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[SOURCE: https://www.bbc.com/news/world/middle_east] | [TOKENS: 2375] |
NewsNewsMiddle EastPalestinian Authority in dire straits as Israel's hold on West Bank deepensMore than 30 years after its creation, there are increasing warnings that the PA is close to collapse.3 hrs agoMiddle EastTrump says he is considering limited military strike on IranTrump's new threat came a day after he appeared to give Iran about 10 days to agree to a deal to curb its nuclear programme.11 hrs agoWorldIran's motorcycling midwife and rights campaigner is star of Oscar-tipped filmIn a room of 1,500 men, Sara Shahverdi becomes the only female leader in her region of Iran - a new film joins her as she pushes for change.9 hrs agoWorldTrump's Board of Peace members pledge $7bn in Gaza reliefTrump said it "looks like" Hamas will disarm, even though there are signs the group is regrouping.1 day agoMiddle EastAt least 10 killed in Israeli strikes on Lebanon, state media saysA senior Hezbollah official is among those reported killed in air strikes on the Bekaa Valley and southern Lebanon.7 hrs agoMiddle EastFamily of Palestinian-American man killed in West Bank demand accountabilityNasrallah Abu Siyam was the sixth American citizen killed by Israeli settlers or soldiers in the West Bank in the last two years. 3 hrs agoWorldWhat could happen if the US strikes Iran? Here are seven scenariosFrom regime change to retaliation, the BBC's Frank Gardner outlines possible outcomes of US strikes on Iran.2 days agoMiddle EastHamas holds vote to choose new interim leader, source tells BBCThe armed group is electing a new head after its top leaders were killed by Israel.Hamas is reasserting control in Gaza despite its heavy losses fighting IsraelGazans say Hamas is again extending its control over security, tax revenue and government services.Detained Briton describes life in Iran jail to BBC hours before sentencingLindsay and Craig Foreman were arrested in January 2025 and were sentenced to 10 years on Wednesday.US to withdraw troops from Syria as tensions mount with IranThe decision came as US President Donald Trump ramps up military presence in the Middle East as tensions mount with Iran. I would scream in my sleep: Women from Syria's Alawite minority tell of kidnap and rapeThe BBC hears harrowing accounts of assaults appearing to target the sect of former President Assad.FeaturesUS-Iran tension: Why Tehran may choose confrontation over 'surrender'The Iranian leadership is weighing up whether resisting US demands is the best option for its survival.Machine guns to machetes: Weapons that massacred thousands in IranBBC News Persian Forensic has been able to confirm the security forces' deployment of a wide array of lethal and non-lethal weaponry.Can the US help Iran? What Iranians say - inside and outside the countrySome desperate Iranians want US intervention, but others worry that it would not achieve the peace protesters ultimately want.Why Prince William's Saudi Arabia visit is a diplomatic mazeThe Prince of Wales has been on many official visits - but few places are as sensitive or controversial as Saudi Arabia.Gazans returning through Rafah crossing describe checks by Palestinian militiaOne Palestinian woman said members of the Israel-linked militia searched them and their belongings at an Israeli checkpoint inside Gaza.Watch/ListenWatch: BBC in Tehran sees government's 'political reply' to massive protestsLyse Doucet is in Iran for the first time since the crackdown on nationwide anti-government protests. Watch: BBC in Tehran for first time since protest crackdownLyse Doucet reports from Iran, where she says the pain is still raw after unprecedented force was used to put down the protests there.Watch: Inside Gaza hospital struggling to provide care to newborn babiesMore aid has been allowed into Gaza since the ceasefire began three months ago, but the UN says it is nowhere near enough. Inside Syrian camp holding wives and children of suspected IS fightersKurdish-run prisons hold about 8,000 suspected IS fighters and around 34,000 of their family members in camps.BBC visits UN compound Israel is demolishing in East JerusalemJohn Sudworth says the sounds of heavy machinery can be heard echoing around the neighbourhood. Latest updates3 hrs agoPalestinian Authority in dire straits as Israel's hold on West Bank deepensMore than 30 years after its creation, there are increasing warnings that the PA is close to collapse.3 hrs ago7 hrs agoAt least 10 killed in Israeli strikes on Lebanon, state media saysA senior Hezbollah official is among those reported killed in air strikes on the Bekaa Valley and southern Lebanon.7 hrs ago1 day agoHamas holds vote to choose new interim leader, source tells BBCThe armed group is electing a new head after its top leaders were killed by Israel.1 day ago1 day agoTrump's Board of Peace members pledge $7bn in Gaza reliefTrump said it "looks like" Hamas will disarm, even though there are signs the group is regrouping.1 day ago2 days agoUS-Iran tension: Why Tehran may choose confrontation over 'surrender'The Iranian leadership is weighing up whether resisting US demands is the best option for its survival.2 days ago2 days agoUK has not given US permission to use RAF bases for Iran strikesIt comes as US President Donald Trump criticises Sir Keir Starmer's deal to hand over the Chagos Islands.2 days ago2 days agoWhat could happen if the US strikes Iran? Here are seven scenariosFrom regime change to retaliation, the BBC's Frank Gardner outlines possible outcomes of US strikes on Iran.2 days ago2 days agoListen: Lindsay Foreman speaks to BBC before Iran jailingBritish woman detained by Iran says it was hard to remain positive in prison, hours before she and her husband were sentenced to 10 years for espionage.2 days ago2 days agoDetained Briton describes life in Iran jail to BBC hours before sentencingLindsay and Craig Foreman were arrested in January 2025 and were sentenced to 10 years on Wednesday.2 days ago... NewsNews Middle East Palestinian Authority in dire straits as Israel's hold on West Bank deepens More than 30 years after its creation, there are increasing warnings that the PA is close to collapse. Trump says he is considering limited military strike on Iran Trump's new threat came a day after he appeared to give Iran about 10 days to agree to a deal to curb its nuclear programme. Iran's motorcycling midwife and rights campaigner is star of Oscar-tipped film In a room of 1,500 men, Sara Shahverdi becomes the only female leader in her region of Iran - a new film joins her as she pushes for change. Trump's Board of Peace members pledge $7bn in Gaza relief Trump said it "looks like" Hamas will disarm, even though there are signs the group is regrouping. At least 10 killed in Israeli strikes on Lebanon, state media says A senior Hezbollah official is among those reported killed in air strikes on the Bekaa Valley and southern Lebanon. Family of Palestinian-American man killed in West Bank demand accountability Nasrallah Abu Siyam was the sixth American citizen killed by Israeli settlers or soldiers in the West Bank in the last two years. What could happen if the US strikes Iran? Here are seven scenarios From regime change to retaliation, the BBC's Frank Gardner outlines possible outcomes of US strikes on Iran. Hamas holds vote to choose new interim leader, source tells BBC The armed group is electing a new head after its top leaders were killed by Israel. Hamas is reasserting control in Gaza despite its heavy losses fighting Israel Gazans say Hamas is again extending its control over security, tax revenue and government services. Detained Briton describes life in Iran jail to BBC hours before sentencing Lindsay and Craig Foreman were arrested in January 2025 and were sentenced to 10 years on Wednesday. US to withdraw troops from Syria as tensions mount with Iran The decision came as US President Donald Trump ramps up military presence in the Middle East as tensions mount with Iran. I would scream in my sleep: Women from Syria's Alawite minority tell of kidnap and rape The BBC hears harrowing accounts of assaults appearing to target the sect of former President Assad. Features US-Iran tension: Why Tehran may choose confrontation over 'surrender' The Iranian leadership is weighing up whether resisting US demands is the best option for its survival. Machine guns to machetes: Weapons that massacred thousands in Iran BBC News Persian Forensic has been able to confirm the security forces' deployment of a wide array of lethal and non-lethal weaponry. Can the US help Iran? What Iranians say - inside and outside the country Some desperate Iranians want US intervention, but others worry that it would not achieve the peace protesters ultimately want. Why Prince William's Saudi Arabia visit is a diplomatic maze The Prince of Wales has been on many official visits - but few places are as sensitive or controversial as Saudi Arabia. Gazans returning through Rafah crossing describe checks by Palestinian militia One Palestinian woman said members of the Israel-linked militia searched them and their belongings at an Israeli checkpoint inside Gaza. Watch/Listen Watch: BBC in Tehran sees government's 'political reply' to massive protests Lyse Doucet is in Iran for the first time since the crackdown on nationwide anti-government protests. Watch: BBC in Tehran for first time since protest crackdown Lyse Doucet reports from Iran, where she says the pain is still raw after unprecedented force was used to put down the protests there. Watch: Inside Gaza hospital struggling to provide care to newborn babies More aid has been allowed into Gaza since the ceasefire began three months ago, but the UN says it is nowhere near enough. Inside Syrian camp holding wives and children of suspected IS fighters Kurdish-run prisons hold about 8,000 suspected IS fighters and around 34,000 of their family members in camps. BBC visits UN compound Israel is demolishing in East Jerusalem John Sudworth says the sounds of heavy machinery can be heard echoing around the neighbourhood. Latest updates Palestinian Authority in dire straits as Israel's hold on West Bank deepens More than 30 years after its creation, there are increasing warnings that the PA is close to collapse. At least 10 killed in Israeli strikes on Lebanon, state media says A senior Hezbollah official is among those reported killed in air strikes on the Bekaa Valley and southern Lebanon. Hamas holds vote to choose new interim leader, source tells BBC The armed group is electing a new head after its top leaders were killed by Israel. Trump's Board of Peace members pledge $7bn in Gaza relief Trump said it "looks like" Hamas will disarm, even though there are signs the group is regrouping. US-Iran tension: Why Tehran may choose confrontation over 'surrender' The Iranian leadership is weighing up whether resisting US demands is the best option for its survival. UK has not given US permission to use RAF bases for Iran strikes It comes as US President Donald Trump criticises Sir Keir Starmer's deal to hand over the Chagos Islands. What could happen if the US strikes Iran? Here are seven scenarios From regime change to retaliation, the BBC's Frank Gardner outlines possible outcomes of US strikes on Iran. Listen: Lindsay Foreman speaks to BBC before Iran jailing British woman detained by Iran says it was hard to remain positive in prison, hours before she and her husband were sentenced to 10 years for espionage. Detained Briton describes life in Iran jail to BBC hours before sentencing Lindsay and Craig Foreman were arrested in January 2025 and were sentenced to 10 years on Wednesday. Copyright 2026 BBC. All rights reserved. The BBC is not responsible for the content of external sites. Read about our approach to external linking. |
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[SOURCE: https://www.bbc.com/business/world-of-business] | [TOKENS: 2152] |
World of BusinessThe two farms in Senegal that supply many of the UK's vegetablesDuring winter in Britain, fresh produce is sent by cargo ship from the West African nation every week.Trump eyes Venezuela visit – but obstacles to his oil plan remainThe US president wants American energy firms to start extracting the crude but they are reluctant.The Dutch love four-day working weeks, but are they sustainable?The Netherlands has the lowest working hours in Europe, but some say it is harming its economy.The shadowy world of abandoned oil tankersA growing number of tankers and other commercial vessels are being ditched by their owners.Saudi Arabia lifts alcohol ban for rich foreigners - could tourists be next?Saudi Arabia has started to allow wealthy foreign residents to buy alcohol, will tourists soon be allowed to do the same?Cyber criminals contact BBC to claim hack on Co-op, M&SHackers reached out to the BBC's Joe Tidy on Telegram, frustrated that their ransom demands weren't being met.World of BusinessChip maker TSMC expands US reach with new Arizona factoryThe BBC gets exclusive access to the Taiwanese company's new factory in the Arizona desert, just outside Phoenix.World of BusinessWeek in Markets - 16 May 2025A weekly summary of the big stories from financial markets around the world.World of BusinessIndia’s electric car futureTesla is rolling out in India, Asia’s third-largest economy where EV sales grew 2000% over the last five years.World of BusinessChinese factories go into overdrive after tariff pauseThe tariff pause has provided a bit of reprieve for some factories in China.World of BusinessUS and China are ready to talk tariffs - who will blink first?The BBC's journalists in Washington DC and Singapore analyse US and China's moves ahead of the negotiation.WorldLilly Sabri talks after two-year silence on social mediaThe fitness influencer went silent after a story about her fiancee allegedly cheating went viral.World of BusinessWeek in Markets - 25 Apr 2025A weekly summary of the big stories from financial markets around the world.World of BusinessMalaysian trade minister on US tariffsMalaysia's minister Zafrul Aziz will be representing the ASEAN bloc in its negotiations with the US.World of BusinessWeek in Markets - 11 Apr 2025A weekly summary of the big stories from financial markets around the world.World of BusinessIt's Microsoft's 50th birthday - what comes next?It's Microsoft's 50th anniversary and BBC technology editor Zoe Kleinman tours its Redmond headuarters. World of BusinessSpain ‘social emergency’ as rents double in a decadeThis is despite the fact that its economy has been performing well in other areas.World of BusinessWeek in Markets - 4 Apr 2025A weekly summary of the big stories from financial markets around the world.World of Business'Tariffs are pivotal moment', says Eli Lilly bossThe Chief Executive of US pharmaceutical company Eli Lilly says it will be hard to come back from this moment.World of BusinessLamborghini looking to accelerate2024 was the carmaker's best year, but serious challenges lie ahead for Lamborghini.World of BusinessWeek in Markets - 28 Mar 2025A weekly summary of the big stories from financial markets around the world.World of BusinessBringing ‘Japanese efficiency’ to London’s tube systemThe Tokyo Metro will begin operating the Elizabeth Line in London later this year.World of BusinessBuilding the world's largest underwater tunnelA mega project is underway in Denmark to build a tunnel under the Baltic to provide a link to Germany.World of BusinessWeek in Markets - 21 Mar 2025A weekly summary of the big stories from financial markets around the world.World of BusinessHow fears of inflation could impact interest ratesConsumer inflation expectations could creep into the Federal Reserve's calculations on interest rates.World of BusinessMore World of Business30 Jan 2026The decline of the French bistroIn France, traditional restaurants are disappearing – the French blame high costs and the "Americanisation" of eating habits.30 Jan 202629 Jan 2026'You don't feel judged': Why we buy more at self-service terminalsHow restaurants and retailers use behavioural science to get us to increase our spending.29 Jan 202626 Jan 2026Caribbean cannabis growers eye budding domestic sales and exportsProducers in Jamaica and Antigua hope that increasing liberalisation will lead to higher revenues.26 Jan 202622 Jan 2026How tiny Slovakia became a car-making heavyweightAlmost a million cars a year are made in Slovakia, where companies including Kia and Volkswagen have factories.22 Jan 202619 Jan 2026'The finest in the world': Why the US is buying icebreakers from FinlandThe Nordic nation leads the way when it comes to both the design and construction of the vessels.19 Jan 202614 Jan 2026Honey, I shrunk the data centres: Is small the new big?Huge data centres are being built to handle AI computing, but some experts say they aren't necessary.14 Jan 202612 Jan 2026Why luxury carmakers are now building glitzy skyscrapers Bugatti is the latest carmaker to construct an opulent tower for the super-wealthy.12 Jan 20268 Jan 2026How tariff disruption will continue reshaping the global economy in 2026Trump's import levies are still changing the patterns of international trade.8 Jan 20265 Jan 2026The French university where spies go for trainingSciences Po Saint-Germain near Paris trains current French secret agents and potential new recruits.5 Jan 2026... World of Business The two farms in Senegal that supply many of the UK's vegetables During winter in Britain, fresh produce is sent by cargo ship from the West African nation every week. Trump eyes Venezuela visit – but obstacles to his oil plan remain The US president wants American energy firms to start extracting the crude but they are reluctant. The Dutch love four-day working weeks, but are they sustainable? The Netherlands has the lowest working hours in Europe, but some say it is harming its economy. The shadowy world of abandoned oil tankers A growing number of tankers and other commercial vessels are being ditched by their owners. Saudi Arabia lifts alcohol ban for rich foreigners - could tourists be next? Saudi Arabia has started to allow wealthy foreign residents to buy alcohol, will tourists soon be allowed to do the same? Cyber criminals contact BBC to claim hack on Co-op, M&S Hackers reached out to the BBC's Joe Tidy on Telegram, frustrated that their ransom demands weren't being met. Chip maker TSMC expands US reach with new Arizona factory The BBC gets exclusive access to the Taiwanese company's new factory in the Arizona desert, just outside Phoenix. Week in Markets - 16 May 2025 A weekly summary of the big stories from financial markets around the world. India’s electric car future Tesla is rolling out in India, Asia’s third-largest economy where EV sales grew 2000% over the last five years. Chinese factories go into overdrive after tariff pause The tariff pause has provided a bit of reprieve for some factories in China. US and China are ready to talk tariffs - who will blink first? The BBC's journalists in Washington DC and Singapore analyse US and China's moves ahead of the negotiation. Lilly Sabri talks after two-year silence on social media The fitness influencer went silent after a story about her fiancee allegedly cheating went viral. Week in Markets - 25 Apr 2025 A weekly summary of the big stories from financial markets around the world. Malaysian trade minister on US tariffs Malaysia's minister Zafrul Aziz will be representing the ASEAN bloc in its negotiations with the US. Week in Markets - 11 Apr 2025 A weekly summary of the big stories from financial markets around the world. It's Microsoft's 50th birthday - what comes next? It's Microsoft's 50th anniversary and BBC technology editor Zoe Kleinman tours its Redmond headuarters. Spain ‘social emergency’ as rents double in a decade This is despite the fact that its economy has been performing well in other areas. Week in Markets - 4 Apr 2025 A weekly summary of the big stories from financial markets around the world. 'Tariffs are pivotal moment', says Eli Lilly boss The Chief Executive of US pharmaceutical company Eli Lilly says it will be hard to come back from this moment. Lamborghini looking to accelerate 2024 was the carmaker's best year, but serious challenges lie ahead for Lamborghini. Week in Markets - 28 Mar 2025 A weekly summary of the big stories from financial markets around the world. Bringing ‘Japanese efficiency’ to London’s tube system The Tokyo Metro will begin operating the Elizabeth Line in London later this year. Building the world's largest underwater tunnel A mega project is underway in Denmark to build a tunnel under the Baltic to provide a link to Germany. Week in Markets - 21 Mar 2025 A weekly summary of the big stories from financial markets around the world. How fears of inflation could impact interest rates Consumer inflation expectations could creep into the Federal Reserve's calculations on interest rates. More World of Business The decline of the French bistro In France, traditional restaurants are disappearing – the French blame high costs and the "Americanisation" of eating habits. 'You don't feel judged': Why we buy more at self-service terminals How restaurants and retailers use behavioural science to get us to increase our spending. Caribbean cannabis growers eye budding domestic sales and exports Producers in Jamaica and Antigua hope that increasing liberalisation will lead to higher revenues. How tiny Slovakia became a car-making heavyweight Almost a million cars a year are made in Slovakia, where companies including Kia and Volkswagen have factories. 'The finest in the world': Why the US is buying icebreakers from Finland The Nordic nation leads the way when it comes to both the design and construction of the vessels. Honey, I shrunk the data centres: Is small the new big? Huge data centres are being built to handle AI computing, but some experts say they aren't necessary. Why luxury carmakers are now building glitzy skyscrapers Bugatti is the latest carmaker to construct an opulent tower for the super-wealthy. How tariff disruption will continue reshaping the global economy in 2026 Trump's import levies are still changing the patterns of international trade. The French university where spies go for training Sciences Po Saint-Germain near Paris trains current French secret agents and potential new recruits. Copyright 2026 BBC. All rights reserved. The BBC is not responsible for the content of external sites. Read about our approach to external linking. |
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[SOURCE: https://www.fast.ai/posts/2025-10-30-build-to-last.html] | [TOKENS: 5706] |
Build to Last Jeremy Howard October 30, 2025 On this page Note from Jeremy: We’re teaching a course starting Nov 3rd on how to build towards software mastery and craftsmanship whilst leveraging AI effectively. Have a look at solve.it.com if you’re interested. I’ve spent decades teaching people to code, building tools that help developers work more effectively, and championing the idea that programming should be accessible to everyone. Through fast.ai, I’ve helped millions learn not just to use AI, but to understand it deeply enough to build things that matter. But lately, I’ve been deeply concerned. The AI agent revolution promises to make everyone more productive, yet what I’m seeing is something different: developers abandoning the very practices that lead to understanding, mastery, and software that lasts. When CEOs brag about their teams generating 10,000 lines of AI-written code per day, when junior engineers tell me they’re “vibe-coding” their way through problems without understanding the solutions, are we racing toward a future where no one understands how anything works, and competence craters? I needed to talk to someone who embodies the opposite approach: someone whose code continues to run the world decades after he created it. That’s why I called Chris Lattner. Chris and I chatted on Oct 5th, 2025, and he kindly let me record the conversation. I’m glad I did, because it turned out to be thoughtful and inspiring. Check out the video for the full interview, or read on for my summary of what I learned. Talking with Chris Lattner Chris Lattner builds infrastructure that becomes invisible through ubiquity. Twenty-five years ago, as a PhD student, he created LLVM: the most fundamental system for translating human-written code into instructions computers can execute. In 2025, LLVM sits at the foundation of most major programming languages: the Rust that powers Firefox, the Swift running on your iPhone, and even Clang, a C++ compiler created by Chris that Google and Apple now use to create their most critical software. He describes the Swift programming language he created as “Syntax sugar for LLVM”. Today it powers the entire iPhone/iPad ecosystem. When you need something to last not just years but decades, to be flexible enough that people you’ll never meet can build things you never imagined on top of it, you build it the way Chris built LLVM, Clang, and Swift. I first met Chris when he arrived at Google in 2017 to help them with TensorFlow. Instead of just tweaking it, he did what he always does: he rebuilt from first principles. He created MLIR (think of it as LLVM for modern hardware and AI), and then left Google to create Mojo: a programming language designed to finally give AI developers the kind of foundation that could last. Chris architects systems that become the bedrock others build on for decades, by being a true craftsman. He cares deeply about the craft of software development. I told Chris about my concerns, and the pressures I was feeling as both a coder and a CEO: “Everybody else around the world is doing this, ‘AGI is around the corner. If you’re not doing everything with AI, you’re an idiot.’ And honestly, Chris, it does get to me. I question myself… I’m feeling this pressure to say, ‘Screw craftsmanship, screw caring.’ We hear VCs say, ‘My founders are telling me they’re getting out 10,000 lines of code a day.’ Are we crazy, Chris? Are we old men yelling at the clouds, being like, ‘Back in my day, we cared about craftsmanship’? Or what’s going on?” Chris told me he shares my concerns: “A lot of people are saying, ‘My gosh, tomorrow all programmers are going to be replaced by AGI, and therefore we might as well give up and go home. Why are we doing any of this anymore? If you’re learning how to code or taking pride in what you’re building, then you’re not doing it right.’ This is something I’m pretty concerned about… But the question of the day is: how do you build a system that can actually last more than six months?” He showed me that the answer to that question is timeless, and actually has very little to do with AI. Design from First Principles Chris’s approach has always been to ask fundamental questions. “For me, my journey has always been about trying to understand the fundamentals of what makes something work,” he told me. “And when you do that, you start to realize that a lot of the existing systems are actually not that great.” When Chris started LLVM over Christmas break in 2000, he was asking: what does a compiler infrastructure need to be, fundamentally, to support languages that don’t exist yet? When he came into the AI world he was eager to learn the problems I saw with TensorFlow and other systems. He then zoomed into what AI infrastructure should look like from the ground up. Chris explained: “The reason that those systems were fundamental, scalable, successful, and didn’t crumble under their own weight is because the architecture of those systems actually worked well. They were well-designed, they were scalable. The people that worked on them had an engineering culture that they rallied behind because they wanted to make them technically excellent. In the case of LLVM, for example, it was never designed to support the Rust programming language or Julia or even Swift. But because it was designed and architected for that, you could build programming languages, Snowflake could go build a database optimizer—which is really cool—and a whole bunch of other applications of the technology came out of that architecture.” Chris pointed out that he and I have a certain interest in common: “We like to build things, and we like to build things from the fundamentals. We like to understand them. We like to ask questions.” He has found (as have I!) that this is critical if you want your work to matter, and to last. Of course, building things from the fundamentals doesn’t always work. But as Chris said, “if we’re going to make a mistake, let’s make a new mistake.” Doing the same thing as everyone else in the same way as everyone else isn’t likely to do work that matters. Craftsmanship and architecture Chris pointed out that software engineering isn’t just about an invididual churning out code: “A lot of evolving a product is not just about getting the results; it’s about the team understanding the architecture of the code.” And in fact it’s not even just about understanding, but that he’s looking for something much more than that. “For people to actually give a damn. For people to care about what they’re doing, to be proud of their work.” I’ve seen that it’s possible for teams that care and build thoughtfully to achieve something special. I pointed out to him that “software engineering has always been about trying to get a product that gets better and better, and your ability to work on that product gets better and better. Things get easier and faster because you’re building better and better abstractions and better and better understandings in your head.” Chris agreed. He again stressed the importance of thinking longer term: “Fundamentally, with most kinds of software projects, the software lives for more than six months or a year. The kinds of things I work on, and the kinds of systems you like to build, are things that you continue to evolve. Look at the Linux kernel. The Linux kernel has existed for decades with tons of different people working on it. That is made possible by an architect, Linus, who is driving consistency, abstractions, and improvement in lots of different directions. That longevity is made possible by that architectural focus.” This kind of deep work doesn’t just benefit the organization, but benefits every individual too. Chris said: “I think the question is really about progress. It’s about you as an engineer. What are you learning? How are you getting better? How much mastery do you develop? Why is it that you’re able to solve problems that other people can’t?… The people that I see doing really well in their careers, their lives, and their development are the people that are pushing. They’re not complacent. They’re not just doing what everybody tells them to do. They’re actually asking hard questions, and they want to get better. So investing in yourself, investing in your tools and techniques, and really pushing hard so that you can understand things at a deeper level—I think that’s really what enables people to grow and achieve things that they maybe didn’t think were possible a few years before.” This is what I tell my team too. The thing I care most about is whether they’re always improving at their ability to solve those problems. Building something that lasts 25 years, like LLVM, requires more than architectural thinking. It requires the willingness to pursue your vision even when others don’t see it yet. When I asked Chris about Mojo’s journey, his passion and dedication couldn’t have been more clear: “This is my life’s work. This is what I was put here to do: Mojo and MAX, solving AI compute, making it so people can program all the chips and have choice. This is what I’m about, and I haven’t been too shy about that. But on the other hand, that doesn’t mean everybody believes. That’s okay with me. A lot of people haven’t believed for various reasons, whether it be the angry person on Hacker News shaking their fist and asking, ‘Why didn’t I just use Julia?’ or whether it be an employee that’s like, ‘Yeah, actually, I don’t believe in X, Y, and Z.’ It’s like, ‘Okay, cool, this is the wrong place.’… Trying to make everybody happy is how you get watered-down, committee-driven things, and you can’t really make a big, bold bet if you do that. You have to have a hypothesis, a core belief. It may be directional, may not have all the digits of precision, but you have to stick to it, otherwise you won’t get there.” Dogfooding But caring deeply and thinking architecturally isn’t enough if you’re building in a vacuum. I’m not sure it’s really possible to create great software if you’re not using it yourself, or working right next to your users. When Chris and his team was building the Swift language, they had to build it in a vacuum of Apple secrecy. He shares: “The using your own product piece is really important. One of the big things that caused the IDE features and many other things to be a problem with Swift is that we didn’t really have a user. We were building it, but before we launched, we had one test app that was kind of ‘dogfooded’ in air quotes, but not really. We weren’t actually using it in production at all. And by the time it launched, you could tell. The tools didn’t work, it was slow to compile, crashed all the time, lots of missing features.” His new Mojo project is taking a very different direction: “With Mojo, we consider ourselves to be the first customer. We have hundreds of thousands of lines of Mojo code, and it’s all open source… That approach is very different. It’s a product of experience, but it’s also a product of building Mojo to solve our own problems. We’re learning from the past, taking best principles in.” The result is evident. Already at this early stage models built on Mojo are getting state of the art results. Most of Mojo is written in Mojo. So if something isn’t working well, they are the first ones to notice. We had a similar goal at fast.ai with our Solveit platform: we wanted to reach a point where most of our staff chose to do most of their work in Solveit, because they preferred it. (Indeed, I’m writing this article in Solveit right now!) Before we reached that point, I often had to force myself to use Solveit in order to experience first hand the shortcomings of those early versions, so that I could deeply understand the issues. Having done so, I now appreciate how smooth everything works even more! But this kind of deep, experiential understanding is exactly what we risk losing when we delegate too much to AI. AI, craftsmanship, and learning Chris uses AI: “I think it’s a very important tool. I feel like I get a 10 to 20% improvement—some really fancy code completion and autocomplete.” But with Chris’ focus on the importance of craftsmanship and continual learning and improvement, I wondered if heavy AI (and particularly agent) use (“vibe coding”) might negatively impact organizations and individuals. Chris: When you’re vibe-coding things, suddenly… another thing I’ve seen is that people say, ‘Okay, well maybe it’ll work.’ It’s almost like a test. You go off and say, ‘Maybe the agentic thing will go crank out some code,’ and you spend all this time waiting on it and coaching it. Then, it doesn’t work. Jeremy: It’s like a gambling machine, right? Pull the lever again, try again, just try again. Chris: Exactly. And again, I’m not saying the tools are useless or bad, but when you take a step back and you look at where it’s adding value and how, I think there’s a little bit too much enthusiasm of, ‘Well, when AGI happens, it’s going to solve the problem. I’m just waiting and seeing… Here’s another aspect of it: the anxiety piece. I see a lot of junior engineers coming out of school, and they’re very worried about whether they’ll be able to get a job. A lot of things are changing, and I don’t really know what’s going to happen. But to your point earlier, a lot of them say, ’Okay, well, I’m just going to vibe-code everything,’ because this is ‘productivity’ in air quotes. I think that’s also a significant problem. Jeremy: Seems like a career killer to me. Chris: …If you get sucked into, ‘Okay, well I need to figure out how to make this thing make me a 10x programmer,’ it may be a path that doesn’t bring you to developing at all. It may actually mean that you’re throwing away your own time, because we only have so much time to live on this earth. It can end up retarding your development and preventing you from growing and actually getting stuff done. At its heart, Chris’s concern is that AI-heavy coding and craftsmanship just don’t appear to be compatible: “Software craftsmanship is the thing that AI code threatens. Not because it’s impossible to use properly—again, I use it, and I feel like I’m doing it well because I care a lot about the quality of the code. But because it encourages folks to not take the craftsmanship, design, and architecture seriously. Instead, you just devolve to getting your bug queue to be shallower and making the symptoms go away. I think that’s the thing that I find concerning.” “What you want to get to, particularly as your career evolves, is mastery. That’s how you kind of escape the thing that everybody can do and get more differentiation… The concern I have is this culture of, ‘Well, I’m not even going to try to understand what’s going on. I’m just going to spend some tokens, and maybe it’ll be great.’” I asked if he had some specific examples where he’s seen things go awry. “I’ve seen a senior engineer, when a bug gets reported, let the agentic loop rip, go spend some tokens, and maybe it’ll come up with a bug fix and create a PR. This PR, however, was completely wrong. It made the symptom go away, so it ‘fixed’ the bug in air quotes, but it was so wrong that if it had been merged, it would have just made the product way worse. You’re replacing one bug with a whole bunch of other bugs that are harder to understand, and a ton of code that’s just in the wrong place doing the wrong thing. That is deeply concerning. The actual concern is not this particular engineer because, fortunately, they’re a senior engineer and smart enough not to just say, ‘Okay, pass this test, merge.’ We also do code review, which is a very important thing. But the concern I have is this culture of, ‘Well, I’m not even going to try to understand what’s going on. I’m just going to spend some tokens, and maybe it’ll be great. Now I don’t have to think about it.’ This is a huge concern because a lot of evolving a product is not just about getting the results; it’s about the team understanding the architecture of the code. If you’re delegating knowledge to an AI, and you’re just reviewing the code without thinking about what you want to achieve, I think that’s very, very concerning.” Some folks have told me they think that unit tests are a particularly good place to look at using AI more heavily. Chris urges caution, however: “AI is really great at writing unit tests. This is one of the things that nobody likes to do. It feels super productive to say, ‘Just crank out a whole bunch of tests,’ and look, I’ve got all this code, amazing. But there’s a problem, because unit tests are their own potential tech debt. The test may not be testing the right thing, or they might be testing a detail of the thing rather than the real idea of the thing… And if you’re using mocking, now you get all these super tightly bound implementation details in your tests, which make it very difficult to change the architecture of your product as things evolve. Tests are just like the code in your main application—you should think about them. Also, lots of tests take a long time to run, and so they impact your future development velocity.” Part of the problem, Chris noted, is that many people are using high lines of code written as a statistic to support the idea that AI is making a positive impact. “To me, the question is not how do you get the most code. I’m not a CEO bragging about the number of lines of code written by AI; I think that’s a completely useless metric. I don’t measure progress based on the number of lines of code written. In fact, I see verbose, redundant, not well-factored code as a huge liability… The question is: how productive are people at getting stuff done and making the product better? This is what I care about.” Underlying all of these concerns is the belief that AGI is imminent, and therefore traditional approaches to software development are obsolete. Chris has seen this movie before. “In 2017, I was at Tesla working on self-driving cars, leading the Autopilot software team. I was convinced that in 2020, autonomous cars would be everywhere and would be solved. It was this desperate race to go solve autonomy… But at the time, nobody even knew how hard that was. But what was in the air was: trillions of dollars are at stake, job replacement, transforming transportation… I think today, exactly the same thing is happening. It’s not about self-driving, although that is making progress, just a little bit less gloriously and immediately than people thought. But now it’s about programming.” Chris thinks that, like all previous technologies, AI progress isn’t actually exponential. “I believe that progress looks like S-curves. Pre-training was a big deal. It seemed exponential, but it actually S-curved out and got flat as things went on. I think that we have a number of piled-up S-curves that are all driving forward amazing progress, but I at least have not seen that spark.” The danger isn’t just that people might be wrong about AGI’s timeline - it’s what happens to their careers and codebases while they’re waiting. “Technology waves cause massive hype cycles, overdrama, and overselling,” Chris noted. “Whether it be object-oriented programming in the ’80s where everything’s an object, or the internet wave in the 2000s where everything has to be online otherwise you can’t buy a shirt or dog food. There’s truth to the technology, but what ends up happening is things settle out, and it’s less dramatic than initially promised. The question is, when things settle out, where do you as a programmer stand? Have you lost years of your own development because you’ve been spending it the wrong way?” Chris is careful to clarify that he’s not anti-AI – far from it. “I am a maximalist. I want AI in all of our lives,” he told me. “However, the thing I don’t like is the people that are making decisions as though AGI or ASI were here tomorrow… Being paranoid, being anxious, being afraid of living your life and of building a better world seems like a very silly and not very pragmatic thing to do.” Software craftsmanship with AI Chris sees the key as understanding the difference between using AI as a crutch versus using it as a tool that enhances your craftsmanship. He finds AI particularly valuable for exploration and learning: “It’s amazing for learning a codebase you’re not familiar with, so it’s great for discovery. The automation features of AI are super important. Getting us out of writing boilerplate, getting us out of memorizing APIs, getting us out of looking up that thing from Stack Overflow; I think this is really profound. This is a good use. The thing that I get concerned about is if you go so far as to not care about what you’re looking up on Stack Overflow and why it works that way and not learning from it.” One principle Chris and I share is the critical importance of tight iteration loops. For Chris, working on systems programming, this means “edit the code, compile, run it, get a test that fails, and then debug it and iterate on that loop… Running tests should take less than a minute, ideally less than 30 seconds.” He told me that when working on Mojo, one of the first priorities was “building VS Code support early because without tools that let you create quick iterations, all of your work is going to be slower, more annoying, and more wrong.” My background is different - I am a fan of the Smalltalk, Lisp, and APL tradition where you have a live workspace and every line of code manipulates objects in that environment. When Chris and I first worked together on Swift for TensorFlow, the first thing I told him was “I’m going to need a notebook.” Within a week, he had built me complete Swift support for Jupyter. I could type something, see the result immediately, and watch my data transform step-by-step through the process. This is the Brett Victor “Inventing on Principle” style of being close to what you’re crafting. If you want to maintain craftsmanship while using AI, you need tight iteration loops so you can see what’s happening. You need a live workspace where you (and the AI) are manipulating actual state, not just writing text files. At fast.ai, we’ve been working to put this philosophy into practice with our Solveit platform. We discovered a key principle: the AI should be able to see exactly what the human sees, and the human should be able to see exactly what the AI sees at all times. No separate instruction files, no context windows that don’t match your actual workspace - the AI is right there with you, supporting you as you work. This creates what I think of as “a third participant in this dialogue” - previously I had a conversation with my computer through a REPL, typing commands and seeing results. Now the AI is in that conversation too, able to see my code, my data, my outputs, and my thought process as I work through problems. When I ask “does this align with what we discussed earlier?” or “have we handled this edge case?”, the AI doesn’t need me to copy-paste context - it’s already there. One of our team members, Nate, built something called ShellSage that demonstrates this beautifully. He realized that tmux already shows everything that’s happened in your shell session, so he just added a command that talks to an LLM. That’s it - about 100 lines of code. The LLM can see all your previous commands, questions, and output. By the next day, all of us were using it constantly. Another team member, Eric, built our Discord Buddy bot using this same approach - he didn’t write code in an editor and deploy it. He typed commands one at a time in a live symbol table, manipulating state directly. When it worked, he wrapped those steps into functions. No deployment, no build process - just iterative refinement of a running system. Eric Ries has been writing his new book in Solveit, and the AI can see exactly what he writes. He asks questions like “does this paragraph align with the mission we stated earlier?” or “have we discussed this case study before?” or “can you check my editor’s notes for comments on this?” The AI doesn’t need special instructions or context management - it’s in the trenches with him, watching the work unfold. (I’m writing this article in Solveit right now, for the same reasons.) I asked Chris about how he thinks about the approach we’re taking with Solveit: “instead of bringing in a junior engineer that can just crank out code, you’re bringing in a senior expert, a senior engineer, an advisor—somebody that can actually help you make better code and teach you things.” How do we do something meaningful? Chris and I both see a bifurcation coming. “It feels like we’re going to have a bifurcation of skills,” I told him, “because people who use AI the wrong way are going to get worse and worse. And the people who use it to learn more and learn faster are going to outpace the speed of growth of AI capabilities because they’re human with the benefit of that… There’s going to be this group of people that have learned helplessness and this maybe smaller group of people that everybody’s like, ‘How does this person know everything? They’re so good.’” The principles that allowed LLVM to last 25 years – architecture; understanding; craftsmanship – haven’t changed. “The question is, when things settle out, where do you as a programmer stand?” Chris asked. “Have you lost years of your own development because you’ve been spending it the wrong way? And now suddenly everybody else is much further ahead of you in terms of being able to create productive value for the world.” His advice is clear, especially for those just starting out: “If I were coming out of school, my advice would be don’t pursue that path. Particularly if everybody is zigging, it’s time to zag. What you want to get to, particularly as your career evolves, is mastery. So you can be the senior engineer. So you can actually understand things to a depth that other people don’t. That’s how you escape the thing that everybody can do and get more differentiation.” The hype will settle. The tools will improve. But the question Chris poses remains: “How do we actually add value to the world? How do we do something meaningful? How do we move the world forward?” For both of us, the answer involves caring deeply about our craft, understanding what we’re building, and using AI not as a replacement for thinking but as a tool to think more effectively. If the goal is to build things that last, you’re not going to be able to outsource that to AI. You’ll need to invest deeply in yourself. |
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[SOURCE: https://www.bbc.com/business/technology-of-business] | [TOKENS: 1515] |
Technology of BusinessHow do you modernise mango farming?India's mango farmers are being urged to innovate as climate change makes cultivation "unpredictable".1 day agoAsiaReddit's human content wins amid the AI floodReddit says its human contributors are valued amid an internet awash with AI-generated content.4 days agoThe yachting industry searches for alternatives to teakPrized for its beauty, teak is in short supply, forcing the yacht industry to look for alternatives.4 Feb 2026AsiaVisit the North Sea oil field used to store greenhouse gasHundreds of miles from Denmark's coast a project is underway to inject CO2 into an old oil field.30 Jan 2026EuropeGet a grip: Robotics firms struggle to develop handsDeveloping a durable and affordable hand is one of the biggest challenges in robotics.13 Feb 2026Why food fraud persists, even with improving techEven with sophisticated technology it is still difficult to detect fake foods.10 Feb 2026Can robots ever be graceful?Firms are working to make the motors that drive robots more efficient and cheaper.6 Feb 2026Can India be a player in the computer chip industry?India is investing hundreds of millions of dollars in building up a computer chip industry.Reddit's human content wins amid the AI floodReddit says its human contributors are valued amid an internet awash with AI-generated content.Are 'tech dense' farms the future of farming?A host of technology is on offer to farmers, promising to raise farming yields and lower food prices.'They are essential': How smoke detectors are evolvingAI trained to recognise fire is among the latest developments in fire alarm tech.Can robots ever be graceful?Firms are working to make the motors that drive robots more efficient and cheaper.Excel: The software that's hard to quitCompanies are trying to wean staff off Excel spreadsheets to centralise control of their data.Reddit's human content wins amid the AI floodReddit says its human contributors are valued amid an internet awash with AI-generated content.How the defence sector is battling a skills crisisAttracting younger workers into the defence industry can be challenging.The showers and baths keeping data centre tech coolFinding greener ways to keep giant new data centres cool is a challenge.Will tech trump tradition at bakers and biscuit makers?Introducing robots and automation to the food industry involves extra hurdles.Latest updates1 day agoHow do you modernise mango farming?India's mango farmers are being urged to innovate as climate change makes cultivation "unpredictable".1 day ago4 days agoReddit's human content wins amid the AI floodReddit says its human contributors are valued amid an internet awash with AI-generated content.4 days ago13 Feb 2026Get a grip: Robotics firms struggle to develop handsDeveloping a durable and affordable hand is one of the biggest challenges in robotics.13 Feb 202610 Feb 2026Why food fraud persists, even with improving techEven with sophisticated technology it is still difficult to detect fake foods.10 Feb 20266 Feb 2026Can robots ever be graceful?Firms are working to make the motors that drive robots more efficient and cheaper.6 Feb 20264 Feb 2026The yachting industry searches for alternatives to teakPrized for its beauty, teak is in short supply, forcing the yacht industry to look for alternatives.4 Feb 202630 Jan 2026Visit the North Sea oil field used to store greenhouse gasHundreds of miles from Denmark's coast a project is underway to inject CO2 into an old oil field.30 Jan 202627 Jan 2026Can India be a player in the computer chip industry?India is investing hundreds of millions of dollars in building up a computer chip industry.27 Jan 202623 Jan 2026AI ready: The advantages of being a young entrepreneurThe latest generation of entrepreneurs have a head-start with AI but also face familiar challenges.23 Jan 2026... Technology of Business How do you modernise mango farming? India's mango farmers are being urged to innovate as climate change makes cultivation "unpredictable". Reddit's human content wins amid the AI flood Reddit says its human contributors are valued amid an internet awash with AI-generated content. The yachting industry searches for alternatives to teak Prized for its beauty, teak is in short supply, forcing the yacht industry to look for alternatives. Visit the North Sea oil field used to store greenhouse gas Hundreds of miles from Denmark's coast a project is underway to inject CO2 into an old oil field. Get a grip: Robotics firms struggle to develop hands Developing a durable and affordable hand is one of the biggest challenges in robotics. Why food fraud persists, even with improving tech Even with sophisticated technology it is still difficult to detect fake foods. Can robots ever be graceful? Firms are working to make the motors that drive robots more efficient and cheaper. Can India be a player in the computer chip industry? India is investing hundreds of millions of dollars in building up a computer chip industry. Reddit's human content wins amid the AI flood Reddit says its human contributors are valued amid an internet awash with AI-generated content. Are 'tech dense' farms the future of farming? A host of technology is on offer to farmers, promising to raise farming yields and lower food prices. 'They are essential': How smoke detectors are evolving AI trained to recognise fire is among the latest developments in fire alarm tech. Can robots ever be graceful? Firms are working to make the motors that drive robots more efficient and cheaper. Excel: The software that's hard to quit Companies are trying to wean staff off Excel spreadsheets to centralise control of their data. Reddit's human content wins amid the AI flood Reddit says its human contributors are valued amid an internet awash with AI-generated content. How the defence sector is battling a skills crisis Attracting younger workers into the defence industry can be challenging. The showers and baths keeping data centre tech cool Finding greener ways to keep giant new data centres cool is a challenge. Will tech trump tradition at bakers and biscuit makers? Introducing robots and automation to the food industry involves extra hurdles. Latest updates How do you modernise mango farming? India's mango farmers are being urged to innovate as climate change makes cultivation "unpredictable". Reddit's human content wins amid the AI flood Reddit says its human contributors are valued amid an internet awash with AI-generated content. Get a grip: Robotics firms struggle to develop hands Developing a durable and affordable hand is one of the biggest challenges in robotics. Why food fraud persists, even with improving tech Even with sophisticated technology it is still difficult to detect fake foods. Can robots ever be graceful? Firms are working to make the motors that drive robots more efficient and cheaper. The yachting industry searches for alternatives to teak Prized for its beauty, teak is in short supply, forcing the yacht industry to look for alternatives. Visit the North Sea oil field used to store greenhouse gas Hundreds of miles from Denmark's coast a project is underway to inject CO2 into an old oil field. Can India be a player in the computer chip industry? India is investing hundreds of millions of dollars in building up a computer chip industry. AI ready: The advantages of being a young entrepreneur The latest generation of entrepreneurs have a head-start with AI but also face familiar challenges. Copyright 2026 BBC. All rights reserved. The BBC is not responsible for the content of external sites. Read about our approach to external linking. |
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[SOURCE: https://www.bbc.com/business/opening-bell] | [TOKENS: 3251] |
NYSE Opening Bell"Business Today - NYSE Opening Bell” is the BBC’s new daily business programme coming from the heart of New York’s financial district. The show airs live on the BBC News channel, and also streams on BBC.com in the US and Australia, every week day at 9.30am EST for the start of trading on the New York Stock Exchange.100 videosUS government shutdown in October 'dented growth'Gus Scacco of Advisors Capital Management says the October US Government shutdown dented growth.16 hours agoShareExplore MoreExpert says market volatility over AI 'not unexpected'AI and tech stocks trading lower 'due to high capital costs'US annualised consumer inflation falls to 2.4 per centWall Street weighs up strong jobs numbersUS retail sales stall in December without usual holiday liftExpert says economy is 'heading for a soft landing'Bitcoin falls as market jitters continueDetails of US-India trade deal remain unclearGold and silver prices continue to fallUK businesses hail 'successful' China trip by PM StarmerThe price of gold rises as political tensions increaseWall Street muted at the end of tumultuous weekUS futures slide as tariff fears trigger sell‑offGoldman Sachs' and Morgan Stanley's results beat expectationExpert says probe into Fed chair is 'political theatre'Trump expects huge investment in VenezuelaWall Street weighs impact of Venezuela turmoilGlobal financial caution over recent US captureStrong consumer spending helps boost US growthUS markets start the week higher after period of volatilityTech stocks to drive growth next yearLower than expected inflation boosts Wall Street sharesWall Street on track for third year of double-digit gainsWall Street up in big week of economic dataCalls for further rate cuts 'a little too aggressive'Federal reserve expected to cut ratesParamount launches takeover of Warner Brothers DiscoveryMarket reacts to Warner Netflix dealWall Street cautious over expected interest rate cutsBig tech investments fuel rate-cut expectationsNew AI chip threatens Nvidia supremacyUS interest rate cuts expected soonUS markets edge up at stock market openUS job numbers stronger than expectedResults from retailers show consumers are more carefulWhy falling markets won’t deflate the AI boomInvestors await results from chip giant NvidiaTech sell-off gathers pace over AI valuation fearsUS shutdown rally runs out of steamWhere next for US tech stocksUS shutdown breakthrough providing clarity to marketsExpert predicts the US government shutdown will end soonExpert says airlines hit hardest by short-staffed US airportsSurging US job cuts gives Fed food for thoughtHow Trump's tariffs have triggered a constitutional battleIs the AI-fuelled rally running out of steam?Wall Street's tech-fuelled rally powers onMarkets expect Fed to cut interest rates - 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Expert says market volatility over AI 'not unexpected' AI and tech stocks trading lower 'due to high capital costs' US annualised consumer inflation falls to 2.4 per cent Wall Street weighs up strong jobs numbers US retail sales stall in December without usual holiday lift Expert says economy is 'heading for a soft landing' Bitcoin falls as market jitters continue Details of US-India trade deal remain unclear Gold and silver prices continue to fall UK businesses hail 'successful' China trip by PM Starmer The price of gold rises as political tensions increase Wall Street muted at the end of tumultuous week US futures slide as tariff fears trigger sell‑off Goldman Sachs' and Morgan Stanley's results beat expectation Expert says probe into Fed chair is 'political theatre' Trump expects huge investment in Venezuela Wall Street weighs impact of Venezuela turmoil Global financial caution over recent US capture Strong consumer spending helps boost US growth US markets start the week higher after period of volatility Tech stocks to drive growth next year Lower than expected inflation boosts Wall Street shares Wall Street on track for third year of double-digit gains Wall Street up in big week of economic data Calls for further rate cuts 'a little too aggressive' Federal reserve expected to cut rates Paramount launches takeover of Warner Brothers Discovery Market reacts to Warner Netflix deal Wall Street cautious over expected interest rate cuts Big tech investments fuel rate-cut expectations New AI chip threatens Nvidia supremacy US interest rate cuts expected soon US markets edge up at stock market open US job numbers stronger than expected Results from retailers show consumers are more careful Why falling markets won’t deflate the AI boom Investors await results from chip giant Nvidia Tech sell-off gathers pace over AI valuation fears US shutdown rally runs out of steam Where next for US tech stocks US shutdown breakthrough providing clarity to markets Expert predicts the US government shutdown will end soon Expert says airlines hit hardest by short-staffed US airports Surging US job cuts gives Fed food for thought How Trump's tariffs have triggered a constitutional battle Is the AI-fuelled rally running out of steam? Wall Street's tech-fuelled rally powers on Markets expect Fed to cut interest rates - 22 Sep 2025 Fed widely expected to cut interest rates - 17 Sep 2025 Investors reassured about inflation impact - 10 Sep 2025 Global bond sell-off continues - 3 Sep 2025 Trump's tariffs ruled illegal - 2 Sep 2025 Expected growth of data centres drives Nvidia - 28 Aug 2025 Trump tries to remove Fed Governor - 27 Aug 2025 Markets open lower after Fed's statement - 25 Aug 2025 Markets wobble ahead of interest rate changes - 22 Aug 2025 Wall Street eyes Jackson Hole meeting - 21 Aug 2025 Target picks insider as new CEO - 20 Aug 2025 Home Depot puts focus on retail earnings - 19 Aug 2025 Markets open flat as US-China deal approaches - 11 Aug 2025 Markets open higher despite new tariffs - 7 Aug 2025 Corporate earnings soothe investors' worries - 6 Aug 2025 Markets 'bullish' after EU-US trade agreements - 29 Jul 2025 Investors weigh impact of Trump's Fed visit - 25 Jul 2025 Wall Street opens mixed as Trump visits Fed - 24 Jul 2025 Investors using tariffs as buying opportunites - 22 Jul 2025 'Room for growth' after big tech earnings - 21 Jul 2025 US economy showing signs of tariff stress - 18 Jul 2025 Markets 'betting' tariffs resolve by fall - 11 Jul 2025 Trump's mega-bill provides 'corporate clarity' - 9 Jul 2025 Expert says investor behaviour subdued - 7 Jul 2025 Markets mixed ahead of US jobs data - 2 July 2025 Tesla shares hit as Musk-Trump feud reignites - 1 Jul 2025 Markets rise on Canada trade deal hopes - 30 Jun 2025 Markets near record highs despite headwinds - 26 Jun 2025 Markets muted amid Middle East conflict - 18 Jun 2025 Expert says there is resilience in US economy - 17 Jun 2025 US shares open higher as crude prices ease - 16 Jun 2025 Oil prices soar after Israel strikes on Iran - 13 Jun 2025 New inflation figures 'good news' for markets - 11 Jun 2025 Pressure on as US-China resume trade talks - 9 Jun 2025 Markets up on positive job numbers - 6 June 2025 Markets flat on report of Xi-Trump call - 5 Jun 2025 Metal tariffs will also hit US, warns Canada - 4 Jun 2025 OECD cuts global growth forecasts - 3 Jun 2025 Trump tax bill can have 'good and bad' effects - 22 May 2025 Smartphone production moving out of China - 20 May 2025 Expert: Tax cuts are distraction from tariffs - 19 May 2025 Markets welcome US-UK trade agreement Highly unlikely for tariffs to be ratcheted up, expert says 'Economic uncertainty will lower investment' - 11 Apr 2025 A lot of questions over trade negotiations - 8 Apr 2025 Is the US economy likely to fall into recession - 7 Apr 2025 Investors lowering forecast for S&P 500 - 2 Apr 2025 Investors await impact of Trump's tariffs - 1 Apr 2025 Global markets fall as tariffs loom - 31 Mar 2025 Markets on edge as consumer sentiment drops - 26 Mar 2025 Markets look for tariff clarity - 25 Mar 2025 Markets bounce back on hope of softer tariffs - 24 Mar 2025 More from Business Trump brings in new 10% tariff as Supreme Court rejects his global import taxes The US Supreme Court's decision, striking down some of Trump's most sweeping tariffs, injects new uncertainty into global trade. Canada looks to trade talks after US Supreme Court tosses Trump's tariffs Canada, the US and Mexico are gearing up negotiations as part of a review of the USMCA this summer. Anna Murdoch-Mann, writer and former News Corp director, dies aged 81 The author, journalist and philanthropist died at home in Florida, according to Rupert Murdoch's news outlets. Is £70 becoming harder to justify? The rise of cheaper blockbuster games As top games such as GTA 6 are speculated to cost $100 (£74), some developers are deliberately pricing lower. US economy slows in final months after turbulent year Overall the economy grew 2.2% last year, holding up despite pressures from changes to tariff and immigration policy. Urgent research needed to tackle AI threats, says Google AI boss But the head of the US delegation at the AI Impact Summit in Delhi says: "We totally reject global governance of AI." The Chinese AI app sending Hollywood into a panic Clips of Deadpool and other film characters have sparked alarm within Hollywood over copyright infringement. Asos co-founder dies after Thailand apartment block fall Quentin Griffiths co-founded Asos in 2000 and remained a significant shareholder after leaving the firm five years later. Epstein eyed record label investment to access women, files suggest His associate said the music industry was "related to P", a way Epstein apparently often referred to women. Copyright 2026 BBC. All rights reserved. The BBC is not responsible for the content of external sites. Read about our approach to external linking. |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World#Monism_and_pluralism] | [TOKENS: 5641] |
Contents World The world is the totality of entities, the whole of reality, or everything that exists. The nature of the world has been conceptualized differently in different fields. Some conceptions see the world as unique, while others talk of a "plurality of worlds". Some treat the world as one simple object, while others analyze the world as a complex made up of parts. In scientific cosmology, the world or universe is commonly defined as "the totality of all space and time; all that is, has been, and will be". Theories of modality talk of possible worlds as complete and consistent ways how things could have been. Phenomenology, starting from the horizon of co-given objects present in the periphery of every experience, defines the world as the biggest horizon, or the "horizon of all horizons". In philosophy of mind, the world is contrasted with the mind as that which is represented by the mind. Theology conceptualizes the world in relation to God, for example, as God's creation, as identical to God, or as the two being interdependent. In religions, there is a tendency to downgrade the material or sensory world in favor of a spiritual world to be sought through religious practice. A comprehensive representation of the world and our place in it, as is found in religions, is known as a worldview. Cosmogony is the field that studies the origin or creation of the world, while eschatology refers to the science or doctrine of the last things or of the end of the world. In various contexts, the term "world" takes a more restricted meaning associated, for example, with the Earth and all life on it, with humanity as a whole, or with an international or intercontinental scope. In this sense, world history refers to the history of humanity as a whole, and world politics is the discipline of political science studying issues that transcend nations and continents. Other examples include terms such as "world religion", "world language", "world government", "world war", "world population", "world economy", or "world championship". Etymology The English word world comes from the Old English weorold. The Old English is a reflex of the Common Germanic *weraldiz, a compound of weraz 'man' and aldiz 'age', thus literally meaning roughly 'age of man'; this word led to Old Frisian warld, Old Saxon werold, Old Dutch werolt, Old High German weralt, and Old Norse verǫld. The corresponding word in Latin is mundus, literally 'clean, elegant', itself a loan translation of Greek cosmos 'orderly arrangement'. While the Germanic word thus reflects a mythological notion of a "domain of Man" (compare Midgard), presumably as opposed to the divine sphere on the one hand and the chthonic sphere of the underworld on the other, the Greco-Latin term expresses a notion of creation as an act of establishing order out of chaos. Conceptions Different fields often work with quite different conceptions of the essential features associated with the term "world". Some conceptions see the world as unique: there can be no more than one world. Others talk of a "plurality of worlds". Some see worlds as complex things composed of many substances as their parts while others hold that worlds are simple in the sense that there is only one substance: the world as a whole. Some characterize worlds in terms of objective spacetime while others define them relative to the horizon present in each experience. These different characterizations are not always exclusive: it may be possible to combine some without leading to a contradiction. Most of them agree that worlds are unified totalities. Monism is a thesis about oneness: that only one thing exists in a certain sense. The denial of monism is pluralism, the thesis that, in a certain sense, more than one thing exists. There are many forms of monism and pluralism, but in relation to the world as a whole, two are of special interest: existence monism/pluralism and priority monism/pluralism. Existence monism states that the world is the only concrete object there is. This means that all the concrete "objects" we encounter in our daily lives, including apples, cars and ourselves, are not truly objects in a strict sense. Instead, they are just dependent aspects of the world-object. Such a world-object is simple in the sense that it does not have any genuine parts. For this reason, it has also been referred to as "blobject" since it lacks an internal structure like a blob. Priority monism allows that there are other concrete objects besides the world. But it holds that these objects do not have the most fundamental form of existence, that they somehow depend on the existence of the world. The corresponding forms of pluralism state that the world is complex in the sense that it is made up of concrete, independent objects. Scientific cosmology can be defined as the science of the universe as a whole. In it, the terms "universe" and "cosmos" are usually used as synonyms for the term "world". One common definition of the world/universe found in this field is as "[t]he totality of all space and time; all that is, has been, and will be". Some definitions emphasize that there are two other aspects to the universe besides spacetime: forms of energy or matter, like stars and particles, and laws of nature. World-conceptions in this field differ both concerning their notion of spacetime and of the contents of spacetime. The theory of relativity plays a central role in modern cosmology and its conception of space and time. A difference from its predecessors is that it conceives space and time not as distinct dimensions but as a single four-dimensional manifold called spacetime. This can be seen in special relativity in relation to the Minkowski metric, which includes both spatial and temporal components in its definition of distance. General relativity goes one step further by integrating the concept of mass into the concept of spacetime as its curvature. Quantum cosmology uses a classical notion of spacetime and conceives the whole world as one big wave function expressing the probability of finding particles in a given location. The world-concept plays a role in many modern theories of modality, sometimes in the form of possible worlds. A possible world is a complete and consistent way how things could have been. The actual world is a possible world since the way things are is a way things could have been. There are many other ways things could have been besides how they actually are. For example, Hillary Clinton did not win the 2016 US election, but she could have won. So there is a possible world in which she did. There is a vast number of possible worlds, one corresponding to each such difference, no matter how small or big, as long as no outright contradictions are introduced this way. Possible worlds are often conceived as abstract objects, for example, in terms of non-obtaining states of affairs or as maximally consistent sets of propositions. On such a view, they can even be seen as belonging to the actual world. Another way to conceive possible worlds, made famous by David Lewis, is as concrete entities. On this conception, there is no important difference between the actual world and possible worlds: both are conceived as concrete, inclusive and spatiotemporally connected. The only difference is that the actual world is the world we live in, while other possible worlds are not inhabited by us but by our counterparts. Everything within a world is spatiotemporally connected to everything else but the different worlds do not share a common spacetime: They are spatiotemporally isolated from each other. This is what makes them separate worlds. It has been suggested that, besides possible worlds, there are also impossible worlds. Possible worlds are ways things could have been, so impossible worlds are ways things could not have been. Such worlds involve a contradiction, like a world in which Hillary Clinton both won and lost the 2016 US election. Both possible and impossible worlds have in common the idea that they are totalities of their constituents. Within phenomenology, worlds are defined in terms of horizons of experiences. When we perceive an object, like a house, we do not just experience this object at the center of our attention but also various other objects surrounding it, given in the periphery. The term "horizon" refers to these co-given objects, which are usually experienced only in a vague, indeterminate manner. The perception of a house involves various horizons, corresponding to the neighborhood, the city, the country, the Earth, etc. In this context, the world is the biggest horizon or the "horizon of all horizons". It is common among phenomenologists to understand the world not just as a spatiotemporal collection of objects but as additionally incorporating various other relations between these objects. These relations include, for example, indication-relations that help us anticipate one object given the appearances of another object and means-end-relations or functional involvements relevant for practical concerns. In philosophy of mind, the term "world" is commonly used in contrast to the term "mind" as that which is represented by the mind. This is sometimes expressed by stating that there is a gap between mind and world and that this gap needs to be overcome for representation to be successful. One problem in philosophy of mind is to explain how the mind is able to bridge this gap and to enter into genuine mind-world-relations, for example, in the form of perception, knowledge or action. This is necessary for the world to be able to rationally constrain the activity of the mind. According to a realist position, the world is something distinct and independent from the mind. Idealists conceive of the world as partially or fully determined by the mind. Immanuel Kant's transcendental idealism, for example, posits that the spatiotemporal structure of the world is imposed by the mind on reality but lacks independent existence otherwise. A more radical idealist conception of the world can be found in Berkeley's subjective idealism, which holds that the world as a whole, including all everyday objects like tables, cats, trees and ourselves, "consists of nothing but minds and ideas". Different theological positions hold different conceptions of the world based on its relation to God. Classical theism states that God is wholly distinct from the world. But the world depends for its existence on God, both because God created the world and because He maintains or conserves it. This is sometimes understood in analogy to how humans create and conserve ideas in their imagination, with the difference being that the divine mind is vastly more powerful. On such a view, God has absolute, ultimate reality in contrast to the lower ontological status ascribed to the world. God's involvement in the world is often understood along the lines of a personal, benevolent God who looks after and guides His creation. Deists agree with theists that God created the world but deny any subsequent, personal involvement in it. Pantheists reject the separation between God and world. Instead, they claim that the two are identical. This means that there is nothing to the world that does not belong to God and that there is nothing to God beyond what is found in the world. Panentheism constitutes a middle ground between theism and pantheism. Against theism, it holds that God and the world are interrelated and depend on each other. Against pantheism, it holds that there is no outright identity between the two. History of philosophy In philosophy, the term world has several possible meanings. In some contexts, it refers to everything that makes up reality or the physical universe. In others, it can mean have a specific ontological sense (see world disclosure). While clarifying the concept of world has arguably always been among the basic tasks of Western philosophy, this theme appears to have been raised explicitly only at the start of the twentieth century, Plato is well known for his theory of forms, which posits the existence of two different worlds: the sensible world and the intelligible world. The sensible world is the world we live in, filled with changing physical things we can see, touch and interact with. The intelligible world is the world of invisible, eternal, changeless forms like goodness, beauty, unity and sameness. Plato ascribes a lower ontological status to the sensible world, which only imitates the world of forms. This is due to the fact that physical things exist only to the extent that they participate in the forms that characterize them, while the forms themselves have an independent manner of existence. In this sense, the sensible world is a mere replication of the perfect exemplars found in the world of forms: it never lives up to the original. In the allegory of the cave, Plato compares the physical things we are familiar with to mere shadows of the real things. But not knowing the difference, the prisoners in the cave mistake the shadows for the real things. Two definitions that were both put forward in the 1920s, however, suggest the range of available opinion. "The world is everything that is the case", wrote Ludwig Wittgenstein in his influential Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, first published in 1921. Martin Heidegger, meanwhile, argued that "the surrounding world is different for each of us, and notwithstanding that we move about in a common world". "World" is one of the key terms in Eugen Fink's philosophy. He thinks that there is a misguided tendency in western philosophy to understand the world as one enormously big thing containing all the small everyday things we are familiar with. He sees this view as a form of forgetfulness of the world and tries to oppose it by what he calls the "cosmological difference": the difference between the world and the inner-worldly things it contains. On his view, the world is the totality of the inner-worldly things that transcends them. It is itself groundless but it provides a ground for things. It therefore cannot be identified with a mere container. Instead, the world gives appearance to inner-worldly things, it provides them with a place, a beginning and an end. One difficulty in investigating the world is that we never encounter it since it is not just one more thing that appears to us. This is why Fink uses the notion of play or playing to elucidate the nature of the world. He sees play as a symbol of the world that is both part of it and that represents it. Play usually comes with a form of imaginary play-world involving various things relevant to the play. But just like the play is more than the imaginary realities appearing in it so the world is more than the actual things appearing in it. The concept of worlds plays a central role in Nelson Goodman's late philosophy. He argues that we need to posit different worlds in order to account for the fact that there are different incompatible truths found in reality. Two truths are incompatible if they ascribe incompatible properties to the same thing. This happens, for example, when we assert both that the earth moves and that the earth is at rest. These incompatible truths correspond to two different ways of describing the world: heliocentrism and geocentrism. Goodman terms such descriptions "world versions". He holds a correspondence theory of truth: a world version is true if it corresponds to a world. Incompatible true world versions correspond to different worlds. It is common for theories of modality to posit the existence of a plurality of possible worlds. But Goodman's theory is different since it posits a plurality not of possible but of actual worlds. Such a position is in danger of involving a contradiction: there cannot be a plurality of actual worlds if worlds are defined as maximally inclusive wholes. This danger may be avoided by interpreting Goodman's world-concept not as maximally inclusive wholes in the absolute sense but in relation to its corresponding world-version: a world contains all and only the entities that its world-version describes. Religion Mythological cosmologies depict the world as centered on an axis mundi and delimited by a boundary such as a world ocean, a world serpent or similar. Hinduism constitutes a family of religious-philosophical views. These views present perspectives on the nature and role of the world. Samkhya philosophy, for example, is a metaphysical dualism that understands reality as comprising 2 parts: purusha and prakriti. The term "purusha" stands for the individual conscious self that each of "us" possesses. Prakriti, on the other hand, is the 1 world inhabited by all these selves. Samkhya understands this world as a world of matter governed by the law of cause and effect. The term "matter" is understood in a sense in this tradition including physical and mental aspects. This is reflected in the doctrine of tattvas, according to which prakriti is made up of 23 principles or elements of reality. These principles include physical elements, like water or earth, and mental aspects, like intelligence or sense-impressions. The relation between purusha and prakriti is conceived as 1 of observation: purusha is the conscious self aware of the world of prakriti and does not causally interact with it. A conception of the world is present in Advaita Vedanta, the monist school among the Vedanta schools. Unlike the realist position defended in Samkhya philosophy, Advaita Vedanta sees the world of multiplicity as an illusion, referred to as Maya. This illusion includes impression of existing as separate experiencing selfs called Jivas. Instead, Advaita Vedanta teaches that on the most fundamental level of reality, referred to as Brahman, there exists no plurality or difference. All there is is 1 all-encompassing self: Atman. Ignorance is seen as the source of this illusion, which results in bondage to the world of mere appearances. Liberation is possible in the course of overcoming this illusion by acquiring the knowledge of Brahman, according to Advaita Vedanta. Contemptus mundi is the name given to the belief that the world, in all its vanity, is nothing more than a futile attempt to hide from God by stifling our desire for the good and the holy. This view has been characterised as a "pastoral of fear" by historian Jean Delumeau. "The world, the flesh, and the devil" is a traditional division of the sources of temptation. Orbis Catholicus is a Latin phrase meaning "Catholic world", per the expression Urbi et Orbi, and refers to that area of Christendom under papal supremacy. In Islam, the term "dunya" is used for the world. Its meaning is derived from the root word "dana", a term for "near". It is associated with the temporal, sensory world and earthly concerns, i.e. with this world in contrast to the spiritual world. Religious teachings warn of a tendency to seek happiness in this world and advise a more ascetic lifestyle concerned with the afterlife. Other strands in Islam recommend a balanced approach. In Mandaean cosmology, the world or earthly realm is known as Tibil. It is separated from the World of Light (alma d-nhūra) above and the World of Darkness (alma d-hšuka) below by aether (ayar). Related terms and problems A worldview is a comprehensive representation of the world and our place in it. As a representation, it is a subjective perspective of the world and thereby different from the world it represents. All higher animals need to represent their environment in some way in order to navigate it. But it has been argued that only humans possess a representation encompassing enough to merit the term "worldview". Philosophers of worldviews commonly hold that the understanding of any object depends on a worldview constituting the background on which this understanding can take place. This may affect not just our intellectual understanding of the object in question but the experience of it in general. It is therefore impossible to assess one's worldview from a neutral perspective since this assessment already presupposes the worldview as its background. Some hold that each worldview is based on a single hypothesis that promises to solve all the problems of our existence we may encounter. On this interpretation, the term is closely associated to the worldviews given by different religions. Worldviews offer orientation not just in theoretical matters but also in practical matters. For this reason, they usually include answers to the question of the meaning of life and other evaluative components about what matters and how we should act. A worldview can be unique to one individual but worldviews are usually shared by many people within a certain culture or religion. The idea that there exist many different worlds is found in various fields. For example, theories of modality talk about a plurality of possible worlds and the many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics carries this reference even in its name. Talk of different worlds is also common in everyday language, for example, with reference to the world of music, the world of business, the world of football, the world of experience or the Asian world. But at the same time, worlds are usually defined as all-inclusive totalities. This seems to contradict the very idea of a plurality of worlds since if a world is total and all-inclusive then it cannot have anything outside itself. Understood this way, a world can neither have other worlds besides itself or be part of something bigger. One way to resolve this paradox while holding onto the notion of a plurality of worlds is to restrict the sense in which worlds are totalities. On this view, worlds are not totalities in an absolute sense. This might be even understood in the sense that, strictly speaking, there are no worlds at all. Another approach understands worlds in a schematic sense: as context-dependent expressions that stand for the current domain of discourse. So in the expression "Around the World in Eighty Days", the term "world" refers to the earth while in the colonial expression "the New World" it refers to the landmass of North and South America. Cosmogony is the field that studies the origin or creation of the world. This includes both scientific cosmogony and creation myths found in various religions. The dominant theory in scientific cosmogony is the Big Bang theory, according to which both space, time and matter have their origin in one initial singularity occurring about 13.8 billion years ago. This singularity was followed by an expansion that allowed the universe to sufficiently cool down for the formation of subatomic particles and later atoms. These initial elements formed giant clouds, which would then coalesce into stars and galaxies. Non-scientific creation myths are found in many cultures and are often enacted in rituals expressing their symbolic meaning. They can be categorized concerning their contents. Types often found include creation from nothing, from chaos or from a cosmic egg. Eschatology refers to the science or doctrine of the last things or of the end of the world. It is traditionally associated with religion, specifically with the Abrahamic religions. In this form, it may include teachings both of the end of each individual human life and of the end of the world as a whole. But it has been applied to other fields as well, for example, in the form of physical eschatology, which includes scientifically based speculations about the far future of the universe. According to some models, there will be a Big Crunch in which the whole universe collapses back into a singularity, possibly resulting in a second Big Bang afterward. But current astronomical evidence seems to suggest that our universe will continue to expand indefinitely. World history studies the world from a historical perspective. Unlike other approaches to history, it employs a global viewpoint. It deals less with individual nations and civilizations, which it usually approaches at a high level of abstraction. Instead, it concentrates on wider regions and zones of interaction, often interested in how people, goods and ideas move from one region to another. It includes comparisons of different societies and civilizations as well as considering wide-ranging developments with a long-term global impact like the process of industrialization. Contemporary world history is dominated by three main research paradigms determining the periodization into different epochs. One is based on productive relations between humans and nature. The two most important changes in history in this respect were the introduction of agriculture and husbandry concerning the production of food, which started around 10,000 to 8,000 BCE and is sometimes termed the Neolithic Revolution, and the Industrial Revolution, which started around 1760 CE and involved the transition from manual to industrial manufacturing. Another paradigm, focusing on culture and religion instead, is based on Karl Jaspers' theories about the Axial Age, a time in which various new forms of religious and philosophical thoughts appeared in several separate parts of the world around the time between 800 and 200 BCE. A third periodization is based on the relations between civilizations and societies. According to this paradigm, history can be divided into three periods in relation to the dominant region in the world: Middle Eastern dominance before 500 BCE, Eurasian cultural balance until 1500 CE and Western dominance since 1500 CE. Big History employs an even wider framework than world history by putting human history into the context of the history of the universe as a whole. It starts with the Big Bang and traces the formation of galaxies, the Solar System, the Earth, its geological eras, the evolution of life and humans until the present day. World politics, also referred to as global politics or international relations, is the discipline of political science studying issues of interest to the world that transcend nations and continents. It aims to explain complex patterns found in the social world that are often related to the pursuit of power, order and justice, usually in the context of globalization. It focuses not just on the relations between nation-states but also considers other transnational actors, like multinational corporations, terrorist groups, or non-governmental organizations. For example, it tries to explain events such as the September 11 attacks, the 2003 invasion of Iraq or the 2008 financial crisis. Various theories have been proposed in order to deal with the complexity involved in formulating such explanations. These theories are sometimes divided into realism, liberalism and constructivism. Realists see nation-states as the main actors in world politics. They constitute an anarchical international system without any overarching power to control their behavior. They are seen as sovereign agents that, determined by human nature, act according to their national self-interest. Military force may play an important role in the ensuing struggle for power between states, but diplomacy and cooperation are also key mechanisms for nations to achieve their goals. Liberalists acknowledge the importance of states but they also emphasize the role of transnational actors, like the United Nations or the World Trade Organization. They see humans as perfectible and stress the role of democracy in this process. The emergent order in world politics, on this perspective, is more complex than a mere balance of power since more different agents and interests are involved in its production. Constructivism ascribes more importance to the agency of individual humans than realism and liberalism. It understands the social world as a construction of the people living in it. This leads to an emphasis on the possibility of change. If the international system is an anarchy of nation-states, as the realists hold, then this is only so because we made it this way and may change since this is not prefigured by human nature, according to the constructivists. See also References External links Africa Antarctica Asia Australia Europe North America South America Afro-Eurasia Americas Eurasia Oceania |
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[SOURCE: https://www.fast.ai/posts/2025-10-15-solveit2.html] | [TOKENS: 984] |
How to Solve it With Code course now available Jeremy Howard October 15, 2025 tl/dr: This is a copy of a one-off email I sent to all fast.ai forum users, with a long-overdue update. I had planned to send this email a year ago to let you know you could sign up for our new fast.ai course, “How to Solve it With Code”, but by the time I woke up the day after launching it, it was full. :O The good news is that we’ve spent the last year making it much better, and a brand new version is ready to go now. You can jump straight to it here: solve.it.com . It’s designed mainly for experienced coders, AI practitioners, and data scientists, although folks from nearly any technical field should find it helpful. When Rachel & I started fast.ai, our mission was to democratize deep learning model training; to make it so you didn’t need a PhD as had been the case previously. It worked. :) Most folks I meet speaking at top academic conferences today are fast.ai alums. Our approach was very different to that of big companies, who focused on automating away developers, instead of supporting them. Today, it’s even worse. Big companies are pushing approaches that dehumanize and automate work, and that’s already hurting people. I saw a great quote from CJ Reynolds today that captures the sad reality from the point of view of a coder: I used to enjoy programming. Now, my days are typically spent going back and forth with an LLM and pretty often yelling at it… And part of enjoying programming for me was enjoying the little wins, right? You would work really hard to make something… or to figure something out. And once you figured it out, you’d have that little win. You’d get that dopamine hit and you’d feel good about yourself and you could keep going. I don’t get that when I’m using LLMs to write code. Once it’s figured something out, I don’t feel like I did any work to get there. And then I’m just mad that it’s doing the wrong thing. And then we go through this back and forth cycle and it’s not fun. My mission remains making AI usable and helpful to everyone. To help people grow, succeed, and be happy. I do not want to create more “agentic AI” – I want humans to have agency, not computers! To this end, I’ve been building on our fast.ai research and have figured out a new approach to creative activities such as software development and writing. I call it the “solveit method”. It’s designed to help you, as a person, harness AI to help you grow and learn in a way you can sustain over months and years. I’ve teamed up with my friend Eric Ries, whose Lean Startup ideas have been hugely influential to me, and we’ve now gotten the financial backing I need to bring this to life. If you want to learn more, or try it out, head over here: solve.it.com I’ve been using this approach for the last couple of years and it’s changed my life very much for the better. We also collected hundreds of testimonials from folks from last year’s preview course who told us much the same thing. Even people with 25 years coding experience said it’s changed how they think. Exactly like with fast.ai’s foundational deep learning work, the result is in four parts: I’ll be posting announcements to the forum Announcements channel; if you’d rather not receive them just turn off “watching” the channel (the bell in the top right blue with an exclamation mark when you’re watching). Some upcoming articles I’ll be posting include: I’d love for you to join me in my new course. If you’re not sure, try it and see – you can get an automated full refund any time until 2 weeks into the course (no forms or anything to fill out). Hope to see you soon Jeremy PS: I composed this email and sent it using our Solveit platform! :) It’s really handy for stuff like this, where I had to bring in a csv using pandas, set up markdown email rendering, do batched sending, etc – I find I don’t use external specialised services much any more since I can just do everything in Solveit and ask the AI to help me understand anything I’m not sure about. (I didn’t use any AI to actually write the email, however, since I want to use my own brain and write what’s in my own heart using my own words…) PPS: Even if you’re not interested in our latest work on Solveit et al, I’d love to hear from you how your post-fast.ai life has been going! I hope that your deep learning learning has taken you to great places. |
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[SOURCE: https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2026/02/fcc-asks-stations-for-pro-america-programming-like-daily-pledge-of-allegiance/] | [TOKENS: 2029] |
Pledge allegiance to the FCC FCC asks stations for “pro-America” programming, like daily Pledge of Allegiance Brendan Carr wants “patriotic” shows for Trump’s yearlong America 250 celebration. Jon Brodkin – Feb 20, 2026 5:00 pm | 146 FCC Chairman Brendan Carr speaks at a news conference following an FCC meeting on February 18, 2026 in Washington, DC. Credit: Getty Images | Kevin Dietsch FCC Chairman Brendan Carr speaks at a news conference following an FCC meeting on February 18, 2026 in Washington, DC. Credit: Getty Images | Kevin Dietsch Text settings Story text Size Small Standard Large Width * Standard Wide Links Standard Orange * Subscribers only Learn more Minimize to nav Federal Communications Commission Chairman Brendan Carr today urged broadcasters to join a “Pledge America Campaign” that Carr established to support President Trump’s “Salute to America 250” project. Carr said in a press release that “I am inviting broadcasters to pledge to air programming in their local markets in support of this historic national, non-partisan celebration.” The press release said Carr is asking broadcasters to “air patriotic, pro-America programming in support of America’s 250th birthday.” Carr gave what he called examples of content that broadcasters can run if they take the pledge. His examples include “starting each broadcast day with the ‘Star Spangled Banner’ or Pledge of Allegiance”; airing “PSAs, short segments, or full specials specifically promoting civic education, inspiring local stories, and American history”; running “segments during regular news programming that highlight local sites that are significant to American and regional history, such as National Park Service sites”; airing “music by America’s greatest composers, such as John Philip Sousa, Aaron Copland, Duke Ellington, and George Gershwin”; and providing daily “Today in American History” announcements highlighting significant events from US history. Carr apparently wants this to start now and last until at least July 4. Carr’s press release starts by touting Trump’s Salute to America 250 project and quotes a White House statement that said, “Under the President’s leadership, Task Force 250 has commenced the planning of a full year of festivities to officially launch on Memorial Day, 2025 and continue through July 4, 2026.” That White House quote cited by the FCC today is nearly a year old, as you might have guessed by the reference to Memorial Day in 2025. More recently, Trump has said he wants the celebration to last throughout 2026. A Trump proclamation last month declared a “yearlong commemoration” of American independence that began on January 1, 2026. “Voluntary” pledge Today’s FCC press release said, “Broadcasters can voluntarily choose to indicate their commitment to the Pledge America Campaign and highlight their ongoing and relevant programming to their viewing and listening audiences.” Although it’s described as voluntary, Carr said broadcasters can meet their public interest obligations by taking the pledge. This is notable because Carr has repeatedly threatened to punish broadcast stations for violating the public interest standard. “I believe in the greatness of our country,” Carr said in the press release. “And I look forward to broadcasters showcasing its inspiring history by taking the Pledge and fulfilling their public interest mandate to serve the needs and interests of their local communities as America’s 250th birthday celebration marches on.” Carr has enthusiastically backed Trump’s battles against the media by making numerous threats to revoke broadcast station licenses. Carr targeted ABC’s Jimmy Kimmel in September, and recently opened an investigation into ABC’s The View. In both cases, Carr said he was enforcing the FCC’s public interest standard. Stephen Colbert said this week that CBS forbade him from interviewing Texas Democratic Senate candidate James Talarico because of Carr’s threat to ditch the FCC’s longstanding practice of exempting talk shows from the equal-time rule. CBS denied prohibiting the interview but acknowledged giving Colbert “legal guidance” about potential consequences under the equal-time rule. Carr responded Wednesday by claiming that Colbert lied and said the media “should feel a bit ashamed for having been lied to and then run with those lies.” If Carr’s pledge is truly voluntary, there would be no reason to limit it to broadcasters, said Harold Feld, a longtime telecom attorney who is senior VP of consumer advocacy group Public Knowledge. “If this were genuinely intended as voluntary, and genuinely about celebrating America, there is no reason to limit this to broadcasters,” Feld told Ars. “Cable operators are equally free to celebrate America, as are podcasters for that matter.” The FCC’s lone Democratic commissioner, Anna Gomez, has been urging broadcasters to push back against the FCC and assert their First Amendment rights. She wrote in response to Carr’s Pledge America Campaign, “Nothing is more American than defending our constitutional rights against those who would erode our civil liberties. If broadcasters choose to participate in this FCC campaign, they can do so by defending their First Amendment rights and refusing government interference.” Jon Brodkin Senior IT Reporter Jon Brodkin Senior IT Reporter Jon is a Senior IT Reporter for Ars Technica. He covers the telecom industry, Federal Communications Commission rulemakings, broadband consumer affairs, court cases, and government regulation of the tech industry. 146 Comments FCC asks stations for “pro-America” programming, like daily Pledge of Allegiance Brendan Carr wants “patriotic” shows for Trump’s yearlong America 250 celebration. Federal Communications Commission Chairman Brendan Carr today urged broadcasters to join a “Pledge America Campaign” that Carr established to support President Trump’s “Salute to America 250” project. Carr said in a press release that “I am inviting broadcasters to pledge to air programming in their local markets in support of this historic national, non-partisan celebration.” The press release said Carr is asking broadcasters to “air patriotic, pro-America programming in support of America’s 250th birthday.” Carr gave what he called examples of content that broadcasters can run if they take the pledge. His examples include “starting each broadcast day with the ‘Star Spangled Banner’ or Pledge of Allegiance”; airing “PSAs, short segments, or full specials specifically promoting civic education, inspiring local stories, and American history”; running “segments during regular news programming that highlight local sites that are significant to American and regional history, such as National Park Service sites”; airing “music by America’s greatest composers, such as John Philip Sousa, Aaron Copland, Duke Ellington, and George Gershwin”; and providing daily “Today in American History” announcements highlighting significant events from US history. Carr apparently wants this to start now and last until at least July 4. Carr’s press release starts by touting Trump’s Salute to America 250 project and quotes a White House statement that said, “Under the President’s leadership, Task Force 250 has commenced the planning of a full year of festivities to officially launch on Memorial Day, 2025 and continue through July 4, 2026.” That White House quote cited by the FCC today is nearly a year old, as you might have guessed by the reference to Memorial Day in 2025. More recently, Trump has said he wants the celebration to last throughout 2026. A Trump proclamation last month declared a “yearlong commemoration” of American independence that began on January 1, 2026. “Voluntary” pledge Today’s FCC press release said, “Broadcasters can voluntarily choose to indicate their commitment to the Pledge America Campaign and highlight their ongoing and relevant programming to their viewing and listening audiences.” Although it’s described as voluntary, Carr said broadcasters can meet their public interest obligations by taking the pledge. This is notable because Carr has repeatedly threatened to punish broadcast stations for violating the public interest standard. “I believe in the greatness of our country,” Carr said in the press release. “And I look forward to broadcasters showcasing its inspiring history by taking the Pledge and fulfilling their public interest mandate to serve the needs and interests of their local communities as America’s 250th birthday celebration marches on.” Carr has enthusiastically backed Trump’s battles against the media by making numerous threats to revoke broadcast station licenses. Carr targeted ABC’s Jimmy Kimmel in September, and recently opened an investigation into ABC’s The View. In both cases, Carr said he was enforcing the FCC’s public interest standard. Stephen Colbert said this week that CBS forbade him from interviewing Texas Democratic Senate candidate James Talarico because of Carr’s threat to ditch the FCC’s longstanding practice of exempting talk shows from the equal-time rule. CBS denied prohibiting the interview but acknowledged giving Colbert “legal guidance” about potential consequences under the equal-time rule. Carr responded Wednesday by claiming that Colbert lied and said the media “should feel a bit ashamed for having been lied to and then run with those lies.” If Carr’s pledge is truly voluntary, there would be no reason to limit it to broadcasters, said Harold Feld, a longtime telecom attorney who is senior VP of consumer advocacy group Public Knowledge. “If this were genuinely intended as voluntary, and genuinely about celebrating America, there is no reason to limit this to broadcasters,” Feld told Ars. “Cable operators are equally free to celebrate America, as are podcasters for that matter.” The FCC’s lone Democratic commissioner, Anna Gomez, has been urging broadcasters to push back against the FCC and assert their First Amendment rights. She wrote in response to Carr’s Pledge America Campaign, “Nothing is more American than defending our constitutional rights against those who would erode our civil liberties. If broadcasters choose to participate in this FCC campaign, they can do so by defending their First Amendment rights and refusing government interference.” Ars Technica has been separating the signal from the noise for over 25 years. With our unique combination of technical savvy and wide-ranging interest in the technological arts and sciences, Ars is the trusted source in a sea of information. After all, you don’t need to know everything, only what’s important. |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World#Theology] | [TOKENS: 5641] |
Contents World The world is the totality of entities, the whole of reality, or everything that exists. The nature of the world has been conceptualized differently in different fields. Some conceptions see the world as unique, while others talk of a "plurality of worlds". Some treat the world as one simple object, while others analyze the world as a complex made up of parts. In scientific cosmology, the world or universe is commonly defined as "the totality of all space and time; all that is, has been, and will be". Theories of modality talk of possible worlds as complete and consistent ways how things could have been. Phenomenology, starting from the horizon of co-given objects present in the periphery of every experience, defines the world as the biggest horizon, or the "horizon of all horizons". In philosophy of mind, the world is contrasted with the mind as that which is represented by the mind. Theology conceptualizes the world in relation to God, for example, as God's creation, as identical to God, or as the two being interdependent. In religions, there is a tendency to downgrade the material or sensory world in favor of a spiritual world to be sought through religious practice. A comprehensive representation of the world and our place in it, as is found in religions, is known as a worldview. Cosmogony is the field that studies the origin or creation of the world, while eschatology refers to the science or doctrine of the last things or of the end of the world. In various contexts, the term "world" takes a more restricted meaning associated, for example, with the Earth and all life on it, with humanity as a whole, or with an international or intercontinental scope. In this sense, world history refers to the history of humanity as a whole, and world politics is the discipline of political science studying issues that transcend nations and continents. Other examples include terms such as "world religion", "world language", "world government", "world war", "world population", "world economy", or "world championship". Etymology The English word world comes from the Old English weorold. The Old English is a reflex of the Common Germanic *weraldiz, a compound of weraz 'man' and aldiz 'age', thus literally meaning roughly 'age of man'; this word led to Old Frisian warld, Old Saxon werold, Old Dutch werolt, Old High German weralt, and Old Norse verǫld. The corresponding word in Latin is mundus, literally 'clean, elegant', itself a loan translation of Greek cosmos 'orderly arrangement'. While the Germanic word thus reflects a mythological notion of a "domain of Man" (compare Midgard), presumably as opposed to the divine sphere on the one hand and the chthonic sphere of the underworld on the other, the Greco-Latin term expresses a notion of creation as an act of establishing order out of chaos. Conceptions Different fields often work with quite different conceptions of the essential features associated with the term "world". Some conceptions see the world as unique: there can be no more than one world. Others talk of a "plurality of worlds". Some see worlds as complex things composed of many substances as their parts while others hold that worlds are simple in the sense that there is only one substance: the world as a whole. Some characterize worlds in terms of objective spacetime while others define them relative to the horizon present in each experience. These different characterizations are not always exclusive: it may be possible to combine some without leading to a contradiction. Most of them agree that worlds are unified totalities. Monism is a thesis about oneness: that only one thing exists in a certain sense. The denial of monism is pluralism, the thesis that, in a certain sense, more than one thing exists. There are many forms of monism and pluralism, but in relation to the world as a whole, two are of special interest: existence monism/pluralism and priority monism/pluralism. Existence monism states that the world is the only concrete object there is. This means that all the concrete "objects" we encounter in our daily lives, including apples, cars and ourselves, are not truly objects in a strict sense. Instead, they are just dependent aspects of the world-object. Such a world-object is simple in the sense that it does not have any genuine parts. For this reason, it has also been referred to as "blobject" since it lacks an internal structure like a blob. Priority monism allows that there are other concrete objects besides the world. But it holds that these objects do not have the most fundamental form of existence, that they somehow depend on the existence of the world. The corresponding forms of pluralism state that the world is complex in the sense that it is made up of concrete, independent objects. Scientific cosmology can be defined as the science of the universe as a whole. In it, the terms "universe" and "cosmos" are usually used as synonyms for the term "world". One common definition of the world/universe found in this field is as "[t]he totality of all space and time; all that is, has been, and will be". Some definitions emphasize that there are two other aspects to the universe besides spacetime: forms of energy or matter, like stars and particles, and laws of nature. World-conceptions in this field differ both concerning their notion of spacetime and of the contents of spacetime. The theory of relativity plays a central role in modern cosmology and its conception of space and time. A difference from its predecessors is that it conceives space and time not as distinct dimensions but as a single four-dimensional manifold called spacetime. This can be seen in special relativity in relation to the Minkowski metric, which includes both spatial and temporal components in its definition of distance. General relativity goes one step further by integrating the concept of mass into the concept of spacetime as its curvature. Quantum cosmology uses a classical notion of spacetime and conceives the whole world as one big wave function expressing the probability of finding particles in a given location. The world-concept plays a role in many modern theories of modality, sometimes in the form of possible worlds. A possible world is a complete and consistent way how things could have been. The actual world is a possible world since the way things are is a way things could have been. There are many other ways things could have been besides how they actually are. For example, Hillary Clinton did not win the 2016 US election, but she could have won. So there is a possible world in which she did. There is a vast number of possible worlds, one corresponding to each such difference, no matter how small or big, as long as no outright contradictions are introduced this way. Possible worlds are often conceived as abstract objects, for example, in terms of non-obtaining states of affairs or as maximally consistent sets of propositions. On such a view, they can even be seen as belonging to the actual world. Another way to conceive possible worlds, made famous by David Lewis, is as concrete entities. On this conception, there is no important difference between the actual world and possible worlds: both are conceived as concrete, inclusive and spatiotemporally connected. The only difference is that the actual world is the world we live in, while other possible worlds are not inhabited by us but by our counterparts. Everything within a world is spatiotemporally connected to everything else but the different worlds do not share a common spacetime: They are spatiotemporally isolated from each other. This is what makes them separate worlds. It has been suggested that, besides possible worlds, there are also impossible worlds. Possible worlds are ways things could have been, so impossible worlds are ways things could not have been. Such worlds involve a contradiction, like a world in which Hillary Clinton both won and lost the 2016 US election. Both possible and impossible worlds have in common the idea that they are totalities of their constituents. Within phenomenology, worlds are defined in terms of horizons of experiences. When we perceive an object, like a house, we do not just experience this object at the center of our attention but also various other objects surrounding it, given in the periphery. The term "horizon" refers to these co-given objects, which are usually experienced only in a vague, indeterminate manner. The perception of a house involves various horizons, corresponding to the neighborhood, the city, the country, the Earth, etc. In this context, the world is the biggest horizon or the "horizon of all horizons". It is common among phenomenologists to understand the world not just as a spatiotemporal collection of objects but as additionally incorporating various other relations between these objects. These relations include, for example, indication-relations that help us anticipate one object given the appearances of another object and means-end-relations or functional involvements relevant for practical concerns. In philosophy of mind, the term "world" is commonly used in contrast to the term "mind" as that which is represented by the mind. This is sometimes expressed by stating that there is a gap between mind and world and that this gap needs to be overcome for representation to be successful. One problem in philosophy of mind is to explain how the mind is able to bridge this gap and to enter into genuine mind-world-relations, for example, in the form of perception, knowledge or action. This is necessary for the world to be able to rationally constrain the activity of the mind. According to a realist position, the world is something distinct and independent from the mind. Idealists conceive of the world as partially or fully determined by the mind. Immanuel Kant's transcendental idealism, for example, posits that the spatiotemporal structure of the world is imposed by the mind on reality but lacks independent existence otherwise. A more radical idealist conception of the world can be found in Berkeley's subjective idealism, which holds that the world as a whole, including all everyday objects like tables, cats, trees and ourselves, "consists of nothing but minds and ideas". Different theological positions hold different conceptions of the world based on its relation to God. Classical theism states that God is wholly distinct from the world. But the world depends for its existence on God, both because God created the world and because He maintains or conserves it. This is sometimes understood in analogy to how humans create and conserve ideas in their imagination, with the difference being that the divine mind is vastly more powerful. On such a view, God has absolute, ultimate reality in contrast to the lower ontological status ascribed to the world. God's involvement in the world is often understood along the lines of a personal, benevolent God who looks after and guides His creation. Deists agree with theists that God created the world but deny any subsequent, personal involvement in it. Pantheists reject the separation between God and world. Instead, they claim that the two are identical. This means that there is nothing to the world that does not belong to God and that there is nothing to God beyond what is found in the world. Panentheism constitutes a middle ground between theism and pantheism. Against theism, it holds that God and the world are interrelated and depend on each other. Against pantheism, it holds that there is no outright identity between the two. History of philosophy In philosophy, the term world has several possible meanings. In some contexts, it refers to everything that makes up reality or the physical universe. In others, it can mean have a specific ontological sense (see world disclosure). While clarifying the concept of world has arguably always been among the basic tasks of Western philosophy, this theme appears to have been raised explicitly only at the start of the twentieth century, Plato is well known for his theory of forms, which posits the existence of two different worlds: the sensible world and the intelligible world. The sensible world is the world we live in, filled with changing physical things we can see, touch and interact with. The intelligible world is the world of invisible, eternal, changeless forms like goodness, beauty, unity and sameness. Plato ascribes a lower ontological status to the sensible world, which only imitates the world of forms. This is due to the fact that physical things exist only to the extent that they participate in the forms that characterize them, while the forms themselves have an independent manner of existence. In this sense, the sensible world is a mere replication of the perfect exemplars found in the world of forms: it never lives up to the original. In the allegory of the cave, Plato compares the physical things we are familiar with to mere shadows of the real things. But not knowing the difference, the prisoners in the cave mistake the shadows for the real things. Two definitions that were both put forward in the 1920s, however, suggest the range of available opinion. "The world is everything that is the case", wrote Ludwig Wittgenstein in his influential Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, first published in 1921. Martin Heidegger, meanwhile, argued that "the surrounding world is different for each of us, and notwithstanding that we move about in a common world". "World" is one of the key terms in Eugen Fink's philosophy. He thinks that there is a misguided tendency in western philosophy to understand the world as one enormously big thing containing all the small everyday things we are familiar with. He sees this view as a form of forgetfulness of the world and tries to oppose it by what he calls the "cosmological difference": the difference between the world and the inner-worldly things it contains. On his view, the world is the totality of the inner-worldly things that transcends them. It is itself groundless but it provides a ground for things. It therefore cannot be identified with a mere container. Instead, the world gives appearance to inner-worldly things, it provides them with a place, a beginning and an end. One difficulty in investigating the world is that we never encounter it since it is not just one more thing that appears to us. This is why Fink uses the notion of play or playing to elucidate the nature of the world. He sees play as a symbol of the world that is both part of it and that represents it. Play usually comes with a form of imaginary play-world involving various things relevant to the play. But just like the play is more than the imaginary realities appearing in it so the world is more than the actual things appearing in it. The concept of worlds plays a central role in Nelson Goodman's late philosophy. He argues that we need to posit different worlds in order to account for the fact that there are different incompatible truths found in reality. Two truths are incompatible if they ascribe incompatible properties to the same thing. This happens, for example, when we assert both that the earth moves and that the earth is at rest. These incompatible truths correspond to two different ways of describing the world: heliocentrism and geocentrism. Goodman terms such descriptions "world versions". He holds a correspondence theory of truth: a world version is true if it corresponds to a world. Incompatible true world versions correspond to different worlds. It is common for theories of modality to posit the existence of a plurality of possible worlds. But Goodman's theory is different since it posits a plurality not of possible but of actual worlds. Such a position is in danger of involving a contradiction: there cannot be a plurality of actual worlds if worlds are defined as maximally inclusive wholes. This danger may be avoided by interpreting Goodman's world-concept not as maximally inclusive wholes in the absolute sense but in relation to its corresponding world-version: a world contains all and only the entities that its world-version describes. Religion Mythological cosmologies depict the world as centered on an axis mundi and delimited by a boundary such as a world ocean, a world serpent or similar. Hinduism constitutes a family of religious-philosophical views. These views present perspectives on the nature and role of the world. Samkhya philosophy, for example, is a metaphysical dualism that understands reality as comprising 2 parts: purusha and prakriti. The term "purusha" stands for the individual conscious self that each of "us" possesses. Prakriti, on the other hand, is the 1 world inhabited by all these selves. Samkhya understands this world as a world of matter governed by the law of cause and effect. The term "matter" is understood in a sense in this tradition including physical and mental aspects. This is reflected in the doctrine of tattvas, according to which prakriti is made up of 23 principles or elements of reality. These principles include physical elements, like water or earth, and mental aspects, like intelligence or sense-impressions. The relation between purusha and prakriti is conceived as 1 of observation: purusha is the conscious self aware of the world of prakriti and does not causally interact with it. A conception of the world is present in Advaita Vedanta, the monist school among the Vedanta schools. Unlike the realist position defended in Samkhya philosophy, Advaita Vedanta sees the world of multiplicity as an illusion, referred to as Maya. This illusion includes impression of existing as separate experiencing selfs called Jivas. Instead, Advaita Vedanta teaches that on the most fundamental level of reality, referred to as Brahman, there exists no plurality or difference. All there is is 1 all-encompassing self: Atman. Ignorance is seen as the source of this illusion, which results in bondage to the world of mere appearances. Liberation is possible in the course of overcoming this illusion by acquiring the knowledge of Brahman, according to Advaita Vedanta. Contemptus mundi is the name given to the belief that the world, in all its vanity, is nothing more than a futile attempt to hide from God by stifling our desire for the good and the holy. This view has been characterised as a "pastoral of fear" by historian Jean Delumeau. "The world, the flesh, and the devil" is a traditional division of the sources of temptation. Orbis Catholicus is a Latin phrase meaning "Catholic world", per the expression Urbi et Orbi, and refers to that area of Christendom under papal supremacy. In Islam, the term "dunya" is used for the world. Its meaning is derived from the root word "dana", a term for "near". It is associated with the temporal, sensory world and earthly concerns, i.e. with this world in contrast to the spiritual world. Religious teachings warn of a tendency to seek happiness in this world and advise a more ascetic lifestyle concerned with the afterlife. Other strands in Islam recommend a balanced approach. In Mandaean cosmology, the world or earthly realm is known as Tibil. It is separated from the World of Light (alma d-nhūra) above and the World of Darkness (alma d-hšuka) below by aether (ayar). Related terms and problems A worldview is a comprehensive representation of the world and our place in it. As a representation, it is a subjective perspective of the world and thereby different from the world it represents. All higher animals need to represent their environment in some way in order to navigate it. But it has been argued that only humans possess a representation encompassing enough to merit the term "worldview". Philosophers of worldviews commonly hold that the understanding of any object depends on a worldview constituting the background on which this understanding can take place. This may affect not just our intellectual understanding of the object in question but the experience of it in general. It is therefore impossible to assess one's worldview from a neutral perspective since this assessment already presupposes the worldview as its background. Some hold that each worldview is based on a single hypothesis that promises to solve all the problems of our existence we may encounter. On this interpretation, the term is closely associated to the worldviews given by different religions. Worldviews offer orientation not just in theoretical matters but also in practical matters. For this reason, they usually include answers to the question of the meaning of life and other evaluative components about what matters and how we should act. A worldview can be unique to one individual but worldviews are usually shared by many people within a certain culture or religion. The idea that there exist many different worlds is found in various fields. For example, theories of modality talk about a plurality of possible worlds and the many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics carries this reference even in its name. Talk of different worlds is also common in everyday language, for example, with reference to the world of music, the world of business, the world of football, the world of experience or the Asian world. But at the same time, worlds are usually defined as all-inclusive totalities. This seems to contradict the very idea of a plurality of worlds since if a world is total and all-inclusive then it cannot have anything outside itself. Understood this way, a world can neither have other worlds besides itself or be part of something bigger. One way to resolve this paradox while holding onto the notion of a plurality of worlds is to restrict the sense in which worlds are totalities. On this view, worlds are not totalities in an absolute sense. This might be even understood in the sense that, strictly speaking, there are no worlds at all. Another approach understands worlds in a schematic sense: as context-dependent expressions that stand for the current domain of discourse. So in the expression "Around the World in Eighty Days", the term "world" refers to the earth while in the colonial expression "the New World" it refers to the landmass of North and South America. Cosmogony is the field that studies the origin or creation of the world. This includes both scientific cosmogony and creation myths found in various religions. The dominant theory in scientific cosmogony is the Big Bang theory, according to which both space, time and matter have their origin in one initial singularity occurring about 13.8 billion years ago. This singularity was followed by an expansion that allowed the universe to sufficiently cool down for the formation of subatomic particles and later atoms. These initial elements formed giant clouds, which would then coalesce into stars and galaxies. Non-scientific creation myths are found in many cultures and are often enacted in rituals expressing their symbolic meaning. They can be categorized concerning their contents. Types often found include creation from nothing, from chaos or from a cosmic egg. Eschatology refers to the science or doctrine of the last things or of the end of the world. It is traditionally associated with religion, specifically with the Abrahamic religions. In this form, it may include teachings both of the end of each individual human life and of the end of the world as a whole. But it has been applied to other fields as well, for example, in the form of physical eschatology, which includes scientifically based speculations about the far future of the universe. According to some models, there will be a Big Crunch in which the whole universe collapses back into a singularity, possibly resulting in a second Big Bang afterward. But current astronomical evidence seems to suggest that our universe will continue to expand indefinitely. World history studies the world from a historical perspective. Unlike other approaches to history, it employs a global viewpoint. It deals less with individual nations and civilizations, which it usually approaches at a high level of abstraction. Instead, it concentrates on wider regions and zones of interaction, often interested in how people, goods and ideas move from one region to another. It includes comparisons of different societies and civilizations as well as considering wide-ranging developments with a long-term global impact like the process of industrialization. Contemporary world history is dominated by three main research paradigms determining the periodization into different epochs. One is based on productive relations between humans and nature. The two most important changes in history in this respect were the introduction of agriculture and husbandry concerning the production of food, which started around 10,000 to 8,000 BCE and is sometimes termed the Neolithic Revolution, and the Industrial Revolution, which started around 1760 CE and involved the transition from manual to industrial manufacturing. Another paradigm, focusing on culture and religion instead, is based on Karl Jaspers' theories about the Axial Age, a time in which various new forms of religious and philosophical thoughts appeared in several separate parts of the world around the time between 800 and 200 BCE. A third periodization is based on the relations between civilizations and societies. According to this paradigm, history can be divided into three periods in relation to the dominant region in the world: Middle Eastern dominance before 500 BCE, Eurasian cultural balance until 1500 CE and Western dominance since 1500 CE. Big History employs an even wider framework than world history by putting human history into the context of the history of the universe as a whole. It starts with the Big Bang and traces the formation of galaxies, the Solar System, the Earth, its geological eras, the evolution of life and humans until the present day. World politics, also referred to as global politics or international relations, is the discipline of political science studying issues of interest to the world that transcend nations and continents. It aims to explain complex patterns found in the social world that are often related to the pursuit of power, order and justice, usually in the context of globalization. It focuses not just on the relations between nation-states but also considers other transnational actors, like multinational corporations, terrorist groups, or non-governmental organizations. For example, it tries to explain events such as the September 11 attacks, the 2003 invasion of Iraq or the 2008 financial crisis. Various theories have been proposed in order to deal with the complexity involved in formulating such explanations. These theories are sometimes divided into realism, liberalism and constructivism. Realists see nation-states as the main actors in world politics. They constitute an anarchical international system without any overarching power to control their behavior. They are seen as sovereign agents that, determined by human nature, act according to their national self-interest. Military force may play an important role in the ensuing struggle for power between states, but diplomacy and cooperation are also key mechanisms for nations to achieve their goals. Liberalists acknowledge the importance of states but they also emphasize the role of transnational actors, like the United Nations or the World Trade Organization. They see humans as perfectible and stress the role of democracy in this process. The emergent order in world politics, on this perspective, is more complex than a mere balance of power since more different agents and interests are involved in its production. Constructivism ascribes more importance to the agency of individual humans than realism and liberalism. It understands the social world as a construction of the people living in it. This leads to an emphasis on the possibility of change. If the international system is an anarchy of nation-states, as the realists hold, then this is only so because we made it this way and may change since this is not prefigured by human nature, according to the constructivists. See also References External links Africa Antarctica Asia Australia Europe North America South America Afro-Eurasia Americas Eurasia Oceania |
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[SOURCE: https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2026/02/fcc-asks-stations-for-pro-america-programming-like-daily-pledge-of-allegiance/] | [TOKENS: 2029] |
Pledge allegiance to the FCC FCC asks stations for “pro-America” programming, like daily Pledge of Allegiance Brendan Carr wants “patriotic” shows for Trump’s yearlong America 250 celebration. Jon Brodkin – Feb 20, 2026 5:00 pm | 146 FCC Chairman Brendan Carr speaks at a news conference following an FCC meeting on February 18, 2026 in Washington, DC. Credit: Getty Images | Kevin Dietsch FCC Chairman Brendan Carr speaks at a news conference following an FCC meeting on February 18, 2026 in Washington, DC. Credit: Getty Images | Kevin Dietsch Text settings Story text Size Small Standard Large Width * Standard Wide Links Standard Orange * Subscribers only Learn more Minimize to nav Federal Communications Commission Chairman Brendan Carr today urged broadcasters to join a “Pledge America Campaign” that Carr established to support President Trump’s “Salute to America 250” project. Carr said in a press release that “I am inviting broadcasters to pledge to air programming in their local markets in support of this historic national, non-partisan celebration.” The press release said Carr is asking broadcasters to “air patriotic, pro-America programming in support of America’s 250th birthday.” Carr gave what he called examples of content that broadcasters can run if they take the pledge. His examples include “starting each broadcast day with the ‘Star Spangled Banner’ or Pledge of Allegiance”; airing “PSAs, short segments, or full specials specifically promoting civic education, inspiring local stories, and American history”; running “segments during regular news programming that highlight local sites that are significant to American and regional history, such as National Park Service sites”; airing “music by America’s greatest composers, such as John Philip Sousa, Aaron Copland, Duke Ellington, and George Gershwin”; and providing daily “Today in American History” announcements highlighting significant events from US history. Carr apparently wants this to start now and last until at least July 4. Carr’s press release starts by touting Trump’s Salute to America 250 project and quotes a White House statement that said, “Under the President’s leadership, Task Force 250 has commenced the planning of a full year of festivities to officially launch on Memorial Day, 2025 and continue through July 4, 2026.” That White House quote cited by the FCC today is nearly a year old, as you might have guessed by the reference to Memorial Day in 2025. More recently, Trump has said he wants the celebration to last throughout 2026. A Trump proclamation last month declared a “yearlong commemoration” of American independence that began on January 1, 2026. “Voluntary” pledge Today’s FCC press release said, “Broadcasters can voluntarily choose to indicate their commitment to the Pledge America Campaign and highlight their ongoing and relevant programming to their viewing and listening audiences.” Although it’s described as voluntary, Carr said broadcasters can meet their public interest obligations by taking the pledge. This is notable because Carr has repeatedly threatened to punish broadcast stations for violating the public interest standard. “I believe in the greatness of our country,” Carr said in the press release. “And I look forward to broadcasters showcasing its inspiring history by taking the Pledge and fulfilling their public interest mandate to serve the needs and interests of their local communities as America’s 250th birthday celebration marches on.” Carr has enthusiastically backed Trump’s battles against the media by making numerous threats to revoke broadcast station licenses. Carr targeted ABC’s Jimmy Kimmel in September, and recently opened an investigation into ABC’s The View. In both cases, Carr said he was enforcing the FCC’s public interest standard. Stephen Colbert said this week that CBS forbade him from interviewing Texas Democratic Senate candidate James Talarico because of Carr’s threat to ditch the FCC’s longstanding practice of exempting talk shows from the equal-time rule. CBS denied prohibiting the interview but acknowledged giving Colbert “legal guidance” about potential consequences under the equal-time rule. Carr responded Wednesday by claiming that Colbert lied and said the media “should feel a bit ashamed for having been lied to and then run with those lies.” If Carr’s pledge is truly voluntary, there would be no reason to limit it to broadcasters, said Harold Feld, a longtime telecom attorney who is senior VP of consumer advocacy group Public Knowledge. “If this were genuinely intended as voluntary, and genuinely about celebrating America, there is no reason to limit this to broadcasters,” Feld told Ars. “Cable operators are equally free to celebrate America, as are podcasters for that matter.” The FCC’s lone Democratic commissioner, Anna Gomez, has been urging broadcasters to push back against the FCC and assert their First Amendment rights. She wrote in response to Carr’s Pledge America Campaign, “Nothing is more American than defending our constitutional rights against those who would erode our civil liberties. If broadcasters choose to participate in this FCC campaign, they can do so by defending their First Amendment rights and refusing government interference.” Jon Brodkin Senior IT Reporter Jon Brodkin Senior IT Reporter Jon is a Senior IT Reporter for Ars Technica. He covers the telecom industry, Federal Communications Commission rulemakings, broadband consumer affairs, court cases, and government regulation of the tech industry. 146 Comments FCC asks stations for “pro-America” programming, like daily Pledge of Allegiance Brendan Carr wants “patriotic” shows for Trump’s yearlong America 250 celebration. Federal Communications Commission Chairman Brendan Carr today urged broadcasters to join a “Pledge America Campaign” that Carr established to support President Trump’s “Salute to America 250” project. Carr said in a press release that “I am inviting broadcasters to pledge to air programming in their local markets in support of this historic national, non-partisan celebration.” The press release said Carr is asking broadcasters to “air patriotic, pro-America programming in support of America’s 250th birthday.” Carr gave what he called examples of content that broadcasters can run if they take the pledge. His examples include “starting each broadcast day with the ‘Star Spangled Banner’ or Pledge of Allegiance”; airing “PSAs, short segments, or full specials specifically promoting civic education, inspiring local stories, and American history”; running “segments during regular news programming that highlight local sites that are significant to American and regional history, such as National Park Service sites”; airing “music by America’s greatest composers, such as John Philip Sousa, Aaron Copland, Duke Ellington, and George Gershwin”; and providing daily “Today in American History” announcements highlighting significant events from US history. Carr apparently wants this to start now and last until at least July 4. Carr’s press release starts by touting Trump’s Salute to America 250 project and quotes a White House statement that said, “Under the President’s leadership, Task Force 250 has commenced the planning of a full year of festivities to officially launch on Memorial Day, 2025 and continue through July 4, 2026.” That White House quote cited by the FCC today is nearly a year old, as you might have guessed by the reference to Memorial Day in 2025. More recently, Trump has said he wants the celebration to last throughout 2026. A Trump proclamation last month declared a “yearlong commemoration” of American independence that began on January 1, 2026. “Voluntary” pledge Today’s FCC press release said, “Broadcasters can voluntarily choose to indicate their commitment to the Pledge America Campaign and highlight their ongoing and relevant programming to their viewing and listening audiences.” Although it’s described as voluntary, Carr said broadcasters can meet their public interest obligations by taking the pledge. This is notable because Carr has repeatedly threatened to punish broadcast stations for violating the public interest standard. “I believe in the greatness of our country,” Carr said in the press release. “And I look forward to broadcasters showcasing its inspiring history by taking the Pledge and fulfilling their public interest mandate to serve the needs and interests of their local communities as America’s 250th birthday celebration marches on.” Carr has enthusiastically backed Trump’s battles against the media by making numerous threats to revoke broadcast station licenses. Carr targeted ABC’s Jimmy Kimmel in September, and recently opened an investigation into ABC’s The View. In both cases, Carr said he was enforcing the FCC’s public interest standard. Stephen Colbert said this week that CBS forbade him from interviewing Texas Democratic Senate candidate James Talarico because of Carr’s threat to ditch the FCC’s longstanding practice of exempting talk shows from the equal-time rule. CBS denied prohibiting the interview but acknowledged giving Colbert “legal guidance” about potential consequences under the equal-time rule. Carr responded Wednesday by claiming that Colbert lied and said the media “should feel a bit ashamed for having been lied to and then run with those lies.” If Carr’s pledge is truly voluntary, there would be no reason to limit it to broadcasters, said Harold Feld, a longtime telecom attorney who is senior VP of consumer advocacy group Public Knowledge. “If this were genuinely intended as voluntary, and genuinely about celebrating America, there is no reason to limit this to broadcasters,” Feld told Ars. “Cable operators are equally free to celebrate America, as are podcasters for that matter.” The FCC’s lone Democratic commissioner, Anna Gomez, has been urging broadcasters to push back against the FCC and assert their First Amendment rights. She wrote in response to Carr’s Pledge America Campaign, “Nothing is more American than defending our constitutional rights against those who would erode our civil liberties. If broadcasters choose to participate in this FCC campaign, they can do so by defending their First Amendment rights and refusing government interference.” Ars Technica has been separating the signal from the noise for over 25 years. With our unique combination of technical savvy and wide-ranging interest in the technological arts and sciences, Ars is the trusted source in a sea of information. After all, you don’t need to know everything, only what’s important. |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World#Religion] | [TOKENS: 5641] |
Contents World The world is the totality of entities, the whole of reality, or everything that exists. The nature of the world has been conceptualized differently in different fields. Some conceptions see the world as unique, while others talk of a "plurality of worlds". Some treat the world as one simple object, while others analyze the world as a complex made up of parts. In scientific cosmology, the world or universe is commonly defined as "the totality of all space and time; all that is, has been, and will be". Theories of modality talk of possible worlds as complete and consistent ways how things could have been. Phenomenology, starting from the horizon of co-given objects present in the periphery of every experience, defines the world as the biggest horizon, or the "horizon of all horizons". In philosophy of mind, the world is contrasted with the mind as that which is represented by the mind. Theology conceptualizes the world in relation to God, for example, as God's creation, as identical to God, or as the two being interdependent. In religions, there is a tendency to downgrade the material or sensory world in favor of a spiritual world to be sought through religious practice. A comprehensive representation of the world and our place in it, as is found in religions, is known as a worldview. Cosmogony is the field that studies the origin or creation of the world, while eschatology refers to the science or doctrine of the last things or of the end of the world. In various contexts, the term "world" takes a more restricted meaning associated, for example, with the Earth and all life on it, with humanity as a whole, or with an international or intercontinental scope. In this sense, world history refers to the history of humanity as a whole, and world politics is the discipline of political science studying issues that transcend nations and continents. Other examples include terms such as "world religion", "world language", "world government", "world war", "world population", "world economy", or "world championship". Etymology The English word world comes from the Old English weorold. The Old English is a reflex of the Common Germanic *weraldiz, a compound of weraz 'man' and aldiz 'age', thus literally meaning roughly 'age of man'; this word led to Old Frisian warld, Old Saxon werold, Old Dutch werolt, Old High German weralt, and Old Norse verǫld. The corresponding word in Latin is mundus, literally 'clean, elegant', itself a loan translation of Greek cosmos 'orderly arrangement'. While the Germanic word thus reflects a mythological notion of a "domain of Man" (compare Midgard), presumably as opposed to the divine sphere on the one hand and the chthonic sphere of the underworld on the other, the Greco-Latin term expresses a notion of creation as an act of establishing order out of chaos. Conceptions Different fields often work with quite different conceptions of the essential features associated with the term "world". Some conceptions see the world as unique: there can be no more than one world. Others talk of a "plurality of worlds". Some see worlds as complex things composed of many substances as their parts while others hold that worlds are simple in the sense that there is only one substance: the world as a whole. Some characterize worlds in terms of objective spacetime while others define them relative to the horizon present in each experience. These different characterizations are not always exclusive: it may be possible to combine some without leading to a contradiction. Most of them agree that worlds are unified totalities. Monism is a thesis about oneness: that only one thing exists in a certain sense. The denial of monism is pluralism, the thesis that, in a certain sense, more than one thing exists. There are many forms of monism and pluralism, but in relation to the world as a whole, two are of special interest: existence monism/pluralism and priority monism/pluralism. Existence monism states that the world is the only concrete object there is. This means that all the concrete "objects" we encounter in our daily lives, including apples, cars and ourselves, are not truly objects in a strict sense. Instead, they are just dependent aspects of the world-object. Such a world-object is simple in the sense that it does not have any genuine parts. For this reason, it has also been referred to as "blobject" since it lacks an internal structure like a blob. Priority monism allows that there are other concrete objects besides the world. But it holds that these objects do not have the most fundamental form of existence, that they somehow depend on the existence of the world. The corresponding forms of pluralism state that the world is complex in the sense that it is made up of concrete, independent objects. Scientific cosmology can be defined as the science of the universe as a whole. In it, the terms "universe" and "cosmos" are usually used as synonyms for the term "world". One common definition of the world/universe found in this field is as "[t]he totality of all space and time; all that is, has been, and will be". Some definitions emphasize that there are two other aspects to the universe besides spacetime: forms of energy or matter, like stars and particles, and laws of nature. World-conceptions in this field differ both concerning their notion of spacetime and of the contents of spacetime. The theory of relativity plays a central role in modern cosmology and its conception of space and time. A difference from its predecessors is that it conceives space and time not as distinct dimensions but as a single four-dimensional manifold called spacetime. This can be seen in special relativity in relation to the Minkowski metric, which includes both spatial and temporal components in its definition of distance. General relativity goes one step further by integrating the concept of mass into the concept of spacetime as its curvature. Quantum cosmology uses a classical notion of spacetime and conceives the whole world as one big wave function expressing the probability of finding particles in a given location. The world-concept plays a role in many modern theories of modality, sometimes in the form of possible worlds. A possible world is a complete and consistent way how things could have been. The actual world is a possible world since the way things are is a way things could have been. There are many other ways things could have been besides how they actually are. For example, Hillary Clinton did not win the 2016 US election, but she could have won. So there is a possible world in which she did. There is a vast number of possible worlds, one corresponding to each such difference, no matter how small or big, as long as no outright contradictions are introduced this way. Possible worlds are often conceived as abstract objects, for example, in terms of non-obtaining states of affairs or as maximally consistent sets of propositions. On such a view, they can even be seen as belonging to the actual world. Another way to conceive possible worlds, made famous by David Lewis, is as concrete entities. On this conception, there is no important difference between the actual world and possible worlds: both are conceived as concrete, inclusive and spatiotemporally connected. The only difference is that the actual world is the world we live in, while other possible worlds are not inhabited by us but by our counterparts. Everything within a world is spatiotemporally connected to everything else but the different worlds do not share a common spacetime: They are spatiotemporally isolated from each other. This is what makes them separate worlds. It has been suggested that, besides possible worlds, there are also impossible worlds. Possible worlds are ways things could have been, so impossible worlds are ways things could not have been. Such worlds involve a contradiction, like a world in which Hillary Clinton both won and lost the 2016 US election. Both possible and impossible worlds have in common the idea that they are totalities of their constituents. Within phenomenology, worlds are defined in terms of horizons of experiences. When we perceive an object, like a house, we do not just experience this object at the center of our attention but also various other objects surrounding it, given in the periphery. The term "horizon" refers to these co-given objects, which are usually experienced only in a vague, indeterminate manner. The perception of a house involves various horizons, corresponding to the neighborhood, the city, the country, the Earth, etc. In this context, the world is the biggest horizon or the "horizon of all horizons". It is common among phenomenologists to understand the world not just as a spatiotemporal collection of objects but as additionally incorporating various other relations between these objects. These relations include, for example, indication-relations that help us anticipate one object given the appearances of another object and means-end-relations or functional involvements relevant for practical concerns. In philosophy of mind, the term "world" is commonly used in contrast to the term "mind" as that which is represented by the mind. This is sometimes expressed by stating that there is a gap between mind and world and that this gap needs to be overcome for representation to be successful. One problem in philosophy of mind is to explain how the mind is able to bridge this gap and to enter into genuine mind-world-relations, for example, in the form of perception, knowledge or action. This is necessary for the world to be able to rationally constrain the activity of the mind. According to a realist position, the world is something distinct and independent from the mind. Idealists conceive of the world as partially or fully determined by the mind. Immanuel Kant's transcendental idealism, for example, posits that the spatiotemporal structure of the world is imposed by the mind on reality but lacks independent existence otherwise. A more radical idealist conception of the world can be found in Berkeley's subjective idealism, which holds that the world as a whole, including all everyday objects like tables, cats, trees and ourselves, "consists of nothing but minds and ideas". Different theological positions hold different conceptions of the world based on its relation to God. Classical theism states that God is wholly distinct from the world. But the world depends for its existence on God, both because God created the world and because He maintains or conserves it. This is sometimes understood in analogy to how humans create and conserve ideas in their imagination, with the difference being that the divine mind is vastly more powerful. On such a view, God has absolute, ultimate reality in contrast to the lower ontological status ascribed to the world. God's involvement in the world is often understood along the lines of a personal, benevolent God who looks after and guides His creation. Deists agree with theists that God created the world but deny any subsequent, personal involvement in it. Pantheists reject the separation between God and world. Instead, they claim that the two are identical. This means that there is nothing to the world that does not belong to God and that there is nothing to God beyond what is found in the world. Panentheism constitutes a middle ground between theism and pantheism. Against theism, it holds that God and the world are interrelated and depend on each other. Against pantheism, it holds that there is no outright identity between the two. History of philosophy In philosophy, the term world has several possible meanings. In some contexts, it refers to everything that makes up reality or the physical universe. In others, it can mean have a specific ontological sense (see world disclosure). While clarifying the concept of world has arguably always been among the basic tasks of Western philosophy, this theme appears to have been raised explicitly only at the start of the twentieth century, Plato is well known for his theory of forms, which posits the existence of two different worlds: the sensible world and the intelligible world. The sensible world is the world we live in, filled with changing physical things we can see, touch and interact with. The intelligible world is the world of invisible, eternal, changeless forms like goodness, beauty, unity and sameness. Plato ascribes a lower ontological status to the sensible world, which only imitates the world of forms. This is due to the fact that physical things exist only to the extent that they participate in the forms that characterize them, while the forms themselves have an independent manner of existence. In this sense, the sensible world is a mere replication of the perfect exemplars found in the world of forms: it never lives up to the original. In the allegory of the cave, Plato compares the physical things we are familiar with to mere shadows of the real things. But not knowing the difference, the prisoners in the cave mistake the shadows for the real things. Two definitions that were both put forward in the 1920s, however, suggest the range of available opinion. "The world is everything that is the case", wrote Ludwig Wittgenstein in his influential Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, first published in 1921. Martin Heidegger, meanwhile, argued that "the surrounding world is different for each of us, and notwithstanding that we move about in a common world". "World" is one of the key terms in Eugen Fink's philosophy. He thinks that there is a misguided tendency in western philosophy to understand the world as one enormously big thing containing all the small everyday things we are familiar with. He sees this view as a form of forgetfulness of the world and tries to oppose it by what he calls the "cosmological difference": the difference between the world and the inner-worldly things it contains. On his view, the world is the totality of the inner-worldly things that transcends them. It is itself groundless but it provides a ground for things. It therefore cannot be identified with a mere container. Instead, the world gives appearance to inner-worldly things, it provides them with a place, a beginning and an end. One difficulty in investigating the world is that we never encounter it since it is not just one more thing that appears to us. This is why Fink uses the notion of play or playing to elucidate the nature of the world. He sees play as a symbol of the world that is both part of it and that represents it. Play usually comes with a form of imaginary play-world involving various things relevant to the play. But just like the play is more than the imaginary realities appearing in it so the world is more than the actual things appearing in it. The concept of worlds plays a central role in Nelson Goodman's late philosophy. He argues that we need to posit different worlds in order to account for the fact that there are different incompatible truths found in reality. Two truths are incompatible if they ascribe incompatible properties to the same thing. This happens, for example, when we assert both that the earth moves and that the earth is at rest. These incompatible truths correspond to two different ways of describing the world: heliocentrism and geocentrism. Goodman terms such descriptions "world versions". He holds a correspondence theory of truth: a world version is true if it corresponds to a world. Incompatible true world versions correspond to different worlds. It is common for theories of modality to posit the existence of a plurality of possible worlds. But Goodman's theory is different since it posits a plurality not of possible but of actual worlds. Such a position is in danger of involving a contradiction: there cannot be a plurality of actual worlds if worlds are defined as maximally inclusive wholes. This danger may be avoided by interpreting Goodman's world-concept not as maximally inclusive wholes in the absolute sense but in relation to its corresponding world-version: a world contains all and only the entities that its world-version describes. Religion Mythological cosmologies depict the world as centered on an axis mundi and delimited by a boundary such as a world ocean, a world serpent or similar. Hinduism constitutes a family of religious-philosophical views. These views present perspectives on the nature and role of the world. Samkhya philosophy, for example, is a metaphysical dualism that understands reality as comprising 2 parts: purusha and prakriti. The term "purusha" stands for the individual conscious self that each of "us" possesses. Prakriti, on the other hand, is the 1 world inhabited by all these selves. Samkhya understands this world as a world of matter governed by the law of cause and effect. The term "matter" is understood in a sense in this tradition including physical and mental aspects. This is reflected in the doctrine of tattvas, according to which prakriti is made up of 23 principles or elements of reality. These principles include physical elements, like water or earth, and mental aspects, like intelligence or sense-impressions. The relation between purusha and prakriti is conceived as 1 of observation: purusha is the conscious self aware of the world of prakriti and does not causally interact with it. A conception of the world is present in Advaita Vedanta, the monist school among the Vedanta schools. Unlike the realist position defended in Samkhya philosophy, Advaita Vedanta sees the world of multiplicity as an illusion, referred to as Maya. This illusion includes impression of existing as separate experiencing selfs called Jivas. Instead, Advaita Vedanta teaches that on the most fundamental level of reality, referred to as Brahman, there exists no plurality or difference. All there is is 1 all-encompassing self: Atman. Ignorance is seen as the source of this illusion, which results in bondage to the world of mere appearances. Liberation is possible in the course of overcoming this illusion by acquiring the knowledge of Brahman, according to Advaita Vedanta. Contemptus mundi is the name given to the belief that the world, in all its vanity, is nothing more than a futile attempt to hide from God by stifling our desire for the good and the holy. This view has been characterised as a "pastoral of fear" by historian Jean Delumeau. "The world, the flesh, and the devil" is a traditional division of the sources of temptation. Orbis Catholicus is a Latin phrase meaning "Catholic world", per the expression Urbi et Orbi, and refers to that area of Christendom under papal supremacy. In Islam, the term "dunya" is used for the world. Its meaning is derived from the root word "dana", a term for "near". It is associated with the temporal, sensory world and earthly concerns, i.e. with this world in contrast to the spiritual world. Religious teachings warn of a tendency to seek happiness in this world and advise a more ascetic lifestyle concerned with the afterlife. Other strands in Islam recommend a balanced approach. In Mandaean cosmology, the world or earthly realm is known as Tibil. It is separated from the World of Light (alma d-nhūra) above and the World of Darkness (alma d-hšuka) below by aether (ayar). Related terms and problems A worldview is a comprehensive representation of the world and our place in it. As a representation, it is a subjective perspective of the world and thereby different from the world it represents. All higher animals need to represent their environment in some way in order to navigate it. But it has been argued that only humans possess a representation encompassing enough to merit the term "worldview". Philosophers of worldviews commonly hold that the understanding of any object depends on a worldview constituting the background on which this understanding can take place. This may affect not just our intellectual understanding of the object in question but the experience of it in general. It is therefore impossible to assess one's worldview from a neutral perspective since this assessment already presupposes the worldview as its background. Some hold that each worldview is based on a single hypothesis that promises to solve all the problems of our existence we may encounter. On this interpretation, the term is closely associated to the worldviews given by different religions. Worldviews offer orientation not just in theoretical matters but also in practical matters. For this reason, they usually include answers to the question of the meaning of life and other evaluative components about what matters and how we should act. A worldview can be unique to one individual but worldviews are usually shared by many people within a certain culture or religion. The idea that there exist many different worlds is found in various fields. For example, theories of modality talk about a plurality of possible worlds and the many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics carries this reference even in its name. Talk of different worlds is also common in everyday language, for example, with reference to the world of music, the world of business, the world of football, the world of experience or the Asian world. But at the same time, worlds are usually defined as all-inclusive totalities. This seems to contradict the very idea of a plurality of worlds since if a world is total and all-inclusive then it cannot have anything outside itself. Understood this way, a world can neither have other worlds besides itself or be part of something bigger. One way to resolve this paradox while holding onto the notion of a plurality of worlds is to restrict the sense in which worlds are totalities. On this view, worlds are not totalities in an absolute sense. This might be even understood in the sense that, strictly speaking, there are no worlds at all. Another approach understands worlds in a schematic sense: as context-dependent expressions that stand for the current domain of discourse. So in the expression "Around the World in Eighty Days", the term "world" refers to the earth while in the colonial expression "the New World" it refers to the landmass of North and South America. Cosmogony is the field that studies the origin or creation of the world. This includes both scientific cosmogony and creation myths found in various religions. The dominant theory in scientific cosmogony is the Big Bang theory, according to which both space, time and matter have their origin in one initial singularity occurring about 13.8 billion years ago. This singularity was followed by an expansion that allowed the universe to sufficiently cool down for the formation of subatomic particles and later atoms. These initial elements formed giant clouds, which would then coalesce into stars and galaxies. Non-scientific creation myths are found in many cultures and are often enacted in rituals expressing their symbolic meaning. They can be categorized concerning their contents. Types often found include creation from nothing, from chaos or from a cosmic egg. Eschatology refers to the science or doctrine of the last things or of the end of the world. It is traditionally associated with religion, specifically with the Abrahamic religions. In this form, it may include teachings both of the end of each individual human life and of the end of the world as a whole. But it has been applied to other fields as well, for example, in the form of physical eschatology, which includes scientifically based speculations about the far future of the universe. According to some models, there will be a Big Crunch in which the whole universe collapses back into a singularity, possibly resulting in a second Big Bang afterward. But current astronomical evidence seems to suggest that our universe will continue to expand indefinitely. World history studies the world from a historical perspective. Unlike other approaches to history, it employs a global viewpoint. It deals less with individual nations and civilizations, which it usually approaches at a high level of abstraction. Instead, it concentrates on wider regions and zones of interaction, often interested in how people, goods and ideas move from one region to another. It includes comparisons of different societies and civilizations as well as considering wide-ranging developments with a long-term global impact like the process of industrialization. Contemporary world history is dominated by three main research paradigms determining the periodization into different epochs. One is based on productive relations between humans and nature. The two most important changes in history in this respect were the introduction of agriculture and husbandry concerning the production of food, which started around 10,000 to 8,000 BCE and is sometimes termed the Neolithic Revolution, and the Industrial Revolution, which started around 1760 CE and involved the transition from manual to industrial manufacturing. Another paradigm, focusing on culture and religion instead, is based on Karl Jaspers' theories about the Axial Age, a time in which various new forms of religious and philosophical thoughts appeared in several separate parts of the world around the time between 800 and 200 BCE. A third periodization is based on the relations between civilizations and societies. According to this paradigm, history can be divided into three periods in relation to the dominant region in the world: Middle Eastern dominance before 500 BCE, Eurasian cultural balance until 1500 CE and Western dominance since 1500 CE. Big History employs an even wider framework than world history by putting human history into the context of the history of the universe as a whole. It starts with the Big Bang and traces the formation of galaxies, the Solar System, the Earth, its geological eras, the evolution of life and humans until the present day. World politics, also referred to as global politics or international relations, is the discipline of political science studying issues of interest to the world that transcend nations and continents. It aims to explain complex patterns found in the social world that are often related to the pursuit of power, order and justice, usually in the context of globalization. It focuses not just on the relations between nation-states but also considers other transnational actors, like multinational corporations, terrorist groups, or non-governmental organizations. For example, it tries to explain events such as the September 11 attacks, the 2003 invasion of Iraq or the 2008 financial crisis. Various theories have been proposed in order to deal with the complexity involved in formulating such explanations. These theories are sometimes divided into realism, liberalism and constructivism. Realists see nation-states as the main actors in world politics. They constitute an anarchical international system without any overarching power to control their behavior. They are seen as sovereign agents that, determined by human nature, act according to their national self-interest. Military force may play an important role in the ensuing struggle for power between states, but diplomacy and cooperation are also key mechanisms for nations to achieve their goals. Liberalists acknowledge the importance of states but they also emphasize the role of transnational actors, like the United Nations or the World Trade Organization. They see humans as perfectible and stress the role of democracy in this process. The emergent order in world politics, on this perspective, is more complex than a mere balance of power since more different agents and interests are involved in its production. Constructivism ascribes more importance to the agency of individual humans than realism and liberalism. It understands the social world as a construction of the people living in it. This leads to an emphasis on the possibility of change. If the international system is an anarchy of nation-states, as the realists hold, then this is only so because we made it this way and may change since this is not prefigured by human nature, according to the constructivists. See also References External links Africa Antarctica Asia Australia Europe North America South America Afro-Eurasia Americas Eurasia Oceania |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/קרל_מרקס] | [TOKENS: 15962] |
תוכן עניינים קרל מרקס קרל היינריך מרקס (בגרמנית: Karl Heinrich Marx; 5 במאי 1818 – 14 במרץ 1883) היה פילוסוף, כלכלן, סוציולוג, היסטוריון, עיתונאי וסוציאליסט גרמני ממוצא יהודי. עבודתו העיונית והתאורטית הניחה יסודות לניתוח הסדר התעשייתי המודרני, שהיווה תשתית לכל ביקורת הקפיטליזם, מאז ועד היום ונחשב לאבי הקומוניזם לצד פרידריך אנגלס. מרקס פרסם מספר רב של מאמרים וספרים בחייו; המפורסמים שבהם: המניפסט הקומוניסטי (1848) ו'ביקורת הכלכלה המדינית', או בשמה האחר – הקפיטל (1867). מרקס נולד למשפחה אמידה מהמעמד הבינוני בעיר טריר שבפרוסיה כנצר לשושלת רבנים; הוא למד כלכלה מדינית ופילוסופיה הגליאנית באוניברסיטאות בון והומבולדט שבברלין. בהמשך חייו הפך לחסר-מדינה, ובילה את מרבית חייו בלונדון, שם הוסיף לפתח את הגותו, בשיתוף פעולה עם מכרו פרידריך אנגלס. עבודתו העיונית של מרקס השפיעה באופן ניכר על ההיסטוריה הפוליטית, הכלכלית והמחשבתית העולמית. דעותיו של מרקס על חברה, כלכלה ופוליטיקה מוגדרות כמרקסיזם, וגורסות כי החברות האנושיות התפתחו תוך מלחמת מעמדות תמידית. בעידן הקפיטליזם, מתגלמת מלחמת המעמדות בעימות בין המעמד השליט – הבורגנות - השולט באמצעי הייצור, ובין המעמד העובד, הנשלט – הפרולטריון - שניצולו מתאפשר באמצעות שכירת כוח עבודתו (אמצעי הייצור) תמורת שכר. בעזרת תיאוריה ביקורתית הידועה כמטריאליזם דיאלקטי, חזה מרקס כי בדומה למערכות כלכליות-חברתיות שקדמו לה, יוצרת השיטה הקפיטליסטית מתחים פנימיים חריפים שיובילו בסופו של דבר לחורבנה העצמי, ולהחלפתה בשיטה חדשה אותה חזה: הסוציאליזם. לדעת מרקס, מאבק המעמדות בעידן הקפיטליסטי נעוץ בחוסר היציבות המובנה בשיטה. כן גרס מרקס כי בנטייתו למשברים חוזרים ונשנים, יביא הקפיטליזם לצמיחתה של תודעה מעמדית בקרב הפרולטריון, שתאפשר לו השגת כוח פוליטי לכונן את החברה הסוציאליסטית, נטולת המעמדות, שתחולל שחרור חברתי וכלכלי, ותתבסס על איגוד חופשי של בני אדם יוצרים. מרקס תואר כאחת מן הדמויות המשפיעות ביותר בהיסטוריה האנושית המודרנית, ועבודתו זכתה לשבחים רבים, כמו גם לביקורות. כתביו מהווים מסד להבנת הניגוד המודרני שבין העבודה להון, ושימשו כר פורה לתאוריות כלכליות בולטות. הוגים ואנשי רוח, פעילי איגודי עובדים, יוצרים ואמנים, ומפלגות בכל רחבי העולם, הושפעו מהגותו של מרקס. במקביל, נחשב מרקס לאחד מן האדריכלים החשובים של מדעי החברה המודרניים. חייו קרל היינריך מרקס נולד ב-5 במאי 1818 בטריר, עיר בחבל הריין, אז בממלכת פרוסיה, (כיום גרמניה), למשפחה ממוצא יהודי-אשכנזי רבני. בני משפחת אימו הנרייטה פרסבורג (אנ'), משפחה יהודית-הולנדית, כיהנו כרבנים במשך מאות שנים. אביו, היינריך (הירשְל) (אנ'), היה בן למשפחת הלוי מטריר, שאבותיה כיהנו כרבני העיר מאז 1723. היינריך, עורך דין משכיל מהמעמד הבינוני, החזיק בבעלותו כרמים באזור. בזמן השלטון הנפוליאוני בחבל הריין החל היינריך לעסוק בעריכת דין, בעקבות האמנציפציה החלקית לה זכו היהודים תחת נפוליאון. אולם עם חזרתה של טרייר לריבונות פרוסית, הוחזר צו מ-1812, שאסר על יהודי פרוסיה לכהן במשרות ציבוריות ולעסוק במקצועות חופשיים. מכיוון שיהדותו נבעה ממצב נתון ולא מאמונה עמוקה, בחר היינריך להיטבל לנצרות פרוטסטנטית, עוד בטרם נולד בנו קרל. הבחירה של אביו של קרל מרקס בנצרות פרוטסטנטית לא הייתה מקרית: למרות שהפרוטסטנטים היוו מיעוט באזור טריר, כאשר לעומת הרוב הקתולי, האליטה העירונית הייתה פרוטסטנטית. מרקס האב, שלאחר התנצרותו הפך מ״הירשל״ ל״היינריך״ באופן רשמי, הושפע מרעיונות החופש והחירות הצרפתיים, אך נזהר שלא להביע בפומבי דעות מהפכניות. אימו של מרקס לא הייתה משכילה, ובראש מעייניה עמד הטיפול בבני המשפחה. על פי עדותה, העניקה "אהבת אם מופרזת" לילדיה. הנרייטה ובנה קרל ניהלו קשר רופף למדי לאחר שהוא עזב את טריר. חרף זאת, הוסיף מרקס לבקש ממנה שתשלח לו כסף, אף שלרוב העלה חרס בידו. על ילדותו של קרל מרקס ידוע מעט. הוא נולד כשלישי מבין תשעה אחים, ונהיה הבן הגדול ביניהם לאחר מות אחיו הבכור מוריץ ב-1819. עד 1830 קיבל חינוך פרטי, ואז החל ללמוד בתיכון של טריר, שמוריו היו ברובם הומניסטים ליברלים, ומנהלו, הוגו ויטנבאך, היה ידידו של היינריך מרקס. בגיל 17, באוקטובר 1835, נרשם מרקס ללימודים באוניברסיטת בון. בריאותו הרופפת, שאפיינה אותו כבר מגיל צעיר, הדאיגה את הוריו. במכתב שקיבל מהם בתחילת לימודיו, הם הפצירו בו "להימנע מכל דבר שעלול להחמיר את המצב (...) שלא לשתות הרבה יין או קפה ושלא לאכול מאכלים חריפים (...)". אימו ביקשה שלא יעשן כלל, ושלא יאחר לישון ולא יקום בשעה מוקדמת מדי. זמן קצר לאחר יום הולדתו ה-18 קיבל מרקס פטור משירות מן הצבא הפרוסי, בשל חולשת ליבו. בהמשך קיבל תעודה מאוניברסיטת בון, ששיבחה את הישגיו האקדמיים, וציינה גם שקיבל עונש ריתוק של יום אחד בשל הפרעה לסדר: העונש בא לאחר לילה של שכרות והתנהגות פראית. במהלך לימודיו בבון השתתף מרקס בחוג בשם 'מועדון המשוררים'. שם, במסווה של דיונים על שירה ורטוריקה, התנהלו שיחות חתרניות על פוליטיקה ומדינה. באחת הקטטות התכופות שהיו פורצות בבתי המרזח בבון, נקלע מרקס ב-1836 לדו-קרב מול חייל בחופשה, חבר ה"בורוסיה קורפס", ארגון צעירים לאומני שדרש מן הסטודנטים ההוללים להישבע אמונים לאצולה הפרוסית. למרבה מזלו, נפצע מרקס קלות בראשו. התנהגותו ההוללת של מרקס הצעיר, הביאה את אביו לתמוך ברצונו לעבור ללמוד בסביבה רצינית ומקצועית יותר באוניברסיטה של ברלין. מספר חודשים לפני שהחל ללמוד בברלין, בילה מרקס את הקיץ בעיר הולדתו טריר, שם התארס עם יוהאנה "יני" פון וסטפאלן (Jenny von Westphalen), ברונית משכילה מהמעמד הפרוסי הגבוה. יוהאנה וקרל מרקס היו חברי ילדות. מאחר שביטלה את אירוסיה לאדם אחר כדי להינשא למרקס, אירוסיהם לא התקבלו בעין יפה בעיני החברה, וכן בגלל הבדלי המעמדות וההבדלים האתניים ביניהם. כל זה לא הפריע למרקס לרקום ידידות עמוקה עם חמיו לעתיד, לודוויג פון וסטפאלן; ש לימים יקדיש לו מרקס את עבודת הדוקטורט שלו. באוקטובר 1836 הגיע מרקס לברלין ולמד משפטים. הוא הוקסם מפילוסופיה וחיפש אחר דרך לשלב בין משפטים לפילוסופיה, מתוך אמונה עמוקה ש"ללא פילוסופיה דבר לא יוכל להתגשם". מרקס החל להתעניין במשנתו של פילוסוף גרמני שנפטר זמן קצר לפני כן, פרידריך הגל, שרעיונותיו היו שנויים במחלוקת עמוקה בקרב רבים מאנשי הרוח באירופה. את הפילוסופיה של הגל הוא למד מתלמידו המובהק, היהודי המומר אדוארד גנז. התעניינותו של מרקס העמיקה, והוא הצטרף לקבוצה שנודעה בשם "הגליאנים צעירים", שהיו אנשי רוח ומחשבה רדיקליים. דרך חברותו בקבוצה פגש צעירים נוספים שחלקו את השקפת עולמו. מרקס ושאר ההגליאנים הצעירים דחו את טענות הגל בנוגע למטאפיזיקה, אך אימצו את שיטת הדיאלקטיקה ההגליאנית שלו, כדי לבקר את סדרי החברה, הפוליטיקה והדת הקיימים, מתוך נקודת מבט הומנית. כתיבתו של מרקס הייתה פורה. עד-1837 הוציא לאור מספר ספרים, וכן כתב מספר ספרי שירה ליוהאנה – שמעולם לא ראו אור. תחת הכותרת "שירי פרא", אותם הקדיש לארוסתו, כתב מרקס שירים מלאי זעם ומשיכה לאלימות, שכללו גם ביטויים אנטישמיים: "עלינו להבחין ביהודי האמיתי, לא ביהודי של השבת... את מה מקדש היהודי בעולם הזה? את הרוכלות... הכסף הוא אל הנקמות של עם ישראל, לצדו אין קיום לשום אל אחר... האמנציפציה ליהודים היא האמנציפציה של האנושות מהיהדות". מרקס החל להתעניין בנושאים הומניים: הוא למד אנגלית ואיטלקית, תולדות האמנות, ואף תרגם מספר קלאסיקות לטיניות. תיזת הדוקטורט שלו, שתוארה כ"מסמך אמיץ המנסה להוכיח את עליונות חכמת הפילוסופיה על התאולוגיה", הייתה שנויה במחלוקת בקרב עמיתיו השמרניים והמאמינים באוניברסיטת ברלין. מרקס שלח את התיזה לאוניברסיטת פרידריך שילר שבעיר יינה, שהייתה ליברלית יותר, ובאפריל 1841 קיבל תואר .Ph.D מאותה אוניברסיטה. מרקס שקל קריירה אקדמית, אך אפשרות זו נחסמה בפניו על ידי הממשל השמרני, שביטא אופוזיציה לדעות ליברליות, במיוחד לאלו של ההגליאניים הצעירים. הוא עבר לקלן ב-1842 שם התמנה לעורך "עיתון הריין" (Rheinische Zeitung), עיתון צעיר, רפורמיסטי ופרו-דמוקרטי, שהתנגד לשלטון הפרוסי. תחת הנהגת מרקס הפך העיתון להיות רדיקלי יותר ויותר; הוא ביקר את היחסים בין ההנהגה הפרוסית לכנסייה, פרסם מאמרים על מצבו של מעמד הפועלים ואף הציע להחליף את המונרכיה הפרוסית במשטר דמוקרטי. שם החל לראשונה להשמיע גם את דעותיו בנוגע לסוציאליזם. מרקס ביקר את הממשלות האירופאיות הימניות, אך גם לא חסך שבטו מגורמים ליברליים וסוציאליסטים, שלדעתו לא היו אפקטיביים מספיק או הזיקו יותר מאשר הועילו. העיתון החל למשוך אש מצד הממשל, והוגבל על ידי צנזורה קפדנית. לדברי מרקס, "העיתון שלנו מוצג למשטרה על מנת שתרחרח בו, ואם היא מריחה משהו שאינו נוצרי או שאינו פרוסי, אין העיתון רשאי לרדת לדפוס". אחרי שפורסמה בעיתון כתבת ביקורת רחבה כנגד המונרכיה ברוסיה, ניקולאי הראשון, קיסר רוסיה דרש שהעיתון ייסגר ויוצא מחוץ לחוק, וב-1843 ממשלת פרוסיה נענתה לכך והעיתון נסגר. שבע שנים לאחר אירוסיהם, ביוני 1843, מרקס נשא לאישה את יוהאנה. בעקבות הקמתו של העיתון "ספרי השנים הגרמנים-צרפתים" (Deutsch–Französische Jahrbücher), שניסה לאחד את הסוציאליסטים הגרמנים והצרפתים, עקרו מרקס ואשתו בשנת 1843 לפריז, ומרקס היה לאחד מעורכי העיתון. שנה לאחר מכן נולדה בתם, יוהאנה. אף על פי שהעיתון נועד למשוך כותבים צרפתים וגרמנים כאחד, רובו היה גרמני. הכותב הלא-גרמני היחיד היה מיכאיל באקונין, אנרכו-קומוניסט רוסי. ב-1844 פורסם בעיתון חיבורו המפורסם "לשאלת היהודים", בו טען שהיהדות מייצגת את השתקפותן של הכלכלה הקפיטליסטית והחברה הבורגנית. הסיבה לכך אינה טבועה בדת עצמה אלא בעקבות מאות השנים שבהן הורחקו היהודים מעיסוקים רבים, ולכן פנו להתפרנס בעיקר ממסחר ומבנקאות. רק גיליון אחד של העיתון המדובר יצא לאור, וזכה לתפוצה רחבה בעיקר בזכות שיריו הסאטיריים של היינריך היינה כנגד לודוויג הראשון, מלך בוואריה. בעקבות השירים הללו, העיתון נאסר להפצה במדינות הגרמניות, נפסקה הזרמת הכספים אליו והוא נסגר לאחר שהוציא לאור את גיליונו הראשון. באוגוסט 1844, פגש מרקס בקפה דה לה רז'אנס את פרידריך אנגלס, פילוסוף גרמני יליד פרוסיה שהחזיק בדעות דומות לו בנושאי שוויון חברתי. החברות והשותפות ביניהם עתידה הייתה להימשך עד מותו של מרקס. יש הטוענים[דרוש מקור] כי אנגלס הביא לידיעתו של מרקס את מצבו של מעמד הפועלים וקירב אותו לכלכלה. אנגלס גם מימן את מרקס לאורך כל תקופת היכרותם. במהלך שהותו בפריז (אוקטובר 1843 – ינואר 1845), מרקס שקע בלימודים אינטנסיביים של נושאים כגון כלכלה פוליטית (לימוד הגותם של אדם סמית', דייוויד ריקארדו, ג'יימס מיל וכו'), הסוציאליזם הצרפתי (במיוחד הגותם של קלוד-אנרי דה סן-סימון, שארל פורייה) והיסטוריה של צרפת. הוא עתיד להמשיך כל חייו לעסוק בתחום הפוליטיקה של הכלכלה, שיסתכם בסופו של דבר בהוצאה לאור של המסה הכלכלית שלו – סדרה של שלושה כרכים בשם "הקפיטל". שלוש השפעות מרכזיות היו לו על פיתוח המרקסיזם: הדיאלקטיקה של הגל, הסוציאליזם האוטופי הצרפתי והכלכלה האנגלית. אין ספק שהגדרה כללית של זרם המרקסיזם כבר הייתה קיימת במוחו של מרקס בסוף 1844, אך נשארו פרטים רבים באידאולוגיה הכלכלית-פוליטית שלו שהיה צריך לעבד – ועל כן החל בכתיבת "כתבי היד הכלכליים-פילוסופיים", שפורסמו רק בשנות ה-30 של המאה ה-20. כתבי היד האלה עסקו במספר נרחב של נושאים ובהם פיתח את היסודות התאורטיים וההומניסטיים של ביקורתו על החברה הבורגנית. מושג מרכזי שפותח בחיבור זה היה ה"ניכור", המאפיין את החברה הקפיטליסטית. כתבי היד הכלכליים-פילוסופיים נכתבו בין אפריל ואוגוסט 1844. תוך כדי כתיבתו, מרקס הבחין שהוא מושפע באופן לא-עקבי מתאוריות של הפילוסוף הגרמני לודוויג פוירבך. הוא הרגיש שיש צורך להתעמת באופן ישיר עם מספר מטענותיו של פיורבך, בעיקר בנושא המטריאליזם ההיסטורי. על כן, שנה מאוחר יותר, באפריל 1845, לאחר שעבר מפריז לבריסל, חיבר מרקס את ה"תזות על פוירבך". התזות המפורסמות בעיקר בזכות האחרונה, האחת-עשרה, שבה כתב "הפילוסופים רק מפרשים את העולם בדרכים שונות, המטרה היא לשנות אותו". בתזה זו מרקס יוצא גם כנגד המטריאליזם (על היותו חסר-אופי), וגם כנגד האידיאליזם (על היותו בכוח יותר מאשר בפועל), ובאופן כללי מבקר את הפילוסופיה על כך שהיא מציבה מציאות אבסטרקטית מעל העולם המוחשי. אם כן בתזה זו הוצג לראשונה חידושו של מרקס: המטריאליזם ההיסטורי, הטוען שהעולם משתנה לא על ידי רעיונות אלא על ידי פעילויות חומריות פיזיות. בשנת 1845, לאחר שהתבקשו לכך על ידי המלך הפרוסי, השלטונות הצרפתיים סגרו את עיתונו הרדיקלי של מרקס, והשר פרנסואה גיזו גרשו מצרפת. מרקס עבר מפריז לבריסל, שם קיווה להמשיך את מחקרו על קפיטליזם וכלכלה פוליטית. מאחר שלא היה יכול להישאר בצרפת או בגרמניה, מרקס החליט להגר לבריסל שבבלגיה בפברואר 1845. ברם, כדי להישאר בבלגיה, עליו היה להתחייב שלא להתבטא או לפרסם דבר בעניין פוליטיקה עכשווית. בבריסל הוא חבר לכמה סוציאליסטים גולים משאר ארצות אירופה ביניהם היה משה הס. המפגש הותיר בהס, שהיה מבוגר ממרקס בכעשור, רושם אדיר: מרקס הוא תופעה שעשתה עלי רושם עצום על אף הדמיון הרב בתחומי העניין שלנו. בקצרה, אתה יכול להכין את עצמך לפגישה עם הפילוסוף הגדול ביותר – אולי הפילוסוף האמיתי היחיד – של הדור הנוכחי, כשיופיע בציבור, אם בכתב ואם באולם ההרצאות, הוא עתיד למשוך אליו את תשומת ליבה של גרמניה כולה... דוקטור מרקס (זה שמו של האליל שלי) עודו אדם צעיר מאוד – כבן עשרים וארבע לכל היותר. הוא יכה את הפילוסופיה והדת של ימי הביניים שוק על ירך; הוא משלב רצינות פילוסופית עמוקה ביותר בחריפות עוקצנית במיוחד. שווה בנפשך שרוסו, וולטייר, הולבך, לסינג, היינה והגל מתמזגים כולם באדם אחד – מתמזגים, לא ניצבים זה לצד זה – והרי לפניך דוקטור מרקס. באפריל 1845 הצטרף לחבורת הסוציאליסטים גם פרידריך אנגלס. ביולי 1845 מרקס ואנגלס נסעו לאנגליה על מנת לבקר את מנהיגי התנועה הצ'רטיסטית, ארגון עובדים סוציאליסטי בבריטניה. בשיתוף פעולה עם אנגלס, החל מרקס לכתוב את חיבורו החשוב בנושא המטריאליזם ההיסטורי, בשם "האידאולוגיה הגרמנית". בספר זה הפריך מרקס את התיזה ההגליאנית, שהייתה מנת חלקם של מספר סוציאליסטים, שראו חשיבות רבה לאידיאליזם וראו באידאות כמעצבות עולם. ב"האידאולוגיה הגרמנית", מרקס ואנגלס שכללו את הגותם, המבוססת אך ורק על מטריאליזם (קרי, מעשים ומציאות כמעצבים תודעה ועולם ולא אידאות) וקבעו את המטריאליזם כמניע היחיד בהיסטוריה. הספר כתוב בסגנון של ויכוח סאטירי מול הדעות הנוגדות, אך הסגנון הסאטירי לא הציל את הספר מידיה של הצנזורה. כרבים מכתביו המוקדמים, "האידאולוגיה הגרמנית" לא יצא לאור בחייו של מרקס, וירד לדפוס רק בשנת 1932. בסוף 1847 החלו מרקס ואנגלס בכתיבת מה שבעתיד תהיה עבודתם המפורסמת ביותר: תוכנית פעולה לארגון קומוניסטי, "המניפסט הקומוניסטי", שנכתב על ידם במשותף מדצמבר 1847 עד ינואר 1848. הוא פורסם לראשונה בפברואר 1848 ומילות הפתיחה שלו מגדירות את הנחת היסוד של המרקסיזם, ש"לאורך כל ההיסטוריה, החברה הקיימת נתונה במלחמת מעמדות". המניפסט ממשיך ומתאר את מה שמרקס ראה כרגשות האנטגוניזם שצפים ועולים בעקבות ניגוד האינטרסים בין המעמד הבורגני (המעמד הבינוני האמיד) לפרולטריון (המעמד העובד, פועלי התעשייה). בהמשך אותה שנה חוותה אירופה מחאות והפגנות, אירועי מרי והתנגשויות אלימות שנודעו לימים כ"אביב העמים" – גל של התקוממויות ומהפכות לאומיות. בצרפת, המהפכה הובילה לביטול המונרכיה ולהקמת הרפובליקה הצרפתית השנייה. מרקס תמך בהתקוממיות הללו, ולאחר שקיבל ירושה בסך 5,000 פרנקים מאביו, לכאורה תרם אותם למטרת חימוש עובדים בלגיים שתכננו התקוממות משלהם במדינתם. אף על פי שאמיתותו של סיפור זה שנויה במחלוקת, מרקס הואשם בכך על ידי השלטונות הבלגיים, מה שהוביל למעצרו מספר פעמים. מרקס נאלץ לנוס בחזרה לצרפת, שם האמין שיוכל להיות בטוח, תחת השלטון החדש והחופשי. בימי אביב העמים של שנת 1848 שב מרקס לגרמניה, וחזר לערוך במתכונת מחודשת את העיתון הדמוקרטי-רדיקלי "עיתון הריין החדש" (Neue Rheinische Zeitung). כשנכשלו המהפכות הללו עבר מרקס בתחילת יוני 1849 ללונדון, בה בילה את שארית ימיו. הדירה הראשונה של מרקס בלונדון הייתה דירה צפופה ברחוב דין 28, סוהו. מ-1856, הוא גר ברחוב גרפטון 9, קנטיש טאון, ולאחר מכן בבתים משותפים ברחוב מאיטלנד 41 בבלסייז פארק מ-1875 ועד מותו במרץ 1883. ב-1864 היה מרקס שותף להקמת "האיחוד הבין-לאומי של העובדים" שנודע מאוחר יותר כ"האינטרנציונל הראשון". ארגון זה קרס 12 שנים מאוחר יותר, ב-1876, בהשפעת תנועת האנרכיזם והקומונה הפריזאית. במהלך חייו בלונדון פרסם מרקס את הכרך הראשון של "הקפיטל", שבו תיאר את התפתחות החברה הקפיטליסטית ואת מתחיה הפנימיים האמורים להביא להתפרקותה. הכרכים השני והשלישי של "הקפיטל" פורסמו לאחר מותו, בעריכת אנגלס ואחרים. תחילה חיו מרקס ומשפחתו חיי מחסור בלונדון. הוא התקיים בעיקר הודות לקצבה חודשית שקיבל מאנגלס. מרקס אף נאלץ לקבור שניים מילדיו שמתו מחולי, כשהוא נטול יכולת להושיע אותם. מאוחר יותר שימש במשך שנים ככתב בלונדון של העיתון הניו-יורקי הרדיקלי "ניו יורק דיילי טריביון". מאורעות אלו תרמו רבות להתפתחותה של תפיסת הצדק החברתי אצל מרקס. מרקס מת בלונדון מדלקת סימפונות ודלקת קרום הריאה, ב-14 במרץ 1883. הוא נפטר כאדם חסר אזרחות, ונקבר בבית הקברות הייגייט בצפון לונדון. לקרל ויוהאנה מרקס נולדו שבעה ילדים, מתוכם ארבעה מתו בטרם הגיעו לבגרות בנוסף שתיים התאבדו, ואחת נפטרה בגיל צעיר ממחלה. הגותו הפילוסופית לפי השקפתו של מרקס, המציאות היא קונפליקטואלית, בין שני כוחות מרכזיים – מדכאים ומדוכאים. המדכאים (המעמד הבורגני) הם בעלי אמצעי הייצור והמדוכאים (מעמד הפועלים, הפרולטריון) הם אלה שאינם בעלי אמצעי הייצור. בשלב הנוכחי הבורגנות מדכאת את הפרולטריון. לפי השקפתו המטריאליסטית של מרקס, מבנה העל הוא השתקפות של התשתית הכלכלית, דהיינו, התודעה היא תוצר של הוויה. מרקס טען שהמהפכה בוא תבוא, בין השאר כתוצאה מכך שהקפיטליזם יביא אותה על עצמו, בהיותו מכיל סתירה פנימית שאינה ניתנת ליישוב. מעמד הפועלים, לכשיתאחד ויגיע למצב בו לא יוכל עוד לחיות (מרקס מתאר זאת בכך שמעמד הפועלים לא יפסיד דבר "למעט כבליו"), ישתחרר מהתודעה הכוזבת וישנה את תנאי חייו באמצעות מהפכה שתמוטט את הסדר החברתי הקיים: במהפכה זו ישתלט מעמד הפועלים על אמצעי הייצור ויקים את החברה הסוציאליסטית, בה אין מנצלים ומנוצלים, קניין פרטי, כסף, מדינה או משפחה. עיקרי המרקסיזם פורסמו בשנת 1848 על ידי קרל מרקס ופרידריך אנגלס, במניפסט הקומוניסטי. תקופה זו, של אמצע המאה ה-19, נחשבת לתחילת צמיחת המרקסיזם. הייתה זו תאוריה אחת מבין כמה תאוריות סוציאליסטיות. במשך השנים לא שמר המרקסיזם על צורתו המקורית. התשתית החשיבתית של המרקסיזם, אומנם לא בצורתו הטהורה, הוסיפה להתקיים, ומורשת המרקסיזם מתקיימת ברוב הזרמים הביקורתיים. גישה זו מיושמת בתחומים שונים (בהם חינוך ומשפחה). הנצחתו במרכז ברלין (רובע מיטה) נקרא על שמו ועל שם פרידריך אנגלס פארק ציבורי בשם פורום מרקס אנגלס, אשר הוקם על ידי שלטונות גרמניה המזרחית. בית ילדותו בעיר טריר הפך למוזיאון המנציח את חייו והגותו. בעיר טריר הוקם פסל של מרקס בגובה 4.4 מטרים, במימון ממשלת הרפובליקה העממית של סין. מכלול המגורים הגדול בעולם, קרל מרקס הוף שבווינה בירת אוסטריה קרוי על שמו. כתביו בעברית ראו גם לקריאה נוספת קישורים חיצוניים הערות שוליים |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/סבוראים] | [TOKENS: 5562] |
תוכן עניינים סבוראים סָבוֹרָאִים (בעלי סברא) – ובספרות התורנית רבנן סבוראי – הוא כינוים של חכמי ישיבות בבל מסוף תקופת האמוראים והסתמאים (סוף המאה ה-5) ועד לתקופת הגאונים (סוף המאה ה-7). כינוי זה מבוסס על השם "סבורא", שמופיע בתלמוד הירושלמי, מסכת קידושין, שפירושו בעל סברא, מבין דבר. אופי פעילותם בשונה מקודמיהם, האמוראים, שדבריהם מובאים בשמם, והסתמאים, שערכו את דברי האמוראים והוסיפו את דבריהם שלהם ללא שמם ('סתמא דגמרא'), והם שיצרו את הנוסח הראשוני של התלמוד הבבלי, עסקו הסבוראים לא ביצירה חדשה אלא בעיקר בהסברה, הטמעה והשלמה של התלמוד. לסבוראים חלק רב בעריכתו הסופית של התלמוד הבבלי – ליקוט גרסאות והשוואת נוסחאות, ויש מדבריהם שנכנסו לגוף התלמוד. בכך סיימו הסבוראים את תהליך כינוסו ועריכתו של התלמוד. מלבד זאת, לא הותירו הסבוראים אחריהם טקסט כתוב, בשונה מכל שאר תקופות ישראל, לכן הידע עליהם הוא דל ביותר. מחברי הסקירות ההיסטוריות השונות שנכתבו בתקופת הגאונים הסכימו שהסבוראים היו קרובים יותר לאמוראים מאשר לגאונים לא רק מבחינת הזמן אלא אף מבחינת אופי פעילותם. אף אם תרומתם של הסבוראים הייתה מוגבלת וגבולותיה מטושטשים, אין ספק שהתלמוד כפי שהוא יצא מתחת ידיהם לא היה זהה לתלמוד שירשו מסתמאי בבל ואמוראיה, עד כמה שניתן לראות זאת. ההבחנה העיקרית בינם ובין הגאונים שבאו אחריהם, היא היחס לתלמוד, הגאונים התייחסו לתלמוד באופן עקרוני כקורפוס ספרותי סגור שאינו נתון לעריכה אלא להפצה לפרשנות וליישום בלבד. יש המייחסים לסבוראים את העלאת המשנה והתלמוד על הכתב. המקורות ההיסטוריים המקור הקדום ביותר המזכיר את הסבוראים, מגדיר אותם כקבוצה-תקופה ומכנה אותם בשם זה הוא הספר סדר תנאים ואמוראים. בספר זה אין תאריכים או סדר של דורות, רק רשימה גולמית של 11 שמות של סבוראים. למרות חוסר במידע אודות תקופה זו, בספר זה מופיע הערכה רבה לפועלם של הסבוראים: ”שבזכותם נמתחו שמים וארץ והשיבו התלמוד למקומו מדעתם מרוב חכמתם ומרוב פילפולם”. לאחר מכן, בסוף המאה ה-10 מוזכרת תקופת הסבוראים ביתר פירוט באגרת רב שרירא גאון. אחר כך, במאה ה-12 בספר הקבלה לרבי אברהם אבן דאוד, בשינויים קלים מאגרת רב שרירא, בתיחום התקופה ל-189 שנה (500–689), ובתוספת של חלוקה לחמישה דורות. בעקבות רבי אברהם אבן דאוד, הלכו כל ההיסטוריונים שעד המאה ה-17: רבי מנחם המאירי (המאה ה-13), רבי יצחק בן יוסף הישראלי (המאה ה-14), רבי אברהם זכות (המאה ה-16), רבי גדליה אבן יחיא (המאה ה-16), ורבי דוד קונפורטי (המאה ה-17). אמנם, הרמב״ם בהקדמתו ליד החזקה, מתאר את כל החכמים שמאחרי חתימת התלמוד ועד לתקופתו כ״גאונים״, ואינו מזכיר את המונח ״רבנן סבוראי״ או ״סבוראים״. סקירה היסטורית תקופת הסבוראים החלה עם סיום תקופת האמוראים והסתמאים. לפי איגרת רב שרירא גאון, רבינא האחרון נפטר סביב שנת 500 לספירה, וסביב מועד זה נחתם התלמוד הבבלי. לדברי הבבלי עצמו, "רב אשי ורבינא סוף הוראה", כלומר אחרוני האמוראים ואפשר שהם גם שותפים לסידור ועריכת התלמוד. אך למעשה התלמוד נסדר ונערך על ידי הרבה אמוראים במשך כל תקופת האמוראים וגם אחריהם, ומשמעות החתימה היא, שלאחר החתימה אין לשנות להוסיף ולגרוע על התלמוד, בדומה למובן של "חתימת כתבי הקודש". בהתאם לכך, הסבוראים לא חלקו על קודמיהם, האמוראים, אלא רק פירשו והסבירו, ולעיתים גם הכריעו (הלכה) במקומות שלא היה הכרעה ברורה. אחרי כ-50 שנה שישיבות סורא ופומבדיתא היו סגורות, שב רב חנן מאישקיא, בראש סיעת חכמים, לעיר פומבדיתא ופתח שם את סדר הלימודים כמקדם (ד'שמ"ט – 589). לאחר שנתיים, או 20 שנה (ד'שנ"א או ד'שס"ט, הדבר תלוי בחילופי נוסחאות באיגרת רב שרירא גאון), התחדשה גם ישיבת סורא, שהלימודים בה פסקו אחר פטירת רב עינא, ובראשות הישיבה עמד רב מר בר רב הונא. מכאן ואילך נמשך רצף של ראשי ישיבות בישיבות סורא ופומבדיתא. המקור הראשון שתוחם באופן ברור את תקופת הסבוראים הוא ספר הקבלה, שמציין את סיומה, לאחר חמישה דורות, בשנת ד'תמ"ט (689) עם פטירת רב משרשיא בר תחליפא. בעקבותיו הלכו רבי אברהם זכות ב"ספר יוחסין", ורבי מנחם המאירי בספרו "סדר הקבלה". כיום, מקובל לתארך את סוף תקופת הסבוראים בהתאם לדברי ספר הקבלה. הרב שלמה רוטנברג בספרו תולדות עם עולם הביא לכך גם סימוכין מדברי הגאונים וראשונים, שמכנים את רב הונא, סבורא בדור החמישי (האחרון), כ"רבנן סבוראי". בניגוד לתקופות אחרות בעם ישראל, בהם ישנו מאורע או אישיות מרכזית שתוחמים וסוגרים תקופה, בסיום תקופת הסבוראים לא ידוע לנו על שינוי מהותי שאירע בתולדות ישראל. אמנם, בשנים אלו אירע הכיבוש הערבי, שהשפיע על כל ההיסטוריה של יהודי בבל וארץ ישראל, ומבחינה מדינית יש לראות בו את סוף תקופת הסבוראים וראשית תקופת הגאונים. בעל הספר סדר תנאים ואמוראים רומז על כך, בכתבו "מוחמד יצא בזמן הסבוראים". בתחילת המחקר ההיסטורי אודות תקופה זו, הניחו החוקרים כי מדובר בתקופה קצרה מאוד. ראשון לצמצום תקופה זו היה הרב דוד גנז בספרו צמח דוד, שהבין מדברי אגרת רב שרירא גאון שמדובר בתקופה של 2 או 3 דורות (89 שנה). ההיסטוריון צבי גרץ הפליג לצמצמם את התקופה לכדי 40 שנה בלבד. אחריהם הלכו רוב ההיסטוריונים וכותבי ימי ישראל עד המאה ה-20. לפי הנחה זו, האירוע של פתיחת ישיבת פומבדיתא מחדש (ד'שמ"ט - 589), פתח את ראשיתה של תקופת הגאונים, וסיים את תקופת הסבוראים. בראשית המאה ה-20 חל מפנה בחקר תקופת הסבוראים ותקופת הגאונים, עם יציאה לאור של ספרי המקור במהדורות מדעיות ועם פרסום כתבי יד רבים שנחשפו בגניזה הקהירית. אחד החוקרים הראשונים שגילה שהסבוראים פעלו הרבה יותר ממה שיוחס להם עד כה, הוא הרב פרופסור אברהם ווייס. בין תגליותיו, נמצא שכמעט בכל מסכת מן התלמוד הבבלי טבועה הסוגיה הראשונה באיזו מידה שהיא בחותם סבוראי. שמות סבוראים דור ראשון: דור שני: דור שלישי: דור רביעי: דור חמישי: דור ראשון: דור שני: דור שלישי: דור רביעי: דור חמישי: בספר סדר תנאים ואמוראים מופיעים עוד שלוש סבוראים, שלא מופיעים באגרת רב שרירא גאון או בספר הקבלה: סוגיות סבוראיות על פי עדויותיהם של כמה מן הראשונים, בתלמוד שבידינו נטמעו כמה סוגיות סבוראיות, רובן בראשי המסכתות או בפתחם של נושאים חדשים. העיסוק הפרשני בסוגיות הללו הוא בדרך כלל באמצעות ניתוח לשוני, ולעיתים קרובות יש בו השוואה בין חלקי המסכת, והרחבה של הדיון, אך אין בו תוספות הלכתיות ועקרוניות. דוגמאות ידועות לסוגיות סבוראיות: הפתיחה למסכת קידושין (ב/א-ג/א), הפתיחה לסדר נזיקין (בבא קמא ב/א-ג/ב), סוגיית המגדף (מסכת סנהדרין, דף נ"ו, עמוד א'). פסיקות סבוראיות קיימת דעה כי חלק מהמקומות שבתלמוד בו חלוקים אמוראים, ובסוף מחלוקתם נאמר "והלכתא כרב פלוני" או "והלכתא כך וכך", פסיקה זו היא הוספה של הסבוראים. ראו גם לקריאה נוספת קישורים חיצוניים הערות שוליים |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ניקרגואה] | [TOKENS: 19203] |
תוכן עניינים ניקרגואה לחצו כדי להקטין חזרה לחצו להגדלה רפובליקת ניקרגואה (בספרדית: República de Nicaragua, [reˈpuβlika ðe ni.kaˈɾa.ɣwa], רֶפּוּבְּלִיקָה דֶה נִיקְרָגְוָה) ובקיצור ניקרגואה (בספרדית: Nicaragua) היא רפובליקה במרכז אמריקה. ניקרגואה גובלת בהונדורס בצפון, בקוסטה ריקה בדרום, בים הקריבי במזרח ובאוקיינוס השקט במערב. אטימולוגיה שם המדינה הוא שילוב של המילה ניקראו (Nicarao – שמו של מנהיג השבט הגדול ביותר שחי במקום כאשר הספרדים הגיעו), והמילה הספרדית אגואה (Agua) שפירושה מים (עקב הימצאותם של שני אגמים גדולים במערב המדינה). היסטוריה לא ידוע הרבה על ההיסטוריה של ניקרגואה עד התקופה הספרדית. יש עדויות ליישובים שהתקיימו במשך מאות שנים ברחבי המדינה, בעיקר בשפלה שבמערב המדינה וכן לחופי האגמים. מעריכים כי בשטח המהווה היום את ניקרגואה ישבו, ערב הכיבוש הספרדי, קצת למעלה ממיליון נפש, במספר יישובים שונים. בשנת 1502 הגיעו הכוחות הספרדיים בפיקודו של כריסטופר קולומבוס והשתלטו על המדינה. כפי שנהגו בשאר אמריקה בזזו הספרדים את אוצרות המקום, הפכו את התושבים לעבדים והרגו בהם. מאות אלפים מתושבי המקום מתו ממחלות שהביאו איתם הספרדים ושלא היו ידועות בניקרגואה קודם, ולכן לא פיתחו התושבים חיסון טבעי כנגדן. בשנת 1855 התחוללה בניקרגואה מלחמת אזרחים. שכיר חרב אמריקאי בשם ויליאם ווקר ניצל את המצב, כבש באמצעות כמה מאות אנשים את הבירה גרנדה והשתלט על המדינה. כמפקד העליון של הצבא, שלט ווקר בניקרגואה דרך נשיא הבובה פטריסיו ריבאס ולאחר מכן הפך לנשיא ניקרגואה בשנים 1856–1857. ב-20 במאי 1856 הכיר נשיא ארצות הברית פרנקלין פירס בשלטונו של ווקר, על אף אי-חוקיותו הברורה של הכיבוש. הוא גייס אנשים באמריקה ובאירופה, שהגיעו למדינה במטרה להילחם ולכבוש את ארבע הפרובינציות האחרות של מרכז אמריקה: גואטמלה, אל סלוודור, הונדורס וקוסטה ריקה. נתיב המסחר המרכזי בין ניו יורק וסן פרנסיסקו עבר באותם ימים דרך ניקרגואה. מסי המעבר בנתיב זה ניתנו על ידי הממשל הניקרגואי הקודם לחברת "ואנדרבילט" (Vanderbilt's Accessory Transit Company) של איל הספנות קורנליוס ואנדרבילט, שתמכה בכיבושי ווקר בתקווה ששלטונו ייצב את מצבה הפוליטי של ניקרגואה ויסייע בהקמת מסילת רכבת שתחצה את המדינה ותחבר בין האוקיינוסים. אך כשליט ניקרגואה, ביטל ווקר את המנדט שניתן לואנדרבילט, בטענה שהחברה הפרה את ההסכם, והעניק את הזכויות על מסי הנתיב לחברה מתחרה בבעלות קורנליוס גאריסון וצ'ארלס מורגן, שהציעו לווקר סכום כסף גדול ותמיכה במאבקו הצבאי בתמורה לזכויות על הנתיב. בתגובה לביטול המנדט שלה, הפעילה חברת ואנדרבילט לחצים כבדים על הממשל האמריקני, שחזר בו מההכרה בשלטונו של ווקר. הכרזותיו של ווקר בדבר מסעי כיבוש נוספים באמריקה הלטינית גרמו לחשש מצד המדינות השכנות לניקרגואה. חברת ואנדרבילט עזרה לכלכל ולאמן קואליציה צבאית של המדינות, בראשות קוסטה ריקה, ובנוסף ניסתה למנוע מעבר של אנשים ואספקה לווקר. הקואליציה המרכז-אמריקנית הייתה חזקה מצבאו של ווקר, וב-1 במאי 1857 נכנע ווקר לצ'ארלס הנרי דייוויס, ממפקדי הצי האמריקני, ונלקח בחזרה לארצות הברית. כשהגיע לניו אורלינס התקבל ווקר כגיבור, אך איבד את התמיכה הציבורית בו כשהאשים את הצי האמריקני בתבוסתו. בשנת 1893, הגיע לעמדת כח הגנרל חוסה סנטוס סלייה (Zelaya), אשר בחסות שלטונו הדיקטטורי השיק רפורמות ליברליות למען מודרניות וקידמה. סלייה עודד השקעות של משקיעים חיצוניים, ביניהם ארצות הברית, הגדיל את הייצוא, פיתח תשתית לייצוא, כגון דרכים, מסילות ברזל ונמלים. בתום העשור הראשון לרפורמות שלטו משקיעים אמריקניים במגזרי הקפה, הבננות, הזהב והעץ של ניקרגואה. כאשר החלה ארצות הברית לבחון אפשרות לכריית תעלה שתחבר בין האוקיינוס האטלנטי לזה השקט דרך ניקרגואה, מיהר סלייה להזמין את צרפת ויפן להציע הצעות משלהן, על מנת להגביר את כוח המיקוח שלו מול ארצות הברית. לאור גילוי עצמאות זה החליטה ממשלת ארצות הברית כי בכך פגעה ניקרגואה באינטרסים הלאומיים שלה, ובשנת 1909 שלחה 400 נחתים שסייעו בהדחתו של סלייה. כיבושה של ניקרגואה על ידי ארצות הברית נמשך עד לשנת 1933. במרוצת שנים אלו פיתחה ארצות הברית את "המשמר הלאומי" ככוח מזוין שיוסיף ויגן על האינטרסים שלה לאחר שכוחותיה ייסוגו מאדמת ניקרגואה. עם נסיגת כוחות ארצות הברית בשנת 1933 התגלה מפקד המשמר הלאומי, אנסטסיו סומוסה גרסיה (Anastasio Somoza García) כעריץ צבאי. כוונותיו של סומוסה הפכו גלויות לעין ביום ה-21 בפברואר 1934, עת חייליו אסרו את אוגוסטו ססאר סנדינו (Sandino), גיבור המאבק הלאומי כנגד הכיבוש האמריקאי, ורצחו אותו. סנדינו נאסר מחוץ לארמון הנשיאות, שם נפגש עם חואן סקאסה (Sacasa), הנשיא הנבחר, על מנת להסדיר את דרכי שיתוף הפעולה ביניהם. סקאסה עצמו ערב לביטחונו של סנדינו, אולם לא היה בכך די. בשנים שלאחר מכן המשיך סומוסה להמרות בגלוי את הוראותיו של סקאסה. סומוסה נבחר לנשיאות בשנת 1936, והקפיד להשאיר את המשמר הלאומי תחת פיקודו הישיר. במשך עשרים שנות שלטונו, אשר הסתיימו עם רציחתו בשנת 1956, ניצל סומוסה את הנשיאות לצרכיו האישיים והמשפחתיים, תוך דיכוי יסודי של גילויי אי שביעות רצון. רבים רואים בשלטונו של סומוסה את המשטר האכזרי והאנוכי ביותר באמריקה הלטינית באותה התקופה. במהלך שנות מלחמת העולם השנייה תמך סומוסה בבעלות הברית ובתמורה זכה להקלות במגבלות הסחר שהוטלו על ניקרגואה בשנים שקדמו למלחמה. עיתוי מתן ההקלות וצרכי המדינות הלוחמות הביאו לשגשוג כלכלי בניקרגואה, אשר ייצאה כותנה, זהב ועץ. בשנת 1942 זכתה ניקרגואה בציוד צבאי מתקדם בשווי של למעלה מ-800,000 דולר במסגרת חוק השאל-החכר מארצות הברית. ציוד זה והאימון לו זכו הכוחות המזוינים של ניקרגואה היו גורם משמעותי לשימור הדיקטטורה של סומוסה בשנים שלאחר סיום המלחמה. סומוסה שלט בארצו עד להרצחו בידי מתנקש בשנת 1956, ואחרי מותו תפס את כס הנשיאות בנו, לואיס סומוסה דביילה (Somoza Debayle). כאשר בריאותו של לואיס סומוסה החלה להדרדר בשנת 1967, החליפו אחיו הצעיר ממנו, אנסטסיו סומוסה דביילה. חודשיים לאחר מכן נפטר לואיס סומוסה, ואחיו נותר האחרון לשושלת סומוסה בניקרגואה. ב-23 בדצמבר 1972 פקדה את ניקרגואה רעידת אדמה אשר החריבה כ-80% משטח הבירה מנגואה, הפילה כ-10,000 חללים והותירה כ-50,000 חסרי בית. חיילי המשמר הלאומי בזזו את חבילות הסיוע הבינלאומי שזרמו למדינה ואנסטסיו סומוסה החרים עשרות מיליוני דולרים מכספי הסיוע לעצמו. רעידת האדמה ואופן טיפול המשטר בה הביאו למחאה גלויה וקריאות לסיום הדיקטטורה. על אף מחאה זו הכריז סומוסה על עצמו כמנצח בבחירות לנשיאות בשנת 1974, אולם הפעם התעוררה האופוזיציה במחאה שטרם נראתה כמותה בניקרגואה. תנועת החזית הסנדיניסטית לשחרור לאומי (FSLN - Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional) זכתה לתמיכה חסרת תקדים, אשר עודדה אותה לצאת למבצע חטיפה ב-27 בדצמבר 1974. ביום זה כמה "סנדיניסטים", כפי שכונו חברי "החזית", פשטו על מסיבה פרטית במנגואה ולקחו כ-40 איש כבני ערובה, ביניהם קרובי משפחה של סומוסה וכמה מאנשי המשטר. בתמורה לשחרורם דרשו החוטפים כופר בסך מיליון דולר; שחרור של 14 מחבריהם שהיו כלואים בידי המשטר; מעבר חופשי לאסירים המשוחררים ולחטופים להוואנה, קובה. בתיווכו של הארכי-הגמון של ניקרגואה הסכימה הממשלה לתנאי החוטפים. משבר החטופים העלה את קרנה של "החזית" והביא אותה לראות בדרך הטרור כאמצעי לגיטימי למאבק בדיקטטורה, אולם גם גררה גל דיכוי אלים מצד המשטר שחש מושפל. בשנים הבאות החל כוחו של המשטר להתערער וכוחות האופוזיציה התחזקו. בחודש ינואר 1978 פרסם העיתונאי מתנגד המשטר פדרו חואקין צ'מורו (Chamorro) סדרת מאמרים תחת הכותרת "כרוניקות הערפד", בהן הוכיח את משטר סומוסה על שחיתותו. בתגובה למאמריו נרצח צ'מורו ב-10 בינואר בידי המשטר, ורציחתו עוררה גל הפגנות במנגואה ובשאר חלקי ניקרגואה. האליטה לא הייתה יכולה להתעלם מהרצח של אחד מבני המשפחות העתיקות והמכובדות בניקרגואה, כפי שיכלו להעלים עין משנות הדיכוי את האוכלוסייה הכפרית והאינדיאנית, ורבים הבינו כי אם איש כצ'מורו אינו בטוח בפני המשטר – חייו של איש אינם בטוחים. ב-22 באוגוסט 1978, הסתערו 25 סנדיניסטים על ארמון הנשיאות ולקחו כ-2,000 עובדים ממשלתיים כבני ערובה. שוב דרשו החוטפים סכומי עתק, שחרור 59 מחבריהם ומעבר בטוח, לפנמה, ודרישותיהם נענו. ב-8 בספטמבר פתחו הסנדיניסטים במתקפה מתואמת בחמש ערים שונות. סומוסה הפעיל את חיל האוויר כנגד מרכזי המרידה ובמבצע טיהור דקדקני מצד הצבא נהרגו כ-5,000 איש. ניקרגואה הייתה על סיפה של מלחמת אזרחים. ביוני 1979 קראה החזית לשביתה כללית שהחלה ב-8 ביוני. קרבות רחוב במנגואה נמשכו כחודש ימים. סומוסה נסוג לבונקר שבארמונו והורה על מתקפה אווירית וארטילרית ללא כל התייחסות לחיי אזרחים. המתקפה האכזרית הרסה את העיר כמעט עד ליסוד. ב-16 ביולי 1979 הסכים סומוסה להתפטר ולצאת לגלות, ולמחרת היום עזב את ניקרגואה. ב-18 ביולי נכנסו הסנדיניסטים המנצחים בשערי מנגואה והקימו ממשלה זמנית. זמן קצר לאחר הקמתה נטתה הממשלה הזמנית לשמאל הקיצוני, ותומכיה המתונים נטשו אותה. קובה הקומוניסטית הפכה לבעלת בריתה הקרובה. עד לסוף שנת 1979 הלאימה הממשלה כחמישית מכלל השטחים הראויים לעיבוד, שרובם היו בבעלות משפחת סומוסה ובעלי בריתם. לשמרנים המודאגים מבית הצטרפה ארצות הברית: הנשיא רונלד רייגן פעל נגד הסנדיניסטים, כדי למנוע מברית המועצות הקמת ראש גשר קומוניסטי במרכז אמריקה. להגשמת מטרה זו עזרה ארצות הברית לממן את לוחמי הגרילה הקונטראס שהורכבו מתומכי השלטון לשעבר ומשכירי חרב שלחמו כנגד הממשלה הסנדיניסטית. לוחמי הגרילה מומנו במשותף על ידי ארצות הברית וישראל (פרשת איראן-קונטראס). מלחמת האזרחים גבתה קורבנות רבים משני הצדדים. על אף האיום המתמיד על יציבות המשטר הצליחו הסנדיניסטים לשפר את איכות החיים במדינה, מגמה שבאה לידי ביטוי, למשל, בעליית אחוז יודעי הקרוא וכתוב במדינה, וכן עלייה בתוחלת החיים. בשנת 1984 קיימה הממשלה הזמנית בחירות חופשיות בליווי משקיפים בינלאומיים, כפי שהבטיחה, ומועמד המפלגה, דניאל אורטגה (Ortega), זכה ל-67% מקולות הבוחרים. חלק ממפלגות האופוזיציה החרימו את הבחירות. שנתיים לאחר מכן, בשנת 1986, הצליחו הסנדיניסטים להדוף את צבא מתנגדי השלטון. אולם הצלחה צבאית ופוליטית זו לא השיבה את המתונים לחיק המשטר המרקסיסטי. כלכלת המדינה הייתה בכי רע, ובשנת 1988 הגיעה האינפלציה לכדי 14,000%, מה שפגע בעיקר במעמד הפועלים. סופת הוריקן פגעה בניקרגואה והקשתה על מאמצי ההתאוששות, וכך גם עלויות המלחמה שניהלה ניקרגואה מזה כמחצית העשור. האמברגו האמריקאי הקשה גם הוא על היחלצות מהמצב. הממשלה המרקסיסטית התייחסה בנאיביות מסוימת לשאלה האתנית במדינה, בצפותה כי האינדיאנים ייטמעו לתוך החברה הסוציאליסטית, כפי שקבעה הדוקטרינה האירופוצנטרית. אולם מאמצי המודרניזציה הכפויים של הממשלה כלפי בני המיסקיטו (Miskito) הביאו להגירה של כ-15,000 מבניהם להונדורס הסמוכה, ורבים מהם הצטרפו לכוחות שלחמו כנגד המשטר. בבחירות שהתקיימו בשנת 1990 הפסידה החזית, ומועמדת האופוזיציה, וויולטה צ'מורו (אלמנתו של פדרו חואקין צ'מורו) זכתה ב-54% מהקולות. על אף כוחם הצבאי קיבלו דניאל אורטגה והסנדיניסטים את תוצאות הבחירות. המהפכה הסנדיניסטית באה על סיומה. המדינה נכנסה לשנות התשעים בניסיון לייצב שיטת משטר דמוקרטית ולהביא לסיום את הסכסוך הפנימי האלים בתוכה. בבחירות שהתקיימו בשנת 2007, דניאל אורטגה חזר לשלטון. במהלך 2017, התרחשו הפגנות נרחבות ואלימות נגד ממשלתו של הנשיא דניאל אורטגה, כתוצאה מהפגנות אלו, נהרגו כ-300 אנשים וכ-500 אנשים נכלאו. כ-60,000 אזרחים נמלטו מהמדינה בחשש מצעדי השלטונות. כלכלה אף על פי שרק כשמינית משטח המדינה הן קרקעות הניתנות לעיבוד, עיקר כלכלתה של ניקרגואה מבוססת על החקלאות (כ-60% מהיצוא), בעיקר חקלאות עתירת עבודה, על תעשיות עתירות עבודה, מעט תיירות, מכרות ודיג. שיעור האבטלה גבוה ומחוץ לעונה החקלאית מגיע לכמעט מחצית מכוח העבודה האזרחי. בדומה למדינות אחרות במרכז אמריקה, כלכלת ניקרגואה התבססה בעיקר על ייצוא של מוצרים חקלאיים, בעיקר קפה. כיום עיקר הגידולים בניקרגואה הם קפה, סוכר, טבק, בננות, חזירים, בשר עוף ובשר בקר. חלק ניכר מהגידולים החקלאיים מושתת על מורשת הקולוניאליזם, כאשר המגמה הייתה לייצא מוצרי בסיס בתמורה לסחורות מוגמרות. תוצאה של שליטת ארצות הברית (ישירה ועקיפה) על המדינה היא העובדה שרוב חברות הכרייה וכמחצית מהחברות התעשייתיות נמצאות בידי תאגידים זרים וחברות שמרכזן מחוץ למדינה. אי-הסכמה על חוקיות ההלאמות של המשטר הסנדיניסטי (בעיקר הלאמת אדמות משפחת סומוסה והקרובים לה) והמחלוקת על הלאמת רכוש אחר שמשפחת סומוסה נטלה לעצמה במהלך שנות שלטונה, גורמים לכך שחברות זרות נמנעות מהשקעה מחשש לאי-יציבות כלכלית ופוליטית. מקור הכנסה משמעותי נוסף הוא העברות חד-צדדיות שמבצעים אזרחי ויוצאי המדינה החיים מחוץ לה, הן כמהגרי עבודה והן כאלו שעזבו אותה לצמיתות. גאוגרפיה ניקרגואה היא הגדולה שבמדינות מרכז אמריקה. שטחה כ-130,370 קמ"ר, מהם 119,990 קמ"ר שטחי יבשה. ניקרגואה מחולקת לשלושה אזורים גאוגרפיים נבדלים – השפלה הפאסיפית, ההרים בצפון-מרכז והשפלה האטלנטית או הקאריבית. השפלה הפאסיפית, השוכנת בחלק המערבי של המדינה בסמוך לאוקיינוס השקט, היא מישור צר, פורה וחם, שפזורים בו הרי געש אחדים. יותר ממחצית אוכלוסיית המדינה מתגוררת באזור זה, שבו שוכנת הבירה מנגואה והערים גרנדה ולאון. האפר הגעשי תורם לפוריות הרבה של הקרקע בשפלה הפאסיפית. שני האגמים הגדולים ביותר במרכז אמריקה שוכנים בחלקה המזרחי של השפלה הפאסיפית – אגם מנגואה, הקטן יותר, במרכז ואגם ניקרגואה, הגדול ביותר באמריקה המרכזית, בדרום. בצפון-מרכז המדינה, במרחק מה משני האוקיינוסים, שוכן אזור הררי (הגובה המרבי – 2,438 מטרים) שאקלימו חם פחות, ומכוסה בחלקו ביערות עננים (יערות הגדלים ברום גבוה באקלים טרופי או סובטרופי). אזור זה תורם כרבע מהתוצרת החקלאית של המדינה, ובפרט גידולי הקפה. במזרח משתרעת השפלה האטלנטית, המכונה גם השפלה הקריבית או "חוף מיסקיטו" – Costa de Mosquitos, אזור מישורי רחב ומיושב בדלילות, שחלקו הסמוך לחוף הוא ביצה, וחלקו הפנימי יותר מכוסה ברובו ביערות גשם עבותים. אדמת אזור זה ברובה אינה פורייה. במדינה שורר אקלים טרופי. הטמפרטורה משתנה רק במעט במשך השנה, וההבדלים בין אזורים שונים הם בעיקר תוצאה של גובה שונה מעל פני הים. בחלקים שגובהם מעל פני הים נמוך מ-750 מטרים, עומדת הטמפרטורה על 30–33 מעלות צלזיוס ביום ו-21–24 מעלות בלילה לאורך כל השנה. ברום גבוה יותר, 750 עד 1,600 מטרים, שמאפיין את אזור ההרים בצפון-מרכז, הטמפרטורה נמוכה בכ-5 מעלות מהטמפרטורה במישור. בפסגות הגבוהות ביותר, שגובהן מעל 1,600 מטרים, היא עומדת על 22–24 מעלות ביום ו-15 בלילה. כמות המשקעים גבוהה בכל המדינה, אך היא משתנה מאזור לאזור. השפלה הפאסיפית זוכה לכמות המשקעים הגבוהה ביותר בכל מרכז אמריקה – 2,500 עד 6,500 מ"מ של גשם מדי שנה. מערבה לרכס ההרים המרכזי כמות המשקעים היא 1,000 עד 1,500 מ"מ מדי שנה. העונה הגשומה היא בין החודשים מאי לאוקטובר. מערב ניקרגואה שוכנת במקום מפגשם של שני לוחות טקטוניים ולכן מתרחשות בה רעידות אדמה והתפרצויות געשיות. חלק מהרי הגעש בשפלה הפאסיפית פעילים ומתפרצים לעיתים, ב-2007 התפרץ הר קונספסיון (Concepción) ולפני כן התפרצו סן קריסטובל (San Cristóbal) ב-2005, טליקה (Telica) ב-2004 ומאסאיה (Masaya) ב-2003. אך הנזקים הגדולים במאה ה-20 לא נגרמו מהתפרצויות געשיות אלא מרעידות אדמה והוריקנים. הוריקנים מכים בניקרגואה. ב-1998, ההוריקן מיטש (Mitch) לא נכנס אל תוך המדינה אבל תוצאותיו הורגשו בחומרה רבה. גשמים עזים במיוחד גרמו להצפות, צלע הר הגעש קסיטה (Casita) גלשה כמפולת בוץ וולקני וכיסתה שטח של כ-16 קמ"ר. כשני מיליון מתושבי המדינה הושפעו ישירות מההוריקן, חלקם הגדול נותר ללא קורת גג אחרי שההוריקן הרס או גרם לנזקים בקרוב ל-50,000 בתים. קרוב ל-10,000 נפש נספו כתוצאה מההוריקן והנזקים שגרם. ניקרגואה מועדת גם למפולות קרקע, כתוצאה מכריתת יערות. כריתת יערות נרחבת, בעיקר בשפלה הפאסיפית, יצרה בעיה של שחיקת קרקעות. קיימת גם בעיה של זיהום מים, ובפרט מזוהמים מימיו של אגם מנגואה. דמוגרפיה נכון לשנת 2021 אוכלוסיית ניקרגואה מנתה 6,850,540 נפש.[דרוש מקור] היא המדינה השלישית בגודל אוכלוסייתה במרכז אמריקה אחרי גואטמלה והונדורס. צפיפות האוכלוסין בניקרגואה היא 51 נפש לקילומטר רבוע. עיקר האוכלוסייה (54 אחוזים על-פי סקר מ-2005) מתרכזת בשפלה הפאסיפית, מזה כ-1.26 מיליון תושבים בסביבות הבירה מנגואה. באזור הצפון-מרכז מתגוררים עוד כמעט שליש מן האוכלוסייה, ובאזור האטלנטי 14 אחוזים בלבד. צפיפות האוכלוסין באזור זה היא כרבע מן הצפיפות בכלל המדינה. מאות אלפים של בני ניקרגואה חיים מחוץ לארצם. מהם שהיגרו עקב המצב הכלכלי הקשה וקשיי התעסוקה, אחרים היגרו בתקופת מלחמת האזרחים וחוסר היציבות הפוליטית. ארצות היעד העיקריות להגירה הן קוסטה ריקה והונדורס השכנות וארצות הברית. הקבוצה האתנית הגדולה ביותר היא המסטיסוס, תושבים ממוצא מעורב, אירופי ואמריקאי ילידי (אינדיאני). כ-69 אחוזים מן התושבים משתייכים לקבוצה זו. כ-17 אחוזים הם ממוצא אירופי, ברובם צאצאים ליוצאי ספרד, איטליה, צרפת וגרמניה. (גרמנים רבים היגרו למדינה במהלך המאה ה-19, ובאזורים מסוימים, בעיקר בצפון-מרכז, קיימים ריכוזים של צאצאי הגירה זו). כ-9 אחוזים, בעיקר באזור האטלנטי, הם ממוצא אפריקאי, או תערובת של צאצאי אפריקאים ואירופים או אמריקאים ילידים (בהם גם בני קבוצה קטנה של בני גריפונה), וכ-5 אחוזים הם ממוצא אמריקאי ילידי. הקבוצה הגדולה מביניהם היא בני מיסקיטו. כן יש מיעוטים קטנים של יהודים, תושבים ממוצא מזרח-תיכוני ותושבים שמוצאם ממזרח אסיה, בפרט סין. שיעורם של צאצאי האירופים היה גבוה יותר לפני מהפכת 1979. השפה המדוברת בניקרגואה היא ספרדית בדיאלקט מרכז-אמריקני. 97.4 אחוזים מן האוכלוסייה דוברים ספרדית, והיתר (במיוחד בחוף הקריבי) דוברים את שפת מיסקיטו, אנגלית או שפות ילידיות אחרות. הדת הדומיננטית בניקרגואה היא הנצרות הקתולית – אמונה שבה החזיקו 55 אחוזים מן התושבים על-פי המפקד של 2010. 27.2 אחוזים השתייכו לנצרות האוונגליסטית, זרם שמספר מאמיניו מצוי בעלייה חדה בכל מרכז אמריקה. כ-14.7 אחוזים היו חסרי דת. שאר האוכלוסייה (4.1 אחוזים בסך הכל) השתייכו לכנסייה המוראבית (זרם פרוטסטנטי; חסידיו בניקרגואה הם ברובם ממוצא גרמני), לכת עדי יהוה או לדתות אחרות. בעבר היו הקתולים רוב גדול בהרבה. שיעורם על-פי מפקד מ-1995 היה 72.9 אחוזים מן הציבור, ואילו האוונגליסטים מנו באותו מפקד כ-15.1 אחוזים וחסרי הדת – כ-8.5 אחוזים. ב-1963 מנו הקתולים 96 אחוזים מהאוכלוסייה. היסטוריית הקהילה היהודית בניקרגואה מתחילה במאה ה-19, כאשר סוחרים יהודים בודדים, מצרפת וספרד, החלו להתיישב במדינה. בשנת 1911 נרשמה לידת ילד יהודי ראשון במדינה. עם הזמן, הגיעו עולים נוספים ממזרח אירופה ומאמריקה הלטינית, ובשנת 1929 הוקימה קהילה יהודית קטנה אך מגוונת. בשיא פריחתה, באמצע המאה ה-20, מנתה הקהילה כמה מאות יהודים, והתקיימו בה מוסדות יהודיים, כולל בית כנסת שהוקם ב-1972, ובית קברות, שהושחת על ידי ונדליסטים בסוף 2023. עם זאת, בעקבות המהפכה הסנדיניסטית בסוף שנות ה-70 והמצב הפוליטי והכלכלי הרעוע במדינה, רבים מחברי הקהילה עזבו למדינות אחרות, ובעיקר לארצות הברית, ישראל וקוסטה ריקה. עד תחילת המאה ה-21 נותרו בניקרגואה רק משפחות יהודיות בודדות, והחיים הקהילתיים כמעט ונעלמו. בסביבות 2013 הוקם בעיירת החוף סן חואן דל סור, המשמשת כעיירת נופש, בית חב"ד, על ידי הרב דוד עטר., שבנה במקום גם מקווה טהרה, במקום פועלת גם מסעדה כשרה. בשנת 2017 הוכפל מספר היהודים במדינה, עם גיורם של 114 תושבים במקום, בסיוע ארגון "כולנו". האוכלוסייה צעירה יחסית – 37.5 אחוזים הם בני 14 ומטה ורק 4.3 אחוזים הם בני 65 או יותר. רוב קטן (כ-56 אחוזים) מן האוכלוסייה הם עירוניים. הערים הגדולות מרוכזות באזור הפסיפי, שבו שיעור האוכלוסייה העירונית עומד על כ-72 אחוזים. שיעור האוכלוסייה העירונית עלה בהתמדה לאורך המאה ה-20. מחוזות ניקרגואה היא רפובליקה מאוחדת המחולקת ל-15 "מחלקות" (departamentos), מחוזות בעלי אוטונומיה מבחינה מנהלתית, המחולקים מבחינה שלטונית בין שני גופים שלטוניים. בנוסף יש בניקרגואה שתי ישויות אוטונומיות; 'Región Autónoma Atlántico Norte' ו'Región Autónoma Atlántico Sur', המכונים לרוב בראשי התיבות, RAAN and RAAS. עד לקבלתן כאוטונומיות ב-1985 היו נחשבות למחוז אחד מבין מחוזות המדינה – מחוז זליה. המחוזות והישויות האוטונומיות מחולקים ל-153 רשויות מוניציפליות. תרבות התרבות של ניקרגואה היא שילוב ייחודי של מסורות אירופאיות וילידיות. החוף הפסיפי מאופיין בתרבות תוססת הדומה למדינות אמריקה הלטינית האחרות. מצד שני, החוף הקריבי משקף את ההיסטוריה הקולוניאלית הבריטית שלו, כאשר אנגלית ושפות ילידיות מדוברות זו לצד זו, בנוסף לספרדית. הקהילות הילידיות באזור זה שמרו על זהותן הנפרדת, בניגוד לאוכלוסיית החוף הפסיפי. המוזיקה של ניקרגואה היא שילוב עשיר של השפעות מקומיות, ספרדיות ובין-לאומיות. כלי נגינה כמו המרימבה וריקודים כמו "פאלו דה מאיו" ("Palo de Mayo") הם חלק בלתי נפרד מהנוף התרבותי. הריקודים הכפריים מדגישים תנועות ירך, בעוד שהריקודים העירוניים שואבים בעיקר מהתרבויות האמריקאית והדומיניקנית. בצ'אטה הוא ריקוד פופולרי במדינה, כאשר גם הטנגו צובר תאוצה בשנים האחרונות. המטבח הניקרגואי משלב אלמנטים ספרדיים ומהתקופה הפרה-קולומביאנית. אבני היסוד כוללים תירס, אורז ושעועית. המאכל הלאומי, "גאיו פִּינְטוֹ" ("Gallo Pinto"), הוא תערובת של אורז ושעועית אדומה. תוצרת מקומית כגון פירות וירקות תופסת גם היא מקום בולט. מאכלי רחוב כוללים "טחדס" ("Tajadas") ו"קסייו" ("Quesillo"), בעוד שמנות מסורתיות לפעמים משלבות מרכיבים לא שגרתיים כמו שרקנים, טפירים, איגואנות, ביצי צב, ארמדילים ונחשים. עם זאת, לאחרונה מתקיימים מאמצי שימור אשר שואפים למנוע את צריכתם עקב סיכוני הכחדה. הספרות הניקרגואית מושרשת עמוק במיתוסים פרה-קולומביאניים ובמסורות עתיקות שבעל פה, ונושאת את השפעת הקולוניאליזם הספרדי. דמויות מפורסמות כמו רובן דריו, המוכר כ"אבי המודרניזם", עיצבו את הזירה הספרותית של המדינה. יצירה בולטת היא "אל גואגואנסה"/"מצ'ו רטון" ("El Güegüense"/"Macho Ratón"), דרמה סאטירית פוסט-קולוניאלית שאונסק"ו הכיר בחשיבותה בשנת 2005. ניקרגואה עשתה צעד משמעותי בחינוך במהלך שנות ה-80. קמפיין לאומי לאוריינות בשנת 1980, בהובלת מורים מתנדבים, הפחית באופן דרסטי את שיעור האנאלפביתיות במדינה מ-50.3% ל-12.9% בתוך פרק זמן של חמישה חודשים. הישג יוצא דופן זה זכה להכרה עולמית ולפרס יוקרתי של אונסק"ו עבור ממשלת הסנדיניסטים, שהובילה את היוזמה. שיעור הבערות (אנאלפביתיות) באוכלוסייה מעל גיל 15 מוערך ב-22 אחוזים (2005) – לעומת 42.5 אחוזים במפקד מ-1971. באוכלוסייה הכפרית הבעיה חמורה יותר, ושיעור הבערות מגיע ל-36.9 אחוזים. ניקרגואה היא חלק מארגון המדינות האיברו-אמריקניות, שיתוף פעולה של מדינות איברו-אמריקניות בתחומים חינוכיים, מדעיים ותרבותיים. ספורט הוא היבט משמעותי בתרבות הניקרגואית, כאשר בייסבול, שהוצג במאה ה-19, הוא הפופולרי ביותר. שחקני בייסבול מפורסמים בליגת ה-MLB מניקרגואה כוללים את דניס מרטינז. אגרוף, עם אלופי עולם כמו אלכסיס ארגוייו, הוא ענף הספורט השני המועדף ביותר. בשנים האחרונות גם כדורגל זוכה לפופולריות גוברת ובשנת 2011 הוקם האצטדיון הלאומי. נבחרת הכדורסל של המדינה זכתה במדליית כסף במשחקי מרכז אמריקה 2017. המדינה משתתפת גם בתחרויות כדורעף חופים בין-לאומיות. ראו גם לקריאה נוספת קישורים חיצוניים הערות שוליים |
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[SOURCE: https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2026/02/metas-flagship-metaverse-service-leaves-vr-behind/] | [TOKENS: 1351] |
Not the next big thing Meta’s flagship metaverse service leaves VR behind The company asserts it will continue to make VR headsets, though. Samuel Axon – Feb 20, 2026 4:49 pm | 50 Perhaps the most famous image of the metaverse. Credit: Meta Perhaps the most famous image of the metaverse. Credit: Meta Text settings Story text Size Small Standard Large Width * Standard Wide Links Standard Orange * Subscribers only Learn more Minimize to nav Meta announced today that it will divorce its Horizon Worlds social and gaming service—once promoted as the company’s first major step into the metaverse—from its Quest VR headset platform and digital store. The company says it is now “shifting the focus of Worlds to be almost exclusively mobile.” The announcement is also filled with statements like “we’re doubling down on the VR developer ecosystem” that are attempting to head off any suggestion that Meta is retreating from the mixed reality space. This is far from the first signal that big changes are happening with Meta’s mixed reality strategy. CNBC reported that Meta has lost $80 billion on investments in Reality Labs, the company’s mixed reality division. More than 1,000 Reality Labs employees were laid off in January, but don’t misread that as a total closure; more than 15,000 people were working in that part of the organization before the layoffs. It’s also important to note that those layoffs reportedly did not affect many people working on augmented reality, the category Meta is exploring for future smart glasses. Many of the layoffs focused specifically on internal studios making VR content, games, and experiences. Some of the changes—like the removal of individual worlds from the VR store—are presented by the company as efforts to make the store a better discovery platform for third-party developers. In general, Meta frames many of its recent moves as a pivot away from first-party development of VR experiences to a focus on a third-party developer ecosystem, with stats like “86% of the effective time people spend in their VR headsets is with third-party apps.” “We’ll continue to support the third-party community through strategic partnerships and targeted investments—as we have since the beginning,” writes Meta Reality Labs VP of Content Samantha Ryan. Meta launched a Horizon Worlds mobile app last year and found it attracted an influx of new users interested in the service’s social gaming aspects, except for the VR element. It seems that the mobile launch was successful enough to merit focusing the entire service on that platform and audience, rather than shutting it down amid the other closures of internal content projects. As far as we know, Meta plans to continue to design, make, and sell VR hardware and maintain the storefronts that third-party developers sell on for those platforms. It won’t make much content in-house, and you don’t see much talk about the promise of an all-encompassing, transformational metaverse anymore. Instead, Meta’s speculative investment appears focused on smart glasses, as well as AI models, technologies, and applications. Samuel Axon Senior Editor Samuel Axon Senior Editor Samuel Axon is the editorial lead for tech and gaming coverage at Ars Technica. He covers AI, software development, gaming, entertainment, and mixed reality. He has been writing about gaming and technology for nearly two decades at Engadget, PC World, Mashable, Vice, Polygon, Wired, and others. He previously ran a marketing and PR agency in the gaming industry, led editorial for the TV network CBS, and worked on social media marketing strategy for Samsung Mobile at the creative agency SPCSHP. He also is an independent software and game developer for iOS, Windows, and other platforms, and he is a graduate of DePaul University, where he studied interactive media and software development. 50 Comments Meta’s flagship metaverse service leaves VR behind The company asserts it will continue to make VR headsets, though. Meta announced today that it will divorce its Horizon Worlds social and gaming service—once promoted as the company’s first major step into the metaverse—from its Quest VR headset platform and digital store. The company says it is now “shifting the focus of Worlds to be almost exclusively mobile.” The announcement is also filled with statements like “we’re doubling down on the VR developer ecosystem” that are attempting to head off any suggestion that Meta is retreating from the mixed reality space. This is far from the first signal that big changes are happening with Meta’s mixed reality strategy. CNBC reported that Meta has lost $80 billion on investments in Reality Labs, the company’s mixed reality division. More than 1,000 Reality Labs employees were laid off in January, but don’t misread that as a total closure; more than 15,000 people were working in that part of the organization before the layoffs. It’s also important to note that those layoffs reportedly did not affect many people working on augmented reality, the category Meta is exploring for future smart glasses. Many of the layoffs focused specifically on internal studios making VR content, games, and experiences. Some of the changes—like the removal of individual worlds from the VR store—are presented by the company as efforts to make the store a better discovery platform for third-party developers. In general, Meta frames many of its recent moves as a pivot away from first-party development of VR experiences to a focus on a third-party developer ecosystem, with stats like “86% of the effective time people spend in their VR headsets is with third-party apps.” “We’ll continue to support the third-party community through strategic partnerships and targeted investments—as we have since the beginning,” writes Meta Reality Labs VP of Content Samantha Ryan. Meta launched a Horizon Worlds mobile app last year and found it attracted an influx of new users interested in the service’s social gaming aspects, except for the VR element. It seems that the mobile launch was successful enough to merit focusing the entire service on that platform and audience, rather than shutting it down amid the other closures of internal content projects. As far as we know, Meta plans to continue to design, make, and sell VR hardware and maintain the storefronts that third-party developers sell on for those platforms. It won’t make much content in-house, and you don’t see much talk about the promise of an all-encompassing, transformational metaverse anymore. Instead, Meta’s speculative investment appears focused on smart glasses, as well as AI models, technologies, and applications. Ars Technica has been separating the signal from the noise for over 25 years. With our unique combination of technical savvy and wide-ranging interest in the technological arts and sciences, Ars is the trusted source in a sea of information. After all, you don’t need to know everything, only what’s important. |
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[SOURCE: https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2026/02/fcc-asks-stations-for-pro-america-programming-like-daily-pledge-of-allegiance/#comments] | [TOKENS: 2029] |
Pledge allegiance to the FCC FCC asks stations for “pro-America” programming, like daily Pledge of Allegiance Brendan Carr wants “patriotic” shows for Trump’s yearlong America 250 celebration. Jon Brodkin – Feb 20, 2026 5:00 pm | 146 FCC Chairman Brendan Carr speaks at a news conference following an FCC meeting on February 18, 2026 in Washington, DC. Credit: Getty Images | Kevin Dietsch FCC Chairman Brendan Carr speaks at a news conference following an FCC meeting on February 18, 2026 in Washington, DC. Credit: Getty Images | Kevin Dietsch Text settings Story text Size Small Standard Large Width * Standard Wide Links Standard Orange * Subscribers only Learn more Minimize to nav Federal Communications Commission Chairman Brendan Carr today urged broadcasters to join a “Pledge America Campaign” that Carr established to support President Trump’s “Salute to America 250” project. Carr said in a press release that “I am inviting broadcasters to pledge to air programming in their local markets in support of this historic national, non-partisan celebration.” The press release said Carr is asking broadcasters to “air patriotic, pro-America programming in support of America’s 250th birthday.” Carr gave what he called examples of content that broadcasters can run if they take the pledge. His examples include “starting each broadcast day with the ‘Star Spangled Banner’ or Pledge of Allegiance”; airing “PSAs, short segments, or full specials specifically promoting civic education, inspiring local stories, and American history”; running “segments during regular news programming that highlight local sites that are significant to American and regional history, such as National Park Service sites”; airing “music by America’s greatest composers, such as John Philip Sousa, Aaron Copland, Duke Ellington, and George Gershwin”; and providing daily “Today in American History” announcements highlighting significant events from US history. Carr apparently wants this to start now and last until at least July 4. Carr’s press release starts by touting Trump’s Salute to America 250 project and quotes a White House statement that said, “Under the President’s leadership, Task Force 250 has commenced the planning of a full year of festivities to officially launch on Memorial Day, 2025 and continue through July 4, 2026.” That White House quote cited by the FCC today is nearly a year old, as you might have guessed by the reference to Memorial Day in 2025. More recently, Trump has said he wants the celebration to last throughout 2026. A Trump proclamation last month declared a “yearlong commemoration” of American independence that began on January 1, 2026. “Voluntary” pledge Today’s FCC press release said, “Broadcasters can voluntarily choose to indicate their commitment to the Pledge America Campaign and highlight their ongoing and relevant programming to their viewing and listening audiences.” Although it’s described as voluntary, Carr said broadcasters can meet their public interest obligations by taking the pledge. This is notable because Carr has repeatedly threatened to punish broadcast stations for violating the public interest standard. “I believe in the greatness of our country,” Carr said in the press release. “And I look forward to broadcasters showcasing its inspiring history by taking the Pledge and fulfilling their public interest mandate to serve the needs and interests of their local communities as America’s 250th birthday celebration marches on.” Carr has enthusiastically backed Trump’s battles against the media by making numerous threats to revoke broadcast station licenses. Carr targeted ABC’s Jimmy Kimmel in September, and recently opened an investigation into ABC’s The View. In both cases, Carr said he was enforcing the FCC’s public interest standard. Stephen Colbert said this week that CBS forbade him from interviewing Texas Democratic Senate candidate James Talarico because of Carr’s threat to ditch the FCC’s longstanding practice of exempting talk shows from the equal-time rule. CBS denied prohibiting the interview but acknowledged giving Colbert “legal guidance” about potential consequences under the equal-time rule. Carr responded Wednesday by claiming that Colbert lied and said the media “should feel a bit ashamed for having been lied to and then run with those lies.” If Carr’s pledge is truly voluntary, there would be no reason to limit it to broadcasters, said Harold Feld, a longtime telecom attorney who is senior VP of consumer advocacy group Public Knowledge. “If this were genuinely intended as voluntary, and genuinely about celebrating America, there is no reason to limit this to broadcasters,” Feld told Ars. “Cable operators are equally free to celebrate America, as are podcasters for that matter.” The FCC’s lone Democratic commissioner, Anna Gomez, has been urging broadcasters to push back against the FCC and assert their First Amendment rights. She wrote in response to Carr’s Pledge America Campaign, “Nothing is more American than defending our constitutional rights against those who would erode our civil liberties. If broadcasters choose to participate in this FCC campaign, they can do so by defending their First Amendment rights and refusing government interference.” Jon Brodkin Senior IT Reporter Jon Brodkin Senior IT Reporter Jon is a Senior IT Reporter for Ars Technica. He covers the telecom industry, Federal Communications Commission rulemakings, broadband consumer affairs, court cases, and government regulation of the tech industry. 146 Comments FCC asks stations for “pro-America” programming, like daily Pledge of Allegiance Brendan Carr wants “patriotic” shows for Trump’s yearlong America 250 celebration. Federal Communications Commission Chairman Brendan Carr today urged broadcasters to join a “Pledge America Campaign” that Carr established to support President Trump’s “Salute to America 250” project. Carr said in a press release that “I am inviting broadcasters to pledge to air programming in their local markets in support of this historic national, non-partisan celebration.” The press release said Carr is asking broadcasters to “air patriotic, pro-America programming in support of America’s 250th birthday.” Carr gave what he called examples of content that broadcasters can run if they take the pledge. His examples include “starting each broadcast day with the ‘Star Spangled Banner’ or Pledge of Allegiance”; airing “PSAs, short segments, or full specials specifically promoting civic education, inspiring local stories, and American history”; running “segments during regular news programming that highlight local sites that are significant to American and regional history, such as National Park Service sites”; airing “music by America’s greatest composers, such as John Philip Sousa, Aaron Copland, Duke Ellington, and George Gershwin”; and providing daily “Today in American History” announcements highlighting significant events from US history. Carr apparently wants this to start now and last until at least July 4. Carr’s press release starts by touting Trump’s Salute to America 250 project and quotes a White House statement that said, “Under the President’s leadership, Task Force 250 has commenced the planning of a full year of festivities to officially launch on Memorial Day, 2025 and continue through July 4, 2026.” That White House quote cited by the FCC today is nearly a year old, as you might have guessed by the reference to Memorial Day in 2025. More recently, Trump has said he wants the celebration to last throughout 2026. A Trump proclamation last month declared a “yearlong commemoration” of American independence that began on January 1, 2026. “Voluntary” pledge Today’s FCC press release said, “Broadcasters can voluntarily choose to indicate their commitment to the Pledge America Campaign and highlight their ongoing and relevant programming to their viewing and listening audiences.” Although it’s described as voluntary, Carr said broadcasters can meet their public interest obligations by taking the pledge. This is notable because Carr has repeatedly threatened to punish broadcast stations for violating the public interest standard. “I believe in the greatness of our country,” Carr said in the press release. “And I look forward to broadcasters showcasing its inspiring history by taking the Pledge and fulfilling their public interest mandate to serve the needs and interests of their local communities as America’s 250th birthday celebration marches on.” Carr has enthusiastically backed Trump’s battles against the media by making numerous threats to revoke broadcast station licenses. Carr targeted ABC’s Jimmy Kimmel in September, and recently opened an investigation into ABC’s The View. In both cases, Carr said he was enforcing the FCC’s public interest standard. Stephen Colbert said this week that CBS forbade him from interviewing Texas Democratic Senate candidate James Talarico because of Carr’s threat to ditch the FCC’s longstanding practice of exempting talk shows from the equal-time rule. CBS denied prohibiting the interview but acknowledged giving Colbert “legal guidance” about potential consequences under the equal-time rule. Carr responded Wednesday by claiming that Colbert lied and said the media “should feel a bit ashamed for having been lied to and then run with those lies.” If Carr’s pledge is truly voluntary, there would be no reason to limit it to broadcasters, said Harold Feld, a longtime telecom attorney who is senior VP of consumer advocacy group Public Knowledge. “If this were genuinely intended as voluntary, and genuinely about celebrating America, there is no reason to limit this to broadcasters,” Feld told Ars. “Cable operators are equally free to celebrate America, as are podcasters for that matter.” The FCC’s lone Democratic commissioner, Anna Gomez, has been urging broadcasters to push back against the FCC and assert their First Amendment rights. She wrote in response to Carr’s Pledge America Campaign, “Nothing is more American than defending our constitutional rights against those who would erode our civil liberties. If broadcasters choose to participate in this FCC campaign, they can do so by defending their First Amendment rights and refusing government interference.” Ars Technica has been separating the signal from the noise for over 25 years. With our unique combination of technical savvy and wide-ranging interest in the technological arts and sciences, Ars is the trusted source in a sea of information. After all, you don’t need to know everything, only what’s important. |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World#Phenomenology] | [TOKENS: 5641] |
Contents World The world is the totality of entities, the whole of reality, or everything that exists. The nature of the world has been conceptualized differently in different fields. Some conceptions see the world as unique, while others talk of a "plurality of worlds". Some treat the world as one simple object, while others analyze the world as a complex made up of parts. In scientific cosmology, the world or universe is commonly defined as "the totality of all space and time; all that is, has been, and will be". Theories of modality talk of possible worlds as complete and consistent ways how things could have been. Phenomenology, starting from the horizon of co-given objects present in the periphery of every experience, defines the world as the biggest horizon, or the "horizon of all horizons". In philosophy of mind, the world is contrasted with the mind as that which is represented by the mind. Theology conceptualizes the world in relation to God, for example, as God's creation, as identical to God, or as the two being interdependent. In religions, there is a tendency to downgrade the material or sensory world in favor of a spiritual world to be sought through religious practice. A comprehensive representation of the world and our place in it, as is found in religions, is known as a worldview. Cosmogony is the field that studies the origin or creation of the world, while eschatology refers to the science or doctrine of the last things or of the end of the world. In various contexts, the term "world" takes a more restricted meaning associated, for example, with the Earth and all life on it, with humanity as a whole, or with an international or intercontinental scope. In this sense, world history refers to the history of humanity as a whole, and world politics is the discipline of political science studying issues that transcend nations and continents. Other examples include terms such as "world religion", "world language", "world government", "world war", "world population", "world economy", or "world championship". Etymology The English word world comes from the Old English weorold. The Old English is a reflex of the Common Germanic *weraldiz, a compound of weraz 'man' and aldiz 'age', thus literally meaning roughly 'age of man'; this word led to Old Frisian warld, Old Saxon werold, Old Dutch werolt, Old High German weralt, and Old Norse verǫld. The corresponding word in Latin is mundus, literally 'clean, elegant', itself a loan translation of Greek cosmos 'orderly arrangement'. While the Germanic word thus reflects a mythological notion of a "domain of Man" (compare Midgard), presumably as opposed to the divine sphere on the one hand and the chthonic sphere of the underworld on the other, the Greco-Latin term expresses a notion of creation as an act of establishing order out of chaos. Conceptions Different fields often work with quite different conceptions of the essential features associated with the term "world". Some conceptions see the world as unique: there can be no more than one world. Others talk of a "plurality of worlds". Some see worlds as complex things composed of many substances as their parts while others hold that worlds are simple in the sense that there is only one substance: the world as a whole. Some characterize worlds in terms of objective spacetime while others define them relative to the horizon present in each experience. These different characterizations are not always exclusive: it may be possible to combine some without leading to a contradiction. Most of them agree that worlds are unified totalities. Monism is a thesis about oneness: that only one thing exists in a certain sense. The denial of monism is pluralism, the thesis that, in a certain sense, more than one thing exists. There are many forms of monism and pluralism, but in relation to the world as a whole, two are of special interest: existence monism/pluralism and priority monism/pluralism. Existence monism states that the world is the only concrete object there is. This means that all the concrete "objects" we encounter in our daily lives, including apples, cars and ourselves, are not truly objects in a strict sense. Instead, they are just dependent aspects of the world-object. Such a world-object is simple in the sense that it does not have any genuine parts. For this reason, it has also been referred to as "blobject" since it lacks an internal structure like a blob. Priority monism allows that there are other concrete objects besides the world. But it holds that these objects do not have the most fundamental form of existence, that they somehow depend on the existence of the world. The corresponding forms of pluralism state that the world is complex in the sense that it is made up of concrete, independent objects. Scientific cosmology can be defined as the science of the universe as a whole. In it, the terms "universe" and "cosmos" are usually used as synonyms for the term "world". One common definition of the world/universe found in this field is as "[t]he totality of all space and time; all that is, has been, and will be". Some definitions emphasize that there are two other aspects to the universe besides spacetime: forms of energy or matter, like stars and particles, and laws of nature. World-conceptions in this field differ both concerning their notion of spacetime and of the contents of spacetime. The theory of relativity plays a central role in modern cosmology and its conception of space and time. A difference from its predecessors is that it conceives space and time not as distinct dimensions but as a single four-dimensional manifold called spacetime. This can be seen in special relativity in relation to the Minkowski metric, which includes both spatial and temporal components in its definition of distance. General relativity goes one step further by integrating the concept of mass into the concept of spacetime as its curvature. Quantum cosmology uses a classical notion of spacetime and conceives the whole world as one big wave function expressing the probability of finding particles in a given location. The world-concept plays a role in many modern theories of modality, sometimes in the form of possible worlds. A possible world is a complete and consistent way how things could have been. The actual world is a possible world since the way things are is a way things could have been. There are many other ways things could have been besides how they actually are. For example, Hillary Clinton did not win the 2016 US election, but she could have won. So there is a possible world in which she did. There is a vast number of possible worlds, one corresponding to each such difference, no matter how small or big, as long as no outright contradictions are introduced this way. Possible worlds are often conceived as abstract objects, for example, in terms of non-obtaining states of affairs or as maximally consistent sets of propositions. On such a view, they can even be seen as belonging to the actual world. Another way to conceive possible worlds, made famous by David Lewis, is as concrete entities. On this conception, there is no important difference between the actual world and possible worlds: both are conceived as concrete, inclusive and spatiotemporally connected. The only difference is that the actual world is the world we live in, while other possible worlds are not inhabited by us but by our counterparts. Everything within a world is spatiotemporally connected to everything else but the different worlds do not share a common spacetime: They are spatiotemporally isolated from each other. This is what makes them separate worlds. It has been suggested that, besides possible worlds, there are also impossible worlds. Possible worlds are ways things could have been, so impossible worlds are ways things could not have been. Such worlds involve a contradiction, like a world in which Hillary Clinton both won and lost the 2016 US election. Both possible and impossible worlds have in common the idea that they are totalities of their constituents. Within phenomenology, worlds are defined in terms of horizons of experiences. When we perceive an object, like a house, we do not just experience this object at the center of our attention but also various other objects surrounding it, given in the periphery. The term "horizon" refers to these co-given objects, which are usually experienced only in a vague, indeterminate manner. The perception of a house involves various horizons, corresponding to the neighborhood, the city, the country, the Earth, etc. In this context, the world is the biggest horizon or the "horizon of all horizons". It is common among phenomenologists to understand the world not just as a spatiotemporal collection of objects but as additionally incorporating various other relations between these objects. These relations include, for example, indication-relations that help us anticipate one object given the appearances of another object and means-end-relations or functional involvements relevant for practical concerns. In philosophy of mind, the term "world" is commonly used in contrast to the term "mind" as that which is represented by the mind. This is sometimes expressed by stating that there is a gap between mind and world and that this gap needs to be overcome for representation to be successful. One problem in philosophy of mind is to explain how the mind is able to bridge this gap and to enter into genuine mind-world-relations, for example, in the form of perception, knowledge or action. This is necessary for the world to be able to rationally constrain the activity of the mind. According to a realist position, the world is something distinct and independent from the mind. Idealists conceive of the world as partially or fully determined by the mind. Immanuel Kant's transcendental idealism, for example, posits that the spatiotemporal structure of the world is imposed by the mind on reality but lacks independent existence otherwise. A more radical idealist conception of the world can be found in Berkeley's subjective idealism, which holds that the world as a whole, including all everyday objects like tables, cats, trees and ourselves, "consists of nothing but minds and ideas". Different theological positions hold different conceptions of the world based on its relation to God. Classical theism states that God is wholly distinct from the world. But the world depends for its existence on God, both because God created the world and because He maintains or conserves it. This is sometimes understood in analogy to how humans create and conserve ideas in their imagination, with the difference being that the divine mind is vastly more powerful. On such a view, God has absolute, ultimate reality in contrast to the lower ontological status ascribed to the world. God's involvement in the world is often understood along the lines of a personal, benevolent God who looks after and guides His creation. Deists agree with theists that God created the world but deny any subsequent, personal involvement in it. Pantheists reject the separation between God and world. Instead, they claim that the two are identical. This means that there is nothing to the world that does not belong to God and that there is nothing to God beyond what is found in the world. Panentheism constitutes a middle ground between theism and pantheism. Against theism, it holds that God and the world are interrelated and depend on each other. Against pantheism, it holds that there is no outright identity between the two. History of philosophy In philosophy, the term world has several possible meanings. In some contexts, it refers to everything that makes up reality or the physical universe. In others, it can mean have a specific ontological sense (see world disclosure). While clarifying the concept of world has arguably always been among the basic tasks of Western philosophy, this theme appears to have been raised explicitly only at the start of the twentieth century, Plato is well known for his theory of forms, which posits the existence of two different worlds: the sensible world and the intelligible world. The sensible world is the world we live in, filled with changing physical things we can see, touch and interact with. The intelligible world is the world of invisible, eternal, changeless forms like goodness, beauty, unity and sameness. Plato ascribes a lower ontological status to the sensible world, which only imitates the world of forms. This is due to the fact that physical things exist only to the extent that they participate in the forms that characterize them, while the forms themselves have an independent manner of existence. In this sense, the sensible world is a mere replication of the perfect exemplars found in the world of forms: it never lives up to the original. In the allegory of the cave, Plato compares the physical things we are familiar with to mere shadows of the real things. But not knowing the difference, the prisoners in the cave mistake the shadows for the real things. Two definitions that were both put forward in the 1920s, however, suggest the range of available opinion. "The world is everything that is the case", wrote Ludwig Wittgenstein in his influential Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, first published in 1921. Martin Heidegger, meanwhile, argued that "the surrounding world is different for each of us, and notwithstanding that we move about in a common world". "World" is one of the key terms in Eugen Fink's philosophy. He thinks that there is a misguided tendency in western philosophy to understand the world as one enormously big thing containing all the small everyday things we are familiar with. He sees this view as a form of forgetfulness of the world and tries to oppose it by what he calls the "cosmological difference": the difference between the world and the inner-worldly things it contains. On his view, the world is the totality of the inner-worldly things that transcends them. It is itself groundless but it provides a ground for things. It therefore cannot be identified with a mere container. Instead, the world gives appearance to inner-worldly things, it provides them with a place, a beginning and an end. One difficulty in investigating the world is that we never encounter it since it is not just one more thing that appears to us. This is why Fink uses the notion of play or playing to elucidate the nature of the world. He sees play as a symbol of the world that is both part of it and that represents it. Play usually comes with a form of imaginary play-world involving various things relevant to the play. But just like the play is more than the imaginary realities appearing in it so the world is more than the actual things appearing in it. The concept of worlds plays a central role in Nelson Goodman's late philosophy. He argues that we need to posit different worlds in order to account for the fact that there are different incompatible truths found in reality. Two truths are incompatible if they ascribe incompatible properties to the same thing. This happens, for example, when we assert both that the earth moves and that the earth is at rest. These incompatible truths correspond to two different ways of describing the world: heliocentrism and geocentrism. Goodman terms such descriptions "world versions". He holds a correspondence theory of truth: a world version is true if it corresponds to a world. Incompatible true world versions correspond to different worlds. It is common for theories of modality to posit the existence of a plurality of possible worlds. But Goodman's theory is different since it posits a plurality not of possible but of actual worlds. Such a position is in danger of involving a contradiction: there cannot be a plurality of actual worlds if worlds are defined as maximally inclusive wholes. This danger may be avoided by interpreting Goodman's world-concept not as maximally inclusive wholes in the absolute sense but in relation to its corresponding world-version: a world contains all and only the entities that its world-version describes. Religion Mythological cosmologies depict the world as centered on an axis mundi and delimited by a boundary such as a world ocean, a world serpent or similar. Hinduism constitutes a family of religious-philosophical views. These views present perspectives on the nature and role of the world. Samkhya philosophy, for example, is a metaphysical dualism that understands reality as comprising 2 parts: purusha and prakriti. The term "purusha" stands for the individual conscious self that each of "us" possesses. Prakriti, on the other hand, is the 1 world inhabited by all these selves. Samkhya understands this world as a world of matter governed by the law of cause and effect. The term "matter" is understood in a sense in this tradition including physical and mental aspects. This is reflected in the doctrine of tattvas, according to which prakriti is made up of 23 principles or elements of reality. These principles include physical elements, like water or earth, and mental aspects, like intelligence or sense-impressions. The relation between purusha and prakriti is conceived as 1 of observation: purusha is the conscious self aware of the world of prakriti and does not causally interact with it. A conception of the world is present in Advaita Vedanta, the monist school among the Vedanta schools. Unlike the realist position defended in Samkhya philosophy, Advaita Vedanta sees the world of multiplicity as an illusion, referred to as Maya. This illusion includes impression of existing as separate experiencing selfs called Jivas. Instead, Advaita Vedanta teaches that on the most fundamental level of reality, referred to as Brahman, there exists no plurality or difference. All there is is 1 all-encompassing self: Atman. Ignorance is seen as the source of this illusion, which results in bondage to the world of mere appearances. Liberation is possible in the course of overcoming this illusion by acquiring the knowledge of Brahman, according to Advaita Vedanta. Contemptus mundi is the name given to the belief that the world, in all its vanity, is nothing more than a futile attempt to hide from God by stifling our desire for the good and the holy. This view has been characterised as a "pastoral of fear" by historian Jean Delumeau. "The world, the flesh, and the devil" is a traditional division of the sources of temptation. Orbis Catholicus is a Latin phrase meaning "Catholic world", per the expression Urbi et Orbi, and refers to that area of Christendom under papal supremacy. In Islam, the term "dunya" is used for the world. Its meaning is derived from the root word "dana", a term for "near". It is associated with the temporal, sensory world and earthly concerns, i.e. with this world in contrast to the spiritual world. Religious teachings warn of a tendency to seek happiness in this world and advise a more ascetic lifestyle concerned with the afterlife. Other strands in Islam recommend a balanced approach. In Mandaean cosmology, the world or earthly realm is known as Tibil. It is separated from the World of Light (alma d-nhūra) above and the World of Darkness (alma d-hšuka) below by aether (ayar). Related terms and problems A worldview is a comprehensive representation of the world and our place in it. As a representation, it is a subjective perspective of the world and thereby different from the world it represents. All higher animals need to represent their environment in some way in order to navigate it. But it has been argued that only humans possess a representation encompassing enough to merit the term "worldview". Philosophers of worldviews commonly hold that the understanding of any object depends on a worldview constituting the background on which this understanding can take place. This may affect not just our intellectual understanding of the object in question but the experience of it in general. It is therefore impossible to assess one's worldview from a neutral perspective since this assessment already presupposes the worldview as its background. Some hold that each worldview is based on a single hypothesis that promises to solve all the problems of our existence we may encounter. On this interpretation, the term is closely associated to the worldviews given by different religions. Worldviews offer orientation not just in theoretical matters but also in practical matters. For this reason, they usually include answers to the question of the meaning of life and other evaluative components about what matters and how we should act. A worldview can be unique to one individual but worldviews are usually shared by many people within a certain culture or religion. The idea that there exist many different worlds is found in various fields. For example, theories of modality talk about a plurality of possible worlds and the many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics carries this reference even in its name. Talk of different worlds is also common in everyday language, for example, with reference to the world of music, the world of business, the world of football, the world of experience or the Asian world. But at the same time, worlds are usually defined as all-inclusive totalities. This seems to contradict the very idea of a plurality of worlds since if a world is total and all-inclusive then it cannot have anything outside itself. Understood this way, a world can neither have other worlds besides itself or be part of something bigger. One way to resolve this paradox while holding onto the notion of a plurality of worlds is to restrict the sense in which worlds are totalities. On this view, worlds are not totalities in an absolute sense. This might be even understood in the sense that, strictly speaking, there are no worlds at all. Another approach understands worlds in a schematic sense: as context-dependent expressions that stand for the current domain of discourse. So in the expression "Around the World in Eighty Days", the term "world" refers to the earth while in the colonial expression "the New World" it refers to the landmass of North and South America. Cosmogony is the field that studies the origin or creation of the world. This includes both scientific cosmogony and creation myths found in various religions. The dominant theory in scientific cosmogony is the Big Bang theory, according to which both space, time and matter have their origin in one initial singularity occurring about 13.8 billion years ago. This singularity was followed by an expansion that allowed the universe to sufficiently cool down for the formation of subatomic particles and later atoms. These initial elements formed giant clouds, which would then coalesce into stars and galaxies. Non-scientific creation myths are found in many cultures and are often enacted in rituals expressing their symbolic meaning. They can be categorized concerning their contents. Types often found include creation from nothing, from chaos or from a cosmic egg. Eschatology refers to the science or doctrine of the last things or of the end of the world. It is traditionally associated with religion, specifically with the Abrahamic religions. In this form, it may include teachings both of the end of each individual human life and of the end of the world as a whole. But it has been applied to other fields as well, for example, in the form of physical eschatology, which includes scientifically based speculations about the far future of the universe. According to some models, there will be a Big Crunch in which the whole universe collapses back into a singularity, possibly resulting in a second Big Bang afterward. But current astronomical evidence seems to suggest that our universe will continue to expand indefinitely. World history studies the world from a historical perspective. Unlike other approaches to history, it employs a global viewpoint. It deals less with individual nations and civilizations, which it usually approaches at a high level of abstraction. Instead, it concentrates on wider regions and zones of interaction, often interested in how people, goods and ideas move from one region to another. It includes comparisons of different societies and civilizations as well as considering wide-ranging developments with a long-term global impact like the process of industrialization. Contemporary world history is dominated by three main research paradigms determining the periodization into different epochs. One is based on productive relations between humans and nature. The two most important changes in history in this respect were the introduction of agriculture and husbandry concerning the production of food, which started around 10,000 to 8,000 BCE and is sometimes termed the Neolithic Revolution, and the Industrial Revolution, which started around 1760 CE and involved the transition from manual to industrial manufacturing. Another paradigm, focusing on culture and religion instead, is based on Karl Jaspers' theories about the Axial Age, a time in which various new forms of religious and philosophical thoughts appeared in several separate parts of the world around the time between 800 and 200 BCE. A third periodization is based on the relations between civilizations and societies. According to this paradigm, history can be divided into three periods in relation to the dominant region in the world: Middle Eastern dominance before 500 BCE, Eurasian cultural balance until 1500 CE and Western dominance since 1500 CE. Big History employs an even wider framework than world history by putting human history into the context of the history of the universe as a whole. It starts with the Big Bang and traces the formation of galaxies, the Solar System, the Earth, its geological eras, the evolution of life and humans until the present day. World politics, also referred to as global politics or international relations, is the discipline of political science studying issues of interest to the world that transcend nations and continents. It aims to explain complex patterns found in the social world that are often related to the pursuit of power, order and justice, usually in the context of globalization. It focuses not just on the relations between nation-states but also considers other transnational actors, like multinational corporations, terrorist groups, or non-governmental organizations. For example, it tries to explain events such as the September 11 attacks, the 2003 invasion of Iraq or the 2008 financial crisis. Various theories have been proposed in order to deal with the complexity involved in formulating such explanations. These theories are sometimes divided into realism, liberalism and constructivism. Realists see nation-states as the main actors in world politics. They constitute an anarchical international system without any overarching power to control their behavior. They are seen as sovereign agents that, determined by human nature, act according to their national self-interest. Military force may play an important role in the ensuing struggle for power between states, but diplomacy and cooperation are also key mechanisms for nations to achieve their goals. Liberalists acknowledge the importance of states but they also emphasize the role of transnational actors, like the United Nations or the World Trade Organization. They see humans as perfectible and stress the role of democracy in this process. The emergent order in world politics, on this perspective, is more complex than a mere balance of power since more different agents and interests are involved in its production. Constructivism ascribes more importance to the agency of individual humans than realism and liberalism. It understands the social world as a construction of the people living in it. This leads to an emphasis on the possibility of change. If the international system is an anarchy of nation-states, as the realists hold, then this is only so because we made it this way and may change since this is not prefigured by human nature, according to the constructivists. See also References External links Africa Antarctica Asia Australia Europe North America South America Afro-Eurasia Americas Eurasia Oceania |
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[SOURCE: https://www.bbc.com/culture/books] | [TOKENS: 1980] |
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How Cornwall shaped the imagination of famous writers How has Cornwall inspired Winston Graham, EV Thompson, Virginia Woolf and Daphne du Maurier? Romance book surge at libraries before Valentine's In Essex, borrowing increases by a quarter in the week before 14 February. How teaching inspired Lord of the Flies author Bishop Wordsworth's School is celebrating its connection with the author of the classic novel. Reviews The 25 best books of 2025 Watch John Grisham on why he still writes as trends shift The bestselling author on what new data reveals about America’s steep decline in reading for pleasure. Why Cher has waited until now to write her memoir Cher explains why she has finally written her memoir and who it's for. Striking images of women in the Black Panther Party Stephen Shames' photography offers a radically new and candid picture of the militant black power organisation. Braille: What is it like to read without sight? What happens to our brains when we learn to read Braille? Inside the abandoned city of ancient libraries The African town of Chinguetti is home to a large collection of forgotten ancient books. How paper is making a comeback As the world goes digital, paper might seem increasingly obsolete – but it is anything but. Preserving the ancient art of handcrafting books In the digital age, the beautiful and ancient art of hand-binding books is under threat. Elizabeth Day: 'I felt so understood in the pages' When Elizabeth Day had a miscarriage, it was the words in a book from 1936 that helped her through it. How reading can help us cope with death Lisa Appignanesi describes how reading fiction helped her deal with bereavement. Michael Rosen: 'How poetry helped me to grieve' When author Michael Rosen lost his son, he found inspiration to write again in a poem by Raymond Carver. The fiction that helped Laura Freeman recover from anorexia How a love of reading helped one woman recover from anorexia. Is this Italy’s smallest library? One retired teacher is spreading the joy of books using his tiny mobile library. The man who lives in a library with no rules Nanie Guanlao turned his home into a library for his community in Manila. The ancient library where the books are under lock and key Step inside the world’s largest surviving chained library. Biblioburro: The amazing donkey libraries of Colombia One man and his loyal donkeys spreading the joy of books in Colombia. More Books Poet 'astonished' to receive King's Gold medal Michael Laskey says he is "still finding it hard to believe" after receiving the recognition. The bookshop aiming to spice up romance reading The bookshop in Leamington specialises in dark romance and spicy romantasy for adults only. Can TikTok help cut my screen time? Some young people say BookTok is helping them cut their screen time and read more books. New poet laureate 'proud' to represent the city Hilary Steele is "overjoyed" by the appointment and looks forward to promoting the city's culture. 'I'm honoured my book is shortlisted for award' SF Williamson's debut novel A Language of Dragons is in the Books for Older Readers category. The retired Indian factory worker who built a library of two million books Anke Gowda, whose library is open to everyone, recently received an Indian government award. The climate change 'masterpiece' dividing readers Vigil, the new novel from acclaimed writer and Booker Prize-winner George Saunders, centres on a dying oil tycoon and climate change denier. Why is it polarising critics so fiercely? Scots authors among historical fiction prize contenders Graeme Macrae Burnet and Damian Barr are on the list of potential winners of the £25,000 Walter Scott Prize. 'My family bullied me about my skin condition' Usha Singh-Das says she grew up in a house "marred by narcissism and unsupportive parental figures". Copyright 2026 BBC. All rights reserved. The BBC is not responsible for the content of external sites. Read about our approach to external linking. |
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[SOURCE: https://www.bbc.com/culture/entertainment-news] | [TOKENS: 1918] |
Entertainment & ArtsSam Fender and Olivia Dean finally reach number one after 35 weeksRein Me In sets a new UK chart record for the longest time to reach number one.16 hrs agoCultureWoody and Buzz reunite in trailer for Toy Story 5The old friends come face to face with a new threat - a frog-like tablet device called Lilypad.20 hrs agoCultureWhat we learned from the first trailer for the new Peaky Blinders filmThe Immortal Man sees Cillian Murphy return as Tommy Shelby, opposite his son played by Barry Keoghan.2 days agoCultureOrganisers defend KPop gig after angry backlash over 'horrendous' concertThe K-pop Forever! 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What we learned from the first trailer for the new Peaky Blinders film The Immortal Man sees Cillian Murphy return as Tommy Shelby, opposite his son played by Barry Keoghan. Organisers defend KPop gig after angry backlash over 'horrendous' concert The K-pop Forever! Tribute shows took place in the SSE on Thursday evening, with further gigs due to take place next Monday and on 16 May. How Eric Dane gave his final months to 'moving the needle' on ALS The Grey's Anatomy star spent his last months campaigning towards a cure for the rare, incurable condition. Taylor Swift and KPop stars dominated music in 2025 APT by Rosé and Bruno Mars and tracks from KPop Demon Hunters were among the biggest hits of the year. The Grammy winner bringing traditional country to new audiences Zach Top discusses winning the first ever Grammy Award for best traditional country album. Guitar played on Ghost Town up for auction The band's bass player Horace Panter is selling the 1971 blue Fender Precision via auction. Grey's Anatomy star Eric Dane dies at 53 after ALS diagnosis The actor, who also starred in HBO's Euphoria, battled the most common form of motor neurone disease. Bad Bunny to make lead acting debut in film inspired by Puerto Rican revolutionary The singer will star opposite Edward Norton and Javier Bardem in a film titled Porto Rico. BBC plans David Attenborough celebration for 100th birthday The corporation will look back on the veteran wildlife broadcaster's career for his birthday in May. I thought being deaf would mean I couldn't be a dating show contestant - now I'm starring in one Hold My Hand is the first show if its kind where all the contestants and hosts use British Sign Language. Features & analysis 'I don't pay attention': Cynthia Erivo ignores online criticism as Dracula gets mixed reviews The Wicked star appears in a one-woman version of the classic horror story in London's West End. 'I would sell a lung for a Hannah Montana tour': Fans react to 20th anniversary special announcement Fans are gearing up for the "Hannahversary" - a special to mark the show's 20th anniversary. You're never too old, says dancer, 71, cast in Taylor Swift video Denise Sides was selected from hundreds of applicants to take part in the Opalite video. The man whose bad break-up gave Madonna her breakthrough hit Like A Virgin Billy Steinberg, who has died at the age of 75, co-wrote Madonna's 1984 chart-topper Like a Virgin. Oasis v Blur rivalry revived in new play as cast take sides The 1995 chart battle is recreated for a new play - and the rivalry is rekindled as the cast take sides. Latest updates The best looks at London Fashion Week 2026 There are 90 designers showing this year, with organisers hoping it's the biggest fashion week yet. Sam Fender and Olivia Dean finally reach number one after 35 weeks Rein Me In sets a new UK chart record for the longest time to reach number one. Taylor Swift and KPop stars dominated music in 2025 APT by Rosé and Bruno Mars and tracks from KPop Demon Hunters were among the biggest hits of the year. Woody and Buzz reunite in trailer for Toy Story 5 The old friends come face to face with a new threat - a frog-like tablet device called Lilypad. Nobody can resist a boogie at Carnival Kay convinces Dom to have a dance in this scene from Black Ops. Awkward! When your two crushes meet Nina's "work husband" Clayton turns up at the pub, in this scene from Dinosaur. POV: You're a therapist's dream Watch Things You Should Have Done on BBC iPlayer. 11 of the Winter Olympics' most striking images As the 2026 Winter Olympics close, the BBC rounds up some of the most stunning photos captured from the Games, and compares them to historic works of art. The Grammy winner bringing traditional country to new audiences Zach Top discusses winning the first ever Grammy Award for best traditional country album. Copyright 2026 BBC. All rights reserved. The BBC is not responsible for the content of external sites. Read about our approach to external linking. |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Markus_Persson&printable=yes] | [TOKENS: 3525] |
Contents Markus Persson Markus Alexej Persson (/ˈpɪərsən/ ⓘ PEER-sən, Swedish: [ˈmǎrːkɵs ˈpæ̌ːʂɔn] ⓘ; born 1 June 1979), known by the pseudonym Notch, is a Swedish video game programmer and designer. He is the creator of Minecraft, the best-selling video game in history. He founded the video game development company Mojang Studios in 2009. Persson began developing video games at an early age. His commercial success began after he published an early version of Minecraft in 2009. Prior to the game's official retail release in 2011, it had sold over four million copies. After this point Persson stood down as the lead designer and transferred his creative authority to Jens Bergensten. In September 2014 Persson announced his intention to leave Mojang, and in November of that year the company was sold to Microsoft reportedly for US$2.5 billion, which made him a billionaire. Since 2016 several of Persson's posts on Twitter regarding feminism, race, and transgender rights have caused public controversies. He has been described as "an increasingly polarizing figure, tweeting offensive statements regarding race, the LGBTQ community, gender, and other topics." In an effort to distance itself from Persson, Microsoft removed mentions of his name from Minecraft (excluding one instance in the game's end credits) and did not invite him to the game's tenth anniversary celebration. In 2015 he co-founded a separate game studio called Rubberbrain, which was relaunched in 2024 as Bitshift Entertainment. Early life Markus Alexej Persson was born in Stockholm, Sweden, to a Finnish mother, Ritva, and a Swedish father, Birger, on 1 June 1979. He has one sister. He grew up in Edsbyn until he was seven years old, when his family moved back to Stockholm. In Edsbyn, Persson's father worked for the railroad, and his mother was a nurse. He spent much time outdoors in Edsbyn, exploring the woods with his friends. When Persson was about seven years old, his parents divorced, and he and his sister lived with their mother. His father moved to a cabin in the countryside. Persson said in an interview that they experienced food insecurity around once a month. Persson lost contact with his father for several years after the divorce. According to Persson, his father suffered from depression, bipolar disorder, alcoholism, and medication abuse, and went to jail for robberies. While his father had somewhat recovered during Persson's early life, his father relapsed, contributing to the divorce. His sister also experimented with drugs and ran away from home. He had gained interest in video games at an early age. His father was "a really big nerd", who built his own modem and taught Persson to use the family's Commodore 128. On it, Persson played bootleg games and loaded in various type-in programs from computer magazines with the help of his sister. The first game he purchased with his own money was The Bard's Tale. He began programming on his father's Commodore 128 home computer at the age of seven. He produced his first game at the age of eight, a text-based adventure game. By 1994 Persson knew he wanted to become a video game developer, but his teachers advised him to study graphic design, which he did from ages 15 to 18. Persson, although introverted, was well-liked by his peers, but after entering secondary school was a "loner" and reportedly had only one friend. He spent most of his spare time with games and programming at home. He managed to reverse-engineer the Doom engine, which he continued to take great pride in as of 2014[update]. He never finished high school, but was reportedly a good student. Career Persson started his career working as a web designer. He later found employment at Game Federation, where he met Rolf Jansson. The pair worked in their spare time to build the 2006 video game Wurm Online. The game was released through a new entity, "Mojang Specifications AB". Persson left the project in late 2007. As Persson wanted to reuse the name "Mojang", Jansson agreed to rename the company to Onetoofree AB. Between 2004 and 2009 Persson worked as a game developer for Midasplayer (later known as King). There, he worked as a programmer, mostly building browser games made in Flash. He later worked as a programmer for jAlbum. Prior to creating Minecraft, Persson developed multiple, small games. He also entered a number of game design competitions and participated in discussions on the TIGSource forums, a web forum for independent game developers. One of Persson's more notable personal projects was called RubyDung, an isometric three-dimensional base-building game like RollerCoaster Tycoon and Dwarf Fortress. While working on RubyDung, Persson experimented with a first-person view mode similar to that found in Dungeon Keeper. However, he felt the graphics were too pixelated and omitted this mode. In 2009 Persson found inspiration in Infiniminer, a block-based open-ended mining game. Infiniminer heavily influenced his future work on RubyDung, and was behind Persson's reasoning for returning the first-person mode, the "blocky" visual style and the block-building fundamentals to the game. RubyDung is the earliest known Minecraft prototype created by Persson. On 17 May 2009 Persson released the original edition (later called "Classic version") of Minecraft on the TIGSource forums. He regularly updated the game based on feedback from TIGSource users. Persson released several new versions of Minecraft throughout 2009 and 2010, going through several phases of development including Survival Test, Indev, and Infdev. On 30 June 2010 Persson released the game's Alpha version. While working on the pre-Alpha version of Minecraft, Persson continued working at jAlbum. In 2010, after the release and subsequent success of Minecraft's Alpha version, Persson moved from a full-time role to a part-time role at jAlbum. He left jAlbum later that same year. In September 2010 Persson travelled to Valve Corporation's headquarters in Bellevue, Washington, United States, where he took part in a programming exercise and met Gabe Newell. Persson was subsequently offered a job at Valve, which he turned down in order to continue work on Minecraft. On 20 December 2010 Minecraft moved into its beta phase and began expanding to other platforms, including mobile. In January 2011 Minecraft reached one million registered accounts. Six months afterwards, it reached ten million. The game has sold over four million copies by 7 November 2011. Mojang held the first Minecon from 18 to 19 November 2011 to celebrate its full release, and subsequently made it an annual event. Following this, on 11 December 2011, Persson transferred creative control of Minecraft to Jens Bergensten and began working on another game title, 0x10c, although he reportedly abandoned the project around 2013. In 2013 Mojang recorded revenues of $330 million and profits of $129 million. Persson has stated that, due to the intense media attention and public pressure, he became exhausted with running Minecraft and Mojang. In a September 2014 blog post he shared his realization that he "didn't have the connection to my fans I thought I had", that he had "become a symbol", and that he did not wish to be responsible for Mojang's increasingly large operation. In June 2014 Persson tweeted "Anyone want to buy my share of Mojang so I can move on with my life? Getting hate for trying to do the right thing is not my gig", reportedly partly as a joke. Persson controlled a 71% stake in Mojang at the time. The offer attracted significant interest from Activision Blizzard, EA, and Microsoft. Forbes later reported that Microsoft wanted to purchase the game as a "tax dodge" to turn their taxable excess liquid cash into other assets. In September 2014 Microsoft agreed to purchase Mojang for $2.5 billion, making Persson a billionaire. He then left the company after the deal was finalised in November. Since leaving Mojang, Persson has worked on several small projects. On 23 June 2014 he founded a company with Porsér called Rubberbrain AB; the company had no games by 2021, despite spending SEK 60 million. The company was relaunched as Bitshift Entertainment, LLC on 28 March 2024. Persson expressed interest in creating a new video game studio in 2020, and in developing virtual reality games. He has also since created a series of narrative-driven immersive events called ".party()", which uses extensive visual effects and has been hosted in multiple cities. At the beginning of 2025 Persson decided to create a spiritual successor to Minecraft, referred to as "Minecraft 2", in response to the results of a poll on X. However, after speaking to his team, he shortly went against this in favour of developing the other choice on his Twitter poll, a roguelike titled Levers and Chests. Games Persson's most popular creation is the survival sandbox game Minecraft, which was first publicly available on 17 May 2009 and fully released on 18 November 2011. Persson left his job as a game developer to work on Minecraft full-time until completion. In early 2011, Mojang AB sold the one millionth copy of the game, several months later their second, and several more their third. Mojang hired several new staff members for the Minecraft team, while Persson passed the lead developer role to Jens Bergensten. He stopped working on Minecraft after a deal with Microsoft to sell Mojang for $2.5 billion. This brought his net worth to US$1.5 billion. Persson and Jakob Porsér came up with the idea for Scrolls including elements from board games and collectible card games. Persson noted that he will not be actively involved in development of the game and that Porsér will be developing it. Persson revealed on his Tumblr blog on 5 August 2011 that he was being sued by a Swedish law firm representing Bethesda Softworks over the trademarked name of Scrolls, claiming that it conflicted with their The Elder Scrolls series of games. On 17 August 2011 Persson challenged Bethesda to a Quake 3 tournament to decide the outcome of the naming dispute. On 27 September 2011 Persson confirmed that the lawsuit was going to court. ZeniMax Media, owner of Bethesda Softworks, announced the lawsuit's settlement in March 2012. The settlement allowed Mojang to continue using the Scrolls trademark. In 2018, Scrolls was made available free of charge and renamed to Caller's Bane. Cliffhorse is a humorous game programmed in two hours using the Unity game engine and free assets. The game took inspiration from Skyrim's physics engine, "the more embarrassing minimum-effort Greenlight games", Goat Simulator, and Big Rigs: Over the Road Racing. The game was released to Microsoft Windows systems as an early access and honourware game on the first day of E3 2014, instructing users to donate Dogecoin to "buy" the game before downloading it. The game accumulated over 280,000 dogecoins. Following the end to his involvement with Minecraft, Persson began pre-production of an alternate reality space game set in the distant future in March 2012. On April Fools' Day Mojang launched a satirical website for Mars Effect (parody of Mass Effect), citing the lawsuit with Bethesda as an inspiration. However, the gameplay elements remained true and on 4 April, Mojang revealed 0x10c (pronounced "Ten to the C") as a space sandbox title. Persson officially halted game production in August 2013. However, C418, the composer of the game's soundtrack (as well as that of Minecraft), released an album of the work he had made for the game. In 2013, Persson made a free game called Shambles in the Unity game engine. Persson has also participated in several Ludum Dare 48-hour game making competitions. Personal life In 2011 Persson married Elin Zetterstrand, whom he had dated for four years before. Zetterstrand was a former moderator on the Minecraft forums. They had a daughter together, but by mid-2012, he began to see little of her. On 15 August 2012 he announced that he and his wife had filed for divorce. The divorce was finalised later that year. On 14 December 2011 Persson's father committed suicide with a handgun after drinking heavily. In an interview with The New Yorker, Persson said of his father: When I decided I wanted to quit my day job and work on my own games, he was the only person who supported my decision. He was proud of me and made sure I knew. When I added the monsters to Minecraft, he told me that the dark caves became too scary for him. But I think that was the only true criticism I ever heard from him. Persson later admitted that he himself suffered from depression and various highs and lows in his mood. Persson has criticised the stance of large game companies on piracy. He once stated that "piracy is not theft", viewing unauthorised downloads as potential future customers. Persson stated himself to be a member of the Pirate Party of Sweden in 2011. He is also a member of Mensa. He has donated to numerous charities, including Médecins Sans Frontières (Doctors Without Borders). Under his direction, Mojang spent a week developing Catacomb Snatch for the Humble Indie Bundle and raised US$458,248 for charity. He also donated $250,000 to the Electronic Frontier Foundation in 2012. In 2011 he gave $3 million in dividends back to Mojang employees. According to Forbes, his net worth in 2023 was around $1.2 billion. In 2014 Persson was one of the biggest taxpayers in Sweden. Around 2014, he lived in a multi-level penthouse in Östermalm, Stockholm, an area he described as "where the rich people live". In December 2014 Persson purchased a home in Trousdale Estates, a neighbourhood in Beverly Hills, California, in the United States, for $70 million, a record sales price for Beverly Hills at the time. Persson reportedly outbid Beyoncé and Jay-Z for the property. Persson began receiving criticism for political and social opinions he expressed on social media as early as 2016. November 30, 2017 In 2017, he proposed a heterosexual pride holiday, and wrote that those who opposed the idea "deserve to be shot." After facing backlash, he deleted the tweets and rescinded his statements, writing, "So yeah, it's about pride of daring to express, not about pride of being who you are. I get it now." Later in the year, he wrote that feminism is a "social disease" and called the video game developer and feminist Zoë Quinn a "cunt", although he was generally critical of the GamerGate movement. He has described intersectional feminism as a "framework for bigotry" and the use of the word mansplaining as being sexist. Also in 2017, Persson tweeted that "It's okay to be white". Later that year, he stated that he believed in the Pizzagate conspiracy theory. In 2019, he tweeted referencing QAnon, saying "Q is legit. Don't trust the media." Later in 2019, he tweeted in response to a pro-transgender internet meme that, "You are absolutely evil if you want to encourage delusion. What happened to not stigmatizing mental illness?" He then also promoted claims that people were fined for "using the wrong pronoun". However, after facing backlash, he tweeted a day afterwards that he had "no idea what [being trans is] like of course, but it's inspiring as hell when people open up and choose to actually be who they know themselves as. Not because it's a cool choice, because it's a big step. I gues [sic] that's actually cool nvm". Later that year, Microsoft removed two mentions of Persson's name in the "19w13a" snapshot of Minecraft and did not invite him to the 10-year anniversary celebration of the game. A spokesperson for Microsoft stated that his views "do not reflect those of Microsoft or Mojang". He is still mentioned in the End Poem ("a flat, infinite world created by a man called Markus").[citation needed] Awards References External links |
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[SOURCE: https://www.bbc.com/culture/style] | [TOKENS: 1298] |
StyleThe best looks at London Fashion Week 2026There are 90 designers showing this year, with organisers hoping it's the biggest fashion week yet.See moreThe Changing RoomWhy Gen Z is so nostalgic about 'indie sleaze'Today's youth are harking back to the messy hipster aesthetic of the late 2000s and early 2010s – and at the heart of that was French designer and queen of cool Isabel Marant.The Coachella looks that can make or break careersBehind the creation of the festival's most iconic and outrageous costumes – from wardrobe malfunctions to insider tips and viral sensations.Candid street photos showcasing amazing looksHow street-style photography has evolved from the Edwardian era to today. Now it is exploding – and turning fashion upside down.The US style star fighting against 'quiet luxury'Christopher John Rogers’s bold designs have made him the new star of US fashion. Backstage at his New York Fashion Week show, he talks style – and clothes as a "tool for hope".InterviewVogue's Anna Wintour on how to be fashionableEditor-in-chief of American Vogue, Anna Wintour, talks about what made the 90s so fashionable.See moreMore storiesFixing fashion's erratic sizing problemRepair hub helps charity become more sustainableEtsy sells second-hand fashion app Depop to eBay for $1.2bnThe historic US home that embodied the super-richIs tartan making a fashionable comeback?More Style4 days agoShein under EU investigation over childlike sex dollsEurope is examining whether the fast fashion giant breached the Digital Services Act.4 days ago4 days agoFamily wedding dress link revealed at Queen's visitThe Queen has visited Bath in a series of engagements to showcase the city's arts and culture.4 days ago6 days agoCharles Jeffrey: My brand is 'for weirdos by weirdos'Scottish Fashion designer Charles Jeffrey explores resilience and identity through his new collection 'Thistle'. Reconstructing traditional Scottish fabric and symbols, he challenges exclusionary nationalism by "queering" it.6 days ago7 days ago'I turn rags into riches for children's hospice'The fashion designer created a collection to give unsellable charity donations "a new life".7 days ago8 days agoThe true story behind a tragic US iconAlongside husband JFK Jr, Carolyn Bessette-Kennedy was one half of America's great 1990s golden couple, before their untimely deaths. A new drama is set to explore her struggles.8 days ago12 Feb 2026How fast fashion is getting even fasterEntrepreneur and founder of SOJO, Josephine Philips, wants you to stop throwing clothes away and think about what you’re buying to combat fast fashion12 Feb 202610 Feb 2026Eight iconic Nordic homes throughout historyThese design masterworks reveal the origins of Scandi style – and they all emerge from a distinctive vision of "soft modernism" that still influences how we live now.10 Feb 20261 Feb 2026Designer brings items 'back to life' by repairingCosmin Diaconu says he has received lots of sentimental clothes to repair from across the UK.1 Feb 202631 Jan 2026Why tartan is 'having a moment' in fashion againFrom The Traitors to high fashion, tartan is making a comeback as designers turn to the Scottish heritage style.31 Jan 2026... Style The best looks at London Fashion Week 2026 The Changing Room Why Gen Z is so nostalgic about 'indie sleaze' Today's youth are harking back to the messy hipster aesthetic of the late 2000s and early 2010s – and at the heart of that was French designer and queen of cool Isabel Marant. The Coachella looks that can make or break careers Behind the creation of the festival's most iconic and outrageous costumes – from wardrobe malfunctions to insider tips and viral sensations. Candid street photos showcasing amazing looks How street-style photography has evolved from the Edwardian era to today. Now it is exploding – and turning fashion upside down. The US style star fighting against 'quiet luxury' Christopher John Rogers’s bold designs have made him the new star of US fashion. Backstage at his New York Fashion Week show, he talks style – and clothes as a "tool for hope". Interview Vogue's Anna Wintour on how to be fashionable More stories Fixing fashion's erratic sizing problem Repair hub helps charity become more sustainable Etsy sells second-hand fashion app Depop to eBay for $1.2bn The historic US home that embodied the super-rich Is tartan making a fashionable comeback? More Style Shein under EU investigation over childlike sex dolls Europe is examining whether the fast fashion giant breached the Digital Services Act. Family wedding dress link revealed at Queen's visit The Queen has visited Bath in a series of engagements to showcase the city's arts and culture. Charles Jeffrey: My brand is 'for weirdos by weirdos' Scottish Fashion designer Charles Jeffrey explores resilience and identity through his new collection 'Thistle'. Reconstructing traditional Scottish fabric and symbols, he challenges exclusionary nationalism by "queering" it. 'I turn rags into riches for children's hospice' The fashion designer created a collection to give unsellable charity donations "a new life". The true story behind a tragic US icon Alongside husband JFK Jr, Carolyn Bessette-Kennedy was one half of America's great 1990s golden couple, before their untimely deaths. A new drama is set to explore her struggles. How fast fashion is getting even faster Entrepreneur and founder of SOJO, Josephine Philips, wants you to stop throwing clothes away and think about what you’re buying to combat fast fashion Eight iconic Nordic homes throughout history These design masterworks reveal the origins of Scandi style – and they all emerge from a distinctive vision of "soft modernism" that still influences how we live now. Designer brings items 'back to life' by repairing Cosmin Diaconu says he has received lots of sentimental clothes to repair from across the UK. Why tartan is 'having a moment' in fashion again From The Traitors to high fashion, tartan is making a comeback as designers turn to the Scottish heritage style. Copyright 2026 BBC. All rights reserved. The BBC is not responsible for the content of external sites. Read about our approach to external linking. |
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[SOURCE: https://arstechnica.com/health/2026/02/with-nih-in-chaos-its-controversial-director-is-taking-over-cdc-too/] | [TOKENS: 2125] |
More chaos Controversial NIH director now in charge of CDC, too, in RFK Jr. shake-up The unusual dual role has renewed criticism of Bhattacharya’s lack of leadership. Beth Mole – Feb 20, 2026 2:44 pm | 51 Director of the National Institutes of Health Jay Bhattacharya, joined by President Donald Trump (L) and Health and Human Services Secretary Robert F. Kennedy Jr., at the White House on September 22, 2025 in Washington, DC. Credit: Getty | Andrew Harnik Director of the National Institutes of Health Jay Bhattacharya, joined by President Donald Trump (L) and Health and Human Services Secretary Robert F. Kennedy Jr., at the White House on September 22, 2025 in Washington, DC. Credit: Getty | Andrew Harnik Text settings Story text Size Small Standard Large Width * Standard Wide Links Standard Orange * Subscribers only Learn more Minimize to nav Jay Bhattacharya, the director of the National Institutes of Health, is now also the acting director of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, an unusual arrangement that has drawn swift criticism from researchers and public health experts. Bhattacharya’s new role comes amid a leadership shakeup in the Department of Health and Human Services under anti-vaccine Health Secretary Robert F. Kennedy Jr. It also marks the third leader for the beleaguered public health agency under Kennedy. Susan Monarez, a microbiologist and long-time federal health official, held the position of acting director before becoming the first Senate-confirmed CDC director at the end of July. But she was in the role just shy of a month before Kennedy ousted her for—according to Monarez—refusing to rubber-stamp changes to vaccine recommendations made by Kennedy’s hand-picked advisors, who are overwhelmingly anti-vaccine themselves. Jim O’Neill was then named acting director. At the time, O’Neill was the deputy secretary of HHS but had previously worked as a Silicon Valley investor and entrepreneur who became a close ally of Peter Thiel. As acting director of the CDC, he signed off on a dramatic overhaul of the CDC’s childhood vaccine recommendations. Now, amid Kennedy’s shake-up, O’Neill is out of the CDC and, according to media reports, will be nominated to run the National Science Foundation, which is currently without a director or deputy director. As a health economist with a medical degree, Bhattacharya has more qualifications to temporarily run the CDC than O’Neill, but researchers and public health experts were quick to blast his apparent lack of leadership skills. Under Bhattacharya’s watch, the NIH terminated or froze hundreds of millions of dollars for research grants, including $561 million in grants to research the four leading causes of death in America, according to a Senate report released earlier this month. At least 304 clinical trials were defunded. Of the NIH’s 27 institutes and centers, 16 are currently without directors, an unprecedented number of vacancies. Insiders report that, as NIH director, Bhattacharya delegates most of his responsibilities for running the $47 billion agency to two top officials. Instead of a hands-on leader, Bhattacharya has become known for his many public interviews, earning him the nickname “Podcast Jay.” “Malpractice” Researchers expect that Bhattacharya will perform similarly at the helm of the CDC. Jenna Norton, an NIH program officer who spoke to the Guardian in her personal capacity, commented that Bhattacharya “won’t actually run the CDC. Just as he doesn’t actually run NIH.” His role for the administration, she added, “is largely as a propagandist.” Jeremy Berg, former director of the National Institute of General Medical Sciences, echoed the sentiment to the Guardian. “Now, rather than largely ignoring the actual operations of one agency, he can largely ignore the actual operations of two,” he said. Kayla Hancock, director of Public Health Watch, a nonprofit advocacy group, went further in a public statement, saying, “Jay Bhattacharya has overseen the most chaotic and rudderless era in NIH history, and for RFK Jr. to give him even more responsibility at the CDC is malpractice against the public health.” Like other commenters, Hancock noted his apparent lack of involvement at the NIH and put it in the context of the current state of US public health. “This is the last person who should be overseeing the CDC at a time when preventable diseases like measles are roaring back under RFK Jr.’s deadly anti-vax agenda,” she said. It is widely expected that Bhattacharya will, like O’Neill, act as a rubber-stamp for Kennedy’s relentless anti-vaccine agenda items. When Kennedy dramatically overhauled the CDC’s childhood vaccine schedule, slashing recommended vaccinations from 17 to 11 without scientific evidence, Bhattacharya was among the officials who signed off on the unprecedented change. Ultimately, Bhattacharya will only be in the role for a short time, at least officially. The role of CDC director became a Senate-confirmed position in 2023, and, as such, an acting director can serve only 210 days from the date the role became vacant. That deadline comes up on March 25. President Trump has not nominated anyone to fill the director role. Beth Mole Senior Health Reporter Beth Mole Senior Health Reporter Beth is Ars Technica’s Senior Health Reporter. Beth has a Ph.D. in microbiology from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and attended the Science Communication program at the University of California, Santa Cruz. She specializes in covering infectious diseases, public health, and microbes. 51 Comments Controversial NIH director now in charge of CDC, too, in RFK Jr. shake-up The unusual dual role has renewed criticism of Bhattacharya’s lack of leadership. Jay Bhattacharya, the director of the National Institutes of Health, is now also the acting director of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, an unusual arrangement that has drawn swift criticism from researchers and public health experts. Bhattacharya’s new role comes amid a leadership shakeup in the Department of Health and Human Services under anti-vaccine Health Secretary Robert F. Kennedy Jr. It also marks the third leader for the beleaguered public health agency under Kennedy. Susan Monarez, a microbiologist and long-time federal health official, held the position of acting director before becoming the first Senate-confirmed CDC director at the end of July. But she was in the role just shy of a month before Kennedy ousted her for—according to Monarez—refusing to rubber-stamp changes to vaccine recommendations made by Kennedy’s hand-picked advisors, who are overwhelmingly anti-vaccine themselves. Jim O’Neill was then named acting director. At the time, O’Neill was the deputy secretary of HHS but had previously worked as a Silicon Valley investor and entrepreneur who became a close ally of Peter Thiel. As acting director of the CDC, he signed off on a dramatic overhaul of the CDC’s childhood vaccine recommendations. Now, amid Kennedy’s shake-up, O’Neill is out of the CDC and, according to media reports, will be nominated to run the National Science Foundation, which is currently without a director or deputy director. As a health economist with a medical degree, Bhattacharya has more qualifications to temporarily run the CDC than O’Neill, but researchers and public health experts were quick to blast his apparent lack of leadership skills. Under Bhattacharya’s watch, the NIH terminated or froze hundreds of millions of dollars for research grants, including $561 million in grants to research the four leading causes of death in America, according to a Senate report released earlier this month. At least 304 clinical trials were defunded. Of the NIH’s 27 institutes and centers, 16 are currently without directors, an unprecedented number of vacancies. Insiders report that, as NIH director, Bhattacharya delegates most of his responsibilities for running the $47 billion agency to two top officials. Instead of a hands-on leader, Bhattacharya has become known for his many public interviews, earning him the nickname “Podcast Jay.” “Malpractice” Researchers expect that Bhattacharya will perform similarly at the helm of the CDC. Jenna Norton, an NIH program officer who spoke to the Guardian in her personal capacity, commented that Bhattacharya “won’t actually run the CDC. Just as he doesn’t actually run NIH.” His role for the administration, she added, “is largely as a propagandist.” Jeremy Berg, former director of the National Institute of General Medical Sciences, echoed the sentiment to the Guardian. “Now, rather than largely ignoring the actual operations of one agency, he can largely ignore the actual operations of two,” he said. Kayla Hancock, director of Public Health Watch, a nonprofit advocacy group, went further in a public statement, saying, “Jay Bhattacharya has overseen the most chaotic and rudderless era in NIH history, and for RFK Jr. to give him even more responsibility at the CDC is malpractice against the public health.” Like other commenters, Hancock noted his apparent lack of involvement at the NIH and put it in the context of the current state of US public health. “This is the last person who should be overseeing the CDC at a time when preventable diseases like measles are roaring back under RFK Jr.’s deadly anti-vax agenda,” she said. It is widely expected that Bhattacharya will, like O’Neill, act as a rubber-stamp for Kennedy’s relentless anti-vaccine agenda items. When Kennedy dramatically overhauled the CDC’s childhood vaccine schedule, slashing recommended vaccinations from 17 to 11 without scientific evidence, Bhattacharya was among the officials who signed off on the unprecedented change. Ultimately, Bhattacharya will only be in the role for a short time, at least officially. The role of CDC director became a Senate-confirmed position in 2023, and, as such, an acting director can serve only 210 days from the date the role became vacant. That deadline comes up on March 25. President Trump has not nominated anyone to fill the director role. Ars Technica has been separating the signal from the noise for over 25 years. With our unique combination of technical savvy and wide-ranging interest in the technological arts and sciences, Ars is the trusted source in a sea of information. After all, you don’t need to know everything, only what’s important. |
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[SOURCE: https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2026/02/metas-flagship-metaverse-service-leaves-vr-behind/#comments] | [TOKENS: 1351] |
Not the next big thing Meta’s flagship metaverse service leaves VR behind The company asserts it will continue to make VR headsets, though. Samuel Axon – Feb 20, 2026 4:49 pm | 50 Perhaps the most famous image of the metaverse. Credit: Meta Perhaps the most famous image of the metaverse. Credit: Meta Text settings Story text Size Small Standard Large Width * Standard Wide Links Standard Orange * Subscribers only Learn more Minimize to nav Meta announced today that it will divorce its Horizon Worlds social and gaming service—once promoted as the company’s first major step into the metaverse—from its Quest VR headset platform and digital store. The company says it is now “shifting the focus of Worlds to be almost exclusively mobile.” The announcement is also filled with statements like “we’re doubling down on the VR developer ecosystem” that are attempting to head off any suggestion that Meta is retreating from the mixed reality space. This is far from the first signal that big changes are happening with Meta’s mixed reality strategy. CNBC reported that Meta has lost $80 billion on investments in Reality Labs, the company’s mixed reality division. More than 1,000 Reality Labs employees were laid off in January, but don’t misread that as a total closure; more than 15,000 people were working in that part of the organization before the layoffs. It’s also important to note that those layoffs reportedly did not affect many people working on augmented reality, the category Meta is exploring for future smart glasses. Many of the layoffs focused specifically on internal studios making VR content, games, and experiences. Some of the changes—like the removal of individual worlds from the VR store—are presented by the company as efforts to make the store a better discovery platform for third-party developers. In general, Meta frames many of its recent moves as a pivot away from first-party development of VR experiences to a focus on a third-party developer ecosystem, with stats like “86% of the effective time people spend in their VR headsets is with third-party apps.” “We’ll continue to support the third-party community through strategic partnerships and targeted investments—as we have since the beginning,” writes Meta Reality Labs VP of Content Samantha Ryan. Meta launched a Horizon Worlds mobile app last year and found it attracted an influx of new users interested in the service’s social gaming aspects, except for the VR element. It seems that the mobile launch was successful enough to merit focusing the entire service on that platform and audience, rather than shutting it down amid the other closures of internal content projects. As far as we know, Meta plans to continue to design, make, and sell VR hardware and maintain the storefronts that third-party developers sell on for those platforms. It won’t make much content in-house, and you don’t see much talk about the promise of an all-encompassing, transformational metaverse anymore. Instead, Meta’s speculative investment appears focused on smart glasses, as well as AI models, technologies, and applications. Samuel Axon Senior Editor Samuel Axon Senior Editor Samuel Axon is the editorial lead for tech and gaming coverage at Ars Technica. He covers AI, software development, gaming, entertainment, and mixed reality. He has been writing about gaming and technology for nearly two decades at Engadget, PC World, Mashable, Vice, Polygon, Wired, and others. He previously ran a marketing and PR agency in the gaming industry, led editorial for the TV network CBS, and worked on social media marketing strategy for Samsung Mobile at the creative agency SPCSHP. He also is an independent software and game developer for iOS, Windows, and other platforms, and he is a graduate of DePaul University, where he studied interactive media and software development. 50 Comments Meta’s flagship metaverse service leaves VR behind The company asserts it will continue to make VR headsets, though. Meta announced today that it will divorce its Horizon Worlds social and gaming service—once promoted as the company’s first major step into the metaverse—from its Quest VR headset platform and digital store. The company says it is now “shifting the focus of Worlds to be almost exclusively mobile.” The announcement is also filled with statements like “we’re doubling down on the VR developer ecosystem” that are attempting to head off any suggestion that Meta is retreating from the mixed reality space. This is far from the first signal that big changes are happening with Meta’s mixed reality strategy. CNBC reported that Meta has lost $80 billion on investments in Reality Labs, the company’s mixed reality division. More than 1,000 Reality Labs employees were laid off in January, but don’t misread that as a total closure; more than 15,000 people were working in that part of the organization before the layoffs. It’s also important to note that those layoffs reportedly did not affect many people working on augmented reality, the category Meta is exploring for future smart glasses. Many of the layoffs focused specifically on internal studios making VR content, games, and experiences. Some of the changes—like the removal of individual worlds from the VR store—are presented by the company as efforts to make the store a better discovery platform for third-party developers. In general, Meta frames many of its recent moves as a pivot away from first-party development of VR experiences to a focus on a third-party developer ecosystem, with stats like “86% of the effective time people spend in their VR headsets is with third-party apps.” “We’ll continue to support the third-party community through strategic partnerships and targeted investments—as we have since the beginning,” writes Meta Reality Labs VP of Content Samantha Ryan. Meta launched a Horizon Worlds mobile app last year and found it attracted an influx of new users interested in the service’s social gaming aspects, except for the VR element. It seems that the mobile launch was successful enough to merit focusing the entire service on that platform and audience, rather than shutting it down amid the other closures of internal content projects. As far as we know, Meta plans to continue to design, make, and sell VR hardware and maintain the storefronts that third-party developers sell on for those platforms. It won’t make much content in-house, and you don’t see much talk about the promise of an all-encompassing, transformational metaverse anymore. Instead, Meta’s speculative investment appears focused on smart glasses, as well as AI models, technologies, and applications. Ars Technica has been separating the signal from the noise for over 25 years. With our unique combination of technical savvy and wide-ranging interest in the technological arts and sciences, Ars is the trusted source in a sea of information. After all, you don’t need to know everything, only what’s important. |
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[SOURCE: https://www.bbc.com/culture/film-tv] | [TOKENS: 2928] |
Film & TVAmy Adams is Oscar-worthy in new film At the Sea ★★★★☆The actress makes a return to form in this hard-hitting film from Hungarian director Kornél Mundruczó about a middle-aged woman facing up to addiction – and her traumatic childhood.See moreLatest headlinesChild actor 'never thought' he would be cast in dramaFilm school proud as it hopes for third Bafta winActor 'so proud' as Belfast film wins Ifta awardThe Scottish twin brothers making movies and rubbing shoulders with Hollywood royaltyHow a Zoom call led to a semi-pro table tennis player featuring in Marty Supreme The Watch List12 of the best alternative romantic filmsNever mind Brief Encounter and The Notebook - here are some less obvious choices for Valentine's Day viewing.10 of the best films to watch this FebruaryFrom Margot Robbie and Jacob Elordi in a controversial take on Wuthering Heights, to an Elvis concert film and Scream 7, the latest instalment of the serial killer horror franchise.More from our Culture editorsEverybody Digs Bill Evans review: A moving, tragic biopic of a tortured jazz great ★★★★☆Bill Evans was a boundary-breaking US pianist who contended with multiple personal tragedies, and a serious drug problem. This new drama about him will draw you to his hypnotic music.How America's Next Top Model became a horror showThe modelling contest hosted by Tyra Banks was a global phenomenon. But it also featured many shocking and questionable moments.Lord of the Flies is a 'chilling' nightmare ★★★★☆Adolescence writer Jack Thorne has adapted William Golding's classic novel for his latest TV series about murderous male youth – but it's a very different beast.The true story behind a tragic US iconAlongside husband JFK Jr, Carolyn Bessette-Kennedy was one half of America's great 1990s golden couple, before their untimely deaths. A new drama is set to explore her struggles.Wuthering Heights is 'sexy, dramatic and romantic' ★★★★☆Starring Margot Robbie and Jacob Elordi, Emerald Fennell's new take on the classic romance is far from faithful to the original book – but it is "utterly absorbing" in its own right.The painful scene that makes Taxi Driver a classicMartin Scorsese's groundbreaking New York thriller turns 50 this week. 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More from our Culture editors Everybody Digs Bill Evans review: A moving, tragic biopic of a tortured jazz great ★★★★☆ Bill Evans was a boundary-breaking US pianist who contended with multiple personal tragedies, and a serious drug problem. This new drama about him will draw you to his hypnotic music. How America's Next Top Model became a horror show The modelling contest hosted by Tyra Banks was a global phenomenon. But it also featured many shocking and questionable moments. Lord of the Flies is a 'chilling' nightmare ★★★★☆ Adolescence writer Jack Thorne has adapted William Golding's classic novel for his latest TV series about murderous male youth – but it's a very different beast. The true story behind a tragic US icon Alongside husband JFK Jr, Carolyn Bessette-Kennedy was one half of America's great 1990s golden couple, before their untimely deaths. A new drama is set to explore her struggles. Wuthering Heights is 'sexy, dramatic and romantic' ★★★★☆ Starring Margot Robbie and Jacob Elordi, Emerald Fennell's new take on the classic romance is far from faithful to the original book – but it is "utterly absorbing" in its own right. The painful scene that makes Taxi Driver a classic Martin Scorsese's groundbreaking New York thriller turns 50 this week. It remains a remarkable piece of work – though its truly defining moment is probably not the one you think. Watch Margot Robbie's accent was 'too Australian' for Neighbours The actress reveals that she had a dialect coach when she was on the series because her accent was so strong. Rachel McAdams has many fans on the sofa Chris Hemsworth, Halle Berry and John Bishop tell Rachel McAdams why they love her films. Idris Elba used his waxwork figure to unlock his phone The actor's Madame Tussauds waxwork is so lifelike that it was able to unlock his phone with Face ID. Arnold Schwarzenegger goes big on Christmas Chris Pratt talks about this year's unique present from Arnold Schwarzenegger that will be hard to re-gift. Dissident Iranian filmmaker Jafar Panahi speaks to the BBC Acclaimed director Jafar Panahi tells the BBC he sees his films as a historical memory of the realities in Iran. How Tom Hiddleston's dad became his biggest cheerleader Initially sceptical of his career, the actor recalls his father’s reaction to one of his early roles. Olsen and Teller talk British phrases they don't understand The two actors talk to Radio 1's Ali Plumb about the complexities of the British vernacular. BBC Talking Movies top 10 films of 2025 Talking Movies presenter Tom Brook looks back at 2025 to pick the top 10 films of the year. George Clooney and Adam Sandler's recommended movies The actors share their personal favourites and talk about why the films hold up today. What happened to Timothée Chalamet's locks? 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[SOURCE: https://arstechnica.com/health/2026/02/with-nih-in-chaos-its-controversial-director-is-taking-over-cdc-too/#comments] | [TOKENS: 2125] |
More chaos Controversial NIH director now in charge of CDC, too, in RFK Jr. shake-up The unusual dual role has renewed criticism of Bhattacharya’s lack of leadership. Beth Mole – Feb 20, 2026 2:44 pm | 51 Director of the National Institutes of Health Jay Bhattacharya, joined by President Donald Trump (L) and Health and Human Services Secretary Robert F. Kennedy Jr., at the White House on September 22, 2025 in Washington, DC. Credit: Getty | Andrew Harnik Director of the National Institutes of Health Jay Bhattacharya, joined by President Donald Trump (L) and Health and Human Services Secretary Robert F. Kennedy Jr., at the White House on September 22, 2025 in Washington, DC. Credit: Getty | Andrew Harnik Text settings Story text Size Small Standard Large Width * Standard Wide Links Standard Orange * Subscribers only Learn more Minimize to nav Jay Bhattacharya, the director of the National Institutes of Health, is now also the acting director of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, an unusual arrangement that has drawn swift criticism from researchers and public health experts. Bhattacharya’s new role comes amid a leadership shakeup in the Department of Health and Human Services under anti-vaccine Health Secretary Robert F. Kennedy Jr. It also marks the third leader for the beleaguered public health agency under Kennedy. Susan Monarez, a microbiologist and long-time federal health official, held the position of acting director before becoming the first Senate-confirmed CDC director at the end of July. But she was in the role just shy of a month before Kennedy ousted her for—according to Monarez—refusing to rubber-stamp changes to vaccine recommendations made by Kennedy’s hand-picked advisors, who are overwhelmingly anti-vaccine themselves. Jim O’Neill was then named acting director. At the time, O’Neill was the deputy secretary of HHS but had previously worked as a Silicon Valley investor and entrepreneur who became a close ally of Peter Thiel. As acting director of the CDC, he signed off on a dramatic overhaul of the CDC’s childhood vaccine recommendations. Now, amid Kennedy’s shake-up, O’Neill is out of the CDC and, according to media reports, will be nominated to run the National Science Foundation, which is currently without a director or deputy director. As a health economist with a medical degree, Bhattacharya has more qualifications to temporarily run the CDC than O’Neill, but researchers and public health experts were quick to blast his apparent lack of leadership skills. Under Bhattacharya’s watch, the NIH terminated or froze hundreds of millions of dollars for research grants, including $561 million in grants to research the four leading causes of death in America, according to a Senate report released earlier this month. At least 304 clinical trials were defunded. Of the NIH’s 27 institutes and centers, 16 are currently without directors, an unprecedented number of vacancies. Insiders report that, as NIH director, Bhattacharya delegates most of his responsibilities for running the $47 billion agency to two top officials. Instead of a hands-on leader, Bhattacharya has become known for his many public interviews, earning him the nickname “Podcast Jay.” “Malpractice” Researchers expect that Bhattacharya will perform similarly at the helm of the CDC. Jenna Norton, an NIH program officer who spoke to the Guardian in her personal capacity, commented that Bhattacharya “won’t actually run the CDC. Just as he doesn’t actually run NIH.” His role for the administration, she added, “is largely as a propagandist.” Jeremy Berg, former director of the National Institute of General Medical Sciences, echoed the sentiment to the Guardian. “Now, rather than largely ignoring the actual operations of one agency, he can largely ignore the actual operations of two,” he said. Kayla Hancock, director of Public Health Watch, a nonprofit advocacy group, went further in a public statement, saying, “Jay Bhattacharya has overseen the most chaotic and rudderless era in NIH history, and for RFK Jr. to give him even more responsibility at the CDC is malpractice against the public health.” Like other commenters, Hancock noted his apparent lack of involvement at the NIH and put it in the context of the current state of US public health. “This is the last person who should be overseeing the CDC at a time when preventable diseases like measles are roaring back under RFK Jr.’s deadly anti-vax agenda,” she said. It is widely expected that Bhattacharya will, like O’Neill, act as a rubber-stamp for Kennedy’s relentless anti-vaccine agenda items. When Kennedy dramatically overhauled the CDC’s childhood vaccine schedule, slashing recommended vaccinations from 17 to 11 without scientific evidence, Bhattacharya was among the officials who signed off on the unprecedented change. Ultimately, Bhattacharya will only be in the role for a short time, at least officially. The role of CDC director became a Senate-confirmed position in 2023, and, as such, an acting director can serve only 210 days from the date the role became vacant. That deadline comes up on March 25. President Trump has not nominated anyone to fill the director role. Beth Mole Senior Health Reporter Beth Mole Senior Health Reporter Beth is Ars Technica’s Senior Health Reporter. Beth has a Ph.D. in microbiology from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and attended the Science Communication program at the University of California, Santa Cruz. She specializes in covering infectious diseases, public health, and microbes. 51 Comments Controversial NIH director now in charge of CDC, too, in RFK Jr. shake-up The unusual dual role has renewed criticism of Bhattacharya’s lack of leadership. Jay Bhattacharya, the director of the National Institutes of Health, is now also the acting director of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, an unusual arrangement that has drawn swift criticism from researchers and public health experts. Bhattacharya’s new role comes amid a leadership shakeup in the Department of Health and Human Services under anti-vaccine Health Secretary Robert F. Kennedy Jr. It also marks the third leader for the beleaguered public health agency under Kennedy. Susan Monarez, a microbiologist and long-time federal health official, held the position of acting director before becoming the first Senate-confirmed CDC director at the end of July. But she was in the role just shy of a month before Kennedy ousted her for—according to Monarez—refusing to rubber-stamp changes to vaccine recommendations made by Kennedy’s hand-picked advisors, who are overwhelmingly anti-vaccine themselves. Jim O’Neill was then named acting director. At the time, O’Neill was the deputy secretary of HHS but had previously worked as a Silicon Valley investor and entrepreneur who became a close ally of Peter Thiel. As acting director of the CDC, he signed off on a dramatic overhaul of the CDC’s childhood vaccine recommendations. Now, amid Kennedy’s shake-up, O’Neill is out of the CDC and, according to media reports, will be nominated to run the National Science Foundation, which is currently without a director or deputy director. As a health economist with a medical degree, Bhattacharya has more qualifications to temporarily run the CDC than O’Neill, but researchers and public health experts were quick to blast his apparent lack of leadership skills. Under Bhattacharya’s watch, the NIH terminated or froze hundreds of millions of dollars for research grants, including $561 million in grants to research the four leading causes of death in America, according to a Senate report released earlier this month. At least 304 clinical trials were defunded. Of the NIH’s 27 institutes and centers, 16 are currently without directors, an unprecedented number of vacancies. Insiders report that, as NIH director, Bhattacharya delegates most of his responsibilities for running the $47 billion agency to two top officials. Instead of a hands-on leader, Bhattacharya has become known for his many public interviews, earning him the nickname “Podcast Jay.” “Malpractice” Researchers expect that Bhattacharya will perform similarly at the helm of the CDC. Jenna Norton, an NIH program officer who spoke to the Guardian in her personal capacity, commented that Bhattacharya “won’t actually run the CDC. Just as he doesn’t actually run NIH.” His role for the administration, she added, “is largely as a propagandist.” Jeremy Berg, former director of the National Institute of General Medical Sciences, echoed the sentiment to the Guardian. “Now, rather than largely ignoring the actual operations of one agency, he can largely ignore the actual operations of two,” he said. Kayla Hancock, director of Public Health Watch, a nonprofit advocacy group, went further in a public statement, saying, “Jay Bhattacharya has overseen the most chaotic and rudderless era in NIH history, and for RFK Jr. to give him even more responsibility at the CDC is malpractice against the public health.” Like other commenters, Hancock noted his apparent lack of involvement at the NIH and put it in the context of the current state of US public health. “This is the last person who should be overseeing the CDC at a time when preventable diseases like measles are roaring back under RFK Jr.’s deadly anti-vax agenda,” she said. It is widely expected that Bhattacharya will, like O’Neill, act as a rubber-stamp for Kennedy’s relentless anti-vaccine agenda items. When Kennedy dramatically overhauled the CDC’s childhood vaccine schedule, slashing recommended vaccinations from 17 to 11 without scientific evidence, Bhattacharya was among the officials who signed off on the unprecedented change. Ultimately, Bhattacharya will only be in the role for a short time, at least officially. The role of CDC director became a Senate-confirmed position in 2023, and, as such, an acting director can serve only 210 days from the date the role became vacant. That deadline comes up on March 25. President Trump has not nominated anyone to fill the director role. Ars Technica has been separating the signal from the noise for over 25 years. With our unique combination of technical savvy and wide-ranging interest in the technological arts and sciences, Ars is the trusted source in a sea of information. After all, you don’t need to know everything, only what’s important. |
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