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nd markets entered both ethnographic accounts and analysis of local phenomena. The turn towards complex societies meant that political themes were taken up at two main levels. Firstly, anthropologists continued to study political organization and political phenomena that lay outside the stateregulated sphere as in patr...
hts, legal pluralism, and political uprisings. Public Public anthropology was created by Robert Borofsky, a professor at Hawaii Pacific University, to "demonstrate the ability of anthropology and anthropologists to effectively address problems beyond the discipline illuminating larger social issues of our times as w...
have reflexively shaped notions of what it means to be human beings. Digital Digital anthropology is the study of the relationship between humans and digitalera technology, and extends to various areas where anthropology and technology intersect. It is sometimes grouped with sociocultural anthropology, and sometime...
at least the backdrop, if not the focus of most of the ethnographies and cultural fieldworks of today, is political ecology. Many characterize this new perspective as more informed with culture, politics and power, globalization, localized issues, century anthropology and more. The focus and data interpretation is oft...
ts interest in nonindustrial indigenous and traditional societies. Anthropological theory is distinct because of the consistent presence of the concept of culture; not an exclusive topic but a central position in the study and a deep concern with the human condition. Milton describes three trends that are causing a fun...
essing environmental problems anthropology is now a study of human ecology. Human activity is the most important agent in creating environmental change, a study commonly found in human ecology which can claim a central place in how environmental problems are examined and addressed. Other ways anthropology contributes ...
rce management, diverse cultural traditions, and knowing that environmentalism is a part of culture. Historical Ethnohistory is the study of ethnographic cultures and indigenous customs by examining historical records. It is also the study of the history of various ethnic groups that may or may not exist today. Ethn...
that every religion is a cultural product, created by the human community that worships it. Urban Urban anthropology is concerned with issues of urbanization, poverty, and neoliberalism. Ulf Hannerz quotes a 1960s remark that traditional anthropologists were "a notoriously agoraphobic lot, antiurban by definition". ...
aeological and biological Anthrozoology Anthrozoology also known as "humananimal studies" is the study of interaction between living things. It is an interdisciplinary field that overlaps with a number of other disciplines, including anthropology, ethology, medicine, psychology, veterinary medicine and zoology. A ma...
the role culture plays in shaping human biology. Evolutionary Evolutionary anthropology is the interdisciplinary study of the evolution of human physiology and human behaviour and the relation between hominins and nonhominin primates. Evolutionary anthropology is based in natural science and social science, combinin...
n assist in the identification of deceased individuals whose remains are decomposed, burned, mutilated or otherwise unrecognizable. The adjective "forensic" refers to the application of this subfield of science to a court of law. Palaeoanthropology Paleoanthropology combines the disciplines of paleontology and physi...
n scholars in the field of anthropology established the European Association of Social Anthropologists EASA which serves as a major professional organization for anthropologists working in Europe. The EASA seeks to advance the status of anthropology in Europe and to increase visibility of marginalized anthropological t...
d Indigenous Studies Ethnological Society of London Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology Network of Concerned Anthropologists N.N. MiklukhoMaklai Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland Society for anthropological sciences Society for App...
t cf. Lewis 2004. That ethnographic work is often ahistorical, writing about people as if they were "out of time" in an "ethnographic present" Johannes Fabian, Time and Its Other. In his article "The Misrepresentation of Anthropology and Its Consequence," Herbert S. Lewis critiqued older anthropological works that pre...
, racism, sexism, mutilation including circumcision and subincision, and torture. Topics like racism, slavery, and human sacrifice attract anthropological attention and theories ranging from nutritional deficiencies, to genes, to acculturation, to colonialism, have been proposed to explain their origins and continued r...
r effort against the Axis Powers Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Imperial Japan. Many served in the armed forces, while others worked in intelligence for example, Office of Strategic Services and the Office of War Information. At the same time, David H. Price's work on American anthropology during the Cold War provide...
ing secret briefings. The Association of Social Anthropologists of the UK and Commonwealth ASA has called certain scholarship ethically dangerous. The "Principles of Professional Responsibility" issued by the American Anthropological Association and amended through November 1986 stated that "in relation with their own ...
ission on the Engagement of Anthropology with the US Security and Intelligence Communities released its final report concluding, in part, that, "When ethnographic investigation is determined by military missions, not subject to external review, where data collection occurs in the context of war, integrated into the goa...
er the war, enough British and American anthropologists borrowed ideas and methodological approaches from one another that some began to speak of them collectively as 'sociocultural' anthropology. Basic trends There are several characteristics that tend to unite anthropological work. One of the central characteristics...
ndamental in any kind of anthropology, whether cultural, biological, linguistic or archaeological. Biological anthropologists are interested in both human variation and in the possibility of human universals behaviors, ideas or concepts shared by virtually all human cultures. They use many different methods of study, ...
subdivisions according to tool types, such as Olduwan or Mousterian or Levalloisian help archaeologists and other anthropologists in understanding major trends in the human past. Anthropologists and geographers share approaches to culture regions as well, since mapping cultures is central to both sciences. By making co...
thors argue that anthropology originated and developed as the study of "other cultures", both in terms of time past societies and space nonEuropeannonWestern societies. For example, the classic of urban anthropology, Ulf Hannerz in the introduction to his seminal Exploring the City Inquiries Toward an Urban Anthropolog...
y Marc Aug Le Centre d'anthropologie des mondes contemporains, the Anthropological Research Center of Contemporary Societies. Since the 1980s it has become common for social and cultural anthropologists to set ethnographic research in the North Atlantic region, frequently examining the connections between locations ra...
rch Lists Outline of anthropology List of indigenous peoples List of anthropologists Notes References Further reading Dictionaries and encyclopedias Fieldnotes and memoirs Histories . Textbooks and key theoretical works External links AIO
Agricultural science or agriscience for short is a broad multidisciplinary field of biology that encompasses the parts of exact, natural, economic and social sciences that are used in the practice and understanding of agriculture. Professionals of the agricultural science are called agricultural scientists or agricultu...
fter 1906, public expenditures on agricultural research in the US exceeded private expenditures for the next 44 years. Prominent agricultural scientists Robert Bakewell Norman Borlaug Luther Burbank George Washington Carver Carl Henry Clerk George C. Clerk Ren Dumont Sir Albert Howard Kailas Nath Kaul Thomas...
ic engineering Nematology Microbiology Plant pathology Range management Environmental science Entomology Food science Human nutrition Irrigation and water management Soil science Agrology Waste management Weed science Scope Agriculture, agricultural science, and agronomy are often confused. However, they c...
eds, insects, pathogens, mollusks, nematodes on crop or animal production systems. Transformation of primary products into endconsumer products e.g., production, preservation, and packaging of dairy products Prevention and correction of adverse environmental effects e.g., soil degradation, waste management, bioremedi...
ltural crops and animals e.g. crop science, animal science and their included sciences, e.g. ruminant nutrition, farm animal welfare; such fields as agricultural economics and rural sociology; various disciplines encompassed in agricultural engineering. See also Agricultural Research Council Agricultural sciences ba...
ort Claude Bourguignon, Regenerating the Soil From Agronomy to Agrology, Other India Press, 2005 Pimentel David, Pimentel Marcia, Computer les kilocalories, Crs, n. 59, septoct. 1977 Russell E. Walter, Soil conditions and plant growth, Longman group, London, New York 1973 Saltini Antonio, Storia delle scienze agrarie...
l Institute of Tropical Agriculture International Livestock Research Institute The National Agricultural Library NAL The most comprehensive agricultural library in the world. Crop Science Society of America American Society of Agronomy Soil Science Society of America Agricultural Science Researchers, Jobs and Discussi...
Alchemy from Arabic alkmiy; from Ancient Greek khumea is an ancient branch of natural philosophy, a philosophical and protoscientific tradition that was historically practiced in China, India, the Muslim world, and Europe. In its Western form, alchemy is first attested in a number of pseudepigraphical texts written in ...
on the Ancient Greek philosophical idea that everything is composed of four elements, and they tended to guard their work in secrecy, often making use of cyphers and cryptic symbolism. In Europe, the 12thcentury translations of medieval Islamic works on science and the rediscovery of Aristotelian philosophy gave birth ...
latter interests historians of esotericism, psychologists, and some philosophers and spiritualists. The subject has also made an ongoing impact on literature and the arts. Etymology The word alchemy comes from Old French alquemie, alkimie, used in Medieval Latin as . This name was itself brought from the Arabic wor...
ertile and auriferous soil of the Nile valley, as opposed to red desert sand. According to the Egyptologist Wallis Budge, the Arabic word alkmiya actually means "the Egyptian science", borrowing from the Coptic word for "Egypt", kme or its equivalent in the Mediaeval Bohairic dialect of Coptic, khme. This Coptic word d...
China and Indian alchemy, centered on the Indian subcontinent; and Western alchemy, which occurred around the Mediterranean and whose center has shifted over the millennia from GrecoRoman Egypt to the Islamic world, and finally medieval Europe. Chinese alchemy was closely connected to Taoism and Indian alchemy with the...
nt religious traditions. Tracing the origins of the alchemical art in Egypt is complicated by the pseudepigraphic nature of texts from the Greek alchemical corpus. The treatises of Zosimos of Panopolis, the earliest historically attested author fl. c. 300 CE, can help in situating the other authors. Zosimus based his w...
the ancient practice of "tinctures" the technical Greek name for the alchemical arts had been taken over by certain "demons" who taught the art only to those who offered them sacrifices. Since Zosimos also called the demons "guardians of places" and those who offered them sacrifices "priests" , it is fairly clear t...
rs. The central figure in the mythology of alchemy is Hermes Trismegistus or ThriceGreat Hermes. His name is derived from the god Thoth and his Greek counterpart Hermes. Hermes and his caduceus or serpentstaff, were among alchemy's principal symbols. According to Clement of Alexandria, he wrote what were called the "f...
rus X. Dating from AD 250300, they contained recipes for dyeing and making artificial gemstones, cleaning and fabricating pearls, and manufacturing of imitation gold and silver. These writings lack the mystical, philosophical elements of alchemy, but do contain the works of Bolus of Mendes or PseudoDemocritus, which al...
The four elements of the Greek were mostly qualitative aspects of matter, not quantitative, as our modern elements are; "...True alchemy never regarded earth, air, water, and fire as corporeal or chemical substances in the presentday sense of the word. The four elements are simply the primary, and most general, qualit...
only know through fragments of text. After AD 400, Greek alchemical writers occupied themselves solely in commenting on the works of these predecessors. By the middle of the 7th century alchemy was almost an entirely mystical discipline. It was at that time that Khalid Ibn Yazid sparked its migration from Alexandria to...
fferent qualities of perfumes are mentioned, granulated refined Sugar. Buddhist texts from the 2nd to 5th centuries mention the transmutation of base metals to gold. According to some scholars Greek alchemy may have influenced Indian alchemy but there are no hard evidences to back this claim. The 11thcentury Persian c...
outh India in the early 9th century. Two famous early Indian alchemical authors were Ngrjuna Siddha and Nityantha Siddha. Ngrjuna Siddha was a Buddhist monk. His book, Rasendramangalam, is an example of Indian alchemy and medicine. Nityantha Siddha wrote Rasaratnkara, also a highly influential work. In Sanskrit, rasa ...
details of a further 655 six hundred and fiftyfive treatises. In some cases Meulenbeld gives notes on the contents and authorship of these works; in other cases references are made only to the unpublished manuscripts of these titles. A great deal remains to be discovered about Indian alchemical literature. The cont...
and early 8th centuries through Syriac translations and scholarship. In the late ninth and early tenth centuries, the Arabic works attributed to Jbir ibn Hayyn Latinized as "Geber" or "Geberus" introduced a new approach to alchemy. Paul Kraus, who wrote the standard reference work on Jabir, put it as follows Islamic ...
ne was introduced to Western alchemy. Jabir developed an elaborate numerology whereby the root letters of a substance's name in Arabic, when treated with various transformations, held correspondences to the element's physical properties. The elemental system used in medieval alchemy also originated with Jabir. His ori...
o has its origins in the work of Jabir. From the 9th to 14th centuries, alchemical theories faced criticism from a variety of practical Muslim chemists, including Alkindus, Ab alRayhn alBrn, Avicenna and Ibn Khaldun. In particular, they wrote refutations against the idea of the transmutation of metals. East Asia Wh...
ying to find a potion for eternal life. Described in 9thcentury texts and used in fireworks in China by the 10th century, it was used in cannons by 1290. From China, the use of gunpowder spread to Japan, the Mongols, the Muslim world, and Europe. Gunpowder was used by the Mongols against the Hungarians in 1241, and in ...
o Latin Europe may be dated to 11 February 1144, with the completion of Robert of Chester's translation of the Arabic Book of the Composition of Alchemy. Although European craftsmen and technicians preexisted, Robert notes in his preface that alchemy though here still referring to the elixir rather than to the art itse...
ux of alchemical thought. The 11thcentury St Anselm put forth the opinion that faith and rationalism were compatible and encouraged rationalism in a Christian context. In the early 12th century, Peter Abelard followed Anselm's work, laying down the foundation for acceptance of Aristotelian thought before the first work...
in Aristotelian terms. Albertus Magnus, a Dominican friar, is known to have written works such as the Book of Minerals where he observed and commented on the operations and theories of alchemical authorities like Hermes and Democritus and unnamed alchemists of his time. Albertus critically compared these to the writing...
and he did not produce allegorical works on the topic, he did consider it and astrology to be important parts of both natural philosophy and theology and his contributions advanced alchemy's connections to soteriology and Christian theology. Bacon's writings integrated morality, salvation, alchemy, and the prolongation...
tified as Paul of Taranto appeared. His Summa Perfectionis remained a staple summary of alchemical practice and theory through the medieval and renaissance periods. It was notable for its inclusion of practical chemical operations alongside sulphurmercury theory, and the unusual clarity with which they were described. ...
nd made observations and theories about how the universe operated. Their entire philosophy revolved around their belief that man's soul was divided within himself after the fall of Adam. By purifying the two parts of man's soul, man could be reunited with God. In the 14th century, alchemy became more accessible to Eur...
latanism than the actual study of alchemy, which continued with an increasingly Christian tone. The 14th century saw the Christian imagery of death and resurrection employed in the alchemical texts of Petrus Bonus, John of Rupescissa, and in works written in the name of Raymond Lull and Arnold of Villanova. Nicolas Fl...
one. Through the 14th and 15th centuries, alchemists were much like Flamel they concentrated on looking for the philosophers' stone. Bernard Trevisan and George Ripley made similar contributions. Their cryptic allusions and symbolism led to wide variations in interpretation of the art. Renaissance and early modern Eur...
Christian cabala. A key figure in this development was German Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa 14861535, who received his Hermetic education in Italy in the schools of the humanists. In his De Occulta Philosophia, he attempted to merge Kabbalah, Hermeticism, and alchemy. He was instrumental in spreading this new blend of He...
ation but in the manner that humans must have certain balances of minerals in their bodies, and that certain illnesses of the body had chemical remedies that could cure them. Iatrochemistry refers to the pharmaceutical applications of alchemy championed by Paracelsus. John Dee 13 July 1527 December, 1608 followed Agr...
preneurial opportunities were common for the alchemists of Renaissance Europe. Alchemists were contracted by the elite for practical purposes related to mining, medical services, and the production of chemicals, medicines, metals, and gemstones. Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor, in the late 16th century, famously received...
ge. Legitimate mystical and medical alchemists such as Michael Maier and Heinrich Khunrath wrote about fraudulent transmutations, distinguishing themselves from the con artists. False alchemists were sometimes prosecuted for fraud. The terms "chemia" and "alchemia" were used as synonyms in the early modern period, and...
ius Drebbel who, in 1621, applied this in a submarine. Isaac Newton devoted considerably more of his writing to the study of alchemy see Isaac Newton's occult studies than he did to either optics or physics. Other early modern alchemists who were eminent in their other studies include Robert Boyle, and Jan Baptist van ...
and purposes "Scholastic and antiAristotelian, Paracelsian and antiParacelsian, Hermetic, Neoplatonic, mechanistic, vitalistic, and moreplus virtually every combination and compromise thereof." Robert Boyle 16271691 pioneered the scientific method in chemical investigations. He assumed nothing in his experiments and ...
In order to protect the developing science of modern chemistry from the negative censure to which alchemy was being subjected, academic writers during the 18thcentury scientific Enlightenment attempted, for the sake of survival, to divorce and separate the "new" chemistry from the "old" practices of alchemy. This move ...
d chemicals, and claims that the obscure language of the alchemical texts were an allegorical guise for spiritual, moral or mystical processes. In the 19thcentury revival of alchemy, the two most seminal figures were Mary Anne Atwood and Ethan Allen Hitchcock, who independently published similar works regarding spirit...
s to alchemy, but his research did not enter the mainstream of scientific discussion. In 1946, Louis Cattiaux published the Message Retrouv, a work that was at once philosophical, mystical and highly influenced by alchemy. In his lineage, many researchers, including Emmanuel and Charles d'Hooghvorst, are updating alch...
nymously especially in France as the bainmarie, is said to have been invented or at least improved by her. Essentially a doubleboiler, it was and is used in chemistry for processes that require gentle heating. The tribikos a modified distillation apparatus and the kerotakis a more intricate apparatus used especially fo...
y occult revival. Modern historical research The history of alchemy has become a significant and recognized subject of academic study. As the language of the alchemists is analyzed, historians are becoming more aware of the intellectual connections between that discipline and other facets of Western cultural history,...
by step instructions on turning copper into gold. The author attributed this recipe to an ancient manuscript he located. Journals which publish regularly on the topic of Alchemy include 'Ambix', published by the Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry, and 'Isis', published by The History of Science Society....
, a whitening or leucosis citrinitas, a yellowing or xanthosis rubedo, a reddening, purpling, or iosis Modernity Due to the complexity and obscurity of alchemical literature, and the 18thcentury disappearance of remaining alchemical practitioners into the area of chemistry, the general understanding of alchemy has be...
etimes merging in concepts from New Age or radical environmentalism movements. Groups like the Rosicrucians and Freemasons have a continued interest in alchemy and its symbolism. Since the Victorian revival of alchemy, "occultists reinterpreted alchemy as a spiritual practice, involving the selftransformation of the pr...
in the Middle Ages, as metaphysical aspects, substances, physical states, and material processes are supposed to have been used as metaphors for spiritual entities, spiritual states, and, ultimately, transformation. In this sense, the literal meanings of 'Alchemical Formulas' were like a veil, hiding their true spiritu...
imagery of late alchemical works are supposed to contain multiple layers of meanings, allegories, and references to other equally cryptic works; which must be laboriously decoded to discover their true meaning. In his 1766 Alchemical Catechism, Thodore Henri de Tschudi denotes that the usage of the metals was merely s...
e regarded the alchemical images as symbols expressing aspects of this "process of individuation" of which the creation of the gold or lapis within were symbols for its origin and goal. Together with his alchemical mystica soror, Jungian Swiss analyst MarieLouise von Franz, Jung began collecting all the old alchemical ...
emy and its continued presence in psychology as well as contemporary culture. Jung wrote volumes on alchemy and his magnum opus is Volume 14 of his Collected Works, Mysterium Coniunctionis. Literature Alchemy has had a longstanding relationship with art, seen both in alchemical texts and in mainstream entertainment....
he last hundred years, alchemists have been portrayed in a magical and spagyric role in fantasy fiction, film, television, novels, comics and video games. Science One goal of alchemy, the transmutation of base substances into gold, is now known to be impossible by chemical means but possible by physical means. Altho...
and Charlesmile Ruelle eds., Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs CAAG, 3 vols., 18871888, Vol 1 httpsgallica.bnf.frark12148bpt6k96492923, Vol 2 httpsgallica.bnf.frark12148bpt6k9680734p, Vol. 3 httpsgallica.bnf.frark12148bpt6k9634942s. AndrJean Festugire, La Rvlation d'Herms Trismgiste, Paris, Les Belles Lettres,...
istes grecs, t. 11 Recettes alchimiques Par. Gr. 2419; Holkhamicus 109 Cosmas le Hiromoine Chrysope, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 2000. Matteo Martelli ed, The Four Books of PseudoDemocritus, Maney Publishing, 2014. Studies Dylan M. Burns, Alchemical Metaphor in the Paraphrase of Shem NHC VII,1 , Aries 15 2...
Dendara et les origines de l'alchimie," Chronique d'gypte, vol. 65, no 130, 1990, p. 219242. Korshi Dosoo, A History of the Theban Magical Library , Bulletin of the American Society of Papyrologists 53 2016, p. 251274. Olivier Dufault, Early Greek Alchemy, Patronage and Innovation in Late Antiquity, California Clas...
ing Natures Secrets The Sacred Art of Alchemy , in John Scarborough and Paul Keyser eds., Oxford Handbook of Science and Medicine in the Classical World, Oxford University Press, 2018, p. 721742. 2018. httpswww.oxfordhandbooks.comview10.1093oxfordhb9780199734146.001.0001oxfordhb9780199734146e76. Shannon Grimes, Becomi...
s in Byzantium, La Pomme d'or, 2006. Matteo Martelli, The Alchemical Art of Dyeing The Fourfold Division of Alchemy and the Enochian Tradition in Sven Dupr ed., Laboratories of Art, Springer, 2014, . Matteo Martelli, Alchemy, Medicine and Religion Zosimus of Panopolis and the Egyptian Priests , Religion in the Rom...
hou and al., Experimental investigation of silvering in late Roman coinage , Material Research Society Symposium Proceedings 712 2002, p. II9.2.1II9.2.9, . Early modern Principe, Lawrence and William Newman. Alchemy Tried in the Fire Starkey, Boyle, and the Fate of Helmontian Chymistry. University of Chicago Press...
on. Esotericism Hermeticism History of philosophy History of science
Alien primarily refers to Alien law, a person in a country who is not a national of that country Enemy alien, the above in times of war Extraterrestrial life, life which does not originate from Earth Specifically, intelligent extraterrestrial beings; see List of alleged extraterrestrial beings Introduced species, ...
ator Requiem, sixth film in the franchise from 2007 by the Brothers Strause Prometheus 2012 film, seventh film in the franchise from 2012 by Ridley Scott Alien Covenant, eighth film in the franchise from 2017 by Ridley Scott Alien 2 On Earth, a 1980 unofficial sequel of the 1979 Alien film Alien Visitor also titled ...
Alien, a 1989 EP by Tankard Aliens soundtrack, 1987 Songs "Alien" Britney Spears song, 2013 "Alien" Jonas Blue and Sabrina Carpenter song, 2018 "Alien", a song by Third Day from the album Conspiracy No. 5, 1997 "Alien", a song by Pennywise from the album Straight Ahead, 1999 "Alien", a song by Bush from the al...
a song by Dream Theater from the album A View from the Top of the World, 2021 Video games Alien 1984 video game, based on the film Alien Atari 2600, a 1982 maze game based on the 1979 film Alien Isolation, a 2014 video game based on the Alien science fiction horror film series Aliens 1982 video game, a textonly c...
y of hypothetical alien life ATLiens, a 1996 album by OutKast Predator disambiguation UFO disambiguation Unidentified flying object disambiguation
An astronomer is a scientist in the field of astronomy who focuses their studies on a specific question or field outside the scope of Earth. They observe astronomical objects such as stars, planets, moons, comets and galaxies in either observational by analyzing the data or theoretical astronomy. Examples of topics or...
r evolution to determine how they form, evolve, and die. They use these data to create models or simulations to theorize how different celestial objects work. Further subcategories under these two main branches of astronomy include planetary astronomy, galactic astronomy, or physical cosmology. Academic Historicall...
Society, which is the major organization of professional astronomers in North America, has approximately 7,000 members. This number includes scientists from other fields such as physics, geology, and engineering, whose research interests are closely related to astronomy. The International Astronomical Union comprises a...
y of observational astronomers' time. Astronomers who serve as faculty spend much of their time teaching undergraduate and graduate classes. Most universities also have outreach programs including public telescope time and sometimes planetariums as a public service to encourage interest in the field. Those who become...
people who think of themselves as amateur astronomers may devote a few hours a month to stargazing and reading the latest developments in research. However, amateurs span the range from socalled "armchair astronomers" to the very ambitious, who own sciencegrade telescopes and instruments with which they are able to mak...
ASCII , abbreviated from American Standard Code for Information Interchange, is a character encoding standard for electronic communication. ASCII codes represent text in computers, telecommunications equipment, and other devices. Most modern characterencoding schemes are based on ASCII, although they support many addi...
were both ordered for more convenient sorting i.e., alphabetization of lists and added features for devices other than teleprinters. The use of ASCII format for Network Interchange was described in 1969. That document was formally elevated to an Internet Standard in 2015. Originally based on the English alphabet, A...
erchange ASCII was developed under the auspices of a committee of the American Standards Association ASA, called the X3 committee, by its X3.2 later X3L2 subcommittee, and later by that subcommittee's X3.2.4 working group now INCITS. The ASA later became the United States of America Standards Institute USASI, and ultim...
e X3.2.4 task group voted its approval for the change to ASCII at its May 1963 meeting. Locating the lowercase letters in sticks 6 and 7 caused the characters to differ in bit pattern from the upper case by a single bit, which simplified caseinsensitive character matching and the construction of keyboards and printers....
In the X3.15 standard, the X3 committee also addressed how ASCII should be transmitted least significant bit first, and how it should be recorded on perforated tape. They proposed a 9track standard for magnetic tape, and attempted to deal with some punched card formats. Design considerations Bit width The X3.2 subco...
standard of 1924, FIELDATA 1956, and early EBCDIC 1963, more than 64 codes were required for ASCII. ITA2 was in turn based on the 5bit telegraph code that mile Baudot invented in 1870 and patented in 1874. The committee debated the possibility of a shift function like in ITA2, which would allow more than 64 codes to ...
t code to minimize costs associated with data transmission. Since perforated tape at the time could record eight bits in one position, it also allowed for a parity bit for error checking if desired. Eightbit machines with octets as the native data type that did not use parity checking typically set the eighth bit to 0....