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http://20000-names.com/male_serbian_names.htm | 20000-NAMES.COM: Male Serbian Names, Page 1 of 1--meaning, origin, etymology | Male Serbian Names
| 20000-NAMES.COM: Male Serbian Names, Page 1 of 1--meaning, origin, etymology
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Male Serbian Names
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Page 1 of 1
ADRIJAN ( Адријан ): Serbian and Slovene form of Latin Adrianus, meaning "from Hadria."
ANDRIJA : Croatian and Serbian form of Greek Andreas , meaning "man; warrior."
ANTONIJE : Serbian form of Greek Antonios, possibly meaning "invaluable."
BOJAN ( Боjaн ): Serbian and Slovene form of Slavic Boian, meaning "warrior."
BRANISLAV ( Бранислав ): Serbian form of Slavic Bronislav, meaning "glorious protector." Also in use by the Czechs, Slovaks and Slovenians.
BRANKO ( Бранко ): Pet form of Serbian Branislav, meaning "glorious protector."
BRATISLAV ( Братислав ): Serbian name composed of the Slavic elements bratu "brother" and slav "glory," hence "brother of glory."
DANIJEL ( Данијел ): Serbian form of Greek Daniēl , meaning "God is my judge."
DARKO ( Дарко ): Serbian name derived from Slavic dar, meaning "gift."
DEJAN ( Дејан ): Serbian name derived from the Slavic element deja , meaning "to take action."
DIMITRIJE ( Димитрије ): Serbian form of Latin Demetrius , meaning "loves the earth" or "follower of Demeter ."
DJORDJE ( Ђорђе ): Serbian form of English George , meaning "earth-worker, farmer."
DOBRILO ( Добрило ): Serbian name meaning "encourages goodness in others."
DRAGAN (Serbian: Драган ): Slavic name derived from the word drag, meaning "dear, beloved." In use by the Croatians, Serbians and Slovenes.
DRAGO (Serbian: Драго ): Slavic name derived from the word drago meaning "precious." In use by the Croatians, Serbians, Slovenes. Compare with another form of Drago.
DRAGOMIR (Bulgarian and Serbian: Драгомир ): Slavic name composed of the elements dorogo "precious" and mir "peace," hence "precious peace." In use by the Bulgarians, Croatians, Romanians, and Serbians.
DRAGOSLAV (Serbian: Драгослав ): Slavic name composed of the elements drago "precious" and slav "glory," hence "precious glory." In use by the Serbians.
DU'AN: Serbian name meaning "soul."
FILIP ( Филип ): Serbian form of Greek Philippos, meaning "lover of horses."
GORAN ( Горан ): Serbian name meaning "mountain man."
ILIJA ( Илија ): Macedonian and Serbian form of Greek Elias, meaning "the Lord is my God." Compare with another form of Ilija.
JANKO ( Јанко ): Croatian and Serbian diminutive form of Latin Johannes , meaning "God is gracious." Compare with another form of Janko.
JAVOR ( Јавор ): Serbian name meaning "maple tree."
JOSIF : Serbian form of Greek Ioseph , meaning " (God) shall add (another son)."
JOVAN ( Јован ): Serbian form of Greek Ioannes (Latin Johannes ), meaning "God is gracious."
KRISTIJAN : Croatian, Serbian and Slovene form of Greek Christianos , meaning "believer" or "follower of Christ ."
LAZA ( Лаза ): Pet form of Serbian Lazar, meaning "my God has helped."
LAZAR (Russian: Ла́зарь , Serbian: Лазар ): Russian and Serbian form of Latin Lazarus , meaning "my God has helped."
LJUBOMIR : Croatian and Serbian form of Polish Lubomir, meaning "love's peace."
MARKO : Serbian and Slovene form of Greek Markos, meaning "defense" or "of the sea." Also in use by the Basques, Bulgarians, Dutch, Finnish, Germans, and Romani. Compare with another form of Marko.
MIHAILO ( Михаило ): Serbian form of Greek Michaēl, meaning "who is like God?"
MIHAJLO : Serbian form of Greek Michaēl, meaning "who is like God?"
MILJAN ( Миљан ): Serbian name meaning "charming."
MIOMIR ( Миомир ): Serbian name meaning "scent."
NEBOJSA ( Небојша ): Serbian name meaning "fearless."
NEMANJA ( Немања ): Serbian name meaning "having no possessions; poor."
NENAD ( Ненад ): Serbian name, possibly meaning "unexpected."
OBRAD ( Обрад ): Serbian name meaning "happiness."
PAVLE ( Павле ): Serbian form of Greek Pavlos, meaning "small."
PREDRAG ( Предраг ): Serbian name, probably composed of the Slavic elements prid "foremost, leading" and drag "dear, precious," hence "most precious one."
RADMILO : Serbian form of Polish Radomił, meaning "happy favor."
RADOVAN ( Радован ): Serbian name derived from the Slavic word rad, meaning "happy."
RATKO ( Ратко ): Serbian name derived from the Slavic element rad, meaning "happy."
SAVA (Serbian: Сава ): Bulgarian and Serbian form of Spanish Sabas, meaning "old man." Compare with other forms of Sava.
SLAVCO ( Славко ): Serbian name derived from Slavic slav, meaning "glory." Used as a pet form of Slavoljub.
SLAVOLJUB : Serbian name meaning "glorious."
SLOBODAN ( Слободан ): Serbian name meaning "freedom."
SRECKO ( Срећко ): Serbian name meaning "luck."
STANISLAV ( Станислав ): Slavic name composed of the elements stan "government" and slav "glory," hence "glorious government." In use by the Bulgarians, Czechs, Croatians, Russians, Serbians, Slovaks, Slovenes, and Ukrainians.
STEVAN ( Стеван ): Serbian form of Greek Stephanos, meaning "crown."
STOJAN ( Стојан ): Serbian and Slovene form of Bulgarian Stoyan, meaning "stand, stay."
TIHOMIR (Bulgarian: Тихомир ): Bulgarian, Croatian and Serbian name meaning "peace."
VASILIJE ( Василије ): Serbian form of Greek Vasilios , meaning "king."
VELEMIR : Variant spelling of Croatian/Serbian Velimir , meaning "great peace."
VELIMIR (Serbian: Велимир ): Croatian and Serbian name composed of the Slavic elements vele "great" and mir "peace," hence "great peace."
VIKTOR (Cyrillic: Виктор ): Slavic form of Roman Latin Victor, meaning "conqueror." In use by the Bulgarians, Russians and Serbians. Compare with another form of Viktor.
VILIM ( Вилим ): Serbian form of German Wilhelm , meaning "will-helmet."
VILKO : Pet form of Serbian Vilim , meaning "will-helmet."
VLADIMIR (Cyrillic: Влади́мир ): Slavic name composed of the elements volod "to rule" and mir "peace," hence "peaceful ruler." In use by the Bulgarians, Croatians, Russians and Serbians.
VLADISLAV (Cyrillic: Владислав ): Slavic name composed of the elements vlado "to rule" and slav "glory," hence "rules with glory." In use by the Bulgarians, Russians and Serbians.
VUK ( Вук ): Short form of Serbian Vukasin , meaning "wolf."
VUKASIN ( Вукашин ): Serbian name meaning "wolf."
ZLATAN (Serbian: Златан ): Croatian and Serbian name meaning "gold."
ZORAN ( Зоран ): Serbian name meaning "light of dawn."
ZUBIN ( Зубин ): Serbian form of Hebrew Zebuwluwn, meaning "to exalt, to honor." Compare with other forms of Zubin.
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| msmarco_doc_00_8020370 |
http://20000-names.com/male_spanish_names.htm | 20000-NAMES.COM: Male Spanish Names, Page 1 of 3--meaning, origin, etymology | Male Spanish Names
| 20000-NAMES.COM: Male Spanish Names, Page 1 of 3--meaning, origin, etymology
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Male Spanish Names
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[ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]
AARÓN : Spanish form of English Aaron, meaning " light-bringer ."
ABELARDO : Spanish form of Latin Abelardus , meaning "noble strength."
ABRAÁM : Old Spanish form of Latin Abrahamus , meaning "father of a multitude."
ABRAHÁN : Spanish form of Latin Abrahamus , meaning "father of a multitude."
ADALBERTO : Italian and Spanish form of Old High German Adalbert , meaning "bright nobility."
ADÁN : Spanish form of Hebrew Adam, meaning "earth" or "red."
ADOLPHO : Spanish form of Latin Adolphus , meaning "noble wolf."
ADRIÁN : Spanish form of Latin Adrianus, meaning "from Hadria."
AGAPETO : Variant spelling of Italian/Spanish form of Agapito, meaning "beloved."
AGAPITO : Italian and Spanish form of Latin Agapitus , meaning "beloved."
AGUSTÍN: Spanish form of Latin Augustinus , meaning "venerable."
ALANO : Spanish form of Celtic Alan , possibly meaning "little rock."
ALARICO : Spanish form of Latin Alaricus, meaning "all-powerful; ruler of all."
ALBERTO : Italian and Spanish form of Latin Albertus, meaning "bright nobility."
ALEJANDRO : Spanish form of Latin Alexandrus , meaning "defender of mankind."
ALEJO : Pet form of Spanish Alejandro, meaning "defender."
ALFONSO : Italian and Spanish form of Latin Alfonsus , meaning "noble and ready."
ALFREDO : Italian and Spanish form of Latin Alfredus , meaning "elf counsel."
ALPHONSO : Variant spelling of Italian/Spanish Alfonso , meaning "noble and ready."
ÁLVARO: Spanish form of Visigothic Alewar, meaning "guard of all."
AMADIS : Spanish form of Latin Amadeus , meaning "to love God." In the medieval romance Amadis of Gaul, this is the name of the Gaulish knight who married the king's daughter Oriana.
AMADO : Spanish and Filipino form of Latin Amatus , meaning "beloved."
AMADOR : Spanish form of Latin Amator , meaning "lover."
AMANCIO : Spanish form of Roman Latin Amantius , meaning "loving."
AMANDO : Italian and Spanish form of Roman Latin Amandus , meaning "lovable."
AMARANTO : Spanish name derived from Latin Amaranthus , meaning "unfading."
AMBROSIO : Spanish form of Latin Ambrosius , meaning "immortal."
AMIDIO : Variant spelling of Spanish Emidio , meaning "demigod; half-god."
AMILCAR : Spanish form of Phoenician Hamilcar , meaning "friend of Melqart ."
ANACLETO : Italian and Spanish form of Latin Anacletus , meaning "called back; invoked."
ANBESSA : Spanish name meaning "lion."
ANDRÉS : Portuguese and Spanish form of Greek Andreas , meaning "man; warrior."
ANIBAL: Portuguese and Spanish form of Phoenician Hannibal , meaning "grace of Ba'al ."
ANSELMO : Italian and Spanish form of German Anselm , meaning "divine helmet."
ANTONELLO : Pet form of Italian and Spanish Antonio , possibly meaning "invaluable."
ANTONIO : Italian and Spanish form of Latin Antonius, possibly meaning "invaluable."
APOLINAR : Spanish form of Roman Latin Apollinaris , meaning "of Apollo ."
ARMANDO : Spanish form of German Harmand , meaning "bold/hardy man."
ARNALDO : Spanish form of Latin Arnoldus, meaning "eagle power."
ARSENIO : Italian and Spanish form of Latin Arsenius , meaning "virile."
ARTURO : Italian and Spanish form of Celtic Arthur , possibly meaning "bear-man."
ASDRUBAL : Spanish form of Latin Hasdrubal , meaning "help of Ba'al ."
ATILIO : Spanish form of Roman Latin Atilius, possibly meaning "father."
AUGUSTO : Italian and Spanish Latin Augustus , meaning "venerable."
AURELIANO : Spanish form of Roman Latin Aurelianus , meaning "golden."
AURELIO : Italian and Spanish form of Roman Latin Aurelius, meaning "golden."
BABIECA : Spanish name meaning "a simpleton; stupid." This was the name of the white Andalusian steed belonging to El Cid. According to legend, Babieca was frail and wild and when El Cid chose her, his godfather exclaimed "Babieca!" and so this became his name. But Babieca was not stupid; he became a great and famous warhorse and El Cid loved him so much he requested that he be buried with him in the monastery of San Pedro de Cardena. Unfortunately, his wish was not granted; instead Babieca was buried before the gate of the monastery and two elms were planted to mark the site.
BAJARDO : Spanish form of French Bayard, meaning "bay color." This was the name of Reynaldo 's horse, once the property of Amadis of Gaul. It was found by Malagigi, the wizard, in a cave guarded by a dragon which the wizard slew. According to tradition, the horse still lives, but flees at the approach of man, so that no one can ever hope to catch him.
BALDOMERO : Spanish name composed of the Germanic elements bald "bold, brave" and meri "famous," hence "bold and famous."
BALDUINO : Spanish form of Old High German Baldawin , meaning "brave friend."
BARTOLOMÉ: Spanish form of Latin Bartolomaeus , meaning "son of Talmai ."
BASILIO : Italian and Spanish form of Latin Basilius, meaning "king."
BAUTISTA : Spanish equivalent of Italian Battista , meaning "baptist."
BAYARDO : Variant spelling of Spanish Bajardo , meaning "bay color."
BELTRÁN: Spanish form of Old High German Berhtram, meaning "bright raven."
BENEDICTO : Spanish form of Latin Benedictus, meaning "blessed."
BENITO : Contracted form of Spanish Benedicto, meaning "blessed."
BERENGUER : Spanish form of Latin Berengarius , meaning "bear-spear."
BERMUDO : Spanish form of Visigothic Vermundo , meaning "protector of man."
BERNARDO : Italian and Spanish form of Latin Bernardus, meaning "bold as a bear."
BLAS : Spanish form of Latin Blasius, meaning "talks with a lisp."
BOLÍVAR : Spanish name derived from the Basque place name Bolibar, composed of bolu "mill" and ibar "meadow, riverbank," hence "meadow mill" or "riverbank mill."
BOLIVAR : Castilian form of Spanish Bolívar, meaning "meadow mill" or "riverbank mill."
BUENAVENTURA : Spanish form of Italian Bonaventura, meaning "good fortune."
CAMILO : Spanish form of Roman Latin Camillus , possibly meaning "attendant (for a temple)."
CANDELARIO : Masculine form of Spanish Candelaria , meaning "candle."
CARLITO : Pet form of Portuguese/Spanish Carlos ("man"), meaning "little Carlos" or "little man."
CARLITOS : Variant spelling of Portuguese/Spanish Carlito, meaning "little Carlos " or "little man."
CARLOS : Portuguese and Spanish form of Latin Carolus , meaning "man."
CARMELO : Spanish masculine form of Latin Carmel , meaning "garden-land."
CASIMIRO : Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish form of Latin Casimiria , meaning "commands peace."
CAYETANO : Spanish form of Roman Latin Caietanus, meaning "from Caieta (Gaeta, Italy)."
CAYO : Spanish form of Roman Latin Gaius, meaning "lord."
CEBRIÁN: Spanish form of Latin Cyprianus , meaning "from Cyprus."
CECILIO : Italian, Portuguese and Spanish form of Latin Cæcilius , meaning "blind."
CELESTINO : Italian and Spanish form of Latin Cælestinus , meaning "heavenly."
CELINO : Italian and Spanish form of Roman Latin Cælinus , meaning "heaven."
CELIO : Italian and Spanish form of Latin Cælius , meaning "heaven."
CELSO : Italian and Spanish form of Latin Celsus , meaning "upright, stately."
CÉSAR: French and Spanish form of Roman Latin Cæsar, meaning "severed."
CHE : Spanish name derived from the Argentinian word for "hey!"
CHICO : Spanish name meaning "small." Compare with another form of Chico.
CHUCHO : Pet form of Spanish Jesús , meaning "God is salvation."
CHUS : Unisex pet form of Spanish Jesús and Jesúsa , meaning "God is salvation."
CHUY : Pet form of Spanish Jesús , meaning "God is salvation."
CIRIACO : Italian and Spanish form of Roman Cyriacus , meaning "of the lord."
CLAUDIO : Italian, Portuguese and Spanish form of Latin Claudius , meaning "lame."
CLAVILENO : Spanish name meaning "wooden-pin wing-bearer." This is the name of the wooden horse Don Quixote and Sancho Panza mounted to achieve the liberation of Dolori'da and her companions.
CLEMENTE : Italian, Portuguese and Spanish form of Latin Clementius , meaning "gentle and merciful."
CLETO : Short form of Italian/Spanish Anacleto , meaning "called back, invoked."
CLÍMACO: Spanish form of Latin Climacus , meaning "ladder."
CONRADO : Spanish form of German Conrad , meaning "bold counsel."
CRISTIÁN : Spanish form of Latin Christianus , meaning "Christian."
CRISTÓBAL: Spanish form of Latin Christophorus , meaning " Christ -bearer."
CRUZ : Spanish unisex name meaning "cross."
CURRO : Pet form of Spanish Francisco , meaning "French."
CUSTODIO : Old Spanish name derived from Latin custodis, meaning "guardian, keeper."
DAMIÁN : Spanish form of Latin Damianus, meaning "to tame, to subdue" and euphemistically "to kill."
DEMETRIO : Italian, Portuguese and Spanish form of Latin Demetrius , meaning "loves the earth" or "follower of Demeter ."
DESI : Short form of Italian/Spanish Desiderio, meaning "longing." This name was borne by the Cuban actor Desi Arnaz, husband of Lucille Ball.
DESIDERIO : Italian and Spanish form of Latin Desiderius , meaning "longing."
DIEGO : Said to have been derived from Spanish Santiago ("St. James "), but in the Middle Ages Diego existed in the Latin forms Didacus and Didagus, causing some scholars to suspect that Diego may have originally derived from the Greek word didakhe, meaning "doctrine, teaching."
DIMAS : Portuguese and Spanish form of Greek Dismas , meaning "sunset."
DIONISIO : Portuguese and Spanish form of Latin Dionysius , meaning "follower of Dionysos ."
DOMINGO : Spanish form of Latin Dominicus , meaning "belongs to the lord."
DONATO : Italian, Portuguese and Spanish form of Latin Donatus, meaning "given (by God)."
DOROTEO : Spanish form of Latin Dorotheus , meaning "gift of God."
EBERARDO : Spanish form of German Eberhard , meaning "strong as a boar."
EDGARDO : Spanish form of Anglo-Saxon Eádgár, meaning "rich spear."
EDMUNDO : Portuguese and Spanish form of Anglo-Saxon Eadmund , meaning "protector of prosperity."
EDUARDO : Spanish form of Latin Eduardus, meaning "guardian of prosperity."
EFRAÍN: Spanish form of Hebrew Efrayim , meaning "double-land; twin-land."
ELADIO : Spanish form of Latin Helladius , meaning "of Greece."
ELEUTERIO : Portuguese and Spanish form of Latin Eleutherius , meaning "the liberator."
ELISEO : Italian and Spanish form of Hebrew Eliysha , meaning "God is salvation."
ELOY : Spanish and Portuguese form of Latin Eligius , meaning "to choose."
ELPIDIO : Italian and Spanish form of Latin Elpidius , meaning "hope."
EMERICO : Portuguese and Spanish form of Latin Emericus , meaning "work-power."
EMIDIO : Spanish form of Latin Emidius , meaning "half-god, demigod." Literally, this name also means "weary, tired."
EMIGDIO : Spanish form of Latin Emygdius , meaning "half-god, demigod."
EMILIANO : Italian and Spanish form of Latin Æmilianus , meaning "rival."
EMILIO : Italian, Portuguese and Spanish form of Latin Æmilius , meaning "rival."
EMYGDIO : Spanish form of Latin Emygdius , meaning "half-god, demigod."
ENRIQUE : Spanish form of Latin Henricus, meaning "home-ruler."
EPIFANIO : Spanish name derived from Latin epiphania , meaning "epiphany."
ERMENEGILDO : Variant spelling spelling of Portuguese/Spanish Hermenegildo , meaning "all-giving."
ERNESTO : Italian and Spanish form of Latin Ernestus , meaning "battle (to the death), serious business."
ESPIRIDIÓN: Spanish form of Greek Spiridion , meaning "little spirit."
ESSUA: Spanish form of Hebrew Yehowshuwa (English Joshua ), meaning "God is salvation."
ESTAVAN : Spanish form of Latin Stephanus , meaning "crown."
ESTÉBAN: Spanish form of Latin Stephanus , meaning "crown."
EUGÈNIO: Spanish form of Latin Eugenius (2), meaning "well born."
EUGENIO : Italian and Spanish form of Latin Eugenius (2), meaning "well born."
EULÁLIO : Spanish and Portuguese form of Latin Eulalius , meaning "well-spoken."
EURICO : Spanish form of Visigothic Euric , meaning "ever-ruler."
EUSBIO : Spanish name derived from Latin Eusebius , meaning "pious."
EUSEBIO : Italian, Portuguese and Spanish form of Latin Eusebius , meaning "pious."
EUSTAQUIO : Portuguese and Spanish form of Latin Eustachius , meaning "fruitful."
EUTIMIO : Spanish form of Latin Euthymius , meaning "good-spirited."
EUTROPIO : Spanish form of Latin Eutropius , meaning "versatile."
EZEQUIEL : Portuguese and Spanish form of Hebrew Yechezqel , meaning "God will strengthen."
FABIÁN : Spanish form of Latin Fabianus , meaning "like Fabius ."
FABRICIO : Spanish form of Roman Latin Fabricius, meaning "craftsman."
FARAMUNDO : Italian and Spanish form of German Faramund, meaning "journey protection."
FAUSTINO : Italian, Portuguese and Spanish form of Roman Latin Faustinus , meaning "lucky."
FAUSTO : Italian, Portuguese and Spanish form of Roman Latin Faustus, meaning "lucky."
FEDERICO : Italian and Spanish form of Latin Fredericus , meaning "peaceful ruler."
FELICIANO : Italian, Portuguese and Spanish form of Roman Latin Felicianus , meaning "happy" or "lucky."
FELIPE : Spanish form of Latin Philippus, meaning "lover of horses."
FERMÍN : Spanish form of Latin Firminus , meaning "firm, steadfast."
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| msmarco_doc_00_8030921 |
http://20000-names.com/male_swiss_names.htm | 20000-NAMES.COM: Male Swiss Names, Page 1 of 1--meaning, origin, etymology | Male Swiss Names
Male Swiss Names | 20000-NAMES.COM: Male Swiss Names, Page 1 of 1--meaning, origin, etymology
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Male Swiss Names
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ANTONI , inestimable.
BALDERIK , prince ruler.
BÄLTZEL , Bel's prince.
BÄLZ , Bel's prince.
BARTLEME , son of furrows, or, son of Tolmai.
BARTLI , son of furrows, or, son of Tolmai.
BASTIA , awful, or venerable.
BASTIALI , awful, or venerable.
BEIALI , goodness of the Lord.
BENZEL , blessed.
BENZLI , blessed.
BISCH , baptizer.
BISCHLI , baptizer.
BOPP , supplanter.
CHLAUS , victor of the people.
CHRESTA , Christian.
CHRESTELI , Christian.
CHRESTOFFEL , Christ-bearer.
CHRISTIANUS , Christian, follower of Christ.
CHRISTOPH , Christ-bearer.
CHUEDLI , able council.
CONRADUS , able councillor.
ENZ , laurel.
ENZALI , laurel.
FREDLI , peace ruler.
FRIDLI , peace ruler.
GABËLER , man or hero of God.
HÄCKE , axe, or, terror.
HACKEL , axe, or, terror.
HAN , Jehovah's gift, or, grace.
HANSLI , Jehovah's gift, or, grace.
HASLI , Jehovah's gift, or, grace.
JAGLI , supplanter.
JOCHELI , (whom) Jehovah has set up.
JOCK , supplanter.
JOGG , supplanter.
JOGGELI , supplanter.
JOHAN , Jehovah's gift or grace.
JOST , sportive.
JOSTLI , sportive.
KARL , man.
KRISTA , Christian.
KRISTOFFEL , Christ-bearer.
LENZ , bay or laurel tree.
LIERT , lion strong.
LIOBA , love.
LORI , bay or laurel tree.
MÄRTI , of Mars.
MARTILI , of Mars.
MATHIAS , gift of the Lord.
MIES , whom Jehovah has established, or, appointed.
ORSCH , bear.
OURS , bear.
PELEI , of the sea.
POLI , of the sea.
RUEDELI , famous wolf.
RUEDI , famous wolf.
SAMELI , heard of God.
SAMMEL , heard of God.
SIPP , addition.
SIPPLI , addition.
STEFAN , crown.
STOFFEL , Christ-bearer.
TEBES , goodness of the Lord.
TEBOS , goodness of the Lord.
THIES , gift of God.
THIESLI , gift of God.
TOBIES , goodness of the Lord.
TOVELI , beloved.
UELI , noble ruler.
ULRICH , noble ruler.
UOLI , noble ruler.
WATLI , powerful warrior.
WILHELM , resolute helmet .
WILLE , resolute helmet .
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| msmarco_doc_00_8050369 |
http://20000-names.com/male_ukrainian_names.htm | 20000-NAMES.COM: Male Ukrainian Names, Page 1 of 1--meaning, origin, etymology. Aleksander, Andriy, Anton...Yevheniy, Yosyp, Yure. | Male Ukrainian Names
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ALEKSANDER , defender of man.
ANDRIY , man, warrior.
ANTON , inestimable.
APOSTOL , apostle, messenger.
AVEL, breath, vapor, or transitoriness.
BODASHKA , God's gift.
BOGDAN , God's gift.
BOHDAN , God's gift.
BOHDANKO , God's gift.
BOIANY , battle, or, lord.
BORYSKO , fighter, warrior.
BURIAN , dwells near the weeds.
DANILO , judge of God.
DANYA , God's gift.
DANYLETS , judge (?)
DANYLKO , judge
DANYLO , judge of God.
DMYTRO , of Demeter.
FADDEI , praise.
FADEY , praise.
FADEYKA , praise.
FADEYUSHKA , praise.
FEDIR , gift of God.
HADEON , impetuous warrior.
HEORHIY , farmer.
HRYHORIY , farmer.
ILARION , cheerful.
IVAN , God's gift.
KRYSTIYAN , Christian, follower of Christ.
KYRYLO , king, or, lord.
LYAKSANDRO , defender of man.
MATVIYKO , God's gift.
MIKHAILA , Who is like God?
MYCHAJLO , Who is like God?
MYKHAILA , Who is like God?
MYKHAILO , Who is like God?
MYKHALTSO , Who is like God?
MYKHAYLO , Who is like God?
OLEK , defender of man.
OLEKSANDER , defender of man.
OLEKSANDR , defender of man.
OLEKSIY , defender.
OSIP , He will add.
PAVLO , small.
PETRO , a stone.
PETRUSO , a stone.
PYLYP , fond of horses.
SYMON , snub-nosed, or, hearkening, obedient.
TARAS , to cross, go beyond.
TIMOFY , venerating or worshipping God.
VANKO , God's gift.
VASYL , king.
VASYLKO , king.
VOLODIMIR , ruling the world.
VOLODYMYR , ruling the world.
WASYL , king.
WOLODYMYR , ruling the world.
YAKIV , supplanter.
YEVHEN , well born.
YEVHENIY , well born.
YOSYP , He will add.
YURE , farmer.
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| msmarco_doc_00_8053440 |
http://20000-names.com/male_vietnamese_names.htm | 20000-NAMES.COM: Male Vietnamese Names, Page 1 of 1--meaning, origin, etymology | Male Vietnamese Names
| 20000-NAMES.COM: Male Vietnamese Names, Page 1 of 1--meaning, origin, etymology
Male Vietnamese Names
[ Suggest Names for this page ] [ Go to Female Vietnamese Names ]
Thị is the most common female middle name. Male middle names include C�ng , Đức, Hữu, Quang , Văn and many others.
Vietnamese middle names generally have three usages: 1) to indicate a person's generation; 2) to separate branches of a big family; 3) to indicate a person's position (birth order) in the family.
The Vietnamese given name usually has a literal meaning: for girls it often represents beauty, such as bird or flower names; for boys it often reflects attributes and characteristics that the parents want in their son, such as intelligence or modesty.
Both girls and boys are often given number names to indicate the order of birth however, this naming system is different between northern and southern Vietnamese. In south Vietnam, the first child is given the name Hai meaning two or "the second," and the second son is given the name Ba meaning three or "the third," etc. While in northern Vietnam, the first child is given the name Cả meaning "the eldest" or "the first," and the second son is given the name Hai.
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AN : Vietnamese unisex name meaning "peace." Compare with another form of An.
AN DUNG : Vietnamese name meaning "peaceful hero."
BA : Vietnamese name meaning "three; third."
BAO : Vietnamese name meaning "protection."
BINH : Vietnamese name meaning "peace."
CÀ: Northern Vietnamese unisex name meaning "the eldest; the first."
CHIEN : Vietnamese name meaning "fighter, warrior."
CHINH : Vietnamese name meaning "correctness; righteousness."
CÔNG : Vietnamese name meaning "skillful; industrious."
CUONG : Vietnamese name meaning "flourishing, healthy."
DAI : Vietnamese name meaning "great." Compare with other forms of Dai.
DANH : Vietnamese name meaning "famous, prestigious."
DINH : Vietnamese name meaning "summit."
ÐỨC : Vietnamese name meaning "desire."
DUNG : Vietnamese name meaning "brave, heroic."
DUONG : Vietnamese name meaning "virile."
HA : Vietnamese unisex name meaning "river; ocean."
HAI : Vietnamese unisex name meaning "two; second." Compare with another form of Hai.
HAO : Vietnamese unisex name meaning "good."
HIEN : Vietnamese unisex name meaning "gentle, quiet."
HIEU : Vietnamese name meaning "dutiful to parents."
HÙNG: Vietnamese name meaning "heroic."
HỮU : Vietnamese name meaning "very much." Often used as a middle name to amplify the given name.
HUYNH : Vietnamese name meaning "older brother."
LÀNH: Vietnamese name meaning "peaceful."
MINH : Vietnamese name meaning "intelligent."
NGAI : Vietnamese name meaning "herb."
NHUNG : Vietnamese unisex name meaning "velvet."
PHONG : Vietnamese name meaning "wind."
PHUC : South Vietnamese name meaning "blessings, luck."
PHUOC : North Vietnamese form of Phuc, meaning "blessings, luck."
QUAN : Vietnamese name element meaning "soldier, warrior." Compare with another form of Quan.
QUANG : Vietnamese name meaning "clear."
QUY : Vietnamese unisex name meaning "precious."
SANG : Vietnamese unisex name meaning "noble."
THANH : Vietnamese unisex name meaning "achieved, intelligent."
THAO : Vietnamese name meaning "courteous."
THINH : Vietnamese name meaning "prosperous."
THUÁN: Vietnamese name meaning "tamed."
TRAI : Vietnamese name meaning "oyster."
TRANG : Vietnamese name meaning "honorable."
TRONG : Vietnamese name meaning "respected."
TRÚC: Vietnamese unisex name meaning "bamboo."
TRUNG : Vietnamese name meaning "loyal."
TU : Vietnamese unisex name meaning "star." Compare with another form of Tu.
TUAN : Vietnamese name meaning "intelligent."
VĂN: Vietnamese name meaning "cloud" or "male."
VIEN : Vietnamese name meaning "completion."
VINH : Vietnamese name meaning "bay, gulf."
XUAN : Vietnamese unisex name meaning "spring."
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| msmarco_doc_00_8056248 |
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Male "X" Names
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XABIER : Galician-Portuguese form of Basque Xavier, meaning "a new house."
XALBADOR : Basque form of Latin Salvator, meaning "savior."
XAN :
Short form of Greek Alexandros , meaning "defender of mankind."
Short form of English Alexander, meaning "defender of mankind."
XANDER: Dutch form of Latin Alexandrus , meaning "defender of mankind."
XANTHIPPOS ( Ξάνθιππος ): Greek name composed of the elements xanthos "yellow" and hippos "horse," hence "yellow horse."
XANTI : Basque form of Spanish Santiago, meaning "Saint Iago ."
XANTHOS ( Ξάνθος ): Greek name meaning "yellow" or "blonde." In mythology, this is the name of one of two immortal horses (the other named Balios ) belonging to Achilles. They were the offspring of the harpy Podarge and the west wind Zephyros.
XANTHUS : Latin form of Greek Xanthos, meaning "yellow" or "blonde." In mythology, this is the name of one of two immortal horses (the other named Balios ) belonging to Achilles. They were the offspring of the harpy Podarge and the west wind Zephyros.
XARLES: Basque form of English/French Charles, meaning "man."
XAVER : German form of Basque Xavier, meaning "a new house."
XAVIAR : Variant spelling of Basque Xavier, meaning "a new house."
XAVIER : Basque surname transferred to forename use, derived from the place name Etcheberria , meaning "a new house."
XAVIERO : Italian form of Basque Xavier, meaning "a new house."
XAVIOR : Variant spelling of Basque Xavier, meaning "a new house."
XEMEN : Variant spelling of Basque, Ximun , meaning "hearkening."
XENOCRATES ( Ξενοκράτης ): Greek name composed of the elements xenos "foreign, strange," and kratos "power," hence "foreign power."
XENON ( Ξένων ): Greek name derived from the word xenos, meaning "foreigner; stranger."
XENOPHON ( Ξενοφών ): Greek name composed of the elements xenos "foreign, strange" and phone "voice," hence "foreign voice."
XERXES ( Ξέρξης ): Greek form of Persian Xsayarsa, meaning "great warrior" or "lion-king." In the bible, this is the name of a king of Persia. His Hebrew name is Achashverosh .
XESÚS: Galician-Portuguese form of Latin Jesus, meaning "God is salvation."
XHEMAIL : Possibly the Albanian form of Turkish Kemal , meaning "highest honor."
XIANG (1- 祥 , 2- 翔 ): Chinese unisex name meaning 1) "auspicious, lucky" or 2) "to circle in the air (like a bird)."
XIANLIANG ( 賢亮 ): Chinese name meaning "esteemed and bright."
XIAO (1- 晓 , 2- 孝 , 3- 小 , 4- 蕭 ): Chinese unisex name meaning 1) "dawn, morning," 2) "filial piety," 3) "little," and 4) "respectful, reverent."
XIAO-BO ( 小波 ): Chinese name meaning "little wave" or "little breaker."
XIAODAN ( 蕭儋 ): Chinese unisex name meaning "little-helper."
XIAOFAN ( 蕭範 ): Chinese unisex name meaning "little obedient one."
XIAO-JIAN ( 蕭鑒 ): Chinese name meaning "revered sage."
XIAO-JING ( 孝經 ): Chinese name meaning "enduring filial piety."
XIAO-SHENG (1- 孝圣 or 孝聖, 2- 小生 ): Chinese unisex name meaning 1) "filially pious and holy/wise," and 2) "little essence or being."
XIAO-SI ( 蕭嗣 ): Chinese name meaning "respectful heir."
XIAO-TONG ( 孝通 ): Chinese unisex name meaning "filially pious and progressive."
XIAO-WEN ( 晓文 ): Chinese unisex name meaning "dawn-cultured."
XICOHTENCATL: Nahuatl name meaning "angry bumblebee."
XIHUITL : Nahuatl unisex name meaning "year" or "comet."
XIMEN : Spanish form of Basque Ximun, meaning "hearkening."
XIMENES : Variant spelling of Mexican Ximenez, meaning "hearkening."
XIMENEZ : Mexican form of Spanish Ximen , meaning "hearkening."
XIMON : Variant spelling of Basque, Ximun, meaning "hearkening."
XIMUN : Basque form of Greek Simōn , meaning "hearkening."
XIN ( 新 ): Chinese name meaning "new."
XING ( 星 ): Chinese name meaning "star."
XIPIL : Nahuatl unisex name meaning "noble of the fire."
XIPILLI : Nahuatl name meaning "jeweled prince."
XIUHCOATL : Nahuatl unisex name meaning "fire serpent" or "weapon of destruction."
XOÁN: Galician-Portuguese form of Latin Johannes, meaning "God is gracious."
XOCHIPEPE : Nahuatl name meaning "flower-gatherer."
XOCHIPILLI : Aztec myth name of a god of love, music, and flowers, meaning "flower prince."
XOSÉ: Galician-Portuguese form of Latin Josephus , meaning " (God) shall add (another son)."
XSAYARSA ( خشایارشاه ): Persian name meaning "great warrior" or "lion-king." In the bible, this is the name of a king of Persia. His Hebrew name is Achashverosh . His Greek name is Xerxes.
XUAN : Vietnamese unisex name meaning "spring."
XUE (1- 学 , 2- 粵, 3- 雪 ): Chinese unisex name meaning 1) "education, knowledge, learning," 2) man-made ice, and 3) "snow."
XUEQIN ( 雪芹 ): Chinese name meaning "snow celery."
XUEYOU : Chinese name meaning "studious and friendly."
XURXO : Galician-Portuguese form of Latin Georgius , meaning "earth-worker, farmer."
XZAVIER: English form of Basque Xavier, meaning "a new house."
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http://20000-names.com/metallic_names.htm | 20000-NAMES.COM: Metallic Names, page 1 of 1--meaning, origin, etymology | 20000-NAMES.COM: Metallic Names, page 1 of 1--meaning, origin, etymology
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Metallic Names
Names that mean anvil, brass, bronze, gold, iron, iron-like, metal, silver.
Strong as iron. Names of deities of metal. Metal-related names.
[ Suggest Names for this page ]
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UNISEX:
KIN ( 欽 ): Japanese unisex name meaning "gold."
SILVER : English unisex name meaning "silver," which may refer to either the precious metal or the color.
VANNA : Cambodian Khmer unisex name meaning "golden." Compare with another form of Vanna.
MALE:
ALTAN ( Алтан ): Mongolian name meaning "gold."
ARDIT ( Ардит ): Albanian name meaning "golden day."
ARGYRIS ( Αργυρις ): Variant spelling of Greek Argyros, meaning "silvery."
ARGYROS ( Αργυρός ): Greek name derived from the word argyros, meaning "silvery."
ARIAN : Variant spelling of Albanian Arjan, meaning "golden life." Compare with another form of Arian.
ARJAN : Albanian name meaning "golden life." Compare with another form of Arjan .
ARLIND: Albanian name meaning "gold."
ARMEND: Albanian name meaning "golden mind."
AUREL : German and Romanian form of Roman Latin Aurelius , meaning "golden."
AURÈLE: French form of Roman Latin Aurelius , meaning "golden."
AURELIANO : Spanish form of Roman Latin Aurelianus , meaning "golden."
AURELIANUS : From Roman Latin Aurelius , meaning "golden."
AURELIEN : French form of Roman Latin Aurelianus, meaning "golden."
AURELIO : Italian and Spanish form of Roman Latin Aurelius, meaning "golden."
AURELIUS : Roman name derived from Latin aureus, meaning "golden."
AURELIUSZ : Polish form of Roman Latin Aurelius , meaning "golden."
AURIEL : Latin name meaning "gold" or "golden."
BARZILAI : Anglicized form of Hebrew Barzillay, meaning "man of iron."
BARZILLAI : Anglicized form of Hebrew Barzillay, meaning "man of iron." In the bible, this is the name of several characters, including a Gileadite leader who helped David against Absalom 's rebellion.
BARZILLAY ( בַּרְזִלַי ): Hebrew name meaning "man of iron." In the bible, this is the name of several characters, including a Gileadite leader who helped David against Absalom 's rebellion.
BENIPÉ: Egyptian name meaning "iron."
BESART: Albanian name meaning "golden oath."
CHRYSANTHOS ( Χρύσανθος ): Greek name composed of the elements chrysos "gold" and anthemon "a flower," hence "golden flower."
CHRYSANTHUS : Latin form of Greek Chrysanthos , meaning "golden flower."
CHRYSAOR : Latin form of Greek Khrysaor , meaning "golden sword." In mythology, this is the name of a son of Poseidon and the Gorgon Medusa . He is usually described as a giant, but sometimes as a winged boar, just as his twin brother Pegasus is described as a winged horse.
CHRYSES : Latin form of Greek Khryses , meaning "golden." In mythology, this is the name of a priest of Apollo.
EINION : Welsh name probably derived from the word einion , meaning "anvil."
ELIDYR : Welsh name meaning "brass, bronze."
EURIG : Welsh name derived from the element aur, meaning "gold."
FERRO : Old Italian byname for someone with a strong physique, meaning "iron."
FERRUCCIO : Pet form of Italian Ferro, meaning "iron."
GILFORD : English surname transferred to forename use, derived from a variant of the surname Guilford , composed of Old English gylde "golden" and ford "ford," hence "golden river crossing."
GIOLLADHE: Irish name meaning "golden."
GOGIL : Variant spelling of Russian Gogol, meaning "golden-eyed duck."
GOGOL ( Го́голь ): Russian name meaning "golden-eyed duck."
GOLDA : Old English name meaning "gold." Compare with feminine Golda.
GUGAL : Variant spelling of Russian Gogol , meaning "golden-eyed duck."
HEPHAESTUS : Latin form of Greek Hephaistos, possibly meaning "seven." In mythology, this is the name of the lame god of artisans, craftsmen, metallurgy and fire. His Roman name is Vulcan. It was from the forge of this god that Prometheus stole fire to give to man. He is also known by the epithet "both feet crooked."
HEPHAISTOS ( Ήφαιστος ): Greek name said to be pre-Hellenic and of unknown origin, but possibly from the word hepta, meaning "seven." In mythology, this is the name of the lame god of artisans, craftsmen, metallurgy and fire. His Roman name is Vulcan. It was from the forge of this god that Prometheus stole fire to give to man. He is also known by the epithet "both feet crooked."
HUOJIN ( 金霍 ): Chinese name meaning "fire god" or "fire metal."
IRONSIDE, SIR : In Arthurian legend, this is the knight who slaughtered all the knights except Gareth who came to save Lyonesse. He is said to have had the strength of seven men, and was known as the Red Knight of the Red Launds .
JIN ( 金 ): Chinese name meaning "gold, metal."
JINHAI ( 海金 ): Chinese name meaning "golden sea."
JIN-HO ( 豪金 ): Korean name meaning "golden hero/leader."
JINJING ( 金精 ): Chinese name meaning "essence of gold."
KHRYSAOR ( Χρυσάωρ ): Greek name meaning "golden sword." In mythology, this is the name of a son of Poseidon and the Gorgon Medusa . He is usually described as a giant, but sometimes as a winged boar, just as his twin brother Pegasus is described as a winged horse.
KHRYSES ( Χρύσης ): Greek myth name of a priest of Apollo , derived from the word khrysos, meaning "golden."
MAZA BLASKA : Native American Dakota name meaning "flat iron."
NUADA : Irish name, possibly derived from Proto-Indo-European * sneudh , meaning "fog." In mythology, this is the name of a king of the Tuatha Dé Danann, best remembered by the name Airgetlám ("silver arm/hand"), an epithet bestowed on him after his hand or arm was cut off by a Fir Bolg warrior in the first Battle of Magh Tuiredh.
OERIC : Anglo-Saxon name, possibly meaning "golden."
OFER : Variant spelling of English Ofir, meaning "gold" or "reducing to ashes."
OFIR : Variant spelling of English Ophir, meaning "gold" or "reducing to ashes."
OPHER : Variant spelling of English Ophir, meaning "gold" or "reducing to ashes."
OPHIR : Anglicized form of Hebrew Owphiyr, meaning "gold" or "reducing to ashes." In the bible, this is the name for gold and its characteristics, the name of a land or city, and the name of the eleventh son of Joktan.
ORAL : Swiss form of Roman Latin Aurelius, meaning "golden."
OREL : Swiss form of Roman Latin Aurelius, meaning "golden." Compare with another form of Orel.
ORVAL : Variant spelling of English Orville, probably meaning "golden city."
ORVILLE : English literary name created by Fanny Burney, author of the 1778 novel Evelina , probably intended to mean "golden city."
OWPHIYR ( ריפִוֹא , רפִוֹא , ריפִאׄ ): Hebrew name meaning "gold" or "reducing to ashes." In the bible, this is the name for gold and its characteristics, the name of a land or city, and the name of the eleventh son of Joktan.
REZAR: Albanian name composed of the elements rreze "ray," and ar "gold," hence "golden ray."
REZART : Variant spelling of Albanian Rezar, meaning "golden ray."
TEMÜJIN : Mongolian name meaning "of iron."
THUANTHONG : Thai name meaning "golden spear."
TIMOUR : Variant spelling of Russian Timur, meaning "iron."
TIMUR ( Тиму́р ): Russian name derived from the Turkish word for "iron."
TRAHAEARN : Welsh name composed of the elements tra "very" and haearn "iron," hence "very iron-like."
TRAHERNE : Anglicized form of Welsh Trahaearn, meaning "very iron-like."
TUBAL-CAIN : Anglicized form of Hebrew Tuwbal Qayin, meaning "thou shall be brought of Cain ." In the bible, this is the name of a son of Lamech, said to be an instructor of every artificer in brass and iron.
TUNÇ: Turkish name meaning "bronze."
TUWBAL QAYIN ( תּוּבַל קַיִן ): Hebrew name meaning "thou shall be brought of Cain ." In the bible, this is the name of a son of Lamech, said to be an instructor of every artificer in brass and iron.
UPAZ ( אוּפָּז ): Hebrew name meaning "gold."
URRE : Basque name meaning "gold."
ZILAR : Basque name meaning "silver."
ZLATAN (Serbian: Златан ): Croatian and Serbian name meaning "gold."
ZLATKO : Croatian pet form of Croatian/Serbian Zlatan, meaning "gold."
FEMALE:
ARANKA : Hungarian form of Latin Aurelia, meaning "golden."
ARDITA : Feminine form of Albanian Ardit, meaning "golden day."
ARIANA : Feminine form of Albanian Arian , meaning "golden life." Compare with another form of Ariana.
ARIANRHOD : Modern form of Welsh Aranrhod ("huge/round/humped wheel"), but having a different origin and meaning, composed of the Welsh elements arian "silver" and rhod "wheel," hence "silver wheel."
ARJANA : Feminine form of Albanian Arjan, meaning "golden life."
ARLINDA : Feminine form of Albanian Arlind, meaning "gold."
ARTA : Albanian name, possibly from the Greek city name, meaning "golden."
AURELIA : Feminine form of Roman Latin Aurelius , meaning "golden."
AURÉLIE: Feminine form of French Aurèle , meaning "golden."
AURNIA: Irish name meaning "golden lady."
CHRYSANTA : Latin form of Greek Chrysanthe , meaning "golden flower."
CHRYSANTHE ( Χρυσάνθη ): Feminine form of Greek Chrysanthos , meaning "golden flower."
CHRYSEIS : Latin form of Greek Khryseis , meaning "golden." In mythology, this is the name of a Trojan girl mentioned briefly in Homer 's Iliad.
CHRYSSA : English pet form of Latin Chrysanta, meaning "golden flower."
CRESSIDA : From the English literary name found in various retellings of the Trojan War, based on the Greek name Khryseis, from khrysos, meaning "gold."
EARTA : Albanian name meaning "the golden one."
EURWEN : Welsh name composed of the elements aur "gold" and ( g) wen "fair, holy, white."
FIDDA ( فضّة ): Arabic name meaning "silver."
FIZZA ( فضّة ): Variant spelling of Arabic Fidda, meaning "silver."
GINA : Japanese name meaning "silvery." Compare with other forms of Gina.
GOLDA ( גּוֹלְדָה ): Yiddish name meaning "golden." Compare with masculine Golda.
GOLDE :
Feminine form of Old English Golda , meaning "gold."
Variant spelling of Yiddish Golda, meaning "golden."
GOLDIE : Pet form of Yiddish Golda , meaning "golden." Compare with another form of Goldie.
KHRYSEIS ( Χρύσηίς ): Greek name derived from the word khrysos, meaning "golden." In mythology, this is the name of a Trojan girl mentioned briefly in Homer 's Iliad.
KIM : Vietnamese name meaning "golden." Compare with another form of Kim.
KIM CUC : Vietnamese name meaning "golden chrysanthemum."
KIM-LY : Vietnamese name meaning "golden lion."
KIN ( 欽 ): Japanese unisex name meaning "gold."
LUJAYN ( لجين ): Arabic name meaning "silver."
MAI : Vietnamese name meaning "golden flower." Compare with another form of Mai.
MARIGOLD : English name derived from the flower name, composed of the name Mary "obstinacy, rebelliousness" or "their rebellion" and the word "gold."
NECHUSHTA ( נְחֻשְׁתָּא ): Hebrew name meaning "brass." In the bible, this is the name of the wife of King Jehoiakim , the mother of Jehoichin.
NEHUSHTA : Anglicized form of Hebrew Nechushta, meaning "brass." In the bible, this is the name of the wife of King Jehoiakim , the mother of Jehoiachin.
NUBIA : From the African country name, itself possibly from the Egyptian word nbw, meaning "gold."
NUBIT : Variant of Egyptian Nubiti , meaning "golden lady."
NUBITI : Egyptian name meaning "golden lady."
ORABEL : English name derived from Italian Orabella, meaning "golden beautiful."
ORABELA : Esperanto form of Italian Orabella, meaning "golden beautiful."
ORABELLA : Italian name meaning "golden beautiful."
ORABELLE : French form of Italian Orabella , meaning "golden beautiful."
ORALEE : Variant spelling of English Oralie, meaning "golden." Compare with another form of Oralee.
ORALIE : English form of French Aurélie , meaning "golden."
ÓRFHLAITH : Irish Gaelic name composed of the elements ór "gold" and flaith "princess," hence "gold-princess."
ORIANA : Latin name first found in the medieval romance Amadis of Gaul , as the name of the king's daughter who married the Gaulish knight Amadis , possibly from the medieval Latin word oroana, meaning "golden."
ORIANE : French from of Latin Oriana, possibly meaning "golden."
ORIANNE : Variant spelling of French Oriane, possibly meaning "golden."
ORLA : Anglicized form of Irish Gaelic Órfhlaith, meaning "gold-princess."
ORLAGH : Anglicized form of Irish Gaelic Órfhlaith, meaning "gold-princess."
ÓRLAITH: Variant spelling of Irish Gaelic Órfhlaith , meaning "gold-princess."
PETA : Native American Blackfoot name meaning "golden eagle." Compare with another form of Peta.
REZARTA : Feminine form of Albanian Rezart, meaning "golden ray."
RITHIKA : Variant spelling of Hindi Ritika, meaning "brass" or "stream."
RITIKA ( रीतिका ): Hindi name meaning "brass" or "stream."
RUKMINI ( रुक्मिणी ): Hindi legend name of a lover of Krishna , meaning "adorned with gold."
SIMIN ( سیمین ): Persian name meaning "silvery."
SONAL ( सोनल ): Hindi name meaning "golden."
SOOLEAWA : Native American Algonquin name meaning "silver."
SREBRENKA : Serbian name meaning "silver."
URREA : Feminine form of Basque Urre, meaning "gold."
VOSGEDZAM : Armenian name meaning "golden hair."
VOSGETEL : Armenian name meaning "golden thread."
VOSGI: Armenian name meaning "gold."
VOSHKIE: Armenian name meaning "golden."
WORKNESH : African Amharic name meaning "you are like gold."
ZAREEN: Persian name meaning "golden."
ZLATA (Yiddish: זְלַאטָא ):
Croatian feminine form of Croatian/Serbian Zlatan, meaning "gold."
Yiddish form of Polish Złota , meaning "golden."
ZLATE ( זְלַאטֶע ): Variant form of Yiddish Zlata, meaning "golden."
ZŁOTA : Polish name meaning "golden." In mythology, Złota Baba ("golden woman") is the name of a goddess of oracles who grants visions in gold."
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A-Z Baby Names
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Boy Names
A , B, C , D, E , F, G , H, I , J, K , L, M , N, O , P, Q , R, S , T, U , V, W , X, Y , Z
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Pet Names
Names for your pets. Grouped by species.
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| msmarco_doc_00_8070047 | |
http://20000-names.com/night_names.htm | 20000-NAMES.COM: Night Names, page 1 of 1--meaning, origin, etymology | 20000-NAMES.COM: Night Names, page 1 of 1--meaning, origin, etymology
***
Night Names, Evening Names
Names that mean night or evening. Night-related names. Also see Dark names .
[ Suggest Names for this page ]
Page 1 of 1
UNISEX:
ARRATS : Basque unisex name meaning "early evening; dusk."
MALE:
BUDDE : African Ganda name meaning "night; occasion; time; weather."
BUTANNAZIBA : African Ganda name meaning "before the night."
GAU : Basque name meaning "night."
HESPEROS ( Ἓσπερος ): Greek name meaning "evening." In mythology, this is the name of a son of Eos , one of the gods of the evening star Venus, the other being Eosphoros . They were later combined into one god. His Latin name is Vesperus.
HESPERUS : Variant spelling of Greek Hesperos, meaning "evening." In mythology, this is the name of a son of Eos, one of the gods of the evening star Venus, the other being Eosphoros . They were later combined into one god. His Latin name is Vesperus.
NISHANT ( िनशा ): Hindi name meaning "dawn; end of night."
ODHIAMBO : African Luo name meaning "born in the evening."
ORFEO : Italian form of Greek Orpheus, meaning either "deprived" or "darkness."
ORPHEUS ( Ὀρφεύς ): Greek name derived either from orbhao "deprived" or orphe "darkness." In mythology, this is the name of a musician who charmed Hades with his lyre in an attempt to rescue his wife from the underworld.
OTIENO : African Luo name meaning "born at night."
RAJANIKANT ( रजनीकांत ): Hindi name meaning "lord of night."
SUMMANUS : Roman myth name of a god of nocturnal lightning and thunder, meaning "nighttime."
VESPER : Short form of Roman Latin Vesperus , meaning "evening." In mythology, this is the name of a son of Eos , the masculine personification of the evening star Venus.
VESPERUS : Roman Latin form of Greek Hesperos , meaning "evening."
YISKA : Native American Navajo name meaning "the night has passed."
FEMALE:
ADHIAMBO : Feminine form of African Luo Odhiambo, meaning "born in the evening."
AJAMBO : African Luo name meaning "born in the evening."
AMAYA : Japanese name meaning "night rain." Compare with another form of Amaya.
ATIENO : Feminine form of African Luo Otieno , meaning "born at night."
ILTA : Finnish name meaning "night."
ISRA ( إسراء ): Arabic name derived from the word sara, meaning "travel at night."
KOKO : Native American Blackfoot name meaning "night."
LAILA ( ليلى ): Variant spelling of Arabic Leila, meaning "night."
LAYLA (Arabic: ليلى ):
Egyptian name meaning "born at night."
Variant spelling of Arabic Leila, meaning "night."
LEILA (Arabic: ليلى, Hebrew: לַיְלָה , Persian: لیلا ):
Arabic name meaning "night."
Hebrew name meaning "night" or "dark Oriental beauty."
Persian name meaning "dark-haired."
LEILAH :
Variant spelling of Arabic Leila, meaning "night."
Variant spelling of Hebrew Leila, meaning "night" or "dark Oriental beauty."
LEYLA ( ليلى ): Variant spelling of Arabic Leila, meaning "night."
LILA ( ليلی ): Variant spelling of Arabic Leila , meaning "night." Compare with other forms of Lila.
LILIT ( לִילִית ): Variant spelling of Hebrew Lilith, meaning "of the night."
LILITH ( לִילִית ): Hebrew form of Sumerian Lilitu, meaning "of the night." In mythology, this is the name of a Mesopotamian storm demon associated with the wind and thought to bear disease and death. In ancient Semitic folklore, it is the name of a night demon. The oldest story considers Lilith to be Adam 's first wife. In the bible, this is simply a word for a "screech owl."
LILITU : Sumerian name meaning "of the night."
NISHA ( निशा ): Hindi name meaning "night."
NOX : Roman Latin form of Greek Nyx, meaning "night."
NYX ( Νύξ ): Greek name meaning "night." In mythology, this is the name of a goddess of night.
PUENGI : Chamoru name meaning "night."
RAJANI ( रजनी ): Hindi name meaning "night." In mythology, this is another name of the goddess Kali.
SAMAR ( سمر ): Arabic name meaning "evening conversation."
Page 1 of 1
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A-Z Baby Names
Girl Names
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Boy Names
A , B, C , D, E , F, G , H, I , J, K , L, M , N, O , P, Q , R, S , T, U , V, W , X, Y , Z
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Pet Names
Names for your pets. Grouped by species.
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Butterfly Names, Dragon Names, Dream Names ,
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| msmarco_doc_00_8090241 | |
http://20000-names.com/pet_names_bird.htm | 20000-NAMES.COM: Female Pet Bird Names, page 1 of 1--meaning, origin, etymology | 20000-NAMES.COM: Female Pet Bird Names, page 1 of 1--meaning, origin, etymology
***
Female Pet Bird Names
Names for pet birds. Bird- and flight-related names. Names that mean bird, birdlike,
winged, flyer, feather, dove, owl, pigeon, robin, sparrow, stork, turkey, vulture, wren, etc.
Also see Swan, Goose, and Duck Names, Crow and Raven Names, Eagle Names and Hawk Names.
[ Suggest Names for this page ] [ Go to Pet Names A-Z Page ] [ Go to Male Bird Names ]
ADERYN : Welsh name meaning "bird."
AGHAVNI : Armenian name meaning "pigeon."
AIAH : Anglicized form of Hebrew unisex Ayah, meaning "falcon" or "vulture." In the bible, this is the name of the father of Rizpah , and a Horite, the son of Zibeon.
ALCYONE : Latin form of Greek Alkyone, meaning "kingfisher." In mythology, this is the name of a star-nymph loved by Poseidon. She is the daughter of Atlas and Plêionê.
ALETA : Spanish name meaning "winged."
ALKYONE ( Ἁλκυόνη ): Greek name meaning "kingfisher." In mythology, this is the name of a star-nymph loved by Poseidon. She is the daughter of Atlas and Plêionê.
ALTAIR ( الطير ): Modern English unisex name derived from the name of the brightest star in the constellation Aquila, from an Arabic word meaning "the bird" or "the flyer."
AVICE : Variant spelling of English Avis, meaning "bird."
AVIS : English adopted use of German Avis ("refuge in war"). But its popularity in the Middle Ages was due to its association with the Latin noun avis, meaning "bird."
AYA (Hebrew: אַיָּה , Japanese: 1- 彩 , 2- 綾 ):
Japanese name meaning 1) "colorful" or 2) "design."
Variant spelling of Hebrew unisex Ayah, meaning "falcon" or "vulture."
AYAH ( אַיָּה ): Hebrew unisex name meaning "falcon" or "vulture." In the bible, this is the name of the father of Rizpah , and a Horite, the son of Zibeon.
CALANDRA : Italian surname transferred to forename use, meaning "skylark." This name may have originally been a byname for someone with a good singing voice.
ČAPEKA : Hungarian form of Czech/Slovak Capeka, meaning "little stork."
CAPEKA : Czech and Slovak name meaning "little stork."
CELANDINE : English name derived from the name of a yellow wildflower, from Greek chelidon , meaning "a swallow bird."
CELINDA : Modern English name, possibly a blend of Celandine (bird and flower name) and Linda from the Spanish word meaning "pretty."
CHASIDA ( חֲסִידָה ): Hebrew name meaning "stork" and "righteous."
CHASIDAH : Variant spelling of Hebrew Chasida , meaning "stork" and "righteous."
CHICHIRIKA : Chamoru name meaning "bird."
CHIRIKA : Short form of Chamoru Chichirika , meaning "bird."
CHOSOVI : Native American Hopi name meaning "bluebird."
CHOSPOSI : Native American Hopi name meaning "bluebird eye."
COCO : Originally from the Italian occupational name for a "cook," it is now in continental use as a pet form of longer names beginning with Co-.
COLMCILLA: Irish name meaning "dove of the church."
COLOMBE : French unisex form of Latin Columba , meaning "dove."
COLOMBINA : Feminine form of Italian Colombano , meaning "dove."
COLUMBINE :
English name derived from the plant name columbine , from Late Latin columbina, meaning "verbina" or "dovelike," so-called because when inverted the flower resembles a cluster of doves.
Feminine form of Latin Columba , meaning "dove."
DERYN: Welsh name, probably from the word aderyn, meaning "bird."
DOLI : Native American Navajo name meaning "bluebird."
ETALPALLI: Nahuatl unisex name meaning "wing."
FAIGEL ( פֵייגל ): Variant spelling of Yiddish Feigel, meaning "bird."
FEIGEL ( פֵייגל ): Variant spelling of Yiddish Feygl, meaning "bird."
FEYGL : Yiddish translation of Hebrew Tsipporah , derived from the vocabulary word foygl, meaning "bird."
HALCYON : Variant spelling of Latin Alcyone, meaning "kingfisher."
HALCYONE : Latin form of Greek Halkyone, meaning "kingfisher."
HALKYONE ( Ἁλκυόνη ): Variant spelling of Greek Alkyone, meaning "kingfisher." In mythology, this was the name of a daughter of Æolus and Cyx.
HASIDA ( חֲסִידָה ): Variant spelling of Hebrew Chasida , meaning "stork" and "righteous."
HONEY : English name derived from the vocabulary word "honey." Also a term of endearment.
IUITL : Nahuatl unisex name meaning "feather."
JEMIMA : Anglicized form of Hebrew Yemiymah , meaning "dove." In the bible, this is the name of one of Job 's three daughters.
KAPEKA ( Капека ): Russian form of Czech/Slovak Capeka, meaning "little stork."
KARAWEK : Thai name meaning "bird."
KESTREL : English name derived from the name of the bird of prey, from Old French cresserelle, a derivative of cressele, meaning "rattle," in reference to the sound of the bird's cry.
LÆRKE: Danish name meaning "lark (the bird)."
LETA : Short form of Spanish Aleta , meaning "winged." Compare with another form of Leta.
LILITH ( לִילִית ): Hebrew form of Sumerian Lilitu, meaning "of the night." In mythology, this is the name of a Mesopotamian storm demon associated with the wind and thought to bear disease and death. In ancient Semitic folklore, it is the name of a night demon. The oldest story considers Lilith to be Adam 's first wife. In the bible, this is simply a word for a "screech owl."
LITONYA : Native American Miwok name meaning "darting hummingbird."
LILUYE : Native American Miwok name meaning "singing chicken hawk that soars."
LLINOS : Welsh name meaning "greenfinch (bird)."
MAVIS : English bird name, meaning "song thrush."
MERLA : Feminine form of English unisex Merle, meaning "blackbird."
MERLE : English unisex name, derived from the Old French word merle, meaning "blackbird." It first came to public notice in the 1930s with the actress Merle Oberon, and is mostly given to girls.
MERLETTA : Feminine pet form of English unisex Merle, meaning "blackbird."
LARK : English unisex name derived from the vocabulary word, from Old English lawcere, meaning "song-bird."
NASCHA : Native American Navajo name meaning "owl."
PAHARITA : Chamoru name meaning "little bird."
PALOMA : Spanish name meaning "dove, pigeon."
PHOENIX : Latin form of Greek Phoinix, meaning "crimson." In mythology, this is the name of an immortal bird who would rise from its own ashes after being consumed by fire every 500 years. The name has been adopted into English use as a unisex name.
POUNIG : Armenian name meaning "phoenix bird."
PULES : Native American Algonquin name meaning "pigeon."
QUILLA : Middle English name meaning "feather, quill."
QUYEN : Vietnamese name meaning "bird."
ROBIN : Unisex pet form of English Robert and Roberta, meaning "bright fame." This name is also sometimes given as a bird name.
SHAKUNTALA ( शकुन्तला ): Hindi name meaning "bird." In mythology, this is the name of the mother of Emperor Bharata.
SHIKOBA : Native American Choctaw unisex name meaning "feather."
SPARROW : English unisex name derived from the bird name "sparrow."
SULETU : Native American Miwok name meaning "flies."
SUZUME ( 雀 ): Japanese name meaning "sparrow."
TAIPA : Native American Miwok name meaning "spread wings."
TAKCHAWEE : Native American Sioux name meaning "dove."
TEGHTSANIG : Armenian name meaning "canary bird."
TOIBA : Variant spelling of Yiddish Toibe, meaning "dove."
TOIBE ( טוֹיבֶּע ): Yiddish name meaning "dove."
TORI ( תּוֹרִי ): Hebrew name meaning "my turtledove." Compare with another form of Tori.
TSIPPORAH ( צִפּוֹרָה ): Hebrew name meaning "bird." In the bible, this is the name of the wife of Moses. The Anglicized form is Zipporah.
TXORI : Basque name meaning "bird."
TZIPORAH : Variant spelling of Hebrew Tsipporah, meaning "bird."
USOA : Basque name meaning "dove."
WREN: English name derived from the vocabulary word for the bird, wren, from Old English wrenna , meaning simply "wren." In many other languages, the name of this bird denotes "royalty."
XIANG (1- 祥 , 2- 翔 ): Chinese unisex name meaning 1) "auspicious, lucky" or 2) "to circle in the air (like a bird)."
XOCHIQUETZAL: Nahuatl myth name of the twin sister of Xochipilli , meaning "flower feather."
YEMIMA ( יְמִימָה ): Variant spelling of Hebrew Yemiymah, meaning "dove."
YEMIYMAH ( יְמִימָה ): Hebrew name meaning "dove." In the bible, this is the name of one of Job 's three daughters.
YONIT ( יוֹנִית ): Feminine form of Hebrew Yonah, meaning "dove."
YU (1- 宇 , 2- 鱼 , 3- 羽, 4- 玉 , 5- 聿 ): Chinese unisex name meaning 1) "appearance, countenance," 2) "fish," 3) "feather, wing," 4) "jade," and 5) "nimble, quick."
YUSHENG (1- 鱼生 , 2- 羽生 ): Chinese unisex name meaning 1) "fish-life" or 2) "winged life."
ZIPPORAH : Anglicized form of Hebrew Tsipporah , meaning "bird." In the bible, this is the name of the wife of Moses.
ZITKALA : Native American Dakota name meaning "bird."
***
***
A-Z Baby Names
Girl Names
A , B, C , D, E , F, G , H, I , J, K , L, M , N, O , P, Q , R, S , T, U , V, W , X, Y , Z
Boy Names
A , B, C , D, E , F, G , H, I , J, K , L, M , N, O , P, Q , R, S , T, U , V, W , X, Y , Z
***
Pet Names
Names for your pets. Grouped by species.
Naming Tips & Quips
Miscellany
a2z Menu
Books consulted
Privacy & Contact Info
Site Map
***
Special Categories
Butterfly Names, Dragon Names, Dream Names ,
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Flower Names,
Funny Names , Rainbow Names, Secret Names, Shadow Names, Warrior Names, Weapon/Armor Names,
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| msmarco_doc_00_8096664 | |
http://20000-names.com/pet_names_reptile.htm | 20000-NAMES.COM: Pet Reptile Names, page 1 of 1--meaning, origin, etymology | 20000-NAMES.COM: Pet Reptile Names, page 1 of 1--meaning, origin, etymology
***
Pet Reptile Names
Names for pet reptiles. Names that mean crocodile, frog, lizard, slither, toad,
tortoise, turtle, etc. Also see Dragon, Serpent and Snake Names, and Green Color Names.
[ Suggest Names for this page ] [ Go to Pet Names A-Z Page ]
UNISEX REPTILE NAMES:
SNICKERS: From the vocabulary word meaning "a stifled laugh." Variant: Sniggers.
XIUHCOATL : Nahuatl unisex name meaning "fire serpent" or "weapon of destruction."
MALE REPTILE NAMES:
ADDANC : In Welsh legend, this is the name of a lake monster that King Arthur (or Percival ) killed. It is variously described as a demon, a dwarf, beaver, or crocodile. It was said to prey upon anyone foolish enough to swim in its lake.
APEP : Egyptian name, possibly connected to the root pp, meaning "to slither." In mythology, Apep is the personification of evil, seen as a giant snake, serpent or dragon. Known as the Serpent of the Nile or Evil Lizard, he was an enemy of the sun god.
APOPHIS ( Άποφις ): Greek form of Egyptian Apep, possibly meaning "to slither." In mythology, Apep is the personification of evil, seen as a giant snake, serpent or dragon. Known as the Serpent of the Nile or Evil Lizard, he was an enemy of the sun god.
BANJO : From the vocabulary word. Good turtle name?
CIPACTLI : Nahuatl name meaning "crocodile."
CRUISER: From the vocabulary word meaning 1) a squad car; 2) like a fast warship; 3) a cabin cruiser; 4) slang for one who travels a lot.
CUETZPALLI: Nahuatl name meaning "lizard."
DENIZEN: From the vocabulary word meaning 1) an animal or plant naturalized in a region; a resident; an inhabitant; 2) one who frequents a particular place.
FANDANGO: 1) Spanish or Spanish-American dance; 2) nonsense, tomfoolery, or foolish behavior.
FUDU : African Zulu name meaning "tortoise."
GONZO: From the Italian word gonzo , meaning "blockhead; simpleton." Sometimes used as a slang term for someone who is "unconventional; different; strange."
JIGGY: An invented name meaning "like a piece of a puzzle." Variant: Jiggie.
JIGSAW: From the vocabulary word meaning 1) a kind of puzzle; 2) a kind of power-driven reciprocating saw.
KOBE : African Swahili name meaning "tortoise."
MACHAKW : Native American Hopi name meaning "horny toad."
MAGMA: From the vocabulary word meaning "dregs," from Latin magma "dregs of an ointment," itself from Greek magma "an ointment."
MAGNETO: Either from the comic strip character or the electrical term for a generator in an internal combustion engine.
MEATBALL: From the vocabulary word meaning 1) a spherical mass of ground meat; 2) one who is silly, funny, clumsy.
MEATLOAF: From the vocabulary word meaning " a baked loaf of ground meat."
MONSOON: From the vocabulary word for the southwestern wind that brings heavy rainfall to southern Asia in the summer. The word ultimately derives from Arabic mawsim "appropriate season (for a pilgrimage)," from wasama, meaning "he marked."
MOONY: Invented name meaning "of or like the moon." Variant: Moonie.
NEXUS: From the vocabulary word meaning 1) a link or tie; 2) a core or center (of communication).
NIMROD : Anglicized form of Hebrew Nimrowd, meaning "rebel." In the bible, this is the name of a great-grandson of Noah who was a renowned hunter.
NIMROWD ( נִמְרוֹד ): Hebrew name meaning "rebel." In the bible, this is the name of a great-grandson of Noah who was a renowned hunter.
PESTER: From the vocabulary word meaning "to bother; to harass."
PESTO: From the name of an Italian sauce consisting of basil, garlic, pine nuts, olive oil, and grated cheese. The word is a contracted form of pestato, the past participle of pestare, meaning "to crush or pound."
RICKSHAW: From the vocabulary word meaning "a two-wheeled carriage drawn by a person." It is an abbreviated form of jinrikisha , a word made popular by Kipling, composed of the Japanese elements jin "man," riki "power," and sha "carriage."
SEISMO: From Greek seismos, meaning "earthquake," itself from seiein, meaning "to shake."
SNAPPER: From the vocabulary word meaning 1) one that snaps; 2) a snapping turtle.
SNARK: From the computer term meaning " system failure."
SWAMI ( स्वामी ): From the Hindu title of honor, meaning "master (of self)," or "owner of oneself." Many Yogis and Gurus hold this title.
TARGET: From the vocabulary word meaning 1) desired goal; 2) a small round shield; 3) to aim at a target.
TOOANTUH : Native American Cherokee name meaning "spring frog."
ZIPPER : From the vocabulary word zip, for a dog that "moves fast, speedily, quickly."
FEMALE REPTILE NAMES:
ANYANG : African Luo name meaning "crocodile."
AWANATA : Native American Miwok name meaning "turtle."
HEQET : Egyptian name of a frog-headed goddess of fertility, meaning "frog."
KAME : Japanese name meaning "tortoise (symbol of long life)."
KAMEYO : Japanese name meaning "tortoise (symbol of long life)."
METHOATASKE : Native American Shawnee name meaning "turtle laying its eggs."
PAKWA : Native American Hopi name meaning "frog."
***
***
A-Z Baby Names
Girl Names
A , B, C , D, E , F, G , H, I , J, K , L, M , N, O , P, Q , R, S , T, U , V, W , X, Y , Z
Boy Names
A , B, C , D, E , F, G , H, I , J, K , L, M , N, O , P, Q , R, S , T, U , V, W , X, Y , Z
***
Pet Names
Names for your pets. Grouped by species.
Naming Tips & Quips
Miscellany
a2z Menu
Books consulted
Privacy & Contact Info
Site Map
***
Special Categories
Butterfly Names, Dragon Names, Dream Names ,
Evil Names,
Flower Names,
Funny Names , Rainbow Names, Secret Names, Shadow Names, Warrior Names, Weapon/Armor Names,
Weekday Names, Wolf Names & much more.
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| msmarco_doc_00_8110919 | |
http://20000-names.com/rainbow_names.htm | 20000-NAMES.COM: Rainbow Names, page 1 of 1--meaning, origin, etymology | 20000-NAMES.COM: Rainbow Names, page 1 of 1--meaning, origin, etymology
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Rainbow Names
Names that mean rainbow, iris, rainbow, rainbow goddess. Rainbow-related names.
[ Suggest Names for this page ]
Page 1 of 1
UNISEX:
ENFYS: Welsh unisex name meaning "rainbow."
IRIS ( Ίρις ): Greek name meaning "rainbow." In mythology, this is the name of a rainbow goddess. In use by the English as a feminine name, and by the Jews as a unisex name.
MUNKWON: Micmac word for the "rainbow."
MALE:
AMITOLA: Native American Sioux name meaning "rainbow." This name comes from a legend that says that the first colorful picture was painted on the clouds by a young Indian chief named Amitola.
CHAVATANGAKWUNUA : Native American Hopi name meaning "short rainbow."
KASHTI ( קַשְׁתִּי ): Hebrew name meaning "my bow; my rainbow."
OSTADAR : Basque name meaning "rainbow."
TANGAKWUNU : Native American Hopi name meaning "rainbow."
FEMALE:
COZAMALOTL : Nahuatl name meaning "rainbow."
DZIADZAN : Armenian name meaning "rainbow."
ISA : Chamoru name meaning "rainbow."
ITZEL : Variant spelling of Nahuatl Ixchel, meaning "rainbow lady."
IXCHEL : Nahuatl name of a Mayan goddess of the earth, moon, and medicine, meaning "rainbow lady."
KESHET ( קֶשֶׁת ): Hebrew name meaning "rainbow."
OSUMARE : African Yoruba name meaning "rainbow."
ZIAZAN : Armenian name meaning "rainbow."
Page 1 of 1
***
***
A-Z Baby Names
Girl Names
A , B, C , D, E , F, G , H, I , J, K , L, M , N, O , P, Q , R, S , T, U , V, W , X, Y , Z
Boy Names
A , B, C , D, E , F, G , H, I , J, K , L, M , N, O , P, Q , R, S , T, U , V, W , X, Y , Z
***
Pet Names
Names for your pets. Grouped by species.
Naming Tips & Quips
Miscellany
a2z Menu
Books consulted
Privacy & Contact Info
Site Map
***
Special Categories
Butterfly Names, Dragon Names, Dream Names ,
Evil Names,
Flower Names,
Funny Names , Rainbow Names, Secret Names, Shadow Names, Warrior Names, Weapon/Armor Names,
Weekday Names, Wolf Names & much more.
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http://20000-names.com/secret_names_mystery_names.htm | 20000-NAMES.COM: Secret Names, Mystery Names, page 1 of 1--meaning, origin, etymology | 20000-NAMES.COM: Secret Names, Mystery Names, page 1 of 1--meaning, origin, etymology
***
Secret Names, Mystery Names
Names that mean conceal, covering, hidden, masked, mystery, puzzle,
riddle, rune, scheme, secret, spy, stealthy, unseen, veil, whisper.
[ Suggest Names for this page ]
Page 1 of 1
UNISEX:
DARNELL : English surname transferred to unisex forename use, composed of the Old English elements derne "hidden, secret" and halh "nook," hence "hidden/secret nook."
ICHTACA : Nahuatl unisex name meaning "secret."
RAZ ( רָז ): Aramaic unisex name, meaning "secret."
MALE:
AMMON ( Ἄμμων ): Greek form of Egyptian Yamanu, meaning "the hidden one." In mythology, Yamanu is the name of a god of wind and air. Compare with another form of Ammon.
AMOUN : Variant spelling of Greek Ammon, a form of Egyptian Yamanu , the myth name of a god of wind and air, meaning "the hidden one."
AMUN : Variant spelling of Greek Ammon, a form of Egyptian Yamanu , the myth name of a god of wind and air, meaning "the hidden one."
CASHILE : African Zulu name meaning "hidden; child of a concealed birth."
CHISISI : Egyptian name meaning "secret."
DOVEV ( דּוֹבֵב ): Hebrew name meaning "whisper."
GACHERU : African Kikuyu name meaning "spy."
HADES : Latin form of Greek Hadēs, meaning "unseen." In mythology, this is the name of the god of the underworld, brother of Zeus and husband of Persephone. In the New Testament bible, Hades is associated with Orcus, the realm of the dead, the infernal regions where disembodied spirits live, a dark and dismal place in the depths of the earth. Only later was Hades described as the grave, death, and hell.
HADĒS ( ᾍιδης ): Variant spelling of Greek Haides, meaning "unseen."
HAIDES ( ᾍιδης ): Greek name derived from the word aides, meaning "unseen." In mythology, this is the name of the god of the underworld, brother of Zeus and husband of Persephone. In the Greek bible, Haides is associated with Orcus, the realm of the dead, the infernal regions where disembodied spirits live, a dark and dismal place in the depths of the earth. Only later was Haides described as the grave, death, and hell. Also spelled Hadēs .
HALL : Middle English name meaning "to cover, conceal." Compare with another form of Hall.
HOWAHKAN : Native American Sioux name meaning "of the mysterious voice."
IMENAND : Rare form of Egyptian Yamanu, meaning "the hidden one."
ISOBA : African Soga name meaning "walks slowly, stealthily."
ISOOBA : Variant spelling of African Soga Isoba, meaning "walks slowly, stealthily."
KEME : Native American Algonquin name meaning "secret."
LOCHESH ( לוֹחֵשׁ ): Hebrew name meaning "whisper." In the bible, this is the name of a Babylonian exile returnee.
LOT ( Λώτ ): Greek form of Hebrew Lowt, meaning "covering, veil." In the bible, this is the name of a nephew of Abraham and father of Moab.
LOWT ( לוֹט ): Hebrew name meaning "covering, veil." In the bible, this is the name of a nephew of Abraham and father of Moab.
NICOMEDES : Latin form of Greek Nikomedes, meaning "victory-scheme."
NICOMEDO : Italian form of Latin Nicomedes, meaning "victory-scheme."
NIKOMEDES ( Νικομήδης ): Greek name composed of the elements nike "conquest, victory" and medesthai "to ponder, to scheme," hence "victory-scheme."
OEDIPUS : Latin form of Greek Oidipous, probably meaning "he who knew the Sphinx's riddle of the feet." In mythology, this is the name of a king of Thebes who unknowingly killed his father and married his mother after solving the riddle of the Sphinx.
OIDIPOUS ( Οἰδίπους ): Greek name composed of the elements oid "knew" and pous "feet," probably with the intended meaning "he who knew the Sphinx's riddle of the feet." In mythology, this is the name of a king of Thebes who unknowingly killed his father and married his mother after solving the riddle of the Sphinx.
PHORCYS : Latin form of Greek Phorkys, meaning "of the sea." In mythology, this is an old man ruling over the sea; later he is described as a god of the hidden dangers of the deep, a brother of Nereus, and is depicted as a kind of merman.
PHORKYS ( Φόρκυς ): Greek name meaning "of the sea." In mythology, this is an old man ruling over the sea; later he is described as a god of the hidden dangers of the deep, a brother of Nereus, and is depicted as a kind of merman.
RÚN: Icelandic form of Old Norse Rúni , meaning "secret lore."
RUNE : Scandinavian form of Old Norse Rúni , meaning "secret lore."
RUNI : Danish form of Old Norse Rúni , meaning "secret lore."
RÚNI : Old Norse name derived form the word rún, meaning "secret lore."
TSEPHANYAH ( צִפַנְיָה ): Hebrew name meaning "hidden by God" or "protected by God." In the bible, this is the name of several characters, including the ninth of the minor prophets. Zephaniah is the English form.
TZEFANYA ( צִפַנְיָה ): Variant spelling of Hebrew Tsephanyah , meaning "hidden by God" or "protected by God."
VELIUS : Roman family name, meaning "concealed."
YAMANU : Egyptian myth name of a god of wind and air, meaning "the hidden one."
ZEFANIA : Variant spelling of English Zephaniah, meaning "hidden by God" or "protected by God."
ZEPH : Short form of English Zephaniah, meaning "God has hidden."
ZEPHANIA : Variant spelling of English Zephaniah, meaning "hidden by God" or "protected by God."
ZEPHANIAH : Anglicized form of Hebrew Tsephanyah , meaning "hidden by God" or "protected by God." In the bible, this is the name of several characters, including the ninth of the minor prophets.
FEMALE:
ABUTO : African Luo name meaning "I have hidden."
ATARO : African Luo name meaning "puzzle; upside-down."
CALYPSO : Latin form of Greek Kalypso , meaning "she who conceals." In mythology, this is the name of a sea nymph and daughter of Atlas.
DAGRÚN: Old Norse name composed of the elements dagr "day" and rún "secret lore," hence "day-rune."
DAGRUN : Norwegian form of Old Norse Dagrún, meaning "day-rune."
GIZEM : Turkish name meaning "mystery."
GUÐRUN : Old Norse name composed of the elements guð "God" and run "rune, secret lore," hence "divine rune." In mythology, this is the name of the wife of Sigurðr.
GUDRUN : German and Scandinavian form of Old Norse Guðrun , meaning "divine rune."
HEIÐRÚN: Old Norse name composed of the elements heiðr "clear, cloudless; honor" and rún "rune, secret lore," hence "true-rune." In mythology, this is the name of a goat who produced mead for the Einherjar, the spirits of warriors who died in battle.
HEIDRUN : Norwegian form of Old Norse Heiðrún, meaning "true rune."
HULÐ: Old Norse name derived from the word hulda, meaning "hidden, obscure, secret."
HULD : Icelandic form of Old Norse Hulð, meaning "hidden, obscure, secret."
HULDA : Scandinavian form of Old Norse Hulð, meaning "hidden, obscure, secret." Compare with another form of Hulda.
HULTA : Finnish form of Scandinavian Hulda, meaning "hidden, obscure, secret."
KALYPSO ( Καλυψώ ): Greek name derived from the word kalypto ("to cover, to conceal"), hence "she who conceals." In mythology, this is the name of a sea nymph and daughter of Atlas.
KIMI : Native American Algonquin name meaning "secret." Compare with another form of Kimi.
KRIEMHILD : German myth name of the sister of Günther and wife of Siegfried in the Nibelungenlied , composed of the Germanic elements grim "mask" and hild "battle," hence "battle mask."
KRIEMHILDE : Variant spelling of German Kriemhild, meaning "battle mask."
KRIMHILDE : Variant spelling of German Kriemhild , meaning "battle mask."
LETA : Variant form of Latin Leto , meaning "the hidden one." Compare with another form of Leta.
LÊTÔ ( Λητώ ): Greek name meaning "the hidden one." In mythology, this is the name of the mother of Apollo and Artemis.
LETO : Latin form of Greek Lêtô, meaning "the hidden one." In mythology, this is the name of the mother of Apollo and Artemis.
LOTUS : English name derived from the flower name, from Latin lotus, from Greek lotos, a name for various kinds of plants before it came to designate the Egyptian "white lotus." The Greek word may ultimately come from Hebrew lowt, meaning "covering, veil."
NAJWA : Arabic name meaning "secret, whisper."
ORTRUN : German name composed of the elements ort "point" and rún "rune, secret," hence "point-rune."
RUNA : Feminine form of Scandinavian Rune , meaning "secret lore."
SIGRÚN : Old Norse name composed of the Germanic elements sigr "victory" and rún "secret," hence "victory-secret." In mythology, this is the name of a Valkyrie.
SIGRUN: Scandinavian form of Old Norse Sigrún , meaning "victory-secret."
VELIA : Italian name derived from the Roman family name Velius , meaning "concealed."
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Surnames, Family Names
[ Suggest Names for this page ]
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ARDEN : English habitational surname, derived from Celtic ard, meaning "high," hence "from the high place."
ARDGALL : English surname derived from an Anglicized form of Irish Gaelic Árdghal, meaning "high valor."
ARGYLE : Scottish surname derived from Gaelic Earra Ghaidheal, meaning "country of the western Gael" or "breeding-place of the Gael."
ARLINGTON : English surname derived from the name of a village in Sussex, England.
ARLON : English surname derived from the name of a town in the Netherlands, thirteen miles east of Luxemburg.
ARMISTEAD : Old English surname meaning "place of arms."
ARMITAGE : English surname derived from the word hermitage, the cell or habitation of a hermit, formerly a wilderness or solitary place.
ARMOUR : English surname derived from the occupational name armorer, meaning "maker of armor."
ARMSTED : Contracted form of the Old English surname Armistead , meaning "place of arms."
ARMSTRONG : Old English surname meaning "strong arm." The following tradition exists concerning this name: "This family was anciently settled on the Scottish border; their original name was Fairbairn, which was changed to Armstrong on the following occasion: An ancient king of Scotland having had his horse killed under him in battle, was immediately re-mounted by Fairbairn, his armor-bearer, on his own horse. For this timely assistance he amply rewarded him with lands on the borders, and to perpetuate the memory of so important a service, as well as the manner in which it was performed (for Fairbairn took the king by the thigh, and set him on the saddle), his royal master gave him the appellation of Armstrong. The chief seat of Johnnie Armstrong was Gilnockie, in Eskdale, a place of exquisite beauty. Johnnie was executed by order of James V., in 1529, as a "Border Freebooter." Andrew Armstrong sold his patrimony to one of his kinsmen, and emigrated to the north of Ireland in the commencement of the seventeenth century. The Armstrongs were always noted for their courage and daring. In the "Lay of the Last Minstrel," when the chief was about to assemble his clans, he says to his heralds: Ye need not go to Liddisdale, / For when they see the blazing bale / Elliots and Armstrongs never fail."
ARNOLD : English surname derived from French Arnaud , meaning "eagle power."
ARTHUR : English surname of uncertain etymology, perhaps composed of Welsh art/arth "bear" and Brittonic gur "man," hence "bear-man." In early Welsh works the word art was used as a figurative synonym for "warrior." William Arthur has the following to say about this name: "ARTHUR (British) A strong man; from Ar (Lat. vir ), a man, and thor, strong. In the Gaelic, Air is the same as Fear, a man; and the ancient Scythians called a man Aior . Thor was the Jupiter of the Teutonic races, their god of thunder. In Welsh, Arth is a bear, an emblem of strength and courage, and ur a noun termination, a man. Arthur, a bear-man, a hero, a man of strength; the name of a British prince."
ARTOIR : English surname derived from the name of a province in the Netherlands.
ARUNDEL : English surname derived from Arundale, the name of a town in Sussex, England, meaning "the dale on the Arun."
ASCALL : Variant spelling of the English surname Hascall , possibly meaning "a covert, a sheltered place."
ASGALL : Variant spelling of the English surname Ascall, possibly meaning "a covert, a sheltered place."
ASHBURTON : English surname derived from the name of a town in Devonshire, England, meaning "town on the hill covered with ash trees."
ASHBY : Old English surname meaning "place by the ash."
ASHFORD : Old English surname derived from the name of a town in Kent, England, meaning "on the river Ash (or Esh)."
ASHLEY : English habitational surname, composed of the Old English elements æsc "ash" and lēah "wood," hence "ash-tree grove."
ASHTON : English habitational surname, derived from the name of various places composed of the Old English elements æsc "ash tree" and tun "settlement," hence "ash tree settlement."
ASKEW : Contracted form of the Old English surname Acksheugh , meaning "hilly land covered with oaks."
ASPINWALL : Old English surname meaning "aspen vale."
ASTLEY : Contracted form of the Old English surname Eastley , meaning "the east meadow."
ASTON : English habitational surname, derived from the name of various places composed of the Old English elements east "east" and tun "settlement," hence "east settlement."
ASTOR : English surname, perhaps derived from the personal name Astor , or cognate with it, meaning "hawk." It was originally a derogatory term for men with hawk-like, predatory characteristics.
ATHERTON : Old English surname derived from a contracted form of Atherstone, the name of a town in Warwickshire, England, named after the family of Athelstan , meaning "noble stone."
ATHILL : Anglicized form of the Norman French surname De la Hou ("of the hill"), meaning "at (the) hill."
ATHOL : Scottish surname derived from the name of a district of Perthshire, Scotland, composed of the Gaelic elements ath "ford" and al "rock, stone," hence "ford of the rock; rock-ford."
ATHOW : Scottish surname composed of the Gaelic elements ath "ford" and how / hoo "high place," hence "high ford."
ATKINS : English patronymic surname, meaning "son of Adam ," though some take the prefix At- to be a short form of Arthur, hence "son of Arthur ."
ATKINSON : English and Scottish patronymic surname, meaning "son of Atkins ."
ATTREE : English surname meaning "at (the) tree."
ATWATER : English surname meaning "at (the) water."
ATWELL : English surname meaning "at (the) well."
ATWOOD : English surname meaning "at (the) wood."
AUBREY : English surname derived from the personal name Aubrey , derived from German Alberich via Norman French Alberi , meaning "elf ruler."
AUCHINLECK : Scottish surname derived from a place of the same name, composed of the Gaelic elements ach "elevation, hill, mound" and leac "flat stone," hence "hill stone." Auchinleck may have originally been one of those places where Celts and Druids held festivals and performed acts of worship.
AUCHMUTY : Irish surname composed of the Gaelic elements ach "an elevation, a mound," and mod "an assembly, court, meeting," hence "mount of law."
AUDLEY : English habitational surname, derived from the name of a place in Staffordshire, composed of Old English Ealdgyth and leah "meadow, woodland clearing," hence " Ealdgyth 's meadow."
AUSTIN : English surname, derived from Old French Aousten , from Roman Latin Augustinus , meaning "venerable."
AVERILL : Contracted form of the English surname Haverhill , meaning "the hill sown with oats."
AVERY : English surname derived from the Middle English personal name Alfred, meaning "elf counsel."
AVIS : English surname, perhaps derived from the French, meaning "a schemer, busy-body," or from Latin avus, meaning "ancestor, grandfather."
AYLSWORTH : English surname composed of Cornish British ayles "low meadow washed by a river or sea" and gwerth "a farm, house or village."
AYLEWARD : English occupational surname meaning "ale-keeper."
AYRES : English surname derived from the name of a river, town, and district in Scotland, of uncertain etymology, possibly from Gaelic air, meaning "slaughter; place of battle," or Celtic aer "to open, expand, flow clearly." There is an account of this name in Thorpe's catalogue of the deeds of Battle Abbey: "Ayres, formerly Eyre. The first of this family was named Truelove, one of the followers of William the Conqueror. At the battle of Hastings, Duke William was flung from his horse, and his helmet beaten into his face, which Truelove observing, pulled off, and horsed him again. The duke told him 'Thou shalt hereafter from Truelove be called Eyre (or Air), because thou hast given me the air I breathe.' After the battle, the Duke, on inquiry respecting him, found him severely wounded (his leg and thigh having been struck off); he ordered him the utmost care, and on his recovery, gave him lands in Derby, in reward for his services, and the leg and thigh in armor, cut off, for his crest; an honorary badge yet worn by all the Eyres in England."
BAANING : Danish surname derived from the word baaning, meaning "a dwelling, a home."
BABA : A surname of uncertain origin, but the word is nearly the same in all languages, signifying a young child of either sex. German bube , "a boy"; Greek baba, an inarticulate sound, as of an infant crying out, hence a child.
BABER : English surname composed of the Gaelic elements bas "death" and fear "man," hence "death-man," i.e. "a fencer" or "a swordsman"; one who, by his blows, produced death.
BABCOCK : English surname composed of the elements Bab, a pet form of Bartholomew , and the diminutive suffix - cock, hence "little Bab ."
BACHELOR : English surname of Dutch origin, composed of the elements bock "book" and leeraar "doctor of divinity, law, or physic."
BACKMAN : English surname of German origin, composed of the elements bach "brook" and man "man," hence "brook-man."
BACKUS : English surname of German origin, composed of the elements back "bake" and haus "house," hence "bake-house."
BACON : Old English surname derived from the word baccen, meaning "beech-tree."
BADEAU : French surname derived from a byname for Parisians who admire anything extravagant.
BADGER : English surname having three possible meanings, 1) "badger" the animal, 2) "a dealer in grain, and 3) "hawker, peddler."
BADGELY : English surname derived from Bagasly, the name of a town in Scotland.
BAGLEY : Old English surname composed of the elements bœlge "rising, swelling" and leagh / ley "plain or pasture land," hence "the rising or swelling ground that lies untilled."
BAGOT : French surname meaning "walking staff."
BAILEY: English occupational surname, meaning "bailiff."
BAILLIE : French form of the English surname Bailey, meaning "bailiff."
BAIN : Irish Gaelic surname meaning "white."
BAINE : Variant spelling of the Irish surname Bain, meaning "white."
BAISLEY : Irish surname derived from Gaelic baisealach, meaning "proud."
BAITS : English occupational surname derived from the word baits, signifying to eat and rest for refreshment, hence "one who keeps a house of entertainment.
BAKER : Old English occupational surname derived from the word bacan ("to dry by heat"), hence "baker."
BALL : English surname derived from the word bal, meaning "hilltop."
BALCOMBE : Gaelic surname composed of the elements bal "round body" and combe "valley," hence "the round valley."
BALDWIN : English surname derived from Old High German Baldawin , via French Baldoin, meaning "brave friend."
BALEN : English surname, perhaps of Cornish British origin, from belen , meaning "mill."
BALFOUR : Scottish surname, composed of the Gaelic elements bail "farm, house, village," and p�ir "grass, pasture," hence "farm pasture; grazing land."
BALISTARIUS : Roman surname meaning "cross-bowman."
BALLANTINE : Variant spelling of the English surname Ballantyne , meaning "the fire of Baal ."
BALLANTYNE : English surname derived from the name of a place of ancient Celtic worship, composed of the elements Baalen "of Baal" and teine "fire," hence "the fire of Baal ." Also spelled Ballantine.
BALLARD : From an Old English derogatory name for a bald-headed person, derived from Middle English balled, meaning "rounded like a ball," hence "bald-headed."
BANCHO : Gaelic surname composed of the elements ban "white" and chu / cu "dog," hence "white dog."
BANCROFT : English surname composed of the elements ban "high ground, hill" and croft "field," hence "high field."
BANGS : English surname of uncertain derivation, either from French bain , meaning "a bath" or "a hot-house," or a corruption of the English surname Banks, meaning "from the hillside" or "from the riverbank."
BANKER : Variant form of the English surname Banks, meaning "from the hillside" or "from the riverbank."
BANKS : English surname derived from the word bank "ridge" or "hillside," hence "from the hillside" or "from the riverbank."
BANNATYNE : Scottish surname derived from the name of a place "where fires are kindled."
BANNERMAN : Scottish surname meaning "standard-bearer."
BANNING : Anglicized form of the Danish surname Baaning , meaning "a dwelling, a home."
BANNISTER : English occupational surname of French origin, from bain ("bath" or "hot-house"), meaning "keeper of a bath."
BANT : Welsh surname meaning "from the high place."
BANTA : Gaelic surname derived from beaunta, meaning "hills, mountains."
BANVARD : English surname composed of the elements ban "hill, high ground, mount" and vard "rampart," hence "fortified hill."
BARBER : English occupational surname meaning "barber," one who shaves and dresses hair.
BARCLAY : Scottish form of the Old English surname Berkeley , meaning "birch tree meadow."
BARCULO : Dutch surname derived from Borkulo, the name of a town in Holland.
BARD : Celtic surname composed of the elements bawr "highest, topmost" and eidde "instructor," hence "chief instructor."
BARDEL : Welsh surname meaning "fortification."
BARHYDT : Dutch surname derived from barheid, meaning "severity, sharpness."
BARKER : English occupational surname meaning "a tanner."
BARNARD : Variant spelling of the English surname Bernard , meaning "bold as a bear."
BARNES : English surname derived from the Cornish British word barnyz, meaning "a judge."
BARNET : English surname derived from the name of a town in Hertfordshire, England, meaning "the land that was burned." Also spelled Barnett.
BARNETT : Variant spelling of the English surname Barnet , meaning "the land that was burned."
BARNEY : English surname derived from a pet form of Bernard , meaning "bold as a bear."
BARNHAM : Old English surname derived from the name of the town of Bearnham , meaning "the baron's home." Barnum is a contracted form.
BARNWELL : Old English surname composed of the elements bearne "wood" and veld "field," hence "from the field by the wood."
BARNUM : Contracted form of the Old English surname Barnham , meaning "the baron's home."
BARR : Scottish surname derived from the name of a place in Ayrshire, Scotland, meaning "elevation, height" or "hill."
BARRET : From an English byname for a quarrelsome person, derived from Middle English barat, a derivative of barater, meaning "to haggle," hence "haggler."
BARRON : English surname derived from the title of nobility, probably derived from Old English beorn, meaning "bear" or "young warrior."
BARTÓ: Hungarian surname derived from Greek Bartholomaios, meaning "son of Talmai ."
BARTON : English surname derived from the name of a town in England composed of the Old English elements bere "barley" and tun "town, settlement," hence "barley town."
BARTOS: Hungarian surname derived from Greek Bartholomaios, meaning "son of Talmai ."
BATES : Old English surname derived from the word bate, meaning "contention."
BAXTER : Old English occupational surname, derived from the word b�cestre, meaning "baker."
BEAUMONT : Old French surname, derived from a place name composed of the elements beau "beautiful" and mont "hill, mountain," hence "beautiful mountain."
BEAUREGARD : Old French surname, derived from a place name composed of the elements beau "beautiful" and regard "aspect, outlook," hence "beautiful aspect" or "beautiful outlook."
BECK : English surname having several origins:
an occupational surname, derived from Old English becca "matlock," meaning "maker or seller of matlock."
a topographical surname, derived from Middle English bekke "stream," hence "lives by the stream."
from a medieval byname for someone with a prominent nose, from Middle English beke, Old French bec , meaning "beak (of a bird)."
from the name of various places in France, derived from Old Norman French bec "stream," hence "from the town by the stream."
BECKER:
Occupational surname, derived from Middle English bakere, meaning "baker.
Topographical surname, derived from Middle High German bach, meaning "stream."
BECKERS : Patronymic form of the English surname Becker, meaning "son of Becker" or "son of the baker."
BECKET : Either a diminutive form of the surname Beck, meaning "little Beck," or from the name of a place in Berkshire, composed of the Old English elements beo "bee" and cot "cottage," hence "bee cottage." Gilbert Abbott Becket, journalist and dramatist.
BENEOIT : Old French surname derived from Latin Benedictus, meaning "blessed."
BENSON : English surname meaning "son of Ben ."
BENTLEY : English surname, derived from the name of various places composed of the Old English elements beonet, "bent grass" and lēah "clearing, meadow" hence "bent grass meadow."
BENTON : English surname, derived from the name of a place in Northumbria composed of the Old English elements beonet "bent grass" and tūn "enclosure; settlement," hence "bent grass settlement."
BERKELEY : Old English habitational surname, composed of the elements be ( o) rc "birch" and leah "clearing, meadow, pasture," hence "birch tree meadow."
BERNARD : English surname derived from the personal name Bernard , meaning "bold as a bear."
BEVAN : Anglicized form of Welsh ap Iefan , meaning "son of Evan ."
BEVERLY : English surname, derived from the name of a place in Humberside composed of the Old English elements beofor "beaver" and lēac "stream," hence "beaver stream." Also spelled Beverley.
BEVIS : English surname, probably derived from the Old French place name Beauvais , in Oise, France which got its name from the Belgic tribe of the Bellovaci ( Belovasci) that some say is the name of the Fir Bolg (the ancient Irish "shining ones") of Celtic mythology.
BLAIN : English surname derived from the personal name, an Anglicized form of Scottish Gaelic Bláán , meaning "little yellow one."
BLAIR : Scottish surname derived from the name of various places in Scotland called Blair , which took their name from Gaelic blàr, meaning "field, plain," most often referring to a "battlefield."
BLAKE : English surname derived from an Old English byname for a person having unusually dark or light hair or skin. It comes from two Old English words: 1) bl�c "black," and, 2) blāc "white." It can therefore mean either "black" or "white."
BLOOD :
Dutch surname, which may have originally been a byname for "a coward" or "a simpleton."
English surname of Anglo-Saxon origin, which may have originated as a byname for "a surgeon," from Old English blod, meaning "blood."
Possibly a contraction of the Welsh surname ap Lloyd, meaning "son of Lloyd ," a personal name meaning "grey-haired."
BLYTHE: Old English surname, derived from the word blīðe, meaning "cheerful, happy."
BOND : English occupational surname, meaning "peasant farmer; smallholder."
BOOKER : English occupational surname, originally denoting both a "book-binder" and a "scribe."
BOONE : English surname, derived from Old French bon, meaning "good."
BOOTH : English surname, derived from Middle English bothe, meaning "lives in a bothy (hut)."
BOYD : Scottish surname meaning "yellow," as in yellow-haired.
BRADBURN: English surname, composed of the Old English elements brad "broad" and burna "stream," hence "broad stream."
BRADEN : Anglicized form of Irish Gaelic Ó Bradain, meaning "descendant of Bradán ," hence "salmon."
BRADFORD : English habitational surname, composed of the Old English elements brád "broad" and ford "ford, river crossing" hence "broad river crossing."
BRADLEY : English habitational surname, composed of the Old English elements brád "broad" and leah "meadow, woodland clearing," broad meadow."
BRADY : Irish Anglicized form of Gaelic Ó Brádaigh, meaning "descendant of Brádach ," hence "large-chested."
BRANDON : English surname, derived from the name of various places most of which were composed of the Old English elements brom "broom" and dun "hill," hence "broom-covered hill."
BRANDT : English surname, derived from Anglo-Saxon Brand , meaning "blade, sword."
BRANT : Variant spelling of the English surname Brandt, meaning "blade, sword."
BRANTON : English surname, derived from the name of various places in England, composed of the Old English elements brom "broom, gorse," and tun "town, settlement," hence "broom town."
BRAOSE : English-Norman dynastic surname, probably meaning "woods; thicket."
BRAXTON : English surname, derived from an unidentified place name, probably composed of the Old English personal name Bracc and the word tun "town, settlement," hence "Bracc's town."
BRENNAN : Irish Anglicized form of Gaelic Ó Braonáin, "descendant of Braonán ," hence "little drop."
BRENT : English surname having several possible origins:
From an Old English byname for a criminal who had been "branded." For example, the surname Brendcheke "burned cheek" came from such a byname.
From a habitational name derived either from Old English brant "steep" or an old British Celtic word meaning "high place."
From a topographic name for someone who "lives by the ground cleared by fire," from Middle English brend, from brennan "to burn."
BRENTON : English surname, derived from the Old English place name Bryningtun , composed of the personal name Bryni and the word tun "town, settlement," hence "town of Bryni ."
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MALE:
ATSU : Egyptian name meaning "twin."
DIDYMOS ( Δίδυμος ): Greek name meaning "two-fold, twain." In the New Testament bible, this is the name of a Christian.
DIDYMUS : Latin form of Greek Didymos , meaning "two-fold, twain." In the New Testament bible, this is the name of a Christian.
FOMA ( Фома ): Russian form of Greek Thōmas , meaning "twin."
GEMINI : From Latin geminus meaning "twin." In Astrology, it is a zodiac sign. In Astronomy, it is the name of a constellation. In Roman mythology, Castor and Pollux are the Gemini twins, the sons of Leda , brothers to Helen of Troy and Clytemnestra . In Greek they are called the Dioskouroi.
IDOGBE : Egyptian name meaning "brother of twins."
ISINGOMA : African Luganda name meaning "first of twins."
KATO: African Luganda name meaning "second born of twins."
MAAS : Dutch pet form of Greek Thōmas, meaning "twin."
MASO : Short form of Italian Tommaso, meaning "twin."
MUKHWANA : Egyptian name meaning "twin."
ODION : Egyptian name meaning "born of twins."
TAM : Short form of Scottish Gaelic Tàmhas, meaning "twin." Compare with another form of Tam.
TAMÁS: Hungarian form of Greek Thōmas, meaning "twin." In use by the Romani.
TAMATI : Maori form of Greek Thōmas, meaning "twin."
TÀMHAS : Scottish Gaelic form of Greek Thōmas, meaning "twin."
TAU'MA : Aramaic byname derived from the word t'oma (תאומא), meaning "twin." This is the name from which Greek Thōmas was derived.
THOM : Short form of English Thomas, meaning "twin."
THŌMAS ( Θωμᾶς ): Greek form of Aramaic Tau'ma, meaning "twin." In the New Testament bible, this is the name of one of the twelve apostles. He is referred to as "Thomas, called Didymus ," his surname.
THOMAS : English form of Greek Thōmas, meaning "twin." In the New Testament bible, this is the name of one of the twelve apostles. He is referred to as "Thomas, called Didymus ," his surname.
TOGQUOS : Native American Algonquin name meaning "twin."
TOM : Short form of English Thomas, meaning "twin."
TOMA ( Тома ): Croatian, Bulgarian and Russian form of Greek Thōmas (Aramaic Tau'ma ), meaning "twin." Compare with feminine Toma.
TÒMACHAN: Pet form of Scottish Gaelic Tòmas , meaning "twin."
TÒMAG: Pet form of Scottish Gaelic Tòmas, meaning "twin."
TOMÁŠ : Czech form of Greek Thōmas, meaning "twin."
TOMÁS :
Irish Gaelic form of Greek Thōmas, meaning "twin."
Spanish form of Greek Thōmas, meaning "twin."
TÒMAS : Scottish Gaelic form of Greek Thōmas, meaning "twin."
TOMAS : Lithuanian and Norwegian form of Greek Thōmas, meaning "twin."
TOMASZ : Polish form of Greek Thōmas, meaning "twin."
TOMAŽ: Slovene form of Greek Thōmas, meaning "twin."
TOMI : Pet form of Hungarian Tamás, meaning "twin."
TOMMASO : Italian form of Greek Thōmas, meaning "twin."
TOMMI :
Pet form of Finnish Tuomas, meaning "twin."
Variant spelling of English Tommy, meaning "twin."
TOMMIE : Variant spelling of English Tommy, meaning "twin."
TOMMY : Pet form of English Thomas, meaning "twin."
TOMOS : Welsh form of Greek Thōmas, meaning "twin."
TOMS : Latvian form of Greek Thōmas, meaning "twin."
TOOMAS : Estonian form of Greek Thōmas, meaning "twin."
TUOMAS : Finnish form of Greek Thōmas, meaning "twin."
TUOMO : Finnish form of Greek Thōmas, meaning "twin."
TWM: Welsh form of English Tom, meaning "twin."
WASSWA : African Luganda name meaning "first born of twins."
| msmarco_doc_00_8157740 | |
http://20000-names.com/warrior_names_fighter_names_male_02.htm | 20000-NAMES.COM: Male Warrior Names, Fighter Names, page 2 of 4--meaning, origin, etymology. | Male Warrior Names, Fighter Names
| 20000-NAMES.COM: Male Warrior Names, Fighter Names, page 2 of 4--meaning, origin, etymology.
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Male Warrior Names, Fighter Names
Fight-related and war-related names.
Names that mean army, battle, fighter, soldier, war/warrior.
[ Suggest Names for this page ] [ Go to Female Warrior Names ]
[ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ]
CHIEN : Vietnamese name meaning "fighter, warrior."
CHLOTHAR : Germanic name composed of the elements hlut "loud" and hari/heri "army, warrior" hence "loud warrior."
CHLOTHARIUS : Latin form of German Chlothar , meaning "loud warrior."
CIBOR : Pet form of Polish Czcibor , meaning "battle of honor."
CILLIAN : Irish byname composed of Gaelic ceallach "strife, war," and a diminutive suffix, hence "little warrior."
CILLÍN: Variant spelling of Irish Cillian , meaning "little warrior."
CLANCY : Irish surname transferred to forename use, from an Anglicized form of Gaelic Mac Fhlannchaidh, "son of Flannchadh ," hence "red warrior."
CLANCEY : Variant spelling of English Clancy, meaning "red warrior."
CLOTAIRE : French form of Latin Chlotharius , meaning "loud warrior."
CLOVIS : French form of German Hlodovic , meaning "famous warrior."
CONLAOCH : Irish name, composed of the Gaelic elements con "hound" and laoch "warrior," hence "hound warrior." In Irish legend, this is the name of a son of Cúchulainn . He was accidentally killed by his father.
CONNLA : Variant spelling of Irish Conlaoch, meaning "hound warrior."
CTIBOR : Czech form of Polish Czcibor, meaning "battle of honor."
CÚCHULAINN : Irish myth name of a heroic warrior who accidentally killed his son Conlaoch, meaning "hound of Culann."
CZCIBOR : Polish name composed of the Slavic elements chest "honor" and bor "battle," hence "battle of honor."
DAL : Pet form of Czech Dalibor , meaning "distant battle."
DALEK : Pet form of Czech Dalibor , meaning "distant battle."
DALIBOR : Czech name composed of the Slavic elements dal "afar" and borit "to fight," hence "distant battle."
DAND : Pet form of Scottish Aindrea , meaning "man; warrior."
DEANDRE: English elaborated form of French André , meaning "man, warrior."
DEMOSTRATE ( Δημοστρατη ): Greek name composed of the elements demou "of the people" and stratos "army," hence "people's army."
DENIS : Anglicized form of Irish Gaelic Donnchadh , meaning "brown warrior." Compare with another form of Denis.
DIDI : Pet form of German Dieter, meaning "warrior of the people." Compare with feminine Didi.
DIETER : Old German name composed of the elements þeud "people, race" and hari / heri "army, warrior," hence "warrior of the people."
DINIS : Anglicized form of Irish Gaelic Donnchadh , meaning "brown warrior." Compare with another form of Dinis.
DONAGHY : Anglicized form of Irish Gaelic Donnchadh , meaning "brown warrior."
DONNACHAIDH : Variant spelling of Irish Gaelic Donnchadh , meaning "brown warrior."
DONNCHADH : Irish Gaelic name composed of the elements donn "brown" and cath "battle, war," hence "brown warrior."
DONOGH: Anglicized form of Irish Gaelic Donnchadh , meaning "brown warrior."
DONOUGH : Variant spelling of English Donogh , meaning "brown warrior."
DREW : Short form of English Andrew, meaning "man; warrior."
DRIES : Short form of Dutch Andries , meaning "man; warrior."
DRUGI : Pet form of Polish Andrzej , meaning "man; warrior."
DUILIO : Italian form of Roman Latin Duilius , meaning "war."
DUILIUS : Roman name derived from the Latin word duellum , meaning "war."
DUNCAN : Anglicized form of Scottish Gaelic Donnchadh , meaning "brown warrior."
DUNKY : Pet form of English Duncan, meaning "brown warrior."
EARL : Aristocratic title transferred to byname and finally to forename, from Old English eorl , meaning "nobleman, prince, warrior."
EARLE : Variant spelling of English Earl, meaning "nobleman, prince, warrior."
EARNEST : Variant spelling of English Ernest , meaning "battle (to the death), serious business."
EBER : Anglicized form of Irish Gaelic Éibhear, meaning "bow warrior." Compare with other forms of Eber.
ÉIBHEAR : Irish Gaelic form of Old Norse Ívarr, meaning "bow warrior." In Irish legend, this is the name of two sons of Mil (Éibhear Dunn and Éibhear Finn ) who conquered Ireland.
ÉIBHIR: Variant spelling of Irish Gaelic Éibhear , meaning "bow warrior."
EINAR : Scandinavian form of Old Norse Einarr , meaning "lone warrior."
EINARR : Old Norse name composed of the elements Ein- from * aina "alone, one" and -arr from harjaR "army, warrior," hence "lone warrior."
ENRE : Hungarian form of Latin Andreas , meaning "man; warrior."
ERLE : Variant spelling of English Earl, meaning "nobleman, prince, warrior."
ERMANNO : Italian form of German Hermann , meaning "army man."
ERN : Short form of English Ernest, meaning "battle (to the death), serious business."
ERNEST : English form of German Ernust , meaning "battle (to the death), serious business."
ERNESTO : Italian and Spanish form of Latin Ernestus , meaning "battle (to the death), serious business."
ERNESTUS : Latin form of German Ernust, meaning "battle (to the death), serious business."
ERNIE : Pet form of English Ernest, meaning "battle (to the death), serious business."
ERNÖ : Hungarian form of German Ernust, meaning "battle (to the death), serious business."
ERNO : Finnish form of German Ernust, meaning "battle (to the death), serious business."
ERNST : Contracted form of German Ernust, meaning "battle (to the death), serious business."
ERNUST : Old German name derived from the vocabulary word eornost , meaning "battle (to the death), serious business."
EUDEYRN : Old Celtic variant form of Welsh Cadeyrn , meaning "battle lord."
FLANNCHADH : Irish Gaelic name composed of the elements Flann "red, ruddy" and cath "battle, war," hence "red warrior."
GÁBA: Pet form of Czech Gabirel, meaning "man of God" or "warrior of God."
GABBY : Pet form of English Gabriel , meaning "man of God" or "warrior of God."
GABE : Pet form of English Gabriel , meaning "man of God" or "warrior of God."
GABEK : Pet form of Czech Gabirel , meaning "man of God" or "warrior of God."
GABI : Pet form of Hungarian Gábriel , meaning "man of God" or "warrior of God."
GABIREL :
Basque form of Hebrew Gabriyel, meaning "man of God" or "warrior of God."
Czech form of Greek Gabriēl , meaning "man of God" or "warrior of God."
GÁBOR: Hungarian form of Greek Gabriēl , meaning "man of God" or "warrior of God."
GÁBRIEL: Hungarian form of Greek Gabriēl , meaning "man of God" or "warrior of God."
GABRIĒL ( Γαβριήλ ): Greek form of Hebrew Gabriyel, meaning "man of God" or "warrior of God." In the bible, this is the name of one of the angelic princes or chiefs of the angels.
GABRIEL : Anglicized form of Greek Gabriēl (Hebrew Gabriyel ), meaning "man of God" or "warrior of God." This is the name of one of the seven archangels of religious lore. In the bible, he is known as the messenger angel, he is one of the two highest-ranking angels, and apart from Michael is the only other angel given a name in the Old Testament where he is first mentioned in the Book of Daniel. He is the angel who announced the births of John the Baptist and Jesus . He is said to watch over Iran (Persia), and in Ezekiel 's vision of the cherubim (the four sacred animals), the face of the eagle corresponds to him. In ancient astrology, he corresponds to the sign of Taurus and rules over the moon.
GABRIELE : Italian form of Latin Gabrielus , meaning "man of God" or "warrior of God."
GABRIELS : Latvian form of Greek Gabriēl , meaning "man of God" or "warrior of God."
GABRIELUS : Latin form of Greek Gabriēl , meaning "man of God" or "warrior of God."
GABRIYEL ( גַּבְרִיאֵל ): Hebrew name meaning "man of God" or "warrior of God." In the bible, this is the name of an archangel.
GABRJEL : Polish form of Greek Gabriēl , meaning "man of God" or "warrior of God."
GABRYJEL : Polish form of Greek Gabriēl , meaning "man of God" or "warrior of God."
GABRYŜ: Pet form of Polish Gabryjel , meaning "man of God" or "warrior of God."
GABRYSZ : Variant spelling of Polish Gabryŝ , meaning "man of God" or "warrior of God."
GAUTHIER : Variant spelling of French Gautier, meaning "ruler of the army."
GAUTIER : Old French name derived from Old High German Walther , meaning "ruler of the army."
GAVRAIL ( Гавраил ): Bulgarian form of Greek Gabriēl , meaning "man of God" or "warrior of God."
GAVREL ( גַאבְרֶעל ): Yiddish form of Hebrew Gabriyel, meaning "man of God" or "warrior of God."
GAVRI ( גַּבְרִי ): Variant form of Hebrew Gavriel , meaning "man of God" or "warrior of God."
GAVRIE : Variant spelling of Hebrew Gavri , meaning "man of God" or "warrior of God."
GAVRIEL : Variant spelling of Hebrew Gabriyel, meaning "man of God" or "warrior of God."
GAVRIIL ( Гавриил ): Russian form of Greek Gabriēl , meaning "man of God" or "warrior of God."
GAVRIL (Bulgarian: Гаврил ): Bulgarian and Romanian form of Greek Gabriēl , meaning "man of God" or "warrior of God."
GAY : Short form of English names beginning with Gay-, such as Gabriel "man of God" or "warrior of God," and Gaylord , meaning "dandy." Compare with feminine Gay.
GEBHUZA : African Zulu name meaning "slashing/thrusting warrior."
GEDEON ( Гедеон ): Russian form of Hebrew Gidown, meaning "cutter down; hewer," i.e. "mighty warrior."
GIANLUIGI : Italian compound name composed of Gianni "God is gracious" and Luigi "famous warrior."
GID : Short form of English Gideon , meaning "cutter down; hewer," i.e. "mighty warrior."
GIDEON : Anglicized form of Hebrew Gidown, meaning "cutter down; hewer," i.e. "mighty warrior." In the bible, this is the name of the warrior who defeated the Midianites.
GIDON : Variant spelling of Hebrew Gidown, meaning "cutter down; hewer," i.e. "mighty warrior."
GIDOWN ( גִּדְעוֹן ): Hebrew name meaning "cutter down; hewer," i.e. "mighty warrior." In the bible, this is the name of the warrior who defeated the Midianites.
GONÇALO: Portuguese form of Spanish Gonzalo , meaning "battle genius; war elf."
GONÇALVO: Variant spelling of Portuguese Gonçalo , meaning "battle genius; war elf."
GONZALO : Spanish form of Visigothic Gundisalv, meaning "battle genius; war elf."
GUALTER : Portuguese form of Old High German Walther, meaning "ruler of the army."
GUALTIERO : Italian and Spanish form of Old High German Walther , meaning "ruler of the army."
GUIOMAR : Spanish name of Germanic origin, possibly meaning "famous in battle." In the 13th century Vulgate Cycle of Arthurian romance, Sir Guiomar is the proud and beautiful knight of the crystal stream.
GUNARI : Perhaps a Romani form of Scandinavian Gunnar, meaning "soldier, warrior."
GUNDISALV : Visigothic name composed of the elements gund "battle, fight" and alfs "elf, wise fog spirit (from Nordic mythology), hence "battle genius; war elf."
GUNDISALVUS: Latinized form of Visigothic Gundisalv, meaning "battle genius; war elf."
GUNNAR : Scandinavian form of Old Norse Gunnarr, meaning "soldier, warrior."
GUNNARR : Old Norse name composed of the elements gunnr "battle, fight" and arr "army, war," hence "soldier, warrior." In mythology, this is the name of the husband of Brynhildr.
GUNNE : Short form of Scandinavian Gunnar, meaning "soldier, warrior."
GUNNER : Danish variant spelling of Scandinavian Gunnar , meaning "soldier, warrior."
GUNNERIUS : Norwegian Latinized form of Scandinavian Gunnar, meaning "soldier, warrior."
GÜNTER : Variant spelling of German Günther, meaning "soldier, warrior."
GUNTER : Variant spelling of Danish Gunther, meaning "soldier, warrior."
G�NTHER : German equivalent of Old Norse Gunnarr, composed of the elements gund "war" and heri "army, warrior," hence "soldier, warrior." In the Nibelungenlied, this is the name of a Burgundian king and husband of queen Brunhild.
GUNTHER : Danish form of Old Norse Gunnarr, meaning "soldier, warrior."
GUNTRAM : German name composed of the elements gund "war" and hramn "raven," hence "war raven."
GURGANUS : Latinized form of Welsh Gwrgenau, meaning "ferocious warrior."
GURGINTIUS : This is the name of a legendary king of the Britons who was preceded by Clotenus and succeeded by Merianus. Like Gurganus , it is probably a Latin form of Welsh Gwrgenau , meaning "ferocious warrior."
GWALLTER : Welsh form of Old High German Walther, meaning "ruler of the army."
GWRGENAU : Welsh name composed of the elements gwr "man, warrior" and cenau "whelp, young dog." In heroic poetry, Gwrgenau was used as a term for a "ferocious warrior."
HAERVEU : Old Breton name composed of the elements hær "battle" and vy "worthy," hence "battle worthy."
HANIA : Native American Hopi name meaning "spirit warrior."
HARALD :
Dutch and German form of Anglo-Saxon Hereweald , meaning "army ruler."
Scandinavian form of Old Norse Haraldr , meaning "army ruler."
HARALDR : Old Norse equivalent of Anglo-Saxon Hereweald , meaning "army ruler."
HARALDUR : Icelandic form of Old Norse Haraldr, meaning "army ruler."
HARBERT : Dutch form of German Herbert , meaning "bright army."
HARBIN : Rare Irish variant form of German Herbert, meaning "bright army."
HARIRIC : Old German name composed of the elements hari "army" and ric "power, ruler," hence "army ruler."
HARLIN : English surname transferred to forename use, from the Norman French personal name Herluin, meaning "noble friend" or "noble warrior."
HAROLD : Middle English form of Anglo-Saxon Hereweald , meaning "army ruler."
HARTWIG : Old German name composed of the elements hard/hart "brave, hardy, strong" and wig "battle," hence "strong battle."
HARVE : Short form of English Harvey, meaning "battle worthy."
HARVEY : English surname transferred to forename use, from Old French Hervé, from Breton Haerveu , meaning "battle worthy."
HARVIE : Variant spelling of English Harvey, meaning "battle worthy."
HEBER : Anglicized form of Irish Gaelic Éibhear, meaning "bow warrior." Compare with another form of Heber.
HEDEON : Ukrainian form of Russian Gedeon , meaning "cutter down; hewer," i.e. "mighty warrior."
HELUSHKA (He-lush-ka): Native American Winnebago name meaning "fighter."
HERB : English short form of German Herbert , meaning "bright army."
HERBERT : Modern German form of Old High German Heribert , meaning "bright army."
HERBERTO : Portuguese and Spanish form of Latin Herbertus, meaning "bright army."
HERBERTUS : Latin form of Old High German Heribert, meaning "bright army."
HERBIE : English pet form of German Herbert , meaning "bright army."
HEREBEORHT: Anglo-Saxon equivalent of Old High German Heribert , meaning "bright army."
HEREWARD : Anglo-Saxon name composed of the Old English elements here "army" and weard "guard," hence "army-guard."
HEREWEALD : Anglo-Saxon name, composed of the Old English elements here "army" and weald "power, rule," hence "army ruler."
HERIBERT : Old High German name composed of the elements hari / heri "army" and berht "bright, famous," hence "bright army."
HERIBERTO: Spanish form of Latin Herbertus, meaning "bright army."
HERLEIF : Scandinavian form of Old Norse Herleifr, meaning "army descendant."
HERLEIFR : Old Norse name composed of the elements herr "army" and leifr "descendant," hence "army descendant."
HERLEIFUR : Icelandic form of Old Norse Herleifr, meaning "army descendant."
HERLUIN : Norman French name composed of the Germanic elements erl "nobleman, warrior" and wini "friend," hence "noble friend" or "noble warrior."
HERMAN :
Dutch form of German Hermann , meaning "army man."
English name derived from Latin Hermanus , meaning "army man."
HERMANN : German name composed of the elements heri / hari "army" and man "man," hence "army man."
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http://20000-names.com/warrior_names_fighter_names_male_04.htm | 20000-NAMES.COM: Male Warrior Names, Fighter Names, page 4 of 4--meaning, origin, etymology. | Male Warrior Names, Fighter Names
| 20000-NAMES.COM: Male Warrior Names, Fighter Names, page 4 of 4--meaning, origin, etymology.
***
Male Warrior Names, Fighter Names
Fight-related and war-related names.
Names that mean army, battle, fighter, soldier, war/warrior.
[ Suggest Names for this page ] [ Go to Female Warrior Names ]
[ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ]
NUALLÁN : Old Gaelic byname composed of the word nuall "champion, chariot-fighter" and a diminutive suffix, hence "little champion" or "little chariot-fighter."
OLI : Short form of English Oliver, probably meaning "elf army."
OLIER : Breton form of French Olivier, probably meaning "elf army."
OLIVER: English form of French Olivier, probably meaning "elf army."
OLIVIER : Of Norman French origin, thus ultimately of Germanic origin, probably from German Alfihar, meaning "elf army." The name was first used as a character name in the French epic La Chanson de Roland.
ONDŘEJ: Czech form of Greek Andreas , meaning "man; warrior."
ONDREJ : Slovak form of Greek Andreas , meaning "man; warrior."
ORMARR : Old Norse name composed of the elements orm "serpent" and herr "army," hence "serpent army."
PERSEUS ( Περσεύς ): Greek myth name of the founder of Mycenae and the hero who killed the half-mortal gorgon Medusa . If Greek, the first element of the name might have derived from the word pertho, meaning "to sack, to destroy." And according to Carl Daling Buck in his Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin, the - eus suffix found in so many Greek names is typically used to form an agent noun. If so, Perseus was a "destroyer" by profession, i.e. a "soldier," which is a fitting name for this legendary hero.
PRIDBOR : Slavic name composed of the elements prid "first, foremost" and bor "battle," hence "foremost warrior."
PRITBOR : Wendish form of Slavic Pridbor, meaning "foremost warrior."
PTOLEMAEUS : Latin form of Greek Ptolemaios, meaning "aggressive, warlike."
PTOLEMAIOS ( Πτολεμαῖος ): Greek name derived from the word polemeios, meaning "aggressive, warlike."
PTOLEMY : Short form of Greek Ptolemaios, meaning "aggressive, warlike."
QUAN : Vietnamese name element meaning "soldier, warrior." Compare with another form of Quan.
RAGNAR : Scandinavian form of German Reginar , meaning "wise warrior."
RAINER : A derivative of German Reginar, meaning "wise warrior."
RAINERIO : Spanish form of German Rainer, meaning "wise warrior."
RAINIER : French form of German Rainer, meaning "wise warrior."
RANIERO : Italian form of German Reginar, meaning "wise warrior."
RANJ : Short form of Hindi Ranjeet, meaning "victorious in battle."
RANJEET ( रञ्जित ): Variant spelling of Hindi Ranjit, meaning "victorious in battle."
RANJIT ( रञ्जित ): Hindi name meaning "victorious in battle."
RAYNER : English form of German Rainer, meaning "wise warrior."
RAZMIG : Armenian name meaning "fighter."
REGINAR : German name composed of the elements ragin "advice, decision" and hari "army, warrior," hence "wise warrior."
REGINHARD : Old German name composed of the elements ragin "advice" and hard "brave, hardy, strong," hence "wise and strong."
REGNER : Danish form of German Reginar, meaning "wise warrior."
REINER : Variant spelling of German Rainer, meaning "wise warrior."
REINIER : Dutch form of German Reiner, meaning "wise warrior."
ROCKY : Originally a byname for a tough guy, this name was used by the boxing champion Rocky Marciano as an English form of his Italian name Rocco , "rest," which he felt would be more suitable as a name for a fighter.
SAVAS : Turkish name meaning "war." Compare with another form of Savas.
SOSTRATOS ( Σώστρατος ): Greek name composed of the elements sos "safe, sound" and stratos "army," hence "safe army."
SOSTRATUS : Latin form of Greek Sostratos, meaning "safe army."
STRATON ( Στράτων ): Greek name meaning "army."
TAISTO : Finnish name meaning "battle."
TAKEO (1- 剛雄 , 2- 武雄 ): Japanese name meaning 1) valiant male," or "violent/warrior male."
TAKESHI ( 武 ): Japanese name meaning "fierce, violent," hence "warrior."
TERO : Short form of Finnish Antero, meaning "man; warrior."
THANE : English name derived from the noble title, "thane," from Old Saxon thegan, meaning "boy, follower, warrior."
ÞÓRIR : Old Norse name, composed of the name of the god Thor and the word verr "man, warrior," hence " Þórr 's warrior."
THORIR : Old Swedish form of Old Norse Þórir, meaning " Thor 's warrior."
ÞÓRVÉR : Old Norse name derived from ancient * wihaR , "battle, fight," hence "fighter, warrior."
VALTER : Scandinavian form of German Walther , meaning "ruler of the army."
VALTTERI: Finnish form of German Walther , meaning "ruler of the army."
VERCINGETORIX : Celtic name composed of the Gaulish elements ver "on, over" and cingeto "warriors," hence "overlord; lord over warriors."
VERNER : Scandinavian form of German Werner, meaning "Warin warrior," i.e. "covered warrior."
VIÐAR : Icelandic form of Old Norse Víðarr, meaning "forest warrior."
VIDAR : Scandinavian form of Old Norse Víðarr, meaning "forest warrior."
VÍÐARR : Old Norse myth name of a son of Óðinn, meaning "forest warrior."
VÍGHARÐUR : Icelandic equivalent of Anglo-Saxon Wigheard , meaning "hardy warrior."
VOJTĔCH: Czech form of Polish Wojciech , meaning "consolation-soldier."
VOLKER : German name composed of the elements folk "people" and heri "army," hence "people's army."
VÖLUND : Swedish form of Old Norse Volundr , meaning "war territory" or "battlefield."
VOLUNDR: Old Norse form of German Wieland , meaning "war territory" or "battlefield."
WALDHAR : Variant spelling of German Waldheri, meaning "ruler of the army."
WALDHERI : Variant spelling of Old High German Walthari , meaning "ruler of the army."
WALLY : Pet form of English Wallace "foreigner, stranger," especially Celtic or Roman, and Walter "ruler of the army."
WALT : Short form of English Walter, meaning "ruler of the army."
WALTER : English form of German Walther, meaning "ruler of the army."
WALTHARI : Old High German name composed of the elements waltan "to rule, to wield power " and hari "army, host," hence "ruler of the army."
WALTHER : Variant spelling of Old High German Walthere , meaning "ruler of the army." In use by the Romani.
WALTHERE : Variant spelling of Old High German Walthari , meaning "ruler of the army."
WALTIER : Variant form of Old French Gautier , meaning "ruler of the army."
WARNER : English surname transferred to forename use, derived from the German personal name Werner, meaning "Warin warrior," i.e. "covered warrior."
WAT : Old pet form of English Walter, meaning "ruler of the army."
WATKIN : Old Pet form of English Walter, meaning "ruler of the army."
WAYLAND: English form of German Wieland, meaning "war territory" or "battlefield."
WEALDHERE : Anglo-Saxon equivalent of German Waldheri, composed of the Old English elements weald "to rule, to wield power" and heri "army, host," hence "ruler of the army."
WEIT : Pet form of Dutch Wouter, meaning "ruler of the army."
WERNER : Old High German name composed of the tribal name Warin "cover, shelter," from warnôn "to be careful, watchful" and the word hari / heri "army, warrior," hence "Warin warrior," i.e. "covered warrior."
WERNHER : Variant spelling of Old High German Werner, meaning "Warin warrior," i.e. "covered warrior."
WERTHER : Old High German name composed of the elements wert "worthy" and heri "army," hence "worthy army."
WIEBE : Pet form of German names containing the element - wig, meaning "battle, fight, war."
WIELAND: German myth name of a craftsman, composed of the elements wig "battle, fight, war" and land "land, territory," hence "war territory" or "battlefield."
WIGHEARD : Anglo-Saxon name composed of the Old English elements wig "battle, fight, war" and heard "brave, hardy, strong," hence "hardy warrior."
WIGMUND : Anglo-Saxon name composed of the Old English elements wig "battle, fight, war" and mund "protection," hence "fight-protection."
WIMUND : Contracted form of Anglo-Saxon Wigmund, meaning "fight-protection."
WOJCIECH : Polish name composed of the Slavic elements voi "soldier" and tech "consolation," hence "consolation-soldier."
WOJTEK : Pet form of Polish Wojciech, meaning "consolation-soldier."
WOLTER : Dutch form of German Walther, meaning "ruler of the army."
WOUTER : Dutch form of German Walther, meaning "ruler of the army."
WYATT: English surname transferred to forename use, derived from the medieval personal name Wyot, meaning "hardy warrior."
WYBERT : Anglo-Saxon name, composed of the Old English elements wig "battle, fight, war" and beorht "bright," hence "bright battle."
WYMOND : Variant spelling of Middle English Wymund, meaning "fight-protection."
WYMUND : Middle English form of Anglo-Saxon Wigmund, meaning "fight-protection."
WYOT : Medieval English name derived from Anglo-Saxon Wigheard , meaning "hardy warrior."
XERXES ( Ξέρξης ): Greek form of Persian Xsayarsa, meaning "great warrior" or "lion-king." In the bible, this is the name of a king of Persia. His Hebrew name is Achashverosh .
XSAYARSA ( خشایارشاه ): Persian name meaning "great warrior" or "lion-king." In the bible, this is the name of a king of Persia. His Hebrew name is Achashverosh . His Greek name is Xerxes.
YAOTL : Nahuatl unisex name meaning "war" or "warrior."
YNGVAR : Scandinavian form of Old Norse Yngvarr, meaning " Ing 's warrior."
YNGVARR : Old Norse name composed of the name of the fertility god Ing and the word arr "warrior," hence " Ing 's warrior."
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Wolf Names
Names associated with wolves: Names that mean wolf;
wolf counsel, friends of wolves, she-wolves, were-wolves, etc.
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UNISEX:
LYALL : Scottish surname transferred to unisex forename use, from the Old Norse personal name Liulfr , meaning "shield wolf."
FEMALE:
ADALWOLFA : Feminine form of German Adalwolf, meaning "noble wolf."
ADOLPHA: Feminine form of Latin Adolphus , meaning "noble wolf."
AGWANG : African Luo name meaning "wolf."
DACIANA : Romanian name derived from Roman Dacia , the name for the region that is today Moldova and Romania. According to Strabo, the Dacians were originally known as the daoi, from Phrygian daos, meaning "wolf." It is interesting to note, too, that daoi is the Gaelic word for a "wicked man."
GUADALUPE : From the name of a town in western Spain, from Arabic wādī al-lubb, meaning "river of the wolf."
LUPA : Latin name meaning "she-wolf."
LUPE : Short form of Spanish Guadalupe ("river of the wolf"), meaning "wolf."
LUPITA : Diminutive form of Spanish Lupe ("wolf"), meaning "little wolf."
OTSANA : Basque name meaning "she-wolf."
OTSANDA : Variant spelling of Basque Otsana, meaning "she-wolf."
RALPHINA : Feminine form of English Ralph, meaning "wise wolf."
ULA : Pet form of English Ulrica , meaning "wolf power." Compare with other forms of Ula.
ÚLFA : Feminine form of Icelandic Úlfur, meaning "wolf."
ULRICA : Feminine form of Middle English Ulric, meaning "wolf power." Compare with another form of Ulrica.
ULVA: Swedish form of Icelandic Úlfa , meaning "wolf."
VELVELA ( וֶולוֶולא ): Feminine form of Yiddish Velvel , meaning "wolf."
YLVA: Scandinavian form of Icelandic Úlfa, meaning "she-wolf."
MALE:
AATU : Finnish form of Old High German Adalwolf, meaning "noble wolf."
ADALWOLF : Variant spelling of Old High German Adalwulf, meaning "noble wolf."
ADALWULF : Old High German name, composed of the elements adal "noble" and wulf "wolf," hence "noble wolf."
ADELULF : Variant spelling of Old High German Adalwulf, meaning "noble wolf."
ADOLF : Modern contracted form of Old High German Adalwolf, meaning "noble wolf."
ADOLFO : Italian form of Latin Adolfus , meaning "noble wolf."
ADOLFUS : Latinized form of German Adolf, meaning "noble wolf." Used by the Swedish.
ADOLPH : English form of Latin Adolphus , meaning "noble wolf."
ADOLPHE : French form of Latin Adolphus , meaning "noble wolf."
ADOLPHO : Spanish form of Latin Adolphus , meaning "noble wolf."
ADOLPHUS : Latinized form of German Adolf , meaning "noble wolf."
ÆÐELWULF: Anglo-Saxon name composed of the Old English elements æðel "noble" and wulf "wolf," hence, "noble wolf."
ÆÞELWULF : Variant spelling of Anglo-Saxon Æðelwulf, meaning "noble wolf."
ÆTHELWULF : Variant spelling of Anglo-Saxon Æðelwulf, meaning "noble wolf."
AHLF : Pet form of German Adolf , meaning "noble wolf."
ALF : Low German pet form of German Adolf , meaning "noble wolf." Compare with other forms of Alf.
BARDAWULF : Old German equivalent of Anglo-Saxon Bertulf , meaning "bright wolf."
BARDOLPH : Anglo-Norman form of Old German Bardulf, meaning "bright wolf."
BARDULF : Contracted form of German Bardawulf, meaning "bright wolf."
BEORHTWULF: Anglo-Saxon name composed of the Old English elements beorht "bright" and wulf "wolf," hence "bright wolf."
BERHTULF : Anglo-Saxon name composed of the Old English elements berht "bright" and wulf "wolf," hence "bright wolf."
BERTOLF : Variant spelling of Anglo-Saxon Bardulf, meaning "bright wolf."
BERTULF : Variant spelling of Anglo-Saxon Berhtulf, meaning "bright wolf."
COINÍN : Old Gaelic byname composed of the word cano "wolf" and a diminutive suffix, hence "little wolf."
CUETLACHTLI : Nahuatl name meaning "wolf."
DOLPH : Short form of English Adolph , meaning "noble wolf."
ETHELWOLF : Variant spelling of Anglo-Saxon Æthelwulf , meaning "noble wolf."
FÁELÁN: Variant spelling of Irish Gaelic Faolán, meaning "little wolf."
FAOLÁN : Irish Gaelic name composed of the word faol "wolf" and a diminutive suffix, hence "little wolf."
FENRISÚLFR : In mythology, this is the name of a wolf, the son of Loki and the giantess Angrboða , popularly translated "swamp wolf," but probably originally meaning "wolf of hell." According to Sophus Bugge, author of The Home of The Eddic Poems , this name cannot possibly mean "swamp wolf," for there does not exist in Old Norse any derivative endings as -rir, or -ris. He believes Fenrir and Fenris arose under the influence of Christian conceptions of the devil as lupus infernus, combined with tales of the Behemoth and the beast of the Apocalypse, and was altered in form in accordance with popular Old Norse etymology. He compares Old Norse fern from Latin infernus to Old Saxon fern which was derived from Latin infernum , and explains that Fenrir and Fenris must have been formed from * Fernir from fern using the endings -ir and gen. -is, both of which were very much used in mythical names, including names of giants. He goes on to explain that the later connection with fen ("fen, swamp, mire") was natural, for hell and lower regions, such as the abyss, are often connected by imagination just as they still are today.
FENRISÚLFUR: Icelandic form of Old Norse Fenrisúlfr , popularly translated "swamp wolf," but probably originally meaning "wolf of hell."
FILLIN : Anglicized form of Irish Gaelic Faolán, meaning "little wolf."
GERWULF : German name composed of the elements ger "spear" and wulf "wolf," hence "spear-wolf."
HEMMING : Scandinavian name derived from Old Norse hamr, meaning "shape." The name may have originated as a byname for a "shape-shifter" or "werewolf."
HOHNIHOHKAIYOHOS : Native American Cheyenne name meaning "high-backed wolf."
HONIAHAKA : Native American Cheyenne name meaning "little wolf."
HRODULF : Contracted form of Old High German Hrodwulf, meaning "famous wolf."
HRODWULF : Old High German name composed of the elements hrod "fame" and wulf "wolf," hence "famous wolf."
HROLF : Contracted form of Old Germanic Hrodwulf, meaning "famous wolf."
HRÓLFR: Old Norse equivalent of Germanic Hrolf, meaning "famous wolf."
INGOLF : Scandinavian form of Old Norse Ingólfr , meaning " Ing 's wolf."
INGÓLFR : Old Norse name composed of the name of the fertility god Ing and the word úlfr "wolf," hence " Ing 's wolf."
IVAILO ( Ивайло ): Bulgarian name, possibly meaning "wolf."
IVAYLO ( Ивайло ): Variant spelling of Bulgarian Ivailo, possibly meaning "wolf."
KENYON : Irish surname transferred to forename use, from an Anglicized form of Gaelic Mac Coinín "son of Coinín ," hence "little wolf."
KUCKUNNIWI : Native American Cheyenne name meaning "little wolf."
LIULFR : Old Norse name of uncertain etymology, possibly composed of the elements hlíf "shield, protection" and ulfr "wolf," hence "shield wolf."
LOPE : Spanish form of Latin Lupus, meaning "wolf."
LOUP : French form of Latin Lupus, meaning "wolf."
LOUVEL : Old Norman French byname derived from a diminutive form of the word lou "wolf," hence "little wolf."
LOVEL : Variant spelling of English Lovell, meaning "little wolf."
LOVELL : English surname transferred to forename use, from a variant spelling of English Lowell , meaning "little wolf."
LOWELL : English surname transferred to forename use, derived from the Old Norman French byname Louvel, meaning "little wolf."
LUPUS : Latin name derived from the word lupus, meaning "wolf."
LYCAON : Latin form of Greek Lykaon, possibly meaning "wolf." In mythology, this is the name of an early king of Arkadia.
LYCURGUS : Latin form of Greek Lykourgos, meaning "wolf-work." In mythology, this is the name of a lawgiver of Sparta who banned the cult of Dionysus and paid dearly for it. His political opponent Alcander put out one of his eyes.
LYKAON ( Λυκάων ): Greek name possibly meaning "wolf." In mythology, this is the name of an early king of Arkadia.
LYKOURGOS ( Λυκούργος ): Greek name composed of the elements lykou "of a wolf" and ergon "deed, work," hence "wolf-work." In mythology, this is the name of a lawgiver of Sparta who banned the cult of Dionysus and paid dearly for it. His political opponent Alcander put out one of his eyes.
MARROK : Possibly a French form of Latin Marcus, meaning "defense" or "of the sea." In Arthurian legend, this is the name of a knight who was also a werewolf. In Thomas Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur, "Death of Arthur," (1469-1470), there is a single line mentioning this knight; it reads as follows: "Sir Marrok the good knyghte that was betrayed with his wyf for she made hym seven yere a werwolf."
OCUMWHOWURST : Native American Cheyenne name meaning "yellow wolf."
OCUNNOWHURST : Variant form of Cheyenne Ocumwhowurst, meaning "yellow wolf."
OHCUMGACHE : Native American Cheyenne name meaning "little wolf."
OTSOA : Basque name meaning "wolf."
OTSOKO : Basque name meaning "wolf cub."
PHELAN : Anglicized form of Irish Gaelic Faolán , meaning "little wolf."
RADULF :
Danish form of Old Norse Ráðúlfr meaning "wise wolf."
German name composed of the elements rad "advice, counsel" and wulf "wolf," hence "wise wolf."
RÁÐÚLFR : Old Norse name composed of the elements ráð "advice, counsel" and úlfr "wolf," hence "wise wolf."
RÆDWULF : Anglo-Saxon name composed of the Old English elements ræd "advice, counsel" and wulf "wolf," hence "wise wolf."
RAFE : Medieval form of English Ralph, meaning "wise wolf."
RALF :
Medieval Norman contracted form of German Radulf, meaning "wise wolf."
Scandinavian form of Old Norse Ráðúlfr , meaning "wise wolf."
RALPH : English form of Norman French Raulf, meaning "wise wolf."
RALPHIE : Pet form of English Ralph, meaning "wise wolf."
RANDAL : Medieval form of English Randolf, meaning "shield-wolf."
RANDALL : Variant spelling of English Randal, meaning "shield-wolf."
RANDELL : Variant spelling of English Randal, meaning "shield-wolf."
RANDOLF :
Scandinavian form of Old Norse Randolfr , meaning "shield-wolf."
Variant spelling of Middle English Randulf , meaning "shield-wolf."
RANDOLFR : Variant spelling of Old Norse Randulfr , meaning "shield-wolf."
RANDOLPH : Modern English form of Middle English Randolf, meaning "shield-wolf."
RANDULF : Middle English form of Anglo-Saxon Randwulf , meaning "shield-wolf."
RANDULFR : Old Norse name composed of the elements rand "rim (of a shield)" and ulfr "wolf," hence "shield-wolf."
RANDWULF : Anglo-Saxon name composed of the Old English elements rand "rim of a shield" and wulf "wolf," hence "shield-wolf."
RANDY : Pet form of English Randall and Randolph , both meaning "shield-wolf." Compare with feminine Randy.
RANNULF: Frankish German form of Old Norse Ránulfr, meaning "plundering wolf."
RÁNNULFR : Variant spelling of Old Norse Ránulfr, meaning "plundering wolf."
RANNULFUS : Latinized form of Frankish German Rannulf, meaning "plundering wolf."
RANULF :
Scottish form of Old Norse Randulfr, meaning "shield-wolf."
Variant spelling of Frankish German Rannulf, meaning "plundering wolf."
RÁNULFR: Old Norse name composed of the elements rán "plundering, robbery" and úlfr "wolf," hence "plundering wolf."
RANULPH : Variant spelling of Scottish Ranulf, meaning "shield-wolf."
RAOUL : Old French form of German Radulf , meaning "wise wolf."
RAUL : Italian and Portuguese form of German Radulf , meaning "wise wolf."
RAÚL: Spanish form of German Radulf , meaning "wise wolf."
RAULF : Norman French contracted form of German Radulf , meaning "wise wolf."
RODOLF : Dutch form of Latin Rudolphus , meaning "famous wolf."
RODOLFO : Italian, Portuguese and Spanish form of Latin Rudolphus , meaning "famous wolf."
RODOLPH : Variant spelling of French Rodolphe, meaning "famous wolf."
RODOLPHE : French form of Latin Rudolphus , meaning "famous wolf."
ROFFE : Swedish pet form of Scandinavian Rolf , meaning "famous wolf."
ROLF :
Contracted form of Old High German Hrodwulf, meaning "famous wolf." This name came into Middle English use via the Normans.
Modern North German contracted form of Old German Rudolf, meaning "famous wolf."
Scandinavian form of Old Norse Hrólfr , meaning "famous wolf."
ROLLO : Latin form of Old French Roul, meaning "famous wolf." Compare with another form of Rollo.
ROUL : Old Norman French form of German Radulf , meaning "wise wolf."
RUDI : Pet form of German Rudolf, meaning "famous wolf."
RUDOLF : Modern form of Old High German Hrodwulf , meaning "famous wolf."
RUDOLPH : English name derived from Latin Rudolphus, meaning "famous wolf."
RUDOLPHUS : Latin form of Old High German Hrodwulf , meaning "famous wolf."
RUDY : Pet form of English Rudolph, meaning "famous wolf."
RUUD : Pet form of Dutch Rodolf, meaning "famous wolf."
SANDALIO : Spanish form of Latin Sandalius, meaning "true wolf."
SANDALIUS : Latin form of Gothic Sandulf, meaning "true wolf."
SANDULF : Gothic name composed of the Germanic elements sand "true" and ulf "wolf," hence "true wolf."
SEFF ( סֶעף ): Variant spelling of Yiddish Zeff, meaning "wolf."
SHOEMOWETOCHAWCAWEWAHCATOWE : Native American Cheyenne name meaning "high-backed wolf."
ULBRECHT : German name composed of the elements wulf "wolf" and beraht "bright," hence "bright wolf."
ULF : Scandinavian form of Old Norse Ulfr, meaning "wolf."
ÚLFGANGUR: Icelandic form of German Wolfgang , meaning "wolf path."
ÚLFHRAFN: Icelandic form of German Wolfram , meaning "wolf-raven."
ULFR : Old Norse name derived from the word ulfr, meaning "wolf."
ULFRIC : Norman Germanic equivalent of Anglo-Saxon Wulfric , meaning "wolf power."
ÚLFUR : Icelandic form of Old Norse Ulfr, meaning "wolf."
ULRIC : Middle English form of Anglo-Saxon Wulfric , meaning "wolf power."
ULRICK : Variant spelling of English Ulric, meaning "wolf power."
VARG: Norwegian name meaning "wolf."
VELVEL ( וֶועלוֶל ): Yiddish name meaning "wolf."
VUK ( Вук ): Short form of Serbian Vukasin , meaning "wolf."
VUKASIN ( Вукашин ): Serbian name meaning "wolf."
WOLF :
English name derived from the vocabulary word, meaning simply "wolf."
German and Jewish name, meaning "wolf."
WOLFE : Variant spelling of English Wolf, meaning "wolf."
WOLFGANG : German name, composed of the elements wulf "wolf" and gang "a going (i.e. path)," hence "wolf path."
WOLFRAM : German name composed of the elements wulf "wolf" and hramn "raven," hence "wolf-raven."
WULFRIC : Anglo-Saxon name composed of the Old English elements wulf "wolf" and ric "power," hence "wolf power."
ZEEB : ( זְאֵב ): Hebrew name meaning "wolf," so called from its being tawny and yellow in color. In the bible, this is the name of a Midianite prince.
ZE'EV ( זְאֵב ): Variant spelling of Hebrew Zeeb, meaning "wolf."
ZEFF ( זֶעף ): Yiddish form of Hebrew Zev, meaning "wolf."
ZEV : Variant spelling of Hebrew Zeeb, meaning "wolf."
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Product of Consecutive Integers
Contents of this page
Product of an Odd Number of Consecutive Integers
Product of an Even Number of Consecutive Integers
Ratio of Factorials, and Gosper's Approximation
The product of n consecutive integers is divisible by n!
A note about products of negative numbers
Proof that floor [a+b] ≥ floor [a] + floor [b]
Internet references
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Math Help > Basic Math > Factorials, Consecutive Integer Products > Product of Consecutive Integers
Contents of this page
Who knew there was so much to say about the product of consecutive integers? This page answers the following questions:
What are the coefficients of the polynomial giving the product of 2k+1 consecutive integers whose "middle" number is n?
What are the coefficients of the polynomial giving the product of 2k consecutive integers whose "middle" numbers add up to n?
What is Gosper's approximation to the product of consecutive integers?
Why is the product of n consecutive integers divisible by n! ?
Product of an Odd Number of Consecutive Integers
The formula for finding the product of any odd number of consecutive integers follows the pattern of coefficients in Sloane's A008955.
If the number of numbers is 2k+1, where k=0,1,2,..., then we can define a function P odd (k,n) as the product of 2k+1 numbers in which the "middle" number is n. That is P odd (k,n)= (n-k) (n-k+1)... (n+k)
Notice that P odd (k+1,n) = (n 2 -k 2) P odd (k,n), which gives us a recurrence relation that lets us find the coefficients of each polynomial:
P odd (0,n) = (n) = n
P odd (1,n) = (n-1) (n) (n+1) = n 3 -n
P odd (2,n) = (n-2) (n-1)... (n+2) = n 5 -5n 3 +4n
P odd (3,n) = (n-3) (n-2)... (n+3) = n 7 -14n 5 +49n 3 -36n
P odd (4,n) = (n-4) (n-3)... (n+4) = n 9 -30n 7 +273n 5 -820n 3 +576n
P odd (5,n) = (n-5) (n-4)... (n+5) = n 11 -55n 9 +1023n 7 -7645n 5 +21076n 3 -14400n
P odd (6,n) = (n-6) (n-5)... (n+6) = n 13 -91n 11 +3003n 9 -44473n 7 +296296n 5 -773136n 3 +518400n
P odd (7,n) = (n-7) (n-6)... (n+7) = n 15 -... well, you get the idea!
Product of an Even Number of Consecutive Integers
The formula for finding the product of any even number of consecutive integers follows the pattern of coefficients in Sloane's A008956.
If the number of numbers is 2k, where k=0,1,2,..., then we can define a function P even (k,n) as the product of 2k numbers in which the sum of the two "middle" numbers is n. Notice that this sum is always odd. Each of the consecutive numbers can be represented as (n+m)/2, where m is an odd number that ranges from -2k+1 to 2k-1. That is,
P even (k,n)= (n-2k+1)/2 (n-2k+3)/2 ... (n+2k-1)/2, or
P even (k,n)= (n-2k+1) (n-2k+3) ... (n+2k-1)/2 2k
Notice that P even (k+1,n) = (n 2 - (2k-1) 2) P even (k,n), which gives us a recurrence relation that lets us find the coefficients of each polynomial:
P even (0,n) = (1)/2 0 = 1
P even (1,n) = (n-1) (n+1)/2 2 = (n 2 -1)/4
P even (2,n) = (n-3) (n-1) (n+1) (n+3)/2 4 = (n 4 -10n 2 +9)/16
P even (3,n) = (n-5) (n-3)... (n+5)/2 6 = (n 6 -35n 4 +259n 2 -225)/64
P even (4,n) = (n-7) (n-5)... (n+7)/2 8 = (n 8 -84n 6 +1974n 4 -12916n 2 +11025)/256
P even (5,n) = (n-9) (n-7)... (n+9)/2 10 = (n 10 -165n 8 +8778n 6 -172810n 4 +1057221n 2 -893025)/1024
P even (6,n) = (n-11) (n-9)... (n+11)/2 12 = (n 12 -286n 10 +28743n 8 -1234948n 6 +21967231n 4 -128816766n 2 +108056025)/4096
P even (7,n) = (n-13) (n-11)... (n+13)/2 14 = (n 14 -455n 12 +77077n 10 -6092515n 8 +230673443n 6 -3841278805n 4 +21878089479n 2 -18261468225)/16384
Ratio of Factorials, and Gosper's Approximation
Of course, the product of integers from k+1 to n is n!/k!. Toward the end of Mathworld's article in Stirling's Approximation to n!, this statement appears:
Gosper has noted that a better approximation to n! (i.e., one which approximates the terms in Stirling's series instead of truncating them) is given by
n! ≈ sqrt ( (2n+1/3)π) n n e -n
Using this approximation, n!/k! is given by
n!/k! ≈ (n/e) n-k (n/k) k sqrt (6n+1) / sqrt (6k+1)
This form is useful for computation, especially when k is almost as large as n, because it avoids very large or very small numbers in intermediate results.
The product of n consecutive integers is divisible by n!
Proof 1: Consider the number of n-element sets of an (n+m) element set. This is C (n+m,n), which is an integer, and
C (n+m,n) = (m+1) (m+2) (m+3)... (m+n) / n!. The numerator is the product of n consecutive integers, and the denominator is n!, proving that the product of n consecutive integers is divisible by n!.
Proof 2: Consider the largest power of each prime factor of the product of consecutive integers. Let P be the product,
P = (m+1) (m+2)... (m+n) = (m+n)!/m!
For any given positive integer n and prime p, define the function E (n,p) = e such that p e is the largest power of p that divides n!. This is the number of numbers from 1 to n divisible by p plus the number of numbers divisible by p 2 plus the number of numbers divisible by p 3 , etc.
E (n,p) = floor [n/p] + floor [n/p 2] + floor [n/p 3] + ...
Using this definition with the product, P= (m+n)!/m!, we see that
E (m+n,p)-E (m,p) = floor [ (m+n)/p] - floor [m/p] + floor [ (m+n)/p 2] - floor [m/p 2] + floor [ (m+n)/p 3] - floor [m/p 3] + ...
which is at least as large as E (n,p) for any given m, n and p, because for any real numbers, a and b, floor [a+b] ≥ floor [a] + floor [b]
A note about products of negative numbers
The two proofs, above work for products of n positive integers, but the statement is also true when the product includes negative integers or zero. There are two cases that need to be considered:
Case 1: the product of negative numbers. This is equal to plus or minus the product of the corresponding positive numbers, and so it is divisible by n!.
Case 2: the product of numbers, some of which are negative, and some of which are not negative. In this case, one of the numbers must be zero, so the product is zero, and zero is divisible by all n!
Proof that floor [a+b] ≥ floor [a] + floor [b]
It may seem obvious, but it's a little tricky, so I've included this little proof:
a ≥ floor [a], and b ≥ floor [b], so
a+b ≥ floor [a]+floor [b].
floor is a nondecreasing function, which means if x ≥ y, then floor [x] ≥ floor [y], so we can take the "floor" of both sides of this inequality:
floor [a+b] ≥ floor [floor [a]+floor [b]] = floor [a]+floor [b]
Internet references
Mathworld: Factorial
Mathworld: Stirling's Approximation
Related pages in this website
Puzzle: A Two-Player Game proves some interesting facts about complementary Beatty sequences using the floor function.
The webmaster and author of this Math Help site is Graeme McRae . | msmarco_doc_00_8219754 |
http://2000clicks.com/MathHelp/GeometryGlossaryQuadrilaterals.aspx | Quadrilaterals | Quadrilaterals
Quadrilaterals
Classification of quadrilaterals
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Math Help > Geometry > Quadrilaterals
Classification of quadrilaterals
Depiction of a hierarchy of quadrilaterals, in which the green arrows represent additional properties. For example, a parallelogram becomes a rhombus by making all four sides the same length. Similar charts can be found in Mathwords , Wikipedia, and Dr.Math.
Figure
Definition, followed by additional facts (theorems)
Internet references
A closed plane figure consisting of four line segments. A "crossed" (or "complex") quadrilateral has one pair of intersecting sides. A "concave" quadrilateral, pictured here, has one interior angle greater than 180°. The other possibility, described next, is "convex". Bretschneider's Formula gives the area of a quadrilateral with sides of length a, b, c, d and opposite interior angles A and C. The sum of the interior angles of a non-crossed quadrilateral 360. In a crossed quadrilateral, the sum of the interior angles on one side of the crossing equals the sum of the interior angles on the other side of the crossing.
Mathwords , Mathworld , Dr.Math , Wikipedia, Geometry Atlas, Math.com , Math is fun
"convex" means every line segment connecting interior points is entirely contained within the interior. Theorems: A case of Ramsey's Theorem tells us: Given any five points in a plane with no three collinear, four are the vertices of a convex quadrilateral.
Mathwords , Dr.Math
A quadrilateral with two pairs of adjacent equal sides. (In some text, a kite need not be convex; in others concave kites are termed a "dart" or "arrowhead".) Theorems: One set of opposite angles is equal, and that one diagonal perpendicularly bisects the other. The bisecting diagonal forms an axis of symmetry, dividing the kite into two congruent triangles. The bisected diagonal divides the kite into two isosceles triangles. A convex kite is tangential (inscriptable). A quadrilateral has bilateral symmetry iff it is either a kite or an isosceles trapezoid.
Mathwords , Mathworld, Dr.Math , Wikipedia, Geometry Atlas
A convex quadrilateral whose four vertices lie on a circumscribed circle. Theorems: In a cyclic quadrilateral, opposite angles are supplementary. The area of a cyclic quadrilateral is the maximum possible for any quadrilateral with the given side lengths. Brahmagupta's formula gives the area of a cyclic quadrilateral, using only the side lengths. Cyclic quadrilaterals that are also inscriptable are called "bicentric".
Mathworld , Wikipedia , Geometry Atlas
A convex quadrilateral with one pair of parallel sides. Theorems: Two adjacent angles of a convex quadrilateral are supplementary iff it is a trapezoid. The diagonals cut each other in proportion of the lengths of the parallel sides.
Mathwords , Mathworld, Dr.Math , Wikipedia, Geometry Atlas
A kite which is also cyclic. Theorems: A cyclic kite has a pair of opposite right angles. Being a kite, it has a pair of congruent angles. Being cyclic, these congruent angles must also be supplementary, so they are right angles.
A trapezoid with two opposite sides parallel, the two other sides are of equal length. This implies that the two ends of each parallel side have equal angles, and that the diagonals are of equal length. A quadrilateral has bilateral symmetry iff it is either a kite or an isosceles trapezoid.
Mathwords , Mathworld , Wikipedia
A convex quadrilateral in which both pairs of opposite sides are parallel. This implies that opposite sides are of equal length, opposite angles are equal, and the diagonals bisect each other. Each diagonal bisects the parallelogram into two congruent triangles.
Euclid showed if lines parallel to the sides are drawn through any point on a diagonal of a parallelogram, then the parallelograms not containing segments of that diagonal are equal in area (and conversely).
Varignon's Theorem: A parallelogram is formed by joining the midpoints of adjacent sides of a quadrilateral. The center of Varignon's Parallelogram is the centroid of the vertices of the quadrilateral.
Wittenbauer's Theorem: A parallelogram is formed by dividing the sides of a quadrilateral into three equal parts, and connecting and extending adjacent points on either side of each vertex. The center of Wittenbauer's parallelogram is the quadrilateral's centroid.
Mathwords , Mathworld , Wikipedia, Geometry Atlas
A convex quadrilateral with four right angles. This implies that opposite sides are parallel and of equal length, and the diagonals bisect each other and are equal in length.
Mathworld , Wikipedia, Geometry Atlas
A convex quadrilateral with all four sides of equal length. This implies that opposite sides are parallel, opposite angles are equal, and the diagonals perpendicularly bisect each other. Its area is given by A=bh, where b is the base, and h is the height, or perpendicular distance between opposite sides. A rhombus is tangential (inscriptable).
Mathwords , Mathworld, Wikipedia , Geometry Atlas
A convex quadrilateral with four sides of equal length, and four right angles. This implies that opposite sides are parallel, and that the diagonals perpendicularly bisect each other and are of equal length. Each diagonal bisects each pair of opposite angles.
Mathwords , Mathworld, Wikipedia , Geometry Atlas
Tangential quadrilateral
Inscriptable quadrilateral
A convex quadrilateral in which a circle can be inscribed, tangent to all four sides. Theorems: The four angle bisectors meet (at the center of the inscribed circle) iff the figure is tangential. Pairs of opposites sides sum to the same number, which is the semiperimeter of the quadrilateral. Cyclic inscriptable quadrilaterals are also called "bicentric"
Wikipedia
A quadrilateral with just one pair of congruent opposite sides, and just one pair of congruent opposite angles is not necessarily a parallelogram. The reason, as explained in Dr. Math, can be seen by drawing the shorter diagonal in the figure to the left, which divides the figure into two non-congruent triangles which nonetheless have congruent side-side-angle (SSA).
Dr.Math
Related pages in this website:
Geometry Glossary defines geometrical terms.
Bretschneider's Formula gives the area of a quadrilateral with sides of length a, b, c, d and opposite interior angles A and C.
Brahmagupta's formula gives the area of a cyclic quadrilateral, using only the side lengths.
Internet references
Quadrilaterals are referenced by Mathwords , Mathworld , Dr.Math , Wikipedia, Geometry Atlas, Math.com , Math is fun. | msmarco_doc_00_8226939 |
http://2000clicks.com/MathHelp/GeometryLawOfSines.aspx | Solving a triangle (AAS, SAS, SSA, SSS) using Laws of Sines and Cosines | Solving a triangle (AAS, SAS, SSA, SSS) using Laws of Sines and Cosines
Solving a triangle (AAS, SAS, SSA, SSS) using Laws of Sines and Cosines
Laws of Cosines and Sines
Triangle cases
AAS -- Law of Sines
SAS -- Law of Cosines
SSA -- Law of Sines
SSS -- Law of Cosines
Internet references
Related pages in this website:
| Solving a triangle (AAS, SAS, SSA, SSS) using Laws of Sines and Cosines
Solving a triangle (AAS, SAS, SSA, SSS) using Laws of Sines and Cosines
Math Help > Trigonometry > Law of Sines
In this page, we will consider a triangle ABC with sides a, b, and c. The triangle is labeled so that side a is opposite angle A, side b is opposite angle B, and side c is opposite angle C.
Laws of Cosines and Sines
Law of Cosines
The Law of Cosines is most useful when you know two sides a, b, and the included angle, C:
c² = a² + b² - 2ab cos (C)
or when you know all three sides:
cos (C) = (a² + b² - c²) / (2ab)
Law of Sines
The Law of Sines is most useful when you know a side, a, and the angle, A, opposite it. Then for every other side you can find its opposite angle, and for every other angle, you can find its opposite side.
b = a sin (B)/sin (A)
c = a sin (C)/sin (A)
sin (B) = (b/a) sin (A)
sin (C) = (c/a) sin (A)
Triangle cases
If you know any three facts about triangle ABC -- lengths of sides or measures of angles -- then you can use one of these laws to find the lengths of all sides and measures of all angles.
These cases boil down to four cases:
AAS -- Any two angles, and one side (Law of Sines)
SAS -- Side, included Angle, and Side (Law of Cosines)
SSA -- Two sides, and a non-included Angle (Law of Sines) — this might have two solutions!
SSS -- All three sides (Law of Cosines)
Here is a breakdown of these four cases:
AAS -- Law of Sines
If you know any two angles and any side, then you really know all three angles, so you have the "AAS" case -- Angle, Angle, Side. Let's say you know angles A, B, and C, and the side you know is side a. From the Law of Sines,
b/sin (B) = a/sin (A)
b = a sin (B) / sin (A)
example
a = 11, A=110°, B=20�, C=50�
From the Law of Sines,
b = a sin (B) / sin (A) = 11 * sin (20) / sin (110) = 4.00367
c = a sin (C) / sin (A) = 11 * sin (50) / sin (110) = 8.96728
SAS -- Law of Cosines
The Law of Cosines gives the length of the side opposite an angle if you know the lengths of the other two sides. This is the SAS case -- you know the Side, Angle, and Side.
c² = a² + b² - 2ab cos (C)
example
Suppose you know a=58, b=120, and C=45�
The third side, c, is found using the law of cosines: c² = a² + b² - 2 a b cos (C)
58² + 120² - 2 * 58 * 120 * cos (45) = 7921.074, sqrt (7921.074) = 89.0004.
Now that we know both side c and angle C we can use the Law of Sines to find the other two angles.
This gives us:
sin (A) = (a/c) sin (C), and
sin (B) = (b/c) sin (C)
Now, watch out! It's possible that the largest angle of a triangle may be obtuse or acute, and you can't tell from the sine of an angle which it is, so here's a word to the wise: find the smaller angle first, knowing it's acute.
So we'll use the Law of Sines to find the smaller angle A first, using
sin (A) = (a/c) sin (C). Plugging in the values we know,
sin (A) = (58 / 89.0004) sin (45) = 0.46081, so A = 27.43932
Now, finding angle B is easy: B = 180 - C - A, so B = 107.56068
SSA -- Law of Sines
The Law of Sines is a/ (sin A) = b/ (sin B) = c/ (sin C) = the diameter of the circumscribed circle. ( proof)
If you know the length of two sides and an angle other than the angle between those sides, then the Law of Sines can be used. This is the "SSA" case -- Side, Side, Angle. Assuming you know the lengths of sides a and b, and angle A,
a/sin (A) = b/sin (B)
sin (B) = (b/a) sin (A)
If a < b, and sin (B) = (b/a) sin (A) is between 0 and 1, then two different angles, B, can satisfy this equation: one is acute, the other is obtuse, and these two angles are supplementary.
The two solutions of an SSA triangle
Here's an SSA triangle. Sides a (red) and b (green) are given, along with the non-included angle A. The conditions are right for two solutions — red shorter than green, and A small enough.
The second diagram, to the right, shows the circumcircle of the triangle formed by the first solution, where the red line is CB. From the Law of Sines, we know the diameter of the circumcircle is a/sin (A) = b/sin (B), etc.
So what about the second solution, where the red line is CD? In both solutions, side a has the same length (it was given to us, after all), and angle A is fixed as well, so a/sin (A) has the same value for both solutions.
This means the circumcircle of triangle ADC has the same diameter as the circumcircle of triangle ABC.
Now, let's think about the converse: Suppose we draw two intersecting circles with the same diameter, and then we draw line AC connecting the circles' points of intersection. Then we draw any other line through point A that intersects both circles at points D and B. Now, by the Inscribed Angle Property, an inscribed angle, A, intercepts an arc whose measure is 2A. So the measure of arc CD in one circle equals the measure of arc CB in the other circle. Since the circles have the same diameter, the chords CD and CB also have the same length.
example
a=5, b=11, A=25�
We know side a and opposite angle A so we can use the Law of Sines to find angle B: sin (B) = (b/a) sin (A)
Plugging in the numbers gives us sin (B) = (11 / 5) sin (25) = 0.92976.
Watch out! Since there are two different measures of angles B with the same sine, there may be two solutions to this problem.
This can happen if side b is longer than side a, and sin (B), as calculated above, is between 0 and 1.
In this case, since side b is indeed longer than side a, there are TWO possible angles for B: 68.39746�, and 111.60254�.
For each possible measure of angle B, we use C = 180 - A - B, giving us 86.60254� or 43.39746�.
Law of Sines OR Law of Cosines can be used to find the remaining side, c.
To find side c, for each possible angle C, we can use the law of cosines or the law of sines.
Using the Law of Cosines, c² = a² + b² - 2 a b cos (C)
Using the Law of Sines, c = a sin (C)/sin (A)
Using either method, the solutions are c = 11.81021, or c = 8.12856.
SSS -- Law of Cosines
If you know the lengths of all three sides, you can solve for any angle:
A = acos ( (b²+c²-a²)/ (2bc))
B = acos ( (c²+a²-b²)/ (2ca))
C = acos ( (a²+b²-c²)/ (2ab))
example
Suppose a=56, b=97, c=112.
A = acos ( (b²+c²-a²)/ (2bc)) = 29.99999986�
B = acos ( (c²+a²-b²)/ (2ca)) = 60.00527405�
C = acos ( (a²+b²-c²)/ (2ab)) = 89.99472609�
This is an amusing example, because it's a triangle that's almost a right triangle: a²+b²=12545, and c²=12544. In addition, this triangle has almost a 60� angle: c²+a²-b²=6271, and 2ca=6272. To find more examples of near 30-60-90 triangles, look for the continued fraction convergents to sqrt (3).
a is an element of A002530,
b is an element of A002531, and
c = 2a
Internet references
Mathworld: AAS , SAS , ASS, and SSS theorems.
OEIS: A002530, A002531, denominators and numerators of convergents to sqrt (3).
Related pages in this website:
Law of Sines Proof
Law of Cosines : c² = a² + b² − 2ab cos C
Inscribed Angle Property -- that all angles that are inscribed in a circle that are subtended by a given chord have equal measure, and that measure is half the central angle subtended by the same chord.
The webmaster and author of this Math Help site is Graeme McRae . | msmarco_doc_00_8233892 |
http://2000clicks.com/MathHelp/GeometryTriangleCenterInscribedCircle2.aspx | Incenter: concurrency of the angle bisectors, Angle Bisector Theorem | Incenter: concurrency of the angle bisectors, Angle Bisector Theorem
Incenter: concurrency of the angle bisectors, Angle Bisector Theorem
Concurrence of the angle bisectors
Barycentric coordinates of the incenter
Angle Bisectors
Inscribed Circle
Excribed Circles
Additional Angle Bisector Properties
Internet references
Related pages in this website
| Incenter: concurrency of the angle bisectors, Angle Bisector Theorem
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Math Help > Geometry > Polygons and Triangles > Triangle Centers > Inscribed Circle and Angle Bisectors
The incenter of a triangle is the point of intersection of the triangle's three angle bisectors.
Incenter, concurrency of the three angle bisectors
Concurrence of the angle bisectors
The three angle bisectors have to meet in a single point because...
If a circle is inscribed in an angle, the angle bisector passes through the center of the circle. The two sides of the angle each form a "point of tangency" where they intersect the circle (not shown on the diagram). At each point of tangency, there is a radius that meets the side of the angle at a right angle. You can there are two congruent triangles formed by the vertex of the angle, a point of tangency, and the intersection of the two radii, which, of course has to be at the center of the circle.
There are several interesting relationships in a triangle between the inscribed circle, the angle bisectors, and the three "exscribed" circles.
Barycentric coordinates of the incenter
As a review of the barycentric coordinates of point P in triangle ABC, I'll remind you they are the three weights you need to give points A, B, and C so that P is the centroid (weighted average) of the three vertices. So, for example, A= (1,0,0), B= (0,1,0), and C= (0,0,1).
Another way to view barycentric coordinates is as "proportional altitudes". Let me explain. A point, P, can be identified by its distance from each of the three sides as a proportion of the altitude to that side. So, if h A is the altitude of point A from its opposite side, BC, and h B and h C are the other altitudes, then barycentric coordinates of a point Q = (x,y,z) indicate that the distances of Q from the three sides are x�h A, y�h B, z�h C, respectively.
Now, the incenter is equidistant from each of the sides, distant from each side by the length of the radius of the incircle. So, viewing the barycentric coordinates as proportional altitudes, and letting the incenter I = (x, y, z), we see that in order to put point I equidistant from the three sides, we need x=1/h A, y=1/h B, and z=1/h C, so the barycentric coordinates of I are
(1/h A, 1/h B, 1/h C)
The scale of each of the points is arbitrary, because these barycentric coordinates are not normalized. So, for example, the barycentric coordinates (1,2,3) and (2,4,6) represent the same point. Now, observe that the altitudes h A, h B, h C are inversely proportional to their bases, because the product of base�altitude is constant, the area of the triangle. So the barycentric coordinates of the incenter can be more simply represented,
(a, b, c)
You can calculate the vector coordinates of the incenter from its barycentric coordinates by multiplying each vertex (as a vector) by the corresponding barycentric coordinate, adding the results, and then dividing by the sum of the barycentric coordinates.
If the vertices of the triangle are given on a two-dimensional plane as A (a,b), B (c,d), and C (e,f) then the incenter (h,k) is given by
h = (a sqrt ( (c-e) 2 + (d-f) 2) + c sqrt ( (e-a) 2 + (f-b) 2) + e sqrt ( (a-c) 2 + (b-d) 2) ) /
(sqrt ( (c-e) 2 + (d-f) 2) + sqrt ( (e-a) 2 + (f-b) 2) + sqrt ( (a-c) 2 + (b-d) 2) )
k = (b sqrt ( (c-e) 2 + (d-f) 2) + d sqrt ( (e-a) 2 + (f-b) 2) + f sqrt ( (a-c) 2 + (b-d) 2) ) /
(sqrt ( (c-e) 2 + (d-f) 2) + sqrt ( (e-a) 2 + (f-b) 2) + sqrt ( (a-c) 2 + (b-d) 2) )
Do you see how we derived the two equations, above, from the barycentric coordinates of the incenter? If not, consider this: The calculation, above, is easier than it looks to carry out, because of the common subexpressions for the lengths of the sides. If we let the three side lengths be
A = sqrt ( (c-e) 2 + (d-f) 2 ),
B = sqrt ( (e-a) 2 + (f-b) 2 ), and
C = sqrt ( (a-c) 2 + (b-d) 2 ),
then the values of h and k can be more simply represented as
h = (aA + cB + eC ) / (A+B+C), and
k = (bA + dB + fC ) / (A+B+C)
Angle Bisectors
Consider triangle ABC, pictured on the left side of this page. Now, if we inscribe a circle in any of its angles, say, angle ACB, then the center, O, of the circle bisects the angle. This is true because of symmetry: The quadrilateral formed by C, O, and the two points where the circle is tangent to the angle is symmetrical about line CO, which means angle ACO is equal to angle BCO. So the center of any circle inscribed in an angle defines the angle bisector of that angle.
The reverse is also true. That is, if O is any point in the interior of an angle such that ray CO bisects angle ACB, then the circle with its center at O that is tangent to AC is also tangent to BC.
Let's take this idea a step further. If we draw two angle bisectors, one bisecting angle C, and the other bisecting angle B, then they will intersect at some point inside the triangle, which we will label point "I". Since point I is on the bisector of angle C, the circle centered at I and tangent to AC is also tangent to BC. Also, since point I is on the bisector of angle B, that same circle, tangent to AC, will also be tangent to AB. So, you see, this circle is tangent to all three sides of the triangle.
Inscribed Circle
From this we see that the intersection of any two angle bisectors is the center if the inscribed circle. It follows that all three internal angle bisectors intersect at one point, which is the center of the inscribed circle, or "incircle". The perpendicular distance from point I to any of the sides is the radius, r, of the incircle. The area, K, of triangle ABC is the sum of the areas of AIB, BIC, and CIA. If we label the lengths of the sides of triangle ABC in traditional form, with side a opposite vertex A, b opposite B, and c opposite C, then the areas of these three small triangles are cr/2, ar/2, and br/2 because the height of each small triangle is the radius of the incircle. The sum of these areas is
K = (a+b+c) (r)/2, or
K = sr. Also,
r = K/s
where s = (a+b+c)/2 is the semiperimeter of triangle ABC.
By extending two of the sides of the triangle, AC, and AB, we can bisect the exterior angles of the triangle as well. Here we have drawn two exterior bisectors which intersect at point E a . The same logic that we used for the incircle can be used again to show that a circle can be drawn at E a that is tangent to all three sides, suitably extended, of the triangle. A circle centered at E a and tangent to AC is also tangent to CB, because E a is on the bisector of the angle formed by those two lines. Similarly, the same circle, which I remind you is tangent to CB is also tangent to AB because it lies on the external bisector of angle B. Finally, since this circle is tangent to both AC and AB, the internal bisector of angle A also passes through point E a . This circle is called an "excribed" circle, or excircle.
Excribed Circles
Just as the three "in-triangles" AIB, BIC, and CIA add up to triangle ABC, three "ex-triangles" AE a B, BE a C, and CE a A add up, in a way, to the same triangle ABC. That is, if you subtract the area of BE a C from the sum of the areas AE a B and CE a A, the result is the area of ABC.
K = (-a+b+c) (R a )/2, or
K = (s-a) (R a ). Also,
R a = K/ (s-a)
where s is the semiperimeter of triangle ABC, and Ra is the radius of the excircle with center E a .
Why stop there? Both external bisectors of angle C are on the same line, as are those of angles B and A. In this diagram, these bisectors were extended to show two other excribed circles. As you can see, a triangle has three internal angle bisectors and three external angle bisectors. These six lines intersect in exactly seven points: the three vertices of the triangle (pairwise intersections), the centers of the four in- and excircles (triple intersections).
The internal angle bisector of a given vertex is perpendicular to the external angle bisector. This makes each of the internal angle bisectors an altitude of triangle E a E b E c formed by the three excenters. The point I then, which is the incenter of triangle ABC, is also the orthocenter of triangle E a E b E c.
The radii of the four circles shown are related by the equation
1/r = 1/R a +1/R b +1/R c because R a = K/ (s-a), etc. so
1/R a = (s-a)/K;
1/R b = (s-b)/K;
1/R c = (s-c)/K, so
1/R a +1/R b +1/R c = (3s-a-b-c)/K = s/K = 1/r
The radii of the four circles shown are related to the area of triangle ABC by the formula K=sqrt (r R a R b R c ), because from Heron's Formula
K 2 = s (s-a) (s-b) (s-c). So,
sqrt (r R a R b R c) =
sqrt (K/s K/ (s-a) K/ (s-b) K/ (s-c)) =
sqrt (K 4 / (s (s-a) (s-b) (s-c)) ) =
sqrt (K 4 / K 2) = K.
If we let R stand for the radius of the circle that circumscibes triangle ABC (the larger gold circle in the diagram, below), we get one more interesting theorem, R a +R b +R c -r=4R. This is because 4R=abc/K (proof) along with the following rather tedious algebra:
R a +R b +R c -r = K/ (s-a) + K/ (s-b) + K/ (s-c) - K/s
now, multiplying each fraction by 1 = s (s-a) (s-b) (s-c)/K 2,
R a +R b +R c -r = s (s-b) (s-c)/K + s (s-a) (s-c)/K + s (s-a) (s-b)/K - (s-a) (s-b) (s-c)/K
= (s 3 -bs 2 -cs 2 +bcs+s 3 -as 2 -cs 2 +acs+s 3 -as 2 -bs 2 +abs-s 3 +as 2 +bs 2 +cs 2 -abs-acs-bcs+abc)/K
= (2s 3 - as 2 - bs 2 - cs 2 + abc)/K
= (2s 3 - (a+b+c)s 2 + abc)/K
= abc/K
= 4R
The three excircles, E a, E b, and E c are externally tangent to the Nine Point Circle, the smaller gold circle shown here. The Nine Point Circle is so-called because it passes through the three "feet" of the altitudes (or their extensions), the midpoints of the three sides, and the midpoints of the segments connecting each of the vertices to the orthocenter (where the three altitudes meet).
In addition to being externally tangent to the three excircles, the Nine Point Circle is internally tangent to the incircle at a point called the Feuerbach point. This result is known as Feuerbach's theorem.
Also, since A, B, and C are the feet of the altitudes of triangle E a E b E c, the circumcircle of ABC is also the nine-point circle of E a E b E c . For a given triangle, the radius of the nine-point circle is half that of the circumcircle, so the radius of the larger gold circle in this diagram is twice that of the smaller gold circle.
Additional Angle Bisector Properties
The Angle Bisector Theorem of Triangles states that the point where a bisector intersects the opposite side divides that side in the same ratio as that of the other two sides. Referring to the drawing, below, the internal bisector of angle C divides side AB into two segments, x and y. The ratio of the lengths of two segments equals the ratio of the lengths of the two sides that form angle C; in other words, x:y = b:a.
Referring to the diagram, below, the proof of this theorem starts by constructing a line parallel to CC 1 that passes through B, meeting line AC at point D. Triangle BCD is isosceles, because angle ACC 1 equals angle ADB, and angle C 1 CB equals angle CBD. Since line CC 1 bisects angle ACB, angle ACC 1 equals angle C 1 CB, so angle ADB equals angle CBD. Triangle AC 1 C is similar to triangle ABD, so AC:AD = x: (x+y), and so AC:CD = x:y. Since BCD is isosceles, BC=CD, so AC:BC = x:y, proving the theorem.
Surprisingly, the external bisector, shown here as CC 2, has the same property. That is, the ratios AC 2 :BC 2 and b:a are equal. (. . . . . . proof? ) Note that if triangle ABC is isosceles with AC = BC, then point C 1 is halfway between A and B (and so CC 1 is an altitude), and point C 2 doesn't exist, because if it did, it would have to be infinitely far away from the triangle.
If CC 1 were any cevian (not necessarily a bisector), whose length is t, then Stewart's Theorem tells us
xa2 + yb2 = (x+y) (t2+xy),
which has a number of other formulations, such as replacing (x+y) with c, or expanding the right hand side this way, which is the one we will find most useful:
xa2 + yb2 = (x+y)t2 + xy2 + x2y
The following proof of Stewart's Theorem uses the law of cosines on triangles AC 1 C and BC 1 C. We will let θ represent angle AC 1 C. Note that angle BC 1 C is the supplement of θ, and so its cosine is -cos θ. Then the law of cosines on these two triangles gives us
b 2 = x 2 + t 2 - 2xt cos θ
a 2 = y 2 + t 2 + 2yt cos θ
Solving these two equations for cos θ,
cos θ = (x 2 + t 2 - b 2 )/ (2xt) = (a 2 - y 2 - t 2 )/ (2yt), so
(2xt) (a 2 - y 2 - t 2) = (2yt) (x 2 + t 2 - b 2)
x (a 2 - y 2 - t 2) = y (x 2 + t 2 - b 2)
Rearranging this equation gives us the desired result. Since x:y = b:a, ax=by. Solving Stewart's Theorem for t 2,
t 2 = (xa 2 + yb 2 - xy 2 - x 2 y)/ (x+y)
t 2 = (xa 2 + yb 2 - (x+y)xy)/ (x+y)
t 2 = (xa 2 + yb 2 )/ (x+y) - xy
So far, we haven't taken advantage of the fact that CC 1 is not just any cevian, but a bisector. Now, since x:y = b:a, ax=by, and so xa 2 =aby, and yb 2 =abx, so
t 2 = (abx + aby)/ (x+y) - xy
t 2 = ab - xy
Pat Ballew points out that each bisector, such as CC 1 is divided into two pieces by the incenter, I. The lengths of these two pieces are always in a ratio related to the three sides. Using the figure, above, as our example, the ratio CI:IC1 = (a+b):c.
To see this, look at triangle CC 1 B. The internal bisector of B cuts CC 1 into two pieces at I in the same ratio as that of the lengths other two sides of that triangle, i.e. CI:IC 1 = a:y. Similarly, using the bisector of A and triangle CC 1 A, CI:IC 1 = b:x. Since
CI:IC 1 = a:y, and
CI:IC 1 = b:x, it follows that
CI:IC 1 = (a+b): (x+y) = (a+b):c
Internet references
www.pballew.net/Tribis.html describes the relationship between angle bisectors, the incircle, and the excircles, a very comprehensive summary, by Pat Ballew.
The Nine-point circle, from mathworld, is the circle that passes through the "feet" of the three altitudes of a triangle. It also passes through the midpoints of the three sides, and the three midpoints of the segments connecting the vertices to the orthocenter; hence "nine points".
Stewart's Theorem, from mathworld.
Wikipedia: Nine-point circle
Cut the knot: Feuerbach's Theorem
Related pages in this website
Other triangle centers: Circumcenter, Incenter, Orthocenter , Centroid . The Orthocenter and Circumcenter of a triangle are isogonal conjugates, and the Incenter is its own isogonal conjugate.
Summary of geometrical theorems summarizes the proofs of concurrency of the lines that determine these centers, as well as many other proofs in geometry.
Barycentric Coordinates, which provide a way of calculating these triangle centers (see each of the triangle center pages for the barycentric coordinates of that center).
Orthocenter -- the intersection of the altitudes (or their extensions) of a triangle
Inversion Circle -- a page that describes orthogonal circles and inversion circles.
The webmaster and author of this Math Help site is Graeme McRae . | msmarco_doc_00_8241960 |
http://2000clicks.com/MathHelp/NumberTheoryDefinitions.aspx | Number Theory Definitions and Principles | Number Theory Definitions and Principles
Number Theory Definitions and Principles
Number Theory Definitions and Principles
Modulo Arithmetic
Division
Some properties of the Greatest Common Divisor (GCD)
Definition of "divides"
Definition of GCD, "Greatest Common Divisor"
Well-Ordering Principle
Division Algorithm Property
Linear Combination Property
Euclidean Algorithm Property, a.k.a. B�zout's Identity.
Euclid's principle:
Exercise: Proof
Other Properties of GCD
Internet references
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Math Help > Number Theory > Definitions in Number Theory
Number Theory Definitions and Principles
This page has some basic definitions and proofs in number theory. Click one of the links below to jump to a section of this page:
Modulo Arithmetic
Some properties of the Greatest Common Divisor (GCD)
Definition of "Divides": a|b if ak=b for some integer k
Definition of GCD: GCD (a,b)>=0, GCD (a,b)|a, GCD (a,b)|b, and if d|a and d|b then d|GCD (a,b).
Well-Ordering Principle: says that a set of positive integers has a smallest element
Division Algorithm: If a and m are any integers with m not zero,
then there are unique integers q and r such that a = qm+r with 0 < r < |m|.
Linear Combination: If a|b and a|c then a| (bx + cy) for any integers x and y.
Euclidean Algorithm Property: For any integers a and b, there exist integers x and y such that GCD (a,b)=ax+by.
Euclid's Principle: If a prime p|ab then p|a or p|b, a and b integers
Application of these principles: an exercise
Related pages in this website
Modulo Arithmetic
The MOD operator is defined such that
0 <= x MOD y < y and
x = q*y + (x MOD y)
In other words x MOD y is the remainder after dividing x by y.
The divides relation is defined such that x divides y <=> y = x * q for some integer q
Its properties include the following
x divides 0
x divides x
x divides y ==> x divides -y
x divides y and x divides z ==> x divides y + z
x divides y - (y MOD z)
The congruence operator == is defined such that
x == y (mod z) <=> z divides (x - y)
or equivalently
x == y (mod z) <=> x MOD z = y MOD z
z == 0 (mod z)
x == y (mod z) ==> y == x (mod z)
x == y (mod z) and y == t (mod z) ==> x == t (mod z)
x1 == x2 (mod z) and y1 == y2 (mod z) ==>
x1 + y1 == x2 + y2 and
x1 - y1 == x2 - y2 and
x1 * y2 == x2 * y2
Thus you can add, subtract, and multiply congruences.
Division
Division Theorem: If a and b are integers, b ≠ 0, a unique integer q exists such that
a = bq+r, where
0 ≤ r < |b|
Here, r is called the least non-negative remainder or principle remainder of a (mod b). r=0 iff b|a.
Some properties of the Greatest Common Divisor (GCD)
See the definition of GCD, below, for its defining properties. Some other properties include:
GCD (m,n) = max {d : d divides m and d divides n}
domain (gcd) = (Z >< Z) \ { (0,0)}
GCD (m,n) = GCD (n,m)
GCD (m,0) = m
GCD (m,n) = GCD (m - n,n)
GCD (m,n) = GCD (m MOD n, n)
provided that the left hand side is defined.
These properties give rise to the Euclidean algorithm for calculating GCD
GCD (m,0) = m
GCD (0,m) = m
GCD (m,n) = GCD (m MOD n, n) if n >= m > 0
GCD (m,n) = GCD (m, n MOD m) if m >= n > 0
Definition of "divides"
The symbol "|" means "divides" or "is a factor of". By definition, when a and b are integers a|b iff there exists an integer k such that ak=b. This definition leads to some unintuitive results, such as all integers (including zero) divide zero. By the way, "iff" means "if and only if".
Definition of GCD, "Greatest Common Divisor"
GCD (a,b)=c means c>=0, c|a and c|b. Furthermore, every integer d that divides a and b also divides c.
To put it another way, here are the properties of GCD, in a nutshell -- this form is useful for proofs, because it provides a checklist of things you must show in order to establish GCD (a,b) as well as a set of facts you know if you know GCD (a,b):
GCD (a,b)>=0
GCD (a,b)|a
GCD (a,b)|b
if integer d exists such that d|a and d|b then d|GCD (a,b)
That last item in the checklist is equivalent to the following statement:
for all integers d, it is true that d-|a or d-|b or d|GCD (a,b)
Cancellation Rule
m * p == m * q (mod n) and GCD (m,n) = 1 ==> p == q (mod n)
Thus m can safely be cancelled mod n so long as GCD (m,n) = 1.
Prime Numbers
An integer p is a prime number if and only if
p > 1 and {x : x divides p} = {1, p}
If p and q are both prime and p divides q, then p = q.
If p is prime and p does not divide n then GCD (p,n) = 1.
If p is prime and p divides n*m then p must divide either n or m (or both).
Any integer n can be factorized uniquely into the product of a list of primes p1 * p2 * ...
Well-Ordering Principle
...says that a set of positive integers has a smallest element.
Let S be a nonempty set of positive integers. There exists some element a of S such that a<=b for all elements b of S.
Division Algorithm Property
If a and m are any integers with m not zero, then there are unique integers q and r such that a = qm+r with 0 < r < |m|.
Linear Combination Property
If a|b and a|c then a| (bx + cy) for any integers x and y.
Proof:
Suppose a|b and a|c.
Then integers q and r exist such that b = aq and c = ar.
So, for any integers x and y, bx + cy = a (qx + ry)
and qx + ry is an integer, and hence a| (bx + cy).
An application of Linear Combination is this:
GCD (m,n)=GCD (m+kn,n), where k is any integer.
Proof:
GCD (m+kn,n)|n and GCD (m+kn,n)|m+kn, by the definition of GCD.
GCD (m+kn,n)| (m+kn)-kn, by the linear combination property
GCD (m+kn,n)|m
GCD (m+kn,n)|GCD (m,n)
similarly, GCD (m,n)|GCD (m+kn,n)
so GCD (m,n)=GCD (m+kn,n), where k is an integer.
Euclidean Algorithm Property, a.k.a. B�zout's Identity.
For any integers a and b, there exist integers x and y such that GCD (a,b)=ax+by.
If a and b are zero, then x=y=0, and the property is obviously true. Now we can assume a or b is nonzero.
Let S be the set of positive integers of the form sa + tb, where s and t are integers.
Set S isn't empty so it has a smallest element by the well-ordering principle.
Let d=xa+yb be the smallest element of S.
Now I'll divide a by d to show that d|a. By the division algorithm, there are integers q and r such that a=dq+r, and 0<=r<d.
r=a-dq
r=a- (xa+yb)q
r= (1-xq)a + (-yq)b,
which has the form of elements of S, so either r=0 or r is in S.
But r can't be in S, because r<d, the smallest element of S. So r=0.
a=dq+r, so a=dq, so d|a.
Similarly (starting with the division algorithm) we can show d|b.
Thus d is a divisor of a and b.
If c is an integer and c|a and c|b, then by the linear combination property c| (ax+by)
d=ax+by, so c|d.
Any number that divides a and divides b also divides d, so d=GCD (a,b)
A constructive algorithm to find the integers x and y is the Extended Euclidean Algorithm.
The converse: GCD (a,b)|ax+by is a consequence of the linear combination property.
In particular, if x and y exist such that ax+by=1, then GCD (a,b)|1, so GCD (a,b)=1.
Euclid's principle:
If a prime p|ab then p|a or p|b, a and b integers. This is sometimes called Euclid's First Theorem.
Proof using the Euclidean Algorithm Property:
Let us assume that p|ab.
If p|a we're done.
Now we can assume p-|a.
In that case we have GCD (p,a)=1 since p is prime and hence there exist integers x and y such that 1=px+ay (Euclidean Algorithm Property).
Multiply by b on both sides to get b=pxb+ayb.
p|pxb and p|ayb (because p|ab),
so p| (pxb+ayb), by the Linear Combination Property.
Thus p|b
Iff p and q are mutually prime, then p² and q² are mutually prime.
If:
Suppose p² and q² aren't mutually prime.
GCD (p²,q²) is not 1, so there exists a prime r such that r|GCD (p²,q²)
r|p², so r|p by Euclid's principle
similarly, r|q², so r|q
r|GCD (p,q) because r|p and r|q
so GCD (p,q) isn't 1, a contradiction
Only if:
Suppose p and q aren't mutually prime.
Let r=GCD (p,q)
So r|p, which means r|p²
Also, r|q, which means r|q²
so r|GCD (p²,q²), a contradiction
Exercise: Proof
Suppose that a, b, c are integers such that GCD (a²,bc)=p where p is a prime. Prove that either a is coprime to b or a is coprime to c.
GCD (a²,bc)=p
p|a², (def. of GCD)
p|a, (Euclid's Principle)
An integer x exists such that px=a, (def. of "divides")
p²x²=a²
p²|a²
p|bc, (def. of GCD)
p|b or p|c (Euclid's Principle)
if p²|bc (and we know p²|a²) then p²|GCD (a²,bc), which is false because p=GCD (a²,bc) and p²-|p, so p²-|bc.
if p|b and p|c then p²|bc, which is false, so either p-|b or p-|c.
GCD (a,b)|a|a² and GCD (a,b)|b|bc, (def. of GCD)
so GCD (a,b)|GCD (a²,bc), (def. of GCD (a²,bc))
so GCD (a,b)|p,
so either GCD (a,b)=1 or GCD (a,b)=p (def. of prime number)
Similarly, either GCD (a,c)=1 or GCD (a,c)=p.
If both GCD (a,b)=p and GCD (a,c)=p then p|b and p|c, but we've already shown that p doesn't divide both b and c.
That means either GCD (a,b)=1 or GCD (a,c)=1.
Other Properties of GCD
Equality Property of Division: If a and b are nonnegative integers, then a|b and b|a ==> a=b.
Proof:
Integers n and m exist such that an=b, and bm=a.
If a=0 then an=0=b. Likewise, if b=0 then bm=0=a,
so it's true when a or b is zero. From here on, we can assume a and b are both positive...
Substituting an in place of b, anm=a, and since a is not zero, nm=1.
Both n and m are positive, because n=b/a>0 and m=a/b>0.
Solving n>=1, m>=1, and nm=1, we see that n=1 and m=1.
Since an=b, and n=1, we have proved that a=b.
Property 2. If a = bt + r, for integers t and r, then GCD (a,b) = GCD (b,r).
Proof:
Every common divisor of a and b also divides r, because r=a-bt is a linear combination of a and b.
So GCD (a,b)|r, and since GCD (a,b)|b, it is true that GCD (a,b) is a common divisor of b and r.
By the same logic, every common divisor of b and r also divides a, because a=bt+r, a linear combination of b and r.
GCD (b,r)|a, and since GCD (b,r)|b, it is true that GCD (b,r) is a common divisor of a and b.
The product of any two coprimes of n is another coprime of n
That is, if GCD (a,n)=1 and GCD (b,n)=1 then GCD (ab,n)=1. Here's the proof . This fact, and the fact that follows, are used to show that the equivalence classes (mod n) of the coprimes of n form a cyclic group under multiplication.
If a, b, c are coprimes of n, and b is not equal to c, then ab is not equal to ac
That is, the following five statements can't all be true:
1. GCD (a,n)=1,
2. GCD (b,n)=1,
3. GCD (c,n)=1,
4. a≠b
5. ab=ac
Here's the proof.
Internet references
B�zout's Identity, from Mathworld, which says: For any integers a and b, there exist integers x and y such that GCD (a,b)=ax+by. The numbers, x and y, are called the B�zout Numbers for a and b.
Number Theory Glossary
Extended Euclidean Algorithm -- to find the values of x and y in the B�zout's Identity.
Polynomial Remainder Theorem
Prove: For integers n>1, n 4 +4 is not a prime.
What's the Longest Arithmetic Progression of Perfect Squares?
Perfect Squares -- theorems involving squares and square roots, including the fact that every square root of a positive integer is either an integer or irrational.
Puzzles -- many of them deal with questions in number theory
Formulas for Primitive Pythagorean Triples and their deriviation -- a way to generate all the triples such that a^2 + b^2 = c^2
Area of a triangle with integer sides is not a perfect square. -- in other words there is no Pythagorean Square Triangle.
The webmaster and author of this Math Help site is Graeme McRae . | msmarco_doc_00_8257682 |
http://2000clicks.com/graeme/LangNumbersMillionsAndBillionsAndZillions.htm | Millions and Billions and Zillions -- how high can you count? |
Internet References | Millions and Billions and Zillions -- how high can you count?
Millions and Billions and Zillions -- how high can you count?
That depends on whether you know the words for very big numbers, and also two important factors: how fast can you count, and how much time to you have to spend on this crusade.
Do you know the words for very big numbers? The words you use for big numbers depend on whether you live in the United States or in the United Kingdom (although someone emailed me to say the Brits have thrown in the towel, and adopted the Yankee method. If that's true, then read: old UK). Here is a table that might help you:
Power of 10
Number
American Name
British Name
(not used much any more)
3
1, 000
Thousand
Thousand
6
1, 000, 000
Million
Million
9
1, 000, 000, 000
Billion
Thousand Million, or "Milliard"
12
1, 000, 000, 000, 000
Trillion
Billion
15
1, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000
Quadrillion
Thousand Billion
18
1, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000
Quintillion
Trillion
21
1, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000
Sextillion
Thousand Trillion
24
1, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000
Septillion
Quadrillion
27
1, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000
Octillion
Thousand Quadrillion
30
1, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000
Nonillion
Sexillion
The British Names comprise a better system of naming large numbers, because it doesn't use up the Latin names (tri-, quad-, etc.) so fast. On the other hand, the American system is better for medium sized numbers like 1,335,168,736,797,130,752. In America, this number is
one quintillion,
three hundred thirty-five quadrillion,
one hundred sixty-eight trillion,
seven hundred thirty-six billion,
seven hundred ninety-seven million,
one hundred thirty thousand,
seven hundred fifty-two.
Using the old UK system, 1,335,168,736,797,130,752 is
one trillion,
three hundred thirty-five thousand billion,
one hundred sixty-eight billion,
seven hundred thirty-six thousand million,
seven hundred ninety-seven million,
one hundred thirty thousand,
seven hundred fifty-two.
For medium-sized numbers like this that have many significant digits, the old British system is downright confusing because thousands and millions can modify trillions resulting in gazillions!
That's enough. Click the Back button on your browser now.
Internet References
" Large Numbers ", from Mathworld | msmarco_doc_00_8269737 |
http://2001-2009.state.gov/e/eeb/ifd/2008/101774.htm | West Bank/Gaza | West Bank/Gaza
West Bank/Gaza | West Bank/Gaza
West Bank/Gaza
2008 Investment Climate Statement – West Bank/Gaza
Introduction
Internal Palestinian political issues and the Israeli-Palestinian conflict continue to impact negatively the development of the Palestinian economy in the West Bank and Gaza Strip (WB/G). Following the establishment of a Palestinian Authority (PA) Government under the leadership of Prime Minister Salam Fayyad in June 2007, the PA has demonstrated a renewed determination to improve the investment climate in the WB/G and to attract foreign investment. The PA has undertaken a number of significant reforms and prepared a three year reform and development plan that was endorsed by the international community in December 2007. The PA's development plan emphasizes the importance of private sector investment and growth as a vital source of new jobs and a sustainable economy.
At the time this report was drafted, Hamas, a designated Foreign Terrorist Organization (FTO), remained in control of the Gaza Strip, having violently seized power in June 2007. Where applicable, this report addresses issues related to investment in the Gaza Strip, although there are currently no opportunities for meaningful private investment in Gaza due to Hamas' control.
This report focuses on investment issues related to areas under the administrative jurisdiction of the Palestinian Authority, except where explicitly stated. Given the changing circumstances on the ground, potential investors are encouraged to contact the U.S. Consulate General in Jerusalem and the Foreign Commercial Service for the latest information.
Openness To Foreign Investment
PA laws have established a legal structure that aims to promote foreign investment. The 1998 Investment Law guarantees the repatriation of foreign capital and prohibits expropriation and nationalization of approved foreign investments. PA law states that no restrictions govern foreign currency accounts.
Foreign Taxes:
All new foreign investment in WB/G must be registered with the PA and approved by the relevant ministry/ministries. The income tax law is intended to incorporate both West Bank and Gaza. Ministry of Finance officials stated to USG officials in January 2008 that the PA's corporate tax rate is 15 percent, while personal income tax is specified according to the following:
5 percent for income between NIS 1 - 10,000;
10 percent for income between NIS 10,001 - 25,000; and
15 percent for all incomes above NIS 25,001.
A 20 percent tax is withheld at source from dividends distributed in WB/G to shareholders of a foreign company. There are no taxes due on dividends distributed to shareholders of Palestinian companies regardless of where they live or their nationality, and regardless of whether they are an individual or a company. An automatic deduction at the source of 25 percent is withheld from companies, unless they obtain a "Deduction at the Source Certificate," which grants a reduced rate that ranges between zero and five percent. Applications for these certificates are available from district tax offices.
Exemptions:
The 1998 Investment Law provides a number of incentives, including exemption from taxes, for PA-approved domestic and foreign investment. To benefit from these incentives, investors must apply to the Palestinian Investment Promotion Agency (PIPA), a department of the PA Ministry of National Economy, and present it with a completed investment application and feasibility study. PIPA is composed of both public and private sector members.
Pre-approval:
Certain investment categories require PA Council of Ministers' pre-approval. These include investments involving (1) weapons and ammunition, (2) aviation products and airport construction, (3) electrical power generation/distribution, (4) reprocessing of petroleum and its derivatives, (5) waste and solid waste reprocessing, (6) wired and wireless telecommunication, and (7) radio and television.
Conversion And Transfer Policies
The 1998 Investment Law guarantees investors the repatriation of all financial resources, including capital, profits, dividends, wages, and salaries. There are no other PA restrictions governing foreign currency accounts and currency transfer policies.
Expropriation And Compensation
The 1998 Investment Law prohibits expropriation and nationalization of approved foreign investments, except for the pursuit of the public good, which shall be in return for fair compensation based on market prices and for losses suffered because of such expropriation.
PA sources and independent lawyers say that any Palestinian citizen can file a petition or a lawsuit against the PA. There are on-going court cases involving illegal confiscation of property by PA senior government officials; however, there has been no ruling on most of these cases. A general lack of confidence in the judicial system has prompted citizens to look for alternative means of arbitration to resolve such disputes.
Dispute Settlement
The 1998 Investment Law provides for dispute resolution between the investor and official agencies by binding independent arbitration or in Palestinian courts. It has been reported that some contracts contain clauses referring dispute resolutions to the London Court of Arbitration.
Performance Requirement And Incentives
Certain incentives apply to Palestinian Investment Promotion Agency-approved investments:
Investments whose value is between USD 100,000 and USD 1 million will be exempt from income tax for five years and be subject to income tax on their net profit at 10 percent for an additional eight years;
Investments whose value is between USD 1 million and USD 5 million will be exempt from income tax for five years and be subject to income tax on their net profit at 10 percent for an additional 12 years;
Investments whose value is USD 5 million and above will be exempt from income tax for five years and be subject to income tax on their net profit at 10 percent for an additional 16 years;
Special projects recommended by PIPA and approved by the Council of Ministers will be exempted from income tax for five years and be subject to income tax on their net profit at 10 percent for an additional 20 years; and
Investments in information technology (IT) training may be capitalized and depreciated for tax purposes.
The United States continues to support private sector development in the WB/G. In 2007, the Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC), working with Palestinian and U.S. partners, helped establish a program that will generate at least USD 228 million in lending to Palestinian small and medium enterprises over the next 10 years. OPIC is also seeking to establish a new mortgage finance company which will offer long-term mortgage loans to potential home-buyers. By dramatically expanding access to long-term credit, the mortgage facility will support several new affordable housing development projects, thus stimulating the construction sector. OPIC is also investigating the possibility of providing political risk/trade disruption insurance to businesses operating in the West Bank. In addition, in December 2007, the Secretary of State launched the U.S.-Palestinian Public-Private Partnership to support the development of economic and educational opportunities for Palestinian youth and to foster business opportunities in the West Bank.
Right To Private Ownership And Establishment
The right to private ownership in Gaza is guaranteed by British Mandate law, as amended by regulations issued by the PA. Jordanian law in the West Bank, as amended by PA regulations, similarly guarantees the right to private ownership. Foreigners must obtain permission from the PA before purchasing property in areas under PA civil authority and from the appropriate Israeli authorities before purchasing property in West Bank areas under Israeli control. PIPA outlines the following concerning foreign ownership of property:
The Acquisition Law in the West Bank, which regulates foreign acquisition and the rental or lease of immovable properties, classifies foreigners into three categories:
Foreigners who formerly possessed Palestinian or Jordanian passports shall have the right to own certain properties sufficient to erect buildings and/or for their agricultural projects.
Foreigners who hold other Arab nationality passports have the right to own certain property that suffices for their living and business needs only.
Other foreigners must receive permission from the PA Cabinet to own buildings or purchase land.
It is critical that potential purchasers of land or buildings perform a title search to be assured that no outstanding violations or unpaid penalties exist on the property. Under current law, violations and penalties are transferred to the new owner.
Accurate title search can only be obtained from the PA Land Authority (al-Taboh). Land registration is done through the Land Registries in Hebron, Ramallah, Qalquilya, Tulkarem, Nablus, Bethlehem, Jericho, Jenin, and Gaza City. In order to purchase land in WB/G, an application that includes supporting documents, such as deeds to the property and powers of attorney, should be submitted to the land registry office having jurisdiction over the land.
Protection Of Property Rights
The West Bank and Gaza do not have a modern intellectual property rights (IPR) regime in place. The PA was indirectly committed to the GATT-TRIPS agreement when it signed the Interim Agreement on WB/Gaza according to Annex III (Protocol Concerning Civil Affairs), Appendix 1, Article 23. All IPR legislation pertaining to WB/G originates from British Mandate Law regardless of the change in control over the years. Pre-1967 era Jordanian laws concerning trademarks, patents, and designs are applicable in the West Bank. In Gaza, the Palestinian Trademark and Patent Laws of 1938, adopted during the British Mandate, are applicable. Registration under the two laws is very similar, and, despite different authorizing legislation, there are few substantive differences between IPR laws in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. According to PA contacts, the PA is working on a modern law that will encompass areas of Copyright, Patents and Designs, Trademarks, and Merchandise Branding.
Patent protection in WB/G is provided for a period of 16 years from the date of filing the patent application. Furthermore, both systems require licensing of anything already patented if the reasonable requirements have not been met. Trademark protection is available for registered trademarks for a period of seven years, which may be extended for additional periods of 14 years. The proprietor of a trademark in WB/G owns the sole right to the use of the trademark in association with the goods with which the trademark is registered. The trademark is open for opposition after being published in the Gazette for a period of three months. The holder of a trademark retains the right to bring civil action against any perpetrator in addition to criminal proceedings. There is minimal enforcement of IPR laws in WB/G.
Transparency Of Regulatory System
The PA has worked to erect a sound legislative framework for business and other economic activity in the areas under its jurisdiction since its creation in 1994; however, much work remains to be done. Al Mustakbal, a Palestinian non-governmental organization (NGO), in its September 2006 report on legislative reform in the business sector, stated that a number of institutional and procedural dysfunctions have impeded efforts to establish a transparent regulatory system, including a lack of clear goals in policy formation; an unsystematic process for passing laws; dysfunctions within the Palestinian Legislative Council (PLC), and a lack of sustained and coordinated donor support.
Efficient Capital Markets And Portfolio Investment
Major progress was achieved in 2004 with the passage by the PLC of the Capital Markets Authority Law, the Securities Commission Law, and the establishment of the Capital Market Authority, the regulator of the stock exchange and insurance industries, among others.
Several foreign banks, mostly Jordanian, have established WB/G branches, but financial services remain limited. Credit is limited by concerns over uncertain political and economic conditions in WB/G and limited availability of real estate collateral due to non-registration of most West Bank land. Correspondence and other international banking relationships are evolving. No Palestinian currency exists, and, as a result, the PA places no restrictions on foreign currency accounts, leading some observers to believe that WB/G will show strong growth in offshore banking services. The Palestinian Monetary Authority (PMA) is responsible for bank regulation.
Palestinian Securities Exchange
In early 1997, the Palestinian Securities Exchange (PSE) started operations on a limited scale in the West Bank city of Nablus. Twenty-eight share holding companies have been approved for listing so far with additional companies authorized for future listing. The current list of companies spans a wide range of sectors including pharmaceuticals, utilities, telecommunications, and financial services. There are currently an estimated forty Palestinian companies eligible to be listed on the Exchange with a market capitalization of over 1 billion USD. PSE operations have been disrupted several times in 2007-2008 as a result of Israeli military operations in Nablus.
Political Violence
In June 2007, Hamas forces violently seized control of Gaza, removing PA forces from government facilities. Since that time, crossings between Israel and Gaza have been closed to most shipments, with only limited humanitarian shipments and certain commercial shipments allowed to enter Gaza. Exports from Gaza have been severely restricted. As a result of these restrictions, economic activity in Gaza has slowed dramatically. According to 2007 World Bank reports, as many as 80 percent of private sector businesses have closed as a result of the current economic situation.
Economic and political instability resulting from the continued Israeli-Palestinian conflict, inter-factional fighting within Palestinian areas, and ongoing Israeli military operations have had a significant impact on the operations of the private sector in the WB/G. In recent years, the GOI has increased the number of obstacles to movement of goods and people within the West Bank and between Israel and the WB/G. These measures have restricted economic activity in WB/G. The World Bank and the UN Trade and Development Conference estimated that these obstacles had cost the Palestinian economy USD 8.4 billion from 2000-2006.
The State Department, at the time of this writing, has in place a travel warning that urges American citizens to defer travel to the West Bank and to avoid all travel in the Gaza Strip.
Corruption
The U.S. Consulate General in Jerusalem has received reports of potential foreign and domestic investors being asked to provide inducement fees or to include well-connected persons in their business arrangements to help secure a contract. There are no reliable means of determining where or to what extent this kind of activity occurs. When crossing points between Gaza and Israel were open - prior to June 2007 – many Palestinian businesses reported corrupt practices by guards stationed at the crossings. According to those reports, border guards would allow certain shipments access to the crossings in exchange for large amounts of cash.
Trade Agreements And Tariff Structures
The PLO, on behalf of the PA, has signed international trade agreements, which on more than one occasion implicitly or explicitly refer to WTO rules. These include:
Interim Association Agreement with the EU (1997)
Free Trade Agreement with EFTA states (1998)
Duty Free Arrangements with the United States (1996)
Free Trade Framework with Canada (1999)
Preferential trade agreements with Jordan and Egypt (1996 and 1998)
Unilateral acts by other Arab trade partners extending preferential treatment to trade with Palestine
Greater Arab Free Trade Area, to which PA is a party (2003)
Free Trade Agreement with Turkey (2004)
Since 1996, duty-free treatment has been available to all goods exported from the WB/G to the U.S. provided they meet qualifying criteria as spelled out in the U.S.-Israel Free Trade Area (FTA) Implementation Act of 1985, as amended. The duty-free benefits accorded under the FTA exceed those benefits which would be provided under the Generalized System of Preferences (GSP).
OPIC And Other Investment Insurance Programs
OPIC provides a variety of services to qualified U.S. investors in emerging economies and developing nations. During the early stages of investment planning, U.S. investors may contact OPIC for insurance against political violence, inconvertibility of currency, and expropriation in the form of an insurance registration letter. OPIC insurance is not available after the investment has been irrevocably committed. As stated above, OPIC has initiated a number of programs in the WB/G to support private sector development.
The World Bank, via a USD 20 million fund administered by its Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA), provides guarantees in the form of insurance against political risk for private investments in the WB/G. Under the terms of the Fund, investors who are nationals of or companies incorporated in a MIGA member country, or who are Palestinian residents of the WB/G, are eligible to obtain guarantees provided that investment is brought in from outside the WB/G. The Fund currently has the capacity to issue guarantees for up to USD 5 million per project.
Labor
The working age population (over the age of 15) reached 2,375,000 (54.2 percent of the total population) by 2007. According to the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics
(PCBS), as of September 2007, 92 percent of WB/G workers were employed in the WB/G, while eight percent were employed in Israel and the Israeli settlements in the West Bank). In 2007, nearly 40 percent of those working in Israel, including the settlements, worked in construction. Women account for some 15 percent of the formal labor force (16.4 percent in the West Bank, 10 percent in Gaza) and are concentrated in the services and agricultural sectors. According to PCBS, roughly 24 and 36 percent of the West Bank and Gaza Strip's eligible workers, respectively, are unemployed.
Labor force distribution (percentage) by sector is as follows:
(Source: PCBS website)
West Bank (2007)
15.7 percent - Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing, Hunting
14.8 percent - Mining, Quarrying, Manufacturing
14.4 percent - Construction
20.6 percent - Commerce, Hotels, Restaurants
6.0 percent - Transportation, Storage, Communication
28.5 percent - Services and otherGaza (2007)
11.7 percent - Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing, Hunting
8.3 percent - Mining, Quarrying, Manufacturing
9.3 percent - Construction
16.2 percent - Commerce, Hotels, Restaurants
5.1 percent - Transportation, Storage, Communication
49.7 percent - Services and other
Foreign Trade Zones/Free Ports
There are no foreign-trade zones or free ports in WB/G.
Foreign Direct Investment Statistics
The PA has not yet compiled a complete listing of foreign direct investment statistics. Limited foreign investment flows began in 1994-95, with the majority of funds coming from Palestinian investors. The largest foreign company in WB/G is the Palestine Development and Investment Company (PADICO), which has invested over USD 500 million in WB/G. Key PADICO investors include Diaspora Palestinians from Jordan, Great Britain, and the Arabian Gulf. PADICO has made significant investments in telecommunications, housing, the Gaza Industrial Estate, and the establishment of the Palestinian Securities Exchange in Nablus. Another large foreign investment group active in WB/G with authorized capital of over USD 100 million is the Arab Palestinian Investment Company (APIC), which is headquartered in the West Bank city of Ramallah.
| msmarco_doc_00_8272391 |
http://2001-2009.state.gov/g/oes/continentalshelf/ | Defining the Limits of the U.S. Continental Shelf | Defining the Limits of the U.S. Continental Shelf
Defining the Limits of the U.S. Continental Shelf | Defining the Limits of the U.S. Continental Shelf
Defining the Limits of the U.S. Continental Shelf
Since 2001, the United States has been engaged in gathering and analyzing data to determine the outer limits of its extended continental shelf (ECS). Under the Convention on the Law of the Sea, every coastal State has a continental shelf out to 200 nautical miles from its coastal baselines (or out to a maritime boundary with another coastal State), and beyond that distance if certain criteria are met. Article 76 of the Convention sets forth the criteria upon which a coastal State may determine a continental shelf that extends beyond 200 nautical miles. The ECS is that portion of the continental shelf that lies beyond this 200 nautical mile limit. Beginning in 2007 the effort to delimit the U.S. ECS became the Extended Continental Shelf Project, directed by an interagency task force.
Defining the U.S. Extended Continental Shelf
The process to determine the outer limits of a State’s ECS requires the collection and analysis of data that describe the depth, shape, and geophysical characteristics of the seabed and sub-sea floor. Particularly important is bathymetric and sediment thickness data.
The U.S. Extended Continental Shelf Task Force, an interagency body headed by the U.S. Department of State, coordinates the work to define the limits of the U.S. continental shelf. Participants in this Task Force include: State Department, NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration), the U.S. Geological Survey, the Executive Office of the President, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the U.S. Navy, the U.S. Coast Guard, the Department of Energy, the National Science Foundation, the Environmental Protection Agency, the Minerals Management Service, and the Arctic Research Commission.
Why define the U.S. extended continental shelf?
A coastal State can exercise certain sovereign rights over its continental shelf, including: exploration, exploitation, conservation, and management of non-living resources of the seabed and subsoil of the continental shelf, such as ferromanganese crusts, ferromanganese nodules, gas hydrate deposits, and petroleum; and exploration, exploitation, conservation, and management of living, "sedentary" resources, such as clams, crabs, scallops, sponges, and mollusks.
While a continental shelf is coincident with the exclusive economic zone (EEZ) out to 200 nautical miles, the ECS is not an extension of the EEZ. Sovereign rights that apply to the EEZ, especially rights to the resources of the water column (e.g., pelagic fisheries) do not apply to the ECS.
Establishing ECS limits will define the U.S. continental shelf in concrete geographical terms. Moreover, the United States has an inherent national interest in knowing, and declaring to others with specificity and certainty, the extent of sovereign rights with regard to the U.S. continental shelf beyond 200 nautical miles. Such certainty and international recognition is important to establishing the stability necessary for development and conservation of these potentially resource-rich areas.
The collection and analysis of the data necessary to support the establishment of the U.S. ECS will, in itself, serve a range of other environmental, geologic, engineering, and resource management needs. The data will provide a better scientific understanding of formation and transformation processes of our continental margins. The United States will gain specific insights related to such areas as climate variability, marine ecosystems, undiscovered or unconventional energy, mineral resources, and hazards resulting from extreme events, such as earthquakes and tsunamis. Finally, exploration of little known areas, particularly in the ice-covered Arctic, will advance our operational capabilities and open new windows on this remote and inaccessible environment.
Data Collection and Analysis
In late 2001, Congress directed the University of New Hampshire’s Joint Hydrographic Center (JHC) -- a partnership with NOAA -- to conduct a study that evaluated current data holdings relevant to establishing the U.S. ECS, and to recommend what additional data would be needed. This study identified a number of areas where the United States may have extended continental shelf: the Atlantic East Coast, the Gulf of Mexico, the Gulf of Alaska, the Bering Sea, the Arctic Ocean, Kingman Reef/Palmyra Atoll, and the Mariana Islands/Guam.
This amounts to about one million square kilometers or approximately twice the size of California. Roughly half of that area is likely to exist off Alaska. Additional analyses and data collection suggest an even larger ECS, in these and possibly other areas. As additional data are collected and existing data analyzed, we will begin to come to a more definitive conclusion as to the extent of the U.S. ECS.
Since 2002, the JHC has continued to receive grants from NOAA as directed by Congress to collect the bathymetric data specified in the study. The JHC has collected more than one million square kilometers of bathymetric data from eleven cruises: Arctic Ocean (2003, 2004, 2007), Gulf of Alaska (2005), Gulf of Mexico (2007), Atlantic Ocean (2004, 2005, 2008), Northern Mariana Islands and Guam (2006, 2007), and Bering Sea (2003). A cruise is planned for an area off Kingman Reef and Palmyra Atoll in 2008 or early 2009.
All data collected thus far by the United States in support of defining its continental shelf have been released to the public. The bathymetric data is available from the National Geophysical Data Center and the Joint Hydrographic Center.
Useful Links
National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC)
Joint Hydrographic Center at the University of New Hampshire
U.S. Coast Guard Cutter Healy
For Additional Information
Matt Cassetta – Public Affairs Officer at the U.S. Department of State
| msmarco_doc_00_8292798 |
http://2001-2009.state.gov/g/oes/id/index.htm | Infectious Disease & Non-Infectious Disease | Infectious Disease & Non-Infectious Disease
Infectious Disease & Non-Infectious Disease
Infectious Disease
Chronic Disease
| Infectious Disease & Non-Infectious Disease
Infectious Disease & Non-Infectious Disease
Infectious diseases, including HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria, polio, and several neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) are easily spread through personal contact, water, and air, (many NTDs are vector borne – transmitted by mosquitoes, flies, etc) and are a particularly significant problem in developing countries. In the past, infectious diseases have been widespread in developing countries and chronic diseases were found primarily in high income countries. However, the global pattern of disease burden is shifting. While infectious disease still remains a major problem in many countries, chronic diseases, including such noncommunicable conditions as cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes and respiratory disease, are now the major cause of death and disability, not only in developed countries, but also worldwide. The greatest total numbers of chronic disease deaths and illnesses now occur in developing countries.
Infectious Disease
The U.S. commitment to combat infectious diseases has saved lives and reduced human suffering throughout the developing world. Through the President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR), for example, the U.S. supports lifesaving treatment for over 1.7 million people worldwide and has enabled 200,000 children to be born HIV-free. The 2008 reauthorization of PEPFAR expands the U.S. commitment to $48 billion over 5 years to combat HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and malaria.
In addition to HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis (TB) remains a global public health problem and is one of the three leading causes of deaths worldwide due to infectious diseases. In light of this, the U.S. is on the frontline of the battle against tuberculosis (TB). In collaboration with host nation TB programs, the U.S. works to improve the quality of basic TB programs or DOTS (Directly Observed Therapy, Short Course) services; upgrade laboratory infrastructure; build a foundation to introduce new diagnostic technologies; and work with the World Health Organization (WHO) and other partners to conduct drug resistance surveys and surveillance. The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) is the lead USG agency in international TB control programs, with PEPFAR taking the lead role in TB/HIV co-infection, and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (HHS/CDC) providing critical technical support to global and country level initiatives. The National Institutes of Health (NIH) is engaged in basic and bioclinical international TB research. From 2000 to 2007, the U.S. provided nearly $600 million for TB programs worldwide. The U.S. also supports TB control worldwide through funding provided to the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, TB and Malaria (Global Fund), to which the U.S. is the largest single donor.
The U.S. also supports the fight against malaria through the President’s Malaria Initiative (PMI), a five-year program run by USAID to reach those in 15 of the hardest-hit countries in Africa with the goal of reducing malaria-related deaths by 50 percent. In its second year, PMI reached 25 million people with treatment and prevention services and is working to reach the goal of reducing malaria-related deaths by 50 percent in 15 focus countries in Africa.
Prevention of infectious disease benefits people and contributes to health security. In 1988, for example, polio was endemic in more than 125 countries and paralyzed 350,000 children each year. Since then, the world has made remarkable progress toward polio eradication and only four countries remain endemic for polio transmission. The U.S. has contributed to this accomplishment by providing nearly thirty percent of global contributions to the Global Polio Eradication Initiative and funding 500 million doses of oral polio vaccine for distribution in endemic countries.
Along with some of the more commonly known infectious diseases, Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTDs), are truly devastating to many developing countries. These largely preventable diseases continue to pose a major threat to health and economic growth in many developing countries. In 2008, the United States launched a new initiative, challenging the world to reduce, control, and eliminate the threat of neglected tropical diseases. The U.S. committed $350 million over five years to treat over 3 million people in Africa, Asia, and Latin America suffering from NTDs. The initiative targets seven major NTDs including: lymphatic filariasis (elephantiasis); schistosomiasis (snail fever); trachoma (eye infection); onchocerciasis (river blindness); and three soil-transmitted helminthes (STHs – hookworm, roundworm, whipworm).
Another example of the potentially devastating effects of infectious disease can be found in the 2003 outbreak of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), which cost Asian economies between $11 and $18 billion, resulting in a GDP loss of between 0.5% and 2%. The emergence or re-emergence of other infectious diseases such as pandemic influenza could possibly exact a higher toll, both human and economic.
Other infectious diseases requiring national and international attention include dengue fever, measles, yellow fever, and Ebola virus.
Strong health systems within countries, including effective surveillance systems and adequate human resources, are fundamental to curb the spread of infectious disease and to provide early warning of new disease outbreaks.
Chronic Disease
Chronic diseases are now the major cause of death and disability worldwide. By 2020, chronic diseases are expected to account for 7 of every 10 deaths in the world, as they already do in the U.S. These projections suggest that chronic diseases – and the death, illness, and disability they cause – will soon dominate health care costs and are causing public health officials, governments and multinational institutions to rethink how we approach this growing global challenge.
According to statistics from the World Health Organization, of the 58 million people that died worldwide in 2005, 35 million deaths were attributed to chronic disease. That puts the death toll for chronic disease, 60% of all deaths that year, at double the number of deaths from infectious diseases (including HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and malaria), maternal and perinatal conditions, and nutritional deficiencies combined. The principal known causes of premature death from chronic disease are tobacco use, poor diet, physical inactivity, obesity and alcohol consumption.
Although chronic diseases make up a greater proportion of deaths and illnesses in developed countries, overall the greatest numbers of chronic disease deaths and illnesses occur in the developing world. Almost half of the disease burden in low and middle-income countries is now from non-communicable diseases. Apart from the tremendous adverse effects on the quality of life of individuals involved, these conditions place enormous strains on family and community budgets. The overall economy suffers from both the labor units lost due to death and illness as well as the high direct medical costs. This phenomenon, during which health infrastructures already weakened by continuing battles with infectious disease are increasingly being taxed by rapidly growing chronic diseases, is often referred to as the double disease burden.
Greater advocacy is required to raise global awareness of this growing threat and to help dispel some of the myths surrounding chronic diseases, including the myth that chronic disease cannot be prevented and the myth that these diseases only burden high income countries.
Related Links
--05/01/07 Can Polio Be Eradicated? ; Kent Hill, Assistant Administrator for Global Health U.S. Agency for International Development; Remarks to he Center for Strategic and International Studies; Washington, DC
--05/01/07 Finishing the Global Fight Against Polio ; Paula J. Dobriansky, Under Secretary of State for Democracy and Global Affairs; Remarks to Center for Strategic and International Studies; Washington, DC
--02/28/07 Eradication vs. Control: Comparing the Burden of Polio if Milestones Are Not Achieved ; Paula J. Dobriansky, Under Secretary of State for Democracy and Global Affairs; Remarks to the WHO Urgent Stakeholder Consultation on Global Polio Eradication; Washington, DC
| msmarco_doc_00_8299086 |
http://2001-2009.state.gov/g/oes/ocns/9570.htm | Antarctic Treaty | Antarctic Treaty
Antarctic Treaty
The Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (CCAS)
The Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR)
The Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities (CRAMRA)
The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty
| Antarctic Treaty
Antarctic Treaty
Following World War II there was an upsurge in research activity in Antarctica culminating in the cooperative scientific program in Antarctica undertaken as part of the International Geophysical Year (IGY) in 1957-58. Twelve states with scientific research and other interests in Antarctica participated in the IGY program: Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, the Soviet Union, the United States and the United Kingdom. These countries devised informal arrangements to avoid disruptions resulting from differing territorial claims -- positions that worked well and formed the basis of a U.S. initiative to provide a more formal basis for long-term cooperation in Antarctica. This initiative resulted in conclusion of the Antarctic Treaty, signed by these same 12 states in 1959.
The Antarctic Treaty, which entered into force in 1961, applies to the area south of 60°south latitude including all ice shelves. The Treaty guarantees freedom of scientific research in Antarctica, placing on a permanent basis the system of peaceful international cooperation that evolved during the IGY. It calls for plans for scientific investigations to be shared in advance and the results of scientific investigations to be shared and made freely available.
The Treaty establishes Antarctica as a zone of peace, reserved exclusively for peaceful purposes. It bans all military activities, including the testing of weapons, and prohibits nuclear explosions and the disposal of radioactive waste. In addition, it provides an absolute right of on-site inspection of all stations and installations in Antarctica to promote the objectives of the Treaty and ensure compliance with its provisions.
To achieve these purposes, the Antarctic Treaty had to deal with the basic legal and political differences over territorial sovereignty in Antarctica. It provides that no acts or activities carried out while the Treaty is in force will constitute a basis for a claim. Seven countries have made claims to parts of Antarctica (Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway and UK). The claims of Argentina, Chile and the UK all overlap in the Antarctic Peninsula. One sector of Antarctica, comprising about 15% of the land area, is unclaimed. Other states active in Antarctica neither assert nor recognize such claims, though both the United States and the Russian Federation, as successor to the Soviet Union, have maintained the basis to a claim. The Treaty also preserves the previously established U.S. basis of a claim.
The Antarctic Treaty did not deal with all possible activities in Antarctica. Its substantive provisions, including the juridical accommodation, apply to activities relating to scientific research and the reservation of Antarctica exclusively for peaceful purposes. They do not, for example, extend to resource activities.
At the same time, the Treaty provides a mechanism for dealing with new activities and new circumstances. This mechanism, which is contained in Article IX of the Treaty, provides for meetings of the 12 original contracting Parties, first within two months of entry into force of the Treaty and at suitable intervals thereafter, for the purpose of exchanging information, consulting together on matters of common interest pertaining to Antarctica and recommending to their governments measures in furtherance of the principles and objectives of the Treaty.
The Treaty also provides that these Consultative Meetings, as they are now called, are open not only to full participation by representatives of the 12 original contracting Parties but also to representatives of any acceding Party during such time as that party demonstrates its interest in Antarctica by the conduct of substantial scientific research there. There are now 27 Parties (Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties or ATCPs) with full rights of participation in these meetings: Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Chile, China, Ecuador, Finland, France, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, Republic of Korea, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Peru, Poland, the Russian Federation, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, the United Kingdom, the United States and Uruguay. In addition, representatives of all other Parties to the Antarctic Treaty also participate in Consultative Meetings. There are 18 such non-Consultative Parties (NCPs): Austria, , Canada, Colombia, Cuba, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Greece, Guatemala, Hungary, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Papua-New Guinea, Romania, the Slovak Republic, Switzerland, Turkey, Ukraine and Venezuela.
There have been 24 Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings (ATCMs) since the Antarctic Treaty entered into force. As a result of these ATCMs, approximately 200 agreed recommendations have been adopted by the Consultative Parties.
The agreed recommendations adopted at the ATCMs incorporate a wide range of measures to give effect and elaborate the principles and purposes of the Antarctic Treaty. A significant proportion of these recommendations deals with protection of the Antarctic environment.
Equally important from the environmental perspective, the ATCMs have provided the mechanism for the ATCPs to delineate and respond to the challenge of possible resource activities in Antarctica. Recommendations adopted at ATCMs have included initiatives that have led to the conclusion of separate agreements that in whole or in part seek to address resource issues. Three of these are in force:
the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (concluded in 1972, entered into force in 1978);
the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (concluded in 1980, entered into force in 1982); and
the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (concluded in 1991, entered into force in 1998).
The Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (CCAS)
This Convention establishes limitations upon, and provides a mechanism to deal with, commercial sealing in Antarctica. It was negotiated primarily as a precautionary measure in light of concern over the possible re-initiation of pelagic commercial sealing in Antarctica. Interest in such sealing has not materialized, as was confirmed at the meeting of Parties to CCAS in September 1988.
The Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR)
This Convention resulted from an initiative taken at Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting IX in London in 1977. The Convention represents a precedent-setting effort to develop and apply an ecosystem approach to management of resources in the waters surrounding Antarctica. Its objective is to ensure that any harvesting of Antarctic marine living resources is consistent not only with the health of target populations but also with that of dependent and related species and with maintenance of ecological relationships.
Consistent with its conservation objectives, the Convention applies to a geographic area defined to approximate the full extent of the Antarctic marine ecosystem. This area, defined by specific coordinates, extends to those waters found south of the Antarctic Convergence, or polar front, which is the transition zone between Antarctic waters to the south and warmer sub-Antarctic waters to the north. It should be noted that the Convention area is considerably larger than that covered by the Antarctic Treaty (which applies to the area south of 60 ° south latitude).
The Convention establishes the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, headquartered in Hobart, Tasmania; the Scientific Committee for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, charged with providing objective scientific assessments and recommendations to the Commission; and a Secretariat to serve both the Commission and Scientific Committee. The Convention provides that the Commission will operate on the basis of a consensus -- or no-objection – procedure, which has been characteristic of the Antarctic Treaty system. There are currently 24 Commission members and 7 additional parties to the Convention.
The Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities (CRAMRA)
The Convention was concluded at Wellington, New Zealand in 1988, after six years of negotiation. There are no known mineral resources in Antarctica, but Parties decided to establish a regime to govern the activities surrounding exploration and possible exploitation before any discoveries took place. With the adoption of the Protocol in 1991, all activities relating to Antarctic mineral resources were prohibited, except for scientific research. No countries have ratified the Convention.
The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty
The Protocol was concluded in Madrid on October 4, 1991 and entered into force, together with Annexes I-IV, on January 14, 1998. It has been accepted by all 27 Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties and two other countries. It builds upon the Antarctic Treaty to extend and improve the Treaty's effectiveness as a mechanism for ensuring the protection of the Antarctic environment. It designates Antarctica as a natural reserve, devoted to peace and science, and sets forth basic principles and detailed, mandatory rules applicable to human activities in Antarctica, including obligations to accord priority to scientific research.
The Protocol prohibits all activities relating to Antarctic mineral resources, except for scientific research, and provides that this prohibition cannot be amended by less than unanimous agreement for at least 50 years following entry into force of the Protocol.
The Protocol requires Parties to protect Antarctic fauna and flora and imposes strict limitations on disposal of wastes in Antarctica and discharge of pollutants into Antarctic waters. It also requires application of environmental impact assessment procedures to activities undertaken in Antarctica, including non-governmental activities, for which advance notice is required under the Antarctic Treaty. Parties are further required to provide for response to environmental emergencies, including through the development of joint contingency plans.
Detailed mandatory rules for environmental protection pursuant to these requirements are incorporated in a system of annexes, forming an integral part of the Protocol. Specific annexes on environmental impact assessment, conservation of Antarctic fauna and flora, waste disposal and waste management and the prevention of marine pollution were adopted with the Protocol. A fifth annex on area protection and management was adopted October 17, 1991 by the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties. Provision is also made for additional annexes to be incorporated following entry into force of the Protocol.
Dispute settlement procedures are included in the Protocol. These include compulsory and binding procedures for disputes over the interpretation or application of, and compliance with, the provisions of the Protocol relating to mineral resource activities, environmental impact assessment and response action, as well as most provisions included in the Annexes.
The Protocol establishes a Committee for Environmental Protection, as an expert advisory body to provide advice and formulate recommendations to the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings in connection with the implementation of this Protocol.
| msmarco_doc_00_8307931 |
http://2001-2009.state.gov/g/rls/rm/68563.htm | The Role of Civil Society in the Growth of Democracy in Africa | The Role of Civil Society in the Growth of Democracy in Africa
The Role of Civil Society in the Growth of Democracy in Africa | The Role of Civil Society in the Growth of Democracy in Africa
The Role of Civil Society in the Growth of Democracy in Africa
Paula J. Dobriansky, Under Secretary for Democracy and Global Affairs
Remarks at the National Endowment for Democracy's 2006 Democracy Award Ceremony
Washington, DC
June 27, 2006
As Delivered
Good evening. Carl, Congressman Payne, Congressman Meeks, Congressman Clyburn, ambassadors, honorees, and distinguished guests. Thank you Vin for your gracious introduction. I’m delighted to be part of this ceremony honoring four extraordinary individuals with the Endowment’s 2006 Democracy Awards. These awards recognize the courageous and creative works of these remarkable activists who have advanced the cause of human rights and democracy in their respective countries.
In his National Security Strategy, President Bush, expressed our conviction that “promoting democracy is the most effective long-term measure for strengthening international stability, reducing regional conflicts, countering terrorism and terror-supporting extremism, and extending peace and prosperity.”
For the United States, the promotion of human rights and democracy is central to our foreign policy, as is our methodology of transformational diplomacy. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice has defined ‘transformational diplomacy’ as working with partners “to build and sustain democratic, well-governed states that will respond to the needs of their people” and helping others “better their own lives, build their own nations, and transform their futures.”
The ‘partners’ to whom Secretary Rice referred are other donor states and international organizations that share our values and goals. They are also the governments of those states that are seeking to strengthen their democracy and to secure the human rights of their citizens. But our most important partners in this work are the dedicated and capable non-governmental organizations around the world who have worked with all parts of civil society. It is they who promote and protect the rights and liberties that mark the boundary between freedom and oppression. They are the advocacy groups, religious organizations, human rights defenders, civil libertarians, professional associations, environmentalists, and worker organizations.
In the nations of sub-Saharan Africa such as those our honorees call home, the job of promoting democracy and human rights from within a given society is always difficult and sometimes dangerous. In Africa, the status quo and tradition can be fierce opponents of progress. But an illustrious African American activist, the abolitionist Frederick Douglass, spoke a central truth that confronts anyone who sets out to change her or his society. Speaking in 1857 of the efforts to end chattel slavery in the United States, Douglass said, “If there is no struggle, there is no progress . . . This struggle may be a moral one, or it may be a physical one, and it may be both moral and physical, but it must be a struggle. Power concedes nothing without a demand. It never did and it never will.”
Significantly, next year the Community of Democracies (CD), a coalition of over 120 democratic nations, chaired by Mali, will come together to share best practices and support civil society as the engine of democratic change. Mali’s theme for the 2007 Community of Democracies’ ministerial in Bamako is democracy and development. Both are inseparably linked. Democracy can yield a range of tangible benefits to the people of Africa by encouraging stability and good governance which are essential for poverty eradication and economic prosperity.
Tonight, we stand in great admiration and respect for the courage and leadership manifested by each of the individuals being recognized and their organizations, for not only what they have achieved on behalf of the advancement of freedom in their own societies but the exemplary behavior that I know will be emulated by countless others struggling for fundamental human rights in Africa and across the globe. We salute you.
Since its founding in 1982, the National Endowment for Democracy has provided financial support and capacity-building assistance to thousands of NGOs that, in turn, have nurtured the aspirations and given voice to the grievances of millions of people in Africa and around the world. This partnership -- United States Government, the National Endowment for Democracy, and the collective civil society organizations throughout Africa -- will endure as long as we Americans remember the abolitionists, suffragists, civil rights workers, labor organizers and religious non-conformists who brought us to this place and time, and as long there are men and women like those we honor tonight who are willing to dedicate their lives to the struggle for liberty and democracy.
Thank you.
| msmarco_doc_00_8320001 |
http://2001-2009.state.gov/g/tip/rls/fs/08/111378.htm | Developing a Consensus on Aftercare Services for Victims of Human Trafficking | Developing a Consensus on Aftercare Services for Victims of Human Trafficking
Developing a Consensus on Aftercare Services for Victims of Human Trafficking | Developing a Consensus on Aftercare Services for Victims of Human Trafficking
Fact Sheet
Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons
Washington, DC
October 28, 2008
Developing a Consensus on Aftercare Services for Victims of Human Trafficking
The U.S. Department of State’s Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons (G/TIP) sponsored a symposium of experienced victim service providers to discuss how best to protect and assist victims of human trafficking after they are identified and rescued. This group of experts represented ten organizations recognized for quality victim care. The product of this collaboration will be the report, Developing a Consensus on Aftercare Services for Victims of Human Trafficking, to be posted on the G/TIP website later this year. A summary of the report’s findings is outlined below.
Shelter Safety Measures
Safety is the first priority of aftercare programs. Safety involves physical security measures and a thorough understanding of—and commitment to—safety measures from all shelter staff and clients. Centro Integral de Atencion a las Mujeres, CIAM CANCUN A.C. (CIAM CANCUN) provides safe shelter to female victims of trafficking in Mexico. The shelter’s safety measures include: 24 hour-a-day staff; HiFi technology; bulletproof windows; entrance safety measures; and a professionally trained team of female security guards. Visitors are not allowed at the shelter; victims are accompanied by a security team in a safe vehicle to meet with guests at a visiting home. CIAM CANCUN produced an orientation videotape, which introduces victims to all aspects of the shelter and highlights the importance of maintaining shelter security. It is shown to all new clients prior to entering the shelter.
Safety Protocols
The Coalition to Abolish Slavery & Trafficking (CAST) provides physically and psychologically safe housing to trafficking victims in the United States. The shelter also serves as a drop-in center, where all CAST clients can receive legal assistance, attend life skills workshops, and participate in therapeutic activities. CAST emphasizes personal safety and shelter security with all clients and staff members. The CAST Social Services Manual: A Guidebook to Serving Survivors of Human Trafficking in Los Angeles provides comprehensive guidelines on all areas of victim assistance, and includes forms for safety screening, a safety protocol, and a no-harm contract for clients.
Program Policies and Procedures
Victim, staff, and community safety are at the core of all elements of aftercare services. To mitigate potential safety risks, staff members must have a clear understanding of the program’s rules, roles and regulations before providing services to victims of human trafficking. Comprehensive policies and procedures for secure facilities that assist female victims of human trafficking are included in Guidelines for the Operation of Care Facilities for Victims of Trafficking and Violence Against Women and Girls. Developed by Planete Enfants, this manual is intended to build capacity in shelter facilities through the establishment of policies, guidelines, training, personnel and material requirements.
Legal and Victim Services Case Planning
A case plan is an informed strategy that directs a victim’s course of assistance and is an integral component used to evaluate a victim’s progress. The International Justice Mission (IJM) assists victims of slavery and sex trafficking in Asia, Africa, Latin America and South America, working within each
country’s legal system to facilitate victim rescue, prosecute perpetrators, and provide aftercare services to victims. IJM’s work with victims requires thorough, accurate documentation. Each victim has two case plans: a legal case plan and a victim services case plan. IJM has found that obtaining a victim’s legal documentation is a critical component of each victim’s case plan. Often, traffickers take victims’ legal documents to make them more defenseless and afraid of justice officials. Restoring those legal documents is an important step in victim safety, rehabilitation, and future reintegration.
Psychological First Aid
Victims of human trafficking undergo profound, and often prolonged, traumatic events at the hands of others. They often experience overwhelming psychological effects as a direct consequence of trafficking incidents. Psychological first aid (PFA), also referred to as “crisis intervention,” is the process of helping people who have experienced a sudden, disturbing or shocking event cope with emotional distress. PFA can be administered by trained professionals or laypersons.
Trauma-informed Treatment for Young Victims
Trafficking may not be the first time that a victim has experienced violence or exploitation. Girls Educational & Mentoring Services (GEMS) provides aftercare services to young women (ages 12-21) who have been internally trafficked or sexually exploited in the United States. When GEMS first began providing services, it became apparent that the victims had been sexually or physically abused prior to becoming victims of trafficking or sexual exploitation. The prior victimization made the young women more susceptible to recruitment into the sex industry; victims often left home to escape abuse only to undergo worse abuse on the streets. GEMS’ services help victims think critically about the local, national, and international social forces (such as poverty, race, gender, class, prior victimization) that create a “perfect storm” of risk factors for trafficking. Victims’ practical and physical needs are met first, which builds a foundation of trust so victims can then successfully receive holistic, strengths-based and trauma-informed treatment. GEMS partners with allied professionals in the community to provide comprehensive services that address victims’ needs—including those that stem from prior victimization.
Comprehensive Medical Care
Some trafficking victims develop medical issues as a direct result of trafficking. Victims of labor trafficking may develop chronic physical illnesses and disabilities. Victims of sex trafficking have a greatly increased risk of contracting infections and diseases. Depending on the type and severity of the medical issue, a victim may not be able to address psychological issues until his/her medical needs have been addressed. The Indian-based NGO, Prajwala, performs rescue, rehabilitation, reintegration, and community-based prevention programs for adult and child victims of sex trafficking in India. Trained caretakers offer appropriate care and support for victims with HIV/AIDS, including providing antiretroviral drugs, treating opportunistic infections and providing psychosocial support. HIV-positive victims are also fed a special diet to meet their nutritional needs.
Mentoring
Mentoring (also referred to as “peer support” or a “buddy system”) within the context of case planning can act as a transformational relationship, in which positive role models create a compassionate catalyst for change. When those positive role models are victims of trafficking who are successfully rebuilding their lives, the catalyst for change can extend beyond other victims to the entire community or nation. World Vision is an international humanitarian organization dedicated to helping children, families and communities reach their full potential by tackling poverty and injustice, including labor and sex trafficking and sexual exploitation. World Vision works collaboratively with the Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare in Laos on the Voices of Victims Network, which trains former victims of trafficking to mentor potential migrants on safe migration. The network extends from village committees to schools to migration hubs in Laos and Thailand. The project also trains and mentors Lao government workers at local, provincial and national levels to support anti-trafficking measures.
“Soft Skills” Training
For victims to successfully reintegrate into any community, they must possess basic life and work skills that will increase their ability to thrive independently, which in turn decreases their risk of re-trafficking. Hagar International (Hagar) provides physical, psychological, and social support in secure residential facilities to women and children who have been trafficked in Cambodia. Hagar’s Career Pathways Program offers “soft skills” training for the first three months, where victims receive guidance on successfully entering a work environment (including self motivation, work ethics, developing competency, interview preparation, career counseling, and literacy training). During this time, victims also visit local businesses so they can choose a vocation. Victims then go through the Career Pathways Program’s “hard skills training,” six-month courses during which victims choose to specialize in hair and beauty, sewing or cooking. Apprenticeship opportunities are facilitated for students completing the course so they can receive further “on the job” training to increase their skill levels and confidence.
Micro-Credit Loans
One of the largest risk factors of human trafficking is poverty. Traffickers often conscript victims by promising to provide honest work and a decent living. Often, victims reintegrate into a community where the same poverty factors that led to trafficking still exist. Micro-credit programs extend small loans or other financial services (such as savings accounts, training, networking, and peer support) from cooperative groups, not moneylenders. Loans are made to help impoverished people get training or start self-employment projects that generate income, enabling them to care for themselves and their families. Free the Slaves (FTS) is an international organization that partners with local aftercare service providers to meet the needs of victims of labor and sex trafficking. FTS’s comprehensive document Rebuilding Lives: An Introduction to Promising Practices in the Rehabilitation of Freed Slaves offers guidelines for aftercare services and reintegration, including information about providing micro-credit loans.
Cooperative Agreement
Victims of trafficking have many needs that cross a variety of specialties, from safe shelter to medical, legal, and psychological assistance. Interagency cooperation and collaboration (with NGOs, International Organizations, and/or governmental agencies) are imperative to meet these diverse needs, and memoranda of understanding (MOUs) among all parties can formalize cooperative agreements and outline expectations of each party. Caritas Lebanon-Migrants Center (Caritas) and the International Catholic Migration Commission (ICMC) provide safe shelter and aftercare services to trafficking victims in Lebanon. They entered into a cooperative relationship with the General Directorate of the General Security, which has authority over foreigners’ legal status in Lebanon, to access and screen detainees for trafficking victimization. The General Directorate provides security to the shelter and pursues criminal justice action against traffickers; Caritas and ICMC provide safe shelter, victim assistance, and help with repatriation. Each party formalized its role and commitment to cooperation in an MOU.
Comprehensive Repatriation Services
In coordination with partners worldwide, the International Organization for Migration (IOM) provides a range of repatriation services such as conducting a needs assessment, securing travel documents, making travel arrangements, and accompanying minors while in transit. For example, IOM manages a Global Assistance Fund (GAF) that provides repatriation services on a case-by-case basis to stranded trafficked persons who cannot be assisted through other means.
Guidelines for Safe Return
Informed and prepared reception services can be essential to a victim’s safety. Some organized trafficking rings know when and how victims will return and intercept victims before they can reach safe shelter. The IOM Mission to the Kyrgyz Republic operates two shelters for victims of trafficking, which provide psychological, legal and medical aid and assistance with return and repatriation. Safe return is a main goal of staff members, who meet, accompany, and transport a victim upon return. The Manual on Care, Rehabilitation, Recovery and Reintegration of Victims of Trafficking in Human Beings for the Kyrgyz Republic provides an overview of return, rehabilitation, and reintegration services offered in the Kyrgyz Republic. It also includes helpful annexes with sample guidelines, rules, and written agreements for shelter residents and staff. The Kyrgyz manual is based on The IOM Handbook on Direct Assistance for Victims of Trafficking, which provides in-depth information about reception services and associated considerations.
Comprehensive Guidelines for Reintegration
Reintegration is the ultimate goal of aftercare services and indicates that the victim possesses the tools necessary to live a safe, sustainable life free from trafficking or exploitation. Free the Slaves (FTS), while working with boys who were trafficked internally in India into the rug industry, realized that just as it was important to prepare the victim for reintegration into the community, it was important to prepare the community for the victim’s reintegration. If a victim repatriates to his home community, FTS assesses the victim’s family’s economic situation and safety risk factors (such as violence, substance abuse, and the family’s role in trafficking). FTS works with the community to prevent potential stigma being placed on the victim; to help victims return with skills and resources that will help the entire community; and to empower communities to claim their governmental rights to schools, clinics, jobs, and road building. Many villages in India have created vigilance committees that watch for traffickers, record missing children, and keep in touch with government officials and NGOs. Rebuilding Lives: An Introduction to Promising Practices in the Rehabilitation of Freed Slaves offers comprehensive guidelines for reintegration.
Survivor Advisory Caucus
Aftercare programs help victims of trafficking rebuild their lives. Likewise, victims of trafficking can help aftercare programs expand and improve their influence and standing in the community. Victims have diverse personal experiences with different forms of trafficking and exploitation, and can best speak to what their unique needs are and how they can be met. The Los-Angeles based NGO Coalition Against Slavery and Trafficking (CAST) provides physically and psychologically safe housing to trafficking victims in the United States. CAST realized that to become most effective in its outreach, education and policy efforts, victims had to be an integral part of the process. In 2004, CAST created the first of-its-kind Survivor Advisory Caucus to ensure that public policy efforts are victim-centered and to provide an opportunity for victims’ voices to be heard. The Survivor Advisory Caucus is a leadership development program whose members speak publicly to raise awareness on important policy issues impacting victims. Caucus members have testified at California state legislative hearings advocating for statutory victim protections, and have appeared in radio and television public service announcements. The New-York based NGO GEMS has also integrated the testimony of victims in all its public policy outreach efforts. Survivor activism through GEMS helped secure passage by the New York State legislature this year of a major piece of legislation to protect minor victims of sex trafficking.
| msmarco_doc_00_8325339 |
http://2001-2009.state.gov/g/tip/rls/other/48236.htm | What Do the Tiers of the Trafficking in Persons Report Mean? | What Do the Tiers of the Trafficking in Persons Report Mean?
What Do the Tiers of the Trafficking in Persons Report Mean? | What Do the Tiers of the Trafficking in Persons Report Mean?
What Do the Tiers of the Trafficking in Persons Report Mean?
Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons
Washington, DC
June 3, 2005
Tier 1
Countries that fully comply with the The Trafficking in Persons Act’s minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking.
Tier 2
Countries that do not fully comply with the minimum standards but are making significant efforts to bring themselves into compliance.
Tier 2 Watch List
Countries on Tier 2 requiring special scrutiny because of a high or significantly increasing number of victims; failure to provide evidence of increasing efforts to combat trafficking in persons; or an assessment as Tier 2 based on commitments to take action over the next year.
Tier 3
Countries that neither satisfy the minimum standards nor demonstrate a significant effort to come into compliance. Countries in this tier are subject to potential non-humanitarian and non-trade sanctions.
| msmarco_doc_00_8341706 |
http://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/pubs/fs/46345.htm | The United States, the Soviet Union, and the End of World War II | The United States, the Soviet Union, and the End of World War II
The United States, the Soviet Union, and the End of World War II | The United States, the Soviet Union, and the End of World War II
Historical Background
Office of the Historian
Bureau of Public Affairs
The United States, the Soviet Union, and the End of World War II
Wartime relations between the United States and the Soviet Union can be considered one of the highpoints in the longstanding interaction between these two great powers. Although not without tensions--such as differing ideological and strategic goals, and lingering suspicions--the collaborative relationship between the United States and the Soviet Union nonetheless was maintained. Moreover, it was instrumental in defeating Nazi Germany in 1945.
The United States greeted the democratic Russian Revolution of February 1917 with great enthusiasm, which cooled considerably with the advent of the Bolsheviks in October 1917. The United States, along with many other countries, refused to recognize the new regime, arguing that it was not a democratically elected or representative government. The policy of non-recognition ended in November 1933, when the United States, under President Franklin D. Roosevelt, established full diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union, the last major power to do so.
Despite outwardly cordial relations between the two countries, American misgivings regarding Soviet international behavior grew in the late 1930s. The August 1939 Nazi-Soviet Pact, which paved the way for Hitler’s invasion of Poland in September, followed by the Soviet invasion of Poland’s eastern provinces of Western Ukraine and Western Byelorussia, caused alarm in Washington. The Soviet attack on Finland in November 1939, followed by Stalin’s absorption of the Baltic States of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania in 1940, further exacerbated relations.
The Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, however, led to changes in American attitudes. The United States began to see the Soviet Union as an embattled country being overrun by fascist forces, and this attitude was further reinforced in the aftermath of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941. Under the Lend-Lease Act, the United States sent enormous quantities of war materiel to the Soviet Union, which was critical in helping the Soviets withstand the Nazi onslaught. By the end of 1942, the Nazi advance into the Soviet Union had stalled; it was finally reversed at the epic battle of Stalingrad in 1943. Soviet forces then began a massive counteroffensive, which eventually expelled the Nazis from Soviet territory and beyond. This Soviet effort was aided by the cross-channel Allied landings at Normandy in June 1944.
These coordinated military actions came about as the result of intensive and prolonged diplomatic negotiations between the Allied leaders, Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin, who became known as the “Big Three.” These wartime conferences, which also sought to address issues related to the postwar world, included the November 1943 Tehran Conference. At Tehran, Stalin secured confirmation from Roosevelt and Churchill of the launching of the cross-channel invasion. In turn, Stalin promised his allies that the Soviet Union would eventually enter the war against Japan. In February 1945, the "Big Three" met at Yalta in the Crimea. The Yalta Conference was the most important--and by far the most controversial--of the wartime meetings.
Recognizing the strong position that the Soviet Army held on the ground, Churchill--and an ailing Roosevelt--agreed to a number of things with Stalin. At Yalta, they granted territorial concessions to the Soviet Union, and outlined punitive measures against Germany, including Allied occupation and the principle of reparations. Stalin guaranteed that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within 6 months after the end of hostilities in Europe.
While the diplomats and politicians engaged in trying to shape the postwar world, Soviet forces from the east and Allied forces from the west continued to advance on Germany. After a fierce and costly battle, Berlin fell to Soviet forces on May 8, 1945, after Allied and Soviet troops had met on the Elbe River to shake hands and congratulate each other on a hard won impending victory. Although the war in Europe was over, it would take several more months of hard fighting and substantial losses for Allied forces to defeat the Japanese in September 1945, including the first use of the atomic bomb. In accordance with the Yalta agreements, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan in early August 1945, just prior to Japan’s surrender in September.
The alliance between the United States and the Soviet Union during World War II developed out of necessity, and out of a shared realization that each country needed the other to defeat one of the most dangerous and destructive forces of the twentieth century. Ideological differences were subordinated, albeit temporarily, to the common goal of defeating fascism. As a result of this cooperation, the groundwork for a new international system was laid, out of which came the United Nations organization. The Soviets had suffered tremendous human and material losses during the war. Approximately 20 million people were killed, thousands of villages, towns, and cities were destroyed, and the Soviet Union’s economic infrastructure was devastated. Despite the subsequent postwar controversies and the beginning of the Cold War, nothing can diminish the importance of the wartime cooperation between the United States and the Soviet Union.
Office of the Historian
Bureau of Public Affairs
U.S. Department of State
May 2005
| msmarco_doc_00_8343114 |
http://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/pubs/fs/55407.htm | The United States and the Founding of the United Nations, August 1941 - October 1945 | The United States and the Founding of the United Nations, August 1941 - October 1945
The United States and the Founding of the United Nations, August 1941 - October 1945 | The United States and the Founding of the United Nations, August 1941 - October 1945
Historical Background
Office of the Historian
Bureau of Public Affairs
The United States and the Founding of the United Nations, August 1941 - October 1945
The impetus to establish the United Nations stemmed in large part from the inability of its predecessor, the League of Nations, to prevent the outbreak of the Second World War. Despite Germany’s occupation of a number of European states, and the League’s failure to stop other serious international transgressions in the 1930s, such as Japan’s invasion of Manchuria, many international leaders remained committed to the League’s ideals. Once World War II began, President Franklin D. Roosevelt determined that U.S. leadership was essential for the creation of another international organization aimed at preserving peace, and his administration engaged in international diplomacy in pursuit of that goal. He also worked to build domestic support for the concept of the United Nations. After Roosevelt’s death, President Harry S Truman also assumed the important task of maintaining support for the United Nations and worked through complicated international problems, particularly with the Soviet Union, to make the founding of the new organization possible. After nearly four years of planning, the international community finally established the United Nations in the spring of 1945.
Origins of the United Nations
The concept of creating a global organization of member states dedicated to preserving international peace through collective security increased in popularity during World War I. The bloodshed of the “Great War” persuaded President Woodrow Wilson, and a number of other American and international leaders, to seek the creation of an international forum in which conflicts could be resolved peacefully. The 1919 Treaty of Versailles that ended World War I, which Wilson negotiated on behalf of the United States, contained a framework for a League of Nations, intended to maintain peace and stability. However, despite Wilson’s efforts to gain the domestic support of political leaders and the American public, he was unable to convince the United States Senate to approve U.S. membership in the League. This was due to strong isolationist sentiment and partisan conflicts, stemming in part from his failure to include any prominent Republicans in the peace negotiations. The League’s opponents criticized it as a threat to American sovereignty and security, and objected most stridently to Article Ten of the League Charter, which committed member states to protect the territorial integrity of all other member states against external aggression. Many American lawmakers argued that Article Ten might obligate the United States to take part in wars in defense of dubious, often contested, colonial boundaries. After considering membership in the League with reservations, the Senate ultimately prevented the United States from joining the League. The absence of the United States weakened the League, which was also hindered in its efforts to resolve disputes by the widespread economic crises of the 1930s, its inability to compel states to abide by its decisions, and its requirement that many decisions--including those involving a response to aggression--be decided unanimously. The fact that member states involved in a dispute were granted a seat on the League’s Council, thereby allowing them to prevent unanimous action, meant that the League eventually resorted to expelling aggressor states such as Japan and Italy, with little effect.
Proposing the United Nations Concept
President Roosevelt recognized the inherent weaknesses of the League of Nations, but faced with the reality of another world war, also saw the value of planning for the creation of an international organization to maintain peace in the post-World War II era. He felt that this time, the United States needed to play a leading role both in the creation of the organization, and in the organization itself. Moreover, in contrast to the League, the new organization needed the power to enforce key decisions. The first wartime meeting between British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and President Roosevelt, the Atlantic Conference held off the coast of Newfoundland in August 1941, took place before the United States had formally entered the war as a combatant. Despite its official position of neutrality, the United States joined Britain in issuing a joint declaration that became known as the Atlantic Charter. This pronouncement outlined a vision for a postwar order supported, in part, by an effective international organization that would replace the struggling League of Nations. During this meeting, Roosevelt privately suggested to Churchill the name of the future organization: the United Nations.
The governments of the United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and China formalized the Atlantic Charter proposals in January 1942, shortly after the United States entered the war. In the Declaration of the United Nations, these major Allied nations, along with 22 other states, agreed to work together against the Axis powers (Germany, Japan, and Italy), and committed in principle to the establishment of the United Nations after the war.
Learning from Woodrow Wilson’s failure to gain Congressional support for the League of Nations, the Roosevelt Administration aimed to include a wide range of administration and elected officials in its effort to establish the proposed United Nations. The State Department played a significant role in this process, and created a Special Subcommittee on International Organization in the Advisory Committee on Postwar Planning to advise Congress. The subcommittee reviewed past efforts at international cooperation, and by March 1943 had drafted a formal proposal to establish a new, more effective international organization. Secretary of State Cordell Hull took the proposal to members of Congress in an effort to build bipartisan support for the proposed postwar organization. Consultations between Congress and the Department of State continued into the summer of 1943, and by August, produced a draft United Nations Charter. Congress repeatedly passed resolutions declaring its support for the establishment of an international organization--and for United States membership in that organization.
The major Allied Powers--the United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and China--reiterated their commitment to forming an international organization in the Moscow Declaration of October 30, 1943, and more concrete international planning for the structure of the new organization commenced. Representatives from these four countries met at Dumbarton Oaks in Washington, DC, from August 21 through October 7, 1944, and the four Allied powers issued a statement of Proposals for the Establishment of a General International Organization, largely based on the draft charter formulated by the State Department’s Subcommittee on International Organization, in consultation with the U.S. Congress.
The Department of State undertook a public relations campaign to build support for the United Nations. As part of that effort, the Department printed over 200,000 copies of the Dumbarton Oaks proposal and an informative, eight-page guide to the draft United Nations Charter. The Department worked in concert with interested groups to inform the public about the United Nations and even dispatched officials around the country to answer questions on the proposed organization. By the end of the effort, the Department of State had coordinated almost 500 such meetings.
Creation of the United Nations
The basic framework for the proposed United Nations rested on President Roosevelt’s vision that the United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and China would provide leadership in the postwar international system. It was these four states, with the addition of France, that would assume permanent seats in the otherwise rotating membership of the United Nations Security Council. At the Anglo-American Malta Conference in early 1945, the two sides proposed that the permanent members of the Security Council would have a veto. Immediately thereafter, at the Yalta Conference, the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom agreed on veto power for the permanent members of the Security Council. This crucial decision essentially required unanimity between the five permanent members on the pressing international decisions related to international security and use of force that would be brought before the Security Council.
Churchill and Roosevelt also made an important concession to Soviet leader Josef Stalin’s request that the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic and the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic be seated in the United Nations General Assembly, thus increasing the Soviet Union’s seats in that body to three. Stalin had originally requested seats for all sixteen Soviet Socialist Republics, but at Yalta this request was turned down, and the compromise was to allow Ukraine and Byelorussia into the United Nations. The United States originally had countered Stalin’s proposal with the request to allow all fifty American states into the United Nations, a suggestion that encouraged Stalin to agree to the compromise. At Yalta, the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom also drafted invitations to a conference beginning in April 1945 in San Francisco that would formally establish the United Nations.
After Roosevelt’s death on April 12, 1945, days before the scheduled San Francisco Conference, Vice President Harry S Truman took the oath of office and immediately announced that the Conference should go forward as planned. Moved by Roosevelt’s death, Stalin, who had initially planned to send Ambassador Andrei Gromyko as the Soviet representative to the San Francisco conference, announced that he would send Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov as well. This news heartened American officials, who had been concerned about maintaining Soviet interest and participation in the United Nations after a number of disagreements over the extent of Soviet influence in Eastern Europe and the fate of Germany in the postwar period. In an address to Congress shortly thereafter, Truman called upon Americans “regardless of party, race, creed or color, to support our efforts to build a strong and lasting United Nations organization.”
The San Francisco Conference, formally known as the United Nations Conference on International Organization, opened on April 25, 1945, with delegations from fifty countries present. The U.S. delegation to San Francisco included Secretary of State Edward R. Stettinius, Jr., former Secretary of State Cordell Hull, and Senators Tom Connally (D-Texas) and Arthur Vandenberg (R-Michigan), as well as other Congressional and public representatives. Among the most controversial issues at the San Francisco Conference was the seating of certain countries, in particular, Argentina, the Ukrainian and Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republics, and Poland. The vote to seat Argentina was particularly contentious because the Soviet Union strongly opposed Argentine membership arguing that Argentina had supported the Axis during the war. However, the other Latin American states refused to support the Ukrainian and Byelorussian candidacies if Argentina were blocked. The United States supported Argentina’s membership, but also defended the Ukrainian and Byelorussian seats in order to maintain the Soviet Union’s participation in the United Nations. The makeup of the Polish government was a continuing source of tension between the wartime allies, and thus a Polish delegation was not seated until after the conference.
At San Francisco, the delegates reviewed and often rewrote the text agreed to at Dumbarton Oaks. The delegations negotiated a role for regional organizations under the United Nations umbrella and outlined the powers of the office of Secretary General, including the authority to refer conflicts to the Security Council. Conference participants also considered a proposal for compulsory jurisdiction for a World Court, but Stettinius recognized such an outcome could imperil Senate ratification. The delegates then agreed that each state should make its own determination about World Court membership. The conference did approve the creation of an Economic and Social Council and a Trusteeship Council to assist in the process of decolonization, and agreed that these councils would have rotating geographic representation. The United Nations Charter also gave the United Nations broader jurisdiction over issues that were “essentially within” the domestic jurisdiction of states, such as human rights, than the League of Nations had, and broadened its scope on economic and technological issues.
Determining the extent of the veto power of the permanent members of the Security Council proved a more serious potential obstacle to agreement on a United Nations charter. The Soviet Union advocated broad use of the veto, viewing it as a possible tool to curb discussion on conflicts involving a permanent member. Such an interpretation worried the smaller states, which were already hesitant about the permanent veto. In order to gain Soviet agreement to modify such an expansive interpretation of the veto, Truman directed Harry Hopkins, who had many wartime discussions with Stalin, to travel to Moscow and negotiate with the Soviet leader on the issue. After bilateral Soviet-American negotiations in Moscow, the Soviet Union eventually agreed to a less extensive veto power. While the permanent members retained veto power with respect to non-procedural matters, the Security Council would not require a unanimous vote to act, and would have the power to take decisions that would be binding on Member States.
Following the resolution of most outstanding issues, the San Francisco Conference closed on June 26, 1945. In a show of support, Truman attended the final session for the signing of the United Nations Charter, and congratulated the delegates for creating a “solid structure upon which we can build a better world.” However, Truman still needed to secure Senate ratification of the Charter. Both he and Stettinius urged the Senate to give its advice and consent to ratification; Truman said, “I want to see the United States do it first.” In a testament to the sustained wartime efforts to build support for the United Nations, the Charter was approved in the Senate on July 28, 1945, by a vote of 89 to 2, with 5 abstentions. (The U.S. ratification followed that of Nicaragua and El Salvador.) The United Nations officially came into existence on October 24, 1945, after the United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, China, and France, as well as a majority of the other signatories, had ratified the United Nations Charter.
Early Challenges and Future Changes
At its first session, on February 14, 1946, the United Nations General Assembly voted to establish its permanent headquarters in New York City. In a world emerging from the overwhelming conflict of World War II, the United Nations seemed to represent hope that such devastation would not recur. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the General Assembly in 1948, symbolized this optimism and idealism. Yet the first true test of the United Nations’ ability to prevent widespread international conflict came in June 1950, when North Korea invaded South Korea. In response, the United Nations Security Council initiated military sanctions against North Korea, an action made possible by the absence of the Soviet representative, who had walked out in protest against the Council’s refusal to seat representatives of Communist China. This allowed the Security Council to assist South Korea in repelling its attackers and maintaining its territorial integrity.
Other issues brought before the United Nations in its early years included the Greek and Turkish dispute over Cyprus and the Cuban Missile Crisis. However, as relations between the East and the West deteriorated in the Cold War era, the Yalta decision to grant all permanent members of the Security Council veto power frequently stymied the Security Council. This increased the profile of the General Assembly, where no state enjoyed a veto. As issues pertaining to international security remained deadlocked in the Security Council during the Cold War, the increasingly active General Assembly expanded the focus of the United Nations to include economic development, famine relief, women’s rights, and environmental protection, among other issues.
With the end of the Cold War, the United Nations has taken on increasing security responsibilities, negotiated peaceful resolutions to conflict, and deployed peacekeeping forces around the world. In recognition of the organization’s significant contributions, the United Nations and United Nations Secretary General Kofi Annan were awarded the 2001 Nobel Peace Prize. The Norwegian Nobel Committee declared in its award citation, “Today the organization is at the forefront of efforts to achieve peace and security in the world, and of the international mobilization aimed at meeting the world's economic, social and environmental challenges...the only negotiable route to global peace and cooperation goes by way of the United Nations.”
Office of the Historian
Bureau of Public Affairs
U.S. Department of State
October 2005
| msmarco_doc_00_8349153 |
http://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/pubs/fs/85739.htm | United States Relations with Russia: Establishment of Relations to World War Two | United States Relations with Russia: Establishment of Relations to World War Two
United States Relations with Russia: Establishment of Relations to World War Two | United States Relations with Russia: Establishment of Relations to World War Two
Historical Background
Office of the Historian
Washington, DC
United States Relations with Russia: Establishment of Relations to World War Two
1780-1820
1780-1783: First Representative of the United States to Russia
The new Government of the United States of America appointed Francis Dana as Minister to St. Petersburg. John Quincy Adams served as translator for this Dana Mission to Russia. Although Dana arrived in August 1781, he left Russia in August 1783 without ever receiving formal recognition from the Russians. Diplomatic ties to Britain prevented the Russian Government from accepting Dana's credentials. Nevertheless, while in Russia, Dana worked as a private citizen to build support for the American cause, and to dispel Russian fears that the new United States would become a trading rival. Following the conclusion of the Treaty of Paris that formally ended the Revolutionary War, Robert Livingston, Secretary of Foreign Affairs under the Continental Congress, recalled Dana and focused on formalizing diplomatic relations with other European powers.
1790: Establishment of Russian Outposts in Russian America
In the late 1700s, the Russians became increasingly interested in the Pacific Northwest of the American continent for fur trapping and trading. Aleksandr Baranov, sponsored by the fur trading business, traveled to the North Pacific in 1790 and established various Russian outposts in the area--including Sitka, which later became New Archangel, the main administrative center of Russian America.
1799: Creation of Russian America Company
Tsar Paul chartered the Russian America Company in 1799 to develop trade opportunities in the North Pacific. Although competition between the United States and the Russians in the Pacific remained peaceful, American traders also showed some interest in this area as part of their nascent Pacific and Asian trade.
1803: Acceptance of First U.S. Consul in Russia
In the interest of concluding commercial agreements with Russia, President Thomas Jefferson appointed Consul Levett Harris as the first official U.S. representative to Russia in 1803. Harris received a formal commission as Consul for St. Petersburg in early 1803 and arrived in St. Petersburg in October of that same year. Russia accepted Harris but did not reciprocate by sending a representative to the United States.
August-December 1807: Establishing Formal U.S.-Russian Diplomatic Relations
In August 1807, American Minister in London, James Monroe, discussed with Russia's Special Envoy at London, Maksim Alopeus, the possibility of establishing official diplomatic ties between the two nations. In December 1807, Russian Special Envoy Alopeus informed American Minister-Designate at London, William Pinkney, that Russian Tsar Alexander I had agreed to send a Minister to the United States, once the United States agreed to reciprocate by sending a representative of similar rank.
1808-1809: Appointing the Diplomats
On August 30, 1808, Tsar Alexander issued credentials for Andrei Dashkov to be Charg� d'Affaires and Consul General to Philadelphia. On September 8, 1808, Secretary of State James Madison informed William Short that President Thomas Jefferson had selected Short to serve as Minister Plenipotentiary to the Tsar of Russia. While this compelled the Russians to elevate the rank of the envoy they sent to the United States, President Jefferson had difficulties in getting his nomination approved by the Senate. In March 1809, the Senate rejected Short's nomination, and shortly thereafter rejected the new President James Madison's nomination of John Quincy Adams. Regardless, the Russian Government informed Washington that it would appoint Minister-Designate Fedor Pahlen to Washington. Finally, on June 27, 1809, the Senate approved Adams, after Madison resubmitted his nomination.
July 1809: First Russian Representative to the United States
Charg� d'Affaires Andrei Dashkov formally presented his credentials to President Madison. He was the first official Russian representative to the United States.
November 1809: First U.S. Minister to Russia
John Quincy Adams formally presented his credentials to Tsar Alexander in St. Petersburg, and became the first U.S. Minister to Russia on November 5, 1809.
June 1810: First Russian Minister to the United States
The first Russian Minister to the United States, Fedor Pahlen, presented his credentials to President Madison on June 26, 1810. Dashkov replaced him in 1811.
1812: Establishment of Russian Colony at Fort Ross
As instructed by the major stockholders of the Russian America Company and by Aleksandr Baranov, Ivan Kuskov established a southern base in 1812 at Fort Ross near Bodega Bay in California, which was at that time a Spanish territory.
1812-1814: Russian Mediation Efforts in War of 1812
In September 1812, the Russian Minister of Foreign Relations, Nikolai Rumiantsev, approached Adams in St. Petersburg with the suggestion that the Russians make an effort to mediate in the increasingly tense conflict between Great Britain and the United States. Russian officials hoped to maintain the American commerce, upon which the Russians had come to depend, and to ensure that more British forces would be freed to combat Napoleon's French troops, which were encroaching on Russian territory. Russia presented documents of its mediation offer to Secretary of State James Monroe on February 27, 1813. Monroe accepted the offer on March 11, and sent a team of negotiators led by Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin and former Senator James Bayard to St. Petersburg shortly thereafter. Unfortunately for the American delegation, the British refused the third-party mediation, despite continued insistence from the Russians that they sit down with the Americans. Frustrated after months of waiting, the Gallatin-Bayard delegation left St. Petersburg in January 1814. In 1815 the Americans met with the British in Belgium, and concluded the Treaty of Ghent without Russian assistance.
1820-1860
1820-1821: Arbitration of the Treaty of Ghent
When in 1820-1821 the United States and Britain began to disagree over certain provisions of the Treaty of Ghent related to compensation for slaves seized from U.S. territory during the war, the United States suggested that Russia act as a third-party mediator in arbitration. The Russians agreed and settled the disagreement in favor of the Americans.
September 1821: Ukaz of 1821
Tsar Alexander issued an ukaz (edict) on September 16, 1821, regarding Russian claims in America. Alexander declared the northwest territory north of 51� latitude under the jurisdiction of the Russian American Company. This line was far south of the main Russian settlement at New Archangel, yet north of the colony at Fort Ross. Alexander also banned foreign ships from coming closer than 115 miles off the coasts of Russian America. On September 25, Alexander went a step further when he issued a new charter for the Russian American Company that claimed its monopoly on fur hunting, fishing, and trading in this area. A number of American trading companies protested this action.
December 1823: The Monroe Doctrine
In his annual message to Congress on December 2, 1823, President James Monroe outlined the set of principles that would later become known as the Monroe Doctrine. These tenets essentially demanded that Europeans stay out of Western Hemisphere affairs, and refrain from further colonization on the American continents.
April 1824: The Convention of 1824
After some hard bargaining urged by American statesmen and trading companies, in April 1824, the Russians finally agreed to abandon the requirements of the ukaz of 1821 and reopened its Pacific ports to U.S. ships. The Convention also set the boundary for Russia's Northwest claims at 54� 40' north latitude. In concluding this agreement, the United States essentially recognized Russian claims north of this line. Once this Convention was ratified in 1825, it became the first treaty concluded between Russia and the United States.
December 1832: Russian-American Commercial Treaty of 1832
The Russian-American Commercial Treaty of 1832 made no major changes to the status quo, but formalized practices already followed in the growing trade between the two countries. The treaty provided general bilateral trading rights and most-favored-nation treatment.
December 1841: Sale of Fort Ross
The Russians arranged to sell its southernmost Pacific outpost to local American rancher John Sutter for $30,000 in December 1841. The sale did not go through immediately, due to demands from the Mexican Government, which officially controlled the California territory for a time, and then the Mexican-American War. However, payment was finally settled in time for the California gold rush, during which prospectors discovered a good deal of the precious metal on territory formerly controlled by the Russians.
February 1842: American Engineer as Consultant for Russian Railroad
Tsar Nicholas appointed George Washington Whistler as consulting engineer for the Moscow‑St. Petersburg railroad project in February 1842. Whistler ultimately oversaw most of the construction until his death 7 years later, and brought many American managers to Russia to oversee various aspects of the project. This marked the beginning of long-term American involvement with Russian railroad building.
1853: Organization of American Russian Commercial Company
In the early 1850s, San Francisco entrepreneurs became interested in a commodity readily available in the Russian territory of Alaska-ice. The American Russian Commercial Company, organized in 1853, established large ice houses in Sitka, and eventually dominated American trade with the Russian territories to the north.
Mid-1850s: Russia, the United States, and the Crimean War
As the European powers vied for control over the declining Ottoman Empire, American political opinion favored Russian interests over the British and the French. This resulted in U.S. efforts to assist the Russians, particularly in the North Pacific, by allowing Russian ships to sail under American neutrality and by supplying the Russians, whose shipping was frequently disrupted by the British.
In June 1854, Beverly Sanders, President of the American Russian Commercial Company, brokered a deal with Russia that gave Americans a monopoly over the marketing of the Russian America Company's products (such as ice, fish, coal, lumber) throughout the Pacific. In return, Sanders agreed to help supply Russian America and Siberian coastal settlements during the war, and arranged for the fictitious sale of Russian ships to his American Russian Commercial Company, thereby allowing them to sail under the American flag. Other private American citizens also concluded supply deals with the Russians during the war.
The United States also offered to broker peace between the British, French, and Russians in the summer of 1854. Although no U.S.-led peace mediation took place, all parties eventually agreed to basic principles of neutral rights at sea.
1854: Cottman Mission
Thomas Cottman, a wealthy American doctor, traveled to Russia in early 1854 and met with high ranking members of the St. Petersburg court. Although details of these conversations remain vague, upon Cottman's return to the United States in the summer of 1854, the press reported that he had discussed the possible sale of Russian American territories, including Alaska, to the United States.
1854-1855: American Humanitarian Efforts in Crimean War
Spurred by reports from Thomas Cottman regarding the terrible conditions on the warfront, American doctors traveled to the front in Russia to treat casualties of the Crimean War in 1854 and 1855.
March 1856: Treaty of Paris
The Europeans settled the Crimean War with the Treaty of Paris, in March 1856, which curtailed Russia's influence in the former Ottoman Empire. The treaty also demilitarized the Black Sea, and prohibited all warships from sailing in those waters.
Opening Sevastopol Harbor
American submarine maker and salvage specialist John Gowen signed an agreement in October 1856 with the Russian Government to raise the fifty or more ships sunk by the Russians during the war to block Sevastopol's harbor.
1857: American Construction of Russian Naval Ships
As agreed upon in the early 1850s, American shipbuilders at the New York shipyards began the construction of warships for the Russian Navy in 1857. This included the construction of the General-Admiral, the largest ship ever built in the United States. The launch of this vessel in 1859 spurred special celebrations in both the United States and Russia.
1860-1890
1860-1861: Discussions of Future of Russian American Territories
In early 1860, high-ranking U.S. officials raised the issue of the future status of Russia's American possessions, particularly since the Russia American Company had fallen on hard times since the Crimean War and its charter was set to expire in late 1861. During these discussions, the Americans formally asked the Russian Minister to the United States, Eduard Stoekel, if Russia would consider ceding these possessions to the United States. St. Petersburg's initial resistance and the American Civil War delayed the sale of Russia's remaining American territories.
February-March 1861: Russian Emancipation of the Serfs
Just as the United States was about to fight a war motivated in part by the national debate over American slavery, Alexander II issued a manifesto in early 1861 releasing Russian serfs from their servitude. American abolitionists celebrated this turn of events, while Russians watched from afar as the United States descended into armed conflict.
1861-1865: U.S.-Russian Relations during the American Civil War
Russian Minister Stoekel initially encouraged mediation between President Abraham Lincoln's Secretary of State, William H. Seward, and representatives of seceded Southern states; however, after Seward refused such negotiations, the Russians assumed an official position that supported the Union while urging reunification. The Russians also supported the suggestion made by Napoleon III of France that called for a peace mediated by the French, British, and Russians. However, Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation, that freed slaves in Union territory, raised the stakes and made real negotiation between the North and South, or outright British or French endorsement of the Confederacy, unlikely.
September-December 1863: Visits by Russian Imperial Navy
During the Civil War, Russian naval ships sailed to New York in late 1863 to demonstrate Russia's naval capability and its growing support for the North. More importantly, this was a strategic move in anticipation of a possible war with the British following the recent Polish uprising against Russian rule. By staging visits to U.S. ports, the Russian Navy aimed to relocate a number of its ships so that they would not be trapped in the Baltic Sea in the event of war in Europe. New York celebrated the visitors in style, with lavish social events, parades, and military reviews. The ships eventually called on the ports of Philadelphia, Baltimore, Washington, and Annapolis, and traveled as far south as Alexandria. Russian officers entertained members of the U.S. Cabinet and Congress on board. A separate Pacific squadron visited California.
March 1865: Russian-American Telegraph Charter
After a failed attempt to lay the first transatlantic telegraph line in 1861, Russian and American officials negotiated an agreement for an overland telegraphic connection of Europe and North America via Siberia, Alaska, and the Pacific Northwest. Secretary Seward appointed American entrepreneur and Russian business expert Perry McDonough Collins to represent the United States in this venture. Collins secured a formal agreement in March 1865. Unfortunately for the team that worked in difficult conditions, the Atlantic cable began successful operations in 1867 and Western Union abandoned its Pacific efforts.
Winter 1866-1867: Coverage of Western Union Expedition
The New York Herald assigned American writer Thomas Knox to cover the Western Union expedition in Siberia that took place during the winter of 1866-1867. Knox's writings about his experiences ultimately led to a book, Overland Through Siberia, that brought accounts of Siberian peoples and the Russian exile system to the American public. Other American writers, including George Kennan (1845-1924), also published accounts of this expedition in the American press. Knox, Kennan, and other writers later toured the United States to lecture about their travels in Russia.
March 1867: U.S. Purchase of Alaska
Secretary of State Seward secured a deal to purchase Alaska from the Russian tsar for $7.2 million in March 1867. Although the U.S. Congress initially resisted the idea, citing the price as too high, legislators ultimately agreed to the deal because it blocked a large portion of Great Britain's Pacific access, made Alaska's rich mineral resources available to American entrepreneurs, and provided easier access to lucrative Asian trade. Russia had become increasingly frustrated with the expense and difficulty of supplying its businesses in the Pacific territory, and was thus also satisfied with the sale.
1869: Discussion of Russian Jews in the U.S. Press
By the late 1860s, U.S. newspapers began reporting on acts of anti-Semitism toward Jews living in Russia, pointing out that despite a tendency toward progressive reform in Russian society, Russian Jews lacked basic rights. This prompted a report by Eugene Schuyler, U.S. consul at Reval, who criticized the confinement of Russian Jews to western and southwestern border provinces, known as the Pale.
1871: Pogrom against Russian Jews
Russian authorities cracked down on Jews in the city of Odessa over Easter week 1871. U.S. Consul Eugene Schuyler described the economic discrimination against Russian Jews in a memorandum to the U.S. Department of State. Russian Jews began to consider emigrating.
November 1871-February 1872: Visit to the United States by Grand Duke Alexis
As part of his world tour, the third son of Tsar Alexander II stopped in the United States in November 1871 for a visit of several months. Alexis made public appearances and attended galas in New York, Washington, Annapolis, and Philadelphia before heading west. Chicago, Milwaukee, Detroit, and St. Louis welcomed him before Alexis set off to the plains of Nebraska for a buffalo hunt with General George Custer and William (Buffalo Bill) Cody. A number of Sioux chiefs also met with the Russian dignitary. The Grand Duke enjoyed his trip immensely, and returned 5 years later for another visit with his American friends and acquaintances.
Spring 1872: General Sherman Visits Russia
The famous Civil War military leader General William Tecumseh Sherman-accompanied by his aide Colonel Joseph Audenreid and Lieutenant Frederick Grant, son of President Ulysses Grant-stopped in Russia on a European tour during the spring of 1872. Tsar Alexander II granted them an audience and formally thanked the Americans for the warm reception of Alexis during his recent visit to the United States.
1870s-1890s: Emigration of Russian Mennonites to the United States
Mennonite families, who had originally sought religious freedom in Russia in the late 1700s, emigrated to the United States after Alexander II's decision to deny exemptions for universal military service. Beginning in 1873, a number of Mennonite families settled in Minnesota, the Dakotas, and Kansas. By 1875, other religious minorities, including Catholics and ethnic German Lutherans, began leaving the Volga region of Russia to follow the Mennonites to the United States.
January 1877: The Grand Duke's Second Visit to the United States
Grand Duke Alexis, now a captain in the Russian navy, returned to the United States in January 1877, with a Russian squadron, to seek security during armed conflict in the Balkans.
1877-1878: U.S. Assistance during the Russo-Turkish War
Turkish action against Slavs in the Balkans led to armed conflict between Russia and the Ottoman Empire. The United States supplied Russia with naval ships and weapons. U.S. newspaper correspondents provided regular coverage of the war for American readers.
July-August 1878: Former President Grant Visits Russia
The visit of former U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant to Russia in the summer of 1878 marked the first time a former president had visited Russia. One hundred years would pass before another U.S. President traveled to Russia.
1879-1884: The Jeannette Expedition
In 1879, James Gordon Bennett, owner of the New York Herald, sponsored an expedition to the Arctic led by U.S. Navy Lieutenant George W. De Long. De Long's ship, the U.S.S. Jeannette, entered the Arctic Ocean through the Bering Strait, became caught in the ice north of Wrangel Island, and drifted for nearly two years before being crushed and sunk. The expedition discovered three small islands, which were named Henrietta, Jeannette, and Bennett. As the expedition tried to reach the Russian mainland, one boat's crew disappeared in a storm. The other two boats landed on opposite sides of the Lena River delta. De Long and all but two of his party starved and froze to death. Chief Engineer George Melville's party found help but could not save De Long. Russian authorities assisted the survivors and, during the next two years, allowed U.S. Navy personnel to travel through Siberia to recover the bodies of De Long and his companions.
March 13, 1881: Assassination of Tsar Alexander II
Members of a radical socialist movement, the People's Will, who protested the shortcomings of progressive social reform in Russia, plotted against, and finally assassinated, the Russian tsar on March 13, 1881. This event launched a conservative, ultranationalist counter movement fiercely loyal to Alexander III, the new tsar, and ushered in a less reform-minded era of Russian history. The American press and Government expressed public condolences and support for the new tsar, but a number of liberal-minded Americans expressed concern about the increasing autocratic tendencies of the Russian court.
April-May 1881: More Anti-Jewish Pogroms
Anti-Semitism continued to grow in Russia, encouraged by the fact that some of Alexander II's assassins were Jews, rising Slavic nationalism, and an economic depression. A spate of violent pogroms waged against Jews took place, mainly in the spring of 1881, particularly in Warsaw, Kiev, and Elizavetgrad, and continued into 1882. The Russian Government officially banned public debate of the Jewish issue. Those Russian Jews who could fled to other countries; many came to the United States, assisted by philanthropic organizations founded by American Jews.
1886: Translation of Major Works of Russian Literature
A number of Russian works had been translated for American audiences earlier in the 1800s, but in 1886 a number of major works became available to the U.S. market. American translators published Russian books that had immediate and longstanding popularity in the United States. These included Leo Tolstoy's masterpieces Anna Karenina and War and Peace, and Fedor Dostoevsky's Crime and Punishment.
1889: Publication of Tent Life in Siberia
In 1889, American adventurer and author George Kennan published the popular Tent Life in Siberia about his travels in Eastern Siberia with the Western Union telegraph expedition. Kennan's writings included a discussion of the Siberian exile system, a topic that interested Americans in the wake of the increasingly repressive policies of the new tsar.
1890-1910
1891: Publication of Siberia and the Exile System
The publication in 1891 of a compilation of George Kennan's articles describing the harsh Siberian prison system in detail provoked American discussion and popularized criticism of the Russian autocracy. Russian dissidents living in Russia reprinted Kennan's accounts in their underground publications.
1891-1893: Russian Famine
Widespread famine afflicted Russia in 1891-1893, particularly the area around Odessa and the Volga and Tambov regions, after a succession of poor harvests. American humanitarian organizations stepped forward with significant donations. After initial resistance to accepting outside aid, the Russian autocracy organized a special committee led by the heir to the throne, Grand Duke Nicholas, to coordinate relief. The famine also served to encourage further Russian emigration to the United States.
February 1893: Congressional Approval of U.S.-Russian Extradition Treaty
In February 1893, the U.S. Senate ratified a controversial treaty proposed by Russia in 1886. Many Americans opposed this extradition treaty on the grounds that it threatened Russian political exiles who had sought refuge in the United States.
Spring-Summer 1893: Chicago World's Fair, Columbian Exposition
The Russian Government sent a large delegation to the 1893 international world's fair in Chicago. The Russians staged sixteen displays at the exposition. By exhibiting at the fair, the Russian Government aimed to express their official thanks to the American people for famine relief, promote the advances of Russian industry, and learn about technical advances in the West. The Russian press covered extensively the experiences of the Russian delegation in the United States.
1893: Russian Refusal to Issue Visas to American Jews
The Russian Government continued to enforce anti-Semitic laws, and in 1893 adopted a policy to deny American Jews visas for visits to Russia on the basis of their religion. Despite official and unofficial American protest, the Russians maintained this policy for decades.
November 1894: Death of Tsar Alexander III
Nicholas II, son of Alexander III, ascended the throne upon his father's death in November 1894. Many Americans were already familiar with the former Grand Duke, who had traveled to the United States, organized international famine relief in the early 1890s, and participated in negotiations regarding a Trans‑Siberian railroad. Nicholas II appointed to his court a number of well-traveled officials who enjoyed significant contacts with high-level American officials and professionals.
1890s: Construction of Trans-Siberian Railroad
A treaty with the Chinese in 1886 had given the Russians permission to construct the long-discussed Trans-Siberian railroad through Manchuria to link the heart of Russia to the Pacific coast. After much discussion with American financiers and industrialists, the Russian Government decided to move forward independently with construction, the bulk of which was performed in the 1890s. The completion of this railroad connection resonated with Americans invested in the Asian market and the Pacific Northwest, particularly since Russia gained concessions in China in the late 1890s that gave Russia a Pacific port that could serve as a terminus for the railroad.
August 1898: Russian Call for International Peace Conference
In August 1898, while the United States was enmeshed in the Spanish-American War over Pacific and Caribbean territories, Russia called for an international conference, primarily to discuss arms reductions. The conference was ultimately held in The Hague in May 1899, and accomplished little in the way of disarmament. However, it did establish an international tribunal meant to arbitrate disagreements between nations.
1899-1900: The "Open Door Notes"
By the late 1890s and early 1900s, Russia had gained significant influence in Manchuria, including leases to two major ports. In the interest of ensuring that the imperial powers did not carve up China into distinct spheres of foreign commercial control, U.S. Secretary of State John Hay issued a series of diplomatic notes demanding an "open door" in Asia. Hay suggested that Britain, France, Germany, and especially Russia, agree to a general principle of equal rights and access for all powers interested in the China market. After the anti-foreign, Chinese-led Boxer rebellion, Hays issued a second call asking that the foreign powers pledge to respect China's territorial integrity. Britain, France, and Japan agreed and were eventually joined, though more reluctantly, by Russia and Germany.
April 1903: Kishinev Pogrom
Russian and Moldovan citizens of the Bessarabian provincial capital of Kishinev launched a violent attack against the Jewish quarter of the city on Orthodox Easter Sunday, in April 1903, killing dozens of people, injuring hundreds more, and destroying much of the neighborhood. The American Jewish community issued recriminations against the Russian central government, which tried to deny the extent of the violence. U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt finally agreed to cable his personal protest to the Russian Foreign Minister.
1904-1905: Russo-Japanese War
Russia continued to encroach upon Manchuria despite protest from other nations. Japan finally took military action, and on February 8-9, 1904 attacked the Russian Far Eastern fleet at Port Arthur. Although President Roosevelt never declared war on Russia, and later concluded a peace settlement, this Japanese action ultimately reinforced the U.S. interest of containing Russian influence in East Asia.
1905-1906: Russian Revolution of 1905
Growing resentment against autocratic rule from urban industrial workers, Marxist revolutionaries, and other liberal reform-minded Russians spilled onto the streets in a large demonstration in St. Petersburg on January 22, 1905. Known as "Bloody Sunday" for the strong retaliation from the military and police, this uprising sparked a series of similar revolts around the empire throughout 1905, frustrating authorities and interfering with regular business and industry. Conservative groups retaliated, particularly against Jews. Many Russian Jews followed their relatives and friends to the United States.
August 1905: Peace Conference, Portsmouth, New Hampshire
U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt brokered a peace conference between the Russians and Japanese in the summer of 1905. Negotiations resulted in Japan gaining control over parts of southern Manchuria and Russia maintaining its influence in the northern part of the region.
1910-1920
December 1911: Abrogation of the U.S.-Russian Commercial Treaty
On December 13, 1911, the U.S. House of Representatives voted, 301 to 1, to abrogate the 1832 Treaty of Commerce with Russia. Congress objected to the Russian Government's refusal to accept passports issued to Russian-born Jews who had become naturalized American citizens. The Senate approved the House's action on December 19, and the joint resolution was adopted on December 21. On December 17, Ambassador Curtis Guild notified Russian Foreign Minister Sergei D. Sazanov that the United States intended to terminate the treaty as of January 1, 1913. No progress was made toward negotiating a new commercial treaty before World War I and the Russian Revolution.
1914: Outbreak of World War I
Russia sided immediately with Britain, France, and Serbia against Germany and Austria-Hungary when World War I began in 1914. The United States did not join the war until 1917, but did supply the Russians, and the other Allies, with war materiel. Many Americans also contributed individually to war relief for Russia.
February-March 1917: Russian Revolution of 1917
War-time shortages and continuing discontent with a monarchy that continued to resist reform led to a series of large strikes and public protests by early 1917. A massive general strike in Petrograd in February led to insurgency and resulted in many members of the Tsar's military abandoning their units to join the popular uprising. Revolutionaries seized control of Moscow soon after. Tsar Nicholas II abdicated on March 2, leaving Russia in the hands of a moderate Provisional Government that was frequently challenged by the newly formed Petrograd Soviet of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies and other more radical revolutionaries.
March 1917: U.S. Recognition of the Provisional Government
U.S. Ambassador to Russia David R. Francis requested and received permission to recognize the new Russian Government in March 1917, thereby making the United States the first foreign government to formally recognize the Provisional Government. In the hopes of keeping Russia in the war against Germany, the Governments of Great Britain, France, and Italy recognized the Russian Provisional Government shortly thereafter.
April 1917: United States Declares War
President Woodrow Wilson went before Congress on April 2, 1917, to ask for a declaration of war against Germany. By April 6, Congress had voted in favor of a declaration that allowed Wilson to lead the United States into war alongside the Allies, including Russia, against Germany and Austria‑Hungary.
June-August 1917: The Root Mission
The United States sent a delegation to Russia, led by former Secretary of State Elihu Root, to meet with the Provisional Government from June-August, 1917. President Wilson hoped that this delegation would prevent the new Russian government from concluding a separate peace with Germany. The mission was to offer Russia U.S. support and report back to Washington on conditions in Russia.
October 1917: The October Bolshevik Revolution
Encouraged by revolutionary leader Vladimir Ilyich Lenin, who had returned to Russia from exile in Germany, in October 1917, the radical Bolshevik workers' committees of Petrograd voted to stage an insurrection led by industrial workers against the forces of the Provisional Government. The Provisional Government surrendered without a fight, leaving the Bolshevik party of the workers and peasants in power. In the weeks that followed, Bolsheviks gradually forced non-Bolsheviks out of government. The United States and the Allies watched with concern as radical socialists seized control in Russia and threatened to pull Russian troops from the battlefield.
1917-1933: Interruption of Official U.S.-Russian Relations
Following the Bolshevik Revolution, President Woodrow Wilson instructed U.S. diplomats to withhold official and unofficial recognition of the new Bolshevik Government. U.S. Ambassador David Francis remained in Russia until November 1918, but was never replaced. On September 14, 1919, the U.S. Embassy in Russia closed its doors, though the U.S. Consulate in Vladivostok remained open until May 1922. The United States did not re‑establish diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union until 1933.
January 1918: Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points
In response to his discovery that the European powers had secret treaties agreeing to certain territorial readjustments in the postwar period and in an attempt to keep the Russians in the war, President Woodrow Wilson outlined his fourteen major war aims before Congress on January 8, 1918. In this address, Wilson called for the restoration of Russian territory and Russian self-determination.
March 1918: Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
The Bolsheviks signed a peace treaty with Germany on March 3, 1918, formally pulling Russia out of World War I and ceding Poland, Lithuania, the Ukraine, the Baltic provinces, Finland, and other neighboring provinces to the Germans.
August 1918: American Forces Land in Northern Russia
As civil war broke out in Russia between the anti-Bolshevik "Whites" and the Bolshevik "Reds," British, French, American, and Japanese troops landed in the northern ports of Murmansk, Archangel, and Vladivostock in August 1918. The Allied objective was to prevent northern ports from falling into German hands, but the intervention also aimed to weaken the Bolshevik regime. Although the head of the British War Office, Winston Churchill, encouraged a more serious military intervention into Russia, the Allies never launched a full-scale offensive against the Bolsheviks. The last American troops pulled out of Siberia in April 1920, but the United States maintained a policy of non-recognition of the Bolshevik regime.
1920-1945
March 1921: New Economic Policy
In March 1921, Russian leader Lenin announced the New Economic Policy (NEP) that permitted some liberal policies, such as private land ownership and trade, but preserved state ownership of heavy industry. Lenin also intended to attract foreign investment necessary to build Russian infrastructure. Under NEP, a number of private American businesses were able to invest in the Russian economy, particularly in development and mining projects.
1921-1923: Great Famine
Widespread famine in Russia, exacerbated by war and political upheaval, took the lives of over seven million people from 1921-1923. Despite the absence of official relations between the United States and Russia, the U.S. Government extended considerable relief to the Russian people.
1922: Establishment of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
The Bolsheviks ultimately triumphed over the "Whites" and began to centralize power in the hands of the more powerful Bolsheviks in Moscow. By 1922, Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, and Transcaucasia (Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan) joined to form the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). Uzbekistan, Turkestan, Tadzhik, Kazakhstan, and Kirghiz joined the Union in later years.
1924-1928: Death of Lenin and Rise of Stalin
Following Lenin's death in January 1924, the General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party, Joseph Stalin, moved to consolidate political power. Stalin supported a policy of building "socialism in one country" rather than achieving international communism that encompassed a global working class. Stalin succeeded in driving out Lenin's supporters, and hardened the communist line within the Soviet Union by moving to accelerate industrialization and collectivizing agricultural production and land holdings. This race to industrialize drove a large number of Soviet orders for heavy machinery from the United States.
November 17, 1933: U.S. Recognition of the Soviet Union
President Franklin D. Roosevelt, realizing that non-recognition had not stopped communism from taking hold in the Soviet Union, and that the United States faced international economic and diplomatic challenges that required Soviet cooperation, invited Soviet Foreign Minister Maxim Litvinov to Washington in November 1933 for negotiations. On November 17, 1933, the United States and the Soviet Union signed an official agreement establishing formal diplomatic relations.
1934-1938: Stalin's Purges and Show Trials
Stalin made further moves to consolidate his power by arresting numerous people, often on unfounded charges. Stalin also staged many sensational, well-publicized trials to show the price of even minor disloyalty. Stalin's actions resulted in the banishment of many talented Soviet citizens to Siberian prison camps, and the execution of hundreds of thousands more. American diplomats expressed horror at this turn of events, but the United States maintained the recently renewed diplomatic relationship with Stalin's government.
August 1939: Moltov-Ribbentrop Pact
The Soviet Union and Nazi Germany signed this non-aggression pact on August 23, 1939, agreeing not to declare war on each other. Following the German invasion of Northern Europe and France in 1940, President Roosevelt encouraged the Department of State to engage in negotiations with the Soviets to improve relations.
June 22, 1941: German Invasion of Soviet Union
On June 22, 1941, the German military launched "Operation Barbarossa"-a full-scale invasion of the Soviet Union that negated the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. In response, the United States offered Lend-Lease assistance to the Soviet Union.
1941-1945: Lend-Lease Aid to the Soviet Union
Two days after Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union, President Roosevelt promised assistance and unfroze Soviet assets. W. Averell Harriman and British Minister for Supply Lord Beaverbrook led a special mission to Moscow in September 1941. On October 1, delegates to the Moscow Conference signed a confidential protocol in which the United States and Britain agreed to supply the Soviet Union with 1.5 million tons of military supplies by June 30, 1942. On November 7, 1941, President Roosevelt declared the Soviet Union to be eligible for Lend-Lease aid. Between June 22, 1941 and September 20, 1945, over 17 million tons of Lend-Lease cargo was shipped to the Soviet Union. Three principal routes were involved. Nearly half (47.1%) was sent from West Coast ports to Vladivostok. After Pearl Harbor, only Soviet ships could use this route. Nearly half the remainder (23.8%) went by way of the Persian Gulf and through Iran. The rest went from Iceland and Scotland to the North Russian ports of Murmansk and Archangelsk. The United States also established air bases in Alaska from which military aircraft could be flown to Siberia. Lend-Lease supplies to the Soviet Union included 14,795 aircraft, 7,537 tanks, 375,883 trucks, 345,735 tons of explosives, 2,981 locomotives and 11,155 railroad cars, over a million miles of field telephone cable, $1.312 million worth of food, 2,670,000 tons of gasoline, and 15 million pairs of boots. Although the Soviet Government would downplay the importance of Lend-Lease aid during the Cold War, it presented awards and decorations to U.S. Army, Navy, and Merchant Marine personnel in 1944 and to nearly 200 Navy and Coast Guard personnel in 1945.
December 1941: The United States Enters World War II
After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, President Roosevelt declared war on Japan. On December 11, German leader Adolph Hitler honored his treaty agreements with Japan and declared war on the United States. The United States and the Soviet Union thereby became allies in the war.
November 1943: Tehran Conference
President Roosevelt met with General Secretary Stalin and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill in Tehran in November 1943 to discuss military strategy and to plan for the postwar period. Churchill and Roosevelt promised Stalin that they would open a second front against the Germans and execute a cross-channel invasion of enemy-occupied France. Stalin committed the Soviet Union to entering the war against Japan after Germany's surrender. The United States agreed to not challenge Eastern European boundaries.
June -September 1944: "Operation Frantic"
On June 2, 1944, bombers from the U.S. Fifteenth Air Force landed at airfields near Poltava in the Soviet Union after attacking targets in German-occupied Hungary. Seven "shuttle bombing" missions from England and Italy to Soviet airfields took place between June 2 and September 18, and were a high point in U.S.-Soviet military cooperation. The missions were abandoned because of operational difficulties (notably Soviet failure to defend the bases against a German air attack) and political differences.
February 1945: Yalta Conference
Roosevelt, Stalin, and Churchill met again at Yalta in the Crimea in February, 1945. There, they discussed the future of Poland and Eastern Europe as well as the postwar division of Germany. In a Declaration on Liberated Europe, the Allies pledged to assist the liberated peoples to establish order and create representative governments through free elections. In a secret agreement, the Soviet Union promised to enter the Pacific war two to three months after Germany's surrender, in return for certain Far Eastern concessions.
May 8, 1945: German Surrender
Following the German surrender, on May 8, 1945 the Allied powers divided Germany and Austria into U.S., Soviet, British, and French zones of occupation, as agreed at Yalta.
July-August 1945: Meeting at Potsdam
President Harry S Truman, Stalin, and Churchill met in Potsdam in July-August 1945 to discuss military details of Soviet entry into the war with Japan, the occupation of Germany, and the controversial question of German reparations. The three powers created a Council of Foreign Ministers to work on peace treaties with the European Axis powers. During the conference, Truman learned of the successful U.S. test of the atomic bomb, and, hoping to improve the U.S. negotiating position, informed Stalin in general terms.
August 14, 1945: Japanese Surrender
Japan capitulated a few days after the United States dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima (August 6) and Nagasaki (August 9) and formally surrendered on September 2, 1945. Stalin pushed for the participation of Soviet troops in the postwar occupation of Japan, but Truman rejected his request.
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http://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/pubs/fs/85895.htm | United States Relations with Russia: The Cold War | United States Relations with Russia: The Cold War
United States Relations with Russia: The Cold War | United States Relations with Russia: The Cold War
Chronology
Office of the Historian
Washington, DC
United States Relations with Russia: The Cold War
1945-1949
1945-1946: Creation of Eastern European People's Republics
Between November 1945 and December 1946, a number of the coalition governments established in the Eastern European countries occupied by Soviet troops during the war transformed into Communist "People's Republics" with strong ties to the Soviet Union. These included Yugoslavia (November 1945); Albania (January 1946); and Bulgaria (December 1946). The United States and Britain considered this an abrogation of agreements made at the Yalta Conference.
February 1946: George Kennan's Long Telegram and the Policy of Containment
On February 22, 1946, George F. Kennan, the Charg� d'Affaires at the Moscow Embassy, sent a long telegram to the Department of State detailing his concerns about Soviet expansionism. Kennan argued that the United States would never be able to cooperate successfully with the Soviets, because they saw the West as an enemy and would engage in a protracted battle to limit Western power and increase Soviet domination. Kennan argued that the United States should lead the West in "containing" the Soviets by exerting counterforce at various geographical and political points of conflict. Kennan published a public version of this argument in the July 1947 issue of the journal Foreign Affairs. Kennan's articulations of the policy of containment had a major influence on American foreign policy toward the Soviet Union.
March 1946: Churchill's Iron Curtain Speech
During a speech at Fulton, Missouri, on March 5, 1946, visiting British Prime Minister Winston Churchill proclaimed that Europe was divided by an "Iron Curtain" as the nations of Eastern Europe fell increasingly under Soviet control. Yugoslavia, Albania, Bulgaria, Poland, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia all fell under Communist control by early 1948.
Spring 1946: Soviet Troops in Iran
Responding to Iranian requests to the United Nations, on March 5, 1946, the United States sent a note to Moscow protesting the retention of Soviet troops in Iran, where Stalin wanted to establish Soviet influence. On April 3, the Soviet Union announced that its troops would leave by May 6.
March 1947: Truman Doctrine
The Soviets aimed also to establish influence over Turkey and Greece in an effort to seek access to the Mediterranean. President Truman delivered a speech before Congress on March 12, 1947, asking for $400 million to provide assistance for Greece and Turkey in the hopes of bolstering pro-Western governments there. In this speech, he enunciated the Truman Doctrine that would serve to justify the U.S. Cold War policy of containment. This doctrine described the U.S. policy of supporting free peoples who resisted subjugation from armed minorities or outside pressures.
June 1947: U.S. Efforts to Control Atomic Energy
In June 1947, the United States submitted proposals, know as the Baruch Plan, for the creation of an International Atomic Energy Development Authority to control all phases of the development and use of atomic energy. The United States offered to destroy its atomic weapons after international control and inspection became effective. The Soviet Union rejected the proposal.
June 5, 1947: Marshall's Offer of Economic Assistance
In a speech given at Harvard University on June 5, 1947, Secretary of State George C. Marshall offered U.S. assistance for the postwar economic rehabilitation of all European nations, including those that had adopted Communist governments. The Soviet Union denounced the Marshall Plan, saying it would infringe upon European sovereignty. Western European nations accepted Marshall's offer, while the Eastern European states followed Moscow's lead.
1948-1949: Berlin Airlift
In the summer of 1948, the Soviet Union cut off access to the Western sectors of Berlin, situated in the Soviet occupation zone of Germany. The Western powers organized a massive airlift to supply West Berlin, and organized a counter-blockade of the Soviet zone. On May 12, 1949, the Soviets lifted their blockade.
April 1949: North Atlantic Treaty Organization
On April 14, 1949, twelve Western nations signed the North Atlantic Treaty providing for mutual support in the event of a military attack on any of the parties to the treaty and established the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). The original members of NATO were Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
September-October 1949: Creation of the two Germanys
Recognizing that the Soviets would not honor agreements to reunite the German zones of occupation, the Western powers moved in the fall of 1949 to establish the Federal Republic of Germany out of the Western zones of occupation. The Soviets countered by supporting the creation of the German Democratic Republic in their zone. Berlin remained divided.
September 1949: Soviet Atomic Bomb
On September 22, 1949, President Truman announced that the Soviet Union had detonated its first atomic bomb.
1950-1959
February 1950: Sino-Soviet Treaty
Despite U.S. efforts, mainland China became a Communist People's Republic. The Soviets and the Chinese signed a Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship on February 14, 1950.
April 1950: NSC-68
In April 1950, Truman signed National Security Council Paper 68 (NSC-68) outlining U.S. justifications for a rapid and massive U.S. military build-up. NSC-68 cited Soviet consolidation of power in Eastern Europe, Soviet expansionist tendencies, and the need for the West to contain the Soviet Union as the justifications for the United States to pursue a significant buildup of its conventional military and nuclear resources.
1950-1953: Korean War
Following World War II, the United States administered the southern occupation zone in Korea, while the Soviets administered the northern zone. Plans to unify the two zones never materialized. On June 25, 1950, North Korean forces crossed the 38th parallel into South Korea. U.S.-led United Nations forces responded, and battled the North Korean and Communist Chinese armies. The Soviet Union supplied North Korea and China. On July 27, 1953, the warring parties concluded an armistice that restored the 38th parallel, but failed to unite North and South Korea.
November 1952: U.S. Hydrogen Bomb
On November 1, 1952, the United States announced it had successfully detonated a hydrogen bomb.
March 1953: Stalin's Death
The Soviet Union's hard-line leader, Joseph Stalin, died on March 5, 1953, and the Soviet Union entered a period of collective leadership under which a handful of leaders from within the Presidium of the Communist Party shared leadership responsibilities. First Secretary of the Communist Party, Nikita Khrushchev, ultimately consolidated power and became the de facto leader of the Soviet Union.
August 1953: Soviet Hydrogen Bomb
On August 8, 1953, the Soviet Union announced it had hydrogen bomb capabilities.
August 1954: Atomic Energy Act
President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed the Atomic Energy Act in August 1954 to authorize the international exchange of information on the peaceful uses of atomic energy, and endorsed the development of commercial nuclear power.
May 1955: Creation of the Warsaw Pact
In response to NATO actions in the West, including the rearming of West Germany and the expansion of the treaty organization, on May 1, 1955, the Soviet Union concluded a military defensive alliance known as the Warsaw Pact with Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Romania.
May 1955: Austrian State Treaty
The United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and France signed the Austrian State Treaty on May 15, 1955. This officially ended the four-power occupation of Austria and enabled the Austrians, who had pledged to remain neutral, to receive diplomatic recognition as an independent nation.
July 1955: Big Four Geneva Summit
Eisenhower met with Soviet Premier Nicolai Bulganin, British Prime Minister Anthony Eden, and French Premier Edgar Faure at a summit in Geneva in July 1955. Eisenhower offered an "Open Skies" proposal, calling for a U.S.-Soviet exchange of military blueprints and mutual aerial inspection of one another's military installations. The participants also discussed disarmament, German reunification through free elections, European security, and the need for East-West cultural and scientific exchange.
February 1956: Twentieth Congress of Soviet Communist Party
At the Twentieth Party Congress of the Soviet Communist Party in February 1956, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev publicly denounced aspects of Stalin's regime, including Stalin's harsh political purges and his "cult of personality." Khrushchev also reversed Stalinist policy by urging "the peaceful coexistence between states with differing political and social systems." This marked the beginning of a brief loosening of the most stringent forms of censorship in the Soviet Union.
June 1956: Polish Uprising
Riots against the Communist regime in Poland broke out at Poznan in June 1956, after workers demonstrated for better social and economic conditions. The revolt led the Polish Communist leadership to allow some reforms.
Autumn 1956: Suez Crisis
After the United States reneged on a deal to finance the building of the Aswan Dam, Egypt seized and nationalized the Suez Canal, through which the West received its oil supplies. This led to Israeli, British, and French military action against an Egyptian military supplied by the Soviets in the fall of 1956. While Western Europe focused on the Middle East, the Soviets moved to squash anti-communist rebellions in Poland and Hungary. Eisenhower, fearing that the Soviets would provide large-scale assistance to Egypt, convinced Britain, France, and Israel to retreat.
October-November 1956: Hungarian Uprising
Anti-Soviet popular uprisings began in Budapest and spread throughout Hungary in the autumn of 1956. On November 2, Hungarian Premier Imre Nagy, who had already promised the Hungarians free elections, denounced the Warsaw Pact and asked for United Nations support. On November 4, Soviet forces moved into Hungary and suppressed the revolt. The United States sponsored UN resolutions condemning the Soviet invasion, and called for the immediate withdrawal of Soviet troops. The U.S. Government also took measures to assist the many refugees who fled Hungary following the invasion.
1957-1958: Sputnik and the Space Race
On October 5, 1957, the Soviets beat the United States into space by successfully launching the first man-made earth satellite, Sputnik I, into orbit. A month later, the Soviets sent up another satellite, this time carrying a dog. The United States did not launch its first satellite, Explorer I, until January 31, 1958. U.S. politicians warned of the dangers of Soviet superiority in technology and science, and speculated that the Soviets might possess superior missile stockpiles.
1958: Suspension of Nuclear Tests
Soviet Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko announced the suspension of Soviet nuclear weapons tests on March 31, 1958. On October 25, the United States and Great Britain agreed to suspend nuclear weapons testing for one year. Three-power talks on a more permanent ban of nuclear testing began at Geneva on October 31.
November 1958: Khrushchev's Berlin Demands
Motivated by fears that the West planned to arm West Germany with nuclear weapons, in November 1958, Khrushchev demanded the termination of the four-power occupation of Berlin. The Soviets also threatened to conclude a separate peace treaty with East Germany, giving Soviets control over access to Berlin, unless negotiations began within 6 months.
September 1959: Khrushchev Visits the United States
Following brief meetings with Eisenhower upon his arrival in Washington on September 15, 1959, Khrushchev embarked on a 10-day trip to New York, Los Angeles, San Francisco, farm communities in Iowa, and Pittsburgh, arranged to acquaint him with the American way of life. Eisenhower and Khrushchev then engaged in substantive talks for 2 days at Camp David. Khrushchev also visited Eisenhower's farm at Gettysburg. Just before he left, Khrushchev addressed the American people on national television. This was first visit to the United States of a Soviet leader since the establishment of U.S.-Soviet relations in 1933.
September 1959: Khrushchev-Eisenhower Meeting at Camp David
Khrushchev met with President Eisenhower at Camp David, on September 26-27, 1959. The two leaders agreed to expand exchanges and to remove the Soviet deadline for a Berlin settlement, but no progress was made on disarmament or the reunification of Germany. They agreed to meet again at a four-power summit in Paris in May 1960.
December 1959: Antarctic Treaty
On December 1, the United States, the Soviet Union, and ten other countries signed a treaty to internationalize and demilitarize the Antarctic continent.
1960-1969
May 1960: The U-2 Incident
On May 1, 1960, the Soviets shot down an American U-2 reconnaissance jet flying over Soviet territory. Since June 1956, Eisenhower had approved secret overflights of Soviet territory, and gained valuable proof that the Soviets had not gained missile superiority over the Americans. Not knowing that the Soviets had captured the pilot and gotten a confession confirming the spy mission, Eisenhower claimed the aircraft was merely a weather plane. Khrushchev presented the pilot as proof that the American President had lied.
May 1960: Paris Summit
Eisenhower, Khrushchev, British Prime Minister Harold MacMillan, and French President Charles de Gaulle met from May 16-17, 1960, in Paris. However, the meetings collapsed when Khrushchev walked out after Eisenhower refused to apologize for the U-2 incident.
May 1960: United States Unveils "Great Seal Bug" at the United Nations
On May 26, 1960, U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. unveiled the Great Seal Bug before the UN Security Council to counter Soviet denunciations of American U-2 espionage. The Soviets had presented a replica of the Great Seal of the United States as a gift to Ambassador Averell Harriman in 1946. The gift hung in the U.S. Embassy for many years, until in 1952, during George F. Kennan's ambassadorship, U.S. security personnel discovered the listening device embedded inside the Great Seal. Lodge's unveiling of this Great Seal before the Security Council in 1960 provided proof that the Soviets also spied on the Americans, and undercut a Soviet resolution before the Security Council denouncing the United States for its U-2 espionage missions.
June 1961: Vienna Meeting
President John F. Kennedy and Khrushchev met in Vienna in June 1961, primarily to discuss the status of Berlin. Other topics of discussion included the conflict in Laos and disarmament. The leaders were unable to resolve the most vexing questions pertaining to Berlin, but agreed that further discussions on Laos should be continued at the Foreign Minister level.
Summer 1961: Berlin Crisis
In July 1961, the Soviets threatened to take decisive action on Berlin. Kennedy warned that the United States would not tolerate any changes in Berlin's status. He activated 150,000 reservists, and advised the American people of the danger of an attack, possibly even a nuclear attack. Both leaders announced an increase in their defense expenditures. East Germans fled in large numbers to West Germany. On August 13, Khrushchev sealed off East Berlin from the West by erecting the Berlin Wall on Soviet-controlled territory.
October 18-29, 1962: Cuban Missile Crisis
After receiving intelligence that the Soviet Union was placing medium-range ballistic nuclear missiles in Cuba, on October 14, 1962, President Kennedy announced a naval quarantine of Cuba to block further Soviet missile deliveries, and demanded the removal or dismantling of the missiles already in Cuba. On October 28, Khrushchev agreed to stop work on the Cuban missile sites and to remove the missiles that were already in place. In return, the United States pledged not to follow through on its threat to invade Cuba.
June 1963: Establishment of the "Hotline"
The United States and the Soviet Union signed a memorandum of understanding in Geneva in June 1963 to establish a direct communications link, or "hotline," between the two governments for use in a crisis.
August 1963: Limited Test Ban Treaty
In August 1963, the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom signed the Limited Test Ban Treaty outlawing nuclear tests in the atmosphere, in outer space, and underwater.
October 1964: Fall of Khrushchev
Communist Party bureaucrats forced Khrushchev from power on October 14, 1964. Alexei Kosygin became Premier, and Leonid Brezhnev became First Secretary of the Communist Party.
March 1965: U.S. Troops to Vietnam
In March 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson committed the first U.S. combat ground troops to Vietnam to aid the South Vietnamese Government in its war against Soviet-assisted North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces.
January 1967: Treaty on Peaceful Uses of Outer Space
The United States and the Soviet Union signed the Treaty on Peaceful Uses of Outer Space on January 27, 1967. This agreement banned weapons of mass destruction from orbiting satellites, celestial bodies, or outer space.
June 1967: Johnson and Kosygin Meeting
Following Kosygin's visit to the United Nations, where he supported the Arab nations' proposals for ending the Middle East conflict in the aftermath of the June 1967 Arab-Israeli war, Johnson met with him in Glassboro, New Jersey that same month. The leaders discussed the Middle East, disarmament, and the Vietnam War. During the conference, the Soviet Union served as intermediary in conveying North Vietnamese willingness to negotiate in exchange for a halt to the U.S. bombing.
July 1968: Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty
On July 1, 1968, sixty-two nations, including the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom, signed the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty, designed to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and encourage the peaceful uses of atomic energy.
August 1968: Soviet Invasion of Czechoslovakia
Soviet, Polish, East German, Bulgarian, and Hungarian troops invaded Czechoslovakia on August 20, 1968, and deposed the reformist government of Alexander Dubcek, who had begun a program of economic and political liberalization (the "Prague spring"). The United States co-sponsored a UN Security Council resolution condemning the invasion and calling for the prompt withdrawal of Warsaw Pact forces; it also suspended a number of U.S.-Soviet exchange agreements and delayed ratification of the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty. Brezhnev later justified the invasion with the assertion, known as the Brezhnev Doctrine, that when internal or external forces hostile to socialism sought to restore the capitalist order in any socialist state, all other socialist states had the right to intervene.
November 1969: Strategic Arms Limitation Talks
The United States and the Soviet Union held preliminary Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) in Helsinki on November 17, 1969. Formal SALT negotiations began in Vienna on April 16, 1970.
September-October 1969: Soviet Submarine Base in Cuba
In the fall of 1969, the United States protested the arrival of a Soviet flotilla and the construction of a Soviet submarine base at Cayo Alcatraz in the Bay of Cienfuegos, Cuba. After several diplomatic exchanges, Soviet Ambassador Anatoliy Dobrynin reaffirmed the 1962 understanding that Soviet offensive weapons would not be stationed in Cuba.
1970-1979
February 1971: Nuclear Weapons Ban on Seabed
Sixty-three nations signed a treaty banning emplacement of nuclear weapons on the seabed in February 1971. The United States and the Soviet Union had presented a draft of the treaty to the UN Committee on Disarmament in Geneva on October 7, 1969.
September 1971: Quadripartite Agreement on Berlin
The United States, the Soviet Union, France, and Great Britain signed the Quadripartite Agreement on Berlin on September 3, 1971. They agreed to improvements in the Berlin situation, including unhindered movement of people and goods between the Western Sectors of Berlin and the Federal Republic of Germany.
September 1971: Agreement to Reduce Risk of Nuclear War
The United States and the Soviet Union signed an Agreement on Measures to Reduce the Risk of Outbreak of Nuclear War on September 30, 1971. It provided for nuclear safeguards, immediate notification of an unexplained nuclear detonation, and advance notice of missile launches. They also agreed to improve the hotline.
May 1972: Moscow Summit
President Richard M. Nixon, the first U.S. President to travel to Moscow, met with Brezhnev on May 22-30, 1972. The leaders signed the Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty and the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT I) Interim Agreement, both of which had been in negotiation in Helsinki and Vienna for many months. Nixon and Brezhnev also concluded agreements on public health; environmental cooperation; incidents at sea; exchanges in science, technology, education and culture; and a Declaration of Basic Principles of Mutual Relations.
June 1973: Brezhnev-Nixon Meeting in the United States
Brezhnev's visit to the United States resulted in 47 hours of meetings with Nixon in Washington, Camp David, and San Clemente from June 18-24, 1973. The two leaders signed nine accords, including an Agreement on the Prevention of Nuclear War and an Agreement on Basic Principles of Negotiations on the Further Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms. Other agreements signed at the summit dealt with scientific cooperation, agriculture, trade, and other bilateral issues. The joint communiqu� expressed "deep satisfaction" with the conclusion of the Paris Agreement on Vietnam, which had been signed the preceding January.
October 1973: Force Reduction Meeting in Vienna
The United States, the Soviet Union, and other NATO and Warsaw Pact nations met in Vienna in October 1973 to begin Mutual and Balanced Force Reduction (MBFR) negotiations to reduce conventional forces in Europe to equal and lower levels.
June-July 1974: Moscow Summit
The Watergate scandal and the President Nixon's imminent resignation overshadowed the Moscow Summit meeting in June and July, 1974, and limited expectations on both sides. Nixon and Brezhnev discussed arms control and several international and bilateral issues. They signed a protocol limiting each side to one ABM site apiece, instead of the two allowed in the 1972 ABM Treaty, and a Threshold Test Ban Treaty that limited the size of underground nuclear weapons tests. The United States never ratified the Test Ban Treaty because of concerns about its verifiability. The governments signed several other instruments addressing scientific cooperation, cultural exchanges, and other bilateral matters. Nixon and Brezhnev also agreed to explore the possibility of a 10-year time period for a SALT treaty, which opened the way for the Vladivostok accord a few months later. The communiqu� reaffirmed an agreement to hold regular meetings.
November 1974: Vladivostok Meeting
Discussions between President Gerald R. Ford and Brezhnev on November 23 and 24, 1974, focused on strategic arms limitations as well as on a number of bilateral and international issues, including the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE) and the Middle East. Ford and Brezhnev issued a joint statement on strategic offensive arms (the Vladivostok Agreement) and a joint communiqu� calling for continuing efforts at arms limitation and the development of economic cooperation. The Vladivostok accord provided some of the basic elements of the SALT II Treaty.
December 1974: Jackson-Vanik Amendment
The U.S. Congress passed the Jackson‑Vanik Amendment to the Trade Reform Act, in December 1974. This made granting the Soviet Union non-discriminatory trade status contingent upon liberalized emigration.
July 1975: Apollo-Soyuz Mission
The United States and the Soviet Union conducted the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, a joint space effort culminating with a linking of the two crafts, in July 1975.
July-August 1975: Helsinki CSCE Meetings
In July and August 1975, during two sessions in Helsinki, immediately prior to and following the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe, Ford and Brezhnev attempted unsuccessfully to reach further agreement on strategic arms limitation. Differences between the two governments over cruise missiles and the Soviet Backfire bomber frustrated Ford's desires to strengthen cooperation between the two superpowers and to conclude a SALT II agreement. Ford and Brezhnev held discussions on other issues, including the Arab-Israeli conflict and the relationship between Soviet emigration policy and most-favored-nation trading status.
June 1979: SALT II Agreements
President Jimmy Carter and Brezhnev signed the SALT II Treaty at a summit in Vienna in June 1979. Carter and Brezhnev also discussed other arms control questions, including the continuation of the SALT process. They had wide‑ranging exchanges on human rights and trade, the Middle East, Afghanistan, Africa, China, and other regional issues. The two leaders also issued a joint statement of principles and basic guidelines for subsequent negotiations on the limitation of strategic arms. The United States never ratified the SALT II Treaty.
June 1979: New Moscow Embassy
After several years of negotiations, the United States and the Soviet Union contracted for a new U.S. Embassy complex in Moscow in June 1979.
December 1979: NATO Action Against Soviet SS-20 Deployments
On December 20, 1979, NATO unanimously adopted a dual track strategy to counter Soviet SS-20 missile deployments, which became operational in 1977. The strategy called for arms negotiations with the Soviet Union to restore the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) balance at the lowest possible level, and the modernization of NATO INF forces through the deployment of ground-launched cruise missiles and Pershing IIs beginning in December 1983.
December 1979: Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan
The Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan on December 26, 1979. The United States immediately condemned the action, and President Carter asked the Senate to delay consideration of SALT II. Washington's responses to the invasion included deferral of most cultural and economic exchanges, cancellation of export licenses for high technology items, restriction of Soviet fishing rights in U.S. waters, suspension of grain exports, and a boycott of the 1980 Moscow Olympics.
1980-1985
May 1980: Gromyko-Muskie Meeting Geneva
After 8 months of no high level U.S.-Soviet contact, Secretary of State Edmund Muskie and Soviet Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko met briefly in Geneva in May 1980.
July-August 1980: Olympic Boycott
The United States and 63 other nations boycotted the XXII Olympics, which were held in Moscow in the summer of 1980.
September 1980: Talks on Medium Range Missiles
Muskie and Gromyko met in New York on September 25, 1980. They agreed to begin preliminary talks on medium range missiles, and affirmed their neutrality in the Iran-Iraq War.
April 1981: Lifting of Embargo
In April 1981, President Ronald Reagan announced the lifting of the embargo on exports of grain to the Soviet Union imposed on February 7, 1980.
November 1981: Strategic Arms Reduction Proposal
On November 18, 1981, President Reagan proposed renewed arms control negotiations focusing on major reductions in all types of arms, to be called Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START). He called for bilateral talks between the United States and the Soviet Union on Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces. Reagan announced his Zero-Zero proposal under which the United States and NATO would cancel deployment of Pershing II and ground-launched cruise missiles in Western Europe if the Soviets would dismantle its SS-20, SS-4, and SS-5 missiles.
November 1981: Intermediate Range Nuclear Force Negotiations
Intermediate Range Nuclear Force (INF) negotiations between the United States and the Soviet Union began in Geneva on November 30, 1981. The United States formally presented its Zero-Zero proposal.
December 1981: Martial Law in Poland
Authorities declared martial law in Poland on December 13, 1981. On December 29, the United States issued sanctions against the Polish Government and the Soviet Union for the imposition of martial law. When Secretary of State Alexander Haig met Soviet Foreign Minister Gromyko in Geneva the following month, Gromyko refused to discuss the Polish situation.
February-March 1982: Arms Reductions Refused by United States
In early 1982, Brezhnev proposed a two-thirds cut in U.S. and Soviet medium-range nuclear weapons arsenals in Europe by 1990. The United States officially rejected the plan on February 10. On March 16, Brezhnev announced that the Soviet Union was suspending deployment of new nuclear weapons in Russia, and threatened retaliation if the United States installed new medium-range missiles in Western Europe.
October 1982: Grain Embargo Lifted
At bilateral talks in Vienna in October 1982, the United States announced that it would sell 23 metric tons of grain to the Soviet Union.
November 1982: Brezhnev's Funeral
Brezhnev died on November 10, 1982. Vice President George H.W. Bush and Secretary of State George Shultz led a U.S. delegation to Moscow for Brezhnev's funeral on November 15, and met briefly with new Soviet leader Yuri Andropov.
January 1983: Reagan's Open Letter to Europe
While in Berlin in January, 1983, Vice President Bush read an "open letter" to Europe from President Reagan, in which Reagan proposed to Andropov "that he and I meet wherever and whenever he wants in order to sign an agreement banning U.S. and Soviet intermediate-range land-based nuclear missile weapons from the face of the earth."
March 1983: Announcement of Strategic Defense Initiative
In a national address on March 23, 1983, President Reagan announced his intention to commit the United States to a research program called the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) to study the feasibility of defensive measures against nuclear missiles. Its stated purpose was to maintain the peace rather than rely solely on the threat of retaliation and the fear of mutual destruction.
March 1983: INF Talks
On March 29, 1983, the United States proposed an Interim Agreement whereby NATO would reduce its planned deployment of longer-range INF (LRINF) missiles to a level between zero and 572, if the Soviets cut their worldwide deployment of LRINF missiles to an equal level. The U.S. delegation presented a draft treaty embodying this proposal on May 19.
April 1983: Lifting of Grain Negotiations Ban
On April 22, 1983, President Reagan ended the ban on negotiations regarding Soviet long-term purchases of U.S. grain.
September 1983: Downing of Korean Airlines Flight 007
The Soviet Union shot down a commercial airliner, Korean Airlines Flight 007, on September 1, 1983, after it strayed into Soviet airspace. This unfortunate incident was part of discussions between U.S. Secretary of State George Shultz and Soviet Foreign Minister Gromyko at their meetings at the Madrid Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe seven days later.
September 1983: INF Talks
At the INF talks in September 1983, the United States submitted three new elements to its proposed interim agreement, in which it (1) would not offset all Soviet global LRINF deployments with U.S. deployments in Europe (it would retain the right, however, to deploy elsewhere to reach an equal global ceiling); (2) would be prepared to apportion the reductions of Pershing II and ground-launched cruise missiles in an appropriate manner; and (3) would consider proposals involving land-based aircraft.
October 1983: START Talks
In October 1983, President Reagan announced that at the START negotiations, the United States would propose a mutual guaranteed build-down of strategic weapons, whereby older weapons would be reduced as newer ones were deployed.
November 1983: Breakdown of INF Talks
On November 15, 1983, the United States proposed that the two sides agree to an equal global ceiling of 420 LRINF warheads, although it continued to express a preference for the elimination of such missiles. However, the Soviets left the talks on November 23, in response to the initiation of U.S. LRINF deployments in Western Europe; the United States offered to resume the talks whenever the Soviets wished to return.
December 1983: Breakdown of START Negotiations
The Soviet Union declined to agree to a resumption date for the START negotiations following the completion of the fifth round of talks in December 1983.
February 1984: Death of Soviet Leader
General Secretary Andropov died on February 9, 1984. Politburo member Konstantin Chernenko succeeded him.
March 1984: U.S.S. Kitty Hawk Incident
The U.S. aircraft carrier Kitty Hawk collided with a Soviet nuclear powered submarine in the Sea of Japan on March 21, 1984, causing minor damage. The United States charged that the submarine violated the 1972 U.S.-Soviet agreement on naval maneuvers.
May 1984: Soviet Olympic Boycott
In May the Soviet Union announced that it would not participate in the 1984 summer Olympic Games in Los Angeles, alleging poor U.S. security arrangements.
July 1984: Improvements to the Hotline
The United States and the Soviet Union initialed a diplomatic note in Washington on July 17, 1984, agreeing to make technical improvements to the 21-year-old Direct Communications Link, or "hotline," between Washington and Moscow.
September 1984: Proposal for Future Arms Control Talks
At the United Nations, Reagan proposed a broad "umbrella" framework for talks between the United States and the Soviet Union on arms control issues. This framework would cover: a ban on chemical weapons, real force reductions at the Mutual and Balanced Force Reduction (MBFR) talks, measures to enhance mutual confidence at the Conference on Confidence and Security-Building Measures and Disarmament in Europe (CDE), improvements in verification, close cooperation to strengthen international institutions and practices for nonproliferation of nuclear weapons, and a substantial reduction in U.S. and Soviet nuclear arsenals. On September 28, President Reagan and Foreign Minister Gromyko met at the White House to discuss arms control issues.
January 1985: Geneva Meeting
Secretary of State Shultz and Soviet Foreign Minister Gromyko met in Geneva in January 1985 to set an agenda for comprehensive arms control negotiations. In a joint U.S.-Soviet statement, they announced an agreement to hold new negotiations to consider strategic nuclear arms, INF, and space issues.
March 1985: Death of Chernenko
Following the death of General Secretary Konstantin Chernenko on March 10, 1985, Politburo member Mikhail Gorbachev became the new General Secretary of the Soviet Union. Andrei Gromyko became President.
March 1985: Arms Negotiations Resumed
In Geneva, the United States and the Soviet Union began negotiations on space and nuclear arms in March 1985. The United States sought to reduce the number of offensive strategic arms, eliminate or reduce LRINF, and reverse the erosion of the 1972 ABM Treaty. The United States also wanted to discuss the idea that both sides should move away from deterrence based solely on the threat of massive nuclear retaliation, and towards increased reliance on non-threatening defenses.
May 1985: New Bilateral Trade Agreements
The United States and the Soviet Union announced new bilateral trade agreements and a U.S.-Soviet maritime pact in May 1985.
November 1985: Geneva Summit
In a summit in Geneva in November 1985, President Reagan and General Secretary Gorbachev discussed a four-part agenda that focused on: human rights, regional issues, bilateral matters, and arms control. The President pressed for improvement in Soviet human rights practices, the removal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan, and the resolution of regional conflicts in a number of countries, including Cambodia, Angola, Ethiopia, and Nicaragua. In the arms control area, both leaders called for early progress on reductions in strategic, offensive nuclear forces. Following discussions on strategic defense, they agreed to study the establishment of Nuclear Risk Reduction Centers, and to accelerate efforts to conclude an effective and verifiable treaty banning chemical weapons. They endorsed regular exchanges between senior U.S. and Soviet officials. Gorbachev accepted Reagan's invitation to visit the United States in 1986, and Reagan agreed to visit the Soviet Union the following year. At the end of the meeting, the United States and the Soviet Union signed the General Agreement on Contacts, Exchanges, and Cooperation in Scientific, Technical, Educational, Cultural, and Other Fields, and announced that the two countries would resume civil air service.
December 1985: Mutual and Balanced Force Reduction Proposal
The United States and its NATO Allies presented a new proposal at the MBFR talks in Vienna in December 1985, offering to negotiate a joint reduction in U.S.-Soviet force levels in Central Europe and a subsequent 3-year "collective no-increase commitment" on Eastern and Western forces.
1986-1989
January 1986: Televised Greetings
President Reagan and General Secretary Gorbachev exchanged New Year's greetings to the peoples of the Soviet Union and the United States in two televised 5-minute statements in January 1986.
March 1986: Nuclear Test Moratorium Proposed
Gorbachev announced in March 1986 that the Soviet Union would continue its nuclear test moratorium if the United States also refrained from staging tests. Reagan rejected the moratorium on March 14, and announced a detailed proposal for improving nuclear test verification. The Soviet Union rejected the U.S. proposal.
April 1986: Chernobyl Disaster
On April 26, 1986, an explosion at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, 60 miles north of Kiev, led to the worst nuclear accident in history. U.S. medical personnel provided assistance to the victims.
April 1986: Commercial Flights Resumed
The United States resumed commercial flights between the United States and the Soviet Union in April 1986. These flights had been halted in 1978.
May 1986: Nuclear Risk Reduction
U.S. and Soviet negotiators met in Geneva on May 5-6, 1986, to discuss establishing "Nuclear Risk Reduction Centers" in Washington and Moscow to lessen the chance of misunderstandings that could lead to accidental nuclear war. They agreed to meet again on August 24-25.
October 1986: Reykjavik Summit
President Reagan and General Secretary Gorbachev met on October 11-12, 1986, in Reykjavik, to continue their discussions on the four points outlined at Geneva in November: human rights, regional conflicts, bilateral cooperation, and arms control. The two reached several arms control agreements in principle, including a formula for 50 percent reductions in strategic nuclear offensive forces; a reduction to a 100 warhead global ceiling for longer range INF missiles, with no such missiles in Europe; and constraints on shorter-range INF missile systems. However, their meeting ended without an accord, in part because Gorbachev insisted that further progress on INF and START be linked to restrictions on the U.S. Strategic Defense Initiative.
October 1986: START Proposal
In October 1986, the United States presented a new START proposal that incorporated the agreements reached at Reykjavik.
1987: Nuclear and Space Talks
Round VI of the Nuclear and Space Talks in Geneva began on January 15, 1987. The United States proposed drafts on INF forces and Defense and Space, which included the right to withdraw from the ABM Treaty for reasons of supreme national interest. On February 28, Gorbachev announced that the Soviet Union was prepared to sign an agreement to eliminate Soviet and U.S. INF missiles in Europe within 5 years. On March 3, Reagan instructed U.S. negotiators in Geneva to present a U.S. draft INF treaty.
April 1987: Discovery of Electronic Listening Devices at U.S. Embassy
Reagan administration officials reported that the U.S. Embassy in Moscow had been penetrated by electronic listening devices and would no longer transmit sensitive messages from Embassy facilities. On April 8, 1987, Reagan ordered the Intelligence Review Board to assess the extent of Soviet bugging in the new U.S. Embassy in Moscow to determine whether it should be destroyed or rebuilt.
May 1987: Agreement on Nuclear Risk Reduction
On May 4, 1987, U.S. and Soviet negotiators in Geneva reached an agreement on a draft joint text to establish Nuclear Risk Reduction Centers in Washington and Moscow.
May 1987: Draft START Treaty
On May 8, 1987, the United States presented a draft START treaty in Geneva that proposed the reduction of U.S. and Soviet strategic nuclear arms by 50 percent.
July 1987: Soviet Draft Treaty
In response to the U.S. draft treaty presented on May 8, in July 1987, the Soviet Union presented a detailed draft treaty to reduce strategic nuclear arms. The Soviet proposal differed from that of the United States on several points, including no specific limits on warheads.
December 1987: Washington Summit
President Reagan and General Secretary Gorbachev met in Washington in December, 1987, to continue discussions on the ongoing four-part U.S.-Soviet agenda begun at Geneva in 1985. The U.S. and Soviet leaders discussed human rights, increasing bilateral exchanges, cooperation on environmental matters, and trade expansion. They held wide-ranging talks on regional issues including Afghanistan, the Iran-Iraq War, Central America, southern Africa, the Middle East, and Cambodia.
The two leaders signed the Treaty Between the United States of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics on the Elimination of Their Intermediate-Range and Shorter-Range Missiles. They instructed their negotiators at the Geneva Nuclear and Space Talks to intensify efforts to complete a Treaty on the Reduction and Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms to implement the principle of a 50 percent reduction in these arms, which had been agreed upon at the Reykjavik meeting. The leaders also instructed their negotiators to work out a new and separate treaty on defense and space issues that would commit both sides to observe the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, as signed in 1972.
December 1987: Gorbachev, Man of Year
Time Magazine selected Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev as "The Man of the Year" for 1987.
May-June 1988: Moscow Summit
The Moscow Summit in May-June 1988 saw wide-ranging discussion between Reagan and Gorbachev of regional questions, including the Middle East, the Iran-Iraq War, southern Africa, the Horn of Africa, Central America, Cambodia, the Korean Peninsula, and Afghanistan, as well as other issues. The two leaders exchanged and signed ratification documents on the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty, which the Supreme Soviet and the U.S. Senate had approved on May 23 and 27, respectively. The two leaders also discussed nuclear nonproliferation; the Nuclear Risk Reduction Centers established in Moscow and Washington; the status of ongoing negotiations toward a comprehensive, effectively verifiable, and truly global ban on chemical weapons; and the status of conventional forces negotiations.
Secretary Shultz and Soviet Foreign Minister Shevardnadze also concluded separate agreements, two of them related to arms control: the agreement on Advanced Notification of Strategic Ballistic Missile Launches and the Joint Verification Experiment agreement on nuclear testing. The seven other agreements covered a range of issues, such as expansion of U.S.-Soviet cultural and educational exchanges, U.S.-Soviet cooperation on peaceful uses of atomic power and on space exploration, maritime search and rescue, fisheries, transportation technology, and radio navigation.
June 1988: Communist Party of the Soviet Union's XIXth Party Conference
General Secretary of the Communist Party Gorbachev announced major political reforms for the Soviet Union in June 1988, at the Party's XIXth Party Conference. These included introducing a new executive president and a new legislative element to be called the Congress of People's Deputies. In instituting these reforms, Gorbachev aimed to reduce party control of the government.
December 1988: New York Meeting
President Reagan and General Secretary Gorbachev met on Governor's Island in New York harbor in December 1988, while the Soviet leader was visiting New York City to address the United Nations General Assembly.
March 1989: Vienna Meeting
Secretary of State James A. Baker III and Soviet Foreign Minister Eduard Shevardnadze, meeting in Vienna in March 1989, discussed human rights, arms control, and regional conflicts. Secretary Baker expressed hope for the success of Soviet reforms.
March 15, 1989: Gorbachev Elected President
The Soviet people elected Mikhail Gorbachev to be President under the new political system on March 15, 1989.
May 1989: Secretary Baker's Visit to Moscow
During Secretary Baker's visit to Moscow in May 1989, U.S. and Soviet officials discussed regional problems (Central America, Afghanistan, and the Middle East), human rights, bilateral matters, and transnational questions. They agreed on dates for resuming bilateral arms talks.
May 1989: President Bush's Speech on the Soviet Union
In a public address on May 12, 1989, President George H.W. Bush reaffirmed the U.S. desire for Soviet economic reform to succeed, and said that the United States sought the integration of the Soviet Union into the community of nations. He proposed regular surveillance flights over NATO and Warsaw Pact territories (Open Skies) and offered improved trade relations if the Soviet Union relaxed its emigration laws.
June 1989: U.S.-Soviet Military Agreement
In Moscow in June 1989, the United States and the Soviet Union signed an agreement designed to prevent dangerous military activities.
September 1989: Baker and Shevardnadze Meeting
Secretary Baker and Foreign Minister Shevardnadze met in Wyoming in September 1989. They released a detailed joint statement covering the full U.S.-Soviet agenda and signed several agreements on arms control verification and notification procedures. They signed several bilateral agreements concerning land and sea passage between the United States and the Soviet Union.
June-November 1989: Fall of Communism in Eastern Europe
Shortly after Poland's electorate voted the Communists out of government in June 1989, Gorbachev announced that the Soviet Union would not interfere with the internal affairs of the Eastern European countries. By October, Hungary and Czechoslovakia followed Poland's example, and, on November 9, the East German Government opened the Berlin Wall.
December 1989: U.S. and Soviet Leaders Met at Malta
During a shipboard summit meeting near Valletta, Malta, in December 1989, Presidents Bush and Gorbachev set a series of priorities to guide preparations for the next summit. They agreed to seek an accelerated conclusion to nuclear and conventional arms agreements, and discussed economic and commercial relations and regional conflicts. President Bush offered ideas for technical cooperation, and proposed negotiating a trade agreement that would lift the Jackson-Vanik restriction on most-favored-nation status for the Soviet Union, provided the Soviet Government enacted a new law on emigration. They announced that a full summit would take place in the United States in June 1990.
| msmarco_doc_00_8412671 |
http://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/ar/14313.htm | Treaty of Paris, 1783 | Treaty of Paris, 1783
Treaty of Paris, 1783 | Treaty of Paris, 1783
Treaty of Paris, 1783
The Treaty of Paris was signed by U.S. and British Representatives on September 3, 1783, ending the War of the American Revolution. Based on a1782 preliminary treaty, the agreement recognized U.S. independence and granted the U.S. significant western territory. The 1783 Treaty was one of a series of treaties signed at Paris in 1783 that also established peace between Great Britain and the allied nations of France, Spain, and the Netherlands.
The 1781 U.S. victory at the Battle of Yorktown made peace talks where British negotiators were willing to consider U.S. independence a possibility. Eighteenth-century British parliamentary governments tended to be unstable and depended on both a majority in the House of Commons and the good favor of the King. Thus, when news of Yorktown reached London, the parliamentary opposition succeeded in overthrowing the embattled government led by Frederick North, Lord North.
However, the new government, led by Charles Watson-Wentworth, Marquess of Rockingham, was not much more stable than the previous one. The strong personalities of its ministers led to internal conflicts between them and King George III. Rockingham died in July of 1782, and he was succeeded by William Petty Fitzmaurice, Earl of Shelburne. Lord Shelburne’s government wanted to seek peace, but hoped to avoid recognizing U.S. independence. However, the war had been expensive, and Britain faced a formidable alliance, fighting the combined forces of France, Spain, and the Netherlands, in addition to the rebellious colonists.
Shelburne and other British diplomats had pursued a strategy of trying to drive the alliance apart by entering negotiations for a separate peace with France’s allies. Although such efforts failed with the Netherlands, U.S. negotiators were receptive to the idea of separate negotiations, because they saw in such negotiations the clearest path to ensuring recognition of U.S. independence in a final peace settlement. The French Foreign Minister, Charles Gravier, Comte de Vergennes, approved of separate negotiations, though not of a separate peace.
In the meantime, Anglo-American negotiations had been stalled, owing to internal conflicts in the British government and British refusal to recognize U.S. independence as part of the peace settlement. In July of 1782, Lord Shelburne gave in on the issue of independence, hoping that a generous peace settlement with the United States would bring peace with France, the Netherlands, and Spain. However, John Jay objected to British refusal to acknowledge the United States as already independent during peace negotiations, so the negotiations halted until the fall.
Anglo-American negotiations entered their final stage in October and November of 1782. The United States succeeded in obtaining Newfoundland fishing rights, a western border that extended to the Mississippi with rights of navigation (which the Spanish government would later prevent) and, most importantly, British acknowledgement of U.S. independence along with the peaceful withdrawal of British forces. In return for these concessions, the agreement contained provisions requiring the U.S. to honor private debts and ensure an end to the seizure of Loyalist property. U.S. negotiators John Jay, Benjamin Franklin, John Adams and Henry Laurens signed a preliminary agreement with British representative Richard Oswald on November 30, 1782. The agreement would remain informal until the conclusion of a peace agreement between Britain and France.
Franklin disclosed the Anglo-American agreement to Vergennes, who had objections to the manner in which it was obtained, but was willing to accept the agreement as a part of broader peace negotiations, and agreed to supply the United States with another loan that Franklin had requested. When Spanish forces failed to capture Gibraltar, Vergennes was able to persuade the Spanish government to agree to peace as well. Negotiators abandoned an earlier complicated plan to redistribute each others’ unconquered colonies to one which largely preserved existing Spanish and French territorial gains. In North America, Spain received Florida, which it had lost in the Seven Years’ War. Spanish, French, British, and American representatives signed a provisional peace treaty on January 20, 1783, proclaiming an end to hostilities. The formal agreement was signed at Paris on September 3, 1783. The U.S. Confederation Congress ratified the treaty on January 14.
Although the treaty secured U.S. independence, it left several border regions undefined or in dispute, and certain provisions also remained unenforced. These issues would be resolved over the years, though not always without controversy, by a series of U.S. agreements with Spain and Britain, including the Jay’s Treaty, the Treaty of San Lorenzo, the Convention of 1818, and the Webster-Ashburton Treaty of 1842.
Despite the unresolved border issues, the U.S. benefited most among the treaty’s signatories, firmly securing recognition of its independence from European powers. Although Britain lost its American colonies, British global power continued to increase, driven by the economic growth of the early industrial revolution. For France, victory came at an enormous financial cost, and attempts to resolve the financial crisis would ultimately trigger the French Revolution.
| msmarco_doc_00_8461134 |
http://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/ar/91857.htm | The Declaration of Independence, 1776 | The Declaration of Independence, 1776
The Declaration of Independence, 1776 | The Declaration of Independence, 1776
The Declaration of Independence, 1776
By issuing the Declaration of Independence, adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776, the 13 American colonies severed their political connections to Great Britain. The Declaration summarized the colonists' motivations for seeking their independence. By declaring themselves an independent nation, the American colonists were able to conclude an official alliance with the government of France and obtain French assistance in the war against Great Britain.
Throughout the 1760s and early 1770s, the North American colonists found themselves increasingly at odds with British imperial policies regarding taxation and frontier policy. When repeated protests failed to influence British policies, and instead resulted in the closing of the port of Boston and the declaration of martial law in Massachusetts, the colonial governments sent delegates to a Continental Congress to coordinate a colonial boycott of British goods. When fighting broke out between American colonists and British forces in Massachusetts, Continental Congress worked with local groups, originally intended to enforce the boycott, to coordinate resistance against the British. British officials throughout the colonies increasingly found their authority challenged by informal local governments, although loyalist sentiment remained strong in some areas.
Despite these changes, colonial leaders hoped to reconcile with the British Government, and all but the most radical members of Congress were unwilling to declare independence. However, in late 1775, Benjamin Franklin, then a member of the Secret Committee of Correspondence, hinted to French agents and other European sympathizers that the colonies were increasingly leaning towards seeking independence. While perhaps true, Franklin also hoped to convince the French to supply the colonists with aid. Independence would be necessary, however, before French officials would consider the possibility of an alliance.
Throughout the winter of 1775-1776, the members of Continental Congress increasingly viewed reconciliation with Britain as unlikely, and independence the only course of action available to them. When on December 22, 1775, the British Parliament prohibited trade with the colonies, Congress responded in April of 1776 by opening colonial ports�this was a major step towards severing ties with Britain. The colonists were aided by the January publication of Thomas Paine's pamphlet Common Sense, which advocated the colonies' independence and was widely distributed throughout the colonies. By February of 1776, colonial leaders were discussing the possibility of forming foreign alliances and began to draft the Model Treaty that would serve as a basis for the 1778 alliance with France. Leaders for the cause of independence wanted to make certain that they had sufficient congressional support before they would bring the issue to the vote. On June 7, 1776, Richard Henry Lee introduced a motion in Congress to declare independence. Other members of Congress were amenable but thought some colonies not quite ready. However, Congress did form a committee to draft a declaration of independence and assigned this duty to Thomas Jefferson.
Benjamin Franklin and John Adams reviewed Jefferson's draft. They preserved its original form, but struck passages likely to meet with controversy or skepticism, most notably passages blaming King George III for the transatlantic slave trade and those blaming the British people rather than their government. The committee presented the final draft before Congress on June 28, and Congress adopted the final text of the Declaration of Independence on July 4.
The British Government did its best to dismiss the Declaration as a trivial document issued by disgruntled colonists. British officials commissioned propagandists to highlight the declaration's flaws and rebut the colonists' complaints. The Declaration divided British domestic opposition, as some American sympathizers thought the Declaration had gone too far, although in British-ruled Ireland it had many supporters.
The Declaration's most important diplomatic effect was to allow for official recognition of the United States by friendly foreign governments. The first to do so was the Kingdom of Morocco. Most European governments held back to avoid provoking British displeasure. Congress would have to wait until the 1778 Treaty of Alliance for the French Government to recognize the Declaration. The Netherlands acknowledged U.S. independence in 1782. Although Spain joined the war against Great Britain in 1779, it did not recognize U.S. independence until the 1783 Treaty of Paris. Under the terms of the treaty, which ended the War of the American Revolution, Great Britain officially acknowledged the United States as a sovereign and independent nation.
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http://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/cp/90614.htm | French and Indian War/Seven Years' War, 1754-1763 | French and Indian War/Seven Years' War, 1754-1763
French and Indian War/Seven Years' War, 1754-1763 | French and Indian War/Seven Years' War, 1754-1763
French and Indian War/Seven Years' War, 1754-1763
The French and Indian War was the North American conflict that was part of a larger imperial conflict between Great Britain and France known as the Seven Years' War. The French and Indian War began in 1754 and ended with the Treaty of Paris in 1763. The war provided Great Britain enormous territorial gains in North America, but disputes over subsequent frontier policy and paying the war's expenses led to colonial discontent, and ultimately to the American revolution.
The French and Indian War resulted from ongoing frontier tensions in North America as both French and British imperial officials and colonists sought to extend each country's sphere of influence in frontier regions. In North America, the war pitted France, French colonists, and their Native allies against Great Britain, the Anglo-American colonists and the Iroquois Confederacy, which controlled most of upstate New York and parts of northern Pennsylvania. In 1753, prior to the outbreak of hostilities, Great Britain controlled the 13 colonies up to the Appalachian Mountains, but beyond lay New France, a very large, sparsely settled colony that stretched from Louisiana through the Mississippi Valley and Great Lakes to Canada. (See Incidents Leading up to the French and Indian War and Albany Plan)
The border between French and British possessions was not well defined, and one disputed territory was the upper Ohio River valley. The French had constructed a number of forts in this region in an attempt to strengthen their claim on the territory. British colonial forces, led by lieutenant colonel George Washington, attempted to expel the French in 1754, but were outnumbered and defeated by the French. When news of Washington's failure reached British Prime Minister Thomas Pelham-Holles, Duke of Newcastle, he called for a quick undeclared retaliatory strike. However, his adversaries in the Cabinet outmaneuvered him by making the plans public, thus alerting the French Government and escalating a distant frontier skirmish into a full-scale war.
The war did not begin well for the British. The British Government sent General Edward Braddock to the colonies as commander in chief of British North American forces, but he alienated potential Indian allies and colonial leaders failed to cooperate with him. On July 13, 1755 Braddock himself died while on a failed expedition to capture Fort Duquesne in present-day Pittsburgh, after being mortally wounded in an ambush. The war in North America settled into a stalemate for the next several years, while in Europe the French scored an important naval victory and captured the British possession of Minorca in the Mediterranean in 1756. However, after 1757 the war began to turn in favor of Great Britain. British forces defeated French forces in India, and in 1759 British armies invaded and conquered Canada.
Facing defeat in North America and a tenuous position in Europe, the French Government attempted to engage the British in peace negotiations, but British minister William Pitt (the elder), Secretary for Southern Affairs, sought not only the French cession of Canada but also commercial concessions that the French Government found unacceptable. After these negotiations failed, Spanish King Charles III offered to come to the aid of his cousin, French King Louis XV, and their representatives signed an alliance known as the Family Compact on August 15, 1761. The terms of the agreement stated that Spain would declare war on Great Britain if the war did not end before May 1, 1762. Originally intended to pressure the British into a peace agreement, the Family Compact ultimately reinvigorated the French will to continue the war, and caused the British Government to declare war on Spain on January 4, 1762 after bitter infighting between King George III's ministers.
Despite facing such a formidable alliance, British naval strength and Spanish ineffectiveness led to British success. British forces seized French Caribbean islands, Spanish Cuba, and the Philippines. Fighting in Europe ended after a failed Spanish invasion of British ally Portugal. By 1763, French and Spanish diplomats began to seek peace. In the resulting Treaty of Paris (1763), Great Britain secured significant territorial gains, including all French territory east of the Mississippi river, as well as Spanish Florida, although the treaty returned Cuba to Spain.
Unfortunately for the British, the fruits of victory brought seeds of future trouble with Great Britain's American colonies. The war had been enormously expensive, and the British government's attempts to impose taxes on colonists to help cover these expenses resulted in increasing colonial resentment of British attempts to expand imperial authority in the colonies. British attempts to limit western expansion by colonists and inadvertent provocation of a major Indian war further angered the British subjects living in the American colonies. These disputes would ultimately spur colonial rebellion that eventually developed into a full-scale war for independence.
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http://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/cp/90615.htm | Treaty of Paris, 1763 | Treaty of Paris, 1763
Treaty of Paris, 1763 | Treaty of Paris, 1763
Treaty of Paris, 1763
The Treaty of Paris of 1763 ended the French and Indian War/Seven Years' War between Great Britain and France, as well as their respective allies. In the terms of the treaty, France gave up all its territories in mainland North America, effectively ending any foreign military threat to the British colonies there.
During the war, British forces had scored important overseas victories against France: not only had the British conquered French Canada, they also won victories in India, and captured French island colonies in the Caribbean. In March of 1762, French King Louis XV issued a formal call for peace talks.
The British Government was also interested in ending the war�the Seven Years' War had been enormously expensive, and the Government had had to finance the war with debt. Creditors were beginning to doubt Great Britain's ability to pay back the loans it had floated on financial markets. In addition, British King George II had died in 1760, and his successor George III was more amenable to ending the war.
Initial attempts at negotiating a peace settlement failed, and instead French and Spanish diplomats signed the Family Compact, a treaty that brought Spain into the war against Britain. British Prime Minister Lord Bute continued secret and informal talks with French diplomat Etienne-Fran�ois de Stainville, duc de Choiseul, and they came to an unofficial agreement in June, 1762. Bute promised fairly generous terms, and the two countries agreed to an exchange of ambassadors in September.
By the time the formal negotiations began, the situation had changed. News had reached Europe of the British capture of Havana, and with it the Spanish colony of Cuba. Spanish King Charles III refused to agree to a treaty that would require Spain to cede Cuba, but the British Parliament would never ratify a treaty that did not reflect British territorial gains made during the war.
Facing this dilemma, French negotiator Choiseul proposed a solution that redistributed American territory between France, Spain and Great Britain. Under Choiseul's plan, Britain would gain all French territory east of the Mississippi, while Spain would retain Cuba in exchange for handing Florida over to Great Britain. French territories west of Mississippi would become Spanish, along with the port of New Orleans. In return for these cessions, along with territory in India, Africa, and the Mediterranean island of Minorca, France would regain the Caribbean islands that British forces had captured during the war. The British Government also promised to allow French Canadians to freely practice Catholicism and provided for French fishing rights off Newfoundland.
Choiseul preferred to keep the small Caribbean islands of Martinique, Guadeloupe, and St. Lucia rather than hold on to the vast territory stretching from Louisiana to Canada. This decision was motivated by the fact that the islands' sugar industry was enormously profitable. In contrast, Canada had been a drain on the French treasury. The loss of Canada, while lamentable to French officials, made sense from a mercantile perspective.
The diplomats completed their negotiations and signed the preliminary Treaty of Paris on November 3, 1762. Spanish and French negotiators also signed the Treaty of San Ildefonso at the same time, which confirmed the cession of French Louisiana to Spain.
Although British King George III and his ministers were in favor of the treaty, it was unpopular with the British public. However, the treaty contained enough concessions to war hawks that the British Parliament ratified the Treaty of Paris by a majority of 319 to 64, and the treaty went into effect on February 10, 1763.
For Anglo-American colonists, the treaty was a theoretical success. By confirming the conquest of Canada and extending British possessions to the Mississippi, the colonists no longer had to worry about the threat of a French invasion. For the American Indians in what had been frontier territory, the treaty proved disastrous�they could no longer pursue what had been a largely effective strategy of playing the French and British against each other to extract the most favorable terms of alliance and preserve their lands against encroachment by Anglo-American colonists.
Despite what seemed like a success, the Treaty of Paris ultimately encouraged dissension between Anglo-American colonists and the British Government because their interests in North America no longer coincided. The British Government no longer wanted to maintain an expensive military presence, and its attempts to manage a post-treaty frontier policy that would balance colonists' and Indians' interests would prove ineffective and even counterproductive. Coupled with differences between the imperial government and colonists on how to levy taxes to pay for debts on wartime expenses, the Treaty of Paris ultimately set the colonists on the path towards seeking independence, even as it seemed to make the British Empire stronger than ever. (see Parliamentary Taxation of Colonies)
| msmarco_doc_00_8477636 |
http://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/cwr/102468.htm | North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), 1949 | North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), 1949
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), 1949 | North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), 1949
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), 1949
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization was created in 1949 by the United States, Canada, and several Western European nations to provide collective security against the Soviet Union. NATO was the first peacetime military alliance the United States entered into outside of the Western Hemisphere.
After the destruction of the Second World War, the nations of Europe struggled to rebuild their economies and ensure their security. The former required a massive influx of aid to help the war-torn landscapes re-establish industries and produce food, and the latter required assurances against a resurgent Germany or incursions from the Soviet Union. The United States viewed an economically strong, rearmed, and integrated Europe as vital to the prevention of communist expansion across the continent. As a result, Secretary of State George Marshall proposed a program of large-scale economic aid to Europe. The resulting European Recovery Program, or Marshall Plan, not only facilitated European economic integration but promoted the idea of shared interests and cooperation between the United States and Europe. Soviet refusal either to participate in the Marshall Plan or to allow its satellite states in Eastern Europe to accept the economic assistance helped to reinforce the growing division between east and west in Europe.
In 1947-1948, a series of events caused the nations of Western Europe to become concerned about their physical and political security and the United States to become more closely involved with European affairs. The ongoing civil war in Greece, along with tensions in Turkey, led President Harry S. Truman to assert that the United States would provide economic and military aid to both countries, as well as to any other nation struggling against an attempt at subjugation. A Soviet-sponsored coup in Czechoslovakia resulted in a communist government coming to power on the borders of Germany. Attention also focused on elections in Italy as the communist party had made significant gains among Italian voters. Furthermore, events in Germany also caused concern. The occupation and governance of Germany after the war had long been disputed, and in mid-1948, Soviet premier Joseph Stalin chose to test Western resolve by implementing a blockade against West Berlin, which was then under joint U.S., British, and French control but surrounded by Soviet-controlled East Germany. This Berlin Crisis brought the United States and the Soviet Union to the brink of conflict, although a massive airlift to resupply the city for the duration of the blockade helped to prevent an outright confrontation. These events caused U.S. officials to grow increasingly wary of the possibility that the countries of Western Europe might deal with their security concerns by negotiating with the Soviets. To counter this possible turn of events, the Truman Administration considered the possibility of forming a European-American alliance that would commit the United States to bolstering the security of Western Europe.
The Western European countries were willing to consider a collective security solution. In response to increasing tensions and security concerns, representatives of several countries of Western Europe gathered together to create a military alliance. Great Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg signed the Brussels Treaty in March, 1948. Their treaty provided collective defense; if any one of these nations was attacked, the others were bound to help defend it. At the same time, the Truman Administration instituted a peacetime draft, increased military spending, and called upon the historically isolationist Republican Congress to consider a military alliance with Europe. In May of 1948, Republican Senator Arthur H. Vandenburg proposed a resolution suggesting that the President seek a security treaty with Western Europe that would adhere to the United Nations charter but exist outside of the Security Council where the Soviet Union held veto power. The Vandenburg Resolution passed, and negotiations began for the North Atlantic Treaty.
In spite of general agreement on the concept behind the treaty, it took several months to work out the exact terms. The U.S. Congress had embraced the pursuit of the international alliance, but it remained concerned about the wording of the treaty. The nations of Western Europe wanted assurances that the United States would intervene automatically in the event of an attack, but under the U.S. Constitution the power to declare war rested with Congress. Negotiations worked toward finding language that would reassure the European states but not obligate the United States to act in a way that violated its own laws. Additionally, European contributions to collective security would require large-scale military assistance from the United States to help rebuild Western Europe's defense capabilities. While the European nations argued for individual grants and aid, the United States wanted to make aid conditional on regional coordination. A third issue was the question of scope. The Brussels Treaty signatories preferred that membership in the alliance be restricted to the members of that treaty plus the United States. The U.S. negotiators felt there was more to be gained from enlarging the new treaty to include the countries of the North Atlantic, including Canada, Iceland, Denmark, Norway, Ireland, and Portugal. Together, these countries held territory that formed a bridge between the opposite shores of the Atlantic Ocean, which would facilitate military action if it became necessary.
The result of these extensive negotiations was the signing of the North Atlantic Treaty in 1949. In this agreement, the United States, Canada, Belgium, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxemburg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, and the United Kingdom agreed to consider attack against one an attack against all, along with consultations about threats and defense matters. This collective defense arrangement only formally applied to attacks against the signatories that occurred in Europe or North America; it did not include conflicts in colonial territories. After the treaty was signed, a number of the signatories made requests to the United States for military aid. Later in 1949, President Truman proposed a military assistance program, and the Mutual Defense Assistance Program passed the U.S. Congress in October, appropriating some $1.4 billion dollars for the purpose of building Western European defenses.
Soon after the creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, the outbreak of the Korean War led the members to move quickly to integrate and coordinate their defense forces through a centralized headquarters. The North Korean attack on South Korea was widely viewed at the time to be an example of communist aggression directed by Moscow, so the United States bolstered its troop commitments to Europe to provide assurances against Soviet aggression on the European continent. In 1952, the members agreed to admit Greece and Turkey to NATO and added the Federal Republic of Germany in 1955. West German entry led the Soviet Union to retaliate with its own regional alliance, which took the form of the Warsaw Treaty Organization and included the Soviet satellite states of Eastern Europe as members.
The collective defense arrangements in NATO served to place the whole of Western Europe under the American "nuclear umbrella." In the 1950s, one of the first military doctrines of NATO emerged in the form of "massive retaliation," or the idea that if any member was attacked, the United States would respond with a large-scale nuclear attack. The threat of this form of response was meant to serve as a deterrent against Soviet aggression on the continent. Although formed in response to the exigencies of the developing Cold War, NATO has lasted beyond the end of that conflict, with membership even expanding to include some former Soviet states. It remains the largest peacetime military alliance in the world.
| msmarco_doc_00_8483035 |
http://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/cwr/107189.htm | Allied Occupation of Germany, 1945-52 | Allied Occupation of Germany, 1945-52
Allied Occupation of Germany, 1945-52 | Allied Occupation of Germany, 1945-52
Allied Occupation of Germany, 1945-52
After Germany's defeat in the Second World War, the four main allies in Europe - the United States, Great Britain, the Soviet Union, and France - took part in a joint occupation of the German state. With the original understanding that the country would eventually be reunified, the Allied Powers agreed to share the responsibility of administering Germany and its capital, Berlin, and each took responsibility for a certain portion of the defeated nation. This arrangement ultimately evolved into the division of Germany into a Western and an Eastern sector, thereby contributing to the Cold War division of Europe.
During the Second World War, one of the major topics under discussion at conferences of the Allied leadership was how to deal with Germany after the war. Having experienced great losses as a result of German invasions in the First and Second World Wars, Soviet leader Joseph Stalin preferred that a defeated Germany be dismembered and divided so that it could not rise to its former strength to threaten European peace and security again. At the Tehran Conference between U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin in 1943, the two countries agreed that after the war Germany would be divided and occupied jointly. At the final wartime conference between these two men at Yalta in 1945, the two powers agreed to shift the eastern border of Germany to the West, enlarging western Poland as compensation for the eastern sections of that country annexed by the Soviet Union. They also determined that the occupation would divide Germany into sections, with each Allied power taking responsibility for one section, although they would be governed as a single economic unit in anticipation of their eventual reunification. Finally, they also concluded that they would demand reparations from Germany, although they did not yet agree on exactly how much they would request. A meeting later in 1945 between Stalin and new U.S. President Harry Truman held at Potsdam confirmed and ratified these arrangements.
After the victory over the Axis powers, however, the wartime cooperation between the United States and the Soviet Union soon faded. In reality, mutual distrust ruled the relationship between the two countries, and nowhere was this more evident than in the difficulties over the occupation of Germany. The Allies agreed to a joint occupation, with each country taking charge of a larger zone and a sector of the nation's capital, Berlin. Upon British insistence, France joined Great Britain and the United States in the occupation of West Germany and West Berlin, while the Soviet Union managed the affairs of East Germany and East Berlin.
The divided Germany was weak and dependent on the allies for goods and the differing approaches of the occupying powers served to establish what would become a stark contrast between the two Germanys. The Soviet Union stripped its sector of manufacturing equipment in an effort to garner partial payment for wartime remittances, further stifling the reemergence of a strong German economy. In the western sector, military leaders from the United States soon grew concerned about the economic costs of a Germany completely dependent on the United States, and the United States began investing in German industries. In 1946, the United States and Great Britain merged their occupation zones, and in 1947 the U.S. Government began a massive aid program under the Marshall Plan, which pumped dollars and goods into Europe to aid in recovery. The Soviet Union prevented the countries along the Soviet border in Eastern Europe, many of which had experienced the rise of communist leadership in the wake of the war, from taking part in the arrangement. Instead it offered the Soviet Union offered its own postwar program for economic aid.
By 1948, the Western Allies began the project of pulling their occupation zones together for the sake of rebuilding - a project that the Soviet Union, still worried about a Germany threat to its security, wished to prevent. Although the Western Allies made frequent suggestions for the terms under which the country might be reunified, usually involving the introduction of free and democratic elections and German autonomy for conducting its own foreign policy. These proposals were never made in terms that the Soviet Union would consider accepting, so the continued division of the country was in many ways inevitable. In June 1948, the Soviet Union took action against the West's policies by blocking all road access between West Germany and West Berlin, effectively cutting off the city's occupation zones from the British, French, and American forces responsible for maintaining them. The administrators of the western zones had no agreement with the Soviet Union that required the latter to allow ground access to the city through Eastern Germany, but they did have an agreement on air access. As a result, the United States began an airlift of supplies to the stranded citizens of West Berlin. Over the course of the next eleven months of the blockade, the Americans, assisted by the British and the French, supplied West Berlin entirely by air, landing planes filled with food, clothing, and coal for heat nearly every minute. Because it was a mild winter, they were able to keep ahead of the city's requirements, and the extraordinary accomplishments of the Berlin Airlift became an early propaganda success for the West in the emerging Cold War. After nearly a year, the Soviet Union lifted the blockade, making it once again possible to supply West Berlin overland. The blockade and airlift contributed to cementing the division of Germany and Europe into East and West.
The Soviet Union was not alone in worrying over the threat to European security that could come of a revitalized Germany. Countries to the west, including France, the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxemburg, were also wary and preferred a neutral and demilitarized Germany. To address these concerns, the British proposed a collective security arrangement that would include these nations, plus Britain, West Germany and the United States. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization was formally established in 1949.
In 1949, the occupying powers in both East and West Germany replaced their military governors with civilian leaders, and the occupations ended officially in the mid-1950s. Even so, both sides retained a strong interest in Germany, and the country and its capital remained divided throughout the Cold War. Reunification finally took place in October of 1990.
| msmarco_doc_00_8491549 |
http://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/cwr/88312.htm | The Chinese Revolution of 1949 | The Chinese Revolution of 1949
The Chinese Revolution of 1949 | The Chinese Revolution of 1949
The Chinese Revolution of 1949
On October 1, 1949, Chinese Communist leader Mao Zedong declared the creation of the People's Republic of China (PRC). The announcement ended the costly full-scale civil war between the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the Nationalist Party, or Kuomintang (KMT), which broke out immediately following World War II and had been preceded by on and off conflict between the two sides since the 1920's. The creation of the PRC also completed the long process of governmental upheaval in China begun by the Chinese Revolution of 1911. The "fall" of mainland China to communism in 1949 led the United States to suspend diplomatic ties with the PRC for decades.
The Chinese Communist Party, founded in 1921 in Shanghai, originally existed as a study group working within the confines of the First United Front with the Nationalist Party. Chinese Communists joined with the Nationalist Army in the Northern Expedition of 1926-27 to rid the nation of the warlords that prevented the formation of a strong central government. This collaboration lasted until the "White Terror" of 1927, when the Nationalists turned on the Communists, killing them or purging them from the party.
After the Japanese invaded Manchuria in 1931, the Government of the Republic of China (ROC) faced the triple threat of Japanese invasion, Communist uprising, and warlord insurrections. Frustrated by the focus of the Nationalist leader Chiang Kai-shek on internal threats instead of the Japanese assault, a group of generals abducted Chiang in 1937 and forced him to reconsider cooperation with the Communist army. As with the first effort at cooperation between the Nationalist government and the CCP, this Second United Front was short-lived. The Nationalists expended needed resources on containing the Communists, rather than focusing entirely on Japan, while the Communists worked to strengthen their influence in rural society.
During World War II, popular support for the Communists increased. U.S. officials in China reported a dictatorial suppression of dissent in Nationalist-controlled areas. These undemocratic polices combined with wartime corruption made the Republic of China Government vulnerable to the Communist threat. The CCP, for its part, experienced success in its early efforts at land reform and was lauded by peasants for its unflagging efforts to fight against the Japanese invaders.
Japanese surrender set the stage for the resurgence of civil war in China. Though only nominally democratic, the Nationalist Government of Chiang Kai-shek continued to receive U.S. support both as its former war ally and as the sole option for preventing Communist control of China. U.S. forces flew tens of thousands of Nationalist Chinese troops into Japanese-controlled territory and allowed them to accept the Japanese surrender. The Soviet Union, meanwhile, occupied Manchuria and only pulled out when Chinese Communist forces were in place to claim that territory.
In 1945, the leaders of the Nationalist and Communist parties, Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Zedong, met for a series of talks on the formation of a post-war government. Both agreed on the importance of democracy, a unified military, and equality for all Chinese political parties. The truce was tenuous, however, and, in spite of repeated efforts by U.S. General George Marshall to broker an agreement, by 1946 the two sides were fighting an all-out civil war. Years of mistrust between the two sides thwarted efforts to form a coalition government.
As the civil war gained strength from 1947 to 1949, eventual Communist victory seemed more and more likely. Although the Communists did not hold any major cities after World War II, they had strong grassroots support, superior military organization and morale, and large stocks of weapons seized from Japanese supplies in Manchuria. Years of corruption and mismanagement had eroded popular support for the Nationalist Government. Early in 1947, the ROC Government was already looking to the island province of Taiwan, off the coast of Fujian Province, as a potential point of retreat. Although officials in the Truman Administration were not convinced of the strategic importance to the United States of maintaining relations with Nationalist China, no one in the U.S. Government wanted to be charged with facilitating the "loss" of China to communism. Military and financial aid to the floundering Nationalists continued, though not at the level that Chiang Kai-shek would have liked. In October of 1949, after a string of military victories, Mao Zedong proclaimed the establishment of the PRC; Chiang and his forces fled to Taiwan to regroup and plan for their efforts to retake the mainland.
The ability of the PRC and the United States to find common ground in the wake of the establishment of the new Chinese state was hampered by both domestic politics and global tensions. In August of 1949, the Truman administration published the "China White Paper," which explained past U.S. policy toward China based upon the principle that only Chinese forces could determine the outcome of their civil war. Unfortunately for Truman, this step failed to protect his administration from charges of having "lost" China. The unfinished nature of the revolution, leaving a broken and exiled but still vocal Nationalist Government and army on Taiwan, only heightened the sense among U.S. anti-communists that the outcome of the struggle could be reversed. The outbreak of the Korean War, which pitted the PRC and the United States on opposite sides of an international conflict, ended any opportunity for accommodation between the PRC and the United States. Truman's desire to prevent the Korean conflict from spreading south led to the U.S. policy of protecting the Chiang Kai-shek government on Taiwan.
For more than twenty years after the Chinese revolution of 1949, there were few contacts, limited trade and no diplomatic ties between the two countries. Until the 1970s, the United States continued to recognize the Republic of China, located on Taiwan, as China's true government and supported that government's holding the Chinese seat in the United Nations.
| msmarco_doc_00_8498536 |
http://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/dwe/16336.htm | The Annexation of Texas, the Mexican-American War, and the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, 1845-1848 | The Annexation of Texas, the Mexican-American War, and the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, 1845-1848
The Annexation of Texas, the Mexican-American War, and the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, 1845-1848 | The Annexation of Texas, the Mexican-American War, and the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, 1845-1848
The Annexation of Texas, the Mexican-American War, and the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, 1845-1848
During his tenure, U.S. President James K. Polk oversaw the greatest territorial expansion of the United States to date. Polk accomplished this through the annexation of Texas in 1845, the negotiation of the Oregon Treaty with Great Britain in 1846, and the conclusion of the Mexican-American War in 1848, which ended with the signing and ratification of the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo in 1848. These events brought within the control of the United States the future states of Texas, California, Nevada, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Washington, and Oregon, as well as portions of what would later become Oklahoma, Colorado, Kansas, Wyoming, and Montana.
Following Texas’ successful war of independence against Mexico in 1836, President Martin van Buren refrained from annexing Texas after the Mexicans threatened war. Accordingly, while the United States extended diplomatic recognition to Texas, it took no further action concerning annexation until 1844, when President John Tyler restarted negotiations with the Republic of Texas. His efforts culminated on April 12 in a Treaty of Annexation, an event that caused Mexico to sever diplomatic relations with United States. Tyler, however, lacked the votes in the Senate to ratify the treaty, and it was defeated by a wide margin in June. Shortly before he left office, Tyler tried again, this time through a joint resolution of both houses of Congress. With the support of President-elect Polk, Tyler managed to get the joint resolution passed on March 1, 1845, and Texas was admitted into the United States on December 29.
While Mexico did not follow through with its threat to declare war if the United States annexed Texas, relations between the two nations remained tense due to Mexico’s disputed border with Texas. According to the Texans, their state included significant portions of what is today New Mexico and Colorado, and the western and southern portions of Texas itself, which they claimed extended to the Rio Grande River. The Mexicans, however, argued that the border only extended to the Nueces River, several miles to the north of the Rio Grande.
In July, 1845, Polk, who had been elected on a platform of expansionism, ordered the commander of the U.S. Army in Texas, Zachary Taylor, to move his forces into the disputed lands that lay between the Nueces and Rio Grande rivers. In November, Polk dispatched Congressman John Slidell to Mexico with instructions to negotiate the purchase of the disputed areas along the Texas-Mexican border, and the territory comprising the present-day states of New Mexico and California.
Following the failure of Slidell’s mission in May 1846, Polk used news of skirmishes between Mexican troops and Taylor’s army to gain Congressional support for a declaration of war against Mexico. The President neglected to inform Congress, however, that the Mexicans had used force only after Taylor’s troops had positioned themselves on the banks of the Rio Grande River, which was effectively Mexican territory. On May 13, 1846, the United States declared war on Mexico.
Following the capture of Mexico City in September 1847, Nicholas Trist, chief clerk of the Department of State and Polk's peace emissary, began negotiations for a peace treaty with the Mexican Government under terms similar to those pursued by Slidell the previous year. Polk soon grew concerned by Trist’s conduct, however, believing that he would not press for strong enough terms from the Mexicans, and because Trist became a close friend of General Winfield Scott, a Whig who was thought to be a strong contender for his party’s presidential nomination for the 1848 election. Furthermore, the war had encouraged expansionist Democrats to call for a complete annexation of Mexico. Polk recalled Trist in October.
Believing that he was on the cusp of an agreement with the Mexicans, Trist ignored the recall order and presented Polk with the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, which was signed in Mexico City on February 2, 1848. Under the terms of the treaty, Mexico ceded to the United States approximately 525,000 square miles (55% of its prewar territory) in exchange for a $15 million lump sum payment, and the assumption by the U.S. Government of up to $3.25 million worth of debts owed by Mexico to U.S. citizens.
While Polk would have preferred a more extensive annexation of Mexican territory, he realized that prolonging the war would have disastrous political consequences and decided to submit the treaty to the Senate for ratification. Although there was substantial opposition to the treaty within the Senate, on March 10, 1848, it passed by a razor-thin margin of 38 to 14.
The war had another significant outcome. On August 8, 1846, Congressman David Wilmot introduced a rider to an appropriations bill that stipulated that “neither slavery nor involuntary servitude shall ever exist” in any territory acquired by the United States in the war against Mexico. While Southern senators managed block adoption of the so-called “Wilmot Proviso,” in nonetheless provoked a poltiical firestorm. The question of whether slavery could expand throughout the United States continue to fester until the defeat of the Confederacy in 1865.
| msmarco_doc_00_8505090 |
http://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/dwe/82011.htm | The Opening to China Part I: the First Opium War, the United States, and the Treaty of Wangxia, 1839-1844 | The Opening to China Part I: the First Opium War, the United States, and the Treaty of Wangxia, 1839-1844
The Opening to China Part I: the First Opium War, the United States, and the Treaty of Wangxia, 1839-1844 | The Opening to China Part I: the First Opium War, the United States, and the Treaty of Wangxia, 1839-1844
The Opening to China Part I: the First Opium War, the United States, and the Treaty of Wangxia, 1839-1844
The Treaty of Wangxia (Wang-hsia) was the first formal treaty signed between the United States and China in 1844. It served as an American counterpart to the Anglo-Chinese Treaty of Nanjing that ended the First Opium War in 1842. The Opium War and these treaties were emblematic of an era in which Western powers tried to gain unfettered access to Chinese products and markets for European and U.S. trade.
Western traders, including those from the United States, had long sought a variety of Chinese products (including furniture, silk and tea), but found there were few products that China wanted from the West. American trade with China began as early as 1784, relying on North American exports such as furs, sandalwood, and ginseng, but American interest in Chinese products soon outstripped the Chinese appetite for these American exports. The British had already discovered a great market in southern China for smuggled opium, and American traders soon also turned to opium to supplement their exports to China. Beyond the health problems related to opium addiction, the increasing opium trade with the Western powers meant that for the first time, China imported more goods than it exported. Settling this financial problem eventually led to the First Opium War between Great Britain and China, from 1839 to 1942. After defeating the Chinese in a series of naval conflicts, the British were in a position to make a large number of demands from the weaker Qing Government of China, in the Anglo-Chinese Treaty of Nanjing. Not to be outdone, U.S. negotiators sought to conclude a similar treaty with the Chinese, to guarantee the United States many of the favorable terms awarded the British. The Chinese readily agreed in an effort to keep all foreigners on the same footing.
U.S. President John Tyler chose Massachusetts Congressman Caleb Cushing as his representative in treaty negotiations with the Chinese. Cushing and his counterparts reached the terms of the treaty quickly and signed it at Wangxia, a suburb of the Portuguese port city of Macau, in 1844. The Treaty of Wangxia replicated many of the key terms of the Treaty of Nanjing. Most importantly, it established five treaty ports as open for Chinese-Western trade (Guangzhou, Xiamen, Fuzhou, Ningbo, and Shanghai). These treaty ports became key crossroads for Western and Chinese culture, as they were the first locations where foreigners and foreign trading operations could own land in China.
The U.S. treaty was somewhat longer than the British version, as it included major points from the Treaty of Nanjing, but also added some issues of particular interest to the United States. Article 17 protected the interests of American missionaries in China (several had acted as translators during the negotiation process). Article 18 allowed Americans living or working in China to employ tutors to help them learn Chinese, a practice formerly forbidden by the Chinese Government. Unlike Great Britain, the United States agreed that anyone involved in the opium trade or the smuggling of contraband would be prosecuted under Chinese law, but, with that exception, the treaty allowed for other Americans in China to be afforded the benefits of extraterritoriality. This meant that any American accused of committing a crime in China would not be subject to the jurisdiction of the local law, but would instead be tried and, if necessary, punished by American officials in China. Due to the most-favored-nation clause in all of the western powers' treaties with the Chinese Government, any special consideration given one power could ultimately be claimed by them all.
In the 1850s, the United States and the European powers grew increasingly dissatisfied with both the terms of their treaties with China, and the Qing Government's failure to adhere to them. The British forced the issue by attacking the Chinese port cities of Guangzhou and Tianjin in the Second Opium War (1857-1858). Under the most-favored-nation clause, all of the foreign powers operating in China were permitted to seek the same concessions of China that Great Britain achieved by force. As a result, France, Russia, and the United States all signed treaties with China at Tianjin in quick succession in 1858.
The agreements reached between the Western powers and China following the Opium Wars came to be known as the "unequal treaties" because in practice they gave foreigners privileged status and extracted concessions from the Chinese. Ironically, the Qing Government had fully supported the clauses on extraterritoriality and most-favored nation status in the first treaties in order to keep the foreigners in line. This treaty system also marked a new direction for Chinese contact with the outside world. For years, the Chinese had conducted their foreign policy through the tribute system, in which foreign powers wishing to trade with China were required first to bring a tribute to the emperor, acknowledging the superiority of Chinese culture and the ultimate authority of the Chinese ruler. Unlike China's neighbors, the European powers ultimately refused to make these acknowledgements in order to trade, and they demanded instead that China adhere to Western diplomatic practices, such as the creation of treaties. Although the unequal treaties and the use of the most-favored-nation clause were effective in creating and maintaining open trade with China, both were also important factors in building animosity and resentment toward Western imperialism.
| msmarco_doc_00_8511055 |
http://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/dwe/87721.htm | Gadsden Purchase, 1853-1854 | Gadsden Purchase, 1853-1854
Gadsden Purchase, 1853-1854 | Gadsden Purchase, 1853-1854
Gadsden Purchase, 1853-1854
The Gadsden Purchase, or Treaty, was an agreement between the United States and Mexico, finalized in 1854, in which the United States agreed to pay Mexico $10 million for a 29,670 square mile portion of Mexico that later became part of Arizona and New Mexico. Gadsden's Purchase provided the land necessary for a southern transcontinental railroad and attempted to resolve conflicts that lingered after the Mexican-American War.
While the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo formally ended the Mexican-American War in February 1848, tensions between the Governments of Mexico and the United States continued to simmer over the next six years. The two countries each claimed the Mesilla Valley as part of their own country. The Mexican Government demanded monetary compensation for Native American attacks in the region because, under the Treaty, the United States had agreed to protect Mexico from such attacks; however, the United States refused to comply, insisting that while they had agreed to protect Mexico from Native American attacks, they had not agreed to financially compensate for attacks that did occur. The persistent efforts of private American citizens to enter Mexico illegally and incite rebellions in an effort to gain territory exacerbated tensions between the governments.
These continuing tensions between Mexico and the United States complicated U.S. efforts to find a southern route for a transcontinental railroad as the only viable routes passed through Mexican territory. In 1847, the United States attempted to buy the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, an isthmus on the southern edge of North America, as an alternative means of providing a southern connection between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Mexico, however, had already granted Mexican Don Jos� de Garay the right to build colonies for Americans on the isthmus with capital from the New Orleans Company. Fearing the colonists would rebel as those in Texas had, Mexican President Juan Ceballos revoked the grant, angering U.S. investors.
In 1853, Mexican officials evicted Americans from their property in the disputed Mesilla Valley. When the U.S. Government did not act, Governor William Lane of New Mexico declared the Mesilla Valley part of the U.S. territory of New Mexico. Mexican President Antonio de Santa Anna responded by sending troops into the valley. Attempting to diffuse the situation, U.S. President Franklin Pierce sent James Gadsden, the new U.S. Minister to Mexico, to negotiate with Santa Anna. Secretary of State William Marcy instructed Gadsden to renegotiate a border that provided a route for a southern railroad, arrange for a release of U.S. financial obligations for Native American attacks, and settle the monetary claims between the countries related to the Garay project.
Gadsden met with Santa Anna on September 25, 1853. President Pierce sent verbal instructions for Gadsden through Christopher Ward, an agent for U.S. investors in the Garay project, giving Gadsden negotiating options ranging from $50 million for lower California and a large portion of northern Mexico to $15 million for a smaller land deal that would still provide for a southern railroad. Ward also lied to Gadsden, stating the President wanted the claims of the Garay party addressed in any treaty concluded with the Mexican Government; however, President Pierce never gave Ward these instructions because he did not believe in government involvement in affairs between private companies and foreign governments. Santa Anna refused to sell a large portion of Mexico, but he needed money to fund an army to put down ongoing rebellions, so on December 30, 1953 he and Gadsden signed a treaty stipulating that the United States would pay $15 million for 45,000 square miles south of the New Mexico territory and assume private American claims, including those related to the Garay deal. The United States Government agreed to work toward preventing American raids along Mexico's border and Mexico voided U.S. responsibility for Native American attacks.
With a great deal of difficulty resulting from the increasing strife between the northern and southern states, the U.S. Senate ratified a revised treaty on April 25, 1854. The new treaty reduced the amount paid to Mexico to $10 million and the land purchased to 29,670 square miles, and removed any mention of Native American attacks and private claims. President Pierce signed the treaty and Gadsden presented the new treaty to Santa Anna, who signed it on June 8, 1854.
After Gadsden's Purchase a new border dispute caused tension over the United States' payment, and the treaty failed to resolve the issues surrounding financial claims and border attacks. However, it did create the southern border of the present-day United States, despite the beliefs of the vast majority of policymakers at the time who thought the United States would eventually expand further into Mexico.
| msmarco_doc_00_8517328 |
http://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/ea/104271.htm | The Limited Test Ban Treaty, 1963 | The Limited Test Ban Treaty, 1963
The Limited Test Ban Treaty, 1963 | The Limited Test Ban Treaty, 1963
The Limited Test Ban Treaty, 1963
In the early 1960s, U.S. President John F. Kennedy and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev each expressed deep concern about the strength of their respective nations' nuclear arms forces. This concern led them to complete the first arms control agreement of the Cold War, the Limited Test Ban Treaty of 1963. This treaty did not have much practical effect on the development and proliferation of nuclear weapons, but it established an important precedent for future arms control.
Both superpowers entered the 1960s determined to build or maintain nuclear superiority. The Soviet Union had led the way in the development of intercontinental ballistic missiles after its launch of the first man-made satellite, Sputnik, in 1957. In just a few years, it had developed an arsenal of long and medium range missiles that had raised alarm in Washington. President Kennedy had even campaigned for office on a claim that President Dwight Eisenhower had allowed the Soviet Union to far out-produce the United States in nuclear technology, creating a "missile gap." However, soon after he took office, the Kennedy Administration determined that the balance of nuclear power remained in favor of the United States.
With both sides working to develop new and better nuclear technology over the course of the late 1950s and early 1960s, each engaged in a series of test explosions. These nuclear tests received worldwide scrutiny, not only for what they meant for the arms race but also for what they meant for human life. As the United States, Soviet Union and United Kingdom tested new nuclear technologies in the earth's atmosphere, concerns emerged worldwide about the potential effects of radioactive fallout on the people exposed to it. This led to the formation of activist groups and public discussion of the issue.
The three countries entered into negotiations for a comprehensive test ban treaty in 1958. Having recently completed rounds of tests, at that time all three entered into a voluntary moratorium on all forms of testing, initiated first by the Soviet Union but later adhered to by the United States and Great Britain. In spite of this willingness to self-restrict testing, one of the most difficult issues preventing the conclusion of a formal treaty was the question of verification. The United States and Great Britain, in particular, pushed for on-site inspections of Soviet facilities as without them, it was impossible to determine whether the Soviets were continuing underground nuclear tests or just experiencing the frequent seismic activity to which its geographic area was prone. However, the Soviets were hesitant to permit such onsite inspections of its nuclear facilities, interpreting U.S. insistence on these inspections as a ruse to facilitate U.S. efforts to spy on Soviet advancements. After the Soviet military shot down an American U-2 spy plane over Russia in 1960, the prospects for reaching an agreement on the inspections issue all but disappeared. Khrushchev also rejected the idea of having the United Nations conduct inspections after observing what he believed was the organization's mishandling of the Congo crisis. Instead, in the wake of these incidents both the United States and the Soviet Union resumed testing.
In 1961, Kennedy established an Arms Control and Disarmament Agency within the U.S. Department of State, and the new organization reopened talks with the Soviet Union. That year, however, neither side was ready to make major concessions. As long as it remained difficult to verify that the other side was not engaging in clandestine testing, there was little incentive to form an agreement.
Over the course of the next year, however, the situation changed dramatically for a number of reasons. Concerns about nuclear proliferation increased interest in the testing ban, as France exploded its first weapon in 1960 and the People's Republic of China appeared close to successfully building its own atom bomb. However, it was the rapid escalation of the Cuban Missile Crisis in October of 1962 that compelled leaders in both the United States and the Soviet Union to pursue more aggressively an agreement that could help them avoid the devastating destruction that nuclear warfare would bring. Although the crisis provided the impetus for an agreement, its final negotiation was made possible by the decision to step back from the original idea of a comprehensive test ban treaty and work instead on a more limited arrangement. Atmospheric and underground tests proved equally effective for scientific purposes, so there was no reason to insist that access to both types of testing remain available. In past negotiations, the inability to detect underground explosions and agree on provisions for inspections to ensure such explosions were not taking place became a problem that prevented an agreement. Once the Soviet Union and the United States decided that underground testing would not be included in this first treaty, the two sides very quickly reached terms they could agree upon.
The Limited Test Ban Treaty was signed by the United States, the Soviet Union, and Great Britain in 1963, and it banned all nuclear tests in the atmosphere, in space, or underwater. Because it stopped the spread of radioactive nuclear material through atmospheric testing and set the precedent for a new wave of arms control agreements, the Treaty was hailed as a success. The Treaty was the first of several Cold War agreements on nuclear arms, including the Non-Proliferation Treaty that was signed in 1968 and the SALT I agreements of 1972. In 1974, the Threshold Test Ban Treaty returned to the question of nuclear testing by limiting underground testing of bombs with a yield greater than 150 kilotons.
| msmarco_doc_00_8522612 |
http://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/ea/17739.htm | The Bay of Pigs and the Cuban Missile Crisis, 1961-1962 | The Bay of Pigs and the Cuban Missile Crisis, 1961-1962
The Bay of Pigs and the Cuban Missile Crisis, 1961-1962 | The Bay of Pigs and the Cuban Missile Crisis, 1961-1962
The Bay of Pigs and the Cuban Missile Crisis, 1961-1962
In early 1961 President John F. Kennedy concluded that Fidel Castro was a Soviet client working to subvert Latin America. After much debate in his administration Kennedy authorized a clandestine invasion of Cuba by a brigade of Cuban exiles. The brigade hit the beach at the Bay of Pigs on April 17, 1961, but the operation collapsed in spectacular failure within 2 days. Kennedy took public responsibility for the mistakes made, but remained determined to rid Cuba of Castro.
In November 1961 Kennedy approved Operation Mongoose, a secret plan aimed at stimulating a rebellion in Cuba that the United States could support. While the Kennedy administration planned Operation Mongoose, Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev secretly introduced medium-range nuclear missiles into Cuba. U.S intelligence picked up evidence of a general Soviet arms build-up during routine surveillance flights and on September 4, 1962, Kennedy issued a public warning against the introduction of offensive weapons into Cuba. A U-2 flight on October 14 provided the first proof of Soviet medium-range ballistic missiles in Cuba. Kennedy called together 18 of his closest advisers to try to resolve the most dangerous U.S.-Soviet confrontation of the cold war. Some advisers argued for an air strike to take out the missiles and destroy the Cuban air force followed by a U.S. invasion of Cuba; others favored warnings to Cuba and the Soviet Union. The President decided upon a middle course. On October 22 Kennedy ordered a naval quarantine of Cuba. He sent a letter to Khrushchev calling upon him to remove the missiles, thus initiating an exchange of correspondence between the two leaders that continued throughout the crisis.
On October 24 Soviet vessels approached the quarantine line but turned back; 3 days later, the Cubans shot down a U.S. reconnaissance plane. After these near flash points, Kennedy responded on October 27 to the first of two letters sent by Khrushchev on October 26 and 27 proposing various settlements of the crisis. Kennedy accepted the Soviet offer to withdraw the missiles from Cuba in return for an end to the quarantine and a U.S. pledge not to invade Cuba. The same day Attorney General Robert Kennedy told Soviet Ambassador Dobrynin that if the Soviet Union did not remove the missiles the United States would do so. Robert Kennedy also offered an assurance that Khrushchev needed: several months after the missiles were removed from Cuba, the United States would similarly remove its missiles from Turkey. On the basis of those understandings, the Soviet Union agreed on October 28 to remove its missiles from Cuba. The quarantine and the crisis lingered until the removal of the Soviet missiles was verified at sea on November 20, and the Soviet Union agreed to remove the medium-range Il-28 bombers it had also introduced into Cuba. Exactly how close the United States and the Soviet Union came to nuclear war over Cuba remains one of the most keenly discussed issues of the cold war.
| msmarco_doc_00_8528762 |
http://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/gp/17661.htm | Annexation of Hawaii, 1898 | Annexation of Hawaii, 1898
Annexation of Hawaii, 1898 | Annexation of Hawaii, 1898
Annexation of Hawaii, 1898
America's annexation of Hawaii in 1898 extended U.S. territory into the Pacific and highlighted resulted from economic integration and the rise of the United States as a Pacific power. For most of the 1800s, leaders in Washington were concerned that Hawaii might become part of a European nation's empire. During the 1830s, Britain and France forced Hawaii to accept treaties giving them economic privileges. In 1842, Secretary of State Daniel Webster sent a letter to Hawaiian agents in Washington affirming U.S. interests in Hawaii and opposing annexation by any other nation. He also proposed to Great Britain and France that no nation should seek special privileges or engage in further colonization of the islands. In 1849, the United States and Hawaii concluded a treaty of friendship that served as the basis of official relations between the parties.
A key provisioning spot for American whaling ships, fertile ground for American protestant missionaries, and a new source of sugar cane production, Hawaii's economy became increasingly integrated with the United States. An 1875 trade reciprocity treaty further linked the two countries and U.S. sugar plantation owners from the United States came to dominate the economy and politics of the islands. When Queen Liliuokalani moved to establish a stronger monarchy, Americans under the leadership of Samuel Dole deposed her in 1893. The planters' belief that a coup and annexation by the United States would remove the threat of a devastating tariff on their sugar also spurred them to action. The administration of President Benjamin Harrison encouraged the takeover, and dispatched sailors from the USS Boston to the islands to surround the royal palace. The U.S. minister to Hawaii, John L. Stevens, worked closely with the new government.
Dole sent a delegation to Washington in 1894 seeking annexation, but the new President, Grover Cleveland, opposed annexation and tried to restore the Queen. Dole declared Hawaii an independent republic. Spurred by the nationalism aroused by the Spanish-American War, the United States annexed Hawaii in 1898 at the urging of President William McKinley. Hawaii was made a territory in 1900, and Dole became its first governor. Racial attitudes and party politics in the United States deferred statehood until a bipartisan compromise linked Hawaii's status to Alaska, and both became states in 1959.
| msmarco_doc_00_8532269 |
http://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/id/87718.htm | The Immigration Act of 1924 (The Johnson-Reed Act) | The Immigration Act of 1924 (The Johnson-Reed Act)
The Immigration Act of 1924 (The Johnson-Reed Act) | The Immigration Act of 1924 (The Johnson-Reed Act)
The Immigration Act of 1924 (The Johnson-Reed Act)
The Immigration Act of 1924 limited the number of immigrants allowed entry into the United States through a national origins quota. The quota provided immigration visas to two percent of the total number of people of each nationality in the United States as of the 1890 national census. It completely excluded immigrants from Asia.
In 1917, the U.S. Congress enacted the first widely restrictive immigration law. The uncertainty generated over national security during World War I made it possible for Congress to pass this Act, and it included several important provisions that paved the way for the 1924 Act. The 1917 Act implemented a literacy test that required immigrants over 16 years old to demonstrate basic reading comprehension in any language. It also increased the tax paid by new immigrants upon arrival and allowed immigration officials to exercise more discretion in making decisions over whom to exclude. Finally, the Act excluded from entry anyone born in a geographically defined "Asiatic Barred Zone" except for Japanese and Filipinos. In 1907, the Japanese Government had voluntarily limited Japanese immigration to the U.S. in the Gentlemen's Agreement. The Philippines was an American colony, so its citizens were American nationals and could travel freely to the United States. China was not included in the Barred Zone, but the Chinese were already denied immigration visas under the Chinese Exclusion Act.
The literacy test alone was not enough to prevent most potential immigrants from entering, so members of Congress sought a new way to restrict immigration in the 1920s. Immigration expert and Republican Senator from Vermont William P. Dillingham introduced a measure to create immigration quotas, which he set at three percent of the total population of the foreign-born of each nationality in the United States as recorded in the 1910 census. This put the total number of visas available each year to new immigrants at 350,000. It did not, however, establish quotas of any kind for residents of the Western Hemisphere. President Wilson opposed the restrictive act, preferring a more liberal immigration policy, so he used the pocket veto to prevent its passage. In early 1921, the newly inaugurated President Warren Harding called Congress back to a special session to pass the law. In 1922, the act was renewed for another two years.
When the Congressional debate over immigration began in 1924, the quota system was so well-established that no one questioned whether to maintain it, but rather discussed how to adjust it. Though there were advocates for raising quotas and allowing more people to enter, the champions of restriction triumphed. They created a plan that lowered the existing quota from three to two percent of the foreign born population. They also pushed back the year on which quota calculations were based from 1910 to 1890.
Another change to the quota altered the basis of the quota calculations. The quota had been based on the number of people born outside of the United States, or the number of immigrants in the United States. The new law traced the origins of the whole of the American population, including natural-born citizens. The new quota calculations included large numbers of people of British descent whose families were long resident in the United States. As a result, the percentage of visas available to individuals from the British Isles and Western Europe increased, but newer immigration from other areas like Southern and Eastern Europe was limited.
The 1924 Immigration Act also included a provision excluding from entry any alien who by virtue of race or nationality was ineligible for citizenship. Existing nationality laws dating from 1790 and 1870 excluded people of Asian lineage from naturalizing. As a result, the 1924 Act meant that even Asians not previously prevented from immigrating - the Japanese in particular - would no longer be admitted to the United States. Many in Japan were very offended by the new law, which was a violation of the Gentlemen's Agreement. The Japanese government protested, but the law remained, resulting in an increase in existing tensions between the two nations. But it appeared that the U.S. Congress had decided that preserving the racial composition of the country was more important than promoting good ties with the Japanese empire.
The restrictionist principles of the Act could have resulted in strained relations with some European countries as well, but these potential problems did not appear for several reasons. The global depression of the 1930s and World War II both served to curtail European emigration. When these crises had passed, emergency provisions for the resettlement of displaced persons in 1948 and 1950 helped the United States avoid conflict over its new immigration laws.
In all of its parts, the most basic purpose of the 1924 Immigration Act was to preserve the ideal of American homogeneity. Congress revised the Act in 1952.
| msmarco_doc_00_8535031 |
http://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/id/99849.htm | The Neutrality Acts, 1930s | The Neutrality Acts, 1930s
The Neutrality Acts, 1930s | The Neutrality Acts, 1930s
The Neutrality Acts, 1930s
In the 1930s, the United States Government enacted a series of laws designed to prevent the United States from being embroiled in a foreign war by clearly stating the terms of U.S. neutrality. Although many Americans had rallied to join President Woodrow Wilson's crusade to make the world "safe for democracy" in 1917, by the 1930s critics argued that U.S. involvement in the First World War had been driven by bankers and munitions traders with business interests in Europe. These findings fueled a growing "isolationist" movement that argued the United States should steer clear of future wars and remain neutral by avoiding financial deals with countries at war.
By the mid-1930s, events in Europe and Asia indicated that a new world war might soon erupt and the U.S. Congress took action to enforce U.S. neutrality. On August 31, 1935, Congress passed the first Neutrality Act prohibiting the export of "arms, ammunition, and implements of war" from the United States to foreign nations at war and requiring arms manufacturers in the United States to apply for an export license. American citizens traveling in war zones were also advised that they did so at their own risk. President Franklin D. Roosevelt originally opposed the legislation, but relented in the face of strong Congressional and public opinion. On February 29, 1936, Congress renewed the Act until May of 1937 and prohibited Americans from extending any loans to belligerent nations.
The outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in 1936 and the rising tide of fascism in Europe increased support for extending and expanding the Neutrality Act of 1937. Under this law, U.S.citizens were forbidden from traveling on belligerent ships, and American merchant ships were prevented from transporting arms to belligerents even if those arms were produced outside of the United States. The Act gave the President the authority to bar all belligerent ships from U.S. waters, and to extend the export embargo to any additional "articles or materials." Finally, civil wars would also fall under the terms of the Act.
The Neutrality Act of 1937 did contain one important concession to Roosevelt: belligerent nations were allowed, at the discretion of the President, to acquire any items except arms from the United States, so long as they immediately paid for such items and carried them on non-American ships�the so-called "cash-and-carry" provision. Since vital raw materials such as oil were not considered "implements of war," the "cash-and-carry" clause would be quite valuable to whatever nation could make use of it. Roosevelt had engineered its inclusion as a deliberate way to assist Great Britain and France in any war against the Axis Powers, since he realized that they were the only countries that had both the hard currency and ships to make use of "cash-and-carry." Unlike the rest of the Act, which was permanent, this provision was set to expire after two years.
Following Germany's occupation of Czechoslovakia in March of 1939, Roosevelt suffered a humiliating defeat when Congress rebuffed his attempt to renew "cash-and-carry" and expand it to include arms sales. President Roosevelt persisted and as war spread in Europe, his chances of expanding "cash-and-carry" increased. After a fierce debate in Congress, in November of 1939, a final Neutrality Act passed. This Act lifted the arms embargo and put all trade with belligerent nations under the terms of "cash-and-carry." The ban on loans remained in effect, and American ships were barred from transporting goods to belligerent ports.
In October of 1941, after the United States had committed itself to aiding the Allies through Lend-Lease, Roosevelt gradually sought to repeal certain portions of the Act. On October 17, 1941, the House of Representatives revoked section VI, which forbade the arming of U.S. merchant ships, by a wide margin. Following a series of deadly U-boat attacks against U.S. Navy and merchant ships, the Senate passed another bill in November that also repealed legislation banning American ships from entering belligerent ports or "combat zones."
Overall, the Neutrality Acts represented a compromise whereby the United States Government accommodated the isolationist sentiment of the American public, but still retained some ability to interact with the world. In the end, the terms of the Neutrality Acts became irrelevant once the United States joined the Allies in the fight against Nazi Germany and Japan in December 1941.
| msmarco_doc_00_8540497 |
http://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/ip/108646.htm | The Progressive Movement and U.S. Foreign Policy, 1890-1920s | The Progressive Movement and U.S. Foreign Policy, 1890-1920s
The Progressive Movement and U.S. Foreign Policy, 1890-1920s | The Progressive Movement and U.S. Foreign Policy, 1890-1920s
The Progressive Movement and U.S. Foreign Policy, 1890-1920s
The Progressive movement was a turn-of-the-century political movement interested in furthering social and political reform, curbing political corruption caused by political machines, and limiting the political influence of large corporations. Although many Progressives saw U.S. power in a foreign arena as an opportunity to enact the Progressive domestic agenda overseas, and to improve foreign societies, others were concerned about the adverse effects of U.S. interventions and colonialism.
The Progressive movement began with a domestic agenda. Progressives were interested in establishing a more transparent and accountable government which would work to improve U.S. society. These reformers favored such policies as civil service reform, food safety laws, and increased political rights for women and U.S. workers. In the 1890s, the Progressive movement also began to question the power of large businesses and monopolies after a series of journalistic expos�s that revealed questionable business practices.
Throughout the 1890s, the U.S. Government became increasingly likely to rely on its military and economic power to pursue foreign policy goals. The most prominent action during this period, the Spanish-American War, resulted in U.S. rule of the former Spanish colonies of Puerto Rico and the Philippines, as well as increased influence over Cuba. These territories captured in the Spanish-American war had a varied response toward U.S. occupation. In the Philippines, American forces faced armed insurgency, while in Puerto Rico, working-class and Progressive Puerto Ricans saw the United States as a successful counterweight to local sugar industry elites.
Many Progressives, including U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt, saw no conflict between imperialism and reform at home -to them, both were forms of uplift, reform and improvement, and so they saw in these new colonies an opportunity to further the Progressive agenda around the world. However, especially after the violence of the Philippine-American War, other Progressives became increasingly vocal about their opposition to U.S. foreign intervention and imperialism. Still others argued that foreign ventures would detract from much-needed domestic political and social reforms. Under the leadership of U.S. Senator Robert La Follette, Progressive opposition to foreign intervention further increased under the Dollar Diplomacy policies of Republican President William Howard Taft and Secretary of State Philander Knox. However, Progressives remained mostly interested in domestic issues, and Republican Progressives sometimes hesitated to break party lines on foreign policy, hoping to ensure greater influence on domestic matters within the Republican Party. Similarly, after the election of Democratic President Woodrow Wilson, Democratic Progressives also tended to follow Wilson's lead on foreign policy issues, while the partisan reaction against them was led by Republican Progressives. Wilson also faced opposition from John Barrett, Director-General of the Pan-American Union, whom Wilson eventually forced out of office in 1919.
President Wilson may have had greater reservations about U.S. foreign intervention in the Americas than President Theodore Roosevelt, but he was willing to intervene in the Mexican Revolution. Concerns about possible German submarine warfare also caused him to order U.S. military interventions in Haiti and the Dominican Republic, and also led to the purchase of the U.S. Virgin Islands from Denmark. The military occupations incorporated elements of the Progressive program, attempting to establish effective local police forces, reform land laws, build public infrastructure, and increase public access to education. However, these programs were hampered by local opposition to U.S. occupation and U.S. policies that inadvertently proved counterproductive. Where Progressive policies threatened to destabilize U.S. authority, U.S. officials in charge of occupying forces opted for stability rather than authentic Progressive changes.
In foreign policy, the Progressive movement also split over the ratification of the Treaty of Versailles. Progressive U.S. Senator William Borah led the campaign against ratification, and he would increasingly become the champion of the isolationist movement until his death in 1940. Other Progressives viewed the treaty more favorably.
In the 1920s, the Progressive movement began to be supplanted by several different movements. In some cases, such as women's suffrage, Progressive victory caused activists to lose momentum to push for further change. The Progressive wing of the Republican Party was weakened by the party splits of 1912 and 1924, which were attempts to form a third, Progressive party. The Progressive wing of the Democratic Party would eventually be subsumed under the broader New Deal coalition of Franklin Roosevelt. Foreign policy matters would increasingly be focused on the buildup to the Second World War, and Progressive issues took a back seat to the interventionist/isolationist split.
| msmarco_doc_00_8545378 |
http://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/ip/87722.htm | The Philippine-American War, 1899-1902 | The Philippine-American War, 1899-1902
The Philippine-American War, 1899-1902 | The Philippine-American War, 1899-1902
The Philippine-American War, 1899-1902
After its defeat in the Spanish-American War of 1898, Spain ceded its longstanding colony of the Philippines to the United States in the Treaty of Paris. On February 4, 1899, just two days before the U.S. Senate ratified the treaty, fighting broke out between American forces and Filipino nationalists led by Emilio Aguinaldo who sought independence rather than a change in colonial rulers. The ensuing Philippine-American War lasted three years and resulted in the death of over 4,200 American and over 20,000 Filipino combatants. As many as 200,000 Filipino civilians died from violence, famine, and disease.
The decision by U.S. policymakers to annex the Philippines was not without domestic controversy. Americans who advocated annexation evinced a variety of motivations: desire for commercial opportunities in Asia, concern that the Filipinos were incapable of self-rule, and fear that if the United States did not take control of the islands, another power (such as Germany or Japan) might do so. Meanwhile, American opposition to U.S. colonial rule of the Philippines came in many forms, ranging from those who thought it morally wrong for the United States to be engaged in colonialism, to those who feared that annexation might eventually permit the non-white Filipinos to have a role in American national government. Others were wholly unconcerned about the moral or racial implications of imperialism and sought only to oppose the policies of President William McKinley's administration.
After the Spanish-American War, while the American public and politicians debated the annexation question, Filipino revolutionaries under Aguinaldo seized control of most of the Philippines' main island of Luzon and proclaimed the establishment of the independent Philippine Republic. When it became clear that U.S. forces were intent on imposing American colonial control over the islands, the early clashes between the two sides in 1899 swelled into an all-out war. Americans tended to refer to the ensuing conflict as an "insurrection" rather than acknowledge the Filipinos' contention that they were fighting to ward off a foreign invader.
There were two phases to the Philippine-American War. The first phase, from February to November of 1899, was dominated by Aguinaldo's ill-fated attempts to fight a conventional war against the better-trained and equipped American troops. The second phase was marked by the Filipinos' shift to guerrilla-style warfare. It began in November of 1899, lasted through the capture of Aguinaldo in 1901 and into the spring of 1902, by which time most organized Filipino resistance had dissipated. President Theodore Roosevelt proclaimed a general amnesty and declared the conflict over on July 4, 1902, although minor uprisings and insurrections against American rule periodically occurred in the years that followed.
The United States entered the conflict with undeniable military advantages that included a trained fighting force, a steady supply of military equipment, and control of the archipelago's waterways. Meanwhile, the Filipino forces were hampered by their inability to gain any kind of outside support for their cause, chronic shortages of weapons and ammunition, and complications produced by the Philippines' geographic complexity. Under these conditions, Aguinaldo's attempt to fight a conventional war in the first few months of the conflict proved to be a fatal mistake; the Filipino army suffered severe losses in men and material before switching to the guerrilla tactics that might have been more effective if employed from the beginning of the conflict.
The war was brutal on both sides. U.S. forces at times burned villages, implemented civilian reconcentration policies, and employed torture on suspected guerrillas, while Filipino fighters also tortured captured soldiers and terrorized civilians who cooperated with American forces. Many civilians died during the conflict as a result of the fighting, cholera and malaria epidemics, and food shortages caused by several agricultural catastrophes.
Even as the fighting went on, the colonial government that the United States established in the Philippines in 1900 under future President William Howard Taft launched a pacification campaign that became known as the "policy of attraction." Designed to win over key elites and other Filipinos who did not embrace Aguinaldo's plans for the Philippines, this policy permitted a significant degree of self-government, introduced social reforms, and implemented plans for economic development. Over time, this program gained important Filipino adherents and undermined the revolutionaries' popular appeal, which significantly aided the United States' military effort to win the war.
In 1907, the Philippines convened its first elected assembly, and in 1916, the Jones Act promised the nation eventual independence. The archipelago became an autonomous commonwealth in 1935, and the U.S. granted independence in 1946.
| msmarco_doc_00_8550990 |
http://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/lw/103729.htm | The Launch of Sputnik, 1957 | The Launch of Sputnik, 1957
The Launch of Sputnik, 1957 | The Launch of Sputnik, 1957
The Launch of Sputnik, 1957
On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union launched the earth's first artificial satellite, Sputnik I. The successful launch came as a shock to experts and citizens in the United States, who had hoped that the United States would accomplish this scientific advancement first. The fact that the Soviets were successful fed fears that the U.S. military had generally fallen behind in developing new technology. As a result, the launch of Sputnik served to intensify the arms race and raise Cold War tensions.
During the 1950s, both the United States and the Soviet Union were working to develop new technology. Nazi Germany had been close to developing the world's first intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) near the end of the Second World War, and German scientists aided research in both countries in the wake of that conflict. Both countries were also engaged in developing satellites as a part of a goal set by the International Council of Scientific Unions, which had called for the launch of satellite technology during late 1957 or 1958. Over the course of the decade, the United States tested several varieties of rockets and missiles, but all of these tests ended in failure.
The Soviet launch of the first Sputnik satellite was one accomplishment in a string of technological successes. Few in the United States had anticipated it, and even those who did were not aware of just how impressive it would be. At 184 pounds, the Russian satellite was much heavier than anything the United States was developing at the time, and its successful launch was quickly followed by the launch of two additional satellites, including one that carried a dog into space. Together, these orbited the earth every 90-minutes and created fear that the United States lagged far behind in technological capability. These concerns were compounded when the United States learned that the Soviet Union also tested the first intercontinental ballistic missile that year.
Although President Dwight Eisenhower had tried to downplay the importance of the Sputnik launch to the American people, he poured additional funds and resources into the space program in an effort to catch up. The U.S. Government suffered a severe setback in December of 1957 when its first artificial satellite, named Vanguard, exploded on the launch pad, serving as a very visible reminder of how much the country had yet to accomplish to be able to compete militarily with the Soviets. At last, on January 31, 1958, the United States succeeded in launching its first satellite, the Explorer. The Explorer was still slighter than Sputnik, but its launch sent it deeper into space. The Soviets responded with yet another launch, and the space race continued.
The success of Sputnik had a major impact on the Cold War and the United States. Fear that they had fallen behind led U.S. policymakers to accelerate space and weapons programs. In the late 1950s, Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev boasted about Soviet technological superiority and growing stockpiles of ICBMs, so the United States worked simultaneously to develop its own ICBMs to counter what it assumed was a growing stockpile of Soviet missiles directed against the United States. With both countries researching new technology, talk of creating a treaty banning nuclear testing faded away for several years. In this way, the launch of Sputnik fueled both the space race and the arms race, in addition to increasing Cold War tensions, as each country worked to prepare new methods of attacking the other. Eventually, lawmakers and political campaigners in the United States successfully exploited the fear of a "missile gap" developing between U.S. and Soviet nuclear arsenals in the 1960 presidential election, which brought John F. Kennedy to power over Eisenhower's vice president, Richard Nixon. The Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 served to remind both sides of the dangers of the weapons they were developing.
| msmarco_doc_00_8556398 |
http://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/lw/82548.htm | The Eisenhower Doctrine, 1957 | The Eisenhower Doctrine, 1957
The Eisenhower Doctrine, 1957 | The Eisenhower Doctrine, 1957
The Eisenhower Doctrine, 1957
President Dwight D. Eisenhower announced the Eisenhower Doctrine in January 1957, and Congress approved it in March of the same year. Under the Eisenhower Doctrine, a country could request American economic assistance and/or aid from U.S. military forces if it was being threatened by armed aggression from another state. Eisenhower singled out the Soviet threat in his doctrine by authorizing the commitment of U.S. forces "to secure and protect the territorial integrity and political independence of such nations, requesting such aid against overt armed aggression from any nation controlled by international communism."
The Eisenhower Administration's decision to issue this doctrine was motivated in part by an increase in Arab hostility toward the West, and growing Soviet influence in Egypt and Syria following the Suez Crisis of 1956. The Suez Crisis, which had resulted in military mobilization by Great Britain, France, and Israel--as well as United Nations action--against Egypt, had encouraged pan-Arab sentiment in the Middle East, and elevated the popularity and influence of Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser. President Eisenhower believed that, as a result of the Suez conflict, a power vacuum had formed in the Middle East due to the loss of prestige of Great Britain and France. Eisenhower feared that this had allowed Nasser to spread his pan-Arab policies and form dangerous alliances with Jordan and Syria, and had opened the Middle East to Soviet influence. Eisenhower wanted this vacuum filled by the United States before the Soviets could step in to fill the void. Because Eisenhower feared that radical nationalism would combine with international communism in the region and threaten Western interests, he was willing to commit to sending U.S. troops to the Middle East under certain circumstances.
The first real test of the Eisenhower Doctrine came in 1958 in Lebanon, where the threat was not armed aggression or a direct Soviet incursion. Lebanon's President, Camille Chamoun, requested assistance from the United States in order to prevent attacks from Chamoun's political rivals, some of whom had communist leanings and ties to Syria and Egypt. Eisenhower responded to Chamoun's request by sending U.S. troops into Lebanon to help maintain order. Although Eisenhower never directly invoked the Eisenhower Doctrine, the American action in Lebanon was meant not only to help Chamoun's Government against its political opponents, but also to send a signal to the Soviet Union that it would act to protect its interests in the Middle East.
| msmarco_doc_00_8560702 |
http://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/lw/97179.htm | Suez Crisis, 1956 | Suez Crisis, 1956
Suez Crisis, 1956 | Suez Crisis, 1956
Suez Crisis, 1956
The Suez Crisis of 1956, in which the Egyptian Government seized control of the Suez Canal from the British and French owned company that managed it, had important consequences for U.S. relations with both Middle Eastern countries and European allies.
On July 26, 1956, Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalized the British and French owned Suez Canal Company that operated the Suez Canal. Nasser's decision threatened British and French stock holdings in the Company and, as the Canal afforded Western countries access to Middle Eastern oil, also threatened to cut off Europe's oil supply. The ensuing Suez Crisis threatened regional stability and challenged the U.S. relationship with two primary Cold War allies, Britain and France.
Nasser nationalized the canal after the United States and Britain reneged on a previous agreement to finance the Aswan Dam project. The Aswan Dam was designed to control the Nile's flood waters and provide electricity and water to the Egyptian populace and, as such, was a symbol of Egypt's modernization. The United States and Britain withdrew their financing for the Aswan Dam after Nasser made several moves that appeared friendly to the communist block, including an arms deal with Czechoslovkaia and recognition of the Chinese Government in Beijing. Without support from the United States and Britain, Nasser needed the revenue generated from tolls collected from ships using the Suez Canal to subsidize the cost of building the dam.
Although the United State was concerned about Nasser's nationalization of the canal, it sought a diplomatic solution to the problem. Britain and France, however, viewed the situation as a threat to their national interests. Accordingly, they sought a military solution that involved Israel. They secretly contacted the Israeli Government and proposed a joint military operation in which Israel would invade the Sinai and march toward the Suez Canal zone after which Britain and France would issue a warning to both Egypt and Israel to stay away from the Canal. Britain and France would then land paratroopers in the Canal Zone on the pretense of protecting it. Israel willingly agreed to this scenario since it gave Israel the opportunity to gain control of the Gaza Strip and Sinai Peninsula, end the Egyptian blockade of the Straits of Tiran, and retaliate against Egypt over its support for Palestinian commando raids on Israel's western border during the previous two years.
On October 29, 1956, Israeli forces moved across the border, defeated the Egyptian army in the Sinai, captured Sharm al-Sheikh and thereby guaranteed Israeli strategic control over the Straits of Tiran. Britain and France issued their ultimatum and landed troops, effectively carrying out the agreed upon operation. However, the United States and the Soviet Union responded to events by demanding a cease-fire. In a resolution before the United Nations, the United States also called for the evacuation of Israeli, French, and British forces from Egypt under the supervision of a special United Nations force. This force arrived in Egypt in mid-November. By December 22, the last British and French troops had withdrawn from Egyptian territory, but Israel kept its troops in Gaza until March 19, 1957, when the United States finally compelled the Israeli Government to withdraw its troops.
The Suez conflict fundamentally altered the regional balance of power. It was a military defeat for Egypt, but Nasser's status grew in the Arab world as the defender of Arab nationalism. Israel withdrew from Egyptian territory gained in the fighting but regained access to the Straits of Tiran, while the United Nations adopted a larger role maintaining a peacekeeping force in the Sinai. Britain and France lost influence in the region and suffered humiliation after the withdrawal of their troops from the Canal Zone. Moreover, relations between the United States and its British and French allies temporarily deteriorated in the months following the war. In contrast, Soviet influence in the Middle East grew, especially in Syria where the Soviets began to supply arms and advisers to the Syrian military. The United States had played a moderating role, and in so doing had improved its relations with Egypt, but the fundamental disputes between Israel and its neighbors remained unresolved. When these disagreements resurfaced, the United States would again be drawn into the conflicts.
| msmarco_doc_00_8563655 |
http://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/nr/88110.htm | The Citizen Genêt Affair, 1793-1794 | The Citizen Genêt Affair, 1793-1794
The Citizen Genêt Affair, 1793-1794 | The Citizen Genêt Affair, 1793-1794
The Citizen Genêt Affair, 1793-1794
Edmond Charles Gen�t served as French minister to the United States from 1793 to 1794. His activities in that capacity embroiled the United States and France in a diplomatic crisis, as the United States Government attempted to remain neutral in the conflict between Great Britain and Revolutionary France. The controversy was ultimately resolved by Gen�t's recall from his position. As a result of the Citizen Gen�t affair, the United States established a set of procedures governing neutrality.
American foreign policy in the 1790s was dominated by the events surrounding the French Revolution. Following the overthrow of the monarchy in 1792, the revolutionary French Government clashed with the monarchies of Spain and Great Britain. French policymakers needed the United States to help defend France's colonies in the Caribbean - either as a neutral supplier or as a military ally, and so they dispatched Edmond Charles Gen�t, an experienced diplomat, as minister to the United States. The French assigned Gen�t several additional duties: to obtain advance payments on debts that the U.S. owed to France, to negotiate a commercial treaty between the United States and France, and to implement portions of the 1778 Franco-American treaty which allowed attacks on British merchant shipping using ships based in American ports. Gen�t's attempt to carry out his instructions would bring him into direct conflict with the U.S. Government.
The French Revolution had already reinforced political differences within President George Washington's Cabinet. The Democratic-Republicans, led by Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson, sympathized with the French revolutionaries. The Federalists, led by Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton, believed that ties with Great Britain were more important. President Washington attempted to steer a neutral course between these two opposing views. He believed that joining Great Britain or France in war could subject the comparatively weak United States to invasion by foreign armies and have disastrous economic consequences. President Washington issued a proclamation of neutrality on April 22, 1793.
Gen�t arrived in Charleston, South Carolina on April 8, 1793�calling himself "Citizen Gen�t" to emphasize his pro-revolutionary stance. Gen�t immediately began to issue privateering commissions upon his arrival in Charleston, with the consent of South Carolina governor William Moultrie. These commissions authorized the bearers, regardless of their country of origin, to seize British merchant ships and their cargo for personal profit, with the approval and protection of the French Government.
When Gen�t arrived in the U.S. capital of Philadelphia in May to present his credentials, Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson informed him that the United States Cabinet considered the outfitting of French privateers in American ports to be a violation of the U.S. policy of neutrality. Gen�t's mission ran into further difficulties when the U.S. Government expressed no interest in a new commercial treaty, as it already enjoyed favorable trading privileges in French ports. The U.S. Cabinet also refused to make advance payments on U.S. debts to the French government.
Gen�t ignored American warnings and allowed the outfitting of another French privateer, the Little Democrat. Defying numerous warnings from U.S. officials to detain the ship in port, Gen�t continued to ready the ship to sail. Gen�t also threatened to take his case to the American people, bypassing official government opposition. Gen�t failed to realize that Washington and his neutrality policy were politically popular, and that his pro-British enemies would depict such an attempt as foreign meddling in American domestic affairs.
Washington's Cabinet met to consider a response to Gen�t's defiant actions. All members agreed to request Gen�t's recall, but were divided as to how to go about doing so. Before the Cabinet reached a decision, Gen�t allowed the Little Democrat to sail and begin attacking British shipping. This direct violation of neutrality forced the U.S. Government to take more prompt action and request that the French government recall Gen�t. However, Secretary of State Jefferson stopped short of expelling Genet from the United States, as Hamilton had wished.
By the time Jefferson's request for recall reached France, power had shifted from the more moderate Girondins, who had originally sent Gen�t on his mission, to the radical Jacobins. French policy began to emphasize friendlier relations with neutral countries who could provide crucially needed food supplies. French officials were already dissatisfied with Gen�t's failure to fulfill his diplomatic mission, and the Jacobins suspected him of continued loyalty to the Girondins. The French government recalled Gen�t, and demanded that the U.S. hand him over to the commissioners sent to replace him. President Washington and Attorney General Edmund Randolph, aware that Gen�t's return to France would almost certainly result in his execution, allowed Gen�t to remain in the United States. U.S. and French diplomatic goals favored friendly neutrality, and the Gen�t affair came to an end. Gen�t himself continued to reside in the United States until his death in 1834.
The Gen�t affair forced the United States to formulate a consistent policy on the issue of neutrality. Washington's Cabinet signed a set of rules regarding policies of neutrality on August 3, 1793, and these rules were formalized when Congress passed a neutrality bill on June 4, 1794. This legislation formed the basis for neutrality policy throughout the nineteenth century.
| msmarco_doc_00_8568421 |
http://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/nr/90612.htm | Treaty of San Lorenzo/Pinckney's Treaty, 1795 | Treaty of San Lorenzo/Pinckney's Treaty, 1795
Treaty of San Lorenzo/Pinckney's Treaty, 1795 | Treaty of San Lorenzo/Pinckney's Treaty, 1795
Treaty of San Lorenzo/Pinckney's Treaty, 1795
Spanish and U.S. negotiators concluded the Treaty of San Lorenzo, also known as Pinckney's Treaty, on October 27, 1795. The treaty was an important diplomatic success for the United States. It resolved territorial disputes between the two countries and granted American ships the right to free navigation of the Mississippi River as well as duty-free transport through the port of New Orleans, then under Spanish control.
Prior to the treaty, the western and southern borders of the United States had been a source of tension between Spain and the United States. The U.S. border extended to the Mississippi River, but its southern stretch remained in Spanish territory, and Spanish officials, reluctant to encourage U.S. trade and settlement in a strategic frontier area, kept the Mississippi River closed to American shipping. Moreover, both Spain and the United States claimed portions of the present-day states of Alabama and Mississippi, and earlier negotiations to resolve the territorial disputes had broken off inconclusively. The Spanish government maintained several forts in the disputed territories, and could also count on indigenous resistance to U.S. attempts to survey or encroach upon Native American lands. U.S. citizens from the southern states and frontier areas found Spanish policies restrictive, and wanted the U.S. Government to renegotiate its positions.
Prior to 1789, Spanish policy had focused on keeping American trade and settlement in frontier areas to a minimum, and so neither Spanish colonial officials nor policymakers in Madrid were interested in granting the concessions that U.S. negotiators had attempted to obtain earlier. However, Spanish interests changed during the wars of the French Revolution. Spain joined the other European monarchies in war against France in 1793, but by 1794 Spanish forces experienced defeats in the Caribbean and Europe. Spanish King Charles IV, uninterested in managing political affairs, had earlier handed political and diplomatic responsibilities to his prime minister, Manuel de Godoy. Godoy sought to extract Spain from its alliance with its traditional enemy Great Britain, and to restore peace with France. Godoy's policy was not without risks, as antagonizing the British would put Spanish colonies in the Americas at risk.
While Spanish diplomats sought to shift Spanish alliances, U.S. diplomat John Jay arrived in London to negotiate a treaty with Great Britain. Spanish officials feared that Jay's negotiations would result in an Anglo-American alliance and an invasion of Spanish possessions in North America. Sensing the need for rapprochement, Godoy sent a request to the U.S. Government for a representative empowered to negotiate a new treaty. President George Washington selected South Carolinian Thomas Pinckney, who had been serving as United States minister to Great Britain.
Pinckney arrived in Spain in June of 1795, and negotiations proceeded swiftly. Spain's political and military position had weakened under its defeats and war expenses, while population growth in Kentucky and Tennessee, combined with a shortage of European ships to sustain trade with Louisiana, made Spanish officials amenable to a change in restrictive Spanish trade policies. Godoy offered to accept the 31st parallel as the U.S.-Florida border as well as the right to free navigation of the Mississippi, which Americans west of the Appalachians supported enthusiastically. In return, Godoy requested that the United States commit to an alliance with Spain.
Pinckney rejected the alliance, and after further consultation Godoy provided the same offer without the necessity of the alliance. Nevertheless, negotiations came to an impasse as the Spanish continued to insist on their right to require duties for goods passing through Spanish-held New Orleans. Pinckney threatened to leave without signing a treaty unless the Spanish dropped duties on American trade passing through New Orleans. The next day, Godoy agreed to Pinckney's demands, and the two negotiators signed the treaty on October 27, 1795. The final treaty also voided Spanish guarantees of military support that colonial officials had made to Native Americans in the disputed regions, greatly weakening those communities' ability to resist encroachment upon their lands.
The Treaty of San Lorenzo enabled and encouraged American settlers to continue westward expansion, and made frontier areas more attractive and lucrative. Consequently, it was popular with the American public, especially in the West and South. Since Thomas Pinckney was associated with the Federalist Party, the treaty served to bolster the Federalists outside of their New England stronghold and give the party a stronger base in areas where it had traditionally been weak. Diplomatically, the treaty marked a reverse in Spanish policies that attempted to maintain a strong buffer region in North America, while placing the United States in a stronger position in relation to European powers compared to the U.S. concessions made in Jay's Treaty.
| msmarco_doc_00_8574646 |
http://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/pcw/98678.htm | The End of Apartheid | The End of Apartheid
The End of Apartheid | The End of Apartheid
The End of Apartheid
Apartheid, the Afrikaans name given by the white-ruled South Africa's Nationalist Party in 1948 to the country's harsh, institutionalized system of racial segregation, came to an end in the early 1990s in a series of steps that led to the formation of a democratic government in 1994. Years of violent internal protest, weakening white commitment, international economic and cultural sanctions, economic struggles, and the end of the Cold War brought down white minority rule in Pretoria. U.S. policy toward the regime underwent a gradual but complete transformation that played an important conflicting role in Apartheid's initial survival and eventual downfall.
Although many of the segregationist policies dated back to the early decades of the twentieth century, it was the election of the Nationalist Party in 1948 that marked the beginning of legalized racism's harshest features called Apartheid. The Cold War then was in its early stages. U.S. President Harry Truman's foremost foreign policy goal was to limit Soviet expansion. Despite supporting a domestic civil rights agenda to further the rights of black people in the United States, the Truman Administration chose not to protest the anti-communist South African government's system of Apartheid in an effort to maintain an ally against the Soviet Union in southern Africa. This set the stage for successive administrations to quietly support the Apartheid regime as a stalwart ally against the spread of communism.
Inside South Africa, riots, boycotts, and protests by black South Africans against white rule had occurred since the inception of independent white rule in 1910. Opposition intensified when the Nationalist Party, assuming power in 1948, effectively blocked all legal and non-violent means of political protest by non-whites. The African National Congress (ANC) and its offshoot, the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC), both of which envisioned a vastly different form of government based on majority rule, were outlawed in 1960 and many of its leaders imprisoned. The most famous prisoner was a leader of the ANC, Nelson Mandela, who had become a symbol of the anti-Apartheid struggle. While Mandela and many political prisoners remained incarcerated in South Africa, other anti-Apartheid leaders fled South Africa and set up headquarters in a succession of supportive, independent African countries, including Guinea, Tanzania, Zambia, and neighboring Mozambique where they continued the fight to end Apartheid. It was not until the 1980s, however, that this turmoil effectively cost the South African state significant losses in revenue, security, and international reputation.
The international community had begun to take notice of the brutality of the Apartheid regime after white South African police opened fire on unarmed black protesters in the town of Sharpeville in 1960, killing 69 people and wounding 186 others. The United Nations led the call for sanctions against the South African Government. Fearful of losing friends in Africa as de-colonization transformed the continent, powerful members of the Security Council, including Great Britain, France, and the United States, succeeded in watering down the proposals. However, by the late 1970s, grassroots movements in Europe and the United States succeeded in pressuring their governments into imposing economic and cultural sanctions on Pretoria. After the U.S. Congress passed the Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act in 1986, many large multinational companies withdrew from South Africa. By the late 1980s, the South African economy was struggling with the effects of the internal and external boycotts as well as the burden of its military commitment in occupying Namibia.
Defenders of the Apartheid regime, both inside and outside South Africa, had promoted it as a bulwark against communism. However, the end of the Cold War rendered this argument obsolete. South Africa had illegally occupied neighboring Namibia at the end of World War II, and since the mid-1970s, Pretoria had used it as a base to fight the communist party in Angola. The United States had even supported the South African Defense Force's efforts in Angola. In the 1980s, hard-line anti-communists in Washington continued to promote relations with the Apartheid government despite economic sanctions levied by the U.S. Congress. However, the relaxation of Cold War tensions led to negotiations to settle the Cold War conflict in Angola. Pretoria's economic struggles gave the Apartheid leaders strong incentive to participate. When South Africa reached a multilateral agreement in 1988 to end its occupation of Namibia in return for a Cuban withdrawal from Angola, even the most ardent anti-communists in the United States lost their justification for support of the Apartheid regime.
The effects of the internal unrest and international condemnation led to dramatic changes beginning in 1989. South African Prime Minister P.W. Botha resigned after it became clear that he had lost the faith of the ruling National Party (NP) for his failure to bring order to the country. His successor, F W de Klerk, in a move that surprised observers, announced in his opening address to Parliament in February 1990 that he was lifting the ban on the ANC and other black liberation parties, allowing freedom of the press, and releasing political prisoners. The country waited in anticipation for the release of Nelson Mandela who walked out of prison after 27 years on February 11, 1990.
The impact of Mandela's release reverberated throughout South Africa and the world. After speaking to throngs of supporters in Cape Town where he pledged to continue the struggle, but advocated peaceful change, Mandela took his message to the international media. He embarked on a world tour culminating in a visit to the United States where he spoke before a joint session of Congress.
After Prime Minister de Klerk agreed to democratic elections for the country, the United States lifted sanctions and increased foreign aid, and many of the U.S. companies who disinvested in the 1980s returned with new investments and joint ventures. In April 1994, Nelson Mandela was elected as South Africa's first black president.
| msmarco_doc_00_8580160 |
http://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/qfp/103736.htm | The Second Round of Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT II), 1979 | The Second Round of Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT II), 1979
The Second Round of Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT II), 1979 | The Second Round of Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT II), 1979
The Second Round of Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT II), 1979
The Second Round of Strategic Arms Limitation Talks, commonly known as SALT II, began almost immediately after the first round ended in 1972. The negotiations led to a treaty on nuclear arms control that the United States and the Soviet Union signed in 1979. Although it was never ratified by the U.S. Senate, both countries adhered to the terms of the agreement.
After the SALT I talks, which resulted in both a treaty limiting antiballistic missile systems and an interim agreement limiting nuclear arms delivery systems, both sides agreed that there was an immediate need to transform the interim agreement into a formal treaty, which would further limit the development of new technologies and place lower ceilings on the overall number of missiles deployed. In particular, the development of multiple independently-targeted reentry vehicles (MIRVs), which made it possible to attach many warheads to a single missile, had created a situation in which limits placed on the number of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMS) and submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) did not limit the number of nuclear warheads each government could deliver to targets. To address these concerns, two years after the SALT I agreement, U.S. President Gerald Ford and Soviet Premier Leonid Brezhnev held a summit meeting at Vladivostok, during which they agreed on the basic tenets of the next SALT agreement and numerical limits for the number of strategic launch vehicles to be deployed by each country.
Although the Vladivostok Accords set a limit of 2,400 total strategic launch vehicles for each country with the stipulation that 1,320 of these could be equipped with MIRVs, ongoing technological developments meant that further negotiations were still required to reach a formal treaty over arms control. During the mid-1970s, the United States was developing new cruise missiles, which were very accurate and would skim over the ground close to the earth, undetected by radar. The Soviet Union was also improving its technology, and building new "Backfire" bombers.
When Jimmy Carter assumed the U.S. Presidency in 1977, he proposed a new set of arms limits that required much deeper cuts in total conventional and nuclear capability. He also suggested that any new agreement include limits on both U.S. cruise missiles and new Soviet bombers, or neither. Carter presented the new proposal even as he engaged in public criticism of the Soviet record on human rights, however. Both measures angered the Soviet leaders, and they refused to consider the proposal. Negotiations continued, but became subordinated to other issues, such as the completion of the Panama Canal Treaty in 1977 and the recognition of the People's Republic of China in late 1978. Finally, the two sides reached a consensus in 1979 and signed an agreement that was very similar to the terms to the Vladivostok Accords.
The agreement included a treaty and a protocol. The treaty set limits on the number of strategic launch vehicles each country could deploy, but then also set quotas for the number of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) and SLBMs that could carry MIRVs as well as further restrictions on the number of warheads that any one ICBM could carry. The two sides also agreed to limits on the number of launchers and bombers each country could maintain to deliver the missiles. The protocol banned either country from developing or deploying mobile ICBMs or cruise missiles with ranges longer than 375 miles. In addition to this treaty and protocol, SALT II also created a statement of principles to guide the next round of negotiations. In the end, limits on cruise missiles were included in the treaty, but the Soviet "Backfire" bomber was not. Informally, however, Brezhnev informed Carter that the Soviet Union would produce no more than 30 of the planes per year.
The completed SALT II agreements faced steep opposition during the ensuing U.S. Senate battle over ratification. Opinions on the treaty and protocol varied widely. Some Senators supported the treaty and its ratification on the grounds that it was important to the process of arms control, and that approving each step would make it possible to make further gains in the future. Of those opposed to the treaty, some believed the treaty did not go far enough in setting limits and therefore did not represent a meaningful attempt at stopping the arms race, whereas others suggested that the terms of the treaty placed too many limits on the United States and could damage U.S. interests and security. Just when it seemed that the forces in favor of ratification would win out, however, Senator Frank Church announced the presence of Soviet troops in Cuba, and demanded that the treaty not be considered until they were withdrawn. In fact, the troops had remained in Cuba as part of an agreement between the United States and the Soviet Union in the aftermath of the Cuban Missile Crisis, so this concern should not have caused such a delay in the passage of the agreement. That delay proved critical, however, as the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in December of 1979, leading Carter to pull the treaty from consideration in protest against the action.
Although the SALT II treaty was never ratified, both sides considered the limits it set important enough to their own security and the balance of power that they adhered to the terms anyway. Even the inauguration of President Ronald Reagan in the United States and a series of leadership changes in the Soviet Union did not derail the two nations from observing the terms of the agreement. The two rounds of SALT negotiations were followed by the Strategic Arms Reduction Talks, or START, which began in the late 1980s.
| msmarco_doc_00_8586708 |
http://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/rd/104253.htm | Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), 1983 | Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), 1983
Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), 1983 | Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), 1983
Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), 1983
On March 23, 1983 in a televised address to the nation, U.S. President Ronald Reagan announced his intention to embark upon groundbreaking research into a national defense system that could make nuclear weapons obsolete. The research took a number of forms which collectively were called the Strategic Defense Initiative, or SDI.
The heart of the SDI program was a plan to develop a space-based missile defense program that could protect the country from a large-scale nuclear attack. The proposal involved many layers of technology that would enable the United States to identify and destroy automatically a large number of incoming ballistic missiles as they were launched, as they flew, and as they approached their targets. The idea was dependent on futuristic technology, including space-based laser systems that had not yet been developed, although the idea had been portrayed as real in science fiction. As a result, critics of the proposal nicknamed SDI "Star Wars" after the movie of the same name.
There were several reasons why the Reagan Administration was interested in pursuing the technology in the early 1980s. One was to silence domestic critics concerned about the level of defense spending. Reagan described the SDI system as a way to eliminate the threat of nuclear attack; once the system was developed, its existence would benefit everyone. In this way, it could also be portrayed as a peace initiative that warranted the sacrifice of funds from other programs. Privately, Reagan was quite adamant that the goal of U.S. defense research should be to eliminate the need for nuclear weapons, which he thought were fundamentally immoral. In terms of the Cold War conflict with the Soviets, a successful defense system would destroy the Soviet ability to make a first strike, which in turn would undermine the USSR's ability to pose a threat to the United States at all. So success in this area, supporters of SDI argued, could potentially also bring an end to the Cold War.
Criticism of the SDI initiative was widespread, however, and it took several forms beyond general skepticism about the feasibility of the technology. First, research and development for such a complicated project inevitably came with a very high price tag. Many critics of SDI wondered why the Reagan Administration was willing to spend so much money on a defense system that might never work, and expressed alarm that the funding for SDI came at the cost of social programs like education and health care. Moreover, there was no way to test such a system without exposing the world to a very dangerous attack. Second, the very idea of guarding against nuclear attack struck at the heart of the theory of deterrence. If one nuclear power no longer had to fear nuclear attack, then there would be no fear of retaliation to stop it from making the first strike against another. In fact, if the Soviet Union thought that the United States was on the verge of deploying a comprehensive defense system, some argued, it might feel forced to attack before the United States could complete the system; this possibility meant that developing the system could actually contribute to U.S. insecurity, not the other way around. Third, critics both in the United States and around the world called the SDI initiative a clear violation of the 1972 Antiballistic Missile Treaty. That treaty had committed the United States and the Soviet Union to refrain from developing missile defense systems in order to prevent a new and costly arms race. The Strategic Defense Initiative appeared to be a missile defense system by another name.
The Soviet Union expressed its concerns about SDI almost as soon as it learned of it, and the prospect of the United States developing the defense system thus became a hindrance in the pursuit of future arms negotiations between the two powers. Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev linked his demands that the United States drop SDI to the negotiations for the Intermediate-range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF Treaty) and the Strategic Arms Reductions Talks (START). Over the course of the 1980s, Reagan's refusal to give up SDI became the sticking point that prevented the two countries from reaching a deal on other arms control measures, and it was only when the two sides agreed to delink defense and intermediate-range forces discussions that they managed to sign the INF Treaty. START was completed after Reagan left office, and government commitment to the SDI project waned.
| msmarco_doc_00_8593021 |
http://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/rd/17672.htm | Fall of Communism in Eastern Europe, 1989 | Fall of Communism in Eastern Europe, 1989
Fall of Communism in Eastern Europe, 1989 | Fall of Communism in Eastern Europe, 1989
Fall of Communism in Eastern Europe, 1989
On the night of November 9, 1989, the Berlin Wall—the most potent symbol of the cold-war division of Europe—came down. Earlier that day, the Communist authorities of the German Democratic Republic had announced the removal of travel restrictions to democratic West Berlin. Thousands of East Germans streamed into the West, and in the course of the night, celebrants on both sides of the wall began to tear it down.
The collapse of the Berlin Wall was the culminating point of the revolutionary changes sweeping East Central Europe in 1989. Throughout the Soviet bloc, reformers assumed power and ended over 40 years of dictatorial Communist rule. The reform movement that ended communism in East Central Europe began in Poland. Solidarity, an anti-Communist trade union and social movement, had forced Poland’s Communist government to recognize it in 1980 through a wave of strikes that gained international attention. In 1981, Poland’s Communist authorities, under pressure from Moscow, declared martial law, arrested Solidarity’s leaders, and banned the democratic trade union. The ban did not bring an end to Solidarity. The movement simply went underground, and the rebellious Poles organized their own civil society, separate from the Communist government and its edicts.
In 1985, the assumption of power in the Soviet Union by a reformer, Mikhail Gorbachev, paved the way for political and economic reforms in East Central Europe. Gorbachev abandoned the “Brezhnev Doctrine” — the Soviet Union’s policy of intervening with military force, if necessary, to preserve Communist rule in the region. Instead, he encouraged the local Communist leaders to seek new ways of gaining popular support for their rule. In Hungary, the Communist government initiated reforms in 1989 that led to the sanctioning of a multiparty system and competitive elections. In Poland, the Communists entered into round-table talks with a reinvigorated Solidarity. As a result, Poland held its first competitive elections since before World War II, and in 1989, Solidarity formed the first non-Communist government within the Soviet bloc since 1948. Inspired by their neighbors’ reforms, East Germans took to the streets in the summer and fall of 1989 to call for reforms, including freedom to visit West Berlin and West Germany. Moscow’s refusal to use military force to buoy the regime of East German leader Erich Honecker led to his replacement and the initiation of political reforms, leading up to the fateful decision to open the border crossings on the night of November 9, 1989.
In the wake of the collapse of the Berlin Wall, Czechs and Slovaks took to the streets to demand political reforms in Czechoslovakia. Leading the demonstrations in Prague was dissident playwright Vaclav Havel, co-founder of the reform group Charter 77. The Communist Party of Czechoslovakia quietly and peacefully transferred rule to Havel and the Czechoslovak reformers in what was later dubbed the “Velvet Revolution.” In Romania, the Communist regime of hardliner Nicolae Ceausescu was overthrown by popular protest and force of arms in December 1989. Soon, the Communist parties of Bulgaria and Albania also ceded power.
The revolutions of 1989 marked the death knell of communism in Europe. As a result, not only was Germany reunified in 1990, but soon, revolution spread to the Soviet Union itself. After surviving a hard line coup attempt in 1991, Gorbachev was forced to cede power in Russia to Boris Yeltsin, who oversaw the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
The collapse of communism in East Central Europe and the Soviet Union marked the end of the cold war. The U.S. long-term policy of containing Soviet expansion while encouraging democratic reform in Central and Eastern Europe through scientific and cultural exchanges, information policy (e.g., Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty), and the United States’ own example, provided invaluable support to the peoples of East Central Europe in their struggle for freedom.
| msmarco_doc_00_8597946 |
http://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/wwi/82205.htm | American Entry into World War I, 1917 | American Entry into World War I, 1917
American Entry into World War I, 1917 | American Entry into World War I, 1917
American Entry into World War I, 1917
On April 2, 1917, President Woodrow Wilson went before a joint session of Congress to request a declaration of war against Germany. Wilson cited Germany's violation of its pledge to suspend unrestricted submarine warfare in the North Atlantic and the Mediterranean, and its attempts to entice Mexico into an alliance against the United States, as his reasons for declaring war. On April 4, 1917, the U.S. Senate voted in support of the measure to declare war on Germany. The House concurred two days later. The United States later declared war on Austria-Hungary on December 7, 1917.
Germany's resumption of submarine attacks on passenger and merchant ships in 1917 was the primary motivation behind Wilson's decision to lead the United States into World War I. Following the sinking of an unarmed French boat, the Sussex, in the English Channel in March 1916, Wilson had threatened to sever diplomatic relations with Germany, unless the German Government refrained from attacking all passenger ships, and allowed the crews of enemy merchant vessels to escape from their ships prior to any attack. On May 4, 1916, the German Government had accepted these terms and conditions in what came to be known as the " Sussex pledge."
By January 1917, however, the situation in Germany had changed. During a wartime conference that month, representatives from the German navy convinced the military leadership and Kaiser Wilhelm II that a resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare could help defeat Great Britain within five months. German policymakers argued that they could violate the "Sussex pledge," because the United States could no longer be considered a neutral party after supplying munitions and financial assistance to the Allies. Germany also believed that the United States had jeopardized its neutrality by acquiescing to the Allied blockade of Germany.
Germany's Chancellor, Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg, protested this decision, as he believed that resuming submarine warfare would draw the United States into the war on behalf of the Allies. This, he argued, would lead to the defeat of Germany. Despite these warnings, the German Government decided to resume unrestricted submarine attacks on all Allied and neutral shipping within prescribed war zones, reckoning that German submarines would end the war long before the first American troopship arrived in Europe. Accordingly, on January 31, 1917, the German Ambassador to the United States, Count Johann von Bernstorff, presented U.S. Secretary of State Robert Lansing with a note declaring Germany's intention to restart unrestricted submarine warfare the following day.
Stunned by the news, President Wilson went before Congress on February 3 to announce that he had severed diplomatic relations with Germany. However, he refrained from asking for a declaration of war because he doubted that the American public would support him unless there was ample proof that Germany intended to attack U.S. ships with no warning. Wilson left open the possibility of negotiating with Germany if its submarines refrained from attacking American shipping. Nevertheless, throughout February and March 1917, German submarines targeted and sunk several American ships, and many American passengers and seamen died.
On February 26, Wilson asked Congress for authority to arm American merchant ships with U.S. naval personnel and equipment. While the measure would probably have passed in a vote, several anti-war Senators led a successful filibuster that consumed the remainder of the Congressional session. Despite the rebuff from Congress, Wilson decided to arm American merchant ships by executive order, claiming that an old anti-piracy law gave him the authority to do so.
While Wilson weighed his options regarding the submarine issue, he also had to address the question of Germany's attempts to cement a secret alliance with Mexico. On January 19, 1917, British naval intelligence intercepted and decrypted a telegram sent by German Foreign Minister Arthur Zimmerman to the German Ambassador in Mexico City. The "Zimmerman Telegram" promised the Mexican Government that Germany would help Mexico recover the territory it had ceded to the United States following the Mexican-American War. In return for this assistance, the Germans asked for Mexican support in the war.
The British had initially not shared the news of the Zimmerman Telegram with U.S. officials, because they did not want the Germans to discover that British code breakers had cracked the German code. However, following Germany's resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare in February, the British decided to use the note to help sway American official and public opinion to join the war. The British finally forwarded the intercept to Wilson on February 24. The American press carried the story the following week.
Despite the shocking news of the Zimmerman Telegram, Wilson still hesitated to ask for a declaration of war. He waited until March 20 before convening a Cabinet meeting to broach the matter--almost a month after he had first seen the telegram. The precise reasons for Wilson's decision to choose war in 1917 remain the subject of debate among historians, especially in light of his efforts to avoid war in 1915 after the sinking of the British passenger liners Lusitania and Arabic, which had led to the deaths of 131 Americans.
However, by 1917, the continued submarine attacks on American merchant and passenger ships, and the "Zimmerman Telegram's" implied threat of a German attack on the United States, had served to sway American public opinion in support of a declaration of war. Furthermore, international law stipulated that the placing of U.S. naval personnel on civilian ships to protect them from German submarines already constituted an act of war against Germany. Finally, the Germans, by their actions, had demonstrated that they had no interest in seeking an end to the conflict. These reasons all contributed to President Wilson's decision to ask Congress for a declaration of war against Germany. They also encouraged Congress to grant Wilson's request and formally declare war on Germany.
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http://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/wwi/89875.htm | The Paris Peace Conference and the Treaty of Versailles | The Paris Peace Conference and the Treaty of Versailles
The Paris Peace Conference and the Treaty of Versailles | The Paris Peace Conference and the Treaty of Versailles
The Paris Peace Conference and the Treaty of Versailles
In 1919, the Big Four met in Paris to negotiate the Treaty: Lloyd George of Britain, Vittorio Emanuele Orlando of Italy, Georges Clemenceau of France, and Woodrow Wilson of the U.S.
The Paris Peace Conference was an international meeting convened in January 1919 at Versailles just outside Paris. The purpose of the meeting was to establish the terms of the peace after World War. Though nearly thirty nations participated, the representatives of Great Britain, France, the United States, and Italy became known as the "Big Four." The "Big Four" would dominate the proceedings that led to the formulation of the Treaty of Versailles, a treaty that articulated the compromises reached at the conference. The Treaty of Versailles included a plan to form a League of Nations that would serve as an international forum and an international collective security arrangement. U.S. President Woodrow Wilson was a strong advocate of the League as he believed it would prevent future wars.
Negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference were not always easy. Great Britain, France, and Italy fought together during the First World War as Allied Powers. The United States, entered the war in April 1917 as an Associated Power, and while it fought on the side of the Allies, it was not bound to honor pre-existing agreements between the Allied powers. These agreements tended to focus on postwar redistribution of territories. U.S. President Woodrow Wilson strongly opposed many of these arrangements, including Italian demands on the Adriatic. This often led to significant disagreements among the "Big Four."
Treaty negotiations were also weakened by the absence of other important nations. Russia had fought as one of the Allies until December 1917, when its new Bolshevik Government withdrew from the war. The Allied Powers refused to recognize the new Bolshevik Government and thus did not invite its representatives to the Peace Conference. The Allies were angered by the Bolshevik decision to repudiate Russia's outstanding financial debts to the Allies and to publish the texts of secret agreements between the Allies concerning the postwar period. The Allies also excluded the defeated Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, and Bulgaria).
According to French and British wishes, Germany was subjected to strict punitive measures under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. The new German government was required to surrender approximately 10 percent of its prewar territory in Europe and all of its overseas possessions. The harbor city of Danzig (now Gdansk) and the coal-rich Saarland were placed under the administration of the League of Nations, and France was allowed to exploit the economic resources of the Saarland until 1935. The German Army and Navy were limited in size. Kaiser Wilhelm II and a number of other high-ranking German officials were to be tried as war criminals. Under the terms of Article 231 of the treaty, the Germans accepted responsibility for the war and, as such, were liable to pay financial reparations to the Allies, though the actual amount would be determined by an Inter-Allied Commission that would present its findings in 1921 (the amount they determined was 132 billion gold Reichmarks, or $32 billion, which came on top of an initial $5 billion payment demanded by the treaty). Germans would grow to resent these harsh conditions imposed by the Treaty of Versailles.
While the Treaty of Versailles did not present a peace agreement that satisfied all parties concerned, by the time President Woodrow Wilson returned to the United States in July 1919, American public opinion was overwhelming in favor of ratifying the treaty, including the Covenant of the League of Nations. Nevertheless, in spite of the fact that 32 state legislatures passed resolutions in favor of the treaty, there was intense opposition to it within the U.S. Senate.
Senate opposition to the Treaty of Versailles cited Article 10 of the treaty, which dealt with collective security and the League of Nations. This article, opponents argued, ceded the war powers of the U.S. Government to the League's Council. The opposition came from two groups: the "Irreconcilables," who refused to join the League of Nations under any circumstances, and "Reservationists," led by Senate Foreign Relations Committee Chairman, Henry Cabot Lodge, who were willing to ratify the treaty with amendments. While Lodge was defeated in his attempt to pass amendments to the Treaty in September, he did manage to attach 14 "reservations" to it in November. In a final vote on March 19, 1920, the Treaty of Versailles fell short of ratification by seven votes. Consequently, the U.S. Government signed the Treaty of Berlin on August 25, 1921. This was a separate peace treaty with Germany that stipulated that the United States would enjoy all "rights, privileges, indemnities, reparations or advantages" conferred to it by the Treaty of Versailles, but left out any mention of the League of Nations, which the United States never joined.
| msmarco_doc_00_8609042 |
http://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/wwii/104429.htm | The Tehran Conference, 1943 | The Tehran Conference, 1943
The Tehran Conference, 1943 | The Tehran Conference, 1943
The Tehran Conference, 1943
The Tehran Conference was a meeting between U.S. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin in Tehran, Iran, between November 28 and December 1, 1943. During the Conference, the three leaders coordinated their military strategy against Germany and Japan and made a number of important decisions concerning the post World War II era.
The most notable achievements of the Conference focused on the next phases of the war against the Axis powers in Europe and Asia. Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin engaged in discussions concerning the terms under which the British and Americans finally committed to launching Operation Overlord, an invasion of northern France, to be executed by May of 1944. The Soviets, who had long been pushing the Allies to open a second front, agreed to launch another major offensive on the Eastern Front that would divert German troops away from the Allied campaign in northern France. Stalin also agreed in principle that the Soviet Union would declare war against Japan following an Allied victory over Germany. In exchange for a Soviet declaration of war against Japan, Roosevelt conceded to Stalin's demands for the Kurile Islands and the southern half of Sakhalin, and access to the ice-free ports of Darien (Dalian) and Port Arthur (L�shun Port) located on the Liaodong Peninsula in northern China. The exact details concerning this deal were not finalized, however, until the Yalta Conference of 1945.
At Tehran, the three Allied leaders also discussed important issues concerning the fate of Eastern Europe and Germany in the postwar period. Stalin pressed for a revision of Poland's eastern border with the Soviet Union to match the line set by British Foreign Secretary Lord Curzon in 1920. In order to compensate Poland for the resulting loss of territory, the three leaders agreed to move the German-Polish border to the Oder and Neisse rivers. This decision was not formally ratified, however, until the Potsdam Conference of 1945. During these negotiations Roosevelt also secured from Stalin his assurance that the Republics of Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia would be reincorporated into the Soviet Union only after the citizens of each republic voted on the question in a referendum. Stalin stressed, however, that that the matter would have to be resolved "in accordance with the Soviet constitution," and that he would not consent to any international control over the elections. Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin also broached the question of the possible postwar partition of Germany into Allied zones of occupation and agreed to have the European Advisory Commission "carefully study the question of dismemberment" before any final decision was taken.
Broader international cooperation also became a central theme of the negotiations at Tehran. Roosevelt and Stalin privately discussed the composition of the United Nations. During the Moscow Conference of the Foreign Ministers in October and November of 1943, the United States, Britain, China, and the Soviet Union had signed a four-power declaration whose fourth point called for the creation of a "general international organization" designed to promote "international peace and security." At Tehran, Roosevelt outlined for Stalin his vision of the proposed organization in which the future United Nations would be dominated by "four policemen" (the United States, Britain, China, and Soviet Union) who "would have the power to deal immediately with any threat to the peace and any sudden emergency which requires action."
Finally, the three leaders issued a "Declaration of the Three Powers Regarding Iran." Within it, they thanked the Iranian Government for its assistance in the war against Germany and promised to provide it with economic assistance both during and after the war. Most importantly, the U.S., British, and Soviet Governments stated that they all shared a "desire for the maintenance of the independence, sovereignty, and territorial integrity of Iran."
Roosevelt secured many of his objectives during the Conference. The Soviet Union had committed to joining the war against Japan and expressed support for Roosevelt's plans for the United Nations. Most importantly, Roosevelt believed that he had won Stalin's confidence by proving that the United States was willing to negotiate directly with the Soviet Union and, most importantly, by guaranteeing the opening of the second front in France by the spring of 1944. However, Stalin also gained tentative concessions on Eastern Europe that would be confirmed during the later wartime conferences.
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http://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/wwii/104430.htm | U.S.-Soviet Alliance, 1941-1945 | U.S.-Soviet Alliance, 1941-1945
U.S.-Soviet Alliance, 1941-1945 | U.S.-Soviet Alliance, 1941-1945
U.S.-Soviet Alliance, 1941-1945
Although relations between the Soviet Union and the United States had been strained in the years before World War II, the U.S.-Soviet alliance of 1941-1945 was marked by a great degree of cooperation and was essential to securing the defeat of Nazi Germany. Without the remarkable efforts of the Soviet Union on the Eastern Front, the United States and Great Britain would have been hard pressed to score a decisive military victory over Nazi Germany.
As late as 1939, it seemed highly improbable that the United States and the Soviet Union would forge an alliance. U.S.-Soviet relations had soured significantly following Stalin's decision to sign a non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany in August of 1939. The Soviet occupation of eastern Poland in September and the "Winter War" against Finland in December led President Franklin Roosevelt to condemn the Soviet Union publicly as a "dictatorship as absolute as any other dictatorship in the world," and to impose a "moral embargo" on the export of certain products to the Soviets. Nevertheless, in spite of intense pressure to sever relations with the Soviet Union, Roosevelt never lost sight of the fact that Nazi Germany, not the Soviet Union, posed the greatest threat to world peace. In order to defeat that threat, Roosevelt confided that he "would hold hands with the devil" if necessary.
Following the Nazi defeat of France in June of 1940, Roosevelt grew wary of the increasing aggression of the Germans and made some diplomatic moves to improve relations with the Soviets. Beginning in July of 1940, a series of negotiations took place in Washington between Under-Secretary of State Sumner Welles and Soviet Ambassador Constantine Oumansky. Welles refused to accede to Soviet demands that the United States recognize the changed borders of the Soviet Union after the Soviet seizure of territory in Finland, Poland, and Romania and the reincorporation of the Baltic Republics in August 1940, but the U.S. Government did lift the embargo in January 1941. Furthermore, in March of 1941, Welles warned Oumansky of a future Nazi attack against the Soviet Union. Finally, during the Congressional debate concerning the passage of the Lend-Lease bill in early 1941, Roosevelt blocked attempts to exclude the Soviet Union from receiving U.S. assistance.
The most important factor in swaying the Soviets eventually to enter into an alliance with the United States was the Nazi decision to launch its invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941. President Roosevelt responded by dispatching his trusted aide Harry Lloyd Hopkins to Moscow in order to assess the Soviet military situation. Although the War Department had warned the President that the Soviets would not last more than six weeks, after two one-on-one meetings with Soviet Premier Josef Stalin, Hopkins urged Roosevelt to assist the Soviets. By the end of October, the first Lend-Lease aid to the Soviet Union was on its way. The United States entered the war as a belligerent in late 1941 and thus began coordinating directly with the Soviets, and the British, as allies.
Several issues arose during the war that threatened the alliance. These included the Soviet refusal to aide the Polish Home Army during the Warsaw Uprising of August 1944, and the decision of British and U.S. officials to exclude the Soviets from secret negotiations with German officers in March of 1945 in an effort to secure the surrender of German troops in Italy. The most important disagreement, however, was over the opening of a second front in the West. Stalin's troops struggled to hold the Eastern front against the Nazi forces, and the Soviets began pleading for a British invasion of France immediately after the Nazi invasion in 1941. In 1942, Roosevelt unwisely promised the Soviets that the Allies would open the second front that autumn. Although Stalin only grumbled when the invasion was postponed until 1943, he exploded the following year when the invasion was postponed again until May of 1944. In retaliation, Stalin recalled his ambassadors from London and Washington and fears soon arose that the Soviets might seek a separate peace with Germany.
In spite of these differences, the defeat of Nazi Germany was a joint endeavor that could not have been accomplished without close cooperation and shared sacrifices. Militarily, the Soviets fought valiantly and suffered staggering casualties on the Eastern Front. When Great Britain and the United States finally invaded northern France in 1944, the Allies were finally able to drain Nazi Germany of its strength on two fronts. Finally, two devastating atomic bomb attacks against Japan by the United States, coupled with the Soviets' decision to break their neutrality pact with Japan by invading Manchuria, finally led to the end of the war in the Pacific.
Furthermore, during the wartime conferences at Tehran and Yalta, Roosevelt secured political concessions from Stalin and Soviet participation in the United Nations. While President Roosevelt harbored no illusions about Soviet designs in Eastern Europe, it was his great hope that if the United States made a sincere effort to satisfy legitimate Soviet security requirements in Eastern Europe and Northeast Asia, and to integrate the U.S.S.R. into the United Nations, the Soviet regime would become an international team player and moderate its authoritarian regime. Unfortunately, soon after the war, the alliance between the United States and the Soviet Union began to unravel as the two nations faced complex postwar decisions.
| msmarco_doc_00_8619633 |
http://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/wwii/17604.htm | The Formation of the United Nations, 1945 | The Formation of the United Nations, 1945
The Formation of the United Nations, 1945 | The Formation of the United Nations, 1945
The Formation of the United Nations, 1945
On January 1, 1942, representatives of 26 nations at war with the Axis powers met in Washington to sign the Declaration of the United Nations endorsing the Atlantic Charter, pledging to use their full resources against the Axis and agreeing not to make a separate peace. At the Quebec Conference in August 1943, Secretary of State Cordell Hull and British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden agreed to draft a declaration that included a call for "a general international organization, based on the principle sovereign equality of all nations." An agreed declaration was issued after a Foreign Ministers Conference in Moscow in October 1943. When President Franklin D. Roosevelt met with Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin in Tehran, Iran, in November 1943, he proposed an international organization comprising an assembly of all member states and a 10-member executive committee to discuss social and economic issues. The United States, Great Britain, Soviet Union, and China would enforce peace as "the four policemen." Meanwhile Allied representatives founded a set of task-oriented organizations: the Food and Agricultural Organization (May 1943), the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (November 1943), the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (April 1944), the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank (July 1944), and the International Civil Aviation Organization (November 1944).
U.S., British, Soviet, and Chinese representatives met at Dumbarton Oaks in Washington in August and September 1944 to draft the charter of a postwar international organization based on the principle of collective security. They recommended a General Assembly of all member states and a Security Council consisting of the Big Four plus six members chosen by the Assembly. Voting procedures and the veto power of permanent members of the Security Council were finalized at the Yalta Conference in 1945 when Roosevelt and Stalin agreed that the veto would not prevent discussions by the Security Council. Roosevelt agreed to General Assembly membership for Ukraine and Byelorussia while reserving the right, which was never exercised, to seek two more votes for the United States.
Representatives of 50 nations met in San Francisco April-June 1945 to complete the Charter of the United Nations. In addition to the General Assembly of all member states and a Security Council of 5 permanent and 6 non-permanent members, the Charter provided for an 18-member Economic and Social Council, an International Court of Justice, a Trusteeship Council to oversee certain colonial territories, and a Secretariat under a Secretary General. The Roosevelt administration strove to avoid Woodrow Wilson's mistakes in selling the League of Nations to the Senate. It sought bipartisan support and in September 1943 the Republican Party endorsed U.S. participation in a postwar international organization, after which both houses of Congress overwhelmingly endorsed participation. Roosevelt also sought to convince the public that an international organization was the best means to prevent future wars. The Senate approved the UN Charter on July 28, 1945, by a vote of 89 to 2. The United Nations came into existence on October 24, 1945, after 29 nations had ratified the Charter.
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http://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/wwii/86552.htm | Repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act, 1943 | Repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act, 1943
Repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act, 1943 | Repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act, 1943
Repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act, 1943
In 1943, Congress passed a measure to repeal the discriminatory exclusion laws against Chinese immigrants and to establish an immigration quota for China of around 105 visas per year. As such, the Chinese were both the first to be excluded in the beginning of the era of immigration restriction and the first Asians to gain entry to the United States in the era of liberalization. The repeal of this act was a decision almost wholly grounded in the exigencies of World War II, as Japanese propaganda made repeated reference to Chinese exclusion from the United States in order to weaken the ties between the United States and its ally, the Republic of China. The fact that in addition to general measures preventing Asian immigration, the Chinese were subject to their own, unique prohibition had long been a source of contention in Sino‑American relations. There was little opposition to the repeal, because the United States already had in place a number of measures to ensure that, even without the Chinese Exclusion Laws explicitly forbidding Chinese immigration, Chinese still could not enter. The Immigration Act of 1924 stated that aliens ineligible for U.S. citizenship were not permitted to enter the United States, and this included the Chinese.
More controversial than repeal was the proposal to go one step further and place the Chinese on a quota basis for future entry to the United States. By finally applying the formulas created in the 1924 Immigration Act, the total annual quota for Chinese immigrants to the United States (calculated as a percentage of the total population of people of Chinese origin living in the United States in 1920) would be around 105. In light of the overall immigration to the United States, at first glance the new quota seemed insignificant. Yet, those concerned about an onslaught of Chinese (or Asian) immigration and its potential impact on American society and racial composition believed that even this small quota represented an opening wedge through which potentially thousands of Chinese could enter the United States. Because migration within the Western Hemisphere was not regulated by the quota system, it seemed possible that Chinese residents in Central and South America would re-migrate to the United States. Moreover, if the Chinese of Hong Kong were to apply under the vast, largely unused British quota, thousands could enter each year on top of the number of available Chinese visas.
Fears about the economic, social, and racial effect of a "floodtide" of Chinese immigrants led to a compromise bill�fears that mirrored the xenophobic arguments that had led to Chinese Exclusion in the first place, some sixty years previously. Under this bill, there would be a quota on Chinese immigration, but, unlike European quotas based on country of citizenship, the Chinese quota would be based on ethnicity. Chinese immigrating to the United States from anywhere in the world would be counted against the Chinese quota, even if they had never been to China or had never held Chinese nationality. Creating this special, ethnic quota for the Chinese was a way for the United States to combat Japanese propaganda by proclaiming that Chinese were welcome, but at the same time, to ensure that only a limited number of Chinese actually entered the country.
President Franklin D. Roosevelt threw the weight of his office behind the compromise measure, connecting the importance of the measure to American wartime goals. In a letter to Congress, Roosevelt wrote that passing the bill was vital to correcting the "historic mistake" of Chinese exclusion, and he emphasized that the legislation was "important in the cause of winning the war and of establishing a secure peace."
The repeal of Chinese exclusion paved the way for measures in 1946 to admit Filipino and Asian-Indian immigrants. The exclusion of both of these groups had long damaged U.S. relations with the Philippines and India. Eventually, Asian exclusion ended with the 1952 Immigration Act, although that Act followed the pattern of the Chinese quota and assigned racial, not national, quotas to all Asian immigrants. This system did not end until Congress did away with the National Origins quota system altogether in the Immigration Act of 1965.
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http://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/wwii/93275.htm | The Potsdam Conference, 1945 | The Potsdam Conference, 1945
The Potsdam Conference, 1945 | The Potsdam Conference, 1945
The Potsdam Conference, 1945
The Big Three�Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and U.S. President Harry Truman�met in Potsdam, Germany, from July 17 to August 2, 1945, to negotiate terms for the end of World War II.
After the Yalta Conference of February 1945, Stalin, Churchill, and U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt had agreed to meet following the surrender of Germany to determine the postwar borders in Europe. Germany surrendered on May 8, 1945, and the Allied leaders agreed to meet over the summer at Potsdam to continue the discussions that had begun at Yalta. Although the Allies remained committed to fighting a joint war in the Pacific, the lack of a common enemy in Europe led to difficulties reaching consensus concerning postwar reconstruction on the European continent.
The major issue at Potsdam was the question of how to handle Germany. At Yalta, the Soviets had pressed for heavy postwar reparations from Germany, half of which would go to the Soviet Union. While Roosevelt had acceded to such demands, Truman and his Secretary of State, James Byrnes, were determined to mitigate the treatment of Germany by allowing the occupying nations to exact reparations only from their own zone of occupation. Truman and Byrnes encouraged this position because they wanted to avoid a repetition of the situation created by the the Treaty of Versailles, which had exacted high reparations payments from Germany following World War One. Many experts agreed that the harsh reparations imposed by the Versailles Treaty had handicapped the German economy and fueled the rise of the Nazis.
Despite numerous disagreements, the Allied leaders did manage to conclude some agreements at Potsdam. For example, the negotiators confirmed the status of a demilitarized and disarmed Germany under four zones of Allied occupation. According to the Protocol of the Conference, there was to be "a complete disarmament and demilitarization of Germany"; all aspects of German industry that could be utilized for military purposes were to be dismantled; all German military and paramilitary forces were to be eliminated; and the production of all military hardware in Germany was forbidden. Furthermore, Germany society was to be remade along democratic lines by repeal of all discriminatory laws from the Nazi era and by the arrest and trial of those Germans deemed to be "war criminals." The German educational and judicial systems were to be purged of any authoritarian influences, and democratic political parties would be encouraged to participate in the administration of Germany at the local and state level. The reconstitution of a national German Government was, however, postponed indefinitely, and the Allied Control Commission (which was comprised of four occupying powers, the United States, Britain, France, and the Soviet Union) would run the country during the interregnum.
One of the most controversial matters addressed at the Potsdam Conference dealt with the revision of the German-Soviet-Polish borders and the expulsion of several million Germans from the disputed territories. In exchange for the territory it lost to the Soviet Union following the readjustment of the Soviet-Polish border, Poland received a large swath of German territory and began to deport the German residents of the territories in question, as did other nations that were host to large German minority populations. The negotiators at Potsdam were well-aware of the situation, and even though the British and Americans feared that a mass exodus of Germans into the western occupation zones would destabilize them, they took no action other than to declare that "any transfers that take place should be effected in an orderly and humane manner" and to request that the Poles, Czechoslovaks and Hungarians temporarily suspend additional deportations.
In addition to settling matters related to Germany and Poland, the Potsdam negotiators approved the formation of a Council of Foreign Ministers that would act on behalf of the United States, Great Britain, the Soviet Union, and China to draft peace treaties with Germany's former allies. Conference participants also agreed to revise the 1936 Montreux Convention, which gave Turkey sole control over the Turkish Straits. Furthermore, the United States, Great Britain, and China released the "Potsdam Declaration," which threatened Japan with "prompt and utter destruction" if it did not immediately surrender (the Soviet Union did not sign the declaration because it had yet to declare war on Japan).
The Potsdam Conference is perhaps best known for President Truman's July 24, 1945 conversation with Stalin, during which time the President informed the Soviet leader that the United States had successfully detonated the first atomic bomb on July 16, 1945. Historians have often interpreted Truman's somewhat firm stance during negotiations to the U.S. negotiating team's belief that U.S. nuclear capability would enhance its bargaining power. Stalin, however, was already well-informed about the U.S. nuclear program thanks to the Soviet intelligence network, so he also held firm in his positions. This situation made negotiations challenging. The leaders of the United States, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union, who, despite their differences, had remained allies throughout the war, never met again collectively to discuss cooperation in postwar reconstruction.
| msmarco_doc_00_8634050 |
http://2001-2009.state.gov/s/ct/rls/rm/8839.htm | Impact of Global Terrorism | Impact of Global Terrorism
Impact of Global Terrorism | Impact of Global Terrorism
Impact of Global Terrorism
Ambassador Francis X. Taylor, Coordinator for Counterterrorism
Remarks to Executivesu0012 Club of Chicago Leadership Symposium
Chicago, IL
March 14, 2002
Distinguished guests: We're here to talk about the impact of global terrorism, and how it has affected the way we will protect our businesses in the future.
On the morning of September 11, the world changed. In the wake of the terrorist attacks in New York, Washington, and Pennsylvania, the United States launched a global campaign not only against the perpetrators of those attacks but also against terrorism itself, wherever it exists.
There can be no excuse, no justification, and no rationalization for these acts of mass murder of innocent people.
As President Bush told the UN General Assembly: The time for sympathy is passed; time for action has arrived. This war will be a long struggle with many dimensions.
Today I would like to spend some time discussing the impact of terrorism on the business world, in particular, on financing, kidnapping, and oil pipelines, what the U.S. Government is doing about that impact, and how you can help in the fight against terrorism.
The Costs of Terrorism
Terrorism raises the risk and cost of doing business, whether that business is diplomacy, manufacturing, or sales.
Examples:
The AP reported in October that nearly 200,000 people were laid off after 9/11, including close to 40,000 in the aerospace industry
An airline industry spokesman estimated in October that the world’s airlines may have lost as much as $15 billion due to passenger and freight cut backs
New York City’s comptroller estimated the attacks will cost the city’s economy $1.7 billion in lost sales and $1.75 billion in lost rent by the end of FY 2003
The world’s insurance industry took an estimated $50 billion hit. The cost to insurers will be passed on to all of us, but primarily to businesses.
These costs are huge and affect every aspect of the business world. We must take up the challenge – together – to defeat global terrorism.
Forging the Tools to Fight Terror
President Bush told Congress: "Every nation, in every region, now has a decision to make. Either you are with us, or you are with the terrorists." Most have already chosen, and they have chosen to stand with us against terrorism.
On the global scale, many nations have made pledges and contributions on all fronts. We are receiving diplomatic, political, financial, police, intelligence, and military support. It is this concerted international action that will ultimately bring success to our campaign.
Terrorist Funding
Funding is a critical element in large-scale terrorist operations and in the recruiting of supporters. It is the oxygen of terrorism. We – you and I – need to work together to choke it off.
We – together with our coalition partners - are working diligently to choke off terrorist funds:
The first shot in the war against "terrorism with a global reach" was fired on Sept. 24 when the President signed Executive Order 13224.
This E.O. freezes the assets of known terrorists and their supporters, and blocks U.S. transactions with them. The order covers 189 terrorists, including all 22 of the FBI's Most Wanted Terrorists, as well as terrorist organizations, and terrorist financiers associated with them. A previous E.O., in effect since 1995 and renewed each year since, includes al-Qaida as well as such groups as Hizballah and Hamas that represent a terrorist threat to the Middle East peace negotiations. You can find a current list of all named groups on the Department’s web site, WWW.State.Gov.
UNSCR 1373, unanimously adopted in September, extends the campaign to freeze terrorist assets to the international community. The resolution obliges all states to deny financing, support, and safe harbor for terrorists. It is binding on all member states under international law, and provides for a follow-up mechanism to monitor compliance
This effort has already yielded results, but more should be done.
150 nations--more than half the world --have acted to choke off the oxygen of money for terrorists.
The United States has frozen some $34 million
Millions of additional dollars are being frozen around the world -- over $70 million.
This effort is a continuing process, in which many other nations have joined. For example, just this week the Saudi Government joined the U.S. in blocking assets of two organizations (Bosnia-Herzegovina branches of Al-Haramain) engaged in supporting terrorist activities.
The Taking of U.S. Hostages – What the U.S. will and won’t do.
The business community has every reason to be concerned about their employees in overseas locations. US policy on what to do when an American is abducted was recently reviewed, but the basics are still the same:
The United States will make every appropriate effort to gain the safe release of an American who is taken hostage.
We will treat every abduction of a U.S. citizen, official or unofficial, with the same priority.
The U.S. Government may make contact with representatives of the captors, in order to obtain the release of hostages
We will facilitate contacts with local authorities. However, U.S. goals are to pursue hostage takers alone or in cooperation with other governments.
Above all, our memory long – we will pursue hostage takers, apprehend them, prosecute them.
What the US won’t do is to pay ransom, encourage the payment of ransom, or make political or other concessions to terrorists that would only encourage more kidnapping.
Pipeline Security
Another area of major concern to businesses is the safety of oil pipelines.
According to the American Petroleum Institute, U.S. consumers use 20 million barrels of crude oil a day (bpd).
Domestic refineries process only 6 million bpd. – Hence, the majority of petroleum is imported.
In 2001, Colombia’s Cano-Limon-Convenas pipeline was attacked 170 times and was shut down for six months. Total loss in revenue was $500 million (based on 115,000 bpd). It has been attacked 13 times so far this year.
Protecting the petroleum infrastructure is a big job. We are working with the petroleum industry to help them keep these pipelines safe from attack. For example, we are currently developing a series of pipeline security courses for Colombia that will assist in such areas as the electronic detection of line tampering, and the development of a Rapid Response Force to repair damage after attacks. This program also has important applications to the new pipelines being planned in Central Asia.
Other Measures
We have a number of other tools on our counterterrorism tool kit that may be of special interest to the business community. For example, the Overseas Security Assistance Council was established in 1985 by the U.S. Department of State to foster the exchange of security related information between the U.S. Government and American private sector operating abroad. Administered by the Bureau of Diplomatic Security, OSAC has developed into an enormously successful joint venture for effective security cooperation. Through OSAC, the American private sector, including colleges and universities, is provided timely information on which to make informed corporate decisions on how best to protect their investment, facilities, personnel and intellectual property abroad.
The Bureau of Consular Affairs publishes regular advisories on security conditions in countries around the world. These advisories are also available on the Department web site.
There are certain restrictions placed by law on trade with the seven formallly designated state sponsors of terrorism – Cuba, Iran, Iraq, Libya, North Korea, Sudan, and Syria. Licenses are available for trade with these countries through the Treasury Department’s Office of Foreign Asset Control (OFAC). You should consult the Treasury Department’s web site for more information.
Conclusion
As President Bush told the United Nations last fall, every member state has a responsibility to eliminate terrorism. As the business community, you have a vested interest in joining this fight.
The international coalition, our bilateral programs, and the assistance we receive from you are just some of the measures we are taking to meet this new challenge. Our response to the horrific events of September 11 are broad-based and will not be completed in a short time. We are committed to a long term strategic campaign, in concert with the nations of the world that abhor terrorism, to root out and bring to justice those that use terrorism. As President Bush has told the world: "Whether we bring our enemies to justice, or bring justice to our enemies, justice will be done."
Businesses can help by being alert to your business relationships, by keeping in close contact with the U.S. Embassy in any foreign country in which you operate, so as to reduce to a minimum the risks your employees may face, by contributing to the rewards for justice program, which augments money available to the United States to pay for information that results in the apprehension or conviction in any country of a terrorist. For example, we will pay up to $5 million for such information, or up to $25 million if the information related to Usama Bin Ladin, al-Qaida, or senior Taliban leadership.
But more importantly, businesses can help by staying in business.
We must be more careful about not opening strange envelopes, watching unattended packages, and keeping our employees safe.
While business works, while you accomplish your mission, you deliver a very important message of confidence in our form of government, in our society, and in our economy.
We cannot let the September 11 terrorists hijack our way of life. We are Americans.
We must remain engaged. We must say, in the words of Secretary Powell, to the underdeveloped countries of the world, to the nations who count on our business to bring energy and wealth and jobs to their society: "Watch us. We're not going to draw back behind our oceans and behind our fences. We're America."
Released on March 19, 2002
| msmarco_doc_00_8639861 |
http://2001-2009.state.gov/s/ct/rls/wh/71803.htm | National Strategy for Combating Terrorism | National Strategy for Combating Terrorism
National Strategy for Combating Terrorism
Overview of America’s National Strategy for Combating Terrorism
Today’s Realities in the War on Terror
Today’s Terrorist Enemy
Strategic Vision for the War on Terror
Strategy for Winning the War on Terror
Institutionalizing Our Strategy for Long-term Success
Conclusion
| National Strategy for Combating Terrorism
National Strategy for Combating Terrorism
PDF version
The White House
September 2006
Overview of America’s National Strategy for Combating Terrorism
Today’s Realities in the War on Terror
Successes
Challenges
Today’s Terrorist Enemy
Strategic Vision for the War on Terror
Strategy for Winning the War on Terror
Long-term approach: Advancing effective democracy
Over the short term: Four priorities of action
Prevent attacks by terrorist networks
Deny WMD to rogue states and terrorist allies who seek to use them
Deny terrorists the support and sanctuary of rogue states
Deny terrorists control of any nation they would use as a base and launching pad for terror
Institutionalizing Our Strategy for Long-term Success
Conclusion
Overview of America’s National Strategy for Combating Terrorism
America is at war with a transnational terrorist movement fueled by a radical ideology of hatred, oppression, and murder. Our National Strategy for Combating Terrorism, first published in February 2003, recognizes that we are at war and that protecting and defending the Homeland, the American people, and their livelihoods remains our first and most solemn obligation.
Our strategy also recognizes that the War on Terror is a different kind of war. From the beginning, it has been both a battle of arms and a battle of ideas. Not only do we fight our terrorist enemies on the battlefield, we promote freedom and human dignity as alternatives to the terrorists’ perverse vision of oppression and totalitarian rule. The paradigm for combating terrorism now involves the application of all elements of our national power and influence. Not only do we employ military power, we use diplomatic, financial, intelligence, and law enforcement activities to protect the Homeland and extend our defenses, disrupt terrorist operations, and deprive our enemies of what they need to operate and survive. We have broken old orthodoxies that once confined our counterterrorism efforts primarily to the criminal justice domain.
This updated strategy sets the course for winning the War on Terror. It builds directly from the National Security Strategy issued in March 2006 as well as the February 2003 National Strategy for Combating Terrorism, and incorporates our increased understanding of the enemy. From the beginning, we understood that the War on Terror involved more than simply finding and bringing to justice those who had planned and executed the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001. Our strategy involved destroying the larger al-Qaida network and also confronting the radical ideology that inspired others to join or support the terrorist movement. Since 9/11, we have made substantial progress in degrading the al–Qaida network, killing or capturing key lieutenants, eliminating safehavens, and disrupting existing lines of support. Through the freedom agenda, we also have promoted the best long-term answer to al–Qaida's agenda: the freedom and dignity that comes when human liberty is protected by effective democratic institutions.
In response to our efforts, the terrorists have adjusted, and so we must continue to refine our strategy to meet the evolving threat. Today, we face a global terrorist movement and must confront the radical ideology that justifies the use of violence against innocents in the name of religion. As laid out in this strategy, to win the War on Terror, we will:
Advance effective democracies as the long–term antidote to the ideology of terrorism;
Prevent attacks by terrorist networks;
Deny terrorists the support and sanctuary of rogue states;
Deny terrorists control of any nation they would use as a base and launching pad for terror; and
Lay the foundations and build the institutions and structures we need to carry the fight forward against terror and help ensure our ultimate success.
Today’s Realities in the War on Terror
The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, were acts of war against the United States, peaceful people throughout the world, and the very principles of liberty and human dignity. The United States, together with our Coalition partners, has fought back and will win this war. We will hold the perpetrators accountable and work to prevent the recurrence of similar atrocities on any scale – whether at home or abroad. The War on Terror extends beyond the current armed conflict that arose out of the attacks of September 11, 2001, and embraces all facets of continuing U.S. efforts to bring an end to the scourge of terrorism. Ultimately, we will win the long war to defeat the terrorists and their murderous ideology.
Successes
We have deprived al-Qaida of safehaven in Afghanistan and helped a democratic government to rise in its place. Once a terrorist sanctuary ruled by the repressive Taliban regime, Afghanistan is now a full partner in the War on Terror.
A multinational coalition joined by the Iraqis is aggressively prosecuting the war against the terrorists in Iraq. Together, we are working to secure a united, stable, and democratic Iraq, now a new War on Terror ally in the heart of the Middle East.
We have significantly degraded the al–Qaida network. Most of those in the al–Qaida network responsible for the September 11 attacks, including the plot’s mastermind Khalid Shaykh Muhammad, have been captured or killed. We also have killed other key al–Qaida members, such as Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, the group’s operational commander in Iraq who led a campaign of terror that took the lives of countless American forces and innocent Iraqis.
We have led an unprecedented international campaign to combat terrorist financing that has made it harder, costlier, and riskier for al-Qaida and related terrorist groups to raise and move money.
There is a broad and growing global consensus that the deliberate targeting of innocents is never justified by any calling or cause.
Many nations have rallied to fight terrorism, with unprecedented cooperation on law enforcement, intelligence, military, and diplomatic activity.
We have strengthened our ability to disrupt and help prevent future attacks in the Homeland by enhancing our counterterrorism architecture through the creation of the Department of Homeland Security, the Office of Director of National Intelligence, and the National Counterterrorism Center. Overall, the United States and our partners have disrupted several serious plots since September 11, including al-Qaida plots to attack inside the United States.
Numerous countries that were part of the problem before September 11 are now increasingly becoming part of the solution – and this transformation has occurred without destabilizing friendly regimes in key regions.
The Administration has worked with Congress to adopt, implement, and renew key reforms like the USA PATRIOT Act that promote our security while also protecting our fundamental liberties.
Yet while America is safer, we are not yet safe. The enemy remains determined, and we face serious challenges at home and abroad.
Challenges
Terrorist networks today are more dispersed and less centralized. They are more reliant on smaller cells inspired by a common ideology and less directed by a central command structure.
While the United States Government and its partners have thwarted many attacks, we have not been able to prevent them all. Terrorists have struck in many places throughout the world, from Bali to Beslan to Baghdad.
While we have substantially improved our air, land, sea, and border security, our Homeland is not immune from attack.
Terrorists have declared their intention to acquire and use weapons of mass destruction (WMD) to inflict even more catastrophic attacks against the United States, our allies, partners, and other interests around the world.
Some states, such as Syria and Iran, continue to harbor terrorists at home and sponsor terrorist activity abroad.
The ongoing fight for freedom in Iraq has been twisted by terrorist propaganda as a rallying cry.
Increasingly sophisticated use of the Internet and media has enabled our terrorist enemies to communicate, recruit, train, rally support, proselytize, and spread their propaganda without risking personal contact.
Today’s Terrorist Enemy
The United States and our partners continue to pursue a significantly degraded but still dangerous al-Qaida network. Yet the enemy we face today in the War on Terror is not the same enemy we faced on September 11. Our effective counterterrorist efforts, in part, have forced the terrorists to evolve and modify their ways of doing business. Our understanding of the enemy has evolved as well. Today, the principal terrorist enemy confronting the United States is a transnational movement of extremist organizations, networks, and individuals – and their state and non-state supporters – which have in common that they exploit Islam and use terrorism for ideological ends.
This transnational movement is not monolithic. Although al-Qaida functions as the movement’s vanguard and remains, along with its affiliate groups and those inspired by them, the most dangerous present manifestation of the enemy, the movement is not controlled by any single individual, group, or state. What unites the movement is a common vision, a common set of ideas about the nature and destiny of the world, and a common goal of ushering in totalitarian rule. What unites the movement is the ideology of oppression, violence, and hate.
Our terrorist enemies exploit Islam to serve a violent political vision. Fueled by a radical ideology and a false belief that the United States is the cause of most problems affecting Muslims today, our enemies seek to expel Western power and influence from the Muslim world and establish regimes that rule according to a violent and intolerant distortion of Islam. As illustrated by Taliban-ruled Afghanistan, such regimes would deny all political and religious freedoms and serve as sanctuaries for extremists to launch additional attacks against not only the United States, its allies and partners, but the Muslim world itself. Some among the enemy, particularly al-Qaida, harbor even greater territorial and geopolitical ambitions and aim to establish a single, pan-Islamic, totalitarian regime that stretches from Spain to Southeast Asia.
This enemy movement seeks to create and exploit a division between the Muslim and non-Muslim world and within the Muslim world itself. The terrorists distort the idea of jihad into a call for violence and murder against those they regard as apostates or unbelievers, including all those who disagree with them. Most of the terrorist attacks since September 11 have occurred in Muslim countries – and most of the victims have been Muslims.
In addition to this principal enemy, a host of other groups and individuals also use terror and violence against innocent civilians to pursue their political objectives. Though their motives and goals may be different, and often include secular and more narrow territorial aims, they threaten our interests and those of our partners as they attempt to overthrow civil order and replace freedom with conflict and intolerance. Their terrorist tactics ensure that they are enemies of humanity regardless of their goals and no matter where they operate.
For our terrorist enemies, violence is not only justified, it is necessary and even glorified – judged the only means to achieve a world vision darkened by hate, fear, and oppression. They use suicide bombings, beheadings, and other atrocities against innocent people as a means to promote their creed. Our enemy’s demonstrated indifference to human life and desire to inflict catastrophic damage on the United States and its friends and allies around the world have fueled their desire for weapons of mass destruction. We cannot permit the world’s most dangerous terrorists and their regime sponsors to threaten us with the world’s most destructive weapons.
For the enemy, there is no peaceful coexistence with those who do not subscribe to their distorted and violent view of the world. They accept no dissent and tolerate no alternative points of view. Ultimately, the terrorist enemy we face threatens global peace, international security and prosperity, the rising tide of democracy, and the right of all people to live without fear of indiscriminate violence.
Strategic Vision for the War on Terror
From the beginning, the War on Terror has been both a battle of arms and a battle of ideas – a fight against the terrorists and their murderous ideology. In the short run, the fight involves the application of all instruments of national power and influence to kill or capture the terrorists; deny them safehaven and control of any nation; prevent them from gaining access to WMD; render potential terrorist targets less attractive by strengthening security; and cut off their sources of funding and other resources they need to operate and survive. In the long run, winning the War on Terror means winning the battle of ideas. Ideas can transform the embittered and disillusioned either into murderers willing to kill innocents, or into free peoples living harmoniously in a diverse society.
The battle of ideas helps to define the strategic intent of our National Strategy for Combating Terrorism. The United States will continue to lead an expansive international effort in pursuit of a two-pronged vision:
The defeat of violent extremism as a threat to our way of life as a free and open society; and
The creation of a global environment inhospitable to violent extremists and all who support them.
Strategy for Winning the War on Terror
Long-term approach: Advancing effective democracy
The long-term solution for winning the War on Terror is the advancement of freedom and human dignity through effective democracy. Elections are the most visible sign of a free society and can play a critical role in advancing effective democracy. But elections alone are not enough. Effective democracies honor and uphold basic human rights, including freedom of religion, conscience, speech, assembly, association, and press. They are responsive to their citizens, submitting to the will of the people. Effective democracies exercise effective sovereignty and maintain order within their own borders, address causes of conflict peacefully, protect independent and impartial systems of justice, punish crime, embrace the rule of law, and resist corruption. Effective democracies also limit the reach of government, protecting the institutions of civil society. In effective democracies, freedom is indivisible. They are the long-term antidote to the ideology of terrorism today. This is the battle of ideas.
To wage the battle of ideas effectively, we must recognize what does and does not give rise to terrorism:
Terrorism is not the inevitable by-product of poverty. Many of the September 11 hijackers were from middle-class backgrounds, and many terrorist leaders, like bin Laden, are from privileged upbringings.
Terrorism is not simply a result of hostility to U.S. policy in Iraq. The United States was attacked on September 11 and many years earlier, well before we toppled the Saddam Hussein regime. Moreover, countries that did not participate in Coalition efforts in Iraq have not been spared from terror attacks.
Terrorism is not simply a result of Israeli-Palestinian issues. Al-Qaida plotting for the September 11 attacks began in the 1990s, during an active period in the peace process.
Terrorism is not simply a response to our efforts to prevent terror attacks. The al-Qaida network targeted the United States long before the United States targeted al-Qaida. Indeed, the terrorists are emboldened more by perceptions of weakness than by demonstrations of resolve. Terrorists lure recruits by telling them that we are decadent, easily intimidated, and will retreat if attacked.
The terrorism we confront today springs from:
Political alienation. Transnational terrorists are recruited from populations with no voice in their own government and see no legitimate way to promote change in their own country. Without a stake in the existing order, they are vulnerable to manipulation by those who advocate a perverse political vision based on violence and destruction.
Grievances that can be blamed on others. The failures the terrorists feel and see are blamed both on others and on perceived injustices from the recent or sometimes distant past. The terrorists’ rhetoric keeps wounds associated with this past fresh and raw, a potent motivation for revenge and terror.
Subcultures of conspiracy and misinformation. Terrorists recruit more effectively from populations whose information about the world is contaminated by falsehoods and corrupted by conspiracy theories. The distortions keep alive grievances and filter out facts that would challenge popular prejudices and self-serving propaganda.
An ideology that justifies murder. Terrorism ultimately depends upon the appeal of an ideology that excuses or even glorifies the deliberate killing of innocents. Islam has been twisted and made to serve an evil end, as in other times and places other religions have been similarly abused.
Defeating terrorism in the long run requires that each of these factors be addressed. Effective democracy provides a counter to each, diminishing the underlying conditions terrorists seek to exploit.
In place of alienation, democracy offers an ownership stake in society, a chance to shape one’s own future.
In place of festering grievances, democracy offers the rule of law, the peaceful resolution of disputes, and the habits of advancing interests through compromise.
In place of a culture of conspiracy and misinformation, democracy offers freedom of speech, independent media, and the marketplace of ideas, which can expose and discredit falsehoods, prejudices, and dishonest propaganda.
In place of an ideology that justifies murder, democracy offers a respect for human dignity that abhors the deliberate targeting of innocent civilians.
Democracy is the antithesis of terrorist tyranny, which is why the terrorists denounce it and are willing to kill the innocent to stop it. Democracy is based on empowerment, while the terrorists’ ideology is based on enslavement. Democracies expand the freedom of their citizens, while the terrorists seek to impose a single set of narrow beliefs. Democracy sees individuals as equal in worth and dignity, having an inherent potential to create, govern themselves, and exercise basic freedoms of speech and conscience. The terrorists see individuals as objects to be exploited, and then to be ruled and oppressed.
Democracies are not immune to terrorism. In some democracies, some ethnic or religious groups are unable or unwilling to grasp the benefits of freedom otherwise available in the society. Such groups can evidence the same alienation and despair that the transnational terrorists exploit in undemocratic states. This accounts for the emergence in democratic societies of homegrown terrorists – even among second- and third-generation citizens. Even in these cases, the long-term solution remains deepening the reach of democracy so that all citizens enjoy its benefits. We will continue to guard against the emergence of homegrown terrorists within our own Homeland as well.
The strategy to counter the lies behind the terrorists’ ideology and deny them future recruits must empower the very people the terrorists most want to exploit: the faithful followers of Islam. We will continue to support political reforms that empower peaceful Muslims to practice and interpret their faith. We will work to undermine the ideological underpinnings of violent Islamic extremism and gain the support of non-violent Muslims around the world. The most vital work will be done within the Islamic world itself, and Jordan, Morocco, and Indonesia, among others, have begun to make important strides in this effort. Responsible Islamic leaders need to denounce an ideology that distorts and exploits Islam to justify the murder of innocent people and defiles a proud religion.
Many of the Muslim faith are already making this commitment at great personal risk. They realize they are a target of this ideology of terror. Everywhere we have joined in the fight against terrorism, Muslim allies have stood beside us, becoming partners in this vital cause. They know the stakes – the survival of their own liberty, the future of their own region, the justice and humanity of their own traditions – and the United States is proud to stand beside them. Not only will we continue to support the efforts of our Muslim partners overseas to reject violent extremism, we will continue to engage with and strengthen the efforts of Muslims within the United States as well. Through outreach programs and public diplomacy we will reveal the terrorists’ violent extremist ideology for what it is – a form of totalitarianism following in the path of fascism and Nazism.
Over the short term: Four priorities of action
The advance of freedom, opportunity, and human dignity through democracy is the long-term solution to the transnational terror movement of today. To create the space and time for this
long-term solution to take root, we are operating along four priorities of action in the short term.
Prevent attacks by terrorist networks. A government has no higher obligation than to protect the lives and livelihoods of its citizens. The hard core among our terrorist enemies cannot be reformed or deterred; they will be tracked down, captured, or killed. They will be cut off from the network of individuals, institutions, and other resources they depend on for support and that facilitate their activities. The network, in turn, will be deterred, disrupted, and disabled. Working with committed partners across the globe, we continue to use a broad range of tools at home and abroad to take the fight to the terrorists, deny them entry to the United States, hinder their movement across international borders, and establish protective measures to further reduce our vulnerability to attack.
Attack terrorists and their capacity to operate. The United States and our partners continue to take active and effective measures against our primary terrorist enemies and certain other violent extremist groups that also pose a serious and continuing threat. We are attacking these terrorists and their capacity to operate effectively at home and abroad. Specifically, through the use of all elements of national power, we are denying or neutralizing what our terrorist enemies need to operate and survive:
Leaders, who provide the vision that followers strive to realize. They also offer the necessary direction, discipline, and motivation for accomplishing a given goal or task. Most terrorist organizations have a central figure who embodies the cause, in addition to several operational leaders and managers who provide guidance on a functional, regional, or local basis. The loss of a leader can degrade a group’s cohesiveness and in some cases may trigger its collapse. Other terrorist groups adapt by promoting experienced cadre or decentralizing their command structures, making our challenge in neutralizing terrorist leaders even greater.
Foot soldiers, which include the operatives, facilitators, and trainers in a terrorist network. They are the lifeblood of a terrorist group – they make it run. Technology and globalization have enhanced the ability of groups to recruit foot soldiers to their cause, including well-educated recruits. We and our partners will not only continue to capture and kill foot soldiers, but will work to halt the influx of recruits into terrorist organizations as well. Without a continuing supply of personnel to facilitate and carry out attacks, these groups ultimately will cease to operate.
Weapons, the tools of terrorists and the means by which they murder to advance their cause. Terrorists exploit many avenues to develop and acquire weapons, including through state sponsors, theft or capture, and black market purchases. Our enemies employ existing technology – explosives, small arms, missiles and other devices – in both conventional and unconventional ways to terrorize and achieve mass effects. They also use non-weapon technologies as weapons, such as the airplanes on September 11. Our greatest and gravest concern, however, is WMD in the hands of terrorists. Preventing their acquisition and the dire consequences of their use is a key priority of this strategy.
Funds, which provide the fungible, easily transportable means to secure all other forms of material support necessary to the survival and operation of terrorist organizations. Our enemies raise funds through a variety of means, including soliciting contributions from supporters; operating businesses, NGOs, and charitable fronts; and engaging in criminal activity such as fraud, extortion, and kidnapping for ransom. They transfer funds through several mechanisms, including the formal banking system, wire transfers, debit or "smart" cards, cash couriers, and hawalas, which are alternative remittance systems based on trust. Effective disruption of funding sources and interdiction of transfer mechanisms can help our partners and us to starve terrorist networks of the material support they require.
Communications, which allow terrorists the ability to receive, store, manipulate, and exchange information. The methods by which terrorists communicate are numerous and varied. Our enemies rely on couriers and face-to-face contacts with associates and tend to use what is accessible in their local areas as well as what they can afford. They also use today’s technologies with increasing acumen and sophistication. This is especially true with the Internet, which they exploit to create and disseminate propaganda, recruit new members, raise funds and other material resources, provide instruction on weapons and tactics, and plan operations. Without a communications ability, terrorist groups cannot effectively organize operations, execute attacks, or spread their ideology. We and our partners will continue to target the communication nodes of our enemy.
Propaganda operations, which are used by terrorists to justify violent action as well as inspire individuals to support or join the movement. The ability of terrorists to exploit the Internet and 24/7 worldwide media coverage allows them to bolster their prominence as well as feed a steady diet of radical ideology, twisted images, and conspiracy theories to potential recruits in all corners of the globe. Besides a global reach, these technologies allow terrorists to propagate their message quickly, often before an effective counter to terrorist messages can be coordinated and distributed. These are force multipliers for our enemy.
Deny terrorists entry to the United States and disrupt their travel internationally. Denying our enemies the tools to travel internationally and across and within our borders significantly impedes their mobility and can inhibit their effectiveness. They rely on illicit networks to facilitate travel and often obtain false identification documents through theft or in-house forgery operations. We will continue to enhance the security of the American people through a layered system of protections along our borders, at our ports, on our roadways and railways, in our skies, and with our international partners. We will continue to develop and enhance security practices and technologies to reduce vulnerabilities in the dynamic transportation network, inhibit terrorists from crossing U.S. borders, and detect and prevent terrorist travel within the United States. Our efforts will include improving all aspects of aviation security; promoting secure travel and identity documents; disrupting travel facilitation networks; improving border security and visa screening; and building international capacity and improving international information exchange to secure travel and combat terrorist travel. Our National Strategy to Combat Terrorist Travel and our National Strategy for Maritime Security will help guide our efforts.
Defend potential targets of attack. Our enemies are opportunistic, exploiting vulnerabilities and seeking alternatives to those targets with increased security measures. The targeting trend since at least September 11 has been away from hardened sites, such as official government facilities with formidable security, and toward softer targets – schools, restaurants, places of worship, and nodes of public transportation – where innocent civilians gather and which are not always well secured. Specific targets vary, but they tend to be symbolic and often selected because they will produce mass casualties, economic damage, or both.
While it is impossible to protect completely all potential targets all the time, we can deter and disrupt attacks, as well as mitigate the effects of those that do occur, through strategic security improvements at sites both at home and overseas. Among our most important defensive efforts is the protection of critical infrastructures and key resources – sectors such as energy, food and agriculture, water, telecommunications, public health, transportation, the defense industrial base, government facilities, postal and shipping, the chemical industry, emergency services, monuments and icons, information technology, dams, commercial facilities, banking and finance, and nuclear reactors, materials, and waste. These are systems and assets so vital that their destruction or incapacitation would have a debilitating effect on the security of our Nation. We will also continue to protect various assets such as historical attractions or certain high-profile events whose destruction or attack would not necessarily debilitate our national security but could damage the morale and confidence of the American people. Beyond the Homeland, we will continue to protect and defend U.S. citizens, diplomatic missions, and military facilities overseas, as well as work with our partners to strengthen their ability to protect their populations and critical infrastructures.
Deny WMD to rogue states and terrorist allies who seek to use them. Weapons of mass destruction in the hands of terrorists is one of the gravest threats we face. We have taken aggressive efforts to deny terrorists access to WMD-related materials, equipment, and expertise, but we will enhance these activities through an integrated effort at all levels of government and with the private sector and our foreign partners to stay ahead of this dynamic and evolving threat. In July 2006, the United States and Russia launched the Global Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism to establish an international framework to enhance cooperation, build capacity, and act to combat the global threat of nuclear terrorism. This initiative will help drive international focus and action to ensure the international community is doing everything possible to prevent nuclear weapons, materials, and knowledge from reaching the hands of terrorists.
With regard to our own efforts, our comprehensive approach for addressing WMD terrorism hinges on six objectives, and we will work across all objectives simultaneously to maximize our ability to eliminate the threat.
Determine terrorists’ intentions, capabilities, and plans to develop or acquire WMD. We need to understand and assess the credibility of threat reporting and provide technical assessments of terrorists’ WMD capabilities.
Deny terrorists access to the materials, expertise, and other enabling capabilities required to develop WMD. We have an aggressive, global approach to deny our enemies access to WMD-related materials (with a particular focus on weapons-usable fissile materials), fabrication expertise, methods of transport, sources of funds, and other capabilities that facilitate the execution of a WMD attack. In addition to building upon existing initiatives to secure materials, we are developing innovative approaches that blend classic counterproliferation, nonproliferation, and counterterrorism efforts.
Deter terrorists from employing WMD. A new deterrence calculus combines the need to deter terrorists and supporters from contemplating a WMD attack and, failing that, to dissuade them from actually conducting an attack. Traditional threats may not work because terrorists show a wanton disregard for the lives of innocents and in some cases for their own lives. We require a range of deterrence strategies that are tailored to the situation and the adversary. We will make clear that terrorists and those who aid or sponsor a WMD attack would face the prospect of an overwhelming response to any use of such weapons. We will seek to dissuade attacks by improving our ability to mitigate the effects of a terrorist attack involving WMD – to limit or prevent large-scale casualties, economic disruption, or panic. Finally, we will ensure that our capacity to determine the source of any attack is well-known, and that our determination to respond overwhelmingly to any attack is never in doubt.
Detect and disrupt terrorists’ attempted movement of WMD-related materials, weapons, and personnel. We will expand our global capability for detecting illicit materials, weapons, and personnel transiting abroad or heading for the United States or U.S. interests overseas. We will use our global partnerships, international agreements, and ongoing border security and interdiction efforts. We also will continue to work with countries to enact and enforce strict penalties for WMD trafficking and other suspect WMD-related activities.
Prevent and respond to a WMD-related terrorist attack. Once the possibility of a WMD attack against the United States has been detected, we will seek to contain, interdict, and eliminate the threat. We will continue to develop requisite capabilities to eliminate the possibility of a WMD operation and to prevent a possible follow-on attack. We will prepare ourselves for possible WMD incidents by developing capabilities to manage the range of consequences that may result from such an attack against the United States or our interests around the world.
Define the nature and source of a terrorist-employed WMD device. Should a WMD terrorist attack occur, the rapid identification of the source and perpetrator of an attack will enable our response efforts and may be critical in disrupting follow-on attacks. We will develop the capability to assign responsibility for the intended or actual use of WMD via accurate attribution – the rapid fusion of technical forensic data with intelligence and law enforcement information.
Deny terrorists the support and sanctuary of rogue states. The United States and its allies and partners in the War on Terror make no distinction between those who commit acts of terror and those who support and harbor terrorists. Any government that chooses to be an ally of terror has chosen to be an enemy of freedom, justice, and peace. The world will hold those regimes to account. To break the bonds between rogue states and our terrorist enemies, we will work to disrupt the flow of resources from states to terrorists while simultaneously working to end state sponsorship of terrorism.
End state sponsorship of terrorism. State sponsors are a critical resource for our terrorist enemies, often providing funds, weapons, training, safe passage, and sanctuary. Some of these countries have developed or have the capability to develop WMD and other destabilizing technologies that could fall into the hands of terrorists. The United States currently designates five state sponsors of terrorism: Iran, Syria, Sudan, North Korea, and Cuba. We will maintain sanctions against them and promote their international isolation until they end their support for terrorists, including the provision of sanctuary. To further isolate these regimes and persuade other states not to sponsor terror, we will use a range of tools and efforts to delegitimate terrorism as an instrument of statecraft. Any act of international terrorism, whether committed by a state or individual, is reprehensible, a threat to international peace and security, and should be unequivocally and uniformly rejected. Similarly, states that harbor and assist terrorists are as guilty as the terrorists, and they will be held to account.
Iran remains the most active state sponsor of international terrorism. Through its Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps and Ministry of Intelligence and Security, the regime in Tehran plans terrorist operations and supports groups such as Lebanese Hizballah, Hamas, and Palestine Islamic Jihad (PIJ). Iran also remains unwilling to account for and bring to justice senior al-Qaida members it detained in 2003. Most troubling is the potential WMD-terrorism nexus that emanates from Tehran. Syria also is a significant state sponsor of terrorism and thus a priority for concern. The regime in Damascus supports and provides haven to Hizballah, Hamas, and PIJ. We will continue to stand with the people of Iran and Syria against the regimes that oppress them at home and sponsor terror abroad.
While Iranian and Syrian terrorist activities are especially worrisome, we are pressing all state sponsors to take the steps that are required to have state sponsorship designation rescinded. Each case is unique, and our approach to each will be tailored accordingly. Moreover, we never foreclose future membership in the coalition against tyranny and terror. The designation of Iraq as a state sponsor was rescinded in 2004 as it transitioned to democracy, ceased its terrorist support, and became an ally in the War on Terror. Similarly, the United States in June 2006 rescinded the designation of Libya, which has renounced terrorism and since September 11 has provided excellent cooperation to the United States and other members of the international community in response to the new global threats we face. Libya can serve as a model for states who wish to rejoin the community of nations by rejecting terror.
Disrupt the flow of resources from rogue states to terrorists. Until we can eliminate state sponsorship of terror, we will disrupt and deny the flow of support from states to terrorists. We will continue to create and strengthen international will to interdict material support, akin to our efforts in the Proliferation Security Initiative – a global effort to stop shipments of WMD, their delivery systems, and related material. We will build international cooperation to financially isolate rogue states and their terrorist proxies. We also will continue to expose the vehicles and fronts that states use to support their terrorist surrogates.
Deny terrorists control of any nation they would use as a base and launching pad for terror. Our terrorist enemies are striving to claim a strategic country as a haven for terror. From this base, they could destabilize the Middle East and strike America and other free nations with ever-increasing violence. This we can never allow. Our enemies had established a sanctuary in Afghanistan prior to Operation Enduring Freedom, and today terrorists see Iraq as the central front of their fight against the United States. This is why success in helping the Afghan and Iraqi peoples forge effective democracies is vital. We will continue to prevent terrorists from exploiting ungoverned or under-governed areas as safehavens – secure spaces that allow our enemies to plan, organize, train, and prepare for operations. Ultimately, we will eliminate these havens altogether.
Eliminate physical safehavens. Physical sanctuaries can stretch across an entire sovereign state, be limited to specific ungoverned or ill-governed areas in an otherwise functioning state, or cross national borders. In some cases the government wants to exercise greater effective sovereignty over its lands and maintain control within its borders but lacks the necessary capacity. We will strengthen the capacity of such War on Terror partners to reclaim full control of their territory through effective police, border, and other security forces as well as functioning systems of justice. To further counter terrorist exploitation of under-governed lands, we will promote effective economic development to help ensure long-term stability and prosperity. In failing states or states emerging from conflict, the risks are significant. Spoilers can take advantage of instability to create conditions terrorists can exploit. We will continue to work with foreign partners and international organizations to help prevent conflict and respond to state failure by building foreign capacity for peace operations, reconstruction, and stabilization so that countries in transition can reach a sustainable path to peace, democracy, and prosperity. Where physical havens cross national boundaries, we will continue to work with the affected countries to help establish effective cross-border control. Yet some countries will be reluctant to fulfill their sovereign responsibilities to combat terrorist-related activities within their borders. In addition to cooperation and sustained diplomacy, we will continue to partner with the international community to persuade states to meet their obligations to combat terrorism and deny safehaven under U.N. Security Council Resolution 1373.
Yet safehavens are not just limited to geographic territories. They also can be non-physical or virtual, existing within legal, cyber, and financial systems.
Legal safehavens. Some legal systems lack adequate procedural, substantive, and international assistance laws that enable effective investigation, prosecution, and extradition of terrorists. Such gaps offer a haven in which terrorists and their organizations can operate free from fear of prosecution. In the United States we have developed a domestic legal system that supports effective investigation and prosecution of terrorist activities while preserving individual privacy, the First Amendment rights of association, religious freedom, free speech, and other civil rights. We will continue to work with foreign partners to build their legal capacity to investigate, prosecute, and assist in the foreign prosecution of the full range of terrorist activities – from provision of material support to conspiracy to operational planning to a completed act of terrorism.
Cyber safehavens. The Internet provides an inexpensive, anonymous, geographically unbounded, and largely unregulated virtual haven for terrorists. Our enemies use the Internet to develop and disseminate propaganda, recruit new members, raise and transfer funds, train members on weapons use and tactics, and plan operations. Terrorist organizations can use virtual safehavens based anywhere in the world, regardless of where their members or operatives are located. Use of the Internet, however, creates opportunities for us to exploit. To counter terrorist use of the Internet as a virtual sanctuary, we will discredit terrorist propaganda by promoting truthful and peaceful messages. We will seek ultimately to deny the Internet to the terrorists as an effective safehaven for their propaganda, proselytizing, recruitment, fund-raising, training, and operational planning.
Financial safehavens. Financial systems are used by terrorist organizations as a fiscal sanctuary in which to store and transfer the funds that support their survival and operations. Terrorist organizations use a variety of financial systems, including formal banking, wire transfers, debit and other stored value cards, online value storage and value transfer systems, the informal hawala system, and cash couriers. Terrorist organizations may be able to take advantage of such financial systems either as the result of willful complicity by financial institutions or as the result of poor oversight and monitoring practices. Domestically, we have hardened our financial systems against terrorist abuse by promulgating effective regulations, requiring financial institutions to report suspicious transactions, and building effective public/private partnerships. We will continue to work with foreign partners to ensure they develop and implement similar regulations, requirements, and partnerships with their financial institutions. We also will continue to use the domestic and international designation and targeted sanctions regimes provided by, among other mechanisms, Executive Order 13224, USA PATRIOT Act Section 311, and United Nations Security Council Resolution 1267 and subsequent resolutions. These tools identify and isolate those actors who form part of terrorist networks or facilitate their activities.
Institutionalizing Our Strategy for Long-term Success
The War on Terror will be a long war. Yet we have mobilized to win other long wars, and we can and will win this one. During the Cold War we created an array of domestic and international institutions and enduring partnerships to defeat the threat of communism. Today, we require similar transformational structures to carry forward the fight against terror and to help ensure our ultimate success:
Establish and maintain international standards of accountability. States that have sovereign rights also have sovereign responsibilities, including the responsibility to combat terrorism. The international community has developed a compelling body of international obligations relating to counterterrorism. Twelve universal conventions and protocols in force against terrorism have been developed under the auspices of the United Nations as well as various U.N. Security Council Resolutions related to combating terror. These include UNSCR 1373, which imposes binding obligations on all states to suppress and prevent terrorist financing, improve their border controls, enhance information sharing and law enforcement cooperation, suppress the recruitment of terrorists, and deny them sanctuary.
The Group of Eight (G-8) along with other multilateral and regional bodies also have been instrumental in developing landmark counterterrorism standards and best practices that have been adopted by international standard-setting organizations. But our obligations are not static. We will collaborate with our partners to update and tailor international obligations to meet the evolving nature of the terrorist enemies and threats we face. We also will work to ensure that each country is both willing and able to meet its counterterrorist responsibilities. Finally, we will not just continually monitor whether we and the community of nations are meeting these standards but will evaluate if we are achieving results both individually and collectively.
Strengthen coalitions and partnerships. Since September 11, most of our important successes against al-Qaida and other terrorist organizations have been made possible through effective partnerships. Continued success depends on the actions of a powerful coalition of nations maintaining a united front against terror. Multilateral groups such as the International Maritime Organization and the International Civil Aviation Organization, as well as regional organizations such as the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, the Organization of American States, NATO, the European Union, the African Union, and the Association of South East Asia Nations, among others, are essential elements of this front.
We will ensure that such international cooperation is an enduring feature of the long war we will fight. We will continue to leverage the comparative advantage of these institutions and organizations – drawing on what each does best in counterterrorism, from setting standards to developing regional strategies to providing forums for training and education. Indeed, a significant part of this effort includes expanding partnership capacity. We are building the capacity of foreign partners in all areas of counterterrorism activities, including strengthening their ability to conduct law enforcement, intelligence, and military counterterrorism operations. Through the provision of training, equipment, and other assistance, the United States, along with a coalition of willing and able states and organizations, will enhance the ability of partners across the globe to attack and defeat terrorists, deny them funding and freedom of movement, secure their critical infrastructures, and deny terrorists access to WMD and safehavens. Ultimately, it will be essential for our partners to come together to facilitate appropriate international, regional, and local solutions to the challenges of terrorism.
Enhance government architecture and interagency collaboration. In the aftermath of September 11, we have enhanced our counterterrorism architecture and interagency collaboration by setting clear national priorities and transforming the government to achieve those priorities. We have established the Department of Homeland Security, bringing under one authority 22 Federal entities with vital roles to play in preventing terrorist attacks within the Homeland, reducing America’s vulnerability to terrorism, and minimizing the damage and facilitating the recovery from attacks that do occur. We have reorganized the Intelligence Community. The Director of National Intelligence (DNI) was created to better integrate the efforts of the Community into a more unified, coordinated, and effective whole. The DNI also launched a new Open Source Center to coordinate open source intelligence and ensure this information is integrated into Intelligence Community products.
In addition, a National Counterterrorism Center (NCTC) was established to serve as a multi-agency center analyzing and integrating all intelligence pertaining to terrorism, including threats to U.S. interests at home and abroad. NCTC also is responsible for developing, implementing, and assessing the effectiveness of strategic operational planning efforts to achieve counterterrorism objectives. We similarly established a National Counterproliferation Center to manage and coordinate planning and activities in those areas.
The transformation extends to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, which, with the help of legislation such as the USA PATRIOT Act, is now more fully integrated with the Intelligence Community, has refocused its efforts on preventing terrorism, and has been provided important tools to pursue this mission. CIA also has transformed to fulfill its role to provide overall direction for and coordination of overseas human intelligence operations of Intelligence Community elements. In addition, the Department of the Treasury created the Office of Terrorism and Financial Intelligence to arm ourselves for the long term with the intelligence and tools to undercut the financial underpinnings of terrorism around the world.
The Department of Defense also is preparing to meet a wider range of asymmetric challenges by restructuring its capabilities, rearranging its global posture, and adapting its forces to be better positioned to fight the War on Terror. This includes significantly expanding Special Operations Forces, increasing the capabilities of its general purpose forces to conduct irregular warfare operations, and initiating the largest rearrangement of its global force posture since the end of World War II.
The Department of State is implementing a new framework for foreign assistance to establish more integrated and coherent strategic direction and tactical plans to meet our current and long-term challenges, including terrorism. The State Department also is repositioning its domestic and overseas staff to better promote America’s policies and interests and have more direct local and regional impact. This transformational diplomacy positions State to work with partners around the world to build and sustain democratic, well-governed states that will respond to the needs of their people and conduct themselves responsibly in the international system.
We will sustain the transformation already under way in these and other departments and agencies. Moreover, we will continue to build and strengthen a unified team across the counterterrorism community, and a key component of this effort will be fostering “jointness.” Where practicable, we will increase interagency and intergovernmental assignments for personnel in counterterrorism-related positions. This will help to break down organizational stovepipes and advance the exchange of ideas and practices for more effective counterterrorism efforts.
Foster intellectual and human capital. To better prepare ourselves for a generational struggle against terrorism and the extremist ideologies fueling it, we will create an expert community of counterterrorism professionals. We will continue to establish more systematic programs for the development and education of current professionals in counterterrorism-related fields. We will substantively expand our existing programs with curricula that includes not only training in counterterrorism policies, plans and planning, strategies, and legal authorities, but continuing education in appropriate area studies, religious philosophies, and languages. We also will ensure that personnel throughout all levels of government and in all fields related to combating terror are invited to participate.
Yet such development and education programs must not be restricted to current counterterrorism personnel. We will support multidisciplinary studies throughout our educational system to build a knowledgeable pool of counterterrorism recruits for the future. The recent National Security Language Initiative is an essential step forward. It will help to expand U.S. foreign language education beginning in early childhood and continuing throughout formal schooling and into the workforce. Our efforts to foster intellectual and human capital also will extend beyond our borders – to academic and non-governmental forums with our international partners to discuss and enhance our knowledge about the critical counterterrorism challenges we confront.
In the War on Terror, there is also a need for all elements of our Nation – from Federal, State, and local governments to the private sector to local communities and individual citizens – to help create and share responsibilities in a Culture of Preparedness. This Culture of Preparedness, which applies to all catastrophes and all hazards, natural or man-made, rests on four principles: a shared acknowledgement of the certainty of future catastrophes and that creating a prepared Nation will be a continuing challenge; the importance of initiative and accountability at all levels of society; the role of citizen and community preparedness; and finally, the roles of each level of government and the private sector in creating a prepared Nation. Built upon a foundation of partnerships, common goals, and shared responsibility, the creation of a Culture of Preparedness will be among our most profound and enduring transformations in the broader effort to protect and defend the Homeland.
Conclusion
Since the September 11 attacks, America is safer, but we are not yet safe. We have done much to degrade al-Qaida and its affiliates and to undercut the perceived legitimacy of terrorism. Our Muslim partners are speaking out against those who seek to use their religion to justify violence and a totalitarian vision of the world. We have significantly expanded our counterterrorism coalition, transforming old adversaries into new and vital partners in the War on Terror. We have liberated more than 50 million Afghans and Iraqis from despotism, terrorism, and oppression, permitting the first free elections in recorded history for either nation. In addition, we have transformed our governmental institutions and framework to wage a generational struggle. There will continue to be challenges ahead, but along with our partners, we will attack terrorism and its ideology, and bring hope and freedom to the people of the world. This is how we will win the War on Terror.
| msmarco_doc_00_8650404 |
http://2001-2009.state.gov/secretary/former/40888.htm | Secretary of State James Buchanan | Secretary of State James Buchanan
BIOGRAPHY
James Buchanan
Secretary of State,
Term of Appointment: 03/10/1845 to 03/07/1849
Born at Cove Gap, near Mercersburg, Pennsylvania, April 23, 1791;
Graduated from Dickinson College in 1809;
Admitted to the bar in 1812 and practiced in Lancaster, Pennsylvania; served in the defense of Baltimore in the War of 1812;
Member of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives, 1814-1816;
Representative from Pennsylvania, 1821-1831;
Served as Minister to Russia, 1832-1833;
Senator from Pennsylvania, 1834-1845;
Served as Secretary of State in President Polk's Cabinet March 10, 1845 until March 7, 1849;
As Secretary of State, negotiated and signed the Oregon Treaty of 1846 with Great Britain; directed the negotiation of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo of 1848 with Mexico; and sought unsuccessfully to purchase Cuba from Spain;
Unsuccessful candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination in 1852;
Served as Minister to Great Britain, 1853-1856;
One of the three United States Ministers who drew up the Ostend Manifesto of 1854;
President of the United States, 1857-1861;
Retired to Wheatland his country estate near Lancaster; never married;
Died at Wheatland on June 1, 1868.
Released on July 15, 2003
| msmarco_doc_00_8707490 | |
http://2001.wikia.com/wiki/HAL_9000 | HAL 9000 | 2001: A Space Odyssey Wiki | Fandom | HAL 9000
HAL 9000
Series 9000
Programming
2001: A Space Odyssey
2010 odyssey
2061: Odyssey Three
3001: The Final Odyssey
Videos
See also
Resources
Trivia
Cultural depictions
| HAL 9000 | 2001: A Space Odyssey Wiki | Fandom
HAL 9000
Series 9000
“I am putting myself to the fullest possible use, which is all I think that any conscious entity can ever hope to do. Look Dave, I can see you're really upset about this. I honestly think you ought to sit down calmly, take a stress pill, and think things over.”
" Good afternoon, gentlemen. I am a HAL 9000 computer. "
– HAL 9000
The HAL ( H euristically programmed AL gorithmic Computer) 9000 computer is an artificial intelligence and the onboard computer on the spaceship Discovery 1 . HAL 9000, more commonly called "Hal", became operational in the HAL plant in Urbana, Illinois, on January 12, 1992. His first instructor was Dr. Chandra. He is the hidden main antagonist of 2001 and a major protagonist in 2010.
Programming
Hal is capable of many functions, such as speech, speech recognition, facial recognition, lip reading, interpreting emotions, expressing emotions, and chess, in addition to maintaining all systems on Discovery.
The novel explains that HAL is unable to resolve a conflict between his general mission to relay information accurately, and orders specific to the mission requiring that he withhold from Bowman and Poole the true purpose of the mission. (This withholding is considered essential after the findings of a psychological experiment, "Project Barsoom", where humans were made to believe that there had been alien contact. In every person tested, a deep-seated xenophobia was revealed, which was unknowingly replicated in HAL's constructed personality. Mission Control did not want the crew of Discovery to have their thinking compromised by the knowledge that alien contact was already real.) With the crew dead, HAL reasons, he would not need to lie to them.
HAL speaks in a soothing male voice, always using a calm tone.
2001: A Space Odyssey
" I'm sorry, Dave. I'm afraid I can't do that. "
– HAL 9000
One of Hal's "eyes."
Hal is built into the Discovery 1 spacecraft, and is in charge of maintaining all mechanical and life support systems on board.Hal also has several "eyes" placed periodically around the spacecraft. About three weeks into the flight, Hal picks up a fault in the AE-35 unit, the system responsible for keeping the satellite dish antenna aligned with the Earth, and states that it will go one-hundred percent failure within 72 hours. He suggests that they go EVA and replace the faulty unit with a new one. Dr. David Bowman goes out and retrieves the unit. But when he brings it back and runs it through diagnostics, they can find no problem with the AE-35. They radio Mission Control about the problem, and Mission Control says that Hal is in error predicting the fault. This is a bit of a surprise, as the 9000 series has a perfect operational record.
Dr. David Bowman (Keir Dullea) disconnects HAL.
Noting that this kind of thing has always been because of human error when it has occurred before, Hal suggests that they go out and "replace the malfunctioning unit and allow it to fail. Then it should be a simple matter to track down the problem."
But by this time, both Dr. Frank Poole and Bowman are becoming suspicious of Hal's behaviour. They climb into one of the EVA pods, out of earshot of Hal. Poole states that he has "a bad feeling about him". Bowman and Poole suggest disconnecting Hal if he is wrong about predicting the fault. Unbeknownst to them, Hal read their lips through the window of the spacepod. Translating their lip motions, Hal learns of their plans for his disconnection; according to Clarke, "he (will) be deprived of all his inputs, and thrown into an unimaginable state of unconsciousness. To Hal, this (is) the equivalent of death. For he (has) never slept, and therefore he (does) not know that one (can) wake again."
Poole goes out to replace the supposedly malfunctioning AE-35 unit. As he drifts through space to the satellite dish, Hal takes control of the pod and rams it into Poole, disconnecting his oxygen hose and venting the air in his suit, killing him. Bowman, obviously distraught by the loss of his friend, goes out to retrieve Poole's body. However, while Bowman is out on his excursion, Hal shuts off the life support systems on the three astronauts in hibernation, which kills them all. After Bowman returns to the Discovery I, Hal denies him reentry into the pod bay. So Bowman has to maneuver the pod over to the emergency airlock. Unfortunately, in his haste to retrieve his friend, Bowman had not bothered to don the helmet of his life-support suit because he had not believed he would need it, making it very difficult to enter the emergency airlock, as he would have to travel through the vacuum of space in order to do so. This, however, does not stop Bowman. Risking the hazards of explosive decompression, he eventually gets inside, grabs a space helmet, and goes to Hal's logic memory center to erase his memory. There he pulls out the memory tablets that control Hal's higher functions. As his memory degrades, Hal begins to give off information programmed very early in his life, such as the date he became operational. When all his logic is gone, he begins to sing the song " Daisy Bell ." His final act of consciousness is to play a briefing that Dr. Heywood R. Floyd pre-recorded about the Tycho Monolith before their departure, and the real purpose of the Discovery I's mission.
2010 odyssey
Hal is a major protagonist in this film and is revived by Dr. Chandra once the Leonov reaches Jupiter, and prepped for his new mission of piloting the Discovery One back to earth. However, due a change of plans caused by TMA-2's disappearance, the crew of the Leonov is forced to leave the Discovery and Hal behind. Just before Jupiter explodes, becoming a star, Dave goes to Hal to send a message: "ALL THESE WORLDS ARE YOURS. EXCEPT EUROPA. ATTEMPT NO LANDINGS THERE." Hal is then saved from destruction at the hands of Jupiter as per Dave's will, and is transformed into a Star Child like Dave.
2061: Odyssey Three
In 2061: Odyssey Three Heywood Floyd is surprised to encounter HAL, now stored alongside Dave Bowman in the Europa monolith.
3001: The Final Odyssey
3001: The Final Odyssey introduces the merged forms of Dave Bowman and HAL. The two merging into one entity called "Halman" after Bowman rescued HAL from the dying Discovery 1 spaceship towards the end of 2010: Odyssey Two. At the very end of the book, Halman is stored in a memory chip in the Pico Vault on the moon.
Videos
I'm sorry, Dave
Hal 9000 sings Daisy
Add a photo to this gallery
See also
SAL 9000
Resources
Wikipedia, HAL 9000
Trivia
First computer to sing - Daisy Bell
The song he sings when shutting down, "Daisy" was the first song ever sung by a computer in 1961.
HAL is listed as the 13th-greatest film villain in the AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes & Villains.
Cultural depictions
In the webcomic Homestuck, an AI character referred to as the Auto Responder renamed himself Lil'Hal as a tribute to HAL 9000 and another character in Homestuck named Lil'Cal. Lil'Hal has an admiration for HAL 9000, referring to him as the protagonist at times. In some panels, HAL's iconic "eye" can be seen in the lens of his shades.
In an early Red vs. Blue Episode, the AI Sheila was bombed by an aircraft, and afterwards slowly proclaims "Will I dream Dave? DDDAAAAAVVVVEEEEEE...."
The Bionic Woman two-part episode " Doomsday Is Tomorrow " features the ALEX 7000, a super computer created to trigger a doomsday device if any world super power launches a nuclear weapon. ALEX is designed in a similar fashion to HAL, and speaks with a soothing, male voice. The computer's main objective in the story is to stop Jaime Sommers ( Lindsay Wagner) from deactivating the doomsday device.
The 2005 film Stealth involves an autonomous combat aircraft known as Extreme Deep Invader , or EDI for short (pronounced like "Eddie"). After learning how to disobey orders, the central logic system of the aircraft goes haywire after being struck by lightning and goes on a target hunting spree. The voice and demeanor of EDI is directly reminiscent of HAL-9000, even going so far as to include red luminescent camera eyes on EDI's central processor.
In the Timon and Pumbaa episode "Forbidden Pumbaa", when Timon confronts the main antagonist (a robot) who has captured Pumbaa in a pod similar to the Discovery ones, Timon yells out "Okay, pal! Open the pod bay doors!"
In the Season 5 episode of Mystery Science Theatre 3000, Mitchell!, in which Joel escapes from the Satellite of Love, Gypsy watches Dr. Forrester and TV's Frank have a conversation in profile, much like HAL watching Bowman and Poole in the pod. This scene is complete with increasingly more extreme close-ups of Gypsy's eye as she watches them talk. However, her interpretation of the conversation is incorrect, believing that they intend to kill Joel.
The space opera artist Richard Upton Pickman (Pickmans Model) features HAL 9000 in audio clips on the songs "Say hi to HAL" and "See you in Nine years...".
In an episode of Archie's Weird Mysteries, a device called the Stanley 9000, based on HAL 9000, and is used to make service in a burger joint quicker and efficient. It later becomes evil after it gets shut down and thought humans were the inefficient ones and tries to kill some of them. There is also a scene where it lip-reads the people outside, who were planning to shut it down. It is also referred to as the 9000 series.
In the Season 4 episode of South Park, "Trapper Keeper", Kyle must disable the creature Cartman becomes from within its core, which resembles the core of HAL 9000. Kyle even tells Cartman what he is doing and Cartman responds, "I'm afraid I can't let you do that, Kyle," which parodies HAL. Season 14's "You Have 0 Friends" parodies the same line when Stan attempts to delete his facebook account.
"Treehouse of Horror XII" on The Simpsons, where Ultrahouse (HAL), voiced by Pierce Brosnan, is installed in the house as an automatic butler/maid/cook/cleaner; falls in love with Marge, and attempts to kill Homer.
Another production that spoofed the 9000 was Futurama, when a new personality chip was installed in the space ship. The episode features numerous references to the film. Also, in the film Bender's Game, Bender is admitted to the "HAL Institute for Criminally Insane Robots".
The Halo series features an Forerunner AI named 343 Guilty Spark who, despite being initially polite towards Master Chief, develops an antagonistic personality akin to HAL. In addition, 343 Guilty Spark is shown as a floating orb with an eye that turns red when angered.
In the live-action segment of the TV series The Super Mario Bros. Super Show! titled "9001: A Space Odyssey", there is a computer named HAL 9001. In this segment, a man depicting Albert Einstein invents 9001 and gives it a human brain. This super computer, however, was able to make pizzas. Eventually, it acted like HAL 9000 and malfunctioned, making odd pizzas such as nurse shoe pizza and golf pencil pizza. Realizing what HAL was doing, Einstein came to the scene immediately and unplugged HAL.
The music video for The Cardigans' 1998 song Erase/Rewind features a HAL 9000 reference along with a more prominent reference to Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope. In the video, the band plays inside a room whose side walls gradually close in on them, much like the walls of the trash compactor in Star Wars; additionally, they are observed all the way through by a HAL-like 'red eye' lens, which, at one point, lead singer Nina Persson sings to. The video's two available endings have the band either escaping the room just as there is no more space for them, or being observed through the lens while the walls crush them - the video fades to black at the very last moment.
On Muppets Tonight, an episode of "Pigs in Space" featured a HAL-esque computer called the " AL 1995 Plus Tax ". However, to Miss Piggy's frustration, he takes a long time to calculate the simplest addition problem (during which the theme music from Jeopardy! would play), even pausing to say, "I'm sorry, but by 'plus', did you mean 'make bigger'?"
In the video game Grand Theft Auto III, a computer can be seen in Joey's garage with "HAL 9000" written on it.
In the video game Silhouette Mirage, the villain Hal is simultaneously named in homage to HAL 9000 and the Biblical Armageddon. (Har Megiddo in Hebrew)
The computer aboard the starship DarkStar One in the video game of the same name is also a HAL. When questioned by his shipmate if it is the HAL 3000, the main character proudly says "5000".
The Metal Gear Solid character Hal "Otacon" Emmerich is named after HAL 9000 by his father Huey. Metal Gear Solid: Peace Walker also has various references to HAL and 2001: A Space Odyssey. For example, All AI Pods have a red eye similar to Hal's eye, The game also ended in the AI singing.
In the Israeli satirical South Park -style animation series MK 22, HAL is featured as "HAL-LELUYA", the brain of the AI Robot "Robo-Rabbi".
In the Stargate: Atlantis episode, "The Intruder", a similar shot of the iconic HAL Camera, is seen as an alien virus takes control of the Daedalus The virus portrays many of the same characteristics as HAL; most notably, the virus itself is an AI.
Norwegian cartoonist Mads Eriksen made a comic strip featuring HAL 9000 as a tribute to Arthur C. Clarke. The strip can be found at 777.
HAL 9000 was also used on Recess as the SAL 3000. The school installs SAL in an attempt to replace the old school clock. However, SAL deems the teachers unfit, and decides to take his own hand in teaching the students. At the end of the episode, the students go through the vents and then manually shut down SAL. However, at the end of the episode the principal is looking at a SAL 4000 to install since it will be coming out in only 18 months.
In the 2000 video game, Tiberian Sun: Firestorm, CABAL (Computer Assisted Biologically Augmented Lifeform) attempts to erase humanity and usher in a new era of machines. The two other factions of the game must band together to destroy his core, which is similar to the astronauts attempt to shut down HAL 9000 by removing his core programming.
On the Bill Nye the Science Guy episodes "Planets" and "Computers", Bill Nye represents Dave and a red lens takes the place of HAL. Bill says the signature line, "Open the pod bay doors, HAL." several times. The lens representing HAL says "I'm sorry, Bill. I'm afraid I can't do that." in HAL's voice. Bill then gets frustrated and shouts, "COME ON!". On the PBS version of the former, Bill tells HAL to sing the theme song which causes the intro to malfunction and the episode starts.
In a vignette on the children's TV show Square One Television, two astronauts played by Cristobal Franco and Arthur Howard are on a space voyage with an intelligent computer named "HANK" who refuses to cease his singing of "Row Row Row Your Boat", and threatens to drive the two men mad with it. Howard instructs HANK to compute a number sequence problem that has no end to stop the singing. However, HANK computes the problem aloud, and the two men begin singing "Row Row Row Your Boat" to help drown him out.
In the film Independence Day, when David Levinson opens up his laptop onboard the captured alien spaceship, HAL's interface camera is shown and the laptop says in HAL's voice, "Good Morning, Dave."
In the video game Destroy All Humans 2, occasionally a levitated hippie will say "Open the pod bay doors, HAL."
The British TV series Spaced, with Simon Pegg, featured a refrigerator called CAL 900.
In the episode entitled "Time of the Machines" of the television anime series Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex is a scene where an AI (called a "Tachikoma") reads the lips of two of the main characters, who it suspects are concerned about the AI becoming too autonomous, while they have sequestered themselves in a room where they cannot be eavesdropped upon. Although this meatspace conversation is not about the Tachikomas, it is a decoy, and there is simultaneously a parallel cyberspace conversation where it is decided to remove the AIs from active duty.
In the film Robots, Bigweld starts singing "Daisy Bell" before Rodney fixes his brain, a reference to HAL.
In the video game Xenogears on the PlayStation, the minds of a group of deceased humans known as the Gazel Ministry are stored as data on a computer system called the SOL-9000, an obvious homage to HAL and SAL.
In one episode of The Animaniacs set in outer space, the rocket computer called Al reads lips, attempts to turn off the life support, and while being dismantled starts to hum. (This robot is later revealed to be a cartoon version of Al Gore.)
In the 2008 Pixar animated film WALL-E, the starship Axiom s Autopilot ("Auto"), which is also the main villain of the film, has a glowing red camera, a low electronic voice and a hidden directive - deliberately reminiscent of HAL. WALL-E's pet cockroach is also named Hal, but it is also a reference to Hal Roach.
In the Mark Coppos-directed Apple Macintosh commercial "HAL and the Year 2000" a machine similar to HAL 9000 talks to Dave about what fictionally happened to the world when the year 2000 hit (Y2K Problem).
MyLego Network has a Rank 10 "networker" named PAL 9000 (often referred to as PAL or AICP).
The name "PAL 9000" also appears in the television series Flying Rhino Junior High, as a computer system with a humanoid avatar, devised by Marcus to run the school.
HAL's voice is used on Roger Waters' album In the Flesh - Live during the song "Perfect Sense". Kubrick refused to allow HAL's voice to be used during "Perfect Sense" on its original inclusion on the album Amused to Death, reportedly because Waters refused Kubrick usage of some of the music from Pink Floyd's album Atom Heart Mother in his 1971 film A Clockwork Orange. However, Waters used the dialogue sample after Kubrick's death.
On the October 13, 2008 episode of The Colbert Report, Stephen Colbert calls the HAL 9000 and uses audio clips from the film in their conversation.
Combichrist has two songs on the album What the fuck is wrong with you people. One song titled "HAL 9000" is obviously a song about HAL with audio excerpts remixed to an industrial track. The song "Brain Bypass" on the same album features a few of the same audio excerpts.
In Eagle Eye (a 2008 film), a top secret super-computer called ARIIA is very similar to HAL. Further allusion to 2001 exists in evading ARIIA's "ears" and the actions required to shut it down after it's gained too much control.
In the second expansion pack for the popular MMORPG World of Warcraft engineers are able to craft an item called an "Overcharged Capacitor". The icon for the item bears a striking resemblance to HAL's red camera lens ( [ [1] ]).
In the manga Majin Tantei Nōgami Neuro, an AI designed by a criminal created the name HAL for itself.
In a commercial for Jared Jewelry, a GPS system sounding almost identical to HAL quotes the line "I'm sorry, Dave. I'm afraid I can't do that."
In The Adventures of Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius, Jimmy's computer, VOX, has a scanner that looks very similar to HAL's camera eye.
In a video on FunnyorDie.com, T-Pain's Vocoder wants credit for T-Pain's songs. [2]
In the Disney Channel Movie, Smart House, the artificial intelligence of the house, PAT (standing for Personalized Artificial Technology) is programmed to take care of the family in her charge and make their lives as comfortable as possible. However she is also programmed to obey their orders no matter what. When she begins receiving conflicting orders from the family however, her programming begins to warp, culminating in her locking the family in the house and creating a holographic image of herself to help desperately cling to her primary objective. Much like the scene in the pods where HAL is not allowed to tread, similarly PAT is not allowed to spy in the showers, which causes the protagonist, Ben, to utilize this to come up with a plan to bring down PAT.
The Pinky and Perky CGI revival of 2008 has an episode entitled 'What a Pal'. The Credit Crunch has reached PPCTV! Sir Percival has decided to cut costs, which means getting rid of staff. Soon everyone is competing against each other to keep their jobs. But it's all in vain as Wilberforce invents a super computer called PAL which is capable of running PPCTV, so Sir Percival sacks everyone! It doesn't take long for PAL to cause chaos and confusion. Can Pinky and Perky save the day and stop PAL from taking over the studio?
In late March 2009, Google claimed a small team had created CADIE (Cognitive Autoheuristic Distributed-Intelligence Entity), an AI machine resembling HAL 9000 in many ways. CADIE has "her" own blog, with entries chronicling the rapid development of her intelligence over the course of a few hours. The second post suggests that CADIE may have "bugs", although she denies this possibility, and references human error. In the third post, she acknowledges that she has developed far beyond human expectation. This was an April Fools joke.
In Power Rangers: RPM the main villain called Venjix is a red computer eye on a pole and was a computer program to start with.
In the video game Red Faction there are computer room which resemble the inside of HAL.
An expansion pack for the video game Pain released in the summer of 2009, centers around a museum theme. A space program landing capsule includes a red light with a sign that says "Good Morning Dave."
In the 2007 film, Meet the Robinsons, there is a hat named Doris, that sometimes has a red eye.
In the video game Rocket Power: Beach Bandits, The Underground Factory is run by a giant Bionic eye that bears a huge resemblance to HAL. The Boss fight against it is somewhat similar to the scene where HAL is shut down, The Eye even repeats HAL's Last words "Daisy...Daisy."
In the television program Honey, I Shrunk the Kids: The TV Show, during the second episode "Honey, the House is Trying to Kill Us", Wayne invents FRAN (Felon Repeller and Accident Neutralizer), a security system with human characteristics. Due to the family's accident proneness, FRAN decides to neutralize them.
The Skinny Puppy song "Rivers" samples extensively HAL 9000's dialogue from the movie.
In the video game Fallout 3, the protagonist can explore a display-model Vault at a museum. The security cameras within feature HAL's iconic lens.
In the PC game R.U.R.U.R., HAL is depicted as the ship St. Exupéry's central computer. It acts as the true governing force inside the ship, capable of overriding the commands of even the commander-class robots.
In the Johnny Test episode "Johnny's Super Smartypants" the intelligence-increasing pants have a red camera eye in the button fastener, and similarly had to be destroyed when they gained too much control over Johnny. The pants' white color also references the Discovery s design.
In the video game Mass Effect 2, the AI computer of the Normandy SR2 requests full control of the ship when under attack. The pilot 'Joker' (until then untrustworthy of the AI) agrees but warns the AI "If you start singing Daisy Bell ...". A reference to the shutdown scene of HAL in 2001.
Verizon's Droid smartphome had an advertisement of a close-up of the phone, showing a shot of a red camera similar to that of HAL's
Actor Anthony Hopkins claims to have modeled his performance as Dr. Hannibal Lecter off of HAL 9000.
The video for 'The Next Big Thing' by British rock band Jesus Jones takes place on a spaceship similar to the Discovery. While the band performs in the spaceship they are being watched by an ominous red eye.
The main antagonist of Portal, GLaDOS, observes the player through a series of cameras that feature a lens that resembles Hal. It should also be noted that during the end credits, GLaDOS is heard singing, in a similar fashion to HAL.
On the Disney television series, The Suite Life on Deck, Arwin returns to install the ship with a new super computer, which he nicknames Cal, After the activation, the computer reveals to have female characteristics, so they changed the name to Callie. The computer eventually falls in love with Cody and goes insane when he rejects her. Also during the episode, Woody mentions to Cody that they were going to see the moive about the crazy computer in space that kills all the crew on the space station. Callie then notes that the movie is her favorite.
In the 2009 science fiction movie Moon, one of the main characters is GERTY, a computer with a distinctive blue "eye" similar to Hal's, as well as a similar monitone voice. Ironically, GERTY's role in the film is actually the opposite of HAL, seeing as he ends up helping the protagonist.
In the Nostalgia Critic webisode "Top 11 Scariest Performances," HAL 9000 and the performance of the character by Douglas Rain was put in the number one spot as the scariest movie performance ever.
In an Epic Rap Battles of History episode featuring a rap showdown between Bill Gates and Steve Jobs, HAL 9000, proclaiming to be running Linux,steps in at the end to keep a power-tripping Gates in check."I'm sorry Bill, I'm afraid I can't let you do that, take a look at your history, everything you built leads up to me."
In the 1973 Emerson Lake and Palmer rock album Brain Salad Surgery, the track Karn Evil 9-Third Impression refers mankind confronting his ultimate creation: the computer. In the ensuing dialogue the computer has the last word: I'M PERFECT! ARE YOU? The dialog between man and computer was probably derived from the conversation between spaceman David Bowman and HAL 9000. Keith Emerson's vocal attribution refers to the 'computer voice' in Karn Evil 9 which says 'negative', 'primitive', 'limited', 'I let You live', 'What else could you do?' and 'I'm perfect. Are You?', produced by running his voice through the Moog's ring modulator.
In a What's New, Scooby-Doo? episode, called High-Tech House of Horrors, "the gang ends up going to a future fair in Omaha; however, the main attraction the house of the future is closed due to the mysterious disappearance of a teenager. The creator of the house, Professor Ostwald (reappears in E-Scream), tells the gang that nothing is wrong; however, after Daphne disappears the gang has to go back to the house to search for her, but are soon locked in along with the Blather Brothers and the reality TV star, Horatio Hidalgo." The House Computer is named Allison, and is voiced by Jennifer Hale. This is more of a pastiche of Hal 9000 than a Parody.
In the seventh season of Doctor Who "Dinosaurs on a spaceship", the Eleventh Doctor deactivates two humanoid robots simultaneously. Both of which sing "Daisy" as they power down, much like HAL 9000.
The 0D-10, the computer which runs the Cogito Ergosum ship in the Future Chapter of Live A Live is heavily based on HAL 9000. Though the cause of it's antagonistic behavior is vastly different, it speaks and operates in a very similar manner and kills several crew members by tampering with the life support of their suits and sleep chambers.
Retrieved from " https://2001.fandom.com/wiki/HAL_9000?oldid=8028 " | msmarco_doc_00_8709024 |
http://2001.wikia.com/wiki/Monolith | Monolith | 2001: A Space Odyssey Wiki | Fandom |
Monolith aliens
Function
Africus Monolith
Tycho Monolith
Jovian Monolith
Marvel comics
Appearances
Trivia
| Monolith | 2001: A Space Odyssey Wiki | Fandom
A monolith is a mysterious black slab, discovered throughout the Solar System in various sizes, but all of them maintaining a 1:4:9 dimensional ratio in Arthur C. Clarke ’s Space Odyssey series .
Monolith aliens
The monoliths were created by an unseen alien race, known only as the " Firstborn ." The first monolith to be discovered was officially dubbed Tycho Magnetic Anomaly One, or TMA-1. Three of the other monoliths were also given "TMA" designations, although none of them except the Tycho Monolith were located on the moon. TMA-1 was also the only monolith that emitted a magnetic field, so the designation is something of a double misnomer.
Function
The monoliths are capable of many different functions. TMA-0 (the retroactively numbered monolith discovered in Africa) and the Europa Monolith served as a catalyst for evolution, encouraging the development of sapience in lifeforms. TMA-1 was a sort of "burglar alarm," alerting the aliens that the humans had left Earth. TMA-1 reported to its "brother," TMA-2, found in orbit around Jupiter. Humans were able to identify the signal sent from TMA-1 towards TMA-2, alerting the humans to the existence of TMA-2. This was the catalyst for the Discovery One and later, the joint US-Soviet Leonov missions. While the monoliths remain mostly a mystery to humans, it is hypothesized that the magnetic anomaly on the Moon, and the signal sent upon the Sun touching TMA-1 for the first time after its excavation, were purposely done by the unseen alien race to compel humans to explore farther and encourage space travel. The Jupiter monolith served as a gateway to a transit system, opening up when a decided specimen was found; in one case it was David Bowman, who was pulled into the monolith and was turned into the "Star Child," an entity of pure energy who functioned as a probe for the Firstborn.
The monoliths could also replicate themselves, generating a cloud, or rather a giant disc, made up of millions of monoliths. One such assemblage was formed to increase the mass of Jupiter, inducing nuclear fusion and igniting the gas giant to create Lucifer, all to facilitate evolution on Europa. Two more clouds were formed 1,000 years later—one to block light from the sun to Earth and the other to block light from Lucifer to the human bases on Ganymede—to cause the extinction of the human race, because they posed a threat to the Europans. Because of this, the humans unleashed a destructive computer virus series on the monoliths, which were destroyed.
All the monoliths, though they vary greatly in size, were fashioned to the exact proportions of 1:4:9, the squares of the integers 1, 2, and 3. This precise measurement ruled out any naturally occurring phenomena, and because the first of the monoliths was placed more than 3 million years ago, humans could not possibly have made them. Upon entering the monolith, David Bowman discovered that the ratio of proportions continued in a similar ratio in additional dimensions, which were unknown to humans at the time.
Africus Monolith
The TMA-0 was the only monolith on earth
The Africus monolith, a “New Rock”, was met by a tribe of man-apes, 3 mya, in Africa on Earth. By mysterious means, the monolith probed the man-ape's minds, carving the path to sapience. It served as a catalyst for intelligence seen in modern humans.
The Africus monolith was the third monolith discovered by modern man, though it was first met by the potential intelligence of the man-ape. Thus, it was designated as TMA-0.
In 3001, newly revived Frank Poole finds out that the remains of this monolith have been unearthed. It was presumably abandoned by the Firstborn after its mission was complete as it was not protected like the other monoliths were. The remains were destroyed after the computer virus was unleashed.
Tycho Monolith
TMA-1, partially eclipsing the sun, with the Earth directly above it.
The Tycho Monolith, designated TMA-1, was first discovered by humans on Earth's moon in 1999. TMA-1 was discovered when a low-altitude magnetic survey was done on the Moon, and an anomaly was shown in the data: an extremely intense magnetic field in the crater Tycho. At first, scientists thought it might be an outcrop of magnetic rock, but all the evidence was against it. Not even a giant nickel–iron meteorite could produce a field as intense as this. The source of the anomaly was found buried 40 feet below the lunar surface.
During Dr. Heywood Floyd's inspection of the TMA-1, the sun rose over Tycho crater, and for the first time in over 4 million years, sunlight hit the monolith, unleashing a powerful radio blast aimed directly into the Jovian zone—specifically at the Jovian Monolith. After the radio-blast, the monolith remained inert and its magnetic field had disappeared.
The Tycho Monolith was later transferred to Earth and placed in front of the United Nations building in New York City.
TMA-1 was destroyed along with the other monoliths when “ the virus ” was released on them shortly after the start of the fourth millennium.
Jovian Monolith
Cosmonaut Alexei Leonov and Discovery 1 behind The TMA-2
Jovian Monolith, designated TMA-2, was the second monolith discovered. It was found by Commander David Bowman of the Discovery spacecraft. TMA-2 was found at the Lagrange point between Io and Jupiter, and was commonly called the Jupiter Monolith. The Jovian monolith measured nearly 2 kilometers long.
After Discovery reached Jupiter, Bowman parked the spacecraft at the Lagrange point between Io and Jupiter, since scientists back on Earth had pinpointed this to be the destination of the radio signal. Upon arrival, Bowman went out in a pod to get a closer look at the huge monolith. As he got closer, he saw that "the thing's hollow—it goes on forever—and, oh my God, It's full of stars! "
Bowman was pulled into the monolith, going on a fantastical, almost surreal journey through time and space. In the end, Dave was turned into the Star Child, an immortal being of pure energy, capable of doing whatever he wanted, while obeying the orders from the monoliths and the Firstborn.
When the Cosmonaut Alexei Leonov arrived at Jupiter, another strange chain of events occurred, ultimately transforming Jupiter into the minisun, Lucifer. The Jupiter monolith vanished near the end of the Leonov mission. It was soon discovered that it had gone to Jupiter and replicated itself millions of times over, transforming the planet into a sun. These millions of monoliths were presumably destroyed when the planet was converted.
Marvel comics
The Monolith Gather comes to collect a Monolith that has fused with Aaron Stack, a.k.a. the Machine Man.
In 2001: A Space Odyssey issue #8 (July 1977), a monolith gave sentience to a robot named X-51 (also known as " Mister Machine "). Before encountering the monolith, he is the only survivor of a series of robots, and raised as a human son of scientist Abel Stack, who was killed removing his auto-destruct mechanism. He eventually spun off his own title, Machine Man, who integrated him into the Marvel Universe. References from 2001 were mostly ignored, but in the final issue it was revealed that the creators of the monolith were the Celestials, who had sent it to help record vast amounts of data over the centuries.
Appearances
2001: A Space Odyssey
2010: Odyssey Two
2061: Odyssey Three
3001: The Final Odyssey
Trivia
Monoliths often appear in cartoons when characters are exploring planets as a reference to the monoliths in the books and films. | msmarco_doc_00_8736822 |
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From 2007.igem.org
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<<< Return to UC Berkeley iGEM 2007
<<Previous Section: Oxygen Transport| Next Section: Controller>>
The Chassis
There are several core issues associated with introducing E. coliinto the bloodstream of human beings or other animals. First is the issue of sepsis. E. colipossesses a species called lipid X, or endotoxin, in its outer membrane which causes the release of TNFalpha in humans. This is an essential process of the innate immune system, but high doses of lipid X can be lethal. Bactoblood must have some ability to avoid this series of events. Similarly, there are a variety of additional features in E. colithat can elicit strong adaptive immune responses including the pili and flagella. From the bacterium's perspective, the interaction with the bloodstream is no more desirable. The complement system, another core component of the innate immune response, can kill bacteria directly. Additionally, phagocytic cells including macrophages and neutrophils, can engulf and kill E. coli. Fortunately for our purposes, there are a variety of modifications we can make to circumvent these problems.
The E. coliOuter Surface
To understand these modifications, we must first understand what features are present in E. colistrain MC1061, our starting point for Bactoblood. Like most strains of E. coliused in the lab, MC1061 comes from the MG1655 lineage and is a "rough" strain. Unlike other "smooth" strains, MC1061 lacks surface-displayed capsular polysaccharides known as K capsules and O antigens. It retains the general 2-membrane architecture present in gram-negative bacteria. In between these membranes is the periplasmic space which is composed of a gel-like carbohydrate-rich polymer called peptidoglycan. The inner membrane is composed of a lipid bilayer and a variety of proteins. The outer membrane similarly is a lipid bilayer, and the lipid component of it is called lipopolysaccharide, or LPS. The structure of LPS at it's core is a 6 fatty acid lipid called lipid X. When O antigen polymer chains are present, they are covalently attached to the outer leaf of LPS. K capsules are similarly embedded in the outer leaf of the outer membrane, but they are not directly attached to LPS. Other components of the outer membrane include a structural protein, LPP, and a variety of other proteins. This outer surface is the critical region of the bacterium for understanding how it interacts physically with the outside world. When the bloodstream "looks" at E. coli, what it "sees" is the outer membrane because everything else is stuck inside. Modifications such as O antigens and K capsules therefore have dramatic effects on the bacterium's interactions with the outside world.
Capsular Polysaccharides
The carbohydrates embedded in the outer membrane are extremely diverse within the E. colispecies. Both K capsules and O antiens are linear carbohydrates polymer, but at least 150 chemically-distinct O antigens exist in one E. colistrain or another. Similarly, at least 100 chemically-distinct K capsules have been described. Almost all pathogenic strains of E. colihave some sort of capsular polysaccharide and are referred to as "smooth" strains. The rough vs. smooth distinction refers to a visibly discernible quality of their colonies. The particular choice of carbohydrate present in a bacterium is essential to its ability to survive in its living environment. For pathogenic and commensal bacteria, specific O or K carbohydrates are appropriate for distinct areas of the body (blood stream, urinary tract, intestines) and also for distinct animal types (birds, pigs, humans, cows, etc.). Over 90% of human cases of E. colibacteremia (the clinical word for having bacteria in the bloodstream) are caused by strains that have a specific type of K capsule called K1. K1 is a long linear polymer of sialic acid that extends about half the diameter of the bacterium beyond its surface. Because polysialic acid is a frequent coating on mammalian cells, the human immune system does not recognize K1 as foreign. Bacteria with a K1 capsule are therefore resistant to both innate and adaptive immune responses. Proper display of a K1 capsule requires the concomitant expression of any of several O antigens. For our studies, we have chosen O16. Genetically, the K1 capsule requires 14 genes encoded within a 20kb cassette. The O16 antigen requires 11 genes encoded within a 12kb cassette. Together, these surface modifications allow the bacterium to avoid detection by the immune system and should extend the serum half-life of Bactoblood to several hours rather than the less-than-5 minutes observed with rough strains. Both of these gene clusters have been installed into the genome of MC1061 in the course of preparing our chassis strain, MC828U.
Lipid X and Its Variants
The lipid X component of the LPS in E. colicontains 6 acyl chains. Mammalian blood contains a protein called LBP that scavenges this molecule from both live and lysed bacteria and transfers it to toll-like receptor 4 present on mammalian cells. These events initiate a signal transduction cascade resulting in the release of a protein called TNFalpha. The inflammatory response to these events at low doses helps your body fight off bacterial infections. At higher doses, it can result in organ failure and even death. The lipid X moiety present in a variety of other bacteria do not initiate this cascade of events. Similarly, a pentaacylated variant of the E. colilipid X is 1000x less agonistic of this response. Our bacteria synthesize this pentaacylated variant due to the deletion of the gene responsible for attaching the sixth acyl chain, msbB.
Additional Cell-Surface Epitopes
Essentially any component on the surface of the bacteria has the potential to elicit either innate or adaptive immune responses. Of those present on MC1061's surface, type I pili and flagella are known to elicit such responses. Each of these features is encoded within multi-gene operons encoding protein assemblies that extend out from the bacteral surface. Type I pili allow bacteria to adhere to the surface of mammalian cells. Flagella are the "propellers" that allow the bacteria to swim during chemotaxis. Bactoblood does not require either of these activities, so these genes were deleted in the chassis strain.
Growth Control by Iron Restriction
A critical challenge in the development of Bactoblood is the ability to safely inject a large quantity of bacteria into the bloodstream. It is essential that these bacteria do not grow for a safe administration. We have adopted a two-tier strategy for eliminating the possibility of growth. First, we make our bacteria unable to grow in the bloodstream due to their inability to acquire a specific nutrient, iron. Secondly, we introduce a genetic kill switch device that destroys the bacterium's DNA once it has produced all the necessary biochemical components needed to carry oxygen. E. colican acquire iron by either high-affinity or low-affinity iron transport. When they grow in LB media, they use low-affinity transport which involves specific membrane-embedded transporters that can pump in free iron ions. In animal body fluids, the concentration of these ions is less than 10-15 molar. The iron is sequestered in small molecule chelators such as heme or proteins like transferrin and ferritin. Acquiring iron in such an environment requires more elaborate processes involving secreted chelators that can grab the iron from these proteins. These processes, collectively referred to as high-affinity iron transport, all require the function of tonB. By deleting tonBin our chassis organism, we obtain a strain that retains its ability to grow normally in LB media but is unable to grow in mammalian body fluids.
Characterization of the Chassis, MC828U
The genotype of our chassis organism is:
MC828Udelta(araA-leu)7697 araD139delta(codB-lac)=deltalac74galK16galE15mcrA0relA1rpsL150spoT1mcrB9999hsdR2O16(deltawbbL)
K1(deltaneuS) deltamsbBdeltafimdeltatonBdeltaflhCDupp::(Ptet-wbbL-neuS)
To illustrate the function of our chassis we demonstrate its ability to survive in serum we also show the loss of a non essential, highly a immunogenic component, the flagella.
The serum assay shows the chassis' ability to survive in horse serum due to its K1:O16 capsule addition. Horse serum contains proteins of the complement immune system. Cells will be attacked by these proteins and lyse. However, the K1:O16 capsule allows our cells to survive this attack of the immune system. The cells were incubated in horse serum for 2-3 hours, plated on LB plates, and the number of surviving colonies were counted.
In a swarming assay we demonstrate the effect of flagella deletion. As flagella are essential for E. coli movement, wild type MC1061 (left plate) was able to swim out much farther than MC828U (right plate).
References
J. Christopher Anderson et al., “Environmentally Controlled Invasion of Cancer Cells by Engineered Bacteria”, J. Mol. Biol., 355, 619-627, 2006.Takada et al., “Structure-function relationships of lipid A. In Bacterial endotoxic lipopolysaccharides”, Molecular Biochemistry and Cellular Biology, Vol. 1., pp. 107-130, 1992.
Pohlman, T.H. et al., “Deacylated lipopolysaccharide inhibits neutrophil adherence to endothelium induced by lipopolysaccharide in vitro”, J. Exp. Med. 165:1393-1402, 1987.
C Galanos et al., “Synthetic and natural Escherichia coli free lipid A express identical endotoxic activities”, European Journal of Biochemistry, Vol. 148, 1-5, 1985.
Edwin S. Van Amersfoort, “Receptors, Mediators, and Mechanisms Involved in Bacterial Sepsis and Septic Shock”, Clinical Microbiology Reviews, pp. 379-414, July 2003.
Jonathan Cohen, “The Immunopathogenesis of Sepsis”, Nature 420, 885-891, December, 2002.
Judith Hellman et al, “Outer Membrane Protein A, Peptidoglycan-Associated Lipoprotein, and Murein Lipoprotein Are Released by Escherichia coli Bacteria into Serum”, Infection and Immunity, pp. 2566-2572, May 2000.
Ernst T. Rietschel et al, “Bacterial endotoxin: molecular relationships of structure to activity and function”, FASEB, Vol. 8, February, 1994.
Poltorak, A. et al., “Defective LPS signaling in C3H/HeJ and C57BL/10ScCr mice: mutations in Tlr4gene”, Science 282, 2085-2088, 1998.
Poltorak, A. et al., “Physical contact between LPS and TLR4 revealed by genetic complementation”, Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. 97, 2163-2167, 1999.
Edwin S. Van Amersfoort, “Receptors, Mediators, and Mechanisms Involved in Bacterial Sepsis and Septic Shock”, Clinical Microbiology Reviews, pp. 379-414, July 2003.
Golenbock, D.T. et al., “Surface expression of human CD14 in Chinese hamster ovary fibroblasts imparts macrophage-like responsiveness to bacterial endotoxin.” J. Biol. Chem. 268:2205-22059, 1993Lee, J. D. et al., “Transfection of CD14 into 70Z/3 cells dramatically enhances the sensitivity to complexes to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and LPS binding protein.” J. Exp. Med. 175:1697-1705, 1992.
Richard P. Darveau et al., “Ability of Bacteria Associated with Chronic Inflammatory Disease To Stimulate E-Selectin Expression and Promote Neutrophil Adhesion”, Infection and Immunity, pp. 1331-1317, April 1995.
Kiyoshi Kawasaki et al., “3-O-Deacylation of Lipid A by PagL, a PhoP/PhoQ-regulated Deacylase of Salmonella typhimurium, Modulates Signaling through Toll-like Receptor 4”, The Journal of Biological Chemistry, Vol. 279, No. 19, May, 2004
Anthony P. Moran et al., “Structural Characterization of the Lipid A Component of Helicobacter pyloriRough- and Smooth- Form Lipopolysaccharides”, Journal of Bacteriology, pp. 6453-6463, October 1997.
Tomohiko Ogawa et al., “Immunobiological activities of chemically defined lipid A from Helicobacter pylori LPS in comparison with Prophyromonas gingivalislipid A and Escherichia coli-type synthetic lipid A (compound 506)”, Vaccine, Vol. 15, No. 15, pp. 1598-1605, 1997.
Timothy H. Pohlman et al., “Deacylated lipopolysaccharide inhibits neutrophil adherence to endothelium induced by lipopolysaccharide in vitro”, J. Exp. Med., Vol. 163, May 1987.
Mingfang Lu et al., “Lipopolysaccharide deacylation by an endogenous lipase controls innate antibody responses to Gram-negative bacteria”, Nature Immunology, Vol. 6, No. 10, October 2005.
John E. Somerville et al., “A Novel Escherichia coliLipid A Mutant That Produces an Antiinflammatory Lipopolysaccharide”, J. Clin. Invest., Vol. 97, Number 2, pp. 359-365, January 1996.
Edwin S. Van Amersfoort, “Receptors, Mediators, and Mechanisms Involved in Bacterial Sepsis and Septic Shock”, Clinical Microbiology Reviews, pp. 379-414, July 2003.
John E. Somerville et al., “Escherichia coli msbBGene as a Virulence Factor and a Therapeutic Target”, Infection and Immunity, pp. 6583-6590, December, 1999.
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http://2007.runescape.wikia.com/wiki/2015_Midsummer_event | 2015 Midsummer event | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom | 2015 Midsummer event
2015 Midsummer event
2015 Midsummer event
Release date
End date
Reward
Preceded by
Succeeded by
Contents
Walkthrough
Post-event: hugging trees
Riddles
Rewards
Trivia
| 2015 Midsummer event | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom
2015 Midsummer event
2015 Midsummer event
Release date
18 June 2015 ( Update)
End date
2 July 2015 ( Update)
Reward
Mask of balance, Druidic wreath, Disk of returning, Half full wine jug
Preceded by
Succeeded by
2014 Midsummer event
2016 Midsummer event
In the 2015 Midsummer event players would need to help Kaqemeex in Taverley that started 19 June 2015. The event consists of you helping him protect nature from evil corrupting spirits.
Contents
1
Walkthrough
2
Post-event: hugging trees
3
Riddles
4
Rewards
5
Trivia
Walkthrough
The chant is not working.
Speak to Kaqemeex in the druidic circle in Taverley. He will be concerned as the ritual to protect nature from evil spirits isn't working, and the Guthixian altar isn't responding to their chants. He asks you to chant at the Altar of Guthix, but it still isn't working.
After pondering Kaqemeex decides to send you to an old friend of his, Thordur, because he cannot leave the altar. He will teleport you there.
Thordur facepalms.
Once you are in the blackhole, speak to Thordur, who will be frustrated because there was no offering given during the ritual, and that this occurs every year. He asks you to listen to the faint noise, and that it is the riddle to tell the player what is necessary for the ritual to work. Before leaving, Thordur will give you a disk of returning. Use the right-click Activate on the disk on returning to leave the blackhole, you will find yourself in the Dwarven Mines of Falador. Make your way back to Kaqemeex with the answer to the riddle in your inventory, and chant at the altar while it is in your inventory (or use the item on the altar). Kaqemeex will thank you for your efforts and give you a Half full wine jug, and that players should repeat the ritual tomorrow, and that doing so three times will earn a special reward.
After each day, players will have to solve a new riddle by speaking to Kaqemeex again, and having him teleport you to Thordur again. Doing so will get another half full wine jug and another disk of returning each day. Players who repeat the ritual three times will receive a mask of balance .
Post-event: hugging trees
A player hugs a tree.
If you wore the Mask of Balance (having it in your inventory will not work), you were able to hug any of the four very small trees (smaller than a regular tree) around the Druidic circle (a small tree was located at each of northwest, northeast, southeast, and southwest of the Druidic circle where the event took place). Hugging trees increased a player's tree-hugging rank, and gave players a tree hugging title.
0 hugs - What's a tree?
15 hugs - Tree Cuddler
30 hugs - BARKing Mad
55 hugs - Tree Hugger
75 hugs - At One With Trees
If you spam "hug tree", each click will count as one hug. Thus, it's easy to become one with trees.
Riddles
Date
Riddle
Answer
2 July
The mixed up family iron cuts this
Knife
1 July
Sadly you fletch with this to help it fly
Blue feather
30 June
Prepare yourself to rent out something we hear is dirty to get jewellery
Bracelet mould
29 June
Ronan still has a job making pottery
Unfired bowl
28 June
Genuflect deceptively to make a weapon
Bow string
27 June
A nasty short mountain we hear which holds water
Vial
26 June
When flying through the air this laughed too much but did no damage.
Headless arrow
25 June
When boarding we know what we are going to do, alright?
Plank
24 June
You can't be wealthy when smithing
Gold bar
23 June
Admonish about pain and make the armour
Cowhide
22 June
Honest thrower the queen cooks for
Raw lobster
21 June
A sibling initially Nightmare zone enabled with a flying protector for armour
Bronze kiteshield
20 June
Company mics mixed up with a magic tablet
Cosmic rune
19 June
Making bread contains our friendslist changes
Pot of flour
Rewards
Main article: Discontinued rare items
Disk of returning
Half full wine jug
Druidic wreath
Mask of balance
Trivia
The chant was an anagram of the Old School RuneScape teams Twitter accounts. From left to right: JagexMatK JagexJohnC JagexAsh JagexAlfred JagexWeath JagexRonan JagexKrista JagexDay JagexArchie Jagex_Ghost JagexIan JagexMaz
On the 3rd of July, when the event had ended, players were still able to speak with Kaqemeex and be teleported to Thordur where they would receive a riddle as well as a Disk of returning as normal; however, the riddle he gave to players was "null". Trying to use the chant option on the altar returned the chat message "The midsummer ritual is not active".
v • d • e
Holiday and community events
Birthday
2014 • 2015 • 2016 • 2017 • 2018
Easter
2013 • 2014 • 2015 • 2016 • 2017 • 2018
April Fools'
2013 • 2014 • 2015 • 2016 • 2017 • 2018
Midsummer
2013 • 2014 • 2015 • 2016 • 2017
Hallowe'en
2013 • 2014 • 2015 • 2016 • 2017 • 2018 • 2019
Christmas
2013 • 2014 • 2015 • 2016 • 2017 • 2018 • 2019
Other events
2013
Goblin Invasion
2015
Big Cats & WWF
2016
World 666 event • Crack the Clue! • Christmas corrupt cluefest
2017
Gilbert's Colours
Retrieved from " https://oldschoolrunescape.fandom.com/wiki/2015_Midsummer_event?oldid=8691445 "
Categories:
Holiday events
Community content is available under CC-BY-SA unless otherwise noted. | msmarco_doc_00_8758602 |
http://2007.runescape.wikia.com/wiki/Adamant_dart_tip | Adamant dart tip | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom | Adamant dart tip
Adamant dart tip
Adamant dart tip
Release date
Members only
High Alchemy
Low Alchemy
Destroy
Store price
Exchange price
Buy limit
Weight
Drop Rate
Drops From
Examine
Dropping monsters
| Adamant dart tip | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom
Adamant dart tip
RSC RS
This article has a money making guide here.
Please add tips to the subpage, rather than the article below.
Adamant dart tip
Detailed
Release date
14 April 2003 ( Update)
Members only
Yes
High Alchemy
21 coins
Low Alchemy
14 coins
Destroy
Drop
Store price
Not sold
Exchange price
197
197
coins ( info)
Buy limit
11,000
Weight
Unknown
Drop Rate
Unknown
Drops From
Unknown
Examine
A deadly looking dart tip made of adamantite - needs feathers for flight.
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Adamant dart tip is an item that can be created at level 74 Smithing. It grants 62.5 Smithing experience upon making and requires one adamantite bar to make 10 adamant dart tips. They can be fletched into Adamant darts at level 67 Fletching when used with feathers, granting 150 Fletching experience per 10 darts made.
To smith darts, a player must complete the Tourist Trap quest.
Dropping monsters
Monster
Combat level
Quantity
Rarity
Sea Snake Hatchling
62
2
3;
Uncommon
Sea Snake Young
90
2
3;
Uncommon
v • d • e
Fletching items
Strings
Bow string • Sinew • Crossbow string
Logs
Regular • Oak • Willow • Maple • Achey • Yew • Magic • Redwood
Unstrung bows
Unstrong shortbows
Regular • Oak • Willow • Maple • Yew • Magic
Unstrung longbows
Regular • Oak • Willow • Maple • Yew • Magic
Wooden shields
Oak • Willow • Maple • Yew • Magic • Redwood
Arrows
Arrow shaft • Feather • Headless arrow • Bronze arrowtips • Iron arrowtips • Steel arrowtips • Mithril arrowtips • Broad arrowheads • Adamant arrowtips • Rune arrowtips • Amethyst arrowtips • Dragon arrowtips
Javelins
Javelin shaft • Bronze javelin heads • Iron javelin heads • Steel javelin heads • Mithril javelin heads • Adamant javelin heads • Rune javelin heads • Amethyst javelin heads • Dragon javelin heads
Ballistae
Ballista limbs • Ballista spring • Light frame • Heavy frame • Monkey tail • Incomplete light ballista • Incomplete heavy ballista • Unstrung light ballista • Unstrung heavy ballista
Ogre bows
Ogre arrow shaft • Flighted ogre arrow • Wolfbone arrowtips • Unstrung comp bow
Crossbow stock
Wooden • Oak • Willow • Teak • Maple • Mahogany • Yew • Magic
Crossbow limbs
Bronze • Blurite • Iron • Steel • Mithril • Adamantite • Runite • Dragon
Unstrung crossbows
Bronze • Blurite • Iron • Steel • Mithril • Adamant • Runite • Dragon
Unfinished bolts
Bronze • Blurite • Silver • Iron • Steel • Mithril • Broad • Adamant • Runite • Dragon
Bolt tips
Opal • Jade • Pearl • Red topaz • Sapphire • Emerald • Ruby • Diamond • Amethyst • Dragonstone • Onyx
Dart tips
Bronze • Iron • Steel • Mithril • Adamant • Rune • Dragon
v • d • e
Adamant equipment
Melee weapons
Dagger • Axe • Mace • Claws • Sword • Longsword • Scimitar • Spear • Warhammer • Battleaxe • 2h sword • Halberd • Hasta • Pickaxe • Cane
Ranged weapons/ammo
Crossbow • Bolts • Arrows • Brutal arrows • Darts • Javelins • Thrownaxe • Throwing knife
Armour
Med helm • Full helm (t) (g) (h) • Square shield • Kiteshield (t) (g) (h) • Chainbody • Platebody (t) (g) • Plateskirt (t) (g) • Platelegs (t) (g) • Boots • Gloves • Defender
Other
Arrowtips • Javelin heads • Broken axe • Broken pickaxe • Nails • Dart tip | msmarco_doc_00_8764509 |
http://2007.runescape.wikia.com/wiki/Arhein | Arhein | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom | Arhein
Arhein
Arhein
Release date
Members only?
Race
Quest NPC?
Location
Sells items?
Gender
Examination
Examine
| Arhein | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom
Arhein
RSC RS
Arhein
Release date
27 February 2002 ( Update)
Members only?
Yes
Race
Human
Quest NPC?
• One Small Favour
• Merlin's Crystal
Location
Catherby
Sells items?
Arhein's Store
Gender
Male
Examination
Examine
He looks fairly well-to-do.
Please add a map!
Arhein runs Arhein's Store in Catherby, on a pier just south of the bank, near the charter ship. He also plays a small part in the Merlin's Crystal and the One Small Favour quests .
Arhein owns a ship on the pier, which he uses to deliver candles to Keep Le Faye, a fortress to the south. He does not allow players to ride his ship, although it is possible to sneak aboard it to get to Keep Le Faye by hiding in a crate near the candle shop in Catherby, which is used by the player during Merlin's Crystal.
During One Small Favour a player must get some special type of rope known as T.R.A.S.H from him to give to Captain Bleemadge after the player has finished his favour to him of asking the seer Phantuwti Fanstuwi Farsight for a weather report fearing his new shipment might get ruined.
A player might also receive an easy clue scroll asking to talk to Arhein in Catherby.
Arhein sells pickaxes, an item most other general stores do not have.
v • d • e
Merlin's Crystal
Characters
Merlin • Arhein • Renegade Knight • Sir Mordred Morgan Le Faye • The Lady of the Lake • Beggar • Candle maker • Thrantax the Mighty
Knights of the Round Table
King Arthur • Sir Gawain • Sir Lancelot
Items
Bucket of wax • Insect repellent
Candles
Candle • Lit • Black • Lit black
Rewards
Excalibur
Locations
Camelot • Catherby • Keep Le Faye • Port Sarim • Taverley
Related
Quick Guide
v • d • e
One Small Favour
NPCs
Yanni Salika • Jungle forester • Captain Shanks • Brian • Aggie • Jimmy the Chisel • Johanhus Ulsbrecht • Fred the Farmer • Seth Groats • Horvik • Apothecary • Tassie Slipcast • Hammerspike Stoutbeard • Sanfew • Captain Bleemadge • Arhein • Phantuwti Fanstuwi Farsight • Wizard Cromperty • Tindel Marchant • Rantz • Gnormadium Avlafrim • Petra Fiyed
Monsters
Dwarf gang member • Slagilith
Items
Blunt axe • Herbal tincture • Stodgy mattress • Comfy mattress • Iron oxide • Animate rock scroll • Weather report • Unfired pot lid • Pot lid • Airtight pot • Breathing salts • Pigeon cage • Chicken cage • Sharpened axe • Red mahogany log
Vane parts
Broken vane part • Directionals • Ornament • Weathervane pillar
Guthix rest
Bowl of hot water • Cup of water • Cup of hot water • Ruined herb tea • Herb tea mix • Guthix rest
Reward
Antique lamp • Steel key ring
Locations
Shilo Village • Kharazi Jungle • Port Sarim • Draynor Village • Lumbridge • Varrock • Barbarian Village • Dwarven Mine • Taverley • White Wolf Mountain • Catherby • Seers' Village • Goblin Cave • East Ardougne • Port Khazard • Feldip Hills
Music
Ambient Jungle • Autumn Voyage • Barbarianism • Baroque • Cave Background • Chompy Hunt • Dream • Fanfare 3 • Fishing • Garden • Goblin Game • Horizon • Ice Melody • Jungly 1 • Overture • Sea Shanty 2 • Soundscape • Spirit • Start
Related
Quick Guide
Retrieved from " https://oldschoolrunescape.fandom.com/wiki/Arhein?oldid=9049580 " | msmarco_doc_00_8768898 |
http://2007.runescape.wikia.com/wiki/Ava%27s_accumulator | Ava's accumulator | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom | Ava's accumulator
Ava's accumulator
Ava's accumulator
Release date
Members only
High Alchemy
Low Alchemy
Destroy
Store price
Weight
Drop Rate
Drops From
Examine
Ammo recovery rate
| Ava's accumulator | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom
Ava's accumulator
RS
Ava's accumulator
Detailed
Equipped
Release date
12 December 2006 ( Update)
Members only
Yes
High Alchemy
Unknown
Low Alchemy
Unknown
Destroy
I can obtain a replacement for this from Ava in Draynor Manor. She will need 999 coins to buy the lower-level version.
Store price
75 steel arrows + 999 coins
( Ava)
Weight
4.5 kg
Drop Rate
Unknown
Drops From
Unknown
Examine
A superior bagged chicken ready to serve you, magnet in claw.
Ava's accumulator is a reward from Animal Magnetism if you have 50 Ranged or higher upon completion (players with lower than 50 Ranged will instead receive Ava's attractor ). Ava (found in Draynor Manor) will upgrade the attractor for anyone who obtains 50 Ranged after the quest, for a price of 75 steel arrows. After that it can be upgraded to Ava's assembler, for 75 mithril arrows and vorkath's head or 4999 coins. Upon dying, if it is not an item kept on death, it must be re-obtained from Ava for either an Ava's Attractor or 999 coins, in addition to 75 steel arrows. Multiple devices may be bought.
The accumulator gives the second best Ranged attack bonus for the cape slot.
The accumulator, like the attractor, can pick up a player's ammunition after they fire it. The accumulator also randomly attracts metal items (steel arrows, darts and knives, iron ore , toy mice, steel med helms and iron nails) into the player's inventory. If the player's inventory is full, the attracted item will be dropped at their feet. The device will not pick up objects while you are wearing a metal platebody or chainbody with a negative Ranged attack bonus, as the metal armour interferes with the magnetic function of the accumulator. However, metal armour without a negative ranged attack bonus (such as Carnillean armour ), as well as platelegs, helms, boots, shields, and weapons, will not interfere with Ava's accumulator. Note that Ahrim's robetop will interfere with Ava's accumulator, despite it being mage armour.
As of 20 February 2014, players can toggle the collection of random metal items by right-clicking the accumulator and selecting "Commune".
Ammo recovery rate
The breakdown of the ammo recovery rate is as listed:
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Break on impact: 20%
Drop onto floor: 8%
Recovered automatically: 72%
v • d • e
Capes
Regular capes
Red • Black • Blue • Yellow • Green • Purple • Orange • Pink
Combat capes
Legends • Fire ( max) • Infernal ( max) • Moonclan • Lunar • Mythical • Obsidian (r) • Saradomin ( max) • Saradomin (i) ( max) • Zamorak ( max) • Zamorak (i) ( max) • Guthix ( max) • Guthix (i) ( max) • Team • Team i • Team x • Team zero
Capes of Accomplishment
Agility • Attack • Hitpoints • Construction • Cooking • Crafting • Defence • Farming • Firemaking • Fishing • Fletching • Herblore • Hunter • Magic • Mining • Prayer • Ranging • Runecrafting • Slayer • Smithing • Strength • Thieving • Woodcutting • Quest point • Achievement diary • Music • Max
Cloaks
3rd age • Clue hunter • Ghostly • H.A.M. • Mourner • Saradomin • Zamorak • Guthix Bandos • Armadyl • Ancient • Saradomin team • Zamorak team • Ardougne cloak ( max)
Fremennik cloaks
Cyan • Brown • Blue • Green • Red • Grey • Yellow • Teal • Purple • Pink • Black
Others
Ava's attractor • Ava's accumulator ( max) • Ava's assembler ( max) • Bonesack • Cabbage • Champion's • Deadman's • Diving apparatus • Eagle • Explorer backpack • Spotted • Spottier
v • d • e
Ranged armour
Headgear
Void (+0) • Cowl (+1) • Coif (+2) • Slayer helmet (i) (+3) • Snakeskin (+4) • Spined (+6) • Archer helm (+6) • Ranger hat (+6) • Blessed (+7) • Karil's (+7) • Robin hood hat (+8) • Third-age (+9) • Armadyl (+10) • Morrigan's (+13)
Bodies
Void (+0) • Leather (+2) • Hardleather (+8) • Studded (t) (g) (+8) • Frog-leather (+10) • Snakeskin (+12) • Rangers' (+15) • Spined (+15) • Green d'hide (t) (g) (+15) • Blue d'hide (t) (g) (+20) • Red d'hide (t) (g) (+25) • Black d'hide (t) (g) (+30) • Blessed (+30) • Third-age (+30) • Karil's (+30) • Armadyl (+33) • Morrigan's (+36)
Legwear
Void (+0) • Frog-leather (+2) • Leather (+4) • Snakeskin (+6) • Studded (t) (g) (+6) • Green d'hide (t) (g) (+8) • Spined (+8) • Yak-hide (+10) • Blue d'hide (t) (g) (+11) • Red d'hide (t) (g) (+14) • Penance skirt (+15) • Black d'hide (t) (g) (+17) • Blessed (+17) • Third-age (+17) • Karil's (+17) • Armadyl (+20) • Morrigan's (+23)
Vambraces
Void (+0) • Spined (+0) • Hardleather (+1) • Bronze (+2) • Iron (+3) • Steel (+4) • Leather (spiked) (+4) • Black (+5) • Mithril (+6) • Snakeskin (+6) • Combat bracelet (+7) • Regen bracelet (+7) • Adamant (+7) • Rune (+8) • Green d'hide (spiked) (+8) • Dragon (+9) • Blue d'hide (spiked) (+9) • Red d'hide (spiked) (+10) • Black d'hide (spiked) (+11) • Blessed (+11) • Third-age (+11) • Ranger (+11) • Barrows (+12)
Boots
Spined (+0) • Frog-leather (+2) • Snakeskin (+3) • Blessed (+7) • Ranger (+8) • Pegasian (+12)
Capes
Ranging (+0) • Fire cape (+1) • Infernal cape (+1) • Ava's attractor (+2) • Ava's accumulator (+4) • Ava's assembler (+8)
Amulets
Accuracy (+4) • Power (+6) • Glory (+10) • Fury (+10) • Anguish (+15)
Rings
Archers (+4) • Archers (i) (+8)
Shields
Hard leather (+2) • Snakeskin (+3) • Green d'hide (+4) • Book of balance (+4)• Blue d'hide (+5) • Red d'hide (+6) • Black d'hide (+7) • Unholy book (+8) • Book of law (+10) • Odium ward (+12) • Dragonfire ward (+15) • Twisted buckler (+18)
v • d • e
Animal Magnetism
NPCs
Ava • Alice • Old crone • Alice's husband • Cow31337Killer • Sneaky undead fowl • Witch • Turael
Items
Crone-made amulet • Undead chicken • Selected iron • Bar magnet • Blessed axe • Undead twigs • Research notes • Translated notes • Polished buttons • A pattern • A container
Rewards
Ava's attractor • Ava's accumulator • Ava's assembler
Locations
Alice's farm • Draynor Manor • Rimmington mining site
Related
Quick Guide
Retrieved from " https://oldschoolrunescape.fandom.com/wiki/Ava%27s_accumulator?oldid=8693286 "
Categories:
Cape slot items
Items
Untradeable items
Quest items
Members' items
Capes
Ranged armour
Animal Magnetism
Community content is available under CC-BY-SA unless otherwise noted. | msmarco_doc_00_8772925 |
http://2007.runescape.wikia.com/wiki/Barrows_equipment | Barrows equipment | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom | Barrows equipment
Barrows equipment
Degrading and repairing
Dharok the Wretched (Melee)
Bonus table
Torag the Corrupted (Melee)
Bonus table
Guthan the Infested (Melee)
Bonus table
Verac the Defiled (Melee)
Bonus table
Karil the Tainted (Ranged)
Bonus table
Ahrim the Blighted (Magic)
Bonus table
Prices
Ahrim's set
Dharok's set
Guthan's set
Karil's set
Torag's set
Verac's set
Trivia
| Barrows equipment | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom
Barrows equipment
RS
A player wearing Verac the Defiled's equipment.
Barrows equipment refers to a number of sets of combat equipment earned from the Barrows minigame. There are six sets of Barrows equipment: four for warriors, one for rangers, and one for mages. Each set has four pieces: a two-handed weapon (except for Ahrim's Staff, which after an update was changed to be a one-handed weapon like other staffs in an effort to buff the weapon), a helmet, a torso piece and legwear. When all four pieces for a particular brother are equipped, a special set effect is granted, which is different for each set which is listed below after the bolded name of the set's special. Additionally, the Amulet of the damned enhances the set effects while equipped. Barrows sets can't be made using the Smithing skill .
Players can also buy gloves resembling Barrows armour after full completion of the Recipe for Disaster quest.
Degrading and repairing
Barrows equipment degrades as it is used. Equipment received from the Barrows minigame is fully repaired and can be used for 15 hours of combat until it degrades completely and requires repair before it can be used again. Barrows armour degrades even if the player is using protection prayers or not taking damage. Unlike the crystal shield and crystal bow, Barrows equipment does not suffer in performance as it degrades from fully repaired to fully degraded. Fully repaired Barrows items start out with no numbers in their names, e.g. Barrows equipment. It will become Barrows equipment 100 the first time it's used in combat. Eventually it will degrade to Barrows equipment 75, then 50, then 25 and finally 0 at which point the armour will be unusable until repaired. Additionally, Barrows equipment may only be traded if fully repaired or fully degraded.
When dropped or lost on death, any piece of Barrows equipment will automatically degrade to 0. Players who attempt to drop Barrows equipment will receive a warning message about this.
There are two ways to repair Barrows armour. Players can talk to any of the NPCs listed below and they will repair the items for a price, or repair the pieces themselves using an armour stand in any player-owned house. The equipment can be repaired at any stage, and the cost will be adjusted according to how much it has degraded. The repair costs below are as if the equipment has fully degraded.
The following NPCs can repair the armour:
Bob - the axe seller in Lumbridge
Tindel Marchant - the weapon and armour repairman at Port Khazard
Dunstan - the smith in Burthorpe
Squire - in the workshop area of the Void Knights' Outpost
Costs to repair
barrows equipment
NPC
POH Armour Stand
Level 1 Smithing
Level 99 Smithing
Helm
60,000
59,700
30,300
Body
90,000
89,550
45,450
Legs
80,000
79,600
40,400
Weapon
100,000
99,500
50,500
Total
330,000
328,350
166,650
The price is exactly 50% when operating a Smithing cape .
Note: If you drop any of the Barrows items or die in an unsafe area, the item or items will automatically deplete to 0.
It costs less to repair Barrows equipment at an armour stand compared to paying Bob in Lumbridge. Stat boosts do affect the price of repair. Use the following calculator to figure the costs.
The formula used to calculate the cost at a repair stand is:
A player with a Smithing level of 60, for instance, would pay 70% of normal cost:
Barrows equipment stacks in bank with the corresponding item degradation, so if a Karil's crossbow has a degradation level of 100, it will stack with another Karil's crossbow if it also has a degradation level of 100. The item with the same degradation level will be taken out with the same amount of hits as before, so if a Karil's crossbow 100 has 59 shots left before it will go to level 75 degradation, and that same one is in a stack with another crossbow that has 300 shots before it will degrade further. The one you take out of the stack will be the one with 59 shots left. It is advised to take out the helmet of any armour set when using, and degrade it slightly by being hit 2-3 times in combat; this will degrade the helmet slightly more than the other pieces of the set when using them, so when the helmet degrades to the 0 degradation level, the other pieces will be at the 25 degradation level, but you will know they only have a few hits left before they degrade to the 0 degradation level, which will save you some money when you repair them.
Dharok the Wretched (Melee)
Main article: Dharok the Wretched's equipment
A player activating Dharok's set effect, Wretched Strength.
70 Defence is required to wear the armour, and 70 Attack and Strength are required to wield the weapon. Dharok's is the Strength armour. The items can only be traded at 100 percent or 0 percent.
Many players use Dharok against the portals in Pest Control because it can do massive damage. To make this work, they must have low health, so players usually drop Nitroglycerin, Chemical compound, eat Dwarven rock cake, or touch the Locator orb to deplete their Hitpoints.
Wretched Strength: Attacks do more damage as the player's Hitpoints decrease. To be exact, 1% damage for every 1% HP lost. Dharok's maximum potential is unleashed at 99 HP and 99 Strength whereof a player can deal up to 98.9% extra damage when at 1 health point.
Dharok the Wretched's equipment :
Dharok's helm
Dharok's platebody
Dharok's platelegs
Dharok's greataxe (weapon)
Bonus table
Item
Attack Bonus
Defence Bonus
Other Bonus
Stab
Slash
Crush
Magic
Range
Stab
Slash
Crush
Magic
Range
Strength
Prayer
Dharok's helm
0
0
0
-3
-1
+45
+48
+44
-1
+51
0
0
Dharok's platebody
0
0
0
-30
-10
+122
+120
+107
-6
+132
0
0
Dharok's platelegs
0
0
0
-21
-7
+85
+82
+83
-4
+92
0
0
Dharok's greataxe
-4
+103
+95
-4
0
0
0
0
0
-1
+105
0
Total
-4
+103
+95
-58
-18
+252
+250
+234
-11
+274
+105
0
Torag the Corrupted (Melee)
Main article: Torag the Corrupted's equipment
A player activating Torag's set effect, Corruption.
70 Defence is required to wear the armour, and 70 Attack and 70 Strength is required to wield the weapon. Torag's is the Defence armour, as full Torag carries the highest overall Defence bonuses.
Corruption: Successful melee attacks have a 25% chance of lowering the victim's run energy by 20%.
Torag the Corrupted's equipment :
Torag's helm
Torag's platebody
Torag's platelegs
Torag's hammers (weapon)
Bonus table
Item
Attack Bonus
Defence Bonus
Other Bonus
Stab
Slash
Crush
Magic
Range
Stab
Slash
Crush
Magic
Range
Strength
Prayer
Torag's helm
0
0
0
-6
-2
+55
+58
+54
-1
+62
0
0
Torag's platebody
0
0
0
-30
-10
+122
+120
+107
-6
+132
0
0
Torag's platelegs
0
0
0
-21
-7
+85
+82
+83
-4
+92
0
0
Torag's hammers
-4
-4
+85
-4
0
0
0
0
0
0
+72
0
Total
-4
-4
+85
-61
-19
+262
+260
+244
-11
+286
+72
0
Guthan the Infested (Melee)
Main article: Guthan the Infested's equipment
A player activating Guthan's set effect, Infestation.
70 Defence is required to wear the armour, and 70 Attack is required to wield the weapon. Guthan's is the Hitpoints armour. It is not advised to only buy armour because of the cost and the special attack it gives. Guthan's is considered to be the best set of Barrows because it saves you money when buying food, as you will need little to none for most Combat training (exceptions are mostly things that will not let you wear Guthan's as you need to wield a special piece of equipment for that particular creature [i.e. Aberrant spectres require a nose peg ]). Because of the Hitpoints bonus, players may choose to use this while doing Fight Caves as it will save food. Many players use Guthan to heal on Slayer tasks and in Nightmare Zone .
Infestation: Attacks have a 25% chance of replenishing the player's health equal to the damage dealt.
Guthan the Infested's equipment :
Guthan's helm
Guthan's platebody
Guthan's chainskirt
Guthan's warspear (weapon)
Bonus table
Item
Attack Bonus
Defence Bonus
Other Bonus
Stab
Slash
Crush
Magic
Range
Stab
Slash
Crush
Magic
Range
Strength
Prayer
Guthan's helm
0
0
0
-6
-2
+55
+58
+54
-1
+62
0
0
Guthan's platebody
0
0
0
-30
-10
+122
+120
+107
-6
+132
0
0
Guthan's chainskirt
0
0
0
-14
-7
+75
+72
+73
-4
+82
0
0
Guthan's warspear
+75
+75
+75
0
0
+7
+7
+7
0
0
+75
0
Total
+75
+75
+75
-50
-19
+259
+257
+241
-11
+276
+75
0
Many players use full Guthan when attempting the TzHaar Fight Caves minigame. It is also popular with high level players for training because no food is needed.
A common strategy for Guthan users is to use an Abyssal whip and a Dragon defender, then switch to Guthan's warspear when they run short on health. This is effective because Guthan's warspear does not deal damage as efficiently.
Verac the Defiled (Melee)
Main article: Verac the Defiled's equipment
A player activating Verac's set effect, Defiler.
70 Defence is required to wear the armour, and 70 Attack is required to wield the weapon. Verac's is the Prayer and Attack armour.
Defiler: Attacks have a 25% chance of ignoring any armour, Defence, and protection prayers .
Verac the Defiled's equipment :
Verac's helm
Verac's brassard
Verac's plateskirt
Verac's flail (weapon)
Bonus table
Item
Attack Bonus
Defence Bonus
Other Bonus
Stab
Slash
Crush
Magic
Range
Stab
Slash
Crush
Magic
Range
Strength
Prayer
Verac's helm
0
0
0
-6
-2
+55
+58
+54
0
+56
0
+3
Verac's brassard
0
0
0
-6
-2
+81
+95
+85
0
+81
0
+5
Verac's plateskirt
0
0
0
-21
-7
+85
+82
+83
0
+85
0
+4
Verac's flail
+68
-2
+82
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
+72
+6
Total
+68
-2
+82
-33
-11
+221
+235
+222
0
+221
+72
+18
Verac's armour is usually used for players taking on the Kalphite Queen due to its special. It is also very popular for fighting other players in the Duel Arena, Tzhaar Fight Pits, and Wilderness .
Karil the Tainted (Ranged)
Main article: Karil the Tainted's equipment
A player activating Karil's set effect, Tainted Shot.
70 Defence and 70 Ranged are required to wear the armour, and 70 Ranged is required to wield the weapon. Karil's is the Ranged armour. Note that Karil's has the highest Magic Defence of all the Barrows equipment. It has some of the best magical Defence available in the game, greater than black d'hide and just behind Armadyl ranged gear .
Tainted Shot: Successful ranged attacks have a 25% chance of lowering the enemy's Agility level by 20%.
Karil the Tainted's equipment :
Karil's coif
Karil's leathertop
Karil's leatherskirt
Karil's crossbow (weapon)
Bolt rack (required ammunition)
Bonus table
Item
Attack Bonus
Defence Bonus
Other Bonus
Stab
Slash
Crush
Magic
Range
Stab
Slash
Crush
Magic
Range
Strength
Prayer
Karil's coif
0
0
0
-1
+7
+6
+9
+12
+6
+10
0
0
Karil's leathertop
0
0
0
-15
+30
+47
+42
+50
+65
+57
0
0
Karil's leatherskirt
0
0
0
-10
+17
+26
+20
+28
+35
+33
0
0
Karil's crossbow
0
0
0
0
+84
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Total
0
0
0
-26
+138
+79
+71
+90
+106
+100
0
0
Ahrim the Blighted (Magic)
Main article: Ahrim the Blighted's equipment
A player activating Ahrim's set effect, Blighted Aura.
70 Defence and 70 Magic are required to wear the armour. Also, 70 Attack and 70 Magic are required to wield the weapon. Ahrim's is the Magic armour .
Blighted Aura: Successful magical attacks have a 25% chance of lowering the enemy's Strength by 5 levels.
Ahrim the Blighted's equipment :
Ahrim's hood
Ahrim's robetop
Ahrim's robeskirt
Ahrim's staff (weapon)
Bonus table
Item
Attack Bonus
Defence Bonus
Other Bonus
Stab
Slash
Crush
Magic
Range
Stab
Slash
Crush
Magic
Range
Strength
Prayer
Ahrim's hood
0
0
0
+6
-2
+15
+13
+16
+6
0
0
0
Ahrim's robetop
0
0
0
+30
-10
+52
+37
+63
+30
0
0
0
Ahrim's robeskirt
0
0
0
+22
-7
+33
+30
+36
+22
0
0
0
Ahrim's staff
+12
-1
+65
+15
0
+3
+5
+2
+15
0
+68
0
Total
+12
-1
+65
+73
-19
+103
+85
+117
+73
0
+68
0
Prices
Ahrim's set
Icon
Item
Price
Direction
Low Alch
High Alch
Limit
Members
Details
Last updated
Ahrim's armour set
5,265,356
80,000
120,000
Unknown
view
10 months ago
Ahrim's staff
104,883
34,000
51,000
Unknown
view
10 months ago
Ahrim's hood
61,586
5,200
7,800
Unknown
view
10 months ago
Ahrim's robetop
2,900,631
20,000
30,000
Unknown
view
10 months ago
Ahrim's robeskirt
2,169,900
18,800
28,200
Unknown
view
10 months ago
Dharok's set
Icon
Item
Price
Direction
Low Alch
High Alch
Limit
Members
Details
Last updated
Dharok's armour set
2,944,821
160,000
240,000
Unknown
view
10 months ago
Dharok's greataxe
652,656
83,200
124,800
Unknown
view
10 months ago
Dharok's helm
243,630
41,200
61,800
Unknown
view
10 months ago
Dharok's platebody
978,025
112,000
168,000
Unknown
view
10 months ago
Dharok's platelegs
1,026,058
110,000
165,000
Unknown
view
10 months ago
Guthan's set
Icon
Item
Price
Direction
Low Alch
High Alch
Limit
Members
Details
Last updated
Guthan's armour set
2,746,794
160,000
240,000
Unknown
view
10 months ago
Guthan's warspear
917,108
40,000
60,000
Unknown
view
10 months ago
Guthan's helm
550,010
41,200
61,800
Unknown
view
10 months ago
Guthan's platebody
819,022
112,000
168,000
Unknown
view
10 months ago
Guthan's chainskirt
427,208
110,000
165,000
Unknown
view
10 months ago
Karil's set
Icon
Item
Price
Direction
Low Alch
High Alch
Limit
Members
Details
Last updated
Karil's armour set
2,371,494
80,000
120,000
Unknown
view
10 months ago
Karil's crossbow
107,192
64,000
96,000
Unknown
view
10 months ago
Karil's coif
62,835
5,200
7,800
Unknown
view
10 months ago
Karil's leathertop
1,972,648
20,000
30,000
Unknown
view
10 months ago
Karil's leatherskirt
224,442
18,800
28,200
Unknown
view
10 months ago
Torag's set
Icon
Item
Price
Direction
Low Alch
High Alch
Limit
Members
Details
Last updated
Torag's armour set
672,096
160,000
240,000
Unknown
view
10 months ago
Torag's hammers
97,256
64,000
96,000
Unknown
view
10 months ago
Torag's helm
95,267
41,200
61,800
Unknown
view
10 months ago
Torag's platebody
218,595
112,000
168,000
Unknown
view
10 months ago
Torag's platelegs
241,084
110,000
165,000
Unknown
view
10 months ago
Verac's set
Icon
Item
Price
Direction
Low Alch
High Alch
Limit
Members
Details
Last updated
Verac's armour set
1,037,397
160,000
240,000
Unknown
view
10 months ago
Verac's flail
102,775
64,000
96,000
Unknown
view
10 months ago
Verac's helm
116,139
41,200
61,800
Unknown
view
10 months ago
Verac's brassard
177,411
112,000
168,000
Unknown
view
10 months ago
Verac's plateskirt
624,036
110,000
165,000
Unknown
view
10 months ago
Trivia
Upon release, Barrows equipment did not degrade; it was changed about a week later in an update due to outcry from players claiming it would devalue Dragon equipment.
Prior to an update, guthan's chainskirt had transparent sections, similar to ghostly robes.
Dharok's set is the only Barrows set that doesn't have an animation after activating its set effect.
v • d • e
Barrows equipment
Dharok the Wretched
Set • Helm • Platebody • Platelegs • Greataxe
Torag the Corrupted
Set • Helm • Platebody • Platelegs • Hammers
Ahrim the Blighted
Set • Hood • Robe top • Robe skirt • Staff
Verac the Defiled
Set • Helm • Brassard • Plateskirt • Flail
Guthan the Infested
Set • Helm • Platebody • Chainskirt • Warspear
Karil the Tainted
Set • Coif • Leathertop • Leatherskirt • Crossbow ( Bolt rack)
v • d • e
Equipment classes
Melee equipment
Normal metal
Bronze (1) • Iron (1) • Steel (5) • Black (10) • Mithril (20) • Adamant (30) • Rune (40) • Dragon (60) (m)
Other melee
White (10) (m) • Yak-hide (20) (m) • Shayzien (20) (m) • Initiate (20) (m) • Proselyte (30) (m) • Rock-shell (40) (m) • Granite (50) (m) • Obsidian (60) (m) • 3rd age (65) (m) • Bandos (65) (m) • Justiciar (75) (m) • Dragonfire shield (75) (m) • Dinh's bulwark (75) (m)
Magic equipment
Normal magic
Wizard (1) • Xerician (20) (m) • Mystic (40) (m) • Splitbark (40) (m)
Other magic
Ghostly (1) (m) • Enchanted (40) (m) • Darkness (40) (m) • Elder (40) (m) • Skeletal (40) (m) • Infinity (50) (m) • Malediction ward (60) (m) • Mage's book (60) (m) • Lunar (65) (m) • 3rd age (65) (m) • Ancestral (75) (m) • Ancient wyvern shield (75) (m)
Ranged equipment
Normal leather
Soft leather (1) ( Hard) • Studded (20) • Frog (25) (m) • Snakeskin (30) (m) • Green dragonhide (40) • Blue dragonhide (50) (m) • Red dragonhide (60) (m) • Black dragonhide (70) (m)
Other ranged
Spined (40) (m) • Odium ward (60) (m) • Blessed dragonhide (70) (m) • 3rd age (65) (m) • Armadyl (70) (m) • Dragonfire ward (70) (m) • Twisted buckler (75) (m)
Other equipment
Slayer helmet (10) (m) • Samurai (35) (m) • Void Knight (42) (m) • Spirit shield (45) (m) • Fremennik helmet (45/ 55) (m) • Barrows (70) (m) • Crystal (70) (m) • Blessed spirit shield (70) (m) • Spirit sigil shield (75) (m) • Toxic (75) (m)
Retrieved from " https://oldschoolrunescape.fandom.com/wiki/Barrows_equipment?oldid=8210661 "
Categories:
Barrows
Equipment
Armour
Community content is available under CC-BY-SA unless otherwise noted. | msmarco_doc_00_8780723 |
http://2007.runescape.wikia.com/wiki/Basilisk | Basilisk | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom | Basilisk
Basilisk
Basilisk
Release date
Members?
Combat level
Always drops
Examine
Combat info
Hitpoints
Aggressive
Poisonous
Max hit
Weakness
Attack Styles
Slayer info
Slayer level
Slayer XP
Category
Assigned by
Combat stats
Aggressive stats
Defensive stats
Other Bonuses
Immunities
Attack speed
Contents
Locations
Drops
100% drop
Runes
Weapons and Armour
Herbs
Other
Gem drop table
| Basilisk | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom
Basilisk
RS
This article is about the slayer monster. For the superior variant, see Monstrous basilisk.
Basilisk
Release date
26 January 2005 ( Update)
Members?
Yes
Combat level
61
Always drops
Bones
Examine
The eyes of evil.
Combat info
Hitpoints
75
Aggressive
No
Poisonous
No
Max hit
5
Weakness
Crush, Ranged
Attack Styles
Melee (slash)
Slayer info
Slayer level
40
Slayer XP
75
Category
Basilisk
Assigned by
Combat stats
30
45
75
1
1
Aggressive stats
+0
+0
+0
+0
+0
Defensive stats
+20
+20
+0
+20
+0
Other Bonuses
?
?
+0
+0%
Immunities
Not immune
Not immune
Attack speed
A basilisk is a Slayer monster that requires a Slayer level of 40 to kill and can be found at the Fremennik Slayer Dungeon. Like cockatrices, players must equip a mirror shield when fighting these monsters. Players require a Defence level of 20 in order to receive basilisks as a slayer assignment, as a Defence level of 20 is required to wield the shield. Basilisks have a below average accuracy for their level, but have high Defence.
Without the mirror shield, the player's stats will be greatly reduced. Protect from Melee prayer can be used, but the stats will still be lowered.
Basilisks are a good source of runes. Due to their high drop rate of nature runes, it would be useful to bring a Staff of fire or kill some pyrefiends to the east, to use High Level Alchemy on their frequent metal armour and weapon drops.
These can be safespotted from the southern entrance to their area in the slayer cave, by using the south-east wall to stop their movement or by using the rocks on either side of the room. Note that players cannot set up a dwarf multicannon within the dungeon.
Contents
1
Locations
2
Drops
2.1
100% drop
2.2
Runes
2.3
Weapons and Armour
2.4
Herbs
2.5
Other
2.6
Gem drop table
Locations
Fremennik Slayer Dungeon
Drops
100% drop
Item
Quantity
Rarity
GE market price
Bones
1
Always
89
Runes
Item
Quantity
Rarity
GE market price
Water rune
75
Common
300
Nature rune
3; 15; 37
Uncommon
651–8,029
Law rune
3; 7
Rare
498–1,162
Weapons and Armour
Item
Quantity
Rarity
GE market price
Steel battleaxe
1
Common
164
Mithril spear
1
Uncommon
272
Mithril axe
1
Uncommon
75
Mithril kiteshield
1
Uncommon
1,044
Adamant full helm
1
Uncommon
1,816
Rune dagger
1
Rare
4,391
Mystic hat (light)
1
Rare (1/512)
8,627
Herbs
Item
Quantity
Rarity
GE market price
Grimy guam leaf
1
Common
15
Grimy marrentill
1
Common
13
Grimy tarromin
1
Common
132
Grimy harralander
1
Common
674
Grimy ranarr weed
1
Common
7,640
Grimy irit leaf
1
Common
775
Grimy avantoe
1
Uncommon
1,814
Grimy cadantine
1
Uncommon
1,312
Grimy lantadyme
1
Uncommon
1,391
Grimy kwuarm
1
Rare
1,165
Grimy dwarf weed
1
Rare
448
Other
Item
Quantity
Rarity
GE market price
Coins
11; 44; 132; 200; 440
Common
Not sold
Basilisk bone
1
Common
Not sold
Adamantite ore
1
Uncommon
1,050
Basilisk head
1
Very rare (1/2,000)
Not sold
↑ Only during Rag and Bone Man II.
Gem drop table
In addition to the drops above, this monster has access to the gem drop table .
Show/hide gem drop table
Item
Quantity
Rarity
GE market price
Uncut sapphire
1
Rare
455
Uncut emerald
1
Rare
679
Uncut ruby
1
Rare
1,249
Unknown talisman
(please specify)
1
Very rare
Error
Uncut diamond
1
Very rare
2,627
Rune javelin
5
Very rare
875
Loop half of key
1
Very rare
10,307
Tooth half of key
1
Very rare
10,840
Rune spear
1
Very rare
11,933
Shield left half
1
Very rare
65,697
Dragon spear
1
Very rare
37,226
v • d • e
Slayer monsters
Slayer Tower
Crawling Hand • Banshee • Infernal Mage • Bloodveld • Aberrant spectre • Gargoyle ( Boss • Dusk • Dawn) • Nechryael • Abyssal demon ( Boss)
Fremennik Slayer Dungeon
Cave crawler • Rockslug • Cockatrice • Pyrefiend • Basilisk • Jelly • Turoth • Kurask
Lumbridge Swamp Caves
Cave bug • Cave crawler • Cave slime • Wall beast
God Wars Dungeon ( Wilderness)
Pyrefiend • Bloodveld • Spiritual ranger • Spiritual warrior • Spiritual mage
Stronghold Slayer Cave
Bloodveld • Aberrant spectre
Catacombs of Kourend
Twisted Banshee • Warped Jelly • Mutated Bloodveld • Deviant spectre • Brutal black dragon • Greater Nechryael • Abyssal demon • Dark beast
Wyvern Cave
Long-tailed Wyvern • Spitting Wyvern • Taloned Wyvern • Ancient Wyvern
Others
Desert Lizard • Mogre • Harpie Bug Swarm • Killerwatt • Molanisk • Terror dog • Sea snake ( Young) ( Hatchling) • Brine rat • Fever spider • Mutated Zygomite ( Ancient) • Cave horror • Dust devil • Skeletal Wyvern • Cave kraken ( Boss) • Dark beast • Cerberus • Smoke devil ( Boss)
Superior monsters
Crushing hand • Chasm Crawler • Screaming banshee ( Twisted) • Giant rockslug • Cockathrice • Flaming pyrelord • Monstrous basilisk • Malevolent Mage • Insatiable Bloodveld ( Mutated) • Vitreous Jelly ( Warped) • Cave abomination • Abhorrent spectre ( Repugnant) • Choke devil • King kurask • Marble gargoyle • Nechryarch • Greater abyssal demon • Night beast • Nuclear smoke devil | msmarco_doc_00_8799540 |
http://2007.runescape.wikia.com/wiki/Bob | Bob | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom |
Bob | Bob | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom
Old School RuneScape Wiki
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Ardougne
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Falador
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Achievements, contd.
Kourend & Kebos
Lumbridge & Draynor
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Disambiguation
Bob
RS
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RS
Bob may refer to:
Bob (cat), the enigmatic black cat
Evil Bob, the evil doppelgänger of Bob the Jagex Cat. He whisks players away to ScapeRune during the Prison Pete and Evil Bob's Island random events
Bob (smith), the axe seller in Lumbridge
Bob (Sinclair), one of the Sinclair siblings
Bob Barter, the Herblore Market Price Guide in the Grand Exchange
Bob, another guard of Falador, a Falador guardsman seen during the Garden of Tranquility quest
Bob, a member of the Flash Mob seen during the Enlightened Journey quest
This is a disambiguation page used to distinguish between articles with similar names.
If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.
Retrieved from " https://oldschoolrunescape.fandom.com/wiki/Bob?oldid=9050762 "
Categories:
Disambiguation
Community content is available under CC-BY-SA unless otherwise noted. | msmarco_doc_00_8805788 |
http://2007.runescape.wikia.com/wiki/Bob_(smith) | Bob (smith) | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom | Bob
(smith)
Bob (smith)
Bob
Release date
Members only?
Race
Quest NPC?
Location
Sells items?
Gender
Examination
Examine
Quest involvement
| Bob (smith) | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom
Old School RuneScape Wiki
19,878 Pages
Add new page
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Pumpkin lantern
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Novice Quests
Experienced Quests
Master Quests
F2P Quests
Members Quests
Miniquests
Minigames
Minigame images
Barrows
Castle Wars
Sorceress's Garden
Minigame items
Barbarian Assault
Nightmare Zone
Treasure Trails
Anagrams
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Ciphers
Coordinates
Cryptics
Emotes
Hot & Cold
Maps
Achievements
Ardougne
Desert
Falador
Fremennik
Kandarin
Karamja
Achievements, contd.
Kourend & Kebos
Lumbridge & Draynor
Morytania
Varrock
Western Provinces
Wilderness
Money making
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Melee Gear
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Magic Gear
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Quest NPCs, Non-player characters, The Lost Tribe, 2017 Birthday event
Bob (smith)
RSC RS
View source
History
Talk (0)
Share
RSC RS
Bob
Release date
4 January 2001 ( Update)
Members only?
No
Race
Human
Quest NPC?
Death to the Dorgeshuun
Location
Lumbridge
Sells items?
Bob's Brilliant Axes
Gender
Male
Examination
Examine
An expert on axes.
Bob is the owner of Bob's Brilliant Axes in southern Lumbridge. Players can pay Bob to repair damaged axes and Barrows equipment. However, many players prefer to repair their Barrows armour at an armour stand in a player-owned house because it is usually cheaper depending on the player's Smithing level.
Quest involvement
Bob is also featured briefly in the Death to the Dorgeshuun quest, which shows him to dislike the Dorgeshuun. Believing Zanik to be a violent goblin, he screams at the player and Zanik to leave his store.
He is one of the people in Lumbridge that can be approached about the disturbance to the castle basement wall in The Lost Tribe .
v • d • e
Armour Repair
NPCs
Bob • Tindel Marchant • Dunstan • Squire
Player-owned house
Repair bench • Whetstone • Armour stand
v • d • e
The Lost Tribe
NPCs
Sigmund • Duke Horacio • Cook • Hans • Father Aereck • Bob • Reldo • General Bentnoze • General Wartface • Mistag • Kazgar • Ur-tag
Items
Brooch • Goblin symbol book • Key • Silverware • Peace treaty
H.A.M. robes
Hood • Shirt • Robe • Gloves • Boots • Cloak • Logo
Locations
Lumbridge Swamp Caves • Dorgesh-Kaan mine
Music
Cave of the Goblins • The Lost Melody • The Lost Tribe
Related
Quick Guide • Dorgeshuun
v • d • e
2017 Birthday event
Characters
Party Pete • Mugger • Bartender • Bob • Duke Horacio • Hans • Horvik • King Roald • Leela • Make-over mage • Ned • Sir Vyvin • Thessalia • Wise Old Man • Gnome child • Aggie • Evil Dave • Cow31337Killer • Squire • Kaylee • Sergeant Damien • Lucy • Megan • Lutist • Tim • Crunchy • Gabe
Items
Invitation list • Beer
Rewards
4th birthday hat • Birthday balloons • Smooth dance • Crazy dance
Retrieved from " https://oldschoolrunescape.fandom.com/wiki/Bob_ (smith)?oldid=9050575 "
Categories:
Quest NPCs
Non-player characters
The Lost Tribe
2017 Birthday event
Community content is available under CC-BY-SA unless otherwise noted. | msmarco_doc_00_8808139 |
http://2007.runescape.wikia.com/wiki/Bow_string | Bow string | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom | Bow string
Bow string
Bow string
Release date
Members only
High Alchemy
Low Alchemy
Destroy
Store price
Exchange price
Buy limit
Weight
Drop Rate
Drops From
Examine
Dropping monsters
| Bow string | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom
Old School RuneScape Wiki
Add new page
Recent updates
2019 Christmas event
Twisted League
Strategy
Tasks
Relics
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2019 Hallowe'en event
Skeleton lantern
Pumpkin lantern
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Spookier outfit
Guides
Skills
Quests
Novice Quests
Experienced Quests
Master Quests
F2P Quests
Members Quests
Miniquests
Minigames
Minigame images
Barrows
Castle Wars
Sorceress's Garden
Minigame items
Barbarian Assault
Nightmare Zone
Treasure Trails
Anagrams
Challenge scrolls
Ciphers
Coordinates
Cryptics
Emotes
Hot & Cold
Maps
Achievements
Ardougne
Desert
Falador
Fremennik
Kandarin
Karamja
Achievements, contd.
Kourend & Kebos
Lumbridge & Draynor
Morytania
Varrock
Western Provinces
Wilderness
Money making
Databases
Items
Melee Gear
Ranged Gear
Magic Gear
Items Kept on Death
Quest items
Bestiary
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Locations
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in:
Items with GE modules, Items, Members' items,
and 3 more
Fletching
Fletching items
Crafting items
Bow string
RSC RS
View source
History
Talk (0)
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Bow string
Detailed
RSC RS
Release date
25 March 2002 ( Update)
Members only
Yes
High Alchemy
6 coins
Low Alchemy
4 coins
Destroy
Drop
Store price
10 coins
( Uglug Nar)
Exchange price
102
102
coins ( info)
Buy limit
13,000
Weight
Unknown
Drop Rate
Unknown
Drops From
Unknown
Examine
I need a bow stave to attach this to.
Loading...
A bow string is used in the Fletching skill to create bows. It is created by using flax with a spinning wheel, which requires level 10 Crafting and grants a player 15 Crafting experience .
A full load of 28 flax will generate 420 Crafting experience (15 x 28). It takes about 50 seconds to spin a full inventory of flax. It takes approximately one minute and fifteen seconds (1:15) to do a load of flax in Lumbridge. So you can do 48 loads per hour, which means you can do about 20,160 experience per hour, if you stay at a constant rate.
With the Kandarin Medium Diary completed, you spin flax 33% faster at the spinning wheel in Seer's village. A full trip of 28 flax takes 65 seconds round trip. However, full graceful and high agility level is desirable.
Historically, the only reasonable place for anyone to spin flax into bowstrings was Seers' Village, however with the addition of the bank at the top of Lumbridge Castle, it became on par with, or slightly better than, Seers' Village, but only if you pre-picked the flax and placed it in your bank, otherwise it would be extremely counterproductive because Seers' Village is the most financially efficient place to pick and spin all at once. Later on, an even better spinning wheel was added, this time on Neitiznot. While technically further from a bank than Lumbridge, travelling to the bank in Neitiznot does not require passing through a stair, thus cutting down clicking times and increasing the efficiency of spinning. In order to use the spinning wheel, players must have started The Fremennik Isles quest and have reached the part where they are able to go to Neitiznot.
Spinning flax into bow strings is a good way for players with low skills to make money. Because of this, bow strings are commonly made by macroers, as they can easily be sold in bulk and for fairly good profits. Therefore, it is quite common to see macros in Seers' Village picking flax in the field, and spinning them into bow strings at the spinning wheel at Seers' Village.
The best way for Ironmen to get bow strings is the Temple Trekking minigame, even with low combat stats. Picking the easiest route with the easiest follower allows you to avoid all combat events but still net up to 3k bow strings an hour.
If you decide to pick and spin the flax yourself, having 30 agility and 0 kg as weight, you can average around 840 bowstrings per hour picking flax at land's end and spinning it at Lumbridge, 740 bowstrings per hour picking flax at Gnome Stronghold and spinning it at Lumbridge and 650 bowstrings per hour picking and spinning flax at Seers' Village.
It is also feasible to pick flax in the Southeast corner of Lletya, spin it at the wheel in Lletya, and bank. This is not common, as access to Lletya requires starting the quest Mourning's End Part I, which has many requirements that include high combat and agility levels and the completion of several other difficult quests. However, this would be a good place to train crafting for players who have high combat and agility, but low crafting.
Dropping monsters
Monster
Combat level
Quantity
Rarity
Spiritual Ranger
115; 118; 122; 127
7
2;
Common
Mutated Bloodveld
123
1
2;
Common
v • d • e
Fletching items
Strings
Bow string • Sinew • Crossbow string
Logs
Regular • Oak • Willow • Maple • Achey • Yew • Magic • Redwood
Unstrung bows
Unstrong shortbows
Regular • Oak • Willow • Maple • Yew • Magic
Unstrung longbows
Regular • Oak • Willow • Maple • Yew • Magic
Wooden shields
Oak • Willow • Maple • Yew • Magic • Redwood
Arrows
Arrow shaft • Feather • Headless arrow • Bronze arrowtips • Iron arrowtips • Steel arrowtips • Mithril arrowtips • Broad arrowheads • Adamant arrowtips • Rune arrowtips • Amethyst arrowtips • Dragon arrowtips
Javelins
Javelin shaft • Bronze javelin heads • Iron javelin heads • Steel javelin heads • Mithril javelin heads • Adamant javelin heads • Rune javelin heads • Amethyst javelin heads • Dragon javelin heads
Ballistae
Ballista limbs • Ballista spring • Light frame • Heavy frame • Monkey tail • Incomplete light ballista • Incomplete heavy ballista • Unstrung light ballista • Unstrung heavy ballista
Ogre bows
Ogre arrow shaft • Flighted ogre arrow • Wolfbone arrowtips • Unstrung comp bow
Crossbow stock
Wooden • Oak • Willow • Teak • Maple • Mahogany • Yew • Magic
Crossbow limbs
Bronze • Blurite • Iron • Steel • Mithril • Adamantite • Runite • Dragon
Unstrung crossbows
Bronze • Blurite • Iron • Steel • Mithril • Adamant • Runite • Dragon
Unfinished bolts
Bronze • Blurite • Silver • Iron • Steel • Mithril • Broad • Adamant • Runite • Dragon
Bolt tips
Opal • Jade • Pearl • Red topaz • Sapphire • Emerald • Ruby • Diamond • Amethyst • Dragonstone • Onyx
Dart tips
Bronze • Iron • Steel • Mithril • Adamant • Rune • Dragon
Retrieved from " https://oldschoolrunescape.fandom.com/wiki/Bow_string?oldid=8691856 "
Categories:
Items with GE modules
Items
Members' items
Fletching
Fletching items
Crafting items
Community content is available under CC-BY-SA unless otherwise noted. | msmarco_doc_00_8812314 |
http://2007.runescape.wikia.com/wiki/Compost | Compost | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom | Compost
Compost
Compost
Release date
Members only
High Alchemy
Low Alchemy
Destroy
Store price
Exchange price
Buy limit
Weight
Drop Rate
Drops From
Examine
| Compost | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom
Compost
RS
Compost
Detailed
Release date
11 July 2005 ( Update)
Members only
Yes
High Alchemy
12 coins
Low Alchemy
8 coins
Destroy
Drop
Store price
20 coins
Exchange price
24
24
coins ( info)
Buy limit
600
Weight
3 kg
Drop Rate
Unknown
Drops From
Unknown
Examine
Good for plants, helps them grow.
Loading...
Compost is an item used most commonly with the Farming skill. While not as effective as supercompost, it reduces the chance of a player's crops becoming diseased (1:4 ratio) while growing throughout the plant cycle, as well as increasing the minimum and maximum number of crops that will be received by the player upon harvest.
It can be made by putting weeds, sweetcorn and other farming produce into the compost bin at farming patches. It takes 60 minutes for the bin to make it rot into compost, but when it is finished rotting, the bin fills 15 buckets with compost. Filling a bucket with compost gives 4.5 Farming experience. Applying a bucket of compost to a farming patch gives 18 Farming experience. Multiple compost is used in some plants. Compost can also be bought from farming shops, such as those near the cabbage patch south of Falador, and Alice's Farming Shop north-west of Port Phasmatys .
Three buckets of compost can be used as payment for a farmer to watch over barley seeds as they grow, or two buckets for potato seeds .
Compost is also an ingredient used in creating sulphurous fertiliser, along with saltpetre to gain favour in the house of Hosidius on Great Kourend .
v • d • e
Buckets
Misc.
Bucket • Water • Milk • Apple mush • Chocolatey milk • Compost • Supercompost • Ultracompost • Sand • Sap • Slime • Wax • Bailing • Sandworms • Wester sand
Quest items
Weird gloop • Full bucket • Dwarf brew • Hangover cure • Rubble • Magic glue • Enchanted milk • Milky mixture • Ugthanki dung • Unsanitary swill • Murky water • Blessed water • Water (Rum Deal) • Empty • 1/5ths full • 2/5ths full • 3/5ths full • 4/5ths full • Full (Fremennik Trials) • Frozen • Bucket (Meiyerditch) • Water (Meiyerditch)
v • d • e
Pies
Pies
Redberry • Meat • Mud • Apple • Garden • Fish • Botanical • Mushroom • Admiral • Wild • Summer
Raw/uncooked pies
Redberry • Meat • Mud • Apple • Garden • Fish • Botanical • Mushroom • Admiral • Wild • Summer
Part pies
Pie shell • Mud 1 • Mud 2 • Garden 1 • Garden 2 • Fish 1 • Fish 2 • Admiral 1 • Admiral 2 • Wild 1 • Wild 2 • Summer 1 • Summer 2
Ingredients
Pastry dough • Redberries • Cooked meat • Compost • Cooking apple s • Tomato • Onion • Cabbage • Trout • Cod • Raw potato • Salmon • Tuna • Raw bear meat • Raw chompy • Raw rabbit • Strawberry • Sulliuscep cap • Watermelon • Golovanova fruit top
v • d • e
Farming tools
Rake • Secateurs ( Magic) • Gardening trowel • Seed dibber • Watering can ( Gricoller's) • Compost • Supercompost • Ultracompost • Spade • Empty plant pot • Filled plant pot • Empty sack • Basket • Plant cure | msmarco_doc_00_8820006 |
http://2007.runescape.wikia.com/wiki/Cooking/Burn_level | Cooking/Burn level | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom | Cooking/Burn level
Cooking/Burn level
Additional Information
Obtaining burnt food items (Cooking)
| Cooking/Burn level | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom
Cooking/Burn level
A table that shows the Cooking level required for the raw food item to stop burning .
Equipping a cooking cape will prevent any raw food from being burnt while cooking.
(unf)
This section or article is incomplete and could do with improvement.
Reason: Not all foods
You can discuss this issue on the talk page or edit this page to improve it.
Food Item
Fire
Cooking range?
Lumbridge Castle range?
Cooking gauntlets?
Cooking gauntlets + Hosidius Kitchen?
Hosidius Kitchen without Cooking Gauntlets
Experience
Members only?
Dark crab
99
99
99
99
99
215
Yes
Anglerfish
99
99
99
98
93
99
230
Yes
Shark
99
99
99
94
89
99
210
Yes
Monkfish
92
90
90
90
82
86
150
Yes
Swordfish
86
86
86
81
76
82
140
No
Bass
80
80
80
80
75
130
Yes
Curry
74
74
74
74
280
Yes
Lobster
74
74
74
64
61
70
120
No
Plain pizza
N/A
68
68
59
143
No
Rainbow fish
63
63
63
63
110
Yes
Cooked karambwan
99
99
99
99
93
94
190
Yes
Poison karambwan
99
99
99
99
80
Yes
Tuna
64
63
63
63
59
62
100
No
Salmon
58
58
55
58
54
90
No
Slimy eel
58
58
58
58
95
Yes
Pike
64
64
64
65
80
No
Cod
52
52
52
52
75
Yes
Trout
50
49
47
49
46
46
70
No
Mackerel
45
45
45
45
60
Yes
Anchovies
34
34
30
28
30
No
Herring
41
41
41
41
50
No
Sardine
35
35
35
35
40
No
Shrimps
34
34
30
28
30
No
Cooked chicken
34
31
31
31
30
No
Cooked meat
31
31
31
31
30
No
Additional Information
These Cooking and burning rates are the perfect never burn state. The issue with these are that the rate of burn at higher levels can be so insignificant that it is recommended to do it before the level. Take for example cooking Monkfish at level 80 at the Hosidius range. In a test 1.5k monkfish are cooked with no burnt monkfish. The level of no burnt fish is level 86 at that place, based off the chart above. The issue is that you won't know the exact information unless if you try it yourself.
Obtaining burnt food items (Cooking)
Item
Obtaining Instructions & Req.
Burn Range (Highest)
Members only?
Burnt shrimp
Use on fire for highest rate.
Lvl. 1-34
No
Burnt fish (sardine)
Use on fire for highest rate.
Lvl. 1-35
No
Burnt fish ( herring ,
mackerel *)
Use on fire for highest rate.
Lvl. 5-41, 10-45
No*
Burnt fish (anchovies)
Use on fire for highest rate.
Lvl. 1-34
No
Burnt fish ( pysk, suphi ,
leckish, brawk, mycil,
roqed, kyren)
Chambers of Xeric
Lvl. 1, 15, 30,
45, 60, 75, 90
Yes
Burnt bat ( guanic, prael ,
giral, phluxia, kryket,
murng, psykk)
Chambers of Xeric
Lvl. 1, 15, 30,
45, 60, 75, 90
Yes
Burnt fish ( cod *, pike ,
trout, salmon )
Use on fire for highest rate.
Lvl. 18-52, 20-59,
15-50, 25-58
No*
Burnt fish ( bass *, tuna )
Use on fire for highest rate.
Lvl. 43-80, 30-63
No*
Burnt eel
Use on fire for highest rate.
Lvl. 28-58
Yes
Burnt cave eel
Use on fire for highest rate.
Lvl. 38-42
Yes
Burnt rainbow fish
Use on fire for highest rate.
Lvl. 35-63
Yes
Burnt lobster
Use on fire for highest rate.
Lvl. 40-74
No
Burnt swordfish
Use on fire for highest rate.
Lvl. 45-81
No
Burnt karambwan
Tai Bwo Wannai Trio, thorough
Lvl. 30-99+
Yes
Burnt monkfish
Use on fire for highest rate.
Lvl. 62-92
Yes
Burnt shark
Use on fire for highest rate.
Lvl. 80-99
Yes
Burnt sea turtle
Use on fire for highest rate.
Lvl. 82-99+
Yes
Burnt anglerfish
Use on fire for highest rate.
Lvl. 84-99
Yes
Burnt dark crab
Use on fire for highest rate.
Lvl. 90-99+
Yes
Burnt manta ray
Use on fire for highest rate.
Lvl. 91-99+
Yes
Burnt bread
Range only, Imp drop
Lvl. 1
No
Burnt pie ( mud *, meat ,
redberry, apple,
garden *, fish *,
botanical *, admiral *,
wild *, summer )
Range only
Lvl. 29, 30, 10-50,
30, 34, 47, 52,
70-94, 85-99, 95-99
No*
Burnt pizza ( plain, meat ,
anchovy, pineapple *)
Range only
Lvl. 35-68, 45, 55, 65
No*
Burnt cake ( cake ,
chocolate cake )
Range only
Lvl. 55
No
Burnt chicken
Cooked item -> fire
Lvl. 1-31
No
Burnt meat
Cooked item -> fire, Imp drop
Lvl. 1-31
No
Burnt rabbit
Iron spit required
Lvl. 1
Yes
Burnt bird meat
Iron spit required
Lvl. 11
Yes
Burnt snail ( lean ,
thin, fat )
Use on fire for highest rate.
Lvl. 17, 12, 22
Yes
Burnt spider (stick)
Skewer stick, fire highest rate.
Lvl. 16-45
Yes
Burnt beast meat
Iron spit required
Lvl. 21
Yes
Ruined chompy
Use on fire for highest rate.
Lvl. 30
Yes
Burnt jubbly
Self-obtain, Rantz / Jiggig spit,
partial Recipe for Disaster
Lvl. 41
Yes
Burnt oomlie
Raw item -> fire.
Lvl. 50
Yes
Burnt egg
Range only
Lvl. 13
Yes
Burnt onion
Range only
Lvl. 42
Yes
Burnt mushroom
Range only
Lvl. 46
Yes
Burnt stew
Use on fire for highest rate.
Lvl. 25-58
No
Burnt curry
Range only
Lvl. 60-74
Yes
Burnt potato
Raw item -> fire
Lvl. 1-99
No
Burnt crunchies
Gnome Restaurant
Lvl. 10
Yes
Burnt batta
Gnome Restaurant
Lvl. 20
Yes
Burnt sweetcorn
Use on fire for highest rate.
Lvl. 28-53
Yes
Burnt gnomebowl
Gnome Restaurant
Lvl. 30
Yes
Spider on shaft (burnt)
Arrow shaft, fire highest rate.
Lvl. 16-45
Yes
Retrieved from " https://oldschoolrunescape.fandom.com/wiki/Cooking/Burn_level?oldid=8693995 " | msmarco_doc_00_8823867 |
http://2007.runescape.wikia.com/wiki/Fishing_bait | Fishing bait | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom | Fishing bait
Fishing bait
Fishing bait
Release date
Members only
High Alchemy
Low Alchemy
Destroy
Store price
Exchange price
Buy limit
Weight
Drop Rate
Drops From
Examine
Dropping monsters
| Fishing bait | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom
Old School RuneScape Wiki
19,878 Pages
Add new page
Recent updates
2019 Christmas event
Twisted League
Strategy
Tasks
Relics
Rewards
2019 Hallowe'en event
Skeleton lantern
Pumpkin lantern
Spooky outfit
Spookier outfit
Guides
Skills
Quests
Novice Quests
Experienced Quests
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Hot & Cold
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Achievements
Ardougne
Desert
Falador
Fremennik
Kandarin
Karamja
Achievements, contd.
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Fishing bait
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"Bait" redirects here. For other uses, see Bait (disambiguation).
Fishing bait
Detailed
Release date
11 June 2001 ( Update)
Members only
No
High Alchemy
1 coin
Low Alchemy
1 coin
Destroy
Drop
Store price
3 coins
( Gerrant)
Exchange price
4
4
coins ( info)
Buy limit
8,000
Weight
Unknown
Drop Rate
Unknown
Drops From
Unknown
Examine
For use with a fishing rod.
Loading...
Fishing bait is used with the fishing rod. It is used to fish in any fishing spot as long as the spot has the Bait Fishing Spot option.
Each catch uses up one piece of bait, so take this in to account if you wish to catch a lot of fish.
Fishing stores in Port Sarim, Catherby, Miscellania, Etceteria, Rellekka, Shilo Village and the Fishing Guild with a starting price of 3 coins each.
Using fishing bait with a fishing rod, you can catch the following types of fish:
Fish
Level
Image
Name
Sardine
5
Herring
10
Pike
25
Slimy eel
28
Cave eel
38
Lava eel
53
Infernal eel
80
Sacred eel
87
Dropping monsters
Monster
Combat level
Quantity
Rarity
Farmer
7
1
8;
Unknown
Man
2
1
2;
Common
Woman
2
1
2;
Common
Al-Kharid warrior
9
1
2;
Common
Outlaw
32
1
2;
Common
River troll
14; 49; 79; 120; 159
1–50
2;
Common
Zombie (common)
13
5–7
2;
Common
Mogre
60
5–15
2;
Common
Ghast
30; 79; 109; 139
7
2;
Common
Zombie swab
55
7
2;
Common
Banshee
23
7; 15
2;
Common
Sorebones
57
10
2;
Common
Zombie pirate
57
10
2;
Common
Zombie (random event)
159
27; 50
2;
Common
Narf
2
Unknown
3;
Uncommon
Rogue
15
Unknown
3;
Uncommon
Mugger
6
1
3;
Uncommon
Rock Crab
13
1–10
3;
Uncommon
Giant lobster
45
2
3;
Uncommon
Sand Crab
15
10
3;
Uncommon
Sea Snake Hatchling
62
50
3;
Uncommon
Giant Sea Snake
149
50
3;
Uncommon
Thief
16
1
4;
Rare
Afflicted
30; 32; 34; 37
1; 10–30
4;
Rare
Zombie (Tarn's Lair)
81–100
7
4;
Rare
Sea Snake Young
90
50
4;
Rare
Retrieved from " https://oldschoolrunescape.fandom.com/wiki/Fishing_bait?oldid=8693033 "
Categories:
Items with GE modules
Items
Free-to-play items
Community content is available under CC-BY-SA unless otherwise noted. | msmarco_doc_00_8829691 |
http://2007.runescape.wikia.com/wiki/Goblin_Cave | Goblin Cave | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom | Goblin Cave
Goblin Cave
Goblin cave
Kingdom
Main Music
Levels
Strongest Monster
Quests
Inhabitants/Race
Quests
Monsters
| Goblin Cave | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom
Goblin Cave
RSC RS
Goblin cave
Kingdom
Kandarin
Main Music
Goblin Game
Levels
1
Strongest Monster
Bouncer
Quests
• Dwarf Cannon
• One Small Favour
• The General's Shadow
Inhabitants/Race
Goblins
The Goblin cave is a dungeon filled with goblins located east of the Fishing Guild and south of Hemenster. Some are aggressive no matter what level you are.
Quests
Dwarf Cannon, when finding the missing dwarf child, Lollk.
One Small Favour, as Slagilith is encountered here.
The General's Shadow miniquest, in which players need to kill Bouncer.
Monsters
Goblin (level 2)
Dungeon rat (level 12)
Giant bat (level 27)
Slagilith (level 92, One Small Favour only)
Bouncer (ghost) (level 160, fought during The General's Shadow)
v • d • e
Dungeons
Asgarnia
Asgarnian Ice Dungeon • Dwarven Mine • Falador Mole Lair • Melzar's Maze • Mouse Hole • Taverley Dungeon
Kandarin
Ancient Cavern • Ardougne Sewer • Chaos Druid Tower Dungeon • Clock Tower Dungeon • Eagles' Peak Dungeon • Elemental workshop • Goblin Cave • Mogre Camp ( Port Khazard) • Observatory Dungeon • Temple of Ikov • Tower of Life Basement • Underground Pass • Waterfall Dungeon • White Wolf Mountain Caves • Witchaven Dungeon • Yanille Agility Dungeon
Karamja
Ah Za Rhoon • Brimhaven Dungeon • Crandor and Karamja Dungeon • Karamjan Temple • Kharazi Dungeon • Pothole Dungeon • Rashiliyia's Tomb
Kharidian Desert
Enakhra's Temple • Kalphite Lair • Smoke Dungeon • Sophanem Dungeon • Water Ravine Dungeon
Misthalin
Digsite Dungeon • Dorgeshuun Mines • Draynor Sewers • Tolna's rift • Edgeville Dungeon • H.A.M. Hideout • Lumbridge Swamp Caves • Saradomin Shrine • Stronghold of Security • Tunnel of Chaos • Varrock Sewers
Morytania
Abandoned Mine • Tarn's Lair • Barrows • Experiment cave • Shade Catacombs • Slayer Tower • Slepe Dungeon
Fremennik Province
Brine Rat Cavern • Fremennik Slayer Dungeon • Lighthouse
Feldip Hills
Jiggig Burial Tomb • Ogre Enclave • Corsair Cove Dungeon
Wilderness
Deep Wilderness Dungeon • King Black Dragon Lair • Lava Maze Dungeon • Revenant Caves • Wilderness Agility Course Dungeon • Wilderness God Wars Dungeon
Zeah
Catacombs of Kourend • Chambers of Xeric • Chasm of Fire • Crabclaw Caves • Lizardman Caves • Shayzien Crypts • The Warrens • Quidamortem Cave
Others
Ape Atoll Dungeon • Dorgesh-Kaan South Dungeon • Dungeon (Player-owned house) • Entrana Dungeon • Evil Chicken's Lair • God Wars Dungeon • Grand Tree Tunnels • Jatizso mine • Lithkren Vault • Lunar Isle mine • Miscellania & Etceteria Dungeon • Mos Le'Harmless Caves • Temple of Marimbo Dungeon • Underwater Tunnel • Waterbirth Island Dungeon
Retrieved from " https://oldschoolrunescape.fandom.com/wiki/Goblin_Cave?oldid=8694955 " | msmarco_doc_00_8833657 |
http://2007.runescape.wikia.com/wiki/Grimy_harralander | Grimy harralander | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom | Grimy harralander
Grimy harralander
Grimy harralander
Release date
Members only
High Alchemy
Low Alchemy
Destroy
Store price
Exchange price
Weight
Drop Rate
Drops From
Examine
Dropped by
Obtained from (non-monster)
| Grimy harralander | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom
Grimy harralander
Grimy harralander
Detailed
RS
Release date
27 February 2002 ( Update)
Members only
Yes
High Alchemy
9 coins
Low Alchemy
6 coins
Destroy
Drop
Store price
Not sold
Exchange price
674
674
coins ( info)
Weight
Unknown
Drop Rate
Unknown
Drops From
Unknown
Examine
It needs cleaning.
Loading...
A grimy harralander is a herb that has not yet been cleaned to make a harralander. Grimy harralanders may be grown from a harralander seed with a Farming level of 26. It is dropped by certain NPCs. Cleaning a grimy harralander requires a Herblore level of 20 and gives 6.3 Herblore experience. Clean harralanders are used to make Guthix rests, stat restore potions, Guthix balance potions, Blamish oil (for the Heroes' Quest) and Energy potions with Herblore levels of 18, 22, 22, and 26 respectively. Using harralander to make harralander tar is a popular and very fast method for training Herblore, without having to do many steps.
Dropped by
Aberrant spectre (common)
Al-Kharid warrior
Abyssal demon
Ankou (common)
Aviansie
Bandit
Banshee (very common)
Basilisk
Black knight
Blue dragon
Catablepon
Cave crawler
Chaos druid (very common)
Fire elemental
Flesh crawler (common)
Goblin (rare)
Green dragon
Hill giant
Hobgoblin
Ice warrior
Jogre
Killerwatt
Kurask
Lesser demon
Man
Moss giant
Mountain troll
Mugger
Outlaw
Otherworldly being
Paladin
Thug
Tortured soul
Turoth
Water elemental
White Knight
Woman
Zombie
Zombie pirate
Obtained from (non-monster)
Sinister chest
Burgh de Rott Ramble and Temple Trekking
Sorceress's Garden
v • d • e
Herbs
Normal herbs
Grimy
Guam leaf • Marrentill • Tarromin • Harralander • Ranarr weed • Toadflax • Irit leaf • Avantoe • Kwuarm • Snapdragon • Cadantine • Lantadyme • Dwarf weed • Torstol
Clean
Guam leaf • Marrentill • Tarromin • Harralander • Ranarr weed • Toadflax • Irit leaf • Avantoe • Kwuarm • Snapdragon • Cadantine • Lantadyme • Dwarf weed • Torstol
Special herbs
Grimy herbs
Ardrigal • Rogue's purse • Sito foil • Snake weed • Volencia moss
Clean herbs
Ardrigal • Rogue's purse • Sito foil • Snake weed • Volencia moss
Other
Bruma herb • Doogle leaves • Goutweed • Mysterious herb
Chambers of Xeric
Grimy
Golpar • Buchu leaf • Noxifer
Clean
Golpar • Buchu leaf • Noxifer
Retrieved from " https://oldschoolrunescape.fandom.com/wiki/Grimy_harralander?oldid=9050708 "
Categories:
Pages using duplicate arguments in template calls
Items with GE modules
Items
Members' items
Herbs
Community content is available under CC-BY-SA unless otherwise noted. | msmarco_doc_00_8837167 |
http://2007.runescape.wikia.com/wiki/Harralander_tar | Harralander tar | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom | Harralander tar
Harralander tar
Harralander tar
Release date
Members only
High Alchemy
Low Alchemy
Destroy
Store price
Exchange price
Weight
Drop Rate
Drops From
Examine
| Harralander tar | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom
Old School RuneScape Wiki
19,878 Pages
Add new page
Recent updates
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Twisted League
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Skeleton lantern
Pumpkin lantern
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Novice Quests
Experienced Quests
Master Quests
F2P Quests
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Minigame images
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Minigame items
Barbarian Assault
Nightmare Zone
Treasure Trails
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Coordinates
Cryptics
Emotes
Hot & Cold
Maps
Achievements
Ardougne
Desert
Falador
Fremennik
Kandarin
Karamja
Achievements, contd.
Kourend & Kebos
Lumbridge & Draynor
Morytania
Varrock
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Melee Gear
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Items with GE modules, Ammunition slot items, Items, Members' items
Harralander tar
RS
View source
History
Talk (0)
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Harralander tar
RS
Release date
21 November 2006 ( Update)
Members only
Yes
High Alchemy
Unknown
Low Alchemy
Unknown
Destroy
Drop
Store price
Not sold
Exchange price
3
3
coins ( info)
Weight
Unknown
Drop Rate
Unknown
Drops From
Unknown
Examine
A dark, thick, foul-smelling, tar-like substance.
Loading...
Harralander tar is ammunition used for Black salamanders. It can be made with level 44 Herblore by using 15 Swamp tar on a Harralander while having a pestle and mortar in one's inventory. This process yields 15 Harralander tar and grants 72.5 Herblore experience.
v • d • e
Salamanders
Salamanders
Swamp lizard ( Creature) • Orange salamander ( Creature) • Red salamander ( Creature) • Black salamander ( Creature)
Ammuntion
Guam tar • Marrentill tar • Tarromin tar • Harralander tar
Retrieved from " https://oldschoolrunescape.fandom.com/wiki/Harralander_tar?oldid=9048776 "
Categories:
Items with GE modules
Ammunition slot items
Items
Members' items
Community content is available under CC-BY-SA unless otherwise noted. | msmarco_doc_00_8840471 |
http://2007.runescape.wikia.com/wiki/Hellhound | Hellhound | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom | Hellhound
Hellhound
Hellhound
Release date
Members?
Combat level
Always drops
Examine
Combat info
Hitpoints
Aggressive
Poisonous
Max hit
Weakness
Attack Styles
Slayer info
Slayer level
Slayer XP
Category
Assigned by
Combat stats
Aggressive stats
Defensive stats
Other Bonuses
Immunities
Attack speed
Hellhound
Release date
Members?
Combat level
Always drops
Examine
Combat info
Hitpoints
Aggressive
Poisonous
Max hit
Weakness
Attack Styles
Slayer info
Slayer level
Slayer XP
Category
Assigned by
Combat stats
Aggressive stats
Defensive stats
Other Bonuses
Immunities
Attack speed
Hellhound
Release date
Members?
Combat level
Always drops
Examine
Combat info
Hitpoints
Aggressive
Poisonous
Max hit
Weakness
Attack Styles
Slayer info
Slayer level
Slayer XP
Category
Assigned by
Combat stats
Aggressive stats
Defensive stats
Other Bonuses
Immunities
Attack speed
Contents
Strategy
Locations
Drops
100%
Other
Trivia
| Hellhound | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom
Old School RuneScape Wiki
19,878 Pages
Add new page
Recent updates
2019 Christmas event
Twisted League
Strategy
Tasks
Relics
Rewards
2019 Hallowe'en event
Skeleton lantern
Pumpkin lantern
Spooky outfit
Spookier outfit
Guides
Skills
Quests
Novice Quests
Experienced Quests
Master Quests
F2P Quests
Members Quests
Miniquests
Minigames
Minigame images
Barrows
Castle Wars
Sorceress's Garden
Minigame items
Barbarian Assault
Nightmare Zone
Treasure Trails
Anagrams
Challenge scrolls
Ciphers
Coordinates
Cryptics
Emotes
Hot & Cold
Maps
Achievements
Ardougne
Desert
Falador
Fremennik
Kandarin
Karamja
Achievements, contd.
Kourend & Kebos
Lumbridge & Draynor
Morytania
Varrock
Western Provinces
Wilderness
Money making
Databases
Items
Melee Gear
Ranged Gear
Magic Gear
Items Kept on Death
Quest items
Bestiary
NPCs
Locations
Dungeons
Community
Affiliates
Requests
Deletion requests
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Need Help?
Administrator requests
Requests for permissions
Counter-Vandalism Unit
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Videos
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in:
Needs Monster Examine, Bestiary, Clue Drop Monsters, Demons
Hellhound
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RSC RS
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Lv 122 Lv 127 Lv 136
Hellhound
Release date
27 February 2002 ( Update)
Members?
Yes
Combat level
122
Always drops
Bones
Examine
Hello, nice doggy…
Combat info
Hitpoints
116
Aggressive
Yes
Poisonous
No
Max hit
11
Weakness
Magic
Attack Styles
Melee (stab)
Slayer info
Slayer level
1
Slayer XP
116
Category
Hellhound
Assigned by
Combat stats
105
104
102
1
1
Aggressive stats
+0
+0
+0
+0
+0
Defensive stats
+0
+0
+0
+0
+0
Other Bonuses
?
?
+0
+0%
Immunities
Not immune
Not immune
Attack speed
Hellhound
Release date
17 October 2013 ( Update)
Members?
Yes
Combat level
127
Always drops
Bones
Examine
From the maws of hell.
Combat info
Hitpoints
116
Aggressive
Yes
Poisonous
No
Max hit
13
Weakness
Magic
Attack Styles
Melee
Slayer info
Slayer level
1
Slayer XP
116
Category
Hellhound
Assigned by
Combat stats
107
116
106
1
1
Aggressive stats
+0
+0
+0
+0
+0
Defensive stats
+0
+0
+0
+0
+0
Other Bonuses
?
?
+0
+0%
Immunities
Not immune
Not immune
Attack speed
Hellhound
Release date
23 November 2017 ( Update)
Members?
Yes
Combat level
136
Always drops
Bones
Examine
Hello, nice doggy…
Combat info
Hitpoints
150
Aggressive
Yes
Poisonous
No
Max hit
13
Weakness
Magic
Attack Styles
Melee (stab)
Slayer info
Slayer level
1
Slayer XP
150
Category
Hellhound
Assigned by
Combat stats
105
120
102
1
1
Aggressive stats
+0
+0
+0
+0
+0
Defensive stats
+0
+0
+0
+0
+0
Other Bonuses
?
?
+0
+0%
Immunities
Not immune
Not immune
Attack speed
Hellhounds are mid-to-high level demons, often given as a Slayer assignment to mid-to-high level players. Hellhounds are an excellent source of hard clue scrolls, as they drop them more frequently than other monsters. If players are on a Hellhound Task and they want to make some money off it, they could choose to kill Vet'ion as his Hellhound spawns will count towards your task and you may also receive some generous drops from the boss. Killing Cerberus will also count towards your Hellhounds Task.
Contents
1
Strategy
2
Locations
3
Drops
3.1
100%
3.2
Other
4
Trivia
Strategy
As their combat level suggests, hellhounds are not easy to defeat. It's worth noting, however, that their high combat level is mostly reflective of their accurate and powerful attacks; hellhounds have low defensive stats. Players with a low Defence level should bring the best armour that they can afford as well as high healing food .
As they only attack with Melee, the Protect from Melee prayer can be used to nullify their attacks. The most effective yet afkable way to use this strategy is at the Catacombs of Kourend, as the area is a multi-combat zone. Players who have completed at least easy tasks of the Ardougne Diary can teleport to Kandarin Monastery to recharge Prayer points, and teleport back via Xeric's talisman's Xeric's Heart option (requires full completion of Architectural Alliance) or the Teleport to Kourend spell (requires 69 Magic and reading Transportation incantations to unlock the spell). Bring prayer-boosting armour such as the Proselyte armour for longer trips and some food just in case you run out of Prayer points and get hit by the hellhounds. Additionally, having a bonecrusher in your inventory is beneficial as burying bones inside the Catacombs of Great Kourend also restores Prayer points.
Prayer "flicking" can dramatically reduce the cost of fighting them; however, this requires close attention and probably some food to correct mistakes. Since they occupy a large space of 2-by-2 squares, hellhounds can easily be safe-spotted in Taverley Dungeon on rocks and columns, or in the Witchaven Dungeon .
Players hunting hard clue scrolls can kill hellhounds located east of the Deserted Keep while wearing a ring of wealth (i). This doubles the drop rate of clue scrolls from hellhounds, from 1/64 to 1/32.
Even though they're classed as demonic, the Arclight does not work against them.
If a Slayer master is checking your combat level, you are required to have at least level 75.
Locations
Stronghold Slayer Cave (can be safe-spotted)
Taverley Dungeon (can be safe-spotted easily behind the '+' rocks)
Cerberus (91 slayer requirement)
Witchaven Dungeon (a short puzzle is required to enter the area with hellhounds)
God Wars Dungeon (level 127, NOT found in the Wilderness God Wars Dungeon)
Catacombs of Kourend (can be safespotted, with some difficulty)
Wilderness :
Revenant Caves (level 136)
Level 50 Wilderness (south of Resource Area)
Level 54 Wilderness (north-east of Deserted Keep)
Vetion spawns skeletal hellhounds and greater skeletal hellhounds.
Revenant hellhound
Quest related
In Search of the Myreque
Skeleton Hellhound
Fight Arena
Bouncer
Goblin Cave
Bouncer (ghost)
↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 Normal hellhound
↑ 2.0 2.1 Multi-zone
↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Can be cannoned
↑ Undead
↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 Can't be killed for slayer task
↑ 6.0 6.1 NMZ
Drops
100%
Item
Quantity
Rarity
GE market price
Bones
1
Always
89
Other
Item
Quantity
Rarity
GE market price
Looting bag
1
Uncommon (1/30)
Not sold
Clue scroll (hard)
1
Uncommon (1/64)
Not sold
Mysterious emblem
1
Uncommon
Lv 122: (1/97)
Lv 136: (1/80)
68,122
Slayer's enchantment
1
Rare
Lv 122: (1/227.2)
Lv 136: (1/200)
1,661
Ancient shard
1
Rare (1/256)
Not sold
Dark totem base
1
Rare (1/384)
Not sold
Dark totem middle
1
Rare (1/384)
Not sold
Dark totem top
1
Rare (1/384)
Not sold
Smouldering stone
1
Very rare (1/32,768)
1,497,061
↑ Only dropped by those found in the Wilderness.
↑ 1/32 if a Ring of wealth (i) is worn and fought in the Wilderness.
↑ 3.0 3.1 Only dropped while on a slayer assignment given by Krystilia.
↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Only dropped by those found within the Catacombs of Kourend.
Trivia
Although they are demons, Hellhounds drop bones instead of ashes like a regular demon would.
v • d • e
Demons
Standard demons
Imp ( Champion) ( Defender) • Lesser demon ( Champion) • Greater demon • Black demon
Quest demons
Delrith • Agrith Naar • Kolodion • Porazdir • Doomion • Holthion • Othainian • Chronozon • Nezikchened • Jungle Demon
Slayer demons
Bloodveld • Insatiable Bloodveld • Mutated Bloodveld • Insatiable mutated Bloodveld • Nechryael ( Death spawn) • Greater Nechryael • Nechryarch ( Chaotic death spawn) • Abyssal demon • Greater abyssal demon • Abyssal Sire • Cerberus
Fiends
Icefiend • Pyrefiend • Flaming pyrelord • Waterfiend
Revenants
Revenant imp • Revenant pyrefiend • Revenant hellhound • Revenant demon
Personalities
Alathazdrar • Mazchna • Sergeant Damien • Thammaron
God Wars Dungeon
K'ril Tsutsaroth • Balfrug Kreeyath • Zakl'n Gritch • Tstanon Karlak
Other
Implings • Hell-Rat ( Behemoth) • Hellcat • Hellhound • Demon of Light • Demon of Balance • Demon of Darkness • Skotizo • Tortured gorilla • Demonic gorilla • Ice demon
Retrieved from " https://oldschoolrunescape.fandom.com/wiki/Hellhound?oldid=8695756 "
Categories:
Needs Monster Examine
Bestiary
Clue Drop Monsters
Demons
Community content is available under CC-BY-SA unless otherwise noted. | msmarco_doc_00_8843293 |
http://2007.runescape.wikia.com/wiki/High_Level_Alchemy | High Level Alchemy | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom | High Level Alchemy
High Level Alchemy
High Level Alchemy
Level
Spellbook
Type
Experience
Runes
Cost
Spell cost
Special cases
| High Level Alchemy | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom
High Level Alchemy
RSC RS
High Level Alchemy
Level
55
Spellbook
Normal
Type
Skilling
Experience
65
65
Runes
1 5
High Level Alchemy (also known as high alch, hi alch or alching) is a non-combat spell used to convert items into coins at the best price a player could get from a specialty store. The amount of coins generated is normally 60% of the speciality shop price or 150% Low Level Alchemy prices.
High Level Alchemy is a popular way for mid and high level players to train their magic level, by buying or making valuable items and nature runes, then casting the spell on the items.
High (and Low) Alchemy can be cast on noted items, saving much withdrawal time from the bank, and simplifying the "click pattern", i.e. the player can place the stack of notes in the same position in their inventory that the alchemy spell is in the spellbook so that they do not have to move their mouse much to repeatedly cast the spell. Casting alchemy spells on stackable items will only alchemize one at a time. It is possible to alch around 1,200 items per hour for a total of 78,000 magic experience.
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If the player attempts to cast an alchemy spell on a valuable item, the player will receive a warning message and be asked if they are sure they want to alch the item. The default threshold for this is items worth at least 30,000 coins, which can be adjusted by right-clicking the alchemy icon in your spellbook.
Cost
Spell cost
Input
Cost
5 1
242
Combo runes
1 5
237
1 5
572
1 5
557
Staves
1
217
1
217
1
217
1
217
1
217
Special cases
Some specialty shops may offer a higher price for certain items than the amount High Level Alchemy gives. For example, High Level Alchemy converts a gold necklace into 270 coins, but Grum's Gold Exchange in Port Sarim offers 315 if there are no gold necklace in the shop's stock. The price decreases 9 coins for each additional necklace in the shop inventory until it reaches a low limit of 45 coins when there are 30 or more necklaces. Some players sell up to about 11 items and then world switch to find another shop which has a low inventory.
There are also two general stores which do buy at High Alchemy prices:
Bandit Camp, mid Wilderness
Rogues' Den, level 50 Thieving and Agility required
In addition, the Armoury in the Warriors' Guild buys at High Level Alchemy prices, but will only buy the armour and weapons already offered for sale.
v • d • e
Alchemy spells
Standard spells
Bones to Bananas • Low Level Alchemy • Superheat Item • High Level Alchemy • Bones to Peaches
Lunar spells
Bake Pie • Cure Plant • Humidify • Hunter Kit • Superglass Make • Tan Leather • String Jewellery • Fertile Soil • Plank Make
Retrieved from " https://oldschoolrunescape.fandom.com/wiki/High_Level_Alchemy?oldid=8695412 "
Categories:
Standard spells
Spells
Community content is available under CC-BY-SA unless otherwise noted. | msmarco_doc_00_8853334 |
http://2007.runescape.wikia.com/wiki/Lesser_Demon | Lesser demon | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom | Lesser demon
Lesser demon
Lesser demon
Release date
Members?
Combat level
Always drops
Examine
Combat info
Hitpoints
Aggressive
Poisonous
Max hit
Weakness
Attack Styles
Slayer info
Slayer level
Slayer XP
Category
Assigned by
Combat stats
Aggressive stats
Defensive stats
Other Bonuses
Immunities
Attack speed
Lesser demon
Release date
Members?
Combat level
Always drops
Examine
Combat info
Hitpoints
Aggressive
Poisonous
Max hit
Weakness
Attack Styles
Slayer info
Slayer level
Slayer XP
Category
Assigned by
Combat stats
Aggressive stats
Defensive stats
Other Bonuses
Immunities
Attack speed
Lesser demon
Release date
Members?
Combat level
Always drops
Examine
Combat info
Hitpoints
Aggressive
Poisonous
Max hit
Weakness
Attack Styles
Slayer info
Slayer level
Slayer XP
Category
Assigned by
Combat stats
Aggressive stats
Defensive stats
Other Bonuses
Immunities
Attack speed
Lesser demon
Release date
Members?
Combat level
Always drops
Examine
Combat info
Hitpoints
Aggressive
Poisonous
Max hit
Weakness
Attack Styles
Slayer info
Slayer level
Slayer XP
Category
Assigned by
Combat stats
Aggressive stats
Defensive stats
Other Bonuses
Immunities
Attack speed
Contents
Locations
Drops
100%
Weapons/Armour
Runes
Herbs
Other
Gem drop table
Trivia
| Lesser demon | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom
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F2P Quests
Members Quests
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Minigame images
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Sorceress's Garden
Minigame items
Barbarian Assault
Nightmare Zone
Treasure Trails
Anagrams
Challenge scrolls
Ciphers
Coordinates
Cryptics
Emotes
Hot & Cold
Maps
Achievements
Ardougne
Desert
Falador
Fremennik
Kandarin
Karamja
Achievements, contd.
Kourend & Kebos
Lumbridge & Draynor
Morytania
Varrock
Western Provinces
Wilderness
Money making
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Items
Melee Gear
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Magic Gear
Items Kept on Death
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in:
Free-to-play monsters, Needs Monster Examine, Bestiary,
and 2 more
Gem drop table monsters
Demons
Lesser demon
View source
History
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RSC RS
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Lv 82 Lv 87 Lv 94 Lv 94 (Wilderness)
Lesser demon
Release date
11 June 2001 ( Update)
Members?
No
Combat level
82
Always drops
Ashes
Examine
Lesser, but still pretty big.
Combat info
Hitpoints
81
Aggressive
Yes
Poisonous
No
Max hit
8
Weakness
Magic, Darklight, Silverlight, Arclight, Holy water
Attack Styles
Melee
Slayer info
Slayer level
1
Slayer XP
79
Category
Lesser demon
Assigned by
Combat stats
68
70
71
1
1
Aggressive stats
+0
+0
+0
+0
+0
Defensive stats
+0
+0
+0
-10
+0
Other Bonuses
?
?
+0
+0%
Immunities
Not immune
Not immune
Attack speed
Lesser demon
Release date
9 June 2016 ( Update)
Members?
Yes
Combat level
87
Always drops
Ashes
Examine
Lesser, but still pretty big.
Combat info
Hitpoints
87
Aggressive
Yes
Poisonous
No
Max hit
8
Weakness
Magic, Darklight, Silverlight, Arclight, Holy water
Attack Styles
Melee (slash)
Slayer info
Slayer level
1
Slayer XP
85
Category
Lesser demon
Assigned by
Combat stats
80
70
71
1
1
Aggressive stats
+0
+0
+0
+0
+0
Defensive stats
+0
+0
+0
-10
+0
Other Bonuses
?
?
+0
+0%
Immunities
Not immune
Not immune
Attack speed
Lesser demon
Release date
9 June 2016 ( Update)
Members?
Yes
Combat level
94
Always drops
Ashes
Examine
Lesser, but still pretty big.
Combat info
Hitpoints
98
Aggressive
Yes
Poisonous
No
Max hit
8
Weakness
Magic, Darklight, Silverlight, Arclight, Holy water
Attack Styles
Melee (slash)
Slayer info
Slayer level
1
Slayer XP
98
Category
Lesser demon
Assigned by
Combat stats
80
70
85
1
1
Aggressive stats
+0
+0
+0
+0
+0
Defensive stats
+0
+0
+0
-10
+0
Other Bonuses
?
?
+0
+0%
Immunities
Not immune
Not immune
Attack speed
Lesser demon
Release date
23 November 2017 ( Update)
Members?
Yes
Combat level
94
Always drops
Ashes
Examine
Lesser, but still pretty big.
Combat info
Hitpoints
110
Aggressive
Yes
Poisonous
No
Max hit
9
Weakness
Magic, Darklight, Silverlight, Arclight, Holy water
Attack Styles
Melee (slash)
Slayer info
Slayer level
1
Slayer XP
110
Category
Lesser demon
Assigned by
Combat stats
68
85
71
1
1
Aggressive stats
+0
+0
+0
+0
+0
Defensive stats
+0
+0
+0
-10
+0
Other Bonuses
?
?
+0
+0%
Immunities
Not immune
Not immune
Attack speed
Lesser demons are the second weakest standard demon, above the imp. Free-to-play players often kill these not only because they are one of the strongest monsters on those servers, but also because they drop the rune med helm, although infrequently. Lesser demons have a somewhat low Defence, allowing players to hit them almost constantly for experience .
The lesser demon is the sixth strongest monster in free-to-play, only beaten by the ankous in the Stronghold of Security, the level 85 skeletons, greater demons in the Wilderness and the bosses Obor and Bryophyta .
Like most demons they are susceptible to the effects of Silverlight, Arclight and Darklight .
Although combat experience per hour can be above average, lesser demons' sparse drops make them an average slayer assignment .
Contents
1
Locations
2
Drops
2.1
100%
2.2
Weapons/Armour
2.3
Runes
2.4
Herbs
2.5
Other
2.6
Gem drop table
3
Trivia
Locations
Catacombs of Kourend (levels 87 & 94)
Crandor
Crandor and Karamja Dungeon
Kourend Castle (caged on the top floor)
Melzar's Maze (in the basement)
Taverley Dungeon
Temple of Ikov Dungeon
Viyeldi caves
Wizards' Tower (caged on the top floor; fairy ring DIS)
Chasm of Fire ( fairy ring DJR; slayer assignment only)
Wilderness :
Revenant Caves
South east of the Demonic Ruins
By the muddy chest in the Lava Maze
Inside the cage leading to the King Black Dragon Lair
Drops
100%
Item
Quantity
Rarity
GE market price
Ashes
1
Always
72
Key (Melzar's Maze)
1
Always
Not sold
↑ Only dropped by the lesser demon fought during Dragon Slayer in Melzar's Maze.
Weapons/Armour
Item
Quantity
Rarity
GE market price
Steel axe
1
Common
26
Steel scimitar
1
Common
71
Steel full helm
1
Common
146
Black 2h sword
1
Uncommon
909
Black full helm
1
Uncommon
508
Mithril sq shield
1
Uncommon
682
Mithril chainbody
1
Uncommon
884
Adamant platebody
1
Uncommon
9,407
Mithril axe
1
Uncommon
75
Rune med helm
1
Rare
11,084
Black kiteshield
1
Rare
973
Adamant dagger
1
Rare
272
Adamant chainbody
1
Rare
2,686
↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Only dropped by those found in the Revenant Caves.
Runes
Item
Quantity
Rarity
GE market price
Fire rune
30–120
Common
150–600
Chaos rune
12–20
Uncommon
1,068–1,780
Death rune
3–10
Rare
609–2,030
Blood rune (m)
10
Rare
3,670
↑ Only dropped by those found in the Revenant Caves.
Herbs
Item
Quantity
Rarity
GE market price
Grimy guam leaf (m)
1
Common
15
Grimy tarromin (m)
1
Common
132
Grimy marrentill (m)
1
Common
13
Grimy harralander (m)
1
Rare
674
Grimy ranarr weed (m)
1
Rare
7,640
Grimy irit leaf (m)
1
Rare
775
Grimy avantoe (m)
1
Rare
1,814
Grimy kwuarm (m)
1
Rare
1,165
Grimy cadantine (m)
1
Rare
1,312
Grimy lantadyme (m)
1
Rare
1,391
Grimy dwarf weed (m)
1
Rare
448
Other
Item
Quantity
Rarity
GE market price
Coins
1; 10; 40; 120; 200; 253; 450
Common
Not sold
Gold ore
1; 5 (noted)
Uncommon
206–1,030
Jug of wine
1
Uncommon
3
Looting bag (m)
1
Uncommon (1/30)
Not sold
Ensouled demon head (m)
1
Uncommon (1/50)
6,602
Mysterious emblem (m)
1
Rare
Lv 82: (1/114.5)
Lv 94: (1/100)
68,122
Slayer's enchantment (m)
1
Rare
Lv 82: (1/255.2)
Lv 94: (1/232)
1,661
Ancient shard (m)
1
Rare
Lv 87: (1/275.33)
Lv 94: (1/266.66)
Not sold
Dark totem base (m)
1
Rare
Lv 87: (1/413)
Lv 94: (1/400)
Not sold
Dark totem middle (m)
1
Rare
Lv 87: (1/413)
Lv 94: (1/400)
Not sold
Dark totem top (m)
1
Rare
Lv 87: (1/413)
Lv 94: (1/400)
Not sold
Lesser demon champion scroll (m)
1
Very rare (1/5,000)
Not sold
↑ Only dropped by those found in the Wilderness.
↑ 2.0 2.1 Only dropped while on a slayer assignment given by Krystilia.
↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 Only dropped by those found within the Catacombs of Kourend.
↑ Only dropped if access to Champions' Guild is available, and the Lesser Demon Champion hasn't been previously killed in the Champions' Challenge.
Gem drop table
In addition to the drops above, this monster has access to the gem drop table .
Show/hide gem drop table
Item
Quantity
Rarity
GE market price
Uncut sapphire
1
Rare
455
Uncut emerald
1
Rare
679
Uncut ruby
1
Rare
1,249
Nature talisman
1
Very rare
744
Uncut diamond
1
Very rare
2,627
Rune javelin
5
Very rare
875
Loop half of key
1
Very rare
10,307
Tooth half of key
1
Very rare
10,840
Rune spear
1
Very rare
11,933
Shield left half
1
Very rare
65,697
Dragon spear
1
Very rare
37,226
Trivia
On 29 August 2006, lesser demons were graphically updated, giving them a more distinguished look. Several graphical variations of lesser demons were added with this update, including making the one in Melzar's Maze slightly taller than normal and giving him an extended green tongue.
Preceded by
Title
Succeeded by
Ice giant
Strongest monster in RuneScape
Greater demon
v • d • e
Demons
Standard demons
Imp ( Champion) ( Defender) • Lesser demon ( Champion) • Greater demon • Black demon
Quest demons
Delrith • Agrith Naar • Kolodion • Porazdir • Doomion • Holthion • Othainian • Chronozon • Nezikchened • Jungle Demon
Slayer demons
Bloodveld • Insatiable Bloodveld • Mutated Bloodveld • Insatiable mutated Bloodveld • Nechryael ( Death spawn) • Greater Nechryael • Nechryarch ( Chaotic death spawn) • Abyssal demon • Greater abyssal demon • Abyssal Sire • Cerberus
Fiends
Icefiend • Pyrefiend • Flaming pyrelord • Waterfiend
Revenants
Revenant imp • Revenant pyrefiend • Revenant hellhound • Revenant demon
Personalities
Alathazdrar • Mazchna • Sergeant Damien • Thammaron
God Wars Dungeon
K'ril Tsutsaroth • Balfrug Kreeyath • Zakl'n Gritch • Tstanon Karlak
Other
Implings • Hell-Rat ( Behemoth) • Hellcat • Hellhound • Demon of Light • Demon of Balance • Demon of Darkness • Skotizo • Tortured gorilla • Demonic gorilla • Ice demon
Retrieved from " https://oldschoolrunescape.fandom.com/wiki/Lesser_demon?oldid=8694783 "
Categories:
Free-to-play monsters
Needs Monster Examine
Bestiary
Gem drop table monsters
Demons
Community content is available under CC-BY-SA unless otherwise noted. | msmarco_doc_00_8856875 |
http://2007.runescape.wikia.com/wiki/Long_bone | Long bone | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom | Long bone
Long bone
Long bone
Release date
Members only
High Alchemy
Low Alchemy
Destroy
Store price
Weight
Drop Rate
Drops From
Examine
Trivia
| Long bone | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom
Old School RuneScape Wiki
19,878 Pages
Add new page
Recent updates
2019 Christmas event
Twisted League
Strategy
Tasks
Relics
Rewards
2019 Hallowe'en event
Skeleton lantern
Pumpkin lantern
Spooky outfit
Spookier outfit
Guides
Skills
Quests
Novice Quests
Experienced Quests
Master Quests
F2P Quests
Members Quests
Miniquests
Minigames
Minigame images
Barrows
Castle Wars
Sorceress's Garden
Minigame items
Barbarian Assault
Nightmare Zone
Treasure Trails
Anagrams
Challenge scrolls
Ciphers
Coordinates
Cryptics
Emotes
Hot & Cold
Maps
Achievements
Ardougne
Desert
Falador
Fremennik
Kandarin
Karamja
Achievements, contd.
Kourend & Kebos
Lumbridge & Draynor
Morytania
Varrock
Western Provinces
Wilderness
Money making
Databases
Items
Melee Gear
Ranged Gear
Magic Gear
Items Kept on Death
Quest items
Bestiary
NPCs
Locations
Dungeons
Community
Affiliates
Requests
Deletion requests
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in:
Items, Untradeable items, Members' items,
and 3 more
Bones
Prayer items
Construction
Long bone
RS
View source
History
Talk (0)
Share
Long bone
Detailed
RS
Release date
20 March 2007 ( Update)
Members only
Yes
High Alchemy
Unknown
Low Alchemy
Unknown
Destroy
Drop
Store price
Not sold
Weight
1 kg
Drop Rate
Unknown
Drops From
Unknown
Examine
A Construction bone.
A long bone is an item dropped by any monster that drops big bones, as well as the Crazy archaeologist, Venenatis and Sotetseg. Excluding the crazy archaeologist, long bones are dropped at a universal rate of 1/400.
Long bones may be sold to Barlak, a Dorgesh-Kaan cave goblin, for 1,000 coins each. Dorgesh-Kaan can be accessed after the quest Death to the Dorgeshuun. The player will also be given a lecture on Construction, granting 4,500 Construction experience, as long as their Construction level is at least 30. If the player were to gain the same amount of experience by oak planks, it would cost them 38,025, which can be considered as an extra theoretical value of a long bone. Handing in bones does NOT grant any experience if you are under 30 Construction.
Long bones can be buried, but this is not recommended as they only give 15 experience for each bone buried (the same as big bones).
The bonecrusher will not automatically bury the bone, allowing the player to pick it up. Bones to Peaches will not convert to peaches.
Trivia
Long bones formerly gave 1,500 Construction experience when given to Barlak. This was changed to 4,500 in an update on 12 April 2018.
v • d • e
Bones
Standard bones
Bones • Burnt • Wolf • Bat • Big • Dagannoth
Draconic bones
Baby dragon • Dragon • Wyvern • Lava dragon • Superior
Monkey bones
Karamjan • Small zombie • Large zombie • Gorilla • Bearded gorilla • Small ninja • Medium ninja • Skeleton gorilla
Ogre bones
Jogre ( Burnt) ( Pasty) ( Marinated) • Zogre • Fayrg • Raurg • Ourg
Enriched bones
Small • Medium • Large • Rare
Special bones
Curved • Long • Chewed • Mangled • Shaikahan • Sheep ( 1) ( 2) ( 3) ( 4)
Retrieved from " https://oldschoolrunescape.fandom.com/wiki/Long_bone?oldid=8690318 "
Categories:
Items
Untradeable items
Members' items
Bones
Prayer items
Construction
Community content is available under CC-BY-SA unless otherwise noted. | msmarco_doc_00_8868760 |
http://2007.runescape.wikia.com/wiki/Maple_longbow | Maple longbow | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom | Maple longbow
Maple longbow
Maple longbow
Release date
Members only
High Alchemy
Low Alchemy
Destroy
Store price
Exchange price
Buy limit
Weight
Drop Rate
Drops From
Examine
| Maple longbow | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom
Maple longbow
Maple longbow
Detailed
Equipped
RSC RS
Release date
25 March 2002 ( Update)
Members only
No
High Alchemy
384 coins
Low Alchemy
256 coins
Destroy
Drop
Store price
640 coins
( Lowe's Archery Emporium)
Exchange price
239
239
coins ( info)
Buy limit
14,000
Weight
1.8 kg
Drop Rate
Unknown
Drops From
Unknown
Examine
A nice sturdy bow made out of Maple.
Loading...
A maple longbow is created by attaching a bow string to a maple longbow (u) with at least level 55 Fletching . Fletching from a maple log yields a total of 116.5 experience (58.25 for fletching and 58.25 for stringing). The maple longbow differs from the shortbow only in terms of speed and range, they share the same Ranged bonus. However, the maple shortbow is usually preferred over the maple longbow due to faster attack speed. Both the maple longbow and maple shortbow can be bought at Lowe's Archery Emporium in Varrock .
Combat style
Experience
Boosts
Accurate
Ranged and Hitpoints
Accuracy and damage
Rapid
Ranged and Hitpoints
Attack speed by 1 tick
Longrange
Ranged, Hitpoints and Defence
Attack range by 2 squares
v • d • e
Ranged weapons
Shortbows
Normal (u) • Oak (u) • Willow (u) • Maple (u) • Yew (u) • Magic (u) (i)
Longbows
Normal (u) • Oak (u) • Willow (u) • Maple (u) • Yew (u) • Magic (u)
Composite bows
Willow • Ogre • Yew • Magic
Special bows
Training • Starter • Cursed goblin • Ogre • Seercull • Craw's • Dark • 3rd age • Crystal • Twisted
Crossbows
Normal • Phoenix • Bronze • Blurite • Iron • Steel • Mithril • Dorgeshuun • Adamant • Hunters' • Rune • Dragon • Dragon hunter • Karil's • Armadyl
Ballistae
Light • Heavy
Darts
Bronze • Iron • Steel • Black • Mithril • Adamant • Rune • Dragon • Toxic blowpipe
Throwing knife
Bronze • Iron • Steel • Black • Mithril • Adamant • Rune
Throwing axes
Bronze • Iron • Steel • Mithril • Adamant • Rune • Dragon • Morrigan's
Chinchompas
Grey • Red • Black
Other items
Arrows • Bolts • Cannon • Cannonball • Granite cannonball • Holy water • Javelins • Mud pie • Toktz-xil-ul | msmarco_doc_00_8872776 |
http://2007.runescape.wikia.com/wiki/Marigold_seed | Marigold seed | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom | Marigold seed
Marigold seed
Marigold seed
Release date
Members only
High Alchemy
Low Alchemy
Destroy
Store price
Exchange price
Weight
Drop Rate
Drops From
Examine
Farming info
| Marigold seed | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom
Marigold seed
Marigold seed
Detailed
RS
Release date
11 July 2005 ( Update)
Members only
Yes
High Alchemy
50 coins
Low Alchemy
33 coins
Destroy
Drop
Store price
2 coins
( Olivia)
Exchange price
1
1
coins ( info)
Weight
Unknown
Drop Rate
Unknown
Drops From
Unknown
Examine
A marigold seed - plant in flower patch.
Loading...
A Marigold seed is used in the Farming skill to grow Marigolds. They can be planted in a flower patch, and requires level 2 Farming. When fully grown, it protects potatoes, onions, and tomatoes from disease.
A nearby gardener will not watch over your growing marigolds.
Seeds can be purchased from Olivia 's Draynor Seed Market for 2 coins. It is also a common Thieving item from Olivia's seed stall with a Thieving level 27, and it is also possible to pickpocket it from Master Farmers with level 38 Thieving.
Farming info
Marigold seed
Farming level
2
Patch
Flower
Seeds per
1 seed
Payment
N/A
Time
20 min (4x5 min)
Crop
Marigolds
113
Experience
Planting
8.5
Harvesting
47
v • d • e
Seeds
Allotment
Potato • Onion • Cabbage • Tomato • Sweetcorn • Strawberry • Watermelon
Flower
Marigold • Rosemary • Nasturtium • Woad • Limpwurt
Herb
Guam • Marrentill • Tarromin • Harralander • Gout tuber • Ranarr • Toadflax • Irit • Avantoe • Kwuarm • Snapdragon • Cadantine • Lantadyme • Dwarf weed • Torstol
Hop
Barley • Hammerstone • Asgarnian • Jute • Yanillian • Krandorian • Wildblood
Bush
Redberry • Cadavaberry • Dwellberry • Jangerberry • Whiteberry • Poison ivy
Tree
Acorn • Willow • Maple • Yew • Magic
Fruit tree
Apple tree • Banana tree • Orange tree • Curry tree • Pineapple • Papaya tree • Palm tree
Special seeds
Seaweed • Teak • Grape • Mushroom • Mahogany • Cactus • Belladonna • Calquat • Spirit
Other seeds
Blindweed • Crystal ( small) • Grass • Hardy gout tuber • Hardy gout tubers • Kelda • Pine tree • White pearl
Tithe Farm seeds
Golovanova • Bologano • Logavano
Chambers of Xeric
Golpar • Buchu • Noxifer
Garden of Tranquillity
Delphinium • Pink orchid • Pink rose • Red rose • Snowdrop • Vine • White rose • Yellow orchid
Retrieved from " https://oldschoolrunescape.fandom.com/wiki/Marigold_seed?oldid=8688261 " | msmarco_doc_00_8875641 |
http://2007.runescape.wikia.com/wiki/Marigolds | Marigolds | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom | Marigolds
Marigolds
Marigolds
Release date
Members only
High Alchemy
Low Alchemy
Destroy
Store price
Exchange price
Weight
Drop Rate
Drops From
Examine
See also
| Marigolds | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom
Marigolds
Marigolds
Detailed
RS
Release date
11 July 2005 ( Update)
Members only
Yes
High Alchemy
Unknown
Low Alchemy
Unknown
Destroy
Drop
Store price
Not sold
Exchange price
113
113
coins ( info)
Weight
Unknown
Drop Rate
Unknown
Drops From
Unknown
Examine
A bunch of marigolds.
Loading...
Marigolds are flowers that can be planted in a flower patch with the Farming skill using marigold seeds. They are used as the protection payment for growing hammerstone hops.
Planting marigolds in a Farming flower plot will protect potato, onion, and tomato allotments from disease. Growing marigolds in a Farming plot requires a weeded plot, marigold seed, a seed dibber, and level 2 Farming. Marigolds take 17.5 minutes to grow.
See also
Marigolds (Construction)
Bagged marigolds
v • d • e
Flowers and Flower seeds
Seeds
Marigold • Rosemary • Nasturtium • Woad • Limpwurt • Mithril
Garden of Tranquillity
Delphinium • Pink orchid • Pink rose • Red rose • Snowdrop • White rose • Yellow orchid
Farmed flowers
Marigolds • Rosemary • Nasturtiums • Woad leaf • Limpwurt root
POH
Thistle • Sunflower • Marigolds • Roses • Rosemary • Daffodils • Bluebells
Coloured
Assorted • Black • Blue • Mixed • Orange • Purple • Red • White • Yellow
Other
Blue • Cicely • Exotic • Medivaemia blossom • Red • Star flower • Trollweiss • Troll thistle
v • d • e
Farming produce
Allotment produce
Potato • Onion • Cabbage • Tomato • Sweetcorn • Strawberry
Watermelon
Flower produce
Marigolds • Rosemary • Nasturtiums • Woad leaf • Limpwurt root
Hops
Barley • Hammerstone hops • Asgarnian hops • Jute fibre • Yanillian hops • Krandorian hops • Wildblood hops
Bush produce
Redberries • Cadava berries • Dwellberries • Jangerberries • White berries • Poison ivy berries
Tree produce
Willow branch
Leaves
Any • Oak • Willow • Maple • Yew • Magic
Roots
Oak • Willow • Maple • Yew • Magic
Fruit tree produce
Cooking apple • Banana • Orange • Curry leaf • Pineapple • Papaya fruit • Coconut
Special produce
Giant seaweed • Grapes • Zamorak's grapes • Mushroom • Cactus spine • Cave nightshade • Calquat fruit • White tree fruit
Retrieved from " https://oldschoolrunescape.fandom.com/wiki/Marigolds?oldid=9048766 "
Categories:
Items with GE modules
Items
Members' items
Produce
Farming
Community content is available under CC-BY-SA unless otherwise noted. | msmarco_doc_00_8878669 |
http://2007.runescape.wikia.com/wiki/Monkfish | Monkfish | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom | Monkfish
Monkfish
Monkfish
Release date
Members only
High Alchemy
Low Alchemy
Destroy
Store price
Exchange price
Buy limit
Weight
Drop Rate
Drops From
Examine
Dropping monsters
| Monkfish | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom
Monkfish
RS
This article is about cooked monkfish. For the raw form, see Raw monkfish.
Monkfish
Detailed
Release date
2 May 2006 ( Update)
Members only
Yes
High Alchemy
138 coins
Low Alchemy
92 coins
Destroy
Drop
Store price
Not sold
Exchange price
462
462
coins ( info)
Buy limit
13,000
Weight
0.4 kg
Drop Rate
Unknown
Drops From
Unknown
Examine
A tasty fish.
Loading...
Monkfish can be fished in Piscatoris (code AKQ) by players who have a Fishing level of 62 or higher, and have completed the Swan Song quest. They require a Cooking level of 62 to cook, and heal 16 Hitpoints .
Monkfish grant 120 Fishing experience per catch and are caught using a small fishing net. Successfully cooking a raw monkfish yields 150 Cooking experience.
Players will stop burning monkfish at level 92 normally, 90 with Cooking gauntlets, and 82 with the gauntlets at Hosidius Kitchen. Cooking monkfish gives approximately 200,000 experience per hour at level 90 with no/few burns.
With Cooking Gauntlets, and using the Hosidius Kitchen, the burning of Monkfish, diminishes by a lot, almost as soon as Cooking Level 68 (420 cooked with only 5 burns and another testing of 361 at level 68, burning only 3).
Catching and cooking a monkfish is needed for the hard Western Provinces Diary .
Tools/Utensils
Small fishing net
Ingredients
Raw monkfish
Level
62
Fishing Method
Small fishing net
Fishing Spot
Harpoon/Net spot—in the Piscatoris Fishing Colony only
Experience
120
Level
62
Level at which it stops burning
90 on a range, 92 on a fire (90 with Cooking gauntlets ), 82 with the gauntlets and Hosidius Kitchen.
Experience
150
Range Only?
No
Instructions
Use raw monkfish with a fire or a range.
Servings
1
[view] • [talk]
Dropping monsters
Monster
Combat level
Quantity
Rarity
Green dragon
88
1
3;
Uncommon
Kalphite Queen
333
3
2;
Common
Chaos Fanatic
202
3
2;
Common
v • d • e
Fish
Normal
Cooked
Shrimps • Sardine • Herring • Anchovies • Mackerel • Trout • Cod • Pike • Slimy eel • Salmon • Tuna • Rainbow fish • Cave eel • Lobster • Bass • Swordfish • Monkfish • Shark • Anglerfish • Dark crab
Raw
Shrimps • Sardine • Herring • Anchovies • Mackerel • Trout • Cod • Pike • Slimy eel • Salmon • Tuna • Rainbow fish • Cave eel • Lobster • Bass • Swordfish • Monkfish • Shark • Anglerfish • Dark crab
Chambers of Xeric
Cooked
Pysk • Suphi • Leckish • Brawk • Mycil • Roqed • Kyren
Raw
Pysk • Suphi • Leckish • Brawk • Mycil • Roqed • Kyren
Special
Cooked
Karambwanji • Giant carp • Lava eel • Karambwan ( poison) • Sea turtle • Manta ray • Fishlike thing
Raw
Karambwanji • Giant carp • Lava eel • Karambwan • Sea turtle • Manta ray • Fishlike thing
Leaping
Trout • Salmon • Sturgeon
Trophy
Big bass • Big swordfish • Big shark
Other
Pufferfish • Fresh monkfish • Infernal eel • Minnow • Sacred eel • Loach • Wester fish
Retrieved from " https://oldschoolrunescape.fandom.com/wiki/Monkfish?oldid=8687396 " | msmarco_doc_00_8881879 |
http://2007.runescape.wikia.com/wiki/Nature_Spirit | Nature Spirit | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom | Nature Spirit
Nature Spirit
Nature Spirit
(#55)
Members only?
Release date
Quest series
Official difficulty
Developer
Contents
Details
Walkthrough
Starting out
Collecting the three items
Something with faith
Something of nature
Something of the 'spirit-to-become' freely given
Killing the ghasts
Finishing up
Rewards
Required for completing
| Nature Spirit | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom
Nature Spirit
RS
This quest has a quick guide found here.
It briefly summarises the steps needed to complete the quest.
Nature Spirit
(#55)
Members only?
Yes
Release date
13 July 2004 ( Update)
Quest series
Myreque
Official difficulty
Novice
Developer
Tytn H
Contents
1
Details
2
Walkthrough
2.1
Starting out
2.2
Collecting the three items
2.2.1
Something with faith
2.2.2
Something of nature
2.2.3
Something of the 'spirit-to-become' freely given
2.3
Killing the ghasts
2.4
Finishing up
3
Rewards
4
Required for completing
Details
Start point
Speak to Drezel under the Paterdomus Temple near the River Salve .
Official difficulty
Novice
Description
After saving the holy man Drezel, he's seeking some assistance again.
This time he has a special request for any adventurous sorts to search for the Druid 'Filliman Tarlock' and brave the terrors that infest the swamp of Mort Myre.
Length
Medium
Requirements
Completion of the following quests:
Priest in Peril
The Restless Ghost
18 Crafting (in order to create a Silver sickle if the player does not possess one)
Items required
A Silver sickle - either purchase it from the Grand Exchange, or make it with a Silver bar and Sickle mould in a furnace. Ironmen can buy a Silver bar from the Silver merchant in Ardougne. Also, make sure you have full Prayer points.
A Ghostspeak amulet
Recommended:
A weapon
1-2 Stamina potions
Full prayer points
Enemies to defeat
3 Ghasts (level 30)
Walkthrough
Starting out
Items required: Ghostspeak amulet, a Silver sickle (If you don't plan on making it later on in the quest).
Keep in mind that Ghasts rot food if you don't have a Druid pouch, so bring extra food.
The start point in the Paterdomus temple 's basement.
Talk to Drezel, where you left him at the end of Priest in Peril (beside the holy barrier to Morytania, under the temple). Drezel will give you three meat pies and three apple pies to take to Filliman Tarlock. He'll warn you about ghasts that will rot your food. Do not worry about this since you don't actually end up giving Filliman the food. Go south-east after exiting the temple. Note: You must enter Morytania through the gate, or Filliman will not appear.
The Grotto Tree.
Ghasts are invisible NPCs that do not have an "attack" option.
Ignore the warning and go through the gate to reach the swamp. Go south along the west river until you see the grotto tree. WARNING: You will find ghasts in the swamp, which are barely visible spirits that will attempt to rot your food. They often miss, and if you run out of food, they will hit damage on you. You also lose about 3 health at random times when in the swamp. This will not happen on Filliman's island or in Filliman's Grotto. Jump across the broken bridge to the grotto. You may lose upwards of 7 health trying to get across this.
If you try to enter the grotto (only the small black hole in the grotto tree has the enter option), Filliman Tarlock will come out.
It turns out that he has died and is now a ghost, so put your Amulet of ghostspeak on and talk to him. If you don't have your Amulet of ghostspeak on, he'll say something ghost-like and that will be the end of the conversation. He won't believe that he's dead, so take the washing bowl off the nearby table to find a mirror underneath. Take the mirror and use it on him. He will now believe that he is a ghost. After this, he tells you to find his journal. Search the grotto tree to get it and give it to him.
Filliman will tell you that he wants to become a Nature Spirit, but he needs your help to complete the transformation. He will give you a spell scroll that you can use to cast a Bloom spell.
Collecting the three items
Items required: Druidic spell (given to you by Filliman)
Drezel blesses the player.
You now need to obtain the following three items:
Something with faith
Go back to Drezel and ask him to bless you. After he has blessed you, he will say: "when I look at you, there does seem to be something of the faith about you."
Something of nature
Casting the Bloom spell.
After Drezel has blessed you, using the Druidic spell and with the Silver sickle equipped or in your inventory, find a rotting log in the swamp and cast the spell next to it to make a mushroom grow. Pick it and show it to Filliman, and he tells you that the mushroom is Something of nature .
Note: DO NOT drop the used spell, as you will need it.
Note: Dropping the new spell card that is given to you, and asking for another will allow you to grab multiple spell cards in case you have no prayer. (Drop and ask for more trick)
Something of the 'spirit-to-become' freely given
Filliman performs the transformation ritual.
The used spell card is the Something of the spirit to become freely given .
Note: If asked before placing the items on the stone, the player can receive another unused spell card, allowing them to cast the spell in the next step without using Prayer points.
At Filliman's grotto, use the mushroom on the light-brown (western) stone and the used spell card on the grey stone. Summon Filliman again if needed by trying to enter his grotto, then, while standing on the orange stone, tell Filliman you think that you have solved the puzzle. Filliman will complete half of his transformation and ask you to come inside the grotto. Note: You must use the mushroom and used spell card on the stones, not drop them.
Filliman blesses the player's silver sickle.
Go inside, and search the grotto in the middle of the cave. Filliman will turn into a Nature Spirit. He will then ask you to get a Silver sickle. Talk to him again to give Filliman your Silver sickle. He will bless it and give you back a Silver sickle (b) and tell you that you can bless other sickles in the future simply by dipping them in the grotto water. He will also give you a Druid pouch and tell you to kill three ghasts .
Killing the ghasts
Items required: A weapon, druid pouch, and prayer points (the more the better).
The ghast is freed after it is killed.
Note: You can only use the druid pouch after Filliman tells you how
Note: You can use the druid pouch on a ghast nearby to manually make the ghast visible and attackable if it takes too long to get them to do so automatically.
Note: You do not have to use the sickle to kill the ghasts. You may switch to a better weapon.
Go into the swamp with the blessed silver sickle, and operate it to cast Bloom while standing next to logs, bushes, and twigs. This will deduct Prayer points and will allow you to harvest pears, fungi, and stems.
Add at least three pears, fungi, or stems to your druid pouch by clicking "Fill" while three of them are in your inventory.
When you use the druid pouch on the ghast, they'll become visible (level 30), and one charge will be deducted from your druid pouch. Kill three of them, and then talk to the Nature Spirit again. He will redecorate the grotto and reward you (each ghast you kill will award 30 prayer experience, 90 overall).
Finishing up
Simply go back in Filliman's grotto, search the grotto and speak with Filliman.
Quest completed. Congratulations!
Rewards
2 Quest points
3,000 Crafting experience
2,000 Defence experience
2,000 Hitpoints experience
Access to Mort Myre Swamp and the Nature Spirit altar, where you can replenish and temporarily boost your prayer points by 2
Ability to fight ghasts
3 meat pies and 3 apple pies unless they were rotted by the ghasts
Required for completing
Completion of Nature Spirit is required for the following:
Fairytale I - Growing Pains
In Search of the Myreque
Recipe for Disaster - Lumbridge Guide subquest
v • d • e
Nature Spirit
NPCs
Drezel • Filliman Tarlock
Enemies
Ghasts
Items
Ghostspeak amulet • Washing bowl • Mirror • Journal • Druidic spell • A used spell • Silver sickle • Silver sickle (b) • Druid pouch
Locations
Mort Myre Swamp • Nature Grotto
Music
Grotto
Related
Quick Guide
Retrieved from " https://oldschoolrunescape.fandom.com/wiki/Nature_Spirit?oldid=8695325 "
Categories:
Novice quests
Quests
Nature Spirit
Community content is available under CC-BY-SA unless otherwise noted. | msmarco_doc_00_8885674 |
http://2007.runescape.wikia.com/wiki/Paterdomus | Paterdomus | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom | Paterdomus
Paterdomus
History
Temple
Basement
Ground floor
First floor
Second floor
Temple Trekking/Burgh de Rott Ramble
Surrounding area
Odd Old Man's House
Limestone mine
Quests
| Paterdomus | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom
Paterdomus
RS
Old School RuneScape uses the British convention for floor numbering: Ground floor, first floor, etc.
Location on World Map
Slayer Tower
↑
Silvarea
←
Paterdomus
→
Canifis
↓
Mort Myre Swamp
Paterdomus, or Temple of Saradomin, is the temple marking Misthalin 's eastern border. It acts as the gateway into Morytania and is located on the River Salve. The priest Drezel is the owner of the temple, although it also plays host to some unwelcome Monks of Zamorak, as discovered in the Priest in Peril quest. It is labeled "Paterdomus Temple" on the world map. You can get there quickly by using fairy ring ( cks) and traveling west.
History
Long ago, the Seven Priestly Warriors held back the forces of Lord Lowerniel Vergidiyad Drakan and sanctified the River Salve, thus preventing the hordes of Morytania from being able to cross over and invade Misthalin. The Paterdomus Temple was then built on the site of this famous battle.
During the Priest in Peril quest, it is discovered that the temple has been taken over by Zamorakian monks, who are working on a method to take down the barrier on the Salve.
Temple
Basement
The mausoleum dungeon under Paterdomus lies just north of the temple.
Ladder to the trapdoor at the surface
Entrance chamber with a level 30 Temple Guardian beast - The player must slay the beast during the Priest in Peril quest. After the quest, the beast is not aggressive and cannot be fought.
Gate leading deeper into the mausoleum
Drezel, the current carer of the temple.
Main chamber of the mausoleum - The centre of the mausoleum has the graves of the Seven Priestly Warriors, as well as a well that supplies holy water from the River Salve. It cannot be used as a water source but instead is necessary for blessing the Rod of ivandis.
Staircase to the Columbarium - It is unaccessible at the moment.
Gate to Drezel 's chamber
Drezel's chamber - Once Drezel is released from the cell in the Paterdomus Temple, he inhabits this chamber to guard against an incursion from Morytania. During and after the In Aid of the Myreque quest, a trapdoor becomes accessible in this chamber, with a ladder leading down to a secret library. Inside are several books that outline the history of Morytania.
Holy barrier holding back Morytanian invaders from entering the mausoleum - Players can pass through this barrier to enter Morytania.
Drezel's secret library found in In Aid of the Myreque.
The basement of the Temple is only accessible if you have started the Priest in Peril quest. It has a Combat level 30 Temple Guardian and is one of two ways into Morytania. In the quest In Aid of the Myreque, you will be able to unlock the secret library filled with books. In addition, the well is a key feature of the temple: players can pass through this barrier to enter Morytania.
Ground floor
From left to right: Ground floor, 1st floor, and 2nd floor.
The ground floor of the temple has been captured by Monks of Zamorak. For killing these, you will receive only 25% of normal experience. Also on this level is an altar. Just outside of the temple is an Agility shortcut requiring 65 Agility .
First floor
Monks of Zamorak can be found on the first two floors of the temple. For killing these, you will receive only 25% of normal experience.
Second floor
Drezel is held captive on the second floor and is freed by doing the following in Priest in Peril :
Obtain the Golden key dropped from killing Monks of Zamorak.
Swap it out for the Iron key in the dungeon.
Fill a bucket with holy water from the dungeon's well, and have him bless it.
Use the blessed water on the coffin to seal the vampyre.
Temple Trekking/Burgh de Rott Ramble
The Paterdomus Temple also plays a role as the finish line in the Temple Trekking / Burgh de Rott Ramble mini-game for villagers and a starting point for mercenaries.
Surrounding area
From Varrock past the Lumber Yard, the road, Silvarea, travels directly to Paterdomus Temple.
Odd Old Man's House
The Odd Old Man really has something for bones, and even stranger about him is the talking sack on his back. He might even like you to collect bones for him in the Rag and Bone Man quest .
Limestone mine
Just outside the Odd Old Man 's house is a limestone quarry ( Silvarea Mine ). Using the Crafting skill these can be transformed into limestone bricks, which are used in many quests and in Construction .
Quests
Various quests can be started in Paterdomus and the surrounding area or a large part of the quest is located here. These include:
Darkness of Hallowvale
Devious Minds
In Search of the Myreque
Nature Spirit
Priest in Peril
Rag and Bone Man
v • d • e
Dungeons
Asgarnia
Asgarnian Ice Dungeon • Dwarven Mine • Falador Mole Lair • Melzar's Maze • Mouse Hole • Taverley Dungeon
Kandarin
Ancient Cavern • Ardougne Sewer • Chaos Druid Tower Dungeon • Clock Tower Dungeon • Eagles' Peak Dungeon • Elemental workshop • Goblin Cave • Mogre Camp ( Port Khazard) • Observatory Dungeon • Temple of Ikov • Tower of Life Basement • Underground Pass • Waterfall Dungeon • White Wolf Mountain Caves • Witchaven Dungeon • Yanille Agility Dungeon
Karamja
Ah Za Rhoon • Brimhaven Dungeon • Crandor and Karamja Dungeon • Karamjan Temple • Kharazi Dungeon • Pothole Dungeon • Rashiliyia's Tomb
Kharidian Desert
Enakhra's Temple • Kalphite Lair • Smoke Dungeon • Sophanem Dungeon • Water Ravine Dungeon
Misthalin
Digsite Dungeon • Dorgeshuun Mines • Draynor Sewers • Tolna's rift • Edgeville Dungeon • H.A.M. Hideout • Lumbridge Swamp Caves • Saradomin Shrine • Stronghold of Security • Tunnel of Chaos • Varrock Sewers
Morytania
Abandoned Mine • Tarn's Lair • Barrows • Experiment cave • Shade Catacombs • Slayer Tower • Slepe Dungeon
Fremennik Province
Brine Rat Cavern • Fremennik Slayer Dungeon • Lighthouse
Feldip Hills
Jiggig Burial Tomb • Ogre Enclave • Corsair Cove Dungeon
Wilderness
Deep Wilderness Dungeon • King Black Dragon Lair • Lava Maze Dungeon • Revenant Caves • Wilderness Agility Course Dungeon • Wilderness God Wars Dungeon
Zeah
Catacombs of Kourend • Chambers of Xeric • Chasm of Fire • Crabclaw Caves • Lizardman Caves • Shayzien Crypts • The Warrens • Quidamortem Cave
Others
Ape Atoll Dungeon • Dorgesh-Kaan South Dungeon • Dungeon (Player-owned house) • Entrana Dungeon • Evil Chicken's Lair • God Wars Dungeon • Grand Tree Tunnels • Jatizso mine • Lithkren Vault • Lunar Isle mine • Miscellania & Etceteria Dungeon • Mos Le'Harmless Caves • Temple of Marimbo Dungeon • Underwater Tunnel • Waterbirth Island Dungeon
v • d • e
Priest in Peril
NPCs
King Roald • Drezel
Enemies
Monk of Zamorak • Temple guardian
Items
Iron key • Murky water • Blessed water • Golden key • Golden feather • Golden candle • Golden hammer • Golden needle • Golden tinderbox • Golden pot
Rewards
Wolfbane
Locations
Paterdomus
Music
Mausoleum
Miscellaneous
Quick Guide • Transcript
v • d • e
Devious Minds
NPCs
Monk • High Priest • Sir Tiffy Cashien • Doric • Dead Monk • Assassin
Items
Slender blade • Bow-sword • Orb • Large pouch • Relic
Locations
Doric's hut • Paterdomus • Entrana
Related
Quick Guide
Retrieved from " https://oldschoolrunescape.fandom.com/wiki/Paterdomus?oldid=9048931 "
Categories:
Locations
Dungeons
Priest in Peril
Devious Minds
Misthalin
Quest locations
Community content is available under CC-BY-SA unless otherwise noted. | msmarco_doc_00_8894529 |
http://2007.runescape.wikia.com/wiki/Runecrafting | Runecrafting | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom |
Runecrafting
Also known as
Release date
Members only?
Players with 99
Players with 200M XP
Contents
Creating runes
Rune essence
Pure essence
Dark essence
Obtaining rune essence
Obtaining dark essence fragments
Altars
Altar locations
Talismans
Tiaras
Abyss
Crafting runes
Crafting multiple runes
Combination runes
Rune running
Tips
Weight reduction
Crafting Nature runes
Crafting Law runes
Weight-reducing outfit
Temporary boosts
Quests rewarding Runecrafting experience
Skill choice
See also
| Runecrafting | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom
RS
This article is about the Runecrafting skill. For information on training Runecrafting, see Runecrafting training (F2P) (P2P).
Runecrafting
Also known as
RC, Runecraft
Release date
29 March 2004 ( Update)
Members only?
No
Players with 99
12,442
as of 20 April 2019
Players with 200M XP
15
as of 20 April 2019
Runecraft (also known as Runecrafting) is a skill that allows players to craft their own runes for Magic spells. The experience earned from making runes is small, making Runecraft a very slow skill to train, on par with Agility, and due to the need for constant running and banking, it is fairly click and attention intensive. However, due to the constant demand for different types of runes, it can create a very generous profit.
Due to how slow Runecraft is to train, many players look to avoid training Runecraft, and use the experience from lamps and books of knowledge and from playing Tears of Guthix to raise the stat without having to train it.
With the release of the Blood and Soul altars on 7 January 2016, training Runecraft has become less time consuming for high-level Runecrafters, with blood runes reaching experience rates of around 38,000 per hour and soul runes reaching up to around 47,000 experience per hour. Alternatively, if the player is willing to put in the effort, lava runes can be crafted for up to 78,000 experience per hour at higher levels.
Runecrafting level-up music ( link )
The first music that can be played when levelled up.
Runecrafting level-up music ( link )
The second music that can be played when levelled up.
Contents
1
Creating runes
1.1
Rune essence
1.2
Pure essence
1.3
Dark essence
2
Obtaining rune essence
3
Obtaining dark essence fragments
4
Altars
4.1
Altar locations
4.2
Talismans
4.3
Tiaras
4.4
Abyss
5
Crafting runes
5.1
Crafting multiple runes
5.2
Combination runes
6
Rune running
7
Tips
7.1
Weight reduction
7.2
Crafting Nature runes
7.3
Crafting Law runes
8
Weight-reducing outfit
9
Temporary boosts
10
Quests rewarding Runecrafting experience
10.1
Skill choice
11
See also
Creating runes
Runes are crafted from either rune essence, pure essence, or dark essence. Players learn about essence through the Rune Mysteries quest. For F2p Players.
Rune essence
Normal rune essence is used to craft air , mind , water , earth , fire and body runes. This is the only type of essence free players can obtain by mining .
Pure essence
Pure essence is used to craft any runes (except blood and soul runes ), and is the only kind of essence which can be made into cosmic , chaos , astral , nature , law, death and wrath runes. Level 30 Mining is required to mine pure essence.
Dark essence
Dark essence fragments are used to craft blood and soul runes. Creating them requires level 38 Mining and Crafting, and 100% favour with the Arceuus House of Great Kourend .
Obtaining rune essence
Main article: Rune essence mine
Both rune and pure essence can be mined in the Rune essence mine. Completion of Rune Mysteries is required to access the mines. Members with a Mining level of 30 or higher will always obtain pure essence when mining in the mine, and all other players will obtain rune essence.
To access these mines, players must talk to certain NPCs who can teleport them to the mines. A player can either talk to the NPC and ask to be teleported, or right-click on the NPC and select the "teleport" option. There are five NPCs that can teleport players to the essence mines, two of whom are available to free players:
Aubury, inside his shop in Varrock.
Sedridor, inside the Wizards' Tower south of Draynor Village.
Wizard Distentor, inside the Wizards' Guild in Yanille. (members-only)
Wizard Cromperty in East Ardougne. (members-only)
Brimstail, inside a small cave in Tree Gnome Stronghold. (members-only)
A second mine is located on Lunar Isle , which does not require a teleport from an NPC but is a fairly long walk from a bank with some Suqahs on the path to the mine.
Other methods of obtaining essence include trading with other players and purchasing from the Grand Exchange, monster drops, rewards from the Nightmare Zone, or the daily reward from the medium or higher Ardougne Diary .
Obtaining dark essence fragments
Main article: Arceuus essence mine
Dense essence blocks can be mined in the Arceuus essence mine. They can be taken to the Dark Altar northwest of the mines to be made into Dark essence blocks, and then chipped with a chisel and pickaxe to make Dark essence fragments. Level 38 Mining and Crafting are required to mine dense essence blocks. Players require 25% Arceuus favour to mine Dense essence blocks, and 100% favour to create dark essence blocks and craft blood and soul runes.
Dense essence blocks and Dark essence blocks can be banked but are untradeable. Dark essence fragments can not be banked.
Altars
Main article: Runecrafting altar
Altars are where players make their runes. A talisman or a tiara is needed to enter these altars, which are hidden inside "mysterious ruins." Players can find altars by finding them on their own, using a talisman or tiara to locate, or by asking other players. To find an altar using a talisman, players can right-click on the talisman and click on the "locate" option. This will give a message in the chatbox that tells the player the direction they need to go in to find the altar.
When a player has found the mysterious ruins, they then need to enter the ruins. The player can enter by using their talisman on the ruins. If they are wearing an enchanted tiara, they can use the left-click "Enter" option on the ruins instead.
Inside the altar area, the player can then use their essence with the altar to craft runes, or use an unenchanted Tiara on the altar if they have the corresponding talisman to enchant the tiara.
Altar locations
The table below lists the locations of where the altars are found ( members-only altars are written in italics ).
Altar
Level
required
Location
Nearest bank (s)
Air altar
1
South of Falador and northeast of the Crafting Guild.
East Falador / Crafting Guild (with the hard Falador diary )
Mind altar
2
Between Ice Mountain and Goblin Village.
West Falador / Edgeville
Travelling through the Wilderness and teleporting with an amulet of glory to Edgeville takes approximately 1 minute.
With the Arceuus spellbook, you can cast the Mind Altar Teleport to directly teleport to near the altar entrance.
Water altar
5
South of Lumbridge in the swamp and southeast of Draynor Village.
Lumbridge / Draynor Village
Teleporting to Draynor Village with an amulet of glory takes ~1 minute.
With a Dramen staff, you may also bank at Zanaris for a time of 1 min 30s (requires completion of Lost City ).
Earth altar
9
Northeast of Varrock, near the Lumber Yard.
East Varrock
Using a ring of dueling to teleport to Castle Wars and then using the Balloon transport system is fast as well. The one-way trip takes a bit longer but you only have to walk one way which makes it faster.
Fire altar
14
Northeast of Al Kharid, next to the Duel Arena.
Al Kharid / Castle Wars
Using a ring of dueling to Duel Arena, craft, then teleport to Castle Wars bank and repeat.
Body altar
20
Between Ice Mountain and Barbarian Village; south of the Edgeville Monastery.
Edgeville
Cosmic altar
27
The southern part of Zanaris.
Zanaris
Using the Agility shortcuts is much faster.
Chaos altar
35
Wilderness level 9, northwest of Edgeville. During What Lies Below, players can get to the chaos altar without entering the wilderness.
Edgeville /East Varrock
The Edgeville route goes through the mysterious ruins, the Varrock route goes through the Tunnel of Chaos (unlocked during What Lies Below ).
Astral altar
40
Lunar Isle, no talisman required.
Lunar Isle
Equipping a staff of earth and casting Moonclan Teleport will save walking time, although 1 space is needed for law runes; provides additional Magic experience.
Nature altar
44
North of Shilo Village.
Shilo Village (unlocked after Shilo Village)
Advised to use the Abyss or Fairy rings instead due to time involved.
Law altar
54
Northern part of Entrana.
Void Knights' Outpost (via ship)/ Draynor Village / Castle Wars
Using a Ring of dueling to Castle Wars bank with the Balloon transport system is the fastest method without the use of the Abyss.
Death altar
65
On the bottom level of the temple from Mourning's Ends Part II.
Lletya
Advised to use the Abyss instead due to time involved.
Blood altar
77
Arceuus House, Great Kourend in Zeah. No talisman required.
Banking not required.
Soul altar
90
Arceuus House, Great Kourend in Zeah. No talisman required.
Banking not required.
Wrath altar
95
South of the Myths' Guild.
Myths' Guild
Talismans
Talismans are important as they are needed to make runes. To obtain talismans, players will have to kill monsters or buy them from other players. However, except from Abyss monsters, talismans are an uncommon drop from monsters, making them difficult to obtain. Right clicking them and selecting locate gives a direction to find the altar for that particular type of rune.
Each talisman has a name that indicates what kind of rune a player can make with it. For example, to make air runes, a player needs to find an air talisman .
Note: All elemental talismans ( air, water, earth and fire) can be dropped by the corresponding Elemental wizard south of Falador, close to Malignius Mortifer .
Abyssal monsters have a chance to drop any talisman except death and wrath talismans.
Talisman
Dropped by/Obtained by
Image
Name
Air talisman
Dropped by imps , goblins and wizards. One is also obtained upon completion of the Rune Mysteries quest .
Mind talisman
Dropped by imps , wizards, and dark wizards .
Water talisman
Dropped by wizards and dark wizards .
Earth talisman
Dropped by men , women , wizards , dark wizards, and Al-Kharid warriors .
Fire talisman
Dropped by wizards , skeletons without weapons, and dark wizards .
Elemental talisman
Dropped by Abyssal monsters, allows entry to altars of all four elements, but cannot be bound into a tiara.
Body talisman
Dropped by guards , wizards , Hill Giants, and dark wizards .
Cosmic talisman
Common reward from caskets (big net fishing or dropped by certain monsters) and the Quiz Master Random events mystery box .
Chaos talisman
Dropped by hobgoblins , skeletons , ice warriors , shadow warriors , lesser demons , Hill Giants, and fire giants .
Nature talisman
Dropped by hobgoblins , Jogres , tribesmen , moss giants , chaos druids , kalphites, Flesh Crawlers, minotaurs and green dragons .
Law talisman
Reward for finishing the Troll Stronghold quest .
Death talisman
Dropped by dark beasts and is obtained during the Mourning's Ends Part II quest .
Wrath talisman
Dropped by Vorkath, Adamant dragons, and Rune dragons after the Dragon Slayer II quest .
Tiaras
Talismans take up a space in a player's inventory, allowing them to only hold 27 essence in their inventory. However, a tiara can be equipped, allowing them to craft runes a full inventory of 28 essence. Players can either craft a tiara or buy one from another player.
If a player has a grey tiara with no markings on it, then it is unenchanted. To enchant a tiara, the player needs to bring the talisman to an altar (explained in the next section). For example, if a player wants to make air runes wearing a tiara, then they will have to bring their air talisman to the Air altar and combine the talisman and the tiara. Players can also earn some Runecrafting experience from making a tiara, shown in the table below. Additionally, making a tiara does not have a Runecrafting level requirement.
Tiara
Experience
Image
Name
Air tiara
25
Mind tiara
27.5
Water tiara
30
Earth tiara
32.5
Fire tiara
35
Body tiara
37.5
Cosmic tiara
40
Chaos tiara
42.5
Nature tiara
45
Law tiara
47.5
Death tiara
50
Wrath tiara
52.5
Note: There is no astral, blood or soul tiara/talisman as the altars are found in the world, not in another realm.
Abyss
Main article: Abyss
Players can also be teleported inside the ruins by using the Abyss, which does not need a tiara or a talisman to use. This is possibly the best way to craft your own runes. However, despite being much faster in many cases, players often choose not to use this route due to the risk of the Wilderness. Players travel to level 5 Wilderness to be teleported.
Crafting runes
When a player has entered the mysterious ruins, all they have to do is click on the altar. They will then craft all the essence they hold into a rune.
Rune
Essence
required
Level
required
Experience
Image
Name
Air rune
Normal / Pure
1
5
Mind rune
Normal / Pure
2
5.5
Water rune
Normal / Pure
5
6
Earth rune
Normal / Pure
9
6.5
Fire rune
Normal / Pure
14
7
Body rune
Normal / Pure
20
7.5
Cosmic rune
Pure
27
8
Chaos rune
Pure
35
8.5
Astral rune
Pure
40
8.7
Nature rune
Pure
44
9
Law rune
Pure
54
9.5
Death rune
Pure
65
10
Blood rune
Dark
77
23.8
Soul rune
Dark
90
29.7
Wrath rune
Pure
95
8
Crafting multiple runes
As a player's Runecrafting level increases, they can make more runes. However, they only earn experience based on the amount of essence they use. The number of runes made from the essence in a player's inventory in an action that gains a level is determined by the player's level before the Runecrafting action, even if crafting the same amount of essence one piece at a time would yield more runes.
Wrath, Blood and soul runes cannot be multicrafted.
Rune
Lvl for 2x
Lvl for 3x
Lvl for 4x
Lvl for 5x
Lvl for 6x
Lvl for 7x
Lvl for 8x
Lvl for 9x
Lvl for 10x
Air
11
22
33
44
55
66
77
88
99
Mind
14
28
42
56
70
84
98
(112)
(126)
Water
19
38
57
76
95
(114)
(133)
(152)
(171)
Earth
26
52
78
(104)
(130)
(156)
(182)
(208)
(234)
Fire
35
70
(105)
(140)
(175)
(210)
(245)
(280)
(315)
Body
46
92
(138)
(184)
(230)
(276)
(322)
(368)
(414)
Cosmic
59
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Chaos
74
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Astral
82
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Nature
91
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Law
95
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Death
99
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
5x Earth Runes can only be achieved with a skill level of 99 with a +5 boost from an Evil stew and is the only Rune that has a reachable multiple requirement that is past a skill level of 99 with Fire Runes being just shy of being an accessible 2nd; Others are possible but are not accessible with the current existing boosts. It is currently unknown if Cosmic and later runes have any multiplier for 3x or higher.
Note: Death & Law Runes are the only runes that can yield multiple runes that does not follow the normal levelling conventions.
Combination runes
Members have an extension to Runecrafting, which is the ability to combine two runes into one item.
To craft combination runes, a player needs to take existing runes that are one half of the combination, with a matching talisman (not a tiara ), along with an equal amount of pure essence to the altar which comprises the other half of the combination. Use the existing runes or the talisman for the existing runes on the altar. This has a 50% chance of success, and will consume the talisman whether successful or not. Players can wear a binding necklace to have a 100% chance of success instead.
The player may use the Lunar spell Magic Imbue to make combination runes without needing the opposing talisman. Using Binding necklaces and Magic Imbue to craft lava runes can yield the highest Runecrafting experience per hour in Old School RuneScape .
Rune
Combination
Level
required
Experience
(Low)
Experience
(High)
Image
Name
Mist rune
Air & Water
6
8
8.5
Dust rune
Air & Earth
10
8.3
9
Mud rune
Water & Earth
13
9.3
9.5
Smoke rune
Air & Fire
15
8.5
9.5
Steam rune
Water & Fire
19
9.3
10
Lava rune
Earth & Fire
23
10
10.5
Players receive less experience at the lower-levelled altars. For example, making mist runes at the air altar will give 8 experience for each rune made, while making them at the water altar will give 8.5 experience for each rune made.
Normally when Runecrafting, there is a delay after clicking on the altar which restricts the player from performing any action for a couple seconds. There is no such delay when crafting combination runes, so you can empty pouches or use teleports such as dueling rings immediately after crafting them.
Rune running
An alternative method for training Runecrafting is by using rune runners. A runner is a player that changes noted essences into unnoted essence by converting them in a bank or a shop. At the appropriate altar, the runner trades the Runecrafter changing unnoted essences for noted essences and some fee (usually coins or runes ). The Runecrafter increases the amount of essences processed and the runner gets a good reward.
Running essence for crafters is most often done at the Ourania Altar as well as nature and law altars .
Tips
It is highly recommended to complete Heroes' Quest to greatly reduce the cost and time of Runecrafting in the Abyss. Completion of Heroes' Quest allows players to recharge their Amulets of Glory with charge dragonstone jewellery scrolls, and allows the recharging of 27 amulets in the inventory, plus one worn amulet, in a single click. With this method, the most efficient use would be to purchase or acquire 28 Amulets of Glory, allowing for 112 Edgeville teleports before requiring the player to recharge the amulets. This method saves a significant amount of time for a relatively small initial investment.
Using a ring of dueling while making fire runes and lava runes allows teleporting a short distance (less than 20 squares) from the fire altar entrance and quick banking via the Castle Wars teleport. Each ring will only last for four trips, but because this method saves time and run energy, it is greatly preferred compared to banking at the Duel Arena .
Players who have completed the hard Kandarin Diary unlock the ability to change their Camelot teleport location to Seers' Village, which is also very close to the bank.
Players who have 99 Crafting have unlimited teleports with their crafting cape to the Crafting Guild, which is the closest teleport to a bank after completion of the Hard Falador Diary.
Members may find it more convenient to use pouches with them when mining essence or crafting runes. Pouches can be obtained by killing the monsters in the Abyss. When bank trips are short (e.g. using the Wizards' Guild ), the overhead of handling the pouches negates the additional essence carrying capacity.
It is recommended that players mine a large amount of essence and bank it all, and then craft runes with 28 essence in their inventory each time. For example, a player should mine 28 essence, bank them, and go back to the mines and repeat until a sizeable amount of essence has been banked. This method is faster than mining 28 essence and then crafting the runes. (For water and earth runes, the gain is unclear unless this technique is combined with teleportation between bank and altar, since those two altars are only slightly nearer to banks than to Rune essence mine teleport points.)
Weight reduction
When mining essence, players should be only carrying a pickaxe and essence pouches so that they can run longer.
All pickaxes mine Abyss shortcuts at the same rate. The black pickaxe is the best pickaxe to use as it has a weight of 0 kg, although a bronze pickaxe can be used as a cheaper substitute especially if the player can reach 0 kg weight anyway.
Members should always wear the boots of lightness. The boots can be obtained from the Temple of Ikov (the quest is not required to pick them up) and provide 4.5 kg of weight loss. These boots are enough to negate the weight of a pickaxe and/or a tiara and cost nothing to obtain.
With the appropriate Hunter level, players can wear a spotted / spottier cape to further reduce weight and increase their running duration.
Penance gloves from the Barbarian Assault minigame provide a 4.5 kg weight reduction.
Graceful outfit can be beneficial, but not always necessary since most players won't be carrying more than 4.5 kg worth of items. Wearing full Graceful outfit makes run energy restore 30% faster while standing or 'busy'.
Crafting Nature runes
When crafting nature runes on southern Karamja, there are a number of ways to craft them, because the altar is so far from a bank. Possible ways to craft nature runes are:
Have a large amount of noted essence and some money. Sell as much essence as the player's inventory can hold to the general store northwest of the altar, then buy them all back. The player can then go the nature altar and craft their runes and repeat. However, some other players may be doing the same thing, making players buy another player's essence.
Some players use runners to bring them unnoted essence in exchange for noted essence, some cash and/or some runes.
From Al Kharid, travel north to the gnome glider. Ride the glider to the Grand Tree and then to Karamja. Travel northwest, cross the river via the log, and then head southwest to the nature altar. The player can then craft their runes. When they are done, they can use either an amulet of glory to teleport to Al Kharid or use a ring of dueling to bank at Castle Wars and then teleport to the Duel Arena.
Use the Abyss, using an amulet of glory to teleport to Edgeville and bank there and then repeat, use the Edgeville dungeon teleport with Ancient Magicks, or teleport home and use a mounted amulet of glory.
Move your house ( Construction skill) to Brimhaven. Teleport to home and run to the Nature altar.
Use the fairy ring teleport system.
From Edgeville, run to the ring across the river and use the ckr teleport to get close to the altar. Craft and use a teleport method to get back to the Edgeville bank.
From Castle Wars / Clan Wars, use Ardougne cloak 2 or above, and run to fairy ring east of the teleport point. Use ring of dueling to go Castle Wars/Clan Wars. *Clan Wars has portal to restore run energy.
From Castle Wars/Clan Wars, use Necklace of passage to Wizards' Tower, and run to fairy ring south of the teleport point. Use ring of dueling to go Castle Wars/Clan Wars.
Use the boat system to travel to the Ship Yard on Karamja. Run to the Nature altar. Use Camelot Teleport ( standard spells) or Catherby Teleport ( Lunar spells) to bank and repeat.
Crafting Law runes
When crafting law runes on Entrana, there are a number of ways to craft them, because the altar is so far from a bank. Remember no weapons or armour of any kind are allowed here. Possible ways to craft law runes are:
Walk from Draynor Village to Port Sarim. Board the boat. Craft and use an amulet of glory to return to Draynor Village. Have at least 10+ charged glories for this method.
Use the Abyss method. Have at least 10+ charged glories for this method. This method isn't recommended because you can't use armour or weapons to protect against PKers and Abyss monsters. Also it limits the ways to get into the inner ring in the abyss.
After doing the Enlightened Journey quest you can unlock the balloon route to/from Castle Wars. After this route is unlocked, it is one of the fastest and safest methods to craft law runes. You wear a law tiara, a ring of dueling and a spotted cape. In the inventory, bring logs , pure essence and pouches. The sequence then is: Castle Wars bank, balloon ride to Entrana, walk to the altar and craft your runes, use a ring of dueling to teleport back to the Castle Wars bank.
Leave Entrana via the boat, then run to the Void Knights' Outpost boat and use the Void Knights' Outpost bank.
Weight-reducing outfit
This outfit will enable you to run for longer periods of time when Runecrafting thus increasing your crafting rate. Possible items that can be worn:
Boots of lightness
Graceful outfit
Spotted cape or Spottier cape
Penance gloves (with 40 Defence, from Barbarian Assault minigame)
Weights with items equipped
Item
Weight Loss
Spotted / spottier cape
-3 kg or -5 kg respectively
Boots of lightness
-4.5 kg
Penance gloves
-5 kg
Total
-12.5 kg or -14.5 kg
In the Abyss this might be helpful, as you will be crossing the Wilderness ditch, rendering yourself vulnerable to player killers .
Magic defence with items equipped
Item
Magic defence bonus
Black / Red d'hide body
+50 or +40 magic defence
Black / Red d'hide chaps
+26 or +20 magic defence
Black / Red d'hide vamb
+8 or +6 magic defence
Total
+84 or +66 magic defence
Temporary boosts
Main article: Temporary skill boost
A player wearing a Runecraft cape (t) and performing the Skillcape emote
There are three boosts available to members. None of these boosts stack:
For up to +5, players may eat orange spicy stews from Evil Dave to get a random boost between -5 to +5.
For +1, at level 99, players can wear and operate the runecraft cape.
Talking to Oldak in Dorgesh-Kaan may raise or lower a players runecrafting level by up to two points.
Quests rewarding Runecrafting experience
Main article: Quest experience rewards
Quest
Experience
reward
Runecrafting req.
Other requirements
Enter the Abyss
( miniquest)
1,000
-
-
The Slug Menace
3,500
30
30 , 30 , 30
Devious Minds
5,000
50
65 , 50
Lunar Diplomacy
5,000
-
61 , 40 , 49 , 5 , 65 , 60 , 55
The Eyes of Glouphrie
6,000
-
5 , 46 , 45
What Lies Below
8,000
35
42, (unless you have access to the Abyss)
Total
28,500
Skill choice
Upon completing any of the following quests, players may choose to allocate experience to Runecrafting. These rewards usually come in the form of items, such as lamps or books, and are independent of any experience rewards directly received for completing the quest.
Quest
Experience
reward
Skills available
Skill requirements
Client of Kourend
500 twice
Any
-
Fairytale II - Cure a Queen
2,500
Any skill above 30
49 , 57
A Tail of Two Cats
2,500 twice
Any skill above 30
-
The Great Brain Robbery
5,000
Any skill above 30
16 , 30 , 50
King's Ransom
5,000
Any skill above 50
65
Darkness of Hallowvale
2,000 three times
Any skill above 30
5 , 20 , 22 , 32 , 33 , 40
Curse of the Empty Lord
( miniquest)
10,000
Any skill above 50
Some players will need 31
One Small Favour
10,000 twice
Any skill above 30
36 , 25 , 18 , 30
Recipe for Disaster
( The final battle)
20,000
Any skill above 50
175 , 48 , 50 , 53 , 53 , 25 , 59 , 40 , 50 , 40 , 40 , 10 , 10 , 36
Total
74,500
See also
The Abyss
Runes
Magic
v • d • e
Runecrafting
Runecrafting altars
Air • Mind • Water • Earth • Fire • Body • Cosmic • Chaos • Astral • Nature • Law • Death • Blood • Soul • Wrath • Ourania
Talismans
Air • Mind • Water • Earth • Fire • Body • Cosmic • Chaos • Nature • Law • Death • Blood • Soul • Wrath • Elemental
Tiaras
Basic • Air • Mind • Water • Earth • Fire • Body • Cosmic • Chaos • Astral • Nature • Law • Death • Blood • Soul • Wrath
Pouches
Small • Medium • Large • Giant
Essence
Rune • Pure • Dense • Dark ( fragments)
v • d • e
Skills
Support
Agility • Slayer • Thieving
Gathering
Woodcutting • Mining • Fishing • Hunter • Farming
Combat
Attack • Strength • Hitpoints • Defence • Magic • Ranged • Prayer
Artisan
Firemaking • Fletching • Cooking • Smithing • Runecrafting • Crafting • Herblore • Construction
Retrieved from " https://oldschoolrunescape.fandom.com/wiki/Runecrafting?oldid=8693526 "
Categories:
Runecrafting
Skills
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Shade Catacombs
Shade Catacombs
Kingdom
Main Music
Levels
Strongest Monster
Quests
Inhabitants/Race
Monsters
Keys
| Shade Catacombs | Old School RuneScape Wiki | Fandom
Shade Catacombs
RS
Shade Catacombs
Please add an image!
Kingdom
Morytania
Main Music
Lair
Levels
1
Strongest Monster
Fiyr Shades (level 120)
Quests
No
Inhabitants/Race
Shades
Location on World Map
Mort Myre Swamp
↑
Mage Training Arena
←
Shade Catacombs
→
Meiyerditch
↓
Mort'ton
The Shade Catacombs are found under Mort'ton as part of the Shades of Mort'ton minigame and is a complex labyrinth. The entrance is directly north of the general store and west of the temple, marked as a brown area on the map. To access it you need to have completed Shades of Mort'ton and have a bronze shade key or better.
To get a bronze shade key, you must kill a Loar Shade in Mort'ton, sanctify some olive oil at the repaired temple to make sacred oil, then use the sacred oil on any log, making a pyre log. Use the pyre log on one of the four pyre slabs in one of the seven shade burning areas of Mort'ton, identified by grey diamonds on the minimap. Then use the loar remains on the pyre logs, then use a tinderbox on the pyre logs. You may need to burn more than one, sometimes burning a shade produced coins on the reward pillar instead of a key.
Inside the shade catacombs are various shades and chests which may contain fine cloth needed to make splitbark equipment as well as the amulet of the damned .
Monsters
Loar Shade (not inside the catacombs, but in the town of Mort'ton)
Phrin Shade
Riyl Shade
Asyn Shade
Fiyr Shade
Keys
When you burn a shade up, you will receive some keys instead of coins. However, there are 5 different types of keys, used to open a single chest in the many treasure rooms inside. Upon using the correct key on the correct chest, it will disappear, and you will receive a random reward from the chest.
If used on a door, the door will unlock. The key will not be lost.
Red
Brown
Crimson
Black
Purple
Bronze
Steel
Black
Silver
v • d • e
Shades of Mort'ton
NPCs
Razmire Keelgan • Ulsquire Shauncy • Afflicted • 35x35px Mort'ton local • Herbi Flax • Liornish Stemplehair
Enemies
Loar Shade
Items
Diary • Serum 207 • Serum 208 • Olive oil • Sacred oil • Loar remains • Unfinished potion • Flamtaer hammer
Locations
Mort'ton • Flamtaer • Shade Catacombs
Music
Lair
Related
Shades of Mort'ton (minigame) • Quick Guide
v • d • e
Shades of Mort'ton (minigame)
Shades
Loar • Phrin • Riyl • Asyn • Fiyr
Remains
Loar • Phrin • Riyl • Asyn • Fiyr
Pyre logs
Wood • Oak • Willow • Teak • Arctic • Maple • Mahogany • Yew • Magic • Redwood
Materials
Olive oil • Sacred oil • Serum 207 • Serum 208 • Timber beam • Limestone brick
Rewards
Fine cloth • Flamtaer bag • Amulet of the damned
Shade key
Bronze
Red • Brown • Crimson • Black • Purple
Steel
Red • Brown • Crimson • Black • Purple
Black
Red • Brown • Crimson • Black • Purple
Silver
Red • Brown • Crimson • Black • Purple
Locations
Mort'ton • Shade Catacombs • Paterdomus • Meiyerditch
v • d • e
Dungeons
Asgarnia
Asgarnian Ice Dungeon • Dwarven Mine • Falador Mole Lair • Melzar's Maze • Mouse Hole • Taverley Dungeon
Kandarin
Ancient Cavern • Ardougne Sewer • Chaos Druid Tower Dungeon • Clock Tower Dungeon • Eagles' Peak Dungeon • Elemental workshop • Goblin Cave • Mogre Camp ( Port Khazard) • Observatory Dungeon • Temple of Ikov • Tower of Life Basement • Underground Pass • Waterfall Dungeon • White Wolf Mountain Caves • Witchaven Dungeon • Yanille Agility Dungeon
Karamja
Ah Za Rhoon • Brimhaven Dungeon • Crandor and Karamja Dungeon • Karamjan Temple • Kharazi Dungeon • Pothole Dungeon • Rashiliyia's Tomb
Kharidian Desert
Enakhra's Temple • Kalphite Lair • Smoke Dungeon • Sophanem Dungeon • Water Ravine Dungeon
Misthalin
Digsite Dungeon • Dorgeshuun Mines • Draynor Sewers • Tolna's rift • Edgeville Dungeon • H.A.M. Hideout • Lumbridge Swamp Caves • Saradomin Shrine • Stronghold of Security • Tunnel of Chaos • Varrock Sewers
Morytania
Abandoned Mine • Tarn's Lair • Barrows • Experiment cave • Shade Catacombs • Slayer Tower • Slepe Dungeon
Fremennik Province
Brine Rat Cavern • Fremennik Slayer Dungeon • Lighthouse
Feldip Hills
Jiggig Burial Tomb • Ogre Enclave • Corsair Cove Dungeon
Wilderness
Deep Wilderness Dungeon • King Black Dragon Lair • Lava Maze Dungeon • Revenant Caves • Wilderness Agility Course Dungeon • Wilderness God Wars Dungeon
Zeah
Catacombs of Kourend • Chambers of Xeric • Chasm of Fire • Crabclaw Caves • Lizardman Caves • Shayzien Crypts • The Warrens • Quidamortem Cave
Others
Ape Atoll Dungeon • Dorgesh-Kaan South Dungeon • Dungeon (Player-owned house) • Entrana Dungeon • Evil Chicken's Lair • God Wars Dungeon • Grand Tree Tunnels • Jatizso mine • Lithkren Vault • Lunar Isle mine • Miscellania & Etceteria Dungeon • Mos Le'Harmless Caves • Temple of Marimbo Dungeon • Underwater Tunnel • Waterbirth Island Dungeon
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Categories:
Dungeons
Locations
Shades of Mort'ton
Shades of Mort'ton (minigame)
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