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https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-chapter-summary | Biology is the science that studies living organisms and their interactions with one another and their environments. Science attempts to describe and understand the nature of the universe in whole or in part by rational means. Science has many fields; those fields related to the physical world and its phenomena are con... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms | abstract : opening section of a scientific paper that summarizes the research and conclusions
applied science : form of science that aims to solve real-world problems
atom : smallest and most fundamental unit of matter
basic science : science that seeks to expand knowledge and understanding regardless of the shor... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/2-chapter-summary | Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. It is made up of elements. All of the 92 elements that occur naturally have unique qualities that allow them to combine in various ways to create molecules, which in turn combine to form cells, tissues, organ systems, and organisms. Atoms, which consist of protons, n... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/2-key-terms | acid : molecule that donates hydrogen ions and increases the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution
adhesion : attraction between water molecules and other molecules
aliphatic hydrocarbon : hydrocarbon consisting of a linear chain of carbon atoms
anion : negative ion that is formed by an atom gaining one or... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/3-chapter-summary | Proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and lipids are the four major classes of biological macromoleculesâlarge molecules necessary for life that are built from smaller organic molecules. Macromolecules are made up of single units known as monomers that are joined by covalent bonds to form larger polymers. The polym... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/3-key-terms | alpha-helix structure (α-helix) : type of secondary structure of proteins formed by folding of the polypeptide into a helix shape with hydrogen bonds stabilizing the structure
amino acid : monomer of a protein; has a central carbon or alpha carbon to which an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen, and an R group... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/4-chapter-summary | A cell is the smallest unit of life. Most cells are so tiny that they cannot be seen with the naked eye. Therefore, scientists use microscopes to study cells. Electron microscopes provide higher magnification, higher resolution, and more detail than light microscopes. The unified cell theory states that all organisms a... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/4-key-terms | cell theory : see unified cell theory
cell wall : rigid cell covering made of various molecules that protects the cell, provides structural support, and gives shape to the cell
central vacuole : large plant cell organelle that regulates the cellâs storage compartment, holds water, and plays a significant role in ... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/5-chapter-summary | The modern understanding of the plasma membrane is referred to as the fluid mosaic model. The plasma membrane is composed of a bilayer of phospholipids, with their hydrophobic, fatty acid tails in contact with each other. The landscape of the membrane is studded with proteins, some of which span the membrane. Some of t... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/5-key-terms | active transport : method of transporting material that requires energy
amphiphilic : molecule possessing a polar or charged area and a nonpolar or uncharged area capable of interacting with both hydrophilic and hydrophobic environments
antiporter : transporter that carries two ions or small molecules in different ... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/6-chapter-summary | Cells perform the functions of life through various chemical reactions. A cellâs metabolism refers to the chemical reactions that take place within it. There are metabolic reactions that involve the breaking down of complex chemicals into simpler ones, such as the breakdown of large macromolecules. This process is re... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/6-key-terms | activation energy : energy necessary for reactions to occur
active site : specific region of the enzyme to which the substrate binds
allosteric inhibition : inhibition by a binding event at a site different from the active site, which induces a conformational change and reduces the affinity of the enzyme for its su... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/7-chapter-summary | ATP functions as the energy currency for cells. It allows the cell to store energy briefly and transport it within the cell to support endergonic chemical reactions. The structure of ATP is that of an RNA nucleotide with three phosphates attached. As ATP is used for energy, a phosphate group or two are detached, and ei... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/7-key-terms | acetyl CoA : combination of an acetyl group derived from pyruvic acid and coenzyme A, which is made from pantothenic acid (a B-group vitamin)
aerobic respiration : process in which organisms convert energy in the presence of oxygen
anaerobic : process that does not use oxygen
anaerobic cellular respiration : proc... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/8-chapter-summary | The process of photosynthesis transformed life on Earth. By harnessing energy from the sun, photosynthesis evolved to allow living things access to enormous amounts of energy. Because of photosynthesis, living things gained access to sufficient energy that allowed them to build new structures and achieve the biodiversi... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/8-key-terms | absorption spectrum : range of wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation absorbed by a given substance
antenna protein : pigment molecule that directly absorbs light and transfers the energy absorbed to other pigment molecules
Calvin cycle : light-independent reactions of photosynthesis that convert carbon dioxide f... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/9-chapter-summary | Cells communicate by both inter- and intracellular signaling. Signaling cells secrete ligands that bind to target cells and initiate a chain of events within the target cell. The four categories of signaling in multicellular organisms are paracrine signaling, endocrine signaling, autocrine signaling, and direct signali... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/9-key-terms | apoptosis : programmed cell death
autocrine signal : signal that is sent and received by the same or similar nearby cells
autoinducer : signaling molecule secreted by bacteria to communicate with other bacteria of its kind and others
cell-surface receptor : cell-surface protein that transmits a signal from the ex... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/10-chapter-summary | Prokaryotes have a single circular chromosome composed of double-stranded DNA, whereas eukaryotes have multiple, linear chromosomes composed of chromatin surrounded by a nuclear membrane. The 46 chromosomes of human somatic cells are composed of 22 pairs of autosomes (matched pairs) and a pair of sex chromosomes, which... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/10-key-terms | anaphase : stage of mitosis during which sister chromatids are separated from each other
binary fission : prokaryotic cell division process
cell cycle : ordered sequence of events that a cell passes through between one cell division and the next
cell cycle : ordered series of events involving cell growth and cell... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/11-chapter-summary | Sexual reproduction requires that diploid organisms produce haploid cells that can fuse during fertilization to form diploid offspring. As with mitosis, DNA replication occurs prior to meiosis during the S-phase of the cell cycle. Meiosis is a series of events that arrange and separate chromosomes and chromatids into d... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/11-key-terms | alternation of generations : life-cycle type in which the diploid and haploid stages alternate
chiasmata : (singular,chiasma) the structure that forms at the crossover points after genetic material is exchanged
cohesin : proteins that form a complex that seals sister chromatids together at their centromeres until a... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/12-chapter-summary | Working with garden pea plants, Mendel found that crosses between parents that differed by one trait produced F1offspring that all expressed the traits of one parent. Observable traits are referred to as dominant, and non-expressed traits are described as recessive. When the offspring in Mendelâs experiment were self... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/12-key-terms | allele : gene variations that arise by mutation and exist at the same relative locations on homologous chromosomes
autosomes : any of the non-sex chromosomes
blending theory of inheritance : hypothetical inheritance pattern in which parental traits are blended together in the offspring to produce an intermediate ph... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/13-chapter-summary | The Chromosomal Theory of inheritance, proposed by Sutton and Boveri, states that chromosomes are the vehicles of genetic heredity. Neither Mendelian genetics nor gene linkage is perfectly accurate; instead, chromosome behavior involves segregation, independent assortment, and occasionally, linkage. Sturtevant devised ... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/13-key-terms | aneuploid : individual with an error in chromosome number; includes deletions and duplications of chromosome segments
autosome : any of the non-sex chromosomes
centimorgan (cM) : (also, map unit) relative distance that corresponds to a recombination frequency of 0.01
Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance : theory pro... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/14-chapter-summary | DNA was first isolated from white blood cells by Friedrich Miescher, who called it nuclein because it was isolated from nuclei. Frederick Griffith's experiments with strains ofStreptococcus pneumoniaeprovided the first hint that DNA may be the transforming principle. Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty proved that DNA is requi... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/14-key-terms | electrophoresis : technique used to separate DNA fragments according to size
helicase : during replication, this enzyme helps to open up the DNA helix by breaking the hydrogen bonds
induced mutation : mutation that results from exposure to chemicals or environmental agents
lagging strand : during replication, the... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/15-chapter-summary | The genetic code refers to the DNA alphabet (A, T, C, G), the RNA alphabet (A, U, C, G), and the polypeptide alphabet (20 amino acids). The Central Dogma describes the flow of genetic information in the cell from genes to mRNA to proteins. Genes are used to make mRNA by the process of transcription; mRNA is used to syn... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/15-key-terms | 7-methylguanosine cap : modification added to the 5' end of pre-mRNAs to protect mRNA from degradation and assist translation
aminoacyl tRNA synthetase : enzyme that âchargesâ tRNA molecules by catalyzing a bond between the tRNA and a corresponding amino acid
anticodon : three-nucleotide sequence in a tRNA mole... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/16-chapter-summary | While all somatic cells within an organism contain the same DNA, not all cells within that organism express the same proteins. Prokaryotic organisms express the entire DNA they encode in every cell, but not necessarily all at the same time. Proteins are expressed only when they are needed. Eukaryotic organisms express ... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/16-key-terms | 3' UTR : 3' untranslated region; region just downstream of the protein-coding region in an RNA molecule that is not translated
5' cap : a methylated guanosine triphosphate (GTP) molecule that is attached to the 5' end of a messenger RNA to protect the end from degradation
5' UTR : 5' untranslated region; region jus... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-chapter-summary | Nucleic acids can be isolated from cells for the purposes of further analysis by breaking open the cells and enzymatically destroying all other major macromolecules. Fragmented or whole chromosomes can be separated on the basis of size by gel electrophoresis. Short stretches of DNA or RNA can be amplified by PCR. South... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms | antibiotic resistance : ability of an organism to be unaffected by the actions of an antibiotic
biomarker : individual protein that is uniquely produced in a diseased state
biotechnology : use of biological agents for technological advancement
cDNA library : collection of cloned cDNA sequences
cellular cloning ... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/18-chapter-summary | Evolution is the process of adaptation through mutation which allows more desirable characteristics to be passed to the next generation. Over time, organisms evolve more characteristics that are beneficial to their survival. For living organisms to adapt and change to environmental pressures, genetic variation must be ... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/18-key-terms | adaptation : heritable trait or behavior in an organism that aids in its survival and reproduction in its present environment
adaptive radiation : speciation when one species radiates out to form several other species
allopatric speciation : speciation that occurs via geographic separation
allopolyploid : polyplo... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/19-chapter-summary | The modern synthesis of evolutionary theory grew out of the cohesion of Darwinâs, Wallaceâs, and Mendelâs thoughts on evolution and heredity, along with the more modern study of population genetics. It describes the evolution of populations and species, from small-scale changes among individuals to large-scale ch... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/19-key-terms | adaptive evolution : increase in frequency of beneficial alleles and decrease in deleterious alleles due to selection
allele frequency : (also, gene frequency) rate at which a specific allele appears within a population
assortative mating : when individuals tend to mate with those who are phenotypically similar to ... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/20-chapter-summary | Scientists continually gain new information that helps understand the evolutionary history of life on Earth. Each group of organisms went through its own evolutionary journey, called its phylogeny. Each organism shares relatedness with others, and based on morphologic and genetic evidence, scientists attempt to map the... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/20-key-terms | analogy : (also, homoplasy) characteristic that is similar between organisms by convergent evolution, not due to the same evolutionary path
basal taxon : branch on a phylogenetic tree that has not diverged significantly from the root ancestor
binomial nomenclature : system of two-part scientific names for an organi... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-chapter-summary | Viruses are tiny, acellular entities that can usually only be seen with an electron microscope. Their genomes contain either DNA or RNAânever bothâand they replicate using the replication proteins of a host cell. Viruses are diverse, infecting archaea, bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals. Viruses consist of a nucl... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms | acellular : lacking cells
acute disease : disease where the symptoms rise and fall within a short period of time
asymptomatic disease : disease where there are no symptoms and the individual is unaware of being infected unless lab tests are performed
attenuation : weakening of a virus during vaccine development
... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-chapter-summary | Prokaryotes existed for billions of years before plants and animals appeared. Hot springs and hydrothermal vents may have been the environments in which life began. Microbial mats are thought to represent the earliest forms of life on Earth, and there is fossil evidence of their presence about 3.5 billion years ago. A ... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-key-terms | acidophile : organism with optimal growth pH of three or below
alkaliphile : organism with optimal growth pH of nine or above
ammonification : process by which ammonia is released during the decomposition of nitrogen-containing organic compounds
anaerobic : refers to organisms that grow without oxygen
anoxic : ... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/23-chapter-summary | The oldest fossil evidence of eukaryotes is about 2 billion years old. Fossils older than this all appear to be prokaryotes. It is probable that todayâs eukaryotes are descended from an ancestor that had a prokaryotic organization. The last common ancestor of todayâs Eukarya had several characteristics, including c... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/23-key-terms | biological carbon pump : process by which inorganic carbon is fixed by photosynthetic species that then die and fall to the sea floor where they cannot be reached by saprobes and their carbon dioxide consumption cannot be returned to the atmosphere
bioluminescence : generation and emission of light by an organism, as... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/24-chapter-summary | Fungi are eukaryotic organisms that appeared on land more than 450 million years ago. They are heterotrophs and contain neither photosynthetic pigments such as chlorophyll, nor organelles such as chloroplasts. Because fungi feed on decaying and dead matter, they are saprobes. Fungi are important decomposers that releas... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/24-key-terms | arbuscular mycorrhiza : mycorrhizal association in which the fungal hyphae enter the root cells and form extensive networks
Arbuscular mycorrhizae : mycorrhizae commonly involving Glomeromycetes in which the fungal hyphae penetrate the cell walls of the plant root cells (but not the cell membranes)
ascocarp : fruit... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/25-chapter-summary | Land plants acquired traits that made it possible to colonize land and survive out of the water. All land plants share the following characteristics: alternation of generations, with the haploid plant called a gametophyte, and the diploid plant called a sporophyte; protection of the embryo, formation of haploid spores ... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/25-key-terms | adventitious : describes an organ that grows in an unusual place, such as a roots growing from the side of a stem
antheridium : male gametangium
archegonium : female gametangium
capsule : case of the sporangium in mosses
charophyte : other term for green algae; considered the closest relative of land plants
c... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/26-chapter-summary | Seed plants appeared about one million years ago, during the Carboniferous period. Two major innovationsâseed and pollenâallowed seed plants to reproduce in the absence of water. The gametophytes of seed plants shrank, while the sporophytes became prominent structures and the diploid stage became the longest phase ... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/26-key-terms | anther : sac-like structure at the tip of the stamen in which pollen grains are produced
Anthophyta : phylum to which angiosperms belong
barcoding : molecular biology technique in which one or more short gene sequences taken from a well-characterized portion of the genome is used to identify a species
basal angio... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/27-chapter-summary | Animals constitute an incredibly diverse kingdom of organisms. Although animals range in complexity from simple sea sponges to human beings, most members of the animal kingdom share certain features. Animals are eukaryotic, multicellular, heterotrophic organisms that ingest their food and usually develop into motile cr... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/27-key-terms | acoelomate : animal without a body cavity
bilateral symmetry : type of symmetry in which there is only one plane of symmetry, so the left and right halves of an animal are mirror images
blastopore : indentation formed during gastrulation, evident in the gastrula stage
blastula : 16â32 cell stage of development ... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/28-chapter-summary | Animals included in phylum Porifera are Parazoans because they do not show the formation of true tissues (except in class Hexactinellida). These organisms show very simple organization, with a rudimentary endoskeleton. Sponges have multiple cell types that are geared toward executing various metabolic functions. Althou... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/28-key-terms | amoebocyte : sponge cell with multiple functions, including nutrient delivery, egg formation, sperm delivery, and cell differentiation
Annelida : phylum of vermiform animals with metamerism
archenteron : primitive gut cavity within the gastrula that opens outwards via the blastopore
Arthropoda : phylum of animals... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/29-chapter-summary | The characteristic features of Chordata are a notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, and a post-anal tail. Chordata contains two clades of invertebrates: Urochordata (tunicates) and Cephalochordata (lancelets), together with the vertebrates in Vertebrata. Most tunicates live on the ocean floor and are... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/29-key-terms | Acanthostega : one of the earliest known tetrapods
Actinopterygii : ray-finned fishes
allantois : membrane of the egg that stores nitrogenous wastes produced by the embryo; also facilitates respiration
amnion : membrane of the egg that protects the embryo from mechanical shock and prevents dehydration
amniote :... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/30-chapter-summary | A vascular plant consists of two organ systems: the shoot system and the root system. The shoot system includes the aboveground vegetative portions (stems and leaves) and reproductive parts (flowers and fruits). The root system supports the plant and is usually underground. A plant is composed of two main types of tiss... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/30-key-terms | abscisic acid (ABA) : plant hormone that induces dormancy in seeds and other organs
abscission : physiological process that leads to the fall of a plant organ (such as leaf or petal drop)
adventitious root : aboveground root that arises from a plant part other than the radicle of the plant embryo
apical bud : bud... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/31-chapter-summary | Plants can absorb inorganic nutrients and water through their root system, and carbon dioxide from the environment. The combination of organic compounds, along with water, carbon dioxide, and sunlight, produce the energy that allows plants to grow. Inorganic compounds form the majority of the soil solution. Plants acce... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/31-key-terms | A horizon : consists of a mixture of organic material with inorganic products of weathering
B horizon : soil layer that is an accumulation of mostly fine material that has moved downward
bedrock : solid rock that lies beneath the soil
C horizon : layer of soil that contains the parent material, and the organic an... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/32-chapter-summary | The flower contains the reproductive structures of a plant. All complete flowers contain four whorls: the calyx, corolla, androecium, and gynoecium. The stamens are made up of anthers, in which pollen grains are produced, and a supportive strand called the filament. The pollen contains two cellsâ a generative cell an... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/32-key-terms | accessory fruit : fruit derived from tissues other than the ovary
aggregate fruit : fruit that develops from multiple carpels in the same flower
aleurone : single layer of cells just inside the seed coat that secretes enzymes upon germination
androecium : sum of all the stamens in a flower
antipodals : the thre... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/33-chapter-summary | Animal bodies come in a variety of sizes and shapes. Limits on animal size and shape include impacts to their movement. Diffusion affects their size and development. Bioenergetics describes how animals use and obtain energy in relation to their body size, activity level, and environment.
The basic building blocks of c... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/33-key-terms | acclimatization : alteration in a body system in response to environmental change
alteration : change of the set point in a homeostatic system
apodeme : ingrowth of an animalâs exoskeleton that functions as an attachment site for muscles
asymmetrical : describes animals with no axis of symmetry in their body pa... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/34-chapter-summary | Different animals have evolved different types of digestive systems specialized to meet their dietary needs. Humans and many other animals have monogastric digestive systems with a single-chambered stomach. Birds have evolved a digestive system that includes a gizzard where the food is crushed into smaller pieces. This... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/34-key-terms | alimentary canal : tubular digestive system with a mouth and anus
aminopeptidase : protease that breaks down peptides to single amino acids; secreted by the brush border of small intestine
anus : exit point for waste material
bile : digestive juice produced by the liver; important for digestion of lipids
bolus ... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/35-chapter-summary | The nervous system is made up of neurons and glia. Neurons are specialized cells that are capable of sending electrical as well as chemical signals. Most neurons contain dendrites, which receive these signals, and axons that send signals to other neurons or tissues. There are four main types of neurons: unipolar, bipol... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/35-key-terms | acetylcholine : neurotransmitter released by neurons in the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system
action potential : self-propagating momentary change in the electrical potential of a neuron (or muscle) membrane
Alzheimerâs disease : neurodegenerative disorder characterized by problems with memory ... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-chapter-summary | A sensory activation occurs when a physical or chemical stimulus is processed into a neural signal (sensory transduction) by a sensory receptor. Perception is an individual interpretation of a sensation and is a brain function. Humans have special senses: olfaction, gustation, equilibrium, and hearing, plus the general... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms | audition : sense of hearing
basilar membrane : stiff structure in the cochlea that indirectly anchors auditory receptors
bipolar neuron : neuron with two processes from the cell body, typically in opposite directions
candela : (cd) unit of measurement of luminous intensity (brightness)
circadian : describes a t... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/37-chapter-summary | There are three basic types of hormones: lipid-derived, amino acid-derived, and peptide. Lipid-derived hormones are structurally similar to cholesterol and include steroid hormones such as estradiol and testosterone. Amino acid-derived hormones are relatively small molecules and include the adrenal hormones epinephrine... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/37-key-terms | acromegaly : condition caused by overproduction of GH in adults
Addisonâs disease : disorder caused by the hyposecretion of corticosteroids
adenylate cyclase : an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of ATP to cyclic AMP
adrenal cortex : outer portion of adrenal glands that produces corticosteroids
adrenal gl... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/38-chapter-summary | The three types of skeleton designs are hydrostatic skeletons, exoskeletons, and endoskeletons. A hydrostatic skeleton is formed by a fluid-filled compartment held under hydrostatic pressure; movement is created by the muscles producing pressure on the fluid. An exoskeleton is a hard external skeleton that protects the... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/38-key-terms | abduction : when a bone moves away from the midline of the body
acetylcholinesterase : (AChE) enzyme that breaks down ACh into acetyl and choline
actin : globular contractile protein that interacts with myosin for muscle contraction
adduction : movement of the limbs inward after abduction
amphiarthrosis : joint... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/39-chapter-summary | Animal respiratory systems are designed to facilitate gas exchange. In mammals, air is warmed and humidified in the nasal cavity. Air then travels down the pharynx, through the trachea, and into the lungs. In the lungs, air passes through the branching bronchi, reaching the respiratory bronchioles, which house the firs... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/39-key-terms | alveolarPO2PO2 : partial pressure of oxygen in the alveoli (usually around 100 mmHg)
alveolar duct : duct that extends from the terminal bronchiole to the alveolar sac
alveolar sac : structure consisting of two or more alveoli that share a common opening
alveolar ventilation : how much air is in the alveoli
al... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/40-chapter-summary | In most animals, the circulatory system is used to transport blood through the body. Some primitive animals use diffusion for the exchange of water, nutrients, and gases. However, complex organisms use the circulatory system to carry gases, nutrients, and waste through the body. Circulatory systems may be open (mixed w... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/40-key-terms | angina : pain caused by partial blockage of the coronary arteries by the buildup of plaque and lack of oxygen to the heart muscle
aorta : major artery of the body that takes blood away from the heart
arteriole : small vessel that connects an artery to a capillary bed
artery : blood vessel that takes blood away fr... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/41-chapter-summary | Solute concentrations across a semi-permeable membranes influence the movement of water and solutes across the membrane. It is the number of solute molecules and not the molecular size that is important in osmosis. Osmoregulation and osmotic balance are important bodily functions, resulting in water and salt balance. N... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/41-key-terms | afferent arteriole : arteriole that branches from the cortical radiate artery and enters the glomerulus
ammonia : compound made of one nitrogen atom and three hydrogen atoms
ammonotelic : describes an animal that excretes ammonia as the primary waste material
angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) : enzyme that conv... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-chapter-summary | The innate immune system serves as a first responder to pathogenic threats that bypass natural physical and chemical barriers of the body. Using a combination of cellular and molecular attacks, the innate immune system identifies the nature of a pathogen and responds with inflammation, phagocytosis, cytokine release, d... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms | adaptive immunity : immunity that has memory and occurs after exposure to an antigen either from a pathogen or a vaccination
affinity : attraction of molecular complementarity between antigen and antibody molecules
allergy : immune reaction that results from immediate hypersensitivities in which an antibody-mediate... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/43-chapter-summary | Reproduction may be asexual when one individual produces genetically identical offspring, or sexual when the genetic material from two individuals is combined to produce genetically diverse offspring. Asexual reproduction occurs through fission, budding, and fragmentation. Sexual reproduction may mean the joining of sp... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/43-key-terms | acrosomal reaction : series of biochemical reactions that the sperm uses to break through the zona pellucida
asexual reproduction : form of reproduction that produces offspring that are genetically identical to the parent
blastocyst : structure formed when cells in the mammalian blastula separate into an inner and ... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/44-chapter-summary | Ecology is the study of the interactions of living things with their environment. Ecologists ask questions across four levels of biological organizationâorganismal, population, community, and ecosystem. At the organismal level, ecologists study individual organisms and how they interact with their environments. At th... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/44-key-terms | abiotic : nonliving components of the environment
aboveground biomass : total mass of aboveground living plants per area
abyssal zone : deepest part of the ocean at depths of 4000 m or greater
algal bloom : rapid increase of algae in an aquatic system
aphotic zone : part of the ocean where no light penetrates
... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/45-chapter-summary | Populations are individuals of a species that live in a particular habitat. Ecologists measure characteristics of populations: size, density, dispersion pattern, age structure, and sex ratio. Life tables are useful to calculate life expectancies of individual population members. Survivorship curves show the number of i... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/45-key-terms | age structure : proportion of population members at specific age ranges
aggressive display : visual display by a species member to discourage other members of the same species or different species
aposematic coloration : warning coloration used as a defensive mechanism against predation
Batesian mimicry : type of... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/46-chapter-summary | Ecosystems exist on land, at sea, in the air, and underground. Different ways of modeling ecosystems are necessary to understand how environmental disturbances will affect ecosystem structure and dynamics. Conceptual models are useful to show the general relationships between organisms and the flow of materials or ener... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/46-key-terms | acid rain : corrosive rain caused by rainwater falling to the ground through sulfur dioxide gas, turning it into weak sulfuric acid; can damage structures and ecosystems
analytical model : ecosystem model that is created with mathematical formulas to predict the effects of environmental disturbances on ecosystem stru... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/47-chapter-summary | Biodiversity exists at multiple levels of organization and is measured in different ways depending on the goals of those taking the measurements. These measurements include numbers of species, genetic diversity, chemical diversity, and ecosystem diversity. The number of described species is estimated to be 1.5 million ... |
https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/47-key-terms | adaptive radiation : rapid branching through speciation of a phylogenetic tree into many closely related species
biodiversity : variety of a biological system, typically conceived as the number of species, but also applying to genes, biochemistry, and ecosystems
biodiversity hotspot : concept originated by Norman M... |
https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/1-summary | Microorganisms(ormicrobes) are living organisms that are generally too small to be seen without a microscope.
Throughout history, humans have used microbes to make fermented foods such as beer, bread, cheese, and wine.
Long before the invention of the microscope, some people theorized that infection and disease were ... |
https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/2-summary | Light waves interacting with materials may bereflected,absorbed, ortransmitted, depending on the properties of the material.
Light waves can interact with each other (interference) or be distorted by interactions with small objects or openings (diffraction).
Refractionoccurs when light waves change speed and directio... |
https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/3-summary | The theory ofspontaneous generationstates that life arose from nonliving matter. It was a long-held belief dating back to Aristotle and the ancient Greeks.
Experimentation by Francesco Redi in the 17th century presented the first significant evidence refuting spontaneous generation by showing that flies must have acce... |
https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/4-summary | Prokaryotes are unicellular microorganisms whose cells have no nucleus.
Prokaryotes can be found everywhere on our planet, even in the most extreme environments.
Prokaryotes are very flexible metabolically, so they are able to adjust their feeding to the available natural resources.
Prokaryotes live incommunitiestha... |
https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/5-summary | Protistsare a diverse,polyphyleticgroup of eukaryotic organisms.
Protists may be unicellular or multicellular. They vary in how they get their nutrition, morphology, method of locomotion, and mode of reproduction.
Important structures of protists includecontractile vacuoles, cilia, flagella,pellicles, and pseudopodia... |
https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/6-summary | Viruses are generally ultramicroscopic, typically from 20 nm to 900 nm in length. Some large viruses have been found.
Virionsare acellular and consist of a nucleic acid, DNA or RNA, but not both, surrounded by a proteincapsid. There may also be a phospholipid membrane surrounding the capsid.
Viruses are obligate intr... |
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