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E n = n 2 Ï 2 â 2 2 m L 2 , n = 1 , 2 , 3 , . . . E n = n 2 Ï 2 â 2 2 m L 2 , n = 1 , 2 , 3 , . . . | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-equations |
Ï n ( x ) = 2 L sin n Ï x L , n = 1 , 2 , 3 , . . . Ï n ( x ) = 2 L sin n Ï x L , n = 1 , 2 , 3 , . . . | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-equations |
U ( x ) = 1 2 m Ï 2 x 2 U ( x ) = 1 2 m Ï 2 x 2 | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-equations |
â â 2 2 m d 2 Ï ( x ) d x 2 + 1 2 m Ï 2 x 2 Ï ( x ) = E Ï ( x ) â â 2 2 m d 2 Ï ( x ) d x 2 + 1 2 m Ï 2 x 2 Ï ( x ) = E Ï ( x ) | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-equations |
E n = ( n + 1 2 ) â Ï , n = 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 , . . . E n = ( n + 1 2 ) â Ï , n = 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 , . . . | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-equations |
Ï n ( x ) = N n e â β 2 x 2 / 2 H n ( β x ) , n = 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 , . . . Ï n ( x ) = N n e â β 2 x 2 / 2 H n ( β x ) , n = 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 , . . . | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-equations |
U ( x ) = { 0 , when x < 0 U 0 , when 0 ⤠x ⤠L 0 , when x > L U ( x ) = { 0 , when x < 0 U 0 , when 0 ⤠x ⤠L 0 , when x > L | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-equations |
T ( L , E ) = | Ï tra ( x ) | 2 | Ï in ( x ) | 2 T ( L , E ) = | Ï tra ( x ) | 2 | Ï in ( x ) | 2 | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-equations |
β 2 = 2 m â 2 ( U 0 â E ) β 2 = 2 m â 2 ( U 0 â E ) | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-equations |
T ( L , E ) = 1 cosh 2 β L + ( γ / 2 ) 2 sinh 2 β L T ( L , E ) = 1 cosh 2 β L + ( γ / 2 ) 2 sinh 2 β L | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-equations |
T ( L , E ) = 16 E U 0 ( 1 â E U 0 ) e â 2 β L T ( L , E ) = 16 E U 0 ( 1 â E U 0 ) e â 2 β L | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-equations |
anti-symmetric function : odd function | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-terms |
Born interpretation : states that the square of a wave function is the probability density | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-terms |
complex function : function containing both real and imaginary parts | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-terms |
Copenhagen interpretation : states that when an observeris notlooking or when a measurement is not being made, the particle has many values of measurable quantities, such as position | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-terms |
correspondence principle : in the limit of large energies, the predictions of quantum mechanics agree with the predictions of classical mechanics | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-terms |
energy levels : states of definite energy, often represented by horizontal lines in an energy âladderâ diagram | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-terms |
energy quantum number : index that labels the allowed energy states | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-terms |
energy-time uncertainty principle : energy-time relation for uncertainties in the simultaneous measurements of the energy of a quantum state and of its lifetime | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-terms |
even function : in one dimension, a function symmetric with the origin of the coordinate system | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-terms |
expectation value : average value of the physical quantity assuming a large number of particles with the same wave function | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-terms |
field emission : electron emission from conductor surfaces when a strong external electric field is applied in normal direction to conductorâs surface | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-terms |
ground state energy : lowest energy state in the energy spectrum | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-terms |
Heisenbergâs uncertainty principle : places limits on what can be known from a simultaneous measurements of position and momentum; states that if the uncertainty on position is small then the uncertainty on momentum is large, and vice versa | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-terms |
infinite square well : potential function that is zero in a fixed range and infinitely beyond this range | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-terms |
momentum operator : operator that corresponds to the momentum of a particle | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-terms |
nanotechnology : technology that is based on manipulation of nanostructures such as molecules or individual atoms to produce nano-devices such as integrated circuits | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-terms |
normalization condition : requires that the probability density integrated over the entire physical space results in the number one | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-terms |
odd function : in one dimension, a function antisymmetric with the origin of the coordinate system | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-terms |
position operator : operator that corresponds to the position of a particle | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-terms |
potential barrier : potential function that rises and falls with increasing values of position | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-terms |
principal quantum number : energy quantum number | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-terms |
probability density : square of the particleâs wave function | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-terms |
quantum dot : small region of a semiconductor nanocrystal embedded in another semiconductor nanocrystal, acting as a potential well for electrons | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-terms |
quantum tunneling : phenomenon where particles penetrate through a potential energy barrier with a height greater than the total energy of the particles | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-terms |
resonant tunneling : tunneling of electrons through a finite-height potential well that occurs only when electron energies match an energy level in the well, occurs in quantum dots | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-terms |
resonant-tunneling diode : quantum dot with an applied voltage bias across it | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-terms |
scanning tunneling microscope (STM) : device that utilizes quantum-tunneling phenomenon at metallic surfaces to obtain images of nanoscale structures | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-terms |
SchrÓ§dingerâs time-dependent equation : equation in space and time that allows us to determine wave functions of a quantum particle | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-terms |
SchrÓ§dingerâs time-independent equation : equation in space that allows us to determine wave functions of a quantum particle; this wave function must be multiplied by a time-modulation factor to obtain the time-dependent wave function | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-terms |
standing wave state : stationary state for which the real and imaginary parts ofΨ(x,t)Ψ(x,t)oscillate up and down like a standing wave (often modeled with sine and cosine functions) | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-terms |
state reduction : hypothetical process in which an observed or detected particle âjumps intoâ a definite state, often described in terms of the collapse of the particleâs wave function | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-terms |
stationary state : state for which the probability density function,|Ψ(x,t)|2|Ψ(x,t)|2, does not vary in time | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-terms |
time-modulation factor : factoreâiÏteâiÏtthat multiplies the time-independent wave function when the potential energy of the particle is time independent | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-terms |
transmission probability : also called tunneling probability, the probability that a particle will tunnel through a potential barrier | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-terms |
tunnel diode : electron tunneling-junction between two different semiconductors | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-terms |
tunneling probability : also called transmission probability, the probability that a particle will tunnel through a potential barrier | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-terms |
wave function : function that represents the quantum state of a particle (quantum system) | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-terms |
wave function collapse : equivalent to state reduction | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-terms |
wave packet : superposition of many plane matter waves that can be used to represent a localized particle | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-key-terms |
In quantum mechanics, the state of a physical system is represented by a wave function. | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-summary |
In Bornâs interpretation, the square of the particleâs wave function represents the probability density of finding the particle around a specific location in space. | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-summary |
Wave functions must first be normalized before using them to make predictions. | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-summary |
The expectation value is the average value of a quantity that requires a wave function and an integration. | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-summary |
The Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that it is impossible to simultaneously measure thex-components of position and of momentum of a particle with an arbitrarily high precision. The product of experimental uncertainties is always larger than or equal toâ/2.â/2. | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-summary |
The limitations of this principle have nothing to do with the quality of the experimental apparatus but originate in the wave-like nature of matter. | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-summary |
The energy-time uncertainty principle expresses the experimental observation that a quantum state that exists only for a short time cannot have a definite energy. | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-summary |
The SchrÓ§dinger equation is the fundamental equation of wave quantum mechanics. It allows us to make predictions about wave functions. | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-summary |
When a particle moves in a time-independent potential, a solution of the time-dependent SchrÓ§dinger equation is a product of a time-independent wave function and a time-modulation factor. | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-summary |
The SchrÓ§dinger equation can be applied to many physical situations. | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-summary |
Energy states of a quantum particle in a box are found by solving the time-independent SchrÓ§dinger equation. | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-summary |
To solve the time-independent SchrÓ§dinger equation for a particle in a box and find the stationary states and allowed energies, we require that the wave function terminate at the box wall. | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-summary |
Energy states of a particle in a box are quantized and indexed by principal quantum number. | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-summary |
The quantum picture differs significantly from the classical picture when a particle is in a low-energy state of a low quantum number. | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-summary |
In the limit of high quantum numbers, when the quantum particle is in a highly excited state, the quantum description of a particle in a box coincides with the classical description, in the spirit of Bohrâs correspondence principle. | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-summary |
The quantum harmonic oscillator is a model built in analogy with the model of a classical harmonic oscillator. It models the behavior of many physical systems, such as molecular vibrations or wave packets in quantum optics. | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-summary |
The allowed energies of a quantum oscillator are discrete and evenly spaced. The energy spacing is equal to Planckâs energy quantum. | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-summary |
The ground state energy is larger than zero. This means that, unlike a classical oscillator, a quantum oscillator is never at rest, even at the bottom of a potential well, and undergoes quantum fluctuations. | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-summary |
The stationary states (states of definite energy) have nonzero values also in regions beyond classical turning points. When in the ground state, a quantum oscillator is most likely to be found around the position of the minimum of the potential well, which is the least-likely position for a classical oscillator. | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-summary |
For high quantum numbers, the motion of a quantum oscillator becomes more similar to the motion of a classical oscillator, in accordance with Bohrâs correspondence principle. | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-summary |
A quantum particle that is incident on a potential barrier of a finite width and height may cross the barrier and appear on its other side. This phenomenon is called âquantum tunneling.â It does not have a classical analog. | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-summary |
To find the probability of quantum tunneling, we assume the energy of an incident particle and solve the stationary SchrÓ§dinger equation to find wave functions inside and outside the barrier. The tunneling probability is a ratio of squared amplitudes of the wave past the barrier to the incident wave. | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-summary |
The tunneling probability depends on the energy of the incident particle relative to the height of the barrier and on the width of the barrier. It is strongly affected by the width of the barrier in a nonlinear, exponential way so that a small change in the barrier width causes a disproportionately large change in the ... | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-summary |
Quantum-tunneling phenomena govern radioactive nuclear decays. They are utilized in many modern technologies such as STM and nano-electronics. STM allows us to see individual atoms on metal surfaces. Electron-tunneling devices have revolutionized electronics and allow us to build fast electronic devices of miniature si... | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/7-summary |
L = l ( l + 1 ) â L = l ( l + 1 ) â | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/8-key-equations |
L z = m â L z = m â | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/8-key-equations |
P ( r ) d r = | Ï n 00 | 2 4 Ï r 2 d r P ( r ) d r = | Ï n 00 | 2 4 Ï r 2 d r | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/8-key-equations |
S = s ( s + 1 ) â S = s ( s + 1 ) â | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/8-key-equations |
S z = m s â S z = m s â | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/8-key-equations |
μ â s = ( e m e ) S â μ â s = ( e m e ) S â | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/8-key-equations |
μ â = â ( e 2 m e ) L â μ â = â ( e 2 m e ) L â | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/8-key-equations |
U ( θ ) = â μ z B = m μ B B U ( θ ) = â μ z B = m μ B B | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/8-key-equations |
N = 4 l + 2 N = 4 l + 2 | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/8-key-equations |
Πl = ± 1 Πl = ± 1 | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/8-key-equations |
( Z â 1 ) = constant f ( Z â 1 ) = constant f | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/8-key-equations |
angular momentum orbital quantum number (l) : quantum number associated with the orbital angular momentum of an electron in a hydrogen atom | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/8-key-terms |
angular momentum projection quantum number (m) : quantum number associated with thez-component of the orbital angular momentum of an electron in a hydrogen atom | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/8-key-terms |
atomic orbital : region in space that encloses a certain percentage (usually 90%) of the electron probability | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/8-key-terms |
Bohr magneton : magnetic moment of an electron, equal to9.3Ã10â24J/T9.3Ã10â24J/Tor5.8Ã10â5eV/T5.8Ã10â5eV/T | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/8-key-terms |
braking radiation : radiation produced by targeting metal with a high-energy electron beam (or radiation produced by the acceleration of any charged particle in a material) | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/8-key-terms |
chemical group : group of elements in the same column of the periodic table that possess similar chemical properties | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/8-key-terms |
coherent light : light that consists of photons of the same frequency and phase | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/8-key-terms |
covalent bond : chemical bond formed by the sharing of electrons between two atoms | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/8-key-terms |
electron configuration : representation of the state of electrons in an atom, such as1s22s11s22s1for lithium | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/8-key-terms |
fine structure : detailed structure of atomic spectra produced by spin-orbit coupling | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/8-key-terms |
fluorescence : radiation produced by the excitation and subsequent, gradual de-excitation of an electron in an atom | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/8-key-terms |
hyperfine structure : detailed structure of atomic spectra produced by spin-orbit coupling | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/8-key-terms |
ionic bond : chemical bond formed by the electric attraction between two oppositely charged ions | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/8-key-terms |
laser : coherent light produced by a cascade of electron de-excitations | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/8-key-terms |
magnetic orbital quantum number : another term for the angular momentum projection quantum number | https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/8-key-terms |
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