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The development of the nervous system starts early in embryonic development. The outer layer of the embryo, the ectoderm, gives rise to the skin and the nervous system. A specialized region of this layer, the neuroectoderm, becomes a groove that folds in and becomes the neural tube beneath the dorsal surface of the emb... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-chapter-review |
The brain develops from this early tube structure and gives rise to specific regions of the adult brain. As the neural tube grows and differentiates, it enlarges into three vesicles that correspond to the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain regions of the adult brain. Later in development, two of these three vesicles di... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-chapter-review |
The spinal cord develops out of the rest of the neural tube and retains the tube structure, with the nervous tissue thickening and the hollow center becoming a very small central canal through the cord. The rest of the hollow center of the neural tube corresponds to open spaces within the brain called the ventricles, w... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-chapter-review |
The adult brain is separated into four major regions: the cerebrum, the diencephalon, the brain stem, and the cerebellum. The cerebrum is the largest portion and contains the cerebral cortex and subcortical nuclei. It is divided into two halves by the longitudinal fissure. | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-chapter-review |
The cortex is separated into the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes. The frontal lobe is responsible for motor functions, from planning movements through executing commands to be sent to the spinal cord and periphery. The most anterior portion of the frontal lobe is the prefrontal cortex, which is associa... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-chapter-review |
The other lobes are responsible for sensory functions. The parietal lobe is where somatosensation is processed. The occipital lobe is where visual processing begins, although the other parts of the brain can contribute to visual function. The temporal lobe contains the cortical area for auditory processing, but also ha... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-chapter-review |
Nuclei beneath the cerebral cortex, known as the subcortical nuclei, are responsible for augmenting cortical functions. The basal nuclei receive input from cortical areas and compare it with the general state of the individual through the activity of a dopamine-releasing nucleus. The output influences the activity of p... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-chapter-review |
The diencephalon includes the thalamus and the hypothalamus, along with some other structures. The thalamus is a relay between the cerebrum and the rest of the nervous system. The hypothalamus coordinates homeostatic functions through the autonomic and endocrine systems. | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-chapter-review |
The brain stem is composed of the midbrain, pons, and medulla. It controls the head and neck region of the body through the cranial nerves. There are control centers in the brain stem that regulate the cardiovascular and respiratory systems. | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-chapter-review |
The cerebellum is connected to the brain stem, primarily at the pons, where it receives a copy of the descending input from the cerebrum to the spinal cord. It can compare this with sensory feedback input through the medulla and send output through the midbrain that can correct motor commands for coordination. | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-chapter-review |
The CNS has a privileged blood supply established by the blood-brain barrier. Establishing this barrier are anatomical structures that help to protect and isolate the CNS. The arterial blood to the brain comes from the internal carotid and vertebral arteries, which both contribute to the unique circle of Willis that pr... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-chapter-review |
The blood that nourishes the brain and spinal cord is behind the glial-cellâenforced blood-brain barrier, which limits the exchange of material from blood vessels with the interstitial fluid of the nervous tissue. Thus, metabolic wastes are collected in cerebrospinal fluid that circulates through the CNS. This fluid ... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-chapter-review |
The blood, now with the reabsorbed CSF, drains out of the cranium through the dural sinuses. The dura mater is the tough outer covering of the CNS, which is anchored to the inner surface of the cranial and vertebral cavities. It surrounds the venous space known as the dural sinuses, which connect to the jugular veins, ... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-chapter-review |
The PNS is composed of the groups of neurons (ganglia) and bundles of axons (nerves) that are outside of the brain and spinal cord. Ganglia are of two types, sensory or autonomic. Sensory ganglia contain unipolar sensory neurons and are found on the dorsal root of all spinal nerves as well as associated with many of th... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-chapter-review |
Nerves are classified as cranial nerves or spinal nerves on the basis of their connection to the brain or spinal cord, respectively. The twelve cranial nerves can be strictly sensory in function, strictly motor in function, or a combination of the two functions. Sensory fibers are axons of sensory ganglia that carry se... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-chapter-review |
abducens nerve : sixth cranial nerve; responsible for contraction of one of the extraocular muscles | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
alar plate : developmental region of the spinal cord that gives rise to the posterior horn of the gray matter | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
amygdala : nucleus deep in the temporal lobe of the cerebrum that is related to memory and emotional behavior | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
anterior column : white matter between the anterior horns of the spinal cord composed of many different groups of axons of both ascending and descending tracts | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
anterior horn : gray matter of the spinal cord containing multipolar motor neurons, sometimes referred to as the ventral horn | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
anterior median fissure : deep midline feature of the anterior spinal cord, marking the separation between the right and left sides of the cord | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
anterior spinal artery : blood vessel from the merged branches of the vertebral arteries that runs along the anterior surface of the spinal cord | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
arachnoid granulation : outpocket of the arachnoid membrane into the dural sinuses that allows for reabsorption of CSF into the blood | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
arachnoid mater : middle layer of the meninges named for the spider-webâlike trabeculae that extend between it and the pia mater | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
arachnoid trabeculae : filaments between the arachnoid and pia mater within the subarachnoid space | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
ascending tract : central nervous system fibers carrying sensory information from the spinal cord or periphery to the brain | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
axillary nerve : systemic nerve of the arm that arises from the brachial plexus | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
basal forebrain : nuclei of the cerebrum related to modulation of sensory stimuli and attention through broad projections to the cerebral cortex, loss of which is related to Alzheimerâs disease | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
basal nuclei : nuclei of the cerebrum (with a few components in the upper brain stem and diencephalon) that are responsible for assessing cortical movement commands and comparing them with the general state of the individual through broad modulatory activity of dopamine neurons; largely related to motor functions, as e... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
basal plate : developmental region of the spinal cord that gives rise to the lateral and anterior horns of gray matter | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
basilar artery : blood vessel from the merged vertebral arteries that runs along the dorsal surface of the brain stem | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
brachial plexus : nerve plexus associated with the lower cervical spinal nerves and first thoracic spinal nerve | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
brain stem : region of the adult brain that includes the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata and develops from the mesencephalon, metencephalon, and myelencephalon of the embryonic brain | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
Brocaâs area : region of the frontal lobe associated with the motor commands necessary for speech production and located only in the cerebral hemisphere responsible for language production, which is the left side in approximately 95 percent of the population | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
Brodmannâs areas : mapping of regions of the cerebral cortex based on microscopic anatomy that relates specific areas to functional differences, as described by Brodmann in the early 1900s | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
carotid canal : opening in the temporal bone through which the internal carotid artery enters the cranium | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
cauda equina : bundle of spinal nerve roots that descend from the lower spinal cord below the first lumbar vertebra and lie within the vertebral cavity; has the appearance of a horse's tail | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
caudate : nucleus deep in the cerebrum that is part of the basal nuclei; along with the putamen, it is part of the striatum | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
central canal : hollow space within the spinal cord that is the remnant of the center of the neural tube | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
central sulcus : surface landmark of the cerebral cortex that marks the boundary between the frontal and parietal lobes | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
cephalic flexure : curve in midbrain of the embryo that positions the forebrain ventrally | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
cerebellum : region of the adult brain connected primarily to the pons that developed from the metencephalon (along with the pons) and is largely responsible for comparing information from the cerebrum with sensory feedback from the periphery through the spinal cord | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
cerebral aqueduct : connection of the ventricular system between the third and fourth ventricles located in the midbrain | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
cerebral cortex : outer gray matter covering the forebrain, marked by wrinkles and folds known as gyri and sulci | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
cerebral hemisphere : one half of the bilaterally symmetrical cerebrum | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
cerebrum : region of the adult brain that develops from the telencephalon and is responsible for higher neurological functions such as memory, emotion, and consciousness | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
cervical plexus : nerve plexus associated with the upper cervical spinal nerves | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
choroid plexus : specialized structures containing ependymal cells lining blood capillaries that filter blood to produce CSF in the four ventricles of the brain | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
circle of Willis : unique anatomical arrangement of blood vessels around the base of the brain that maintains perfusion of blood into the brain even if one component of the structure is blocked or narrowed | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
common carotid artery : blood vessel that branches off the aorta (or the brachiocephalic artery on the right) and supplies blood to the head and neck | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
corpus callosum : large white matter structure that connects the right and left cerebral hemispheres | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
cranial nerve : one of twelve nerves connected to the brain that are responsible for sensory or motor functions of the head and neck | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
cranial nerve ganglion : sensory ganglion of cranial nerves | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
descending tract : central nervous system fibers carrying motor commands from the brain to the spinal cord or periphery | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
diencephalon : region of the adult brain that retains its name from embryonic development and includes the thalamus and hypothalamus | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
direct pathway : connections within the basal nuclei from the striatum to the globus pallidus internal segment and substantia nigra pars reticulata that disinhibit the thalamus to increase cortical control of movement | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
disinhibition : disynaptic connection in which the first synapse inhibits the second cell, which then stops inhibiting the final target | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
dorsal (posterior) nerve root : axons entering the posterior horn of the spinal cord | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
dorsal (posterior) root ganglion : sensory ganglion attached to the posterior nerve root of a spinal nerve | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
dura mater : tough, fibrous, outer layer of the meninges that is attached to the inner surface of the cranium and vertebral column and surrounds the entire CNS | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
dural sinus : any of the venous structures surrounding the brain, enclosed within the dura mater, which drain blood from the CNS to the common venous return of the jugular veins | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
endoneurium : innermost layer of connective tissue that surrounds individual axons within a nerve | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
enteric nervous system : peripheral structures, namely ganglia and nerves, that are incorporated into the digestive system organs | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
enteric plexus : neuronal plexus in the wall of the intestines, which is part of the enteric nervous system | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
epineurium : outermost layer of connective tissue that surrounds an entire nerve | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
epithalamus : region of the diecephalon containing the pineal gland | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
esophageal plexus : neuronal plexus in the wall of the esophagus that is part of the enteric nervous system | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
extraocular muscles : six skeletal muscles that control eye movement within the orbit | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
facial nerve : seventh cranial nerve; responsible for contraction of the facial muscles and for part of the sense of taste, as well as causing saliva production | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
fascicle : small bundles of nerve or muscle fibers enclosed by connective tissue | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
femoral nerve : systemic nerve of the anterior leg that arises from the lumbar plexus | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
fibular nerve : systemic nerve of the posterior leg that begins as part of the sciatic nerve | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
foramen magnum : large opening in the occipital bone of the skull through which the spinal cord emerges and the vertebral arteries enter the cranium | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
forebrain : anterior region of the adult brain that develops from the prosencephalon and includes the cerebrum and diencephalon | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
fourth ventricle : the portion of the ventricular system that is in the region of the brain stem and opens into the subarachnoid space through the median and lateral apertures | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
frontal eye field : region of the frontal lobe associated with motor commands to orient the eyes toward an object of visual attention | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
frontal lobe : region of the cerebral cortex directly beneath the frontal bone of the cranium | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
gastric plexuses : neuronal networks in the wall of the stomach that are part of the enteric nervous system | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
globus pallidus : nuclei deep in the cerebrum that are part of the basal nuclei and can be divided into the internal and external segments | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
glossopharyngeal nerve : ninth cranial nerve; responsible for contraction of muscles in the tongue and throat and for part of the sense of taste, as well as causing saliva production | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
gyrus : ridge formed by convolutions on the surface of the cerebrum or cerebellum | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
hindbrain : posterior region of the adult brain that develops from the rhombencephalon and includes the pons, medulla oblongata, and cerebellum | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
hippocampus : gray matter deep in the temporal lobe that is very important for long-term memory formation | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
hypoglossal nerve : twelfth cranial nerve; responsible for contraction of muscles of the tongue | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
hypothalamus : major region of the diencephalon that is responsible for coordinating autonomic and endocrine control of homeostasis | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
indirect pathway : connections within the basal nuclei from the striatum through the globus pallidus external segment and subthalamic nucleus to the globus pallidus internal segment/substantia nigra pars compacta that result in inhibition of the thalamus to decrease cortical control of movement | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
inferior colliculus : half of the midbrain tectum that is part of the brain stem auditory pathway | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
inferior olive : nucleus in the medulla that is involved in processing information related to motor control | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
intercostal nerve : systemic nerve in the thoracic cavity that is found between two ribs | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
internal carotid artery : branch from the common carotid artery that enters the cranium and supplies blood to the brain | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
interventricular foramina : openings between the lateral ventricles and third ventricle allowing for the passage of CSF | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
jugular veins : blood vessels that return âusedâ blood from the head and neck | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
kinesthesia : general sensory perception of movement of the body | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
lateral apertures : pair of openings from the fourth ventricle to the subarachnoid space on either side and between the medulla and cerebellum | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
lateral column : white matter of the spinal cord between the posterior horn on one side and the axons from the anterior horn on the same side; composed of many different groups of axons, of both ascending and descending tracts, carrying motor commands to and from the brain | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
lateral horn : region of the spinal cord gray matter in the thoracic, upper lumbar, and sacral regions that is the central component of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
lateral sulcus : surface landmark of the cerebral cortex that marks the boundary between the temporal lobe and the frontal and parietal lobes | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
lateral ventricles : portions of the ventricular system that are in the region of the cerebrum | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
limbic cortex : collection of structures of the cerebral cortex that are involved in emotion, memory, and behavior and are part of the larger limbic system | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
limbic system : structures at the edge (limit) of the boundary between the forebrain and hindbrain that are most associated with emotional behavior and memory formation | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/13-key-terms |
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