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Was it a vision , or a waking dream ?
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Fled is that music : — do I wake or sleep ? 80
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= = Themes = =
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" Ode to a Nightingale " describes a series of conflicts between reality and the Romantic ideal of uniting with nature . In the words of Richard Fogle , " The principal stress of the poem is a struggle between ideal and actual : inclusive terms which , however , contain more particular antitheses of pleasure and pain , of imagination and common sense reason , of fullness and privation , of permanence and change , of nature and the human , of art and life , freedom and bondage , waking and dream . " Of course , the nightingale 's song is the dominant image and dominant " voice " within the ode . The nightingale is also the object of empathy and praise within the poem . However , the nightingale and the discussion of the nightingale is not simply about the bird or the song , but about human experience in general . This is not to say that the song is a simple metaphor , but it is a complex image that is formed through the interaction of the conflicting voices of praise and questioning . On this theme , David Perkins summarizes the way " Ode to a Nightingale " and " Ode on a Grecian Urn " perform this when he says , " we are dealing with a talent , indeed an entire approach to poetry , in which symbol , however necessary , may possibly not satisfy as the principal concern of poetry , any more than it could with Shakespeare , but is rather an element in the poetry and drama of human reactions " . However , there is a difference between an urn and a nightingale in that the nightingale is not an eternal entity . Furthermore , in creating any aspect of the nightingale immortal during the poem the narrator separates any union that he can have with the nightingale .
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The nightingale 's song within the poem is connected to the art of music in a way that the urn in " Ode on a Grecian Urn " is connected to the art of sculpture . As such , the nightingale would represent an enchanting presence and , unlike the urn , is directly connected to nature . As natural music , the song is for beauty and lacks a message of truth . Keats follows Coleridge 's belief , as found in " The Nightingale " , in separating from the world by losing himself in the bird 's song . Although Keats favours a female nightingale over Coleridge 's masculine bird , both reject the traditional depiction of the nightingale as related to the tragedy of Philomela . Their songbird is a happy nightingale that lacks the melancholic feel of previous poetic depictions . The bird is only a voice within the poem , but it is a voice that compels the narrator to join with in and forget the sorrows of the world . However , there is tension in that the narrator holds Keats 's guilt regarding the death of Tom Keats , his brother . The song 's conclusion represents the result of trying to escape into the realm of fancy .
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Like Percy Bysshe Shelley ’ s " To a Skylark " , Keats ’ s narrator listens to a bird song , but listening to the song within “ Ode to a Nightingale ” is almost painful and similar to death . The narrator seeks to be with the nightingale and abandons his sense of vision in order to embrace the sound in an attempt to share in the darkness with the bird . As the poem ends , the trance caused by the nightingale is broken and the narrator is left wondering if it was a real vision or just a dream . The poem reliance on the process of sleeping common to Keats 's poems , and " Ode to a Nightingale " shares many of the same themes as Keats 's Sleep and Poetry and Eve of St. Agnes . This further separates the image of the nightingale 's song from its closest comparative image , the urn as represented in " Ode on a Grecian Urn " . The nightingale is distant and mysterious , and even disappears at the end of the poem . The dream image emphasizes the shadowiness and elusiveness of the poem . These elements make it impossible for there to be a complete self @-@ identification with the nightingale , but it also allows for self @-@ awareness to permeate throughout the poem , albeit in an altered state .
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Midway through the poem , there is a split between the two actions of the poem : the first attempts to identify with the nightingale and its song , and the second discusses the convergence of the past with the future while experiencing the present . This second theme is reminiscent of Keats 's view of human progression through the Mansion of Many Apartments and how man develops from experiencing and wanting only pleasure to understanding truth as a mixture of both pleasure and pain . The Elysian fields and the nightingale 's song in the first half of the poem represent the pleasurable moments that overwhelm the individual like a drug . However , the experience does not last forever , and the body is left desiring it until the narrator feels helpless without the pleasure . Instead of embracing the coming truth , the narrator clings to poetry to hide from the loss of pleasure . Poetry does not bring about the pleasure that the narrator original asks for , but it does liberate him from his desire for only pleasure .
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Responding to this emphasis on pleasure , Albert Guerard , Jr. argues that the poem contains a " longing not for art but a free reverie of any kind . The form of the poem is that of progression by association , so that the movement of feeling is at the mercy of words evoked by chance , such words as fade and forlorn , the very words that , like a bell , toll the dreamer back to his sole self . " However , Fogle points out that the terms Guerard emphasizes are " associational translations " and that Guerard misunderstands Keats 's aesthetic . After all , the acceptance of the loss of pleasure by the end of the poem is an acceptance of life and , in turn , of death . Death was a constant theme that permeated aspects of Keats poetry because he was exposed to death of his family members throughout his life . Within the poem , there are many images of death . The nightingale experiences a sort of death and even the god Apollo experiences death , but his death reveals his own divine state . As Perkins explains , " But , of course , the nightingale is not thought to be literally dying . The point is that the deity or the nightingale can sing without dying . But , as the ode makes clear , man cannot — or at least not in a visionary way . "
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With this theme of a loss of pleasure and inevitable death , the poem , according to Claude Finney , describes " the inadequacy of the romantic escape from the world of reality to the world of ideal beauty " . Earl Wasserman essentially agrees with Finney , but he extended his summation of the poem to incorporate the themes of Keats 's Mansion of Many Apartments when he says , " the core of the poem is the search for the mystery , the unsuccessful quest for light within its darkness " and this " leads only to an increasing darkness , or a growing recognition of how impenetrable the mystery is to mortals . " With these views in mind , the poem recalls Keats 's earlier view of pleasure and an optimistic view of poetry found within his earlier poems , especially Sleep and Poetry , and rejects them . This loss of pleasure and incorporation of death imagery lends the poem a dark air , which connects " Ode to a Nightingale " with Keats ' other poems that discuss the demonic nature of poetic imagination , including Lamia . In the poem , Keats imagines the loss of the physical world and sees himself dead — he uses an abrupt , almost brutal word for it — as a " sod " over which the nightingale sings . The contrast between the immortal nightingale and mortal man , sitting in his garden , is made all the more acute by an effort of the imagination .
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= = Keats 's reception = =
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Contemporary critics of Keats enjoyed the poem , and it was heavily quoted in their reviews . An anonymous review of Keats 's poetry that ran in the August and October 1820 Scots Magazine stated : " Amongst the minor poems we prefer the ' Ode to the Nightingale . ' Indeed , we are inclined to prefer it beyond every other poem in the book ; but let the reader judge . The third and seventh stanzas have a charm for us which we should find it difficult to explain . We have read this ode over and over again , and every time with increased delight . " At the same time , Leigh Hunt wrote a review of Keats 's poem for the 2 August and 9 August 1820 The Indicator : " As a specimen of the Poems , which are all lyrical , we must indulge ourselves in quoting entire the ' Ode to a Nightingale ' . There is that mixture in it of real melancholy and imaginative relief , which poetry alone presents us in her ' charmed cup , ' and which some over @-@ rational critics have undertaken to find wrong because it is not true . It does not follow that what is not true to them , is not true to others . If the relief is real , the mixture is good and sufficing . "
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John Scott , in an anonymous review for the September 1820 edition of The London Magazine , argued for the greatness of Keats 's poetry as exemplified by poems including " Ode to a Nightingale " :
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The injustice which has been done to our author 's works , in estimating their poetical merit , rendered us doubly anxious , on opening his last volume , to find it likely to seize fast hold of general sympathy , and thus turn an overwhelming power against the paltry traducers of talent , more eminently promising in many respects , than any the present age has been called upon to encourage . We have not found it to be quite all that we wished in this respect--and it would have been very extraordinary if we had , for our wishes went far beyond reasonable expectations . But we have found it of a nature to present to common understandings the poetical power with which the author 's mind is gifted , in a more tangible and intelligible shape than that in which it has appeared in any of his former compositions . It is , therefore , calculated to throw shame on the lying , vulgar spirit , in which this young worshipper in the temple of the Muses has been cried @-@ down ; whatever questions may still leave to be settled as to the kind and degree of his poetical merits . Take for instance , as proof of the justice of our praise , the following passage from an Ode to the Nightingale : --it is distinct , noble , pathetic , and true : the thoughts have all chords of direct communication with naturally @-@ constituted hearts : the echoes of the strain linger bout the depths of human bosoms .
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In a review for the 21 January 1835 London Journal , Hunt claimed that while Keats wrote the poem , " The poet had then his mortal illness upon him , and knew it . Never was the voice of death sweeter . " David Moir , in 1851 , used The Even of St Agnes to claim , " We have here a specimen of descriptive power luxuriously rich and original ; but the following lines , from the ' Ode to a Nightingale , ' flow from a far more profound fountain of inspiration . "
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At the end of the 19th century , Robert Bridges 's analysis of the poem became a dominant view and would influence later interpretations of the poem . Bridges , in 1895 , declared that the poem was the best of Keats 's odes but he thought that the poem contained too much artificial language . In particular , he emphasised the use of the word " forlorn " and the last stanza as being examples of Keats 's artificial language . In " Two odes of Keats 's " ( 1897 ) , William C Wilkinson suggested that " Ode to a Nightingale " is deeply flawed because it contains too many " incoherent musings " that failed to supply a standard of logic that would allow the reader to understand the relationship between the poet and the bird . However , Herbert Grierson , arguing in 1928 , believed Nightingale to be superior to " Ode on a Grecian Urn " , " Ode on Melancholy " , and " Ode to Psyche " , arguing the exact opposite of Wilkinson as he stated that " Nightingale " , along with " To Autumn " , showed a greater amount of logical thought and more aptly presented the cases they were intended to make .
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= = = 20th @-@ century criticism = = =
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At the beginning of the 20th century , Rudyard Kipling referred to lines 69 and 70 , alongside three lines from Samuel Taylor Coleridge 's Kubla Khan , when he claimed of poetry : " In all the millions permitted there are no more than five — five little lines — of which one can say , ' These are the magic . These are the vision . The rest is only Poetry . ' " In 1906 , Alexander Mackie argued : " The nightingale and the lark for long monopolised poetic idolatry--a privilege they enjoyed solely on account of their pre @-@ eminence as song birds . Keats 's Ode to a Nightingale and Shelley 's Ode to a Skylark are two of the glories of English literature ; but both were written by men who had no claim to special or exact knowledge of ornithology as such . " Sidney Colvin , in 1920 , argued , " Throughout this ode Keats ’ s genius is at its height . Imagination cannot be more rich and satisfying , felicity of phrase and cadence cannot be more absolute , than in the several contrasted stanzas calling for the draft of southern vintage [ … ] To praise the art of a passage like that in the fourth stanza [ … ] to praise or comment on a stroke of art like this is to throw doubt on the reader ’ s power to perceive it for himself . "
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Bridge 's view of " Ode to a Nightingale " was taken up by H. W. Garrod in his 1926 analysis of Keats 's poems . Like Albert Gerard would argue later in 1944 , Garrod believed that the problem within Keats 's poem was his emphasis on the rhythm and the language instead of the main ideas of the poem . When describing the fourth stanza of the poem , Maurice Ridley , in 1933 , claimed , " And so comes the stanza , with that remarkable piece of imagination at the end which feels the light as blown by the breezes , one of those characteristic sudden flashes with which Keats fires the most ordinary material . " He later declared of the seventh stanza : " And now for the great stanza in which the imagination is fanned to yet whiter heat , the stanza that would , I suppose , by common consent be taken , along with Kubla Khan , as offering us the distilled sorceries of ' Romanticism ' " . He concluded on the stanza that " I do not believe that any reader who has watched Keats at work on the more exquisitely finished of the stanzas in The Eve of St. Agnes , and seen this craftsman slowly elaborating and refining , will ever believe that this perfect stanza was achieved with the easy fluency with which , in the draft we have , it was obviously written down . " In 1936 , F. R. Leavis wrote , " One remembers the poem both as recording , and as being for the reader , an indulgence . " Following Leavis , Cleanth Brooks and Robert Penn Warren , in a 1938 essay , saw the poem as " a very rich poem . It contains some complications which we must not gloss over if we are to appreciate the depth and significance of the issues engaged . " Brooks would later argue in The Well @-@ Wrought Urn ( 1947 ) that the poem was thematically unified while contradicting many of the negative criticisms lodged against the poem .
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Richard Fogle responded to the critical attack on Keats 's emphasis on rhyme and language put forth by Garrod , Gerard , and others in 1953 . His argument was similar to Brooks : that the poem was thematically coherent and that there is a poet within the poem that is different from Keats the writer of the poem . As such , Keats consciously chose the shift in the themes of the poem and the contrasts within the poem represent the pain felt when comparing the real world to an ideal world found within the imagination . Fogle also responded directly to the claims made by Leavis : " I find Mr. Leavis too austere , but he points out a quality which Keats plainly sought for . His profusion and prodigality is , however , modified by a principle of sobriety . " It is possible that Fogle 's statements were a defense of Romanticism as a group that was both respectable in terms of thought and poetic ability . Wasserman , following in 1953 , claimed that " Of all Keats ' poems , it is probably the ' Ode to a Nightingale ' that has most tormented the critic [ ... ] in any reading of the ' Ode to a Nightingale ' the turmoil will not down . Forces contend wildly within the poem , not only without resolution , but without possibility of resolution ; and the reader comes away from his experience with the sense that he has been in ' a wild Abyss ' " . He then explained , " It is this turbulence , I suspect , that has led Allen Tate to believe the ode ' at least tries to say everything that poetry an say . ' But I propose it is the ' Ode on a Grecian Urn ' that succeeds in saying what poetry can say , and that the other ode attempts to say all that the poet can . "
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= = = Later critical responses = = =
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Although the poem was defended by a few critics , E. C. Pettet returned to the argument that the poem lacked a structure and emphasized the word " forlorn " as evidence of his view . In his 1957 work , Pettet did praise the poem as he declared , " The Ode to a Nightingale has a special interest in that most of us would probably regard it as the most richly representative of all Keats ’ s poems . Two reasons for this quality are immediately apparent : there is its matchless evocation of that late spring and early summer season [ … ] and there is its exceptional degree of ' distillation ' , of concentrated recollection " . David Perkins felt the need to defend the use of the word " forlorn " and claimed that it described the feeling from the impossibility of not being able to live in the world of the imagination . When praising the poem in 1959 , Perkins claimed , " Although the " Ode to a Nightingale " ranges more widely than the " Ode on a Grecian Urn , " the poem can also be regarded as the exploration or testing out of a symbol , and , compared with the urn as a symbol , the nightingale would seem to have both limitations and advantages . " Walter Jackson Bate also made a similar defense of the word " forlorn " by claiming that the world described by describing the impossibility of reaching that land . When describing the poem compared to the rest of English poetry , Bate argued in 1963 , " Ode to a Nightingale " is among " the greatest lyrics in English " and the only one written with such speed : " We are free to doubt whether any poem in English of comparable length and quality has been composed so quickly . " In 1968 , Robert Gittins stated , " It may not be wrong to regard [ Ode on Indolence and Ode on Melancholy ] as Keats 's earlier essays in this [ ode ] form , and the great Nightingale and Grecian Urn as his more finished and later works . "
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From the late 1960s onward , many of the Yale School of critics describe the poem as a reworking of John Milton 's poetic diction , but they argued that poem revealed that Keats lacked the ability of Milton as a poet . The critics , Harold Bloom ( 1965 ) , Leslie Brisman ( 1973 ) , Paul Fry ( 1980 ) , John Hollander ( 1981 ) and Cynthia Chase ( 1985 ) , all focused on the poem with Milton as a progenitor to " Ode to a Nightingale " while ignoring other possibilities , including Shakespeare who was emphasised as being the source of many of Keats 's phrases . Responding to the claims about Milton and Keats 's shortcomings , critics like R. S. White ( 1981 ) and Willard Spiegelman ( 1983 ) used the Shakespearean echoes to argue for a multiplicity of sources for the poem to claim that Keats was not trying to respond just Milton or escape from his shadow . Instead , " Ode to a Nightingale " was an original poem , as White claimed , " The poem is richly saturated in Shakespeare , yet the assimilations are so profound that the Ode is finally original , and wholly Keatsian " . Similarly , Spiegelman claimed that Shakespeare 's A Midsummer Night 's Dream had " flavored and ripened the later poem " . This was followed in 1986 by Jonathan Bate claiming that Keats was " left enriched by the voice of Shakespeare , the ' immortal bird ' " .
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Focusing on the quality of the poem , Stuart Sperry , argued in 1973 , " ' Ode to a Nightingale ' is the supreme expression in all Keats 's poetry of the impulse to imaginative escape that flies in the face of the knowledge of human limitation , the impulse fully expressed in ' Away ! away ! for I will fly to thee . ' " Wolf Hirst , in 1981 , described the poem as " justly celebrated " and claimed that " Since this movement into an eternal realm of song is one of the most magnificent in literature , the poet 's return to actuality is all the more shattering . " Helen Vendler continued the earlier view that the poem was artificial but added that the poem was an attempt to be aesthetic and spontaneous that was later dropped . In 1983 , she argued , " In its absence of conclusiveness and its abandonment to reverie , the poem appeals to readers who prize it as the most personal , the most apparently spontaneous , the most immediately beautiful , and the most confessional of Keats 's odes . I believe that the ' events ' of the ode , as it unfolds in time , have more logic , however , than is usually granted them , and that they are best seen in relation to Keats 's pursuit of the idea of music as a nonrepresentational art . "
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In a review of contemporary criticism of " Ode to a Nightingale " in 1998 , James O 'Rouke claimed that " To judge from the volume , the variety , and the polemical force of the modern critical responses engendered , there have been few moments in English poetic history as baffling as Keats 's repetition of the word ' forlorn ' " . When referring to the reliance of the ideas of John Dryden and William Hazlitt within the poem , Poet Laureate Andrew Motion , in 1999 , argued " whose notion of poetry as a ' movement ' from personal consciousness to an awareness of suffering humanity it perfectly illustrates . "
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= = In fiction = =
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F. Scott Fitzgerald took the title of his novel Tender is the Night from the 35th line of the ode .
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According to Ildikó de Papp Carrington , Keats ' wording , " when , sick for home , / She stood in tears amid the alien corn " , seems to be echoed in by Alice Munro 's Save the Reaper ( 1998 ) , the end of which reads : " Eve would lie down [ ... ] with nothing in her head but the rustle of the deep tall corn which might have stopped growing now but still made its live noise after dark " ( book version ) .
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The poem is quoted in Chapter 1 of P. G. Wodehouse 's novel Full Moon ( 1947 ) : " ' Coming here ? Freddie ? ' .A numbness seemed to be paining his sense , as though of hemlock he had drunk . "
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= Weather buoy =
| 094b009597b111d85710c52396af0e7d | 9,103 |
Weather buoys are instruments which collect weather and ocean data within the world 's oceans , as well as aid during emergency response to chemical spills , legal proceedings , and engineering design . Moored buoys have been in use since 1951 , while drifting buoys have been used since 1979 . Moored buoys are connected with the ocean bottom using either chains , nylon , or buoyant polypropylene . With the decline of the weather ship , they have taken a more primary role in measuring conditions over the open seas since the 1970s . During the 1980s and 1990s , a network of buoys in the central and eastern tropical Pacific ocean helped study the El Niño @-@ Southern Oscillation . Moored weather buoys range from 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) to 12 metres ( 39 ft ) in diameter , while drifting buoys are smaller , with diameters of 30 centimetres ( 12 in ) to 40 centimetres ( 16 in ) . Drifting buoys are the dominant form of weather buoy in sheer number , with 1250 located worldwide . Wind data from buoys has smaller error than that from ships . There are differences in the values of sea surface temperature measurements between the two platforms as well , relating to the depth of the measurement and whether or not the water is heated by the ship which measures the quantity .
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= = History = =
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The first known proposal for surface weather observations at sea occurred in connection with aviation in August 1927 , when Grover Loening stated that " weather stations along the ocean coupled with the development of the seaplane to have an equally long range , would result in regular ocean flights within ten years . " Starting in 1939 , United States Coast Guard vessels were being used as weather ships to protect transatlantic air commerce .
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During World War II The German Navy deployed weather buoys ( Wetterfunkgerät See — WFS ) at fifteen fixed positions in the North Atlantic and Barents Sea . They were launched from U @-@ boats into a maximum depth of ocean of 1000 fathoms ( 1 @,@ 800 metres ) , limited by the length of the anchor cable . Overall height of the body was 10 @.@ 5 metres ( of which most was submerged ) , surmounted by a mast and extendible aerial of 9 metres . Data ( air and water temperature , atmospheric pressure and relative humidity ) were encoded and transmitted four times a day . When the batteries ( high voltage dry @-@ cells for the valves , and nickel @-@ iron for other power and to raise and lower the aerial mast ) were exhausted , after about eight to ten weeks , the unit self @-@ destructed .
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The Navy Oceanographic Meteorological Automatic Device ( NOMAD ) buoy 's 6 @-@ metre ( 20 ft ) hull was originally designed in the 1940s for the United States Navy ’ s offshore data collection program . Between 1951 and 1970 , a total of 21 NOMAD buoys were built and deployed at sea . Since the 1970s , weather buoy use has superseded the role of weather ships by design , as they are cheaper to operate and maintain . The earliest reported use of drifting buoys was to study the behavior of ocean currents within the Sargasso Sea in 1972 and 1973 . Drifting buoys have been used increasingly since 1979 , and as of 2005 , 1250 drifting buoys roamed the Earth 's oceans .
| 5d2d5508a3ba2b4784c51a06939c2baa | 9,111 |
Between 1985 and 1994 , an extensive array of moored and drifting buoys was deployed across the equatorial Pacific Ocean designed to help monitor and predict the El Niño phenomenon . Hurricane Katrina capsized a 10 m ( 33 ft ) buoy for the first time in the history of the National Data Buoy Center ( NDBC ) on August 28 , 2005 . On June 13 , 2006 , drifting buoy 26028 ended its long @-@ term data collection of sea surface temperature after transmitting for 10 years , 4 months , and 16 days , which is the longest known data collection time for any drifting buoy . The first weather buoy in the Southern Ocean was deployed by the Integrated Marine Observing System ( IMOS ) on March 17 , 2010 .
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= = Instrumentation = =
| e0042d595d3e4fdd82fa10d8247dfaa8 | 9,114 |
Weather buoys , like other types of weather stations , measure parameters such as air temperature above the ocean surface , wind speed ( steady and gusting ) , barometric pressure , and wind direction . Since they lie in oceans and lakes , they also measure water temperature , wave height , and dominant wave period . Raw data is processed and can be logged on board the buoy and then transmitted via radio , cellular , or satellite communications to meteorological centers for use in weather forecasting and climate study . Both moored buoys and drifting buoys ( drifting in the open ocean currents ) are used . Fixed buoys measure the water temperature at a depth of 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) . Many different drifting buoys exist around the world that vary in design and the location of reliable temperature sensors varies . These measurements are beamed to satellites for automated and immediate data distribution . Other than their use as a source of meteorological data , their data is used within research programs , emergency response to chemical spills , legal proceedings , and engineering design . Moored weather buoys can also act as a navigational aid , like other types of buoys .
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= = Types = =
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Weather buoys range in diameter from 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) to 12 metres ( 39 ft ) . Those that are placed in shallow waters are smaller in size and moored using only chains , while those in deeper waters use a combination of chains , nylon , and buoyant polypropylene . Since they do not have direct navigational significance , moored weather buoys are classed as special marks under the IALA scheme , are coloured yellow , and display a yellow flashing light at night .
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Discus buoys are round and moored in deep ocean locations , with a diameter of 10 metres ( 33 ft ) to 12 metres ( 39 ft ) . The aluminum 3 @-@ metre ( 10 ft ) buoy is a very rugged meteorological ocean platform that has long term survivability . The expected service life of the 3 @-@ metre ( 10 ft ) platform is in excess of 20 years and properly maintained , these buoys have not been retired due to corrosion . The NOMAD is a unique moored aluminum environmental monitoring buoy designed for deployments in extreme conditions near the coast and across the Great Lakes . NOMADs moored off the Atlantic Canadian coast commonly experience winter storms with maximum wave heights approaching 20 metres ( 66 ft ) into the Gulf of Maine .
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Drifting buoys are smaller than their moored counterparts , measuring 30 centimetres ( 12 in ) to 40 centimetres ( 16 in ) in diameter . They are made of plastic or fiberglass , and tend to be either bi @-@ colored , with white on one half and another color on the other half of the float , or solidly black or blue . It measures a smaller subset of meteorological variables when compared to its moored counterpart , with a barometer measuring pressure in a tube on its top . They have a thermistor ( metallic thermometer ) on its base , and an underwater drogue , or sea anchor , located 15 metres ( 49 ft ) below the ocean surface connected with the buoy by a long , thin tether .
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= = Deployment and maintenance = =
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A large network of coastal buoys near the United States is maintained by the National Data Buoy Center , with deployment and maintenance performed by the United States Coast Guard . For South Africa , the South African Weather Service deploys and retrieves their own buoys , while the Meteorological Service of New Zealand performs the same task for their country . Environment Canada operates and deploys buoys for their country . The Met Office in Great Britain deploys drifting buoys across both the northern and southern Atlantic oceans .
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= = Comparison to data from ships = =
| 3ab82568e5a56172bd79b65541395e63 | 9,128 |
Wind reports from moored buoys have smaller error than those from ships . Complicating the comparison of the two measurements are that NOMAD buoys report winds at a height of 5 metres ( 16 ft ) , while ships report winds from a height of 20 metres ( 66 ft ) to 40 metres ( 130 ft ) . Sea surface temperature measured in the intake port of large ships have a warm bias of around 0 @.@ 6 ° C ( 1 ° F ) due to the heat of the engine room . This bias has led to changes in the perception of global warming since 2000 . Fixed buoys measure the water temperature at a depth of 3 metres ( 10 ft ) .
| c2cb850746648248f0bbc812aa87fe4c | 9,130 |
= HMS Marlborough ( 1912 ) =
| cc9982a10353e7cd929899ac99690355 | 9,133 |
HMS Marlborough was an Iron Duke @-@ class battleship of the British Royal Navy , named in honour of John Churchill , 1st Duke of Marlborough . She was built at Devonport Royal Dockyard between January 1912 and June 1914 , entering service just before the outbreak of the First World War . She was armed with a main battery of ten 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 340 mm ) guns and was capable of a top speed of 21 @.@ 25 knots ( 39 @.@ 36 km / h ; 24 @.@ 45 mph ) .
| 175003f7bfce5046afb942763ad55d9f | 9,135 |
Marlborough served with the Grand Fleet for the duration of the war , primarily patrolling the northern end of the North Sea to enforce the blockade of Germany . She saw action at the Battle of Jutland ( 31 May – 1 June 1916 ) , where she administered the coup de grâce to the badly damaged German cruiser SMS Wiesbaden . During the engagement , Wiesbaden hit Marlborough with a torpedo that eventually forced her to withdraw . The damage to Marlborough was repaired by early August , though the last two years of the war were uneventful , as the British and German fleets adopted more cautious strategies due to the threat of underwater weapons .
| 0a7ad777bdba347718974d4f0f5e2a3f | 9,136 |
After the war , Marlborough was assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet , where she took part in the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War in the Black Sea in 1919 – 20 . She was also involved in the Greco @-@ Turkish War . In 1930 , the London Naval Treaty mandated that the four Iron Duke @-@ class battleships be discarded ; Marlborough was used for a variety of weapons tests in 1931 – 32 , the results of which were incorporated into the reconstruction programme for the Queen Elizabeth @-@ class battleships .
| 21e64f7b14afb3bff938d222f4492d92 | 9,137 |
= = Design = =
| 27a68d88afcf8b73909bed8e24598173 | 9,139 |
Marlborough was 622 feet 9 inches ( 190 m ) long overall and had a beam of 90 ft ( 27 m ) and an average draught of 29 ft 6 in ( 9 m ) . She displaced 25 @,@ 000 long tons ( 25 @,@ 401 t ) as designed and up to 29 @,@ 560 long tons ( 30 @,@ 034 t ) at combat loading . Her propulsion system consisted of four Parsons steam turbines , with steam provided by eighteen Babcock & Wilcox boilers . The engines were rated at 29 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 21 @,@ 625 kW ) and produced a top speed of 21 @.@ 25 kn ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . Marlborough 's cruising radius was 7 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 14 @,@ 446 km ; 8 @,@ 976 mi ) at a more economical 10 kn ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had a crew of 995 officers and enlisted men ; during wartime this increased to up to 1 @,@ 022 .
| 63df546f3e47a76756298ee4fb90668a | 9,141 |
The ship was armed with a main battery of ten BL 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Mk V naval guns mounted in five twin gun turrets . They were arranged in two superfiring pairs , one forward and one aft ; the fifth turret was located amidships , between the funnels and the rear superstructure . Close @-@ range defence against torpedo boats was provided by a secondary armament of twelve BL 6 @-@ inch Mk VII guns . Marlborough was also fitted with a pair of QF 3 @-@ inch 20 cwt anti @-@ aircraft guns and four 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) 3 @-@ pounder guns . As was typical for capital ships of the period , she was equipped with four 21 in ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes submerged on the broadside . She was protected by a main armoured belt that was 12 in ( 305 mm ) thick over the ship 's vitals . Her deck was 2 @.@ 5 in ( 64 mm ) thick . The main battery turret faces were 11 in ( 279 mm ) thick , and the turrets were supported by barbettes 10 in ( 254 mm ) thick .
| bcaf31ca15efe042a5131dab1334c41a | 9,142 |
= = Service history = =
| 23e5a754ef5bf8e29b4df264b6ec61aa | 9,144 |
Marlborough was laid down at Devonport Royal Dockyard on 25 January 1912 . She was launched nearly ten months later , on 24 October , and was commissioned on 2 June 1914 . The ship was completed on 16 June 1914 , a month before the First World War broke out on the Continent . Marlborough initially joined the Home Fleets , where she served as the flagship for Sir Lewis Bayly . Following the British entry into the war in August , the Home Fleets was reorganised as the Grand Fleet , commanded by Admiral John Jellicoe . Marlborough was assigned as the flagship of the 1st Battle Squadron , where she served for the duration of the conflict .
| d0e5494c50bb42611c62e5a65cac57fa | 9,146 |
= = = First World War = = =
| 17038b7202caa3eb1f3cd7c89e641720 | 9,148 |
On the evening of 22 November 1914 , the Grand Fleet conducted a fruitless sweep in the southern half of the North Sea to support Vice Admiral David Beatty 's 1st Battlecruiser Squadron . The fleet was back in port in Scapa Flow by 27 November . Marlborough and most of the fleet initially remained in port during the German raid on Scarborough , Hartlepool and Whitby on 16 December 1914 , though the 3rd Battle Squadron was sent to reinforce the British forces in the area . After receiving further information about the possibility of the rest of the German fleet being at sea , Jellicoe gave the order for the fleet to sortie to try to intercept the Germans , though by that time they had already retreated . Vice Admiral Cecil Burney replaced Bayley aboard Marlborough in December ; at that time , Marlborough became the second @-@ in @-@ command flagship for the Grand Fleet . On 25 December , the fleet sortied for a sweep in the North Sea , which concluded on 27 December without event . Marlborough and the rest of the fleet conducted gunnery drills during 10 – 13 January 1915 west of the Orkneys and Shetlands . On the evening of 23 January , the bulk of the Grand Fleet sailed in support of Beatty 's Battlecruiser Fleet but the rest of the fleet did not become engaged in the ensuing Battle of Dogger Bank the following day .
| ef3e415cf905a7ee9d7339393e2f44a9 | 9,150 |
On 7 – 10 March 1915 , the Grand Fleet conducted a sweep in the northern North Sea , during which it undertook training manoeuvres . Another such cruise took place during 16 – 19 March . On 11 April , the Grand Fleet conducted a patrol in the central North Sea and returned to port on 14 April ; another patrol in the area took place during 17 – 19 April , followed by gunnery drills off the Shetlands on 20 – 21 April . The Grand Fleet conducted a sweep into the central North Sea during 17 – 19 May without encountering German vessels . Another patrol followed during 29 – 31 May ; it too was uneventful . The fleet conducted gunnery training in mid @-@ June . During 2 – 5 September , the fleet went on another cruise in the northern end of the North Sea and conducted gunnery drills . Throughout the rest of the month , the Grand Fleet conducted numerous training exercises .
| 3efb793d35b3d0f38424d2974ba9c239 | 9,151 |
On 13 October , the majority of the fleet conducted a sweep into the North Sea , returning to port on 15 October . During 2 – 5 November , Marlborough participated in a fleet training operation west of the Orkneys . Another such cruise took place during 1 – 4 December . The typical routine of gunnery drills and squadron exercises occurred in January 1916 . The fleet departed for a cruise in the North Sea on 26 February ; Jellicoe had intended to use the Harwich Force to sweep the Heligoland Bight , but bad weather prevented operations in the southern North Sea . As a result , the operation was confined to the northern end of the sea . On the night of 25 March , Iron Duke and the rest of the fleet sailed from Scapa Flow , to support the Battlecruiser Fleet and other light forces that raided the German zeppelin base at Tondern .
| 4399720d48bed5308239f0cc39335e8f | 9,152 |
On 21 April , the Grand Fleet conducted a demonstration off Horns Reef to distract the Germans , while the Russian Navy relaid its defensive minefields in the Baltic Sea . The fleet returned to Scapa Flow on 24 April and refuelled , before proceeding south in response to intelligence reports that the Germans were about to launch a raid on Lowestoft . The Grand Fleet did not arrive in the area until after the Germans had withdrawn . During 2 – 4 May , the fleet conducted another demonstration off Horns Reef to keep German attention focused on the North Sea .
| 525ddaf0740147f95e70c1f40df1282b | 9,153 |
= = = = Battle of Jutland = = = =
| ce12f8d8b5304dcb4f5f7add4f83db38 | 9,155 |
In an attempt to lure out and destroy a portion of the Grand Fleet , the German High Seas Fleet with 16 dreadnoughts , six pre @-@ dreadnoughts , six light cruisers and 31 torpedo boats commanded by Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer , departed the Jade early on the morning of 31 May . The fleet sailed in concert with Rear Admiral Franz von Hipper 's five battlecruisers and supporting cruisers and torpedo boats . The Royal Navy 's Room 40 had intercepted and decrypted German radio traffic containing plans of the operation . The Admiralty ordered the Grand Fleet of 28 dreadnoughts and 9 battlecruisers , to sortie the night before to cut off and destroy the High Seas Fleet . On the day of the battle , Marlborough was stationed toward the rear of the British line in the 6th Division of the 1st Battle Squadron .
| 32349b5c4117d0acd8a423fca0c30b20 | 9,157 |
The initial action was fought primarily by the British and German battlecruiser formations in the afternoon , but by 18 : 00 , the Grand Fleet approached the scene . Fifteen minutes later , Jellicoe gave the order to turn and deploy the fleet for action . The transition from their cruising formation caused congestion with the rear divisions , forcing Marlborough and many of the other ships to reduce speed to 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) to avoid colliding with each other . The British ships initially had poor visibility and Marlborough could only faintly make out a group of German Kaiser @-@ class battleships at 18 : 17 . In the span of four minutes , she fired seven salvos , first at 10 @,@ 000 yards ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) and then at 13 @,@ 000 yards ( 12 @,@ 000 m ) . Marlborough 's gunners claimed to have made hits with the 5th and 7th salvos but these claims are unlikely . Her guns were then masked by a burning cruiser , probably the armoured cruiser HMS Warrior .
| af759f768fb760feed10ed4ca507855e | 9,158 |
Marlborough joined the group of battleships battering the German light cruiser SMS Wiesbaden at 18 : 25 . She fired five salvos , before a premature detonation in the right barrel of " A " turret disabled the gun . She also engaged the ship with her secondary battery . At 18 : 39 , Marlborough again engaged what appeared to be a Kaiser @-@ class ship , firing a salvo before the German vessel disappeared into the haze . During the engagement with Wiesbaden , the German cruiser launched one or two torpedoes at around 18 : 45 , one of which struck Marlborough around the starboard diesel generator room . The detonation tore a 28 @-@ foot ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) hole in the hull and causing significant flooding , that forced the forward boilers on that side of the ship to be extinguished and reduced the ship 's speed to 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) . Burney initially reported to Jellicoe that his ship had struck a mine or had been hit by a torpedo at 18 : 57 . Several more torpedoes , this time from the torpedo boat SMS V48 , forced Marlborough and the rest of the ships in her division to take evasive action .
| 8adb0a025af11893f4bd9b8b8b81f490 | 9,159 |
At 19 : 03 , Marlborough engaged Wiesbaden again , firing four salvos at ranges of 9 @,@ 500 to 9 @,@ 800 yards ( 8 @,@ 700 to 9 @,@ 000 m ) . She hit the German cruiser with probably three shells from the last two salvos and these finally neutralised the ship , although it took several more hours before Wiesbaden sank . Marlborough then shifted fire to the König @-@ class battleships leading the German line at 19 : 12 . She fired thirteen salvos in the span of six minutes at SMS Grosser Kurfürst at ranges of 10 @,@ 200 to 10 @,@ 750 yards ( 9 @,@ 330 to 9 @,@ 830 m ) , scoring three hits , though she incorrectly claimed a fourth hit . During this phase of the battle , Marlborough fired two torpedoes , both of which missed their targets : the first at Wiesbaden at 19 : 10 and the second at SMS Kaiser at 19 : 25 .
| 3c16a6c8e1b0fe37e8f4f026b3e34442 | 9,160 |
By about 19 : 30 , Marlborough 's pumps had contained the flooding in the boiler rooms but she took on a list of around 7 – 8 degrees . Instead of using counter @-@ flooding to minimise the list , her crew attempted to correct the list by using coal and oil from the starboard bunkers first . The list caused the generators supplying power to the main battery turrets to flood , hampering the gun crews , particularly as shells were transferred from the magazines to the turrets . The blast from the torpedo was so powerful that forty watertight compartments were damaged , though the torpedo bulkhead localised most of the damage and the more badly damaged compartments were sufficiently shored up . Three more torpedoes approached Marlborough at 19 : 33 . She evaded the first two and the third harmlessly passed under the ship .
| 2ef8e6e0054b0de47e566ef8b391eca8 | 9,161 |
After the opposing fleets disengaged late in the day , the Grand Fleet steamed south in an attempt to cut off the retreating Germans and destroy them the following morning . The 6th Division was slowed down by Marlborough , which could make no more than 15 @.@ 75 kn ( 29 @.@ 17 km / h ; 18 @.@ 12 mph ) by this point . By around 02 : 00 on 1 June , the 6th Division was about 12 nmi ( 22 km ; 14 mi ) behind the rest of the fleet . At that time , the bulkheads in the starboard forward boiler room started to give way under the strain , forcing Marlborough to reduce speed to 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . The damage control teams believed that if the main battery were to fire , the shoring supporting the damaged bulkheads would give way , greatly increasing the risk to the ship . Jellicoe detached the ship to proceed independently to Rosyth or the Tyne ; Burney had ordered the scout cruiser Fearless to come alongside to transfer him to the battleship Revenge . Marlborough thereafter proceeded northward at a speed of 11 knots ( 20 km / h ; 13 mph ) .
| 15a1649b58f333d2c1a69be8542d6556 | 9,162 |
Fearless rejoined Marlborough around 04 : 00 and both ships briefly fired at the German zeppelin L11 . Commodore Reginald Tyrwhitt 's Harwich Force had been ordered to reinforce the Grand Fleet , particularly to relieve ships low on fuel ; they departed at 03 : 50 but this was too late for them to reach the fleet by morning , so Jellicoe ordered Tyrwhitt to detach destroyers to escort Marlborough back to port . On the way , Marlborough and Fearless encountered the British submarines G3 and G5 ; the two submarines prepared to attack the ships but fortunately recognised them before they launched torpedoes . By 15 : 00 , eight destroyers from the Harwich Force had joined Marlborough and another pump had been lowered into the flooded boiler room . At around 23 : 30 , the pump was being moved to clean it when the roll of the ship threw the pump into the damaged bulkhead , knocking the shores loose . Water flooded into the ship and Marlborough 's captain ordered Fearless and the destroyers to prepare to come alongside , to rescue the crew if the flooding worsened at 00 : 47 on 2 June . A diver was sent into the boiler room at that time , and he was able to keep the pump clean , which slowly reduced the water level in the ship .
| 50a522bd0950a9fc1fa53396e2aa4903 | 9,163 |
Jellicoe ordered Marlborough to proceed to the Humber for temporary repairs . While there , her forward main battery and 6 @-@ inch magazines were emptied to lighten the ship , more pumps were brought aboard and the shoring supporting the damaged bulkhead was reinforced . On the morning of 6 June , the ship left the Humber for the Tyne , where she would receive permanent repairs , escorted by four destroyers from the Harwich Force . In the course of the battle , Marlborough had fired 162 shells from her main battery , 60 rounds from her secondary guns and five torpedoes . The torpedo hit had killed two men and wounded another two . She was repaired by the Armstrong Whitworth shipyard at Jarrow , with the work lasting until 2 August , after which she departed for Cromarty , arriving on 5 August . During the repair work , an extra 100 t ( 98 long tons ; 110 short tons ) of armour plating was added to the ship , primarily over the magazines . These alterations were the result of the British experience at Jutland , where three battlecruisers had been destroyed by magazine explosions .
| 8a9853e235057c81828c1137b192bd3e | 9,164 |
= = = = Later operations = = = =
| d6973a58613e72cab91621260fe4ca4f | 9,166 |
On 18 August , the Germans again sortied , this time to bombard Sunderland ; Scheer hoped to draw out Beatty 's battlecruisers and destroy them . British signals intelligence decrypted German wireless transmissions , allowing Jellicoe enough time to deploy the Grand Fleet in an attempt to engage in a decisive battle . Both sides withdrew the following day , after their opponents ' submarines inflicted losses in the Action of 19 August : the British cruisers Nottingham and Falmouth were both torpedoed and sunk by German U @-@ boats and the German battleship SMS Westfalen was damaged by the British submarine E23 . After returning to port , Jellicoe issued an order that prohibited risking the fleet in the southern half of the North Sea due to the overwhelming risk from mines and U @-@ boats .
| 34d8d33adffc813fc5215ab7bc5fac49 | 9,168 |
In February 1917 , Revenge replaced Marlborough as the 1st Battle Squadron flagship ; she thereafter served as the second command flagship . She was briefly replaced in this role by Emperor of India in May and she temporarily became a private ship . Toward the end of the year , the Germans began using destroyers and light cruisers to raid the British convoys to Norway ; this forced the British to deploy capital ships to protect the convoys . On 23 April 1918 , the German fleet sortied in an attempt to catch one of the isolated British squadrons , though the convoy had already passed safely . The Grand Fleet sortied too late the following day to catch the retreating Germans , though the battlecruiser SMS Moltke was torpedoed and badly damaged by the submarine HMS E42 . In 1918 , Marlborough and her sisters received flying @-@ off platforms on their " B " and " Q " turrets to handle reconnaissance aircraft .
| a809d54cbf7eb55446afdd9a2e7f2323 | 9,169 |
Following the capitulation of Germany in November 1918 , the Allies interned most of the High Seas Fleet in Scapa Flow . The fleet rendezvoused with the British light cruiser Cardiff , which led the ships to the Allied fleet that was to escort the Germans to Scapa Flow . The massive fleet consisted of some 370 British , American , and French warships . The fleet remained in captivity during the negotiations that ultimately produced the Treaty of Versailles . Reuter believed that the British intended to seize the German ships on 21 June 1919 , which was the deadline for Germany to have signed the peace treaty . That morning , the Grand Fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training manoeuvres and while they were away Reuter issued the order to scuttle the High Seas Fleet .
| 31d102f9a5aca6faa0933f183d592e56 | 9,170 |
= = = Postwar career = = =
| 63198496e5acbd939c8f64eee78613b3 | 9,172 |
On 12 March 1919 , Marlborough was recommissioned at Devonport and assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet , as part of the 4th Battle Squadron , along with her three sisters and two Centurion @-@ class battleships . During this period , she served in the Black Sea during the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War to support the Whites against the Red Bolsheviks . On 5 April 1919 , Marlborough arrived in Sevastopol before proceeding to Yalta the following day . The ship took Dowager Empress Maria Feodorovna and other members of the Russian Imperial Family including Grand Duke Nicholas and Prince Felix Yusupov aboard in Yalta on the evening of the 7th . The Empress refused to leave unless the British also evacuated wounded and sick soldiers , along with any civilians that also wanted to escape the advancing Bolsheviks . The Russian entourage aboard Marlborough numbered some 80 people , including 44 members of the Royal Family and nobility , with a number of governesses , nurses , maids and manservants , plus several hundred cases of luggage .
| b56f400bc8ef6da06b26ab20ad90bbd5 | 9,174 |
About 35 officer ’ s cabins were vacated and additional bunks were installed , with the Empress taking over the Captain 's cabin . On the morning of 12 April the ship anchored off Halki Island , about 12 miles ( 19 km ) from Constantinople , due to some uncertainty over the final destination for the Russian Royal family . On 16 April Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolaevich and his wife the Grand Duchess Anastasia , the Grand Duke Peter Nicholaievitch and his wife Grand Duchess Milica , Princess Marina , Prince Roman , Count and Countess Tyszkiewich , Baron and Baroness Staal , Mr Boldyreff and Dr Malama with their respective servants left the ship and boarded HMS Lord Nelson destined for Genoa . They were replaced by Count Dimitri and Countess Sophia Mengden , Count George and Countess Irina Mengden , Countess Vera Mengden , Count Nicholas Mengden , Madame Helena Erchoff and two maids . On the morning of 18 April , Good Friday , the ship sailed for Malta . The ship departed on 18 April , bound for Malta to deposit the Russians , before returning to Constantinople .
| b7c89356ddf85540fe32b501afb2a2dd | 9,175 |
In May 1919 , Marlborough conducted tests with new high @-@ explosive 6 @-@ inch shells off the Kerch Peninsula , though these proved to be unreliable . During this period , she operated a kite balloon to aid in spotting the fall of shot . Later that month , a shell broke up in the left barrel of " A " turret and caused minor damage . While stationed off the Kerch Peninsula , the ship provided artillery support to White troops , including bombardments of Bolshevik positions in the villages of Koi @-@ Asan and Dal Kamici . By 1920 , British attention had turned to the Greco @-@ Turkish War . On 20 June 1920 , Marlborough arrived in Constantinople , where the Mediterranean Fleet was being concentrated to support the occupation of the city . On 6 July , British forces landed at Gemlik , while Marlborough provided artillery support .
| a17171022a9100ed00b377e62d25962a | 9,176 |
In October 1920 , the battleship King George V arrived to replace Marlborough in the Mediterranean Fleet . Marlborough then returned to Devonport , where she was paid off for a major refit that took place between February 1921 and January 1922 . During the refit , range dials were installed , along with another range @-@ finder on the rear superstructure . The aircraft platform was removed from " B " turret . Long @-@ base range @-@ finders were installed on " X " turret . After completing the refit in January 1922 , Marlborough was recommissioned and assigned to the Mediterranean , where she replaced Emperor of India . She served as the second command flagship until October . Following the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923 , the Allied countries withdrew their occupation forces from Turkey ; Marlborough was involved in escorting the troop convoys out of Constantinople .
| 8a112602ea501c2a23d018767d30007a | 9,177 |
Marlborough briefly served as the flagship for the deputy commander of the 4th Battle Squadron after King George V was damaged from striking a rock off Mytilene . In November 1924 , the 4th Battle Squadron was renamed the 3rd Battle Squadron . In March 1926 , the 3rd Battle Squadron , including Marlborough , was transferred to the Atlantic Fleet . There , the battleships served as training ships . In 1929 , the ship 's 3 @-@ inch anti @-@ aircraft guns were replaced with more powerful 4 @-@ inch guns . In January 1931 , Marlborough served as the squadron flagship , relieving Emperor of India . She remained in the position for only five months , being decommissioned on 5 June . According to the terms of the London Naval Treaty of 1930 , the four ships of the Iron Duke class were to be scrapped or demilitarised ; Marlborough was scheduled to be removed from service in 1931 and broken up for scrap .
| 66b9804501ac8ac4aabc2245dd2da34a | 9,178 |
The ship was used as a target to test the effect of various weapons on capital ships , along with Emperor of India . The tests included firing destroyer armament at the upper works at close range to test their effectiveness in a simulated night engagement , direct hits from 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch shells , bomb tests , and experiments with flash tightness in the magazines . The first two tests were conducted in July 1931 , and were simulations of magazine explosions . The venting system worked as designed , and while the explosions caused serious internal damage , Marlborough was not destroyed , as the three battlecruisers had been at Jutland . In 1932 , further tests were conducted with dummy 250 @-@ pound ( 110 kg ) and 500 @-@ pound ( 230 kg ) bombs to test deck strength ; 450 @-@ pound ( 200 kg ) armour @-@ piercing ( AP ) bombs and 1 @,@ 080 @-@ pound ( 490 kg ) high explosive ( HE ) bombs were then detonated inside the ship to test their effectiveness . The Royal Navy determined that the HE bombs were useless , but that thick deck armour would be required to defeat AP bombs . This led to the decision to reinforce the deck armour of existing battleships throughout the 1930s .
| 44522c7892713a12e26b1ea16d1582ab | 9,179 |
Marlborough was placed on the disposal list in May 1932 and was quickly sold to the Alloa Shipbreaking Co . On 25 June , she arrived in Rosyth , where she was broken up for scrap .
| 43f77a12ff7c10e30d066c6158452a34 | 9,180 |
= 766th Independent Infantry Regiment ( North Korea ) =
| 3d647119d96507d0e406a1b1c1a9f2ae | 9,183 |
The 766th Independent Infantry Regiment ( Korean : 제766독립보병연대 ) was a light infantry unit of North Korea 's Korean People 's Army ( KPA ) that existed briefly during the Korean War . It was headquartered in Hoeryong , North Korea , and was also known as the 766th Unit ( Korean : 766부대 ) . Trained extensively in amphibious warfare and unconventional warfare , the 766th Regiment was considered a special forces commando unit . The regiment was trained to conduct assaults by sea and then to lead other North Korean units on offensive operations , to infiltrate behind enemy lines and to disrupt enemy supplies and communications .
| 28da802805bb6c47ffc64b90f269ac87 | 9,185 |
Activated in 1949 , the regiment trained for more than a year before the outbreak of the war on June 25 , 1950 . On that day , half of the regiment led North Korean forces against South Korean troops by land and sea , pushing them back after several days of fighting . Over the next six weeks the regiment advanced slowly down the Korean Peninsula , acting as a forward unit of the North Korean army . Suffering from a lack of supplies and mounting casualties , the regiment was committed to the Battle of Pusan Perimeter as part of a push to force United Nations ( UN ) troops out of Korea .
| 231067ba3c811f8f9e0e8b1fe6e04b65 | 9,186 |
The regiment saw its final action at the Battle of P 'ohang @-@ dong , fighting unsuccessfully to take the town from U.N. troops . Racked by U.N. naval and air forces and suffering extensive losses from continuous fighting , the regiment was forced to retreat from the P 'ohang @-@ dong battlefield . It moved north , joining a concentration of other KPA units , before being disbanded and absorbed into the KPA 's 12th Division .
| e7c1407acd0c85d24c7a25fc4bcecffc | 9,187 |
= = Organization = =
| 28034f2e2475f74226ef11d0301d37f1 | 9,189 |
Upon creation , the 766th Unit was designed to vary in size , consisting of a number of smaller units capable of acting alone . Eventually , it was reinforced to the size of a full regiment , with 3 @,@ 000 men equally distributed across six battalions ( numbered 1st through 6th ) . It was made directly subordinate to the KPA Army headquarters and put under the command of Senior Colonel Oh Jin Woo , who would command the unit for its entire existence . All 500 men of the 3rd Battalion were lost just before the war started when their transport was sunk while attacking Pusan harbor by the Republic of Korea Navy . For the remainder of its existence the regiment was whittled down by losses until it numbered no more than 1 @,@ 500 men and could not muster more than three battalions .
| 8d59e75293944873e327ca92d2406b9c | 9,191 |
= = History = =
| fd3fc667e330e6e3944a4f085f9ef39d | 9,193 |
= = = Origins = = =
| 330c6f07712691f4e36675590b0ef5d3 | 9,196 |
During the planning for the invasion of South Korea in the years before the war , the North Korean leadership began to create large numbers of commando and special forces units to send south . These units subverted South Korean authority before and during the war with terror campaigns , sabotage and inducing rebellions in ROK military units . Hundreds of commandos were sent to South Korea in this fashion , and by the end of the war up to 3 @,@ 000 of them had been trained and armed . During this time , North Korean leadership also ordered the creation of large conventional units to act as advance forces for the actual invasion . The 766th Unit was formed in April 1949 at the Third Military Academy in Hoeryong , North Korea . The academy was specially designed to train commandos , and the 766th was originally designed to supervise North Korean light infantry ranger units . Over the next year , the 766th Unit received extensive training in unconventional warfare and amphibious warfare . During this time , the unit was expanded in size to 3 @,@ 000 men in six battalions .
| 48b8ae12930bb8183665c8dae331cc8b | 9,198 |
Prior to the beginning of the war in June 1950 , the 766th completed training and was moved to the front at Yangyang to support the KPA 's 5th Division . The North Korean plan was to conduct amphibious landings in Chongdongjin and Imwonjin on the eastern coast using the 766th Regiment , in conjunction with the 549th Unit . These amphibious landings would harass the rear area of the Republic of Korea Army , providing supporting attacks to the planned frontal attack by the KPA 's II Corps directly from the north . The 766th was in position by June 23 and prepared for the attack . The unit was moved to the ports of Wonsan and Kansong and loaded into ships . With the 3 @,@ 000 men in the 766th , another 3 @,@ 000 in the 549th , and 11 @,@ 000 men in the KPA 's 5th Division , the 17 @,@ 000 North Korean troops outnumbered the Republic of Korea Army 's ( ROK ) 8th Division 's 6 @,@ 866 by a ratio of 2 @.@ 1 to 1 . The combination of the frontal attack and the landings were expected to crush the ROK division and prevent reinforcements from moving in to support it .
| ebf9cfcee312e581238736fad8fde9c8 | 9,199 |
The regiment was split into three groups for the attack . Three battalions acted as spearheads for the 5th Division on land while two more battalions conducted the landings in Imwonjin . This 2 @,@ 500 man force reassembled and then led the North Korean units south . In the meantime , the 3rd Battalion , 766th Regiment was detached and sent on a mission to infiltrate Pusan . Paired with additional support , it formed the 600 @-@ man 588th Unit . 588th Unit was tasked with raiding Pusan harbor , destroying vital facilities to make it impossible for UN forces to land troops there . However , the troop transport carrying the 588th Unit was discovered and sunk by United Nations ships outside Pusan harbor the morning of June 25 , destroying the 3rd Battalion .
| 9a263309aa868a84f1ba967ebc85f3a3 | 9,200 |
= = = Outbreak = = =
| fdf9d2637b0aecd316e2fbbcf5f9d813 | 9,202 |
Around 04 : 00 on June 25 , the KPA 's 5th Division began its first attacks on the ROK 10th Regiment 's forward positions . Three hours later , the 766th Regiment 's two battalions landed at the village of Imwonjin , using motor and sail boats to land troops and mustering South Korean villagers to assist in setting up supplies . The two battalions separated ; one headed into the T 'aeback Mountains and the second advanced north toward Samcheok . At this point , the ROK 8th Division , under heavy attack from the front and aware of attacks in the rear , urgently requested reinforcements . It was denied these reinforcements , as ROK higher commanders informed the division commander that the ROK Army was under heavy attack across the entirety of the 38th parallel and had no reinforcements to spare .
| c84147916ee378e215c816478ee84ab5 | 9,204 |
The ROK 21st Regiment , 8th Division 's southernmost unit , moved to counter the amphibious attack . The regiment 's 1st Battalion moved from Bukp 'yong into the Okgye area and ambushed forward elements of the 766th in conjunction with local police and militia forces . They were able to drive back the 766th Regiment 's northern advance . However , at least one of the 766th Regiment 's battalions massed at Bamjae , blocking one of the 8th Division 's main supply routes . ROK troops mustered a civilian militia to help fight the North Koreans , which was only moderately effective . The embattled ROK 8th Division was forced to withdraw under overwhelming attacks and breakdowns in communication on July 27 . With the retreat of the ROK 6th Division , the entire ROK eastern flank was forced back . The 766th Regiment had been successful in establishing a bridgehead and disrupting communications in the initial attack .
| 35cd6753fe12869b7f7ed6f1cab34ad3 | 9,205 |
= = = Advance = = =
| d0757bc242f3869021edaf3525f1f20e | 9,207 |
With the ROK army in retreat , the 766th Regiment , 549th Unit , and KPA 's 5th Divisions all advanced steadily south along the eastern roads without encountering much resistance . Across the entire front the North Korean Army had successfully routed the South Koreans and was pushing them south . The 766th Regiment acted as an advance force , attempting to infiltrate further inland as it moved through the mountainous eastern region of the country . The rugged terrain of the eastern regions of Korea , poor communication equipment , and unreliable resupply lines thwarted the South Korean resistance . The North Koreans used this to their advantage in advancing but they began to experience the same problems themselves . The 5th Division and the two other units began advancing south slowly and cautiously , sending strong reconnaissance parties into the mountains to ensure they would not be threatened from the rear . However , this more cautious advance began to give the South Koreans valuable time to build up further south . By June 28 , the 766th had infiltrated into Taebaek @-@ san from Uljin and was moving toward Ilwolsan , Yongyang and Cheongsong in order to block communications between Daegu and Busan , where United States Army forces were landing in an attempt to support the collapsing ROK Army .
| 52b9e1cdd9caa65815d40be831d47727 | 9,209 |
The ROK 23rd Regiment of the ROK 3rd Division was moved to block the advance of the three units at Uljin . The ROK forces mounted a series of delaying actions against the main North Korean force , which was significantly dispersed throughout the mountainous region and unable to muster its overwhelming strength . The ROK regiment was subsequently able to hold up the North Korean advance until July 5 . On July 10 , the 766th separated from the 5th Division and met an advance party of North Korean civilians in Uljin who had been sent to set up government in the area . From here , the 766th dispersed in small groups into the mountains . On July 13 it reached Pyonghae @-@ ri , 25 miles ( 40 km ) north of Yongdok .
| 183508b6126cf9c1932c42277de4293f | 9,210 |
Over the next week the 766th Regiment and the KPA 's 5th Division continued in a slow advance south as it met increasing South Korean resistance . United Nations air support began to increase , slowing the advance further . The force continued to occupy the eastern flank , and by July 24 it was advancing from the Chongsong @-@ Andong region and approaching Pohang . On its flank was the KPA 's 12th Division . Progress halted as UN aerial and naval bombardment made movement more difficult . At the same time the North Korean units ' supply lines were stretched thin and began to break down , forcing them to conscript South Korean civilians to carry supplies .
| 91783e771963c0a3b20a1b33540c4b92 | 9,211 |
= = = Resistance = = =
| 19d4664948ec81554cc4d197a55cef65 | 9,213 |
On July 17 , the KPA 's 5th Division entered Yongdok , taking the city without much resistance before fierce UN air attacks caused the division heavy losses . Still , it was able to surround the ROK 3rd Division in the city . By now , the 5th Division and the 766th Regiment had been reduced to a combined strength of 7 @,@ 500 men to the ROK 3rd Divisions ' 6 @,@ 469 . The 766th massed its force again to assist the 5th Division in surrounding and besieging the ROK 3rd Division , which was trapped in the city . The 3rd Division , in the meantime , was ordered to remain in the city to delay the North Koreans as long as possible . It was eventually evacuated by sea after delaying North Korean forces for a considerable time . The rugged terrain of the mountains prevented the North Korean forces from conducting the enveloping maneuvers they had used so effectively against other troops , and their advantages in numbers and equipment had been negated in the fight .
| 4236f4b1fbf0fdea0699d591197962ce | 9,215 |
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