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bipolar neuron : neuron with two processes from the cell body, typically in opposite directions | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
candela : (cd) unit of measurement of luminous intensity (brightness) | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
circadian : describes a time cycle about one day in length | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
cochlea : whorled structure that contains receptors for transduction of the mechanical wave into an electrical signal | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
cone : weakly photosensitive, chromatic, cone-shaped neuron in the fovea of the retina that detects bright light and is used in daytime color vision | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
cornea : transparent layer over the front of the eye that helps focus light waves | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
fovea : region in the center of the retina with a high density of photoreceptors and which is responsible for acute vision | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
free nerve ending : ending of an afferent neuron that lacks a specialized structure for detection of sensory stimuli; some respond to touch, pain, or temperature | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
glabrous : describes the non-hairy skin found on palms and fingers, soles of feet, and lips of humans and other primates | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
glomerulus : in the olfactory bulb, one of the two neural clusters that receives signals from one type of olfactory receptor | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
Golgi tendon organ : muscular proprioceptive tension receptor that provides the sensory component of the Golgi tendon reflex | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
gustation : sense of taste | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
hyperopia : (also, farsightedness) visual defect in which the image focus falls behind the retina, thereby making images in the distance clear, but close-up images blurry | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
incus : (also, anvil) second of the three bones of the middle ear | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
inner ear : innermost part of the ear; consists of the cochlea and the vestibular system | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
iris : pigmented, circular muscle at the front of the eye that regulates the amount of light entering the eye | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
kinesthesia : sense of body movement | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
labyrinth : bony, hollow structure that is the most internal part of the ear; contains the sites of transduction of auditory and vestibular information | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
lens : transparent, convex structure behind the cornea that helps focus light waves on the retina | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
malleus : (also, hammer) first of the three bones of the middle ear | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
mechanoreceptor : sensory receptor modified to respond to mechanical disturbance such as being bent, touch, pressure, motion, and sound | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
Meissnerâs corpuscle : (also, tactile corpuscle) encapsulated, rapidly-adapting mechanoreceptor in the skin that responds to light touch | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
Merkel's disc : unencapsulated, slowly-adapting mechanoreceptor in the skin that responds to touch | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
middle ear : part of the hearing apparatus that functions to transfer energy from the tympanum to the oval window of the inner ear | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
muscle spindle : proprioceptive stretch receptor that lies within a muscle and that shortens the muscle to an optimal length for efficient contraction | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
myopia : (also, nearsightedness) visual defect in which the image focus falls in front of the retina, thereby making images in the distance blurry, but close-up images clear | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
nociception : neural processing of noxious (such as damaging) stimuli | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
odorant : airborne molecule that stimulates an olfactory receptor | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
olfaction : sense of smell | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
olfactory bulb : neural structure in the vertebrate brain that receives signals from olfactory receptors | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
olfactory epithelium : specialized tissue in the nasal cavity where olfactory receptors are located | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
olfactory receptor : dendrite of a specialized neuron | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
organ of Corti : in the basilar membrane, the site of the transduction of sound, a mechanical wave, to a neural signal | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
ossicle : one of the three bones of the middle ear | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
outer ear : part of the ear that consists of the pinna, ear canal, and tympanum and which conducts sound waves into the middle ear | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
oval window : thin diaphragm between the middle and inner ears that receives sound waves from contact with the stapes bone of the middle ear | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
Pacinian corpuscle : encapsulated mechanoreceptor in the skin that responds to deep pressure and vibration | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
papilla : one of the small bump-like projections from the tongue | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
perception : individual interpretation of a sensation; a brain function | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
pheromone : substance released by an animal that can affect the physiology or behavior of other animals | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
pinna : cartilaginous outer ear | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
presbyopia : visual defect in which the image focus falls behind the retina, thereby making images in the distance clear, but close-up images blurry; caused by age-based changes in the lens | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
proprioception : sense of limb position; used to track kinesthesia | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
pupil : small opening though which light enters | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
reception : receipt of a signal (such as light or sound) by sensory receptors | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
receptive field : region in space in which a stimulus can activate a given sensory receptor | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
receptor potential : membrane potential in a sensory receptor in response to detection of a stimulus | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
retina : layer of photoreceptive and supporting cells on the inner surface of the back of the eye | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
rhodopsin : main photopigment in vertebrates | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
rod : strongly photosensitive, achromatic, cylindrical neuron in the outer edges of the retina that detects dim light and is used in peripheral and nighttime vision | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
Ruffini ending : (also, bulbous corpuscle) slowly-adapting mechanoreceptor in the skin that responds to skin stretch and joint position | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
semicircular canal : one of three half-circular, fluid-filled tubes in the vestibular labyrinth that monitors angular acceleration and deceleration | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
sensory receptor : specialized neuron or other cells associated with a neuron that is modified to receive specific sensory input | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
sensory transduction : conversion of a sensory stimulus into electrical energy in the nervous system by a change in the membrane potential | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
stapes : (also, stirrup) third of the three bones of the middle ear | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
stereocilia : in the auditory system, hair-like projections from hair cells that help detect sound waves | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
superior colliculus : paired structure in the top of the midbrain, which manages eye movements and auditory integration | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
suprachiasmatic nucleus : cluster of cells in the hypothalamus that plays a role in the circadian cycle | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
tastant : food molecule that stimulates gustatory receptors | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
taste bud : clusters of taste cells | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
tectorial membrane : cochlear structure that lies above the hair cells and participates in the transduction of sound at the hair cells | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
tonic activity : in a neuron, slight continuous activity while at rest | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
tympanum : (also, tympanic membrane or ear drum) thin diaphragm between the outer and middle ears | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
ultrasound : sound frequencies above the human detectable ceiling of approximately 20,000 Hz | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
umami : one of the five basic tastes, which is described as âsavoryâ and which may be largely the taste of L-glutamate | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
vestibular sense : sense of spatial orientation and balance | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
vision : sense of sight | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/36-key-terms |
There are three basic types of hormones: lipid-derived, amino acid-derived, and peptide. Lipid-derived hormones are structurally similar to cholesterol and include steroid hormones such as estradiol and testosterone. Amino acid-derived hormones are relatively small molecules and include the adrenal hormones epinephrine... | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/37-chapter-summary |
Hormones cause cellular changes by binding to receptors on target cells. The number of receptors on a target cell can increase or decrease in response to hormone activity. Hormones can affect cells directly through intracellular hormone receptors or indirectly through plasma membrane hormone receptors. | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/37-chapter-summary |
Lipid-derived (soluble) hormones can enter the cell by diffusing across the plasma membrane and binding to DNA to regulate gene transcription and to change the cellâs activities by inducing production of proteins that affect, in general, the long-term structure and function of the cell. Lipid insoluble hormones bind ... | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/37-chapter-summary |
Water levels in the body are controlled by antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which is produced in the hypothalamus and triggers the reabsorption of water by the kidneys. Underproduction of ADH can cause diabetes insipidus. Aldosterone, a hormone produced by the adrenal cortex of the kidneys, enhances Na+reabsorption from the... | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/37-chapter-summary |
The reproductive system is controlled by the gonadotropins follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH), which are produced by the pituitary gland. Gonadotropin release is controlled by the hypothalamic hormone gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). FSH stimulates the maturation of sperm cells in mal... | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/37-chapter-summary |
Insulin is produced by the pancreas in response to rising blood glucose levels and allows cells to utilize blood glucose and store excess glucose for later use. Diabetes mellitus is caused by reduced insulin activity and causes high blood glucose levels, or hyperglycemia. Glucagon is released by the pancreas in respons... | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/37-chapter-summary |
Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is produced by the parathyroid glands in response to low blood Ca2+levels. The parafollicular cells of the thyroid produce calcitonin, which reduces blood Ca2+levels. Growth hormone (GH) is produced by the anterior pituitary and controls the growth rate of muscle and bone. GH action is indirec... | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/37-chapter-summary |
Hormone levels are primarily controlled through negative feedback, in which rising levels of a hormone inhibit its further release. The three mechanisms of hormonal release are humoral stimuli, hormonal stimuli, and neural stimuli. Humoral stimuli refers to the control of hormonal release in response to changes in extr... | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/37-chapter-summary |
The pituitary gland is located at the base of the brain and is attached to the hypothalamus by the infundibulum. The anterior pituitary receives products from the hypothalamus by the hypophyseal portal system and produces six hormones. The posterior pituitary is an extension of the brain and releases hormones (antidiur... | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/37-chapter-summary |
The thyroid gland is located in the neck and is composed of two lobes connected by the isthmus. The thyroid is made up of follicle cells that produce the hormones thyroxine and triiodothyronine. Parafollicular cells of the thyroid produce calcitonin. The parathyroid glands lie on the posterior surface of the thyroid gl... | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/37-chapter-summary |
The adrenal glands are located on top of the kidneys and consist of the renal cortex and renal medulla. The adrenal cortex is the outer part of the adrenal gland and produces the corticosteroids, glucocorticoids, and mineralocorticoids. The adrenal medulla is the inner part of the adrenal gland and produces the catecho... | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/37-chapter-summary |
The pancreas lies in the abdomen between the stomach and the small intestine. Clusters of endocrine cells in the pancreas form the islets of Langerhans, which are composed of alpha cells that release glucagon and beta cells that release insulin. | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/37-chapter-summary |
Some organs possess endocrine activity as a secondary function but have another primary function. The heart produces the hormone atrial natriuretic peptide, which functions to reduce blood volume, pressure, and Na+concentration. The gastrointestinal tract produces various hormones that aid in digestion. The kidneys pro... | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/37-chapter-summary |
acromegaly : condition caused by overproduction of GH in adults | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/37-key-terms |
Addisonâs disease : disorder caused by the hyposecretion of corticosteroids | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/37-key-terms |
adenylate cyclase : an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of ATP to cyclic AMP | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/37-key-terms |
adrenal cortex : outer portion of adrenal glands that produces corticosteroids | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/37-key-terms |
adrenal gland : endocrine glands associated with the kidneys | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/37-key-terms |
adrenal medulla : inner portion of adrenal glands that produces epinephrine and norepinephrine | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/37-key-terms |
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) : hormone released by the anterior pituitary, which stimulates the adrenal cortex to release corticosteroids during the long-term stress response | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/37-key-terms |
aldosterone : steroid hormone produced by the adrenal cortex that stimulates the reabsorption of Na+from extracellular fluids and secretion of K+. | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/37-key-terms |
alpha cell : endocrine cell of the pancreatic islets that produces the hormone glucagon | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/37-key-terms |
amino acid-derived hormone : hormone derived from amino acids | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/37-key-terms |
androgen : male sex hormone such as testosterone | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/37-key-terms |
anterior pituitary : portion of the pituitary gland that produces six hormones; also called adenohypophysis | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/37-key-terms |
antidiuretic hormone (ADH) : hormone produced by the hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary that increases water reabsorption by the kidneys | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/37-key-terms |
atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) : hormone produced by the heart to reduce blood volume, pressure, and Na+concentration | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/37-key-terms |
beta cell : endocrine cell of the pancreatic islets that produces the hormone insulin | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/37-key-terms |
calcitonin : hormone produced by the parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland that functions to lower blood Ca2+levels and promote bone growth | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/37-key-terms |
colloid : fluid inside the thyroid gland that contains the glycoprotein thyroglobulin | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/37-key-terms |
corticosteroid : hormone released by the adrenal cortex in response to long-term stress | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/37-key-terms |
cortisol : glucocorticoid produced in response to stress | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/37-key-terms |
Cushingâs disease : disorder caused by the hypersecretion of glucocorticoids | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/37-key-terms |
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