili... | d5ae8aca29637e5ab232310ac2649cac | 7,214 |
As the United States prepared for another war , the historic peace churches , represented by Friends who understood inner dealings of Washington D.C. politics , attempted to influence new draft bills to ensure their men could fulfill their duty in an alternative , non @-@ military type of service . On June 20 , 1940 ,... | f560256a78212f554dc1bbddf939596d | 7,215 |
= = = Selective Service Act = = =
| 4a1240d51920884bb7049b638c85745e | 7,217 |
The Friends representatives continued attempting to make the bill more favorable to the historic peace churches . The Burke @-@ Wadsworth Bill passed on September 14 , 1940 , becoming the Selective Training and Service Act of 1940 . The influence of the churches was evident in section 5 ( g ) , which says in part :
| 0cdcb7077bbda92dc69d9f2368a00170 | 7,219 |
Any such person claiming such exemption from combatant training and service ... in lieu of such induction , be assigned to work of national importance under civilian direction .
| 44dba8c61af52d5e19266cdbf41852a6 | 7,220 |
The bill offered four improvements from the perspective of the churches over the World War I provisions . The exemption applied to conscientious objection based on religious training or belief , opening the door for members of any religious denomination to apply for CO status . Draftees turned down by local draft boar... | 4c2f9c92fec7f52519bf8872091cf35b | 7,221 |
Unlike harsher methods , the military found that this gentler approach resulted in about one in eight eventually transferring to military service .
| 1f3ee0deffd9d643350aed3ab12b9c7b | 7,222 |
= = Organization = =
| 28034f2e2475f74226ef11d0301d37f1 | 7,224 |
When registration commenced on October 16 , 1940 , no structure was in place to handle thousands of anticipated conscientious objectors . Church representatives meeting with government officials learned that little thought had been put into the program , and the churches were advised to create a plan . Because the gov... | d8876c8eed15c16d797c4eb99aa94579 | 7,226 |
The first camp opened on May 15 , 1941 near Baltimore , Maryland . A total of 152 camps and units were established over the next six years . The federal government provided work projects , housing , camp furnishings and paid for transportation to the camps . The responsibilities of the churches included day @-@ to @-@... | 9c4c4fc7f4cc89b09faf2dc78709997d | 7,227 |
= = = Camp life = = =
| 8d045cd3a28b979b8d24b6df666e3713 | 7,229 |
Civilian Public Service men lived in barracks @-@ style camps , such as former Civilian Conservation Corps facilities . The camps served as a base of operations , from which the COs departed to their daily assignments . Sites were located typically in rural areas near the agricultural , soil conservation and forestry ... | a2e796ea6e248524eb164c0f31e71aae | 7,231 |
Mennonite Central Committee , American Friends Service Committee and Brethren Service Committee administered almost all of the camps . The Association of Catholic Conscientious Objectors managed four camps and the Methodist World Peace Commission two . Each camp was assigned a director responsible for supervising camp... | eab6067539ab6cadf62c5d1099d5c12c | 7,232 |
Besides the director , a matron , business manager and dietitian staffed a typical camp . An educational director was responsible for creating recreational , social and educational programs for the men . Church history , Bible and first aid were standard course topics . The strength of instructional programs varied fr... | 796217ac3514b94d229dd7d2127b4337 | 7,233 |
The camp dietitian , with the help of men assigned as cooks , prepared all of the meals . Camps with large gardens provided their own fresh vegetables . Sponsoring congregations also supplied home canned and fresh produce . The camps were subject to the same shortages and rationing as the rest of the nation .
| 52fe95a3a248de88ab9d1a8a029faf0c | 7,234 |
Sunday worship services were organized by the camp director if he was a pastor , by a visiting pastor , or by the CPS men themselves . While the historic peace churches organized the CPS , 38 % of the men came from other denominations and 4 % claimed no religious affiliation .
| 8ce4c120174eb492d3e4979ac3145afb | 7,235 |
Men spent their free time doing crafts such as woodworking , rugmaking , leatherwork and photography . Outdoor activities included hiking and swimming . Men formed choirs and music ensembles , performing in neighboring towns when relations were good . The men earned two days of furlough for each month of service . The... | 3e3074854301da1cfcd7cc06c2d8eb6d | 7,236 |
Men with wives and dependents found it difficult to support their families . Beyond a small allowance , the men did not get paid for their service , nor were their dependents given an allowance . To be closer to their husbands , women sought employment near their husband 's assignment . Later , when jobs on dairy farm... | 2d582995d6009b1452a4e27076b8f435 | 7,237 |
Men who became uncooperative with the CPS system and were unable to adjust to the church @-@ managed camps were reassigned to a few camps managed by the Selective Service System . These camps tended to be the least productive and most difficult to administer . Men who felt compelled to protest the restrictions of the ... | 162a03993a1a6c1de4e8ae9e67123592 | 7,238 |
= = = Finances = = =
| 5659d9ab583de23c1de1f0b36911b4bd | 7,240 |
Churches were primarily responsible for financing Civilian Public Service , providing for the men 's food , clothes , and other material needs . The churches also provided and paid for the camp director . The men received an allowance of between $ 2 @.@ 50 and $ 5 @.@ 00 monthly for personal needs . When jobs were ava... | ba59db0d6c00cf5e577358b4fe5d67a0 | 7,242 |
Men who worked for farmers or psychiatric hospitals received regular wages , which they were required to give to the federal government . Objections to this practice developed immediately because the men felt they were helping to fund the war . A compromise was reached where the wages were put into a special fund that... | a8cd145a814fdfa289edcc287deb691d | 7,243 |
= = Types of work = =
| f833142ea9efa540ef5580cf10bd4580 | 7,245 |
The first Civilian Public Service projects were in rural areas where the men performed tasks related to soil conservation , agriculture and forestry . Later men were assigned to projects in cities where they worked in hospitals , psychiatric wards , and university research centers .
| acb90557cc1ba537e8e7a4b468f1862a | 7,247 |
= = = Soil conservation and agriculture = = =
| 9fc2abb7babe8a8c0f32e71f54596f75 | 7,249 |
Anticipating the rural background of most men , the initial camps provided soil conservation and farming @-@ related projects . By August 1945 , 550 men worked on dairy farms and with milk testing . Labor @-@ intensive farming operations like dairies were short of workers and accepted COs to help fill the gap . Men as... | 73a141b3ee6cc4976957b3ef033d12ff | 7,251 |
= = = Forestry and National Parks = = =
| fb0218431ef4b0d74e74a47ee8f146a0 | 7,253 |
At Forest Service and National Park Service camps , CPS men were responsible for fire control . Between fires they built forest trails , cared for nursery stock , planted thousands of seedlings and engaged in pest control . Campgrounds and roadways on the Blue Ridge Parkway and Skyline Drive of Virginia are products o... | e9bbe3ec475e3aa9652a5bc77a2ac1df | 7,255 |
Hundreds of men volunteered for smoke jumping , showing their willingness to take great personal risks . When fire was detected by a lookout , smoke jumpers were flown directly to the site and dropped by parachute to quickly contain and extinguish the fire . From base camps scattered through the forests of Montana , I... | 906c8be2e6e9b507e666db5a701b8858 | 7,256 |
= = = Mental health = = =
| 59aae765eba02e481fa8557457346131 | 7,258 |
As the war progressed , a critical shortage of workers in psychiatric hospitals developed , because staff had left for better paying jobs with fewer hours and improved working conditions . Understaffed wards at Philadelphia State Hospital had one attendant member for 300 patients , the minimum ratio being 10 : 1 . The... | 95558b74b90b4656aa044e50a6c6828b | 7,260 |
Eventually the men received permission to work for the mental institutions as attendants or psychiatric aides . Individuals who found jobs at the rural camps unfulfilling and meaningless , volunteered for this new type of assignment . The mental health field promised to provide the work of national importance that the... | ad608846d9a1bffc293f3605107e2b4c | 7,261 |
The CPS men discovered appalling conditions in the mental hospital wards . In an interview , a conscientious objector described his experience when he first entered a mental hospital in October 1942 :
| 784308e9c1b1597a9322c27da4b23f01 | 7,262 |
It is sort of like a perpetual bad dream . The smells , the sounds of the insane voices , the bad equipment . The long , dark corridors . I tell you , it is all very much like a medieval fairytale of the nether regions . We ’ d heard about how these patients had been treated by the attendants , Beat with rods , you kn... | 6b917879c6887f07fd139a3e7cf82e5f | 7,263 |
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