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Mouding County (; Chuxiong Yi script: , IPA: ) is located in Chuxiong Yi Autonomous Prefecture, Yunnan province, China.
Administrative divisions
Mouding County has 4 towns and 3 townships.
4 towns
3 townships
Panmao ()
Xujie ()
Anle ()
Climate
References
External links
Mouding County Official Website
County-level divisions of Chuxiong Prefecture |
Carmen García may refer to:
Carmen García González (1905–1980), first lady of Mexico
Carmen García Rosado (1926–2016), Puerto Rican educator, author and activist for the rights of women veterans
Carmen García Maura (born 1945), Spanish actress
Carmen M. Garcia (born 1957/1958), former Chief Judge of Trenton Municipal Court
Carmen García (politician) (born 1963), Bolivian politician
María del Carmen García (born 1969), Cuban high jumper
Carmen Laura García (born 1987), Spanish beauty queen
María del Carmen García Alcay (active 1989–2000), Spanish karateka
Maica García Godoy (born 1990), Spanish water polo player
See also
Carmen Sevilla (1930–2021, born María del Carmen García Galisteo), Spanish actress, singer and dancer
Carme García (born 1974), Spanish visually impaired para-alpine skier, blind sailor and journalist |
The Groupement des scientifiques pour l'information sur l'énergie nucléaire GSIEN (Association of Scientists for Information on Nuclear Energy) is a multidisciplinary not-for-profit association of independent scientists who aim to spread information about the nuclear industry in France founded on December 15, 1975.
In addition to providing a structure within which independent evaluations can take place, GSIEN aims to ensure that the French nuclear industry, one of the World's largest, provides open and honest information.
In 1977 GSIEN was first to provide an explanation of the causes and consequences of the Three Mile Island accident, while the authorities tried to play-down the incident, however GSIEN came to prominence at the time of the 1986 Chernobyl disaster when the press and public found that their independent information helped to compensate for the shortcomings in the official information. They subsequently became widely recognised after many of their members contributed to various overseas projects.
History
GSIEN was founded in the wake of the launch in 1974 of the Messmer Plan to switch all of France's electricity generation to nuclear power, which took place without public or parliamentary debate. The announcement of the Messmer Plan caused a split in the scientific community between those physicists (generally older) who favoured the plan, and those (generally younger) who were concerned about the potential risks, leading to l’Appel des 400 (the appeal of the 400), a petition signed initially by over 400 scientists, and ultimately by around 4,000, expressing their concern over a number of issues including 'secrecy' and 'official propaganda'. GSIEN was created following this petition, inspired in part by model of the Union of Concerned Scientists in the United States, with the objective of disseminating information to 'prevent nuclear officials from turning information into propaganda'.
In 1998 Monique Sené, nuclear physicist, one of GSIEN's co-founders and its president, was awarded the National Order of the Legion of Honour for her work as anti–nuclear power activist.
Activities
Publications
Since its first edition in June 1976, GSIEN has published over 250 editions of its quarterly newsletter, la Gazette Nucléaire (the Nuclear Gazette).
GSIEN has also published a number of books including Electro-nucléaire : danger (1977, ), Plutonium Sur Rhône (1981, )
Technical expertise
GSIEN members have been invited by several Local Information Commissions to participate in a number of 10-yearly nuclear plant inspections, including those at Fessenheim, Golfech Nuclear Power Plant and Blayais Nuclear Power Plant, as well as in a various other assessments.
See also
Nuclear power in France
Anti-nuclear movement in France
External links
La Gazette Nucléaire
References
Nuclear energy in France
Politics of France
Anti-nuclear organizations
Organizations established in 1975 |
Tamu is a town in the Kabaw Valley in the Sagaing Region in north-west Myanmar near the border with the eastern Indian state of Manipur. Inhabited by Thadou people, it is a beautiful town in Myanmar. It is the seat of administration for the Tamu Township. Opposite the Indian town of Moreh, the town is home to an official border trade posts with India, which opened on 12 April 2005. In 2022, total trade volume at the border post stood at .
Transport
Tamu is something of a transport hub for cross-border traffic to India, being just across the border from Moreh. It is on the alignment of a proposed railway connecting the two countries. Tamu is an important commercial town serving the Indian border town of Moreh. It is also a hub for smuggled goods from Thailand and China which are transported to India. The town is mainly populated by the Burmese, Chin ethnic people, and many others from throughout the country.
Highway to Thailand
India's foreign minister met with Myanmar's construction minister in Delhi on 22 February 2012, and spoke about opening a highway between Moreh, in India, and the Myanmar-Thai border near Mae Sot.
Climate
References
External links
"Tamu Map — Satellite Images of Tamu" Maplandia
http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/todays-paper/tp-others/tp-states/border-woes/article2099469.ece
http://e-pao.net/epPageExtractor.asp?src=features.Indo-Myanmar_relationship_on_bilateral_and_economic_cooperation.html..
http://www.akshardhool.com/2012/12/a-precursor-of-things-to-come.html
http://www2.irrawaddy.org/article.php?art_id=21159
http://www.forbes.com/sites/morganhartley/2013/03/26/burmas-second-chance-for-trade-with-india/
http://www.irrawaddy.org/india/burma-indo-border-market-threatened-by-indian-insurgents.html
Township capitals of Myanmar
Populated places in Sagaing Region
India–Myanmar border crossings |
D-class cruiser can refer to either of the following:
, a series of British light cruisers that served during World War II
, a pair of planned large cruisers designed as part of Plan Z |
The 2015 Canadian Mixed Curling Championship were held from November 10 to 15, 2014 at the North Bay Granite Club in North Bay, Ontario. The winners of this championship represented Canada at the inaugural World Mixed Curling Championship in 2015.
Teams
The teams are listed as follows:
Round robin
Standings
Final Standings
Results
The draw is listed as follows:
Draw 1
Monday, November 10, 9:30 am
Draw 2
Monday, November 10, 3:00 pm
Draw 3
Monday, November 10, 7:30 pm
Draw 4
Tuesday, November 11, 9:30 am
Draw 5
Tuesday, November 11, 2:00 pm
Draw 6
Tuesday, November 11, 6:30 pm
Draw 7
Wednesday, November 12, 9:30 am
Draw 8
Wednesday, November 12, 2:00 pm
Draw 9
Wednesday, November 12, 6:30 pm
Placement Round
Standings
Final Standings
Results
Draw 10
Thursday, November 13, 9:30 am
Draw 11
Thursday, November 13, 2:00 pm
Draw 12
Thursday, November 13, 6:30 pm
Draw 13
Friday, November 14, 9:30 am
Draw 14
Friday, November 14, 2:00 pm
Draw 15
Friday, November 14, 6:30 pm
Playoffs
Semifinals
Saturday, November 15, 9:30 am
Bronze medal game
Saturday, November 15, 2:00 pm
Final
Saturday, November 15, 2:00 pm
References
External links
Mixed Curling Championship
Canadian Mixed Curling Championship
Sport in North Bay, Ontario
Curling in Northern Ontario
Canadian Mixed Curling Championship
Canadian Mixed Curling Championship |
The Man in a Blue Turban with a Face is the debut album by experimental rock group Man Man.
Track listing
"Against the Peruvian Monster"
"10lb Moustache"
"Zebra"
"Sarsparillsa"
"White Rice, Brown Heart"
"Gold Teeth"
"Magic Blood"
"The Fog or China"
"I, Manface"
"Man Who Make You Sick"
"Werewolf (On the Hood of Yer Heartbreak)"
References
External links
"10 lb. Mustache" video
2004 debut albums
Man Man albums
Ace Fu Records albums |
Hadj Mohammed Mesfewi (died June 13, 1906), called the "Marrakesh Arch-Killer", was a Moroccan serial killer who murdered at least 36 women.
Killings
Mesfewi worked as a shoemaker and trader in Marrakesh. Assisted by a 70-year-old woman named Annah, Mesfewi would kill young women who came to his shop to dictate letters. He would use drugs to incapacitate his victims before decapitating them with a dagger. Moroccan authorities found the remains of 20 mutilated bodies in a deep pit under his shop, while another 16 were discovered in the garden outside. He was caught after the parents of one young victim traced her movements back to his shop. Annah died under torture and Mesfewi confessed that he killed the women for their money; often the sums were very small.
Execution
After being convicted, Mesfewi was initially sentenced to be crucified on May 2, 1906. Due to international outcry, the sentence was changed to beheading. However, public sentiment in Marrakesh was for him to suffer so every day he was led from his cell, into the market square, and lashed ten times with a rod made from thorny acacia, for four weeks. It was finally decided because of the heinous nature of his crimes and as a warning for all, Mesfewi would be walled up alive in the Marrakesh marketplace bazaar on June 11, 1906.
The cell was made by two masons who created a hole in the bazaar's thick walls about deep and wide and about high. Chains were fixed to the back wall to ensure Mesfewi did not attempt to escape and to keep him standing. On the day his sentence was carried out, Mesfewi screamed for mercy and fought with his jailers when he was led to the cell. After he had been chained up, bystanders threw filth and offal at him. The masons then came forward and began laying courses of masonry to brick up the opening. After his entombment, the crowd would be silent, but then cheer every time they heard him scream inside. Mesfewi could be heard for two days before falling silent on the third day. Following his death, many in the crowd voiced their anger that he had died too quickly.
Literature
Peter Murakami, Julia Murakami: Dictionary of serial killers: 450 case studies of a pathological killing type. Ullstein Paperback, 2000, .
See also
List of serial killers by country
List of serial killers by number of victims
Notes
1800s births
1906 deaths
1900s murders in Morocco
1906 murders in Africa
Executed Moroccan serial killers
Moroccan people convicted of murder
People executed by Morocco
Violence against women in Morocco |
The American Academy of Osteopathy (AAO) is a non-profit organization for osteopathic medical education. Members include osteopathic physicians and medical students, supporters and affiliates, sponsors, and international members.
The mission of the AAO is to teach, advocate, and research the science, art, and philosophy of osteopathic medicine, emphasizing the integration of osteopathic principles, practice, and manipulative treatment in patient care.
Mission
The AAO's mission is to assist osteopathic medical professionals to:
1. Acquire a better understanding of osteopathic principles, theories, and practice to include:
a. helping students attain a maximum proficiency in osteopathic structural diagnosis and treatment
b. fostering a clear concept of clinical application of osteopathy in health and disease
2. Improve public awareness of osteopathic medicine so that the community may better take advantage of the benefits provided by the complete health care concept of osteopathic medicine.
Membership in the American Academy of Osteopathy
AAO members consist of osteopathic physicians, including but not limited to those specializing in osteopathic manipulative treatment; osteopathic medical students; residents; associates who graduated from accredited medical or dental schools; international affiliates, or osteopaths trained outside the U.S.; and supporters.
Fellow of the American Academy of Osteopathy
The Fellow of the American Academy of Osteopathy is an earned post-graduate degree awarded to eligible physicians demonstrating a commitment to osteopathic principles and practice. Requirements include AAO membership, American Osteopathic Association board certification, an interview, publications, etc.
The AAO Journal
Printed quarterly, The AAO Journal is the official peer-reviewed publication of the American Academy of Osteopathy. Members of the AAO receive a complimentary subscription to the AAOJ. Subscriptions for non-members are available for a fee.
Authors should review the AAOJ Instructions for Contributors before submitting their manuscripts.
See also
American Osteopathic Association
American Osteopathic Board of Neuromusculoskeletal Medicine
References
External links
Official Website of the American Academy of Osteopathy
Osteopathic medical associations in the United States
Medical and health organizations based in Indiana |
Kanaji Dam is a gravity dam located in Hyogo Prefecture in Japan. The dam is used for flood control. The catchment area of the dam is 11.5 km2. The dam impounds about 22 ha of land when full and can store 4700 thousand cubic meters of water. The construction of the dam was started on 1986 and completed in 2015.
See also
List of dams in Japan
References
Dams in Hyogo Prefecture |
Robert Lemaître (7 March 1929 – 9 March 2019) was a former French professional footballer who played as a defender.
Career
Lemaître was born in Plancoët, a commune in the Brittany region. He began his career playing for his hometown club. In 1951, he turned professional and signed with Rennes. Lemaître spent two seasons with the club and, in 1953, signed with Lille. With Lille, he won the league in 1954 and won the Coupe de France the following year. After leaving Lille, Lemaître played for Le Havre, Bordeaux, and Roubaix-Tourcoing before retiring from football altogether in 1960.
Lemaître was also a France international and made his national team debut on 17 December 1953 in an 8–0 victory over Luxembourg. In the match, Lemaître captained the team. He is one of five France internationals in the team's history to captain the national team on his debut.
References
External links
1929 births
2019 deaths
Men's association football defenders
French men's footballers
France men's international footballers
Footballers from Brittany
Stade Rennais F.C. players
FC Girondins de Bordeaux players
Lille OSC players
Le Havre AC players
Ligue 1 players
French football managers
CO Roubaix-Tourcoing managers
CO Roubaix-Tourcoing players |
Hiram Collins Haydn (November 3, 1907 – December 2, 1973) was an American writer and editor. He was editor in chief at Random House before leaving to help establish Atheneum Publishing. He was also the editor of Phi Beta Kappa's literary journal, The American Scholar, from 1944 to 1973.
Biography
Born in Cleveland, Ohio, Haydn graduated from Amherst College in 1928, and later received a master's degree from Western Reserve University and a Ph.D. from Columbia University in 1942. He married Rachel Hutchinson Norris in 1935, later divorced; in 1945 he married Mary Wescott Tuttle.
In 1945 Haydn became editor, later editor in chief, for Crown Publishers until he moved to Bobbs-Merrill in 1950 and to Random House in 1955, where he became editor in chief in 1956. In 1959 he became one of the founders of Atheneum together with Simon Bessie and Alfred Knopf Jr. He left in 1964 to join Harcourt, Brace & World.
Among the writers he worked with as editor were William Styron, William Goldman, William Faulkner, and Ayn Rand. Books series he edited included the Makers of the American Tradition Series (Bobbs-Merrill) and The Twentieth Century Library (Charles Scribner's Sons).
He wrote five novels, as well as an academic work about the "counter revolution" that he argued took place during the middle period of the Renaissance. His memoir, Words & Faces, was published posthumously. During his career he also taught at several colleges including the University of North Carolina, The New School for Social Research, the Center for Advanced Study at Wesleyan University, and the Annenberg School for Communication at the University of Pennsylvania.
Haydn had a seasonal home in Chilmark, Massachusetts, on Martha's Vineyard, where he died of a heart attack in December 1973 at age 66. He was survived by his wife Mary, two sons, and two daughters.
Books
Novels
By Nature Free (1943)
Manhattan Furlough (1945)
The Time is Noon (1948)
The Hands of Esau (1962)
Report from the Red Windmill (1967)
History
The Counter-Renaissance (1950)
Memoir
Words & Faces (1974)
References
American book editors
1907 births
1973 deaths
Writers from Cleveland
Amherst College alumni
Case Western Reserve University alumni
Columbia University alumni
People from Chilmark, Massachusetts |
Darius Jaloyd Rush (born February 22, 2000) is an American football cornerback for the Pittsburgh Steelers of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at South Carolina.
Early life and high school
Rush was born on February 22, 2000, in Kingstree, South Carolina. He attended C. E. Murray High School, where he played wide receiver and defensive back on their football team. As a senior, he caught 47 passes for 863 yards and 17 touchdowns and rushed for 125 yards and one touchdown. Rush committed to play college football at South Carolina over offers from Charlotte and Miami-Ohio.
College career
Rush redshirted his true freshman season at South Carolina. He played mostly special teams during his redshirt freshman season while he also moved from wide receiver to cornerback. Rush became a starter entering his junior season and finished the year with 25 tackles, eight passes broken up, and one interception. He had 38 tackles with seven passes broken up, two interceptions and one forced fumble as a redshirt senior. Rush graduated with a degree in sport and entertainment management and declared for the 2023 NFL Draft following the 2022 season.
Professional career
Indianapolis Colts
Rush was drafted by the Indianapolis Colts in the fifth round, 138th overall, in the 2023 NFL Draft. He was waived on August 29, 2023.
Kansas City Chiefs
On August 30, 2023, Rush was claimed off waivers by the Kansas City Chiefs. He was waived on September 16, 2023 and re-signed to the practice squad.
Pittsburgh Steelers
On October 18, 2023, the Pittsburgh Steelers signed Rush off of the Chiefs’ practice squad.
References
External links
Kansas City Chiefs bio
South Carolina Gamecocks bio
2000 births
Living people
People from Kingstree, South Carolina
American football cornerbacks
South Carolina Gamecocks football players
Players of American football from South Carolina
Indianapolis Colts players
Kansas City Chiefs players
Pittsburgh Steelers players |
Frederick Brock may refer to:
Frederic Edward Errington Brock (1854–1929), English naval officer
Frederick Brock (footballer) (1901–?), English footballer
Frederick W. Brock (1899–1972), Swiss optometrist
See also
Fred Brock (born 1974), American football player |
InfiniDB (formerly Calpont Corporation) was a database management software company based in Frisco, Texas. The company developed InfiniDB, a scalable, software-only columnar database management system for analytic applications.
InfiniDB is a scalable database built for big data analytics, business intelligence, data warehousing and other read-intensive applications. InfiniDB's column-store architecture enables very quick load and query times. Its massive parallel processing (MPP) technology scales with any type of storage hardware.
In 2014, The company raised $7.5 million in a new round of funding led by McDonnell Ventures.
Columnar databases
By storing and managing data based on columns rather than rows, column-oriented architecture overcomes query limitations that exist in traditional row-based RDBMS. Only the necessary columns in a query are accessed, reducing I/O activities by skipping unneeded columns.
InfiniDB is accessed through a MySQL interface. It then parallelizes queries and executes in a MapReduce fashion (similar in concept to the methodology used by Apache Hadoop). Each thread within the distributed architecture operates independently, avoiding thread-to-thread or node-to-node communication that can cripple scaling.
InfiniDB is used to enable performance-intensive analytic applications. Customers include Bandwidth.com, Tucows, Warner Music Group, Genus, Aviation Software International, Caring Bridge, Navigant Consulting and 1&1 Internet.
InfiniDB resellers included SkySQL (including many former MySQL employees) and KK Ashisuto in Japan.
Variants and forks
On October 16, 2013, the company announced that InfiniDB would be licensed under the General Public License v. 2. The open source variants of InfiniDB databases are: InfiniDB Standard Edition and InfiniDB for the Cloud including InfiniDB for Apache Hadoop.
MariaDB Corporation announced on April 5, 2016 the release of its first big data analytics engine, MariaDB ColumnStore. It is based both on a fork of InfiniDB and open-source community contributions. ColumnStore supports use cases including real-time, batch and algorithmic.
Bankruptcy
On October 1, 2014, InfiniDB ceased operations and filed for bankruptcy protection in US Bankruptcy Court in the Eastern District of Texas. Existing customers may be able to receive support from other companies, notably MariaDB.
References
American companies established in 2000
American companies disestablished in 2014
Computer companies established in 2000
Computer companies disestablished in 2014
Data warehousing products
Proprietary database management systems
Free database management systems
MySQL
MariaDB
Free system software
Software companies based in Texas
Cloud infrastructure
Defunct software companies of the United States |
Ljubovo () is a village in the municipality of Trebinje, Republika Srpska, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Notable people
Mićo Ljubibratić
References
Villages in Republika Srpska
Populated places in Trebinje |
A list of windmills in the Dutch province of Zeeland.
Zeeland |
Wen Jiabao (born 15 September 1942) is a Chinese retired politician who served as the premier of China from 2003 to 2013. In his capacity as head of government, Wen was regarded as the leading figure behind China's economic policy. From 2002 to 2012, he held membership in the Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, the country's de facto top power organ, where he was ranked third out of nine members and after general secretary Hu Jintao and Wu Bangguo, chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress.
He worked as the director of the General Office of the Chinese Communist Party between 1986 and 1993, and accompanied Party general secretary Zhao Ziyang as Zhao's personal secretary to Tiananmen Square during the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, where Zhao called on protesting students to leave the square and after which Zhao was removed from his position within the Party. In 1998, Wen was promoted to the post of Vice Premier under Premier Zhu Rongji, his mentor, and oversaw the broad portfolios of agriculture and finance.
Wen was dubbed "the people's premier" by both domestic and foreign media. Instead of concentrating on GDP growth in large cities and rich coastal areas, Wen advocated for advancing policies considered more favorable towards farmers and migrant workers. Wen's government reduced agricultural taxes and pursued ambitious infrastructure projects. Following the global financial crisis of 2008, Wen's government injected four trillion yuan into the economy as part of a stimulus program.
Seen as the leading member of the reform wing of the Communist Party, Wen's family came under scrutiny by investigative journalists for having accumulated a massive fortune during his time in government, casting a cloud over his legacy shortly prior to his retirement. He left office in 2013 and was succeeded by Li Keqiang.
Early life and education
Born in Beichen district of the City of Tianjin, Wen Jiabao went to the Nankai High School from which the first premier of the People's Republic of China Zhou Enlai graduated.
Wen attended the Beijing Institute of Geology (now the China University of Geosciences) for undergraduate education with a major in geological surveying and prospecting from 1960 to 1965. Afterwards, he pursued his graduate studies in geological structure from 1965 to 1968.
Wen joined the Chinese Communist Party when he was a college student in April 1965. His granduncle worked as a diplomat at FMPRC.
Early career
After the completion of his graduate studies, he began his career in the geology bureau of Gansu province. From 1968 to 1978, he presided over the Geomechanics Survey Team under the Gansu Provincial Geological Bureau and head of its political section. Wen succeeded in office, rising as chief of the Gansu Provincial Geological Bureau and later as Vice-minister of Geology and Mineral Resources.
Wen was "discovered" by then-CCP general secretary Hu Yaobang, and joined the ranks of the Central Committee and Politburo. There was some public speculation after 1989 over whether Wen was closer to Hu Yaobang or Zhao Ziyang, but Wen implicitly confirmed that he was a protégé of Hu by the release of his 2010 article, "Recalling Hu Yaobang when I returned to Xingyi". After Wen was promoted to work in Beijing, he served as Chief of the Party's General Affairs Office, an organ that oversaw day-to-day operations of the party's leaders. He remained in the post for eight years.
Wen has built a network of patronage during his career. Throughout this period Wen was said to be a strong administrator and technocrat, having earned a reputation for meticulousness, competence, and a focus on tangible results. Outgoing Premier Zhu Rongji showed his esteem for Wen by entrusting him from 1998 with the task of overseeing agricultural, financial and environmental policies in the office of Vice-Premier, considered crucial as China prepared to enter the World Trade Organization. Wen served as Secretary of the Central Financial Work Commission from 1998 to 2002. By the end of the 1990s Wen and Zhang Peili were the main investor and founder of Ping An Insurance, which was established with the help of Hong Kong tycoon Cheng Yu-tung's family through real estate firm New World Development.
Survival of Tiananmen purge
Wen's most significant political recovery occurred after accompanying Zhao on his visit to students demonstrating in Tiananmen Square in 1989. Unlike Zhao, who was purged from the party days later for "grave insubordination" and lived under house arrest in Beijing until his death in January 2005, Wen survived the political aftermath of the demonstrations.
Wen Jiabao is the only Chief of the Party's General Affairs Office to have served under three General Secretaries: Hu Yaobang, Zhao Ziyang, and Jiang Zemin.
First-term premiership
Wen entered the Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, China's highest ruling council, in November 2002, ranked third out of nine members (After Hu Jintao and Wu Bangguo). During the transition of authority as Hu Jintao assumed the general secretary and presidency in November 2002 and March 2003 respectively, Wen's nomination as premier was confirmed by the National People's Congress with over 99% of the delegates' vote.
After taking over as Premier, Wen oversaw the continuation of economic reforms and has been involved in shifting national goals from economic growth at all costs to growth which also emphasizes more egalitarian wealth, along with other social goals, such as public health and education. Wen's broad range of experience and expertise, especially cultivated while presiding over agricultural policies under Zhu Rongji, has been important as the "fourth generation" sought to revitalize the rural economy in regions left out by the past two decades of reform. In addition, the Chinese government under Wen has begun to focus on the social costs of economic development, which include damage to the environment and to workers' health. This more comprehensive definition of development was encapsulated into the idea of a xiaokang society. In November 2003, Wen and his governent introduced the slogan of "Five Comprehensive Coordinations" which outlined the Communist Party's priorities for harmonious and scientific development: mitigating urban-rural imbalances, interregional imbalances, socio-economic imbalances, human-environmental imbalances, and domestic-international imbalances.
Initially regarded as quiet and unassuming, Wen is said to be a good communicator and is known as a "man of the people." Wen has appeared to make great efforts to reach out to those who seem left out by two decades of stunning economic growth in rural and especially western China. Unlike Jiang Zemin and his protégés on the Politburo Standing Committee, who form the so-called "Shanghai clique", both Wen and Hu hail from, and have cultivated their political bases, in the vast Chinese interior. Many have noted the contrasts between Wen and Hu, "men of the people", and Jiang Zemin, the flamboyant, multilingual, and urbane former mayor of Shanghai, the country's most cosmopolitan city.
Like Hu Jintao, whose purported brilliance and photographic memory have facilitated his meteoric rise to power, Wen is regarded as well-equipped to preside over a vast bureaucracy in the world's most populated and perhaps most rapidly changing nation. In March 2003, the usually self-effacing Wen was quoted as saying, "The former Swiss ambassador to China once said that my brain is like a computer", he said. "Indeed, many statistics are stored in my brain."
Mild-tempered and conciliatory, especially compared to his predecessor, the tough, straight-talking Zhu Rongji, Wen's consensual management style has enabled him to generate a great deal of good will, but has also created some opponents who are in support of tougher policy decisions. Notably, Wen was widely known to have clashed with then-Shanghai party chief Chen Liangyu over the central government's policies.
Wen was involved in two major episodes involving public health. In early 2003, he was involved in ending the official inaction over the SARS crisis. On 1 December 2004, he became the first major Chinese official to publicly address the problem of AIDS, which has devastated parts of Yunnan and Henan and threatens to be a major burden on Chinese development. Since May 2004, Wen made various visits to communities devastated by AIDS, trips shown prominently on national media. By showing these actions, Wen displayed an effort to reverse years of what many activists have described as a policy of denial and inaction. Furthermore, Wen is concerned about the health and safety of previous drug addicts; since March 2004, Wen had visited several drug addict treatment facilities in southern China and addressed the issue to the patients in person, recognizing that AIDS is more likely to be spread by drug abuse and the reuse of hypodermic syringes than by sexual contact.
Wen was known to conduct visits to relatively poor areas of China's countryside randomly to avoid elaborate preparations to appease officials and hide the real situation, which is done often in China. At committee meetings of the State Council, Wen made it clear that the rural wealth disparity problem must be addressed. Along with general secretary Hu Jintao, the government focused on the "Three Rural Issues", namely, agriculture, the countryside, and farmers, and emphasized these core areas as requiring further work and development. The Hu-Wen administration abolished the thousand year old agricultural tax entirely in 2005, a bold move that significantly changed the rural economic model. But despite these initiatives, Wen has been criticized for allowing the urban-rural gap to actually increase during his tenure.
Like Zhu Rongji, Wen is generally seen as a popular communist official with the Chinese public. His attitude is seemingly sincere and warm, triggering comparisons with former premier Zhou Enlai. Wen spent Chinese New Year in 2005 with a group of coal miners in a Shanxi coal mine. To many, Wen has gained the image of being the "people's premier", a populist, and an ordinary Chinese citizen who knows and understands ordinary people's needs. In an annual meeting of the Chinese Authors Association, Wen spoke for over two hours to the delegates without looking at script. To foreign media, Wen was also the highest figure in the Chinese government to give free press conferences, often facing politically sensitive and difficult questions regarding subjects such as Taiwan Independence, Tibetan independence and human rights.
In December 2003, Wen visited the United States for the first time. During the trip, Wen was able to get President George W. Bush to issue what many saw as a mild rebuke to the then President of the Republic of China (Taiwan), Chen Shui-bian. Wen has also been on visits to Canada and Australia, mostly on economic issues. Wen also visited Japan in April 2007 in what was termed the "de-thawing journey", where he characterized the relationship between the Asian powers as for "mutual benefit". He also met with Emperor Akihito and played baseball.
Balancing regional development was a top priority early in Wen's Premiership. During his delivery of the Annual Work Report of the State Council in March 2004, Wen introduced "The Rise of the Central Regions campaign. This campaign included Hubei, Jiangxi, Henan, Hunan, Anhui, and Shanxi. Through it, the central government sought to further advance the already-occurring process of industrial transfer from coastal regions to the interior.
On 15 March 2005, after the anti-secession law was passed, by a majority of 2,896 to nil, with two abstentions by the National People's Congress, Wen said: "We don't wish for foreign intervention, but we are not afraid of it." as an allusion to the United States' stance on Taiwan. That earned him a long round of applause that was rare even by Chinese standards.
On 5 March 2007, Wen announced plans to increase the military budget. By the end of 2007 the military budget rose 17.8 percent from the previous year's 45 billion dollars, creating tension with the United States.
After the conclusion of the 2007 National People's Congress, Wen criticized the state of the economy in comments later described as the "Four Uns." Wen stated that after thirty years of rapid economic growth, the economy was at risk of becoming unstable, unbalanced, uncoordinated, and unsustainable. His comments about the risk of an unsustainable economy alluded to overconsumption of resources, particularly coal, as well as growing income and wealth disparities. Wen's critique of the "Four Uns" prompted significant internal debate over China's growth strategy.
There were rumors about Wen's retirement and reputed clashes with former Shanghai party chief Chen Liangyu before the party's 17th Party Congress. Some sources suggested that Wen would ask to retire due to fatigue. Ultimately, Wen stayed on the Premier job, and was responsible for the drafting of the important speech delivered by Party general secretary Hu Jintao outlining China's direction in the next five years.
In January 2008, while during the midst of severe snowstorms, Premier Wen made his way south and visited train stations in Changsha and Guangzhou, addressing the public while calming their mood for long train delays.
Second-term premiership
Wen Jiabao was appointed to a second five-year term as premier on 16 March 2008, leading efforts to cool soaring inflation and showcase the country to the world at the 2008 Summer Olympics. He received fewer votes in favor than he did in 2003, a sign that the premiership can create enemies, even in the mere formalities of China's electoral system. Wen faced grave economic challenges as the world became increasingly affected by the U.S. economic crisis. Social stability and regional activism in China's restive hinterland regions also dominated Wen's policy agenda. On 18 March 2008, during the press conference after the 2008 National People's Congress, Wen toed the government line in blaming supporters of the Dalai Lama for violence in Tibet, and said Chinese security forces exercised restraint in confronting rioting and unrest in the streets of Lhasa. Wen acted as the spokesman of the Chinese government during the 2008 unrest in Tibet and refused to negotiate with the Dalai Lama and his followers, unless they chose to "give up all separatist activities." On 12 November 2010, during the 2010 Asian Games opening ceremony in Guangzhou, Wen became the first non-head of state to open the Asian Games.
In his final address as China's prime minister Wen warned of the nation's growing divisions between rich and poor, the hazards of unchecked environmental degradation and the risks posed by unbalanced economic growth.
Response to 2008 Sichuan earthquake
Premier Wen Jiabao's popularity was boosted significantly when he went to the disaster area of the Sichuan a mere few hours after the disaster occurred. He declared on national television that survivors are to be rescued as long as there is "a glimmer of hope". He was named the General Commander of the Earthquake Relief Efforts Committee immediately following the disaster. Following his visits to the area, images of the Premier were displayed on national media, numerous videos popped up on Chinese video sites making comparisons with former Premier Zhou Enlai, a largely popular figure who was also dubbed the "People's Premier". While party leaders are often shown on state television looking rather stiff and sitting motionlessly, Wen's on-site image and candid nature attracted a large popular following of Chinese citizens.
In addition, there was speculation on internet forums as well as foreign media about the availability of the scientific prediction of the 2008 earthquake, and Wen was quoted as the only high-ranking Chinese leader to try to announce the scientific prediction and made it public, but was somehow prevented by other members of the Politburo Standing Committee.
2009 NPC
Before the 2009 National People's Congress convened, on 28 February, Premier Wen Jiabao went online on video chat to answer queries hosted by China's official government website gov.cn and the official Xinhua News Agency. During the session Wen openly advocated for transparency of the government and remarked that he was somewhat nervous about the occasion. He received a wide range of questions from large numbers of online Chinese netizens and chose to answer selected questions about prominent economic issues, such as global financial breakdown.
At the Congress, Wen also passed on a message of reassurance that GDP growth would not dip below 8% in 2009. He did not introduce a new stimulus package, and played down speculation that part of the 1.18 trillion RMB central government spending was not going directly into the economy. He also expressed concern about the security of Beijing's holdings in U.S. treasury debt. In a more unusual gesture, Wen also expressed interest in visiting Taiwan, stating he would "crawl there if [he] could not walk".
Foreign policy
Wen Jiabao played a prominent role advancing China's foreign policy positions, and became increasingly visible on the world stage as China's economic power expanded. He went on an official working visit to North Korea on 4 October 2009, the first time a Chinese Premier has visited North Korea since Li Peng's visit in 1991. He was greeted at the Pyongyang Airport by ailing North Korean leader Kim Jong-Il. Kim rarely greeted foreign dignitaries himself upon their arrival at the airport. Reuters believed this to be a show of solidarity from North Korea and that the country was serious in fostering a good relationship with China. Wen also met with European Union leaders at a China-EU conference in late November 2009, where he refused calls for China to revalue its Yuan and re-examine its foreign exchange regime. Wen remarked in Nanjing that "some countries are on the one hand pressuring China to appreciate its currency while on the other hand they are practicing trade protectionism against China in many different forms."
In December, in what was seen as a mild rebuke of Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper during the latter's working visit to China, Wen stated, "This is your first trip to China and this is the first meeting between the Chinese Premier and the Canadian Prime Minister in almost five years. Five years is too long a time for China Canada relations." However, the interpretation that Wen rebuked Harper was later disputed in select newspaper editorials. Wen also traveled to the 2009 UN Climate Change Conference, where he met with U.S. President Barack Obama twice to secure an 11th-hour non-binding agreement on emissions cuts.
Political views
Domestic and foreign media variously described Wen as "populist" and in touch with the needs of ordinary people. On most social issues Wen seems to be moderate, with his brand of policies based around societal harmony as prescribed by the Scientific Development Concept, the leading ideology of the administration.
In the first term of his Premiership Wen's attitudes towards political reform seemed ambivalent. He remarked that "the socialist system will continue in China for the next 100 years", although later, in a press conference at the 2007 National People's Congress, he stated that "democracy is one of the basic goals of the socialist system". Furthermore, in an interview in September 2008, Wen acknowledged that the democratic system in China needs to be improved, where the power "truly belongs to the people" through the construction of an independent judicial system and for the government to accept criticism from the people. Wen, seen as a former ally of Premier Zhao Ziyang, was likely supportive of the latter's political rehabilitation; however, he rarely mentioned Zhao publicly during his premiership. When asked by CNN whether or not China will liberalize for free elections in the next 25 years, Wen stated that it would be "hard to predict." On the subject of Taiwan, he reputedly believed in gradual negotiations. On the subject of Tibet, he toed the party line in condemning the exiled Dalai Lama for inciting "separatist violence".
Xinhua published articles in early 2007 on the direction of national development. The authorship of the articles was attributed separately to Wen Jiabao, particularly 26 February piece "Our Historical Tasks at the Primary Stage of Socialism and Several Issues Concerning China's Foreign Policy". The article advanced Wen's "peace doctrine" in global affairs, as well as what appeared to be inclinations towards fostering social democracy and advocacy of universal values. This was suspected as a sign that Wen has some differing viewpoints to the official party line – that values are relativistic and that "Chinese values" are not necessarily the same as "Western values," and that universal values is thus an empty concept. The debate continues to rage in Chinese political circles today, with neo-leftist thinkers such as Chinese Academy of Social Sciences President Chen Kuiyuan criticizing Wen's advocacy of universal values, saying that it relegates Chinese values and thinking as an inferior alternative to supposedly more "correct" Western norms.
Wen is perceived by some observers as a liberal voice in China's ruling elite. Wen has openly talked about democracy and increased freedoms in his speeches and interviews with foreign correspondents, although much of it was deemed "sensitive" commentary and censored in state media. Wen remarked that "someone who speaks is not a criminal, someone who listens is duly warned" (, which alludes to the classical work Shi Jing) at an internal party conference in 2009, an event reported on Xinhua and other state networks. His remarks triggered debate from netizens, as it seemed to contravene the practices of the Communist Party, particularly in its suppression of dissent. Analysts noted that Wen's message was aimed at party members, and not necessarily the general public because Wen believes freedom of speech has deteriorated since Hu Jintao's accession to power and has negatively affected China's political landscape and international reputation. His comments also ostensibly addressed the pervasive "fake-talking" present in Chinese political circles, in an attempt to curb systemic and institutional woes stemming from officials who are afraid to speak the truth.
Wen has progressively amplified his liberal rhetoric as his Premiership continued, remarking in August 2010 that "Without political reform, China may lose what it has already achieved through economic restructuring". Wen's comments were largely censored in state media, but he gained support from a group of some 23 party elders in October, who denounced the authorities' censorship of Wen's remarks in an open letter to the National People's Congress. In an interview with Fareed Zakaria on CNN's Global Public Square television program aired in 2008, Wen made the following statement: "I have summed up my political ideals into the following four sentences. To let everyone lead a happy life with dignity. To let everyone feel safe and secure. To let the society be one with equity and justice. And to let everyone have confidence in the future. In spite of the various discussions and views in the society, and in spite of some resistance, I will act in accordance with these ideals unswervingly, and advance within the realm of my capabilities political restructuring. I will like to tell you the following two sentences to reinforce my view on this point. I will not fall in spite of the strong wind and harsh rain, and I will not yield until the last day of my life." At the 2012 National People's Congress, Wen mentioned the word "reform" 70 times. He remarked that China must "press ahead with both economic structural reforms and political structural reforms, in particular reforms on the leadership system of the Party and the country." There is also indication from party insiders that Wen has been pushing the case for the political rehabilitation of the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989.
Public image and political influence
Wen has been described as a populist by most observers. His quick responses and visits to the scenes of various disasters, including the 2008 Sichuan earthquake, has earned him a considerable reputation as an approachable leader in touch with the experiences of the masses. Wen engages regularly with locals on his trips to various provinces domestically as well as foreign visits; he played baseball and badminton with Japanese and South Korean citizens during visits to those countries. "Whether taking a stroll or swimming, it puts me at ease both mentally and physically and helps me handle my heavy workload," Wen had remarked.
Wen's public image has been criticized by Chinese dissident Yu Jie, who charged that Wen's rhetoric is insincere and empty. Dissidents such as Yu allege that Wen's parade of appearances on Chinese media is a carefully managed public relations campaign designed to distract people from real issues. They say that through use of Wen's charisma, the government hopes to showcase cosmetic solutions to much larger, systemic issues in order to placate public opinion. They also point out that Wen's words are rarely translated into deeds. On the other hand, Li Datong, a pro-democracy advocate, in an interview with the Associated Press, stated that "among the top Chinese leaders, who else speaks about democracy? Who else speaks about universal values and freedom?... Wen is the only one." Li believes that Wen is genuinely calling for democratic reform but he is powerless to make major decisions on the matter due to internal opposition. Wen's family members have also been subject to gossip and scrutiny outside of mainland China. Taiwanese media zoomed in on his wife's alleged personal fortunes from her jewelry business, while the Financial Times reported on a private equity firm called New Horizon Capital co-founded by Wen's son Wen Yunsong.
When he was the head of the Chinese government, Wen Jiabao was considered to be one of the most powerful statesmen in the world. In 2006, he was named to the Time 100 list. In 2009, Wen was named one of ten people and the only non-American in a list compiled by ABC of people who shaped the U.S. economy the most since 2000. Wen also topped a list of "10 leaders to watch" in 2010 released 19 January by Eurasia Group, a global political risk research and consulting firm. Behind that U.S. President Barack Obama came second. In August 2010, Wen was named "The Man of the People" by Newsweek. In October 2010, Wen Jiabao was a person selected on the Time's cover that the title was "Wen's World". In 2011, Wen was ranked 14th in Forbes Magazine's List of The World's Most Powerful People.
In 2021, Chinese authorities censored a tribute that Wen Jiabao had written for his mother in the small paper Macau Herald.
Personal life and family wealth
Wen Jiabao is married to Zhang Peili, whom he met while working as a government geologist in Gansu. Zhang is a jewelry expert and has played a prominent role in the nation's diamond trade. She rarely appears with Wen in public. In October 2012, The New York Times reported that Wen's relatives have controlled financial assets then worth at least US$2.7 billion during his time as Premier. In response, a Chinese government spokesman stated that the report "blackens China's name and has ulterior motives", and the websites of The New York Times were censored in mainland China. Lawyers representing Wen's family also denied the report's content. Wen personally wrote a letter submitted to the Politburo Standing Committee asking for an investigation to the claim and willing to make his family assets public. Professor Zhu Lijia, of the Chinese Academy of Governance, suggest that this is Wen's last try to push the passing of the "Sunshine law", which would require government officials to release their financial information to the public. Professor Jean-Pierre Cabestan of Hong Kong's Baptist University questioned the timing of the report and suggested "It looks very much [like] some people close to Bo Xilai are trying to throw mud at the reformists".
Wen is said to have an introverted personality. He has stated that his one regret so far in life was never having learned to drive a manual transmission car. Wen is known for his adept use of Chinese poetry to convey political and diplomatic messages, when responding to journalists, or simply to begin a speech.
See also
Politics of the People's Republic of China
History of the People's Republic of China (2002–present)
Hu–Wen Administration
References
External links
"Wen Jiabao's family amasses wealth of more than $2.7 billion USD" New York Times, 25 October 2012
"Recalling Hu Yaobang When I Return to Xingyi" [Chinese: 再回兴义忆耀邦]: an essay written by Wen as a eulogy of Hu Yaobang. The article originally appeared in The People's Daily on 15 April 2010.
Wen Jiabao at Facebook
Wen Jiabao biography @ China Vitae, the web's largest online database of China VIPs
The Age – Who is Wen Jiabao?
How to pronounce Wen Jiabao
Wen says China's reforms irreversible
Corpus of Political Speeches :Free access to political speeches by Wen Jiabao and other Chinese politicians, developed by Hong Kong Baptist University Library
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1942 births
Living people
20th-century Chinese politicians
21st-century Chinese politicians
Wen Jiabao family
China University of Geosciences alumni
Chinese Communist Party politicians from Tianjin
Chinese geologists
Chinese reformers
Delegates to the 16th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party
Delegates to the 17th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party
Delegates to the 9th National People's Congress
Delegates to the 10th National People's Congress
Delegates to the 11th National People's Congress
Directors of the General Office of the Chinese Communist Party
Members of the Secretariat of the Chinese Communist Party
Members of the 15th Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party
Members of the 16th Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party
Members of the 17th Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party
People's Republic of China politicians from Tianjin
Premiers of the People's Republic of China
Scientists from Tianjin
Tianjin Nankai High School alumni |
Windsor Court House is a heritage-listed courthouse at Court and Pitt Streets, Windsor, City of Hawkesbury, New South Wales, Australia. It was designed by Francis Greenway with a later extension by James Barnet and built from 1821 to 1822 by William Cox. It was added to the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999.
History
The lower Hawkesbury was home to the Dharug people. The proximity to the Nepean River and South Creek qualifies it as a key area for food resources for indigenous groups.
The Dharug and Darkinjung people called the river Deerubbin and it was a vital source of food and transport.
Governor Arthur Phillip explored the local area in search of suitable agricultural land in 1789 and discovered and named the Hawkesbury River after Baron Hawkesbury. This region played a significant role in the early development of the colony with European settlers established here by 1794. Situated on fertile floodplains and well known for its abundant agriculture, Green Hills (as it was originally called) supported the colony through desperate times. However, frequent flooding meant that the farmers along the riverbanks were often ruined.
In 1794, the land on which the courthouse stands was first alienated for European purposes in a grant made by Francis Grose of thirty acres to Samuel Wilcox, who named it Wilcox Farm. It is likely that land clearance and agricultural activities as well as some building works took place during this period and during the subsequent of occupation. The farm was subsequently incorporated into a larger holding of 1500 acres known as Peninsula Farm.
On 1 January 1810, Lachlan Macquarie replaced William Bligh as Governor of New South Wales. The colony prospered under his influence, implementing a significant public works program, completing 265 public buildings, establishing new public amenities and improving existing services such as roads. On 6 December 1810, he named five new towns in the Hawkesbury region - subsequently known as the Macquarie Towns - including Windsor. Following Macquarie's instigation, Windsor became a permanent township with streets, public buildings and a town square.
The Windsor Court House was designed by the Colonial Architect Francis Greenway in 1821, in response to Governor Macquarie's request. It was intended to replace an original timber court house, and despite economic restrictions, Governor Macquarie had no intention to settle for a weatherboard structure. Instead he called upon Greenway to submit designs for a small but substantial brick building.
The contract for its construction was awarded to William Cox in October 1821 for the sum of 1800 pounds, on the condition that the building be completed within fifteen months of the award of the contract. The court house was completed within the time specified using convict labour.
Macquarie's leadership was investigated by an enquiry into the colony's affairs and the Bigge Report concluded that a free and penal society could co-exist but with tighter controls on convict management. Governor Macquarie resigned and returned to England in 1822. Prior to departing the colony he visited the Hawkesbury with his successor Sir Thomas Brisbane. They inspected Francis Greenway's new St Matthew's Anglican Church as well as other public buildings in Windsor. The Hawkesbury inhabitants presented Macquarie with a public address which commended him on his administration. The residents requested Macquarie to sit for a portrait and flattered by the request, he agreed. The painting was completed in England and returned to Windsor and has hung in the Windsor Court House since the 1820s.
Repairs carried out in the 1840s and 50s included the re-shingling of the roof and other building works. Alterations made by Barnet in 1870s and 1882. The last recorded additions were in 1890. In 1961 restoration, renovation and alterations were made plus new toilet accommodation.
In 2000, Attorney-Generals' Department restored the fabric of the building, reversing earlier restoration work. The Courthouse had originally been cement rendered, but this had been removed in 1960, a move not beneficial to the building.
The courthouse was threatened with closure in 2014 due to state cuts to court funding, but survived after community concern at the likely impact of Windsor residents having to travel to Penrith to attend court. The number of sitting days were reduced to ten per month from 2015, down from sixteen in 2014. In 2017, it received a $160,000 upgrade to install audio-visual link functionality.
Description
The Windsor Court House is one of the earliest surviving court house buildings in Australia. Designed in the Colonial Georgian style, it uses an adapted Palladian form with an enclosing front verandah entrance, a climatic adaptation. The building consists of one courtroom with front and back verandahs, ancillary rooms at each corner of the building and a late 19th century extension by Colonial Architect, James Barnet, in a garden setting. Classically inspired details include multi-panelled windows with flat sandstone lintels over.
Other accommodation includes Sheriff's Office, community legal centre office, Chamber, interview room, legal room, legal profession room and a Mmagistrate's room.
The Court House is constructed in face brick, with a sandstone base course and window headers. The roofs are clad in corrugated iron. The verandah is supported on timber posts. Interiors feature intact timber joinery and furniture.
The courthouse also houses an impressive collection of moveable heritage, including furniture and fittings, ledgers and a rare celebrated portrait of Governor Macquarie commissioned on his departure from the colony in 1822 for seven guineas by grateful local residents in appreciation of his efforts for the area. The artist has been identified by the National Portrait Gallery of Scotland as most likely to have been Scottish artist Colvin Smith. It was restored for the bicentenary of Macquarie's arrival in the colony.
Heritage listing
The Windsor Court House, a rare surviving Colonial Georgian public building that originally dates from the early 19th century. The building has a fine and impressive form which uses an adapted Palladian plan to suit the Australian climate. It is of considerable historical, social and aesthetic significance, as one of the earliest surviving Court House buildings in Australia.
The court house was insisted upon by Governor Macquarie, designed by Francis Greenway (himself originally a convict) and built by William Cox using convict labour. It is a combination and the result of all the forces directly at play during the Australia's early development.
Windsor Court House was listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999 having satisfied the following criteria.
The place is important in demonstrating the course, or pattern, of cultural or natural history in New South Wales.
Windsor was the most prosperous and successful of the towns founded by Governor Macquarie.
The Windsor Court House was commissioned in 1821 by Governor Macquarie to replace its, by then, dilapidated timber predecessor.
In 1821 William Cox signed the contract, and agreed to build the court house within fifteen months from October of that year of a sum of 1,800 pounds under Greenway's supervision and using convict labour.
In addition to its association with its designer, Francis Greenway, and its builder, William Cox, the court house represents the first steps in the prosperous growth and development of Windsor and the Hawkesbury region, and the efforts of Governor Macquarie to obtain the establishment of a modest but substantial brick court house despite the pressure to reduce government spending.
The place has a strong or special association with a person, or group of persons, of importance of cultural or natural history of New South Wales's history.
The Court House was commissioned by Governor Macquarie in 1821. It was designed by Francis Greenway, Colonial Architect, and appointed Civil Architect in 1816. Greenway also designed such buildings as the Hyde Park Barracks, Macquarie Lighthouse, the Parramatta Female Factory, St Matthew's Anglican Church in Windsor, St Luke's Anglican Church in Liverpool, and St James' Church and the Supreme Court in King Street Sydney.
The Court House is also associated with William Cox, its builder, who was an energetic and self improving colonist and contributed much to the development of the settlement. He arrived in 1800 as an officer of the New South Wales Corps, took up farming and in 1810 was appointed a magistrate in the Hawkesbury district. He employed about 50 convicts in agricultural and manufacturing activities on his property near Windsor. He also undertook building contracts for the government and in 1814 supervised the construction of the first road across the Blue Mountains.
The place is important in demonstrating aesthetic characteristics and/or a high degree of creative or technical achievement in New South Wales.
Windsor Court House is built in a simple Georgian style. The main room, the Court Room, is flanked front and back by stone flagged verandahs which form an essential part of the building's plain rectangular structure, and provide access to the ancillary rooms.
The simplicity of the design is enhanced by the quality of the materials used - hand made sandstock bricks on a sandstone foundation. The windows and doorways have incised stone lintels and stone sills and recessed panels in the brickwork and the stone foundation.
The interior is also simple with white walls and cedar panelling. The panelling behind the Magistrate's chair is embellished by a gilded coat of arms. The room is illuminated by light through high clerestory windows.
Despite its simplicity in design, the most significant feature of this building is the adaptation by Greenway of his architectural skills and principles to suit the demands of an Australian climate.
Greenway realised that architectural conditions in Australia, such as climate, building materials, and the lack of skilled professional labour and craftsmanship, were different from those in England and so he rearranged his design and thinking accordingly.
With the exception of his Gothic designs, there is little or no decoration or ornament added to Greenway's designs. Everything in the design is a necessary part of the building.
The place has a strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group in New South Wales for social, cultural or spiritual reasons.
First commissioned in 1821 and completed within fifteen months, the Windsor Court House was built during politically and economically trying times (with pressure from England to reduce government spending) and amidst the turbulence of colonisation, the establishment of new settlements, a lack of skilled labour and other resources, and the unfamiliarity of a new and rather harsh climate.
As such, the Windsor Court House is a symbol of the growth and successful development of Windsor as the most prosperous town established by Governor Macquarie and of the social, cultural and political forces of the early 1800s.
References
Bibliography
Attribution
New South Wales State Heritage Register
Windsor, New South Wales
Courthouses in New South Wales
Articles incorporating text from the New South Wales State Heritage Register |
```html
<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN">
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>Lua 5.4 Reference Manual</TITLE>
<LINK REL="stylesheet" TYPE="text/css" HREF="lua.css">
<LINK REL="stylesheet" TYPE="text/css" HREF="manual.css">
<META HTTP-EQUIV="content-type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1">
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<H1>
<A HREF="path_to_url"><IMG SRC="logo.gif" ALT="Lua"></A>
Lua 5.4 Reference Manual
</H1>
<P>
by Roberto Ierusalimschy, Luiz Henrique de Figueiredo, Waldemar Celes
<P>
<SMALL>
Freely available under the terms of the
<a href="path_to_url">Lua license</a>.
</SMALL>
<DIV CLASS="menubar">
<A HREF="contents.html#contents">contents</A>
·
<A HREF="contents.html#index">index</A>
·
<A HREF="path_to_url">other versions</A>
</DIV>
<!-- ====================================================================== -->
<p>
<!-- $Id: manual.of $ -->
<h1>1 – <a name="1">Introduction</a></h1>
<p>
Lua is a powerful, efficient, lightweight, embeddable scripting language.
It supports procedural programming,
object-oriented programming, functional programming,
data-driven programming, and data description.
<p>
Lua combines simple procedural syntax with powerful data description
constructs based on associative arrays and extensible semantics.
Lua is dynamically typed,
runs by interpreting bytecode with a register-based
virtual machine,
and has automatic memory management with
a generational garbage collection,
making it ideal for configuration, scripting,
and rapid prototyping.
<p>
Lua is implemented as a library, written in <em>clean C</em>,
the common subset of Standard C and C++.
The Lua distribution includes a host program called <code>lua</code>,
which uses the Lua library to offer a complete,
standalone Lua interpreter,
for interactive or batch use.
Lua is intended to be used both as a powerful, lightweight,
embeddable scripting language for any program that needs one,
and as a powerful but lightweight and efficient stand-alone language.
<p>
As an extension language, Lua has no notion of a "main" program:
it works <em>embedded</em> in a host client,
called the <em>embedding program</em> or simply the <em>host</em>.
(Frequently, this host is the stand-alone <code>lua</code> program.)
The host program can invoke functions to execute a piece of Lua code,
can write and read Lua variables,
and can register C functions to be called by Lua code.
Through the use of C functions, Lua can be augmented to cope with
a wide range of different domains,
thus creating customized programming languages sharing a syntactical framework.
<p>
Lua is free software,
and is provided as usual with no guarantees,
as stated in its license.
The implementation described in this manual is available
at Lua's official web site, <code>www.lua.org</code>.
<p>
Like any other reference manual,
this document is dry in places.
For a discussion of the decisions behind the design of Lua,
see the technical papers available at Lua's web site.
For a detailed introduction to programming in Lua,
see Roberto's book, <em>Programming in Lua</em>.
<h1>2 – <a name="2">Basic Concepts</a></h1>
<p>
This section describes the basic concepts of the language.
<h2>2.1 – <a name="2.1">Values and Types</a></h2>
<p>
Lua is a dynamically typed language.
This means that
variables do not have types; only values do.
There are no type definitions in the language.
All values carry their own type.
<p>
All values in Lua are first-class values.
This means that all values can be stored in variables,
passed as arguments to other functions, and returned as results.
<p>
There are eight basic types in Lua:
<em>nil</em>, <em>boolean</em>, <em>number</em>,
<em>string</em>, <em>function</em>, <em>userdata</em>,
<em>thread</em>, and <em>table</em>.
The type <em>nil</em> has one single value, <b>nil</b>,
whose main property is to be different from any other value;
it often represents the absence of a useful value.
The type <em>boolean</em> has two values, <b>false</b> and <b>true</b>.
Both <b>nil</b> and <b>false</b> make a condition false;
they are collectively called <em>false values</em>.
Any other value makes a condition true.
Despite its name,
<b>false</b> is frequently used as an alternative to <b>nil</b>,
with the key difference that <b>false</b> behaves
like a regular value in a table,
while a <b>nil</b> in a table represents an absent key.
<p>
The type <em>number</em> represents both
integer numbers and real (floating-point) numbers,
using two subtypes: <em>integer</em> and <em>float</em>.
Standard Lua uses 64-bit integers and double-precision (64-bit) floats,
but you can also compile Lua so that it
uses 32-bit integers and/or single-precision (32-bit) floats.
The option with 32 bits for both integers and floats
is particularly attractive
for small machines and embedded systems.
(See macro <code>LUA_32BITS</code> in file <code>luaconf.h</code>.)
<p>
Unless stated otherwise,
any overflow when manipulating integer values <em>wrap around</em>,
according to the usual rules of two-complement arithmetic.
(In other words,
the actual result is the unique representable integer
that is equal modulo <em>2<sup>n</sup></em> to the mathematical result,
where <em>n</em> is the number of bits of the integer type.)
<p>
Lua has explicit rules about when each subtype is used,
but it also converts between them automatically as needed (see <a href="#3.4.3">§3.4.3</a>).
Therefore,
the programmer may choose to mostly ignore the difference
between integers and floats
or to assume complete control over the representation of each number.
<p>
The type <em>string</em> represents immutable sequences of bytes.
Lua is 8-bit clean:
strings can contain any 8-bit value,
including embedded zeros ('<code>\0</code>').
Lua is also encoding-agnostic;
it makes no assumptions about the contents of a string.
The length of any string in Lua must fit in a Lua integer.
<p>
Lua can call (and manipulate) functions written in Lua and
functions written in C (see <a href="#3.4.10">§3.4.10</a>).
Both are represented by the type <em>function</em>.
<p>
The type <em>userdata</em> is provided to allow arbitrary C data to
be stored in Lua variables.
A userdata value represents a block of raw memory.
There are two kinds of userdata:
<em>full userdata</em>,
which is an object with a block of memory managed by Lua,
and <em>light userdata</em>,
which is simply a C pointer value.
Userdata has no predefined operations in Lua,
except assignment and identity test.
By using <em>metatables</em>,
the programmer can define operations for full userdata values
(see <a href="#2.4">§2.4</a>).
Userdata values cannot be created or modified in Lua,
only through the C API.
This guarantees the integrity of data owned by
the host program and C libraries.
<p>
The type <em>thread</em> represents independent threads of execution
and it is used to implement coroutines (see <a href="#2.6">§2.6</a>).
Lua threads are not related to operating-system threads.
Lua supports coroutines on all systems,
even those that do not support threads natively.
<p>
The type <em>table</em> implements associative arrays,
that is, arrays that can have as indices not only numbers,
but any Lua value except <b>nil</b> and NaN.
(<em>Not a Number</em> is a special floating-point value
used by the IEEE 754 standard to represent
undefined numerical results, such as <code>0/0</code>.)
Tables can be <em>heterogeneous</em>;
that is, they can contain values of all types (except <b>nil</b>).
Any key associated to the value <b>nil</b> is not considered part of the table.
Conversely, any key that is not part of a table has
an associated value <b>nil</b>.
<p>
Tables are the sole data-structuring mechanism in Lua;
they can be used to represent ordinary arrays, lists,
symbol tables, sets, records, graphs, trees, etc.
To represent records, Lua uses the field name as an index.
The language supports this representation by
providing <code>a.name</code> as syntactic sugar for <code>a["name"]</code>.
There are several convenient ways to create tables in Lua
(see <a href="#3.4.9">§3.4.9</a>).
<p>
Like indices,
the values of table fields can be of any type.
In particular,
because functions are first-class values,
table fields can contain functions.
Thus tables can also carry <em>methods</em> (see <a href="#3.4.11">§3.4.11</a>).
<p>
The indexing of tables follows
the definition of raw equality in the language.
The expressions <code>a[i]</code> and <code>a[j]</code>
denote the same table element
if and only if <code>i</code> and <code>j</code> are raw equal
(that is, equal without metamethods).
In particular, floats with integral values
are equal to their respective integers
(e.g., <code>1.0 == 1</code>).
To avoid ambiguities,
any float used as a key that is equal to an integer
is converted to that integer.
For instance, if you write <code>a[2.0] = true</code>,
the actual key inserted into the table will be the integer <code>2</code>.
<p>
Tables, functions, threads, and (full) userdata values are <em>objects</em>:
variables do not actually <em>contain</em> these values,
only <em>references</em> to them.
Assignment, parameter passing, and function returns
always manipulate references to such values;
these operations do not imply any kind of copy.
<p>
The library function <a href="#pdf-type"><code>type</code></a> returns a string describing the type
of a given value (see <a href="#pdf-type"><code>type</code></a>).
<h2>2.2 – <a name="2.2">Environments and the Global Environment</a></h2>
<p>
As we will discuss further in <a href="#3.2">§3.2</a> and <a href="#3.3.3">§3.3.3</a>,
any reference to a free name
(that is, a name not bound to any declaration) <code>var</code>
is syntactically translated to <code>_ENV.var</code>.
Moreover, every chunk is compiled in the scope of
an external local variable named <code>_ENV</code> (see <a href="#3.3.2">§3.3.2</a>),
so <code>_ENV</code> itself is never a free name in a chunk.
<p>
Despite the existence of this external <code>_ENV</code> variable and
the translation of free names,
<code>_ENV</code> is a completely regular name.
In particular,
you can define new variables and parameters with that name.
Each reference to a free name uses the <code>_ENV</code> that is
visible at that point in the program,
following the usual visibility rules of Lua (see <a href="#3.5">§3.5</a>).
<p>
Any table used as the value of <code>_ENV</code> is called an <em>environment</em>.
<p>
Lua keeps a distinguished environment called the <em>global environment</em>.
This value is kept at a special index in the C registry (see <a href="#4.3">§4.3</a>).
In Lua, the global variable <a href="#pdf-_G"><code>_G</code></a> is initialized with this same value.
(<a href="#pdf-_G"><code>_G</code></a> is never used internally,
so changing its value will affect only your own code.)
<p>
When Lua loads a chunk,
the default value for its <code>_ENV</code> variable
is the global environment (see <a href="#pdf-load"><code>load</code></a>).
Therefore, by default,
free names in Lua code refer to entries in the global environment
and, therefore, they are also called <em>global variables</em>.
Moreover, all standard libraries are loaded in the global environment
and some functions there operate on that environment.
You can use <a href="#pdf-load"><code>load</code></a> (or <a href="#pdf-loadfile"><code>loadfile</code></a>)
to load a chunk with a different environment.
(In C, you have to load the chunk and then change the value
of its first upvalue; see <a href="#lua_setupvalue"><code>lua_setupvalue</code></a>.)
<h2>2.3 – <a name="2.3">Error Handling</a></h2>
<p>
Several operations in Lua can <em>raise</em> an error.
An error interrupts the normal flow of the program,
which can continue by <em>catching</em> the error.
<p>
Lua code can explicitly raise an error by calling the
<a href="#pdf-error"><code>error</code></a> function.
(This function never returns.)
<p>
To catch errors in Lua,
you can do a <em>protected call</em>,
using <a href="#pdf-pcall"><code>pcall</code></a> (or <a href="#pdf-xpcall"><code>xpcall</code></a>).
The function <a href="#pdf-pcall"><code>pcall</code></a> calls a given function in <em>protected mode</em>.
Any error while running the function stops its execution,
and control returns immediately to <code>pcall</code>,
which returns a status code.
<p>
Because Lua is an embedded extension language,
Lua code starts running by a call
from C code in the host program.
(When you use Lua standalone,
the <code>lua</code> application is the host program.)
Usually, this call is protected;
so, when an otherwise unprotected error occurs during
the compilation or execution of a Lua chunk,
control returns to the host,
which can take appropriate measures,
such as printing an error message.
<p>
Whenever there is an error,
an <em>error object</em>
is propagated with information about the error.
Lua itself only generates errors whose error object is a string,
but programs may generate errors with
any value as the error object.
It is up to the Lua program or its host to handle such error objects.
For historical reasons,
an error object is often called an <em>error message</em>,
even though it does not have to be a string.
<p>
When you use <a href="#pdf-xpcall"><code>xpcall</code></a> (or <a href="#lua_pcall"><code>lua_pcall</code></a>, in C)
you may give a <em>message handler</em>
to be called in case of errors.
This function is called with the original error object
and returns a new error object.
It is called before the error unwinds the stack,
so that it can gather more information about the error,
for instance by inspecting the stack and creating a stack traceback.
This message handler is still protected by the protected call;
so, an error inside the message handler
will call the message handler again.
If this loop goes on for too long,
Lua breaks it and returns an appropriate message.
The message handler is called only for regular runtime errors.
It is not called for memory-allocation errors
nor for errors while running finalizers or other message handlers.
<p>
Lua also offers a system of <em>warnings</em> (see <a href="#pdf-warn"><code>warn</code></a>).
Unlike errors, warnings do not interfere
in any way with program execution.
They typically only generate a message to the user,
although this behavior can be adapted from C (see <a href="#lua_setwarnf"><code>lua_setwarnf</code></a>).
<h2>2.4 – <a name="2.4">Metatables and Metamethods</a></h2>
<p>
Every value in Lua can have a <em>metatable</em>.
This <em>metatable</em> is an ordinary Lua table
that defines the behavior of the original value
under certain events.
You can change several aspects of the behavior
of a value by setting specific fields in its metatable.
For instance, when a non-numeric value is the operand of an addition,
Lua checks for a function in the field <code>__add</code> of the value's metatable.
If it finds one,
Lua calls this function to perform the addition.
<p>
The key for each event in a metatable is a string
with the event name prefixed by two underscores;
the corresponding value is called a <em>metavalue</em>.
For most events, the metavalue must be a function,
which is then called a <em>metamethod</em>.
In the previous example, the key is the string "<code>__add</code>"
and the metamethod is the function that performs the addition.
Unless stated otherwise,
a metamethod may in fact be any callable value,
which is either a function or a value with a <code>__call</code> metamethod.
<p>
You can query the metatable of any value
using the <a href="#pdf-getmetatable"><code>getmetatable</code></a> function.
Lua queries metamethods in metatables using a raw access (see <a href="#pdf-rawget"><code>rawget</code></a>).
<p>
You can replace the metatable of tables
using the <a href="#pdf-setmetatable"><code>setmetatable</code></a> function.
You cannot change the metatable of other types from Lua code,
except by using the debug library (<a href="#6.10">§6.10</a>).
<p>
Tables and full userdata have individual metatables,
although multiple tables and userdata can share their metatables.
Values of all other types share one single metatable per type;
that is, there is one single metatable for all numbers,
one for all strings, etc.
By default, a value has no metatable,
but the string library sets a metatable for the string type (see <a href="#6.4">§6.4</a>).
<p>
A detailed list of operations controlled by metatables is given next.
Each event is identified by its corresponding key.
By convention, all metatable keys used by Lua are composed by
two underscores followed by lowercase Latin letters.
<ul>
<li><b><code>__add</code>: </b>
the addition (<code>+</code>) operation.
If any operand for an addition is not a number,
Lua will try to call a metamethod.
It starts by checking the first operand (even if it is a number);
if that operand does not define a metamethod for <code>__add</code>,
then Lua will check the second operand.
If Lua can find a metamethod,
it calls the metamethod with the two operands as arguments,
and the result of the call
(adjusted to one value)
is the result of the operation.
Otherwise, if no metamethod is found,
Lua raises an error.
</li>
<li><b><code>__sub</code>: </b>
the subtraction (<code>-</code>) operation.
Behavior similar to the addition operation.
</li>
<li><b><code>__mul</code>: </b>
the multiplication (<code>*</code>) operation.
Behavior similar to the addition operation.
</li>
<li><b><code>__div</code>: </b>
the division (<code>/</code>) operation.
Behavior similar to the addition operation.
</li>
<li><b><code>__mod</code>: </b>
the modulo (<code>%</code>) operation.
Behavior similar to the addition operation.
</li>
<li><b><code>__pow</code>: </b>
the exponentiation (<code>^</code>) operation.
Behavior similar to the addition operation.
</li>
<li><b><code>__unm</code>: </b>
the negation (unary <code>-</code>) operation.
Behavior similar to the addition operation.
</li>
<li><b><code>__idiv</code>: </b>
the floor division (<code>//</code>) operation.
Behavior similar to the addition operation.
</li>
<li><b><code>__band</code>: </b>
the bitwise AND (<code>&</code>) operation.
Behavior similar to the addition operation,
except that Lua will try a metamethod
if any operand is neither an integer
nor a float coercible to an integer (see <a href="#3.4.3">§3.4.3</a>).
</li>
<li><b><code>__bor</code>: </b>
the bitwise OR (<code>|</code>) operation.
Behavior similar to the bitwise AND operation.
</li>
<li><b><code>__bxor</code>: </b>
the bitwise exclusive OR (binary <code>~</code>) operation.
Behavior similar to the bitwise AND operation.
</li>
<li><b><code>__bnot</code>: </b>
the bitwise NOT (unary <code>~</code>) operation.
Behavior similar to the bitwise AND operation.
</li>
<li><b><code>__shl</code>: </b>
the bitwise left shift (<code><<</code>) operation.
Behavior similar to the bitwise AND operation.
</li>
<li><b><code>__shr</code>: </b>
the bitwise right shift (<code>>></code>) operation.
Behavior similar to the bitwise AND operation.
</li>
<li><b><code>__concat</code>: </b>
the concatenation (<code>..</code>) operation.
Behavior similar to the addition operation,
except that Lua will try a metamethod
if any operand is neither a string nor a number
(which is always coercible to a string).
</li>
<li><b><code>__len</code>: </b>
the length (<code>#</code>) operation.
If the object is not a string,
Lua will try its metamethod.
If there is a metamethod,
Lua calls it with the object as argument,
and the result of the call
(always adjusted to one value)
is the result of the operation.
If there is no metamethod but the object is a table,
then Lua uses the table length operation (see <a href="#3.4.7">§3.4.7</a>).
Otherwise, Lua raises an error.
</li>
<li><b><code>__eq</code>: </b>
the equal (<code>==</code>) operation.
Behavior similar to the addition operation,
except that Lua will try a metamethod only when the values
being compared are either both tables or both full userdata
and they are not primitively equal.
The result of the call is always converted to a boolean.
</li>
<li><b><code>__lt</code>: </b>
the less than (<code><</code>) operation.
Behavior similar to the addition operation,
except that Lua will try a metamethod only when the values
being compared are neither both numbers nor both strings.
Moreover, the result of the call is always converted to a boolean.
</li>
<li><b><code>__le</code>: </b>
the less equal (<code><=</code>) operation.
Behavior similar to the less than operation.
</li>
<li><b><code>__index</code>: </b>
The indexing access operation <code>table[key]</code>.
This event happens when <code>table</code> is not a table or
when <code>key</code> is not present in <code>table</code>.
The metavalue is looked up in the metatable of <code>table</code>.
<p>
The metavalue for this event can be either a function, a table,
or any value with an <code>__index</code> metavalue.
If it is a function,
it is called with <code>table</code> and <code>key</code> as arguments,
and the result of the call
(adjusted to one value)
is the result of the operation.
Otherwise,
the final result is the result of indexing this metavalue with <code>key</code>.
This indexing is regular, not raw,
and therefore can trigger another <code>__index</code> metavalue.
</li>
<li><b><code>__newindex</code>: </b>
The indexing assignment <code>table[key] = value</code>.
Like the index event,
this event happens when <code>table</code> is not a table or
when <code>key</code> is not present in <code>table</code>.
The metavalue is looked up in the metatable of <code>table</code>.
<p>
Like with indexing,
the metavalue for this event can be either a function, a table,
or any value with an <code>__newindex</code> metavalue.
If it is a function,
it is called with <code>table</code>, <code>key</code>, and <code>value</code> as arguments.
Otherwise,
Lua repeats the indexing assignment over this metavalue
with the same key and value.
This assignment is regular, not raw,
and therefore can trigger another <code>__newindex</code> metavalue.
<p>
Whenever a <code>__newindex</code> metavalue is invoked,
Lua does not perform the primitive assignment.
If needed,
the metamethod itself can call <a href="#pdf-rawset"><code>rawset</code></a>
to do the assignment.
</li>
<li><b><code>__call</code>: </b>
The call operation <code>func(args)</code>.
This event happens when Lua tries to call a non-function value
(that is, <code>func</code> is not a function).
The metamethod is looked up in <code>func</code>.
If present,
the metamethod is called with <code>func</code> as its first argument,
followed by the arguments of the original call (<code>args</code>).
All results of the call
are the results of the operation.
This is the only metamethod that allows multiple results.
</li>
</ul>
<p>
In addition to the previous list,
the interpreter also respects the following keys in metatables:
<code>__gc</code> (see <a href="#2.5.3">§2.5.3</a>),
<code>__close</code> (see <a href="#3.3.8">§3.3.8</a>),
<code>__mode</code> (see <a href="#2.5.4">§2.5.4</a>),
and <code>__name</code>.
(The entry <code>__name</code>,
when it contains a string,
may be used by <a href="#pdf-tostring"><code>tostring</code></a> and in error messages.)
<p>
For the unary operators (negation, length, and bitwise NOT),
the metamethod is computed and called with a dummy second operand,
equal to the first one.
This extra operand is only to simplify Lua's internals
(by making these operators behave like a binary operation)
and may be removed in future versions.
For most uses this extra operand is irrelevant.
<p>
Because metatables are regular tables,
they can contain arbitrary fields,
not only the event names defined above.
Some functions in the standard library
(e.g., <a href="#pdf-tostring"><code>tostring</code></a>)
use other fields in metatables for their own purposes.
<p>
It is a good practice to add all needed metamethods to a table
before setting it as a metatable of some object.
In particular, the <code>__gc</code> metamethod works only when this order
is followed (see <a href="#2.5.3">§2.5.3</a>).
It is also a good practice to set the metatable of an object
right after its creation.
<h2>2.5 – <a name="2.5">Garbage Collection</a></h2>
<p>
Lua performs automatic memory management.
This means that
you do not have to worry about allocating memory for new objects
or freeing it when the objects are no longer needed.
Lua manages memory automatically by running
a <em>garbage collector</em> to collect all <em>dead</em> objects.
All memory used by Lua is subject to automatic management:
strings, tables, userdata, functions, threads, internal structures, etc.
<p>
An object is considered <em>dead</em>
as soon as the collector can be sure the object
will not be accessed again in the normal execution of the program.
("Normal execution" here excludes finalizers,
which can resurrect dead objects (see <a href="#2.5.3">§2.5.3</a>),
and excludes also operations using the debug library.)
Note that the time when the collector can be sure that an object
is dead may not coincide with the programmer's expectations.
The only guarantees are that Lua will not collect an object
that may still be accessed in the normal execution of the program,
and it will eventually collect an object
that is inaccessible from Lua.
(Here,
<em>inaccessible from Lua</em> means that neither a variable nor
another live object refer to the object.)
Because Lua has no knowledge about C code,
it never collects objects accessible through the registry (see <a href="#4.3">§4.3</a>),
which includes the global environment (see <a href="#2.2">§2.2</a>).
<p>
The garbage collector (GC) in Lua can work in two modes:
incremental and generational.
<p>
The default GC mode with the default parameters
are adequate for most uses.
However, programs that waste a large proportion of their time
allocating and freeing memory can benefit from other settings.
Keep in mind that the GC behavior is non-portable
both across platforms and across different Lua releases;
therefore, optimal settings are also non-portable.
<p>
You can change the GC mode and parameters by calling
<a href="#lua_gc"><code>lua_gc</code></a> in C
or <a href="#pdf-collectgarbage"><code>collectgarbage</code></a> in Lua.
You can also use these functions to control
the collector directly (e.g., to stop and restart it).
<h3>2.5.1 – <a name="2.5.1">Incremental Garbage Collection</a></h3>
<p>
In incremental mode,
each GC cycle performs a mark-and-sweep collection in small steps
interleaved with the program's execution.
In this mode,
the collector uses three numbers to control its garbage-collection cycles:
the <em>garbage-collector pause</em>,
the <em>garbage-collector step multiplier</em>,
and the <em>garbage-collector step size</em>.
<p>
The garbage-collector pause
controls how long the collector waits before starting a new cycle.
The collector starts a new cycle when the use of memory
hits <em>n%</em> of the use after the previous collection.
Larger values make the collector less aggressive.
Values equal to or less than 100 mean the collector will not wait to
start a new cycle.
A value of 200 means that the collector waits for the total memory in use
to double before starting a new cycle.
The default value is 200; the maximum value is 1000.
<p>
The garbage-collector step multiplier
controls the speed of the collector relative to
memory allocation,
that is,
how many elements it marks or sweeps for each
kilobyte of memory allocated.
Larger values make the collector more aggressive but also increase
the size of each incremental step.
You should not use values less than 100,
because they make the collector too slow and
can result in the collector never finishing a cycle.
The default value is 100; the maximum value is 1000.
<p>
The garbage-collector step size controls the
size of each incremental step,
specifically how many bytes the interpreter allocates
before performing a step.
This parameter is logarithmic:
A value of <em>n</em> means the interpreter will allocate <em>2<sup>n</sup></em>
bytes between steps and perform equivalent work during the step.
A large value (e.g., 60) makes the collector a stop-the-world
(non-incremental) collector.
The default value is 13,
which means steps of approximately 8 Kbytes.
<h3>2.5.2 – <a name="2.5.2">Generational Garbage Collection</a></h3>
<p>
In generational mode,
the collector does frequent <em>minor</em> collections,
which traverses only objects recently created.
If after a minor collection the use of memory is still above a limit,
the collector does a stop-the-world <em>major</em> collection,
which traverses all objects.
The generational mode uses two parameters:
the <em>minor multiplier</em> and the <em>the major multiplier</em>.
<p>
The minor multiplier controls the frequency of minor collections.
For a minor multiplier <em>x</em>,
a new minor collection will be done when memory
grows <em>x%</em> larger than the memory in use after the previous major
collection.
For instance, for a multiplier of 20,
the collector will do a minor collection when the use of memory
gets 20% larger than the use after the previous major collection.
The default value is 20; the maximum value is 200.
<p>
The major multiplier controls the frequency of major collections.
For a major multiplier <em>x</em>,
a new major collection will be done when memory
grows <em>x%</em> larger than the memory in use after the previous major
collection.
For instance, for a multiplier of 100,
the collector will do a major collection when the use of memory
gets larger than twice the use after the previous collection.
The default value is 100; the maximum value is 1000.
<h3>2.5.3 – <a name="2.5.3">Garbage-Collection Metamethods</a></h3>
<p>
You can set garbage-collector metamethods for tables
and, using the C API,
for full userdata (see <a href="#2.4">§2.4</a>).
These metamethods, called <em>finalizers</em>,
are called when the garbage collector detects that the
corresponding table or userdata is dead.
Finalizers allow you to coordinate Lua's garbage collection
with external resource management such as closing files,
network or database connections,
or freeing your own memory.
<p>
For an object (table or userdata) to be finalized when collected,
you must <em>mark</em> it for finalization.
You mark an object for finalization when you set its metatable
and the metatable has a <code>__gc</code> metamethod.
Note that if you set a metatable without a <code>__gc</code> field
and later create that field in the metatable,
the object will not be marked for finalization.
<p>
When a marked object becomes dead,
it is not collected immediately by the garbage collector.
Instead, Lua puts it in a list.
After the collection,
Lua goes through that list.
For each object in the list,
it checks the object's <code>__gc</code> metamethod:
If it is present,
Lua calls it with the object as its single argument.
<p>
At the end of each garbage-collection cycle,
the finalizers are called in
the reverse order that the objects were marked for finalization,
among those collected in that cycle;
that is, the first finalizer to be called is the one associated
with the object marked last in the program.
The execution of each finalizer may occur at any point during
the execution of the regular code.
<p>
Because the object being collected must still be used by the finalizer,
that object (and other objects accessible only through it)
must be <em>resurrected</em> by Lua.
Usually, this resurrection is transient,
and the object memory is freed in the next garbage-collection cycle.
However, if the finalizer stores the object in some global place
(e.g., a global variable),
then the resurrection is permanent.
Moreover, if the finalizer marks a finalizing object for finalization again,
its finalizer will be called again in the next cycle where the
object is dead.
In any case,
the object memory is freed only in a GC cycle where
the object is dead and not marked for finalization.
<p>
When you close a state (see <a href="#lua_close"><code>lua_close</code></a>),
Lua calls the finalizers of all objects marked for finalization,
following the reverse order that they were marked.
If any finalizer marks objects for collection during that phase,
these marks have no effect.
<p>
Finalizers cannot yield.
Except for that, they can do anything,
such as raise errors, create new objects,
or even run the garbage collector.
However, because they can run in unpredictable times,
it is good practice to restrict each finalizer
to the minimum necessary to properly release
its associated resource.
<p>
Any error while running a finalizer generates a warning;
the error is not propagated.
<h3>2.5.4 – <a name="2.5.4">Weak Tables</a></h3>
<p>
A <em>weak table</em> is a table whose elements are
<em>weak references</em>.
A weak reference is ignored by the garbage collector.
In other words,
if the only references to an object are weak references,
then the garbage collector will collect that object.
<p>
A weak table can have weak keys, weak values, or both.
A table with weak values allows the collection of its values,
but prevents the collection of its keys.
A table with both weak keys and weak values allows the collection of
both keys and values.
In any case, if either the key or the value is collected,
the whole pair is removed from the table.
The weakness of a table is controlled by the
<code>__mode</code> field of its metatable.
This metavalue, if present, must be one of the following strings:
"<code>k</code>", for a table with weak keys;
"<code>v</code>", for a table with weak values;
or "<code>kv</code>", for a table with both weak keys and values.
<p>
A table with weak keys and strong values
is also called an <em>ephemeron table</em>.
In an ephemeron table,
a value is considered reachable only if its key is reachable.
In particular,
if the only reference to a key comes through its value,
the pair is removed.
<p>
Any change in the weakness of a table may take effect only
at the next collect cycle.
In particular, if you change the weakness to a stronger mode,
Lua may still collect some items from that table
before the change takes effect.
<p>
Only objects that have an explicit construction
are removed from weak tables.
Values, such as numbers and light C functions,
are not subject to garbage collection,
and therefore are not removed from weak tables
(unless their associated values are collected).
Although strings are subject to garbage collection,
they do not have an explicit construction and
their equality is by value;
they behave more like values than like objects.
Therefore, they are not removed from weak tables.
<p>
Resurrected objects
(that is, objects being finalized
and objects accessible only through objects being finalized)
have a special behavior in weak tables.
They are removed from weak values before running their finalizers,
but are removed from weak keys only in the next collection
after running their finalizers, when such objects are actually freed.
This behavior allows the finalizer to access properties
associated with the object through weak tables.
<p>
If a weak table is among the resurrected objects in a collection cycle,
it may not be properly cleared until the next cycle.
<h2>2.6 – <a name="2.6">Coroutines</a></h2>
<p>
Lua supports coroutines,
also called <em>collaborative multithreading</em>.
A coroutine in Lua represents an independent thread of execution.
Unlike threads in multithread systems, however,
a coroutine only suspends its execution by explicitly calling
a yield function.
<p>
You create a coroutine by calling <a href="#pdf-coroutine.create"><code>coroutine.create</code></a>.
Its sole argument is a function
that is the main function of the coroutine.
The <code>create</code> function only creates a new coroutine and
returns a handle to it (an object of type <em>thread</em>);
it does not start the coroutine.
<p>
You execute a coroutine by calling <a href="#pdf-coroutine.resume"><code>coroutine.resume</code></a>.
When you first call <a href="#pdf-coroutine.resume"><code>coroutine.resume</code></a>,
passing as its first argument
a thread returned by <a href="#pdf-coroutine.create"><code>coroutine.create</code></a>,
the coroutine starts its execution by
calling its main function.
Extra arguments passed to <a href="#pdf-coroutine.resume"><code>coroutine.resume</code></a> are passed
as arguments to that function.
After the coroutine starts running,
it runs until it terminates or <em>yields</em>.
<p>
A coroutine can terminate its execution in two ways:
normally, when its main function returns
(explicitly or implicitly, after the last instruction);
and abnormally, if there is an unprotected error.
In case of normal termination,
<a href="#pdf-coroutine.resume"><code>coroutine.resume</code></a> returns <b>true</b>,
plus any values returned by the coroutine main function.
In case of errors, <a href="#pdf-coroutine.resume"><code>coroutine.resume</code></a> returns <b>false</b>
plus the error object.
In this case, the coroutine does not unwind its stack,
so that it is possible to inspect it after the error
with the debug API.
<p>
A coroutine yields by calling <a href="#pdf-coroutine.yield"><code>coroutine.yield</code></a>.
When a coroutine yields,
the corresponding <a href="#pdf-coroutine.resume"><code>coroutine.resume</code></a> returns immediately,
even if the yield happens inside nested function calls
(that is, not in the main function,
but in a function directly or indirectly called by the main function).
In the case of a yield, <a href="#pdf-coroutine.resume"><code>coroutine.resume</code></a> also returns <b>true</b>,
plus any values passed to <a href="#pdf-coroutine.yield"><code>coroutine.yield</code></a>.
The next time you resume the same coroutine,
it continues its execution from the point where it yielded,
with the call to <a href="#pdf-coroutine.yield"><code>coroutine.yield</code></a> returning any extra
arguments passed to <a href="#pdf-coroutine.resume"><code>coroutine.resume</code></a>.
<p>
Like <a href="#pdf-coroutine.create"><code>coroutine.create</code></a>,
the <a href="#pdf-coroutine.wrap"><code>coroutine.wrap</code></a> function also creates a coroutine,
but instead of returning the coroutine itself,
it returns a function that, when called, resumes the coroutine.
Any arguments passed to this function
go as extra arguments to <a href="#pdf-coroutine.resume"><code>coroutine.resume</code></a>.
<a href="#pdf-coroutine.wrap"><code>coroutine.wrap</code></a> returns all the values returned by <a href="#pdf-coroutine.resume"><code>coroutine.resume</code></a>,
except the first one (the boolean error code).
Unlike <a href="#pdf-coroutine.resume"><code>coroutine.resume</code></a>,
the function created by <a href="#pdf-coroutine.wrap"><code>coroutine.wrap</code></a>
propagates any error to the caller.
In this case,
the function also closes the coroutine (see <a href="#pdf-coroutine.close"><code>coroutine.close</code></a>).
<p>
As an example of how coroutines work,
consider the following code:
<pre>
function foo (a)
print("foo", a)
return coroutine.yield(2*a)
end
co = coroutine.create(function (a,b)
print("co-body", a, b)
local r = foo(a+1)
print("co-body", r)
local r, s = coroutine.yield(a+b, a-b)
print("co-body", r, s)
return b, "end"
end)
print("main", coroutine.resume(co, 1, 10))
print("main", coroutine.resume(co, "r"))
print("main", coroutine.resume(co, "x", "y"))
print("main", coroutine.resume(co, "x", "y"))
</pre><p>
When you run it, it produces the following output:
<pre>
co-body 1 10
foo 2
main true 4
co-body r
main true 11 -9
co-body x y
main true 10 end
main false cannot resume dead coroutine
</pre>
<p>
You can also create and manipulate coroutines through the C API:
see functions <a href="#lua_newthread"><code>lua_newthread</code></a>, <a href="#lua_resume"><code>lua_resume</code></a>,
and <a href="#lua_yield"><code>lua_yield</code></a>.
<h1>3 – <a name="3">The Language</a></h1>
<p>
This section describes the lexis, the syntax, and the semantics of Lua.
In other words,
this section describes
which tokens are valid,
how they can be combined,
and what their combinations mean.
<p>
Language constructs will be explained using the usual extended BNF notation,
in which
{<em>a</em>} means 0 or more <em>a</em>'s, and
[<em>a</em>] means an optional <em>a</em>.
Non-terminals are shown like non-terminal,
keywords are shown like <b>kword</b>,
and other terminal symbols are shown like ‘<b>=</b>’.
The complete syntax of Lua can be found in <a href="#9">§9</a>
at the end of this manual.
<h2>3.1 – <a name="3.1">Lexical Conventions</a></h2>
<p>
Lua is a free-form language.
It ignores spaces and comments between lexical elements (tokens),
except as delimiters between two tokens.
In source code,
Lua recognizes as spaces the standard ASCII whitespace
characters space, form feed, newline,
carriage return, horizontal tab, and vertical tab.
<p>
<em>Names</em>
(also called <em>identifiers</em>)
in Lua can be any string of Latin letters,
Arabic-Indic digits, and underscores,
not beginning with a digit and
not being a reserved word.
Identifiers are used to name variables, table fields, and labels.
<p>
The following <em>keywords</em> are reserved
and cannot be used as names:
<pre>
and break do else elseif end
false for function goto if in
local nil not or repeat return
then true until while
</pre>
<p>
Lua is a case-sensitive language:
<code>and</code> is a reserved word, but <code>And</code> and <code>AND</code>
are two different, valid names.
As a convention,
programs should avoid creating
names that start with an underscore followed by
one or more uppercase letters (such as <a href="#pdf-_VERSION"><code>_VERSION</code></a>).
<p>
The following strings denote other tokens:
<pre>
+ - * / % ^ #
& ~ | << >> //
== ~= <= >= < > =
( ) { } [ ] ::
; : , . .. ...
</pre>
<p>
A <em>short literal string</em>
can be delimited by matching single or double quotes,
and can contain the following C-like escape sequences:
'<code>\a</code>' (bell),
'<code>\b</code>' (backspace),
'<code>\f</code>' (form feed),
'<code>\n</code>' (newline),
'<code>\r</code>' (carriage return),
'<code>\t</code>' (horizontal tab),
'<code>\v</code>' (vertical tab),
'<code>\\</code>' (backslash),
'<code>\"</code>' (quotation mark [double quote]),
and '<code>\'</code>' (apostrophe [single quote]).
A backslash followed by a line break
results in a newline in the string.
The escape sequence '<code>\z</code>' skips the following span
of whitespace characters,
including line breaks;
it is particularly useful to break and indent a long literal string
into multiple lines without adding the newlines and spaces
into the string contents.
A short literal string cannot contain unescaped line breaks
nor escapes not forming a valid escape sequence.
<p>
We can specify any byte in a short literal string,
including embedded zeros,
by its numeric value.
This can be done
with the escape sequence <code>\x<em>XX</em></code>,
where <em>XX</em> is a sequence of exactly two hexadecimal digits,
or with the escape sequence <code>\<em>ddd</em></code>,
where <em>ddd</em> is a sequence of up to three decimal digits.
(Note that if a decimal escape sequence is to be followed by a digit,
it must be expressed using exactly three digits.)
<p>
The UTF-8 encoding of a Unicode character
can be inserted in a literal string with
the escape sequence <code>\u{<em>XXX</em>}</code>
(with mandatory enclosing braces),
where <em>XXX</em> is a sequence of one or more hexadecimal digits
representing the character code point.
This code point can be any value less than <em>2<sup>31</sup></em>.
(Lua uses the original UTF-8 specification here,
which is not restricted to valid Unicode code points.)
<p>
Literal strings can also be defined using a long format
enclosed by <em>long brackets</em>.
We define an <em>opening long bracket of level <em>n</em></em> as an opening
square bracket followed by <em>n</em> equal signs followed by another
opening square bracket.
So, an opening long bracket of level 0 is written as <code>[[</code>,
an opening long bracket of level 1 is written as <code>[=[</code>,
and so on.
A <em>closing long bracket</em> is defined similarly;
for instance,
a closing long bracket of level 4 is written as <code>]====]</code>.
A <em>long literal</em> starts with an opening long bracket of any level and
ends at the first closing long bracket of the same level.
It can contain any text except a closing bracket of the same level.
Literals in this bracketed form can run for several lines,
do not interpret any escape sequences,
and ignore long brackets of any other level.
Any kind of end-of-line sequence
(carriage return, newline, carriage return followed by newline,
or newline followed by carriage return)
is converted to a simple newline.
When the opening long bracket is immediately followed by a newline,
the newline is not included in the string.
<p>
As an example, in a system using ASCII
(in which '<code>a</code>' is coded as 97,
newline is coded as 10, and '<code>1</code>' is coded as 49),
the five literal strings below denote the same string:
<pre>
a = 'alo\n123"'
a = "alo\n123\""
a = '\97lo\10\04923"'
a = [[alo
123"]]
a = [==[
alo
123"]==]
</pre>
<p>
Any byte in a literal string not
explicitly affected by the previous rules represents itself.
However, Lua opens files for parsing in text mode,
and the system's file functions may have problems with
some control characters.
So, it is safer to represent
binary data as a quoted literal with
explicit escape sequences for the non-text characters.
<p>
A <em>numeric constant</em> (or <em>numeral</em>)
can be written with an optional fractional part
and an optional decimal exponent,
marked by a letter '<code>e</code>' or '<code>E</code>'.
Lua also accepts hexadecimal constants,
which start with <code>0x</code> or <code>0X</code>.
Hexadecimal constants also accept an optional fractional part
plus an optional binary exponent,
marked by a letter '<code>p</code>' or '<code>P</code>'.
<p>
A numeric constant with a radix point or an exponent
denotes a float;
otherwise,
if its value fits in an integer or it is a hexadecimal constant,
it denotes an integer;
otherwise (that is, a decimal integer numeral that overflows),
it denotes a float.
Hexadecimal numerals with neither a radix point nor an exponent
always denote an integer value;
if the value overflows, it <em>wraps around</em>
to fit into a valid integer.
<p>
Examples of valid integer constants are
<pre>
3 345 0xff 0xBEBADA
</pre><p>
Examples of valid float constants are
<pre>
3.0 3.1416 314.16e-2 0.31416E1 34e1
0x0.1E 0xA23p-4 0X1.921FB54442D18P+1
</pre>
<p>
A <em>comment</em> starts with a double hyphen (<code>--</code>)
anywhere outside a string.
If the text immediately after <code>--</code> is not an opening long bracket,
the comment is a <em>short comment</em>,
which runs until the end of the line.
Otherwise, it is a <em>long comment</em>,
which runs until the corresponding closing long bracket.
<h2>3.2 – <a name="3.2">Variables</a></h2>
<p>
Variables are places that store values.
There are three kinds of variables in Lua:
global variables, local variables, and table fields.
<p>
A single name can denote a global variable or a local variable
(or a function's formal parameter,
which is a particular kind of local variable):
<pre>
var ::= Name
</pre><p>
Name denotes identifiers (see <a href="#3.1">§3.1</a>).
<p>
Any variable name is assumed to be global unless explicitly declared
as a local (see <a href="#3.3.7">§3.3.7</a>).
Local variables are <em>lexically scoped</em>:
local variables can be freely accessed by functions
defined inside their scope (see <a href="#3.5">§3.5</a>).
<p>
Before the first assignment to a variable, its value is <b>nil</b>.
<p>
Square brackets are used to index a table:
<pre>
var ::= prefixexp ‘<b>[</b>’ exp ‘<b>]</b>’
</pre><p>
The meaning of accesses to table fields can be changed via metatables
(see <a href="#2.4">§2.4</a>).
<p>
The syntax <code>var.Name</code> is just syntactic sugar for
<code>var["Name"]</code>:
<pre>
var ::= prefixexp ‘<b>.</b>’ Name
</pre>
<p>
An access to a global variable <code>x</code>
is equivalent to <code>_ENV.x</code>.
Due to the way that chunks are compiled,
the variable <code>_ENV</code> itself is never global (see <a href="#2.2">§2.2</a>).
<h2>3.3 – <a name="3.3">Statements</a></h2>
<p>
Lua supports an almost conventional set of statements,
similar to those in other conventional languages.
This set includes
blocks, assignments, control structures, function calls,
and variable declarations.
<h3>3.3.1 – <a name="3.3.1">Blocks</a></h3>
<p>
A block is a list of statements,
which are executed sequentially:
<pre>
block ::= {stat}
</pre><p>
Lua has <em>empty statements</em>
that allow you to separate statements with semicolons,
start a block with a semicolon
or write two semicolons in sequence:
<pre>
stat ::= ‘<b>;</b>’
</pre>
<p>
Both function calls and assignments
can start with an open parenthesis.
This possibility leads to an ambiguity in Lua's grammar.
Consider the following fragment:
<pre>
a = b + c
(print or io.write)('done')
</pre><p>
The grammar could see this fragment in two ways:
<pre>
a = b + c(print or io.write)('done')
a = b + c; (print or io.write)('done')
</pre><p>
The current parser always sees such constructions
in the first way,
interpreting the open parenthesis
as the start of the arguments to a call.
To avoid this ambiguity,
it is a good practice to always precede with a semicolon
statements that start with a parenthesis:
<pre>
;(print or io.write)('done')
</pre>
<p>
A block can be explicitly delimited to produce a single statement:
<pre>
stat ::= <b>do</b> block <b>end</b>
</pre><p>
Explicit blocks are useful
to control the scope of variable declarations.
Explicit blocks are also sometimes used to
add a <b>return</b> statement in the middle
of another block (see <a href="#3.3.4">§3.3.4</a>).
<h3>3.3.2 – <a name="3.3.2">Chunks</a></h3>
<p>
The unit of compilation of Lua is called a <em>chunk</em>.
Syntactically,
a chunk is simply a block:
<pre>
chunk ::= block
</pre>
<p>
Lua handles a chunk as the body of an anonymous function
with a variable number of arguments
(see <a href="#3.4.11">§3.4.11</a>).
As such, chunks can define local variables,
receive arguments, and return values.
Moreover, such anonymous function is compiled as in the
scope of an external local variable called <code>_ENV</code> (see <a href="#2.2">§2.2</a>).
The resulting function always has <code>_ENV</code> as its only external variable,
even if it does not use that variable.
<p>
A chunk can be stored in a file or in a string inside the host program.
To execute a chunk,
Lua first <em>loads</em> it,
precompiling the chunk's code into instructions for a virtual machine,
and then Lua executes the compiled code
with an interpreter for the virtual machine.
<p>
Chunks can also be precompiled into binary form;
see the program <code>luac</code> and the function <a href="#pdf-string.dump"><code>string.dump</code></a> for details.
Programs in source and compiled forms are interchangeable;
Lua automatically detects the file type and acts accordingly (see <a href="#pdf-load"><code>load</code></a>).
<h3>3.3.3 – <a name="3.3.3">Assignment</a></h3>
<p>
Lua allows multiple assignments.
Therefore, the syntax for assignment
defines a list of variables on the left side
and a list of expressions on the right side.
The elements in both lists are separated by commas:
<pre>
stat ::= varlist ‘<b>=</b>’ explist
varlist ::= var {‘<b>,</b>’ var}
explist ::= exp {‘<b>,</b>’ exp}
</pre><p>
Expressions are discussed in <a href="#3.4">§3.4</a>.
<p>
Before the assignment,
the list of values is <em>adjusted</em> to the length of
the list of variables.
If there are more values than needed,
the excess values are thrown away.
If there are fewer values than needed,
the list is extended with <b>nil</b>'s.
If the list of expressions ends with a function call,
then all values returned by that call enter the list of values,
before the adjustment
(except when the call is enclosed in parentheses; see <a href="#3.4">§3.4</a>).
<p>
The assignment statement first evaluates all its expressions
and only then the assignments are performed.
Thus the code
<pre>
i = 3
i, a[i] = i+1, 20
</pre><p>
sets <code>a[3]</code> to 20, without affecting <code>a[4]</code>
because the <code>i</code> in <code>a[i]</code> is evaluated (to 3)
before it is assigned 4.
Similarly, the line
<pre>
x, y = y, x
</pre><p>
exchanges the values of <code>x</code> and <code>y</code>,
and
<pre>
x, y, z = y, z, x
</pre><p>
cyclically permutes the values of <code>x</code>, <code>y</code>, and <code>z</code>.
<p>
An assignment to a global name <code>x = val</code>
is equivalent to the assignment
<code>_ENV.x = val</code> (see <a href="#2.2">§2.2</a>).
<p>
The meaning of assignments to table fields and
global variables (which are actually table fields, too)
can be changed via metatables (see <a href="#2.4">§2.4</a>).
<h3>3.3.4 – <a name="3.3.4">Control Structures</a></h3><p>
The control structures
<b>if</b>, <b>while</b>, and <b>repeat</b> have the usual meaning and
familiar syntax:
<pre>
stat ::= <b>while</b> exp <b>do</b> block <b>end</b>
stat ::= <b>repeat</b> block <b>until</b> exp
stat ::= <b>if</b> exp <b>then</b> block {<b>elseif</b> exp <b>then</b> block} [<b>else</b> block] <b>end</b>
</pre><p>
Lua also has a <b>for</b> statement, in two flavors (see <a href="#3.3.5">§3.3.5</a>).
<p>
The condition expression of a
control structure can return any value.
Both <b>false</b> and <b>nil</b> test false.
All values different from <b>nil</b> and <b>false</b> test true.
In particular, the number 0 and the empty string also test true.
<p>
In the <b>repeat</b>–<b>until</b> loop,
the inner block does not end at the <b>until</b> keyword,
but only after the condition.
So, the condition can refer to local variables
declared inside the loop block.
<p>
The <b>goto</b> statement transfers the program control to a label.
For syntactical reasons,
labels in Lua are considered statements too:
<pre>
stat ::= <b>goto</b> Name
stat ::= label
label ::= ‘<b>::</b>’ Name ‘<b>::</b>’
</pre>
<p>
A label is visible in the entire block where it is defined,
except inside nested functions.
A goto may jump to any visible label as long as it does not
enter into the scope of a local variable.
A label should not be declared
where a label with the same name is visible,
even if this other label has been declared in an enclosing block.
<p>
Labels and empty statements are called <em>void statements</em>,
as they perform no actions.
<p>
The <b>break</b> statement terminates the execution of a
<b>while</b>, <b>repeat</b>, or <b>for</b> loop,
skipping to the next statement after the loop:
<pre>
stat ::= <b>break</b>
</pre><p>
A <b>break</b> ends the innermost enclosing loop.
<p>
The <b>return</b> statement is used to return values
from a function or a chunk
(which is handled as an anonymous function).
Functions can return more than one value,
so the syntax for the <b>return</b> statement is
<pre>
stat ::= <b>return</b> [explist] [‘<b>;</b>’]
</pre>
<p>
The <b>return</b> statement can only be written
as the last statement of a block.
If it is necessary to <b>return</b> in the middle of a block,
then an explicit inner block can be used,
as in the idiom <code>do return end</code>,
because now <b>return</b> is the last statement in its (inner) block.
<h3>3.3.5 – <a name="3.3.5">For Statement</a></h3>
<p>
The <b>for</b> statement has two forms:
one numerical and one generic.
<h4>The numerical <b>for</b> loop</h4>
<p>
The numerical <b>for</b> loop repeats a block of code while a
control variable goes through an arithmetic progression.
It has the following syntax:
<pre>
stat ::= <b>for</b> Name ‘<b>=</b>’ exp ‘<b>,</b>’ exp [‘<b>,</b>’ exp] <b>do</b> block <b>end</b>
</pre><p>
The given identifier (Name) defines the control variable,
which is a new variable local to the loop body (<em>block</em>).
<p>
The loop starts by evaluating once the three control expressions.
Their values are called respectively
the <em>initial value</em>, the <em>limit</em>, and the <em>step</em>.
If the step is absent, it defaults to 1.
<p>
If both the initial value and the step are integers,
the loop is done with integers;
note that the limit may not be an integer.
Otherwise, the three values are converted to
floats and the loop is done with floats.
Beware of floating-point accuracy in this case.
<p>
After that initialization,
the loop body is repeated with the value of the control variable
going through an arithmetic progression,
starting at the initial value,
with a common difference given by the step.
A negative step makes a decreasing sequence;
a step equal to zero raises an error.
The loop continues while the value is less than
or equal to the limit
(greater than or equal to for a negative step).
If the initial value is already greater than the limit
(or less than, if the step is negative),
the body is not executed.
<p>
For integer loops,
the control variable never wraps around;
instead, the loop ends in case of an overflow.
<p>
You should not change the value of the control variable
during the loop.
If you need its value after the loop,
assign it to another variable before exiting the loop.
<h4>The generic <b>for</b> loop</h4>
<p>
The generic <b>for</b> statement works over functions,
called <em>iterators</em>.
On each iteration, the iterator function is called to produce a new value,
stopping when this new value is <b>nil</b>.
The generic <b>for</b> loop has the following syntax:
<pre>
stat ::= <b>for</b> namelist <b>in</b> explist <b>do</b> block <b>end</b>
namelist ::= Name {‘<b>,</b>’ Name}
</pre><p>
A <b>for</b> statement like
<pre>
for <em>var_1</em>, ···, <em>var_n</em> in <em>explist</em> do <em>body</em> end
</pre><p>
works as follows.
<p>
The names <em>var_i</em> declare loop variables local to the loop body.
The first of these variables is the <em>control variable</em>.
<p>
The loop starts by evaluating <em>explist</em>
to produce four values:
an <em>iterator function</em>,
a <em>state</em>,
an initial value for the control variable,
and a <em>closing value</em>.
<p>
Then, at each iteration,
Lua calls the iterator function with two arguments:
the state and the control variable.
The results from this call are then assigned to the loop variables,
following the rules of multiple assignments (see <a href="#3.3.3">§3.3.3</a>).
If the control variable becomes <b>nil</b>,
the loop terminates.
Otherwise, the body is executed and the loop goes
to the next iteration.
<p>
The closing value behaves like a
to-be-closed variable (see <a href="#3.3.8">§3.3.8</a>),
which can be used to release resources when the loop ends.
Otherwise, it does not interfere with the loop.
<p>
You should not change the value of the control variable
during the loop.
<h3>3.3.6 – <a name="3.3.6">Function Calls as Statements</a></h3><p>
To allow possible side-effects,
function calls can be executed as statements:
<pre>
stat ::= functioncall
</pre><p>
In this case, all returned values are thrown away.
Function calls are explained in <a href="#3.4.10">§3.4.10</a>.
<h3>3.3.7 – <a name="3.3.7">Local Declarations</a></h3><p>
Local variables can be declared anywhere inside a block.
The declaration can include an initialization:
<pre>
stat ::= <b>local</b> attnamelist [‘<b>=</b>’ explist]
attnamelist ::= Name attrib {‘<b>,</b>’ Name attrib}
</pre><p>
If present, an initial assignment has the same semantics
of a multiple assignment (see <a href="#3.3.3">§3.3.3</a>).
Otherwise, all variables are initialized with <b>nil</b>.
<p>
Each variable name may be postfixed by an attribute
(a name between angle brackets):
<pre>
attrib ::= [‘<b><</b>’ Name ‘<b>></b>’]
</pre><p>
There are two possible attributes:
<code>const</code>, which declares a constant variable,
that is, a variable that cannot be assigned to
after its initialization;
and <code>close</code>, which declares a to-be-closed variable (see <a href="#3.3.8">§3.3.8</a>).
A list of variables can contain at most one to-be-closed variable.
<p>
A chunk is also a block (see <a href="#3.3.2">§3.3.2</a>),
and so local variables can be declared in a chunk outside any explicit block.
<p>
The visibility rules for local variables are explained in <a href="#3.5">§3.5</a>.
<h3>3.3.8 – <a name="3.3.8">To-be-closed Variables</a></h3>
<p>
A to-be-closed variable behaves like a constant local variable,
except that its value is <em>closed</em> whenever the variable
goes out of scope, including normal block termination,
exiting its block by <b>break</b>/<b>goto</b>/<b>return</b>,
or exiting by an error.
<p>
Here, to <em>close</em> a value means
to call its <code>__close</code> metamethod.
When calling the metamethod,
the value itself is passed as the first argument
and the error object that caused the exit (if any)
is passed as a second argument;
if there was no error, the second argument is <b>nil</b>.
<p>
The value assigned to a to-be-closed variable
must have a <code>__close</code> metamethod
or be a false value.
(<b>nil</b> and <b>false</b> are ignored as to-be-closed values.)
<p>
If several to-be-closed variables go out of scope at the same event,
they are closed in the reverse order that they were declared.
<p>
If there is any error while running a closing method,
that error is handled like an error in the regular code
where the variable was defined.
After an error,
the other pending closing methods will still be called.
<p>
If a coroutine yields and is never resumed again,
some variables may never go out of scope,
and therefore they will never be closed.
(These variables are the ones created inside the coroutine
and in scope at the point where the coroutine yielded.)
Similarly, if a coroutine ends with an error,
it does not unwind its stack,
so it does not close any variable.
In both cases,
you can either use finalizers
or call <a href="#pdf-coroutine.close"><code>coroutine.close</code></a> to close the variables.
However, if the coroutine was created
through <a href="#pdf-coroutine.wrap"><code>coroutine.wrap</code></a>,
then its corresponding function will close the coroutine
in case of errors.
<h2>3.4 – <a name="3.4">Expressions</a></h2>
<p>
The basic expressions in Lua are the following:
<pre>
exp ::= prefixexp
exp ::= <b>nil</b> | <b>false</b> | <b>true</b>
exp ::= Numeral
exp ::= LiteralString
exp ::= functiondef
exp ::= tableconstructor
exp ::= ‘<b>...</b>’
exp ::= exp binop exp
exp ::= unop exp
prefixexp ::= var | functioncall | ‘<b>(</b>’ exp ‘<b>)</b>’
</pre>
<p>
Numerals and literal strings are explained in <a href="#3.1">§3.1</a>;
variables are explained in <a href="#3.2">§3.2</a>;
function definitions are explained in <a href="#3.4.11">§3.4.11</a>;
function calls are explained in <a href="#3.4.10">§3.4.10</a>;
table constructors are explained in <a href="#3.4.9">§3.4.9</a>.
Vararg expressions,
denoted by three dots ('<code>...</code>'), can only be used when
directly inside a vararg function;
they are explained in <a href="#3.4.11">§3.4.11</a>.
<p>
Binary operators comprise arithmetic operators (see <a href="#3.4.1">§3.4.1</a>),
bitwise operators (see <a href="#3.4.2">§3.4.2</a>),
relational operators (see <a href="#3.4.4">§3.4.4</a>), logical operators (see <a href="#3.4.5">§3.4.5</a>),
and the concatenation operator (see <a href="#3.4.6">§3.4.6</a>).
Unary operators comprise the unary minus (see <a href="#3.4.1">§3.4.1</a>),
the unary bitwise NOT (see <a href="#3.4.2">§3.4.2</a>),
the unary logical <b>not</b> (see <a href="#3.4.5">§3.4.5</a>),
and the unary <em>length operator</em> (see <a href="#3.4.7">§3.4.7</a>).
<p>
Both function calls and vararg expressions can result in multiple values.
If a function call is used as a statement (see <a href="#3.3.6">§3.3.6</a>),
then its return list is adjusted to zero elements,
thus discarding all returned values.
If an expression is used as the last (or the only) element
of a list of expressions,
then no adjustment is made
(unless the expression is enclosed in parentheses).
In all other contexts,
Lua adjusts the result list to one element,
either discarding all values except the first one
or adding a single <b>nil</b> if there are no values.
<p>
Here are some examples:
<pre>
f() -- adjusted to 0 results
g(f(), x) -- f() is adjusted to 1 result
g(x, f()) -- g gets x plus all results from f()
a,b,c = f(), x -- f() is adjusted to 1 result (c gets nil)
a,b = ... -- a gets the first vararg argument, b gets
-- the second (both a and b can get nil if there
-- is no corresponding vararg argument)
a,b,c = x, f() -- f() is adjusted to 2 results
a,b,c = f() -- f() is adjusted to 3 results
return f() -- returns all results from f()
return ... -- returns all received vararg arguments
return x,y,f() -- returns x, y, and all results from f()
{f()} -- creates a list with all results from f()
{...} -- creates a list with all vararg arguments
{f(), nil} -- f() is adjusted to 1 result
</pre>
<p>
Any expression enclosed in parentheses always results in only one value.
Thus,
<code>(f(x,y,z))</code> is always a single value,
even if <code>f</code> returns several values.
(The value of <code>(f(x,y,z))</code> is the first value returned by <code>f</code>
or <b>nil</b> if <code>f</code> does not return any values.)
<h3>3.4.1 – <a name="3.4.1">Arithmetic Operators</a></h3><p>
Lua supports the following arithmetic operators:
<ul>
<li><b><code>+</code>: </b>addition</li>
<li><b><code>-</code>: </b>subtraction</li>
<li><b><code>*</code>: </b>multiplication</li>
<li><b><code>/</code>: </b>float division</li>
<li><b><code>//</code>: </b>floor division</li>
<li><b><code>%</code>: </b>modulo</li>
<li><b><code>^</code>: </b>exponentiation</li>
<li><b><code>-</code>: </b>unary minus</li>
</ul>
<p>
With the exception of exponentiation and float division,
the arithmetic operators work as follows:
If both operands are integers,
the operation is performed over integers and the result is an integer.
Otherwise, if both operands are numbers,
then they are converted to floats,
the operation is performed following the machine's rules
for floating-point arithmetic
(usually the IEEE 754 standard),
and the result is a float.
(The string library coerces strings to numbers in
arithmetic operations; see <a href="#3.4.3">§3.4.3</a> for details.)
<p>
Exponentiation and float division (<code>/</code>)
always convert their operands to floats
and the result is always a float.
Exponentiation uses the ISO C function <code>pow</code>,
so that it works for non-integer exponents too.
<p>
Floor division (<code>//</code>) is a division
that rounds the quotient towards minus infinity,
resulting in the floor of the division of its operands.
<p>
Modulo is defined as the remainder of a division
that rounds the quotient towards minus infinity (floor division).
<p>
In case of overflows in integer arithmetic,
all operations <em>wrap around</em>.
<h3>3.4.2 – <a name="3.4.2">Bitwise Operators</a></h3><p>
Lua supports the following bitwise operators:
<ul>
<li><b><code>&</code>: </b>bitwise AND</li>
<li><b><code>|</code>: </b>bitwise OR</li>
<li><b><code>~</code>: </b>bitwise exclusive OR</li>
<li><b><code>>></code>: </b>right shift</li>
<li><b><code><<</code>: </b>left shift</li>
<li><b><code>~</code>: </b>unary bitwise NOT</li>
</ul>
<p>
All bitwise operations convert its operands to integers
(see <a href="#3.4.3">§3.4.3</a>),
operate on all bits of those integers,
and result in an integer.
<p>
Both right and left shifts fill the vacant bits with zeros.
Negative displacements shift to the other direction;
displacements with absolute values equal to or higher than
the number of bits in an integer
result in zero (as all bits are shifted out).
<h3>3.4.3 – <a name="3.4.3">Coercions and Conversions</a></h3><p>
Lua provides some automatic conversions between some
types and representations at run time.
Bitwise operators always convert float operands to integers.
Exponentiation and float division
always convert integer operands to floats.
All other arithmetic operations applied to mixed numbers
(integers and floats) convert the integer operand to a float.
The C API also converts both integers to floats and
floats to integers, as needed.
Moreover, string concatenation accepts numbers as arguments,
besides strings.
<p>
In a conversion from integer to float,
if the integer value has an exact representation as a float,
that is the result.
Otherwise,
the conversion gets the nearest higher or
the nearest lower representable value.
This kind of conversion never fails.
<p>
The conversion from float to integer
checks whether the float has an exact representation as an integer
(that is, the float has an integral value and
it is in the range of integer representation).
If it does, that representation is the result.
Otherwise, the conversion fails.
<p>
Several places in Lua coerce strings to numbers when necessary.
In particular,
the string library sets metamethods that try to coerce
strings to numbers in all arithmetic operations.
If the conversion fails,
the library calls the metamethod of the other operand
(if present) or it raises an error.
Note that bitwise operators do not do this coercion.
<p>
Nonetheless, it is always a good practice not to rely on these
implicit coercions, as they are not always applied;
in particular, <code>"1"==1</code> is false and <code>"1"<1</code> raises an error
(see <a href="#3.4.4">§3.4.4</a>).
These coercions exist mainly for compatibility and may be removed
in future versions of the language.
<p>
A string is converted to an integer or a float
following its syntax and the rules of the Lua lexer.
The string may have also leading and trailing whitespaces and a sign.
All conversions from strings to numbers
accept both a dot and the current locale mark
as the radix character.
(The Lua lexer, however, accepts only a dot.)
If the string is not a valid numeral,
the conversion fails.
If necessary, the result of this first step is then converted
to a specific number subtype following the previous rules
for conversions between floats and integers.
<p>
The conversion from numbers to strings uses a
non-specified human-readable format.
To convert numbers to strings in any specific way,
use the function <a href="#pdf-string.format"><code>string.format</code></a>.
<h3>3.4.4 – <a name="3.4.4">Relational Operators</a></h3><p>
Lua supports the following relational operators:
<ul>
<li><b><code>==</code>: </b>equality</li>
<li><b><code>~=</code>: </b>inequality</li>
<li><b><code><</code>: </b>less than</li>
<li><b><code>></code>: </b>greater than</li>
<li><b><code><=</code>: </b>less or equal</li>
<li><b><code>>=</code>: </b>greater or equal</li>
</ul><p>
These operators always result in <b>false</b> or <b>true</b>.
<p>
Equality (<code>==</code>) first compares the type of its operands.
If the types are different, then the result is <b>false</b>.
Otherwise, the values of the operands are compared.
Strings are equal if they have the same byte content.
Numbers are equal if they denote the same mathematical value.
<p>
Tables, userdata, and threads
are compared by reference:
two objects are considered equal only if they are the same object.
Every time you create a new object
(a table, a userdata, or a thread),
this new object is different from any previously existing object.
A function is always equal to itself.
Functions with any detectable difference
(different behavior, different definition) are always different.
Functions created at different times but with no detectable differences
may be classified as equal or not
(depending on internal caching details).
<p>
You can change the way that Lua compares tables and userdata
by using the <code>__eq</code> metamethod (see <a href="#2.4">§2.4</a>).
<p>
Equality comparisons do not convert strings to numbers
or vice versa.
Thus, <code>"0"==0</code> evaluates to <b>false</b>,
and <code>t[0]</code> and <code>t["0"]</code> denote different
entries in a table.
<p>
The operator <code>~=</code> is exactly the negation of equality (<code>==</code>).
<p>
The order operators work as follows.
If both arguments are numbers,
then they are compared according to their mathematical values,
regardless of their subtypes.
Otherwise, if both arguments are strings,
then their values are compared according to the current locale.
Otherwise, Lua tries to call the <code>__lt</code> or the <code>__le</code>
metamethod (see <a href="#2.4">§2.4</a>).
A comparison <code>a > b</code> is translated to <code>b < a</code>
and <code>a >= b</code> is translated to <code>b <= a</code>.
<p>
Following the IEEE 754 standard,
the special value NaN is considered neither less than,
nor equal to, nor greater than any value, including itself.
<h3>3.4.5 – <a name="3.4.5">Logical Operators</a></h3><p>
The logical operators in Lua are
<b>and</b>, <b>or</b>, and <b>not</b>.
Like the control structures (see <a href="#3.3.4">§3.3.4</a>),
all logical operators consider both <b>false</b> and <b>nil</b> as false
and anything else as true.
<p>
The negation operator <b>not</b> always returns <b>false</b> or <b>true</b>.
The conjunction operator <b>and</b> returns its first argument
if this value is <b>false</b> or <b>nil</b>;
otherwise, <b>and</b> returns its second argument.
The disjunction operator <b>or</b> returns its first argument
if this value is different from <b>nil</b> and <b>false</b>;
otherwise, <b>or</b> returns its second argument.
Both <b>and</b> and <b>or</b> use short-circuit evaluation;
that is,
the second operand is evaluated only if necessary.
Here are some examples:
<pre>
10 or 20 --> 10
10 or error() --> 10
nil or "a" --> "a"
nil and 10 --> nil
false and error() --> false
false and nil --> false
false or nil --> nil
10 and 20 --> 20
</pre>
<h3>3.4.6 – <a name="3.4.6">Concatenation</a></h3><p>
The string concatenation operator in Lua is
denoted by two dots ('<code>..</code>').
If both operands are strings or numbers,
then the numbers are converted to strings
in a non-specified format (see <a href="#3.4.3">§3.4.3</a>).
Otherwise, the <code>__concat</code> metamethod is called (see <a href="#2.4">§2.4</a>).
<h3>3.4.7 – <a name="3.4.7">The Length Operator</a></h3>
<p>
The length operator is denoted by the unary prefix operator <code>#</code>.
<p>
The length of a string is its number of bytes.
(That is the usual meaning of string length when each
character is one byte.)
<p>
The length operator applied on a table
returns a border in that table.
A <em>border</em> in a table <code>t</code> is any natural number
that satisfies the following condition:
<pre>
(border == 0 or t[border] ~= nil) and t[border + 1] == nil
</pre><p>
In words,
a border is any (natural) index present in the table
that is followed by an absent index
(or zero, when index 1 is absent).
<p>
A table with exactly one border is called a <em>sequence</em>.
For instance, the table <code>{10, 20, 30, 40, 50}</code> is a sequence,
as it has only one border (5).
The table <code>{10, 20, 30, nil, 50}</code> has two borders (3 and 5),
and therefore it is not a sequence.
(The <b>nil</b> at index 4 is called a <em>hole</em>.)
The table <code>{nil, 20, 30, nil, nil, 60, nil}</code>
has three borders (0, 3, and 6) and three holes
(at indices 1, 4, and 5),
so it is not a sequence, too.
The table <code>{}</code> is a sequence with border 0.
Note that non-natural keys do not interfere
with whether a table is a sequence.
<p>
When <code>t</code> is a sequence,
<code>#t</code> returns its only border,
which corresponds to the intuitive notion of the length of the sequence.
When <code>t</code> is not a sequence,
<code>#t</code> can return any of its borders.
(The exact one depends on details of
the internal representation of the table,
which in turn can depend on how the table was populated and
the memory addresses of its non-numeric keys.)
<p>
The computation of the length of a table
has a guaranteed worst time of <em>O(log n)</em>,
where <em>n</em> is the largest natural key in the table.
<p>
A program can modify the behavior of the length operator for
any value but strings through the <code>__len</code> metamethod (see <a href="#2.4">§2.4</a>).
<h3>3.4.8 – <a name="3.4.8">Precedence</a></h3><p>
Operator precedence in Lua follows the table below,
from lower to higher priority:
<pre>
or
and
< > <= >= ~= ==
|
~
&
<< >>
..
+ -
* / // %
unary operators (not # - ~)
^
</pre><p>
As usual,
you can use parentheses to change the precedences of an expression.
The concatenation ('<code>..</code>') and exponentiation ('<code>^</code>')
operators are right associative.
All other binary operators are left associative.
<h3>3.4.9 – <a name="3.4.9">Table Constructors</a></h3><p>
Table constructors are expressions that create tables.
Every time a constructor is evaluated, a new table is created.
A constructor can be used to create an empty table
or to create a table and initialize some of its fields.
The general syntax for constructors is
<pre>
tableconstructor ::= ‘<b>{</b>’ [fieldlist] ‘<b>}</b>’
fieldlist ::= field {fieldsep field} [fieldsep]
field ::= ‘<b>[</b>’ exp ‘<b>]</b>’ ‘<b>=</b>’ exp | Name ‘<b>=</b>’ exp | exp
fieldsep ::= ‘<b>,</b>’ | ‘<b>;</b>’
</pre>
<p>
Each field of the form <code>[exp1] = exp2</code> adds to the new table an entry
with key <code>exp1</code> and value <code>exp2</code>.
A field of the form <code>name = exp</code> is equivalent to
<code>["name"] = exp</code>.
Fields of the form <code>exp</code> are equivalent to
<code>[i] = exp</code>, where <code>i</code> are consecutive integers
starting with 1;
fields in the other formats do not affect this counting.
For example,
<pre>
a = { [f(1)] = g; "x", "y"; x = 1, f(x), [30] = 23; 45 }
</pre><p>
is equivalent to
<pre>
do
local t = {}
t[f(1)] = g
t[1] = "x" -- 1st exp
t[2] = "y" -- 2nd exp
t.x = 1 -- t["x"] = 1
t[3] = f(x) -- 3rd exp
t[30] = 23
t[4] = 45 -- 4th exp
a = t
end
</pre>
<p>
The order of the assignments in a constructor is undefined.
(This order would be relevant only when there are repeated keys.)
<p>
If the last field in the list has the form <code>exp</code>
and the expression is a function call or a vararg expression,
then all values returned by this expression enter the list consecutively
(see <a href="#3.4.10">§3.4.10</a>).
<p>
The field list can have an optional trailing separator,
as a convenience for machine-generated code.
<h3>3.4.10 – <a name="3.4.10">Function Calls</a></h3><p>
A function call in Lua has the following syntax:
<pre>
functioncall ::= prefixexp args
</pre><p>
In a function call,
first prefixexp and args are evaluated.
If the value of prefixexp has type <em>function</em>,
then this function is called
with the given arguments.
Otherwise, if present,
the prefixexp <code>__call</code> metamethod is called:
its first argument is the value of prefixexp,
followed by the original call arguments
(see <a href="#2.4">§2.4</a>).
<p>
The form
<pre>
functioncall ::= prefixexp ‘<b>:</b>’ Name args
</pre><p>
can be used to emulate methods.
A call <code>v:name(<em>args</em>)</code>
is syntactic sugar for <code>v.name(v,<em>args</em>)</code>,
except that <code>v</code> is evaluated only once.
<p>
Arguments have the following syntax:
<pre>
args ::= ‘<b>(</b>’ [explist] ‘<b>)</b>’
args ::= tableconstructor
args ::= LiteralString
</pre><p>
All argument expressions are evaluated before the call.
A call of the form <code>f{<em>fields</em>}</code> is
syntactic sugar for <code>f({<em>fields</em>})</code>;
that is, the argument list is a single new table.
A call of the form <code>f'<em>string</em>'</code>
(or <code>f"<em>string</em>"</code> or <code>f[[<em>string</em>]]</code>)
is syntactic sugar for <code>f('<em>string</em>')</code>;
that is, the argument list is a single literal string.
<p>
A call of the form <code>return <em>functioncall</em></code> not in the
scope of a to-be-closed variable is called a <em>tail call</em>.
Lua implements <em>proper tail calls</em>
(or <em>proper tail recursion</em>):
in a tail call,
the called function reuses the stack entry of the calling function.
Therefore, there is no limit on the number of nested tail calls that
a program can execute.
However, a tail call erases any debug information about the
calling function.
Note that a tail call only happens with a particular syntax,
where the <b>return</b> has one single function call as argument,
and it is outside the scope of any to-be-closed variable.
This syntax makes the calling function return exactly
the returns of the called function,
without any intervening action.
So, none of the following examples are tail calls:
<pre>
return (f(x)) -- results adjusted to 1
return 2 * f(x) -- result multiplied by 2
return x, f(x) -- additional results
f(x); return -- results discarded
return x or f(x) -- results adjusted to 1
</pre>
<h3>3.4.11 – <a name="3.4.11">Function Definitions</a></h3>
<p>
The syntax for function definition is
<pre>
functiondef ::= <b>function</b> funcbody
funcbody ::= ‘<b>(</b>’ [parlist] ‘<b>)</b>’ block <b>end</b>
</pre>
<p>
The following syntactic sugar simplifies function definitions:
<pre>
stat ::= <b>function</b> funcname funcbody
stat ::= <b>local</b> <b>function</b> Name funcbody
funcname ::= Name {‘<b>.</b>’ Name} [‘<b>:</b>’ Name]
</pre><p>
The statement
<pre>
function f () <em>body</em> end
</pre><p>
translates to
<pre>
f = function () <em>body</em> end
</pre><p>
The statement
<pre>
function t.a.b.c.f () <em>body</em> end
</pre><p>
translates to
<pre>
t.a.b.c.f = function () <em>body</em> end
</pre><p>
The statement
<pre>
local function f () <em>body</em> end
</pre><p>
translates to
<pre>
local f; f = function () <em>body</em> end
</pre><p>
not to
<pre>
local f = function () <em>body</em> end
</pre><p>
(This only makes a difference when the body of the function
contains references to <code>f</code>.)
<p>
A function definition is an executable expression,
whose value has type <em>function</em>.
When Lua precompiles a chunk,
all its function bodies are precompiled too,
but they are not created yet.
Then, whenever Lua executes the function definition,
the function is <em>instantiated</em> (or <em>closed</em>).
This function instance, or <em>closure</em>,
is the final value of the expression.
<p>
Parameters act as local variables that are
initialized with the argument values:
<pre>
parlist ::= namelist [‘<b>,</b>’ ‘<b>...</b>’] | ‘<b>...</b>’
</pre><p>
When a Lua function is called,
it adjusts its list of arguments to
the length of its list of parameters,
unless the function is a <em>vararg function</em>,
which is indicated by three dots ('<code>...</code>')
at the end of its parameter list.
A vararg function does not adjust its argument list;
instead, it collects all extra arguments and supplies them
to the function through a <em>vararg expression</em>,
which is also written as three dots.
The value of this expression is a list of all actual extra arguments,
similar to a function with multiple results.
If a vararg expression is used inside another expression
or in the middle of a list of expressions,
then its return list is adjusted to one element.
If the expression is used as the last element of a list of expressions,
then no adjustment is made
(unless that last expression is enclosed in parentheses).
<p>
As an example, consider the following definitions:
<pre>
function f(a, b) end
function g(a, b, ...) end
function r() return 1,2,3 end
</pre><p>
Then, we have the following mapping from arguments to parameters and
to the vararg expression:
<pre>
CALL PARAMETERS
f(3) a=3, b=nil
f(3, 4) a=3, b=4
f(3, 4, 5) a=3, b=4
f(r(), 10) a=1, b=10
f(r()) a=1, b=2
g(3) a=3, b=nil, ... --> (nothing)
g(3, 4) a=3, b=4, ... --> (nothing)
g(3, 4, 5, 8) a=3, b=4, ... --> 5 8
g(5, r()) a=5, b=1, ... --> 2 3
</pre>
<p>
Results are returned using the <b>return</b> statement (see <a href="#3.3.4">§3.3.4</a>).
If control reaches the end of a function
without encountering a <b>return</b> statement,
then the function returns with no results.
<p>
There is a system-dependent limit on the number of values
that a function may return.
This limit is guaranteed to be greater than 1000.
<p>
The <em>colon</em> syntax
is used to emulate <em>methods</em>,
adding an implicit extra parameter <code>self</code> to the function.
Thus, the statement
<pre>
function t.a.b.c:f (<em>params</em>) <em>body</em> end
</pre><p>
is syntactic sugar for
<pre>
t.a.b.c.f = function (self, <em>params</em>) <em>body</em> end
</pre>
<h2>3.5 – <a name="3.5">Visibility Rules</a></h2>
<p>
Lua is a lexically scoped language.
The scope of a local variable begins at the first statement after
its declaration and lasts until the last non-void statement
of the innermost block that includes the declaration.
Consider the following example:
<pre>
x = 10 -- global variable
do -- new block
local x = x -- new 'x', with value 10
print(x) --> 10
x = x+1
do -- another block
local x = x+1 -- another 'x'
print(x) --> 12
end
print(x) --> 11
end
print(x) --> 10 (the global one)
</pre>
<p>
Notice that, in a declaration like <code>local x = x</code>,
the new <code>x</code> being declared is not in scope yet,
and so the second <code>x</code> refers to the outside variable.
<p>
Because of the lexical scoping rules,
local variables can be freely accessed by functions
defined inside their scope.
A local variable used by an inner function is called an <em>upvalue</em>
(or <em>external local variable</em>, or simply <em>external variable</em>)
inside the inner function.
<p>
Notice that each execution of a <b>local</b> statement
defines new local variables.
Consider the following example:
<pre>
a = {}
local x = 20
for i = 1, 10 do
local y = 0
a[i] = function () y = y + 1; return x + y end
end
</pre><p>
The loop creates ten closures
(that is, ten instances of the anonymous function).
Each of these closures uses a different <code>y</code> variable,
while all of them share the same <code>x</code>.
<h1>4 – <a name="4">The Application Program Interface</a></h1>
<p>
This section describes the C API for Lua, that is,
the set of C functions available to the host program to communicate
with Lua.
All API functions and related types and constants
are declared in the header file <a name="pdf-lua.h"><code>lua.h</code></a>.
<p>
Even when we use the term "function",
any facility in the API may be provided as a macro instead.
Except where stated otherwise,
all such macros use each of their arguments exactly once
(except for the first argument, which is always a Lua state),
and so do not generate any hidden side-effects.
<p>
As in most C libraries,
the Lua API functions do not check their arguments
for validity or consistency.
However, you can change this behavior by compiling Lua
with the macro <a name="pdf-LUA_USE_APICHECK"><code>LUA_USE_APICHECK</code></a> defined.
<p>
The Lua library is fully reentrant:
it has no global variables.
It keeps all information it needs in a dynamic structure,
called the <em>Lua state</em>.
<p>
Each Lua state has one or more threads,
which correspond to independent, cooperative lines of execution.
The type <a href="#lua_State"><code>lua_State</code></a> (despite its name) refers to a thread.
(Indirectly, through the thread, it also refers to the
Lua state associated to the thread.)
<p>
A pointer to a thread must be passed as the first argument to
every function in the library, except to <a href="#lua_newstate"><code>lua_newstate</code></a>,
which creates a Lua state from scratch and returns a pointer
to the <em>main thread</em> in the new state.
<h2>4.1 – <a name="4.1">The Stack</a></h2>
<p>
Lua uses a <em>virtual stack</em> to pass values to and from C.
Each element in this stack represents a Lua value
(<b>nil</b>, number, string, etc.).
Functions in the API can access this stack through the
Lua state parameter that they receive.
<p>
Whenever Lua calls C, the called function gets a new stack,
which is independent of previous stacks and of stacks of
C functions that are still active.
This stack initially contains any arguments to the C function
and it is where the C function can store temporary
Lua values and must push its results
to be returned to the caller (see <a href="#lua_CFunction"><code>lua_CFunction</code></a>).
<p>
For convenience,
most query operations in the API do not follow a strict stack discipline.
Instead, they can refer to any element in the stack
by using an <em>index</em>:
A positive index represents an absolute stack position,
starting at 1 as the bottom of the stack;
a negative index represents an offset relative to the top of the stack.
More specifically, if the stack has <em>n</em> elements,
then index 1 represents the first element
(that is, the element that was pushed onto the stack first)
and
index <em>n</em> represents the last element;
index -1 also represents the last element
(that is, the element at the top)
and index <em>-n</em> represents the first element.
<h3>4.1.1 – <a name="4.1.1">Stack Size</a></h3>
<p>
When you interact with the Lua API,
you are responsible for ensuring consistency.
In particular,
<em>you are responsible for controlling stack overflow</em>.
When you call any API function,
you must ensure the stack has enough room to accommodate the results.
<p>
There is one exception to the above rule:
When you call a Lua function
without a fixed number of results (see <a href="#lua_call"><code>lua_call</code></a>),
Lua ensures that the stack has enough space for all results.
However, it does not ensure any extra space.
So, before pushing anything on the stack after such a call
you should use <a href="#lua_checkstack"><code>lua_checkstack</code></a>.
<p>
Whenever Lua calls C,
it ensures that the stack has space for
at least <a name="pdf-LUA_MINSTACK"><code>LUA_MINSTACK</code></a> extra elements;
that is, you can safely push up to <code>LUA_MINSTACK</code> values into it.
<code>LUA_MINSTACK</code> is defined as 20,
so that usually you do not have to worry about stack space
unless your code has loops pushing elements onto the stack.
Whenever necessary,
you can use the function <a href="#lua_checkstack"><code>lua_checkstack</code></a>
to ensure that the stack has enough space for pushing new elements.
<h3>4.1.2 – <a name="4.1.2">Valid and Acceptable Indices</a></h3>
<p>
Any function in the API that receives stack indices
works only with <em>valid indices</em> or <em>acceptable indices</em>.
<p>
A <em>valid index</em> is an index that refers to a
position that stores a modifiable Lua value.
It comprises stack indices between 1 and the stack top
(<code>1 ≤ abs(index) ≤ top</code>)
plus <em>pseudo-indices</em>,
which represent some positions that are accessible to C code
but that are not in the stack.
Pseudo-indices are used to access the registry (see <a href="#4.3">§4.3</a>)
and the upvalues of a C function (see <a href="#4.2">§4.2</a>).
<p>
Functions that do not need a specific mutable position,
but only a value (e.g., query functions),
can be called with acceptable indices.
An <em>acceptable index</em> can be any valid index,
but it also can be any positive index after the stack top
within the space allocated for the stack,
that is, indices up to the stack size.
(Note that 0 is never an acceptable index.)
Indices to upvalues (see <a href="#4.2">§4.2</a>) greater than the real number
of upvalues in the current C function are also acceptable (but invalid).
Except when noted otherwise,
functions in the API work with acceptable indices.
<p>
Acceptable indices serve to avoid extra tests
against the stack top when querying the stack.
For instance, a C function can query its third argument
without the need to check whether there is a third argument,
that is, without the need to check whether 3 is a valid index.
<p>
For functions that can be called with acceptable indices,
any non-valid index is treated as if it
contains a value of a virtual type <a name="pdf-LUA_TNONE"><code>LUA_TNONE</code></a>,
which behaves like a nil value.
<h3>4.1.3 – <a name="4.1.3">Pointers to strings</a></h3>
<p>
Several functions in the API return pointers (<code>const char*</code>)
to Lua strings in the stack.
(See <a href="#lua_pushfstring"><code>lua_pushfstring</code></a>, <a href="#lua_pushlstring"><code>lua_pushlstring</code></a>,
<a href="#lua_pushstring"><code>lua_pushstring</code></a>, and <a href="#lua_tolstring"><code>lua_tolstring</code></a>.
See also <a href="#luaL_checklstring"><code>luaL_checklstring</code></a>, <a href="#luaL_checkstring"><code>luaL_checkstring</code></a>,
and <a href="#luaL_tolstring"><code>luaL_tolstring</code></a> in the auxiliary library.)
<p>
In general,
Lua's garbage collection can free or move internal memory
and then invalidate pointers to internal strings.
To allow a safe use of these pointers,
The API guarantees that any pointer to a string in a stack index
is valid while the string value at that index is not removed from the stack.
(It can be moved to another index, though.)
When the index is a pseudo-index (referring to an upvalue),
the pointer is valid while the corresponding call is active and
the corresponding upvalue is not modified.
<p>
Some functions in the debug interface
also return pointers to strings,
namely <a href="#lua_getlocal"><code>lua_getlocal</code></a>, <a href="#lua_getupvalue"><code>lua_getupvalue</code></a>,
<a href="#lua_setlocal"><code>lua_setlocal</code></a>, and <a href="#lua_setupvalue"><code>lua_setupvalue</code></a>.
For these functions, the pointer is guaranteed to
be valid while the caller function is active and
the given closure (if one was given) is in the stack.
<p>
Except for these guarantees,
the garbage collector is free to invalidate
any pointer to internal strings.
<h2>4.2 – <a name="4.2">C Closures</a></h2>
<p>
When a C function is created,
it is possible to associate some values with it,
thus creating a <em>C closure</em>
(see <a href="#lua_pushcclosure"><code>lua_pushcclosure</code></a>);
these values are called <em>upvalues</em> and are
accessible to the function whenever it is called.
<p>
Whenever a C function is called,
its upvalues are located at specific pseudo-indices.
These pseudo-indices are produced by the macro
<a href="#lua_upvalueindex"><code>lua_upvalueindex</code></a>.
The first upvalue associated with a function is at index
<code>lua_upvalueindex(1)</code>, and so on.
Any access to <code>lua_upvalueindex(<em>n</em>)</code>,
where <em>n</em> is greater than the number of upvalues of the
current function
(but not greater than 256,
which is one plus the maximum number of upvalues in a closure),
produces an acceptable but invalid index.
<p>
A C closure can also change the values
of its corresponding upvalues.
<h2>4.3 – <a name="4.3">Registry</a></h2>
<p>
Lua provides a <em>registry</em>,
a predefined table that can be used by any C code to
store whatever Lua values it needs to store.
The registry table is always accessible at pseudo-index
<a name="pdf-LUA_REGISTRYINDEX"><code>LUA_REGISTRYINDEX</code></a>.
Any C library can store data into this table,
but it must take care to choose keys
that are different from those used
by other libraries, to avoid collisions.
Typically, you should use as key a string containing your library name,
or a light userdata with the address of a C object in your code,
or any Lua object created by your code.
As with variable names,
string keys starting with an underscore followed by
uppercase letters are reserved for Lua.
<p>
The integer keys in the registry are used
by the reference mechanism (see <a href="#luaL_ref"><code>luaL_ref</code></a>)
and by some predefined values.
Therefore, integer keys in the registry
must not be used for other purposes.
<p>
When you create a new Lua state,
its registry comes with some predefined values.
These predefined values are indexed with integer keys
defined as constants in <code>lua.h</code>.
The following constants are defined:
<ul>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_RIDX_MAINTHREAD"><code>LUA_RIDX_MAINTHREAD</code></a>: </b> At this index the registry has
the main thread of the state.
(The main thread is the one created together with the state.)
</li>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_RIDX_GLOBALS"><code>LUA_RIDX_GLOBALS</code></a>: </b> At this index the registry has
the global environment.
</li>
</ul>
<h2>4.4 – <a name="4.4">Error Handling in C</a></h2>
<p>
Internally, Lua uses the C <code>longjmp</code> facility to handle errors.
(Lua will use exceptions if you compile it as C++;
search for <code>LUAI_THROW</code> in the source code for details.)
When Lua faces any error,
such as a memory allocation error or a type error,
it <em>raises</em> an error;
that is, it does a long jump.
A <em>protected environment</em> uses <code>setjmp</code>
to set a recovery point;
any error jumps to the most recent active recovery point.
<p>
Inside a C function you can raise an error explicitly
by calling <a href="#lua_error"><code>lua_error</code></a>.
<p>
Most functions in the API can raise an error,
for instance due to a memory allocation error.
The documentation for each function indicates whether
it can raise errors.
<p>
If an error happens outside any protected environment,
Lua calls a <em>panic function</em> (see <a href="#lua_atpanic"><code>lua_atpanic</code></a>)
and then calls <code>abort</code>,
thus exiting the host application.
Your panic function can avoid this exit by
never returning
(e.g., doing a long jump to your own recovery point outside Lua).
<p>
The panic function,
as its name implies,
is a mechanism of last resort.
Programs should avoid it.
As a general rule,
when a C function is called by Lua with a Lua state,
it can do whatever it wants on that Lua state,
as it should be already protected.
However,
when C code operates on other Lua states
(e.g., a Lua-state argument to the function,
a Lua state stored in the registry, or
the result of <a href="#lua_newthread"><code>lua_newthread</code></a>),
it should use them only in API calls that cannot raise errors.
<p>
The panic function runs as if it were a message handler (see <a href="#2.3">§2.3</a>);
in particular, the error object is on the top of the stack.
However, there is no guarantee about stack space.
To push anything on the stack,
the panic function must first check the available space (see <a href="#4.1.1">§4.1.1</a>).
<h3>4.4.1 – <a name="4.4.1">Status Codes</a></h3>
<p>
Several functions that report errors in the API use the following
status codes to indicate different kinds of errors or other conditions:
<ul>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_OK"><code>LUA_OK</code></a> (0): </b> no errors.</li>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_ERRRUN"><code>LUA_ERRRUN</code></a>: </b> a runtime error.</li>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_ERRMEM"><code>LUA_ERRMEM</code></a>: </b>
memory allocation error.
For such errors, Lua does not call the message handler.
</li>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_ERRERR"><code>LUA_ERRERR</code></a>: </b> error while running the message handler.</li>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_ERRSYNTAX"><code>LUA_ERRSYNTAX</code></a>: </b> syntax error during precompilation.</li>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_YIELD"><code>LUA_YIELD</code></a>: </b> the thread (coroutine) yields.</li>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_ERRFILE"><code>LUA_ERRFILE</code></a>: </b> a file-related error;
e.g., it cannot open or read the file.</li>
</ul><p>
These constants are defined in the header file <code>lua.h</code>.
<h2>4.5 – <a name="4.5">Handling Yields in C</a></h2>
<p>
Internally, Lua uses the C <code>longjmp</code> facility to yield a coroutine.
Therefore, if a C function <code>foo</code> calls an API function
and this API function yields
(directly or indirectly by calling another function that yields),
Lua cannot return to <code>foo</code> any more,
because the <code>longjmp</code> removes its frame from the C stack.
<p>
To avoid this kind of problem,
Lua raises an error whenever it tries to yield across an API call,
except for three functions:
<a href="#lua_yieldk"><code>lua_yieldk</code></a>, <a href="#lua_callk"><code>lua_callk</code></a>, and <a href="#lua_pcallk"><code>lua_pcallk</code></a>.
All those functions receive a <em>continuation function</em>
(as a parameter named <code>k</code>) to continue execution after a yield.
<p>
We need to set some terminology to explain continuations.
We have a C function called from Lua which we will call
the <em>original function</em>.
This original function then calls one of those three functions in the C API,
which we will call the <em>callee function</em>,
that then yields the current thread.
This can happen when the callee function is <a href="#lua_yieldk"><code>lua_yieldk</code></a>,
or when the callee function is either <a href="#lua_callk"><code>lua_callk</code></a> or <a href="#lua_pcallk"><code>lua_pcallk</code></a>
and the function called by them yields.
<p>
Suppose the running thread yields while executing the callee function.
After the thread resumes,
it eventually will finish running the callee function.
However,
the callee function cannot return to the original function,
because its frame in the C stack was destroyed by the yield.
Instead, Lua calls a <em>continuation function</em>,
which was given as an argument to the callee function.
As the name implies,
the continuation function should continue the task
of the original function.
<p>
As an illustration, consider the following function:
<pre>
int original_function (lua_State *L) {
... /* code 1 */
status = lua_pcall(L, n, m, h); /* calls Lua */
... /* code 2 */
}
</pre><p>
Now we want to allow
the Lua code being run by <a href="#lua_pcall"><code>lua_pcall</code></a> to yield.
First, we can rewrite our function like here:
<pre>
int k (lua_State *L, int status, lua_KContext ctx) {
... /* code 2 */
}
int original_function (lua_State *L) {
... /* code 1 */
return k(L, lua_pcall(L, n, m, h), ctx);
}
</pre><p>
In the above code,
the new function <code>k</code> is a
<em>continuation function</em> (with type <a href="#lua_KFunction"><code>lua_KFunction</code></a>),
which should do all the work that the original function
was doing after calling <a href="#lua_pcall"><code>lua_pcall</code></a>.
Now, we must inform Lua that it must call <code>k</code> if the Lua code
being executed by <a href="#lua_pcall"><code>lua_pcall</code></a> gets interrupted in some way
(errors or yielding),
so we rewrite the code as here,
replacing <a href="#lua_pcall"><code>lua_pcall</code></a> by <a href="#lua_pcallk"><code>lua_pcallk</code></a>:
<pre>
int original_function (lua_State *L) {
... /* code 1 */
return k(L, lua_pcallk(L, n, m, h, ctx2, k), ctx1);
}
</pre><p>
Note the external, explicit call to the continuation:
Lua will call the continuation only if needed, that is,
in case of errors or resuming after a yield.
If the called function returns normally without ever yielding,
<a href="#lua_pcallk"><code>lua_pcallk</code></a> (and <a href="#lua_callk"><code>lua_callk</code></a>) will also return normally.
(Of course, instead of calling the continuation in that case,
you can do the equivalent work directly inside the original function.)
<p>
Besides the Lua state,
the continuation function has two other parameters:
the final status of the call and the context value (<code>ctx</code>) that
was passed originally to <a href="#lua_pcallk"><code>lua_pcallk</code></a>.
Lua does not use this context value;
it only passes this value from the original function to the
continuation function.
For <a href="#lua_pcallk"><code>lua_pcallk</code></a>,
the status is the same value that would be returned by <a href="#lua_pcallk"><code>lua_pcallk</code></a>,
except that it is <a href="#pdf-LUA_YIELD"><code>LUA_YIELD</code></a> when being executed after a yield
(instead of <a href="#pdf-LUA_OK"><code>LUA_OK</code></a>).
For <a href="#lua_yieldk"><code>lua_yieldk</code></a> and <a href="#lua_callk"><code>lua_callk</code></a>,
the status is always <a href="#pdf-LUA_YIELD"><code>LUA_YIELD</code></a> when Lua calls the continuation.
(For these two functions,
Lua will not call the continuation in case of errors,
because they do not handle errors.)
Similarly, when using <a href="#lua_callk"><code>lua_callk</code></a>,
you should call the continuation function
with <a href="#pdf-LUA_OK"><code>LUA_OK</code></a> as the status.
(For <a href="#lua_yieldk"><code>lua_yieldk</code></a>, there is not much point in calling
directly the continuation function,
because <a href="#lua_yieldk"><code>lua_yieldk</code></a> usually does not return.)
<p>
Lua treats the continuation function as if it were the original function.
The continuation function receives the same Lua stack
from the original function,
in the same state it would be if the callee function had returned.
(For instance,
after a <a href="#lua_callk"><code>lua_callk</code></a> the function and its arguments are
removed from the stack and replaced by the results from the call.)
It also has the same upvalues.
Whatever it returns is handled by Lua as if it were the return
of the original function.
<h2>4.6 – <a name="4.6">Functions and Types</a></h2>
<p>
Here we list all functions and types from the C API in
alphabetical order.
Each function has an indicator like this:
<span class="apii">[-o, +p, <em>x</em>]</span>
<p>
The first field, <code>o</code>,
is how many elements the function pops from the stack.
The second field, <code>p</code>,
is how many elements the function pushes onto the stack.
(Any function always pushes its results after popping its arguments.)
A field in the form <code>x|y</code> means the function can push (or pop)
<code>x</code> or <code>y</code> elements,
depending on the situation;
an interrogation mark '<code>?</code>' means that
we cannot know how many elements the function pops/pushes
by looking only at its arguments.
(For instance, they may depend on what is in the stack.)
The third field, <code>x</code>,
tells whether the function may raise errors:
'<code>-</code>' means the function never raises any error;
'<code>m</code>' means the function may raise only out-of-memory errors;
'<code>v</code>' means the function may raise the errors explained in the text;
'<code>e</code>' means the function can run arbitrary Lua code,
either directly or through metamethods,
and therefore may raise any errors.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_absindex"><code>lua_absindex</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_absindex (lua_State *L, int idx);</pre>
<p>
Converts the acceptable index <code>idx</code>
into an equivalent absolute index
(that is, one that does not depend on the stack size).
<hr><h3><a name="lua_Alloc"><code>lua_Alloc</code></a></h3>
<pre>typedef void * (*lua_Alloc) (void *ud,
void *ptr,
size_t osize,
size_t nsize);</pre>
<p>
The type of the memory-allocation function used by Lua states.
The allocator function must provide a
functionality similar to <code>realloc</code>,
but not exactly the same.
Its arguments are
<code>ud</code>, an opaque pointer passed to <a href="#lua_newstate"><code>lua_newstate</code></a>;
<code>ptr</code>, a pointer to the block being allocated/reallocated/freed;
<code>osize</code>, the original size of the block or some code about what
is being allocated;
and <code>nsize</code>, the new size of the block.
<p>
When <code>ptr</code> is not <code>NULL</code>,
<code>osize</code> is the size of the block pointed by <code>ptr</code>,
that is, the size given when it was allocated or reallocated.
<p>
When <code>ptr</code> is <code>NULL</code>,
<code>osize</code> encodes the kind of object that Lua is allocating.
<code>osize</code> is any of
<a href="#pdf-LUA_TSTRING"><code>LUA_TSTRING</code></a>, <a href="#pdf-LUA_TTABLE"><code>LUA_TTABLE</code></a>, <a href="#pdf-LUA_TFUNCTION"><code>LUA_TFUNCTION</code></a>,
<a href="#pdf-LUA_TUSERDATA"><code>LUA_TUSERDATA</code></a>, or <a href="#pdf-LUA_TTHREAD"><code>LUA_TTHREAD</code></a> when (and only when)
Lua is creating a new object of that type.
When <code>osize</code> is some other value,
Lua is allocating memory for something else.
<p>
Lua assumes the following behavior from the allocator function:
<p>
When <code>nsize</code> is zero,
the allocator must behave like <code>free</code>
and then return <code>NULL</code>.
<p>
When <code>nsize</code> is not zero,
the allocator must behave like <code>realloc</code>.
In particular, the allocator returns <code>NULL</code>
if and only if it cannot fulfill the request.
<p>
Here is a simple implementation for the allocator function.
It is used in the auxiliary library by <a href="#luaL_newstate"><code>luaL_newstate</code></a>.
<pre>
static void *l_alloc (void *ud, void *ptr, size_t osize,
size_t nsize) {
(void)ud; (void)osize; /* not used */
if (nsize == 0) {
free(ptr);
return NULL;
}
else
return realloc(ptr, nsize);
}
</pre><p>
Note that Standard C ensures
that <code>free(NULL)</code> has no effect and that
<code>realloc(NULL,size)</code> is equivalent to <code>malloc(size)</code>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_arith"><code>lua_arith</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-(2|1), +1, <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>void lua_arith (lua_State *L, int op);</pre>
<p>
Performs an arithmetic or bitwise operation over the two values
(or one, in the case of negations)
at the top of the stack,
with the value on the top being the second operand,
pops these values, and pushes the result of the operation.
The function follows the semantics of the corresponding Lua operator
(that is, it may call metamethods).
<p>
The value of <code>op</code> must be one of the following constants:
<ul>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_OPADD"><code>LUA_OPADD</code></a>: </b> performs addition (<code>+</code>)</li>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_OPSUB"><code>LUA_OPSUB</code></a>: </b> performs subtraction (<code>-</code>)</li>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_OPMUL"><code>LUA_OPMUL</code></a>: </b> performs multiplication (<code>*</code>)</li>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_OPDIV"><code>LUA_OPDIV</code></a>: </b> performs float division (<code>/</code>)</li>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_OPIDIV"><code>LUA_OPIDIV</code></a>: </b> performs floor division (<code>//</code>)</li>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_OPMOD"><code>LUA_OPMOD</code></a>: </b> performs modulo (<code>%</code>)</li>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_OPPOW"><code>LUA_OPPOW</code></a>: </b> performs exponentiation (<code>^</code>)</li>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_OPUNM"><code>LUA_OPUNM</code></a>: </b> performs mathematical negation (unary <code>-</code>)</li>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_OPBNOT"><code>LUA_OPBNOT</code></a>: </b> performs bitwise NOT (<code>~</code>)</li>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_OPBAND"><code>LUA_OPBAND</code></a>: </b> performs bitwise AND (<code>&</code>)</li>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_OPBOR"><code>LUA_OPBOR</code></a>: </b> performs bitwise OR (<code>|</code>)</li>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_OPBXOR"><code>LUA_OPBXOR</code></a>: </b> performs bitwise exclusive OR (<code>~</code>)</li>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_OPSHL"><code>LUA_OPSHL</code></a>: </b> performs left shift (<code><<</code>)</li>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_OPSHR"><code>LUA_OPSHR</code></a>: </b> performs right shift (<code>>></code>)</li>
</ul>
<hr><h3><a name="lua_atpanic"><code>lua_atpanic</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>lua_CFunction lua_atpanic (lua_State *L, lua_CFunction panicf);</pre>
<p>
Sets a new panic function and returns the old one (see <a href="#4.4">§4.4</a>).
<hr><h3><a name="lua_call"><code>lua_call</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-(nargs+1), +nresults, <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>void lua_call (lua_State *L, int nargs, int nresults);</pre>
<p>
Calls a function.
Like regular Lua calls,
<code>lua_call</code> respects the <code>__call</code> metamethod.
So, here the word "function"
means any callable value.
<p>
To do a call you must use the following protocol:
first, the function to be called is pushed onto the stack;
then, the arguments to the call are pushed
in direct order;
that is, the first argument is pushed first.
Finally you call <a href="#lua_call"><code>lua_call</code></a>;
<code>nargs</code> is the number of arguments that you pushed onto the stack.
When the function returns,
all arguments and the function value are popped
and the call results are pushed onto the stack.
The number of results is adjusted to <code>nresults</code>,
unless <code>nresults</code> is <a name="pdf-LUA_MULTRET"><code>LUA_MULTRET</code></a>.
In this case, all results from the function are pushed;
Lua takes care that the returned values fit into the stack space,
but it does not ensure any extra space in the stack.
The function results are pushed onto the stack in direct order
(the first result is pushed first),
so that after the call the last result is on the top of the stack.
<p>
Any error while calling and running the function is propagated upwards
(with a <code>longjmp</code>).
<p>
The following example shows how the host program can do the
equivalent to this Lua code:
<pre>
a = f("how", t.x, 14)
</pre><p>
Here it is in C:
<pre>
lua_getglobal(L, "f"); /* function to be called */
lua_pushliteral(L, "how"); /* 1st argument */
lua_getglobal(L, "t"); /* table to be indexed */
lua_getfield(L, -1, "x"); /* push result of t.x (2nd arg) */
lua_remove(L, -2); /* remove 't' from the stack */
lua_pushinteger(L, 14); /* 3rd argument */
lua_call(L, 3, 1); /* call 'f' with 3 arguments and 1 result */
lua_setglobal(L, "a"); /* set global 'a' */
</pre><p>
Note that the code above is <em>balanced</em>:
at its end, the stack is back to its original configuration.
This is considered good programming practice.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_callk"><code>lua_callk</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-(nargs + 1), +nresults, <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>void lua_callk (lua_State *L,
int nargs,
int nresults,
lua_KContext ctx,
lua_KFunction k);</pre>
<p>
This function behaves exactly like <a href="#lua_call"><code>lua_call</code></a>,
but allows the called function to yield (see <a href="#4.5">§4.5</a>).
<hr><h3><a name="lua_CFunction"><code>lua_CFunction</code></a></h3>
<pre>typedef int (*lua_CFunction) (lua_State *L);</pre>
<p>
Type for C functions.
<p>
In order to communicate properly with Lua,
a C function must use the following protocol,
which defines the way parameters and results are passed:
a C function receives its arguments from Lua in its stack
in direct order (the first argument is pushed first).
So, when the function starts,
<code>lua_gettop(L)</code> returns the number of arguments received by the function.
The first argument (if any) is at index 1
and its last argument is at index <code>lua_gettop(L)</code>.
To return values to Lua, a C function just pushes them onto the stack,
in direct order (the first result is pushed first),
and returns in C the number of results.
Any other value in the stack below the results will be properly
discarded by Lua.
Like a Lua function, a C function called by Lua can also return
many results.
<p>
As an example, the following function receives a variable number
of numeric arguments and returns their average and their sum:
<pre>
static int foo (lua_State *L) {
int n = lua_gettop(L); /* number of arguments */
lua_Number sum = 0.0;
int i;
for (i = 1; i <= n; i++) {
if (!lua_isnumber(L, i)) {
lua_pushliteral(L, "incorrect argument");
lua_error(L);
}
sum += lua_tonumber(L, i);
}
lua_pushnumber(L, sum/n); /* first result */
lua_pushnumber(L, sum); /* second result */
return 2; /* number of results */
}
</pre>
<hr><h3><a name="lua_checkstack"><code>lua_checkstack</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_checkstack (lua_State *L, int n);</pre>
<p>
Ensures that the stack has space for at least <code>n</code> extra elements,
that is, that you can safely push up to <code>n</code> values into it.
It returns false if it cannot fulfill the request,
either because it would cause the stack
to be greater than a fixed maximum size
(typically at least several thousand elements) or
because it cannot allocate memory for the extra space.
This function never shrinks the stack;
if the stack already has space for the extra elements,
it is left unchanged.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_close"><code>lua_close</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>void lua_close (lua_State *L);</pre>
<p>
Close all active to-be-closed variables in the main thread,
release all objects in the given Lua state
(calling the corresponding garbage-collection metamethods, if any),
and frees all dynamic memory used by this state.
<p>
On several platforms, you may not need to call this function,
because all resources are naturally released when the host program ends.
On the other hand, long-running programs that create multiple states,
such as daemons or web servers,
will probably need to close states as soon as they are not needed.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_closeslot"><code>lua_closeslot</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>void lua_closeslot (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Close the to-be-closed slot at the given index and set its value to <b>nil</b>.
The index must be the last index previously marked to be closed
(see <a href="#lua_toclose"><code>lua_toclose</code></a>) that is still active (that is, not closed yet).
<p>
A <code>__close</code> metamethod cannot yield
when called through this function.
<p>
(Exceptionally, this function was introduced in release 5.4.3.
It is not present in previous 5.4 releases.)
<hr><h3><a name="lua_compare"><code>lua_compare</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>int lua_compare (lua_State *L, int index1, int index2, int op);</pre>
<p>
Compares two Lua values.
Returns 1 if the value at index <code>index1</code> satisfies <code>op</code>
when compared with the value at index <code>index2</code>,
following the semantics of the corresponding Lua operator
(that is, it may call metamethods).
Otherwise returns 0.
Also returns 0 if any of the indices is not valid.
<p>
The value of <code>op</code> must be one of the following constants:
<ul>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_OPEQ"><code>LUA_OPEQ</code></a>: </b> compares for equality (<code>==</code>)</li>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_OPLT"><code>LUA_OPLT</code></a>: </b> compares for less than (<code><</code>)</li>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_OPLE"><code>LUA_OPLE</code></a>: </b> compares for less or equal (<code><=</code>)</li>
</ul>
<hr><h3><a name="lua_concat"><code>lua_concat</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-n, +1, <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>void lua_concat (lua_State *L, int n);</pre>
<p>
Concatenates the <code>n</code> values at the top of the stack,
pops them, and leaves the result on the top.
If <code>n</code> is 1, the result is the single value on the stack
(that is, the function does nothing);
if <code>n</code> is 0, the result is the empty string.
Concatenation is performed following the usual semantics of Lua
(see <a href="#3.4.6">§3.4.6</a>).
<hr><h3><a name="lua_copy"><code>lua_copy</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>void lua_copy (lua_State *L, int fromidx, int toidx);</pre>
<p>
Copies the element at index <code>fromidx</code>
into the valid index <code>toidx</code>,
replacing the value at that position.
Values at other positions are not affected.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_createtable"><code>lua_createtable</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>void lua_createtable (lua_State *L, int narr, int nrec);</pre>
<p>
Creates a new empty table and pushes it onto the stack.
Parameter <code>narr</code> is a hint for how many elements the table
will have as a sequence;
parameter <code>nrec</code> is a hint for how many other elements
the table will have.
Lua may use these hints to preallocate memory for the new table.
This preallocation may help performance when you know in advance
how many elements the table will have.
Otherwise you can use the function <a href="#lua_newtable"><code>lua_newtable</code></a>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_dump"><code>lua_dump</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_dump (lua_State *L,
lua_Writer writer,
void *data,
int strip);</pre>
<p>
Dumps a function as a binary chunk.
Receives a Lua function on the top of the stack
and produces a binary chunk that,
if loaded again,
results in a function equivalent to the one dumped.
As it produces parts of the chunk,
<a href="#lua_dump"><code>lua_dump</code></a> calls function <code>writer</code> (see <a href="#lua_Writer"><code>lua_Writer</code></a>)
with the given <code>data</code>
to write them.
<p>
If <code>strip</code> is true,
the binary representation may not include all debug information
about the function,
to save space.
<p>
The value returned is the error code returned by the last
call to the writer;
0 means no errors.
<p>
This function does not pop the Lua function from the stack.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_error"><code>lua_error</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-1, +0, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>int lua_error (lua_State *L);</pre>
<p>
Raises a Lua error,
using the value on the top of the stack as the error object.
This function does a long jump,
and therefore never returns
(see <a href="#luaL_error"><code>luaL_error</code></a>).
<hr><h3><a name="lua_gc"><code>lua_gc</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_gc (lua_State *L, int what, ...);</pre>
<p>
Controls the garbage collector.
<p>
This function performs several tasks,
according to the value of the parameter <code>what</code>.
For options that need extra arguments,
they are listed after the option.
<ul>
<li><b><code>LUA_GCCOLLECT</code>: </b>
Performs a full garbage-collection cycle.
</li>
<li><b><code>LUA_GCSTOP</code>: </b>
Stops the garbage collector.
</li>
<li><b><code>LUA_GCRESTART</code>: </b>
Restarts the garbage collector.
</li>
<li><b><code>LUA_GCCOUNT</code>: </b>
Returns the current amount of memory (in Kbytes) in use by Lua.
</li>
<li><b><code>LUA_GCCOUNTB</code>: </b>
Returns the remainder of dividing the current amount of bytes of
memory in use by Lua by 1024.
</li>
<li><b><code>LUA_GCSTEP</code> <code>(int stepsize)</code>: </b>
Performs an incremental step of garbage collection,
corresponding to the allocation of <code>stepsize</code> Kbytes.
</li>
<li><b><code>LUA_GCISRUNNING</code>: </b>
Returns a boolean that tells whether the collector is running
(i.e., not stopped).
</li>
<li><b><code>LUA_GCINC</code> (int pause, int stepmul, stepsize): </b>
Changes the collector to incremental mode
with the given parameters (see <a href="#2.5.1">§2.5.1</a>).
Returns the previous mode (<code>LUA_GCGEN</code> or <code>LUA_GCINC</code>).
</li>
<li><b><code>LUA_GCGEN</code> (int minormul, int majormul): </b>
Changes the collector to generational mode
with the given parameters (see <a href="#2.5.2">§2.5.2</a>).
Returns the previous mode (<code>LUA_GCGEN</code> or <code>LUA_GCINC</code>).
</li>
</ul><p>
For more details about these options,
see <a href="#pdf-collectgarbage"><code>collectgarbage</code></a>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_getallocf"><code>lua_getallocf</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>lua_Alloc lua_getallocf (lua_State *L, void **ud);</pre>
<p>
Returns the memory-allocation function of a given state.
If <code>ud</code> is not <code>NULL</code>, Lua stores in <code>*ud</code> the
opaque pointer given when the memory-allocator function was set.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_getfield"><code>lua_getfield</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>int lua_getfield (lua_State *L, int index, const char *k);</pre>
<p>
Pushes onto the stack the value <code>t[k]</code>,
where <code>t</code> is the value at the given index.
As in Lua, this function may trigger a metamethod
for the "index" event (see <a href="#2.4">§2.4</a>).
<p>
Returns the type of the pushed value.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_getextraspace"><code>lua_getextraspace</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>void *lua_getextraspace (lua_State *L);</pre>
<p>
Returns a pointer to a raw memory area associated with the
given Lua state.
The application can use this area for any purpose;
Lua does not use it for anything.
<p>
Each new thread has this area initialized with a copy
of the area of the main thread.
<p>
By default, this area has the size of a pointer to void,
but you can recompile Lua with a different size for this area.
(See <code>LUA_EXTRASPACE</code> in <code>luaconf.h</code>.)
<hr><h3><a name="lua_getglobal"><code>lua_getglobal</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>int lua_getglobal (lua_State *L, const char *name);</pre>
<p>
Pushes onto the stack the value of the global <code>name</code>.
Returns the type of that value.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_geti"><code>lua_geti</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>int lua_geti (lua_State *L, int index, lua_Integer i);</pre>
<p>
Pushes onto the stack the value <code>t[i]</code>,
where <code>t</code> is the value at the given index.
As in Lua, this function may trigger a metamethod
for the "index" event (see <a href="#2.4">§2.4</a>).
<p>
Returns the type of the pushed value.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_getmetatable"><code>lua_getmetatable</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +(0|1), –]</span>
<pre>int lua_getmetatable (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
If the value at the given index has a metatable,
the function pushes that metatable onto the stack and returns 1.
Otherwise,
the function returns 0 and pushes nothing on the stack.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_gettable"><code>lua_gettable</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-1, +1, <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>int lua_gettable (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Pushes onto the stack the value <code>t[k]</code>,
where <code>t</code> is the value at the given index
and <code>k</code> is the value on the top of the stack.
<p>
This function pops the key from the stack,
pushing the resulting value in its place.
As in Lua, this function may trigger a metamethod
for the "index" event (see <a href="#2.4">§2.4</a>).
<p>
Returns the type of the pushed value.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_gettop"><code>lua_gettop</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_gettop (lua_State *L);</pre>
<p>
Returns the index of the top element in the stack.
Because indices start at 1,
this result is equal to the number of elements in the stack;
in particular, 0 means an empty stack.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_getiuservalue"><code>lua_getiuservalue</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_getiuservalue (lua_State *L, int index, int n);</pre>
<p>
Pushes onto the stack the <code>n</code>-th user value associated with the
full userdata at the given index and
returns the type of the pushed value.
<p>
If the userdata does not have that value,
pushes <b>nil</b> and returns <a href="#pdf-LUA_TNONE"><code>LUA_TNONE</code></a>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_insert"><code>lua_insert</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-1, +1, –]</span>
<pre>void lua_insert (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Moves the top element into the given valid index,
shifting up the elements above this index to open space.
This function cannot be called with a pseudo-index,
because a pseudo-index is not an actual stack position.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_Integer"><code>lua_Integer</code></a></h3>
<pre>typedef ... lua_Integer;</pre>
<p>
The type of integers in Lua.
<p>
By default this type is <code>long long</code>,
(usually a 64-bit two-complement integer),
but that can be changed to <code>long</code> or <code>int</code>
(usually a 32-bit two-complement integer).
(See <code>LUA_INT_TYPE</code> in <code>luaconf.h</code>.)
<p>
Lua also defines the constants
<a name="pdf-LUA_MININTEGER"><code>LUA_MININTEGER</code></a> and <a name="pdf-LUA_MAXINTEGER"><code>LUA_MAXINTEGER</code></a>,
with the minimum and the maximum values that fit in this type.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_isboolean"><code>lua_isboolean</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_isboolean (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Returns 1 if the value at the given index is a boolean,
and 0 otherwise.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_iscfunction"><code>lua_iscfunction</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_iscfunction (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Returns 1 if the value at the given index is a C function,
and 0 otherwise.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_isfunction"><code>lua_isfunction</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_isfunction (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Returns 1 if the value at the given index is a function
(either C or Lua), and 0 otherwise.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_isinteger"><code>lua_isinteger</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_isinteger (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Returns 1 if the value at the given index is an integer
(that is, the value is a number and is represented as an integer),
and 0 otherwise.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_islightuserdata"><code>lua_islightuserdata</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_islightuserdata (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Returns 1 if the value at the given index is a light userdata,
and 0 otherwise.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_isnil"><code>lua_isnil</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_isnil (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Returns 1 if the value at the given index is <b>nil</b>,
and 0 otherwise.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_isnone"><code>lua_isnone</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_isnone (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Returns 1 if the given index is not valid,
and 0 otherwise.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_isnoneornil"><code>lua_isnoneornil</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_isnoneornil (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Returns 1 if the given index is not valid
or if the value at this index is <b>nil</b>,
and 0 otherwise.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_isnumber"><code>lua_isnumber</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_isnumber (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Returns 1 if the value at the given index is a number
or a string convertible to a number,
and 0 otherwise.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_isstring"><code>lua_isstring</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_isstring (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Returns 1 if the value at the given index is a string
or a number (which is always convertible to a string),
and 0 otherwise.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_istable"><code>lua_istable</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_istable (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Returns 1 if the value at the given index is a table,
and 0 otherwise.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_isthread"><code>lua_isthread</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_isthread (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Returns 1 if the value at the given index is a thread,
and 0 otherwise.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_isuserdata"><code>lua_isuserdata</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_isuserdata (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Returns 1 if the value at the given index is a userdata
(either full or light), and 0 otherwise.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_isyieldable"><code>lua_isyieldable</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_isyieldable (lua_State *L);</pre>
<p>
Returns 1 if the given coroutine can yield,
and 0 otherwise.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_KContext"><code>lua_KContext</code></a></h3>
<pre>typedef ... lua_KContext;</pre>
<p>
The type for continuation-function contexts.
It must be a numeric type.
This type is defined as <code>intptr_t</code>
when <code>intptr_t</code> is available,
so that it can store pointers too.
Otherwise, it is defined as <code>ptrdiff_t</code>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_KFunction"><code>lua_KFunction</code></a></h3>
<pre>typedef int (*lua_KFunction) (lua_State *L, int status, lua_KContext ctx);</pre>
<p>
Type for continuation functions (see <a href="#4.5">§4.5</a>).
<hr><h3><a name="lua_len"><code>lua_len</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>void lua_len (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Returns the length of the value at the given index.
It is equivalent to the '<code>#</code>' operator in Lua (see <a href="#3.4.7">§3.4.7</a>) and
may trigger a metamethod for the "length" event (see <a href="#2.4">§2.4</a>).
The result is pushed on the stack.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_load"><code>lua_load</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_load (lua_State *L,
lua_Reader reader,
void *data,
const char *chunkname,
const char *mode);</pre>
<p>
Loads a Lua chunk without running it.
If there are no errors,
<code>lua_load</code> pushes the compiled chunk as a Lua
function on top of the stack.
Otherwise, it pushes an error message.
<p>
The <code>lua_load</code> function uses a user-supplied <code>reader</code> function
to read the chunk (see <a href="#lua_Reader"><code>lua_Reader</code></a>).
The <code>data</code> argument is an opaque value passed to the reader function.
<p>
The <code>chunkname</code> argument gives a name to the chunk,
which is used for error messages and in debug information (see <a href="#4.7">§4.7</a>).
<p>
<code>lua_load</code> automatically detects whether the chunk is text or binary
and loads it accordingly (see program <code>luac</code>).
The string <code>mode</code> works as in function <a href="#pdf-load"><code>load</code></a>,
with the addition that
a <code>NULL</code> value is equivalent to the string "<code>bt</code>".
<p>
<code>lua_load</code> uses the stack internally,
so the reader function must always leave the stack
unmodified when returning.
<p>
<code>lua_load</code> can return
<a href="#pdf-LUA_OK"><code>LUA_OK</code></a>, <a href="#pdf-LUA_ERRSYNTAX"><code>LUA_ERRSYNTAX</code></a>, or <a href="#pdf-LUA_ERRMEM"><code>LUA_ERRMEM</code></a>.
The function may also return other values corresponding to
errors raised by the read function (see <a href="#4.4.1">§4.4.1</a>).
<p>
If the resulting function has upvalues,
its first upvalue is set to the value of the global environment
stored at index <code>LUA_RIDX_GLOBALS</code> in the registry (see <a href="#4.3">§4.3</a>).
When loading main chunks,
this upvalue will be the <code>_ENV</code> variable (see <a href="#2.2">§2.2</a>).
Other upvalues are initialized with <b>nil</b>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_newstate"><code>lua_newstate</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>lua_State *lua_newstate (lua_Alloc f, void *ud);</pre>
<p>
Creates a new independent state and returns its main thread.
Returns <code>NULL</code> if it cannot create the state
(due to lack of memory).
The argument <code>f</code> is the allocator function;
Lua will do all memory allocation for this state
through this function (see <a href="#lua_Alloc"><code>lua_Alloc</code></a>).
The second argument, <code>ud</code>, is an opaque pointer that Lua
passes to the allocator in every call.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_newtable"><code>lua_newtable</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>void lua_newtable (lua_State *L);</pre>
<p>
Creates a new empty table and pushes it onto the stack.
It is equivalent to <code>lua_createtable(L, 0, 0)</code>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_newthread"><code>lua_newthread</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>lua_State *lua_newthread (lua_State *L);</pre>
<p>
Creates a new thread, pushes it on the stack,
and returns a pointer to a <a href="#lua_State"><code>lua_State</code></a> that represents this new thread.
The new thread returned by this function shares with the original thread
its global environment,
but has an independent execution stack.
<p>
Threads are subject to garbage collection,
like any Lua object.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_newuserdatauv"><code>lua_newuserdatauv</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>void *lua_newuserdatauv (lua_State *L, size_t size, int nuvalue);</pre>
<p>
This function creates and pushes on the stack a new full userdata,
with <code>nuvalue</code> associated Lua values, called <code>user values</code>,
plus an associated block of raw memory with <code>size</code> bytes.
(The user values can be set and read with the functions
<a href="#lua_setiuservalue"><code>lua_setiuservalue</code></a> and <a href="#lua_getiuservalue"><code>lua_getiuservalue</code></a>.)
<p>
The function returns the address of the block of memory.
Lua ensures that this address is valid as long as
the corresponding userdata is alive (see <a href="#2.5">§2.5</a>).
Moreover, if the userdata is marked for finalization (see <a href="#2.5.3">§2.5.3</a>),
its address is valid at least until the call to its finalizer.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_next"><code>lua_next</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-1, +(2|0), <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>int lua_next (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Pops a key from the stack,
and pushes a key–value pair from the table at the given index,
the "next" pair after the given key.
If there are no more elements in the table,
then <a href="#lua_next"><code>lua_next</code></a> returns 0 and pushes nothing.
<p>
A typical table traversal looks like this:
<pre>
/* table is in the stack at index 't' */
lua_pushnil(L); /* first key */
while (lua_next(L, t) != 0) {
/* uses 'key' (at index -2) and 'value' (at index -1) */
printf("%s - %s\n",
lua_typename(L, lua_type(L, -2)),
lua_typename(L, lua_type(L, -1)));
/* removes 'value'; keeps 'key' for next iteration */
lua_pop(L, 1);
}
</pre>
<p>
While traversing a table,
avoid calling <a href="#lua_tolstring"><code>lua_tolstring</code></a> directly on a key,
unless you know that the key is actually a string.
Recall that <a href="#lua_tolstring"><code>lua_tolstring</code></a> may change
the value at the given index;
this confuses the next call to <a href="#lua_next"><code>lua_next</code></a>.
<p>
This function may raise an error if the given key
is neither <b>nil</b> nor present in the table.
See function <a href="#pdf-next"><code>next</code></a> for the caveats of modifying
the table during its traversal.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_Number"><code>lua_Number</code></a></h3>
<pre>typedef ... lua_Number;</pre>
<p>
The type of floats in Lua.
<p>
By default this type is double,
but that can be changed to a single float or a long double.
(See <code>LUA_FLOAT_TYPE</code> in <code>luaconf.h</code>.)
<hr><h3><a name="lua_numbertointeger"><code>lua_numbertointeger</code></a></h3>
<pre>int lua_numbertointeger (lua_Number n, lua_Integer *p);</pre>
<p>
Tries to convert a Lua float to a Lua integer;
the float <code>n</code> must have an integral value.
If that value is within the range of Lua integers,
it is converted to an integer and assigned to <code>*p</code>.
The macro results in a boolean indicating whether the
conversion was successful.
(Note that this range test can be tricky to do
correctly without this macro, due to rounding.)
<p>
This macro may evaluate its arguments more than once.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_pcall"><code>lua_pcall</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-(nargs + 1), +(nresults|1), –]</span>
<pre>int lua_pcall (lua_State *L, int nargs, int nresults, int msgh);</pre>
<p>
Calls a function (or a callable object) in protected mode.
<p>
Both <code>nargs</code> and <code>nresults</code> have the same meaning as
in <a href="#lua_call"><code>lua_call</code></a>.
If there are no errors during the call,
<a href="#lua_pcall"><code>lua_pcall</code></a> behaves exactly like <a href="#lua_call"><code>lua_call</code></a>.
However, if there is any error,
<a href="#lua_pcall"><code>lua_pcall</code></a> catches it,
pushes a single value on the stack (the error object),
and returns an error code.
Like <a href="#lua_call"><code>lua_call</code></a>,
<a href="#lua_pcall"><code>lua_pcall</code></a> always removes the function
and its arguments from the stack.
<p>
If <code>msgh</code> is 0,
then the error object returned on the stack
is exactly the original error object.
Otherwise, <code>msgh</code> is the stack index of a
<em>message handler</em>.
(This index cannot be a pseudo-index.)
In case of runtime errors,
this handler will be called with the error object
and its return value will be the object
returned on the stack by <a href="#lua_pcall"><code>lua_pcall</code></a>.
<p>
Typically, the message handler is used to add more debug
information to the error object, such as a stack traceback.
Such information cannot be gathered after the return of <a href="#lua_pcall"><code>lua_pcall</code></a>,
since by then the stack has unwound.
<p>
The <a href="#lua_pcall"><code>lua_pcall</code></a> function returns one of the following status codes:
<a href="#pdf-LUA_OK"><code>LUA_OK</code></a>, <a href="#pdf-LUA_ERRRUN"><code>LUA_ERRRUN</code></a>, <a href="#pdf-LUA_ERRMEM"><code>LUA_ERRMEM</code></a>, or <a href="#pdf-LUA_ERRERR"><code>LUA_ERRERR</code></a>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_pcallk"><code>lua_pcallk</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-(nargs + 1), +(nresults|1), –]</span>
<pre>int lua_pcallk (lua_State *L,
int nargs,
int nresults,
int msgh,
lua_KContext ctx,
lua_KFunction k);</pre>
<p>
This function behaves exactly like <a href="#lua_pcall"><code>lua_pcall</code></a>,
except that it allows the called function to yield (see <a href="#4.5">§4.5</a>).
<hr><h3><a name="lua_pop"><code>lua_pop</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-n, +0, <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>void lua_pop (lua_State *L, int n);</pre>
<p>
Pops <code>n</code> elements from the stack.
It is implemented as a macro over <a href="#lua_settop"><code>lua_settop</code></a>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_pushboolean"><code>lua_pushboolean</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, –]</span>
<pre>void lua_pushboolean (lua_State *L, int b);</pre>
<p>
Pushes a boolean value with value <code>b</code> onto the stack.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_pushcclosure"><code>lua_pushcclosure</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-n, +1, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>void lua_pushcclosure (lua_State *L, lua_CFunction fn, int n);</pre>
<p>
Pushes a new C closure onto the stack.
This function receives a pointer to a C function
and pushes onto the stack a Lua value of type <code>function</code> that,
when called, invokes the corresponding C function.
The parameter <code>n</code> tells how many upvalues this function will have
(see <a href="#4.2">§4.2</a>).
<p>
Any function to be callable by Lua must
follow the correct protocol to receive its parameters
and return its results (see <a href="#lua_CFunction"><code>lua_CFunction</code></a>).
<p>
When a C function is created,
it is possible to associate some values with it,
the so called upvalues;
these upvalues are then accessible to the function whenever it is called.
This association is called a C closure (see <a href="#4.2">§4.2</a>).
To create a C closure,
first the initial values for its upvalues must be pushed onto the stack.
(When there are multiple upvalues, the first value is pushed first.)
Then <a href="#lua_pushcclosure"><code>lua_pushcclosure</code></a>
is called to create and push the C function onto the stack,
with the argument <code>n</code> telling how many values will be
associated with the function.
<a href="#lua_pushcclosure"><code>lua_pushcclosure</code></a> also pops these values from the stack.
<p>
The maximum value for <code>n</code> is 255.
<p>
When <code>n</code> is zero,
this function creates a <em>light C function</em>,
which is just a pointer to the C function.
In that case, it never raises a memory error.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_pushcfunction"><code>lua_pushcfunction</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, –]</span>
<pre>void lua_pushcfunction (lua_State *L, lua_CFunction f);</pre>
<p>
Pushes a C function onto the stack.
This function is equivalent to <a href="#lua_pushcclosure"><code>lua_pushcclosure</code></a> with no upvalues.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_pushfstring"><code>lua_pushfstring</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>const char *lua_pushfstring (lua_State *L, const char *fmt, ...);</pre>
<p>
Pushes onto the stack a formatted string
and returns a pointer to this string (see <a href="#4.1.3">§4.1.3</a>).
It is similar to the ISO C function <code>sprintf</code>,
but has two important differences.
First,
you do not have to allocate space for the result;
the result is a Lua string and Lua takes care of memory allocation
(and deallocation, through garbage collection).
Second,
the conversion specifiers are quite restricted.
There are no flags, widths, or precisions.
The conversion specifiers can only be
'<code>%%</code>' (inserts the character '<code>%</code>'),
'<code>%s</code>' (inserts a zero-terminated string, with no size restrictions),
'<code>%f</code>' (inserts a <a href="#lua_Number"><code>lua_Number</code></a>),
'<code>%I</code>' (inserts a <a href="#lua_Integer"><code>lua_Integer</code></a>),
'<code>%p</code>' (inserts a pointer),
'<code>%d</code>' (inserts an <code>int</code>),
'<code>%c</code>' (inserts an <code>int</code> as a one-byte character), and
'<code>%U</code>' (inserts a <code>long int</code> as a UTF-8 byte sequence).
<p>
This function may raise errors due to memory overflow
or an invalid conversion specifier.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_pushglobaltable"><code>lua_pushglobaltable</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, –]</span>
<pre>void lua_pushglobaltable (lua_State *L);</pre>
<p>
Pushes the global environment onto the stack.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_pushinteger"><code>lua_pushinteger</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, –]</span>
<pre>void lua_pushinteger (lua_State *L, lua_Integer n);</pre>
<p>
Pushes an integer with value <code>n</code> onto the stack.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_pushlightuserdata"><code>lua_pushlightuserdata</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, –]</span>
<pre>void lua_pushlightuserdata (lua_State *L, void *p);</pre>
<p>
Pushes a light userdata onto the stack.
<p>
Userdata represent C values in Lua.
A <em>light userdata</em> represents a pointer, a <code>void*</code>.
It is a value (like a number):
you do not create it, it has no individual metatable,
and it is not collected (as it was never created).
A light userdata is equal to "any"
light userdata with the same C address.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_pushliteral"><code>lua_pushliteral</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>const char *lua_pushliteral (lua_State *L, const char *s);</pre>
<p>
This macro is equivalent to <a href="#lua_pushstring"><code>lua_pushstring</code></a>,
but should be used only when <code>s</code> is a literal string.
(Lua may optimize this case.)
<hr><h3><a name="lua_pushlstring"><code>lua_pushlstring</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>const char *lua_pushlstring (lua_State *L, const char *s, size_t len);</pre>
<p>
Pushes the string pointed to by <code>s</code> with size <code>len</code>
onto the stack.
Lua will make or reuse an internal copy of the given string,
so the memory at <code>s</code> can be freed or reused immediately after
the function returns.
The string can contain any binary data,
including embedded zeros.
<p>
Returns a pointer to the internal copy of the string (see <a href="#4.1.3">§4.1.3</a>).
<hr><h3><a name="lua_pushnil"><code>lua_pushnil</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, –]</span>
<pre>void lua_pushnil (lua_State *L);</pre>
<p>
Pushes a nil value onto the stack.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_pushnumber"><code>lua_pushnumber</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, –]</span>
<pre>void lua_pushnumber (lua_State *L, lua_Number n);</pre>
<p>
Pushes a float with value <code>n</code> onto the stack.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_pushstring"><code>lua_pushstring</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>const char *lua_pushstring (lua_State *L, const char *s);</pre>
<p>
Pushes the zero-terminated string pointed to by <code>s</code>
onto the stack.
Lua will make or reuse an internal copy of the given string,
so the memory at <code>s</code> can be freed or reused immediately after
the function returns.
<p>
Returns a pointer to the internal copy of the string (see <a href="#4.1.3">§4.1.3</a>).
<p>
If <code>s</code> is <code>NULL</code>, pushes <b>nil</b> and returns <code>NULL</code>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_pushthread"><code>lua_pushthread</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_pushthread (lua_State *L);</pre>
<p>
Pushes the thread represented by <code>L</code> onto the stack.
Returns 1 if this thread is the main thread of its state.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_pushvalue"><code>lua_pushvalue</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, –]</span>
<pre>void lua_pushvalue (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Pushes a copy of the element at the given index
onto the stack.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_pushvfstring"><code>lua_pushvfstring</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>const char *lua_pushvfstring (lua_State *L,
const char *fmt,
va_list argp);</pre>
<p>
Equivalent to <a href="#lua_pushfstring"><code>lua_pushfstring</code></a>, except that it receives a <code>va_list</code>
instead of a variable number of arguments.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_rawequal"><code>lua_rawequal</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_rawequal (lua_State *L, int index1, int index2);</pre>
<p>
Returns 1 if the two values in indices <code>index1</code> and
<code>index2</code> are primitively equal
(that is, equal without calling the <code>__eq</code> metamethod).
Otherwise returns 0.
Also returns 0 if any of the indices are not valid.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_rawget"><code>lua_rawget</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-1, +1, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_rawget (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Similar to <a href="#lua_gettable"><code>lua_gettable</code></a>, but does a raw access
(i.e., without metamethods).
<hr><h3><a name="lua_rawgeti"><code>lua_rawgeti</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_rawgeti (lua_State *L, int index, lua_Integer n);</pre>
<p>
Pushes onto the stack the value <code>t[n]</code>,
where <code>t</code> is the table at the given index.
The access is raw,
that is, it does not use the <code>__index</code> metavalue.
<p>
Returns the type of the pushed value.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_rawgetp"><code>lua_rawgetp</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_rawgetp (lua_State *L, int index, const void *p);</pre>
<p>
Pushes onto the stack the value <code>t[k]</code>,
where <code>t</code> is the table at the given index and
<code>k</code> is the pointer <code>p</code> represented as a light userdata.
The access is raw;
that is, it does not use the <code>__index</code> metavalue.
<p>
Returns the type of the pushed value.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_rawlen"><code>lua_rawlen</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>lua_Unsigned lua_rawlen (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Returns the raw "length" of the value at the given index:
for strings, this is the string length;
for tables, this is the result of the length operator ('<code>#</code>')
with no metamethods;
for userdata, this is the size of the block of memory allocated
for the userdata.
For other values, this call returns 0.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_rawset"><code>lua_rawset</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-2, +0, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>void lua_rawset (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Similar to <a href="#lua_settable"><code>lua_settable</code></a>, but does a raw assignment
(i.e., without metamethods).
<hr><h3><a name="lua_rawseti"><code>lua_rawseti</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-1, +0, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>void lua_rawseti (lua_State *L, int index, lua_Integer i);</pre>
<p>
Does the equivalent of <code>t[i] = v</code>,
where <code>t</code> is the table at the given index
and <code>v</code> is the value on the top of the stack.
<p>
This function pops the value from the stack.
The assignment is raw,
that is, it does not use the <code>__newindex</code> metavalue.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_rawsetp"><code>lua_rawsetp</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-1, +0, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>void lua_rawsetp (lua_State *L, int index, const void *p);</pre>
<p>
Does the equivalent of <code>t[p] = v</code>,
where <code>t</code> is the table at the given index,
<code>p</code> is encoded as a light userdata,
and <code>v</code> is the value on the top of the stack.
<p>
This function pops the value from the stack.
The assignment is raw,
that is, it does not use the <code>__newindex</code> metavalue.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_Reader"><code>lua_Reader</code></a></h3>
<pre>typedef const char * (*lua_Reader) (lua_State *L,
void *data,
size_t *size);</pre>
<p>
The reader function used by <a href="#lua_load"><code>lua_load</code></a>.
Every time <a href="#lua_load"><code>lua_load</code></a> needs another piece of the chunk,
it calls the reader,
passing along its <code>data</code> parameter.
The reader must return a pointer to a block of memory
with a new piece of the chunk
and set <code>size</code> to the block size.
The block must exist until the reader function is called again.
To signal the end of the chunk,
the reader must return <code>NULL</code> or set <code>size</code> to zero.
The reader function may return pieces of any size greater than zero.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_register"><code>lua_register</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>void lua_register (lua_State *L, const char *name, lua_CFunction f);</pre>
<p>
Sets the C function <code>f</code> as the new value of global <code>name</code>.
It is defined as a macro:
<pre>
#define lua_register(L,n,f) \
(lua_pushcfunction(L, f), lua_setglobal(L, n))
</pre>
<hr><h3><a name="lua_remove"><code>lua_remove</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-1, +0, –]</span>
<pre>void lua_remove (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Removes the element at the given valid index,
shifting down the elements above this index to fill the gap.
This function cannot be called with a pseudo-index,
because a pseudo-index is not an actual stack position.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_replace"><code>lua_replace</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-1, +0, –]</span>
<pre>void lua_replace (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Moves the top element into the given valid index
without shifting any element
(therefore replacing the value at that given index),
and then pops the top element.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_resetthread"><code>lua_resetthread</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +?, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_resetthread (lua_State *L);</pre>
<p>
Resets a thread, cleaning its call stack and closing all pending
to-be-closed variables.
Returns a status code:
<a href="#pdf-LUA_OK"><code>LUA_OK</code></a> for no errors in the thread
(either the original error that stopped the thread or
errors in closing methods),
or an error status otherwise.
In case of error,
leaves the error object on the top of the stack.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_resume"><code>lua_resume</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-?, +?, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_resume (lua_State *L, lua_State *from, int nargs,
int *nresults);</pre>
<p>
Starts and resumes a coroutine in the given thread <code>L</code>.
<p>
To start a coroutine,
you push the main function plus any arguments
onto the empty stack of the thread.
then you call <a href="#lua_resume"><code>lua_resume</code></a>,
with <code>nargs</code> being the number of arguments.
This call returns when the coroutine suspends or finishes its execution.
When it returns,
<code>*nresults</code> is updated and
the top of the stack contains
the <code>*nresults</code> values passed to <a href="#lua_yield"><code>lua_yield</code></a>
or returned by the body function.
<a href="#lua_resume"><code>lua_resume</code></a> returns
<a href="#pdf-LUA_YIELD"><code>LUA_YIELD</code></a> if the coroutine yields,
<a href="#pdf-LUA_OK"><code>LUA_OK</code></a> if the coroutine finishes its execution
without errors,
or an error code in case of errors (see <a href="#4.4.1">§4.4.1</a>).
In case of errors,
the error object is on the top of the stack.
<p>
To resume a coroutine,
you remove the <code>*nresults</code> yielded values from its stack,
push the values to be passed as results from <code>yield</code>,
and then call <a href="#lua_resume"><code>lua_resume</code></a>.
<p>
The parameter <code>from</code> represents the coroutine that is resuming <code>L</code>.
If there is no such coroutine,
this parameter can be <code>NULL</code>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_rotate"><code>lua_rotate</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>void lua_rotate (lua_State *L, int idx, int n);</pre>
<p>
Rotates the stack elements between the valid index <code>idx</code>
and the top of the stack.
The elements are rotated <code>n</code> positions in the direction of the top,
for a positive <code>n</code>,
or <code>-n</code> positions in the direction of the bottom,
for a negative <code>n</code>.
The absolute value of <code>n</code> must not be greater than the size
of the slice being rotated.
This function cannot be called with a pseudo-index,
because a pseudo-index is not an actual stack position.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_setallocf"><code>lua_setallocf</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>void lua_setallocf (lua_State *L, lua_Alloc f, void *ud);</pre>
<p>
Changes the allocator function of a given state to <code>f</code>
with user data <code>ud</code>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_setfield"><code>lua_setfield</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-1, +0, <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>void lua_setfield (lua_State *L, int index, const char *k);</pre>
<p>
Does the equivalent to <code>t[k] = v</code>,
where <code>t</code> is the value at the given index
and <code>v</code> is the value on the top of the stack.
<p>
This function pops the value from the stack.
As in Lua, this function may trigger a metamethod
for the "newindex" event (see <a href="#2.4">§2.4</a>).
<hr><h3><a name="lua_setglobal"><code>lua_setglobal</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-1, +0, <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>void lua_setglobal (lua_State *L, const char *name);</pre>
<p>
Pops a value from the stack and
sets it as the new value of global <code>name</code>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_seti"><code>lua_seti</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-1, +0, <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>void lua_seti (lua_State *L, int index, lua_Integer n);</pre>
<p>
Does the equivalent to <code>t[n] = v</code>,
where <code>t</code> is the value at the given index
and <code>v</code> is the value on the top of the stack.
<p>
This function pops the value from the stack.
As in Lua, this function may trigger a metamethod
for the "newindex" event (see <a href="#2.4">§2.4</a>).
<hr><h3><a name="lua_setiuservalue"><code>lua_setiuservalue</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-1, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_setiuservalue (lua_State *L, int index, int n);</pre>
<p>
Pops a value from the stack and sets it as
the new <code>n</code>-th user value associated to the
full userdata at the given index.
Returns 0 if the userdata does not have that value.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_setmetatable"><code>lua_setmetatable</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-1, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_setmetatable (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Pops a table or <b>nil</b> from the stack and
sets that value as the new metatable for the value at the given index.
(<b>nil</b> means no metatable.)
<p>
(For historical reasons, this function returns an <code>int</code>,
which now is always 1.)
<hr><h3><a name="lua_settable"><code>lua_settable</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-2, +0, <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>void lua_settable (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Does the equivalent to <code>t[k] = v</code>,
where <code>t</code> is the value at the given index,
<code>v</code> is the value on the top of the stack,
and <code>k</code> is the value just below the top.
<p>
This function pops both the key and the value from the stack.
As in Lua, this function may trigger a metamethod
for the "newindex" event (see <a href="#2.4">§2.4</a>).
<hr><h3><a name="lua_settop"><code>lua_settop</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-?, +?, <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>void lua_settop (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Accepts any index, or 0,
and sets the stack top to this index.
If the new top is greater than the old one,
then the new elements are filled with <b>nil</b>.
If <code>index</code> is 0, then all stack elements are removed.
<p>
This function can run arbitrary code when removing an index
marked as to-be-closed from the stack.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_setwarnf"><code>lua_setwarnf</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>void lua_setwarnf (lua_State *L, lua_WarnFunction f, void *ud);</pre>
<p>
Sets the warning function to be used by Lua to emit warnings
(see <a href="#lua_WarnFunction"><code>lua_WarnFunction</code></a>).
The <code>ud</code> parameter sets the value <code>ud</code> passed to
the warning function.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_State"><code>lua_State</code></a></h3>
<pre>typedef struct lua_State lua_State;</pre>
<p>
An opaque structure that points to a thread and indirectly
(through the thread) to the whole state of a Lua interpreter.
The Lua library is fully reentrant:
it has no global variables.
All information about a state is accessible through this structure.
<p>
A pointer to this structure must be passed as the first argument to
every function in the library, except to <a href="#lua_newstate"><code>lua_newstate</code></a>,
which creates a Lua state from scratch.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_status"><code>lua_status</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_status (lua_State *L);</pre>
<p>
Returns the status of the thread <code>L</code>.
<p>
The status can be <a href="#pdf-LUA_OK"><code>LUA_OK</code></a> for a normal thread,
an error code if the thread finished the execution
of a <a href="#lua_resume"><code>lua_resume</code></a> with an error,
or <a href="#pdf-LUA_YIELD"><code>LUA_YIELD</code></a> if the thread is suspended.
<p>
You can call functions only in threads with status <a href="#pdf-LUA_OK"><code>LUA_OK</code></a>.
You can resume threads with status <a href="#pdf-LUA_OK"><code>LUA_OK</code></a>
(to start a new coroutine) or <a href="#pdf-LUA_YIELD"><code>LUA_YIELD</code></a>
(to resume a coroutine).
<hr><h3><a name="lua_stringtonumber"><code>lua_stringtonumber</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, –]</span>
<pre>size_t lua_stringtonumber (lua_State *L, const char *s);</pre>
<p>
Converts the zero-terminated string <code>s</code> to a number,
pushes that number into the stack,
and returns the total size of the string,
that is, its length plus one.
The conversion can result in an integer or a float,
according to the lexical conventions of Lua (see <a href="#3.1">§3.1</a>).
The string may have leading and trailing whitespaces and a sign.
If the string is not a valid numeral,
returns 0 and pushes nothing.
(Note that the result can be used as a boolean,
true if the conversion succeeds.)
<hr><h3><a name="lua_toboolean"><code>lua_toboolean</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_toboolean (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Converts the Lua value at the given index to a C boolean
value (0 or 1).
Like all tests in Lua,
<a href="#lua_toboolean"><code>lua_toboolean</code></a> returns true for any Lua value
different from <b>false</b> and <b>nil</b>;
otherwise it returns false.
(If you want to accept only actual boolean values,
use <a href="#lua_isboolean"><code>lua_isboolean</code></a> to test the value's type.)
<hr><h3><a name="lua_tocfunction"><code>lua_tocfunction</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>lua_CFunction lua_tocfunction (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Converts a value at the given index to a C function.
That value must be a C function;
otherwise, returns <code>NULL</code>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_toclose"><code>lua_toclose</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>void lua_toclose (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Marks the given index in the stack as a
to-be-closed slot (see <a href="#3.3.8">§3.3.8</a>).
Like a to-be-closed variable in Lua,
the value at that slot in the stack will be closed
when it goes out of scope.
Here, in the context of a C function,
to go out of scope means that the running function returns to Lua,
or there is an error,
or the slot is removed from the stack through
<a href="#lua_settop"><code>lua_settop</code></a> or <a href="#lua_pop"><code>lua_pop</code></a>,
or there is a call to <a href="#lua_closeslot"><code>lua_closeslot</code></a>.
A slot marked as to-be-closed should not be removed from the stack
by any other function in the API except <a href="#lua_settop"><code>lua_settop</code></a> or <a href="#lua_pop"><code>lua_pop</code></a>,
unless previously deactivated by <a href="#lua_closeslot"><code>lua_closeslot</code></a>.
<p>
This function should not be called for an index
that is equal to or below an active to-be-closed slot.
<p>
Note that, both in case of errors and of a regular return,
by the time the <code>__close</code> metamethod runs,
the C stack was already unwound,
so that any automatic C variable declared in the calling function
(e.g., a buffer) will be out of scope.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_tointeger"><code>lua_tointeger</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>lua_Integer lua_tointeger (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Equivalent to <a href="#lua_tointegerx"><code>lua_tointegerx</code></a> with <code>isnum</code> equal to <code>NULL</code>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_tointegerx"><code>lua_tointegerx</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>lua_Integer lua_tointegerx (lua_State *L, int index, int *isnum);</pre>
<p>
Converts the Lua value at the given index
to the signed integral type <a href="#lua_Integer"><code>lua_Integer</code></a>.
The Lua value must be an integer,
or a number or string convertible to an integer (see <a href="#3.4.3">§3.4.3</a>);
otherwise, <code>lua_tointegerx</code> returns 0.
<p>
If <code>isnum</code> is not <code>NULL</code>,
its referent is assigned a boolean value that
indicates whether the operation succeeded.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_tolstring"><code>lua_tolstring</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>const char *lua_tolstring (lua_State *L, int index, size_t *len);</pre>
<p>
Converts the Lua value at the given index to a C string.
If <code>len</code> is not <code>NULL</code>,
it sets <code>*len</code> with the string length.
The Lua value must be a string or a number;
otherwise, the function returns <code>NULL</code>.
If the value is a number,
then <code>lua_tolstring</code> also
<em>changes the actual value in the stack to a string</em>.
(This change confuses <a href="#lua_next"><code>lua_next</code></a>
when <code>lua_tolstring</code> is applied to keys during a table traversal.)
<p>
<code>lua_tolstring</code> returns a pointer
to a string inside the Lua state (see <a href="#4.1.3">§4.1.3</a>).
This string always has a zero ('<code>\0</code>')
after its last character (as in C),
but can contain other zeros in its body.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_tonumber"><code>lua_tonumber</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>lua_Number lua_tonumber (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Equivalent to <a href="#lua_tonumberx"><code>lua_tonumberx</code></a> with <code>isnum</code> equal to <code>NULL</code>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_tonumberx"><code>lua_tonumberx</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>lua_Number lua_tonumberx (lua_State *L, int index, int *isnum);</pre>
<p>
Converts the Lua value at the given index
to the C type <a href="#lua_Number"><code>lua_Number</code></a> (see <a href="#lua_Number"><code>lua_Number</code></a>).
The Lua value must be a number or a string convertible to a number
(see <a href="#3.4.3">§3.4.3</a>);
otherwise, <a href="#lua_tonumberx"><code>lua_tonumberx</code></a> returns 0.
<p>
If <code>isnum</code> is not <code>NULL</code>,
its referent is assigned a boolean value that
indicates whether the operation succeeded.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_topointer"><code>lua_topointer</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>const void *lua_topointer (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Converts the value at the given index to a generic
C pointer (<code>void*</code>).
The value can be a userdata, a table, a thread, a string, or a function;
otherwise, <code>lua_topointer</code> returns <code>NULL</code>.
Different objects will give different pointers.
There is no way to convert the pointer back to its original value.
<p>
Typically this function is used only for hashing and debug information.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_tostring"><code>lua_tostring</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>const char *lua_tostring (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Equivalent to <a href="#lua_tolstring"><code>lua_tolstring</code></a> with <code>len</code> equal to <code>NULL</code>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_tothread"><code>lua_tothread</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>lua_State *lua_tothread (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Converts the value at the given index to a Lua thread
(represented as <code>lua_State*</code>).
This value must be a thread;
otherwise, the function returns <code>NULL</code>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_touserdata"><code>lua_touserdata</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>void *lua_touserdata (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
If the value at the given index is a full userdata,
returns its memory-block address.
If the value is a light userdata,
returns its value (a pointer).
Otherwise, returns <code>NULL</code>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_type"><code>lua_type</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_type (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Returns the type of the value in the given valid index,
or <code>LUA_TNONE</code> for a non-valid but acceptable index.
The types returned by <a href="#lua_type"><code>lua_type</code></a> are coded by the following constants
defined in <code>lua.h</code>:
<a name="pdf-LUA_TNIL"><code>LUA_TNIL</code></a>,
<a name="pdf-LUA_TNUMBER"><code>LUA_TNUMBER</code></a>,
<a name="pdf-LUA_TBOOLEAN"><code>LUA_TBOOLEAN</code></a>,
<a name="pdf-LUA_TSTRING"><code>LUA_TSTRING</code></a>,
<a name="pdf-LUA_TTABLE"><code>LUA_TTABLE</code></a>,
<a name="pdf-LUA_TFUNCTION"><code>LUA_TFUNCTION</code></a>,
<a name="pdf-LUA_TUSERDATA"><code>LUA_TUSERDATA</code></a>,
<a name="pdf-LUA_TTHREAD"><code>LUA_TTHREAD</code></a>,
and
<a name="pdf-LUA_TLIGHTUSERDATA"><code>LUA_TLIGHTUSERDATA</code></a>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_typename"><code>lua_typename</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>const char *lua_typename (lua_State *L, int tp);</pre>
<p>
Returns the name of the type encoded by the value <code>tp</code>,
which must be one the values returned by <a href="#lua_type"><code>lua_type</code></a>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_Unsigned"><code>lua_Unsigned</code></a></h3>
<pre>typedef ... lua_Unsigned;</pre>
<p>
The unsigned version of <a href="#lua_Integer"><code>lua_Integer</code></a>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_upvalueindex"><code>lua_upvalueindex</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_upvalueindex (int i);</pre>
<p>
Returns the pseudo-index that represents the <code>i</code>-th upvalue of
the running function (see <a href="#4.2">§4.2</a>).
<code>i</code> must be in the range <em>[1,256]</em>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_version"><code>lua_version</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>lua_Number lua_version (lua_State *L);</pre>
<p>
Returns the version number of this core.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_WarnFunction"><code>lua_WarnFunction</code></a></h3>
<pre>typedef void (*lua_WarnFunction) (void *ud, const char *msg, int tocont);</pre>
<p>
The type of warning functions, called by Lua to emit warnings.
The first parameter is an opaque pointer
set by <a href="#lua_setwarnf"><code>lua_setwarnf</code></a>.
The second parameter is the warning message.
The third parameter is a boolean that
indicates whether the message is
to be continued by the message in the next call.
<p>
See <a href="#pdf-warn"><code>warn</code></a> for more details about warnings.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_warning"><code>lua_warning</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>void lua_warning (lua_State *L, const char *msg, int tocont);</pre>
<p>
Emits a warning with the given message.
A message in a call with <code>tocont</code> true should be
continued in another call to this function.
<p>
See <a href="#pdf-warn"><code>warn</code></a> for more details about warnings.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_Writer"><code>lua_Writer</code></a></h3>
<pre>typedef int (*lua_Writer) (lua_State *L,
const void* p,
size_t sz,
void* ud);</pre>
<p>
The type of the writer function used by <a href="#lua_dump"><code>lua_dump</code></a>.
Every time <a href="#lua_dump"><code>lua_dump</code></a> produces another piece of chunk,
it calls the writer,
passing along the buffer to be written (<code>p</code>),
its size (<code>sz</code>),
and the <code>ud</code> parameter supplied to <a href="#lua_dump"><code>lua_dump</code></a>.
<p>
The writer returns an error code:
0 means no errors;
any other value means an error and stops <a href="#lua_dump"><code>lua_dump</code></a> from
calling the writer again.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_xmove"><code>lua_xmove</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-?, +?, –]</span>
<pre>void lua_xmove (lua_State *from, lua_State *to, int n);</pre>
<p>
Exchange values between different threads of the same state.
<p>
This function pops <code>n</code> values from the stack <code>from</code>,
and pushes them onto the stack <code>to</code>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_yield"><code>lua_yield</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-?, +?, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>int lua_yield (lua_State *L, int nresults);</pre>
<p>
This function is equivalent to <a href="#lua_yieldk"><code>lua_yieldk</code></a>,
but it has no continuation (see <a href="#4.5">§4.5</a>).
Therefore, when the thread resumes,
it continues the function that called
the function calling <code>lua_yield</code>.
To avoid surprises,
this function should be called only in a tail call.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_yieldk"><code>lua_yieldk</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-?, +?, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>int lua_yieldk (lua_State *L,
int nresults,
lua_KContext ctx,
lua_KFunction k);</pre>
<p>
Yields a coroutine (thread).
<p>
When a C function calls <a href="#lua_yieldk"><code>lua_yieldk</code></a>,
the running coroutine suspends its execution,
and the call to <a href="#lua_resume"><code>lua_resume</code></a> that started this coroutine returns.
The parameter <code>nresults</code> is the number of values from the stack
that will be passed as results to <a href="#lua_resume"><code>lua_resume</code></a>.
<p>
When the coroutine is resumed again,
Lua calls the given continuation function <code>k</code> to continue
the execution of the C function that yielded (see <a href="#4.5">§4.5</a>).
This continuation function receives the same stack
from the previous function,
with the <code>n</code> results removed and
replaced by the arguments passed to <a href="#lua_resume"><code>lua_resume</code></a>.
Moreover,
the continuation function receives the value <code>ctx</code>
that was passed to <a href="#lua_yieldk"><code>lua_yieldk</code></a>.
<p>
Usually, this function does not return;
when the coroutine eventually resumes,
it continues executing the continuation function.
However, there is one special case,
which is when this function is called
from inside a line or a count hook (see <a href="#4.7">§4.7</a>).
In that case, <code>lua_yieldk</code> should be called with no continuation
(probably in the form of <a href="#lua_yield"><code>lua_yield</code></a>) and no results,
and the hook should return immediately after the call.
Lua will yield and,
when the coroutine resumes again,
it will continue the normal execution
of the (Lua) function that triggered the hook.
<p>
This function can raise an error if it is called from a thread
with a pending C call with no continuation function
(what is called a <em>C-call boundary</em>),
or it is called from a thread that is not running inside a resume
(typically the main thread).
<h2>4.7 – <a name="4.7">The Debug Interface</a></h2>
<p>
Lua has no built-in debugging facilities.
Instead, it offers a special interface
by means of functions and <em>hooks</em>.
This interface allows the construction of different
kinds of debuggers, profilers, and other tools
that need "inside information" from the interpreter.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_Debug"><code>lua_Debug</code></a></h3>
<pre>typedef struct lua_Debug {
int event;
const char *name; /* (n) */
const char *namewhat; /* (n) */
const char *what; /* (S) */
const char *source; /* (S) */
size_t srclen; /* (S) */
int currentline; /* (l) */
int linedefined; /* (S) */
int lastlinedefined; /* (S) */
unsigned char nups; /* (u) number of upvalues */
unsigned char nparams; /* (u) number of parameters */
char isvararg; /* (u) */
char istailcall; /* (t) */
unsigned short ftransfer; /* (r) index of first value transferred */
unsigned short ntransfer; /* (r) number of transferred values */
char short_src[LUA_IDSIZE]; /* (S) */
/* private part */
<em>other fields</em>
} lua_Debug;</pre>
<p>
A structure used to carry different pieces of
information about a function or an activation record.
<a href="#lua_getstack"><code>lua_getstack</code></a> fills only the private part
of this structure, for later use.
To fill the other fields of <a href="#lua_Debug"><code>lua_Debug</code></a> with useful information,
you must call <a href="#lua_getinfo"><code>lua_getinfo</code></a>.
<p>
The fields of <a href="#lua_Debug"><code>lua_Debug</code></a> have the following meaning:
<ul>
<li><b><code>source</code>: </b>
the source of the chunk that created the function.
If <code>source</code> starts with a '<code>@</code>',
it means that the function was defined in a file where
the file name follows the '<code>@</code>'.
If <code>source</code> starts with a '<code>=</code>',
the remainder of its contents describes the source in a user-dependent manner.
Otherwise,
the function was defined in a string where
<code>source</code> is that string.
</li>
<li><b><code>srclen</code>: </b>
The length of the string <code>source</code>.
</li>
<li><b><code>short_src</code>: </b>
a "printable" version of <code>source</code>, to be used in error messages.
</li>
<li><b><code>linedefined</code>: </b>
the line number where the definition of the function starts.
</li>
<li><b><code>lastlinedefined</code>: </b>
the line number where the definition of the function ends.
</li>
<li><b><code>what</code>: </b>
the string <code>"Lua"</code> if the function is a Lua function,
<code>"C"</code> if it is a C function,
<code>"main"</code> if it is the main part of a chunk.
</li>
<li><b><code>currentline</code>: </b>
the current line where the given function is executing.
When no line information is available,
<code>currentline</code> is set to -1.
</li>
<li><b><code>name</code>: </b>
a reasonable name for the given function.
Because functions in Lua are first-class values,
they do not have a fixed name:
some functions can be the value of multiple global variables,
while others can be stored only in a table field.
The <code>lua_getinfo</code> function checks how the function was
called to find a suitable name.
If it cannot find a name,
then <code>name</code> is set to <code>NULL</code>.
</li>
<li><b><code>namewhat</code>: </b>
explains the <code>name</code> field.
The value of <code>namewhat</code> can be
<code>"global"</code>, <code>"local"</code>, <code>"method"</code>,
<code>"field"</code>, <code>"upvalue"</code>, or <code>""</code> (the empty string),
according to how the function was called.
(Lua uses the empty string when no other option seems to apply.)
</li>
<li><b><code>istailcall</code>: </b>
true if this function invocation was called by a tail call.
In this case, the caller of this level is not in the stack.
</li>
<li><b><code>nups</code>: </b>
the number of upvalues of the function.
</li>
<li><b><code>nparams</code>: </b>
the number of parameters of the function
(always 0 for C functions).
</li>
<li><b><code>isvararg</code>: </b>
true if the function is a vararg function
(always true for C functions).
</li>
<li><b><code>ftransfer</code>: </b>
the index in the stack of the first value being "transferred",
that is, parameters in a call or return values in a return.
(The other values are in consecutive indices.)
Using this index, you can access and modify these values
through <a href="#lua_getlocal"><code>lua_getlocal</code></a> and <a href="#lua_setlocal"><code>lua_setlocal</code></a>.
This field is only meaningful during a
call hook, denoting the first parameter,
or a return hook, denoting the first value being returned.
(For call hooks, this value is always 1.)
</li>
<li><b><code>ntransfer</code>: </b>
The number of values being transferred (see previous item).
(For calls of Lua functions,
this value is always equal to <code>nparams</code>.)
</li>
</ul>
<hr><h3><a name="lua_gethook"><code>lua_gethook</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>lua_Hook lua_gethook (lua_State *L);</pre>
<p>
Returns the current hook function.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_gethookcount"><code>lua_gethookcount</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_gethookcount (lua_State *L);</pre>
<p>
Returns the current hook count.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_gethookmask"><code>lua_gethookmask</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_gethookmask (lua_State *L);</pre>
<p>
Returns the current hook mask.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_getinfo"><code>lua_getinfo</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-(0|1), +(0|1|2), <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>int lua_getinfo (lua_State *L, const char *what, lua_Debug *ar);</pre>
<p>
Gets information about a specific function or function invocation.
<p>
To get information about a function invocation,
the parameter <code>ar</code> must be a valid activation record that was
filled by a previous call to <a href="#lua_getstack"><code>lua_getstack</code></a> or
given as argument to a hook (see <a href="#lua_Hook"><code>lua_Hook</code></a>).
<p>
To get information about a function, you push it onto the stack
and start the <code>what</code> string with the character '<code>></code>'.
(In that case,
<code>lua_getinfo</code> pops the function from the top of the stack.)
For instance, to know in which line a function <code>f</code> was defined,
you can write the following code:
<pre>
lua_Debug ar;
lua_getglobal(L, "f"); /* get global 'f' */
lua_getinfo(L, ">S", &ar);
printf("%d\n", ar.linedefined);
</pre>
<p>
Each character in the string <code>what</code>
selects some fields of the structure <code>ar</code> to be filled or
a value to be pushed on the stack:
<ul>
<li><b>'<code>n</code>': </b> fills in the field <code>name</code> and <code>namewhat</code>;
</li>
<li><b>'<code>S</code>': </b>
fills in the fields <code>source</code>, <code>short_src</code>,
<code>linedefined</code>, <code>lastlinedefined</code>, and <code>what</code>;
</li>
<li><b>'<code>l</code>': </b> fills in the field <code>currentline</code>;
</li>
<li><b>'<code>t</code>': </b> fills in the field <code>istailcall</code>;
</li>
<li><b>'<code>u</code>': </b> fills in the fields
<code>nups</code>, <code>nparams</code>, and <code>isvararg</code>;
</li>
<li><b>'<code>f</code>': </b>
pushes onto the stack the function that is
running at the given level;
</li>
<li><b>'<code>L</code>': </b>
pushes onto the stack a table whose indices are the
numbers of the lines that are valid on the function.
(A <em>valid line</em> is a line with some associated code,
that is, a line where you can put a break point.
Non-valid lines include empty lines and comments.)
<p>
If this option is given together with option '<code>f</code>',
its table is pushed after the function.
<p>
This is the only option that can raise a memory error.
</li>
</ul>
<p>
This function returns 0 to signal an invalid option in <code>what</code>;
even then the valid options are handled correctly.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_getlocal"><code>lua_getlocal</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +(0|1), –]</span>
<pre>const char *lua_getlocal (lua_State *L, const lua_Debug *ar, int n);</pre>
<p>
Gets information about a local variable or a temporary value
of a given activation record or a given function.
<p>
In the first case,
the parameter <code>ar</code> must be a valid activation record that was
filled by a previous call to <a href="#lua_getstack"><code>lua_getstack</code></a> or
given as argument to a hook (see <a href="#lua_Hook"><code>lua_Hook</code></a>).
The index <code>n</code> selects which local variable to inspect;
see <a href="#pdf-debug.getlocal"><code>debug.getlocal</code></a> for details about variable indices
and names.
<p>
<a href="#lua_getlocal"><code>lua_getlocal</code></a> pushes the variable's value onto the stack
and returns its name.
<p>
In the second case, <code>ar</code> must be <code>NULL</code> and the function
to be inspected must be on the top of the stack.
In this case, only parameters of Lua functions are visible
(as there is no information about what variables are active)
and no values are pushed onto the stack.
<p>
Returns <code>NULL</code> (and pushes nothing)
when the index is greater than
the number of active local variables.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_getstack"><code>lua_getstack</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_getstack (lua_State *L, int level, lua_Debug *ar);</pre>
<p>
Gets information about the interpreter runtime stack.
<p>
This function fills parts of a <a href="#lua_Debug"><code>lua_Debug</code></a> structure with
an identification of the <em>activation record</em>
of the function executing at a given level.
Level 0 is the current running function,
whereas level <em>n+1</em> is the function that has called level <em>n</em>
(except for tail calls, which do not count in the stack).
When called with a level greater than the stack depth,
<a href="#lua_getstack"><code>lua_getstack</code></a> returns 0;
otherwise it returns 1.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_getupvalue"><code>lua_getupvalue</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +(0|1), –]</span>
<pre>const char *lua_getupvalue (lua_State *L, int funcindex, int n);</pre>
<p>
Gets information about the <code>n</code>-th upvalue
of the closure at index <code>funcindex</code>.
It pushes the upvalue's value onto the stack
and returns its name.
Returns <code>NULL</code> (and pushes nothing)
when the index <code>n</code> is greater than the number of upvalues.
<p>
See <a href="#pdf-debug.getupvalue"><code>debug.getupvalue</code></a> for more information about upvalues.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_Hook"><code>lua_Hook</code></a></h3>
<pre>typedef void (*lua_Hook) (lua_State *L, lua_Debug *ar);</pre>
<p>
Type for debugging hook functions.
<p>
Whenever a hook is called, its <code>ar</code> argument has its field
<code>event</code> set to the specific event that triggered the hook.
Lua identifies these events with the following constants:
<a name="pdf-LUA_HOOKCALL"><code>LUA_HOOKCALL</code></a>, <a name="pdf-LUA_HOOKRET"><code>LUA_HOOKRET</code></a>,
<a name="pdf-LUA_HOOKTAILCALL"><code>LUA_HOOKTAILCALL</code></a>, <a name="pdf-LUA_HOOKLINE"><code>LUA_HOOKLINE</code></a>,
and <a name="pdf-LUA_HOOKCOUNT"><code>LUA_HOOKCOUNT</code></a>.
Moreover, for line events, the field <code>currentline</code> is also set.
To get the value of any other field in <code>ar</code>,
the hook must call <a href="#lua_getinfo"><code>lua_getinfo</code></a>.
<p>
For call events, <code>event</code> can be <code>LUA_HOOKCALL</code>,
the normal value, or <code>LUA_HOOKTAILCALL</code>, for a tail call;
in this case, there will be no corresponding return event.
<p>
While Lua is running a hook, it disables other calls to hooks.
Therefore, if a hook calls back Lua to execute a function or a chunk,
this execution occurs without any calls to hooks.
<p>
Hook functions cannot have continuations,
that is, they cannot call <a href="#lua_yieldk"><code>lua_yieldk</code></a>,
<a href="#lua_pcallk"><code>lua_pcallk</code></a>, or <a href="#lua_callk"><code>lua_callk</code></a> with a non-null <code>k</code>.
<p>
Hook functions can yield under the following conditions:
Only count and line events can yield;
to yield, a hook function must finish its execution
calling <a href="#lua_yield"><code>lua_yield</code></a> with <code>nresults</code> equal to zero
(that is, with no values).
<hr><h3><a name="lua_sethook"><code>lua_sethook</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>void lua_sethook (lua_State *L, lua_Hook f, int mask, int count);</pre>
<p>
Sets the debugging hook function.
<p>
Argument <code>f</code> is the hook function.
<code>mask</code> specifies on which events the hook will be called:
it is formed by a bitwise OR of the constants
<a name="pdf-LUA_MASKCALL"><code>LUA_MASKCALL</code></a>,
<a name="pdf-LUA_MASKRET"><code>LUA_MASKRET</code></a>,
<a name="pdf-LUA_MASKLINE"><code>LUA_MASKLINE</code></a>,
and <a name="pdf-LUA_MASKCOUNT"><code>LUA_MASKCOUNT</code></a>.
The <code>count</code> argument is only meaningful when the mask
includes <code>LUA_MASKCOUNT</code>.
For each event, the hook is called as explained below:
<ul>
<li><b>The call hook: </b> is called when the interpreter calls a function.
The hook is called just after Lua enters the new function.
</li>
<li><b>The return hook: </b> is called when the interpreter returns from a function.
The hook is called just before Lua leaves the function.
</li>
<li><b>The line hook: </b> is called when the interpreter is about to
start the execution of a new line of code,
or when it jumps back in the code (even to the same line).
This event only happens while Lua is executing a Lua function.
</li>
<li><b>The count hook: </b> is called after the interpreter executes every
<code>count</code> instructions.
This event only happens while Lua is executing a Lua function.
</li>
</ul>
<p>
Hooks are disabled by setting <code>mask</code> to zero.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_setlocal"><code>lua_setlocal</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-(0|1), +0, –]</span>
<pre>const char *lua_setlocal (lua_State *L, const lua_Debug *ar, int n);</pre>
<p>
Sets the value of a local variable of a given activation record.
It assigns the value on the top of the stack
to the variable and returns its name.
It also pops the value from the stack.
<p>
Returns <code>NULL</code> (and pops nothing)
when the index is greater than
the number of active local variables.
<p>
Parameters <code>ar</code> and <code>n</code> are as in the function <a href="#lua_getlocal"><code>lua_getlocal</code></a>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_setupvalue"><code>lua_setupvalue</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-(0|1), +0, –]</span>
<pre>const char *lua_setupvalue (lua_State *L, int funcindex, int n);</pre>
<p>
Sets the value of a closure's upvalue.
It assigns the value on the top of the stack
to the upvalue and returns its name.
It also pops the value from the stack.
<p>
Returns <code>NULL</code> (and pops nothing)
when the index <code>n</code> is greater than the number of upvalues.
<p>
Parameters <code>funcindex</code> and <code>n</code> are as in
the function <a href="#lua_getupvalue"><code>lua_getupvalue</code></a>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_upvalueid"><code>lua_upvalueid</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>void *lua_upvalueid (lua_State *L, int funcindex, int n);</pre>
<p>
Returns a unique identifier for the upvalue numbered <code>n</code>
from the closure at index <code>funcindex</code>.
<p>
These unique identifiers allow a program to check whether different
closures share upvalues.
Lua closures that share an upvalue
(that is, that access a same external local variable)
will return identical ids for those upvalue indices.
<p>
Parameters <code>funcindex</code> and <code>n</code> are as in
the function <a href="#lua_getupvalue"><code>lua_getupvalue</code></a>,
but <code>n</code> cannot be greater than the number of upvalues.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_upvaluejoin"><code>lua_upvaluejoin</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>void lua_upvaluejoin (lua_State *L, int funcindex1, int n1,
int funcindex2, int n2);</pre>
<p>
Make the <code>n1</code>-th upvalue of the Lua closure at index <code>funcindex1</code>
refer to the <code>n2</code>-th upvalue of the Lua closure at index <code>funcindex2</code>.
<h1>5 – <a name="5">The Auxiliary Library</a></h1>
<p>
The <em>auxiliary library</em> provides several convenient functions
to interface C with Lua.
While the basic API provides the primitive functions for all
interactions between C and Lua,
the auxiliary library provides higher-level functions for some
common tasks.
<p>
All functions and types from the auxiliary library
are defined in header file <code>lauxlib.h</code> and
have a prefix <code>luaL_</code>.
<p>
All functions in the auxiliary library are built on
top of the basic API,
and so they provide nothing that cannot be done with that API.
Nevertheless, the use of the auxiliary library ensures
more consistency to your code.
<p>
Several functions in the auxiliary library use internally some
extra stack slots.
When a function in the auxiliary library uses less than five slots,
it does not check the stack size;
it simply assumes that there are enough slots.
<p>
Several functions in the auxiliary library are used to
check C function arguments.
Because the error message is formatted for arguments
(e.g., "<code>bad argument #1</code>"),
you should not use these functions for other stack values.
<p>
Functions called <code>luaL_check*</code>
always raise an error if the check is not satisfied.
<h2>5.1 – <a name="5.1">Functions and Types</a></h2>
<p>
Here we list all functions and types from the auxiliary library
in alphabetical order.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_addchar"><code>luaL_addchar</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-?, +?, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>void luaL_addchar (luaL_Buffer *B, char c);</pre>
<p>
Adds the byte <code>c</code> to the buffer <code>B</code>
(see <a href="#luaL_Buffer"><code>luaL_Buffer</code></a>).
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_addgsub"><code>luaL_addgsub</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>const void luaL_addgsub (luaL_Buffer *B, const char *s,
const char *p, const char *r);</pre>
<p>
Adds a copy of the string <code>s</code> to the buffer <code>B</code> (see <a href="#luaL_Buffer"><code>luaL_Buffer</code></a>),
replacing any occurrence of the string <code>p</code>
with the string <code>r</code>.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_addlstring"><code>luaL_addlstring</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-?, +?, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>void luaL_addlstring (luaL_Buffer *B, const char *s, size_t l);</pre>
<p>
Adds the string pointed to by <code>s</code> with length <code>l</code> to
the buffer <code>B</code>
(see <a href="#luaL_Buffer"><code>luaL_Buffer</code></a>).
The string can contain embedded zeros.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_addsize"><code>luaL_addsize</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-?, +?, –]</span>
<pre>void luaL_addsize (luaL_Buffer *B, size_t n);</pre>
<p>
Adds to the buffer <code>B</code>
a string of length <code>n</code> previously copied to the
buffer area (see <a href="#luaL_prepbuffer"><code>luaL_prepbuffer</code></a>).
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_addstring"><code>luaL_addstring</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-?, +?, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>void luaL_addstring (luaL_Buffer *B, const char *s);</pre>
<p>
Adds the zero-terminated string pointed to by <code>s</code>
to the buffer <code>B</code>
(see <a href="#luaL_Buffer"><code>luaL_Buffer</code></a>).
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_addvalue"><code>luaL_addvalue</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-1, +?, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>void luaL_addvalue (luaL_Buffer *B);</pre>
<p>
Adds the value on the top of the stack
to the buffer <code>B</code>
(see <a href="#luaL_Buffer"><code>luaL_Buffer</code></a>).
Pops the value.
<p>
This is the only function on string buffers that can (and must)
be called with an extra element on the stack,
which is the value to be added to the buffer.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_argcheck"><code>luaL_argcheck</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>void luaL_argcheck (lua_State *L,
int cond,
int arg,
const char *extramsg);</pre>
<p>
Checks whether <code>cond</code> is true.
If it is not, raises an error with a standard message (see <a href="#luaL_argerror"><code>luaL_argerror</code></a>).
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_argerror"><code>luaL_argerror</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>int luaL_argerror (lua_State *L, int arg, const char *extramsg);</pre>
<p>
Raises an error reporting a problem with argument <code>arg</code>
of the C function that called it,
using a standard message
that includes <code>extramsg</code> as a comment:
<pre>
bad argument #<em>arg</em> to '<em>funcname</em>' (<em>extramsg</em>)
</pre><p>
This function never returns.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_argexpected"><code>luaL_argexpected</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>void luaL_argexpected (lua_State *L,
int cond,
int arg,
const char *tname);</pre>
<p>
Checks whether <code>cond</code> is true.
If it is not, raises an error about the type of the argument <code>arg</code>
with a standard message (see <a href="#luaL_typeerror"><code>luaL_typeerror</code></a>).
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_Buffer"><code>luaL_Buffer</code></a></h3>
<pre>typedef struct luaL_Buffer luaL_Buffer;</pre>
<p>
Type for a <em>string buffer</em>.
<p>
A string buffer allows C code to build Lua strings piecemeal.
Its pattern of use is as follows:
<ul>
<li>First declare a variable <code>b</code> of type <a href="#luaL_Buffer"><code>luaL_Buffer</code></a>.</li>
<li>Then initialize it with a call <code>luaL_buffinit(L, &b)</code>.</li>
<li>
Then add string pieces to the buffer calling any of
the <code>luaL_add*</code> functions.
</li>
<li>
Finish by calling <code>luaL_pushresult(&b)</code>.
This call leaves the final string on the top of the stack.
</li>
</ul>
<p>
If you know beforehand the maximum size of the resulting string,
you can use the buffer like this:
<ul>
<li>First declare a variable <code>b</code> of type <a href="#luaL_Buffer"><code>luaL_Buffer</code></a>.</li>
<li>Then initialize it and preallocate a space of
size <code>sz</code> with a call <code>luaL_buffinitsize(L, &b, sz)</code>.</li>
<li>Then produce the string into that space.</li>
<li>
Finish by calling <code>luaL_pushresultsize(&b, sz)</code>,
where <code>sz</code> is the total size of the resulting string
copied into that space (which may be less than or
equal to the preallocated size).
</li>
</ul>
<p>
During its normal operation,
a string buffer uses a variable number of stack slots.
So, while using a buffer, you cannot assume that you know where
the top of the stack is.
You can use the stack between successive calls to buffer operations
as long as that use is balanced;
that is,
when you call a buffer operation,
the stack is at the same level
it was immediately after the previous buffer operation.
(The only exception to this rule is <a href="#luaL_addvalue"><code>luaL_addvalue</code></a>.)
After calling <a href="#luaL_pushresult"><code>luaL_pushresult</code></a>,
the stack is back to its level when the buffer was initialized,
plus the final string on its top.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_buffaddr"><code>luaL_buffaddr</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>char *luaL_buffaddr (luaL_Buffer *B);</pre>
<p>
Returns the address of the current content of buffer <code>B</code>
(see <a href="#luaL_Buffer"><code>luaL_Buffer</code></a>).
Note that any addition to the buffer may invalidate this address.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_buffinit"><code>luaL_buffinit</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>void luaL_buffinit (lua_State *L, luaL_Buffer *B);</pre>
<p>
Initializes a buffer <code>B</code>
(see <a href="#luaL_Buffer"><code>luaL_Buffer</code></a>).
This function does not allocate any space;
the buffer must be declared as a variable.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_bufflen"><code>luaL_bufflen</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>size_t luaL_bufflen (luaL_Buffer *B);</pre>
<p>
Returns the length of the current content of buffer <code>B</code>
(see <a href="#luaL_Buffer"><code>luaL_Buffer</code></a>).
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_buffinitsize"><code>luaL_buffinitsize</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-?, +?, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>char *luaL_buffinitsize (lua_State *L, luaL_Buffer *B, size_t sz);</pre>
<p>
Equivalent to the sequence
<a href="#luaL_buffinit"><code>luaL_buffinit</code></a>, <a href="#luaL_prepbuffsize"><code>luaL_prepbuffsize</code></a>.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_buffsub"><code>luaL_buffsub</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>void luaL_buffsub (luaL_Buffer *B, int n);</pre>
<p>
Removes <code>n</code> bytes from the the buffer <code>B</code>
(see <a href="#luaL_Buffer"><code>luaL_Buffer</code></a>).
The buffer must have at least that many bytes.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_callmeta"><code>luaL_callmeta</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +(0|1), <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>int luaL_callmeta (lua_State *L, int obj, const char *e);</pre>
<p>
Calls a metamethod.
<p>
If the object at index <code>obj</code> has a metatable and this
metatable has a field <code>e</code>,
this function calls this field passing the object as its only argument.
In this case this function returns true and pushes onto the
stack the value returned by the call.
If there is no metatable or no metamethod,
this function returns false without pushing any value on the stack.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_checkany"><code>luaL_checkany</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>void luaL_checkany (lua_State *L, int arg);</pre>
<p>
Checks whether the function has an argument
of any type (including <b>nil</b>) at position <code>arg</code>.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_checkinteger"><code>luaL_checkinteger</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>lua_Integer luaL_checkinteger (lua_State *L, int arg);</pre>
<p>
Checks whether the function argument <code>arg</code> is an integer
(or can be converted to an integer)
and returns this integer.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_checklstring"><code>luaL_checklstring</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>const char *luaL_checklstring (lua_State *L, int arg, size_t *l);</pre>
<p>
Checks whether the function argument <code>arg</code> is a string
and returns this string;
if <code>l</code> is not <code>NULL</code> fills its referent
with the string's length.
<p>
This function uses <a href="#lua_tolstring"><code>lua_tolstring</code></a> to get its result,
so all conversions and caveats of that function apply here.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_checknumber"><code>luaL_checknumber</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>lua_Number luaL_checknumber (lua_State *L, int arg);</pre>
<p>
Checks whether the function argument <code>arg</code> is a number
and returns this number converted to a <code>lua_Number</code>.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_checkoption"><code>luaL_checkoption</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>int luaL_checkoption (lua_State *L,
int arg,
const char *def,
const char *const lst[]);</pre>
<p>
Checks whether the function argument <code>arg</code> is a string and
searches for this string in the array <code>lst</code>
(which must be NULL-terminated).
Returns the index in the array where the string was found.
Raises an error if the argument is not a string or
if the string cannot be found.
<p>
If <code>def</code> is not <code>NULL</code>,
the function uses <code>def</code> as a default value when
there is no argument <code>arg</code> or when this argument is <b>nil</b>.
<p>
This is a useful function for mapping strings to C enums.
(The usual convention in Lua libraries is
to use strings instead of numbers to select options.)
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_checkstack"><code>luaL_checkstack</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>void luaL_checkstack (lua_State *L, int sz, const char *msg);</pre>
<p>
Grows the stack size to <code>top + sz</code> elements,
raising an error if the stack cannot grow to that size.
<code>msg</code> is an additional text to go into the error message
(or <code>NULL</code> for no additional text).
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_checkstring"><code>luaL_checkstring</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>const char *luaL_checkstring (lua_State *L, int arg);</pre>
<p>
Checks whether the function argument <code>arg</code> is a string
and returns this string.
<p>
This function uses <a href="#lua_tolstring"><code>lua_tolstring</code></a> to get its result,
so all conversions and caveats of that function apply here.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_checktype"><code>luaL_checktype</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>void luaL_checktype (lua_State *L, int arg, int t);</pre>
<p>
Checks whether the function argument <code>arg</code> has type <code>t</code>.
See <a href="#lua_type"><code>lua_type</code></a> for the encoding of types for <code>t</code>.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_checkudata"><code>luaL_checkudata</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>void *luaL_checkudata (lua_State *L, int arg, const char *tname);</pre>
<p>
Checks whether the function argument <code>arg</code> is a userdata
of the type <code>tname</code> (see <a href="#luaL_newmetatable"><code>luaL_newmetatable</code></a>) and
returns the userdata's memory-block address (see <a href="#lua_touserdata"><code>lua_touserdata</code></a>).
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_checkversion"><code>luaL_checkversion</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>void luaL_checkversion (lua_State *L);</pre>
<p>
Checks whether the code making the call and the Lua library being called
are using the same version of Lua and the same numeric types.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_dofile"><code>luaL_dofile</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +?, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>int luaL_dofile (lua_State *L, const char *filename);</pre>
<p>
Loads and runs the given file.
It is defined as the following macro:
<pre>
(luaL_loadfile(L, filename) || lua_pcall(L, 0, LUA_MULTRET, 0))
</pre><p>
It returns <a href="#pdf-LUA_OK"><code>LUA_OK</code></a> if there are no errors,
or an error code in case of errors (see <a href="#4.4.1">§4.4.1</a>).
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_dostring"><code>luaL_dostring</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +?, –]</span>
<pre>int luaL_dostring (lua_State *L, const char *str);</pre>
<p>
Loads and runs the given string.
It is defined as the following macro:
<pre>
(luaL_loadstring(L, str) || lua_pcall(L, 0, LUA_MULTRET, 0))
</pre><p>
It returns <a href="#pdf-LUA_OK"><code>LUA_OK</code></a> if there are no errors,
or an error code in case of errors (see <a href="#4.4.1">§4.4.1</a>).
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_error"><code>luaL_error</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>int luaL_error (lua_State *L, const char *fmt, ...);</pre>
<p>
Raises an error.
The error message format is given by <code>fmt</code>
plus any extra arguments,
following the same rules of <a href="#lua_pushfstring"><code>lua_pushfstring</code></a>.
It also adds at the beginning of the message the file name and
the line number where the error occurred,
if this information is available.
<p>
This function never returns,
but it is an idiom to use it in C functions
as <code>return luaL_error(<em>args</em>)</code>.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_execresult"><code>luaL_execresult</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +3, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>int luaL_execresult (lua_State *L, int stat);</pre>
<p>
This function produces the return values for
process-related functions in the standard library
(<a href="#pdf-os.execute"><code>os.execute</code></a> and <a href="#pdf-io.close"><code>io.close</code></a>).
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_fileresult"><code>luaL_fileresult</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +(1|3), <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>int luaL_fileresult (lua_State *L, int stat, const char *fname);</pre>
<p>
This function produces the return values for
file-related functions in the standard library
(<a href="#pdf-io.open"><code>io.open</code></a>, <a href="#pdf-os.rename"><code>os.rename</code></a>, <a href="#pdf-file:seek"><code>file:seek</code></a>, etc.).
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_getmetafield"><code>luaL_getmetafield</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +(0|1), <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>int luaL_getmetafield (lua_State *L, int obj, const char *e);</pre>
<p>
Pushes onto the stack the field <code>e</code> from the metatable
of the object at index <code>obj</code> and returns the type of the pushed value.
If the object does not have a metatable,
or if the metatable does not have this field,
pushes nothing and returns <code>LUA_TNIL</code>.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_getmetatable"><code>luaL_getmetatable</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>int luaL_getmetatable (lua_State *L, const char *tname);</pre>
<p>
Pushes onto the stack the metatable associated with the name <code>tname</code>
in the registry (see <a href="#luaL_newmetatable"><code>luaL_newmetatable</code></a>),
or <b>nil</b> if there is no metatable associated with that name.
Returns the type of the pushed value.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_getsubtable"><code>luaL_getsubtable</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>int luaL_getsubtable (lua_State *L, int idx, const char *fname);</pre>
<p>
Ensures that the value <code>t[fname]</code>,
where <code>t</code> is the value at index <code>idx</code>,
is a table,
and pushes that table onto the stack.
Returns true if it finds a previous table there
and false if it creates a new table.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_gsub"><code>luaL_gsub</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>const char *luaL_gsub (lua_State *L,
const char *s,
const char *p,
const char *r);</pre>
<p>
Creates a copy of string <code>s</code>,
replacing any occurrence of the string <code>p</code>
with the string <code>r</code>.
Pushes the resulting string on the stack and returns it.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_len"><code>luaL_len</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>lua_Integer luaL_len (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Returns the "length" of the value at the given index
as a number;
it is equivalent to the '<code>#</code>' operator in Lua (see <a href="#3.4.7">§3.4.7</a>).
Raises an error if the result of the operation is not an integer.
(This case can only happen through metamethods.)
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_loadbuffer"><code>luaL_loadbuffer</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, –]</span>
<pre>int luaL_loadbuffer (lua_State *L,
const char *buff,
size_t sz,
const char *name);</pre>
<p>
Equivalent to <a href="#luaL_loadbufferx"><code>luaL_loadbufferx</code></a> with <code>mode</code> equal to <code>NULL</code>.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_loadbufferx"><code>luaL_loadbufferx</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, –]</span>
<pre>int luaL_loadbufferx (lua_State *L,
const char *buff,
size_t sz,
const char *name,
const char *mode);</pre>
<p>
Loads a buffer as a Lua chunk.
This function uses <a href="#lua_load"><code>lua_load</code></a> to load the chunk in the
buffer pointed to by <code>buff</code> with size <code>sz</code>.
<p>
This function returns the same results as <a href="#lua_load"><code>lua_load</code></a>.
<code>name</code> is the chunk name,
used for debug information and error messages.
The string <code>mode</code> works as in the function <a href="#lua_load"><code>lua_load</code></a>.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_loadfile"><code>luaL_loadfile</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>int luaL_loadfile (lua_State *L, const char *filename);</pre>
<p>
Equivalent to <a href="#luaL_loadfilex"><code>luaL_loadfilex</code></a> with <code>mode</code> equal to <code>NULL</code>.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_loadfilex"><code>luaL_loadfilex</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>int luaL_loadfilex (lua_State *L, const char *filename,
const char *mode);</pre>
<p>
Loads a file as a Lua chunk.
This function uses <a href="#lua_load"><code>lua_load</code></a> to load the chunk in the file
named <code>filename</code>.
If <code>filename</code> is <code>NULL</code>,
then it loads from the standard input.
The first line in the file is ignored if it starts with a <code>#</code>.
<p>
The string <code>mode</code> works as in the function <a href="#lua_load"><code>lua_load</code></a>.
<p>
This function returns the same results as <a href="#lua_load"><code>lua_load</code></a>
or <a href="#pdf-LUA_ERRFILE"><code>LUA_ERRFILE</code></a> for file-related errors.
<p>
As <a href="#lua_load"><code>lua_load</code></a>, this function only loads the chunk;
it does not run it.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_loadstring"><code>luaL_loadstring</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, –]</span>
<pre>int luaL_loadstring (lua_State *L, const char *s);</pre>
<p>
Loads a string as a Lua chunk.
This function uses <a href="#lua_load"><code>lua_load</code></a> to load the chunk in
the zero-terminated string <code>s</code>.
<p>
This function returns the same results as <a href="#lua_load"><code>lua_load</code></a>.
<p>
Also as <a href="#lua_load"><code>lua_load</code></a>, this function only loads the chunk;
it does not run it.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_newlib"><code>luaL_newlib</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>void luaL_newlib (lua_State *L, const luaL_Reg l[]);</pre>
<p>
Creates a new table and registers there
the functions in the list <code>l</code>.
<p>
It is implemented as the following macro:
<pre>
(luaL_newlibtable(L,l), luaL_setfuncs(L,l,0))
</pre><p>
The array <code>l</code> must be the actual array,
not a pointer to it.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_newlibtable"><code>luaL_newlibtable</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>void luaL_newlibtable (lua_State *L, const luaL_Reg l[]);</pre>
<p>
Creates a new table with a size optimized
to store all entries in the array <code>l</code>
(but does not actually store them).
It is intended to be used in conjunction with <a href="#luaL_setfuncs"><code>luaL_setfuncs</code></a>
(see <a href="#luaL_newlib"><code>luaL_newlib</code></a>).
<p>
It is implemented as a macro.
The array <code>l</code> must be the actual array,
not a pointer to it.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_newmetatable"><code>luaL_newmetatable</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>int luaL_newmetatable (lua_State *L, const char *tname);</pre>
<p>
If the registry already has the key <code>tname</code>,
returns 0.
Otherwise,
creates a new table to be used as a metatable for userdata,
adds to this new table the pair <code>__name = tname</code>,
adds to the registry the pair <code>[tname] = new table</code>,
and returns 1.
<p>
In both cases,
the function pushes onto the stack the final value associated
with <code>tname</code> in the registry.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_newstate"><code>luaL_newstate</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>lua_State *luaL_newstate (void);</pre>
<p>
Creates a new Lua state.
It calls <a href="#lua_newstate"><code>lua_newstate</code></a> with an
allocator based on the standard C allocation functions
and then sets a warning function and a panic function (see <a href="#4.4">§4.4</a>)
that print messages to the standard error output.
<p>
Returns the new state,
or <code>NULL</code> if there is a memory allocation error.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_openlibs"><code>luaL_openlibs</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>void luaL_openlibs (lua_State *L);</pre>
<p>
Opens all standard Lua libraries into the given state.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_opt"><code>luaL_opt</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>T luaL_opt (L, func, arg, dflt);</pre>
<p>
This macro is defined as follows:
<pre>
(lua_isnoneornil(L,(arg)) ? (dflt) : func(L,(arg)))
</pre><p>
In words, if the argument <code>arg</code> is nil or absent,
the macro results in the default <code>dflt</code>.
Otherwise, it results in the result of calling <code>func</code>
with the state <code>L</code> and the argument index <code>arg</code> as
arguments.
Note that it evaluates the expression <code>dflt</code> only if needed.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_optinteger"><code>luaL_optinteger</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>lua_Integer luaL_optinteger (lua_State *L,
int arg,
lua_Integer d);</pre>
<p>
If the function argument <code>arg</code> is an integer
(or it is convertible to an integer),
returns this integer.
If this argument is absent or is <b>nil</b>,
returns <code>d</code>.
Otherwise, raises an error.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_optlstring"><code>luaL_optlstring</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>const char *luaL_optlstring (lua_State *L,
int arg,
const char *d,
size_t *l);</pre>
<p>
If the function argument <code>arg</code> is a string,
returns this string.
If this argument is absent or is <b>nil</b>,
returns <code>d</code>.
Otherwise, raises an error.
<p>
If <code>l</code> is not <code>NULL</code>,
fills its referent with the result's length.
If the result is <code>NULL</code>
(only possible when returning <code>d</code> and <code>d == NULL</code>),
its length is considered zero.
<p>
This function uses <a href="#lua_tolstring"><code>lua_tolstring</code></a> to get its result,
so all conversions and caveats of that function apply here.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_optnumber"><code>luaL_optnumber</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>lua_Number luaL_optnumber (lua_State *L, int arg, lua_Number d);</pre>
<p>
If the function argument <code>arg</code> is a number,
returns this number as a <code>lua_Number</code>.
If this argument is absent or is <b>nil</b>,
returns <code>d</code>.
Otherwise, raises an error.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_optstring"><code>luaL_optstring</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>const char *luaL_optstring (lua_State *L,
int arg,
const char *d);</pre>
<p>
If the function argument <code>arg</code> is a string,
returns this string.
If this argument is absent or is <b>nil</b>,
returns <code>d</code>.
Otherwise, raises an error.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_prepbuffer"><code>luaL_prepbuffer</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-?, +?, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>char *luaL_prepbuffer (luaL_Buffer *B);</pre>
<p>
Equivalent to <a href="#luaL_prepbuffsize"><code>luaL_prepbuffsize</code></a>
with the predefined size <a name="pdf-LUAL_BUFFERSIZE"><code>LUAL_BUFFERSIZE</code></a>.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_prepbuffsize"><code>luaL_prepbuffsize</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-?, +?, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>char *luaL_prepbuffsize (luaL_Buffer *B, size_t sz);</pre>
<p>
Returns an address to a space of size <code>sz</code>
where you can copy a string to be added to buffer <code>B</code>
(see <a href="#luaL_Buffer"><code>luaL_Buffer</code></a>).
After copying the string into this space you must call
<a href="#luaL_addsize"><code>luaL_addsize</code></a> with the size of the string to actually add
it to the buffer.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_pushfail"><code>luaL_pushfail</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, –]</span>
<pre>void luaL_pushfail (lua_State *L);</pre>
<p>
Pushes the <b>fail</b> value onto the stack (see <a href="#6">§6</a>).
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_pushresult"><code>luaL_pushresult</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-?, +1, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>void luaL_pushresult (luaL_Buffer *B);</pre>
<p>
Finishes the use of buffer <code>B</code> leaving the final string on
the top of the stack.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_pushresultsize"><code>luaL_pushresultsize</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-?, +1, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>void luaL_pushresultsize (luaL_Buffer *B, size_t sz);</pre>
<p>
Equivalent to the sequence <a href="#luaL_addsize"><code>luaL_addsize</code></a>, <a href="#luaL_pushresult"><code>luaL_pushresult</code></a>.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_ref"><code>luaL_ref</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-1, +0, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>int luaL_ref (lua_State *L, int t);</pre>
<p>
Creates and returns a <em>reference</em>,
in the table at index <code>t</code>,
for the object on the top of the stack (and pops the object).
<p>
A reference is a unique integer key.
As long as you do not manually add integer keys into the table <code>t</code>,
<a href="#luaL_ref"><code>luaL_ref</code></a> ensures the uniqueness of the key it returns.
You can retrieve an object referred by the reference <code>r</code>
by calling <code>lua_rawgeti(L, t, r)</code>.
The function <a href="#luaL_unref"><code>luaL_unref</code></a> frees a reference.
<p>
If the object on the top of the stack is <b>nil</b>,
<a href="#luaL_ref"><code>luaL_ref</code></a> returns the constant <a name="pdf-LUA_REFNIL"><code>LUA_REFNIL</code></a>.
The constant <a name="pdf-LUA_NOREF"><code>LUA_NOREF</code></a> is guaranteed to be different
from any reference returned by <a href="#luaL_ref"><code>luaL_ref</code></a>.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_Reg"><code>luaL_Reg</code></a></h3>
<pre>typedef struct luaL_Reg {
const char *name;
lua_CFunction func;
} luaL_Reg;</pre>
<p>
Type for arrays of functions to be registered by
<a href="#luaL_setfuncs"><code>luaL_setfuncs</code></a>.
<code>name</code> is the function name and <code>func</code> is a pointer to
the function.
Any array of <a href="#luaL_Reg"><code>luaL_Reg</code></a> must end with a sentinel entry
in which both <code>name</code> and <code>func</code> are <code>NULL</code>.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_requiref"><code>luaL_requiref</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>void luaL_requiref (lua_State *L, const char *modname,
lua_CFunction openf, int glb);</pre>
<p>
If <code>package.loaded[modname]</code> is not true,
calls the function <code>openf</code> with the string <code>modname</code> as an argument
and sets the call result to <code>package.loaded[modname]</code>,
as if that function has been called through <a href="#pdf-require"><code>require</code></a>.
<p>
If <code>glb</code> is true,
also stores the module into the global <code>modname</code>.
<p>
Leaves a copy of the module on the stack.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_setfuncs"><code>luaL_setfuncs</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-nup, +0, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>void luaL_setfuncs (lua_State *L, const luaL_Reg *l, int nup);</pre>
<p>
Registers all functions in the array <code>l</code>
(see <a href="#luaL_Reg"><code>luaL_Reg</code></a>) into the table on the top of the stack
(below optional upvalues, see next).
<p>
When <code>nup</code> is not zero,
all functions are created with <code>nup</code> upvalues,
initialized with copies of the <code>nup</code> values
previously pushed on the stack
on top of the library table.
These values are popped from the stack after the registration.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_setmetatable"><code>luaL_setmetatable</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>void luaL_setmetatable (lua_State *L, const char *tname);</pre>
<p>
Sets the metatable of the object on the top of the stack
as the metatable associated with name <code>tname</code>
in the registry (see <a href="#luaL_newmetatable"><code>luaL_newmetatable</code></a>).
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_Stream"><code>luaL_Stream</code></a></h3>
<pre>typedef struct luaL_Stream {
FILE *f;
lua_CFunction closef;
} luaL_Stream;</pre>
<p>
The standard representation for file handles
used by the standard I/O library.
<p>
A file handle is implemented as a full userdata,
with a metatable called <code>LUA_FILEHANDLE</code>
(where <code>LUA_FILEHANDLE</code> is a macro with the actual metatable's name).
The metatable is created by the I/O library
(see <a href="#luaL_newmetatable"><code>luaL_newmetatable</code></a>).
<p>
This userdata must start with the structure <code>luaL_Stream</code>;
it can contain other data after this initial structure.
The field <code>f</code> points to the corresponding C stream
(or it can be <code>NULL</code> to indicate an incompletely created handle).
The field <code>closef</code> points to a Lua function
that will be called to close the stream
when the handle is closed or collected;
this function receives the file handle as its sole argument and
must return either a true value, in case of success,
or a false value plus an error message, in case of error.
Once Lua calls this field,
it changes the field value to <code>NULL</code>
to signal that the handle is closed.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_testudata"><code>luaL_testudata</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>void *luaL_testudata (lua_State *L, int arg, const char *tname);</pre>
<p>
This function works like <a href="#luaL_checkudata"><code>luaL_checkudata</code></a>,
except that, when the test fails,
it returns <code>NULL</code> instead of raising an error.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_tolstring"><code>luaL_tolstring</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>const char *luaL_tolstring (lua_State *L, int idx, size_t *len);</pre>
<p>
Converts any Lua value at the given index to a C string
in a reasonable format.
The resulting string is pushed onto the stack and also
returned by the function (see <a href="#4.1.3">§4.1.3</a>).
If <code>len</code> is not <code>NULL</code>,
the function also sets <code>*len</code> with the string length.
<p>
If the value has a metatable with a <code>__tostring</code> field,
then <code>luaL_tolstring</code> calls the corresponding metamethod
with the value as argument,
and uses the result of the call as its result.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_traceback"><code>luaL_traceback</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>void luaL_traceback (lua_State *L, lua_State *L1, const char *msg,
int level);</pre>
<p>
Creates and pushes a traceback of the stack <code>L1</code>.
If <code>msg</code> is not <code>NULL</code>, it is appended
at the beginning of the traceback.
The <code>level</code> parameter tells at which level
to start the traceback.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_typeerror"><code>luaL_typeerror</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>const char *luaL_typeerror (lua_State *L,
int arg,
const char *tname);</pre>
<p>
Raises a type error for the argument <code>arg</code>
of the C function that called it,
using a standard message;
<code>tname</code> is a "name" for the expected type.
This function never returns.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_typename"><code>luaL_typename</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>const char *luaL_typename (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Returns the name of the type of the value at the given index.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_unref"><code>luaL_unref</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>void luaL_unref (lua_State *L, int t, int ref);</pre>
<p>
Releases the reference <code>ref</code> from the table at index <code>t</code>
(see <a href="#luaL_ref"><code>luaL_ref</code></a>).
The entry is removed from the table,
so that the referred object can be collected.
The reference <code>ref</code> is also freed to be used again.
<p>
If <code>ref</code> is <a href="#pdf-LUA_NOREF"><code>LUA_NOREF</code></a> or <a href="#pdf-LUA_REFNIL"><code>LUA_REFNIL</code></a>,
<a href="#luaL_unref"><code>luaL_unref</code></a> does nothing.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_where"><code>luaL_where</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>void luaL_where (lua_State *L, int lvl);</pre>
<p>
Pushes onto the stack a string identifying the current position
of the control at level <code>lvl</code> in the call stack.
Typically this string has the following format:
<pre>
<em>chunkname</em>:<em>currentline</em>:
</pre><p>
Level 0 is the running function,
level 1 is the function that called the running function,
etc.
<p>
This function is used to build a prefix for error messages.
<h1>6 – <a name="6">The Standard Libraries</a></h1>
<p>
The standard Lua libraries provide useful functions
that are implemented in C through the C API.
Some of these functions provide essential services to the language
(e.g., <a href="#pdf-type"><code>type</code></a> and <a href="#pdf-getmetatable"><code>getmetatable</code></a>);
others provide access to outside services (e.g., I/O);
and others could be implemented in Lua itself,
but that for different reasons
deserve an implementation in C (e.g., <a href="#pdf-table.sort"><code>table.sort</code></a>).
<p>
All libraries are implemented through the official C API
and are provided as separate C modules.
Unless otherwise noted,
these library functions do not adjust its number of arguments
to its expected parameters.
For instance, a function documented as <code>foo(arg)</code>
should not be called without an argument.
<p>
The notation <b>fail</b> means a false value representing
some kind of failure.
(Currently, <b>fail</b> is equal to <b>nil</b>,
but that may change in future versions.
The recommendation is to always test the success of these functions
with <code>(not status)</code>, instead of <code>(status == nil)</code>.)
<p>
Currently, Lua has the following standard libraries:
<ul>
<li>basic library (<a href="#6.1">§6.1</a>);</li>
<li>coroutine library (<a href="#6.2">§6.2</a>);</li>
<li>package library (<a href="#6.3">§6.3</a>);</li>
<li>string manipulation (<a href="#6.4">§6.4</a>);</li>
<li>basic UTF-8 support (<a href="#6.5">§6.5</a>);</li>
<li>table manipulation (<a href="#6.6">§6.6</a>);</li>
<li>mathematical functions (<a href="#6.7">§6.7</a>) (sin, log, etc.);</li>
<li>input and output (<a href="#6.8">§6.8</a>);</li>
<li>operating system facilities (<a href="#6.9">§6.9</a>);</li>
<li>debug facilities (<a href="#6.10">§6.10</a>).</li>
</ul><p>
Except for the basic and the package libraries,
each library provides all its functions as fields of a global table
or as methods of its objects.
<p>
To have access to these libraries,
the C host program should call the <a href="#luaL_openlibs"><code>luaL_openlibs</code></a> function,
which opens all standard libraries.
Alternatively,
the host program can open them individually by using
<a href="#luaL_requiref"><code>luaL_requiref</code></a> to call
<a name="pdf-luaopen_base"><code>luaopen_base</code></a> (for the basic library),
<a name="pdf-luaopen_package"><code>luaopen_package</code></a> (for the package library),
<a name="pdf-luaopen_coroutine"><code>luaopen_coroutine</code></a> (for the coroutine library),
<a name="pdf-luaopen_string"><code>luaopen_string</code></a> (for the string library),
<a name="pdf-luaopen_utf8"><code>luaopen_utf8</code></a> (for the UTF-8 library),
<a name="pdf-luaopen_table"><code>luaopen_table</code></a> (for the table library),
<a name="pdf-luaopen_math"><code>luaopen_math</code></a> (for the mathematical library),
<a name="pdf-luaopen_io"><code>luaopen_io</code></a> (for the I/O library),
<a name="pdf-luaopen_os"><code>luaopen_os</code></a> (for the operating system library),
and <a name="pdf-luaopen_debug"><code>luaopen_debug</code></a> (for the debug library).
These functions are declared in <a name="pdf-lualib.h"><code>lualib.h</code></a>.
<h2>6.1 – <a name="6.1">Basic Functions</a></h2>
<p>
The basic library provides core functions to Lua.
If you do not include this library in your application,
you should check carefully whether you need to provide
implementations for some of its facilities.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-assert"><code>assert (v [, message])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Raises an error if
the value of its argument <code>v</code> is false (i.e., <b>nil</b> or <b>false</b>);
otherwise, returns all its arguments.
In case of error,
<code>message</code> is the error object;
when absent, it defaults to "<code>assertion failed!</code>"
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-collectgarbage"><code>collectgarbage ([opt [, arg]])</code></a></h3>
<p>
This function is a generic interface to the garbage collector.
It performs different functions according to its first argument, <code>opt</code>:
<ul>
<li><b>"<code>collect</code>": </b>
Performs a full garbage-collection cycle.
This is the default option.
</li>
<li><b>"<code>stop</code>": </b>
Stops automatic execution of the garbage collector.
The collector will run only when explicitly invoked,
until a call to restart it.
</li>
<li><b>"<code>restart</code>": </b>
Restarts automatic execution of the garbage collector.
</li>
<li><b>"<code>count</code>": </b>
Returns the total memory in use by Lua in Kbytes.
The value has a fractional part,
so that it multiplied by 1024
gives the exact number of bytes in use by Lua.
</li>
<li><b>"<code>step</code>": </b>
Performs a garbage-collection step.
The step "size" is controlled by <code>arg</code>.
With a zero value,
the collector will perform one basic (indivisible) step.
For non-zero values,
the collector will perform as if that amount of memory
(in Kbytes) had been allocated by Lua.
Returns <b>true</b> if the step finished a collection cycle.
</li>
<li><b>"<code>isrunning</code>": </b>
Returns a boolean that tells whether the collector is running
(i.e., not stopped).
</li>
<li><b>"<code>incremental</code>": </b>
Change the collector mode to incremental.
This option can be followed by three numbers:
the garbage-collector pause,
the step multiplier,
and the step size (see <a href="#2.5.1">§2.5.1</a>).
A zero means to not change that value.
</li>
<li><b>"<code>generational</code>": </b>
Change the collector mode to generational.
This option can be followed by two numbers:
the garbage-collector minor multiplier
and the major multiplier (see <a href="#2.5.2">§2.5.2</a>).
A zero means to not change that value.
</li>
</ul><p>
See <a href="#2.5">§2.5</a> for more details about garbage collection
and some of these options.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-dofile"><code>dofile ([filename])</code></a></h3>
Opens the named file and executes its content as a Lua chunk.
When called without arguments,
<code>dofile</code> executes the content of the standard input (<code>stdin</code>).
Returns all values returned by the chunk.
In case of errors, <code>dofile</code> propagates the error
to its caller.
(That is, <code>dofile</code> does not run in protected mode.)
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-error"><code>error (message [, level])</code></a></h3>
Raises an error (see <a href="#2.3">§2.3</a>) with @{message} as the error object.
This function never returns.
<p>
Usually, <code>error</code> adds some information about the error position
at the beginning of the message, if the message is a string.
The <code>level</code> argument specifies how to get the error position.
With level 1 (the default), the error position is where the
<code>error</code> function was called.
Level 2 points the error to where the function
that called <code>error</code> was called; and so on.
Passing a level 0 avoids the addition of error position information
to the message.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-_G"><code>_G</code></a></h3>
A global variable (not a function) that
holds the global environment (see <a href="#2.2">§2.2</a>).
Lua itself does not use this variable;
changing its value does not affect any environment,
nor vice versa.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-getmetatable"><code>getmetatable (object)</code></a></h3>
<p>
If <code>object</code> does not have a metatable, returns <b>nil</b>.
Otherwise,
if the object's metatable has a <code>__metatable</code> field,
returns the associated value.
Otherwise, returns the metatable of the given object.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-ipairs"><code>ipairs (t)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns three values (an iterator function, the table <code>t</code>, and 0)
so that the construction
<pre>
for i,v in ipairs(t) do <em>body</em> end
</pre><p>
will iterate over the key–value pairs
(<code>1,t[1]</code>), (<code>2,t[2]</code>), ...,
up to the first absent index.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-load"><code>load (chunk [, chunkname [, mode [, env]]])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Loads a chunk.
<p>
If <code>chunk</code> is a string, the chunk is this string.
If <code>chunk</code> is a function,
<code>load</code> calls it repeatedly to get the chunk pieces.
Each call to <code>chunk</code> must return a string that concatenates
with previous results.
A return of an empty string, <b>nil</b>, or no value signals the end of the chunk.
<p>
If there are no syntactic errors,
<code>load</code> returns the compiled chunk as a function;
otherwise, it returns <b>fail</b> plus the error message.
<p>
When you load a main chunk,
the resulting function will always have exactly one upvalue,
the <code>_ENV</code> variable (see <a href="#2.2">§2.2</a>).
However,
when you load a binary chunk created from a function (see <a href="#pdf-string.dump"><code>string.dump</code></a>),
the resulting function can have an arbitrary number of upvalues,
and there is no guarantee that its first upvalue will be
the <code>_ENV</code> variable.
(A non-main function may not even have an <code>_ENV</code> upvalue.)
<p>
Regardless, if the resulting function has any upvalues,
its first upvalue is set to the value of <code>env</code>,
if that parameter is given,
or to the value of the global environment.
Other upvalues are initialized with <b>nil</b>.
All upvalues are fresh, that is,
they are not shared with any other function.
<p>
<code>chunkname</code> is used as the name of the chunk for error messages
and debug information (see <a href="#4.7">§4.7</a>).
When absent,
it defaults to <code>chunk</code>, if <code>chunk</code> is a string,
or to "<code>=(load)</code>" otherwise.
<p>
The string <code>mode</code> controls whether the chunk can be text or binary
(that is, a precompiled chunk).
It may be the string "<code>b</code>" (only binary chunks),
"<code>t</code>" (only text chunks),
or "<code>bt</code>" (both binary and text).
The default is "<code>bt</code>".
<p>
It is safe to load malformed binary chunks;
<code>load</code> signals an appropriate error.
However,
Lua does not check the consistency of the code inside binary chunks;
running maliciously crafted bytecode can crash the interpreter.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-loadfile"><code>loadfile ([filename [, mode [, env]]])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Similar to <a href="#pdf-load"><code>load</code></a>,
but gets the chunk from file <code>filename</code>
or from the standard input,
if no file name is given.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-next"><code>next (table [, index])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Allows a program to traverse all fields of a table.
Its first argument is a table and its second argument
is an index in this table.
A call to <code>next</code> returns the next index of the table
and its associated value.
When called with <b>nil</b> as its second argument,
<code>next</code> returns an initial index
and its associated value.
When called with the last index,
or with <b>nil</b> in an empty table,
<code>next</code> returns <b>nil</b>.
If the second argument is absent, then it is interpreted as <b>nil</b>.
In particular,
you can use <code>next(t)</code> to check whether a table is empty.
<p>
The order in which the indices are enumerated is not specified,
<em>even for numeric indices</em>.
(To traverse a table in numerical order,
use a numerical <b>for</b>.)
<p>
The behavior of <code>next</code> is undefined if,
during the traversal,
you assign any value to a non-existent field in the table.
You may however modify existing fields.
In particular, you may set existing fields to nil.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-pairs"><code>pairs (t)</code></a></h3>
<p>
If <code>t</code> has a metamethod <code>__pairs</code>,
calls it with <code>t</code> as argument and returns the first three
results from the call.
<p>
Otherwise,
returns three values: the <a href="#pdf-next"><code>next</code></a> function, the table <code>t</code>, and <b>nil</b>,
so that the construction
<pre>
for k,v in pairs(t) do <em>body</em> end
</pre><p>
will iterate over all key–value pairs of table <code>t</code>.
<p>
See function <a href="#pdf-next"><code>next</code></a> for the caveats of modifying
the table during its traversal.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-pcall"><code>pcall (f [, arg1, ···])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Calls the function <code>f</code> with
the given arguments in <em>protected mode</em>.
This means that any error inside <code>f</code> is not propagated;
instead, <code>pcall</code> catches the error
and returns a status code.
Its first result is the status code (a boolean),
which is true if the call succeeds without errors.
In such case, <code>pcall</code> also returns all results from the call,
after this first result.
In case of any error, <code>pcall</code> returns <b>false</b> plus the error object.
Note that errors caught by <code>pcall</code> do not call a message handler.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-print"><code>print (···)</code></a></h3>
Receives any number of arguments
and prints their values to <code>stdout</code>,
converting each argument to a string
following the same rules of <a href="#pdf-tostring"><code>tostring</code></a>.
<p>
The function <code>print</code> is not intended for formatted output,
but only as a quick way to show a value,
for instance for debugging.
For complete control over the output,
use <a href="#pdf-string.format"><code>string.format</code></a> and <a href="#pdf-io.write"><code>io.write</code></a>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-rawequal"><code>rawequal (v1, v2)</code></a></h3>
Checks whether <code>v1</code> is equal to <code>v2</code>,
without invoking the <code>__eq</code> metamethod.
Returns a boolean.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-rawget"><code>rawget (table, index)</code></a></h3>
Gets the real value of <code>table[index]</code>,
without using the <code>__index</code> metavalue.
<code>table</code> must be a table;
<code>index</code> may be any value.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-rawlen"><code>rawlen (v)</code></a></h3>
Returns the length of the object <code>v</code>,
which must be a table or a string,
without invoking the <code>__len</code> metamethod.
Returns an integer.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-rawset"><code>rawset (table, index, value)</code></a></h3>
Sets the real value of <code>table[index]</code> to <code>value</code>,
without using the <code>__newindex</code> metavalue.
<code>table</code> must be a table,
<code>index</code> any value different from <b>nil</b> and NaN,
and <code>value</code> any Lua value.
<p>
This function returns <code>table</code>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-select"><code>select (index, ···)</code></a></h3>
<p>
If <code>index</code> is a number,
returns all arguments after argument number <code>index</code>;
a negative number indexes from the end (-1 is the last argument).
Otherwise, <code>index</code> must be the string <code>"#"</code>,
and <code>select</code> returns the total number of extra arguments it received.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-setmetatable"><code>setmetatable (table, metatable)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Sets the metatable for the given table.
If <code>metatable</code> is <b>nil</b>,
removes the metatable of the given table.
If the original metatable has a <code>__metatable</code> field,
raises an error.
<p>
This function returns <code>table</code>.
<p>
To change the metatable of other types from Lua code,
you must use the debug library (<a href="#6.10">§6.10</a>).
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-tonumber"><code>tonumber (e [, base])</code></a></h3>
<p>
When called with no <code>base</code>,
<code>tonumber</code> tries to convert its argument to a number.
If the argument is already a number or
a string convertible to a number,
then <code>tonumber</code> returns this number;
otherwise, it returns <b>fail</b>.
<p>
The conversion of strings can result in integers or floats,
according to the lexical conventions of Lua (see <a href="#3.1">§3.1</a>).
The string may have leading and trailing spaces and a sign.
<p>
When called with <code>base</code>,
then <code>e</code> must be a string to be interpreted as
an integer numeral in that base.
The base may be any integer between 2 and 36, inclusive.
In bases above 10, the letter '<code>A</code>' (in either upper or lower case)
represents 10, '<code>B</code>' represents 11, and so forth,
with '<code>Z</code>' representing 35.
If the string <code>e</code> is not a valid numeral in the given base,
the function returns <b>fail</b>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-tostring"><code>tostring (v)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Receives a value of any type and
converts it to a string in a human-readable format.
<p>
If the metatable of <code>v</code> has a <code>__tostring</code> field,
then <code>tostring</code> calls the corresponding value
with <code>v</code> as argument,
and uses the result of the call as its result.
Otherwise, if the metatable of <code>v</code> has a <code>__name</code> field
with a string value,
<code>tostring</code> may use that string in its final result.
<p>
For complete control of how numbers are converted,
use <a href="#pdf-string.format"><code>string.format</code></a>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-type"><code>type (v)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the type of its only argument, coded as a string.
The possible results of this function are
"<code>nil</code>" (a string, not the value <b>nil</b>),
"<code>number</code>",
"<code>string</code>",
"<code>boolean</code>",
"<code>table</code>",
"<code>function</code>",
"<code>thread</code>",
and "<code>userdata</code>".
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-_VERSION"><code>_VERSION</code></a></h3>
<p>
A global variable (not a function) that
holds a string containing the running Lua version.
The current value of this variable is "<code>Lua 5.4</code>".
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-warn"><code>warn (msg1, ···)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Emits a warning with a message composed by the concatenation
of all its arguments (which should be strings).
<p>
By convention,
a one-piece message starting with '<code>@</code>'
is intended to be a <em>control message</em>,
which is a message to the warning system itself.
In particular, the standard warning function in Lua
recognizes the control messages "<code>@off</code>",
to stop the emission of warnings,
and "<code>@on</code>", to (re)start the emission;
it ignores unknown control messages.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-xpcall"><code>xpcall (f, msgh [, arg1, ···])</code></a></h3>
<p>
This function is similar to <a href="#pdf-pcall"><code>pcall</code></a>,
except that it sets a new message handler <code>msgh</code>.
<h2>6.2 – <a name="6.2">Coroutine Manipulation</a></h2>
<p>
This library comprises the operations to manipulate coroutines,
which come inside the table <a name="pdf-coroutine"><code>coroutine</code></a>.
See <a href="#2.6">§2.6</a> for a general description of coroutines.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-coroutine.close"><code>coroutine.close (co)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Closes coroutine <code>co</code>,
that is,
closes all its pending to-be-closed variables
and puts the coroutine in a dead state.
The given coroutine must be dead or suspended.
In case of error
(either the original error that stopped the coroutine or
errors in closing methods),
returns <b>false</b> plus the error object;
otherwise returns <b>true</b>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-coroutine.create"><code>coroutine.create (f)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Creates a new coroutine, with body <code>f</code>.
<code>f</code> must be a function.
Returns this new coroutine,
an object with type <code>"thread"</code>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-coroutine.isyieldable"><code>coroutine.isyieldable ([co])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns true when the coroutine <code>co</code> can yield.
The default for <code>co</code> is the running coroutine.
<p>
A coroutine is yieldable if it is not the main thread and
it is not inside a non-yieldable C function.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-coroutine.resume"><code>coroutine.resume (co [, val1, ···])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Starts or continues the execution of coroutine <code>co</code>.
The first time you resume a coroutine,
it starts running its body.
The values <code>val1</code>, ... are passed
as the arguments to the body function.
If the coroutine has yielded,
<code>resume</code> restarts it;
the values <code>val1</code>, ... are passed
as the results from the yield.
<p>
If the coroutine runs without any errors,
<code>resume</code> returns <b>true</b> plus any values passed to <code>yield</code>
(when the coroutine yields) or any values returned by the body function
(when the coroutine terminates).
If there is any error,
<code>resume</code> returns <b>false</b> plus the error message.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-coroutine.running"><code>coroutine.running ()</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the running coroutine plus a boolean,
true when the running coroutine is the main one.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-coroutine.status"><code>coroutine.status (co)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the status of the coroutine <code>co</code>, as a string:
<code>"running"</code>,
if the coroutine is running
(that is, it is the one that called <code>status</code>);
<code>"suspended"</code>, if the coroutine is suspended in a call to <code>yield</code>,
or if it has not started running yet;
<code>"normal"</code> if the coroutine is active but not running
(that is, it has resumed another coroutine);
and <code>"dead"</code> if the coroutine has finished its body function,
or if it has stopped with an error.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-coroutine.wrap"><code>coroutine.wrap (f)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Creates a new coroutine, with body <code>f</code>;
<code>f</code> must be a function.
Returns a function that resumes the coroutine each time it is called.
Any arguments passed to this function behave as the
extra arguments to <code>resume</code>.
The function returns the same values returned by <code>resume</code>,
except the first boolean.
In case of error,
the function closes the coroutine and propagates the error.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-coroutine.yield"><code>coroutine.yield (···)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Suspends the execution of the calling coroutine.
Any arguments to <code>yield</code> are passed as extra results to <code>resume</code>.
<h2>6.3 – <a name="6.3">Modules</a></h2>
<p>
The package library provides basic
facilities for loading modules in Lua.
It exports one function directly in the global environment:
<a href="#pdf-require"><code>require</code></a>.
Everything else is exported in the table <a name="pdf-package"><code>package</code></a>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-require"><code>require (modname)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Loads the given module.
The function starts by looking into the <a href="#pdf-package.loaded"><code>package.loaded</code></a> table
to determine whether <code>modname</code> is already loaded.
If it is, then <code>require</code> returns the value stored
at <code>package.loaded[modname]</code>.
(The absence of a second result in this case
signals that this call did not have to load the module.)
Otherwise, it tries to find a <em>loader</em> for the module.
<p>
To find a loader,
<code>require</code> is guided by the table <a href="#pdf-package.searchers"><code>package.searchers</code></a>.
Each item in this table is a search function,
that searches for the module in a particular way.
By changing this table,
we can change how <code>require</code> looks for a module.
The following explanation is based on the default configuration
for <a href="#pdf-package.searchers"><code>package.searchers</code></a>.
<p>
First <code>require</code> queries <code>package.preload[modname]</code>.
If it has a value,
this value (which must be a function) is the loader.
Otherwise <code>require</code> searches for a Lua loader using the
path stored in <a href="#pdf-package.path"><code>package.path</code></a>.
If that also fails, it searches for a C loader using the
path stored in <a href="#pdf-package.cpath"><code>package.cpath</code></a>.
If that also fails,
it tries an <em>all-in-one</em> loader (see <a href="#pdf-package.searchers"><code>package.searchers</code></a>).
<p>
Once a loader is found,
<code>require</code> calls the loader with two arguments:
<code>modname</code> and an extra value,
a <em>loader data</em>,
also returned by the searcher.
The loader data can be any value useful to the module;
for the default searchers,
it indicates where the loader was found.
(For instance, if the loader came from a file,
this extra value is the file path.)
If the loader returns any non-nil value,
<code>require</code> assigns the returned value to <code>package.loaded[modname]</code>.
If the loader does not return a non-nil value and
has not assigned any value to <code>package.loaded[modname]</code>,
then <code>require</code> assigns <b>true</b> to this entry.
In any case, <code>require</code> returns the
final value of <code>package.loaded[modname]</code>.
Besides that value, <code>require</code> also returns as a second result
the loader data returned by the searcher,
which indicates how <code>require</code> found the module.
<p>
If there is any error loading or running the module,
or if it cannot find any loader for the module,
then <code>require</code> raises an error.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-package.config"><code>package.config</code></a></h3>
<p>
A string describing some compile-time configurations for packages.
This string is a sequence of lines:
<ul>
<li>The first line is the directory separator string.
Default is '<code>\</code>' for Windows and '<code>/</code>' for all other systems.</li>
<li>The second line is the character that separates templates in a path.
Default is '<code>;</code>'.</li>
<li>The third line is the string that marks the
substitution points in a template.
Default is '<code>?</code>'.</li>
<li>The fourth line is a string that, in a path in Windows,
is replaced by the executable's directory.
Default is '<code>!</code>'.</li>
<li>The fifth line is a mark to ignore all text after it
when building the <code>luaopen_</code> function name.
Default is '<code>-</code>'.</li>
</ul>
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-package.cpath"><code>package.cpath</code></a></h3>
<p>
A string with the path used by <a href="#pdf-require"><code>require</code></a>
to search for a C loader.
<p>
Lua initializes the C path <a href="#pdf-package.cpath"><code>package.cpath</code></a> in the same way
it initializes the Lua path <a href="#pdf-package.path"><code>package.path</code></a>,
using the environment variable <a name="pdf-LUA_CPATH_5_4"><code>LUA_CPATH_5_4</code></a>,
or the environment variable <a name="pdf-LUA_CPATH"><code>LUA_CPATH</code></a>,
or a default path defined in <code>luaconf.h</code>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-package.loaded"><code>package.loaded</code></a></h3>
<p>
A table used by <a href="#pdf-require"><code>require</code></a> to control which
modules are already loaded.
When you require a module <code>modname</code> and
<code>package.loaded[modname]</code> is not false,
<a href="#pdf-require"><code>require</code></a> simply returns the value stored there.
<p>
This variable is only a reference to the real table;
assignments to this variable do not change the
table used by <a href="#pdf-require"><code>require</code></a>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-package.loadlib"><code>package.loadlib (libname, funcname)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Dynamically links the host program with the C library <code>libname</code>.
<p>
If <code>funcname</code> is "<code>*</code>",
then it only links with the library,
making the symbols exported by the library
available to other dynamically linked libraries.
Otherwise,
it looks for a function <code>funcname</code> inside the library
and returns this function as a C function.
So, <code>funcname</code> must follow the <a href="#lua_CFunction"><code>lua_CFunction</code></a> prototype
(see <a href="#lua_CFunction"><code>lua_CFunction</code></a>).
<p>
This is a low-level function.
It completely bypasses the package and module system.
Unlike <a href="#pdf-require"><code>require</code></a>,
it does not perform any path searching and
does not automatically adds extensions.
<code>libname</code> must be the complete file name of the C library,
including if necessary a path and an extension.
<code>funcname</code> must be the exact name exported by the C library
(which may depend on the C compiler and linker used).
<p>
This function is not supported by Standard C.
As such, it is only available on some platforms
(Windows, Linux, Mac OS X, Solaris, BSD,
plus other Unix systems that support the <code>dlfcn</code> standard).
<p>
This function is inherently insecure,
as it allows Lua to call any function in any readable dynamic
library in the system.
(Lua calls any function assuming the function
has a proper prototype and respects a proper protocol
(see <a href="#lua_CFunction"><code>lua_CFunction</code></a>).
Therefore,
calling an arbitrary function in an arbitrary dynamic library
more often than not results in an access violation.)
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-package.path"><code>package.path</code></a></h3>
<p>
A string with the path used by <a href="#pdf-require"><code>require</code></a>
to search for a Lua loader.
<p>
At start-up, Lua initializes this variable with
the value of the environment variable <a name="pdf-LUA_PATH_5_4"><code>LUA_PATH_5_4</code></a> or
the environment variable <a name="pdf-LUA_PATH"><code>LUA_PATH</code></a> or
with a default path defined in <code>luaconf.h</code>,
if those environment variables are not defined.
A "<code>;;</code>" in the value of the environment variable
is replaced by the default path.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-package.preload"><code>package.preload</code></a></h3>
<p>
A table to store loaders for specific modules
(see <a href="#pdf-require"><code>require</code></a>).
<p>
This variable is only a reference to the real table;
assignments to this variable do not change the
table used by <a href="#pdf-require"><code>require</code></a>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-package.searchers"><code>package.searchers</code></a></h3>
<p>
A table used by <a href="#pdf-require"><code>require</code></a> to control how to find modules.
<p>
Each entry in this table is a <em>searcher function</em>.
When looking for a module,
<a href="#pdf-require"><code>require</code></a> calls each of these searchers in ascending order,
with the module name (the argument given to <a href="#pdf-require"><code>require</code></a>) as its
sole argument.
If the searcher finds the module,
it returns another function, the module <em>loader</em>,
plus an extra value, a <em>loader data</em>,
that will be passed to that loader and
returned as a second result by <a href="#pdf-require"><code>require</code></a>.
If it cannot find the module,
it returns a string explaining why
(or <b>nil</b> if it has nothing to say).
<p>
Lua initializes this table with four searcher functions.
<p>
The first searcher simply looks for a loader in the
<a href="#pdf-package.preload"><code>package.preload</code></a> table.
<p>
The second searcher looks for a loader as a Lua library,
using the path stored at <a href="#pdf-package.path"><code>package.path</code></a>.
The search is done as described in function <a href="#pdf-package.searchpath"><code>package.searchpath</code></a>.
<p>
The third searcher looks for a loader as a C library,
using the path given by the variable <a href="#pdf-package.cpath"><code>package.cpath</code></a>.
Again,
the search is done as described in function <a href="#pdf-package.searchpath"><code>package.searchpath</code></a>.
For instance,
if the C path is the string
<pre>
"./?.so;./?.dll;/usr/local/?/init.so"
</pre><p>
the searcher for module <code>foo</code>
will try to open the files <code>./foo.so</code>, <code>./foo.dll</code>,
and <code>/usr/local/foo/init.so</code>, in that order.
Once it finds a C library,
this searcher first uses a dynamic link facility to link the
application with the library.
Then it tries to find a C function inside the library to
be used as the loader.
The name of this C function is the string "<code>luaopen_</code>"
concatenated with a copy of the module name where each dot
is replaced by an underscore.
Moreover, if the module name has a hyphen,
its suffix after (and including) the first hyphen is removed.
For instance, if the module name is <code>a.b.c-v2.1</code>,
the function name will be <code>luaopen_a_b_c</code>.
<p>
The fourth searcher tries an <em>all-in-one loader</em>.
It searches the C path for a library for
the root name of the given module.
For instance, when requiring <code>a.b.c</code>,
it will search for a C library for <code>a</code>.
If found, it looks into it for an open function for
the submodule;
in our example, that would be <code>luaopen_a_b_c</code>.
With this facility, a package can pack several C submodules
into one single library,
with each submodule keeping its original open function.
<p>
All searchers except the first one (preload) return as the extra value
the file path where the module was found,
as returned by <a href="#pdf-package.searchpath"><code>package.searchpath</code></a>.
The first searcher always returns the string "<code>:preload:</code>".
<p>
Searchers should raise no errors and have no side effects in Lua.
(They may have side effects in C,
for instance by linking the application with a library.)
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-package.searchpath"><code>package.searchpath (name, path [, sep [, rep]])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Searches for the given <code>name</code> in the given <code>path</code>.
<p>
A path is a string containing a sequence of
<em>templates</em> separated by semicolons.
For each template,
the function replaces each interrogation mark (if any)
in the template with a copy of <code>name</code>
wherein all occurrences of <code>sep</code>
(a dot, by default)
were replaced by <code>rep</code>
(the system's directory separator, by default),
and then tries to open the resulting file name.
<p>
For instance, if the path is the string
<pre>
"./?.lua;./?.lc;/usr/local/?/init.lua"
</pre><p>
the search for the name <code>foo.a</code>
will try to open the files
<code>./foo/a.lua</code>, <code>./foo/a.lc</code>, and
<code>/usr/local/foo/a/init.lua</code>, in that order.
<p>
Returns the resulting name of the first file that it can
open in read mode (after closing the file),
or <b>fail</b> plus an error message if none succeeds.
(This error message lists all file names it tried to open.)
<h2>6.4 – <a name="6.4">String Manipulation</a></h2>
<p>
This library provides generic functions for string manipulation,
such as finding and extracting substrings, and pattern matching.
When indexing a string in Lua, the first character is at position 1
(not at 0, as in C).
Indices are allowed to be negative and are interpreted as indexing backwards,
from the end of the string.
Thus, the last character is at position -1, and so on.
<p>
The string library provides all its functions inside the table
<a name="pdf-string"><code>string</code></a>.
It also sets a metatable for strings
where the <code>__index</code> field points to the <code>string</code> table.
Therefore, you can use the string functions in object-oriented style.
For instance, <code>string.byte(s,i)</code>
can be written as <code>s:byte(i)</code>.
<p>
The string library assumes one-byte character encodings.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.byte"><code>string.byte (s [, i [, j]])</code></a></h3>
Returns the internal numeric codes of the characters <code>s[i]</code>,
<code>s[i+1]</code>, ..., <code>s[j]</code>.
The default value for <code>i</code> is 1;
the default value for <code>j</code> is <code>i</code>.
These indices are corrected
following the same rules of function <a href="#pdf-string.sub"><code>string.sub</code></a>.
<p>
Numeric codes are not necessarily portable across platforms.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.char"><code>string.char (···)</code></a></h3>
Receives zero or more integers.
Returns a string with length equal to the number of arguments,
in which each character has the internal numeric code equal
to its corresponding argument.
<p>
Numeric codes are not necessarily portable across platforms.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.dump"><code>string.dump (function [, strip])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns a string containing a binary representation
(a <em>binary chunk</em>)
of the given function,
so that a later <a href="#pdf-load"><code>load</code></a> on this string returns
a copy of the function (but with new upvalues).
If <code>strip</code> is a true value,
the binary representation may not include all debug information
about the function,
to save space.
<p>
Functions with upvalues have only their number of upvalues saved.
When (re)loaded,
those upvalues receive fresh instances.
(See the <a href="#pdf-load"><code>load</code></a> function for details about
how these upvalues are initialized.
You can use the debug library to serialize
and reload the upvalues of a function
in a way adequate to your needs.)
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.find"><code>string.find (s, pattern [, init [, plain]])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Looks for the first match of
<code>pattern</code> (see <a href="#6.4.1">§6.4.1</a>) in the string <code>s</code>.
If it finds a match, then <code>find</code> returns the indices of <code>s</code>
where this occurrence starts and ends;
otherwise, it returns <b>fail</b>.
A third, optional numeric argument <code>init</code> specifies
where to start the search;
its default value is 1 and can be negative.
A value of <b>true</b> as a fourth, optional argument <code>plain</code>
turns off the pattern matching facilities,
so the function does a plain "find substring" operation,
with no characters in <code>pattern</code> being considered magic.
<p>
If the pattern has captures,
then in a successful match
the captured values are also returned,
after the two indices.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.format"><code>string.format (formatstring, ···)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns a formatted version of its variable number of arguments
following the description given in its first argument,
which must be a string.
The format string follows the same rules as the ISO C function <code>sprintf</code>.
The only differences are that the conversion specifiers and modifiers
<code>*</code>, <code>h</code>, <code>L</code>, <code>l</code>, and <code>n</code> are not supported
and that there is an extra specifier, <code>q</code>.
<p>
The specifier <code>q</code> formats booleans, nil, numbers, and strings
in a way that the result is a valid constant in Lua source code.
Booleans and nil are written in the obvious way
(<code>true</code>, <code>false</code>, <code>nil</code>).
Floats are written in hexadecimal,
to preserve full precision.
A string is written between double quotes,
using escape sequences when necessary to ensure that
it can safely be read back by the Lua interpreter.
For instance, the call
<pre>
string.format('%q', 'a string with "quotes" and \n new line')
</pre><p>
may produce the string:
<pre>
"a string with \"quotes\" and \
new line"
</pre><p>
This specifier does not support modifiers (flags, width, length).
<p>
The conversion specifiers
<code>A</code>, <code>a</code>, <code>E</code>, <code>e</code>, <code>f</code>,
<code>G</code>, and <code>g</code> all expect a number as argument.
The specifiers <code>c</code>, <code>d</code>,
<code>i</code>, <code>o</code>, <code>u</code>, <code>X</code>, and <code>x</code>
expect an integer.
When Lua is compiled with a C89 compiler,
the specifiers <code>A</code> and <code>a</code> (hexadecimal floats)
do not support modifiers.
<p>
The specifier <code>s</code> expects a string;
if its argument is not a string,
it is converted to one following the same rules of <a href="#pdf-tostring"><code>tostring</code></a>.
If the specifier has any modifier,
the corresponding string argument should not contain embedded zeros.
<p>
The specifier <code>p</code> formats the pointer
returned by <a href="#lua_topointer"><code>lua_topointer</code></a>.
That gives a unique string identifier for tables, userdata,
threads, strings, and functions.
For other values (numbers, nil, booleans),
this specifier results in a string representing
the pointer <code>NULL</code>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.gmatch"><code>string.gmatch (s, pattern [, init])</code></a></h3>
Returns an iterator function that,
each time it is called,
returns the next captures from <code>pattern</code> (see <a href="#6.4.1">§6.4.1</a>)
over the string <code>s</code>.
If <code>pattern</code> specifies no captures,
then the whole match is produced in each call.
A third, optional numeric argument <code>init</code> specifies
where to start the search;
its default value is 1 and can be negative.
<p>
As an example, the following loop
will iterate over all the words from string <code>s</code>,
printing one per line:
<pre>
s = "hello world from Lua"
for w in string.gmatch(s, "%a+") do
print(w)
end
</pre><p>
The next example collects all pairs <code>key=value</code> from the
given string into a table:
<pre>
t = {}
s = "from=world, to=Lua"
for k, v in string.gmatch(s, "(%w+)=(%w+)") do
t[k] = v
end
</pre>
<p>
For this function, a caret '<code>^</code>' at the start of a pattern does not
work as an anchor, as this would prevent the iteration.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.gsub"><code>string.gsub (s, pattern, repl [, n])</code></a></h3>
Returns a copy of <code>s</code>
in which all (or the first <code>n</code>, if given)
occurrences of the <code>pattern</code> (see <a href="#6.4.1">§6.4.1</a>) have been
replaced by a replacement string specified by <code>repl</code>,
which can be a string, a table, or a function.
<code>gsub</code> also returns, as its second value,
the total number of matches that occurred.
The name <code>gsub</code> comes from <em>Global SUBstitution</em>.
<p>
If <code>repl</code> is a string, then its value is used for replacement.
The character <code>%</code> works as an escape character:
any sequence in <code>repl</code> of the form <code>%<em>d</em></code>,
with <em>d</em> between 1 and 9,
stands for the value of the <em>d</em>-th captured substring;
the sequence <code>%0</code> stands for the whole match;
the sequence <code>%%</code> stands for a single <code>%</code>.
<p>
If <code>repl</code> is a table, then the table is queried for every match,
using the first capture as the key.
<p>
If <code>repl</code> is a function, then this function is called every time a
match occurs, with all captured substrings passed as arguments,
in order.
<p>
In any case,
if the pattern specifies no captures,
then it behaves as if the whole pattern was inside a capture.
<p>
If the value returned by the table query or by the function call
is a string or a number,
then it is used as the replacement string;
otherwise, if it is <b>false</b> or <b>nil</b>,
then there is no replacement
(that is, the original match is kept in the string).
<p>
Here are some examples:
<pre>
x = string.gsub("hello world", "(%w+)", "%1 %1")
--> x="hello hello world world"
x = string.gsub("hello world", "%w+", "%0 %0", 1)
--> x="hello hello world"
x = string.gsub("hello world from Lua", "(%w+)%s*(%w+)", "%2 %1")
--> x="world hello Lua from"
x = string.gsub("home = $HOME, user = $USER", "%$(%w+)", os.getenv)
--> x="home = /home/roberto, user = roberto"
x = string.gsub("4+5 = $return 4+5$", "%$(.-)%$", function (s)
return load(s)()
end)
--> x="4+5 = 9"
local t = {name="lua", version="5.4"}
x = string.gsub("$name-$version.tar.gz", "%$(%w+)", t)
--> x="lua-5.4.tar.gz"
</pre>
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.len"><code>string.len (s)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Receives a string and returns its length.
The empty string <code>""</code> has length 0.
Embedded zeros are counted,
so <code>"a\000bc\000"</code> has length 5.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.lower"><code>string.lower (s)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Receives a string and returns a copy of this string with all
uppercase letters changed to lowercase.
All other characters are left unchanged.
The definition of what an uppercase letter is depends on the current locale.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.match"><code>string.match (s, pattern [, init])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Looks for the first <em>match</em> of
the <code>pattern</code> (see <a href="#6.4.1">§6.4.1</a>) in the string <code>s</code>.
If it finds one, then <code>match</code> returns
the captures from the pattern;
otherwise it returns <b>fail</b>.
If <code>pattern</code> specifies no captures,
then the whole match is returned.
A third, optional numeric argument <code>init</code> specifies
where to start the search;
its default value is 1 and can be negative.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.pack"><code>string.pack (fmt, v1, v2, ···)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns a binary string containing the values <code>v1</code>, <code>v2</code>, etc.
serialized in binary form (packed)
according to the format string <code>fmt</code> (see <a href="#6.4.2">§6.4.2</a>).
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.packsize"><code>string.packsize (fmt)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the size of a string resulting from <a href="#pdf-string.pack"><code>string.pack</code></a>
with the given format.
The format string cannot have the variable-length options
'<code>s</code>' or '<code>z</code>' (see <a href="#6.4.2">§6.4.2</a>).
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.rep"><code>string.rep (s, n [, sep])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns a string that is the concatenation of <code>n</code> copies of
the string <code>s</code> separated by the string <code>sep</code>.
The default value for <code>sep</code> is the empty string
(that is, no separator).
Returns the empty string if <code>n</code> is not positive.
<p>
(Note that it is very easy to exhaust the memory of your machine
with a single call to this function.)
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.reverse"><code>string.reverse (s)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns a string that is the string <code>s</code> reversed.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.sub"><code>string.sub (s, i [, j])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the substring of <code>s</code> that
starts at <code>i</code> and continues until <code>j</code>;
<code>i</code> and <code>j</code> can be negative.
If <code>j</code> is absent, then it is assumed to be equal to -1
(which is the same as the string length).
In particular,
the call <code>string.sub(s,1,j)</code> returns a prefix of <code>s</code>
with length <code>j</code>,
and <code>string.sub(s, -i)</code> (for a positive <code>i</code>)
returns a suffix of <code>s</code>
with length <code>i</code>.
<p>
If, after the translation of negative indices,
<code>i</code> is less than 1,
it is corrected to 1.
If <code>j</code> is greater than the string length,
it is corrected to that length.
If, after these corrections,
<code>i</code> is greater than <code>j</code>,
the function returns the empty string.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.unpack"><code>string.unpack (fmt, s [, pos])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the values packed in string <code>s</code> (see <a href="#pdf-string.pack"><code>string.pack</code></a>)
according to the format string <code>fmt</code> (see <a href="#6.4.2">§6.4.2</a>).
An optional <code>pos</code> marks where
to start reading in <code>s</code> (default is 1).
After the read values,
this function also returns the index of the first unread byte in <code>s</code>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.upper"><code>string.upper (s)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Receives a string and returns a copy of this string with all
lowercase letters changed to uppercase.
All other characters are left unchanged.
The definition of what a lowercase letter is depends on the current locale.
<h3>6.4.1 – <a name="6.4.1">Patterns</a></h3>
<p>
Patterns in Lua are described by regular strings,
which are interpreted as patterns by the pattern-matching functions
<a href="#pdf-string.find"><code>string.find</code></a>,
<a href="#pdf-string.gmatch"><code>string.gmatch</code></a>,
<a href="#pdf-string.gsub"><code>string.gsub</code></a>,
and <a href="#pdf-string.match"><code>string.match</code></a>.
This section describes the syntax and the meaning
(that is, what they match) of these strings.
<h4>Character Class:</h4><p>
A <em>character class</em> is used to represent a set of characters.
The following combinations are allowed in describing a character class:
<ul>
<li><b><em>x</em>: </b>
(where <em>x</em> is not one of the <em>magic characters</em>
<code>^$()%.[]*+-?</code>)
represents the character <em>x</em> itself.
</li>
<li><b><code>.</code>: </b> (a dot) represents all characters.</li>
<li><b><code>%a</code>: </b> represents all letters.</li>
<li><b><code>%c</code>: </b> represents all control characters.</li>
<li><b><code>%d</code>: </b> represents all digits.</li>
<li><b><code>%g</code>: </b> represents all printable characters except space.</li>
<li><b><code>%l</code>: </b> represents all lowercase letters.</li>
<li><b><code>%p</code>: </b> represents all punctuation characters.</li>
<li><b><code>%s</code>: </b> represents all space characters.</li>
<li><b><code>%u</code>: </b> represents all uppercase letters.</li>
<li><b><code>%w</code>: </b> represents all alphanumeric characters.</li>
<li><b><code>%x</code>: </b> represents all hexadecimal digits.</li>
<li><b><code>%<em>x</em></code>: </b> (where <em>x</em> is any non-alphanumeric character)
represents the character <em>x</em>.
This is the standard way to escape the magic characters.
Any non-alphanumeric character
(including all punctuation characters, even the non-magical)
can be preceded by a '<code>%</code>' to represent itself in a pattern.
</li>
<li><b><code>[<em>set</em>]</code>: </b>
represents the class which is the union of all
characters in <em>set</em>.
A range of characters can be specified by
separating the end characters of the range,
in ascending order, with a '<code>-</code>'.
All classes <code>%</code><em>x</em> described above can also be used as
components in <em>set</em>.
All other characters in <em>set</em> represent themselves.
For example, <code>[%w_]</code> (or <code>[_%w]</code>)
represents all alphanumeric characters plus the underscore,
<code>[0-7]</code> represents the octal digits,
and <code>[0-7%l%-]</code> represents the octal digits plus
the lowercase letters plus the '<code>-</code>' character.
<p>
You can put a closing square bracket in a set
by positioning it as the first character in the set.
You can put a hyphen in a set
by positioning it as the first or the last character in the set.
(You can also use an escape for both cases.)
<p>
The interaction between ranges and classes is not defined.
Therefore, patterns like <code>[%a-z]</code> or <code>[a-%%]</code>
have no meaning.
</li>
<li><b><code>[^<em>set</em>]</code>: </b>
represents the complement of <em>set</em>,
where <em>set</em> is interpreted as above.
</li>
</ul><p>
For all classes represented by single letters (<code>%a</code>, <code>%c</code>, etc.),
the corresponding uppercase letter represents the complement of the class.
For instance, <code>%S</code> represents all non-space characters.
<p>
The definitions of letter, space, and other character groups
depend on the current locale.
In particular, the class <code>[a-z]</code> may not be equivalent to <code>%l</code>.
<h4>Pattern Item:</h4><p>
A <em>pattern item</em> can be
<ul>
<li>
a single character class,
which matches any single character in the class;
</li>
<li>
a single character class followed by '<code>*</code>',
which matches sequences of zero or more characters in the class.
These repetition items will always match the longest possible sequence;
</li>
<li>
a single character class followed by '<code>+</code>',
which matches sequences of one or more characters in the class.
These repetition items will always match the longest possible sequence;
</li>
<li>
a single character class followed by '<code>-</code>',
which also matches sequences of zero or more characters in the class.
Unlike '<code>*</code>',
these repetition items will always match the shortest possible sequence;
</li>
<li>
a single character class followed by '<code>?</code>',
which matches zero or one occurrence of a character in the class.
It always matches one occurrence if possible;
</li>
<li>
<code>%<em>n</em></code>, for <em>n</em> between 1 and 9;
such item matches a substring equal to the <em>n</em>-th captured string
(see below);
</li>
<li>
<code>%b<em>xy</em></code>, where <em>x</em> and <em>y</em> are two distinct characters;
such item matches strings that start with <em>x</em>, end with <em>y</em>,
and where the <em>x</em> and <em>y</em> are <em>balanced</em>.
This means that, if one reads the string from left to right,
counting <em>+1</em> for an <em>x</em> and <em>-1</em> for a <em>y</em>,
the ending <em>y</em> is the first <em>y</em> where the count reaches 0.
For instance, the item <code>%b()</code> matches expressions with
balanced parentheses.
</li>
<li>
<code>%f[<em>set</em>]</code>, a <em>frontier pattern</em>;
such item matches an empty string at any position such that
the next character belongs to <em>set</em>
and the previous character does not belong to <em>set</em>.
The set <em>set</em> is interpreted as previously described.
The beginning and the end of the subject are handled as if
they were the character '<code>\0</code>'.
</li>
</ul>
<h4>Pattern:</h4><p>
A <em>pattern</em> is a sequence of pattern items.
A caret '<code>^</code>' at the beginning of a pattern anchors the match at the
beginning of the subject string.
A '<code>$</code>' at the end of a pattern anchors the match at the
end of the subject string.
At other positions,
'<code>^</code>' and '<code>$</code>' have no special meaning and represent themselves.
<h4>Captures:</h4><p>
A pattern can contain sub-patterns enclosed in parentheses;
they describe <em>captures</em>.
When a match succeeds, the substrings of the subject string
that match captures are stored (<em>captured</em>) for future use.
Captures are numbered according to their left parentheses.
For instance, in the pattern <code>"(a*(.)%w(%s*))"</code>,
the part of the string matching <code>"a*(.)%w(%s*)"</code> is
stored as the first capture, and therefore has number 1;
the character matching "<code>.</code>" is captured with number 2,
and the part matching "<code>%s*</code>" has number 3.
<p>
As a special case, the capture <code>()</code> captures
the current string position (a number).
For instance, if we apply the pattern <code>"()aa()"</code> on the
string <code>"flaaap"</code>, there will be two captures: 3 and 5.
<h4>Multiple matches:</h4><p>
The function <a href="#pdf-string.gsub"><code>string.gsub</code></a> and the iterator <a href="#pdf-string.gmatch"><code>string.gmatch</code></a>
match multiple occurrences of the given pattern in the subject.
For these functions,
a new match is considered valid only
if it ends at least one byte after the end of the previous match.
In other words, the pattern machine never accepts the
empty string as a match immediately after another match.
As an example,
consider the results of the following code:
<pre>
> string.gsub("abc", "()a*()", print);
--> 1 2
--> 3 3
--> 4 4
</pre><p>
The second and third results come from Lua matching an empty
string after '<code>b</code>' and another one after '<code>c</code>'.
Lua does not match an empty string after '<code>a</code>',
because it would end at the same position of the previous match.
<h3>6.4.2 – <a name="6.4.2">Format Strings for Pack and Unpack</a></h3>
<p>
The first argument to <a href="#pdf-string.pack"><code>string.pack</code></a>,
<a href="#pdf-string.packsize"><code>string.packsize</code></a>, and <a href="#pdf-string.unpack"><code>string.unpack</code></a>
is a format string,
which describes the layout of the structure being created or read.
<p>
A format string is a sequence of conversion options.
The conversion options are as follows:
<ul>
<li><b><code><</code>: </b>sets little endian</li>
<li><b><code>></code>: </b>sets big endian</li>
<li><b><code>=</code>: </b>sets native endian</li>
<li><b><code>![<em>n</em>]</code>: </b>sets maximum alignment to <code>n</code>
(default is native alignment)</li>
<li><b><code>b</code>: </b>a signed byte (<code>char</code>)</li>
<li><b><code>B</code>: </b>an unsigned byte (<code>char</code>)</li>
<li><b><code>h</code>: </b>a signed <code>short</code> (native size)</li>
<li><b><code>H</code>: </b>an unsigned <code>short</code> (native size)</li>
<li><b><code>l</code>: </b>a signed <code>long</code> (native size)</li>
<li><b><code>L</code>: </b>an unsigned <code>long</code> (native size)</li>
<li><b><code>j</code>: </b>a <code>lua_Integer</code></li>
<li><b><code>J</code>: </b>a <code>lua_Unsigned</code></li>
<li><b><code>T</code>: </b>a <code>size_t</code> (native size)</li>
<li><b><code>i[<em>n</em>]</code>: </b>a signed <code>int</code> with <code>n</code> bytes
(default is native size)</li>
<li><b><code>I[<em>n</em>]</code>: </b>an unsigned <code>int</code> with <code>n</code> bytes
(default is native size)</li>
<li><b><code>f</code>: </b>a <code>float</code> (native size)</li>
<li><b><code>d</code>: </b>a <code>double</code> (native size)</li>
<li><b><code>n</code>: </b>a <code>lua_Number</code></li>
<li><b><code>c<em>n</em></code>: </b>a fixed-sized string with <code>n</code> bytes</li>
<li><b><code>z</code>: </b>a zero-terminated string</li>
<li><b><code>s[<em>n</em>]</code>: </b>a string preceded by its length
coded as an unsigned integer with <code>n</code> bytes
(default is a <code>size_t</code>)</li>
<li><b><code>x</code>: </b>one byte of padding</li>
<li><b><code>X<em>op</em></code>: </b>an empty item that aligns
according to option <code>op</code>
(which is otherwise ignored)</li>
<li><b>'<code> </code>': </b>(space) ignored</li>
</ul><p>
(A "<code>[<em>n</em>]</code>" means an optional integral numeral.)
Except for padding, spaces, and configurations
(options "<code>xX <=>!</code>"),
each option corresponds to an argument in <a href="#pdf-string.pack"><code>string.pack</code></a>
or a result in <a href="#pdf-string.unpack"><code>string.unpack</code></a>.
<p>
For options "<code>!<em>n</em></code>", "<code>s<em>n</em></code>", "<code>i<em>n</em></code>", and "<code>I<em>n</em></code>",
<code>n</code> can be any integer between 1 and 16.
All integral options check overflows;
<a href="#pdf-string.pack"><code>string.pack</code></a> checks whether the given value fits in the given size;
<a href="#pdf-string.unpack"><code>string.unpack</code></a> checks whether the read value fits in a Lua integer.
For the unsigned options,
Lua integers are treated as unsigned values too.
<p>
Any format string starts as if prefixed by "<code>!1=</code>",
that is,
with maximum alignment of 1 (no alignment)
and native endianness.
<p>
Native endianness assumes that the whole system is
either big or little endian.
The packing functions will not emulate correctly the behavior
of mixed-endian formats.
<p>
Alignment works as follows:
For each option,
the format gets extra padding until the data starts
at an offset that is a multiple of the minimum between the
option size and the maximum alignment;
this minimum must be a power of 2.
Options "<code>c</code>" and "<code>z</code>" are not aligned;
option "<code>s</code>" follows the alignment of its starting integer.
<p>
All padding is filled with zeros by <a href="#pdf-string.pack"><code>string.pack</code></a>
and ignored by <a href="#pdf-string.unpack"><code>string.unpack</code></a>.
<h2>6.5 – <a name="6.5">UTF-8 Support</a></h2>
<p>
This library provides basic support for UTF-8 encoding.
It provides all its functions inside the table <a name="pdf-utf8"><code>utf8</code></a>.
This library does not provide any support for Unicode other
than the handling of the encoding.
Any operation that needs the meaning of a character,
such as character classification, is outside its scope.
<p>
Unless stated otherwise,
all functions that expect a byte position as a parameter
assume that the given position is either the start of a byte sequence
or one plus the length of the subject string.
As in the string library,
negative indices count from the end of the string.
<p>
Functions that create byte sequences
accept all values up to <code>0x7FFFFFFF</code>,
as defined in the original UTF-8 specification;
that implies byte sequences of up to six bytes.
<p>
Functions that interpret byte sequences only accept
valid sequences (well formed and not overlong).
By default, they only accept byte sequences
that result in valid Unicode code points,
rejecting values greater than <code>10FFFF</code> and surrogates.
A boolean argument <code>lax</code>, when available,
lifts these checks,
so that all values up to <code>0x7FFFFFFF</code> are accepted.
(Not well formed and overlong sequences are still rejected.)
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-utf8.char"><code>utf8.char (···)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Receives zero or more integers,
converts each one to its corresponding UTF-8 byte sequence
and returns a string with the concatenation of all these sequences.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-utf8.charpattern"><code>utf8.charpattern</code></a></h3>
<p>
The pattern (a string, not a function) "<code>[\0-\x7F\xC2-\xFD][\x80-\xBF]*</code>"
(see <a href="#6.4.1">§6.4.1</a>),
which matches exactly one UTF-8 byte sequence,
assuming that the subject is a valid UTF-8 string.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-utf8.codes"><code>utf8.codes (s [, lax])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns values so that the construction
<pre>
for p, c in utf8.codes(s) do <em>body</em> end
</pre><p>
will iterate over all UTF-8 characters in string <code>s</code>,
with <code>p</code> being the position (in bytes) and <code>c</code> the code point
of each character.
It raises an error if it meets any invalid byte sequence.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-utf8.codepoint"><code>utf8.codepoint (s [, i [, j [, lax]]])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the code points (as integers) from all characters in <code>s</code>
that start between byte position <code>i</code> and <code>j</code> (both included).
The default for <code>i</code> is 1 and for <code>j</code> is <code>i</code>.
It raises an error if it meets any invalid byte sequence.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-utf8.len"><code>utf8.len (s [, i [, j [, lax]]])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the number of UTF-8 characters in string <code>s</code>
that start between positions <code>i</code> and <code>j</code> (both inclusive).
The default for <code>i</code> is 1 and for <code>j</code> is -1.
If it finds any invalid byte sequence,
returns <b>fail</b> plus the position of the first invalid byte.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-utf8.offset"><code>utf8.offset (s, n [, i])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the position (in bytes) where the encoding of the
<code>n</code>-th character of <code>s</code>
(counting from position <code>i</code>) starts.
A negative <code>n</code> gets characters before position <code>i</code>.
The default for <code>i</code> is 1 when <code>n</code> is non-negative
and <code>#s + 1</code> otherwise,
so that <code>utf8.offset(s, -n)</code> gets the offset of the
<code>n</code>-th character from the end of the string.
If the specified character is neither in the subject
nor right after its end,
the function returns <b>fail</b>.
<p>
As a special case,
when <code>n</code> is 0 the function returns the start of the encoding
of the character that contains the <code>i</code>-th byte of <code>s</code>.
<p>
This function assumes that <code>s</code> is a valid UTF-8 string.
<h2>6.6 – <a name="6.6">Table Manipulation</a></h2>
<p>
This library provides generic functions for table manipulation.
It provides all its functions inside the table <a name="pdf-table"><code>table</code></a>.
<p>
Remember that, whenever an operation needs the length of a table,
all caveats about the length operator apply (see <a href="#3.4.7">§3.4.7</a>).
All functions ignore non-numeric keys
in the tables given as arguments.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-table.concat"><code>table.concat (list [, sep [, i [, j]]])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Given a list where all elements are strings or numbers,
returns the string <code>list[i]..sep..list[i+1] ··· sep..list[j]</code>.
The default value for <code>sep</code> is the empty string,
the default for <code>i</code> is 1,
and the default for <code>j</code> is <code>#list</code>.
If <code>i</code> is greater than <code>j</code>, returns the empty string.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-table.insert"><code>table.insert (list, [pos,] value)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Inserts element <code>value</code> at position <code>pos</code> in <code>list</code>,
shifting up the elements
<code>list[pos], list[pos+1], ···, list[#list]</code>.
The default value for <code>pos</code> is <code>#list+1</code>,
so that a call <code>table.insert(t,x)</code> inserts <code>x</code> at the end
of the list <code>t</code>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-table.move"><code>table.move (a1, f, e, t [,a2])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Moves elements from the table <code>a1</code> to the table <code>a2</code>,
performing the equivalent to the following
multiple assignment:
<code>a2[t],··· = a1[f],···,a1[e]</code>.
The default for <code>a2</code> is <code>a1</code>.
The destination range can overlap with the source range.
The number of elements to be moved must fit in a Lua integer.
<p>
Returns the destination table <code>a2</code>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-table.pack"><code>table.pack (···)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns a new table with all arguments stored into keys 1, 2, etc.
and with a field "<code>n</code>" with the total number of arguments.
Note that the resulting table may not be a sequence,
if some arguments are <b>nil</b>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-table.remove"><code>table.remove (list [, pos])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Removes from <code>list</code> the element at position <code>pos</code>,
returning the value of the removed element.
When <code>pos</code> is an integer between 1 and <code>#list</code>,
it shifts down the elements
<code>list[pos+1], list[pos+2], ···, list[#list]</code>
and erases element <code>list[#list]</code>;
The index <code>pos</code> can also be 0 when <code>#list</code> is 0,
or <code>#list + 1</code>.
<p>
The default value for <code>pos</code> is <code>#list</code>,
so that a call <code>table.remove(l)</code> removes the last element
of the list <code>l</code>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-table.sort"><code>table.sort (list [, comp])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Sorts the list elements in a given order, <em>in-place</em>,
from <code>list[1]</code> to <code>list[#list]</code>.
If <code>comp</code> is given,
then it must be a function that receives two list elements
and returns true when the first element must come
before the second in the final order,
so that, after the sort,
<code>i <= j</code> implies <code>not comp(list[j],list[i])</code>.
If <code>comp</code> is not given,
then the standard Lua operator <code><</code> is used instead.
<p>
The <code>comp</code> function must define a consistent order;
more formally, the function must define a strict weak order.
(A weak order is similar to a total order,
but it can equate different elements for comparison purposes.)
<p>
The sort algorithm is not stable:
Different elements considered equal by the given order
may have their relative positions changed by the sort.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-table.unpack"><code>table.unpack (list [, i [, j]])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the elements from the given list.
This function is equivalent to
<pre>
return list[i], list[i+1], ···, list[j]
</pre><p>
By default, <code>i</code> is 1 and <code>j</code> is <code>#list</code>.
<h2>6.7 – <a name="6.7">Mathematical Functions</a></h2>
<p>
This library provides basic mathematical functions.
It provides all its functions and constants inside the table <a name="pdf-math"><code>math</code></a>.
Functions with the annotation "<code>integer/float</code>" give
integer results for integer arguments
and float results for non-integer arguments.
The rounding functions
<a href="#pdf-math.ceil"><code>math.ceil</code></a>, <a href="#pdf-math.floor"><code>math.floor</code></a>, and <a href="#pdf-math.modf"><code>math.modf</code></a>
return an integer when the result fits in the range of an integer,
or a float otherwise.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.abs"><code>math.abs (x)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the maximum value between <code>x</code> and <code>-x</code>. (integer/float)
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.acos"><code>math.acos (x)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the arc cosine of <code>x</code> (in radians).
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.asin"><code>math.asin (x)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the arc sine of <code>x</code> (in radians).
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.atan"><code>math.atan (y [, x])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the arc tangent of <code>y/x</code> (in radians),
but uses the signs of both arguments to find the
quadrant of the result.
It also handles correctly the case of <code>x</code> being zero.
<p>
The default value for <code>x</code> is 1,
so that the call <code>math.atan(y)</code>
returns the arc tangent of <code>y</code>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.ceil"><code>math.ceil (x)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the smallest integral value greater than or equal to <code>x</code>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.cos"><code>math.cos (x)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the cosine of <code>x</code> (assumed to be in radians).
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.deg"><code>math.deg (x)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Converts the angle <code>x</code> from radians to degrees.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.exp"><code>math.exp (x)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the value <em>e<sup>x</sup></em>
(where <code>e</code> is the base of natural logarithms).
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.floor"><code>math.floor (x)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the largest integral value less than or equal to <code>x</code>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.fmod"><code>math.fmod (x, y)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the remainder of the division of <code>x</code> by <code>y</code>
that rounds the quotient towards zero. (integer/float)
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.huge"><code>math.huge</code></a></h3>
<p>
The float value <code>HUGE_VAL</code>,
a value greater than any other numeric value.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.log"><code>math.log (x [, base])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the logarithm of <code>x</code> in the given base.
The default for <code>base</code> is <em>e</em>
(so that the function returns the natural logarithm of <code>x</code>).
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.max"><code>math.max (x, ···)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the argument with the maximum value,
according to the Lua operator <code><</code>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.maxinteger"><code>math.maxinteger</code></a></h3>
An integer with the maximum value for an integer.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.min"><code>math.min (x, ···)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the argument with the minimum value,
according to the Lua operator <code><</code>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.mininteger"><code>math.mininteger</code></a></h3>
An integer with the minimum value for an integer.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.modf"><code>math.modf (x)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the integral part of <code>x</code> and the fractional part of <code>x</code>.
Its second result is always a float.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.pi"><code>math.pi</code></a></h3>
<p>
The value of <em>π</em>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.rad"><code>math.rad (x)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Converts the angle <code>x</code> from degrees to radians.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.random"><code>math.random ([m [, n]])</code></a></h3>
<p>
When called without arguments,
returns a pseudo-random float with uniform distribution
in the range <em>[0,1)</em>.
When called with two integers <code>m</code> and <code>n</code>,
<code>math.random</code> returns a pseudo-random integer
with uniform distribution in the range <em>[m, n]</em>.
The call <code>math.random(n)</code>, for a positive <code>n</code>,
is equivalent to <code>math.random(1,n)</code>.
The call <code>math.random(0)</code> produces an integer with
all bits (pseudo)random.
<p>
This function uses the <code>xoshiro256**</code> algorithm to produce
pseudo-random 64-bit integers,
which are the results of calls with argument 0.
Other results (ranges and floats)
are unbiased extracted from these integers.
<p>
Lua initializes its pseudo-random generator with the equivalent of
a call to <a href="#pdf-math.randomseed"><code>math.randomseed</code></a> with no arguments,
so that <code>math.random</code> should generate
different sequences of results each time the program runs.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.randomseed"><code>math.randomseed ([x [, y]])</code></a></h3>
<p>
When called with at least one argument,
the integer parameters <code>x</code> and <code>y</code> are
joined into a 128-bit <em>seed</em> that
is used to reinitialize the pseudo-random generator;
equal seeds produce equal sequences of numbers.
The default for <code>y</code> is zero.
<p>
When called with no arguments,
Lua generates a seed with
a weak attempt for randomness.
<p>
This function returns the two seed components
that were effectively used,
so that setting them again repeats the sequence.
<p>
To ensure a required level of randomness to the initial state
(or contrarily, to have a deterministic sequence,
for instance when debugging a program),
you should call <a href="#pdf-math.randomseed"><code>math.randomseed</code></a> with explicit arguments.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.sin"><code>math.sin (x)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the sine of <code>x</code> (assumed to be in radians).
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.sqrt"><code>math.sqrt (x)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the square root of <code>x</code>.
(You can also use the expression <code>x^0.5</code> to compute this value.)
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.tan"><code>math.tan (x)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the tangent of <code>x</code> (assumed to be in radians).
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.tointeger"><code>math.tointeger (x)</code></a></h3>
<p>
If the value <code>x</code> is convertible to an integer,
returns that integer.
Otherwise, returns <b>fail</b>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.type"><code>math.type (x)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns "<code>integer</code>" if <code>x</code> is an integer,
"<code>float</code>" if it is a float,
or <b>fail</b> if <code>x</code> is not a number.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.ult"><code>math.ult (m, n)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns a boolean,
true if and only if integer <code>m</code> is below integer <code>n</code> when
they are compared as unsigned integers.
<h2>6.8 – <a name="6.8">Input and Output Facilities</a></h2>
<p>
The I/O library provides two different styles for file manipulation.
The first one uses implicit file handles;
that is, there are operations to set a default input file and a
default output file,
and all input/output operations are done over these default files.
The second style uses explicit file handles.
<p>
When using implicit file handles,
all operations are supplied by table <a name="pdf-io"><code>io</code></a>.
When using explicit file handles,
the operation <a href="#pdf-io.open"><code>io.open</code></a> returns a file handle
and then all operations are supplied as methods of the file handle.
<p>
The metatable for file handles provides metamethods
for <code>__gc</code> and <code>__close</code> that try
to close the file when called.
<p>
The table <code>io</code> also provides
three predefined file handles with their usual meanings from C:
<a name="pdf-io.stdin"><code>io.stdin</code></a>, <a name="pdf-io.stdout"><code>io.stdout</code></a>, and <a name="pdf-io.stderr"><code>io.stderr</code></a>.
The I/O library never closes these files.
<p>
Unless otherwise stated,
all I/O functions return <b>fail</b> on failure,
plus an error message as a second result and
a system-dependent error code as a third result,
and some non-false value on success.
On non-POSIX systems,
the computation of the error message and error code
in case of errors
may be not thread safe,
because they rely on the global C variable <code>errno</code>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.close"><code>io.close ([file])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Equivalent to <code>file:close()</code>.
Without a <code>file</code>, closes the default output file.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.flush"><code>io.flush ()</code></a></h3>
<p>
Equivalent to <code>io.output():flush()</code>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.input"><code>io.input ([file])</code></a></h3>
<p>
When called with a file name, it opens the named file (in text mode),
and sets its handle as the default input file.
When called with a file handle,
it simply sets this file handle as the default input file.
When called without arguments,
it returns the current default input file.
<p>
In case of errors this function raises the error,
instead of returning an error code.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.lines"><code>io.lines ([filename, ···])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Opens the given file name in read mode
and returns an iterator function that
works like <code>file:lines(···)</code> over the opened file.
When the iterator function fails to read any value,
it automatically closes the file.
Besides the iterator function,
<code>io.lines</code> returns three other values:
two <b>nil</b> values as placeholders,
plus the created file handle.
Therefore, when used in a generic <b>for</b> loop,
the file is closed also if the loop is interrupted by an
error or a <b>break</b>.
<p>
The call <code>io.lines()</code> (with no file name) is equivalent
to <code>io.input():lines("l")</code>;
that is, it iterates over the lines of the default input file.
In this case, the iterator does not close the file when the loop ends.
<p>
In case of errors opening the file,
this function raises the error,
instead of returning an error code.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.open"><code>io.open (filename [, mode])</code></a></h3>
<p>
This function opens a file,
in the mode specified in the string <code>mode</code>.
In case of success,
it returns a new file handle.
<p>
The <code>mode</code> string can be any of the following:
<ul>
<li><b>"<code>r</code>": </b> read mode (the default);</li>
<li><b>"<code>w</code>": </b> write mode;</li>
<li><b>"<code>a</code>": </b> append mode;</li>
<li><b>"<code>r+</code>": </b> update mode, all previous data is preserved;</li>
<li><b>"<code>w+</code>": </b> update mode, all previous data is erased;</li>
<li><b>"<code>a+</code>": </b> append update mode, previous data is preserved,
writing is only allowed at the end of file.</li>
</ul><p>
The <code>mode</code> string can also have a '<code>b</code>' at the end,
which is needed in some systems to open the file in binary mode.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.output"><code>io.output ([file])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Similar to <a href="#pdf-io.input"><code>io.input</code></a>, but operates over the default output file.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.popen"><code>io.popen (prog [, mode])</code></a></h3>
<p>
This function is system dependent and is not available
on all platforms.
<p>
Starts the program <code>prog</code> in a separated process and returns
a file handle that you can use to read data from this program
(if <code>mode</code> is <code>"r"</code>, the default)
or to write data to this program
(if <code>mode</code> is <code>"w"</code>).
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.read"><code>io.read (···)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Equivalent to <code>io.input():read(···)</code>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.tmpfile"><code>io.tmpfile ()</code></a></h3>
<p>
In case of success,
returns a handle for a temporary file.
This file is opened in update mode
and it is automatically removed when the program ends.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.type"><code>io.type (obj)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Checks whether <code>obj</code> is a valid file handle.
Returns the string <code>"file"</code> if <code>obj</code> is an open file handle,
<code>"closed file"</code> if <code>obj</code> is a closed file handle,
or <b>fail</b> if <code>obj</code> is not a file handle.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.write"><code>io.write (···)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Equivalent to <code>io.output():write(···)</code>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:close"><code>file:close ()</code></a></h3>
<p>
Closes <code>file</code>.
Note that files are automatically closed when
their handles are garbage collected,
but that takes an unpredictable amount of time to happen.
<p>
When closing a file handle created with <a href="#pdf-io.popen"><code>io.popen</code></a>,
<a href="#pdf-file:close"><code>file:close</code></a> returns the same values
returned by <a href="#pdf-os.execute"><code>os.execute</code></a>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:flush"><code>file:flush ()</code></a></h3>
<p>
Saves any written data to <code>file</code>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:lines"><code>file:lines (···)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns an iterator function that,
each time it is called,
reads the file according to the given formats.
When no format is given,
uses "<code>l</code>" as a default.
As an example, the construction
<pre>
for c in file:lines(1) do <em>body</em> end
</pre><p>
will iterate over all characters of the file,
starting at the current position.
Unlike <a href="#pdf-io.lines"><code>io.lines</code></a>, this function does not close the file
when the loop ends.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:read"><code>file:read (···)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Reads the file <code>file</code>,
according to the given formats, which specify what to read.
For each format,
the function returns a string or a number with the characters read,
or <b>fail</b> if it cannot read data with the specified format.
(In this latter case,
the function does not read subsequent formats.)
When called without arguments,
it uses a default format that reads the next line
(see below).
<p>
The available formats are
<ul>
<li><b>"<code>n</code>": </b>
reads a numeral and returns it as a float or an integer,
following the lexical conventions of Lua.
(The numeral may have leading whitespaces and a sign.)
This format always reads the longest input sequence that
is a valid prefix for a numeral;
if that prefix does not form a valid numeral
(e.g., an empty string, "<code>0x</code>", or "<code>3.4e-</code>")
or it is too long (more than 200 characters),
it is discarded and the format returns <b>fail</b>.
</li>
<li><b>"<code>a</code>": </b>
reads the whole file, starting at the current position.
On end of file, it returns the empty string;
this format never fails.
</li>
<li><b>"<code>l</code>": </b>
reads the next line skipping the end of line,
returning <b>fail</b> on end of file.
This is the default format.
</li>
<li><b>"<code>L</code>": </b>
reads the next line keeping the end-of-line character (if present),
returning <b>fail</b> on end of file.
</li>
<li><b><em>number</em>: </b>
reads a string with up to this number of bytes,
returning <b>fail</b> on end of file.
If <code>number</code> is zero,
it reads nothing and returns an empty string,
or <b>fail</b> on end of file.
</li>
</ul><p>
The formats "<code>l</code>" and "<code>L</code>" should be used only for text files.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:seek"><code>file:seek ([whence [, offset]])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Sets and gets the file position,
measured from the beginning of the file,
to the position given by <code>offset</code> plus a base
specified by the string <code>whence</code>, as follows:
<ul>
<li><b>"<code>set</code>": </b> base is position 0 (beginning of the file);</li>
<li><b>"<code>cur</code>": </b> base is current position;</li>
<li><b>"<code>end</code>": </b> base is end of file;</li>
</ul><p>
In case of success, <code>seek</code> returns the final file position,
measured in bytes from the beginning of the file.
If <code>seek</code> fails, it returns <b>fail</b>,
plus a string describing the error.
<p>
The default value for <code>whence</code> is <code>"cur"</code>,
and for <code>offset</code> is 0.
Therefore, the call <code>file:seek()</code> returns the current
file position, without changing it;
the call <code>file:seek("set")</code> sets the position to the
beginning of the file (and returns 0);
and the call <code>file:seek("end")</code> sets the position to the
end of the file, and returns its size.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:setvbuf"><code>file:setvbuf (mode [, size])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Sets the buffering mode for a file.
There are three available modes:
<ul>
<li><b>"<code>no</code>": </b> no buffering.</li>
<li><b>"<code>full</code>": </b> full buffering.</li>
<li><b>"<code>line</code>": </b> line buffering.</li>
</ul>
<p>
For the last two cases,
<code>size</code> is a hint for the size of the buffer, in bytes.
The default is an appropriate size.
<p>
The specific behavior of each mode is non portable;
check the underlying ISO C function <code>setvbuf</code> in your platform for
more details.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:write"><code>file:write (···)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Writes the value of each of its arguments to <code>file</code>.
The arguments must be strings or numbers.
<p>
In case of success, this function returns <code>file</code>.
<h2>6.9 – <a name="6.9">Operating System Facilities</a></h2>
<p>
This library is implemented through table <a name="pdf-os"><code>os</code></a>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.clock"><code>os.clock ()</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns an approximation of the amount in seconds of CPU time
used by the program,
as returned by the underlying ISO C function <code>clock</code>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.date"><code>os.date ([format [, time]])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns a string or a table containing date and time,
formatted according to the given string <code>format</code>.
<p>
If the <code>time</code> argument is present,
this is the time to be formatted
(see the <a href="#pdf-os.time"><code>os.time</code></a> function for a description of this value).
Otherwise, <code>date</code> formats the current time.
<p>
If <code>format</code> starts with '<code>!</code>',
then the date is formatted in Coordinated Universal Time.
After this optional character,
if <code>format</code> is the string "<code>*t</code>",
then <code>date</code> returns a table with the following fields:
<code>year</code>, <code>month</code> (1–12), <code>day</code> (1–31),
<code>hour</code> (0–23), <code>min</code> (0–59),
<code>sec</code> (0–61, due to leap seconds),
<code>wday</code> (weekday, 1–7, Sunday is 1),
<code>yday</code> (day of the year, 1–366),
and <code>isdst</code> (daylight saving flag, a boolean).
This last field may be absent
if the information is not available.
<p>
If <code>format</code> is not "<code>*t</code>",
then <code>date</code> returns the date as a string,
formatted according to the same rules as the ISO C function <code>strftime</code>.
<p>
If <code>format</code> is absent, it defaults to "<code>%c</code>",
which gives a human-readable date and time representation
using the current locale.
<p>
On non-POSIX systems,
this function may be not thread safe
because of its reliance on C function <code>gmtime</code> and C function <code>localtime</code>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.difftime"><code>os.difftime (t2, t1)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the difference, in seconds,
from time <code>t1</code> to time <code>t2</code>
(where the times are values returned by <a href="#pdf-os.time"><code>os.time</code></a>).
In POSIX, Windows, and some other systems,
this value is exactly <code>t2</code><em>-</em><code>t1</code>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.execute"><code>os.execute ([command])</code></a></h3>
<p>
This function is equivalent to the ISO C function <code>system</code>.
It passes <code>command</code> to be executed by an operating system shell.
Its first result is <b>true</b>
if the command terminated successfully,
or <b>fail</b> otherwise.
After this first result
the function returns a string plus a number,
as follows:
<ul>
<li><b>"<code>exit</code>": </b>
the command terminated normally;
the following number is the exit status of the command.
</li>
<li><b>"<code>signal</code>": </b>
the command was terminated by a signal;
the following number is the signal that terminated the command.
</li>
</ul>
<p>
When called without a <code>command</code>,
<code>os.execute</code> returns a boolean that is true if a shell is available.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.exit"><code>os.exit ([code [, close]])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Calls the ISO C function <code>exit</code> to terminate the host program.
If <code>code</code> is <b>true</b>,
the returned status is <code>EXIT_SUCCESS</code>;
if <code>code</code> is <b>false</b>,
the returned status is <code>EXIT_FAILURE</code>;
if <code>code</code> is a number,
the returned status is this number.
The default value for <code>code</code> is <b>true</b>.
<p>
If the optional second argument <code>close</code> is true,
closes the Lua state before exiting.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.getenv"><code>os.getenv (varname)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the value of the process environment variable <code>varname</code>
or <b>fail</b> if the variable is not defined.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.remove"><code>os.remove (filename)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Deletes the file (or empty directory, on POSIX systems)
with the given name.
If this function fails, it returns <b>fail</b>
plus a string describing the error and the error code.
Otherwise, it returns true.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.rename"><code>os.rename (oldname, newname)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Renames the file or directory named <code>oldname</code> to <code>newname</code>.
If this function fails, it returns <b>fail</b>,
plus a string describing the error and the error code.
Otherwise, it returns true.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.setlocale"><code>os.setlocale (locale [, category])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Sets the current locale of the program.
<code>locale</code> is a system-dependent string specifying a locale;
<code>category</code> is an optional string describing which category to change:
<code>"all"</code>, <code>"collate"</code>, <code>"ctype"</code>,
<code>"monetary"</code>, <code>"numeric"</code>, or <code>"time"</code>;
the default category is <code>"all"</code>.
The function returns the name of the new locale,
or <b>fail</b> if the request cannot be honored.
<p>
If <code>locale</code> is the empty string,
the current locale is set to an implementation-defined native locale.
If <code>locale</code> is the string "<code>C</code>",
the current locale is set to the standard C locale.
<p>
When called with <b>nil</b> as the first argument,
this function only returns the name of the current locale
for the given category.
<p>
This function may be not thread safe
because of its reliance on C function <code>setlocale</code>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.time"><code>os.time ([table])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the current time when called without arguments,
or a time representing the local date and time specified by the given table.
This table must have fields <code>year</code>, <code>month</code>, and <code>day</code>,
and may have fields
<code>hour</code> (default is 12),
<code>min</code> (default is 0),
<code>sec</code> (default is 0),
and <code>isdst</code> (default is <b>nil</b>).
Other fields are ignored.
For a description of these fields, see the <a href="#pdf-os.date"><code>os.date</code></a> function.
<p>
When the function is called,
the values in these fields do not need to be inside their valid ranges.
For instance, if <code>sec</code> is -10,
it means 10 seconds before the time specified by the other fields;
if <code>hour</code> is 1000,
it means 1000 hours after the time specified by the other fields.
<p>
The returned value is a number, whose meaning depends on your system.
In POSIX, Windows, and some other systems,
this number counts the number
of seconds since some given start time (the "epoch").
In other systems, the meaning is not specified,
and the number returned by <code>time</code> can be used only as an argument to
<a href="#pdf-os.date"><code>os.date</code></a> and <a href="#pdf-os.difftime"><code>os.difftime</code></a>.
<p>
When called with a table,
<code>os.time</code> also normalizes all the fields
documented in the <a href="#pdf-os.date"><code>os.date</code></a> function,
so that they represent the same time as before the call
but with values inside their valid ranges.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.tmpname"><code>os.tmpname ()</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns a string with a file name that can
be used for a temporary file.
The file must be explicitly opened before its use
and explicitly removed when no longer needed.
<p>
In POSIX systems,
this function also creates a file with that name,
to avoid security risks.
(Someone else might create the file with wrong permissions
in the time between getting the name and creating the file.)
You still have to open the file to use it
and to remove it (even if you do not use it).
<p>
When possible,
you may prefer to use <a href="#pdf-io.tmpfile"><code>io.tmpfile</code></a>,
which automatically removes the file when the program ends.
<h2>6.10 – <a name="6.10">The Debug Library</a></h2>
<p>
This library provides
the functionality of the debug interface (<a href="#4.7">§4.7</a>) to Lua programs.
You should exert care when using this library.
Several of its functions
violate basic assumptions about Lua code
(e.g., that variables local to a function
cannot be accessed from outside;
that userdata metatables cannot be changed by Lua code;
that Lua programs do not crash)
and therefore can compromise otherwise secure code.
Moreover, some functions in this library may be slow.
<p>
All functions in this library are provided
inside the <a name="pdf-debug"><code>debug</code></a> table.
All functions that operate over a thread
have an optional first argument which is the
thread to operate over.
The default is always the current thread.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.debug"><code>debug.debug ()</code></a></h3>
<p>
Enters an interactive mode with the user,
running each string that the user enters.
Using simple commands and other debug facilities,
the user can inspect global and local variables,
change their values, evaluate expressions, and so on.
A line containing only the word <code>cont</code> finishes this function,
so that the caller continues its execution.
<p>
Note that commands for <code>debug.debug</code> are not lexically nested
within any function and so have no direct access to local variables.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.gethook"><code>debug.gethook ([thread])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the current hook settings of the thread, as three values:
the current hook function, the current hook mask,
and the current hook count,
as set by the <a href="#pdf-debug.sethook"><code>debug.sethook</code></a> function.
<p>
Returns <b>fail</b> if there is no active hook.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.getinfo"><code>debug.getinfo ([thread,] f [, what])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns a table with information about a function.
You can give the function directly
or you can give a number as the value of <code>f</code>,
which means the function running at level <code>f</code> of the call stack
of the given thread:
level 0 is the current function (<code>getinfo</code> itself);
level 1 is the function that called <code>getinfo</code>
(except for tail calls, which do not count in the stack);
and so on.
If <code>f</code> is a number greater than the number of active functions,
then <code>getinfo</code> returns <b>fail</b>.
<p>
The returned table can contain all the fields returned by <a href="#lua_getinfo"><code>lua_getinfo</code></a>,
with the string <code>what</code> describing which fields to fill in.
The default for <code>what</code> is to get all information available,
except the table of valid lines.
If present,
the option '<code>f</code>'
adds a field named <code>func</code> with the function itself.
If present,
the option '<code>L</code>'
adds a field named <code>activelines</code> with the table of
valid lines.
<p>
For instance, the expression <code>debug.getinfo(1,"n").name</code> returns
a name for the current function,
if a reasonable name can be found,
and the expression <code>debug.getinfo(print)</code>
returns a table with all available information
about the <a href="#pdf-print"><code>print</code></a> function.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.getlocal"><code>debug.getlocal ([thread,] f, local)</code></a></h3>
<p>
This function returns the name and the value of the local variable
with index <code>local</code> of the function at level <code>f</code> of the stack.
This function accesses not only explicit local variables,
but also parameters and temporary values.
<p>
The first parameter or local variable has index 1, and so on,
following the order that they are declared in the code,
counting only the variables that are active
in the current scope of the function.
Compile-time constants may not appear in this listing,
if they were optimized away by the compiler.
Negative indices refer to vararg arguments;
-1 is the first vararg argument.
The function returns <b>fail</b>
if there is no variable with the given index,
and raises an error when called with a level out of range.
(You can call <a href="#pdf-debug.getinfo"><code>debug.getinfo</code></a> to check whether the level is valid.)
<p>
Variable names starting with '<code>(</code>' (open parenthesis)
represent variables with no known names
(internal variables such as loop control variables,
and variables from chunks saved without debug information).
<p>
The parameter <code>f</code> may also be a function.
In that case, <code>getlocal</code> returns only the name of function parameters.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.getmetatable"><code>debug.getmetatable (value)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the metatable of the given <code>value</code>
or <b>nil</b> if it does not have a metatable.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.getregistry"><code>debug.getregistry ()</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the registry table (see <a href="#4.3">§4.3</a>).
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.getupvalue"><code>debug.getupvalue (f, up)</code></a></h3>
<p>
This function returns the name and the value of the upvalue
with index <code>up</code> of the function <code>f</code>.
The function returns <b>fail</b>
if there is no upvalue with the given index.
<p>
(For Lua functions,
upvalues are the external local variables that the function uses,
and that are consequently included in its closure.)
<p>
For C functions, this function uses the empty string <code>""</code>
as a name for all upvalues.
<p>
Variable name '<code>?</code>' (interrogation mark)
represents variables with no known names
(variables from chunks saved without debug information).
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.getuservalue"><code>debug.getuservalue (u, n)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the <code>n</code>-th user value associated
to the userdata <code>u</code> plus a boolean,
<b>false</b> if the userdata does not have that value.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.sethook"><code>debug.sethook ([thread,] hook, mask [, count])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Sets the given function as the debug hook.
The string <code>mask</code> and the number <code>count</code> describe
when the hook will be called.
The string mask may have any combination of the following characters,
with the given meaning:
<ul>
<li><b>'<code>c</code>': </b> the hook is called every time Lua calls a function;</li>
<li><b>'<code>r</code>': </b> the hook is called every time Lua returns from a function;</li>
<li><b>'<code>l</code>': </b> the hook is called every time Lua enters a new line of code.</li>
</ul><p>
Moreover,
with a <code>count</code> different from zero,
the hook is called also after every <code>count</code> instructions.
<p>
When called without arguments,
<a href="#pdf-debug.sethook"><code>debug.sethook</code></a> turns off the hook.
<p>
When the hook is called, its first parameter is a string
describing the event that has triggered its call:
<code>"call"</code>, <code>"tail call"</code>, <code>"return"</code>,
<code>"line"</code>, and <code>"count"</code>.
For line events,
the hook also gets the new line number as its second parameter.
Inside a hook,
you can call <code>getinfo</code> with level 2 to get more information about
the running function.
(Level 0 is the <code>getinfo</code> function,
and level 1 is the hook function.)
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.setlocal"><code>debug.setlocal ([thread,] level, local, value)</code></a></h3>
<p>
This function assigns the value <code>value</code> to the local variable
with index <code>local</code> of the function at level <code>level</code> of the stack.
The function returns <b>fail</b> if there is no local
variable with the given index,
and raises an error when called with a <code>level</code> out of range.
(You can call <code>getinfo</code> to check whether the level is valid.)
Otherwise, it returns the name of the local variable.
<p>
See <a href="#pdf-debug.getlocal"><code>debug.getlocal</code></a> for more information about
variable indices and names.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.setmetatable"><code>debug.setmetatable (value, table)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Sets the metatable for the given <code>value</code> to the given <code>table</code>
(which can be <b>nil</b>).
Returns <code>value</code>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.setupvalue"><code>debug.setupvalue (f, up, value)</code></a></h3>
<p>
This function assigns the value <code>value</code> to the upvalue
with index <code>up</code> of the function <code>f</code>.
The function returns <b>fail</b> if there is no upvalue
with the given index.
Otherwise, it returns the name of the upvalue.
<p>
See <a href="#pdf-debug.getupvalue"><code>debug.getupvalue</code></a> for more information about upvalues.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.setuservalue"><code>debug.setuservalue (udata, value, n)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Sets the given <code>value</code> as
the <code>n</code>-th user value associated to the given <code>udata</code>.
<code>udata</code> must be a full userdata.
<p>
Returns <code>udata</code>,
or <b>fail</b> if the userdata does not have that value.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.traceback"><code>debug.traceback ([thread,] [message [, level]])</code></a></h3>
<p>
If <code>message</code> is present but is neither a string nor <b>nil</b>,
this function returns <code>message</code> without further processing.
Otherwise,
it returns a string with a traceback of the call stack.
The optional <code>message</code> string is appended
at the beginning of the traceback.
An optional <code>level</code> number tells at which level
to start the traceback
(default is 1, the function calling <code>traceback</code>).
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.upvalueid"><code>debug.upvalueid (f, n)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns a unique identifier (as a light userdata)
for the upvalue numbered <code>n</code>
from the given function.
<p>
These unique identifiers allow a program to check whether different
closures share upvalues.
Lua closures that share an upvalue
(that is, that access a same external local variable)
will return identical ids for those upvalue indices.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.upvaluejoin"><code>debug.upvaluejoin (f1, n1, f2, n2)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Make the <code>n1</code>-th upvalue of the Lua closure <code>f1</code>
refer to the <code>n2</code>-th upvalue of the Lua closure <code>f2</code>.
<h1>7 – <a name="7">Lua Standalone</a></h1>
<p>
Although Lua has been designed as an extension language,
to be embedded in a host C program,
it is also frequently used as a standalone language.
An interpreter for Lua as a standalone language,
called simply <code>lua</code>,
is provided with the standard distribution.
The standalone interpreter includes
all standard libraries.
Its usage is:
<pre>
lua [options] [script [args]]
</pre><p>
The options are:
<ul>
<li><b><code>-e <em>stat</em></code>: </b> execute string <em>stat</em>;</li>
<li><b><code>-i</code>: </b> enter interactive mode after running <em>script</em>;</li>
<li><b><code>-l <em>mod</em></code>: </b> "require" <em>mod</em> and assign the
result to global <em>mod</em>;</li>
<li><b><code>-v</code>: </b> print version information;</li>
<li><b><code>-E</code>: </b> ignore environment variables;</li>
<li><b><code>-W</code>: </b> turn warnings on;</li>
<li><b><code>--</code>: </b> stop handling options;</li>
<li><b><code>-</code>: </b> execute <code>stdin</code> as a file and stop handling options.</li>
</ul><p>
After handling its options, <code>lua</code> runs the given <em>script</em>.
When called without arguments,
<code>lua</code> behaves as <code>lua -v -i</code>
when the standard input (<code>stdin</code>) is a terminal,
and as <code>lua -</code> otherwise.
<p>
When called without the option <code>-E</code>,
the interpreter checks for an environment variable <a name="pdf-LUA_INIT_5_4"><code>LUA_INIT_5_4</code></a>
(or <a name="pdf-LUA_INIT"><code>LUA_INIT</code></a> if the versioned name is not defined)
before running any argument.
If the variable content has the format <code>@<em>filename</em></code>,
then <code>lua</code> executes the file.
Otherwise, <code>lua</code> executes the string itself.
<p>
When called with the option <code>-E</code>,
Lua does not consult any environment variables.
In particular,
the values of <a href="#pdf-package.path"><code>package.path</code></a> and <a href="#pdf-package.cpath"><code>package.cpath</code></a>
are set with the default paths defined in <code>luaconf.h</code>.
<p>
The options <code>-e</code>, <code>-l</code>, and <code>-W</code> are handled in
the order they appear.
For instance, an invocation like
<pre>
$ lua -e 'a=1' -llib1 script.lua
</pre><p>
will first set <code>a</code> to 1, then require the library <code>lib1</code>,
and finally run the file <code>script.lua</code> with no arguments.
(Here <code>$</code> is the shell prompt. Your prompt may be different.)
<p>
Before running any code,
<code>lua</code> collects all command-line arguments
in a global table called <code>arg</code>.
The script name goes to index 0,
the first argument after the script name goes to index 1,
and so on.
Any arguments before the script name
(that is, the interpreter name plus its options)
go to negative indices.
For instance, in the call
<pre>
$ lua -la b.lua t1 t2
</pre><p>
the table is like this:
<pre>
arg = { [-2] = "lua", [-1] = "-la",
[0] = "b.lua",
[1] = "t1", [2] = "t2" }
</pre><p>
If there is no script in the call,
the interpreter name goes to index 0,
followed by the other arguments.
For instance, the call
<pre>
$ lua -e "print(arg[1])"
</pre><p>
will print "<code>-e</code>".
If there is a script,
the script is called with arguments
<code>arg[1]</code>, ···, <code>arg[#arg]</code>.
Like all chunks in Lua,
the script is compiled as a vararg function.
<p>
In interactive mode,
Lua repeatedly prompts and waits for a line.
After reading a line,
Lua first try to interpret the line as an expression.
If it succeeds, it prints its value.
Otherwise, it interprets the line as a statement.
If you write an incomplete statement,
the interpreter waits for its completion
by issuing a different prompt.
<p>
If the global variable <a name="pdf-_PROMPT"><code>_PROMPT</code></a> contains a string,
then its value is used as the prompt.
Similarly, if the global variable <a name="pdf-_PROMPT2"><code>_PROMPT2</code></a> contains a string,
its value is used as the secondary prompt
(issued during incomplete statements).
<p>
In case of unprotected errors in the script,
the interpreter reports the error to the standard error stream.
If the error object is not a string but
has a metamethod <code>__tostring</code>,
the interpreter calls this metamethod to produce the final message.
Otherwise, the interpreter converts the error object to a string
and adds a stack traceback to it.
When warnings are on,
they are simply printed in the standard error output.
<p>
When finishing normally,
the interpreter closes its main Lua state
(see <a href="#lua_close"><code>lua_close</code></a>).
The script can avoid this step by
calling <a href="#pdf-os.exit"><code>os.exit</code></a> to terminate.
<p>
To allow the use of Lua as a
script interpreter in Unix systems,
Lua skips the first line of a file chunk if it starts with <code>#</code>.
Therefore, Lua scripts can be made into executable programs
by using <code>chmod +x</code> and the <code>#!</code> form,
as in
<pre>
#!/usr/local/bin/lua
</pre><p>
Of course,
the location of the Lua interpreter may be different in your machine.
If <code>lua</code> is in your <code>PATH</code>,
then
<pre>
#!/usr/bin/env lua
</pre><p>
is a more portable solution.
<h1>8 – <a name="8">Incompatibilities with the Previous Version</a></h1>
<p>
Here we list the incompatibilities that you may find when moving a program
from Lua 5.3 to Lua 5.4.
<p>
You can avoid some incompatibilities by compiling Lua with
appropriate options (see file <code>luaconf.h</code>).
However,
all these compatibility options will be removed in the future.
More often than not,
compatibility issues arise when these compatibility options
are removed.
So, whenever you have the chance,
you should try to test your code with a version of Lua compiled
with all compatibility options turned off.
That will ease transitions to newer versions of Lua.
<p>
Lua versions can always change the C API in ways that
do not imply source-code changes in a program,
such as the numeric values for constants
or the implementation of functions as macros.
Therefore,
you should never assume that binaries are compatible between
different Lua versions.
Always recompile clients of the Lua API when
using a new version.
<p>
Similarly, Lua versions can always change the internal representation
of precompiled chunks;
precompiled chunks are not compatible between different Lua versions.
<p>
The standard paths in the official distribution may
change between versions.
<h2>8.1 – <a name="8.1">Incompatibilities in the Language</a></h2>
<ul>
<li>
The coercion of strings to numbers in
arithmetic and bitwise operations
has been removed from the core language.
The string library does a similar job
for arithmetic (but not for bitwise) operations
using the string metamethods.
However, unlike in previous versions,
the new implementation preserves the implicit type of the numeral
in the string.
For instance, the result of <code>"1" + "2"</code> now is an integer,
not a float.
</li>
<li>
Literal decimal integer constants that overflow are read as floats,
instead of wrapping around.
You can use hexadecimal notation for such constants if you
want the old behavior
(reading them as integers with wrap around).
</li>
<li>
The use of the <code>__lt</code> metamethod to emulate <code>__le</code>
has been removed.
When needed, this metamethod must be explicitly defined.
</li>
<li>
The semantics of the numerical <b>for</b> loop
over integers changed in some details.
In particular, the control variable never wraps around.
</li>
<li>
A label for a <b>goto</b> cannot be declared where a label with the same
name is visible, even if this other label is declared in an enclosing
block.
</li>
<li>
When finalizing an object,
Lua does not ignore <code>__gc</code> metamethods that are not functions.
Any value will be called, if present.
(Non-callable values will generate a warning,
like any other error when calling a finalizer.)
</li>
</ul>
<h2>8.2 – <a name="8.2">Incompatibilities in the Libraries</a></h2>
<ul>
<li>
The function <a href="#pdf-print"><code>print</code></a> does not call <a href="#pdf-tostring"><code>tostring</code></a>
to format its arguments;
instead, it has this functionality hardwired.
You should use <code>__tostring</code> to modify how values are printed.
</li>
<li>
The pseudo-random number generator used by the function <a href="#pdf-math.random"><code>math.random</code></a>
now starts with a somewhat random seed.
Moreover, it uses a different algorithm.
</li>
<li>
By default, the decoding functions in the <a href="#pdf-utf8"><code>utf8</code></a> library
do not accept surrogates as valid code points.
An extra parameter in these functions makes them more permissive.
</li>
<li>
The options "<code>setpause</code>" and "<code>setstepmul</code>"
of the function <a href="#pdf-collectgarbage"><code>collectgarbage</code></a> are deprecated.
You should use the new option "<code>incremental</code>" to set them.
</li>
<li>
The function <a href="#pdf-io.lines"><code>io.lines</code></a> now returns four values,
instead of just one.
That can be a problem when it is used as the sole
argument to another function that has optional parameters,
such as in <code>load(io.lines(filename, "L"))</code>.
To fix that issue,
you can wrap the call into parentheses,
to adjust its number of results to one.
</li>
</ul>
<h2>8.3 – <a name="8.3">Incompatibilities in the API</a></h2>
<ul>
<li>
Full userdata now has an arbitrary number of associated user values.
Therefore, the functions <code>lua_newuserdata</code>,
<code>lua_setuservalue</code>, and <code>lua_getuservalue</code> were
replaced by <a href="#lua_newuserdatauv"><code>lua_newuserdatauv</code></a>,
<a href="#lua_setiuservalue"><code>lua_setiuservalue</code></a>, and <a href="#lua_getiuservalue"><code>lua_getiuservalue</code></a>,
which have an extra argument.
<p>
For compatibility, the old names still work as macros assuming
one single user value.
Note, however, that userdata with zero user values
are more efficient memory-wise.
</li>
<li>
The function <a href="#lua_resume"><code>lua_resume</code></a> has an extra parameter.
This out parameter returns the number of values on
the top of the stack that were yielded or returned by the coroutine.
(In previous versions,
those values were the entire stack.)
</li>
<li>
The function <a href="#lua_version"><code>lua_version</code></a> returns the version number,
instead of an address of the version number.
The Lua core should work correctly with libraries using their
own static copies of the same core,
so there is no need to check whether they are using the same
address space.
</li>
<li>
The constant <code>LUA_ERRGCMM</code> was removed.
Errors in finalizers are never propagated;
instead, they generate a warning.
</li>
<li>
The options <code>LUA_GCSETPAUSE</code> and <code>LUA_GCSETSTEPMUL</code>
of the function <a href="#lua_gc"><code>lua_gc</code></a> are deprecated.
You should use the new option <code>LUA_GCINC</code> to set them.
</li>
</ul>
<h1>9 – <a name="9">The Complete Syntax of Lua</a></h1>
<p>
Here is the complete syntax of Lua in extended BNF.
As usual in extended BNF,
{A} means 0 or more As,
and [A] means an optional A.
(For operator precedences, see <a href="#3.4.8">§3.4.8</a>;
for a description of the terminals
Name, Numeral,
and LiteralString, see <a href="#3.1">§3.1</a>.)
<pre>
chunk ::= block
block ::= {stat} [retstat]
stat ::= ‘<b>;</b>’ |
varlist ‘<b>=</b>’ explist |
functioncall |
label |
<b>break</b> |
<b>goto</b> Name |
<b>do</b> block <b>end</b> |
<b>while</b> exp <b>do</b> block <b>end</b> |
<b>repeat</b> block <b>until</b> exp |
<b>if</b> exp <b>then</b> block {<b>elseif</b> exp <b>then</b> block} [<b>else</b> block] <b>end</b> |
<b>for</b> Name ‘<b>=</b>’ exp ‘<b>,</b>’ exp [‘<b>,</b>’ exp] <b>do</b> block <b>end</b> |
<b>for</b> namelist <b>in</b> explist <b>do</b> block <b>end</b> |
<b>function</b> funcname funcbody |
<b>local</b> <b>function</b> Name funcbody |
<b>local</b> attnamelist [‘<b>=</b>’ explist]
attnamelist ::= Name attrib {‘<b>,</b>’ Name attrib}
attrib ::= [‘<b><</b>’ Name ‘<b>></b>’]
retstat ::= <b>return</b> [explist] [‘<b>;</b>’]
label ::= ‘<b>::</b>’ Name ‘<b>::</b>’
funcname ::= Name {‘<b>.</b>’ Name} [‘<b>:</b>’ Name]
varlist ::= var {‘<b>,</b>’ var}
var ::= Name | prefixexp ‘<b>[</b>’ exp ‘<b>]</b>’ | prefixexp ‘<b>.</b>’ Name
namelist ::= Name {‘<b>,</b>’ Name}
explist ::= exp {‘<b>,</b>’ exp}
exp ::= <b>nil</b> | <b>false</b> | <b>true</b> | Numeral | LiteralString | ‘<b>...</b>’ | functiondef |
prefixexp | tableconstructor | exp binop exp | unop exp
prefixexp ::= var | functioncall | ‘<b>(</b>’ exp ‘<b>)</b>’
functioncall ::= prefixexp args | prefixexp ‘<b>:</b>’ Name args
args ::= ‘<b>(</b>’ [explist] ‘<b>)</b>’ | tableconstructor | LiteralString
functiondef ::= <b>function</b> funcbody
funcbody ::= ‘<b>(</b>’ [parlist] ‘<b>)</b>’ block <b>end</b>
parlist ::= namelist [‘<b>,</b>’ ‘<b>...</b>’] | ‘<b>...</b>’
tableconstructor ::= ‘<b>{</b>’ [fieldlist] ‘<b>}</b>’
fieldlist ::= field {fieldsep field} [fieldsep]
field ::= ‘<b>[</b>’ exp ‘<b>]</b>’ ‘<b>=</b>’ exp | Name ‘<b>=</b>’ exp | exp
fieldsep ::= ‘<b>,</b>’ | ‘<b>;</b>’
binop ::= ‘<b>+</b>’ | ‘<b>-</b>’ | ‘<b>*</b>’ | ‘<b>/</b>’ | ‘<b>//</b>’ | ‘<b>^</b>’ | ‘<b>%</b>’ |
‘<b>&</b>’ | ‘<b>~</b>’ | ‘<b>|</b>’ | ‘<b>>></b>’ | ‘<b><<</b>’ | ‘<b>..</b>’ |
‘<b><</b>’ | ‘<b><=</b>’ | ‘<b>></b>’ | ‘<b>>=</b>’ | ‘<b>==</b>’ | ‘<b>~=</b>’ |
<b>and</b> | <b>or</b>
unop ::= ‘<b>-</b>’ | <b>not</b> | ‘<b>#</b>’ | ‘<b>~</b>’
</pre>
<p>
<P CLASS="footer">
Last update:
Mon Mar 15 13:39:42 UTC 2021
</P>
<!--
Last change: revised for Lua 5.4.3
-->
</body></html>
``` |
Borys Yevhenovych Paton (, ; 27 November 1918 – 19 August 2020) was a Ukrainian scientist and a long-time chairman of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine. He was appointed to this post in 1962 and held it until his death. Paton, like his father Evgeny Paton, was famous for his works in electric welding.
Biography
Paton was born on 27 November 1918 in Kyiv in the family of scientist and founder of the Paton Institute of Electric Welding in Kyiv, Professor Evgeny Paton. Evgeny Paton was (like his son) famous for his works in electric welding. The first welded bridge in Kyiv, Paton Bridge, was constructed under the supervision of, and named after, Evgeny Paton. Paton junior's mother was a housewife. Paton junior was born in the professors’ residence building of Kyiv Polytechnic Institute, where his father was teaching. In 1941, Borys Paton completed the Kyiv Polytechnic Institute and became an engineer.
During the Second World War, more precisely in 1941 and 1942, Paton worked and designed electric circuits at the Krasnoye Sormovo Factory No. 112 in Gorky. His designs helped to increase Soviet tank production.
Paton had a doctoral degree in technical sciences after he defended his doctoral dissertation in 1952. In 1952 Paton joined the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. In 1953 he became head of the Paton Institute of Electric Welding. (The institute founded and formerly led by his father.) Paton never fully denounced Ukraine's past as part of the Soviet Union. In 2019 he declared he was against decommunization policies.
Paton joined the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine on 18 November 1958. From 1963 to 1991, he was a member of the USSR Academy of Science. Paton was appointed chairman of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine in 1962 and held this position until his death. Paton was also offered to head the USSR Academy of Sciences in Moscow, but he refused. He was convinced that he should work in Kyiv, at his parents' Institute of Electric Welding and the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences.
Paton was a deputy of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR from 1962 to 1989 (27 years in a row).
In the early 1970s and 1980s Paton had advised the Soviet authorities not to build the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant.
Paton was the first person to have been awarded the title of the Hero of Ukraine, this was done in 1998.
In January 2008 Paton was appointed member of the National Security and Defense Council of Ukraine by a decree of President Viktor Yushchenko. In the 2010 Ukrainian presidential election he was a proxy for candidate Yulia Tymoshenko. In August 2011 Paton was one of the ten signatories of the so-called "letter of ten", a letter from Ukrainian intelligentsia figures in support of the policy of President Viktor Yanukovych.
Paton was last re-appointed for another term as chairman of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine in 2015. Paton did not submit his candidacy for the post in March 2020, which signified that he was leaving the position.
Paton died on 19 August 2020 aged 101. He was buried at Baikove Cemetery three days later.
Borys Paton was the author of more than 1,000 publications, including 20 monographs and responsible for more than 400 inventions.
Family
Paton was married to Olha Paton and had a daughter, Yevhenia, who was also a scientist. Yevhenia died in 2009 and four years later, his wife died. After the death of his wife, Paton was cared for by his granddaughter, Olha.
Research activities
Paton devoted his scientific research to
automatic and semi-automatic submerged arc welding
development of theoretical foundations for the creation of automatic and semi-automatic machines for electric arc welding and welding power supplies
research for conditions of long arc burning and its regulation
solving the problems of management of welding processes
creation of new functional materials
Under his leadership, electroslag welding was created which became a fundamentally new method of welding. Paton led research on the application of welding heat sources for the improvement of the quality of the smelted metal. On this basis a new branch of metallurgy was founded called special electrometallurgy (electroslag, plasma arc welding and electron-beam remelting). He was the first researcher to start intensive research in the field of the use of welding and related technologies in space.
Honours and awards
Ukraine
Hero of Ukraine (26 November 1998) – for dedicated service to science, outstanding achievements in the field of welding and special electrometallurgy, which contributed to the recognition and approval of the authority of Soviet science in the world.
Order of Liberty (21 January 2012)
Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise:
1st class (27 November 2008) – for many years of untiring service to the science, outstanding personal contribution to strengthening the scientific and economic potential of Ukraine
4th class (26 November 2003) – for outstanding personal contribution to the development of domestic science, strengthening scientific and technological capacities and on the occasion of the 85th anniversary of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine
5th class (13 May 1997) – for outstanding personal contribution to the Ukrainian state in the development of science, the approval authority of the national academic school in the world
State Prize of Ukraine (2004)
Honour of the President of Ukraine (1993)
Soviet Union
Hero of Socialist Labour, twice (1969, 1978); this award includes the installation of a bust of the recipient – Paton – in his home town of Kyiv; it was sculpted by in 1982 and it is installed in front of academic museums at 15 Bogdan Khmelnitsky
Four Orders of Lenin (1967, 1969, 1975, 1978)
Order of the October Revolution (1984)
Order of the Red Banner of Labour (1943)
Order of Friendship of Peoples (1988)
Lenin Prize (1957)
Stalin Prize (1950)
Award of the Council of Ministers of the USSR (1988, 1984)
Honoured Worker of Science and Technology of the Ukrainian SSR (1968)
Honoured Inventor of the USSR (1983)
Lomonosov Gold Medal (USSR, 1981)
Member of the 27th Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (1986–1990)
Russian
Order of Merit for the Fatherland;
1st class (Russia, 26 November 2008) – for outstanding contribution to world science, strengthening the scientific and cultural relations between the states – members of the Commonwealth of Independent States
2nd class (Russia, 27 November 1998) – for outstanding contribution to science
Order of Honour (Russian Federation, 19 January 2004) – for outstanding contribution to science and to strengthen friendship and cooperation between Russia and Ukraine
Other
2020: IEEE Honorary Membership
Korolev Gold Medal (2003)
Czochralski Gold Medal (2006)
Honorary Citizen of Mariupol (1998) – for outstanding service to Mariupol
Professor Emeritus of Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology (2003)
Global Energy Prize (2010)
Honorary member of the Academy of Sciences of Moldova
Notes
References
External links
National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine
Listen to how the Paton Bridge "breathes" – a section of the article features audio recordings made under this famous bridge
Vernadsky National Library of Ukraine
Official Award IEEE Page
1918 births
2020 deaths
Scientists from Kyiv
Kyiv Polytechnic Institute alumni
Soviet inventors
Soviet engineers
Ukrainian inventors
20th-century Ukrainian engineers
Full Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences
Presidents of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine
Full Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences
Honorary members of the Academy of Sciences of Moldova
Members of the Tajik Academy of Sciences
Academic staff of the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology
Heroes of Socialist Labour
Recipients of the title of Hero of Ukraine
Chevaliers of the Order of Merit (Ukraine)
Recipients of the Order "For Merit to the Fatherland", 1st class
Recipients of the Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise
Recipients of the Order of Lenin
Recipients of the Order of Friendship of Peoples
Recipients of the Order of Honour (Moldova)
Recipients of the Lenin Prize
Recipients of the Stalin Prize
Recipients of the Lomonosov Gold Medal
Fifth convocation members of the Verkhovna Rada of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic
Sixth convocation members of the Verkhovna Rada of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic
Seventh convocation members of the Verkhovna Rada of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic
Eighth convocation members of the Verkhovna Rada of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic
Ninth convocation members of the Verkhovna Rada of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic
Tenth convocation members of the Verkhovna Rada of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic
Eleventh convocation members of the Verkhovna Rada of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic
Central Committee of the Communist Party of Ukraine (Soviet Union) members
Candidates of the Central Committee of the 22nd Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
Members of the Central Committee of the 23rd Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
Members of the Central Committee of the 24th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
Members of the Central Committee of the 25th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
Members of the Central Committee of the 26th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
Members of the Central Committee of the 27th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
Members of the Central Committee of the 28th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
Members of the German Academy of Sciences at Berlin
Ukrainian centenarians
Men centenarians
Burials at Baikove Cemetery
Laureates of the State Prize of Ukraine in Science and Technology
Recipients of the Honorary Diploma of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine |
Due West is an American country music group composed of Matt Lopez, Tim Gates, and Brad Hull. Due West was founded in Nashville, Tennessee in 2004, and was almost signed to a contract with RCA Records Nashville in 2006, but lost the deal due to the merger of Sony Music and BMG. By 2009, the band self-released its debut single "I Get That All the Time," which was also made into a music video, which has aired on Great American Country. In 2011 their second single, "When the Smoke Clears," was released as a music video, Roman White was the producer. Both "I Get That All the Time" and "When the Smoke Clears" made it into Great American Country's top 20. The trio also released a self-titled album on April 27, 2010. A second album, Forget the Miles, followed in 2011.
After parting ways with their label in 2013, they headed to popular crowd sourcing platform Kickstarter to raise funds to record and release a new album independently. They raised more than 150% of their goal (over $30,000). They entered the studio, this time with a new producer, Brandon Metcalf, who was previously a Seattle-based rock producer and new to Nashville, to create what they have said are the "best songs we've ever recorded." Together, they crafted the Move Like That EP, which is their highest-charting album to date. The title track was co-penned by hit songwriter Jimmy Robbins. The lead off single, "Slide On Over", was written by Erin Enderlin, Dylan Scott and Will Bowen.
Due West entered the studio with Metcalf again in August 2013 to record a Christmas album, released on November 26, 2013.
Discography
Studio albums
Singles
Music videos
References
Country music groups from Tennessee
American musical trios
Musical groups established in 2004
Black River Entertainment artists |
The Scarlet Frontier is an Australian novel by E. V. Timms. It was the sixth in his Great South Land Saga of novels.
It was set in Southern Queensland.
References
External links
The Scarlet Frontier at AustLit
1953 Australian novels
Novels set in Queensland
Angus & Robertson books |
Tan Sri Datuk Seri Panglima Sukarti bin Wakiman was the 8th State Secretary of Sabah from 3 July 2008 to 8 July 2018.
He was born and bred in Labuan to an ethnic Malay family of two parents with distinct ethnic ancestries, being born to an ethnic Javanese immigrant father from Java, Indonesia and his local-born ethnic Bruneian Malay wife.
Educational background
Sukarti started his education in Kerupang Primary School of Labuan in 1961, before he continued his study at Sabak Bernam Secondary School, Selangor in 1967, and Sekolah Alam Shah, Kuala Lumpur in 1970.
In 1974, he continued his studies at University of Malaya and got a Bachelor of Arts in Sociology and Anthropology in 1977.
Career
He joined State Public Service on 15 July 1977 as Manpower Officer at Sabah Ministry of Manpower and Environment Development, before promoted to the same post as the senior one. In 1980, he was appointed as Administrative Officer in the state ministry.
On 25 September 1981, he was promoted as Ceremonial and Protocol Officer at Ceremonial and Protocol Division, Chief Minister's Department, before transferred to State Development Department as Senior Administrative Officer of Coordination on 1 September 1984.
After 23 days, he was chosen to hold the office of the Private Secretary to the State Governor, Mohd. Said Keruak, until 6 May 1994. He then promoted to the post of the Permanent Secretary in the State Ministry of Fishery and Agriculture (on 7 May 1994) and in the State Ministry of Rural Development (on 16 May 1996). On 23 March 1998, he was appointed as the Director of State Public Service and reappointed back to the same post once again on 24 April 2000. Before that, on 13 January 2000, he was appointed as the Permanent Secretary of Infrastructure Development.
On 3 July 2007, he was sworn in as the 8th Secretary of State of Sabah succeeding KY Mustafa. He retired on 8 July 2018 and was replaced by Hashim Paijan.
Honours
:
Companion of the Order of Loyalty to the Crown of Malaysia (JSM) (2003)
Commander of the Order of Loyalty to the Crown of Malaysia (PSM) - Tan Sri (2012)
:
Commander of the Order of Kinabalu (PGDK) - Datuk (1994)
Grand Commander of the Order of Kinabalu (SPDK) - Datuk Seri Panglima (2011)
Family
He is married with Hairani Hussaini.
References
1956 births
People from Sabah
People from Labuan
Malaysian politicians
Malaysian people of Malay descent
Living people
Malaysian people of Javanese descent
Malaysian people of Bruneian descent
Malaysian Muslims
University of Malaya alumni
Commanders of the Order of Kinabalu
Grand Commanders of the Order of Kinabalu
Commanders of the Order of Loyalty to the Crown of Malaysia
Companions of the Order of Loyalty to the Crown of Malaysia |
Blue Murder may refer to:
Theatre, film and TV
Blue Murder (Beatrix Christian play), a 1994 play by Beatrix Christian
Blue Murder (Peter Nichols play), a 1995 play by Peter Nichols
Blue Murder (miniseries), a 1995 Australian mini-series
Blue Murder (UK TV series), a British detective series
Blue Murder (Canadian TV series), a Canadian crime drama
Blue Murder (1959 film), a 1959 Australian television movie
Blue Murder (2000 film), a British television crime drama film
Music
Blue Murder (folk group), a folk group
Blue Murder (band), an English heavy metal band
Blue Murder (album), the band's debut album
"Blue Murder", song from Boy Cried Wolf
"Blue Murder", song by the Tom Robinson Band on the 1979 album TRB Two |
Thomas Ethan Wayman (born 13 August 1945) is a Canadian author.
Born in Hawkesbury, Ontario, Wayman has lived most of his life in British Columbia. He studied at the University of British Columbia (BA 1966), and the University of California, Irvine (MFA 1968), and has been employed at a number of blue-collar and white-collar jobs in Canada and the U.S., although mainly he taught at the postsecondary level. Much of his academic career was spent in the B.C. community college system. As well, he is a co-founder of two alternative B.C. post-secondary creative writing schools: the Vancouver centre of the Kootenay School of Writing (1984–87) and the writing department of Nelson, B.C.'s Kootenay School of the Arts (1991-2002). He holds Associate Professor Emeritus of English status from the University of Calgary, where he taught 2002–2010. In 2007 he was the Fulbright Visiting Chair in creative writing at Arizona State University, and has also taught at Colorado State University and Wayne State University. He has been writer-in-residence at the University of Windsor, University of Alberta, Simon Fraser University, University of Winnipeg and University of Toronto.
For decades, Wayman has had a particular interest in people writing about their own workplace experiences, including how their jobs affect their lives off work. Besides editing a number of anthologies of work poems, and publishing critical essays on the various dimensions of work-based literature, he was a co-founder of the Vancouver Industrial Writers' Union (1979-1993), a work-writing circle, and has participated in a number of labor arts ventures.
In 2015 Wayman was named by the Vancouver Public Library a Vancouver Literary Landmark, with a plaque on the city's Commercial Drive commemorating his contribution to Vancouver's literary heritage based on his championing of work writing in the 1970s and 1980s. He is a director of the Calgary Spoken Word Festival Society (board president 2003–2012), and of Nelson's Kootenay Literary Society (secretary since 2011), where he serves on the education committee and the Elephant Mountain Literary Festival organizing committee. He helped to found The Kootenay School of Writing.
Bibliography
Poetry
Waiting for Wayman (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1973)
For and Against the Moon (Toronto: Macmillan of Canada, 1974)
Money and Rain (Toronto: Macmillan of Canada, 1975)
Free Time (Toronto: Macmillan of Canada, 1977)
A Planet Mostly Sea (Winnipeg: Turnstone, 1979)
Living on the Ground (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1980)
Introducing Tom Wayman: Selected Poems 1973-80 (Princeton, N.J.: Ontario Review P, 1980)
The Nobel Prize Acceptance Speech (Saskatoon: Thistledown, 1981)
Counting the Hours (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1983)
The Face of Jack Munro (Madeira Park, BC: Harbour, 1986)
In a Small House on the Outskirts of Heaven (Madeira Park, BC: Harbour, 1989)
Did I Miss Anything? Selected Poems 1973-1993 (Madeira Park, BC: Harbour, 1993)
The Astonishing Weight of the Dead (Vancouver: Polestar, 1994)
I'll Be Right Back: New and Selected Poems 1980-1996 (Princeton, N.J.: Ontario Review P, 1997)
The Colours of the Forest (Madeira Park, BC: Harbour, 1999)
My Father's Cup (Madeira Park, BC: Harbour, 2002)
High Speed Through Shoaling Water (Madeira Park, BC: Harbour, 2007)
Dirty Snow (Madeira Park, BC: Harbour 2012)
Winter's Skin (Fernie, BC: Oolichan, 2013)
Built to Take It: Selected Poems 1996-2013 (Spokane, WA: Lynx House, 2014)
The Order in Which We Do Things: The Poetry of Tom Wayman (selected and with an introduction by Owen Percy; Waterloo, ON: Wilfrid Laurier UP, 2014)
Novel
Woodstock Rising (Toronto: Dundurn, 2009)
Short fiction
Boundary Country (Saskatoon: Thistledown, 2007)
A Vain Thing (Winnipeg: Turnstone, 2007)
The Shadows We Mistake for Love (Madeira Park, BC: Douglas & McIntyre, 2015)
Anthologies
Beaton Abbot's Got The Contract: An Anthology of Working Poems (Edmonton: NeWest, 1974)
A Government Job at Last: An Anthology of Working Poems (Vancouver: MacLeod, 1976)
Going For Coffee: Poetry on the Job (Madeira Park, BC: Harbour, 1981)
East of Main: An Anthology of Poems from East Vancouver (co-edited with Calvin Wharton; Vancouver: Pulp, 1989)
Paperwork: Contemporary Poems from the Job (Madeira Park, BC: Harbour, 1991)
The Dominion of Love: An Anthology of Canadian Love Poems (Madeira Park, BC:Harbour, 2001)
Criticism
Inside Job: Essays on the New Work Writing (Madeira Park, BC: Harbour, 1983)
A Country Not Considered: Canada, Culture, Work (Toronto: Anansi, 1993)
Songs Without Price: The Music of Poetry in a Discordant World (Nanaimo, BC: Malaspina University-College, 2008)
References
External links
TomWayman.com
Thomas Ethan Wayman at The Canadian Encyclopedia
1945 births
Living people
20th-century Canadian poets
Canadian male poets
People from Hawkesbury, Ontario
Academic staff of the University of Calgary
20th-century Canadian male writers
Canadian spoken word poets |
The National Institute of Genomic Medicine (INMEGEN for its name in Spanish, Instituto Nacional de Medicina Genómica) is one of Mexico's twelve national institutes under the Secretariat of Health. The institute was founded in 2004, with its official headquarters built eight years later. INMEGEN is dedicated to the development of genomic medicine for the Mexican population. The institute carried out research projects aim to improve healthcare through prevention and medical care related to oncogenomics, nutrigenomics and pharmacogenomics. INMEGEN also studies metabolic, cardiovascular, autoimmune and infectious diseases. INMEGEN collaborates with other Mexican and international institutions for the development of different projects. The current director of the institution is Francisco Xavier Soberón.
History
The National Institute of Genomic Medicine (Spanish Instituto Nacional de Medicina Genómica (INMEGEN)) is the eleventh National Institute of Health founded in Mexico. It was founded in 2004 by a consortium made up the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), the National Council of Science and Technology of the Ministry of Health and the Mexican Foundation for Health. INMEGEN was the first National Institute of Health created with the support of all political parties in the Congress. The founding ceremony was led by then president Vicente Fox Quesada.
The initial investment in the project was 500 million pesos (about US$50 million), with construction beginning in 2005. In 2008 construction projected was suspended due to an audit by the federal government, but construction continued in 2009. with the main headquarters completed in 2012, eight years after its official founding. The inauguration of this building was carried out by President Felipe Calderón. While construction was taking place, researchers of the institution worked in other locations, on projects such as the Mexican Genome Project.
The current director is Francisco Xavier Soberón, who replaced the founder of the INMEGEN Gerardo Jiménez Sánchez in 2009.
The National Institute of Genomic Medicine's logo represents the sequence of nucleotides of the FOXP2 gene, essential in the development of language. It has the shape of a semicircle surrounding a double stranded DNA molecule with the shape of a human.
Facilities
The National Institute of Genomic Medicine is located in Mexico City, on Anillo Periferico in the south of the city, next to the Instituto Federal Electoral. The building has classrooms, two auditoriums and a 500-person auditorium. The institute also has 18 research laboratories, 6 units of high technology, and 4 peripheral units.
Mission
According to its mission statement, the National Institute of Genomic Medicine contributes to the health care of Mexican society through research projects. Its objective is not only to improve preventive medical care in the country, but also to expand knowledge of genomic medicine through research in oncogenomics, nutrigenomics, and autoimmune disease genomics, and more.
The Institute aims to follow combination of cultural, technological and universal ethics and is concerned in upholding human rights. It has regulations related to administer biological samples and genome of the Mexican population. With this regulation the INMEGEN prevents discrimination against individuals or cultures because of genetics.
Lines of investigation
The National Institute of Genomic Medicine centers its attention on two main objectives, development of preventive medicine and the design of medical treatments tailored to a person's genetic makeup. INMEGEN employs approximately sixty scientists dedicated to the genome research. Currently the Institution is carrying out several different projects.
INMEGEN studies several types of cancer. These investigations involve functional cancer genomics and oncogenomics, including breast, pancreatic, prostate and liver cancer. INMEGEN studies the molecular biomarkers of early liver cancer. It is developing keys for the identification of genes which show a significant increase or decrease in their expression level of fibrosis in preneoplastic and neoplastic lesions in the liver. Other research focuses on biomarkers that help identify liver cancer in a differential diagnosis. Additional cancer studies include creating 3D models of diverse tumor cultures. INMEGEN also investigates the participation of progesterone in brain tumors and the identification of proteins that participate in the resistance of cancer cells to chemotherapy. INMEGEN is developing the cancer genome of the Mexican population. Researchers at INMEGEN also study Werner syndrome and the pulmonary adenocarcinoma.
INMEGEN has many investigations related to proteins. One example is the development of fluorescent biosensors to help detect diabetes mellitus type II as well as other metabolic diseases. Other project is the decodification of the AH1N1 flu virus, with research into the genetic susceptibility of the Mexican population to acquire this illness. In order to do this the AH1N1flu biomarkers based on protein structure need to be identified. This is useful for diagnosis, prognosis and follow-up. The institute is also working on determining the mutations that make mycobacterium tuberculosis resistant to medication. Proteomics studies involve the analysis of protein additions of lipid peroxidation at liver carcinogenesis. INMEGEN studies how proteins are affected by the immune system in papillomavirus infection.
The institution develops projects related to pharmacogenomics, which includes personalized medicine. One of the Institutions pharmacogenomics investigations is working with the doses guided by genotype-phenotype and in their standard management in patients who initiate anticoagulation with acenocoumarol.
INMEGEN studies metabolic diseases and nutrigenomics-related topics. These include obesity, especially its effects on children. INMEGEN has worked with the mutation of a gene associated with Pompe disease. This study is carried out in individuals genetically isolated of the La Huasteca area of San Luis Potosí. Another study is on the effect of Omega 3 on metabolic syndrome in the Mexican population, specifically on early biomarkers presented in the diabetic nephropathy and the risk factors for developing obesity.
The Institution has a line of research focused on cardiovascular diseases genomics. For example, INMEGEN works on gene identification in individuals with premature coronary and arterial diseases and atherosclerosis. INMEGEN studies the susceptibility of the Mexican population to acquire coronary and artery diseases. Another project is related to family cardiomyopathy in Mexican patients.
Investigations into population genomics studies the genomic diversity of the native populations in Mexico. The purpose of this is for evolution studies that may have applications in health care. It also includes the ethnic variability in multiple sclerosis patients.
The Institution works on other several lines of investigation. INMEGEN uses computational genomics for data mapping a genome for a specific purpose. In autoinmune genomics, INMEGEN investigates the risk factors for juvenile idiopathic arthritis in the Mexican population. In the case of bone metabolism genomics, the institution focuses on studying mineral density and osteoporosis in Mexican women. For the same population INMEGEN uses microRNA as biomarkers for osteoarthritis. Finally, INMEGEN investigates about asthma in children and amebiasis in the general Mexican population. INMEGEN also works on identifying the biomarkers for hypercholesterolemia.
Collaborations
INMEGEN has established collaborations with both Mexican and international institutions, such as those in other Latin American countries. With the National Autonomous University of Mexico, it created a population genomics unit, which sponsors various investigations about diabetes and obesity in the Mexican population.
In 2008 INMEGEN and the Mexico City government signed an agreement for the elaboration of the complete genome map of the mestizo population of the country's capital. This project was developed to determine the predisposition of this population to diabetes mellitus and obesity. For this task, ten thousand individuals donated blood samples.
INMEGEN, like other research institutions, experiences “brain drain”, which is Mexican talented scientists leaving the country because of the lack of opportunities. In collaboration with CONACYT, they hope to repatriate Mexican scientists so they can work at INMEGEN. Nestlé and INMEGEN developed an association to work on nutrigenomics, also concerned with bringing back Mexican scientists to work at this field. Nestlé offers them a salary and paying moving expenses to make them come back.
References
Research institutes in Mexico
2004 establishments in Mexico |
Made in India is an Indi-pop album by Alisha Chinai, with production by Biddu, released in 1995. It was the first album by an Indian pop (Indipop) artist to be sold on a scale comparable to Hindi film music albums, with over fivemillion copies sold in India. The album established Indipop as a discrete genre and its singer Chinai became the genre's main proponent.
Development
Biddu originally wrote the song "Made in India" for the famous Pakistani popstar Nazia Hassan, who Biddu had previously worked with. However, Hassan refused to come out of retirement for the song, as she thought the lyrics may offend her fans in Pakistan. After Hassan rejected the offer, Biddu then wrote the song for Alisha Chinai.
Reception
Made in India went on to become one of the highest selling pop albums of its time and Chinai became a household name. The record sold over 5million copies in India, and the album's title song was not only a hit in India but across the international market as well, topping charts across Asia. Chinai thereafter became the central figure of the emergence of Indipop. Made in India was the first ever Indian pop album to achieve commercial success on a par with Indian film music albums and it also marked a spectacular beginning to the era of Indian music videos. It also became the first non-film album to break unit sales records in India.
Controversy
During the release of Made in India, Chinai had accused Anu Malik of molesting her. Some claim it was a publicity stunt by the singer to promote her album. Thereafter, Malik and Chinai did not work for several years, only to reunite in 2003 with Ishq Vishk. Chinai had also accused Magnasound Records of cheating her of her royalties. The music company counter-sued her for defamation.
Track listing
Made in India / मेड इन इंडिया
Lover Girl / लवर गर्ल
Dil / दिल
Tu Kahaan / तू कहाँ
Ek Baar Do Baar / एक बार दो बार
Aajaa / आजा
Mere Saath / मेरे साथ
Oo La La / ऊ ला ला
Dhadkan / धड़कन
Made in India (Remix)
De De / देदे
Awards
Alisha Chinai received the International Billboard Award and also won the Freddie Mercury Award for Artistic Excellence for the album Made in India.
Other versions
In 2017, "Made in India" was recreated by Pawni Pandey. In 2022, it was recreated by the Indian American hip hop artist Raja Kumari with different lyrics.
References
1995 albums
Albums produced by Biddu
Alisha Chinai albums
Magnasound Records albums
Hindi-language albums |
Milo Moiré (; born 7 May 1983) is a Swiss conceptual artist and model known for her nude performances and the use of her body in her art. Moiré is known for performance art pieces including PlopEgg, The Script System No.2, and Mirror Box.
Early life and education
Moiré was born in Switzerland, of Slovak and Spanish origin. She has an art school background and a master's degree in psychology from the University of Bern in Switzerland (magna cum laude).
PlopEgg
Moiré's PlopEgg No. 1, performed at Art Cologne 2014, was a work of action painting that involved the expelling of paint filled eggs from her vagina on to a canvas, thus creating an abstract work of art. The eggs contained ink and acrylic paint. A video description of the work states "At the end of this almost meditative art birth performance the stained canvas is folded up, smoothed and unfolded to a symmetrically reflected picture, astonishingly coloured and full of [strength]." The folding of the resulting canvas created a work which has been compared to a Rorschach test and a womb. Moiré writes: "To create art, I use the original source of femininity – my vagina."
The Script System No. 2
In June 2014, for The Script System No. 2, Moiré travelled to Art Basel naked with the names of items of clothing marked on her body in paint; she was refused entry, forcing her to dress to enter the exhibition. Of The Script System, she has said "[it] is inspired by the script theory of cognitive psychology. Each of us knows these scripts (e.g. restaurant script), recurrent, stereotyped action sequences, after which we work every day. Especially early in the morning on the way to work, we work almost automatically, often without awareness of our environment. These everyday blindness I wanted to break through my performance." Moiré claims that lacking an outer shell of clothes, the human body regains its ability to communicate without the distractions of money, fashion, ideology or even time. The experience of the art viewer is also transformed with the reaction or non-reaction of the public an integral part of the performance. Her first nude performance was in 2007 and she has performed nude ever since in order to provide an authentic and unmediated experience.
In 2016 she performed naked to protest the 2015 New Year Eve sexual attacks in Germany.
Mirror Box
For the project titled Mirror Box, Moiré walked around several European cities wearing a large mirrored box which covered part of her body. Using a megaphone to attract attention, she would then invite strangers to place their hands inside the box, and fondle either her breasts or vulva for a 30-second period. The performance took place during the summer of 2016 in the cities of Düsseldorf, Amsterdam, and London. In Düsseldorf, Moiré performed with a mirror box covering her breasts. In the other two cities she used two boxes, one covering her breasts and another over her genitals. Moiré was arrested and fined during the London performance. Mirror Box pays homage to the work "Touch and Tap Cinema" by Valie Export, performed from 1968 to 1971.
Art or pornography
Moiré has deliberately placed herself on the interface between art and pornography with videos on her website described as "uncensored" that are available to view for a fee, and the naked performance of her works inviting the act of censorship by media outlets. Moiré has said that there should be no limit to art and that death is the only limit she accepts. She has cited Marina Abramović and Joseph Beuys as particular influences.
Criticism
Writing about PlopEgg in The Guardian in a piece entitled, "The artist who lays eggs with her vagina – or why performance art is so silly", Jonathan Jones commented, "And yet it's not a strong statement at all. It is absurd, gratuitous, trite and desperate. Anywhere but an art gathering, this would be regarded as a satire on modern cultural emptiness." Jess Denham in The Independent commented, "Not long ago there was Lady Gaga's 'vomit artist', but now Milo Moiré is making her look tame", adding, "the latest desperate effort to shock in the name of art."
Arrests
In 2015, Moiré was arrested by French police, and spent the night in the cells, after posing for naked "selfies" with tourists in front of the Eiffel Tower. The following year, she was arrested again in London for inviting members of the public to place their hands into a mirrored box around her body and caress her breasts or her vulva.
Personal life
Moiré is single and lives in Düsseldorf.
Selected works
The Script System No. 1, performance video, 2013.
The Split Brain, video, 2013.
The Script System No. 2, performance video, Art Basel, 2014.
PlopEgg No. 1 – A Birth of a Picture, performance work, 2014.
See also
Pricasso
Carolee Schneemann
References
External links
Official website
Living people
Swiss women artists
Swiss performance artists
1983 births
Abstract artists
Swiss female models
Swiss people of Slovak descent
Swiss people of Spanish descent
Swiss expatriates in Germany
21st-century Swiss artists |
Bruno Bjelinski (born Bruno Weiss; 1 November 1909 – 3 September 1992) was one of the most influential Croatian composers in the 20th century. He was extremely prolific as a composer. His unique musical style was built upon the music of Poulenc, Hindemith, Ravel and Milhaud. He developed his own and recognizable musical language with the elements of neoclassicism. Bjelinski composed six operas, three ballets, 15 symphonies, 2 cello concertos, a cantata, piano music, songs, chamber music, and concertos for piano, violin, viola, bassoon, flute, and piano duo. He also composed music for the Croatian football movie Plavi 9.
Biography
Bjelinski was born in Trieste into a Jewish family. His mother died very early in his life so his father brought him to Zagreb where he was nurtured by his grandmother. In his youth he played violin and piano. Later he changed his surname from Weiss to Bjelinski (derivation of the word bijeli, meaning 'white' in Croatian). He doctored in law at the University of Zagreb and later studied music at the Zagreb Academy of Music under Blagoje Bersa and Franjo Dugan. Bjelinski started composing in the 1930s. By the beginning of World War II he had finished his 2 sonatas for violin and piano, 3 piano suites and a toccata. During World War II he was sent to a concentration camp, but in 1943, with the help of a friend, he escaped and joined the Partisans on the island of Korčula. At the end of the war he lived alternately on island Vis and in the Italian city of Bari. He taught at the Academy from 1945 to 1977. In the late 1950s he married young and perspective pianist Ljerka Pleslić (b. 1938) with whom he had two sons, Dean and Alan Bjelinski. The younger son Alan later became composer and conductor. Bjelinski died on 3 September 1992 on the island Silba where he was buried.
Bjelinski's music is described as being direct and optimistic, his fresh style lending itself to both serious music and music for children. Bjelinski composed six operas, three ballets, 15 symphonies, 2 cello concertos, a cantata, piano music, songs, chamber music, and concertos for piano, violin, viola, bassoon, flute, and piano duo. He also composed music for the Croatian football movie Plavi 9.
Legacy
He is the author of a very copious oeuvre and of a characteristic melodic, harmonic and rhythmic invention. Bjelinski never belonged expressly to the “national course” but he was far from indifferent to folk music (the influence of idiosyncratic Balkan rhythms and even of exotic South American dances mirroring the impressions of the composer's repeated stays in Brazil, with occasional inspirations by the particular features of jazz). The fundamental features of this sensitive and easily recognisable musical speech are a light Mediterranean lyricism, a general facility of expression and a message that is always optimistic, all interwoven with occasional dramatically accumulated sounds. Visible in his work are traces of Baroque music with its incessant kinetic motion and well-thought-out structures. But neo-Classical impulses are always at the roots of his creative work; rejecting all that is outside the tried and tested laws of classical order, the composer, respecting these same laws, also played with them a little. The unpretentious poeticism of his works is often suffused with a gentle humour that occasionally borders on irony. Bjelinski successfully tried his hand at almost all the areas of serious music.
Awards
For his music he received several awards: Mlado pokoljenje award (1965), Vladimir Nazor Award (1976) for life achievement and Josip Slavenski award (1986). In the year of 1988 he became a member of Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts.
Works (selection)
Concerto for flute and strings, 1955
Ljetna simfonija (Summer Symphony), Symphony No. 1, 1955
Serenade for trumpet, piano, strings and percussion, 1957
Pčelica Maja (Maya the Bee), fairy tale opera after Waldemar Bonsels, 1963
Sinfonia jubilans, Symphony No. 4, 1965
Peter Pan, ballet for children, 1966
Sinfonietta concertante, for piano and orchestra, 1967
Musica Tonalis for oboe, bassoon and strings, 1968
Heraklo (Herkules) comic opera, 1971
Močvara (The Marsh), opera, 1972
Zvona (The Bells), opera, 1975
Orfej XX. stoljeca (Orpheus in the Twentieth Century), opera, 1981
Slavuj (The Nightingale), opera after Hans Christian Andersen, 1984
Concertino for horn and strings, 19??
Drei biblische Legenden for trombone and piano, 19??
References
Bibliography
1909 births
1992 deaths
Musicians from Trieste
Croatian Jews
Austro-Hungarian Jews
Croatian Austro-Hungarians
Croatian people of Italian-Jewish descent
Croatian composers
Jewish composers
Vladimir Nazor Award winners
Yugoslav Partisans members
Members of the Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts
20th-century composers
Jewish classical composers
Male classical composers
20th-century Italian male musicians
Jews in the Yugoslav Partisans |
The following lists events that happened during 1891 in the Congo Free State.
Incumbent
King – Leopold II of Belgium
Governor-general – Camille Coquilhat, then Théophile Wahis
Events
See also
Congo Free State
History of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
References
Sources
Congo Free State
Congo Free State |
Ente Shabdham is a 1986 Indian Malayalam film, directed by V. K. Unnikrishnan. The film stars Jagathy Sreekumar, Ratheesh, Madhuri and Seema in the lead roles. The film has musical score by A. T. Ummer.
Cast
Jagathy Sreekumar as Vasu
Ratheesh as Rajan
Madhuri
Seema
T. G. Ravi as Thambi
Raveendran as Sivan
T. R. Omana
Santhosh as Abu
Jose as Vijay
Sabitha Anand as Laila
Ramu as Sudhakaran
Vijayan as Police Officer
Soundtrack
The music was composed by A. T. Ummer and the lyrics were written by Poovachal Khader.
References
External links
1986 films
1980s Malayalam-language films |
"Just One Fix" is the third single from industrial metal band Ministry's 1992 album Psalm 69: The Way to Succeed and the Way to Suck Eggs. The song features samples from Sid and Nancy, Hellbound: Hellraiser II and Frank Sinatra reciting "Just One Fix" (from the movie The Man with the Golden Arm).
The video, directed by Peter Christopherson of the band Coil, features footage of one of Al Jourgensen's influences, author William S. Burroughs. Burroughs also provided the single's cover art.
"Just One Fix" was covered by thrash metal band Sepultura on the album Kairos.
In March 2023, Rolling Stone ranked "Just One Fix", at number 49 on their "100 Greatest Heavy Metal Songs of All Time" list.
Sampling
The song samples Peter Fonda and Bruce Dern’s dialogue about thorazine from the Roger Corman film The Trip, Chloe Webb’s statement on trust from Sid and Nancy and a sample of an hysterical plea for a fix from the jailhouse scene in Otto Preminger’s The Man With The Golden Arm. The music video features audio of William S Burroughs saying “bring it all down”, recorded in the studio with Ministry.
It is rumoured that the Rammstein song "Du Hast" is based on the track, or that the guitar riff in the Rammstein track was cut and sampled directly from "Just One Fix" due to the similarity in the guitar riffs of both songs, but the members of Rammstein are quoted as saying that they were simply highly influenced by Ministry.
Video
A music video for the song was produced, and is notable for featuring Beat author William S. Burroughs in both audio and video samples. This version of the song features an audio sample of Burroughs saying "Bring it all down", and a sample of Chloe Webb's line "Never trust a junkie" from the film Sid and Nancy. The video was featured in an episode of Beavis and Butt-head called "Tornado" and a tornado also appears in the video. In their commentary, Beavis was so shocked during the hematemesis scene that he declared it "beyond the limits of good taste".
Track listing
Personnel
Ministry
Al Jourgensen – vocals (1, 2), guitar, programming, production
Paul Barker – bass guitar, programming, production
Additional Personnel
Bill Rieflin – drums
Mike Scaccia – guitar
Michael Balch – programming
William S. Burroughs – spoken word (3), cover painting
Critter Newell – engineer
Paul Manno – engineer
Howie Beno – edits and programming
Jon Blumb – photography
References
External links
.
.
1992 songs
1993 singles
Ministry (band) songs
Sire Records singles
Warner Records singles
Songs written by Al Jourgensen
Songs written by Paul Barker
Songs written by Bill Rieflin
Songs about drugs
Songs about heroin
Song recordings produced by Al Jourgensen |
The India Photo Archive Foundation is a Public Charitable Trust engaged in digitising, annotating, and preserving photographic archives. This came out as a result of Aditya Arya Archive by Aditya Arya, a photographer in India. The Foundation has been active since 2009.
Vision
The aim of the Foundation is preservation of photographic data for use of future generations. The idea is to preserve the original as well as create a digital version of negatives and prints so that a visual history database can be created. This is to enable the discourse on history to be extended to a larger population as the medium is visual rather than literal. The Foundation uses exhibitions, publications and the internet as media to share the works of the archives it has access to.
Vintage Analogue Camera Museum
The Foundation has a Vintage Camera Museum next to the office of Aditya Arya. The museum showcases cameras and other photography material all the way from the late 1800s. It has cameras of Kodak, Mamiya, Fujifilm, Hasselblad etc. This goes along with the historical photographs of Kulwant Roy which contain nationalist leaders such as Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, Sardar Patel, Mohummad Ali Jinnah, Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan etc. and general images if India before and after independence all of which belong to Aditya Arya Archive. It is open for viewing free of charge.
Projects
Exhibitions
The Foundation displays pictures at its museum by Kulwant Roy and has organised exhibitions in collaboration with others of his works. Notable instances of this are; the exhibition of Kulwant Roy’s work that took place at Delhi’s Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA) in October 2008., an exhibition of photographs from 'History in the Making – The visual archives of Kulwant Roy'(the book written by Aditya Arya and Invindar Kamtekar based on the photographs by Roy), was organized in collaboration with Indian Council for Cultural Relations and India Canada Association at three venues in Canada in June, 2009: 5th Parallel Gallery, Riddell Center, University of Regina; George Bothwell Dunlop Art Gallery, Regina and Simon Fraser University, Vancouver, The Gandhi Memorial Center, Washington, D.C. held an exhibition of photographs from same book, sponsored by the Indian Council for Cultural Relations and in cooperation with the Indian Embassy of India in October, 2009, soon after the book launch of 'History in the Making', The Piramal Art Gallery at Mumbai’s National Center for Performing Arts hosted an exhibition of Roy’s works in April, 2010, the exhibition 'Where Three Dreams Cross, 150 Years of Photography from India, Pakistan and Bangladesh', at the Whitechapel Gallery in London in April 2011, displayed some selected images from the Kulwant Roy collection and an exhibition of Roy's works title 'The Visual Archives of Kulwant Roy' was held at the National Gallery of Modern Art(NGMA), New Delhi which was inaugurated on 14 November 2012.
Publications
The book launch and exhibition of 'History in the Making – The visual archives of Kulwant Roy' was organized at Teen Murti, New Delhi in April, 2010. Mrs.GursharanKaur, wife of India’s Prime Minister Manmohann Singh, was invited as a special guest at the occasion.,
'History in the Making – The visual archives of Kulwant Roy' was launched at Mayfair’s Nehru Centre, London by the High Commissioner of India in May, 2010. Book launch and exhibition of History in the making – The visual archives of Kulwant Roy took place at Morlaix France in September, 2010.
A collector's edition called 'History in the Making, Visual Archives of Kulwant Roy- Gandhi Collection' was published by the Foundation with only 200 copies. It is presented in a pure raw silk box and bound with pure raw Khadi cloth. The first one was bought by Manmohan Singh, the second by Suresh Neotia and the Third was gifted to President Obama in November 2009
Films
A film was shot about the Kulwant Roy collection and screened on Doordarshan talking about Aditya Arya's and the Foundation's work on the collection
Archiving and digitizing
The Foundation preserves old and broken negatives and prints and makes digital copies of them too. It also works towards restoration of old archival material.
References
Foundations based in India
Charities based in India
Non-profit organisations based in India
2009 establishments in India |
Roger Til (January 5, 1909 – June 28, 2002) was a French-American film and television actor. He played "Devillaine" in the miniseries The French Atlantic Affair. He also appeared in numerous film and television programs, mostly as a Maitre d' and Waiter.
Born in Paris, France. He guest-starred in numerous television programs including The Andy Griffith Show, Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C., Laverne & Shirley, Mission: Impossible, The Bold and the Beautiful, Silver Spoons, The Facts of Life, Trapper John, M.D., The Rockford Files, Quincy, M.E., The Many Loves of Dobie Gillis, 77 Sunset Strip, The Man from U.N.C.L.E., Bosom Buddies, The Donna Reed Show, Fantasy Island and WKRP in Cincinnati. Til died in June 2002 in Los Angeles, California, at the age of 93.
Filmography
Film
Television
References
External links
Rotten Tomatoes profile
1909 births
2002 deaths
Male actors from Paris
American male film actors
American male television actors
French male film actors
French male television actors
French emigrants to the United States
20th-century American male actors
20th-century French male actors |
The Tri-County Veterans Bridge located in Tennessee, carries Tennessee State Route 60 over Chickamauga Lake on the Tennessee River. It connects Meigs and Rhea counties just north of Hamilton County. It is located just south of the confluence of the Tennessee and Hiwassee River as well as Hiwassee Island near descending river mile 500. It replaced Blythe Ferry upon its completion in 1994.
See also
List of crossings of the Tennessee River
References
Bridges over the Tennessee River
Buildings and structures in Hamilton County, Tennessee
Road bridges in Tennessee
Transportation in Hamilton County, Tennessee
Bridges completed in 1994
Transportation in Rhea County, Tennessee
Tennessee State Route 60
1994 establishments in Tennessee
Transportation in Meigs County, Tennessee |
Waikalasma is a genus of symmetrical sessile barnacles in the family Waikalasmatidae, the sole genus of the family. There are at least three described species in Waikalasma.
Species
These species belong to the genus Waikalasma:
Waikalasma boucheti Buckeridge, 1996
Waikalasma dianajonesae Chan, Chen, Rodriguez Moreno & Corbari, 2016
Waikalasma juneae Buckeridge, 1983
References
Barnacles |
This is a list of flag bearers who have represented Benin at the Olympics.
Flag bearers carry the national flag of their country at the opening ceremony of the Olympic Games.
See also
Benin at the Olympics
References
Benin at the Olympics
Benin
Olympic |
"Magnificent desolation" is a phrase Buzz Aldrin used to describe the Moon surface during the Apollo 11 mission.
It may refer to:
Magnificent Desolation (book), an autobiography by Buzz Aldrin
Magnificent Desolation: Walking on the Moon 3D, a 2005 IMAX 3D documentary film |
The Boulder Hills () are a mountain range in northeastern Quttinirpaaq National Park, Ellesmere Island, Nunavut, Canada. It is associated with the Arctic Cordillera mountain system.
References
Mountain ranges of Qikiqtaaluk Region
Arctic Cordillera |
Following the 1937 Bombay Presidency elections, Indian National Congress emerged as the largest group in the Bombay Legislative Assembly. However, when its leader B. G. Kher refused to form a government, Governor Lord Brabourne instead invited Dhanjishah Cooper, an independent member from Satara, to be the Presidency's prime minister on 1 April 1937. Cooper accepted and thus, became's Bombay's first prime minister. The four-member ministry he formed shortly resigned due to lack of majority support, and was replaced by Kher's ministry in July 1937.
Government formation
Indian National Congress had secured highest seats in the 1937 elections. However, the party refused to form a government due to disagreements over the Governor's reserve powers as envisioned by the Government of India Act, 1935. After Congress' B. G. Kher refused his mandate, the Governor invited the second-largest Muslim League. Citing that the League would be unable to maintain a stable majority, Ali Muhammad Khan Dehlavi refused office as well.
After either party had refused, the Governor invited Cooper to take up premiership. Cooper tried establishing a government of non-Congress parties, including Muslim League and Democratic Swarajya Party.
List of ministers
Cooper's ministry had four cabinet ministers.
References
1937 in India
C
Cabinets established in 1937
Cabinets disestablished in 1937
Bombay Presidency |
Wholdaia Lake is a lake in the Northwest Territories, Canada. It is drained northward by the Dubawnt River.
See also
List of lakes in the Northwest Territories
References
Lakes of the Northwest Territories |
Võrumõisa is a village in Võru Parish, Võru County in Estonia.
References
Villages in Võru County |
Oliver Watts is an Australian artist, lecturer and theorist.
Biography
Watts was born in Sydney, New South Wales. He studied Arts and Law, gaining Honours, at Sydney University. In 2010, he received a PhD in Art History and Theory, the title of his thesis being "Images on the Limit of Law: Sovereignty, Modernism and the Effigy".
Work
Watts works across a variety of media, ranging from performance art to painting and collage. His chief concern is the nexus of art and law, while his works are guided by the question "how do images command?". In a 2010 group exhibition, Triplicated, Watts demonstrated how the law is both desirable and desirous. He revisited the Brothers Grimm fairy tale of the princess and a mythical sea-hare. Through videos and collage Watts has illustrated and sophomorically obfuscated the story through a variety of methods from jokes to critical theory.
In his BarresTrial Series, Watts looks closely at a Dada performance of 1921 which aped the law. Tristan Tzara made trouble as a witness, with André Breton the judge, insisting that even a Dada law would be bogus. Watts channelled this nihilistic and absurdist spirit, after translating the testimony from the French and then performing it. His collages are based on this translation, which he also presented to the annual conference of the Association of Art Historians in Glasgow, Scotland, in 2010.
In October 2010, Oliver Watts was featured in the international art journal Art in America.
In his lectures, Watts has drawn parallels between art theory and J.K. Rowling's Harry Potter novels and film franchise.
Watts has painted actress Eryn Jean Norvill many times, including an entry for the Archibald Prize in 2021, and she has featured in his video works.
Academia
He is a lecturer of Art Theory at University of New South Wales and Sydney University.
Exhibitions
Watts' solo exhibitions include The Golden Probe, Crimes Against Dada (Chalk Horse Gallery); Three Suns (Helen Gory Gallery, Melbourne); Smoking Guns (Cat Street Gallery, Hong Kong); Frontier Photobooth, (1/2 Doz. Festival); Pioneers (MOP Projects).
He has also exhibited in many group shows, including: Triplicated (Chalk Horse Gallery); ‘Driftwood’ (MOP Projects); Hairbrush (Wren Gallery, Sydney).
Recognition and awards
Mosman Art Prize (Finalist), 2005–06
Helen Lempriere Travelling Scholarship (finalist), 2005
Brett Whiteley Travelling Art Scholarship (finalist), 2004–05
Dorian Gray (Eryn Jean Norvill), finalist for the 2021 Archibald Prize
Selected publications
Among his published works are:
‘Behind the Lines’
Love, Life and Politics (National Museum of Australia)
References
Living people
Australian artists
Artists from Sydney
Year of birth missing (living people) |
Ian Boobyer (born 14 July 1971) is a Welsh former rugby union player who played as a flanker. His brothers, twins Neil and Roddy, were also rugby players. Born in Bridgend, he played for Tondu, Neath, Maesteg, Llandovery, Llanelli and Bridgend Sports, and was part of the Llanelli Scarlets regional side at the advent of regional rugby in Wales in 2003.
References
External links
Profile at Llanelli RFC
1971 births
Living people
Rugby union players from Bridgend
Welsh rugby union players
Rugby union flankers
Tondu RFC players
Neath RFC players
Maesteg RFC players
Llandovery RFC players
Llanelli RFC players
Scarlets players |
Slovenia competed at the 2020 Winter Youth Olympics in Lausanne, Switzerland from 9 to 22 January 2020.
Medalists
Alpine skiing
Boys
Girls
Biathlon
Boys
Girls
Mixed
Cross-country skiing
Curling
Slovenia qualified a mixed team of four athletes.
Mixed team
Mixed doubles
Freestyle skiing
Ice hockey
Luge
Nordic combined
Ski jumping
Ski mountaineering
Snowboarding
See also
Slovenia at the 2020 Summer Olympics
References
2020 in Slovenian sport
Nations at the 2020 Winter Youth Olympics
Slovenia at the Youth Olympics |
Bönigen is a village and municipality in the Interlaken-Oberhasli administrative district in the Swiss canton of Bern. It lies on the shore of Lake Brienz, near to the mouth of the river Lütschine, and adjacent to the resort town of Interlaken.
Bönigen belongs to the Small Agglomeration Interlaken with 23,300 inhabitants (2014).
Bönigen belongs to the church parish of Gsteig bei Interlaken, which includes eight other nearby municipalities.
History
Bönigen is first mentioned in 1261 as villa Boningen. The name Bönigen ("of the people of the Bono clan") is composed of the Old High German personal name Bono and the toponymic suffix -ingun.
The village was first mentioned in 1261 then the Freiherr of Eschenbach gave part of the village to Interlaken Abbey. He gave the Abbey additional lands in the village in 1275., the 1261 and 1275 it gave with Iselten and Künzlenalp the Interlaken monastery. Throughout its history, Bönigen was often at the center of unsuccessful conflicts in the Bernese Oberland. In 1330, the Oberhasli valley rebelled against their overlord in what came to be known as the Weissenburger War. The Oberhasli army was destroyed outside Bönigen. About two decades later, in 1349, Bönigen joined an unsuccessful rebellion against the growing power of Interlaken Abbey. In 1528, Bern adopted the Protestant Reformation and ordered all the surrounding districts to convert to the new faith. Bönigen joined the unsuccessful Oberland resistance to this conversion. Once Bern had enforced its will on the Oberland, they secularized Interlaken Abbey and annexed all the Abbey's land. Bönigen became part of the Bernese bailiwick of Interlaken. Following the 1798 French invasion, Bönigen became part of the Helvetic Republic Canton of Oberland. The new Canton only lasted a few years and was reintegrated into the Canton of Bern with the Act of Mediation in 1803. In 1814 and again in 1836, Bönigen led attempts to recreate the Canton of Oberland.
The village was originally perched on a hill above the flood level of the lake and local streams. In the 19th century, the river course was corrected and flood control measures put in place. Around 1860, these projects stabilized the lake shore and lowered the water level. These improvements allowed the village to spread down toward the streams and the lake.
In 1874, Bönigen was reached by the Bödelibahn railway from Därligen, on Lake Thun, via Interlaken. Until 1893, this line was unconnected to the rest of the Swiss railway system, and served as a link between the steamships on both lakes. Bönigen remained the eastern terminus of the line, which eventually became part of the Bern–Lötschberg–Simplon railway (BLS), until 1969, when passenger service was cut back to Interlaken Ost station. However the BLS had built its main workshops alongside the line at Bönigen's western edge, and these remain open, along with the track between Interlaken and the workshops. The rest of line was removed, although the site of the lakeside terminus can still be identified.
Geography
Bönigen lies in the Bernese Oberland on the south-west side of Lake Brienz, near to the point where the Lütschine flows into the lake. The village centre lies in the northwest part of the municipality along the Lütschine and up to the lake. The village has grown towards the nearby resort town of Interlaken, and the built-up areas are nearly contiguous. The majority of the municipal area is located on the steep mountainsides, where such peaks as the Loucherhorn (), the Roteflue () and the Schynige Platte are found.
Bönigen has an area of . Of this area, or 16.4% is used for agricultural purposes, while or 57.3% is forested. Of the rest of the land, or 6.2% is settled (buildings or roads), or 1.1% is either rivers or lakes and or 18.7% is unproductive land.
Of the built up area, housing and buildings made up 3.2% and transportation infrastructure made up 1.9%. Out of the forested land, 49.7% of the total land area is heavily forested and 3.9% is covered with orchards or small clusters of trees. Of the agricultural land, 1.0% is used for growing crops and 6.5% is pastures and 8.7% is used for alpine pastures. Of the water in the municipality, 0.4% is in lakes and 0.7% is in rivers and streams. Of the unproductive areas, 10.8% is unproductive vegetation and 7.9% is too rocky for vegetation.
On 31 December 2009 Amtsbezirk Interlaken, the municipality's former district, was dissolved. On the following day, 1 January 2010, it joined the newly created Verwaltungskreis Interlaken-Oberhasli.
Coat of arms
The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is Per fess Or an Eagle displayed Sable crowned Or and Argent a Semi Ibex rampant couped Sable langued Gules.
Demographics
Bönigen has a population () of . , 6.2% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years (2000-2010) the population has changed at a rate of 10.2%. Migration accounted for 13.6%, while births and deaths accounted for -2.8%.
Most of the population () speaks German (2,086 or 95.6%) as their first language, English is the second most common (17 or 0.8%) and Italian is the third (16 or 0.7%). There are 14 people who speak French and 1 person who speaks Romansh.
, the population was 49.3% male and 50.7% female. The population was made up of 1,126 Swiss men (46.1% of the population) and 78 (3.2%) non-Swiss men. There were 1,166 Swiss women (47.7%) and 74 (3.0%) non-Swiss women. Of the population in the municipality, 735 or about 33.7% were born in Bönigen and lived there in 2000. There were 918 or 42.1% who were born in the same canton, while 275 or 12.6% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 183 or 8.4% were born outside of Switzerland.
, children and teenagers (0–19 years old) make up 21.2% of the population, while adults (20–64 years old) make up 61.3% and seniors (over 64 years old) make up 17.5%.
, there were 840 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 1,120 married individuals, 125 widows or widowers and 97 individuals who are divorced.
, there were 281 households that consist of only one person and 59 households with five or more people. , a total of 893 apartments (84.4% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 133 apartments (12.6%) were seasonally occupied and 32 apartments (3.0%) were empty. , the construction rate of new housing units was 1.2 new units per 1000 residents. The vacancy rate for the municipality, , was 0.64%.
The historical population is given in the following chart:
Sights
The entire village of Bönigen is designated as part of the Inventory of Swiss Heritage Sites.
Politics
In the 2011 federal election the most popular party was the Swiss People's Party (SVP) which received 32.3% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the Social Democratic Party (SP) (21%), the Conservative Democratic Party (BDP) (17.5%) and the FDP.The Liberals (7.7%). In the federal election, a total of 865 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 46.1%.
Economy
, Bönigen had an unemployment rate of 1.45%. , there were a total of 682 people employed in the municipality. Of these, there were 43 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 17 businesses involved in this sector. 350 people were employed in the secondary sector and there were 34 businesses in this sector. 289 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 49 businesses in this sector. There were 1,074 residents of the municipality who were employed in some capacity, of which females made up 41.2% of the workforce.
there were a total of 580 full-time equivalent jobs. The number of jobs in the primary sector was 18, of which 15 were in agriculture and 3 were in forestry or lumber production. The number of jobs in the secondary sector was 336 of which 180 or (53.6%) were in manufacturing, 3 or (0.9%) were in mining and 152 (45.2%) were in construction. The number of jobs in the tertiary sector was 226. In the tertiary sector; 45 or 19.9% were in wholesale or retail sales or the repair of motor vehicles, 4 or 1.8% were in the movement and storage of goods, 75 or 33.2% were in a hotel or restaurant, 6 or 2.7% were the insurance or financial industry, 13 or 5.8% were technical professionals or scientists, 19 or 8.4% were in education and 26 or 11.5% were in health care.
, there were 304 workers who commuted into the municipality and 741 workers who commuted away. The municipality is a net exporter of workers, with about 2.4 workers leaving the municipality for every one entering. Of the working population, 13.8% used public transportation to get to work, and 47.1% used a private car.
Religion
From the , 253 or 11.6% were Roman Catholic, while 1,639 or 75.1% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there were 9 members of an Orthodox church (or about 0.41% of the population), there was 1 individual who belongs to the Christian Catholic Church, and there were 149 individuals (or about 6.83% of the population) who belonged to another Christian church. There were 3 individuals (or about 0.14% of the population) who were Jewish, and 30 (or about 1.37% of the population) who were Islamic. There was 1 person who was Buddhist, 7 individuals who were Hindu and 1 individual who belonged to another church. 101 (or about 4.63% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 61 individuals (or about 2.80% of the population) did not answer the question.
Education
In Bönigen about 1,008 or (46.2%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 184 or (8.4%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a Fachhochschule). Of the 184 who completed tertiary schooling, 75.0% were Swiss men, 19.6% were Swiss women, 3.8% were non-Swiss men.
The Canton of Bern school system provides one year of non-obligatory Kindergarten, followed by six years of Primary school. This is followed by three years of obligatory lower Secondary school where the students are separated according to ability and aptitude. Following the lower Secondary students may attend additional schooling or they may enter an apprenticeship.
During the 2010-11 school year, there were a total of 218 students attending classes in Bönigen. There were 2 kindergarten classes with a total of 43 students in the municipality. Of the kindergarten students, 7.0% were permanent or temporary residents of Switzerland (not citizens) and 7.0% have a different mother language than the classroom language. The municipality had 7 primary classes and 145 students. Of the primary students, 4.1% were permanent or temporary residents of Switzerland (not citizens) and 2.1% have a different mother language than the classroom language. During the same year, there were 2 lower secondary classes with a total of 30 students. and 3.3% have a different mother language than the classroom language.
, there was one student in Bönigen who came from another municipality, while 84 residents attended schools outside the municipality.
Bönigen is home to the Schul- und Gemeindebibliothek Bönigen (municipal library of Bönigen). The library has () 6,799 books or other media, and loaned out 14,581 items in the same year. It was open a total of 300 days with average of 8 hours per week during that year.
References
Literature
Paul Michel: Bönigen. Bönigen, 1989,
External links
www.boening.ch Official site
Municipalities of the canton of Bern
Populated places on Lake Brienz |
Richard Croshawe (1561-2 June 1631) of the parish of St Bartholomew-by-the-Exchange in the City of London was a wealthy goldsmith who served as Master of the Worshipful Company of Goldsmiths. He was a generous benefactor to charity and "a liberal and public-spirited parishioner". His mural monument survives in All Saints Church, Derby (now Derby Cathedral), in Derbyshire.
Origins
He was the son of a smith from Markeaton, in the parish of Mackworth, near Derby.
Career
He served as Master of the Worshipful Company of Goldsmiths and as "Deputy" of Broad-Street Ward, as the inscription on his monument states.
Benefactions
He rebuilt the vestry-house of the Church of St Bartholomew-by-the-Exchange and in 1613 presented the church with a magnificent green velvet suit of hangings, and cushion for the pulpit, which was fringed, and ornamented with gold and silver embroidery and fringe, including the letters IHS, which later in 1643 were removed, having been deemed "popish letters". He paid for a screen at the west end of the church.
Monument in Derby Cathedral
His mural monument in All Saints' Church, Derby (now Derby Cathedral), compsises a sculpted effigy of a man in a gown and ruff kneeling before a desk with his hands elevated, above his head a canopy. Two shields of arms ars shown above, that on the dexter the arms of the Worshipful Company of Goldsmiths The shield at sinister dexter displays Argent, on a chevron engrailed gules between three Cornish choughs as many mullets of the first a crescent for difference. Below is the following inscription:
"To the glory of God. Richard Croshawe, of London, esq. sometyme Mr. of the Right Worshipful Companie of Goldsmiths and Deputie of Broad-Streete Ward, a man pious, and liberall to the poor, in the great plague 1625, neglecting his owne safetie aboade in the citie to provide for theire reliefe, did many pyous and charitable acts in his lifetime, and by his will left above £4000 to the mayntenance of lectures, reliefe of poore, and other pyous uses. Since his death his executors have added out of his estate £900. Hee dwelte and lyeth buried in the parrish of St. Bartholomew, by the Exchange, wheare he lived 31 years, and beinge 70 years old, departed this life the 2nd day of June, 1631. Having done much good to this towne and this his native countrie, his executors have erected this monument in this place to encourage others of great estates to imitate his pyetie and charitie, 1636"
Sources
John Stow, A Survey of the Cities of London and Westminster, Borough of Southwark,, Vol.1, London, 1733, p. 251
Dugdale, Sir William, Visitation of Derbyshire
References
1561 births
1636 deaths |
Aliaksandra Narkevich (; Łacinka: Aliaksandra Siarhiejeŭna Narkievič; ; born 22 December 1994) is a Belarusian former rhythmic gymnast who competed mainly in group events. She is the 2012 Olympic group all-around silver medalist with group members Anastasiya Ivankova, Alina Tumilovich, Maryna Hancharova, Nataliya Leshchyk, and Kseniya Sankovich.
Career
At the 2008 European Junior Championships, Narkevich won gold in the hoop final and the team silver medal. She competed as an individual gymnast at the 2011 World Championships but switched to competing with the Belarusian group in 2012.
Narkevich won the silver medal at the 2012 European Championships in group all-around. She then won a silver medal at the 2012 Summer Olympics in the group all-around event together with group members Anastasiya Ivankova, Alina Tumilovich, Nataliya Leshchyk, Maryna Hancharova, and Kseniya Sankovich.
At the 2013 World Championships in Kyiv, Narkevich won gold in group all-around and silver in 3 balls / 2 ribbons.
In 2014, Narkevich sustained a leg injury and sat out the whole season. She returned to the Belarusian group the following season. Narkevich was a member of the Belarusian group that won gold in 6 clubs / 2 hoops and bronze in the all-around at the inaugural European Games, in 2015. At the 2015 World Cup series in Kazan, Narkevich won the silver medal in group all-around, silver in 3 hoops / 6 clubs, and bronze in 5 ribbons. She announced her retirement at the end of the 2015 season.
Detailed Olympic results
References
External links
1994 births
Living people
Belarusian rhythmic gymnasts
Olympic gymnasts for Belarus
Olympic silver medalists for Belarus
Olympic medalists in gymnastics
Gymnasts at the 2012 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 2012 Summer Olympics
European Games bronze medalists for Belarus
European Games medalists in gymnastics
Gymnasts at the 2015 European Games
Medalists at the Rhythmic Gymnastics World Championships
Gymnasts from Minsk |
Susan Margaret Davies (born 1954) is a former Australian politician.
She was born in Mirboo North, Victoria, to parents Richard Llewellyn (dec) and Jean Margaret Davies (dec). She attended Leongatha High School (1966–70) and Watsonia High School in 1971, where she completed her Higher School Certificate. She received a Bachelor of Arts and a Diploma of Education in 1976 from La Trobe University. She subsequently became a secondary school teacher, and began farming in addition to this in 1989.
Davies joined the Labor Party in 1993, as part of the rural protest against Kennett government funding and service cuts, and was the Labor candidate for Gippsland West in the 1996 Victorian state election. Sitting Liberal MP Alan Brown resigned less than a year after the state election, precipitating a by-election. Labor declined to stand a candidate for this very safe Liberal seat; most of the area covered by Gippsland West had been in the hands of a conservative party for more than a century and a half. Davies resigned from the Labor Party and contested the by-election as an independent. The Liberal primary vote plunged by over 16 percent, allowing Davies to emerge victorious by 159 votes.
She retained her seat in the 1999 state election, and held the balance of power with two other rural Independents when a significant, mostly rural, and very anti-Coalition swing led to a hung parliament. Davies played a key role in developing the "Independents' Charter", which the three independents used as a basis for backing a minority government under Steve Bracks and the Labor Party. She served on the Public Accounts and Estimates committee during the following parliamentary term. Prior to the 2002 election, Gippsland West was essentially replaced by the newly created seat of Bass, which was notionally Liberal in a traditional matchup. Davies contested Bass, but was pushed into third place on the primary vote behind former Liberal MLC Ken Smith.
She later rejoined the Labor Party and contested the 2004 federal election as the Labor candidate for the federal seat of La Trobe. She was defeated by the Liberal candidate, Jason Wood.
Davies now runs a small farm in South Gippsland, is part of a local food producers' network, ”Grow Lightly” and Korumburra Landcare. She graduated from the AICD company director’s course in 2003, and was a founding director on several organisations, including Bass Coast Community Foundation, Chairing Energy Innovation Co-operative Ltd and currently Country University Centre Bass Coast, as well as serving on other boards.
References
1954 births
Living people
Independent members of the Parliament of Victoria
Members of the Victorian Legislative Assembly
Australian schoolteachers
La Trobe University alumni
21st-century Australian politicians
Women members of the Victorian Legislative Assembly
21st-century Australian women politicians |
Metro Junior Hockey League may refer to:
Metro Junior A League, a Junior 'A' hockey league 1961–1963 that operated in association with the Ontario Hockey Association
Metro Junior A Hockey League, a Junior 'A' hockey league 1991–1998 that was later absorbed by the Ontario Provincial Junior A Hockey League
See also
Metropolitan Junior Hockey League, an American Tier III Junior ice hockey league with teams in the eastern U.S., renamed as North American 3 Atlantic Hockey League (NA3AHL) for the 2016–17 season |
Mani Neumeier (Manfred Neumeier, born 31 December 1940 in Munich) is a German rock musician, free-jazz drummer, artist, and frontman (singer and drummer) of the German Krautrock-band Guru Guru.
Probably best known for his work with Guru Guru, Neumeier collaborated with numerous bands and artists, such as Dieter Möbius, Damo Suzuki, Harmonia, Hans-Karsten Raecke, Irène Schweizer, Peter Brötzmann, Sonny Sharrock, Uchihashi Kazuhisa, Jojo Hiroshige, Kawabata Makoto, Yoshida Tatsuya, and Luigi Archetti. Neumeier has lived in Germany and Japan. The wax museum of Tokyo has a wax figure of him. He has also regularly collaborated with Japanese jam and noise bands Acid Mothers Temple and Hijokaidan.
Discography
Solo
1981 Mani Neumeier
1983 Waldmeister (limited MC)
1992 Privat
1993 Terra Amphibia
1998 Terra Amphibia 2
2002 Birthday !
2005 Terra Amphibia 3 - Deep In The Jungle
2007 Sketches aka Mani
2009 Smoking The Contracts
With Guru Guru
See: Guru Guru
Collaborations and guest appearances
(Source: )
1967 Humair, Favre, Antolini, Neumeier, Gruntz From Sticksland With Love
1967 Irène Schweizer Trio Jazz Meets India
1967 Globe Unity Orchestra
1967 Irène Schweizer Trio Early Tapes
1967 Wolfgang Dauner Free Action
1975 Harmonia Deluxe
1975 Highdelberg
1982 Ensemble Yniverze Ensemble Yniverze
1982 Moebius, Plank, Neumeier Zero Set
1983 L.S. Bearforce L.S. Bearforce
1986 Alfred Harth Red Art
1989 Der Blaue Hirsch Cyberpunk
1989 Unknownmix Whaba
1992 Der Blaue Hirsch Brain Drain
1992 Tiere Der Nacht Hot Stuff
1994 Tiere Der Nacht Wolpertinger
1996 Cosmic Couriers Other Places
1996 Mani Neumeier & Peter Hollinger Monsters Of Drums
1997 Irène Schweizer & Mani Neumeier European Masters Of Improvisation
1997 Möbius, Engler, Neumeier Space Explosion
1997 Damo Suzuki's Network Tokyo On Air West 30-April
1997 Damo Suzuki's Network Tokyo On Air West 2-May
1997 Damo Suzuki's Network Osaka Muse Hall 4-May
1997 Tiere Der Nacht Evergreens
1998 Neumeier & Hollinger Monsters Of Drums Meets The Demons Of Bali
1998 Tiere Der Nacht Sleepless
2000 Damo Suzuki's Network Jpn Ultd 1
2001 Lover 303 Modern Fairytales
2001 Hans-Karsten Raecke & Mani Neumeier Pescanned Passages
2002 Achim Jaroscheck & Mani Neumeier Europlosion
2002 Damo Suzuki's Network Jpn Ultd 2
2003 Möbius + Neumeier Live In Japan
2003 Neumeier Genrich Schmidt Psychedelic Monsterjam
2005 Neumeier Genrich Schmidt Intergalactic Travel Agency
2006 Acid Mothers Guru Guru Psychedelic Navigator (Live Collaboration with Acid Mothers Temple)
2007 Möbius + Neumeier Zero Set II
2008 Acid Mothers Temple Festival Vol. 5 DVD (Live Collaboration with Acid Mothers Temple)
2010 Hans Reffert & Mani Neumeier Der Teufel und sein Guru
2014 Cosmic Couriers Another Other Places
References
External links
Guru Guru & Mani Neumeier - official web site (also known as www.guru-guru.com)
Fünfundvierzig (45) - a record label, releasing music by Mani Neumeier (also by Damo Suzuki).
1940 births
Living people
Musicians from Munich
German rock singers
German rock drummers
Male drummers
German male musicians
Krautrock
German jazz drummers
German male jazz musicians |
The Rough Riders Memorial is a memorial in Arlington National Cemetery in Arlington County, Virginia, in the United States that commemorates those members of the "Rough Riders" who died in the Spanish–American War in 1898. The grey granite shaft was erected by surviving members of the Rough Riders and their friends and supporters. Although Arlington National Cemetery, a number of secondary sources, and even the bronze plaque on the memorial say the monument was dedicated in 1906 and one source says 1905, contemporary newspaper accounts show the memorial was dedicated on April 12, 1907.
The Rough Riders
The Spanish–American War was a ten-week conflict during the spring and summer of 1898. Cuba had been waging a war of independence against Spain since 1895, an effort largely supported by the United States, which had extensive economic interests on the island. To ensure the safety of American citizens and property in Cuba, the United States sent the battleship to Havana in late January 1898. The Maine exploded and was destroyed with large loss of life on February 15, and Spain and the U.S. declared war on each other on April 25.
With only 25,000 men in the United States Army but more than 100,000 needed to prosecute the war, Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt convinced Secretary of War Russell A. Alger that he could raise an all-volunteer force of 1,000 men and form a cavalry regiment. Alger offered Roosevelt a commission in the Army as a full colonel in command of a regular regiment, but Roosevelt declined. Alger agreed to Roosevelt's volunteer scheme, and Roosevelt resigned his post on May 6, 1898. Roosevelt was commissioned a lieutenant colonel of volunteers and declined command of the regiment (due to his military inexperience) in favor of his friend, Colonel Leonard Wood. Although formally named the "1st United States Volunteer Cavalry", the press nicknamed the regiment the "Rough Riders" because most of the men were cowboys, frontiersmen, railroad workers, Native Americans, and similar "rough" people from the West.
The 1,060 Rough Riders departed their training camp in San Antonio, Texas, on May 29, and arrived in Santiago de Cuba, Cuba, on June 19. They participated in the Battle of Las Guasimas on June 24, during which they successfully turned the right flank of a retreating Spanish Army force with superior weapons and more men. On July 1, the regiment participated in the Battle of San Juan Hill, during which it successfully charged Kettle Hill (the famous "charge up San Juan Hill") and dislodged another Spanish force with superior firepower.
The first Rough Rider memorials
Two memorials to the Rough Riders were erected in Cuba shortly after the Spanish–American War ended. One, erected by Brigadier General Wood out of general funds provided for Cuba's military occupation, was erected next to the Spanish Army blockhouse atop San Juan Hill. This memorial stood on a square concrete base, on the four corners of which were placed artillery shells. A square plinth with sunk, blank panels on all four sides stood on the base. On the plinth rose a tapered square column with a flat top. Sunk into the face of this column was a bronze plaque, which read: "In memory of the officers and men of the United States army, who were killed in the assault and capture of this ridge, July 1, 1898, and in the siege of Santiago, July 1 to July 16, 1898. War between Spain and the United States."
A second memorial, specific to the Rough Riders, was erected at Las Guasimas. The provenance of this memorial is not clear. It was shaped much like the one at San Juan Hill although the building materials were much different. This monument was set on a flagstone base. Rough-hewn pieces of dark grey granite were cemented together to form a rectangular plinth (square in cross-section) atop the flagstones. A tapered square column, made of the same rough-hewn, cemented granite, rose to a flat top. An artillery shell was placed atop the column, and a bronze plaque affixed to its face. The plaque read: "In Memory / Of the men of /The First and Tenth United States Cavalry, / Young's Brigade / Wheeler's Division, / Who Were Killed in the / Battle of Las Guásimas / June 24th 1898."
Creating the Rough Rider Memorial
It is not clear who first proposed a Rough Rider Memorial, or when the idea was first raised. A Rough Riders National Monument Society was organized on June 15, 1906. Lillian Capron, wife of Captain Allyn K. Capron Jr. (the Rough Riders' first officer to be killed in action), was elected president and treasurer. Eldridge E. Jordan, a prominent businessman, was elected vice president. The other members of the board of directors included Charles E. Hunter, an Oklahoma Republican politician and clerk of the Oklahoma Federal District Court; William Henry Harrison Llewellyn, a New Mexico Territory Republican politician and United States Attorney; Captain James R. Church, M.D., U.S. Army; and the Reverend Henry A. Brown, U.S. Army. All the men were former Rough Riders. Rev. Brown had served as the regimental chaplain.
The society also established a memorial committee. Its members included Capron, Jordan, and the rest of the society's board of directors. Additional members included Maude Wildrey Towne, wife of former Representative Charles A. Towne, and John Doyle Carmody, a prominent D.C. attorney.
It is unclear exactly when approval to erect the Rough Rider Memorial at Arlington National Cemetery was given. The U.S. Army Quartermaster Corps had control of Arlington National Cemetery at the time. The erection of a monument would have required the permission of either Brigadier General Charles F. Humphrey, Sr., the Quartermaster General, or Secretary of War William Howard Taft. But no record of such permission exists. Theodore Roosevelt was sworn in as President of the United States on September 14, 1901, after the death of President William McKinley. Taft was one of Roosevelt's closest friends. Approval was very unlikely to be denied, and was probably given some time in May or early June 1906. The first fundraiser for the memorial was announced June 10, 1906—five days before the society was formally organized.
The Rough Rider Memorial was designed by Mrs. Capron, who decided to model the monument on the Rough Riders shaft erected by General Wood in Cuba. The bronze tablet on the memorial's face was designed by Major J.T. Knight and Major S.L. Fairson, Army officers assigned to the Quartermaster General's office in Washington, D.C.
A fundraising campaign was undertaken to pay for the memorial. On June 10, 1906. Mrs. Capron had organized a party to raise money for a monument. During the event, a saber was raffled off, various donated items sold, and the United States Marine Band gave a two-hour concert. President Theodore Roosevelt donated a large number of American Beauty roses from the White House Rose Garden. Another fund-raiser was held on February 8, 1907, when members of the 13th Cavalry and the 4th Battery, U.S. Light Field Artillery, put on a display of horsemanship at Fort Myer, adjacent to Arlington National Cemetery. President Roosevelt and most of Washington society were expected to attend. The event drew a large crowd and raised a significant amount of money.
Construction
The Rough Riders Memorial was created from grey granite quarried in Barre, Vermont. The stone arrived at Arlington National Cemetery by February 6, 1907. The tablet included the Rough Riders insignia at the top and the plaque's tentative language read: "In memory of the deceased members of the First United States Volunteer Cavalry, Spanish–American War. Erected by the members and friends of the regiment."
The foundation for the memorial was laid on March 27, 1907. Present for this event were Mrs. Capron, Mrs. Towne, and Mr. Carmody. A time capsule in the form of a bronze box was placed beneath the monument. Included in the capsule were copies of each daily newspaper in Washington, D.C.; an American flag; and one of each American silver coin in circulation, and a copy of Theodore Roosevelt's book, The Rough Riders in Cuba, autographed by President Roosevelt, the Reverend Doctor Denis J. Stafford, rector of St. Patrick's Catholic Church of Washington, D.C., Presidential Secretary William Loeb Jr., and members of the memorial committee.
Dedication
The unveiling and dedication ceremony for the Rough Riders Memorial was at 4:30 P.M. on April 12, 1907. The Rough Riders Monument Society formed a committee to plan the event, and Major General George H. Harries assisted with the planning and acted as master of ceremonies. In attendance were three batteries from the U.S. Light Field Artillery, a squad of mounted soldiers from the 13th Cavalry, three companies of the District of Columbia Army National Guard, and part of a company of the D.C. Naval National Guard. Music was provided by the 13th Cavalry Band; the Engineers' Band from the Washington Navy Yard; and the Brigade Band of the District of Columbia National Guard. At the time, seven Rough Riders were buried in the far western edge of what is now Section 22 (along McPherson Avenue). These graves were strewn with yellow and white flowers, the colors of the regiment.
A 21-gun salute by the artillery welcomed President Roosevelt, who was accompanied by Lieutenant General S. B. M. Young (the recently retired Chief of Staff of the United States Army) and Major General Frank McCoy (his military aide). Each band played a musical selection, and Rev. Henry A. Brown provided the invocation. The crowd sang Nearer, My God, to Thee and then Mrs. Capron unveiled the memorial as the bands played "The Star-Spangled Banner". President Roosevelt spoke at length about patriotism and duty, and then the Rev. Dr. Stafford provided an oration on virtue. After several more musical pieces by the bands, Rev. Brown gave the benediction. Taps was played by a bugler, and another 21-gun salute closed the ceremony.
Those attending included all Cabinet officers; Lieutenant General Adna Chaffee, the incumbent Army Chief of Staff; Secretary of the Navy Victor H. Metcalf; Major General George F. Elliott, Commandant of the Marine Corps; Rear Admiral William S. Cowles; Presidential secretary Loeb; Brigadier General J. Franklin Bell; Assistant Secretary of War Robert Shaw Oliver; Assistant Secretary of the Navy Truman Newberry; the Commissioners of the District of Columbia; and the commanding general of the D.C. National Guard. Many former Rough Riders were also present, as well as representatives of the Spanish War Veterans, Army and Navy Union, Grand Army of the Republic, Society of the Army of the Tennessee, Oldest Inhabitants of the District of Columbia, United Confederate Veterans, Daughters of the American Revolution, George Washington Memorial Association, Sons of the Revolution, Union Veteran Legion, Loyal Legion, and Washington National Monument Society. Foreign dignitaries present included Jean Jules Jusserand, French ambassador to the United States; Baron Rosen, Imperial Russian ambassador to the United States; ambassadors from Brazil, Denmark, Japan, Norway, Panama, Thailand, and the United Kingdom; and the military attachés from the Embassy of Germany and Embassy of Japan.
About the memorial
The Rough Riders Memorial is constructed of a grey granite block tall and quarried near Barre, Vermont. In design, it is very similar to the Rough Rider monument erected at Las Guasimas in Cuba. The obelisk-like memorial is rough-hewn everywhere, except for the panels on the north, south, and east faces where the names of the dead are carved.
Near the top of the front (western face) of the memorial is a smooth bar of granite, on which the words "ROUGH RIDERS'" is carved in bas-relief. Below this is a rectangular dark bronze plaque whose edges are ornamented with laurel leaves (a symbol of victory). At the top of the plaque is a bar which bears the name of the regiment ("1st. U.S. Vol. Cav."). Below that are outspread wings, over which two sabres are crossed. Appearing to hang from the sabres is the regimental insignia. An "RR" (for Rough Riders") is inscribed on the insignia, and the name of the three major battles in which the unit fought (Las Guasimas, San Juan Hill, Santiago) ring the emblem.
The text on tablet reads:
In memory of
The deceased members
of the 1st U.S.
Volunteer Cavalry,
Spanish–American War
Erected by the members and
friends of the regiment.
1906.
At the time of its unveiling, the names of more than 100 men had been cut into it.
The total cost of the Rough Riders Memorial was $2,500 ($ in dollars).
The Rough Rider Monument Society planned to have the names of members of the regiment inscribed on the monument as they died, and established a self-sustaining fund to pay for this. The raising of money for the inscription fund continued long after the memorial's dedication. The monument society owed more than $1,000 ($ in dollars) for construction of the memorial. Another display of military horsemanship by the 13th Cavalry and 4th Field Artillery Battery occurred in December 1907. President Roosevelt donated $100 ($ in dollars) at the event to help dissipate the debt. Another memorial fund-raiser, also attended by President Roosevelt, was held in April 1908.
At the funeral of General Leonard Wood in August 1927, the approximately 400 living Rough Riders gathered for an informal reunion at Arlington National Cemetery. For many, it was the first time they had seen the Rough Riders Memorial.
The memorial's bronze tablet and inscriptions were cleaned and conserved in the early 2000s by Gordon Ponsford, a restorer who also worked on the cemetery's McClellan Gate and Confederate Memorial.
Dedication date
Incorrect information about the date of the Rough Rider Memorial's dedication is common. This may be because the bronze plaque on the front of the memorial says 1906. Arlington National Cemetery and a number of secondary sources (largely written by historians of the cemetery) claim the monument was dedicated in 1906. One source even claims it was erected in 1905.
Contemporary newspaper accounts are clear that the memorial was dedicated on April 12, 1907. President Roosevelt's own published collection of major speeches notes that the date of dedication was April 12, 1907. Other historians note that the Rough Rider Memorial in Prescott, Arizona, was dedicated the same year (1907) as the Rough Riders Memorial at Arlington National Cemetery.
The Washington Post reported on March 28, 1907, that the memorial's bronze tablet said "1906".
References
Bibliography
Atkinson, Rick. Where Valor Rests: Arlington National Cemetery. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society, 2007.
Andrews, Owen and Davidson, Cameron. A Moment of Silence: Arlington National Cemetery. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, 1994.
Davis, Richard Hardin. Moments in Hell: Notes of a War Correspondent. Reprint ed. New York: Anthem Press, 2007. (First ed. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1910.)
Davis, Richard Harding. "The Passing of San Juan Hill." Scribner's Magazine. 38:2 (August 1905), 142–153.
Dodge, George W. Arlington National Cemetery. Charleston, S.C.: Arcadia Publishing, 2006.
Hendrickson, Kenneth Elton. The Spanish–American War. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2003.
Hutton, Paul Andrew. "TR Takes Charge." In Western Heritage: A Selection of Wrangler Award-Winning Articles. Paul Andrew Hutton, ed. Norman, Okla.: University of Oklahoma Press, 2011.
Lansford, Tom. Theodore Roosevelt in Perspective. New York: Novinka Books, 2005.
Peters, Edward James. Arlington National Cemetery: Shrine to America's Heroes. 2d ed. Bethesda, Md.: Woodbine House, 2000.
Quesadas, Alejandro. Roosevelt's Rough Riders. Westminster, Md.: Osprey Publishing, 2013.
Roosevelt, Theodore. The Rough Riders and Men of Action. Reprint ed. Whitefish, Mont.: Kessinger Publishing, 2005. (Third rev. and updated ed., originally published by G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1905.)
Summers, J.C. "A Cruise in Southern Seas." The Metropolitan Magazine. 24:4 (July 1906), 436–443.
Trask, David F. The War With Spain in 1898. Lincoln, Neb.: University of Nebraska Press, 1996.
External links
Rough Riders Memorial official Web site at Arlington National Cemetery
Images of the 1st U.S. Volunteer Cavalry and the 10th U.S. Cavalry Memorial at the Las Guasimas battlefield, via the Web site "Cuban Battlefields of the Spanish–American War." Center for Digital Research in the Humanities. University of Nebraska-Lincoln.
Arlington National Cemetery
Spanish–American War memorials in the United States
Rough Riders
1907 establishments in Virginia |
A half-sider budgerigar is an unusual congenital condition that causes a budgerigar to display one color on one side of its body and a different color on the other.
This is not a simple genetic mutation, as can be observed in other color and pattern variations in this species. It is a rare example of a tetragametic chimera, which originates when two fertilized embryos merge during a very early stage of development — between the 2-cell and the 64-cell stage. Each half has different DNA, with genetically distinct cells and the resultant bird is in effect two budgerigars fused together to form a single autonomous individual.
The half-sider's coloring is usually divided bilaterally down the center, although, it can differ depending on which stage the twin embryos merged during development. Twin embryos that merged later in development, will result in a budgerigar that has a splotchier distribution of the different cell populations.
In the case of the half-sider budgerigar, both embryos must possess different genetic phenotypes (one yellow-based and one white-based) in order for a visible half-sider to be produced. If both "halves" were the same base, it would still be a tetragametic chimera, but not a half-sider. It is also possible for the half-sider to be male on one side and female on the other (evidenced by a half blue, half brown cere) – an example of a bilateral gynandromorph.
Breeding a half-sider is unlikely to produce more half-siders, even when breeding two half-siders together, as the genetic makeup of the half that contributed the cells that make up the reproductive system is that which would then be perpetuated, assuming that the bird is even fertile in the first place. The chance of producing another half-sider would be the same as for any other budgerigar pairing.
References
Budgerigar colour mutations
Chimerism |
```smalltalk
namespace ReClassNET.MemoryScanner.Comparer
{
public interface IScanComparer
{
ScanCompareType CompareType { get; }
}
}
``` |
Sir Hugh de la Haye of Locharwart, was a 13th-14th century Scottish knight.
Hugh was the son of Nicholas de la Haye of Erroll and Joan. Hugh gave homage to King Edward I of England on 17 July 1296 at Aberdeen. Hugh was one of the companions of Robert de Brus and was at Robert's coronation at Scone on 27 March 1306 with his older brother Gilbert de la Haye. He was taken prisoner at the Battle of Methven on 19 June 1306 and appears to have died of wounds shortly afterwards as he does not appear on any prisoner list and disappears from records.
References
13th-century Scottish people
14th-century Scottish people
Medieval Scottish knights
Scottish people of the Wars of Scottish Independence
Hugh |
The Cardenal Quintero Municipality is one of the 23 municipalities (municipios) that makes up the Venezuelan state of Mérida and, according to a 2007 population estimate by the National Institute of Statistics of Venezuela, the municipality has a population of 9,546. The town of Santo Domingo is the administrative centre of the Cardenal Quintero Municipality.
Demographics
The Cardenal Quintero Municipality, according to a 2007 population estimate by the National Institute of Statistics of Venezuela, has a population of 9,546 (up from 8,049 in 2000). This amounts to 1.1% of the state's population. The municipality's population density is .
Government
The mayor of the Cardenal Quintero Municipality is Pedro Segundo Rivas Moreno, re-elected on October 31, 2004, with 89% of the vote. The municipality is divided into two parishes; Capital Cardenal Quintero and Las Piedras.
See also
Santo Domingo
Mérida
Municipalities of Venezuela
References
Municipalities of Mérida (state) |
Sojka III is an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) operated by the Czech Army until it was decommissioned in December 2011.
Usage
The mission of Sojka ("jaybird") is to provide aerial reconnaissance, radio reconnaissance, artillery fire observation, electronic warfare, or to launch infrared targets for air defence training.
A Sojka unit usually consists of three or four Sojka UAVs, a transport truck, launch truck, control and monitoring vehicle, and an off-road vehicle for transport of the landed UAV.
Flight
The Sojka is launched from a ramp using a rocket-assisted device to get takeoff speed. Wind limits are 12 m/s against the wind or 3 m/s in a side wind. A wind speed of lower than 8 km/h is required to get a good optical environment.
The operator can choose between two modes:
Semiautomatic – the operator can change the altitude and direction of the UAV
Automatic – the operator can specify up to eight turning points. The operator can switch to semiautomatic mode or order plane to return to the starting point at any time.
Landing can be done using a parachute or via operator control.
Specifications (Sojka III)
External links
Czech Army info about Sojka
Unmanned aerial vehicles of the Czech Republic
Czech and Czechoslovakian military reconnaissance aircraft
Unmanned military aircraft |
Salgueiro Atlético Clube is a Brazilian football club, founded in 1972 in Salgueiro, Pernambuco.
History
The club was founded on May 23, 1972.
Salgueiro's greatest achievement so far was being the first club outside Recife, to win the Pernambuco state championship. This fact was accomplished on August 6, 2020.
Achievements
State
Campeonato Pernambucano: 1
2020
Copa Pernambuco: 1
2005
Campeonato Pernambucano Série A2: 1
2007
Friendly tournaments
Copa Integração: 1
2005
Appearances in competitions
Pernambuco Championship Second level: 2
2005, 2007
Campeonato Pernambucano: 5
2006, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011
Campeonato Brasileiro Série C: 3
2008 (14th), 2009 (10th), 2010 (3rd)
Campeonato Brasileiro Série B: 1
2011
Rivalry
Salgueiro versus Olympilagos
Current squad
Out on loan
External links
Official site
Association football clubs established in 1972
Football clubs in Pernambuco
1972 establishments in Brazil |
In molecular biology, Small nucleolar RNA Z278 is a non-coding RNA (ncRNA) molecule which functions in the modification of other small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs). This type of modifying RNA is usually located in the nucleolus of the eukaryotic cell which is a major site of snRNA biogenesis. It is known as a small nucleolar RNA (snoRNA) and also often referred to as a guide RNA.
snoRNA Z278 belongs to the C/D box class of snoRNAs which contain the conserved sequence motifs known as the C box (UGAUGA) and the D box (CUGA). Most of the members of the box C/D family function in directing site-specific 2'-O-methylation of substrate RNAs.
Plant snoRNA Z278 was identified in a screen of Oryza sativa.
References
External links
Small nuclear RNA |
A list of villages in the Durham Dales, England.
A
Allensford, Aukside
B
Barnigham, Bedburn, Benfieldside, Boldron, Bowbank, Bowes, Bowlees, Bridgehill, Brignall, Brotherlee
C
Close House, Copley, Copthill, Cornriggs, Cowshill, Cornsay, Cornsay Colliery, Cotherstone, Craigside, Crawleyside
D
Daddry Shield, Delves Lane, Dent Bank, Dipton
E
East Blackdene, East Briscoe, Eastgate, Edmundbyers, Egglesburn, Eggleston, Escomb, Esh, Ettersgill
F
Fir Tree, Forest-in-Teesdale, Frosterley
G
Gilmonby, Grassholme, Greta Bridge
H
Hamsterley, Hamsterley, Consett, Harwood, Healeyfield, High Dyke, Hill End, Hill Top, Holwick, Horsleyhope, Hunderthwaite, Hunstanworth, Hury, Hutton Magna
I
Inkerman, Ireshopeburn
K
Kinninvie
L
Laithkirk, Lanehead, Langdon Beck, Lartington, Little Newsham, Low Etherley
M
Mickleton, Middle Side, Morley, Muggleswick
N
New House, Newbiggin
O
Ovington
p
Pontop Pike
R
Ramshaw, Romaldkirk, Rookhope
S
Scargill, Shotley Bridge, Snaisgill, St John's Chapel, Staindrop, Stainton, Startforth
T
The Grove, Thornley, Thringarth, Toft Hill, Townfield
W
Waskerley, Wearhead, West Blackdene, West Pasture, Westgate, Westwick, Whorlton, Winston, Witton-le-Wear, Wolsingham, Woodland, Wycliffe
Durham Dales
Durham |
A title used for the head of a regional council, used in:
France (Président du conseil régional)
Italy (Presidente del consiglio regionale) |
Emiel Jan Maria Hensen is a Dutch chemist and professor of Inorganic Materials and Catalysis at Eindhoven University of Technology. Hensen's research has focused on developing novel heterogeneous catalysts, kinetics and mechanism, and energy conversion. He leads a team of over 50 researchers working to improve "clean and sustainable chemical conversion processes for the production of fuels and chemicals."
Biography
Hensen was born in Geleen, The Netherlands, on February 5, 1971. He studied chemical engineering at the Eindhoven University of Technology and obtained his master's degree in 1994. He obtained a PhD in 2000 from the same institution under the supervision of Prof. Rutger van Santen and Prof. Rob van Veen. During his PhD, he studied transition metal sulphide catalysts used for desulfurization of oil.
Hensen continued his career in academia by moving to the University of Amsterdam. He worked as an assistant professor under Professor Berend Smit. In 2001, he returned to Eindhoven to become an assistant professor. Between 2006 and 2008, he worked for Shell Research and Technology Centre Amsterdam sponsored by a Casimir grant from the Dutch government. He was promoted associate professor of TU/e in 2008 and full professor in 2009 chairing the Inorganic Materials and Catalysis group of the department of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry. He has been a visiting teaching professor for 15 years (2001-2016) at the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven in Belgium. He has collaborated with Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics (where he now serves as a member of the international advisory board), Xiamen University, Jilin University, VITEC in Thailand, and Hokkaido University.
From 2016 to 2020, Hensen served as the Dean of the department of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry of Eindhoven University of Technology. Hensen is an active member of the Netherlands Advanced Research Center Chemical Building Blocks Consortium (ARC-CBBC), the chairman of the Netherlands Institute for Catalysis Research (NIOK) and a member of the management team of the national (Dutch) program Multiscale Catalytic Energy Conversion (MCEC). He is a foreign expert at the Xiamen University and Jilin University in China. He also serves as the Dutch representative in the board of the European Research Institute of Catalysis (ERIC).
Prize and Grants
Emiel Hensen obtained Veni, Vidi, and Vici grants from the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO). In 2002, he was awarded a Veni grant on a topic related to valorization of lower paraffins. In 2006, he became a Casimir grant laureate allowing him to work as a visiting scientist at Shell research. Hensen was awarded a Vidi grant in 2007 for developing hierarchically porous catalysts and obtained in 2013 both Vici and TOP grants for carrying out research on structure sensitivity and in-situ x-ray diffraction investigations of catalyst nanoparticles, respectively.
Research activities (publications)
Hensen co-authored more than 550 papers.
Educational activities
Hensen is involved in teaching activities in the bachelor and master curriculum of TU/e with focus on catalysis and inorganic chemistry. His research group hosts every year many MSc and BSs students for the completion of their end projects.
External links
References
1971 births
Living people
21st-century Dutch chemists
Academic staff of the Eindhoven University of Technology
Eindhoven University of Technology alumni |
Øvre Rendal Church () is a parish church of the Church of Norway in Rendalen Municipality in Innlandet county, Norway. It is located in the village of Bergset. It is the church for the Øvre Rendal parish which is part of the Nord-Østerdal prosti (deanery) in the Diocese of Hamar. The white, wooden church was built in an cruciform design in 1759 using plans drawn up by an unknown architect. The church seats about 280 people.
History
The first church in Bergset was a wooden stave church that was likely built during the 13th century. Not much is known about that building. A 13th-century crucifix that formerly hung in that church is still in existence today. Around 1665, the old church was torn down and replaced with a new church on the same site. In 1759, the old church was torn down and a new church was built on the same site soon afterwards. It was a timber-framed cruciform church. The new church was consecrated on 19 July 1761.
In 1814, this church served as an election church (). Together with more than 300 other parish churches across Norway, it was a polling station for elections to the 1814 Norwegian Constituent Assembly which wrote the Constitution of Norway. This was Norway's first national elections. Each church parish was a constituency that elected people called "electors" who later met together in each county to elect the representatives for the assembly that was to meet in Eidsvoll later that year.
Media gallery
See also
List of churches in Hamar
References
Rendalen
Churches in Innlandet
Cruciform churches in Norway
Wooden churches in Norway
18th-century Church of Norway church buildings
Churches completed in 1759
13th-century establishments in Norway
Norwegian election church |
The San Diego State Aztecs baseball program is a baseball team that represents San Diego State University in the National Collegiate Athletic Association's Mountain West Conference. San Diego State has had eight head coaches since the program began competing in 1926.
Profiles
John Hancock
John Hancock, who led the team for the 1926 season, is the first recorded coach of San Diego State.
Lee Waymire
Lee Waymire was San Diego State's second coach, serving for the 1927 season.
Harold G. Brucker
Harold was the first coach to remain more than one year, coaching the Aztecs in 1928 and 1929.
Morris Gross
After failing to field a team in 1930, Morris Gross coached the Aztecs in 1931 and 1932.
Charles R. Smith
After again failing to field a team in 1933, 1934, and 1935, Charles R. Smith took the program over, becoming the first San Diego State coach with an extended tenure. Smith coached the Aztecs from 1936 through 1964, with a three-year interruption from 1943 to 1945 during which time no team was fielded.
Lyle Olsen
Lyle Olsen succeeded Smith, coaching the Aztecs from 1965 through 1971.
Jim Dietz
Jim Dietz coached the Aztecs for 31 years, from 1972 through 2002. His record of 1230–751–18 makes him one of the winningest college baseball coaches of all time. Dietz coached a number of players who went on to successful Major League Baseball careers, including Bud Black and Tony Gwynn. He took the position at San Diego State in 1971 a week after accepting and then turning down an offer to coach basketball at Lewis–Clark Normal School—now Lewis–Clark State College.
Tony Gwynn
A native of Long Beach, California, and an alumnus of San Diego State, Tony Gwynn returned to coach his alma mater after the end of his 20-year Hall of Fame career. Gwynn was hired in the fall of 2001 to replace Dietz following the 2002 season.
The Aztecs' home field was renamed Tony Gwynn Stadium in his honor in 1997.
Mark Martinez
Mark Martinez took over as head coach after Tony Gwynn died from cancer in 2014.
Notes
References
San Diego State Aztecs baseball
San Diego State Aztecs head baseball coaches
San Diego State Aztecs
San Diego State baseball coaches |
The Council of Ministers of Togo consists of members appointed by the President with the advice of the Prime Minister.
The Council of Ministers is chaired by the Prime Minister and is tasked with managing government operations.
Members of the Council of Ministers
On 1 October 2020 the government was announced as follows:
References
Government of Togo
Main
Togo |
Güliz Ayla (born 27 April 1988) is a Turkish singer and songwriter. She released her eponymous debut album in September 2015.
Life and career
She attended the Samsun municipality conservatory for two years, studying theatre and drama. She graduated from Samsun Anadolu High School.
In 2006, she joined the Adelaide band. They became the winner of the Rock'n Dark Express Rock Music contest. She also sang in two of Müjdat Gezen's musicals.
She released her first single "Olmazsan Olmaz" in 2015. The song became the most searched song in Turkey on the music platform Shazam. Her eponymous debut album was released on 18 September 2015 with the help of Turkish singer Sıla Gençoğlu and composer Efe Bahadır. She promoted the album by launching the bahsetmemlazim.com (Turkish: I need to tell) website, where she responded to fan letters and tweets. "Bahsetmem Lazım", written by Christos Dantis and Ayla, became the first music video of the album.
Discography
Studio albums
Güliz Ayla (2015)
Parla (2017)
Singles
"İlk Öpücük Benden Olsun" (2016)
"Kimin Umrunda" (with Bahadır Tatlıöz) (2018)
"Öldür Beni (Ufuk Kevser Remix)" (2019)
"Öyle Sev" (2019)
"Mıknatıs" (with Ege Çubukçu) (2019)
"Öyle Sev (Acoustic)" (2019)
"Sarmaşık" (2020)
"Evdekilere Söyle" (2021)
"Şivesi Sensin Aşkın" (2021)
"Al Yorgun Kalbimi" (2022)
"An'da" (2023)
"Gımıldan" (2023)
Music videos
References
External links
1988 births
Turkish pop singers
Living people
21st-century Turkish singers
21st-century Turkish women singers
Turkish lyricists |
The Chicago Thanksgiving Parade, "Chicago's Grand Holiday Tradition", is an annual parade produced and presented by the Chicago Festival Association (CFA). It is held in downtown Chicago, Illinois, every Thanksgiving morning from 8:00 am until 11:00 am CST. It is televised locally on WCIU-TV; from 2007 to 2019 the event was carried on WGN-TV and its superstation feed nationwide.
History
In 1934, the United States had been in the Great Depression for six years. Many leaders in Chicago searched for ways to boost the economy as well as public spirit. Walter Gregory, President of Chicago's State Street Council, proposed a Christmas parade to Chicago Mayor Edward Kelly in the hopes that it would improve the moods of Chicago residents. The Mayor agreed to the parade, being primarily interested in its potential to improve Chicago's economy.
Chicago's first Christmas Parade was on State Street on December 7, 1934. Gregory and a costumed Santa Claus led the caravan, which was filled with toys and various merchandise from State Street businesses. As the city's government officials had hoped, the parade contributed to desirable growth in the local economy and 1934 held the city's largest holiday buying period since 1927. This was both exciting and surprising for the entire city. Not only was it the Depression, but that day held dangerously low temperatures throughout the entire state. Some areas of Illinois were as low as fourteen degrees below zero (Fahrenheit).
In 1935, the city was in even worse financial status as a result of the Depression. The city could not afford the expensive floats that were used the year before. However, the event had been so successful in the previous year that The State Street Council and the City of Chicago agreed to use an old trolley to pull the floats, as there were trolley tracks on State Street at the time.
The parade was held despite World War II.
The parade underwent a leadership change in 1968, when the Mayor's Office of Special Events took over the responsibility of producing the holiday parade when the State Street Council determined that it could no longer fund the parade. Mayor Richard J. Daley assured the children of Chicago that Santa Claus would still be coming to town as usual.
In 1969, the Chicago Tribune reported that more than 1.5 million people lined the parade route.
In 1981, over 100 Santas handed out over 10,000 balloons as hundreds of thousands watched the parade.
The parade saw its first title sponsor in 1984. The parade was renamed "The Ronald McDonald Children's Charities Parade". The route of the parade was also changed from State Street to Michigan Avenue. McDonald's was the title sponsor until 1989, and has had some sort of sponsorship with the parade to this day.
In 1990, the parade became known as "The Brach's Kid's Holiday Parade". Local confectioner Brach's Confections, Inc. assumed the title sponsorship of the parade until 1998.
In 1998, Marshall Field's took over as title sponsor of the parade. "The Field's Jingle Elf Parade" was created and lasted through the 2001 parade. The Radio City Rockettes began a three-year run of opening the parade's television broadcast with a high-kicking routine. That same year, the parade started focusing on debuting several giant character balloons. Starting with Kermit the Frog and Billy Blazes, Chicago's Thanksgiving Parade has introduced more recognizable character balloons since this time than any other parade in the country.
In 1999, Target joined Marshall Field's as the title sponsor. The parade was moved back to State Street, and for the first time, takes place on Thanksgiving Day.
In 2001, Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus became the parade's newest opening act – a position it held until 2016 (the circus performed its last show in May 2017). This year, the circus introduced the first elephant to appear in the parade.
The "Target Thanksgiving Parade" was formed in 2002, as Target took over title sponsorship of the parade. In this year, CFA signed a five-year national syndication deal with ABC 7 Chicago. A partnership with CFA and The League of Chicago Theatres was formed as well, resulting in several local and national touring theatre companies performing vignettes of their current productions for the parade.
In 2003, the parade was renamed the "State Street Thanksgiving Parade". The parade presented its first-ever unit from Hawaii – E la Ka Hololio Me Ke Kahiau, a traditional equestrian group from Kailua, Hawaii.
In 2004, the City of Zurich (Switzerland) Police Band makes its Chicago debut as the first international unit to appear in the parade.
In 2006, the parade assumed the name "McDonald's Thanksgiving Parade," as the McDonald's Owners of Chicagoland and Northwest Indiana and the McDonald's Corporation announced a two-year title sponsorship of the parade. Close to a half-million spectators line Chicago's State Street for one of the warmest Thanksgiving mornings in memory.
In 2007, WGN-TV and CFA announced that the station would broadcast the McDonald's Thanksgiving Parade live and in high definition on WGN 9 Chicago. Available in 72 million homes at that time, Superstation WGN (now WGN America) also aired the parade live across the nation. This establishes the parade as one of three parades in the country to be covered live, in its entirety, on a national television broadcast.
In 2008, the parade celebrated its 75th step-off with a three-hour live broadcast. The first hour of the parade featured the best in local theatre and culture, with the rest of the parade featuring the traditional, forward motion parade.
In 2010, the parade announced local-born actress Jennifer Beals as its Grand Marshal. The parade reached a record high 3.75 million viewers across the country. Over 350,000 spectators braved the elements and attended the parade in person on State Street.
In 2011, the crowds enjoyed clear weather and a parade line-up consisting of Grand Marshal Holland Taylor, the Harlem Globetrotters, the Chicago cast of Million Dollar Quartet, the Eriam Sisters, Celeste Kellogg and more.
In 2018, Chicago-area outdoor retailer Uncle Dan's became the headline sponsor.
In 2020, saw no parade as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic; parade organizers noted they had been ordered by the city of Chicago not to hold the parade, nor any other "special events". This was the first cancellation in history, with the 87th edition being deferred to 2021.
The different names of "Chicago's Grand Holiday Tradition"
1934: Christmas Caravan
On State Street from Wacker Drive to Congress Parkway
1935–1983: State Street Christmas Parade
1984–1989: McDonald's Children's Charity Parade
parade route changed as well, now on Michigan Avenue From Balbo Avenue to Wacker Drive
1990: The Brach's Kids Holiday Parade (Brach's Confections)
1998: The Field's Jingle Elf Parade (sponsored by Marshall Field's)
1999: The Field's Jingle Elf Parade Presented by Target & Marshall Field's
parade route and date changed as well, now on Thanksgiving Day and back on State Street, moving north from Congress Parkway to Randolph Street
2002: Target Thanksgiving Parade (Target Corporation)
2003-2005: State Street Thanksgiving Parade
2006-2017: McDonald's Thanksgiving Parade
2018: Uncle Dan's Thanksgiving Day Parade
2019, 2021–present: Chicago Thanksgiving Parade
Groups
Every year, more than 100 different groups, otherwise known as "units", walk down the parade route. These units are made up of Giant Inflatables, Specialty Units, Equestrian Units, Marching Bands, and Floats.
Teddy Turkey
Teddy Turkey is the plump mascot of the Uncle Dan's Thanksgiving Teddy also is known to make appearances throughout the city, helping to spread the holiday spirit – year round – to everyone he meets. Teddy has a Facebook page at facebook.com/teddyturkey and a Twitter account at @TeddyTurkey.
Balloons
The Chicago Thanksgiving Parade uses primarily helium balloons, which have the benefit of floating in the air. In recent years, a helium shortage has caused several parades to cut down or cease their helium use altogether. However, The producers of this parade have yet to express any plans to move to cold air balloons; only one or two cold air balloons are used every year. Chicago's Thanksgiving Parade is the city's only event that features inflatable balloons every year.
Parade school
Every year, the producers of the parade hold a parade training school to ensure sufficient preparation in several of the volunteers. For many years the Chicago Festival Association, the pa with the Museum of Science & Industry in Chicago, and hold the day's proceedings there. The main attraction and section of the school is for the "balloon handlers", a name given to the volunteers who balance the giant inflatables as they go down the parade route. All volunteers are treated to a sneak preview of the parade. 2010's parade school included performances from Miss Illinois and the 501st Midwest Garrison. Honorary Grand Marshal Ronald McDonald also gave a motivational speech and emceed the event.
Balloon inflation
The balloons for the parade begin the inflation process before sunrise to the south of the beginning of the parade route. It takes several people to fill each balloon with helium or cold air.
Featured balloons
2023: Cookie Monster, Teddy Turkey (cold air), The Cat in the Hat, Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer, Animal, Kermit the Frog, The Abominable Snowman, Peppa Pig, Care Bear, Garfield, The Grinch, The Lorax
2022: Scooby-Doo (cold air), Yogi Bear (cold air), Brainy Smurf (cold air), Hello Kitty (cold air), Felix the Cat (cold air), Fred Flintstone (cold air)
2021: No balloons due to COVID-19 restrictions
2020: Event entirely cancelled due to COVID-19 pandemic
2019: All balloons grounded due to severe winds
2018: Fred Flintstone (cold air), Rudolph, Tasmanian Devil
2017: Scooby-Doo (cold air), Yogi Bear (cold air), Fred Flintstone (cold air)
2016: Teddy Turkey (cold air), Kung Fu Panda (cold air), Cookie Monster (cold air)
2015: Teddy Turkey (cold air), Plex, Care Bear, Arthur, Hello Kitty, Tweety Bird
2014: Scooby-Doo (cold air), Strawberry Shortcake, Fred Flintstone, Arthur, Curious George, Madeline, Tweety Bird
2013: Teddy Turkey (cold air), Garfield with Pooky, Tazmanian Devil, Curious George, Foofa, Mr. Potato Head, Arthur, Madeline, Tweety Bird, Pac-Man, Sid the Science Kid, The Nutcracker
2012: Arthur, Cornucopia, Curious George, Gingerbread Man, Mighty Mouse, Mr. Potato Head, Odie, Paddington Bear, Peter the Penguin, Tom & Jerry, Pilgrim Garfield, Woody Woodpecker
2011: Teddy Turkey (cold air), Pilgrim Garfield, Curious George, Rocky J. Squirrel, Papa Smurf, Big Bird, Arthur, Bullwinkle J. Moose, Odie, Yogi Bear, Fred Flintstone, Elmo
2010: Teddy Turkey (cold air), Bob the Builder, Bullwinkle J. Moose, Curious George, Madeline, Kenneth the Blue Elf, Fred Flintstone, Pilgrim Garfield, Maisy Mouse, Scooby-Doo, Underdog, Yogi Bear
2009: Pilgrim Garfield, Strawberry Shortcake, Underdog, Paddington Bear, Raggs, Bob the Builder, Hello Kitty, Cookie Monster, Bullwinkle J. Moose, Curious George, Maisy Mouse, Rocky J. Squirrel
2008: Teddy Turkey (cold air), Elmo, Bob the Builder, Animal, Pilgrim Garfield, Cow Jumped Over the Moon, Arthur, Curious George, Super Grover, Cookie Monster, Popeye, Paddington Bear
2007: Teddy Turkey (cold air), Cookie Monster, Elmo, Strawberry Shortcake, Bear in the Big Blue House, The Nutcracker, Pink Panther, Kermit the Frog, Big Bird, Popeye, Animal, Rudolph
2006: Teddy Turkey (cold air), Humpty Dumpty, Hickory Dickory Dock, The Gingerbread Man, Bear in the Big Blue House, The Nutcracker, Frosty the Snowman, Kermit the Frog, Bert and Ernie, T-Rex, Bob & Larry, Rudolph
Specialty units
Specialty units is a general category and refers to groups with unique skills or routines in the parade, such as international dance groups and sports teams. If they can easily fall into another category first, they will no longer be defined as a "specialty unit". For example, if the grouped danced but also featured horses, they would be defined as an Equestrian Unit (see below) instead.
To viewers, "specialty units" are often considered some of the most anticipated and greatly enjoyed additions to the yearly parade. As such, the search for potential "specialty units" generally occurs on a year-round basis. Unlike most other parades, the producers of this Chicago parade search for new members in more ways than the standard browsing of electronic and media sources. Representatives from the Chicago Festival Association travel around the country on a regular basis to recruit new acts.
Featured specialty units
2022: Chicago Bulls, Chicago White Sox, Toronto Dance Company, Shanghai Ballet Company, Chicago Bears, Chicago Blackhawks, June Lawrence School of Dance, Hong Kong Dance Company
Equestrian units
Equestrian Units are groups, or "units", which feature horses as part of their performance. This is a unique addition to various parades, and the Chicago Festival Association pays special attention to potential Equestrian Units to add to the parade every year. In 2007 alone, the producers added three new Equestrian Units to the parade. The new units included the "Children's Fantasy Theatre Orchard", "Illinois Junior Miss Emily Boker", and "Southern Ohio Ladies Aside". Since the Chicago Festival Association was given rights to produce the parade, they have made great efforts to bring in Equestrian Units from some of the most popular theater productions in Chicago. For example, in 2007, the Chicago Festival Association welcomed back the Goodman Theatre and the horses and actors from their world-renowned production, A Christmas Carol.
Featured equestrian units
2022: Medieval Times, Chicago Police Department, Budweiser Clydesdales, Walt Disney World
Marching bands
Marching Bands come to the Thanksgiving Parade from all over the country every year, and are mainly recruited by Worldstrides Heritage Performance Programs, formerly known as Bowl Games of America. Approximately twenty-four of many of the nation's top high school marching bands appear in the parade from year to year, including the 150 member Bartlett High School Marching Band, which made its first appearance in 2004. Altogether, approximately 3000 high school band members play in the parade.
Featured marching bands
2022: Cedarville HS Marching Band, Lumen Christi Marching Band, Northwestern University Wildcat Marching Band, Indiana University Marching Hundred, McLean High School Band, Pride of Dayton Marching Band
Floats
Floats are decorated platforms, which are either built on a vehicle or towed behind one. These creations give groups and organizations a unique opportunity to present themselves to the viewers of the parade. In the 2007 Thanksgiving Parade, nineteen organizations and groups created floats to present to those watching.
Featured floats
2022: Turning Red, Lightyear, Soul, Raya and the Last Dragon, Hero Elementary, Alma's Way
The parade today
In 2000, the Chicago Festival Association was given the rights to produce the Field's Jingle Elf Parade by the City of Chicago. Before that time, the parade had been produced for several years by the Chicago Christmas Parade Association.
In 1999 the Chicago Christmas Parade Association's last year brought a significant change, as they reverted the parade route back to State Street.
The parade had previously been on Michigan Avenue (see above).
Many followers took a great deal of pride that the parade had returned to State Street. However, because of the positive effect that the Michigan Avenue parade route had on the city's economy—bringing many potential holiday shoppers into the many world-famous stores on Michigan Avenue—many individuals voiced great criticism. After all, the Greater State Street Council had made it very clear that no State Street businesses would be open for business on Thanksgiving Day. The Chicago Festival Association responded that although the parade was originally created to stimulate economic growth, the parade now primarily exists as a community celebration. In any case, as the parade grew in only a few years, Chicago's economy is continuing to see the parade's growing benefits. Hence, criticism about its location change has long-since passed.
Since that time, the organization has made many more significant changes, and today the parade is capturing much more attention. In 2002, the Chicago Festival Association changed the parade format from a Christmas or often broadly-labeled holiday parade to the Thanksgiving parade that it is today. In only a few years, the number of spectators on the streets have increased by hundreds of thousands. The parade is also given a live national broadcast. This is generally considered expedient growth, as the parade was available in no more than a handful of cities only two years ago.
From 2006 to 2017, McDonald's partnered with the Chicago Festival Association as the parade's title sponsor. Although it isn't publicly known how long McDonald's plans to be the parade's title sponsor, they have frequently and publicly expressed great excitement to sponsor such a quickly growing and greatly loved event.
In 2007, the Chicago Festival Association recruited the pop rock group Plain White T's to perform in the parade. In the last couple of years, the band had reached success and their single "Hey There Delilah" had been number one on the Billboard chart for two weeks. Despite the unseasonably cold temperatures, the Plain White T's agreed to do a free performance in the parade, which was no doubt greatly because of the parade's quickly growing ratings along with the event's first national broadcast.
In 2008, the parade was on its 75th year. That year's parade was broadcast for three hours, from 8:00 am to 11:00 am CST on WGN-TV9 and WGN-DT9.1 in Chicago, and WGN America nationwide. This makes the Chicago Thanksgiving Parade one of only two parades (the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade being the other) to be broadcast in its entirety to a nationwide audience. 2008 also featured Grand Marshal Jennie Finch, WWE wrestler (and Chicago native) CM Punk and the Harlem Globetrotters.
In 2010, Grand Marshal Jennifer Beals, Honorary Grand Marshal Ronald McDonald, and Santa Claus were featured in a three-hour entertainment extravaganza. The parade featured the top marching bands in the country, including powerhouses Marist High School, Proviso East High School, Houston County High School and more. The parade featured the debut of several giant balloons as well, including Yogi Bear, Fred Flintstone, and Scooby-Doo.
In 2011, Grand Marshal Holland Taylor, Chicago's Black Ensemble Theater, the EriAm Sisters and Celeste Kellogg were featured in the parade. The parade concluded with its first closing number, a tribute to Ferris Bueller. In this ending, Santa Claus and WGN's Ana Belaval led the crowd in dancing to "Twist and Shout".
Television
In 2007, the Chicago Festival Association signed a contract with Chicago's WGN-TV. Although the parade was in its 74th consecutive year, it was the first to feature a live national broadcast. With WGN-TV partnership, the 2007 McDonald's Thanksgiving Parade became available in approximately 72 million homes across the United States through WGN's superstation simulcast, Superstation WGN (now known as WGN America). WGN airs the parade in conjunction with its annual retrospective special, Bozo, Gar and Ray: WGN TV Classics.
In 2008, WGN and WGN America aired the parade for three hours. This was a first for Chicago's Thanksgiving Parade. Leading off with Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey, the first hour showcased some of the area's top theatre and ethnic performance groups. The following two hours showcased the parade, including the official McDonald's Thanksgiving Parade marching band from Proviso East High School.
The team of Paul Konrad and Robin Baumgarten were the hosts of the parade 2007 to 2013. Ana Beleval has been the on-street reporter from 2010 to 2013.
Mark Suppelsa and Micah Materre hosted the 2014 parade with on-street reporter Amy Rutledge.
With WGN-TV severing all remaining ties with WGN America (other than ownership) at the end of 2014, and the latter eliminating all Chicago-related programming from its lineup, the McDonald's Thanksgiving Parade (which remains on WGN America's schedule) was the last programming that overlapped between the two stations. WGN America quietly dropped the parade simulcast prior to 2019, though WGN carried it locally and online that year.
In 2021, the parade severed ties with WGN and announced it would air that year's parade on VPOD TV, an independent micro-network carried across northern Illinois on the digital subchannels of WAOE, WCHU-LD and WILC-CD (all virtual channel 59). As VPOD TV is not carried on any cable or satellite provider (the channels' owners have opted to use their must carry privileges on an all-infomercial subchannel), the event was simulcast online, and an audio relay was also carried on WCKG.
The VPOD/WCKG broadcast agreement ended after one year, and in 2022, the parade secured an agreement with WCIU-TV (which had replaced WGN as Chicago's CW affiliate) to carry the last two hours of the event live, with the first hour devoted to staged live performances. Jesse Hutch and Jen Lilley will serve as hosts, through a promotional partnership with Great American Family. The parade is also being offered in independent syndication to stations outside Chicago.
Movie coverage
In the movie The Weather Man, Nicolas Cage plays the role of David Spritz, a middle-age Chicago weather man who finds that he is losing confidence in various aspects of his life. He is also greatly troubled by the low level of respect he is given by residents of Chicago. However, the end of the movie brings a different story, and Spritz (Cage) finally gains a new sense of confidence and stability. The culmination of this positive change is when he is shown on top of a float in the State Street Thanksgiving Parade, waiving at all of the excited spectators. This acts as a symbol of his confidence and success. By being on this float, Spritz is shown as a prized public icon.
To achieve this scene, Paramount Pictures was granted permission by the Chicago Festival Association to film the float as it went down State Street in the 2004 parade. Using visual effects, Cage was then digitally added to the picture.
References
External links
Official Chicago Thanksgiving Parade site
2007 American television series debuts
Parades in the United States
Thanksgiving parades
Festivals in Chicago
Chicago television shows
Festivals established in 1934
1934 establishments in the United States |
Halam may refer to:
Halam (ethnic group), an ethnic group in India
Halam language, its language
Halam, Nottinghamshire, a village in England
people with the surname:
Ann Halam, a writer
Robert Halam (died 1417), an English medieval bishop and university chancellor
See also
Hallam (disambiguation)
Language and nationality disambiguation pages |
Sergey Sergeyevich Voronov (; born 10 November 1988) is a former Russian football forward.
Career
Voronov made his professional debut for FC Tom Tomsk on 15 July 2009 in the Russian Cup game against FC Alania Vladikavkaz.
External links
1988 births
Living people
Russian men's footballers
Men's association football forwards
FC Tom Tomsk players
FC Smena Komsomolsk-na-Amure players
FC Kuzbass Kemerovo players
FC Sibiryak Bratsk players |
Rinat Rashidovich Ibragimov (; born March 7, 1986) is a Russian professional ice hockey defenceman currently playing for HC Kunlun Red Star in the Kontinental Hockey League (KHL).
In the 2015–16 season, Ibragimov joined Khabarovsk in a mid-season trade after contributing with 6 points in 28 games with the HC Sibir Novosibirsk on November 30, 2015. He produce a further 5 points in 22 games with Khabarovsk before opting to leave as a free agent in the off-season to join HC Sochi on a one-year deal on May 1, 2016.
International
References
External links
Rinat Ibragimov's player profile and career stats at Russian Prospects
1986 births
Amur Khabarovsk players
HC Kunlun Red Star players
HC Lada Togliatti players
HK Poprad players
HC Yugra players
Living people
Metallurg Magnitogorsk players
Russian ice hockey defencemen
HC Sibir Novosibirsk players
HC Sochi players
Tatar people of Russia
Tatar sportspeople
Ice hockey people from Magnitogorsk
Kazakhstani ice hockey defencemen
Ice hockey people from Oskemen
Russian expatriate sportspeople in Slovakia
Russian expatriate sportspeople in China
Russian expatriate ice hockey people |
Clusterball is a 2000 video game featuring futuristic sport gameplay created by the Swedish Company Daydream Software and published by Strategy First, RealNetworks and Daydream Software itself.
Clusterball began development in early 1997 as a research and development experiment at Daydream. It was the company's first fully 3D game, as its other projects were pre-rendered.
Gameplay
Clusterball is an action-sports game that plays out in a three-dimensional graphical environment. The player controls a sci-fi aircraft and maneuvers environments based on the Arctic, the Taj Mahal, Stonehenge and other locations.
In Clusterball, the player must collect as many balls as they can from the playing field then fly them through a ring in the center of the stage to collect points. Various weapons and power ups are strewn around the stages, enabling players to steal their opponents' balls or invert the controls of the other player, making movement much more difficult. The balls lie on magnetic ramps and the aircraft must slide on these ramps to collect the balls. As the player tows more and more balls, which create a tail behind the aircraft, the aircraft becomes gradually heavier, therefore more vulnerable to enemy attacks.
The game was designed to enable online multiplayer gameplay.
Development
Origins
Clusterball began as a research and development experiment at Daydream Software. Initially, it was spearheaded by company co-founder Jörgen Isaksson. The project derived from Daydream's worry, according to the team's Nigel Papworth, that the production pipeline used by its titles Safecracker and Traitors Gate was "too costly and time consuming to be a viable long term solution" for the company. Development began in early 1997. In designing Clusterball, the team sought to create a unique online multiplayer game without violence, as Daydream did not release violent titles. The company told investors in June 1997 that "feasibility study and research" was underway for a game codenamed Project 3, later revealed as Clusterball. A prototype had been created by that time to test the game's technology.
They settled on a combination of sports and flight simulator gameplay, with elements of racing and inspiration from the game Diamond Mine. The design was also driven by a desire among certain Daydream employees for "a game where you could fly around in a landscape and see very far" into the distance, according to the team's Matti Larsson. Clusterball was started concurrently with Traitors Gate and was developed side by side with that game. When asked how the team initially came up with the idea for Clusterball in an interview with Eurogamer, Daydream Software's Nigel Papworth responded with "We sat around and discussed what we thought were the greatest aspects of real life games and computer games, and concluded that ball games rule in real life, flight sims in the digital universe. The conclusion was to build a flight sim ball game!"
Release
The game was released on July 17, 2000 for both PC computers and as a downloadable title off of Real.com. Plans for a Mac OS X version of the game were announced but later scrapped.
Reception
During the 4th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards, Clusterball received a nomination for the "Online Gameplay" award by the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences.
Legacy
A sequel to Clusterball called Clusterball Arcade was released for iPhone by Resolution Interactive, a team consisting of ex-Daydream Software members.
References
External links
IGN article
Touch arcade article
2000 video games
Fantasy sports video games
Windows games
Windows-only games
Video games developed in Sweden
Strategy First games
Daydream Software games |
Sandalu Thalen Eha () is a 2008 Sri Lankan Sinhala action thriller film directed and produced by Gamini Pushpakumara for Super Films. It stars Jagath Benaragama and Asela Jayakody in lead roles along with G.R Perera and Buddhika Indurugalla. Music composed by Chaminda Malan. The film recorded as the first all-male Sri Lankan movie to be screened. It is the 1110th Sri Lankan film in the Sinhala cinema.
Plot
Cast
Jagath Benaragama
G.R Perera
Asela Jayakody
Buddhika Indurugalla
Mapalagama Wimalaratne
Kapila Sigera
Podinilame Dedunu Pitiya
Dilip Wickramasinghe
Chamikara Bokaragoda
Kumara Ranepura
Vathika Perera
References
2008 films
2000s Sinhala-language films |
Aap Kaa Surroor () is a 2007 Indian Hindi-language musical romantic thriller film directed by Prashant Chadha and starring singer Himesh Reshammiya in his debut as an actor, alongside Hansika Motwani and Malika Sherawat. Reshammiya has claimed the story is based on his own life and was named after his music album Aap Kaa Surroor. It was shot mostly in Germany and was released on 29 June 2007. Critics panned the film although it turned out to be a commercial success. This was Hansika's first Hindi film as a leading actress, as she was previously seen in all her Hindi movies as a child star.
Synopsis
The movie begins with a dead body of a TV journalist, Nadia Merchant, being found in a remote area, somewhere in Germany. Soon after, a famous Indian singer, HR, is arrested by German Police Officers after a concert on the charge of murdering a journalist. HR is put behind bars and the incidents begin to unravel as the movie goes into a flashback. While on a concert in Germany, performing with his best friend Shravan, HR meets the event organizer Khurana and his partner Ruby James. He also meets the event planner Riya, and falls in love at first sight. After initial reservations, Riya's father Mr. Bakshi approves of the match.
Things take a turn when HR is arrested. He asks Ruby James, a lawyer, to bail him out. But it is revealed that Ruby is in love with HR, while HR loves Riya. He escapes from his prison cell after taking the murdered TV journalist's father Ex-cop Feroz Merchant captive. He has to find the actual murderer in one day or else Riya will be married to someone else. To stop this from happening, he needs Riya's help. He approaches her for help, but Riya ignores him.
HR, Shravan, and Bani approach Ruby (on HR's hunch that Ruby is innocent of the murders) for help. They browse through all the Invoices and other Documents at Khurana's Office to find that severe losses on a previously finalized world tour deal gave Khurana the motive to framed HR. HR then proceeds to confront Khurana and after a car chase, he catches up with Khurana, who then confesses to having murdered Nadia and framing HR to ruin his career. After his confession is instantly caught on camera, Khurana is arrested, then HR and Riya reunite.
Cast
Himesh Reshammiya as HR / Himself
Hansika Motwani as Riya Bakshi
Mallika Sherawat as Advocate Ruby James; Khurana's Business partner
Darshan Jariwala as Khurana; Event organizer and Advocate Ruby James's Business partner
Raj Babbar as Ex-cop Feroz Merchant; Nadia's father
Shravan as Shravan Kumar
VJ Bani as Bani, Riya's friend
Sachin Khedekar as Mr. Bakshi, Riya's father
Anant Mahadevan as TV News Reporter for Channel ITV
Ishitha Chauhan as Trishnu
Lovepreet Aujla as Himesh's friend
Marrissa Lawrence as Nadia F. Merchant
Sanjay Sharma as Raju
Pankaj Jha as Ghulam Sayyed auto rickshaw Driver
Abhijeet Chavan as Chinman Rao auto rickshaw driver
Lallan Dubey as Lallan Dubey auto rickshaw driver
Souzan Alavi as Background Dancer
Kathrin Susanne Rieger as Fan
Esther Maria Pietsch as Flight Attendant
Ryan Estrada as Himself (German police officer)
Ron Matz as Sam (German police officer)
Esther Maria Pietsch as stewardess (German police officer)
Frank Brandstatter as man in the crowd; Indian journalist in the background who helps to translate Khurana's confession
Vijay Taneja as Mr. Vijay Taneja / Himself (Special Appearance)
Johannes Bergner (German Police Officer)
Frederic Schaefer (German Police Officer)
Box office and reception
According to Box Office India, Aap Kaa Surroor grossed and was given the final verdict of a Semi Hit.
Soundtrack
The music was composed by Himesh Reshammiya; the lyricist was Sameer. According to the Indian trade website Box Office India, with around 13,00,000 units sold, this film's soundtrack album was the year's seventh highest-selling.
Sequel
The sequel of the film titled Teraa Surroor was announced in December 2015. It stars Farah Karimae and Himesh Reshammiya in the lead cast and was released on 11 March 2016.
Awards
References
External links
Films scored by Himesh Reshammiya
2000s Hindi-language films
2007 films
Films set in Germany
Films shot in Germany
Hindi-language thriller films
2000s romantic thriller films
2007 thriller films
Himesh Reshammiya |
The president of the National Assembly () is the presiding officer (speaker) of the National Assembly, Venezuela's unicameral legislature. The president's term coincides with the term of the legislature (five years as per constitutional convention). The post has existed since the election of the first National Assembly in 2000. Before the creation of the National Assembly with the adoption of the 1999 constitution, the country's legislature was the bicameral Congress, which contained the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies. The last president of the Senate was Luis Alfonso Dávila, and the last president of the Chamber of Deputies was Henrique Capriles Radonski.
Since 5 January 2019, Juan Guaidó, a member of the Popular Will (VP) party and the Democratic Unity Roundtable coalition, has been President of the National Assembly. On 5 January 2020, however, state police blocked some deputies' entry to the chambers of the National Assembly as Luis Parra was elected to be the next president of the Assembly, with Guaidó and his allies alleging the election took place without a quorum being present. However, José Noriega of the Popular Will party and second vice-president of the National Assembly stated that a sufficient number of votes were cast for a valid election. Following the disputed election, two competing claims emerged over the post – one by Luis Parra and one by Juan Guaidó, with both claiming to be the legitimate President of the National Assembly.
In 2020, parliamentary elections took place in Venezuela, in which, without opposition participation and amid claims for fraud and lack of transparency, Chavismo took full control of the legislature. Since January 5, 2021, the date on which the majority socialist parliament began sessions – the V Legislature, Jorge Rodríguez claims to be the president of the National Assembly, while the IV Legislature, elected in 2015 and recognized by a considerable part of the international community, extended its functions through a referendum, so Juan Guaidó also continues to maintain that he leads the Venezuelan parliament. By this situation, it is understood that two parliaments now operate in parallel in the country, one elected in 2015 with an opposition majority, and another elected in 2020 with a Chavista majority.
Constitutional role
The president of the National Assembly's authority resides in Article 194 of the Venezuelan constitution (section 2, chapter 1, Title V: "On the Organization of the National Public Authority"), which states the deputies are to elect a president and two vice-presidents from among themselves to administer and represent the National Assembly for a period of one year. Alongside the president and the two vice-presidents, the deputies also elect a -secretary and an under-secretary. The president of the National Assembly is second in the line of succession of the president of Venezuela after the vice president, as stated in Article 233 of the constitution.
List of presidents of the National Assembly
See also
National Assembly (Venezuela)
Venezuelan Chamber of Deputies, Lower house of Venezuela 1961-1999
Senate of Venezuela, Upper house of Venezuela 1961-1999
Speaker
Notes
References
External links
Official Website of the Venezuelan National Assembly
Politics of Venezuela
Venezuela
2000 establishments in Venezuela |
{{DISPLAYTITLE:C22H28O3}}
The molecular formula C22H28O3 (molar mass: 340.45 g/mol, exact mass: 340.203845 u) may refer to:
Canrenone, an aldosterone antagonist
Norethisterone acetate
Molecular formulas |
Adrian Romeo Niță (born 8 March 2003) is a Romanian professional footballer who plays as a winger for CSM Slatina.
Career statistics
Club
Honours
Club
FCSB
Cupa României: 2019–20
References
External links
2003 births
Living people
Romanian men's footballers
Romania men's youth international footballers
Men's association football forwards
Liga I players
FC Steaua București players
Liga II players
AFC Turris-Oltul Turnu Măgurele players
FC Unirea Constanța players
CS Concordia Chiajna players
Footballers from Slatina, Romania |
Khalida Toumi () (born 13 March 1958), aka Khalida Messaoudi (), is an Algerian politician. She was the Minister of Communication and Culture until April 2014. She is also a feminist activist. In 2022, she was convicted of corruption and sentenced to six years in prison.
Biography
Khalida Toumi was known as Khalida Messaoudi ou la soufadja before she reclaimed her maiden name. She was born in 1958 in Ain-Bessem, Bouira, in the north of Algeria and entered the University of Algiers in 1977 to pursue a degree in mathematics. After graduating from the École Normale Supérieure, she taught mathematics until 1993.
As a feminist activist, in 1981, she founded the Collectif féminin (Women's Grouping) not only to oppose the ministerial interdiction on Algerian women leaving the country unless accompanied by a male family member, but also to oppose state endorsement of the discriminatory (seen by her) Algerian Family Code, which the National Assembly eventually adopted in 1984. Following the adoption of this code, Toumi presided over the Association for Equality between Men and Women, founded by a group of Trotskyite militants. In 1985, Toumi co-founded and became a member of the executive committee of the Algerian League of Human Rights. She later distanced herself from the Trotskyite militants and in 1990 founded the Independent Association for the Triumph of Women's Rights.
Toumi staunchly opposed Islamist ideology and endorsed cancellation of the January 1992 legislative elections, which the Islamic Salvation Front (FIS) was poised to win. She considered the FIS to display "absolutely all the classic ingredients of totalitarian populist movements." She traveled to Western countries to provide an anti-Islamist and anti-terrorist perspective.
A member of the Rassemblement pour la Culture et la Démocratie (RCD), she won a seat in the National Assembly and served as the RCD's national vice president for human rights and women's issues. After profound disagreements with the RCD's president Saïd Sadi, she severed relations with the RCD in January 2001, at the peak of the crisis in her native Kabylie; she was subsequently expelled from the RCD. In May 2002, she became minister of culture and communication, as well as the government's spokesperson, the first woman ever to hold that job. She held that ministerial post in various terms until 2014.
Professional experience
1984-1991 Teacher of mathematics
1992-1993 Member of the (CCN): Conseil consultatif national.
1997-2002 Deputy of Algiers at the People's National Assembly (l’Assemblée populaire nationale).
2000-2001 Vice-president of the (CNRSE) Commission nationale de réforme du système éducatif.
Political activities
May 1985 founding member and president of the first Association of Independent Women.
March 1985 founding member and Vice-president of the first Algerian League of Human Rights
January 1992 Member of the CNSA and of the CCN
April 1996 – 2001 Member of the secularist party: the RCD, excluded in July 2001
1997-2002 Deputy of Algiers at the (APN) under the RCD label
October 1993 Vice president of Mouvement pour la République (MPR)
9 May 2003 Algerian Minister of Communication and Culture
See also
Cabinet of Algeria
References
External links
Khalida Messaoudi
1958 births
Living people
Algerian activists
Algerian feminists
Algerian Berber feminists
Culture ministers of Algeria
Kabyle people
National Liberation Front (Algeria) politicians
People of the 2010–2012 Algerian protests
Women government ministers of Algeria
21st-century Algerian women politicians
21st-century Algerian politicians
20th-century Algerian women politicians
20th-century Algerian politicians |
Holy Trinity Church, on Goodramgate in York, is a Grade I listed former parish church in the Church of England in York and is in the care of the Churches Conservation Trust.
History
The church dates from the 12th century. The south east chapel is 13th century, and the south aisle and south arcade date from the 14th century. The original construction is of limestone, with later repairs and additions in brick. The church contains memorials to a number of notable York residents.
It was enlarged in 1823 when the north side was rebuilt. The south porch was added in 1849. The condition of the building was poor by 1882 and regular worship was suspended for over 50 years until 1937 when restoration work was completed. The oak rafters were renewed and the roof was restored. The pier supporting the arches between the nave and north aisle were underpinned with concrete, and the decaying stonework on the south aisle walls was renewed.
Parish status
The church was declared redundant on 29 June 1971, and was vested in the care of the Churches Conservation Trust on 7 November 1972. A restoration was carried out between 1973 and 1974.
Memorials
Frances Graham (d. 1721)
James Robert Fryer (d. 1840)
The Revd James Dallin (d. 1838)
Joseph Smith (d. 1827)
Joseph Buckle (d. 1818)
Plaque
In 2018, a blue plaque was unveiled outside of the church to mark the occasion when Anne Lister and her partner, Ann Walker, took Holy Communion together at the church at Easter 1834 as an affirmation of their lesbian relationship, thereafter considering themselves married; it was York's first LGBT history plaque. The first plaque had an upside down rainbow edging and read "Gender-nonconforming entrepreneur. Celebrated marital commitment, without legal recognition, to Ann Walker in this church. Easter, 1834".
The wording was criticised for not mentioning Lister's sexuality, and in 2019 it was replaced with a similar rainbow plaque with the wording "Anne Lister 1791–1840 of Shibden Hall, Halifax / Lesbian and Diarist; took sacrament here to seal her union with Ann Walker / Easter 1834".
The ceremony was recreated on location in the church for the series finale of the 2019 BBC dramatisation of the life of Anne Lister, Gentleman Jack starring Suranne Jones and Sophie Rundle as Lister and Walker respectively.
See also
List of churches preserved by the Churches Conservation Trust in Northern England
References
1300s establishments in England
Holy Trinity
Churches preserved by the Churches Conservation Trust
Holy Trinity
Holy Trinity
LGBT history in England |
The MIT Engineers football represent the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the American football intercollegiate sport. The team plays in New England Women's and Men's Athletic Conferences (NEWMAC) and competes in Division III of the NCAA. Home games are played at Henry G. Steinbrenner '27 Stadium, located on the Institute's campus. The current coach is Brian Bubna.
History
The initial MIT football team, nicknamed the Techmen, recorded its first victory by defeating Exeter College, 2–0, in 1881. In 1901, the MIT student body voted 119–117 to discontinue the intercollegiate football squad. The university did continue to field sophomore and freshman football teams into the 1920s. The last game played against another university was the MIT sophomore team against the Harvard freshman team in 1901.
In 1978, a group of students self-organized to re-establish the team, though none of the school's administration knew at the time. To raise funds, they refereed intramural games, sold hot dogs, painted hurdles for track meets, took grants from the school, and sneaked loans from their fraternity budgets. For their uniforms, the team repurposed those of Rochester Institute of Technology, whose own football program had recently been cut.
Finally, the students met with then-MIT President Jerry Wiesner, who passed the issue toward MIT’s athletic board where Jack Barry, an assistant athletic director, recommended that MIT support the club for at least one season. Jay Glass, who covered the team for MIT’s newspaper, commented, “It was a hack on the university itself.” After a poor first season, the new MIT Engineers won their first victory in 1979 and went 6–1 the next year. In 1987, the club became a varsity program and joined the NCAA Division III. The next year, the team won its first varsity victory of the modern era, beating Stonehill, 29–7.
In 2014, the Engineers finished the regular season with a 9–0 record and won their first New England Football Conference title. The team won its second title, 9–1, in 2018, but lost to the Johns Hopkins Blue Jays in the playoffs. In 2019, MIT won its second consecutive NEWMAC conference title. They advanced to the NCAA Division III playoffs where they lost to Muhlenberg College. The 2020 season was cancelled due to coronavirus. In 2021, the Engineers finished the year with a 5-4 record.
References
American football teams established in 1881
1881 establishments in Massachusetts |
Claire Nichols (born 7 August 1975) is an Australian former footballer who played as a goalkeeper for the Australia women's national soccer team. She competed at the 1994 OFC Women's Championship and 1995 FIFA Women's World Cup. At the club level, she played for Liverpool (NSW) in Australia.
References
External links
1975 births
Living people
Australian women's soccer players
Australia women's international soccer players
Place of birth missing (living people)
1995 FIFA Women's World Cup players
Women's association football goalkeepers |
Knut Haavik (4 December 1943 – 8 February 2019) was a Norwegian journalist, writer, and editor. He was the founder of the Norwegian weekly Se og Hør, and was the magazine's first editor-in-chief in the 1980s and 1990s.
References
1943 births
2019 deaths
Norwegian magazine editors
20th-century Norwegian journalists
Male journalists |
Reserved track, in tram transport terminology, is track on ground exclusively for trams (in the US, typically called a "private right-of-way").
Description
Unlike street running track embedded in streets and roads, reserved track does not need to take into account the transit of other wheeled vehicles, pedestrians, bicyclists or horses. It is the cheapest form of tram track to install (not counting land acquisition costs), and usually is constructed like railway track with conventional sleepers (railroad ties).
Many modern tramway/light rail systems operate over reserved track formerly forming part of a heavy-rail network, e.g. Manchester, London and Nottingham (UK) and Sydney, Melbourne, and Adelaide in Australia.
Tram transport track can be either reserved track or street running type.
Semi-reserved track
An intermediate form, whereby tramlines are laid in the middle of a road, and segregated from other road users either by being raised approximately 10 centimetres above street level, and/or with small studs, or simply by a painted white line. This space is normally for trams only, or for trams, buses, taxis and emergency vehicles. However ordinary traffic may cross into the tram lane to pass parked vehicles. In Belgium this is known as a bijzondere overrijdbare bedding or site spécial franchissable. The tram lane may be roughened by paving it with cobbles as an additional deterrent to use by rubber-tyred vehicles.
See also
Street running, where trams or other vehicles share a right of way on a road or street
Tramway track
References
Tram transport
Tram technology |
Callin' the Blues is an album by guitarist Tiny Grimes with trombonist J. C. Higginbotham recorded in 1958 and released on the Prestige label. The album was subsequently rereleased on Prestige's Swingville subsidiary label.
Reception
The Allmusic site awarded the album 4 stars stating "Although J.C., who had a long decline, sounds a bit past his prime, plenty of sparks fly throughout the date, particularly from Grimes and Lockjaw".
Track listing
All compositions by Tiny Grimes except where noted.
"Callin' the Blues" – 8:42
"Blue Tiny" – 11:34
"Grimes' Times" – 11:20
"Air Mail Special" (Charlie Christian, Benny Goodman, Jimmy Mundy) – 7:33
Personnel
Tiny Grimes – guitar
J. C. Higginbotham – trombone
Eddie "Lockjaw" Davis – tenor saxophone
Ray Bryant – piano
Wendell Marshall – bass
Osie Johnson – drums
References
Tiny Grimes albums
1958 albums
Albums recorded at Van Gelder Studio
Swingville Records albums
Albums produced by Esmond Edwards
Albums recorded in a home studio |
Kings Reach was a proposed tram stop in Kings Reach, Greater Manchester. The Stockport tram extension was proposed in 1999, but dropped in 2004 on cost grounds.
History
An extension to the line from East Didsbury to Stockport was first planned in 1999, and GMPTE applied for powers to build it. However, the process came to a halt in 2004 when the big bang extension was stopped.
The proposed extension would have reused some of the former railway alignment. However much of it was built on or filled in after closure, making re-opening more difficult, so the proposed line would have included some new infrastructure and street running sections to take it into Stockport. In these plans, the line would have terminated at Stockport bus station. 2015 plans revive the idea of extending the line from East Didsbury to Stockport, but via a different route using some existing rail lines, with no mention of a station at King's Reach.
References
Proposed Manchester Metrolink tram stops |
Ann Gillespie is a retired American actress who became an Episcopal priest, and is currently the Senior Associate Rector at Church of Holy Comforter in Vienna, Virginia.
She is perhaps best known for her recurring role as Jackie Taylor, mother to Kelly Taylor on the original Beverly Hills, 90210. She reprised her role during the first 2 seasons of 90210 as mother to both Kelly [Taylor] and Erin [Silver]. Gillespie also appeared in one episode of the first season of Gilmore Girls, playing Paris Geller's mother.
Gillespie made her acting debut in 1981 when she became the second actress to portray Siobhan Ryan Novak on Ryan's Hope, replacing actress Sarah Felder, who originated the role. Gillespie played the role for one year before she was replaced by Marg Helgenberger. In 1984, she appeared in a pilot, "The Sheriff and the Astronaut," opposite Alec Baldwin. In 1987, Ann played Linda Lewis on an episode of Matlock.
Gillespie is a graduate of Dwight Morrow High School in Englewood, New Jersey. In 2003 she earned her B.A. at Goddard College in Vermont. She has two children.
References
External links
Living people
American soap opera actresses
American television actresses
Goddard College alumni
21st-century American actresses
20th-century American actresses
American Episcopal priests
Year of birth missing (living people)
Dwight Morrow High School alumni
Actresses from Englewood, New Jersey |
Anthony E. Loubet is an American attorney and politician serving as a member of the Utah House of Representatives for the 27th district. Elected in November 2022, he assumed office on January 1, 2023.
Early life and education
Loubet is a native of Moorpark, California. His father immigrated to the United States from Mazatlán, Mexico. Loubet earned an associate degree in liberal arts from Moorpark College, a Bachelor of Science degree in business management from California Lutheran University, and a Juris Doctor from the J. Reuben Clark Law School at Brigham Young University.
Career
After earning his bachelor's degree, Loubet worked worked as an advisor associate at Waddell & Reed in Thousand Oaks, California. From 2009 to 2013, he operated and independent tax consulting service. In 2018, Loubet served as a law clerk for Utah Appeals Court Judge Kate A. Toomey. From 2018 to 2021, he served as a deputy county attorney in the Utah County Attorney's Office. In 2021 and 2022, Loubet served as a senior policy advisor for Salt Lake County Councilman David Alvord. He works as the general counsel of the Abby Lou Foundation and Residential Habilitation Experts. Loubet was elected to the Utah House of Representatives in November 2022.
References
Living people
Utah Republicans
Members of the Utah House of Representatives
Utah lawyers
Moorpark College alumni
California Lutheran University alumni
J. Reuben Clark Law School alumni
Brigham Young University alumni
People from Moorpark, California
People from Kearns, Utah
People from Salt Lake County, Utah
American politicians of Mexican descent
Year of birth missing (living people) |
Solo Music: Ahkreanvention is a studio album by jazz trumpeter Wadada Leo Smith released in 1979 by Kabell Records label.
The compositions were later included in his album Kabell Years: 1971–1979, with the exception of two tracks performed on Ghanaian flute ("Sarhanna" and "Kashala") that were omitted at Smith's request.
Background
Smith said that he wanted "to create and invent musical ideas simultaneously, utilizing the fundamental laws of improvisation and composition. Within this system, all of the elements of the scored music are controlled through symbols designating duration, improvisation, and moving sounds of different velocities".
Track listing
References
Wadada Leo Smith albums
1979 albums |
The 2011 Continental Indoor Football League season was the league's sixth overall season. The regular season started on Saturday, February 26, with the expansion Port Huron Predators defeating the expansion Indianapolis Enforcers 69-12, and ended with the 2011 CIFL Championship Game on June 11, 2011, at the Cincinnati Gardens in Cincinnati, Ohio, where the Cincinnati Commandos defeated the Marion Blue Racers 44-29 to clinch their second consecutive CIFL Championship.
In 2011, the league saw its size stay the same for the first time. There were changes to the teams that made up the 6 teams, as Fort Wayne FireHawks, Marion Mayhem and the Wisconsin Wolfpack folded following the 2010 season, and the Chicago Cardinals changed their name to the Chicago Knights, and the Miami Valley Silverbacks established a home arena in Dayton, Ohio and changed their names to the Dayton Silverbacks. The CIFL awarded the Indianapolis Enforcers, the Marion Blue Racers and the Port Huron Predators expansion franchises.
On April 29, 2011 it was announced that the Port Huron Predators would ceased operations immediately. This made the league finish with 5 teams for a second consecutive season.
Schedule
Since the league remained at 6 teams, they stuck to their ten-game schedule for each team. Every team was scheduled to play a home and away game with every team except Indianapolis, as they were competing as a travel team.
Scheduling changes
On April 29, 2011 it was announced that the Port Huron Predators would ceased operations immediately As a result of Port Huron folding Chicago, Cincinnati, Dayton, and Indianapolis were awarded wins for their remaining games against Port Huron.
Regular season standings
y - clinched regular-season title
x - clinched playoff spot
Week 1
Indianapolis at Port Huron
Week 2
Chicago at Cincinnati
Port Huron at Marion
Indianapolis at Dayton
Week 3
Cincinnati at Marion
Week 4
Indianapolis at Cincinnati
Dayton at Port Huron
Week 5
Dayton at Marion
Week 6
Cincinnati at Dayton
Chicago at Port Huron
Indianapolis at Marion
Week 7
Port Huron at Cincinnati
Marion at Dayton
Chicago at Indianapolis
Week 8
Indianapolis at Chicago
Marion at Port Huron
Week 9
Dayton at Chicago
Week 10
Cincinnati at Dayton
Chicago at Marion
Indianapolis at Port Huron
Week 11
Indianapolis at Dayton
Cincinnati at Chicago
Week 12
Chicago at Dayton
Indianapolis at Marion
Cincinnati at Port Huron
Week 13
Indianapolis at Cincinnati
Marion at Chicago
Week 14
Marion at Cincinnati
Port Huron at Dayton
Week 15
Port Huron at Chicago
Playoffs
1 vs 4 Semifinal Game: Cincinnati Commandos at Chicago Knights
2 vs 3 Semifinal Game: vs Dayton Silverbacks at Marion Blue Racers
2011 CIFL Championship Game: Cincinnati Commandos vs. Marion Blue Racers
Media
The league launched the Gameday Center on its website that would allow followers to enjoy live stats for each game. Teams were also allowed to use local media to broadcast the teams under their own terms.
Coaching changes
Pre-season
In-season
Awards
Regular season awards
CIFL Most Valuable Player - Tyler Sheehan QB, Cincinnati Commandos
Offensive Player of the Year - Tyler Sheehan QB, Cincinnati Commandos
Defensive Player of the Year - Chris Respress DB, Dayton Silverbacks
Special Teams Player of the Year - Mike Tatum WR, Marion Blue Racers
Coach of the Year - Ryan Terry, Marion Blue Racers
Players of the week
References |
Jacobabad District (, ) is a district in the province of Sindh, Pakistan. It is located in the north of Sindh, by the provincial boundary with Balochistan. Its headquarters is the town of Jacobabad, which was founded by General John Jacob in 1847.
Administration
District Council Jacobabad have 44 Union councils, 2 Municipal Committees and 3 Town Committees
The district is administratively subdivided into the following tehsil:
Garhi Khairo Tehsil
Jacobabad Tehsil
Thul Tehsil
History
During British India, the town was the administrative headquarters of the Upper Sindh Frontier District of the Bombay Presidency; with a station on the Quetta branch of the North-Western railway, 37 m. from the junction at Ruk, on the main line. It is famous as having consistently the highest temperature in Pakistan. During the month of June the thermometer ranges between 120° and 127 °F. The town was founded on the site of the village of Khangarh in 1847 by General John Jacob, for many years commandant of the Sind Horse, who died here in 1858, and left a marvellous Victoria Tower in his remembrance in the heart of the city. It has cantonments for a cavalry regiment, with accommodation for caravans from Central Asia. It is watered by two canals. An annual horse show is held in January.
The district has had its present name since 1952. For a brief period after 1961, it included the Nasirabad subdivision. In 2004 Kashmore District was formed from its eastern half.
Notable people
Muhammad Mian Soomro, Pakistani Politician
Saira Shahliani, Pakistani Politician
Kiran Baluch, Pakistani Former Cricketer
Aijaz Hussain Jakhrani, Pakistani Politician
Muhammad Muqeem Khan Khoso, Pakistani Politician
Ahmed Mian Soomro, Pakistani Politician
Abdul Hafeez Shaikh, Pakistani economist and politician
Elahi Bux Soomro, Pakistani Senior Politician
Demography
At the time of the 2017 census, Jacobabad district had a population of 1,007,009, of which 297,218 (29.51%) lived in urban areas. Jacobabad had a sex ratio of 956 females per 1000 males and a literacy rate of 34.07%: 44.93% for males and 22.77% for females.
Islam is the predominant religion with 97.76% of the population while Hinduism is the minority religion, practiced by 2.16% of the population.
At the time of the 2017 census, 88.57% of the population spoke Sindhi, 5.23% Balochi, 3.26% Brahui and 1.33% Saraiki as their first language.
Airport and airbase
The commercial airport at Jacobabad, about north of Karachi and southeast of Kandahar, is located on the border between Sindh and Balochistan provinces. The Shahbaz Air Base (co-located with the commercial airport in Jacobabad) was one of the three Pakistani air bases used by U.S. and allied forces to support the Operation Enduring Freedom campaign in Afghanistan and drone strikes in the former Federally Administered Tribal Areas.
List of Dehs
The following is a list of Jacobabad District's dehs, organised by taluka:
Jacobabad Tehsil (58 dehs)
Abad
Abdullah Dakhan
Ahmedpur
Akilpur
Alipur
Attai
Bachal Pur
Badal Wah
Bajhani
Baqapur
Bello Alipur
Bello Dixon
Bhalidino
Burj Selemi
Chajjra
Chawani
Dadh
Dadpur
Dasti
Detha
Dilawarpur
Fatehpur
Garhi Chand
Garhi Mehrab
Ghouspur
Hambhi
Jacobabad
Janidero
Khairwah
Khaloolabad
Koureja
Lal Lodro
Malhooabad
Mehar Shah
Mehrabpur
Milkiat Sarkar
Moulabad
Moulan Rato
Mundranipur
Nawara
Nawazo
Orangabad
Phatanwah
Pir Padhro
Qadirpur
Qaiasrabad
Rahimabad
Ramzanpur
Retti
Rindwahi
Shahdadpur
Shahpur
Sheeradabad
Soomanpur
Thariri Bhalidino
Umaranipur
Wakro
Waryamabad
Thul Taluka (93 dehs)
Abdullah Jakhrani
Ali Khan
Allagh Yar
Athri
Bachro
Bahadurpur
Bakhtiarpur
Balochabad
Bamble
Barri
Bhanger
Bitti
Bolaki
Burira
Chandan
Channa
Daho
Dakhan
Daro Mukh
Deen Garh
Dhani Bux
Dil Murad
Dool
Dubi
Fateh Khan Sabayo
Ganji
Garhi Hassan
Garhi Rahimabad
Ghulamoon
Ghunia
Girkano
Gola
Gujo
Hairo
Hambi
Hotewah
Hyderpur
Jalal Pur
Jariyoon
Jhangiwah
Joungal
Kanrani
Karim Abad
Karim Bux
Katta
Khatan
Khosa
Khuda Bux
Korar
Kot Gul Muhammad
Kot Jangu
Lado
Logi
Loi
Madad Khoso
Maloi
Mehar Ali
Mehrabpur
Miral Nau
Miral Purano
Mirpur
Mirsipur
Mitho Thariri
Moosa Wah
Mubarakpur
Muhib Wah
Nagan
Nau Wah
Odhano
Pako
Panah Abaad
Phul
Purano Wah
Qalendarpur
Rahim Abad
Ranjhapur
Rap Muard
Rato Thariri
Sajin Wah
Sameja
Sarki
Sher Wah
Shujra
Tajo Khoso
Talib Shah
Tanwari
Thariri
Thul Nau
Thul Purano
Toj
Udi
Wah Mistri
Zangipur
Garhi Khairo Taluka (60 dehs)
Abdullah Mahesar
Allah Pur
Allahabad
Amir Abad
Azmat Abad
Baharo Khokhar
Budho
Daro Jeeand
Datirdino Mahesar
Dital Wah
Doda Pur
Drib Morayo
Dunya Pur`
Garhi Khairo
Ghouse Abad
Gokal Pur
Gul Wah
Hazar Wah
Jafar Abad
Jahan Pur
Jalbani
Jamal Abad
Jeeand
Khairo
Khan Wah
Khand
Khanpur
Khuda Abad
Kitch
Kohari
Koor Beero
Koor Khairo Gachal
Koor Rato
Kotari
Kote Ali Nawaz
Lal Odho
Lal Wah
Lund
Mairee
Miranpur
Muarad Ali
Muhammad Pur
Nao Wah
Nazimabad
Pir Bux
Punhoon Bhatti
Qeemat Abad
Rasol Abad
Saleh
Sawan Lashari
Shah Bazi Mahar
Shaheed
Sher Khan
Sheran Pur
Sone Wah
Sultanpur
Tajo Dero
Thariri
Wah Ali Hyder
Wasayo
References
Notes
Bibliography
See also
Garhi Khairo Tehsil
Jacobabad Tehsil
Thul Tehsil
Jacobabad
Thul
Larkana Division
Districts of Sindh |
Elaine Feinstein FRSL (born Elaine Cooklin; 24 October 1930 – 23 September 2019) was an English poet, novelist, short-story writer, playwright, biographer and translator. She joined the Council of the Royal Society of Literature in 2007.
Early life
Born in Bootle, Lancashire, England, Feinstein grew up in Leicester. Her father had left school at 12 and had little time for books, but he was a great storyteller. He ran a small factory making wooden furniture through the 1930s. She wrote, "An inner certainty of being loved and valued went a long way to create my own sense of resilience in later years spent in a world that felt altogether alien. I never altogether lost my childhood sense of being fortunate."
Feinstein was sent to Wyggeston Grammar School for Girls by her mother, "a school as good as Leicester could provide". She wrote poems from the age of eight, which were published in the school magazine. At the end of the war Feinstein's sense of childhood security was shattered by the revelations of the Nazi extermination camps. She noted, "In that year I became Jewish for the first time." A recent critic commented: "Alive to her family origins in the Russian-Jewish diaspora, she developed a close affinity with the Russian poets of this and the last century."
Feinstein excelled at school work from then on. After Newnham College, Cambridge, she read for the bar, worked at Hockerill Training College, and then as a university lecturer at the University of Essex (1967–1970), appointed by Donald Davie.
Literary career
Feinstein married and had three sons with her husband, Arnold Feinstein. As she resumed writing she "came to life again", keeping journals, enjoying the process of reading and writing poetry, composing pieces to help her make sense of experience. She commented that she wanted "plain propositions, lines that came singing out of poems with a perfection of phrasing like lines of music." She was inspired by the poetry of Marina Tsvetaeva to translate some of her poetry. These poems were published by Oxford University Press and Penguin Books in 1971. She received three translation awards from the Arts Council.
After 1980, when she was made a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature, she became a full-time writer. In 1990, she received a Cholmondeley Award for Poetry and an Honorary D.Litt. from the University of Leicester. She visited Russia occasionally to research her books and visit friends, who included Yevgeny Yevtushenko. Her writings included 14 novels, many radio plays, television dramas, and five biographies, including A Captive Lion: the Life of Marina Tsvetaeva (1987) and Pushkin (1998). Ted Hughes: The Life of a Poet (2001) was shortlisted for the biennial Marsh Biography Prize. Her biography of Anna Akhmatova, Anna of all the Russias, appeared in 2005 and was translated into twelve European languages, including Russian.
Her first novel, The Circle (1970), written under Tsvetayeva's influence, is "a study of a marriage, mostly through the wife's mind." Several novels concern her Jewish roots: The Survivors (1982), spans the generations before and after the Holocaust, while The Border (1984) tells of an old woman in Sydney and her "painful, mysterious... escape from Vienna with her husband in 1939".
Feinstein's poetry was influenced by Black Mountain poets, and by Objectivists. In 1959, she wrote to Charles Olson to request permission to publish his work in her magazine Prospect, becoming the first of a group of poets associated with The English Intelligencer to make contact with him. Olson's reply, on "breath prosody" and the development of his poetics since the publication of his essay "Projective Verse", has since been widely anthologised. Feinstein later became a conduit between the Cambridge poets and the Black Mountain poets.
Feinstein travelled extensively, to read her work at festivals abroad, and as Writer in Residence for the British Council, first in Singapore, and then in Tromsø, Norway. She was a Rockefeller Foundation Fellow at Bellagio in 1998; her poems were widely anthologised. Her Collected Poems and Translations (2002) was a Poetry Book Society Special Commendation, and she was appointed to the Council of the Royal Society of Literature in 2007. She served as a judge for the Gregory Awards, the Independent Foreign Fiction Award, the Costa Poetry Prize and the Rossica Award for Literature translated from Russian, and in 1995 was chairman of the judges for the T. S. Eliot Prize. Feinstein participated in the 22nd Aldeburgh Poetry Festival in November 2010 and continued to give readings in various countries.
Recently asked in an interview with Alma Books what three books she would save if her house were on fire, she replied, "I'd take my iPad."
Death
Elaine Feinstein died of cancer in London on 23 September 2019, aged 88. She was survived by her three sons and six grandchildren.
Books
Poetry
In a Green Eye (London: Goliard Press, 1966)
The Magic Apple Tree (London: Hutchinson, 1971)
At the Edge (Northamptonshire: Sceptre Press, 1972)
The Celebrants and Other Poems (Hutchinson, 1973)
Some Unease and Angels: Selected Poems (University Center, MI: Green River Press, 1977; Hutchinson, 1981)
The Feast of Eurydice (London: Faber & Faber/Next Editions, 1980)
Badlands (Hutchinson, 1987)
City Music (Hutchinson, 1990)
Selected Poems (Carcanet Press, 1994)
Daylight (Carcanet Press, 1997)
Gold (Carcanet Press, 2000)
Collected Poems and Translations (Carcanet Press, 2002)
Talking to the Dead (Carcanet Press, 2007)
Cities (Carcanet Press, 2010)
The Clinic, Memory: New and Selected Poems (Carcanet Press, 2017)
Novels
The Circle (London: Hutchinson, 1970)
The Amberstone Exit (Hutchinson, 1972). Translated into Hebrew (Keter 1984)
The Glass Alembic (Hutchinson, 1973; New York: Dutton, 1974 as The Crystal Garden)
Children of the Rose (Hutchinson, 1974). Translated into Hebrew, 1987
The Ecstasy of Dr Miriam Garner (Hutchinson, 1976)
The Shadow Master (Hutchinson, 1978; New York: Simon & Schuster, 1979)
The Survivors (Hutchinson, 1982)
The Border (Hutchinson, 1985)
Mother's Girl (Hutchinson, 1988)
All You Need (Hutchinson, 1991)
Loving Brecht (Hutchinson, 1992)
Dreamers (London: Macmillan, 1994)
Lady Chatterley's Confession (Macmillan, 1995)
Dark Inheritance (London, Women's Press, 2001)
The Russian Jerusalem (Carcanet Press, 2008)
Short story collections
Matters of Chance (London: Covent Garden Press, 1972)
The Silent Areas (Hutchinson, 1980)
Teleplays and radio plays
1975: Breath
1980: Echoes
1981: A Late Spring
1982: Lunch
1984: A Captive Lion
1985: Marina Tsvetayeva: A Life
1985: A Brave Face
1986: A Day Off
1987: If I Ever Get on My Feet Again
1990: The Man in Her Life
1993: Foreign Girls, a trilogy
1994: A Winter Meeting
1996: Lawrence's Women in Love (four-part adaptation)
1996: Adaptation of novel, Lady Chatterley's Confession Book at Bedtime
Biographies
Bessie Smith: Lives of Modern Women Series, Penguin/Viking
A Captive Lion: The Life of Marina Tsvetayeva, Hutchinson, 1987
Lawrence's Women, HarperCollins, London, 1993; Lawrence and The Women New York, 1993
Pushkin, Weidenfeld & Nicolson/Ecco, U.S, 1998
Ted Hughes: The Life of a Poet, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2001
Anna of all the Russias: A Life of Anna Akhmatova, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2005; Knopf, 2006
Portraits (Carcanet Press, 2015)
Memoirs
It Goes With The Territory: Memoirs of a Poet, Alma Books, 2013
Translations
Marina Tsvetayeva: Selected Poems (1971; 2nd ed., 1981; 3rd ed., 1986; 4th ed., 1993; 5th ed., 1999; 6th ed. 2009 as Bride of Ice: New Selected Poems)
Three Russian Poets: Margarita Aliger, Yunna Morits, Bella Akhmadulina, Manchester: Carcanet Press, 1976
As editor
After Pushkin, Folio Society/Carcanet Press, 1999
In anthologies
Contributor to A New Divan: A Lyrical Dialogue Between East and West, Gingko Library 2019.
Prizes and awards
1970: Arts Council Grant/Award for Translation
1971: Betty Miller Prize
1979: Arts Council Grant/Award for Translation
1981: Arts Council Grant/Award for Translation
1981: Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature
1990: Cholmondeley Award
1990: Shortlisted for 1990 Los Angeles Times Fiction Prize
1992: Society of Authors Travel Award
2004: Arts Council Award
References
Further reading
Jeni Couzyn, Contemporary Women Poets, Bloodaxe Books, 1985
Donald Davie, Under Briggflatts: History of Poetry in Britain 1960–80, Carcanet Press, 1989
Phyllis Lassner, Anglo-Jewish Women Writing the Holocaust: Displaced Witnesses, Palgrave Macmillan, 2010
Peter Lawson, Anglo-Jewish Poetry from Isaac Rosenberg to Elaine Feinstein, Vallentine Mitchell & Co.
Michael Schmidt, Lives of the Poets, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2007
External links
Profile at Poetry Archive
Podcast interview with Elaine Feinstein at the Aldeburgh Poetry Festival
"Elaine Feinstein – Talking to the Dead", 7 May 2007. BBC Woman's Hour (audio 9 min)] "Elaine Feinstein", Tuesday 2 July 2002]
"She Means It When She Rhymes: Marina Tsvetaeva: Selected Poems" . Review from Thumbscrew. No 17 – Winter 2000/1
Elaine Feinstein Papers, University of Manchester Library
1930 births
2019 deaths
20th-century British dramatists and playwrights
20th-century British translators
20th-century English novelists
20th-century English poets
20th-century English women writers
21st-century English poets
21st-century English women writers
Academics of the University of Essex
Alumni of Newnham College, Cambridge
British women dramatists and playwrights
English Jewish writers
English translators
English women novelists
English women poets
Fellows of the Royal Society of Literature
Jewish poets
People from Bootle
Russian–English translators |
Luis Ángel Rodríguez Ayazo (born 15 February 1995) is a Colombian professional footballer who plays as a centre-back for Llaneros.
Club career
Born in Turbo, Rodríguez began his career with Categoría Primera A club Envigado. He made his professional debut on 3 March 2017 against Águilas Doradas in the Copa Colombia. He scored his first goal for the club on 17 May against Águilas Doradas, the equalizer in a 1–1 draw. He made his league debut on 8 July against Deportivo Cali, starting in the 2–4 defeat.
In 2019, Rodríguez joined Categoría Primera B club Cortuluá on loan. He made his debut for the club on 4 February in a 2–1 victory against Tigres. He was sent off in his final match for the club on 6 December against Boyacá Chicó.
Tormenta
On 26 January 2021, Rodríguez signed with American USL League One club Tormenta on a one-year deal. He made his debut for the club on 29 May in a 1–3 defeat against Forward Madison, coming on as a substitute.
Career statistics
References
External links
Profile at Tormenta
1995 births
Living people
Colombian men's footballers
Colombian expatriate men's footballers
Men's association football defenders
Footballers from Antioquia Department
Envigado F.C. players
Cortuluá footballers
Tormenta FC players
PK-35 Vantaa (men) players
Llaneros F.C. players
Categoría Primera A players
Categoría Primera B players
USL League One players
Colombian expatriate sportspeople in the United States
Colombian expatriate sportspeople in Finland
Expatriate men's soccer players in the United States
Expatriate men's footballers in Finland |
The Little Silver River is a tributary of the Sturgeon River in Houghton County on the Upper Peninsula of Michigan in the United States.
See also
List of rivers of Michigan
References
Michigan Streamflow Data from the USGS
Rivers of Michigan
Rivers of Houghton County, Michigan |
Migliaro is a frazione of the comune (municipality) of Fiscaglia in the Province of Ferrara in the Italian region Emilia-Romagna.
Migliaro may also refer to:
Places
Migliaro, Uruguay, part of Pueblo Lavalleja or Colonia Lavalleja, a village in the Salto Department of northwestern Uruguay
People
Eugene Migliaro Corporon (born 1947), American conductor
Vincenzo Migliaro (1858–1938), Italian painter born in Naples |
Vice Admiral Sir John Augustine Collins, (7 January 1899 – 3 September 1989) was a Royal Australian Navy (RAN) officer who served in both World Wars, and who eventually rose to become a vice admiral and Chief of Naval Staff. Collins was one of the first graduates of the Royal Australian Naval College to attain flag rank. During the Second World War, he commanded the cruiser in the Mediterranean campaign. He led the Australian Naval Squadron in the Pacific theatre and was wounded in the first recorded kamikaze attack, in 1944.
Early life and education
John Augustine Collins was born in Deloraine, Tasmania, to English parents in 1899. In 1913, at age 14, Collins joined the first intake to the RAN College. He became a midshipman in January 1917, in time to see war service while attached to the Royal Navy.
Second World War
In the early Second World War, Collins commanded in the Battle of the Mediterranean. Sydney led Allied ships which sank an Italian cruiser, Bartolomeo Colleoni, in the Battle of Cape Spada, in July 1940. For this action, in 1940 he was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath.
Relations between the RAN and British Royal Navy were close at the time, with frequent exchanges of officers between the two and in June 1941, Collins was transferred to Singapore, as Assistant Chief of Staff to the British Naval Commander in Chief, China Station, Vice Admiral Geoffrey Layton.
Following the outbreak of war with Japan, Collins was appointed Commodore Commanding China Force, the RN-RAN cruiser and destroyer force based in Batavia, Dutch East Indies, under the American-British-Dutch-Australian Command.
After the fall of Singapore and the Allied defeat in the Battle of the Java Sea, it became clear that the Dutch East Indies would be occupied by Japan. Collins organised the evacuation of Allied civilians and military personnel from Batavia, and was on one of the last ships to leave, before the city fell, in March 1942. As a result, he was Mentioned in Despatches, and was later made a Commander of the Dutch Order of Orange-Nassau.
Collins was then appointed Senior Naval Officer, Western Australia, based at Fremantle.
During 1943, Collins commanded and took part in the Bougainville campaign, the Battle of Cape Gloucester, and operations off the Admiralty Islands and Hollandia (Dutch New Guinea).
In mid-1944, Collins was made commander of the Australian-US Navy Task Force 74, and commander of the Australian Naval Squadron, with as his flagship. He became the first graduate of the RAN College to command a naval squadron in action, during the bombardment of Noemfoor, on 2 July 1944.
Collins was badly wounded in the first kamikaze attack in history, which hit Australia on 21 October 1944, in the lead up to the Battle of Leyte Gulf. He did not resume his command until July 1945. When the war ended Collins was the RAN's representative at the surrender ceremony in Tokyo Bay.
Post-war service and legacy
Collins was appointed Chief of Naval Staff in 1948, succeeding Sir Louis Keppel Hamilton, and held the position until 1955. He was knighted as a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1951 New Year Honours. He later served as Australia's High Commissioner to New Zealand (1956–62).
The latest class of Australian submarine, the Collins class bears his name. The lead submarine, , was launched by his widow on 28 August 1993. Collins Road, a street in the Sydney suburb of St Ives and in the town of Narooma was also named in his honour.
References
Further reading
External links
"Vice Admiral John Augustine Collins, KBE, CB", Australian War Memorial
1899 births
1989 deaths
Military personnel from Tasmania
Australian Companions of the Order of the Bath
Australian Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Australian military personnel of World War I
Commanders of the Order of Orange-Nassau
Graduates of the Royal Australian Naval College
High Commissioners of Australia to New Zealand
Officers of the Legion of Merit
People educated at Parade College
Royal Australian Navy admirals
Royal Australian Navy personnel of World War II
People from Deloraine, Tasmania |
Odostomellini is a taxonomic tribe of minute sea snails, marine gastropod molluscs within the family Pyramidellidae the pyrams and their allies.
Taxonomy
Odostomellinae has been one of eleven recognised subfamilies of the family Pyramidellidae (according to the taxonomy of Ponder & Lindberg, 1997). The subfamily contains two genera: Herviera and Odostomella (Schander and co-workers 1999).
In the taxonomy of Bouchet & Rocroi (2005), this subfamily has been downgraded to the rank of tribe Odostomellini in the subfamily Odostomiinae.
Genera
Genera within the tribe Odostomellini include:
Odostomella Bucquoy, Dautzenberg & Dollfus, 1883 - type genus of the tribe Odostomellini
Heviera Melvill & Standen, 1899
Distribution
The subfamily occurs in tropic and temperate seas.
Shell description
The shell of these snails has a blunt, heterostrophic protoconch, which is wrapped up. The texture of these shells is sculptured with ribs. Their color is mostly white, brown, cream or yellowish, sometimes with red or brown lines. The teleoconch is dextrally coiled, but the larval shells are sinistral. This results in a sinistrally coiled protoconch. The aperture is closed by an operculum.
Life habits
The Odostomellinae are ectoparasites, but the hosts are unknown.
They do not have a radula. Instead their long proboscis is used to pierce the skin of its prey and suck up its fluids and soft tissues. The eyes on the grooved tentacles are situated toward the base of the tentacles. Between the head and the foot, a lobed process called the mentum (= thin projection) is visible.
These molluscs are hermaphrodites, laying eggs in jelly-like masses on the shell of its host. Some species have spermatophores (Schander, Hori & Lundberg, 1999).
References
Pyramidellidae |
Cesare Bernazano (active c. 1530) was an Italian painter of the Renaissance period. He was born in Milan, and painted still lifes with landscapes, animals, and fruit. The figures in his landscapes are generally painted by Cesare da Sesto. Francesco Vicentino was a pupil of his.
References
16th-century Italian painters
Italian male painters
Painters from Milan
Italian Renaissance painters
Italian still life painters
Year of birth missing
Year of death missing |
A cyclic number is an integer for which cyclic permutations of the digits are successive integer multiples of the number. The most widely known is the six-digit number 142857, whose first six integer multiples are
142857 × 1 = 142857
142857 × 2 = 285714
142857 × 3 = 428571
142857 × 4 = 571428
142857 × 5 = 714285
142857 × 6 = 857142
Details
To qualify as a cyclic number, it is required that consecutive multiples be cyclic permutations. Thus, the number 076923 would not be considered a cyclic number, because even though all cyclic permutations are multiples, they are not consecutive integer multiples:
076923 × 1 = 076923
076923 × 3 = 230769
076923 × 4 = 307692
076923 × 9 = 692307
076923 × 10 = 769230
076923 × 12 = 923076
The following trivial cases are typically excluded:
single digits, e.g.: 5
repeated digits, e.g.: 555
repeated cyclic numbers, e.g.: 142857142857
If leading zeros are not permitted on numerals, then 142857 is the only cyclic number in decimal, due to the necessary structure given in the next section. Allowing leading zeros, the sequence of cyclic numbers begins:
(106 − 1) / 7 = 142857 (6 digits)
(1016 − 1) / 17 = 0588235294117647 (16 digits)
(1018 − 1) / 19 = 052631578947368421 (18 digits)
(1022 − 1) / 23 = 0434782608695652173913 (22 digits)
(1028 − 1) / 29 = 0344827586206896551724137931 (28 digits)
(1046 − 1) / 47 = 0212765957446808510638297872340425531914893617 (46 digits)
(1058 − 1) / 59 = 0169491525423728813559322033898305084745762711864406779661 (58 digits)
(1060 − 1) / 61 = 016393442622950819672131147540983606557377049180327868852459 (60 digits)
(1096 − 1) / 97 = 010309278350515463917525773195876288659793814432989690721649484536082474226804123711340206185567 (96 digits)
Relation to repeating decimals
Cyclic numbers are related to the recurring digital representations of unit fractions. A cyclic number of length L is the digital representation of
1/(L + 1).
Conversely, if the digital period of 1/p (where p is prime) is
p − 1,
then the digits represent a cyclic number.
For example:
1/7 = 0.142857 142857...
Multiples of these fractions exhibit cyclic permutation:
1/7 = 0.142857 142857...
2/7 = 0.285714 285714...
3/7 = 0.428571 428571...
4/7 = 0.571428 571428...
5/7 = 0.714285 714285...
6/7 = 0.857142 857142...
Form of cyclic numbers
From the relation to unit fractions, it can be shown that cyclic numbers are of the form of the Fermat quotient
where b is the number base (10 for decimal), and p is a prime that does not divide b. (Primes p that give cyclic numbers in base b are called full reptend primes or long primes in base b).
For example, the case b = 10, p = 7 gives the cyclic number 142857, and the case b = 12, p = 5 gives the cyclic number 2497.
Not all values of p will yield a cyclic number using this formula; for example, the case b = 10, p = 13 gives 076923076923, and the case b = 12, p = 19 gives 076B45076B45076B45. These failed cases will always contain a repetition of digits (possibly several).
The first values of p for which this formula produces cyclic numbers in decimal (b = 10) are
7, 17, 19, 23, 29, 47, 59, 61, 97, 109, 113, 131, 149, 167, 179, 181, 193, 223, 229, 233, 257, 263, 269, 313, 337, 367, 379, 383, 389, 419, 433, 461, 487, 491, 499, 503, 509, 541, 571, 577, 593, 619, 647, 659, 701, 709, 727, 743, 811, 821, 823, 857, 863, 887, 937, 941, 953, 971, 977, 983, ...
For b = 12 (duodecimal), these ps are
5, 7, 17, 31, 41, 43, 53, 67, 101, 103, 113, 127, 137, 139, 149, 151, 163, 173, 197, 223, 257, 269, 281, 283, 293, 317, 353, 367, 379, 389, 401, 449, 461, 509, 523, 547, 557, 569, 571, 593, 607, 617, 619, 631, 641, 653, 691, 701, 739, 751, 761, 773, 787, 797, 809, 821, 857, 881, 929, 953, 967, 977, 991, ...
For b = 2 (binary), these ps are
3, 5, 11, 13, 19, 29, 37, 53, 59, 61, 67, 83, 101, 107, 131, 139, 149, 163, 173, 179, 181, 197, 211, 227, 269, 293, 317, 347, 349, 373, 379, 389, 419, 421, 443, 461, 467, 491, 509, 523, 541, 547, 557, 563, 587, 613, 619, 653, 659, 661, 677, 701, 709, 757, 773, 787, 797, 821, 827, 829, 853, 859, 877, 883, 907, 941, 947, ...
For b = 3 (ternary), these ps are
2, 5, 7, 17, 19, 29, 31, 43, 53, 79, 89, 101, 113, 127, 137, 139, 149, 163, 173, 197, 199, 211, 223, 233, 257, 269, 281, 283, 293, 317, 331, 353, 379, 389, 401, 449, 461, 463, 487, 509, 521, 557, 569, 571, 593, 607, 617, 631, 641, 653, 677, 691, 701, 739, 751, 773, 797, 809, 811, 821, 823, 857, 859, 881, 907, 929, 941, 953, 977, ...
There are no such ps in the hexadecimal system.
The known pattern to this sequence comes from algebraic number theory, specifically, this sequence is the set of primes p such that b is a primitive root modulo p. A conjecture of Emil Artin is that this sequence contains 37.395..% of the primes (for b in ).
Construction of cyclic numbers
Cyclic numbers can be constructed by the following procedure:
Let b be the number base (10 for decimal)
Let p be a prime that does not divide b.
Let t = 0.
Let r = 1.
Let n = 0.
loop:
Let t = t + 1
Let x = r · b
Let d = int(x / p)
Let r = x mod p
Let n = n · b + d
If r ≠ 1 then repeat the loop.
if t = p − 1 then n is a cyclic number.
This procedure works by computing the digits of 1/p in base b, by long division. r is the remainder at each step, and d is the digit produced.
The step
n = n · b + d
serves simply to collect the digits. For computers not capable of expressing very large integers, the digits may be output or collected in another way.
If t ever exceeds p/2, then the number must be cyclic, without the need to compute the remaining digits.
Properties of cyclic numbers
When multiplied by their generating prime, the result is a sequence of b − 1 digits, where b is the base (e.g. 9 in decimal). For example, in decimal, 142857 × 7 = 999999.
When split into groups of equal length (of two, three, four, etc... digits), and the groups are added, the result is a sequence of b - 1 digits. For example, 14 + 28 + 57 = 99, 142 + 857 = 999, 1428 + 5714+ 2857 = 9999, etc. ... This is a special case of Midy's Theorem.
All cyclic numbers are divisible by b − 1 where b is the base (e.g. 9 in decimal) and the sum of the remainder is a multiple of the divisor. (This follows from the previous point.)
Other numeric bases
Using the above technique, cyclic numbers can be found in other numeric bases. (Not all of these follow the second rule (all successive multiples being cyclic permutations) listed in the Special Cases section above) In each of these cases, the digits across half the period add up to the base minus one. Thus for binary, the sum of the bits across half the period is 1; for ternary, it is 2, and so on.
In binary, the sequence of cyclic numbers begins:
11 (3) → 01
101 (5) → 0011
1011 (11) → 0001011101
1101 (13) → 000100111011
10011 (19) → 000011010111100101
11101 (29) → 0000100011010011110111001011
In ternary:
2 (2) → 1
12 (5) → 0121
21 (7) → 010212
122 (17) → 0011202122110201
201 (19) → 001102100221120122
In quaternary, there are none.
In quinary:
2 (2) → 2
3 (3) → 13
12 (7) → 032412
32 (17) → 0121340243231042
43 (23) → 0102041332143424031123
122 (37) → 003142122040113342441302322404331102
In senary:
15 (11) → 0313452421
21 (13) → 024340531215
25 (17) → 0204122453514331
105 (41) → 0051335412440330234455042201431152253211
135 (59) → 0033544402235104134324250301455220111533204514212313052541
141 (61) → 003312504044154453014342320220552243051511401102541213235335
In base 7:
2 (2) → 3
5 (5) → 1254
14 (11) → 0431162355
16 (13) → 035245631421
23 (17) → 0261143464055232
32 (23) → 0206251134364604155323
In octal:
3 (3) → 25
5 (5) → 1463
13 (11) → 0564272135
35 (29) → 0215173454106475626043236713
65 (53) → 0115220717545336140465103476625570602324416373126743
73 (59) → 0105330745756511606404255436276724470320212661713735223415
In nonary, the unique cyclic number is
2 (2) → 4
In base 11:
2 (2) → 5
3 (3) → 37
12 (13) → 093425A17685
16 (17) → 07132651A3978459
21 (23) → 05296243390A581486771A
27 (29) → 04199534608387A69115764A2723
In duodecimal:
5 (5) → 2497
7 (7) → 186A35
15 (17) → 08579214B36429A7
27 (31) → 0478AA093598166B74311B28623A55
35 (41) → 036190A653277397A9B4B85A2B15689448241207
37 (43) → 0342295A3AA730A068456B879926181148B1B53765
In ternary (b = 3), the case p = 2 yields 1 as a cyclic number. While single digits may be considered trivial cases, it may be useful for completeness of the theory to consider them only when they are generated in this way.
It can be shown that no cyclic numbers (other than trivial single digits, i.e. p = 2) exist in any numeric base which is a perfect square, that is, base 4, 9, 16, 25, etc.
See also
Repeating decimal
Fermat's little theorem
Cyclic permutation of integer
Parasitic number
References
Further reading
Gardner, Martin. Mathematical Circus: More Puzzles, Games, Paradoxes and Other Mathematical Entertainments From Scientific American. New York: The Mathematical Association of America, 1979. pp. 111–122.
Kalman, Dan; 'Fractions with Cycling Digit Patterns' The College Mathematics Journal, Vol. 27, No. 2. (Mar., 1996), pp. 109–115.
Leslie, John. "The Philosophy of Arithmetic: Exhibiting a Progressive View of the Theory and Practice of ....", Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown, 1820,
Wells, David; "The Penguin Dictionary of Curious and Interesting Numbers", Penguin Press.
External links
Youtube: "Cyclic Numbers - Numberphile"
Number theory
Permutations |
Plan 10 from Outer Space is a 1994 low budget science fiction film starring Karen Black as Nehor and written and directed by Trent Harris. The film is a surreal satire of Mormon theology. The film has no connection to Plan 9 from Outer Space (1957) other than its title and the fact that both films feature aliens.
This film premiered at the Sundance Film Festival in 1994 in the midnight madness category. It also received the jury prize at the Raindance Film Festival in London in 1994.
Parts of the film were shot in Salt Lake City and the Great Salt Lake in Utah.
Notes and references
External links
1990s satirical films
1990s science fiction films
1994 films
American satirical films
Films about Mormonism
Films shot in Salt Lake City
Mormonism in fiction
1990s English-language films
1990s American films |
A cholecystoenterostomy is a surgical procedure in which the gall bladder is joined to the small intestine. It is performed in order to allow bile to pass from the liver to the intestine when the common bile duct is obstructed by an irremovable cause.
References
Abdominal surgical procedures
Colorectal surgery
Accessory digestive gland surgery |
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