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There was , however , a bitter consequence of the awards , rooted in Howe 's official dispatch to the Admiralty concerning the battle , which according to some accounts was actually written by Curtis . Howe had appended a list to his report containing the names of officers whom he believed merited special reward for their part in the battle . The list included Vice @-@ Admirals Graves and Hood , Rear @-@ Admirals Bowyer , Gardner , and Pasley , and Captains Seymour , Pakenham , Cranfield @-@ Berkeley , Gambier , John Harvey , Payne , Henry Harvey , Pringle , Duckworth , Elphinstone , Nichols , and Hope . Also mentioned were Lieutenants Monkton and Donnelly . The list had omitted a number of officers who had served in the battle , and the justice of their omission was a highly controversial issue in the Navy . Rear @-@ Admiral Caldwell was the sole British flag officer present not to receive a hereditary honour , although he was promoted to Vice @-@ Admiral on 4 July ( as were Bowyer and Gardner ) . After studying the ship 's logs and reports of the battle , the Admiralty minted a medal to be awarded to the living captains on the list only ( although Captain William Parker of HMS Audacious was awarded one as well ) . The captains excluded from the list were furious , and the furor from this selective commendation lasted years : in 1795 Vice @-@ Admiral Caldwell quit the service in anger as a result , while Cuthbert Collingwood , flag captain of Barfleur , refused all awards for future service until the Glorious First of June medal was presented to him as well . He eventually received it after the Battle of Cape St Vincent in 1797 . Over five decades later the battle was among the actions recognised by a clasp attached to the Naval General Service Medal , awarded upon application to all British participants still living in 1847 .
| da3ad553f324c9341ae17332faac0743 | 7,110 |
Bitterest of all was the whispering campaign directed at Anthony Molloy , captain of HMS Caesar . Molloy was accused of cowardice by fellow officers for his failure to follow Howe 's orders on both 29 May and 1 June . Molloy 's request for an official court @-@ martial to clear his name failed , and although his personal courage was not called into question , his professional ability was . Molloy was dismissed from his ship .
| 888d533d8f7f6d467df9b90d3928634b | 7,111 |
Of the captured ships , several were purchased and enjoyed long careers in the Royal Navy , in particular the two 80 @-@ gun ships HMS Sans Pareil which was decommissioned in 1802 but not broken up until 1842 , and HMS Juste , which was a popular command until her decommissioning in 1802 at the Peace of Amiens . Of the four 74 @-@ gun prizes , Achille and Northumberland ( both 74s built in the late 1770s ) were broken up as unserviceable soon after arrival in Britain , while Impétueux was destroyed in a dockyard fire on 24 August 1794 while undergoing repairs . America , the final prize , was taken into the Royal Navy as HMS America but renamed HMS Impetueux in July 1795 and remained in service until 1813 . The combined prize money for these ships was £ 201 @,@ 096 ( the equivalent of £ 21 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) , divided among the ships under Lord Howe 's command .
| 7f7df9a32fb003cdb2e72e5e53fede6d | 7,112 |
= New York State Route 368 =
| 5d7b07a1403a056146a4e58d2c77f2a5 | 7,115 |
New York State Route 368 ( NY 368 ) was a state highway in Onondaga County , New York , in the United States . It was one of the shortest routes in the county , extending for only 1 @.@ 69 miles ( 2 @.@ 72 km ) between NY 321 and NY 5 in the town of Elbridge . NY 368 was known as Halfway Road for the hamlet it served near its midpoint . The route was assigned in the 1930s and removed in 1980 as part of a highway maintenance swap between the state of New York and Onondaga County .
| 8f802abc5e5abdf229d3b8754049f700 | 7,117 |
= = Route description = =
| 492dd728c7998b12b26ca6c56c46440f | 7,119 |
NY 368 began at an intersection with NY 321 adjacent to the Carpenter 's Brook Fish Hatchery in the town of Elbridge . The route headed north as Halfway Road , passing by farmland as it headed through a rural area of Onondaga County to the small hamlet of Halfway . Here , NY 368 served a small number of homes as it crossed a Conrail railroad line ( now part of the Finger Lakes Railway ) at the center of the community . Outside of Halfway , the route turned to the northwest toward the village of Elbridge , avoiding a marshy area directly north of Halfway . It intersected with Lynch Road and Campbell Road before turning slightly northward and following Carpenter 's Brook through another undeveloped area to an intersection with NY 5 east of the village , where NY 368 ended .
| 37ad3d22c887bad2845d11f969439a32 | 7,121 |
= = History = =
| fd3fc667e330e6e3944a4f085f9ef39d | 7,123 |
NY 368 was assigned in the 1930s as a connector between NY 321 and NY 5 in the town of Elbridge by way of the hamlet of Halfway . It remained unchanged until April 1 , 1980 , when ownership and maintenance of the route was transferred from the state of New York to Onondaga County as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government . The county also assumed ownership and maintenance of the Onondaga County portion of NY 31B as part of the exchange . NY 368 was redesignated as County Route 107 ( CR 107 ) following the swap .
| 19049463095a7b8ee476975a65b60c5a | 7,125 |
= = Major intersections = =
| 758ae1495b9ccb2712446fb9e200ddfc | 7,127 |
The entire route was in Elbridge , Onondaga County .
| 02a8cae74f1aa6816289b05b2c7155cd | 7,129 |
= M @-@ 122 ( Michigan highway ) =
| 752274753da300442e85381e9d63bcfa | 7,132 |
M @-@ 122 was a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan entirely in the city of St. Ignace . The highway connected US Highway 2 ( US 2 ) to the State Highway Ferry Dock used before the Mackinac Bridge was built . It was retired and the road returned to local control in 1957 .
| f1cac65b4bb796d84c2de6a160dcc3f7 | 7,134 |
= = Route description = =
| 492dd728c7998b12b26ca6c56c46440f | 7,136 |
Prior to the opening of the Mackinac Bridge , travelers wishing to venture from St. Ignace to Mackinaw City had to do so via ferry . M @-@ 122 began at US 2 ( now Business Loop Interstate 75 ) near Straits State Park and traveled through town along Ferry Road where it ran southeasterly from the main highway . East of Hornbach Street M @-@ 122 curved around to the east near Paro Street . The highway ended at the State Ferry Docks on the southeast side of the city next to the Coast Guard station .
| de773d60f1b94b27d2c619ae561db925 | 7,138 |
= = History = =
| fd3fc667e330e6e3944a4f085f9ef39d | 7,140 |
M @-@ 122 was initially assumed into the state highway system in 1929 as a connector between US 31 and Straits State Park . In 1936 , US 2 was routed into St. Ignace and US 31 was scaled back to end in the Lower Peninsula in Mackinaw City . M @-@ 122 now provided a connection between US 2 and the new docks on the southeast side of the city . It existed in this capacity until 1957 when the Mackinac Bridge opened to traffic .
| 821a46b47209806b936863e9dc979fce | 7,142 |
= = Major intersections = =
| 758ae1495b9ccb2712446fb9e200ddfc | 7,144 |
The entire highway was in St. Ignace , Mackinac County .
| 0d6a0e07617f41910da48d6a2b0f2ca1 | 7,146 |
= Tupolev Tu @-@ 12 =
| 38946cf0a4d6324306bc8c85cd87214a | 7,149 |
The Tupolev Tu @-@ 12 ( development designation Tu @-@ 77 ) was an experimental Soviet jet @-@ powered medium bomber developed from the successful piston @-@ engined Tupolev Tu @-@ 2 bomber after the end of World War II . It was designed as a transitional aircraft to familiarize Tupolev and the VVS with the issues involved with jet @-@ engined bombers .
| acde2a71be71226b7d91750e18e77de5 | 7,151 |
= = Development = =
| 424802451cd24f59c8607c235508ad76 | 7,153 |
The Tupolev Tu @-@ 73 jet @-@ engined bomber project was suffering delays in early 1947 and Tupolev suggested re @-@ engining the Tu @-@ 2 medium bomber with imported British Rolls @-@ Royce Nene jet engines to produce a jet bomber as quickly as possible . Design work began well before official approval was received on 31 May 1947 for one Tu @-@ 2S to be converted in the OKB 's workshop and another five to be converted at Zavod ( Factory ) Nr. 23 , but construction of the prototype had already begun in early May under the bureau designation Tu @-@ 77 .
| 2d50b029ec785bdaae64cc014c67ad54 | 7,155 |
Changes from the standard Tu @-@ 2 were minimized to speed production and they consisted of the following :
| fa0b1ef9dd6daa17fa06dd97087d289b | 7,156 |
Two Nene jet engines replaced the standard Shvetsov ASh @-@ 82FN radial engines .
| 8ea400b505e4f83a8735191a4101e0b4 | 7,157 |
The wing dihedral was reduced to 3 ° from 6 ° .
| 362f7f4c163a88752a01bfd3d9353fdc | 7,158 |
The fuselage was lengthened 400 mm ( 16 in ) and the rear fuselage was heightened by 300 mm ( 12 in ) .
| d88c47a60a6a581d1943b2c84e2b9400 | 7,159 |
A new tricycle undercarriage was fitted , with the main gear units retracting into the engine nacelles .
| 9d0f458f8bb11d7945fae70a27ba1fe2 | 7,160 |
Additional fuel tanks were fitted and the design of the tanks was changed to accommodate the change from gasoline to kerosene .
| 52fbfdbd71b45228c4218bd3552591b5 | 7,161 |
The control system was revised and trim tabs were fitted to the elevators .
| b2afd2d70a95afe088abdc5642c43986 | 7,162 |
The wing and tail were reinforced .
| 686abde9b00c3a23e75c1df8fd459500 | 7,163 |
The 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) ShVAK cannon were removed from the wing roots and a 23 mm ( 0 @.@ 91 in ) Nudelman @-@ Suranov NS @-@ 23 cannon was mounted in an external fairing on the starboard side of the nose .
| 99147a8106cc74e8f7f90d4f172efe5d | 7,164 |
= = = Testing and evaluation = = =
| 25afb4e767c12f33da78336089182dc8 | 7,166 |
The prototype was completed in July and was first flown on 27 July 1947 . Two aircraft were shown at the Tushino Aviation Day Display on 3 August 1947 . It completed its manufacturer 's trials in September and underwent the State acceptance trials from 4 October 1947 to 27 February 1948 where it was redesignated as the Tu @-@ 12 . The NII VVS ( Naoochno @-@ Issledovatel 'skiy Institoot Voyenno @-@ Vozdooshnykh Seel – Air Force Scientific Test Institute ) report summarized the differences between the Tu @-@ 2 and Tu @-@ 12 as " a considerable gain in speed , an improved rate of climb , a higher service ceiling , but poorer field performance and a considerably greater fuel load required to achieve the same range as the Tu @-@ 2 . " Both the lack of a pressurized cabin that greatly reduced its effectiveness at high altitude and the lack of deicing equipment for the wing and tail leading edges and the cockpit glazing were noted as major problems . At high speeds it was virtually impossible to traverse and elevate the manually operated VUB @-@ 68 and Lu @-@ 68 gun turrets . The vibration of the NS @-@ 23 cannon when firing rendered the equipment in the navigator 's cabin unusable and damaged the cabin glazing . Turning on the Identification friend or foe ( IFF ) system adversely affected the intercom system and the radios . New generators had to be installed as the originals did not produce enough electrical power .
| 778abb412c217fa6bbb90ab451cfdb6d | 7,168 |
The trials conducted by the NII VVS included engagements between the Tu @-@ 12 and the Soviet MiG @-@ 9 and Yak @-@ 23 jet fighters which were very useful in evaluating the offensive armament of the fighters , the defensive armament of the bomber and the proper tactics involved for both types of aircraft . The tests demonstrated the inferiority of the current 12 @.@ 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 50 in ) armament and meant that every Soviet bomber henceforth would have a defensive armament using power @-@ operated turrets that carried guns 20 mm or larger .
| 18092e18350ed06d8cd91733ed256199 | 7,169 |
The five aircraft modified by the factory were given the Klimov RD @-@ 45 engine , the Soviet unlicensed copy of the Nene engine , and all six aircraft , used by the VVS for aircrew familiarization and training . The aircraft completed were later relegated to test duties . One aircraft was used for drone tests and another , redesignated as the Tu @-@ 12LL , mounted various pulse jet engines on a pylon above the fuselage .
| b5fc5b90c5ad2b93b3fdf5abc8700e50 | 7,170 |
= = Operators = =
| 081088771c4cc7aec3bc4fcc79299126 | 7,172 |
Soviet Union
| 8fd7112164727d0248d9e28cc8c5ab10 | 7,174 |
Soviet Air Force
| 00242a1f98c4fdc8057ac7c1dec0437c | 7,175 |
= = Specifications ( Tu @-@ 12 ) = =
| 7f07d44c82303a12bc8d49f146dfef12 | 7,177 |
Data from Gunston , Tupolev Aircraft since 1922
| 69a40ee8236ff6f3ad7fd924e5c1aca4 | 7,179 |
General characteristics
| 54953b634f25e00b0676bdc0aacb0b10 | 7,180 |
Crew : 5
| 8177fbd918dbe545d45652ed5c2fa1b5 | 7,181 |
Length : 16 @.@ 45 m ( 53 ft 11 ½ in )
| 5ee530cb492f5a620d33fdf7aca4c2b2 | 7,182 |
Wingspan : 18 @.@ 86 m ( 61 ft 10 ½ in )
| f5c09e296ead6637e8069b9ea878b199 | 7,183 |
Wing area : 48 @.@ 80 m2 ( 525 @.@ 30 ft2 )
| 9208f5fd59e47a70f867b4f34b25b83e | 7,184 |
Empty weight : 8993 kg ( 19 @,@ 826 lb )
| 0a823f0bdf9bf57aeebf5257a4c35e3c | 7,185 |
Gross weight : 15 @,@ 720 kg ( 34 @,@ 657 lb )
| 4f290b9075e0176c1274853519a0fe79 | 7,186 |
Powerplant : 2 × Rolls @-@ Royce Nene I turbojet , 22 kN ( 5 @,@ 000 lbf ) thrust each each
| d6eae35253559feb65880f158eda8160 | 7,187 |
Performance
| f3081e094d07fcb0bb30e8df430407a0 | 7,188 |
Maximum speed : 783 km / h ( 487 mph )
| f64a7010504567456b2956847377c156 | 7,189 |
Range : 2 @,@ 200 km ( 1 @,@ 367 miles )
| e11aad283937ab5d23d0736c40742858 | 7,190 |
Service ceiling : 11 @,@ 370 m ( 37 @,@ 305 ft )
| eca1e4486eff72782962df607847b423 | 7,191 |
Armament
| 9c00a2faece8ffc4433df3a4bca216f1 | 7,192 |
1 × 23 mm NS @-@ 23 cannon
| fc5c0e55b5e7663b39736aec0569f25e | 7,193 |
2 × 12 @.@ 7 mm Berezin UBT machine @-@ guns
| 92ff1d8cf783e06115af32c7c1f44e58 | 7,194 |
3 @,@ 000 kg ( 6 @,@ 614 lb ) of bombs
| 541d47f4b0c5e0ca1a465c49df2b92a7 | 7,195 |
= Civilian Public Service =
| e20000688b8a4e7e1533aca6cc557481 | 7,198 |
The Civilian Public Service ( CPS ) was a program of the United States government that provided conscientious objectors with an alternative to military service during World War II . From 1941 to 1947 , nearly 12 @,@ 000 draftees , willing to serve their country in some capacity but unwilling to perform any type of military service , accepted assignments in work of national importance in 152 CPS camps throughout the United States and Puerto Rico . Draftees from the historic peace churches and other faiths worked in areas such as soil conservation , forestry , fire fighting , agriculture , under the supervision of such agencies as the U.S. Forest Service , the Soil Conservation Service , and the National Park Service . Others helped provide social services and mental health services .
| 098c845bab7d5c7cb91b6a49041854a3 | 7,200 |
The CPS men served without wages and minimal support from the federal government . The cost of maintaining the CPS camps and providing for the needs of the men was the responsibility of their congregations and families . CPS men served longer than regular draftees and were not released until well after the end of the war . Initially skeptical of the program , government agencies learned to appreciate the men 's service and requested more workers from the program . CPS made significant contributions to forest fire prevention , erosion and flood control , medical science and reform of the mental health system .
| 8ffdb356606f41e1d941f9253ac48f36 | 7,201 |
= = Background = =
| d514b18e9690308b2ac67a227be74a70 | 7,203 |
Conscientious objectors ( COs ) refuse to participate in military service because of belief or religious training . During wartime , this stance conflicts with conscription efforts . Those willing to accept non @-@ combatant roles , such as medical personnel , are accommodated . There are few legal options for draftees who cannot cooperate with the military in any way .
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= = = Experiences of World War I = = =
| 43633e3acdcf3b1517ac52a393343bd3 | 7,207 |
The conscription law of World War I provided for noncombatant service for members of a religious organization whose members were forbidden from participating in war of any form . This exemption effectively limited conscientious objector status to members of the historic peace churches : Mennonites ( and other Anabaptist groups such as Hutterites ) , Religious Society of Friends ( Quakers ) and Church of the Brethren . The law gave the President authority to assign such draftees to any noncombatant military role .
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Conscientious objectors who refused noncombatant service during World War I were imprisoned in military facilities such as Fort Lewis ( Washington ) , Alcatraz Island ( California ) and Fort Leavenworth ( Kansas ) . The government assumed that COs could be converted into soldiers once they were exposed to life in their assigned military camps . Simultaneously the Justice Department was preparing to indict 181 Mennonite leaders for violating the espionage act because of a statement they adopted against performing military service . The draftees ' refusal to put on a uniform or cooperate in any way caused difficulties for both the government and the COs . The treatment received by nearly 2000 of these absolute COs included short rations , solitary confinement and physical abuse so severe as to cause the deaths of two Hutterite draftees .
| 71f4eb00559af11cbe98ad1c393e9337 | 7,210 |
= = = Preparation for World War II = = =
| 3ce385e51b62fc9f37220b670a1bf81f | 7,212 |
After World War I , and with another European war looming , leaders from the historic peace churches met to strategize about how to cooperate with the government to avoid the difficulties of World War I. Holding a common view that any participation in military service was not acceptable , they devised a plan of civilian alternative service , based on experience gained by American Friends Service Committee work in Europe during and after World War I and forestry service done by Russian Mennonites in lieu of military service in Tsarist Russia .
| d5ae8aca29637e5ab232310ac2649cac | 7,214 |
As the United States prepared for another war , the historic peace churches , represented by Friends who understood inner dealings of Washington D.C. politics , attempted to influence new draft bills to ensure their men could fulfill their duty in an alternative , non @-@ military type of service . On June 20 , 1940 , the Burke @-@ Wadsworth Bill came before Congress . The arrangements for conscientious objectors were almost identical to the World War I provisions .
| f560256a78212f554dc1bbddf939596d | 7,215 |
= = = Selective Service Act = = =
| 4a1240d51920884bb7049b638c85745e | 7,217 |
The Friends representatives continued attempting to make the bill more favorable to the historic peace churches . The Burke @-@ Wadsworth Bill passed on September 14 , 1940 , becoming the Selective Training and Service Act of 1940 . The influence of the churches was evident in section 5 ( g ) , which says in part :
| 0cdcb7077bbda92dc69d9f2368a00170 | 7,219 |
Any such person claiming such exemption from combatant training and service ... in lieu of such induction , be assigned to work of national importance under civilian direction .
| 44dba8c61af52d5e19266cdbf41852a6 | 7,220 |
The bill offered four improvements from the perspective of the churches over the World War I provisions . The exemption applied to conscientious objection based on religious training or belief , opening the door for members of any religious denomination to apply for CO status . Draftees turned down by local draft board could appeal under the new law . Those assigned to " work of national importance " would be under civilian , not military , control and violations of law on the part of those in the program were subject to normal federal jurisdiction , not the military justice system . From the military perspective , it removed the burden of dealing with thousands of uncooperative draftees and segregated the COs and their philosophy from military service members .
| 4c2f9c92fec7f52519bf8872091cf35b | 7,221 |
Unlike harsher methods , the military found that this gentler approach resulted in about one in eight eventually transferring to military service .
| 1f3ee0deffd9d643350aed3ab12b9c7b | 7,222 |
= = Organization = =
| 28034f2e2475f74226ef11d0301d37f1 | 7,224 |
When registration commenced on October 16 , 1940 , no structure was in place to handle thousands of anticipated conscientious objectors . Church representatives meeting with government officials learned that little thought had been put into the program , and the churches were advised to create a plan . Because the government wanted to deal with one body , not individual religious denominations , the National Council for Religious Conscientious Objectors was formed as a liaison between the churches and the federal government . The historic peace churches outlined a plan that included running and maintaining CPS camps under church control . However , President Roosevelt opposed any plan not involving military control over the draftees . To save their plan and retain civilian direction of the program , the churches offered to fund the camps . Aides convinced Roosevelt that putting the COs to work in out @-@ of @-@ the @-@ way camps was preferable to repeating the difficulties of World War I. Selective Service and the peace churches agreed to a six @-@ month trial of church supported and funded camps for conscientious objectors and thus Civilian Public Service was born .
| d8876c8eed15c16d797c4eb99aa94579 | 7,226 |
The first camp opened on May 15 , 1941 near Baltimore , Maryland . A total of 152 camps and units were established over the next six years . The federal government provided work projects , housing , camp furnishings and paid for transportation to the camps . The responsibilities of the churches included day @-@ to @-@ day management of the camps , subsistence costs , meals and healthcare for the men . When the young men arrived at the first camps , they started a six @-@ month experiment that would extend to six years .
| 9c4c4fc7f4cc89b09faf2dc78709997d | 7,227 |
= = = Camp life = = =
| 8d045cd3a28b979b8d24b6df666e3713 | 7,229 |
Civilian Public Service men lived in barracks @-@ style camps , such as former Civilian Conservation Corps facilities . The camps served as a base of operations , from which the COs departed to their daily assignments . Sites were located typically in rural areas near the agricultural , soil conservation and forestry projects where the work took place . A large camp such as number 57 near Hill City , South Dakota , had five dormitories and housed as many as 172 men building the Deerfield Dam . Later , with projects located in urban areas , the men lived in smaller units , communal housing near their assignments . CPS men typically worked nine hours , six days per week .
| a2e796ea6e248524eb164c0f31e71aae | 7,231 |
Mennonite Central Committee , American Friends Service Committee and Brethren Service Committee administered almost all of the camps . The Association of Catholic Conscientious Objectors managed four camps and the Methodist World Peace Commission two . Each camp was assigned a director responsible for supervising camp operation . The director managed the needs of the men , oversaw maintenance of the camp facilities , handled community relations and reported to Selective Service officials . Initially a pastor had the camp director role . Later , capable men from among the CPS workers directed the camps .
| eab6067539ab6cadf62c5d1099d5c12c | 7,232 |
Besides the director , a matron , business manager and dietitian staffed a typical camp . An educational director was responsible for creating recreational , social and educational programs for the men . Church history , Bible and first aid were standard course topics . The strength of instructional programs varied from camp to camp , and after nine hours of physical labor , it could be difficult to motivate the men to attend classes . Most camps had libraries , some showed current films and camp number 56 ( Camp Angel ) near Waldport , Oregon had a particular emphasis on the arts . Camps produced newsletters and yearbooks documenting their experiences .
| 796217ac3514b94d229dd7d2127b4337 | 7,233 |
The camp dietitian , with the help of men assigned as cooks , prepared all of the meals . Camps with large gardens provided their own fresh vegetables . Sponsoring congregations also supplied home canned and fresh produce . The camps were subject to the same shortages and rationing as the rest of the nation .
| 52fe95a3a248de88ab9d1a8a029faf0c | 7,234 |
Sunday worship services were organized by the camp director if he was a pastor , by a visiting pastor , or by the CPS men themselves . While the historic peace churches organized the CPS , 38 % of the men came from other denominations and 4 % claimed no religious affiliation .
| 8ce4c120174eb492d3e4979ac3145afb | 7,235 |
Men spent their free time doing crafts such as woodworking , rugmaking , leatherwork and photography . Outdoor activities included hiking and swimming . Men formed choirs and music ensembles , performing in neighboring towns when relations were good . The men earned two days of furlough for each month of service . These days could be saved to allow enough time to travel several hundred miles home or in some cases traded to other men in exchange for cash .
| 3e3074854301da1cfcd7cc06c2d8eb6d | 7,236 |
Men with wives and dependents found it difficult to support their families . Beyond a small allowance , the men did not get paid for their service , nor were their dependents given an allowance . To be closer to their husbands , women sought employment near their husband 's assignment . Later , when jobs on dairy farms became available , families could live together in housing provided for farm workers .
| 2d582995d6009b1452a4e27076b8f435 | 7,237 |
Men who became uncooperative with the CPS system and were unable to adjust to the church @-@ managed camps were reassigned to a few camps managed by the Selective Service System . These camps tended to be the least productive and most difficult to administer . Men who felt compelled to protest the restrictions of the conscription law attempted to disrupt the program through the use of various techniques , including the initiation of work slowdowns and labor strikes . Routine rule breaking frustrated camp directors . The most difficult cases were given to the federal court system and the men imprisoned .
| 162a03993a1a6c1de4e8ae9e67123592 | 7,238 |
= = = Finances = = =
| 5659d9ab583de23c1de1f0b36911b4bd | 7,240 |
Churches were primarily responsible for financing Civilian Public Service , providing for the men 's food , clothes , and other material needs . The churches also provided and paid for the camp director . The men received an allowance of between $ 2 @.@ 50 and $ 5 @.@ 00 monthly for personal needs . When jobs were available in surrounding farms and communities , those willing to work beyond their regular CPS jobs could earn extra spending money . The federal government spent $ 1 @.@ 3 million on the CPS program . The men performed $ 6 million of unpaid labor in return .
| ba59db0d6c00cf5e577358b4fe5d67a0 | 7,242 |
Men who worked for farmers or psychiatric hospitals received regular wages , which they were required to give to the federal government . Objections to this practice developed immediately because the men felt they were helping to fund the war . A compromise was reached where the wages were put into a special fund that was unused until after the end of the war . At one point , church representatives attempted unsuccessfully to have these funds used for providing a living allowance for the men 's dependents .
| a8cd145a814fdfa289edcc287deb691d | 7,243 |
= = Types of work = =
| f833142ea9efa540ef5580cf10bd4580 | 7,245 |
The first Civilian Public Service projects were in rural areas where the men performed tasks related to soil conservation , agriculture and forestry . Later men were assigned to projects in cities where they worked in hospitals , psychiatric wards , and university research centers .
| acb90557cc1ba537e8e7a4b468f1862a | 7,247 |
= = = Soil conservation and agriculture = = =
| 9fc2abb7babe8a8c0f32e71f54596f75 | 7,249 |
Anticipating the rural background of most men , the initial camps provided soil conservation and farming @-@ related projects . By August 1945 , 550 men worked on dairy farms and with milk testing . Labor @-@ intensive farming operations like dairies were short of workers and accepted COs to help fill the gap . Men assigned to the Bureau of Reclamation built contours to prevent soil erosion , constructed 164 reservoirs and 249 dams . A sixth of all CPS work was performed in this area .
| 73a141b3ee6cc4976957b3ef033d12ff | 7,251 |
= = = Forestry and National Parks = = =
| fb0218431ef4b0d74e74a47ee8f146a0 | 7,253 |
At Forest Service and National Park Service camps , CPS men were responsible for fire control . Between fires they built forest trails , cared for nursery stock , planted thousands of seedlings and engaged in pest control . Campgrounds and roadways on the Blue Ridge Parkway and Skyline Drive of Virginia are products of CPS labor .
| e9bbe3ec475e3aa9652a5bc77a2ac1df | 7,255 |
Hundreds of men volunteered for smoke jumping , showing their willingness to take great personal risks . When fire was detected by a lookout , smoke jumpers were flown directly to the site and dropped by parachute to quickly contain and extinguish the fire . From base camps scattered through the forests of Montana , Idaho and Oregon , the men were flown as many as 200 miles to fire sites , carrying firefighting tools and a two @-@ day supply of K @-@ rations . For larger fires , additional men , supplies and food were airdropped to expand the effort . Up to 240 CPS men served in this specialized program . One of the smokejumping schools was at Camp Paxson in Montana .
| 906c8be2e6e9b507e666db5a701b8858 | 7,256 |
= = = Mental health = = =
| 59aae765eba02e481fa8557457346131 | 7,258 |
As the war progressed , a critical shortage of workers in psychiatric hospitals developed , because staff had left for better paying jobs with fewer hours and improved working conditions . Understaffed wards at Philadelphia State Hospital had one attendant member for 300 patients , the minimum ratio being 10 : 1 . The government balked at initial requests that CPS workers have these positions , believing it better to keep the men segregated in the rural camps to prevent the spread of their philosophy .
| 95558b74b90b4656aa044e50a6c6828b | 7,260 |
Eventually the men received permission to work for the mental institutions as attendants or psychiatric aides . Individuals who found jobs at the rural camps unfulfilling and meaningless , volunteered for this new type of assignment . The mental health field promised to provide the work of national importance that the program was designed to produce . By the end of 1945 , more than 2000 CPS men worked in 41 institutions in 20 states .
| ad608846d9a1bffc293f3605107e2b4c | 7,261 |
The CPS men discovered appalling conditions in the mental hospital wards . In an interview , a conscientious objector described his experience when he first entered a mental hospital in October 1942 :
| 784308e9c1b1597a9322c27da4b23f01 | 7,262 |
It is sort of like a perpetual bad dream . The smells , the sounds of the insane voices , the bad equipment . The long , dark corridors . I tell you , it is all very much like a medieval fairytale of the nether regions . We ’ d heard about how these patients had been treated by the attendants , Beat with rods , you know , do all kind of things . We took a vow before we left the camp , we decided that we would not assault or in any way , strike a patient .
| 6b917879c6887f07fd139a3e7cf82e5f | 7,263 |
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