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vasodilator : compound that increases the diameter of blood vessels | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/41-key-terms |
vasopressin : another name for anti-diuretic hormone | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/41-key-terms |
The innate immune system serves as a first responder to pathogenic threats that bypass natural physical and chemical barriers of the body. Using a combination of cellular and molecular attacks, the innate immune system identifies the nature of a pathogen and responds with inflammation, phagocytosis, cytokine release, d... | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-chapter-summary |
The adaptive immune response is a slower-acting, longer-lasting, and more specific response than the innate response. However, the adaptive response requires information from the innate immune system to function. APCs display antigens via MHC molecules to complementary naïve T cells. In response, the T cells different... | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-chapter-summary |
Antibodies (immunoglobulins) are the molecules secreted from plasma cells that mediate the humoral immune response. There are five antibody classes; an antibody's class determines its mechanism of action and production site but does not control its binding specificity. Antibodies bind antigens via variable domains and ... | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-chapter-summary |
Immune disruptions may involve insufficient immune responses or inappropriate immune targets. Immunodeficiency increases an individual's susceptibility to infections and cancers. Hypersensitivities are misdirected responses either to harmless foreign particles, as in the case of allergies, or to host factors, as in the... | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-chapter-summary |
adaptive immunity : immunity that has memory and occurs after exposure to an antigen either from a pathogen or a vaccination | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
affinity : attraction of molecular complementarity between antigen and antibody molecules | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
allergy : immune reaction that results from immediate hypersensitivities in which an antibody-mediated immune response occurs within minutes of exposure to a harmless antigen | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
antibody : protein that is produced by plasma cells after stimulation by an antigen; also known as an immunoglobulin | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
antigen : foreign or ânon-selfâ protein that triggers the immune response | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
antigen-presenting cell (APC) : immune cell that detects, engulfs, and informs the adaptive immune response about an infection by presenting the processed antigen on the cell surface | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
autoantibody : antibody that incorrectly marks âselfâ components as foreign and stimulates the immune response | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
autoimmune response : inappropriate immune response to host cells or self-antigens | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
autoimmunity : type of hypersensitivity to self antigens | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
avidity : total binding strength of a multivalent antibody with antigen | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
B cell : lymphocyte that matures in the bone marrow and differentiates into antibody-secreting plasma cells | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
basophil : leukocyte that releases chemicals usually involved in the inflammatory response | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
cell-mediated immune response : adaptive immune response that is carried out by T cells | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
clonal selection : activation of B cells corresponding to one specific BCR variant and the dramatic proliferation of that variant | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
complement system : array of approximately 20 soluble proteins of the innate immune system that enhance phagocytosis, bore holes in pathogens, and recruit lymphocytes; enhances the adaptive response when antibodies are produced | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
cross reactivity : binding of an antibody to an epitope corresponding to an antigen that is different from the one the antibody was raised against | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
cytokine : chemical messenger that regulates cell differentiation, proliferation, gene expression, and cell trafficking to effect immune responses | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) : adaptive immune cell that directly kills infected cells via perforin and granzymes, and releases cytokines to enhance the immune response | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
dendritic cell : immune cell that processes antigen material and presents it on the surface of other cells to induce an immune response | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
effector cell : lymphocyte that has differentiated, such as a B cell, plasma cell, or cytotoxic T lymphocyte | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
eosinophil : leukocyte that responds to parasites and is involved in the allergic response | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
epitope : small component of an antigen that is specifically recognized by antibodies, B cells, and T cells; the antigenic determinant | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
granzyme : protease that enters target cells through perforin and induces apoptosis in the target cells; used by NK cells and killer T cells | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
helper T lymphocyte (TH) : cell of the adaptive immune system that binds APCs via MHC II molecules and stimulates B cells or secretes cytokines to initiate the immune response | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
host : an organism that is invaded by a pathogen or parasite | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
humoral immune response : adaptive immune response that is controlled by activated B cells and antibodies | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
hypersensitivities : spectrum of maladaptive immune responses toward harmless foreign particles or self antigens; occurs after tissue sensitization and includes immediate-type (allergy), delayed-type, and autoimmunity | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
immune tolerance : acquired ability to prevent an unnecessary or harmful immune response to a detected foreign body known not to cause disease or to self-antigens | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
immunodeficiency : failure, insufficiency, or delay at any level of the immune system, which may be acquired or inherited | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
inflammation : localized redness, swelling, heat, and pain that results from the movement of leukocytes and fluid through opened capillaries to a site of infection | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
innate immunity : immunity that occurs naturally because of genetic factors or physiology, and is not induced by infection or vaccination | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
interferon : cytokine that inhibits viral replication and modulates the immune response | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
lymph : watery fluid that bathes tissues and organs with protective white blood cells and does not contain erythrocytes | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
lymphocyte : leukocyte that is histologically identifiable by its large nuclei; it is a small cell with very little cytoplasm | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
macrophage : large phagocytic cell that engulfs foreign particles and pathogens | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
major histocompatibility class (MHC) I/II molecule : protein found on the surface of all nucleated cells (I) or specifically on antigen-presenting cells (II) that signals to immune cells whether the cell is healthy/normal or is infected/cancerous; it provides the appropriate template into which antigens can be loaded f... | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
mast cell : leukocyte that produces inflammatory molecules, such as histamine, in response to large pathogens and allergens | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
memory cell : antigen-specific B or T lymphocyte that does not differentiate into effector cells during the primary immune response but that can immediately become an effector cell upon re-exposure to the same pathogen | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
monocyte : type of white blood cell that circulates in the blood and lymph and differentiates into macrophages after it moves into infected tissue | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) : collection of lymphatic tissue that combines with epithelial tissue lining the mucosa throughout the body | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
natural killer (NK) cell : lymphocyte that can kill cells infected with viruses or tumor cells | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
neutrophil : phagocytic leukocyte that engulfs and digests pathogens | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
opsonization : process that enhances phagocytosis using proteins to indicate the presence of a pathogen to phagocytic cells | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
passive immunity : transfer of antibodies from one individual to another to provide temporary protection against pathogens | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
pathogen : an agent, usually a microorganism, that causes disease in the organisms that they invade | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP) : carbohydrate, polypeptide, and nucleic acid âsignatureâ that is expressed by viruses, bacteria, and parasites but differs from molecules on host cells | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
pattern recognition receptor (PRR) : molecule on macrophages and dendritic cells that binds molecular signatures of pathogens and promotes pathogen engulfment and destruction | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
perforin : destructive protein that creates a pore in the target cell; used by NK cells and killer T cells | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
plasma cell : immune cell that secrets antibodies; these cells arise from B cells that were stimulated by antigens | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
regulatory T (Treg) cell : specialized lymphocyte that suppresses local inflammation and inhibits the secretion of cytokines, antibodies, and other stimulatory immune factors; involved in immune tolerance | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
T cell : lymphocyte that matures in the thymus gland; one of the main cells involved in the adaptive immune system | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/42-key-terms |
Reproduction may be asexual when one individual produces genetically identical offspring, or sexual when the genetic material from two individuals is combined to produce genetically diverse offspring. Asexual reproduction occurs through fission, budding, and fragmentation. Sexual reproduction may mean the joining of sp... | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/43-chapter-summary |
Sexual reproduction starts with the combination of a sperm and an egg in a process called fertilization. This can occur either outside the bodies or inside the female. Both methods have advantages and disadvantages. Once fertilized, the eggs can develop inside the female or outside. If the egg develops outside the body... | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/43-chapter-summary |
As animals became more complex, specific organs and organ systems developed to support specific functions for the organism. The reproductive structures that evolved in land animals allow males and females to mate, fertilize internally, and support the growth and development of offspring. Processes developed to produce ... | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/43-chapter-summary |
The male and female reproductive cycles are controlled by hormones released from the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary as well as hormones from reproductive tissues and organs. The hypothalamus monitors the need for the FSH and LH hormones made and released from the anterior pituitary. FSH and LH affect reproductive ... | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/43-chapter-summary |
Human pregnancy begins with fertilization of an egg and proceeds through the three trimesters of gestation. The labor process has three stages (contractions, delivery of the fetus, expulsion of the placenta), each propelled by hormones. The first trimester lays down the basic structures of the body, including the limb ... | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/43-chapter-summary |
The early stages of embryonic development begin with fertilization. The process of fertilization is tightly controlled to ensure that only one sperm fuses with one egg. After fertilization, the zygote undergoes cleavage to form the blastula. The blastula, which in some species is a hollow ball of cells, undergoes a pro... | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/43-chapter-summary |
Organogenesis is the formation of organs from the germ layers. Each germ layer gives rise to specific tissue types. The first stage is the formation of the neural system in the ectoderm. The mesoderm gives rise to somites and the notochord. Formation of vertebrate axis is another important developmental stage. | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/43-chapter-summary |
acrosomal reaction : series of biochemical reactions that the sperm uses to break through the zona pellucida | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/43-key-terms |
asexual reproduction : form of reproduction that produces offspring that are genetically identical to the parent | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/43-key-terms |
blastocyst : structure formed when cells in the mammalian blastula separate into an inner and outer layer | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/43-key-terms |
budding : form of asexual reproduction that results from the outgrowth of a part of a cell leading to a separation from the original animal into two individuals | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/43-key-terms |
bulbourethral gland : secretion that cleanses the urethra prior to ejaculation | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/43-key-terms |
clitoris : sensory structure in females; stimulated during sexual arousal | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/43-key-terms |
cloaca : common body opening for the digestive, excretory, and reproductive systems found in non-mammals, such as birds | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/43-key-terms |
contraception : (also, birth control) various means used to prevent pregnancy | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/43-key-terms |
estrogen : reproductive hormone in females that assists in endometrial regrowth, ovulation, and calcium absorption | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/43-key-terms |
external fertilization : fertilization of egg by sperm outside animal body, often during spawning | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/43-key-terms |
fission : (also, binary fission) method by which multicellular organisms increase in size or asexual reproduction in which a unicellular organism splits into two separate organisms by mitosis | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/43-key-terms |
follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) : reproductive hormone that causes sperm production in men and follicle development in women | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/43-key-terms |
fragmentation : cutting or fragmenting of the original animal into parts and the growth of a separate animal from each part | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/43-key-terms |
gastrulation : process in which the blastula folds over itself to form the three germ layers | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/43-key-terms |
gestation : length of time for fetal development to birth | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/43-key-terms |
gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) : hormone from the hypothalamus that causes the release of FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/43-key-terms |
hermaphroditism : state of having both male and female reproductive parts within the same individual | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/43-key-terms |
holoblastic : complete cleavage; takes place in cells with a small amount of yolk | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/43-key-terms |
human beta chorionic gonadotropin (β-HCG) : hormone produced by the chorion of the zygote that helps to maintain the corpus luteum and elevated levels of progesterone | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/43-key-terms |
infertility : inability to conceive, carry, and deliver children | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/43-key-terms |
inhibin : hormone made by Sertoli cells; provides negative feedback to hypothalamus in control of FSH and GnRH release | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/43-key-terms |
inner cell mass : inner layer of cells in the blastocyst | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/43-key-terms |
internal fertilization : fertilization of egg by sperm inside the body of the female | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/43-key-terms |
interstitial cell of Leydig : cell in seminiferous tubules that makes testosterone | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/43-key-terms |
labia majora : large folds of tissue covering the inguinal area | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/43-key-terms |
labia minora : smaller folds of tissue within the labia majora | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/43-key-terms |
luteinizing hormone (LH) : reproductive hormone in both men and women, causes testosterone production in men and ovulation and lactation in women | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/43-key-terms |
menopause : loss of reproductive capacity in women due to decreased sensitivity of the ovaries to FSH and LH | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/43-key-terms |
menstrual cycle : cycle of the degradation and re-growth of the endometrium | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/43-key-terms |
meroblastic : partial cleavage; takes place in cells with a large amount of yolk | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/43-key-terms |
morning sickness : condition in the mother during the first trimester; includes feelings of nausea | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/43-key-terms |
neural tube : tube-like structure that forms from the ectoderm and gives rise to the brain and spinal cord | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/43-key-terms |
oogenesis : process of producing haploid eggs | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/43-key-terms |
organogenesis : process of organ formation | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/43-key-terms |
ovarian cycle : cycle of preparation of egg for ovulation and the conversion of the follicle to the corpus luteum | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/43-key-terms |
oviduct : (also, fallopian tube) muscular tube connecting the uterus with the ovary area | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/43-key-terms |
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