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https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-chapter-summary | Biology is the science that studies living organisms and their interactions with one another and their environments. Science attempts to describe and understand the nature of the universe in whole or in part by rational means. Science has many fields; those fields related to the physical world and its phenomena are con... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms | abstract : opening section of a scientific paper that summarizes the research and conclusions
applied science : form of science that aims to solve real-world problems
atom : smallest and most fundamental unit of matter
basic science : science that seeks to expand knowledge and understanding regardless of the shor... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/2-chapter-summary | Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. It is made up of elements. All of the 92 elements that occur naturally have unique qualities that allow them to combine in various ways to create molecules, which in turn combine to form cells, tissues, organ systems, and organisms. Atoms, which consist of protons, n... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/2-key-terms | acid : molecule that donates hydrogen ions and increases the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution
adhesion : attraction between water molecules and other molecules
aliphatic hydrocarbon : hydrocarbon consisting of a linear chain of carbon atoms
anion : negative ion that is formed by an atom gaining one or... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/3-chapter-summary | Proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and lipids are the four major classes of biological macromoleculesâlarge molecules necessary for life that are built from smaller organic molecules. Macromolecules are made up of single units known as monomers that are joined by covalent bonds to form larger polymers. The polym... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/3-key-terms | alpha-helix structure (α-helix) : type of secondary structure of proteins formed by folding of the polypeptide into a helix shape with hydrogen bonds stabilizing the structure
amino acid : monomer of a protein; has a central carbon or alpha carbon to which an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen, and an R group... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/4-chapter-summary | A cell is the smallest unit of life. Most cells are so tiny that they cannot be seen with the naked eye. Therefore, scientists use microscopes to study cells. Electron microscopes provide higher magnification, higher resolution, and more detail than light microscopes. The unified cell theory states that all organisms a... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/4-key-terms | cell theory : see unified cell theory
cell wall : rigid cell covering made of various molecules that protects the cell, provides structural support, and gives shape to the cell
central vacuole : large plant cell organelle that regulates the cellâs storage compartment, holds water, and plays a significant role in ... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/5-chapter-summary | The modern understanding of the plasma membrane is referred to as the fluid mosaic model. The plasma membrane is composed of a bilayer of phospholipids, with their hydrophobic, fatty acid tails in contact with each other. The landscape of the membrane is studded with proteins, some of which span the membrane. Some of t... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/5-key-terms | active transport : method of transporting material that requires energy
amphiphilic : molecule possessing a polar or charged area and a nonpolar or uncharged area capable of interacting with both hydrophilic and hydrophobic environments
antiporter : transporter that carries two ions or small molecules in different ... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/6-chapter-summary | Cells perform the functions of life through various chemical reactions. A cellâs metabolism refers to the chemical reactions that take place within it. There are metabolic reactions that involve the breaking down of complex chemicals into simpler ones, such as the breakdown of large macromolecules. This process is re... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/6-key-terms | activation energy : energy necessary for reactions to occur
active site : specific region of the enzyme to which the substrate binds
allosteric inhibition : inhibition by a binding event at a site different from the active site, which induces a conformational change and reduces the affinity of the enzyme for its su... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/7-chapter-summary | ATP functions as the energy currency for cells. It allows the cell to store energy briefly and transport it within the cell to support endergonic chemical reactions. The structure of ATP is that of an RNA nucleotide with three phosphates attached. As ATP is used for energy, a phosphate group or two are detached, and ei... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/7-key-terms | acetyl CoA : combination of an acetyl group derived from pyruvic acid and coenzyme A, which is made from pantothenic acid (a B-group vitamin)
aerobic respiration : process in which organisms convert energy in the presence of oxygen
anaerobic : process that does not use oxygen
anaerobic cellular respiration : proc... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/8-chapter-summary | The process of photosynthesis transformed life on Earth. By harnessing energy from the sun, photosynthesis evolved to allow living things access to enormous amounts of energy. Because of photosynthesis, living things gained access to sufficient energy that allowed them to build new structures and achieve the biodiversi... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/8-key-terms | absorption spectrum : range of wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation absorbed by a given substance
antenna protein : pigment molecule that directly absorbs light and transfers the energy absorbed to other pigment molecules
Calvin cycle : light-independent reactions of photosynthesis that convert carbon dioxide f... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/9-chapter-summary | Cells communicate by both inter- and intracellular signaling. Signaling cells secrete ligands that bind to target cells and initiate a chain of events within the target cell. The four categories of signaling in multicellular organisms are paracrine signaling, endocrine signaling, autocrine signaling, and direct signali... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/9-key-terms | apoptosis : programmed cell death
autocrine signal : signal that is sent and received by the same or similar nearby cells
autoinducer : signaling molecule secreted by bacteria to communicate with other bacteria of its kind and others
cell-surface receptor : cell-surface protein that transmits a signal from the ex... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/10-chapter-summary | Prokaryotes have a single circular chromosome composed of double-stranded DNA, whereas eukaryotes have multiple, linear chromosomes composed of chromatin surrounded by a nuclear membrane. The 46 chromosomes of human somatic cells are composed of 22 pairs of autosomes (matched pairs) and a pair of sex chromosomes, which... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/10-key-terms | anaphase : stage of mitosis during which sister chromatids are separated from each other
binary fission : prokaryotic cell division process
cell cycle : ordered sequence of events that a cell passes through between one cell division and the next
cell cycle : ordered series of events involving cell growth and cell... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/11-chapter-summary | Sexual reproduction requires that diploid organisms produce haploid cells that can fuse during fertilization to form diploid offspring. As with mitosis, DNA replication occurs prior to meiosis during the S-phase of the cell cycle. Meiosis is a series of events that arrange and separate chromosomes and chromatids into d... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/11-key-terms | alternation of generations : life-cycle type in which the diploid and haploid stages alternate
chiasmata : (singular,chiasma) the structure that forms at the crossover points after genetic material is exchanged
cohesin : proteins that form a complex that seals sister chromatids together at their centromeres until a... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/12-chapter-summary | Working with garden pea plants, Mendel found that crosses between parents that differed by one trait produced F1offspring that all expressed the traits of one parent. Observable traits are referred to as dominant, and non-expressed traits are described as recessive. When the offspring in Mendelâs experiment were self... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/12-key-terms | allele : gene variations that arise by mutation and exist at the same relative locations on homologous chromosomes
autosomes : any of the non-sex chromosomes
blending theory of inheritance : hypothetical inheritance pattern in which parental traits are blended together in the offspring to produce an intermediate ph... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/13-chapter-summary | The Chromosomal Theory of inheritance, proposed by Sutton and Boveri, states that chromosomes are the vehicles of genetic heredity. Neither Mendelian genetics nor gene linkage is perfectly accurate; instead, chromosome behavior involves segregation, independent assortment, and occasionally, linkage. Sturtevant devised ... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/13-key-terms | aneuploid : individual with an error in chromosome number; includes deletions and duplications of chromosome segments
autosome : any of the non-sex chromosomes
centimorgan (cM) : (also, map unit) relative distance that corresponds to a recombination frequency of 0.01
Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance : theory pro... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/14-chapter-summary | DNA was first isolated from white blood cells by Friedrich Miescher, who called it nuclein because it was isolated from nuclei. Frederick Griffith's experiments with strains ofStreptococcus pneumoniaeprovided the first hint that DNA may be the transforming principle. Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty proved that DNA is requi... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/14-key-terms | electrophoresis : technique used to separate DNA fragments according to size
helicase : during replication, this enzyme helps to open up the DNA helix by breaking the hydrogen bonds
induced mutation : mutation that results from exposure to chemicals or environmental agents
lagging strand : during replication, the... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/15-chapter-summary | The genetic code refers to the DNA alphabet (A, T, C, G), the RNA alphabet (A, U, C, G), and the polypeptide alphabet (20 amino acids). The Central Dogma describes the flow of genetic information in the cell from genes to mRNA to proteins. Genes are used to make mRNA by the process of transcription; mRNA is used to syn... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/15-key-terms | 7-methylguanosine cap : modification added to the 5' end of pre-mRNAs to protect mRNA from degradation and assist translation
aminoacyl tRNA synthetase : enzyme that âchargesâ tRNA molecules by catalyzing a bond between the tRNA and a corresponding amino acid
anticodon : three-nucleotide sequence in a tRNA mole... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/16-chapter-summary | While all somatic cells within an organism contain the same DNA, not all cells within that organism express the same proteins. Prokaryotic organisms express the entire DNA they encode in every cell, but not necessarily all at the same time. Proteins are expressed only when they are needed. Eukaryotic organisms express ... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/16-key-terms | 3' UTR : 3' untranslated region; region just downstream of the protein-coding region in an RNA molecule that is not translated
5' cap : a methylated guanosine triphosphate (GTP) molecule that is attached to the 5' end of a messenger RNA to protect the end from degradation
5' UTR : 5' untranslated region; region jus... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-chapter-summary | Nucleic acids can be isolated from cells for the purposes of further analysis by breaking open the cells and enzymatically destroying all other major macromolecules. Fragmented or whole chromosomes can be separated on the basis of size by gel electrophoresis. Short stretches of DNA or RNA can be amplified by PCR. South... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms | antibiotic resistance : ability of an organism to be unaffected by the actions of an antibiotic
biomarker : individual protein that is uniquely produced in a diseased state
biotechnology : use of biological agents for technological advancement
cDNA library : collection of cloned cDNA sequences
cellular cloning ... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/18-chapter-summary | Evolution is the process of adaptation through mutation which allows more desirable characteristics to be passed to the next generation. Over time, organisms evolve more characteristics that are beneficial to their survival. For living organisms to adapt and change to environmental pressures, genetic variation must be ... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/18-key-terms | adaptation : heritable trait or behavior in an organism that aids in its survival and reproduction in its present environment
adaptive radiation : speciation when one species radiates out to form several other species
allopatric speciation : speciation that occurs via geographic separation
allopolyploid : polyplo... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/19-chapter-summary | The modern synthesis of evolutionary theory grew out of the cohesion of Darwinâs, Wallaceâs, and Mendelâs thoughts on evolution and heredity, along with the more modern study of population genetics. It describes the evolution of populations and species, from small-scale changes among individuals to large-scale ch... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/19-key-terms | adaptive evolution : increase in frequency of beneficial alleles and decrease in deleterious alleles due to selection
allele frequency : (also, gene frequency) rate at which a specific allele appears within a population
assortative mating : when individuals tend to mate with those who are phenotypically similar to ... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/20-chapter-summary | Scientists continually gain new information that helps understand the evolutionary history of life on Earth. Each group of organisms went through its own evolutionary journey, called its phylogeny. Each organism shares relatedness with others, and based on morphologic and genetic evidence, scientists attempt to map the... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/20-key-terms | analogy : (also, homoplasy) characteristic that is similar between organisms by convergent evolution, not due to the same evolutionary path
basal taxon : branch on a phylogenetic tree that has not diverged significantly from the root ancestor
binomial nomenclature : system of two-part scientific names for an organi... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-chapter-summary | Viruses are tiny, acellular entities that can usually only be seen with an electron microscope. Their genomes contain either DNA or RNAânever bothâand they replicate using the replication proteins of a host cell. Viruses are diverse, infecting archaea, bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals. Viruses consist of a nucl... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms | acellular : lacking cells
acute disease : disease where the symptoms rise and fall within a short period of time
asymptomatic disease : disease where there are no symptoms and the individual is unaware of being infected unless lab tests are performed
attenuation : weakening of a virus during vaccine development
... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-chapter-summary | Prokaryotes existed for billions of years before plants and animals appeared. Hot springs and hydrothermal vents may have been the environments in which life began. Microbial mats are thought to represent the earliest forms of life on Earth, and there is fossil evidence of their presence about 3.5 billion years ago. A ... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-key-terms | acidophile : organism with optimal growth pH of three or below
alkaliphile : organism with optimal growth pH of nine or above
ammonification : process by which ammonia is released during the decomposition of nitrogen-containing organic compounds
anaerobic : refers to organisms that grow without oxygen
anoxic : ... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/23-chapter-summary | The oldest fossil evidence of eukaryotes is about 2 billion years old. Fossils older than this all appear to be prokaryotes. It is probable that todayâs eukaryotes are descended from an ancestor that had a prokaryotic organization. The last common ancestor of todayâs Eukarya had several characteristics, including c... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/23-key-terms | biological carbon pump : process by which inorganic carbon is fixed by photosynthetic species that then die and fall to the sea floor where they cannot be reached by saprobes and their carbon dioxide consumption cannot be returned to the atmosphere
bioluminescence : generation and emission of light by an organism, as... |
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