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production for an encyclopedia historically has been supported in both for-profit and non-profit contexts; such was the case of the Great Soviet Encyclopedia mentioned above which was entirely state-sponsored, while the Britannica was supported as a for-profit institution.
Encyclopedic dictionaries
Some works entitled "dictionaries" are similar to encyclopedias, especially those concerned with a particular field (such as the Dictionary of the Middle Ages, the Dictionary of American Naval Fightin
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dle Ages, the Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships, and Black's Law Dictionary). The Macquarie Dictionary, Australia's national dictionary, became an encyclopedic dictionary after its first edition in recognition of the use of proper nouns in common communication, and the words derived from such proper nouns.
Differences between encyclopedias and dictionaries
There are some broad differences between encyclopedias and dictionaries. Most noticeably, encyclopedia articles are longer, fuller
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iceably, encyclopedia articles are longer, fuller and more thorough than entries in most general-purpose dictionaries.[3][20] There are differences in content as well. Generally speaking, dictionaries provide linguistic information about words themselves, while encyclopedias focus more on the things for which those words stand.[6][7][8][9] Thus, while dictionary entries are inextricably fixed to the word described, encyclopedia articles can be given a different entry name. As such, dictionary en
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ven a different entry name. As such, dictionary entries are not fully translatable into other languages, but encyclopedia articles can be.[6]
In practice, however, the distinction is not concrete, as there is no clear-cut difference between factual, "encyclopedic" information and linguistic information such as appear in dictionaries.[8][20][21] Thus encyclopedias may contain material that is also found in dictionaries, and vice versa.[21] In particular, dictionary entries often contain factual i
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icular, dictionary entries often contain factual information about the thing named by the word.[20][21]
Pre-modern encyclopedias
The earliest encyclopedic work to have survived to modern times is the Natural History of Pliny the Elder, a Roman statesman living in the 1st century AD,[5][22][23][24] a work indebted to Varro (1st century BCE).[25] He compiled a work of 37 chapters covering natural history, architecture, medicine, geography, geology, and all aspects of the world around him.[24] This
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and all aspects of the world around him.[24] This work became very popular in antiquity, was one of the first classical manuscripts to be printed in 1470, and has remained popular ever since as a source of information on the Roman world, and especially Roman art, Roman technology and Roman engineering.
The Spanish scholar Isidore of Seville was the first Christian writer to try to compile a summa of universal knowledge, the Etymologiae (c. 600–625), also known by classicists as the Origines (ab
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25), also known by classicists as the Origines (abbreviated Orig.). This encyclopedia—the first such Christian epitome—formed a huge compilation of 448 chapters in 20 books[26] based on hundreds of classical sources, including the Naturalis Historia. Of the Etymologiae in its time it was said quaecunque fere sciri debentur, "practically everything that it is necessary to know".[27][23] Among the areas covered were: grammar, rhetoric, mathematics, geometry, music, astronomy, medicine, law, the Ca
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geometry, music, astronomy, medicine, law, the Catholic Church and heretical sects, pagan philosophers, languages, cities, animals and birds, the physical world, geography, public buildings, roads, metals, rocks, agriculture, ships, clothes, food, and tools.
Another Christian encyclopedia was the Institutiones divinarum et saecularium litterarum of Cassiodorus (543–560) dedicated to the Christian divinity and the seven liberal arts.[23][5] The encyclopedia of Suda, a massive 10th-century Byzant
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ncyclopedia of Suda, a massive 10th-century Byzantine encyclopedia, had 30,000 entries (broadly alphabetically arranged), many drawing from ancient sources that have since been lost, and often derived from medieval Christian compilers.[23]
From India, the Siribhoovalaya (Kannada: ಸಿರಿಭೂವಲಯ), variously dated to c. 800 AD, the 15th century, or an even more recent time, is a work of Kannada literature written by Kumudendu Muni, a Jain monk. It is unique because rather than employing alphabets, it i
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ique because rather than employing alphabets, it is composed entirely in Kannada numerals. Many philosophies which existed in the Jain classics are eloquently and skillfully interpreted in the work.
The 2nd century BC reference work Shiben has been described as a Chinese encyclopedia of genealogies, while the Huanglan, completed in the 220s, was an early leishu encyclopedia. The Yiwen Leiju, completed in 624, was a landmark literature encyclopedia of the early Tang dynasty. The enormous encyclop
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a of the early Tang dynasty. The enormous encyclopedic works of the Four Great Books of Song, compiled by the 11th century during the early Song dynasty (960–1279), was a massive literary undertaking for the time. The last encyclopedia of the four, the Prime Tortoise of the Record Bureau, amounted to 9.4 million Chinese characters in 1,000 written volumes. The Yongle Encyclopedia (completed 1408) comprised 11,095 volumes, making it the largest paper encyclopedia in world history.[28][29]
There w
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per encyclopedia in world history.[28][29]
There were many great encyclopedists throughout Chinese history, including the scientist and statesman Shen Kuo (1031–1095) with his Dream Pool Essays of 1088; the statesman, inventor, and agronomist Wang Zhen (active 1290–1333) with his Nong Shu of 1313; and Song Yingxing (1587–1666) with his Tiangong Kaiwu. Song Yingxing was termed the "Diderot of China" by British historian Joseph Needham.[30]
Printed encyclopedias
Before the advent of the printing p
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encyclopedias
Before the advent of the printing press, encyclopedic works were all hand-copied and thus rarely available, beyond wealthy patrons or monastic men of learning: they were expensive, and usually written for those extending knowledge rather than those using it. The introduction of printing from Asia allowed a wider diffusion of encyclopedias and every scholar could have his or her copy. Nuremberg Chronicle from 1493 is one of the best-documented early printed books—an incunabulum—and
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-documented early printed books—an incunabulum—and one of the first to successfully integrate illustrations and text. Both Latin and German editions were printed by Anton Koberger in Nuremberg.[31]The De expetendis et fugiendis rebus by Giorgio Valla was posthumously printed in 1501 by Aldo Manuzio in Venice. This work followed the traditional scheme of liberal arts. However, Valla added the translation of ancient Greek works on mathematics (firstly by Archimedes), newly discovered and translate
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tly by Archimedes), newly discovered and translated. The Margarita Philosophica by Gregor Reisch, printed in 1503, was a complete encyclopedia explaining the seven liberal arts.
Financial, commercial, legal, and intellectual factors changed the size of encyclopedias. Middle classes had more time to read and encyclopedias helped them to learn more. Publishers wanted to increase their output so some countries like Germany started selling books missing alphabetical sections, to publish faster. Also
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ing alphabetical sections, to publish faster. Also, publishers could not afford all the resources by themselves, so multiple publishers would come together with their resources to create better encyclopedias. Later, rivalry grew, causing copyright to occur due to weak underdeveloped laws. John Harris is often credited with introducing the now-familiar alphabetic format in 1704 with his English Lexicon Technicum: Or, A Universal English Dictionary of Arts and Sciences: Explaining not only the Ter
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of Arts and Sciences: Explaining not only the Terms of Art, but the Arts Themselves – to give its full title. Organized alphabetically, its content does indeed contain an explanation not merely of the terms used in the arts and sciences, but of the arts and sciences themselves. Sir Isaac Newton contributed his only published work on chemistry to the second volume of 1710.
Encyclopédie
Indeed, the purpose of an encyclopedia is to collect knowledge disseminated around the globe; to set forth its
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e disseminated around the globe; to set forth its general system to the men with whom we live, and transmit it to those who will come after us, so that the work of preceding centuries will not become useless to the centuries to come; and so that our offspring, becoming better instructed, will at the same time become more virtuous and happy, and that we should not die without having rendered a service to the human race in the future years to come.
Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des scienc
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Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers (French for 'Encyclopedia, or a Systematic Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts and Crafts'),[33] better known as Encyclopédie (French: [ɑ̃siklɔpedi]), was a general encyclopedia published in France between 1751 and 1772, with later supplements, revised editions, and translations. It had many writers, known as the Encyclopédistes. It was edited by Denis Diderot and, until 1759, co-edited by Jean le Rond d'Alembert.[34]
The
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759, co-edited by Jean le Rond d'Alembert.[34]
The Encyclopédie is most famous for representing the thought of the Enlightenment. According to Denis Diderot in the article "Encyclopédie", the Encyclopédie's aim was "to change the way people think" and for people to be able to inform themselves and to know things.[35] He and the other contributors advocated for the secularization of learning away from the Jesuits.[36] Diderot wanted to incorporate all of the world's knowledge into the Encyclopédi
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all of the world's knowledge into the Encyclopédie and hoped that the text could disseminate all this information to the public and future generations.[37] Thus, it is an example of democratization of knowledge.
It was also the first encyclopedia to include contributions from many named contributors, and it was the first general encyclopedia to describe the mechanical arts. In the first publication, seventeen folio volumes were accompanied by detailed engravings. Later volumes were published wi
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tailed engravings. Later volumes were published without the engravings, in order to better reach a wide audience within Europe.[38][39]Encyclopædia Britannica
The Encyclopædia Britannica (Latin for 'British Encyclopaedia') is a general-knowledge English-language encyclopaedia. It has been published by Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. since 1768, although the company has changed ownership seven times. The 2010 version of the 15th edition, which spans 32 volumes[40] and 32,640 pages, was the last pri
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32 volumes[40] and 32,640 pages, was the last printed edition. Since 2016, it has been published exclusively as an online encyclopaedia.
Printed for 244 years, the Britannica was the longest-running in-print encyclopaedia in the English language. It was first published between 1768 and 1771 in Edinburgh, Scotland, in three volumes. The encyclopaedia grew in size; the second edition was 10 volumes,[41] and by its fourth edition (1801–1810), it had expanded to 20 volumes.[42] Its rising stature a
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d expanded to 20 volumes.[42] Its rising stature as a scholarly work helped recruit eminent contributors, and the 9th (1875–1889) and 11th editions (1911) are landmark encyclopaedias for scholarship and literary style. Starting with the 11th edition and following its acquisition by an American firm, the Britannica shortened and simplified articles to broaden its appeal to the North American market.
In 1933, the Britannica became the first encyclopaedia to adopt "continuous revision", in which th
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paedia to adopt "continuous revision", in which the encyclopaedia is continually reprinted, with every article updated on a schedule.[citation needed] In the 21st century, the Britannica suffered first from competition with the digital multimedia encyclopaedia Microsoft Encarta,[43] and later with the online peer-produced encyclopaedia Wikipedia.[44][45][46]
In March 2012, it announced it would no longer publish printed editions and would focus instead on the online version.[45][47]
The 15th edi
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nstead on the online version.[45][47]
The 15th edition (1974–2010) has a three-part structure: a 12-volume Micropædia of short articles (generally fewer than 750 words), a 17-volume Macropædia of long articles (two to 310 pages), and a single Propædia volume to give a hierarchical outline of knowledge. The Micropædia was meant for quick fact-checking and as a guide to the Macropædia; readers are advised to study the Propædia outline to understand a subject's context and to find more detailed art
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a subject's context and to find more detailed articles. Over 70 years, the size of the Britannica has remained steady, with about 40 million words on half a million topics.[citation needed] Though published in the United States since 1901, the Britannica has for the most part maintained British English spelling.Brockhaus Enzyklopädie
The Brockhaus Enzyklopädie (German for Brockhaus Encyclopedia) is a German-language encyclopedia which until 2009 was published by the F. A. Brockhaus printing hou
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was published by the F. A. Brockhaus printing house.
The first edition originated in the Conversations-Lexikon published by Renatus Gotthelf Löbel and Franke in Leipzig 1796–1808. Renamed Der Große Brockhaus in 1928 and Brockhaus Enzyklopädie from 1966, the current[update] 21st thirty-volume edition contains about 300,000 entries on about 24,000 pages, with about 40,000 maps, graphics and tables. It is the largest German-language printed encyclopedia in the 21st century.
In February 2008, F. A.
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pedia in the 21st century.
In February 2008, F. A. Brockhaus announced the changeover to an online encyclopedia and the discontinuation of the printed editions. The rights to the Brockhaus trademark were purchased by Arvato services, a subsidiary of the Bertelsmann media group. After more than 200 years, the distribution of the Brockhaus encyclopedia ceased completely in 2014.Encyclopedias in the United States
In the United States, the 1950s and 1960s saw the introduction of several large popula
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1960s saw the introduction of several large popular encyclopedias, often sold on installment plans. The best known of these were World Book and Funk and Wagnalls. As many as 90% were sold door to door.[22] Jack Lynch says in his book You Could Look It Up that encyclopedia salespeople were so common that they became the butt of jokes. He describes their sales pitch saying, "They were selling not books but a lifestyle, a future, a promise of social mobility." A 1961 World Book ad said, "You are ho
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mobility." A 1961 World Book ad said, "You are holding your family's future in your hands right now," while showing a feminine hand holding an order form.[48] As of the 1990s, two of the most prominent encyclopedias published in the United States were Collier's Encyclopedia and Encyclopedia Americana.[49]
Digital encyclopedias
Physical media
By the late 20th century, encyclopedias were being published on CD-ROMs for use with personal computers. This was the usual way computer users accessed enc
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This was the usual way computer users accessed encyclopedic knowledge from the 1980s and 1990s. Later, DVD discs replaced CD-ROMs, and by the mid-2000s, internet encyclopedias were dominant and replaced disc-based software encyclopedias.[5]
CD-ROM encyclopedias were usually a macOS or Microsoft Windows (3.0, 3.1 or 95/98) application on a CD-ROM disc. The user would execute the encyclopedia's software program to see a menu that allowed them to start browsing the encyclopedia's articles, and most
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art browsing the encyclopedia's articles, and most encyclopedias also supported a way to search the contents of the encyclopedia. The article text was usually hyperlinked and also included photographs, audio clips (for example in articles about historical speeches or musical instruments), and video clips. In the CD-ROM age, the video clips usually had a low resolution, often 160x120 or 320x240 pixels. Such encyclopedias which made use of photos, audio and video were also called multimedia encycl
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audio and video were also called multimedia encyclopedias.
Microsoft's Encarta, launched in 1993, was a landmark example as it had no printed equivalent. Articles were supplemented with video and audio files as well as numerous high-quality images. After sixteen years, Microsoft discontinued the Encarta line of products in 2009.[50] Other examples of CD-ROM encyclopedia are Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia and Britannica.
Digital encyclopedias enable "Encyclopedia Services" (such as Wikimedia Ent
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ble "Encyclopedia Services" (such as Wikimedia Enterprise) to facilitate programmatic access to the content.[51]
Online
Free encyclopedias
The concept of a free encyclopedia began with the Interpedia proposal on Usenet in 1993, which outlined an Internet-based online encyclopedia to which anyone could submit content that would be freely accessible. Early projects in this vein included Everything2 and Open Site. In 1999, Richard Stallman proposed the GNUPedia, an online encyclopedia which, simila
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the GNUPedia, an online encyclopedia which, similar to the GNU operating system, would be a "generic" resource. The concept was very similar to Interpedia, but more in line with Stallman's GNU philosophy.
It was not until Nupedia and later Wikipedia that a stable free encyclopedia project could be established on the Internet.
The English Wikipedia, which was started in 2001, became the world's largest encyclopedia in 2004 at the 300,000 article stage.[53] By late 2005, Wikipedia had produced ove
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tage.[53] By late 2005, Wikipedia had produced over two million articles in more than 80 languages with content licensed under the copyleft GNU Free Documentation License. As of August 2009,[update] Wikipedia had over 3 million articles in English and well over 10 million combined articles in over 250 languages. Today, Wikipedia has 6,999,499 articles in English, over 60 million combined articles in over 300 languages, and over 250 million combined pages including project and discussion pages.[5
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ed pages including project and discussion pages.[54]
Since 2002, other free encyclopedias appeared, including Hudong (2005–) and Baidu Baike (2006–) in Chinese, and Google's Knol (2008–2012) in English. Some MediaWiki-based encyclopedias have appeared, usually under a license compatible with Wikipedia, including Enciclopedia Libre (2002–2021) in Spanish and Conservapedia (2006–), Scholarpedia (2006–), and Citizendium (2007–) in English, the latter of which had become inactive by 2014.[55]
See al
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r of which had become inactive by 2014.[55]
See also
Notes
- ^ Also spelled encyclopaedia in British English; from Ancient Greek: ἐγκύκλιος παιδεία, romanized: enkyklios paideia
References
- ^ "Encyclopedia". Archived from the original on August 3, 2007. Glossary of Library Terms. Riverside City College, Digital Library/Learning Resource Center. Retrieved on: November 17, 2007.
- ^ a b "What are Reference Resources?". Eastern Illinois University. Archived from the original on November 22, 2022.
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Archived from the original on November 22, 2022. Retrieved December 17, 2022.
- ^ a b c Hartmann, R. R. K.; James, Gregory (1998). Dictionary of Lexicography. Routledge. p. 48. ISBN 978-0-415-14143-7. Archived from the original on January 14, 2021. Retrieved July 27, 2010.
- ^ a b "Encyclopedia". Merriam-Webster. Archived from the original on September 29, 2022. Retrieved December 17, 2022.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Bocco, Diana (August 30, 2022). "What is an Encyclopedia?". Language Humanities. Arch
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at is an Encyclopedia?". Language Humanities. Archived from the original on September 27, 2022. Retrieved January 24, 2023.
- ^ a b c Béjoint, Henri (2000). Modern Lexicography Archived December 30, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, pp. 30–31. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-829951-6
- ^ a b "Encyclopaedia". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on December 16, 2010. Retrieved July 27, 2010.
An English lexicographer, H.W. Fowler, wrote in the preface to the first edition (1911) of T
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te in the preface to the first edition (1911) of The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English language that a dictionary is concerned with the uses of words and phrases and with giving information about the things for which they stand only so far as current use of the words depends upon knowledge of those things. The emphasis in an encyclopedia is much more on the nature of the things for which the words and phrases stand.
- ^ a b c Hartmann, R. R. K.; James, Gregory (1998). Dictionary of Le
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R. R. K.; James, Gregory (1998). Dictionary of Lexicography. Routledge. p. 49. ISBN 978-0-415-14143-7. Archived from the original on January 14, 2021. Retrieved July 27, 2010.
In contrast with linguistic information, encyclopedia material is more concerned with the description of objective realities than the words or phrases that refer to them. In practice, however, there is no hard and fast boundary between factual and lexical knowledge.
- ^ a b Cowie, Anthony Paul (2009). The Oxford History o
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b Cowie, Anthony Paul (2009). The Oxford History of English Lexicography, Volume I. Oxford University Press. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-415-14143-7. Archived from the original on April 15, 2021. Retrieved August 17, 2010.
An 'encyclopedia' (encyclopaedia) usually gives more information than a dictionary; it explains not only the words but also the things and concepts referred to by the words.
- ^ Hunter, Dan; Lobato, Ramon; Richardson, Megan; Thomas, Julian (2013). Amateur Media: Social, Cultural and Leg
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an (2013). Amateur Media: Social, Cultural and Legal Perspectives. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-78265-4.
- ^ Ἐγκύκλιος παιδεία Archived February 9, 2021, at the Wayback Machine, Quintilian, Institutio Oratoria, 1.10.1, at Perseus Project
- ^ ἐγκύκλιος Archived March 8, 2021, at the Wayback Machine, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek–English Lexicon, at Perseus Project
- ^ παιδεία Archived March 8, 2021, at the Wayback Machine, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek–English Lexicon, at
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Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek–English Lexicon, at Perseus Project
- ^ According to some accounts, such as the American Heritage Dictionary Archived August 19, 2017, at the Wayback Machine, copyists of Latin manuscripts took this phrase to be a single Greek word, ἐγκυκλοπαιδεία enkuklopaideía.
- ^ Franklin-Brown, Mary (2012). Reading the world: encyclopedic writing in the scholastic age. Chicago London: The University of Chicago Press. p. 8. ISBN 9780226260709.
- ^ König, Jason (2013). Encyclopa
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9780226260709.
- ^ König, Jason (2013). Encyclopaedism from antiquity to the Renaissance. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-107-03823-3.
- ^ Cook & Ryan 2016, p. 418.
- ^ Cook & Ryan 2016, p. 121.
- ^ As explained by Richard Yeo, Encyclopaedic Visions: Scientific Dictionaries and Enlightenment Culture (Cambridge: University Press, 2001 ISBN 978-0-521-15292-1
- ^ a b c Hartmann, R. R. K.; James, Gregory (1998). Dictionary of Lexicography. Routledge. pp. 48–49. ISBN 978-0-415
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Lexicography. Routledge. pp. 48–49. ISBN 978-0-415-14143-7. Archived from the original on January 14, 2021. Retrieved July 27, 2010.
Usually these two aspects overlap – encyclopedic information being difficult to distinguish from linguistic information – and dictionaries attempt to capture both in the explanation of a meaning ...
- ^ a b c Béjoint, Henri (2000). Modern Lexicography. Oxford University Press. p. 31. ISBN 978-0-19-829951-6.
The two types, as we have seen, are not easily differentia
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types, as we have seen, are not easily differentiated; encyclopedias contain information that is also to be found in dictionaries, and vice versa.
- ^ a b Grossman, Ron (December 7, 2017). "Long before Google, there was the encyclopedia". Chicago Tribune. Archived from the original on October 22, 2022. Retrieved December 9, 2022.
- ^ a b c d "History of Encyclopaedias". Britannica. Archived from the original on October 6, 2022. Retrieved December 9, 2022.
- ^ a b Nobel, Justin (December 9, 2015)
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9, 2022.
- ^ a b Nobel, Justin (December 9, 2015). "Encyclopedias Are Time Capsules". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on December 5, 2022. Retrieved December 17, 2022.
- ^ Sordet, Yann (2021). Histoire du livre et de l'édition (in French). Paris: Albin Michel. p. 36. ISBN 978-2-226-45767-7.
- ^ MacFarlane 1980:4; MacFarlane translates Etymologiae viii.
- ^ Braulio, Elogium of Isidore appended to Isidore's De viris illustribus, heavily indebted itself to Jerome.
- ^ Fu & Cao 2019, p. 29
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ndebted itself to Jerome.
- ^ Fu & Cao 2019, p. 297.
- ^ Ditmanson 2018, p. 255.
- ^ Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 102.
- ^ Cambridge Digital Library, University of Cambridge, http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/PR-INC-00000-A-00007-00002-00888/1 Archived 2012-12-06 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Denis Diderot; Jean le Rond d'Alembert. Encyclopédie. Archived April 29, 2011, at the Wayback Machine. University of Michigan Library: Scholarly Publishing Office and DLXS. Retrieved on: November 17, 2007.
- ^ Ian
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nd DLXS. Retrieved on: November 17, 2007.
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- ^ Denis Diderot as quoted in Kramnick, p. 17.
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ving history. London: Thames & Hudson.
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. Retrieved March 30, 2021.
- ^ a b Bosman, Julie (March 13, 2012). "After 244 Years, Encyclopaedia Britannica Stops the Presses". The New York Times. Retrieved June 7, 2023.
- ^ McArdle, Megan (March 15, 2012). "Encyclopaedia Britannica Goes Out of Print, Won't Be Missed". The Atlantic. Retrieved June 7, 2023.
- ^ Kearney, Christine (March 14, 2012). "Encyclopaedia Britannica: After 244 years in print, only digital copies sold". The Christian Science Monitor. Reuters. Archived from the original
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ience Monitor. Reuters. Archived from the original on May 31, 2019. Retrieved May 31, 2019.
- ^ Onion, Rebecca (June 3, 2016). "How Two Artists Turn Old Encyclopedias Into Beautiful, Melancholy Art". Slate. Archived from the original on September 23, 2019. Retrieved September 23, 2019.
- ^ Kister, K. F. (1994). Kister's Best Encyclopedias: A Comparative Guide to General and Specialized Encyclopedias (2nd ed.). Phoenix, Arizona: Oryx Press. p. 23. ISBN 0-89774-744-5.
- ^ Important Notice: MSN Enc
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ISBN 0-89774-744-5.
- ^ Important Notice: MSN Encarta to be Discontinued. MSN Encarta. Archived from the original on October 27, 2009.
- ^ "Encyclopedia Service Are About To Become A Huge Market". www.stillwatercurrent.com. Archived from the original on September 27, 2021. Retrieved September 27, 2021.
- ^ Roncaglia, Gino (2021). "Encyclopedias and encyclopedism in the era of the Web". JLIS. 12 (3): 69–90. doi:10.4403/jlis.it-12757.
- ^ "Wikipedia Passes 300,000 Articles making it the worlds la
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ia Passes 300,000 Articles making it the worlds largest encyclopedia" Archived September 27, 2007, at the Wayback Machine, Linux Reviews, 2004 Julich y 7.
- ^ "List of Wikipedias - Meta". meta.wikimedia.org. Retrieved August 20, 2023.
- ^ Herring, Mark Youngblood (2014). Are libraries obsolete? an argument for relevance in the digital age. Jefferson, N.C: McFarland & Company. ISBN 978-0-7864-7356-4.
Cited works
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Dictionary. Archived from the original on March 8, 2021. Retrieved May 13, 2020.
- "Encyclopaedia". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on December 16, 2010. Retrieved July 27, 2010.
- Béjoint, Henri (2000). Modern Lexicography. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-829951-6.
- C. Codoner, S. Louis, M. Paulmier-Foucart, D. Hüe, M. Salvat, A. Llinares, L'Encyclopédisme. Actes du Colloque de Caen, A. Becq (dir.), Paris, 1991.
- Bergenholtz, H.; Nielsen, S.; Tarp, S., eds. (2009).
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genholtz, H.; Nielsen, S.; Tarp, S., eds. (2009). Lexicography at a Crossroads: Dictionaries and Encyclopedias Today, Lexicographical Tools Tomorrow. Peter Lang. ISBN 978-3-03911-799-4.
- Blom, Phillip (2004). Enlightening the World: Encyclopédie, the Book that Changed the Course of History. New York; Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4039-6895-1. OCLC 57669780.
- Collison, Robert Lewis (1966). Encyclopaedias: Their History Throughout the Ages (2nd ed.). New York, London: Hafner. OCLC
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he Ages (2nd ed.). New York, London: Hafner. OCLC 220101699.
- Cook, Vivian; Ryan, Des, eds. (July 15, 2016). The Routledge Handbook of the English Writing System (1 ed.). Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781315670003. ISBN 978-1-317-36581-5.
- Cowie, Anthony Paul (2009). The Oxford History of English Lexicography, Volume I. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-415-14143-7. Archived from the original on April 15, 2021. Retrieved August 17, 2010.
- Darnton, Robert (1979). The business of enlightenment: a p
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Robert (1979). The business of enlightenment: a publishing history of the Encyclopédie, 1775–1800. Cambridge: Belknap Press. ISBN 978-0-674-08785-9.
- Ditmanson, Peter (September 17, 2018). "The Ming dynasty (pre-1521)". In Xiong, Victor Cunrui; Hammond, Kenneth (eds.). Routledge Handbook of Imperial Chinese History. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-53822-6.
- Fu, Chonglan; Cao, Wenming (July 25, 2019). Introduction to the Urban History of China. Springer. ISBN 978-981-13-8207-9.
- Hartmann, R. R. K.;
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ger. ISBN 978-981-13-8207-9.
- Hartmann, R. R. K.; James, Gregory (1998). Dictionary of Lexicography. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-14143-7. Archived from the original on January 14, 2021. Retrieved July 27, 2010.
- Kafker, Frank A., ed. (1981). Notable encyclopedias of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: nine predecessors of the Encyclopédie. Oxford: Voltaire Foundation. ISBN 978-0-7294-0256-9. OCLC 10645788.
- Kafker, Frank A., ed. (1994). Notable encyclopedias of the late eighteenth century
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table encyclopedias of the late eighteenth century: eleven successors of the Encyclopédie. Oxford: Voltaire Foundation. ISBN 978-0-7294-0467-9. OCLC 30787125.
- Needham, Joseph (1986). "Part 7, Military Technology; the Gunpowder Epic". Science and Civilization in China. Vol. 5 – Chemistry and Chemical Technology. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd. ISBN 978-0-521-30358-3. OCLC 59245877.
- Rosenzweig, Roy (June 2006). "Can History Be Open Source? Wikipedia and the Future of the Past". Journal of American Hi
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nd the Future of the Past". Journal of American History. 93 (1): 117–46. doi:10.2307/4486062. ISSN 1945-2314. JSTOR 4486062. Archived from the original on April 25, 2010.
- Ioannides, Marinos (2006). The e-volution of information communication technology in cultural heritage: where hi-tech touches the past: risks and challenges for the 21st century. Budapest: Archaeolingua. ISBN 963-8046-73-2. OCLC 218599120.
- Walsh, S. Padraig (1968). Anglo-American general encyclopedias: a historical bibliogr
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rican general encyclopedias: a historical bibliography, 1703–1967. New York: Bowker. p. 270. OCLC 577541.
- Yeo, Richard R. (2001). Encyclopaedic visions: scientific dictionaries and enlightenment culture. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-65191-2. OCLC 45828872. Archived from the original on April 16, 2014. Retrieved April 15, 2014.
External links
- Encyclopaedia and Hypertext
- Internet Accuracy Project – Biographical errors in encyclopedias and almanacs
- "Encycl
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia#81
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cal errors in encyclopedias and almanacs
- "Encyclopedia" – Diderot's article on the Encyclopedia from the original Encyclopédie.
- De expetendis et fugiendis rebus – First Renaissance encyclopedia
- Errors and inconsistencies in several printed reference books and encyclopedias; Archived July 18, 2001, at the Wayback Machine
- "Digital encyclopedias put the world at your fingertips" – CNET article
- Encyclopedias online University of Wisconsin – Stout listing by category
- Chambers' Cyclopaedia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia#82
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Stout listing by category
- Chambers' Cyclopaedia, 1728, with the 1753 supplement
- Encyclopædia Americana, 1851, Francis Lieber ed. (Boston: Mussey & Co.) at the University of Michigan Making of America site
- Encyclopædia Britannica, articles and illustrations from 9th ed., 1875–89, and 10th ed., 1902–03.
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Criticisms of Baidu
Criticisms of Baidu and related controversies related to the company refer to the critical assessment of and incidents related to Baidu (a large Chinese web services company) and its products by its customers (primarily in mainland China).
Domain name hijacking
[edit]In September 2002, Baidu experienced a service outage. Baidu then urgently addressed "harmful" information (i.e., "sensitive" information), and its services returned to normal. Subsequently, mainland Chinese neti
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ned to normal. Subsequently, mainland Chinese netizens discovered that they were suddenly unable to access the Google website. This situation lasted nearly two weeks, forcing many users to abandon Google and switch to Baidu. During this time, the Google.com domain name was redirected to several search sites, including Baidu. Although access to Google was eventually restored, its services have remained highly unstable in mainland China ever since (and are now entirely inaccessible there). Additio
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(and are now entirely inaccessible there). Additionally, the web cache feature was unavailable for an extended period.[1]
Baidu President Robin Li denied that Baidu had engaged in such actions when questioned by students during a speech at Peking University.[1]
On October 18, 2007, Google, Windows Live Search, and Yahoo! Kimo Search were once again hijacked and redirected to Baidu's domain, drawing widespread media attention both domestically and internationally.[1]
On November 7, 2008, Shanghai
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internationally.[1]
On November 7, 2008, Shanghai Vixi, the parent company of VeryCD.com, a P2P resource-sharing website in mainland China, announced that some Beijing Netcom (now part of China Unicom) users experienced redirects to Baidu when attempting to access VeryCD.com, Emule.org.cn, Shooter.cn, BtChina, as well as international websites such as IsoHunt.com and Mininova.org. Subsequently, Netcom customer service staff stated that they were not involved in this matter.[2]
Malware
[edit]Sof
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not involved in this matter.[2]
Malware
[edit]Software Forced Bundle Installation
[edit]See also: Baidu Family Bucket
The browser toolbar software developed by Baidu, originally called Baidu Super Soba, forced users to install it and could not be completely uninstalled. On July 11, 2005, it was named by the China Network Industry Association as one of the 10 pieces of malware and was ordered to undergo rectification. Baidu later responded that the renamed Baidu Super Soba, now called Baidu Tool
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he renamed Baidu Super Soba, now called Baidu Toolbar, could be completely uninstalled. Additionally, some of Baidu's products were bundled with other software, causing a series of Baidu applications to be installed on users' computers or smart devices without their knowledge. This practice has led some users to refer to it as the 'Baidu Family Bucket.'[3]
The website contains malicious code
[edit]Main article: Baidu's website hidden malicious code incident
On February 28, 2017, Huorong Security
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de incident
On February 28, 2017, Huorong Security Laboratory intercepted, analyzed, tracked, and verified that malicious code was implanted when users downloaded software from two of Baidu's software download sites. Once the malicious code enters a computer, it employs various methods, such as loading drivers, to prevent removal, allowing it to remain hidden for extended periods. It can then be remotely controlled via the cloud to hijack various types of traffic, including navigation portals, e
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types of traffic, including navigation portals, e-commerce sites, and advertising networks.[4]
Mobile Application Out-of-Scope Application Permission
[edit]On January 5, 2018, the Jiangsu Provincial Consumer Protection Commission determined that two of Baidu's mobile apps were suspected of infringing on consumers' personal rights and interests. After two unsuccessful negotiations, the commission filed a civil public interest lawsuit against Baidu.[5][6] On January 11, the Information and Commun
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u.[5][6] On January 11, the Information and Communication Administration of the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology held a meeting with Baidu's corporate representatives, requiring the company to strictly comply with relevant laws and regulations and adhere to the principles of legality, legitimacy, and necessity when collecting and using personal information. Meanwhile, Today's Headlines (Toutiao), which had a dispute with Baidu, reported that when searching for "Jiangsu Provincial
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orted that when searching for "Jiangsu Provincial Consumer Association" on Baidu, the official website's search result was marked in red with a warning: "Reminder: This page may not be accessible normally due to unstable service." At the same time, results from other search engines showed no such warning, and users were able to access the official website of the Jiangsu Provincial Consumer Protection Association without any issues.[7]
Trademark Infringement Litigation
[edit]On April 23, 2020, th
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nfringement Litigation
[edit]On April 23, 2020, the Changsha Intellectual Property Court held a public trial in which Baidu sued Changsha Baidu Car Rental for trademark infringement and unfair competition.[8]
Search Results Controversy
[edit]Main article:Baidu promotion and Baidu bidding ranking events
Death of Wei Zexi
[edit]In 2014, Wei Zexi, a sophomore in the Computer Science Department of Xidian University, was diagnosed with advanced synovial sarcoma. After undergoing various chemotherapy
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al sarcoma. After undergoing various chemotherapy and radiotherapy treatments, Wei Zexi's family sought the so-called "tumor biological immunotherapy" (DC-CIK therapy) at the Tumor Biology Center of the Second Hospital of the Beijing Municipal Armed Police Corps, which had been recommended by Baidu. However, despite spending significant amounts of money (over 200,000 yuan) and time, the treatment proved ineffective. Wei Zexi passed away on April 12, 2016.The incident gained widespread attention
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12, 2016.The incident gained widespread attention during the May Day holiday, leading to a sharp drop in Baidu's stock price. Chinese public opinion, including state media, heavily criticized Baidu. In addition to Baidu being implicated as a major suspect and undergoing regulatory scrutiny, it was revealed that the hospital had outsourced its oncology department to the controversial Putian network of private hospitals. As a result, the Second Hospital of the Beijing Armed Police Corps was delist
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pital of the Beijing Armed Police Corps was delisted, and related individuals were prosecuted. Shortly after the incident, a former Baidu employee alleged that Baidu used free WiFi devices, installed in collaboration with certain hospitals, to collect data from devices connected to these WiFi networks. However, this claim has not been verified.[9]
Promote gambling site events
[edit]On July 17, 2016, a reporter from The Beijing News discovered that Baidu began promoting illegal content, such as g
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t Baidu began promoting illegal content, such as gambling, at around 10 p.m. and quietly removed it by 9 a.m. the following day. On July 18, Sina News reported on the issue, highlighting Baidu's severe management negligence and incompetence at the administrative level. The report stated that "most of Baidu's non-enterprise channel user authentication information is misappropriated, and the companies whose information is stolen are completely unaware. Even if they file complaints, agents or non-e
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are. Even if they file complaints, agents or non-enterprise channel sales representatives will immediately deactivate the 'reported accounts' and register new accounts under another company the next day to continue the promotions."[10]
On the afternoon of July 18, 2016, Baidu responded that the gambling information on the implicated websites had been privately and illegally modified late at night by enterprises in violation of regulations. Baidu also reported the matter to public security author
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also reported the matter to public security authorities.[10]
On July 20, 2016, Baidu shut down all commercial promotion pages. By the end of July 2016, Baidu resumed its commercial promotion pages.[10]
Encountered fraud while searching for foreign wine recycling on Baidu.
[edit]In December 2016, a Shenzhen resident, Ms. Yi, reported to the CCTV news hotline that she owned a bottle of Louis XIII cognac, valued at over 20,000 yuan. As she was preparing to move, Ms. Yi decided to sell the bottle. U
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ring to move, Ms. Yi decided to sell the bottle. Using her mobile phone, she searched on Baidu with the keyword "foreign wine recycling Shenzhen" and found a promotional advertisement for a company called "Shenzhen Ruya Gift Recycling Company." She chose this company to collect the wine at her home. When representatives from the gift recycling company arrived, Ms. Yi refused to proceed with the transaction as their offer was lower than her expected price. However, while Ms. Yi was unprepared, th
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ed price. However, while Ms. Yi was unprepared, the company's representatives swapped her genuine cognac for a fake bottle. The following day, after discovering the swap, Ms. Yi immediately called the police and contacted Baidu's customer service to request compensation and to have the company's advertisement removed from Baidu. Customer service responded that Baidu has a protection plan, but since Ms. Yi had not logged into her Baidu account when conducting the search, she was not eligible for
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n conducting the search, she was not eligible for compensation. Regarding the fraudulent company's advertisement on Baidu, customer service stated that the issue would be followed up, but local law enforcement would need to provide the necessary documentation.[11]
Fake NARS Chinese mainland official website incident
[edit]In July 2017, some netizens reported to Beijing Youth Daily that they encountered a fake Chinese mainland official website when searching for NARS brand cosmetics on Baidu. Aft
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n searching for NARS brand cosmetics on Baidu. After logging into the counterfeit website and purchasing products through Alipay, the money was transferred to a personal account. A reporter from Beijing Youth Daily searched Baidu using the keyword "NARS China official website" and found that the top search result was titled "NARS Brand Chinese Website."The reporter contacted the Shiseido Group, which owns the NARS brand, to verify the authenticity of the website. Customer service confirmed that
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y of the website. Customer service confirmed that the website was counterfeit, as NARS products had not yet entered the Chinese mainland market. Additionally, the quality of the products sold on the website could not be guaranteed.Regarding the legal issues involved with the counterfeit website, a reporter consulted Han Xiao, a lawyer from Beijing Kangda Law Firm. Han Xiao explained that, according to Article 44 of the Law on the Protection of the Rights and Interests of Consumers of the People'
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e Rights and Interests of Consumers of the People's Republic of China:"If the provider of an online trading platform knows or should know that the seller or service provider uses its platform to infringe on the legitimate rights and interests of consumers and fails to take necessary measures, it shall be jointly and severally liable with the seller or service provider by law."Therefore, consumers have the right to demand joint and several liability from both the online platform and the seller.[1
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ty from both the online platform and the seller.[12]
Fake Apple official after-sales repair shop incident
[edit]On January 21, 2018, a Sina Weibo user named "Yan Gongzi of Yijin Night Walking" posted on Weibo that when searching for "Apple mobile phone repair" on Baidu, the top result displayed the phone number "4006368800." However, after calling the number, the user found it suspicious and decided to check the official Apple website. There, they discovered that the official customer service nu
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y discovered that the official customer service number was "4006668800," differing by just one digit. Apple's official customer service also confirmed that "4006368800" was not associated with them in any way. Other netizens reported having been scammed by this fake Apple phone repair shop.[13]
"Fuda Hospital" advertising event
[edit]In September 2018, according to media reports, a woman surnamed Zhou from Ningbo, Zhejiang Province, wanted to go to the Eye and ENT Hospital of Fudan University in
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to the Eye and ENT Hospital of Fudan University in Shanghai for rhinitis treatment. In the end, Miss Zhou chose "Fuda Hospital" for medical treatment and paid nearly 10,000 yuan for turbinate removal surgery under the doctor's advice, but her condition did not improve. After that, Ms. Zhou was transferred to the hospital for treatment and found that her condition could be treated only with medication. Another woman from Anhui Province surnamed Chen, had a small bulging bag in the back of her hea
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en, had a small bulging bag in the back of her head, so the local hospital recommended that she go to the Fudan University Hospital in Shanghai for medical treatment. After Ms. Chen searched through Baidu, the first result was "Fuda Hospital," she took her child to "Fuda Hospital" for treatment. The doctor diagnosed it as "right posterior occipital cavernous hemangioma." The next day, Ms. Chen took her child to the Children's Hospital of Fudan University for an examination, and the results showe
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iversity for an examination, and the results showed that lymph nodes had grown and would disappear naturally when they grew up. In this regard, Baidu said it has taken down all the promotional content about Shanghai's "Fuda Hospital" and conducted a comprehensive investigation of its misleading information. In addition, the Ministry of Industry and Commerce and the Ministry of Health Supervision also launched an investigation. They demanded that the hospital immediately stop the illegal acts, an
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the hospital immediately stop the illegal acts, and the hospital was also punished with eight demerit points for deficient practices in medical institutions.[14] On September 9, Baidu's official Weibo stated that it decided to continue to promote the brand protection project of public hospitals and, at the same time, protect the search results of relevant affiliated hospitals of Fudan University. Commercial advertisements will not appear when searching for related keywords.[15]
Ads for the 'U.S.
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rching for related keywords.[15]
Ads for the 'U.S. Consulate General in Shanghai' are widespread.
[edit]On September 6, 2018, writer Liuliu posted on Weibo that when she searched for the official website of the Consulate General of the United States in Shanghai on Baidu, the results were flooded with advertisements, while the official website ranked far behind. In response, Baidu issued a statement apologizing sincerely to Liuliu and its users, removed advertisements related to visa agencies usi
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emoved advertisements related to visa agencies using "Consulate General of the United States in Shanghai," and implemented brand protection measures for the consulate's official website and related brand keywords.[16]
Counterfeit Visa Website Advertising Incident
[edit]On November 29, 2018, Yan Feng, a professor in the Department of Chinese at Fudan University, posted on Weibo that while applying for an electronic visa for Turkey, he used Baidu to search for a website called "Turkey Visa Applica
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o search for a website called "Turkey Visa Application Center" and ended up spending $129 through this institution. Yan Feng later discovered that the top two "Turkey Visa Application Center" results on Baidu were third-party agencies, causing him to pay nearly double the usual cost for the visa application.[17]
Searching "QQ mailbox" shows phishing sites for account theft.
[edit]On November 29, 2018, some netizens reported that a phishing website appeared when searching for "QQ mailbox" on Baid
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