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r n = a 0 Z n 2 r n = a 0 Z n 2 | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-equations |
E n = â Z 2 E 0 1 n 2 E n = â Z 2 E 0 1 n 2 | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-equations |
E = h f E = h f | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-equations |
λ = h p λ = h p | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-equations |
λ f = c β λ f = c β | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-equations |
absorber : any object that absorbs radiation | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
absorption spectrum : wavelengths of absorbed radiation by atoms and molecules | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
Balmer formula : describes the emission spectrum of a hydrogen atom in the visible-light range | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
Balmer series : spectral lines corresponding to electron transitions to/from then=2n=2state of the hydrogen atom, described by the Balmer formula | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
blackbody : perfect absorber/emitter | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
blackbody radiation : radiation emitted by a blackbody | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
Bohr radius of hydrogen : radius of the first Bohrâs orbit | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
Bohrâs model of the hydrogen atom : first quantum model to explain emission spectra of hydrogen | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
Brackett series : spectral lines corresponding to electron transitions to/from then=4n=4state | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
Compton effect : the change in wavelength when an X-ray is scattered by its interaction with some materials | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
Compton shift : difference between the wavelengths of the incident X-ray and the scattered X-ray | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
Compton wavelength : physical constant with the valueλc=2.43pmλc=2.43pm | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
cut-off frequency : frequency of incident light below which the photoelectric effect does not occur | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
cut-off wavelength : wavelength of incident light that corresponds to cut-off frequency | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
DavissonâGermer experiment : historically first electron-diffraction experiment that revealed electron waves | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
de Broglie wave : matter wave associated with any object that has mass and momentum | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
de Broglieâs hypothesis of matter waves : particles of matter can behave like waves | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
double-slit interference experiment : Youngâs double-slit experiment, which shows the interference of waves | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
electron microscopy : microscopy that uses electron waves to âseeâ fine details of nano-size objects | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
emission spectrum : wavelengths of emitted radiation by atoms and molecules | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
emitter : any object that emits radiation | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
energy of a photon : quantum of radiant energy, depends only on a photonâs frequency | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
energy spectrum of hydrogen : set of allowed discrete energies of an electron in a hydrogen atom | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
excited energy states of the H atom : energy state other than the ground state | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
Fraunhofer lines : dark absorption lines in the continuum solar emission spectrum | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
ground state energy of the hydrogen atom : energy of an electron in the first Bohr orbit of the hydrogen atom | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
group velocity : velocity of a wave, energy travels with the group velocity | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
Heisenberg uncertainty principle : sets the limits on precision in simultaneous measurements of momentum and position of a particle | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
Humphreys series : spectral lines corresponding to electron transitions to/from then=6n=6state | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
hydrogen-like atom : ionized atom with one electron remaining and nucleus with charge+Ze+Ze | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
inelastic scattering : scattering effect where kinetic energy is not conserved but the total energy is conserved | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
ionization energy : energy needed to remove an electron from an atom | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
ionization limit of the hydrogen atom : ionization energy needed to remove an electron from the first Bohr orbit | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
Lyman series : spectral lines corresponding to electron transitions to/from the ground state | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
nuclear model of the atom : heavy positively charged nucleus at the center is surrounded by electrons, proposed by Rutherford | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
Paschen series : spectral lines corresponding to electron transitions to/from then=3n=3state | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
Pfund series : spectral lines corresponding to electron transitions to/from then=5n=5state | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
photocurrent : in a circuit, current that flows when a photoelectrode is illuminated | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
photoelectric effect : emission of electrons from a metal surface exposed to electromagnetic radiation of the proper frequency | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
photoelectrode : in a circuit, an electrode that emits photoelectrons | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
photoelectron : electron emitted from a metal surface in the presence of incident radiation | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
photon : particle of light | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
Planckâs hypothesis of energy quanta : energy exchanges between the radiation and the walls take place only in the form of discrete energy quanta | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
postulates of Bohrâs model : three assumptions that set a frame for Bohrâs model | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
power intensity : energy that passes through a unit surface per unit time | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
propagation vector : vector with magnitude2Ï/λ2Ï/λthat has the direction of the photonâs linear momentum | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
quantized energies : discrete energies; not continuous | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
quantum number : index that enumerates energy levels | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
quantum phenomenon : in interaction with matter, photon transfers either all its energy or nothing | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
quantum state of a Planckâs oscillator : any mode of vibration of Planckâs oscillator, enumerated by quantum number | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
reduced Planckâs constant : Planckâs constant divided by2Ï2Ï | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
Rutherfordâs gold foil experiment : first experiment to demonstrate the existence of the atomic nucleus | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
Rydberg constant for hydrogen : physical constant in the Balmer formula | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
Rydberg formula : experimentally found positions of spectral lines of hydrogen atom | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
scattering angle : angle between the direction of the scattered beam and the direction of the incident beam | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
StefanâBoltzmann constant : physical constant in Stefanâs law | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
stopping potential : in a circuit, potential difference that stops photocurrent | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
wave number : magnitude of the propagation vector | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
wave quantum mechanics : theory that explains the physics of atoms and subatomic particles | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
wave-particle duality : particles can behave as waves and radiation can behave as particles | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
work function : energy needed to detach photoelectron from the metal surface | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
αα-particle : doubly ionized helium atom | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
αα-ray : beam ofαα-particles (alpha-particles) | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
β-ray : beam of electrons | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
γ-ray : beam of highly energetic photons | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-key-terms |
All bodies radiate energy. The amount of radiation a body emits depends on its temperature. The experimental Wienâs displacement law states that the hotter the body, the shorter the wavelength corresponding to the emission peak in the radiation curve. The experimental Stefanâs law states that the total power of rad... | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-summary |
Absorption and emission of radiation are studied within the model of a blackbody. In the classical approach, the exchange of energy between radiation and cavity walls is continuous. The classical approach does not explain the blackbody radiation curve. | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-summary |
To explain the blackbody radiation curve, Planck assumed that the exchange of energy between radiation and cavity walls takes place only in discrete quanta of energy. Planckâs hypothesis of energy quanta led to the theoretical Planckâs radiation law, which agrees with the experimental blackbody radiation curve; it ... | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-summary |
The photoelectric effect occurs when photoelectrons are ejected from a metal surface in response to monochromatic radiation incident on the surface. It has three characteristics: (1) it is instantaneous, (2) it occurs only when the radiation is above a cut-off frequency, and (3) kinetic energies of photoelectrons at th... | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-summary |
We can explain the photoelectric effect by assuming that radiation consists of photons (particles of light). Each photon carries a quantum of energy. The energy of a photon depends only on its frequency, which is the frequency of the radiation. At the surface, the entire energy of a photon is transferred to one photoel... | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-summary |
The maximum kinetic energy of a photoelectron at the metal surface is the difference between the energy of the incident photon and the work function of the metal. The work function is the binding energy of electrons to the metal surface. Each metal has its own characteristic work function. | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-summary |
In the Compton effect, X-rays scattered off some materials have different wavelengths than the wavelength of the incident X-rays. This phenomenon does not have a classical explanation. | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-summary |
The Compton effect is explained by assuming that radiation consists of photons that collide with weakly bound electrons in the target material. Both electron and photon are treated as relativistic particles. Conservation laws of the total energy and of momentum are obeyed in collisions. | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-summary |
Treating the photon as a particle with momentum that can be transferred to an electron leads to a theoretical Compton shift that agrees with the wavelength shift measured in the experiment. This provides evidence that radiation consists of photons. | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-summary |
Compton scattering is an inelastic scattering, in which scattered radiation has a longer wavelength than that of incident radiation. | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-summary |
Positions of absorption and emission lines in the spectrum of atomic hydrogen are given by the experimental Rydberg formula. Classical physics cannot explain the spectrum of atomic hydrogen. | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-summary |
The Bohr model of hydrogen was the first model of atomic structure to correctly explain the radiation spectra of atomic hydrogen. It was preceded by the Rutherford nuclear model of the atom. In Rutherfordâs model, an atom consists of a positively charged point-like nucleus that contains almost the entire mass of the ... | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-summary |
Bohrâs model of the hydrogen atom is based on three postulates: (1) an electron moves around the nucleus in a circular orbit, (2) an electronâs angular momentum in the orbit is quantized, and (3) the change in an electronâs energy as it makes a quantum jump from one orbit to another is always accompanied by the e... | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-summary |
Bohrâs model of the hydrogen atom explains the emission and absorption spectra of atomic hydrogen and hydrogen-like ions with low atomic numbers. It was the first model to introduce the concept of a quantum number to describe atomic states and to postulate quantization of electron orbits in the atom. Bohrâs model i... | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-summary |
De Broglieâs hypothesis of matter waves postulates that any particle of matter that has linear momentum is also a wave. The wavelength of a matter wave associated with a particle is inversely proportional to the magnitude of the particleâs linear momentum. The speed of the matter wave is the speed of the particle. | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-summary |
De Broglieâs concept of the electron matter wave provides a rationale for the quantization of the electronâs angular momentum in Bohrâs model of the hydrogen atom. | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-summary |
In the DavissonâGermer experiment, electrons are scattered off a crystalline nickel surface. Diffraction patterns of electron matter waves are observed. They are the evidence for the existence of matter waves. Matter waves are observed in diffraction experiments with various particles. | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-summary |
Wave-particle duality exists in nature: Under some experimental conditions, a particle acts as a particle; under other experimental conditions, a particle acts as a wave. Conversely, under some physical circumstances, electromagnetic radiation acts as a wave, and under other physical circumstances, radiation acts as a ... | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-summary |
Modern-era double-slit experiments with electrons demonstrated conclusively that electron-diffraction images are formed because of the wave nature of electrons. | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-summary |
The wave-particle dual nature of particles and of radiation has no classical explanation. | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-summary |
Quantum theory takes the wave property to be the fundamental property of all particles. A particle is seen as a moving wave packet. The wave nature of particles imposes a limitation on the simultaneous measurement of the particleâs position and momentum. Heisenbergâs uncertainty principle sets the limits on precisi... | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-summary |
Wave-particle duality is exploited in many devices, such as charge-couple devices (used in digital cameras) or in the electron microscopy of the scanning electron microscope (SEM) and the transmission electron microscope (TEM). | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/6-summary |
P ( x = â â , + â ) = â« â â â | Ψ ( x , t ) | 2 d x = 1 P ( x = â â , + â ) = â« â â â | Ψ ( x , t ) | 2 d x = 1 | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-equations |
Probability of finding a particle in a narrow interval of position in one dimension ( x , x + d x ) ( x , x + d x ) | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-equations |
P ( x , x + d x ) = Ψ * ( x , t ) Ψ ( x , t ) d x P ( x , x + d x ) = Ψ * ( x , t ) Ψ ( x , t ) d x | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-equations |
â© x ⪠= â« â â â Ψ * ( x , t ) x Ψ ( x , t ) d x â© x ⪠= â« â â â Ψ * ( x , t ) x Ψ ( x , t ) d x | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-equations |
â â 2 2 m â 2 Ψ ( x , t ) â x 2 + U ( x , t ) Ψ ( x , t ) = i â â Ψ ( x , t ) â t â â 2 2 m â 2 Ψ ( x , t ) â x 2 + U ( x , t ) Ψ ( x , t ) = i â â Ψ ( x , t ) â t | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-equations |
Ψ ( x , t ) = Ï ( x ) e â i Ï t Ψ ( x , t ) = Ï ( x ) e â i Ï t | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-equations |
â â 2 2 m d 2 Ï ( x ) d x 2 + U ( x ) Ï ( x ) = E Ï ( x ) â â 2 2 m d 2 Ï ( x ) d x 2 + U ( x ) Ï ( x ) = E Ï ( x ) | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-equations |
â â 2 2 m â 2 Ï ( x ) â x 2 = E Ï ( x ) â â 2 2 m â 2 Ï ( x ) â x 2 = E Ï ( x ) | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-equations |
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